BIOLOGY LIBRARY r HANDBOOK OF ZOOLOGY HANDBOOK ZOOLOGY BY J. VAN DER HOEVEN, \\ PHIL. NAT. ET M.D. PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN, KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF THE DUTCH LION AND OF THE SWEDISH ORDER OF THE POLAR STAR, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, OF THE DUTCH SOCIETY OF SCIENCES AT HAARLEM, OF THE IMPERIAL LEOPOLDO-CAROLINE ACADEMY, OF THE IMPERIAL SOCIETY OF NATURALISTS AT MOSCOW, COR- RESPONDING MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION, OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AT TURIN, OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY AT PARIS, ETC. Trado quge potui. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOLUME THE FIRST. (INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. ) TRANSLATED FROM THE SECOND DUTCH EDITION BY THE REV. WILLIAM CLARK, M.D. F.R.S. &c. LATE FELLOW OF *ERIJj,ITY COLLEGE, AND PROF£SSO.R. QF ANATOMY IN -'SHE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBPJP( '\ PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, FOR LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN; LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS, LONDON. 1856. PREFACE. THE first Edition of Professor VAN DER HOEVEN'S manual was published in parts between the years 1827 and 1835. He undertook the labour, as he informs us, not with any desire to add one more to the numerous works with a similar title already in existence, which should be neither better nor worse than these. On the contrary, if he had found any one of them to be a sufficient guide for his public teaching, without great alterations, he would have abstained from his contemplated task. Accordingly, the plan of his work differed from that of most other manuals in beginning with the simpler forms of animals, and pro- ceeding upwards to the highest : and from that of all of them, in embodying a much larger amount of anatomical information. His work was received with marked appro- bation not confined to the limits of his own country. During the lapse of nineteen years, which intervened between the first and second editions, the acquisitions both of Zoology and Zootomy had been greatly enlarged, so that in many departments the former science had assumed an entirely new aspect. Consequently the second VI PKEFACE. edition, similar in plan to the first but greatly different in its contents, was almost entirely re-written. This edition has, like the first, been published in parts between the years 1846 and 1855, inclusive. From the high terms in which it has already been alluded to from time to time, in the writings of various active cultivators of different departments of Zoology on the continent, it is obvious that the general estimation of his work will still be such as might be expected in the case of an author of vast erudition, of appropriate tastes, talents and genius, and whose office it has been for nearly thirty years, as Pro- fessor of Zoology in the University of Leyden, to bring the value and import of the new acquisitions of Ana- tomy and Zoology (many of them the result of his own labours) from time to time before his auditors. The University of Cambridge, a few years ago, directed in a more marked manner the attention of our students to the Moral and Natural Sciences, by proposing honorary distinctions to those who might excel in certain depart- ments of those sciences respectively; and by requiring proof of satisfactory attention to some one at least of such departments on the part of all candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Arts, who were not aspirants for Mathe- matical honours. Amongst the departments of Natural Science, Comparative Anatomy and Physiology were indicated, with special regard (as is presumed) to Zoology. It thus became a part of my office to place within reach PREFACE. Vll of our students the best assistance I could recommend for their studies in this direction. In fulfilment of it I ap- plied to Professor VAN DER HOEVEN for his permission to translate his Work, in which I found all that could be required. He had the kindness not only to grant this permission, but also to enrich the English translation with numerous references to works too recent for notice in his own second edition. It is to be much regretted that his other engagements did not allow him, as I requested, to weave the new matter in his own terse and pleasing style into his introductions to the classes and elsewhere. Consequently such additions, in this respect, as are in- cluded within square brackets are mine. The study of Zoology is now in such general favour with cultivated persons in this country, that I believe the present work, from its scientific value and the interest of its historical and other notices, as well as from the con- tinuous references to the works of the original discoverers, will secure for itself, beyond the walls of Universities, a reception not unworthy of its Author's great name. W. C. CAMBRIDGE, July r, 1856. CONTENTS OF VOLUME THE FIRST. PAGE INTRODUCTION 1—36 Organic and Inorganic Bodies 3 — 4 Plants and Animals ........... 4 — 7 Zoology 7 — 8 The Tissues of Animals 9 — 19 The Vital Functions of Animals . 19 — 24 Development of Animals 24 — 26 On the Art of Classifying (Taxinomia) 26 — 36 CLASS I. — INFUSORIES. (Infusoria). . . . 37 — 59 Spermatozoa, so-called seminal animalcules 43 — 47 Systematic Arrangement of Infusories 45 — 59 Order I. Infusoria simplicissima 45 Fam. I. Vibrionidce ib. Order II. Khizopoda . . . . . . . . . 45 — 50 Fam. ii. Amcebcea 46 „ in. Arcellina 46 — 50 Order III. Atricha 50 — 52 Fam. iv. Monad ina 50 ,, v. Cryptomonadina ib. ,, VI. Volvocina ib. „ vii. Astasice ........ 52 ,, viii. Periphryyana ....... ib. Order IV. Epitricha 53 — 59 Fam. ix. Peridincea 53 „ x. Trichodlna 53 — 55 ,, xi. OxytricJiina 55 „ xn. Euplota 55 — 56 ,, XIIT. Vorticellina 56 — 59 X CONTENTS. TACK CLASS II. — POLYPS. (Polypi.) .... 60 — 97 Systematic Arrangement of Polyps 73 — 97 Section I. Anthozoa 73 — 84 Order I. Hydriformia 73 — 77 Fam. i. Hydrina 73 — 74 „ II. Serlularina 75 — 77 Order II. Octactinia 77 — 84 Fam. in. Xenina 77 — 78 „ iv. Halcyonina, 78 — 80 „ v. Petmatulina 80 — 81 „ VI. TuUporina, 82 „ vn. Corticata . 82 — 84 Order III. Polyactinia 84—92 Fam. vni. Madreporina, 85 „ ix. Ocellina 86 „ x. Gyrosa, 86 — 87 „ XI. Funyina 87 — 89 „ xn. Zoanthina 89 — 90 „ xni. Actinina 90 — 92 Section II. Bryozoa 92 — 97 Order IV. Bryozoa 92 — 97 Fam. xiv. Stelmatopoda 93 — 96 „ xv. Lophopoda 96 — 97 CLASS III. — SEA-NETTLES. (Acalephce.) . . 98 — 126 Systematic Arrangement of Sea-nettles 108 — 126 Order I. SipJionopJiorce 108 — 119 Fam. i. Velellidce . . 108 — in „ II. Physsophoridce . .... in — 116 ,, in. Hippopodidce 116 „ iv. DipJiyidce 116 — 119 Order II. Ctenophorce 119 — 121 Fam. V. Beroidea 120 — 121 Order III. Discophorce 122 Fam. vi. Geryonidce 122 — 123 „ vn. RhizostomidcR 123 „ vin. Medusidea 123 — 124 „ ix. Oceanidce 124 — 125 x. JEquoridce 125 — 126 CONTENTS. XI I'AUK CLASS IV. — ECHINODERMS. (Echinoderrnata). . . 127 — 162 Systematic Arrangement of Echinoderms. . . . . ' . . 142 — 162 Order I. Echinodermata pedicillata (Pediculate Echin.) 142 — 159 Fam. I. Crinoidea 142 — 146 „ n. Asteridea 146 — 149 „ in. Echinidea 150 — 156 „ iv. Holothundea 156 — 159 Order II. Apoda 159 — 162 Fam. V. Synaptince 159 — 160 „ vi. Sipunculacea 160 — 162 CLASS V.— INTESTINAL WORMS. (Entozoa). . . 163 — 192 Systematic Arrangement of the Intestinal Worms 178 — 192 Order I. Sterelmintha 178—188 Fam. i. Cestoidea . . . ' 178 — 184 „ n. Acanthocephala 184 „ in. Trematoda 184 — 188 Order II. CoelelmintJia 188—192 Fam. iv. Nemato'idea 188 — 192 Appendix to the Class of Intestinal Worms 193 — 194 CLASS VI. — WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. (Rotatoria). . 194—206 Systematic Arrangement of Wheel-animalcules ...... 199 — 206 Order single. Rotatoria 199 — 206 Fam. i. Floscularice 199 — 200 „ n. Melicertina 200 — 201 „ in. Brachioncea 201 — 202 „ iv. Hydatincea 202 — 205 ,, V. Philodincea 205 — 206 CLASS VII. — RINGED WORMS. (Annulata). . . 207 — 246 Systematic Arrangement of Einged-worms 219 — 246 Order I. Turlellaria 219 — 224 Fam. I. Planariece 219 — 223 „ II. Nemertini 223 — 224 Order II. Suctoria 225 — 228 Fam. in. Hirudinea 225 — 228 Order III. Setigera 228 Fam. iv. Lumbricini 228 — 233 „ v. Maldanice 233 — 234 „ vi. Amphitritce 234 — 237 „ vii. Arenicolce ; 237 Xll CONTENTS. PAQB Fam. vni. Chcetopterina 737 — 238 „ ix. Peripatina 238 „ x. Aricics 238—239 „ XI. Nereides 239 — 242 ,, Xll. Eunicea 242 — 243 „ xin. Amphinomacece 243 — 244 ,, xiv. Aphroditacece 244 — 246 CLASS VIII.— INSECTS. (Insecta). . . . 247—555 Systematic Arrangement of Insects 288 — 555 Order I. Myriapoda 288 — 296 Fam. I. JididcB 289 — 293 ,, ii. Scolopendridce 293 — 296 Order II. Thysanura 296 — 300 Fam. in. LepismencB 297 — 298 ,, iv. Podurettce. . . . . . . . 298 — 300 Order III. Parasitica 300 — 303 Fam. v. Hcematopina 300 — 301 „ VI. Malhpkaga 301 — 303 Order IV. Svictoria, 303 — 305 Fam. vn. Pulicidce 303 — 305 Order V. Strepsiptera 305 — 308 Fam. vni. Strepsiptera 307 — 308 Order VI. Diptera 308 — 346 Fam. IX. Pupiparce 311—314 „ x. Athericera 314 — 328 „ XI. Tanystomata 328—335 „ xii. Notacantha 335—339 ,, xin. Nemocera 339 — 346 Order VII. Hymenoptera 346 — 389 Fam. xiv. Mellifera 350—359 „ xv. Diplopteryga 359—362 „ XVI. Heteroyyna 363 — 367 „ xvn. Fossores . 367 — 371 „ xvin. Chrysidides 371 — 372 „ xix. Oxyura 373—375 „ xx. Chalcidice 375 — 378 „ xxi. IcJineumonidcs ...... 378 — 383 „ xxn. Cynipsea 383—385 „ xxiii. Urocerata . . . . . . . 385 — 386 „ xxiv. Tenthredineta 387 — 389 Order VIII. Lepidoptera 389 — 412 Fam. xxv. Nocturtia 393 — 404 „ xxvi. Crepuscularia 404 — 406 ,, xxvn. Diuma 407 — 412 CONTENTS. Kill ' Order IX. Neuroptera Fam. xxvm. XXIX. xxx. „ XXXI. „ XXXII. ,, XXXIII. „ XXXIV. Order X. Hemiptera Fam. xxxv. „ xxxvi. ,, XXXVII. ,, XXXVIII. „ XXXIX. Order XI. Orthoptera . Fam. XL. „ XLI. „ XLII. „ XLIII. Appendix to the Orthoptera. Order XII. Coleoptera Fam. XLIV. „ XLV. „ XLVI. „ XLVII. „ XL VIII. , , XLIX. „ L. LI. „ LII. „ LIII. LIV. 412—427 Phryganidece 413 — 415 Panorpatce 415 — 416 Uemerobinl 416 — 420 JLibellulince ...... 420 — 423 Ephemerince 423 — 425 Perlarice 425 Termitince 426 — 427 427—448 Coccina 430 — 432 Aphidii 432—435 Cicadarice 435 — 439 HydrocwiscE 439 — 441 Oeocorisce . 442 — 448 448—464 Gryllides 451—458 Mantides 458 — 461 Blattarice 461 — 462 Forfaularice 462 — 464 Thysanoptera. Genus Thrips Coccinellidce .... Fungicolce .... Clavipalpi .... Cyclica .... LVII. Lvni. LIX. LX. LXI. LXII. LXIII. . . 464 . 464—555 . 467—468 468—469 . 469—470 • 471—474 Eupoda 474 — 476 Macrocerata 476 — 480 Scolytaria 480 — 482 Hhynckophora 482 — 489 Stenelytra 490 — 493 Taxicornes 493— 495 Melasomata 495 — 499 Cantharidia 499 — 504 Lametticornia 504 — 519 Xylophaga 520 — 522 Serricornia 522 — 527 £rachelytra 528 — 532 Clavicornia 532 — 540 Palpicornia 540 — 542 Hydrocantharina 542 — 544 CaraUcina, 545 — 555 CLASS IX. — ARACHNIDS. (Arachnoidca). . . . 556 — 597 Systematic Arrangement of Arachnids 571 — 597 Order I. Polygonopoda 571 — 573 Fam. i. Pycnogonida 571 — 573 XIV CONTENTS. Order IT. Colopoda .... Fam. II. Arctisca Order III. Acarina .... Fain. ni. Acarea ,, IV. Notaspidea ,, v. Ixodea ,, vi. Gamasea ,, vn. ffydr arachnid! a ,, vin. Bdettea . ix. Trombidina Order IV. Phalangita Fam. x. Phalangita, Order V. Pseudoscorpiones Fara. xi. Pseudoscorpiones Order VI. Solifugce .... Fam. XII. Galeodea Order VII. Pedipalpi .... Fam. xin. Phrynides . ,, xiv. Scorpiones Order VIII. Araneidea .... Fam. xv. CLASS X.— CRUSTACEANS. (Crustacea) Systematic Arrangement of Crustaceans Order I. Pcecilopoda Fam. i. Xiphosura Order II. Ichthyophthira . Fam. n. Lemceacea ,, in. Lemceopoda . ,, IV. Ergasilina, ,, V. Caligina, „ vi. Argulina . Order III. Lophyropoda . Fam. vii. Copepoda „ vin. Ostracoda . Order IV. Cirripedia . . . . Fam. IX. Balanoidea . ,, x. Lepadicea Order V. Cladoccra Fam. xi. Daphnidea Order VI. Phyllopoda . Fam. xii. Branchiopoda . ,, XIII. Aspidephora Trilobitea 8. Palaeades . 574—575 574—575 575—582 575—576 576—577 577 577—579 581—582 582—584 582—584 584 584 584—585 584-585 585—586 585—586 586-587 588—597 588—597 598—679 622 — 679 622 — 624 622 — 674 624—631 624 — 625 625—627 627 — 629 629—631 631 631—633 632—633 633 633—640 636—637 638 — 640 640 — 641 640—641 641 — 646 641 — 642 642—644 644—646 CONTENTS. XV P\(»K Order VII. Isopoda 646—655 Fam. xiv. Epicarides 646 — 647 ,, xv. Cymothoadea ....... 647 — 649 ,, xvi. Sphceromida ....... 649 „ xvii. Pranizidea ........ 649 — 650 ,, xvin. Oniscides 650 — 65-2 „ xix. Asettota 652 — 654 „ xx. Idoteidea 654 — 655 Order VIII. Amphipoda 655—660 Fam. xxi. Lcemodipoda 655 — 657 ,, xxii. Hypcrina, s. Uroptera ...... 657 — 658 „ xxin. Gammarina . 658 — 660 Order IX. Stomatopoda 660 — 664 Fam. xxiv. Unipcltata 660 — 661 „ xxv. JBipeltata ........ 66t — 662 „ xxvi. Caridloidea s. Schizopoda 662 — 663 Oumacea (Family of uncertain position) . . 663 Order X. Decapoda 664 — 679 Fam. xxvii. Caridina 664 — 666 ,, xxvui. Astacina ........ 667 — 669 ,, xxix. Loricata ........ 669 — 670 „ xxx. Anomura 670 — 671 „ xxxi. Notopoda 672 — 673 ,, xxxii. Oxystomata . . . . . . 673 — 674 „ xxxin. Majacea 674 — 676 ,, xxxiv. Cancrina . . . • , • • • 676 — 679 On Molluscs in general 680—690 CLASS XI. — TUNICATES. (Tunicata) . . . 691—696 Systematic Arrangement of Tunicates . . . . . . . 697 — 707 Order I. Thaliacea . 697 — 700 Fam. I. JSalpina 697 — 700 Order II. Tethyonidea 701 — 707 Fam. ii. Lucics 702 „ in. Ascidice 702 — 707 CLASS XII. — CONOHIFERS or BIVALVES. (Conchifera) . . 708 — 757 Systematic Arrangement of Conchifers . 719 — 757 Order I. Palliobranchiata 719 — 723 Fam. i. JBrctchiopoda, . . . . . , 719 — 723 XVI CONTENTS. PAGE Order II. Lamellibranchiata u . . . 723 — 757 Fam. n. Oslracea 725—727 „ in. Pectinidea 727 — 728 „ iv. Malleacea 729 — 731 „ v. Mytilacea 731—733 ,, vi. Arcacea 733 — 734 „ vn. Trigoniacea 734 „ vin. Na'iadea 734 — 737 „ ix. Carditacea 737 „ x. Chamacea 737—738 Rudista, 738 — 739 ,, xi. Tridacnacea 739 — 740 „ xii. Cardiacea . 740 — 741 „ xni. Veneracea . 741 — 743 „ xiv. Cydadea 743—744 „ xv. Lucinacea 744—745 „ xvi. Saxicavina 745 — 746 „ xvn. Tellinacea 746 — 748 „ xvin. Mactracea 748 — 750 „ xix. Myacea 750— 752 ,, xx. Pholadomyacea . . . ... . . 752 — 753 „ xxi. Solenacea 753— 754 „ xxii. Pholadacea . . 754— 75^ „ xxin. Tubicola 756 — 757 CLASS XIII. — MOLLUSCS. (Mollusca) . . . 758 — 831 Systematic Arrangement of Molluscs 772 — 831 Order I. Pteropoda 772 — 776 Fam. I. Hyakacea 773—775 „ II. Clioldea 775— 776 Order II. Gasteropoda 776 — 817 Fam. in. Heteropoda 776 — 778 „ iv. Dermatobranchiata . . . . % . . 778 — 784 ,, v. Hypobranchiala 784 — 785 ,, VI. Pkurobranchiata 785 — 788 ,, VII. Cyclobranchiata 788 — 791 ,, VIII. Aspidobranchiata 791 — 793 ,, IX. Aulobranchiata 793 „ X. Ctenobranchiata 793 — 8n „ xi. Pneumonica, 811—817 Order III. Ceplwlopoda 817—831 Fain. xn. Nauiilacea . . . . . . . . 825 — 828 „ xin. Sepiacea 828 — 830 „ xiv. Octopoda 830—831 Explanation of Plates 833 — 844 Index of Generic Names 845 — £53 ERRATA AND CORRECTIONS. PACK LINE FOR READ 5 15 SCHWAMMERDAM SWAMMERDAM. 16 3 arterial venous. 23 7 Scemmering Scemmerring. 27 13 called varieties. constitute varieties . 32 12 worse now more usual. 67 4 from bottom consequence of after the. 79 5 from bottom millim. metre. 87 *9 Fungina LAM. Fungia LAM. 89 13, H might perhaps, &c. seems to require new observations before it can be established with propriety. 212 6 mammals vertebrates. 257 12 from bottom take scarcely any require no. 263, note 2. VAUGUELIN VAUQUELIN. 299 10 Sminthurus. Smynthurus. 4I2 8 from bottom pupa larva. 428 13 from bottom Jiymenoptera hemiptera. 494 7 Helens Helceus. 672 10 from bottom Droma Dr&mia. The following, not considered distinct genera, but divisions of the genus imme- diately above each respectively, ought to have been printed in the smaller type used : PAGE Cothurnia EHRENB. . . .58 Corallium LAM. . > 83 Mditcea LAM 83 Ms LAM 83 Fungia LAM 87 Ammotrypana RATHKE . . 238 Ophelia SAV 238 Euphrosyne SAV. . . . 244 AmpJiinome AUD. and EDW. . 244 Chloeia SAV 244 Curtocera MACQ. . . .323 Anopheles MEIG. . . . 346 Apis LATR. Melliturga LATR. . Polistes LATR. . Labidus JURINE Bethylus LATR. . Ellopia TREITSCHKE. Eudidia OCHSENH. . Plusia OCHSENH. . Helceus LATR. . . . Platyarthrus BRANDT Trichoniscus BRANDT Crossurus RATHKE . The following distinct genus ought to have been printed in the larger type : Siphonaria Sow. p. 795. 352 356 362 366 375 397 399 399 494 651 651 654 INTRODUCTION. WE often hear the word Nature used in such a way that it is difficult to know what meaning is attached to it. Some denote thereby the system of all the forces to which matter is subjected, and thus distinguish between Nature and the Universe; under- standing by the last the entire complex of created bodies. But such a distinction is quite arbitrary. The word Nature, introduced into modern languages from the Latin, is derived from nasci, to be born, to come into being1. In this sense we call the aggregate of all that comes, or has come, into being, and is for us an object of observation either by external sense or internal percep- tion, Nature — the material world and the spiritual world — Nature in space and Nature in thought. Finally we oppose Nature to Art, understanding by the last whatever change the intellect of man has induced upon the products of Creation, in order to satisfy his wants, or to enhance his enjoyments. However different these and other meanings may be, we may admit that to be the most general which defines nature as the material world, the world of matter, all that is created or has being, together with the forces inherent in the matter, and the laws according to which they act. The knowledge of this whole, so stupendously vast, the ancients named physica : and considered to be a part of the philosophy which they termed a science of divine and human things and of their causes. But though this science, like nature its object, be one, yet its great extent on the one hand and the narrowness of the human intellect on the other, has rendered the subdivision of it necessary. Yet the limits of the different natural sciences can scarcely, on account of their mutual relations, 1 So the Greek $&rts from VOL. I. 2 INTRODUCTION. be1 Defined with precision : and into whatever path we chance to strike, difficulties from the very nature of the case are unavoidable. The Natural Sciences relate either to Nature and her several products considered by themselves : or they teach us so to apply those products as to contribute to our service, or to satisfy our wants. The latter are called practical natural sciences, the former theoretical. To the practical natural sciences belong especially Agriculture and Technology : and they are founded upon the theoretical, of which the truths are applied only in a degree propor- tioned to the particular object that is had in view. They may therefore be called Applied Natural Sciences. Of the pure, or theoretical Natural Sciences there are several. To them belong1 Phenomenal Doctrine, Chemistry, and Natural History. What characterises such sciences and distinguishes them from each other lies less in the objects which belong to the province of each, than in the manner of considering them, and in the different direction of the enquiry. Metals, salts, earths belong as much to the province of Chemistry as to that of Natural History : but the chemist, in all these things, investigates only the matter and its properties, its affinities and combinations : the mineralogist is busied with their form, their natural occurrence, their classification. The chemist, moreover, investigates those elements which occur in nature only in combination with other matters : such elementary substances are excluded from the province of Natural History. Whilst Physics investigate the common properties of bodies, and the motions by which a temporary change is effected in their condition, Chemistry enquires into their component parts, the special properties of each elementary substance, and its various combinations with other elementary substances. Natural History, finally, arranges the bodies occurring in Nature according to form. In a certain sense, therefore, it may be termed a special Phenomenal Doctrine : but its essence lies in describing and classifying. It is ordinarily limited to the bodies which occur upon the surface of our earth, or at small depths below and accessible by mining : but it is by no means necessary thus to limit it. It depends upon the 1 [Natwr-lehre, The vast body of observed facts throughout nature " bound together under the form of laws and principles." Vid. WHEWELL'S History of the Inductive Sciences, and his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, passim.] Tr. PRIMARY DIVISION OF BODIES. 3 manner of treating it alone, to include within its province not only the planet which we inhabit, but even the whole visible universe1. The certainty to which we can attain in this science is grounded upon the testimony of our own senses, on that of other observers, and upon conclusions, drawn from the combination of particular observations (Induction) : of which conclusions the security is increased in proportion to the number of observed phenomena which tend to their establishment ; for observation is the principal foundation upon which this science is raised. Organic and Inorganic Bodies. A primary division of the bodies of our earth is that according to which they are separated into organic (organica), and inorganic (anorganica). Inorganic bodies can grow, or increase in bulk, only by external addition of homogeneous parts ; they possess no hetero- geneous parts, though they may be composed of several chemical elements. In their perfect condition they ordinarily present regular forms, which are bounded by planes and straight lines. The knowledge of them is the object of Mineralogy. The remaining bodies are called organic, because they consist of different parts, of fibres, vessels, cells, &c., the combination of which is called organisation. In these bodies there prevails that mutual dependence between all the parts, of which, in the inorganic, we recognise no trace. In these last, each of the parts exists for itself, and when separated from the whole does not cease to be the same that the whole was before. As to form, the boundaries which circumscribe plants and animals are very generally round surfaces and curved lines, very rarely straight lines and planes. Organic beings present phenomena which are called ' Vital Phenomena,' of which the most general consist in an incessant susception of new matters, in the formation of new parts and organs (Growth, Development, Reproduction), and in the production of similar beings (Propagation). The separation of those constitu- ents of food that are unfit for nutriment, and of matters that have been changed through the action of life, and are no longer fitted for Cosmographia, Historia Mundi. 1—2 4 INTRODUCTION. its support, supplies the means by wliich the peculiar chemical composition, characteristic of each individual being, is preserved; at death, on the cessation of this interchange of matter, the organic substance passes into solution or putrefaction. Instead of those complex combinations of elements, which form the proximate con- stituents of organic bodies, simpler combinations arise, which being taken up by the air or the earth, become anew the vital stimulants and the nutriment of that vegetable world, on whose existence the life of animals is dependent. Thus we perceive here an interchange of matter on a large scale, as we do in every organic being on a small one : and perishableness becomes the means whereby new life and fresh youth are effused over the whole of nature1. Plants and Animals. The above may suffice to give a general notion of organised bodies. It scarcely requires notice that the term includes plants and animals. At first sight it seems easy to distinguish an animal from a plant : and even the most unskilled person thinks he has a clear notion of the difference. Yet it is just his want of knowledge that causes the difference to appear so prominent : whilst he overlooks the intermediate links, and thinks, for instance, of a dog and a pear-tree. There are two sorts of judgment with conviction. Such a judgment may arise either from want of knowledge, or from pro- found insight, the result of long and accurate investigation. Who- ever seeks after truth must learn to sacrifice the first, even though he may never attain to the second. Animals are usually considered as more composite and more perfect than plants. Yet when we compare the simple substance of which Infusory Animals and Polypi are composed with the orderly and beautiful structure of the higher plants, we become satisfied that this proposition is far from having a general value. It is said, plants are rooted in the ground, and by this token are sufficiently distinguished from animals. But it is here over- looked, that there are free-swimming water-plants, just as there are Ut opus natures perenni flore rideat." LINN>EUS. PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 5 animals that live in water fast fixed to a given spot. Again, it was imagined that plants might be distinguished from animals by their possessing only at certain times the parts which serve for the main- tenance of the species. But all animals have not organs of propa- gation during the whole of their existence : insects acquire them only in the latest period of their lives, like plants that only flower once. It is true that Anatomy points out the rudiments of these future organs in the Larvae of Insects : but this does not prevent the Larvas of Insects from being termed, in a certain sense, sex-less. Moreover many plants and animals are propagated only by spon- taneous fission, or by buds, without possessing proper parts sub- servient to propagation. To me the difference of Nutrition appears of more importance. It has been observed that Plants live on inor- ganic matters, Animals, on the other hand, on organic. Some animals, it is true, seem to live on earth. SCHWAMMERDAM believes mud to be the nutrient matter of the worm or larva of the Ephemera, and never found any other food in its intestinal canal. PALLAS could find nothing but fine sand in the intestine of Thalassema echiurus. I might allege several other examples, but will only add that man himself sometimes lives upon earth. At least the celebrated HUM- BOLDT tells of a people on the banks of the Oronoco and Meta that, when the waters are low, live upon fish and turtle : but as soon as the streams begin to swell and fishing to become laborious, devour, during a season which lasts for two or three months, enor- mous quantities of earth. The earth which these people eat is a fat soft clay, which they knead into lumps and burn on the outside at a slow fire, and again moisten when required for use. This observation however, now that microscopic investigation has dis- covered in different deposits and kinds of earth entire strata of living or fossil organic beings, admits of another explanation1. That earth may have contained organic constituents, as was the case with the earth that, mixed with meal and leaves of trees, was baked for bread on the failure of the crops in the year 1832 in the north of SJcandinavta, and in which RETZIUS discovered nineteen different forms of Infusories, or rather of the fossil remains of these animals. In the same way, the mud and sand, found in the intes- 1 Comp. EHRENBERG, Das unsicTiibar wirJcende organiscJie Lebcn. Leipzig, 1842. pp. 41, 42. 6 INTRODUCTION. tinal canal of insects and worms, can scarcely be devoid of organic components. In general it cannot be contested that the vegetable kingdom prepares from inorganic nature those substances which serve for nutriment to the animal kingdom. Albumen and Fibrin, the principal constituents of the blood of animals, are already present in the parts of plants which they consume. But still, on the other hand, there are plants which grow on other plants, and thus apply to their own development the matters which have been pre- pared by those organic bodies. Scruples arising from such considerations must not mislead us to consider plants and animals as belonging to one and the same kingdom. Perhaps the following remarks may help to distinguish them from each other. If we consider the nutrition, we perceive that animals convey their food by one or more apertures into a common cavity, the stomach or intestinal canal, from which the prepared matters are absorbed and applied to the nutrition of the whole body. Thus the intestinal canal is for animals what the soil and air are for plants. The plant is consequently so constructed that its surface has the greatest possible extension : in the animal all is contrived for union round a center. Moreover the plant, which receives nutriment by means of its surface and the parts there situated, (pores, hairs, &c.) has no need to seek for food : it lives in the midst of its food : when this is deficient it cannot move and must consequently die. The animal, on the contrary, is destined to seek its food, which it must conduct into its intestinal canal : it moves therefore when nutriment is deficient. Let it not be here objected that plants move towards the light, and send larger roots towards the side where moisture is more abundant — for this would be to confound growth with motion. The stimulants (light, moisture, &c.) act upon the plant, and there- fore its growth is more vigorous in that direction. The animal has independent motion which is excited by internal stimuli. Hence sensation is ascribed to animals. In the higher animals it is known that the contraction of the muscles is under the influence of the nervous system : that the stimuli, of whatever kind, if they pro- duce motion, act upon the nerves and through these upon the muscles. Comparative Anatomy, it is true, has, in some animals, hitherto failed to demonstrate a nervous system; but it does not therefore follow that these animals do not possess sensation, any ZOOLOGY. 7 more than it follows that their want of muscular fibre justifies us in denying to them voluntary motion, which the unprejudiced observer may recognise even in the most simple animals. As to chemical composition — Nitrogen, it is true, is not ex- clusively an animal principle: but still it occurs as an ultimate constituent of animal organisation in much greater quantity than in plants. In plants, on the other hand, Carbon is predominant. Not long ago, it was believed that a transition from Plant-Life to Animal-Life had been observed1. L. C. TREVIRANUS had remarked that the spores of Confervas move like Infusories2. A few years since UNGER described this phenomenon in Vaucheria clavata, and thought that he had surprised plants at the very moment of their becoming animals3. These sporidia move by means of cilia, but cannot on that account be considered animals4. Kather ought we, from such instances, to conclude that cilia are no exclusive character of the animal kingdom. The same may be said of a similar motion which GRANT observed in sponges, which, as little, on that account, are animals. As we have already remarked above, the difference between plants and animals will always be more apparent as the organisa- tion becomes more perfect and more complicated: the difficulty occurs in the case of the most simple vegetable and animal forms ; and here may be applied what Ovid says of the change of colour in the rainbow, Usque adeo quod tangit idem est, tamen ultima distant. — Met. vi. 67. Zoology. There are three parts of Natural History, as there are three great divisions of the bodies which occur on our Earth. We sepa- rate Natural History into Mineralogy, Botany and Zoology, as we 1 See the earlier observations on this point in G. B. TfiEViRANUS* Biologic, oder Pliilosophie der lebenden Natur. 8vo. II. p. 344. 2 Beitrage zur Pflanzenphysiologie. Gottingen, 1811. 8vo. pp. 78, 79. 3 Die Pflanze im Momente der Thierwerdung. Wien. 1843. 8vo. 4 C. DE SIEBOLD, Dm. de finibus inter regnum animale et vegetabUe conslituendis. Erlangse, 1844. 4*0. INTRODUCTION. divide nature into three kingdoms, that of minerals, of plants, and of animals. As the history of mankind does not result from a collection of biographies, so Natural History is not formed by the description of animal species. Therefore Zoology describes not merely the sepa- rate animals (monographically) according to external parts and internal structure, but it comprises the entire kingdom of animals, denotes their mutual relations, and assigns to each animal its rank and position. Zoology falls into different parts. First, it is divided into Description and History. Description of animals (zoographia) sup- plies precise descriptions of the separate internal and external parts of the animal body, and thus of the entire animal. In a narrower sense, it makes us acquainted with the external parts and the ex- ternal form of the animal, and with the distribution into classes and orders. When it makes us acquainted with the internal struc- ture of animals, as well in respect of form and position (structura) as of tissue (textura), it is called the Anatomy of Animals (Zootomia), which has been especially cultivated of late years, and is generally named Comparative Anatomy (Anatomia Comparata}. But this ap- pellation has not exactly the same meaning as the first : it denotes, rather, a philosophical science, which, not content with the simple knowledge of the different forms, investigates, by comparison of the anatomy of all animals and also of the human body, the general laws of animal organisation and its unity. The History of Animals (Historia Animalium) comprehends a comparative history of the nature and intellect of animals : it illus- trates the phsenomena of life, and their obedience to law in the animal economy. It may be also termed General Physiology (Biology}. The knowledge of the geographical and physical dis- tribution of animals over the surface of the earth, the knowledge of the series of forms which in earlier periods inhabited our planet, and of which the remains have been found in beds and strata of rocks deposited from water, also belong to the History of the Ani- mal Kingdom. These subdivisions cannot dispense with mutual assistance. Conjointly they form only one science which we term Zoology. ANIMAL TISSUES. The Tissues of Animals. Nature, in the structure of animals, has exhibited inconceivable resources of art. Not only is the body as a whole, not only are its grosser parts, but even the smallest parts of the organs are ma- chinery; and the knife of the anatomist exhibits to us, even to the simplest fibre, nothing but parts constructed for a purpose. The whole body consists of many members : the members themselves consist of muscles, vessels, and nerves; the muscles again qf tissues, vessels, fibres, &c. Such a body may well be called organised. In order to form an idea of the texture of animals, we must go to work as the chemist does. He divides the parts which compose bodies into proximate and ultimate constituents, and terms those constituents ultimate, or elements (elemental), which by his art he can separate no further into heterogeneous parts. In the same way we find in the textures of animals proximate and ultimate con- stituents. Of the last, or the organic elements (elementa organica], we shall speak hereafter : the first question is — what are the proxi- mate constituents? (paries constituentes proximce). They are called Tissues (Tefa). BICH AT was the founderv of the science of the organic tissues in man, and named it General Anatomy. In the investigation of the tissues he had recourse to chemical reagents, to maceration and partial decomposition in water. He described each tissue according to its physical and chemical properties, its physiological pheno- mena and its morbid changes. After him this science was ad- vanced by MECKEL, HEUSINGER, and BECLARD1 in the same spirit. Within the last ten years it has received a totally different direction through microscopic research. By means of it General Anatomy has become, for the most part, Microscopic Anatomy. Our immortal LEEUWENHOECK, about a century and a half ago, had collected much material which remained almost unused; until, in our day, with the improvement of the compound microscope, a more general interest in such enquiries has been excited, and the importance of the knowledge of the minutest organic constituents to accurate 1 Here it may suffice to refer to the well-written and succinct manual of the last named author : EUmens d' A natomie generate (ame e*dit. Paris, 1827. 8vo.) 10 INTRODUCTION. Physiology been gradually recognised. We cannot omit mention- ing the names of KRAUSE, VALENTIN, SCHWANN, HENLE in pre- ference to many others whom we could willingly refer to in this field of enquiry1. We must limit ourselves to a short survey, and will rather enumerate than describe the different Tissues. A complete description, however compressed, would demand more space than is consistent with the nature of this manual. I. Conjunctive Tissue (tela conjunctiva), ordinarily Cellular Membrane or Areolar Tissue, called also by others Formative Tissue, occupies almost everywhere the space between the different parts, and forms, according to Cuvier's well-selected comparison, a kind of sponge, which has the same shape as the whole body which it contributes to form. By long boiling it is dissolved into glue. It consists of bundles of threads, and has no resemblance to the cellular tissue of plants which consists of hexagonal cells. The threads are long, have a somewhat tortuous course and an extreme tenuity (about -^ millim.)2. II. Adipose Tissue (tela adiposa). Formerly this constituent was not distinguished from the former; it was considered to be cellular tissue containing fat. But it is quite neces- sary to distinguish between them. This tissue consists of vesicles or cells, which, compared with other elementary parts of the animal body, are pretty large (about g . . . ^ mil- lim.). Fat is, with the exception of some constituents of milk in the class mammalia, the only non-azotized substance of the 'animal body and, like most vegetable constituents, rich in Carbon. Fat, except in situations where it occurs as a distinct membrane, forms in the combined state a con- stituent of different tissues and of many animal fluids. III. Vascular Tissue (tela vascularis}. Vessels are hollow cylin- ders, which contain nutrient fluids that circulate through the body. To these belong the Lymphatics as well as the blood-vessels. The larger blood-vessels are composed of 1 Here too it may suffice to refer to a single work of eminence. J. HENLE, Alge- meine Anatomic, Lehre von der Mischung's-und Formbestandtheilen des menscJdichen Korpers. Leipzig, 1841. 8vo. [2 A millimeter is about half an English line, or the 24th part of an inch.] ANIMAL TISSUES. 11 different layers : the finest vessels (called Capillaries) of a single uniform membrane, without fibres or other tissue, but in which lie round or oblong microscopic corpuscles (cell-nuclei). In the larger blood-vessels, and also in the lymphatics, the innermost coat is formed of cells, which, as in the Cuticle, lie side by side, pavement-fashion. This coat is covered by others which present fibres partly longi- tudinal, partly circular. Then comes the most external layer of conjunctive tissue, which connects the vessels with the neighbouring parts. IV. Nervous Tissue (tela nervea). To this belongs in the higher animals, the brain, the spinal cord, the ganglia and the nerves: inferior animals have only nerves and ganglia, which last take the place of the central parts of the nervous system. The chemical constituents of this tissue are Albumen and a species of Fat containing Phosphorus. The nerve-stems and the bundles of which they consist, are surrounded with coats of conjunctive tissue, called Neurilema : dilute muriatic acid dissolves the neurilema : alkaline solutions, on the contrary, cause the nervous medulla to disappear, the neurilema remaining alone. The nerves consist of fine threads, which neither subdivide, nor anastomose with each other. They are of very unequal thickness, ^ ... to j~ millim. and less, especially in the nerves of sense. Besides these threads there are found corpuscles with nuclei : these present themselves in the ganglia and in the grey substance of the brain and spinal cord. These ganglion-corpuscles are very dissimilar in form and size, mostly ^ . . . ^ millim. V. Horny Tissue (tela cornea). The parts consisting of this tissue have neither blood-vessels nor nerves. Cuticle, nails, hair, feathers, horns and scales belong hereto. They lie on the surface of the body, whilst a covering (epithelium} , resem- bling Cuticle, lines the inner surface of the mucous membranes (as of the stomach) and also of the internal closed cavities and sacs, as well as of the vessels (see above, III. Vase. Tis.). The Cuticle, or Epidermis, consists of microscopic flat cells joining on to each other like a pavement, and of which each contains a nucleus. Water swells up the epidermis, 12 INTRODUCTION. boiling leaves it unchanged, by concentrated sulphuric acid it is dissolved gradually, by alkalis readily. Scales, nails, &c., which consist of this tissue, are secreted by a highly vascular bed (matrix) in layers. The Epithelium is formed in part, like the Epidermis, of flat cells : in other situations these cells are cylindrical, or conical, and stand perpen- dicularly, side by side, like fibres. In many situations (as the nasal cavities, the respiratory organs of mammalia, birds and reptiles, the gills of bivalve molluscs) these conical cells carry cilia, whose motions had been seen on the surface of the body of many of the lower animals by the earlier observers, but were distinctly recognised by PURKINJE and VALENTIN as a very general phenomenon of the animal kingdom only a few years ago. VI. Cartilaginous Tissue (tela cartilaginea) is semi-transparent, elastic, and mostly of a bluish-white colour. On section it presents a very smooth surface and looks like a substance of uniform density. But under the microscope, small, granular, round or oblong corpuscles are seen in the clearer trans- parent principal mass. The glue which is obtained from cartilage by boiling differs in many respects from the glue of bone, and was called by MUELLER, who first called atten- tion to the difference, Chondrine (cartilage-glue}. This glue is also obtained from the cornea of the eye, which is com- posed of many thin layers or plates formed of fibres that cross one another in all directions. Certain yellow highly flexible and elastic cartilages contain numerous fibres (carti- lagines fibrosce}'. to this division belongs ex. gr. the cartilage of the external ear in man and mammalia. Cartilage con- tains two-thirds of its weight of water. In the ash are found carb. soda, sulph. soda, and carb. lime as the chief constituents. Here belongs : Osseous Tissue (tela ossea). The tissue of bone is hard and opaque, and of a laminated structure. The chief con- stituents are cartilage, which on boiling passes entirely into gelatin or common glue: and bone-earth, of which the quantity increases with the age. The last consists princi- pally of phosphate of lime, which has a great affinity with the colouring matter of madder, so that the bones of animals ANIMAL TISSUES. 13 fed on it acquire a red colour. Bone may be freed of its lime by acids (ex. gr. dilute muriatic acid). The cartilage which remains has in general the structure of permanent cartilage : the bones also, in the first period of life, corre- spond to cartilage, and previous to ossification (i. e. before the bone is hardened by the phosphate of lime) the glue which they contain is also Chondrine, which is precipitated by alum, acetic acid and the sulphate of alumina. In the bones are found small medullary canals communicating with one another (i . . . n millim.) which are connected with the medullary cavities, or the cellular spaces in the middle of the bone, and. give to the bone a streaky or fibrous appearance visible to the naked eye. These canals are surrounded by several layers, which lie included between the other layers or plates that, in the flat bones, are arranged in the direction of their surface, and in the long bones in a circular form round their internal medullary cavity. These medullary canals contain fat and minute blood-vessels. Between the layers are found microscopically small oval corpuscles, resembling cartilage-corpuscles, and from which extremely fine tubules, partly branching, proceed. These parts, when treated with acids, become quite transparent, and their granular content is consequently bone-earth. VII. Muscular Tissue (tela muscularis). Muscles consist of bundles of fibres : the primitive bundles, which consist of some hundreds of fibres, are by means of conjunctive tissue (cellular tissue) collected into larger bundles, and these again into still larger. Muscular tissue belongs to the albuminous substances. Flesh becomes harder by boiling : on cooling the decoction becomes gelatinous from the glue into which the cellular tissue has been changed. If finely-divided flesh be pressed, a red acid fluid is obtained, which contains albumen, the colouring matter of blood, lactic acid, salts, and ozmazom. The red colour of muscles (in animals that breathe by lungs) is heightened by exposure to light ; some ascribe this solely to the blood. It is not a common character of this tissue: in fishes the flesh is white: the muscles of many articulata are brownish, yellow, or light red. Muscles are distinguished into two kinds. There are 14 INTRODUCTION. muscles with varicose structure of the primitive fibres, and fine transverse stripes of the primitive bundles. This is the structure of the muscles of voluntary motion amongst vertebrate and articulate animals, and of the muscles of the heart. These fibres are very fine, ^ millim. and less, and are amongst the finest parts of the animal organism. Other muscles consist of coarser fibres ^...^5 millim. which are not jointed or varicose, and which correspond to the primi- tive bundles of the former. In these therefore no transverse stripes are seen. To these belong the muscular fibres of the intestinal canal, also the red fibres of the muscular stomach of birds. Usually these muscles of organic life have a pale and somewhat yellow colour. Muscular tissue has the property of contracting, upon the application of a stimulus, in the direction of its fibres. This irritability (irritabilitas) is a vital property, and is distinct from the elastic contrac- tility, which other parts of the body retain even after death. VIII. Elastic Tissue (tela elastica). This tissue has much resem- blance to conjunctive tissue, and holds, as it were, an inter- mediate position between it and muscular tissue. The fibres are of unequal size (155 ... 555 millim.) and have a serpentine course : they divide frequently and unite at many points with branches from other fibres, whence a reticulate distribution arises. The colour of this tissue is yellow: it retains its elasticity unaltered by keeping in spirit of wine, or by boiling for several days. After long boiling it gives a small quantity of a peculiar glue which in some points agrees with cartilage-glue. The cervical ligament of mammals is com- posed of this tissue : also in arteries a layer of elastic fibres lies between the circular fibrous coat and the external coat of cellular tissue : in large trunks this layer may be clearly distinguished as a continuous membrane. The yellow ligaments on the arches of the vertebrae, and the ligaments of the trachea, also consist of elastic tissue. But not merely as separate ligaments or membranes, but also mingled with other tissues, elastic fibres are met with in different situa- tions, as for instance, in serous membranes and in skin. We have here spoken only of those tissues which occur most generally. We have not noticed Dental Tissue because, whilst we ANIMAL TISSUES. 15 treat of the entire animal kingdom, it occurs only partially. Other tissues, which ordinarily receive special notification, may be re- duced to one or other of the foregoing. Tendinous Tissue belongs to Conjunctive Tissue, as does that of Skin proper (corium) : to this also belongs in part Mucous Tissue (in the intestinal canal, &c.) The Serous Membranes merit a special mention. They serve to line cavities in the interior of the body, and ordinarily form sacs which are closed on every side. They, too, belong to Conjunctive Tissue, and are smooth only on their free surface, which is covered with an epithelium. This smooth surface secretes a serous fluid. We cannot admit a proper Glandular Tissue (tela glandulosa), as most authors do. Under the term Gland Anatomists arrange very different parts, of which the consideration belongs to special and descriptive Anatomy. Lymph-glands (glandules lymphatics s. con- globatce) which are found only in higher animals, are round or oblong bodies of different size, in which one or more lymphatics are distributed; these tortuous branches are again collected into larger vessels, which pass out on the opposite side of the gland, to pursue their course onward: numerous blood-vessels, whose fineness ex- ceeds that of the lymphatics, surround all these branches. Conse- quently lymph-glands are only vascular networks, and may be put on a level with the so-called Eetia Mirabilia of the blood-vessels. In the class of Glands, moreover, are reckoned different parts of the animal body which, apart from their coverings, consist of con- junctive tissue, blood-vessels and nerves, and for the most part have an internal closed cavity which is filled with a granular fluid. Such are the Supra-renal Capsules, the Thyroid gland, the Spleen, the Thymus gland. These are the parts which HEUSINGER com- prises under the name of parenchymatous tissue — under which, however, he also classes other parts, as the Lymphatics and the Ovaries. Other authors style these parts Blood-glands (ganglia sanguineo-vasculosa) , comparing them with the lymph-glands (gan- glia lymphatico-vasculosd) ; but since these parts are not distin- guished from others by their blood-vessels, the comparison is arbi- trary. Finally, in a more special manner, the term gland is applied to those parts of the animal body which secrete a fluid that does not return into the current of the blood. These, in addition to lym- phatics blood-vessels nerves and conjunctive tissue, have an efferent canal (ductus excretorius} formed of mucous membrane, for the 16 INTRODUCTION. passage of the secreted fluid, which is conveyed into the intestinal canal or to the surface of the body. This efferent canal receives, like an arterial trunk, the finer canals which effect the secretion, and which are covered with epithelium. To such belong the kidneys, the liver, the salivary glands, &c. From what has been said, it is obvious that we cannot adopt that division of the Tissues which an esteemed writer1 has pro- posed: into simple, constituent, and compound tissues. Doubtless every muscle contains nerves and blood-vessels, but nerves and blood-vessels are not on that account constituents of muscular tissue. According to our view, every tissue is simple, but it may, either by itself, form special parts, or only in combination with other parts. The corneous tissue is the only one which comes under the first head : all other tissues form this or that part, only in combination with one another : nervous tissue, for instance, does not by itself form a nerve, but only in combination with conjunc- tive tissue and blood-vessels. Some of these compound tissues are distributed generally throughout the whole body, others are limited to certain parts. To the generally distributed belong conjunctive tissue, vascular tissue, and nervous tissue: the other tissues are appropriated to determinate parts of the body and have a greater self-subsistence, as cartilage tissue, muscular tissue, elastic tissue. This was the division formerly adopted by BICHAT. Other di- visions of the tissues, founded on chemical research, as into gelati- nous and albuminous tissues, may have their use in Physiology, but are not to be considered as anatomical divisions. The above tissues, then, build up the proximate organic con- stituents of the animal body. Formerly, when less weight was allowed to microscopic enquiry in general anatomy, the ultimate organic constituents in these tissues were neglected : but now their description forms a part of the description of the tissues themselves. In this way we have learnt to recognise in conjunctive tissue, in nerves, in muscles, &c. fibres as the ultimate elements of microscopic analysis : in cartilage, round or oblong corpuscles : in corneous and adipose tissues, cells. It maybe asked, whether these organic elements can be deduced from one another ; or, in other words, whether all the 1 E. H. WEBER in the 4th edition of F. HILDEBRANDT'S Itandbuch der Anatomie dcs Menschen revised by him. Braunschweig, 1830. 8. s. 169 — 178. ANIMAL TISSUES. 17 tissues proceed originally from homogeneous elements. FONTANA, and afterwards TREVIRANUS, busied themselves with this enquiry : TREVIEANUS believed that he was borne out in adopting a sameness of organic elements in all parts of the animal body, viz. globules and thin cylinders (elementary or primitive cylinders) l. According to others, these cylinders were by no means primitive, but consisted of globules arranged in a row: so that only globules, or round vesicles, remained for the elementary particles out of which, in fine, all the animal tissues were composed and formed. Subsequent enquiries proved, as indeed had been already surmised, that these vesicles were due merely to optical illusion2. Every one, who in- vestigates the tissues with the excellent microscopes of the present time, will easily convince himself, that such parts no where exist as ultimate elements of organic animal matter. Within the last few years, since regard has been paid in the investigation of the tissues to their origin and to their development, the problem has received quite a different treatment. That the tissues consist of different elementary parts, fibres, granules, cells, is plain from what has been said above ; but it is another question whether these parts did not originally proceed from some common fundamental form, of which they are subsequent developments and modifications. Much had been already effected by scattered obser- vations, but to SCHWANN is the distinction due of having esta- blished the original cellular structure of the different tissues, and, at the same time, the great similarity between the microscopic stnu> ture of Plants and Animals, of which DUTROCHET and KASPAIL had already a general notion3: our limits do not allow us to pro- pound his views, to which the name of Cell-Theory has been given, in detail. We will give an outline of them, in a few words, with a notice of the modifications which, from later researches, they would seem to require. The first elements of organic beings are cells. They have their 1 See Vermisckte Schriften anatomischen und physiologischen Inhalts von G. R. und L. C. TREVIRANUS. 4to. i. Gottingen, 1816. s. 117 — 144. Ueber die organische Elemcnte der thiereschen Korper. 2 MILNE EDWARDS. Recherches microscopiques sur la structure intime des tissus organiques dcs Animaux. Annales des Sc. natur. IX. 1826, p. 362 — 394. PI. 50. 3 Mikroskopische Untersuchungen uber die Uebcrcinstimmung in der Struktur und dcm Wachsthum der Thicre und Pflanzen von DR TH. SCHWANN. Berlin, 1839. 8vo. VOL. I. 2 18 INTRODUCTION. origin in a formless matter ( Cytoblastema, germ-substance of cells) ; what afterwards remains of this substance may be distinguished as Intercellular substance (substantia inter cellular is). The cells are vesicles, and consist of a fine membrane which encloses a fluid often containing granules. For the most part these cells have a so-called nucleus, a small dark-coloured corpuscle, lying on the wall of the cell. In this nucleus a round spot has been distinguished and termed nucleolus. The formation of these cells seems to proceed not always in the same manner. According to SCHWANN a nucleolus arises first, round this a nucleus is formed as its envelope, by the aggregation of granules in the fluid germ-substance : at a slight distance from this nucleus there coagulates, as it were, a thin mem- brane, the Cell- wall, which at first is raised, like a watch-glass, on one side of the nucleus, and afterwards encloses it all round. On this account the nucleus is considered to be the germ of the cell ( Cytoblastus] ; when the cell is formed, the nucleus, according to SCHWANN, has discharged its office : it is detached and disappears. The researches of HENLE T have shewn that such is not universally the case, but that in fibrous tissues formed from cells, the cell- nucleus is changed into peculiar fibres. Cells when once formed are multiplied by fission, or by the formation of new cells within those already formed. The parts then of those tissues, with which we have become acquainted above, are either cells or fibres which have been formed from cells. (1) In some tissues the cells, which have been plainly isolated, are present as elements at a later period, as in adipose tissue and cuticle ; (2) in other tissues the walls of the cells become thick- ened, and coalesce with one another and with the intercellular sub- stance, whilst the cavities remain separate, as in cartilage ; (3) in others, again, the cavities coalesce, whilst the walls of the cells that mutually touch, are destroyed or absorbed. Finally, other tissues, still, exhibit as elementary parts little plates without cavities, which may probably have existed at an earlier period. These either join one another in a plane, or range themselves lengthwise in a row, as in the fibres of organic muscles and of Conjunctive Tissue. Other fibres may, according to HENLE, be con- sidered as compound cells, i.e. those whose nucleus was originally 1 HENLK, AUr/emrin? Anatomic, s. 188 — 9. THE VITAL FUNCTIONS OF ANIMAL8. 19 a cell that has become enclosed by a wall or envelope of later forma- tion. Muscles, according to SCHWANN, consist at first of nucleated cells which range themselves in a row; the nuclei adhere to the wall, and within the tube (of the primitive bundle) are formed the proper primitive fibres. According to VALENTIN and HENLE, on the other hand, the primitive fibres are arranged around the row of cells which occupies the middle of the primitive bundle, and the external covering of this bundle is a sheath formed afterwards. But these and other diverging views we cannot here develope more minutely. If once the fundamental truth of SCHWANN' s doctrine be ac- cepted, that cells are the original form of animal and vegetable tissues, then is it of subordinate importance whether this or that view in the case of particular tissues be adopted, and we may sup- pose, as, for example, in parts which are formed of plates in which there is no distinction of wall and cavity, that the cells have not been perfectly formed from the amorphous blastema, but were joined together before they possessed a cavity1. We must here add a word concerning the blood-corpuscles. They are flat vesicles, filled with the colouring matter of the blood: having in mammalia a round, in birds, reptiles, and most fishes, an oval outline. In man, the mean diameter is about ^ millim. In reptiles, especially in those without scales, they are larger. In the frog, for instance, they have the length of three and the breadth of two human blood-corpuscles. Here a nucleus is present, of which the existence in mammalia is doubted by some writers. The blood- corpuscles, therefore, are cells : and we may consider the fluid, so rich in albumen and fibrin, in which they swim and with which, during life, they circulate (liquor sanguinis}^ as a liquid intercellular substance of the blood-cells. The Vital Functions of Animals. In order to complete the general idea which we ought to form of the animal body, we must not stop at the membranes, but must also look at the structure of the principal organs. We unite organs 1 MKM/K, All;/. An fit. s. 188, 189. 2— ~2 20 INTRODUCTION. and functions in our rapid sketch : and hasten to place before our readers a view of the whole. The functions performed by animals may be brought into two chief classes. One class comprises the vegetative, the other the animal functions. The first are so called because they occur equally in plants, and are also, on that account, called organic functions. The last are peculiar to animals, and therefore are called animal functions. To the organic functions belong Nutrition in the widest sense, and Propagation. To nutrition belong three systems : namely, that of Circulation, that of Assimilation, and that of Secretion. Respi- ration is a part of the system of secretion : for the object of respi- ration, like that of secretion, is the elimination of effete matter, its volatilization, or its separation in a more fixed form : and both, in this way, support that unceasing interchange of matter by which the circle of vital phenomena is characterised. By means of these functions, which together are comprehended by the name of Nutrition, the life of the individual is secured and provided for. Other functions have reference to the life of the species, and ensure its existence after the death of the individual. These functions constitute Propagation, of which a part are dis- charged by the male individual, viz. the secretion of the impreg- nating fluid (semen), and its conveyance to germs capable oi development. These germs are prepared and protected by the female individual, and on the union of these functions depends the being of the Embryo, the development of which is the final purpose of propagation. To the animal functions also belong three systems : viz. the nervous system, that of the organs of sense, and that of the organs of motion. The food, when solid, is comminuted by means of the jaws and teeth, or, when fluid, is imbibed. It is then conveyed into the in- testinal canal, which ordinarily has an expansion called the stomach. Here and at other parts of the intestinal canal different solvent fluids are secreted for assisting the conversion of the food. The nutrient part of the food is thus separated from the rest and taken up by the surface of the inner wall of the canal consisting of formative tissue : the remainder is rejected as unfit for the support of the creature. THE VITAL FUNCTIONS OF ANIMALS. 21 The tube in which this first process of nutrition is effected, is a continuation of the skin. In some very simple animals, where the whole body is composed of a homogeneous mass (ex. gr. in Polyps) there is properly no special intestinal canal. The body is simply excavated, and the internal surface has the same structure as the external. Such creatures may be turned inside out, like the finger of a glove, without dying in consequence : nutrition can proceed undisturbed. Such animals are entirely intestinal canal, independ- ently vital stomachs. The external skin also corresponds in func- tion with the surface of the canal. The skin has the function of Imbibition, which may be compared with absorption by the intesti- nal tube : and on the entire internal surface of the intestinal canal there is evaporation, which corresponds to that of the skin, and with the diminution of this increases. In some very simple kinds of animal there is in the intestinal canal only a single opening, which allows the food fo enter and the refuse to escape. In the rest the two openings are separate. The Chyle, or nutrient juice which has been produced by digestion, is in many animals immediately poured into the forma- tive tissue of the entire body, and so serves for the nutrition of the different parts. In others it is mixed with a nutrient fluid of higher rank, the blood, which circulates in a system of vessels ; this motion is called Circulation. The vessels which carry the blood towards the parts are called Arteries : those which carry back the blood from the parts towards the center of the circulation are called Veins. This motion is ordinarily assisted and regulated by one or more muscular organs, called Heart. But the chyle is not sufficient to renew the venous blood and render it fit for the nutrition of the parts. It must be brought in contact with atmospheric air, and so be submitted to change before passing into the arterial stream. This function is called Respiration, and the mechanism for it is in different creatures so variously contrived, that it is often difficult to harmonise such variety with the poverty of our language, accus- tomed to include every form under Gills and Lungs. In the case of Lungs, the medium that serves for respiration, mostly air, pene- trates the cavities whose external surface is bathed with blood. In the case of Gills, the medium, here mostly water, does not pene- trate within the tissue, but only bathes the surface on which the blood-vessels are spread out. Gills have very different forms, as of 22 IXTKODUCTIOX. Plates, Leaves, Threads, Twigs, &c. Many simple and imperfect animals breathe by means of the skin. Others, which have either no circulation, or none that is perceptible, have Air- Canals, i.e. such respiratory organs as convey the air through the entire body to the nutrient fluid. The nutrient fluid which has thus been separated from the food and changed by means of respiration, is now fit for the nutrition of the parts. How that nutrition is effected, so that every part receives from the common fluid that which is requisite for its support, is not known. Here we can only conjecture : and if any one chooses to call it a chemical affinity he is at liberty to do so, if he merely means that he is contemplating living creatures whose organism has a determinate chemical composition, and so does not forget that he has given a name to the process, but has not ex- plained it. Besides the glands which separate from the blood fluids for the internal economy, as the Liver, &c., there are others which separate constituents that must quit the blood in order that it may become more pure, or in order that the due proportion of its constituents may be preserved. Thus the kidneys secrete urine, the skin watery vapour, &c. Sometimes a secretion is a means of defence, as is the case with the Ink of the Cuttle-fish, and with the offensive exhala- tions of many animals, which thus repel their enemies or are avoided by them. Eightly to estimate all these secretions we must never forget that an animal is a whole, and that the secretion of this or that fluid, though it may be performed by an individual organ, is still under the control of all the other organs, and of life, which combines them all. Propagation, which also belongs to the vegetative life, has the following organs for its instruments : the ovary (ovarium) , by which we understand the site and the coverings of the eggs and the eggs themselves, conjointly ; the oviduct (oviductus) or the tube, through which the eggs, that have been detached from the ovary, pass onwards : the uterus, a residence for the eggs during their develop- ment, and the vagina along which they pass to leave the body of the mother. In the case of two sexes, the male (by means of glands named testiculi) secretes the seed (sperma] which fertilizes the germs, and effects their development. Penis is the name of the part, which, in some animals, conducts the seed into the vagina of the female. THE VITAL FUNCTIONS OP ANIMALS. 23 With respect to the animal life — a perfect sensation appears to be possible only through a Nervous System. This nervous system, in the higher, or more perfect animals, consists principally of the brain and the spinal cord. The larger the mass of the brain is in proportion to the nerves, the more perfect appears to be the develop- ment of the intelligence and mental faculties of the animal — a law that was first discovered by the celebrated SCEMMEEING. In pro- portion as we descend to the lower animals, the nervous masses are more dispersed and removed from one another, and in the lowest families of the animal kingdom no traces of a special nervous system remain. The Head is that part of the body which includes the brain and the chief organs of sense. There are five senses, of which Touch (tactus) appears to be the most widely diffused through the whole animal kingdom. The seat of touch is the skin, the general covering of the body, which is everywhere interwoven with nerves. The nerves of the skin are lost, with their little twigs, in its middlemost and very dense layer. The ends of the. cuticular nerves are covered and protected by the cuticle, and in many places by other external insensible parts, as scales, hair, &c. In the organ of Taste, the twigs of the nerves of taste pass into the soft papillse of the tongue, and end there. The twigs of the Olfactory Nerve are spread out upon a mucous membrane (the membrana Schneideriana] : the continuation of the medulla of the Optic Nerve forms the Retina, which Physiologists determine to be the seat of vision. Lastly, the most simple form of the Auditory organ is that of a sac filled with fluid, in which there float, as it were, the soft and delicate termina- tions of the auditory nerve. From all this it appears, that the general form (typus] of an organ of sense is to be sought for in a nerve whose terminations form a delicate mass suited to the recep- tion of external impressions. But in each particular organ of sense the proper nerve of sense is only capable of a determinate action. The auditory nerve is only susceptible of sound, or rather, every stimulus which affects it is perceived only as sound: the optic nerve recognises no other impressions than those of light. Such, at least, is the case with man and the higher animals: and one organ of sense can never supply the proper office of another. Im- pressions are conveyed, by means of the nerves, to the brain or any other nervous center. 24 INTRODUCTION. Thus nerves are the messengers by which the mind receives information of the external world (nuntii rerum}. But the nerves are equally the ministers of the will, which by their assistance is able to act upon the muscles. By Muscles are understood those active organs of motion (organa motus activa) which are fixed to other parts, as their point of resistance, and these last are called passive organs of motion (organa motus passiva], The harder fibres, which serve for the insertion of muscles, form Tendons, of which the colour in animals with red flesh, as in man, is white. In many animals the muscles are inserted into the skin, or into certain hard portions of the skin, as in Insects, whose hard and often horny coverings supply the place of a skeleton in that respect. A skeleton is, properly, a connected whole of internal passive organs of motion — cartilaginous or bony, and these serve not only for motion, but moreover, and indeed especially, for the protection of the most important parts of the nervous system, the Brain and Spinal Cord. The skull (for the protection of the Brain) and the Vertebral Column (which encloses the Spinal Cord) must therefore be considered as the principal parts of the skeleton, of which ribs and limbs are only appendages: in this simple condi- tion is the skeleton met with in the Larva, for example, of the Frog. Development of Animals. How ike expression imperfect Animal is to be understood. We have attempted to give a general idea of the organs which compose the animal body. But these organs are by no means found in all animals. Only in the more perfect animals is the structure thus complicated. When from these we descend in the animal scale, we perceive in the long series one instrument after another gradually decrease in magnitude and development, and at last entirely disappear. In Polyps (hydras) nothing remains but the Intestinal Canal. The entire animal forms a blind sac com- posed of a single tissue, and all the vital functions which it performs are effected through one and the same gelatinous mass. Finally, in some Infusories we no longer perceive even an intestinal canal — nothing remains but an homogeneous gelatinous body, whose DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS. 25 surface appears to discharge the functions of absorption and nu- trition. A gradual course of development, similar to that observed in the animal series, is also pursued by the embryo of the more perfect animals. The whole Life is Metamorphosis ; and there are animals in which the change of form is so great and so remarkable, that it does not escape even the eye of the multitude. Thus, for instance, a Caterpillar is changed into a Butterfly : a creeping, dull, voracious creature into one that flies and runs, and scarcely takes any food. In the same way the metamorphoses of Frogs are notorious. But there are other animals whose metamorphoses do not occur in so striking a manner, but are principally limited to the earliest periods of life. Every animal is slowly developed, and becomes more perfect as new organs are added to those already present. But this idea must not be so apprehended as if a Mam- mal, for instance, had been at first an Infusory, then a Polyp, a Medusa, afterwards an Insect, a Fish, a Bird, &c., as some express themselves l. This would be as extravagant as it is unfounded : but properly, as we conceive, many moderns assume that all the organs in different periods of life do pass through a development and metamorphosis, and that the structure of a perfect animal, in its foetal state, is more simple, and corresponds with that of the lower animals of the same Type to which itself belongs. Thus the first rudiments of all vertebrate animals are similar, and the history of the development of the Chick may illustrate that of Mammals in the first periods. This is more than a phrase without proof: rather is it the result of very numerous observations — for instance, those on the Brain and the Heart in the human embryo — and we shall find it confirmed by frequent instances in the course of the present work. We have already on various occasions made use of the terms ' imperfect ' and ' perfect ' animals, and shall have to use them often. But since every animal is perfect in its kind, the term 1 How this gradual progress of the embryo through the different gradations of the animal kingdom is to be understood cannot here be further particularized. Compare hereon C. F. KIELMEYEB, Ueber die Verhdltnisse der organischen Krdfte unter einander in der Reihe der verschiedenen Organisationen. Tubingen, 1814. Svo. s. 38. The differ- ent works of CAEUS, TIEDEMANN and J. F. MECKEL supply many examples of the application of this position. 26 INTRODUCTION. requires some explanation. By perfect animals we understand those that, in the number and importance of their functions, and in the complicated structure of their organs, make an approach to Man : whilst those are called ' imperfect ' whose simple organisation, and less numerous functions, remove them from that perfection of which Man supplies the pattern. In this sense, as I conceive, the expres- sion may be well defended. ARISTOTLE says that in all other things we must proceed just as we do in the investigation of coins, com- paring them individually with those which are best known to us : but man is necessarily the best known to us of all animals1. Let it be added, that Man is in fact the center of organisation to which the animals, like rays, may be considered to converge — and so is the union of what is most perfect and most beautiful in them all2. Hence animals which have a resemblance to man are, not without reason, styled perfect. On the art of Classifying (Taxinomia). Such conceptions become still clearer by unfolding the art of Classifying. Classification and systematic division are indispensable in Natural History. How innumerable are the species of animals which are scattered over the surface of the earth ! Each of these species has its country, its determinate form, its peculiar properties. How shall we attain to all this knowledge: how shall we turn to account the observations of earlier writers, how learn to what species they refer ? how can we, in fine, communicate our own observations to others, unless we make use of a classification? Classifications then are as old as the study of Natural History, and their difference is to be sought in their more or less scientific found- ation and plan. — By means of its systematic arrangement the study of Natural History obtains a more extensive influence upon our entire scientific cultivation, and in this respect it cannot be suffi- ciently recommended to young persons, in order that they may yap vofAla/uaTa irpbs TO afrrois HicaffTov yvupi^Tarov SoKifidfovffU', OVTW 87] Kal £v TOIS AXXoiS. '0 5' &vdpwjro'i T&v {(buy yvupifAwTOLTov rifuv ££ avdyK-rjs tarlv. 2 See J. G. HERDER'S Idem, zur Philosophic der GeschicJtie der Menschen. Carlsruhe, 1794. i Thl. s. 100 — 108. ON THE ART OF CLASSIFYING. 27 accustom themselves to strict order in all their other branches of study. The foundation of all Zoological division is the Species. By this is understood the assemblage of all the individuals which have more conformity to each other, than to other similar creatures; which, by means of mutual impregnation, can generate prolific individuals and propagate themselves by generation, so that it can be inferred from analogy that they all sprung from a single pair. By specific cha- racter is understood the collection of all the characteristics which are shewn to be permanent. Those characteristics, on the other hand, by which different individuals of a species vary amongst themselves, and which are attributable to deviation from species, are called varieties. The causes of varieties consist in the influence of external cir- cumstances, and in the mixture of other similar species. Differences from this last cause are called Hybrids. The form is here a com- bination of the two parents. Such Hybrids appear to be limited, fabulous stories apart, to those species which have great mutual resemblance. They are in general not prolific— not able to continue their race. They occur therefore, beyond doubt, in a state of nature extremely rarely, and are rather the consequence of the constrained state of servitude in which our domestic animals exist. This cause therefore is not of a kind to disturb the regular course of nature and to endanger the pre- servation of the species. On the other hand, varieties produced by the influence of external circumstances, by climate, difference of food and mode of life, are able to engender young that are prolific. But they do not suggest any doubt that we ought, perchance, to receive them for species. It must moreover be remarked, that those varieties of ordinary species which on account of the pliancy of their organi- sation and their tenaciousness of life are able to live in every climate, and appear, for the most part, to have followed man over the entire surface of the earth, are the most striking and the most numerous. By Genus is understood a second group formed by the union of like species, as the species was formed by that of like individuals. Species which in general have a striking resemblance in their orga- nisation, form a genus. The idea of genus is so natural that we meet with traces of it even in the language of children. Still all genera are not natural. Many of them have been formed upon some 28 INTRODUCTION. resemblances of species in one or another characteristic arbitrarily selected in disregard of the general impression of the external form, and in neglect of the precept of the immortal Linnaeus that ' Charac- ter does not make Genus1.' When a species deviates very much from all the others, even from those most resembling it, then a sepa- rate genus must be made of it. Hence there are genera which con- tain only a single species. The characters of a genus must be common to all the species contained in it, and can only be drawn from a comparative study of all those species. This is the place to say a word concerning the Nomenclature of animals. LINNAEUS was the first who gave to every object in nature a double name : thus the Lion, for instance, is termed Felis Leo, the Dog Cants familiaris. The first of the two names (felis, canis) is that of the genus, and therefore common (nomen genericum] to all the species which belong to that genus. It must be a noun substantive. Different rules have been laid down for the formation of names : but to expound them would lead us too far away. Of late years, after the example of the Botanists, the names of persons have been adopted for the generic name, as Bonellia, Boltenia, Dorthesia, Desoria ; but this is much more usual in botany. The second name is the specific name, as Leo, familiaris • it is either a substantive or an adjective, and in the latter case must agree in gender with the generic name. By itself it has no meaning, and indicates nothing until joined with the generic name2. This double name has thus an intimate connexion writh the Idea of Genus. Genera again, after a similar manner, are grouped together and formed into Orders, and these again into Classes. We may reverse the proposition and say that the Animal Kingdom is first divided into Classes, then into Orders and Genera, which last contain the Species. We have now been taught to recognise the chief divisions. An arrangement which teaches us to find with ease the names of animals is called a System : which, according to Cuvier's apt com- parison, is a dictionary, but with this difference, that here the 1 "Character non facit genus." 2 It is the same with the family names and the prsenomens of persons. The first indicate a family, the last acquaints us with a particular subject of the family : only their order is reversed : i. e. the baptismal name is placed first, and after it the family name. ON THE ART OF CLASSIFYING. 29 properties serve us for rinding out the name, whereas in ordinary dictionaries the known name serves to acquaint us with the pro- perties. That a system may serve its purpose, and supply an easy means of finding the name, it must be artificial, i. e. it must be taken from a single system of organs and their differences. The characters should be easy to find out, and be borrowed from ex- ternal parts. An example of such an artificial system is the sexual system of Linnaeus. In the animal kingdom we have no such artificial system : most of the systems are mixed ; neither entirely artificial nor entirely natural. For there is yet another kind of systems, called Natural systems (Method): of which the chief object is, not so much to find the names readily, as to unite in an unconstrained manner those natural products which, in the greatest number of respects, corre- spond. They are founded, not on a single organ or system of organs, but on the whole structure. If an object be seen only on one side, on the north or south, east or west, just so many partial representations of it will be obtained as there are points of view : but he only who observes it in all directions is able to form a judgment of its nature and being. This is the advantage of a natural method over artificial systems : it does not forget the center in the circumference, but comprising all the parts and properties of animals in its estimate, it allots to them a place in the arrange- ment according to their structure and to the importance which belongs to them in the economy of nature, and so combines them in a great organic whole1. A perfectly natural classification has not yet been discovered: but we must continue to search after it, and to collect its scattered fragments. It is, according to LINNAEUS, the first object and the last of the hopes of the Botanist : it ought to be no less so of the Zoologist2. We please ourselves with the reflexion that we have approached nearer to this goal, now that men, especially in our century, have begun to investigate the internal structure of animals with the same curiosity and the same zeal with which, in the last century, after the example of LINNJEUS chiefly, they studied the 1 See J. SPIX, Gesckichte und Beurtheilung atter Systeme in der Zoologie. Nurnberg, 1811. 8vo. s. 8 — u. 2 Philosophia botanica, § 77. 30 INTRODI'CTION. external form. Even LINNAEUS himself has declared that a natural classification of animals is indicated by their internal structure1. But if this natural system were quite perfect, it would not merely be a register of animals or a large lexicon, but a true image of the animal kingdom and a short survey of the entire science. The more nearly the science approaches this end, the greater will be its perfection. We must here, in few words, mention some of the systems which have been proposed in Zoology. Animals may be divided into Classes in different ways, and the differences amongst individual zoological systems are very remark- able. AEISTOTLE divided animals into those that have blood (fvatpa) and those that have not blood (Zvatpa), and distributed these two chief divisions into lesser ones. PLINY founded his division upon the different elements in which animals reside, and distin- guished these as Terrestrial, Aquatic, and Volatile animals. It would carry us too far from our object to enter more fully into these and other early attempts at classification. But we must not omit to notice the system of LINNJSUS, who threw a new light on every department of Natural History2. In his primary division of animals LINNAEUS was a fol- lower of ARISTOTLE: he named however those animals which ARISTOTLE called bloodless, white-blooded : whilst of the rest the blood is red. The basis of his further division is taken from the Circulation of the Blood. Here follows a sketch of his system. Heart with 2 ventricles and ( viviparous I. Mammalia. i auricles ; warm, red blood I oviparous II. Birch. Heart with i ventricle and , with lungs III. AmpJiilio. i auricle ; cold, red blood \ with gills IV. Fishc*. Heart with I ventricle, no i with antennas .... V. Insects. auricle ; cold, white blood I with tentacula . . . VI. Worm *. 1 "Divisio naturalis auimalium ab interua structura indicatur." System. N KROHN in Archiv f. Naturgesch. 1852 s. 77 — 81, Taf. 3, fig. 2. It is a chief cause of the phosphorescence in sea-water. To this family belong also some fresh-water species. 1 SCHULTZE, op. cti. p. 7. 48 CLASS I. A. Body simple (Monostegia D'ORB.) * Lorica membranous or horny. Arcella EHRENB. Lorica scutellate, globose, or hemispherical, sometimes angulate, open beneath : the animal emitting processes variable, plane, obtuse, through the aperture. These animals live in fresh water. See Figures in EHRENBERG'S In- fusionsthierchen, Tab. ix. fig. v — vin ; DUJARD, In/us. PL n. fig. 3—5. Difflugia LECLERC. Lorica globose or oval (sometimes sub- spiral?), emitting from the terminal aperture processes of the animal variable, multifidous. LECLERC first discovered these forms (1815) ; see Note sur la Difitugie, M 6m. du Museum, II. p. 474 — 478, PL 17. Bp.Diffl.proteiformis, fig. 2. 3; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. ix. fig. i. The shell, according to LECLERC, is spiral, what later observers did not perceive ; it is covered with minute grains of sand. — Diffl. globulosa DUJARDIN, Ann. des Sc. not., ie Serie. Tom. VII. 1837. Zoologie, p. 310, 312. PL ix. fig. i. Gromia DUJARD. Lorica globose, membranous, emitting pro- cesses of the animal variable, slender, of great length, from a round aperture. Sp. Gromia omformis DUJARD. Ann. des Sc. not. ie Serie, Tom. IV. Zoologie, PL IX. fig. i. 2, in salt water, amongst marine plants ; — Gromia fluvia- tilis DUJARD. ibid. Tom. VIII. Zoologie PL 9. fig. 2 ; — Grom. oviformis DUJ. SCHULTZE, op. tit. Tab. i. fig. i. '* Test calcareous. Genera : Orbulina, Oolina and Amplwrina, D'ORB.1 B. Body composed of several segments. Test calcareous, divided by septa into cells. * Cells simple, arranged on an axis, straight, or slightly curved. (Stichostegia] . Genera : Nodosaria LAM. (Sp. Nodosaria lamellosa D'ORB.) Ann. des Sc. nat. 1826, Tom. vn. Tab. x. fig. 4-6. — Glandulina D'ORB. (Sp. Glandul. Icevigata ib. fig. 1-3), Orthocerina, Dentalina D'ORB., Frondicularia DEFR., Lingulina, Rimulina, Vaginulina, Marginu- lina, Conulina, Pavonina, Webbina D'ORB. 1 Since these small bodies are separated by D'ORBIGNY according to characters especially derived from the shell, we have thought it sufficient, for the sake of brevity, to indicate the names of the genera. INFUSORIA. 49 ** Cells simple, arranged in a spiral (Helicostegia) . Genera : Cristellaria LAM., Flabellina, Robulina D'ORB. (Sp. Rolulina orbicularis D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xv. fig. 8, 9), Fusulina FIS- CHER, Nonionina, Nummulina D'ORB. (Nummulites and Lenticulites LAM. *), Assilina, Siderolina, Hauerina, Operculina (Sp. OpercuL complanata D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xiv. fig. 7-10), Vertebralina D'ORB., Polystomella LAM. [Sp. Polyst. strigillata D'ORB. SCHULTZE op. cit. Tab. iv. fig. 1], Feneroplis LAM., Dendritina D'ORB. (Sp. Dendr. arbuscula D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xv. fig. 6, 7), Spirolina LAM., Cydolina D'ORB., Lituola LAM., Orbiculina LAM. (Sp. Orbic. numismalis D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xvn. fig. 8-10), Alveolina D'ORB. (Sp. Alveol Quoii D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xvn. fig. 11-13), Rotalina [Sp. Rotal. veneta, R. Freyeri SCHULTZE op. cit. Tab. in. fig. 1—7], Globigerina, Planor- bulina, Truncatulina, Anomalina D'ORB. (Sp. Anom. punctulata D'ORB. 1. 1. PL xv. fig. 1), Rosalina D'ORB. (Sp. Rosal. globularis D'ORB. 1. 1. PL xin. fig. 1-4), Valvulina, Verneulina, Bulimina, Uvigerina D'ORB. (Sp. Uvig. pygmcea D'ORB. L 1. Tab. xn. fig. 8, 9), Pyrulina, Faujasina, Candeina, Chrysalidina, Clavulina D'ORB. (Sp. Clavul. angularis D'ORB. 1. 1. PL xn. fig. 7), Gaydryna D'ORB. *** Cells alternating disposed on two axes, and arranged in a spire (Entomostegia) . Genera : Kobertina, Asterigerina, Amphistegina, Heterostegina, Cassidulina D'ORB. (Sp. Cassidul Icevigata D'OBB. 1. 1. Tab. xv. fig. 4. 5). **** Cells alternating, disposed in two or three roivs, not forming a spire (Enallostegia) . Genera : Dimorphina, Guttulina, Polymorphina, Virgulina, Bige- nerina D'ORB. (Sp. Bigen. nodosaria D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. XL fig. 9 — 12), Gemmulina D'ORB., Textularia DEFRANCE (Sp. Textul. aciculata D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. XL fig. 1—4), Vulvulina D'ORB. (Sp. Vulvul. capre- olus D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. XL fig. 5 — 8), Bolivina, Sagria, Cuneolina, D'ORB. 1 Phacites, Lenticvlites or Lentil- stones. These petrifactions are found in some localities in such great abundance as to form extensive deposits affording good building-stones. In Egypt many monuments are constructed of them. Confer BLU- MENBACH, Albildungen naturhist. Gegenstdnde. No. 40. According to DESHAYES there is found in most of the stone of which Paris is built as much oiMiliola (vid. p. 46) as of sand-grains — and it may be said, without exaggeration, that Paris is built of Miliolo1. EHRENBERG, Abhandl. der AJcad. zu Berlin, 1838, p. 65. VOL. I. 4 50 CLASS I. ***** Cells simple, clustered round an axis, each making half a spire (Agathistegia) . Genera : Uniloculina, Biloculina, D'ORB. (Sp. Bilocul. Bulloides D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xvi. fig. 1 — 3), Fabulama DEFRANCE (Sp. Fabul. discolithes D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xvn. Fig. 14—17), Spiroloculma, Trilo- culina D'ORB. (Sp. Triloc. trigonula D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xvi. fig. 5-9), Cruciloculina, Artiloculina, Sphceroidina, Quinqueloculina D'ORB. (Sp. Quinqueloc. saxorum D'ORB. 1. 1. Tab. xvi. fig. 10-14), Adelosina D'ORB. The last division coincides for the most part with the genus Miliola LAM. DUJARDIN has described and figured a living species of this genus with its capillary processes or extensions under the name of Miliola vulgaris ; Infos. PL i. fig. 14. ORDER III. Atricha. Animalcules without a distinct mouth, furnished with one or more flagelliform filaments for motion, form persistent or mutable. Family IV. Monadina. Body not loricatecl, gelatinous, pellucid. Monas MUELL. (exclusive of several species). Body oblong or round, with a single flagelliform filament. See figures in EHRENB. In/us. Tab. i. To this genus belong animalcules of iooo nne> m which the highest magnifying power shews no organisation, and which even at the present day, with the assistance of the best microscopes, cannot be otherwise characterised than as punctiform bodies — the character given by MUELLER to his genus Monas. Uvella BORY, EHRENB. [Monadines associated in clusters in form of a mulberry or of grapes revolving in all directions.] Cercomonas DiUARD., Bodo EHRENB. (in part). Body caudate. Family V. Cryptomonadina. Body loricated, with a mem- branous flexible test. Cryptomonas EHRENB. {Cryptoglena ejusd., with an eye- point). Family VI. Volvocina. Several animalcules contained in a com- mon envelope, or famished each with its own envelope, which is confluent into one mass. INFUSORIA. 51 Pandorina BORY (in part), EHRENB. Animal without eye-point and tail, furnished with a vibrating flagellum, a simple urceolate lorica, by spontaneous internal division resembling a mulberry. Sp. Pandorina morum, Volvox morum MUELL. Infus. Tab. in. fig. 14 — 16, EHRENB., Infimonsth. Tab. n. fig. 33. Gonium MUELL. Animals without eye-point and tail, by spon- taneous division conjoined in a common quadrangular flat envelope. Sp. Gonium pectorale MUELL. Infus. Tab. xvi. fig. 9—11 ; EHRENB. Tab. in. fig. i. \_Synura EHRENB. (Tab. III. fig. 9.) an uncertain genus], Chlamidomonas EHRENB. Animal with eye-point and double flagellum, without tail, included in an urceolate envelope, either simple or multiple from spontaneous division within the common covering. tt Sp. CMmidomonas pulvisculus, Monas pulvisculus MUELL. Infus. Tab. I. fig. 5. 6; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. in. fig. x: represented by authors as in part the green matter of PRIESTLEY. These animalcules were long ago observed by LEEUWENHOECK ; see Sevende vervolg der Brieven, 1702. No. 142, p. 402. Volvox L. (exclusive of several species) Animalcules with eye- point and single or double flagellum, included in the surface of a globular envelope which rolls on its axis : there are often smaller lobules (gemmce) within the large one1. Sp. Volvox globaior L., LEEUWENH. Sevende vervolg der Brieven, No. 122, p. 156, fig. 2 ; KOESEL, Ins. in. Tab. ci. fig. 1-3 ; MUELL. Infus. Tab. ill. fig. 12-13; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. iv. fig. i. DUJARDIN, Inf. PL iv. fig. 30. Globe-animalcule; a small green globule, as much as J line in size, and hence visible to the naked eye as a fine grain of sand ; in marshy water. Tliis form was first discovered by LEEUWENHOECK. On the surface of the globule minute warty points are seen ; these are the individual animalcules or monads of -L line. Within the globule smaller globules are developed, which occasionally rotate within the large one until it bursts and dies away2. 1 [See F. COHN'S paper in SIEBOLD and KOELLIKER'S Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche loologie, Band iv. p. 77, &c. for reasons why the Volvocina ought perhaps, as Von IEBOLD and others believe, to be classed amongst Alyw.] [3 For an account of the development and encysting of individual monads of the ay, of a size nearly as large as that of a young colony, see STEIN'S Infusionsthiere, ;. pp. 45 — 46. When the full size has been attained the cyst thickens into regular processes, giving the form which Ehrenberg has described as a distinct species, 7olvox stettatus. These large encysted volvoces are for the continuation of the species the ordinary individuals of the colony have perished.] 4—2 52 CLASS I. Family VII. Astasice. Body not loricated, caudate or ecaudate, form mutable. Astasia EHRENB. Animal free, caudate, without an eye-point. Sp. See figures in EHRENBEBG'S Infusionsth. Tab. vn. fig. i.-iv. DUJAEDIN In/us. Tab. v. fig. 12. Euglena EHRENB. (and Amblyophis ejusd.) Animal free, with an eye-point. * Body ecaudate. Amblyophis EHRENB. ** Body caudate. Sp. Euglena viridis, Cercaria viridis MUELL. Infos. Tab. Xix. fig. 6-13; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. vn. fig. ix ; DUJARD. Infus. PI. v. fig. 9, 10. This species also belongs to PRIESTLEY'S green matter ; another species can occasionally by its red colour give to water a blood-red appearance. Family VIII. Periphrygana (Enchelia EHRENB. in part). Body orbicular, surrounded with setaceous tentacles, without vibratile cilia. EHRENBERG ascribes an oral aperture to Actinophrys, which Du- JARDIN could not perceive. There are no cilia, but there are appen- dages or cirrhi. Actinophrys EHRENB., Peritricha BORY. Body rough with tentacles radiating in all directions. Sp. Actinophrys sol EHRENB., Trichoda sol MUELL. Infus. Tab. xxin. fig. 43-45, EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. xxxi. fig. vi. DUJARD. Infus. Tab. in. fig. 3. in fresh water. Subgenus Podophrya EHRENB. Body with a transparent appen- dage resembling a pedicle. Sp. Podophrya cometa, Trichoda fixa MUELL. l Trichodiscus EHRENB. Body radiating with tentacles at the margin only. « f1 The pedicle of Podophrya is very variable in length. In some of the forms it almost disappears, so as to render it difficult to determine whether an actinophrys or podophrya be under examination. STEIN thinks there is no specific difference between the two, certainly no generic. From his observations it appears, indeed, that both Actinophrys and Podophrya are Acinetce — forms derived from encysted Vorticella micro- stoma. Die Infusionsthiere, p. 138, &c.] INFUSORIA. 53 ORDER IV. Epitricha. Animalcules moving by means of vibratile cilia. Section I. Astoma1. Family IX. Peridincea. Loricated, with a coronet, or a trans- verse belt of cilia. Peridinium EHRENB. (Species of Cercaria MUELL.) Sp. Peridinium tripos EHEENB. (Cercaria tripos MUELL., Infus. Tab. xix. fig. 22 ; EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. xxn. fig. xvm. ; the lorica terminates in three points ; two anterior curved backwards, and one posterior, which is straight. The animacule attains a length of ^Hne ; it is found in the Baltic. MICHAELIS observed a phosphorescence in this and some other species of this genus, and thus proved, what had been suspected before, that Infu- sories contribute to the illumination of the sea. Ueber das Leuchten der Ostsee, Hamburg, 1830; comp. EHEENBEEG, Das Leuchten des Meeres. Ein in der Konigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften yehaltener Vortrag. Berlin, 1835, 4to. To this genus also probably belong as fossil species some organic remains which EHBENBEEG discovered in the chalk-formation in fire- stones. DinopJiysis EHRENB. (Abhandl. d. Konigl. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, a. d. Jahre 1839, s. 124.) Section II. Stomatoda. (Animalcules with mouth and oeso- phagus leading into the parenchyme of the body. One or more round, contractile cavities, pulsating rhythmically, situated beneath the integument at the surface of the body.) Family X. Trichodina (Trachelina and Colpodea EHRENB.) Body oval, with vibratile cilia, without cirri or styli, not loricated. Trichoda MUELL. (in part, TricJioda DUJARD. and Trachelius SCHRANK, EHRENB., DUJARD.) An oblique row of large cilia at the mouth, Phialina BORY, EHRENB. 1 I consider this description as merely provisional. As to the presence of a mouth in particular genera of Infusories much variety of opinion exists, and that the point is not easy to determine will be obvious to every one who observes for himself. This character, then, in the present state of our knowledge, scarcely deserves a prominent position. [Vid. note I, p. 39.] * 54 CLASS I. Enchelys MUELL. (exclusive of several species1), Acomia DUJARD., Gastrochceta ejusd., Alyscum ejusd., Uronoma ejusd. Bursaria MUELL. (in part) , DUJARD. (Bursaria and Spirostomum EHRENB. in part.) Body everywhere ciliated, often dilated pos- teriorly ; mouth oblique surrounded by cilia arranged spirally. . Sp. Bursaria, truncatella MUELL., Infus. Tab. xvn. figs. 1—4 j EHRENB. InfusionstJi. Tab. xxxiv. fig. 5. To this division EHRENBERG refers the Opalina Ranarum of PURKINJE and VALENTIN, first discovered and figured by LEEUWENHOECK : Ontledinyen en Ontdelkingen 1685, p. 13, fig. 3, A. DUJARDIN and VON SIEBOLD [and STEIN.] do not admit the presence of a mouth in this species, the first two retain the genus Opalina. [STEIN, suspects the Opalina to be larvae of worms. The different species have very different structure. Die Infu- sionstJi. s. 182 — 187.] Ophryoglena EHRENB. Body rough with cilia disposed in lon- gitudinal rows, ovate, with eye-point black or red. See Fig. in EHRENB. Tab. XL. figs. 6-8. Spirostomum EHRENB. in part, DUJARD. Glaucoma EHRENB. Body everywhere ciliated, mouth un- armed, with a tremulous valve like a longitudinal lip. Sp. Glaucoma scintillans EHRENB., InfusionstJi. Tab. xxxvi. fig. v., DUJARD. Infus. Tab. VI. fig. 13. Chilodon EHRENB. Body oval, with a lateral sinus forwards, cilia all over disposed in longitudinal rows, mouth inclosing a cylin- drical fasciculus of little rods (teeth). Sp. Chilodon cucullulms, Kolpoda cucullulus MUELL., EHRENB. InfusionstJi. Tab. xxxvi. fig. vi., DUJARD. Infus. Tab. vi. fig. vi. [STEIN. Infusionsth. Tab. m. 51.] Nassula EHRENB. Lacrymaria EHRENB. (and Trachelocerca ejusd.) Sp. Lacrymaria olor EHRENB., Vibrio olor MUELL., Infus. Tab. x. figs. 12-15, EHRENB. InfusionstJi. Tab. xxxvm. fig. vn. Colpoda EHRENB. (Species from the genus Colpoda MUELL.) Body laterally emarginate" or sinuous, reniform, with cilia disposed in rows, mouth lateral unarmed. Sp. Colpoda cucullus MUELL., Infus. Tab. xiv. figs. 7-14, EHRENB. Tab. xxxix. figs. v. &c. Paramecium MUELL. (exclusive of species), EHRENB. (in part), DUJARD. 1 Nothing can be more capricious than the use by modern writers of this generic name of MUELLER. See DUJARDIN, Hist. not. dcs Infvs. pp. 385, 386. INFUSORIA. 55 Amphileptus EHRENB. (Amphileptus and Loxophyllum DUJARD.) Sp. Amphileptus meleagris, Kolpoda meleagris MUELL., Infus. Tab. xiv. figs. 1-6, xv. figs. 1-5, EHRENB. Tab. xxxviu. fig. 4. Family XI. Oxytrichina. Body mostly plane or depressed, armed with vibratile cilia and setae, and hooks or styles not vibra- tile, not loricated. This family agrees with the genus Kerona of MUELLEE. Besides the usual fine cilia, the animals have other organs for creeping and for the support of the body in climbing, and which are distinguished by EHRENBERG as bristles (setae), styles (styli) and hooks (uncini) ; Infusionsth. s. 338. Genera : Kerona MUELL. in part, DUJAEJD. (Siylonychia and Kerona EHRENB., Ceratidium ejusd.) — Oxytricha BORY (Oxytricha and Urostyla EHRENB.) ; Halteria DUJARD. Sp. Kerona mytilus (and Ker. haustellum) MUELL., Infus. Tab. xxxrv. figs. 1-4, EHKENB. Infusionsth. Tab. XLI. fig. ix., DUJARD. Infus. Tab. xm. figs. 2, 3 ; very common in fresh water, size i to ~ line. If this form be compared with monads, Vibrios and the animals of Volvox globator, it will be seen that in respect of size there is as great a difference amongst Infu- sories as amongst Mammalia. Family XII. Euplota (Euplota and Aspidiscina EHRENB.) Body oval, depressed, loricated. Vibratile cilia around the mouth ; besides cilia, often styles and hooks for motion. Euplotes EHRENB. (Phlasconia BORY, DUJARD.) Lorica oval or suborbicular, longitudinally ribbed or striated; body with styles and hooks. Sp. Euplotes patella, Kerona patella MUELL., Infus. Tab. XXXIIT. figs. 14-18, EHKENB. Infusionsth. Tab. XLII. fig. ix., DUJAKD. Infus. Tab. vin. figs. 1-4. Chlamidodon EHRENB. Styles and hooks none. Slender rigid rods arranged in a cylindrical fasciculus around the mouth (teeth). Sp. Chlamidodon mnemosyne EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. XLII. fig. vm ; in the Baltic. DiopJirys DUJARD. Himantophorus EHRENB. Aspidisca EHRENB. Lorica produced beyond the body forwards, hyaline ; longitudinal flexible setas on the ventral side, for stepping and creeping. 56 CLASS I. Sp. Aspidlsca lynceus, Trichoda lynceus MUELL., Infus. Tab. xxxn. figs, i, a, EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. xxxix. fig. i. Loxodes DUJARD., not EHRENB. [young individuals of Chilodon cucullulm with imperfectly developed infundibulum. STEIN. Infus. p. 131.] Ervilia DujARD. (Species from the genus Euplotes EHRENB.) Trochilia DUJARD. Family XIII. Vorticellina ( Vorticellina and Ophrydina EHRENB.) Body campanulate or infundibuliform, with large vibratile cilia at the margin of the aperture. Mouth and anus approximate, situated in a pit of the margin. Formerly these animals were classed amongst the Polyps as Bell- Polyps, Bastard-Polyps, &c. (See the first Dutch edition of this Handbook, i. p. 66.) It was believed that the infundibular or bell- shaped body is the csecal stomach, and the large opening the mouth. The true oral aperture, however, is placed on the e dge of the hollowed body. The food describes a circle in the parenchyme (according to EHRENBERG in a special intestinal canal l with several lateral dilatations) and is again ejected near the oral aperture (hence the names cycloccela and anopisthia given by EHRENBERG). The analogy with the molluscan type, even if an intestinal canal be not admitted, cannot be overlooked, and probably these animals will be ranked by future writers, as imperfect forms, with the Bryozoa. The cilia on the edge of the bell-shaped body cause in the water an eddy which hurries onwards minute corpucles whether dead or alive, and conveys them towards the cavity. If some early and also later observers (amongst others even AGARDH, Nov. Act. Acad. Ccesar. Leop. Carol. Natur. Curiosor. x. 1821, pp. 127 — 137, Tab. VIL ii.) have seen in this a power of fascination, the fact must be ascribed to the circumstance, that they did not notice the cilia. Phalanx I. Body not pedunculated. A. Naked. Stentor OKEN, EHRENB. (Species of Vorticella MUELL.) Body conical, from its contractility polymorphous, everywhere 1 See FOKKE'S observations on Stentor, which led him to doubt so early the exist- ence of a special intestinal canal. OKEN'S Isis, 1836. s. 785, 786. INFUSORIA. 57 covered with small cilia, besides a coronet of large* cilia, free or temporarily sessile. Stentor Muelleri EHRENB., Hydra stentoria L., ROESEL Ins. m. Suppl. Tab. xciv. figs. 7, 8, MUELL. Infus. Tab. XLIII. figs. 6-12, EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. xxiir. fig. I, DUJARD. Infus. Tab. xv. fig. I ; on the under surface of Lemna. When swimming the animal has an oval form, and moves in serpentine and differently curved lines ; when at rest or attached, it has an extended trumpet-like form. Urceolaria Lam. (in part), DUJARD. (Trichodina EHRENB.) Body globose or urceolate, not ciliated throughout. Urceolaria stellina, Trichodina pediculus EHRENB., Cyclidium pediculus MUELL. and Vorticella stellina and discina ejusd., MUELL. Infus. Tab. xxxviu. figs. 3-5, EHRENB. Infus. Tab. xxiv. fig. rv. The animalcule creeps on fresh- water polyps and other bodies by means of moveable hooks on the dorsal surface (or on the extremity opposite to the opening) l : in swimming it rotates rapidly. Urocentrum NITZSCH, EHRENB. B. Loricated, or contained in a gelatinous envelope. Oplirydium EHRENB. ( Ophrydia BORY in part.) Aggregated animalcules, contained in a common gelatinous body (infusora- rium ?)2. Sp. Ophrydium versatile EHRENB., Infus. Tab. xxx. fig. i. Green globular masses of \ — 5 inch, in diameter, forming as it were the infusory- stock or hive of an animal which MUELLER first described and figured as Vorticella versatilis. Earlier and later authors have taken this Polypary for a species of plant, and have described and figured it under the name of Ulva pruni- formis, Fucus subglobosus, Coccochloris stagnina, &c. The analogy of the Vorticellines with the Bryozoa and Molluscs (compound Ascidice) alluded to above, derives confirmation from this form also. Vaginicola LAM. (in part) EHRENB. Animal solitary with ur- ceolar lorica, body and lorica sessile. Sp. Vaginicola crystallina EHRENB., Infus. Tab. xxx. fig. v., DUJARD. Infus. Tab. 16 bis, fig. 6 ; formerly observed by LEEUWENHOECK ; they propagate by longitudinal fission within the transparent sheath. 1 [For an elaborate description see STEIN. Die Infus. e. 175.] 2 [The gelatinous infusory-stock or hive is a product of secretion from the base of the body of each animalcule, and so is the homologue of the pedicels in Vorticellines. Vide STEIN, op. cit. p. -246.] 58 CLASS I. Cothurnia EHRENB. Animal solitary, sessile, with urceolar lorica, pedunculate. (According to DUJARDIN not sufficiently distinct from the preceding genus.) Phalanx II. Body (in the first period of life) pediculated. A. Naked. Vorticella MUELL. (exclusive of several species). Animal cam- panulate, with a flexible pedicle spirally contractile. These animals adhere to water-plants, water-insects, small Crustacea (Cyclops), &c. At a certain period they part from the stem, and then, as freely moving forms, are provided with cilia near the posterior extremity by means of which they move forward, whilst the coronet of cilia at the edge of the opening is entirely retracted. a) with simple pedicle. Vorticella EHRENB. Sp. Vorticella convallaria L., Vorticella nebulifera EHRENB., EOESEL, Ins. in. Suppl. figs, i, 4-7, MUELL. In/us. Tab. XLV. fig. T, EHRENB. Tab. xxv. fig. i. — A very similar species occurs in artificial infusions, which on contraction exhibits transverse rings, and which EHRENBERQ distinguishes as Vorlic. convaUaria. b) with branching pedicle. Carchesium EHRENB. Sp. Vorticella polypina, L., MUELL. Infus. Tab. XLVI. figs. 7-9 ; EHRENB. Infus. Tab. xxvi. fig. 5 ; polypes a bouquet TKEMBLEY ; resembles an umbelliferous shrub, of about one line in size, in fresh and also in sea-water ; see BASTER, Natuurk. Uitspanningen I, Tab. in. fig. i, C ; SLABBER, Natuurk. Verlustigingen 1778. Tab. v. fig. 2. [Zoothamnium1 EHRENB. Sp. Zoothamnium arbuscula EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. xxix. fig. 2.] f1 The stem of spirally flexible Vorticellines consists of a wall and an internal canal containing a thread, or streak, which does not exactly fill it. When a stem or branch divides, the structure of the divided parts is not exactly the same in Carchesium and Zoothamnium. In CarcJiesium the canal and streak of a branch have no connexion with the corresponding parts of the stem on which it stands. After each fission one only of the fission-progeny occupies the apex of the already existing stem, and continues to prolong it by secretion of new matter, the canal and the thread suffering no breach of continuity. The other individual secretes at first a short portion of stem which is quite solid, and is in connexion with the outer wall only of the stem pre- viously existing. It is after this commencement that a new canal and a new streak begin to be seen. The same occurs at every subsequent division : the individual at the apex has the canal and streak of its stem in continuity with the similar parts INFUSORIA. 59 Epislylis EHRENB. (and Opercularia ejusd.) The animal coni- cal or campanulate, with rigid pedicle, simple, or branched from imperfect spontaneous division. Sp. Epistylis flavicans EHKENB., Vorticella umbettaria LAM., ROESEL, Ins. in. Suppl. Tab. c. ; — Opercularia articulate, EHKENB., ROESEL, ib. Tab. xcvin. figs. 5, 6, &c. B. Loricated. Tintinnus EHRENB. Sp. Tintinnus inguilinus, Vayinicola inquilina LAM. previously existing, whilst the other has the beginning of its stem solid, and afterwards a canal and streak not continuous with those previously existing. In Zoothamnium a continuous canal runs through the stem and all the branches of the colony, and the streak also divides at every fork, so that all the streaks and canals are in connexion, STEIN, op. cit. pp. 82 — 84.] CLASS II. POLYPS. (POLYPI)1. POLYPS are gelatinous, oblong or conical animals with a con- tractile body, an intestinal cavity and an oral aperture, which is surrounded by a circlet of arms or tentacles. Besides these arms there are no special organs of sense, at least in the greater number of Polyps, though all appear to be very sensi- ble of the stimulus of light. Propagation is effected partly by eggs, partly by germs or buds : in many instances the last are not de- tached from the parent stem, and thus there arise compound animals, different individuals being connected. Our Polyps were, for the most part, unknown to the ancients : and under this name entirely unknown. By it they understood naked molluscs of the form of sepia, especially that genus which is now called Octopus2 by Zoologists. From analogy, and from some resemblance of form, REAUMUR and JUSSIEU first gave the 1 Of the numerous works on this class we are content to quote the following : A. TREMBLE Y, Memoirespour scrvir a I'Histoire d'une genre de Polypes d'eau douce, a bras en forme de cornes. Leide, 1744, 4^o. J. ELLIS, An Essay towards a Natural History of the Corallines and other Marine Productions, &c. Lond. 1755, 460, with plates. J. ELLIS and D. SOLANDER, The Natural History of many curious and uncommon Zoophytes, with 62 plates. London, 1786, 4to. P. S. PALLAS, Elenchus Zoophytorum. Hagse Comitum, 1 766. F. CAVOLINI, Memorieper servire alia storia de' Polipi Marini. Napoli, 1785, 4to. E. J. C. ESPEE, Die Pflanzenthiere in AlUldungen nach der Natur. in. Thle. Nuraberg, 1761 — 1797 (with two supplements). W. KAPP, Ueber diePolypen im Allgemeinen und dieActinien insbesondere. Weimar, 1829, m. 3 color. Kupfertafeln, 4to. C. G. EHRENBERG, Die Coralknthiere des rothen Meeres. Physilcalische Abhand- lungen der Konigl. Alcad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin aus dem Jahre 1832, s. 225 — 380. (Also published separately, Berlin, 1834, 4to.) G. JOHNSTON, History of British Zoophytes. Second edition, with numerous illus- trations on copper and wood, i vols. 8vo, 1847. 3 The French name Poulpe now given to this animal is merely a corruption of the ancient name Polypus. POLYPS. 61 name Polyp to those fresh-water animals that had been described by TREMBLEY, and which are provided with a circlet of arms. To this class belong many marine animals, which at first sight rather resemble plants than animals. Formerly these so-called Sea-Plants were, on account of the hardness of the calcareous sub- stance of which they consist, referred to the mineral kingdom : and Corals were compared to branching crystallisations (Arbor Diance) and stalactites. Hence the name (Lithophyta, Lithodendra) stone- plants. The ancients believed that Corals were soft whilst in the sea, and only became hard in air : Nunc quoque curaliis eadem natura remansit, Duritiem tacto capiant ut ab acre, quodque Vimen in cequore erat, fiat supra cequora saxum. OVID, Met. iv. 750 — 752. Even amongst later authors traces may be found of the same opinion, founded on defective observation, or on confusion of soft species with similar hard ones. Up to the middle of the last cen- tury, it was the prevailing view that these Corals belonged to the vegetable kingdom. MARSIGLI, in 1706, observed on the shore of the Mediterranean some of these products (Alcyonium, Corattium, Antipathes) , and found in their pores little bodies that contracted when the stem was removed from the water. Such bodies or buds he took to be flowers, and so believed that at length the view was definitively established which consigned these marine products to the vegetable kingdom. But still the animal odour, that was ob- served, opposed this view, as well as the chemical investigations of GEOFFROY, of LEMERY, and of MARSIGLI himself, which demon- strated ammoniacal constituents in these supposed sea-plants, just as in animal substances. PEYSONNEL, a physician of Marseilles, observed at that place (1723) the Blood-Coral, and afterwards on the coast of Northern Africa examined different Madrepores and Millepores : the result was that he found MARSIGLI' s Plants to be Animals, and named them Orties Corallines. He imparted his dis- covery to REAUMUR: to whom the notion seemed so improbable, that in a short notice of it which he gave in the Memoires of the Academy of Sciences at Paris 1727, he felt bound to suppress the discoverer's name. Shortly afterwards, when PEYSONNEL'S dis- covery had been forgotten, TREMBLEY found in our country the fresh-water Polyp, and communicated his observations to REAUMUR, 62 CLASS II. In the two following years BERNARD DE JUSSIEU, the celebrated Botanist, investigated Alcyonium (Lobularia), Flustra and Tubu- laria on the coast of Normandy, and confirmed PEYSONNEL'S dis- covery: whilst REAUMUR also adopted his views. LINNAEUS, accordingly, transferred the Corals and stone-plants to the animal kingdom : and thus more than half a century was required to effect the adoption by Science, as a firm truth, of that view which FERRANTE IMPERATO had announced at the beginning of the 16th century1. ELLIS, PALLAS, CAVOLINI and other authors, in the latter half of the past century, extended and multiplied our acquaintance with these interesting marine animals, of which the investigation still affords to S9avants of the present day a rich material for new and important discoveries. Polyps are either naked, or are provided with a body more or less hard, which they surround like a bark, or by which they are surrounded. To the naked Polyps belong the well-known Armed Polyp of fresh-water (Hydra L., Polype d'eau douce, h bras en forme de cornes). The body of this animal is hollow within, and terminates in a little cylindrical stalk that is without any opening. There is a single row of tentacles round the mouth which can be extended like long rays, or be contracted into little conical swellings. These tentacles are not all formed at once, but at different times : their number is therefore indeterminate, and frequently varies in the same species. Generally there are not more than six tentacles present : rarely more than twelve. By their assistance the fresh- water Polyp can creep along upon water-plants or upon the bottom, overpower its prey, and convey it to the mouth. These Polyps are very voracious, and feed upon minute Crustaceans ( Cypris, Daphnia, Monoculus, &c.), and upon worms (Stylaria paludosa LAM. Na'iSj TuMfex, &c.), which frequently surpass them in bulk. Accordingly 1 To complete this compressed historical review, we refer to B. DE JUSSIEU, Examen de quelques productions marines, &c. Mem. deTAcad. royale des Sciences, 1742. pp. 290 — 302 ; REAUMUR, Mcmoires pour servir a VHistoire des Insectes, Tom. vi. 1742. Pre- face, pp. 49 — 80 ; PALLAS, Elench. Zoophytor. pp. 13 — 20; LAMOIGNON MALESHERBES, Observations sur I'Histoire natur. de BUFFON et de DAUBENTON. Paris, 1798, n. pp. 154 — 206 ; EHRENBERG, Die Corattentliiere des rotlien Meeres, pp. 4, 5 ; MILNE EDWARDS, Ann. des Sc. Natur. sec. SeVie, Tom. vi. Zoologie, 1836. pp. 5 — 9; FLOURENS, Analyse dun ouvrage manuscrit intitule, Traite du Corail d'c. par DE PEYSONNEL, Ann. des Sc. Nat. sec. SeV. Tom. ix. Zoologie, 1838, pp. 334 — 351. POLYPS. 63 their mouth admits of much expansion : and the body can be dis- tended. The food is moved to and fro in the cavity of the body, and in a short time (often within a quarter of an hour) is .converted into a pap. The undigested residue is rejected through the mouth. Propagation is effected usually by buds. A minute swelling rises on the surface of the Polyp; it grows, loses its conical form, be- comes tubular, acquires tentacles, and is then a new Polyp. The young animal continues to sit on the body of the parent, and thus receives the same nutrition in common. Upon this young one other young buds may be developed. Thus a branching arises. At length the young Polyp separates itself from the parent stem (in summer frequently after four days, in winter later), assumes an independent state, and new buds are formed, or those already present are multiplied. Thus these Polyps may form compound animals. Many indi- viduals of the same species are united so as to make up a single body. All the animals thus combined gain their nutrition in com- mon,— have a common life. It is not the animal kingdom only that affords us instances of compound living bodies : the vegetable kingdom presents many such1. By an individual, in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, may be understood a body that cannot be divided into two or more similar portions, without the idea of a whole being lost, and whose vital functions pass through a determinate cycle of periods2. The development of the fruit is the final function in vegetable life: when this is accomplished the plant may die. Many plants bear fruit only once — whether in one year, or in two or more years ; such plants die after fructifying, and are true indi- viduals. There are other plants again, which leave a determinate portion after the fructification, that continues to live, and, after a time, bears fruit anew. The portion that thus remains may con- sist of root alone, or of root and stem. Such plants are, in reality, compound. A tree therefore is not an individual, not a single plant. The buds of the tree are new plants : they are developed, grow, possess an independent life, which is 'passed in determinate stages. Hence 1 See LAMARCK, Hist. Nat. des anint. sans vert. I. p. 69, &c. (and 2nd edit. p. 65, &c.). Comparaison des Animaux composts avec des vegetaux pareillement composes. 3 See SCHLEIDKN in MUELLER'S Arckiv. 1838. a. 168. 64 CLASS II. old trees may afford an emblem of perennial youth : every spring they are covered again with leaves as fresh as those they had fifty years before. The stem alone is old, the leaves are still yoimg again. We might be able, from the branching of the fresh-water Polyps from their living stem, to explain the plant-like forms of Corals and other such marine products. When a Polyp does not consist of a single soft mass, but contains a harder substance, or is sur- rounded by a calcareous sheath, then from the union of many such a body may arise which resists decomposition, and as such after the death of the Polyps, may be preserved in our collections for a length of time, as for ages they have been preserved in the cal- careous strata of our mountains, formed at the bottom of the sea in a former epoch of the world. This common mass is named a Poly- pary or Polypstock (Polyparium} *. After the Polyps had been dis- covered, these stone-plants, as they had been called, were supposed to be the work of the animals that dwelt in them, and were com- pared to the cells of bees. This view of the matter does not now require confutation. That of LAMARCK and others agrees more closely with the true nature of the process ; they consider the polypary to be a secretion upon the surface of the Polyps, and com- pare it with the shells of Molluscs (Snail or Mussel-shell). As there are Snails both naked and with shells, in like manner there are Polyps that are naked, and that are shut up in tubes : and the Polypstock is the union of the shells caused by the connexion of the Polyps that lived in them. Thus the Polypary would be, on this view, a dead substance, deposited in layers like a mussel-shell. Though this be nearer the truth than the earlier idea according to which the Polyps built their houses, still it does not entirely accord with the true nature of the process. Observation proves that this part, at least in many species, has a proper life, that it is nourished, grows, and is the seat of that gemmation whence new 1 It appears that REAUMUR first invented this appellation, now in common use ; "Auroit-on pu prevoir. . . . que ces corps qui sembloient avoir vegete dans la mer, ttoient pour les polypes ce que les guepiers sont pour les guepes ; qu'on ne devoit plus leur laisser le nom de plantes et que pour leur en imposer un qui exprimdt exactement ce qu'ils sont, on devoit les appetter des polypiers?" Mem. pour servir a VHist. des Insectcs. Tom. vi. Preface, p. 69. POLYPS. 65 Polyps have their being. It is a covering which, like a dermal skeleton1, may become horny or calcareous. The hard, stone-like Polypstocks which form coral-banks, are particularly deserving of notice. But the part they play in altering the earth's surface has been much exaggerated by FORSTER, PERON, and other voyagers. The numerous coral islands of the southern Pacific having an annular form with banks steep on the outside and shelving gently down to the trough or the included water, are clearly of volcanic origin. They are covered with Corals, but do not consist of Corals. Polyps cannot live at great depths, but the Corals rest on shallows or on mountain-ridges in the sea, similar to the rocks parallel to the coast of the Red Sea. Hence Corals may contribute to the formation of islands, or may prevent the washing away of the shores of islands already formed, just as plants that grow on sandy coasts protect the hillocks from being blown away2. After these general remarks on Polyps and Polypstocks, we must dwell for a little on the particulars of structure of the different animals that belong to this class. It would be a defective and erroneous idea, to suppose that TREMBLE Y'S fresh-water Polyps are to be considered as the Type of the class. That we drew the atten- tion of our readers, in the first instance, to the fresh-water Polyp, is merely to be attributed to the historic form which, in introducing this class, we thought useful for the right understanding of it. The animals which live in Polyparies have in several respects a much 1 See MILNE EDWARDS, Observations sur la nature el le mode de croissance des Poly- piers, Ann. des Sc. Natur, Seconde Se'rie, Tom. x. 1838. Zoologie, pp. 321 — 334. LAMARCK appears to me in some degree to contradict himself, when in one place he calls the polypary a common body possessing an independent life, and producing new individuals upon its surface, which die and are again replaced by new ones, and con- tinuing its life almost unobserved as long as it is surrounded by water alone (Hist. Nat. des Anim. sans Vert. I. p. 63, new edition) ; and in another place denies to the poly- pary all life, and compares it with the shells of molluscs, ibid. II. pp. 86 — 99. Before this, LINN.&US, PALLAS and others had recognised in the polypary a proper life, but of late years this opinion, on the authority of LAMARCK, has been almost generally relinquished. 3 Comp. J. B. FORSTER, Bemerkungen auf seine Reise urn die WeU, Wien. 1787. 8vo. s. 120, 121 ; A. VON KOTZEBUE, EnldecTcungs-reise in die Sudsee, in. Weimar 1821, s. 187 ; QUOY et GAIMARD, Memoire sur I'accroisement des Polypes considere geolo- giquement, Ann. des Sc. Nat. vi. 1825. pp. 273 — 290 ; EHRENBERG, Ueber die Natur und Bildungdcr Corallenbdnke des rothen Meeres, Physik. Abhandlungen der Akad. der Wis- sensch. zu Berlin. 1833. s. 381 — 438. VOL. T. 5 66 CLASS II. nearer alliance to Sea-Anemonie-s (Actinia?}, which CHAMISSO and EISENHARDT had properly classed with Polyps1, although CUVIER joined them to the Medusae (Aoalepkcs), LAMARCK and SCHWEIGGER to the Star-fishes (Echinodermata) . These Actinice have a tubular form, or resemble truncated cones. By their discoidal base they adhere to rocks, marine shells, and other bodies ; but are able to loosen their hold, and to consign themselves to the motions of the water. They can also creep by means of that base, as the belly- footed molluscs ( Gasteropoda] do by means of their ventral disc. But ordinarily the motions of these animals are restricted to a greater or less expansion of the oral aperture, and to a contraction of the hollow tentacles which surround the mouth in a variable number, but always greater than twelve. These Actiniae are naked Polyps, rather of a coriaceous than a gelatinous consistence ; they were not unknown to the ancients, and are noticed by ARISTOTLE2 as Acalephce, and by PLINY3 as Urticce. Such Polyps with Polyp- stocks are the genera Fungia, Caryophylla, Astroea, Mceandrina. The Polyps of other Polyparies, as Isis, Alcyonium (Lobularia), Tubipora, &c. have eight tentacles, which are flat and notched on the edges or have lateral prolongations. In all these the intestinal canal is a blind sac. But there are other Polyps which, by their more perfect organisation, approach the Molluscs. Their intestinal canal is reflected upwards, and terminates by an opening close to the mouth. AUDOUIN and MILNE EDWARDS observed this struc- ture (1828) in Polyps of the genus Flustra*: at the same time EHRENBERG published his earlier observations to the same effect, and gave to Polyps, with this organisation, the name of Bryozoa; which has been received into the systematic works of zoologists5, 1 Nov. Act. Acad. Ccesar. Leop. Carol. Natur. Curiosor. x. p. 354, 355. 2 "E0Tt 8£ Kal rb r&v aKa\r)yr. Bergen. 1835. PI. I. fig. 3. FORBES and GOODSIR, On the Corymorpha nutans, Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. v. 1840. pp. 309 — 315 ; JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. Zooph. pp. 54 — 56. PI. vn. figs. 3 — 6. Pennaria GOLDF. Polyps clavate, the club with scattered ten- tacles globose at the extremity, and with a whorl of longer tentacles at the base. Polypary ramose, with branches alternate polypi- ferous on one side (with Polyps secund.) Sp. Pennaria Cavolinii, Sertularia pennaria CAVOLINI, pp. 134 — 159. Tab. v. Campanularia LAM. (Sertularice species L., EHR.) Polyps fun- nel-shaped, with mouth situated at the extremity of a retractile conical tubercle. A whorl of tentacles, numerous, warty, with dart-cells at the base of the tubercle. The Polypary corneous, tubular, branched, with cells campanulated, pedunculate, the pedicle long, continuous with the stem. The terminal cells sterile, the axillary oviferous. Comp. LISTER, Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 372 &c. ; LOVE'N, Kong. Vetensk. AJcad. HandL, WIEGMANN'S Archiv, in. s. 249 — 262. Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e serie, Zool xv. p. 151 ; VAN BENEDEN, Mem. swr les Campanulaires de la cdte d'Ostende. Bruxelles, 1843, 4°. (Mem. de TAcad. de Bruxelles, xvn.), Ann. desSc. nat. 2eserie, Zool. xx. pp. 350 —369. PL 13 (Extract). Sp. Campanularia dichotoma LAM., Sertularia geniculata L., ELLIS, Corall. PI. xii. No. 1 8 A, a. C, c. PI. xxxvm. fig. 3, &c. Sertularia L. (exclusive of several species). Polyps funnel- shaped; tentacles hispid, numerous, arranged in a whorl at the base of the mouth. Polypary corneous, simple or ramose, with cup-shaped cells sessile, or subpedunculate, with short pedicle, distinct from the stalk. Polypiferous cells sterile ; others fertile, oviferous, scattered over the stalk and branches, situated usually near the base. The Polyps of this genus do not differ from those of the former, but the cells are non-pediculate, or the very short pedicle is dis- POLYPI. 77 tinctly inserted into an indent of the stem. The last form the genus Laomedea LAMOUROUX. Those which have cells entirely without pedicle may be thus divided : a) with cells bifarious or scattered (Sertularia LAM.) Sp. Sertularia abietina L., ELL. Corall. PI. I. No. i. B, b j Sertularia pumila L., ELL. Corall. PI. v. No. 8. fig. a, A, LISTER, Phil. Trans. 1834. PI. vm. fig. 3, &c. JOHNSTON, Br. Zooph. p. 66, PI. xi. figs. 3, 4, and p. 75, PI. XIII. fig. I. b) with cells verticillate (Antennularia LAM.) Sp. Sertularia antennina L., ELL. Corall. PI. IX a. c) with cells secund (Plumularia LAM.) Sp. Sertularia pluma ELL. Corall. PL vn. fig. b, B, &c. JOHNSTON, Br. Zooph. p. 92, PI. xxin. figs, i — 3.1 ORDER II. Octactmia. Tentacles eight, pinnate. Nutrient canal contained in a distinct abdominal cavity, connected with it by interposed lamellse. Family III. Xenina. Common body, fleshy or membraneous, affixed by the base. Polyps not retractile, with pinnate tentacles. Xenia SAV. Common body growing upwards into stems divided at the top, branches short. Polyps fasciculate, collected at the extremities of the branches into globose heads, or umbels. Sp. Xenia umbellata SAVIGNY, Description de VEgypte, Polypes, Tab. i. fig. 3 ; SCHWEIGGER'S Beobaclitungen auf nalurhist. Reisen. Tab. v. fig. 48 ; in the Red Sea. Anthelia SAV. Common body, membraneous, plane, spread over marine bodies, stoloniferous. Polyps standing out, erect, crowded, at the surface of the membrane. Sp. Anthelia glauca SAVIGNY, Descr. de l'Eyypte} Polypes, Tab. I. fig. 7. Note. Genus Rhizoxenia EHRENR is founded on a figure of Zoantha thalassantha of LESSON in the zoological plates of Du- PERRY'S voyage (Voyage autour du Monde sur la Corvette la Coquille, pendant les annees 1822 — 1825). The common body is 1 Many species which have been referred to Sertularia, belong to the Bryozoa. Amongst them are those which LAMARCK has brought together under the genus Serio- laria. See VAN DEB HOEVEN'S Handb. der Dierkunde, first edition, i. p. 76. 78 CLASS II. made up of stolons, connecting tubes erect, ventricose, striated, each containing a Polyp. Whether the Polyps are retractile or not, does not appear. Comp. genus Evagora PHILIPPI (p. 79). Family IV. Halcyonina. Polypary fleshy, spongy, perforated by many canals, and crowded with microscopic calcareous spicula. The Polyps associated in the polypary, retractile, witli tentacles pinnate. This family has its name from the genus Alcyonium L. called in Holland Zeeschuim or Zeekurk (sea-foam or sea-cork). Under the genus Alcyonium of LINNAEUS were comprised species which, like Alcyonium SCHLOSSERI, belong to the Molluscs (Ascidice), as SA- VIGNY has shewn ; other species are Bryozoa (Alcyon. gelatinosum). The genus Alcyonium of LAMARCK contains plant-like forms without polyps. To these spongy plants belongs also the genus Alcyonellum QUOY (Euplectella OWEN). Consequently there remain for this family those species alone which LAMARCK has united under the genus Lobularia, and probably it would be well, according to the suggestion of SCHWEIGGER, to reject the name Alcyonium altogether, for the sake of avoiding confusion. On the sponges comp. SCHWEIGGER, Handb. der Naturgesch. der skelett- losen ungegliederten Thieve, s. 370 — 374, B. E. GRANT, in Edirib. Philos. Journ. Vol. xni. p. 333, H. F. LINK, Ueber Pflanzenthiere iiberhaupt und die dazu gerechneten Gewachse besonders. Physik. Abhandl. der Alcad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin a. d. Jahre 1830. s. 109—123. Alcyonidia MILNE EDW. Polypary simple or ramose, with a basal portion coriaceous, a terminal polypiferous, soft, retractile by invagination within the former. Polyps with tentacles having pinnae, which are hollow, in a single row at the margin, retractile separately. Sp. Alcyonidia elegans MILNE EDWARDS, Ann. des. Sc. not. ie Ser. iv. 1835. PP- 323 — 333- PI- I2> T3- In the Mediterranean at Algiers. Nephtcea SAV. (according to EHRENB. to be written Nephthya). Polypary ramulose or shrubby, with Polyps retractile within warts armed with spicula. Sp. Nephtcea innominata BLAINV., Nephthya Savignyii EHRENB., Ammothea Chabrolii AUDOUIN, Descr. de VEgypte, Polypes, PL n. iig. 5. To the same genus belongs Sphongodes celosia LESSON, Illustrations de Zoologie, PL xxi. which seems scarcely different from Alcyonium floridum ESPER, Alcyon. Tab. xvi. POLYPI. 79 Ammothea SAV. Polypary ramulose or shrubby, with Polyps retractile into unarmed warts, clustered on the last branchlets. Sp. Ammothea mrescens SAVIGNY, Descr. de I'JSgypte, Polypes, PL n. fig. 6. Sympodium EHRENB. Common body, membraneous, effuse, with Polyps retractile into unarmed warts that project only slightly, without stem. Sp. Sympod. fuliginosum EHRENB., Anthelice species AUDOUIN, Descr. de VEgypte, Polyp. PL I. fig. 6. Some Antkelice have retractile Polyps. They cover various marine bodies as an incrustation. One species of this genus was described by PALLAS as the crust of a Gorgonia: Gorg. corattoides, Elench. Zoophytor. p. 192, ESPER Gorgon. Tab. xxxn. Evagora PHILIPPI. Polypary incrusting, formed of stolons conjoining the several Polyps. Polyps with a basal portion harder, coriaceous, a terminal retractile, soft. Sp. Evagora rosea PHILIPPI, WIEUMANN u. ERICHSON Archiv f. Naturgesch. VIII. 1842, i. s. 36. Taf. i, f. i, c. — Zoantha thalassantha LESSON (see above, p. 77) appears to be another larger species of this genus. Alcyonium Cuv. MILNE EDW. (Lobularia LAM. Alcyonii species L.) Body fleshy, turgid, usually inciso-lobate, covered with Polyps scattered. The separate polyps are entirely retractile within the common body, formed by the union or concretion of the external covering of the polyps. This is thick and spongy, and contains a great quantity of small irregular crystals of carbonate of lime. Propaga- tion is by eggs and buds (gemmce). The form and size may be very different in one and the same species, so that the distinction of some of the species proposed by authors is uncertain. Sp. Alcyonium lobaturn PALL., Ale. digitatum L., JUSSIEU, Mem. de I'Acad. des Sc. de Paris, 1742. PL ix. f. i. A — J ; ELL. Corall. PL xxxiii. fig. a, A; SPIX, Ann. du Mus. xin. 1809. PL xxxm. fig. 8 (named Ale. exos); LA- MOUROUX, Hist, des Polypiers flexibles, PL xn. fig. 4, PL xm. PL xiv. fig. i, JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. Zooph. 174. P1L xxxiv. xxxiv*. This species, called by the Dutch fishermen, according to Pallas, dooden manshand or duimen (deadman's hand or thumb), occurs in the North Sea, and attains a size of o. 14 — 0.2 inillim. ; the form is very irregular, which, as it seems to me, the name given to Pallas well indicates; the colour is brown -yellow. — Ale. palmatum PALL. Ale. exos L., BOHADSCH De quibusd. anim. mar. Tab. ix. f. 6, 7. ESPER Alcyon. Tab. n. &c. This species occurs in the Mediterra- nean ; it has the form of a little tree or shrub, and the branches are coloured 80 CLASS II. red. It has been specially investigated by MILNE EDWARDS, and very beautifully figured in his Observations sur les Alcyons. Ann. des Sc. not. ie Ser. Tom. IV. Zool. pp. 333~ 343- PI- I4> X5- Family V. Pennatulina. Stem free, fleshy, containing inter- nally an axis stony or horny. Polyps naked, aggregated on the common stem, with tentacles pinnate or pennatifid. Sea-Feathers (Polypi natantes s. Pennce marince). The opinion, that these polypstocks swim about in the sea, appears to be un- founded. The stem is fixed in the ooze at the bottom of the sea, or the polypary lies on the bottom ; it is only when the waves or the fishermen's nets have broken the Pennatula loose, that it swims free in the water. Comp. W. RAPP Ueber Poly pen u. Actinien s. 8, 34. COSTA in FKORIEP'S neueNotizen, Bd. xxi. Feb. 1842, s. 154. Many species are phosphorescent : Pennatula phosphorea, Pen. grisectj Pen. rubra (P. granulosa LAM.), Veretillum cynomorium from the Mediterranean and Pen. argentea from the Indian sea. The genus Encrinus, placed by LAMARCK amongst the sea-feathers, belongs to the Echinoderms, and is, as ELLIS long ago remarked, a species of star-fish with a stem. Nat. Hist of Corall. A. Shaft pinnated in scales at the upper part, pinnse polypiferous. Pennatula L. (exclusive of species). Shaft fleshy, at the lower part naked, at the upper pinnate, axis stony. Pinnae two-ranked, patent, plicate, dentate on the upper margin. Sp. Pennatula, grisea L., Pennatula spinosa LAM., ALBINI Annot. Acad. Lib. I. Tab. vi. figs, i, i, BOHADSCH De quibusd. animcdib. mar. Tab. IX. figs, i — 3, ESPER Pflanzenth. Pennat. Tab. I. Pen. rubra L., Pen. granu- losa LAM., ALBIN. 1. 1. figs. 3, 4, ESPER Pflanzenth. Pennat. Tab. H. both from the Mediterranean. Virgularia LAM. Shaft elongate, slender, naked below, pin- nated above, with sub-stony axis. Pinnae small, unarmed. Sp. Virgularia mirabilis, Pennat. mirdbilis MUELL. (not L.) Zool. Danic. Tab. XI. Cuv. R. Ani. edit, ttlustr., Zoophyt. PI. xci. fig. i. B. Shaft simple, with polypiferous warts or papillse at the upper part. Funiculina LAM. (Pavonaria and Scirparia Cuv.) Shaft elon- gate, filiform, with axis horny or sub-stony. Polyps arranged in series, secund or alternate. POLYPI. 81 a) Polyps secund (Pavonaria Cuv.) Sp. FunicuUna antennina, Pennatula quadrangularis PALL., Penned, antennina L., BOHADSCH De quibusd. Anim. mar. Tab. IX. fig. 4 ; in the Mediterra- nean, more than two feet long. [Found near Oban, Argyleshire, forty-eight inches in length, by Prof. FORBES. Vid. JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. Zooph. p. 165, PI. XXXI.] b) Polyps alternate (Scirparia Cuv.) Sp. Pennatula mirabilis L.1 C. Shaft simple, Polyps scattered, sessile. Veretillum Cuv. Body cylindrical, fleshy, upwards polypife- rous, with large Polyps. Axis like a ligament or osseous, short. Sp. Veretillum cynomorium, Pennatula cynomorium PALL. Misc. Zool. Tab. xin. f. i — 4, RAPP, Nov. Act. Acad. Ccesar. Leop. Carol. Natur. Curios. xiv. 2. 1829. Tab. xxxvin. fig. i. ERDL in WAGNER Icon. Zootom. Tab. xxxiv. fig. i. Mediterranean, &c. D. Shaft simple, polypiferous at the extremity only, polyps grouped in an umbel. Umbellularia LAM. Body elongate, slender, with a long osseous axis. Polyps large, terminal. Sp. Umbettaria grcenlandica, Pennatula encrinus PALL. ; ELL. Coratt. Tab. xxxvn. taken in very deep water at 79° N. L. E. Shaft short, cylindrical, dilated into a flattened reniform expansion, which is polypiferous on one side. Renilla LAM. Sp. Renilla americana LAM., Pennatula reniformis PALL., ScHWEiGGER^eoi. auf naturhist. Reisen. Tab. n. fig. 10 ; — Renilla violacea QUOY et GAIMARD Voyage de VUranie, Zoologie. PI. LXXXVI. fig. 5 — 7, Cuv. R. Anim. edit, ittustree, Zoophyt. PI. xci. fig. 3. 1 Scirparia or Scirpearia Cuv. is said to be distinguished by Polyps placed alternate on the two sides. This genus is founded on Pennatula mirabilis, Polypus mirabilis LINN. Mus. Adolpk. Frederici Regis, Holmiae, 1754. Fol. Tab. xix. fig. 4. p. 96. It is very possible that LINNAEUS afterwards mistook a foreign species (from China, see Amosnit. Acad. iv. p. 257) for one from the North Sea (Fauna Suecica, p. 543, "habi- tat in oceano Norvegico"), and this last may be Virgularia mirabilis. To me the genus Scirparia appears very doubtful. The type which served for LINNAEUS' description, was not known at Stockholm, as my friend Prof. SUNDEVALL wrote to me (4 July, 1846). VOL. T. 6 82 CLASS II. Family VI. Tubiporina. Polypary calcareous, of parallel tubes, close set, conjoined by transverse partitions. Polyps tubular, the neck retractile, soft, the lower part indurated, forming the poly- pary. Tentacles in single or double row at the margin, retractile by involution. Tubipora L. (exclusive of several species). Sp. Tubipora musica L., Tubularia TOURNEF. Instit. Rei herbaria Tab. 342 (the Polypary) ; for this animal and its organisation compare especially the beautiful plate in FREYCINET, Voyage de VUranie, Zool. PI. 88. The Organ-Coral consists of cylindrical, hollow tubes, standing perpendicular with transverse partitions. These last arise from a horizontal expansion, which at the top of the tube surrounds its circumference radially. The expansions connect the tubes together, and become partitions when the tubes above them begin to grow. From this elongation of the tubes their jointed form arises, and when the growth ceases, they form a new transverse expansion round the wall of their aperture. EHRENBERG has distinguished the species of this genus more accurately : they are usually comprised under the collective name of Tubipora musica. The Polypary in all the species is purple-red ; in the Indian species which PERON ( Voyage aux terres Australes I. p. 146), and QUOY and GAIMARD ( Voyage de VUranie, Zoologie, pp. 634 — 641 and PI. 88) observed, the Polyps are green, in others they are whitish or light red, as in those which CHAMISSO described (Nov. Act. Acad. Leop. Carol. N. C. Tom. x. p. 370, Tab. xxxm. fig. 2), and in Tubipora rubeola QUOY (Voyage de V Astrolabe, Zool. iv. pp. 357 — 359), GUE'RIN Iconographie, ZoopJi. PI. xxn. fig. i, where the fin-like indents at the edge of the tentacula stand in a single row, as in Tubip. Hempricliii EHRENB., whilst in Tubipora musica EHRENB. to which FREYCINET'S plate quoted above refers, they form a double row. To Tubipora fossil Polyparies appear to belong, Catenipora (escharoides) and Syringopora GOLDF. from the oldest limestone (mountain-lime). Family VII. C&rticata. Polypary fixed, ramose, its bark soft, supplied with calcareous spicula or granules, polypiferous, its axis hardish stony or horny. Polyps retractile, with tentacles having a single row of small conical appendages at the margin, gemmi- parous and oviparous, conjoined by canals creeping through the bark. The barked-corals (corticiferes) of LAMARCK form a division very nearly allied to Alcyonium and Pennatulina. The polypary is here in rts origin and mode of structure very different from that of the Tubiporina, but on the other hand resembles that of the Penna- tulina. The hard axis, which alone is usually preserved in collec- tions, may be compared with that of the Pennatulina ; they are, in a word, fixed Pennatulina. POLYPI. 83 A. Axis stony (Isidea EHRENB.) Isis L. Corallium LAM. Shaft uniform, rigid, finely striated longi- tudinally. Sp. Corallium rubrum LAM., Isis nobilis L. TOURNEF. Instit. Ed herbaria?, Tab. cccxxxix. (Axis), ESPER, Pflanzenth. Isid. Tab. vu, vni. ; CAVOLINT Polipi, pp. 32 — 47, Tab. n. CUVIER R. Anim. e"dit. iUustree, Zooph. PI. 80. Blood-coral ; in the Mediterranean, especially on the African coast. It is exported to the East Indies, and is also much used in Europe for neck- ornaments. It grows on all sorts of marine bodies, even on other corals, and not only downwards, but in all directions, increasing very slowly ; it is seldom more than a foot long. The streaks visible on the unpolished axis are the impressions of vessels which run in the bark, and form a communi- cation between the different polyps. Melitcea LAM. Shaft knotty, genicula tumid, ramiferous. Sp. Melitcea ochracea, Isis ochracea L., PALL., Natuurl. Hist, der plantdieren, door BODDAEKT, Tab. vu. MEIJEN, Reise urn die Erde, in. Zool. Tab. xxxix. in the Indian Ocean. Isis LAM. Shaft with jointed axis, nodes stony, striated, rami- ferous, internodia horny. Sp. Isis Uppuris L. ; ESPER Pflanzenth. Isid. Tab. I — in. Mopsea LAMOUK., EHRENB. Shaft with jointed axis, nodes homy, ramiferous, internodia stony. Sp. Mopsea dichotoma, Isis dichotoma L. ; ESPER Pflanzenth. Isid. Tab. v. Note. Here also belongs Isis elongata, ESPER Pflanzenth. Isid. Tab. vi, according to two specimens brought by the noble V. SIEBOLD from Japan, which are preserved in the Leyden Museum, and agree with ESPER'S figure. Is the same species also found in the Mediterranean, as PHILIPPI supposes, who refers to it Mopsea Mediterranea Eisso ? See WIEGMANN u. ERICHSON'S Archiv. vin. 1842. s. 38. B. Axis horny (Cerato-corallia or Gorgonia EHRENB.) Gorgonia L. (exclusive of species of Antipathes}. Stem with axis horny, distinct: the crust polypiferous, fibroso-calcareous, per- sistent. Sea-shrub, Horn-plant. These horn-plants grow with stem and branches upwards ; the latter are usually situated in a plane, and often coalesce. Many earlier and later writers have believed the stem to be a plant, on which Polyps had fixed themselves. (De natura vegetabili Gforgoniarum, auctore G. L. C. GRAVENHORST, OKEN'S Isis 1823. s. 724. Reale Academia delle scienze di Torino 6—2 84 CLASS II. T. xxvi.) The species are very numerous, and many might perhaps by closer investigation be better denned. LAMOUROUX and EHREN- BERG have formed different genera, which by the last especially have been distinguished by the arrangement of the Polyps. Subgeiiera : Prymnoa LAMOUR., EHRENB. Muricea LAMOUR., EHRENB. Eunicea LAMOUR., EHRENB. Plexaura LAMOUR., EHRENB., Gorgonia LAMOUR., EHRENB., Pterogorgia EHRENB. — A new genus Bebryce PHILIPPI appears to be distinguished by non-retractile Polyps. Sp. Gorgonmjldbellwn~L., ELL. Corall. PI. xxvi. fig. A — 0. Sea-fan, Mermaid's fan, in different seas. Antipathes PALL. ( Gorgonice Spec. L.) Stem with axis horny, distinct, covered usually with minute spines, with bark polypiferous, gelatinous, deciduous. Sea-shrub. The bark which is gelatinous, not calcareous or fibrous, is missing in specimens taken from the sea : hence, when preserved in collections, they resemble branches of dead wood. EHRENBERG thinks Antipathes ought not to be joined to Gorgonia, and that it probably belongs to the Bryozoa. He refers to later communications, which have not yet, as far as I know, been pub- lished. (Die Corallenthiere des rothen Meeres, s. 113 in a note.) MILNE EDWARDS does not hold this opinion, LAMARCK Hist. nat. des Ani. s. v. n. p. 684. According to GRAY the Polyps of Anti- patJieSj which he investigated in a specimen referred by him to Ant. dichotoma PALL, have six arms, but, with the exception of this strange anomaly, agree with those of Gorgonia. Proceedings of the Zool Soc. of London. 1832. p. 41, 42. Sp. Antipathes spiralis PALL., ESPER PftanzentJi. Antip. Tab. vin., PALLAS Plantdieren by BODDAERT, Tab. vi. fig. 5.— Antipath. myriophytta PALL., ESPER 1. 1. Tab. x, GUERIN Iconogr. Zoophyt. PI. xxm. fig. i. &c. ORDER III. Poly actinia (Zoocorallia poly actinia, Phytocorallia poly actinia, and Phytocorallia dodecactinia EHRENBERG). Polyps with twelve or more non-pinnate tentacles, simple or aggregate. Nutrient canal suspended in the cavity of the body, by means of lamellae forming partitions. Aperture of the nutrient canal single, external, supplying the office of mouth and of anus. POLYPI. 85 SECTION I. Tentacles twelve. (Phytocorallia dodecactinia EHRENB.) Family VIII. Madreporina (Madreporina and Milleporina EHRENB.) Polypary secreted by the Polyps, stony, supplied with polypiferous cells, usually ramose or expanded, lobate. Tentacles short. Madreporalu. (exclusive of many species) , LAM. (Forties EJUSD. Heteropora and Madrepora EHRENB.) Polypary stony with cells circumscribed, lamellose, often prominent, with porous interstices. Sp. Madrepora palmata, Heteropora palmata EHRENB., Madrepora muricata, var. ESPER Pjlanzenth. Madrepor. Tab. LI. On the animal of this species comp. LESUEUR, Mem. du Mus. vi. pp. 290, 291, PL xvn. fig. 18. Madre- pora dbrotanoides, Madrepora muricata PALL., QUOY and GAIMARD Voyage de VUran. PI. xcvi., GUE'KIN Iconogr. Zooph. PI. xxui. fig. 10. — Madre- pora pociUifera LAM. &c. Pocillipora LAM. Polypary stony, ramose, with cells of slight depth not lamellose, contiguous. Sp. Pocillipora damicornis LAM., ESPER Pjlanzenth., Madrep. Tab. XLVI. and XLVI A. &c. Genus Nullipora LAM. Syst&me des Ani. s. vertebres 1801. p. 374. (Millepores with pores not evident Hist. nat. des Ani. s. vertebres n. p. 311) according to EHBENBERG is in part to be brought here. Seriatopora LAM. (in part). Polypary stony, ramose, with cells disposed in longitudinal rows, with margin slightly prominent. Polyps with the structure of the dodecactinia, destitute of tentacles. Sp. Seriatopora subulata, Millepora lineata L., ESPER Pjlanzenth. Millep. Tab. xix. Millepora L. (exclusive of species) Polypary stony, ramose, with cells deep, obsoletely or not at all lamellose, separate, scattered. Sp. Millepora alcicornis L., ESPER Pjlanzenth. Millep. Tab. v, vn, xxvi, &c. (Here also the Polyps appear not always to possess arras). Many species which were formerly placed amongst the Millepora are now ranked in other genera. — Millepora truncata, the genus Truncularia WIEGMANN (Handb. der Zool.), Myriopora BLAINV. belongs to the Bryozoa, EHRENB. Die Coral- hnthiere des rothen Meeres, ss. 126, 154, MILNE EDWARDS in 2nd edition of LAMARCK Hist. Nat. des Ani. s. v. p. 306. 86 CLASS II. SECTION II. Tentacles numerous, exceeding twelve. A. Polyps secreting a stony Polypary, by which they are affixed (Phytocorallia polyactinea EHRENB.) Family IX. OcelUna EHRENB. (and Dcedalina ejusd. in part). Cells circumscribed. Genera : CaryopJiyllia LAM., Oculina LAM., Explanaria LAM., Cladocora HEMPE. and EHRENB., Anthophyllum SCHWEIGGER, EHRENB., Astrcea GM. (Astrea LAM.) Sp. CaryopTiytt'ia ramea LAM., Madrepora ramea L., Oculina ramea EHRENB., TOURNEFORT Instit. Rei herbaria, Tab. CCCXL, Madrepora, ESPER Pflan- zentk., Madrepor. Tab. ix. x A., MILNE EDWARDS in CUVIER R. Ani. ed. ittustree, Zooph. PI. LXXXIII. fig. i, i a, i b (with the animals). — Caryoph. calicularis, Cladocora calycularis EHRENB., CAVOLINI Polipi marini. Tab. in, fig. i — 5, pp. 48—58, MILNE EDWARDS in Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ittustree. PI. LXXXIII. fig. -2. Note. The too numerous genera in this family, severed from the genus Madrepora LINN., might perhaps be properly referred to two genera, Oculina and Astrcea. Add Monomyces EHRENB. with a solitary star. Family X. Gyrosa (Dcedalina EHRENB. in part). Cells con- fluent into sinuous furrows, on both sides lamellose. t Stars concave. Mceandrina LAM. Mceandra OKEN*, EHRENB. Polypary stony, hemispherical, on the convex surface stars winding, con- tiguous, lamellose. Sp. Mceandrina cerebriformis, anglice Brain-stone; — Mceandr. Idbyrinthica, Mus. Beslerian. 1716. Tab. xxvi. fig. i, Madrepore, SAVIGNY Descr. de VEgypte, ZoopJiyt. PL v. fig. 4, &c. In this Polypary the confluent stars or cells (ambulacra), with their transverse plates, resemble the mountain- chains as usually engraved on geographical maps. Agaricia LAM. Polypary foliaceo-lobate, on one side only fur- nished with furrows or stars in lamellae. Sp. Agaricia elephanthotus EHRENB., ESPER Pflanzenth. Madrep. Tab. xvni. &c. Pavonia LAM. Polypary foliaceo-lobate, with leaves com- pressed, on both sides stelliferous. 1 Lehrb. der NaturgescJi. ill. i. s. 70. 1815. POLYPI. 87 Sp. Pavonia agaricites, Madrepora agaricites L., ESPEB Pflanzenth., Madrep. Tab xx, Cuv. R. Ani. edit, illustr., Zooph. PI. LXXXIV. fig. 2 ;— Pav. lactuca, Madrep. lactuca PALL., ESPEB P/anzenth., Madrep. Tab. xxxiu. A, B, QUOT et GAIM. Voyage de V Astrolabe, PL xvm. fig. i, copied in Cuv. R. Ani. ed. illustr., Zooph. PI. LXXXIV. fig. i. The animal figured and described by QUOY and GAIMABD has round the mouth tubercles and no arms, is very flat, and resembles an Actinia; EHBENBEBG places this species with Mceandrina pectinata, Mceandr. areolata, and some others under a new genus Manicina. The singularly flat and thin leaves of this Polypary have given occasion to the name of Endive-Coral {lactuca}. ft Stars convex. MontiCularia LAM. B. Polyps secreting internally a hard body (Polypary stony, not affixed). Family XI. Fungina EHRENB. The stony polypary is here an internal induration of the animal, and is by EHRENBEKG compared with the calcareous plate of Cephalo- pods (the back-bone of the Sepia). Fungina LAM. Polypary free, orbiculate or oblong, hemi- spherical or conical, above convex and lamellose, with an oblong central lacuna or gap, below concave and rugged. Star single, occupying the upper surface with lamellse denticulate or rough on the margin. Sea-mushroom. The numerous plates, running from the center to the circumference, give this Polypary some resemblance to a mush- room, in which however the plates are situated beneath the cap. Some have an elongated form, and hence, in the names they bear, are compared to moles or slugs. The Fungice lie in clefts of rocks and cavities of coral-reefs, surrounded by branched corals, so that the force of the current is broken whilst the access of sea-water is not precluded. The older specimens are quite free : but younger ones are seated on a stem, on rocks, or sometimes are fixed to the dead remains of other Fungice ; in the pedunculate state they resemble the genus Garyo- phyllia LAM. The stem is at first hollow, and is afterwards filled with calcareous coral-substance ; the disc becomes larger, and at last the stem entirely disappears. S. STUTCHBUEY, An Account of the Mode of Growth of Young Corals of the genus Fungia, Trans- act, of the Linnean Society of London, vol. xvi. 3. p. 493 — 498. 1833. 88 CLASS II. In most the entire Polypary belongs to a single Polyp. In some species no tentacles or arms are distinguishable ; but in others there are numerous thick, conical arms, irregularly scattered; in the middle the large, transverse oral aperture is seen. The animal surrounds the Polypary as well beneath as above. See the figure of Fungia crassitentaculata QUOY and GAIMARD, Voyage de V Astro- labe, Zooph. PI. xiv. f. 3, 4, also transferred into the illustrated edition of CUVIER, R. Ani. Zoophytes, PL LXXXII. fig. 1. GUERIN, Iconogr. Zoophytes, PL xxiu. fig. 6. In other species, according to the observations of ESCHSCHOLTZ, QUOY and GAIMARD and others, many animals are grown together ; the oral apertures, here without tentacles, lie partly in the oblong median depression of the Polypary, partly between the plates. These form the genus Polyphyllia QUOY and GAIMARD, and Herpolitha ESCHSCH. (Ilerpetolitha LEUCK.), Haliglossa HEMPR. and EHRENB. See on this genus F. S. LEUCKART, Observat. Zool. de ZoopJiytis Coral- liis, speciatim de genere Fungia. Cum Tabulis IV. ceri incisis. Friburgi Brisigavorum. 1841. 4to. Sp. Fungia agariciformis LAM., Madrepora fungites L., Mus. Beslerian. Tab. xxvi. fig. 3. FOBSK. Icon. Her. natural. Tab. XLII., ESPEB Pflan- zenth. Madrep. Tab. I. LEUCKART 1. 1. Tab. iv. fig. i — 3, round, with fine toothed laminae ; the animal had been observed before by FORSKAL, and varies in colour ; QUOY and GAIMARD have figured it entirely red, if indeed their figure refers (as EHRENBERG concludes) to this species. Voyage de VUra- nie, Zool. PI. xcvi. fig. i, 2. — Fungia limacina LAM., Haliglossa limacina EHRENB., ESPER Pflanzenth. Madrep. Tab. LXIII. ; — Fungia talpa, Poly- phyllia talpa, &c. Genus Cydolithas (Cyclolites LAM.) Polypary stony, orbiculate, with center sub-lacunose (monostoma), above lamellose, with dicho- tomous lamellae, beneath with plane surface, with concentric rings. Fossil species from the oolitic and chalk formations, allied to Fungice with which GOLDFUSS joins them. Sp. Cycl. hemisphcerica LAM., BRONN Urweltliche Pflanzenthiere 1825, fol. Tab. v. fig. 1 1 ; Cycl. cancellata LAM., FAUJAS DE SAINT FOND, Hist. nat. de la mont. de Saint Pierre, PI. xxxvm. fig. 8, 9, &c. Turlinalia (Turbinolia LAM.) EHRENB. Polypary conical, with base acuminate, cell single, terminal, lamelloso-stellate. (Is this its place?) Sp. TurUn. rubra QUOY and GAIM. Voyage de V Astrolabe, Zool. Tom. iv. p. 1 88, PI. xiv. fig. 5—9. GUERIN, Iconogr. ZoopJiyt. PI. xxiu. fig. 7, Cuv. R. Ani. ed. Ulustr., Zooph. PI. LXXXII. fig. 5. This species, drawn up at New Zealand from a depth of twenty-five fathoms, fastened to a shell, has POLYPI. 89 an animal much resembling an Actinia, with a large oval oral-aperture surrounded by numerous, very large, transparent tuberculated rays. The other species upon which LAMAKCK has founded this genus are only known in the fossil state. It was thought that they were not affixed, and con- sequently they were referred to this family ; the discovery, however, of the voyagers quoted above, shews that the species now living far rather belongs to the family of the Ocellina, and probably ought to be joined to Mono- myces EHRENB. It may be suspected, perhaps, from STUTCHBURY'S observations, that here younger forms of Fungia have crept in. To Turbinalia the genus Diploctenium GOLDFUSS, Flabellwn LESSON may be added. See FldbeUum pavoninum LESS. Illustrations de Zool. PL xiv. Note. The genus Lithactinia LESSON related to the ffungite, might perhaps from recent investigations be established with propriety. Comp. LESSON Illustrations de Zoologie, PL vi. C. Polyps with the whole body soft or subcoriaceous. Family XII. Zoanthina. Polyps affixed, never detached spontaneously, rarely solitary, more frequently gregarious, gemmi- parous or oviparous, never dividing spontaneously. Zoantlius Cuv. Bodies fleshy, subcylindrical, below slender, at the top clavate, gregarious, adhering by filiform gemmiferous stolons of the base. Mouth terminal, crowned with tentacles filiform or clavate. Sp. ZoantJius Ettlsii, Actinia soc^ata ELLIS, Phil. Transact. 57, Tab. xix. fig. i, 2. Encyclop. meth. PL LXX. fig. i, GUE'RIN Iconogr., Zoopk. PL xx. fig. 4. Zoanth. Bertholetii EHRENB., Polythoa Bertholetii AUDOUIN, SAVIGNY Dtscr. de VEgypte, Polypes, Tab. n. fig. 3. Zoantkus Couchii JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. ZoopTi. p. 202. PL xxxv. fig. 9. Mamillifera LESUEUR, Gavolinia SCHWEIGG. Bodies cylindrical or clavate, gregarious, conjoined by a membranous base, not retrac- tile. Sp. Mammittifera Oawlinii, Madrepora denudata CAVOLINII, Polipi marini, Tab. in. fig. 6—8, pp. 57, 58. Palythoa LAMOUR., EHRENB., Corticifera LESUEUR. Bodies gregarious, connate, dilated into a coriaceous expansion, with the little apertures slightly emergent. Sp. Palythoa ocellata, Alcyonium ocellatum ELLIS and SOL. Hughea LAMOUR., EHRENB. Polyps solitary, oviparous, with- out any stolons. 90 CLASS II. Sp. ffugkea Savignyi, Palythoa Savignyi AUDOUIN, DSscr. de VEyypte, Poly- pes, Tab. ii. fig. i. Family XIII. Actinina. Polyps affixing themselves by the part opposite to the mouth, loosening spontaneously and creeping or swimming, solitary, oviparous ' or viviparous, never dividing spontaneously, rarely gemmiparous. Actinia L. Body conical or cylindrical, with mouth at the top simple, surrounded by tentacles numerous, cylindrical, radiant in one or several rows, with base discoidal. Sea Anemonies. Comp. on these animals, BASTER Natuurkundige uitspanningen, I. 1762, bl. 138 — 142; DICQUEMARE, Essay towards the elucidating of tlie history of the Sea-anemonies, Philos. Transact 1773, p. 361, 1775, p. 207, 1777, p. 56 ; RAPP, Ueber die Polypen im Algemeinen und die Actinien insbesondere, 1829 ; A. A. BERT- HOLD, Zergliederung der see-anemonen und namentlich der Actinia coriacea in Beitrdge zurAnatomie, Zootomie und Physiol. Gottingeii, 1831. 8vo. s. 1 — 19 ; J. F. BRANDT, Prodromus Descriptions Ani- malium ab H. MERTENSIO in orbis terrar. circumnavigatione observa- torum Fasc. I. Petropoli 1835, 4to. pp. 9—17 &c. The Anemonies live on Crustacea, conchifera &c., swallow even occasionally large mussels, reject the shell, when the fleshy part has been extracted and consumed, by the mouth, and evert for this purpose their body, which they do likewise whenever they feel hunger. Their reproductive rJbwer is almost as great as that of Hydra ; if they be divided transversely, new tentacles after a few weeks are seen on the inferior portion, and each half becomes a perfect creature ; thus they may be propagated by fission, but propagation by spontaneous fission does not appear to occur naturally amongst Actinice: usually it is effected by ova which get into the stomach from the ovaries and are there developed ; when the young ones come out of the egg they are rejected by the mouth. That the actiniae are viviparous was formerly observed by BASTER. The young have at first fewer arms or tentacles than are after- wards present. These animals, with their coronet of tentacles, resemble com- pound or double flowers ; at the same time many also attract by their lively colours. Most of them are very sensitive of the stimulus of light, and the brighter the day spread their tentacles the more. Of A ctinea depressa RAPP observed that it immediately contracted when sun-light fell upon it. POLYPI. 91 The cylindrical body is formed of a thick skin of which the innermost layer consists of longitudinal and transverse muscles. The tentacles are hollow. The stomach is a folded blind sac. The space between the stomach and the skin is divided by numerous partitions j the ovaries, whose efferent canals open into the base of the stomach, lie in the chambers thus formed1. Actinice are marine animals; they occur in the temperate and torrid zones. Some species are brought to market by the Italians and are eaten. A. With lateral pores (Cribrina HEMPR. and EHRENB.) Sp. Actinia e/ceta L., EASTER 1. Tab. xiv. fig. 3, KAPP, 1. 1. Tab, n. fig. 2. — Actinia coriacea Cuv., Actinia senilis L., BASTEB 1. Tab. xm. fig. i. KAPP, 1. 1. Tab. i. fig. 3, 4, LESSON Ittustr. de Zoologie, PI. LIV. B. Without lateral pores (Actinia EHRENB.) Sp. Actinia viridis GMEL., Priapus viridis FORSK. Icon. Rer. natural. Tab. xxvii. fig. B, b, Actinia Cereus KAPP, 1. 1. Tab. n. fig. 3; this species is eaten in the south of France, and is known by the name Ortie or Ortigue; — Actinia tapetum HEMPR. and EHRENB. with short and numerous tentacula; this species in the contracted state occasioned the establishment of a new genus, supposed to be distinguished by the absence of tentacles : Discosoma KUEPPEL and LEUCK., Neue wirbettose Thiere des rothen Meeres, Frankf. a. Main. 1828, Tab. I. fig. I.3 Actinodendron QuoY and GAIMARD. Tentacles ramose (or provided with vesicles lateral, fasciculate, EHRENB.) Thalassianthus RuEPP. and LEUCK., Epicladia EHRENB. Ten- tacles pectinate. Minyas Cuv. Actinecta LESS. Body free, globose, ribbed. Mouth surrounded by tentacles in many rows, which are sometimes lobate. Disc opposite the mouth supplied with aeriferous canals, serving to suspend the animal in water. 1 Besides the works of BERTHOLD and KAPP referred to, that of KYMER JONES, General Outline of the Animal Kingdom and Manual of Comparative Anatomy, London, 1841. pp. 39 — 44, also contains a detailed anatomy of Actinia. 2 Comp. also the descriptions of several Mediterranean species of Actinia given by A. F. GRUBE, Actinien, Eckinodermen und Wilrmer des Adriatiscken und Mittelmeers, Kbnigsberg, 1840, 4 to. ; amongst the new species is one remarkable for its change of colour, Act. C/iamceleon GRUBE. 92 CLASS II. Sp. Minyas cinerea Cuv. R. Ani. ire edit. PI. xv. fig. 8, LESSON Centurie Zool. PI. LXII. fig. I, in the Atlantic Ocean. This genus is referred by CUVIEB to the Echinodermata apoda; LESUEUR, who has made known some other species of it, gives it a place near Actinia. An accidental, not a natural opening in the disc, opposite the mouth, was taken by CUVIER for anus. See the 2nd edition of LAMARCK, Hist. not. des Anim. sans vertebrcs in. pp. 427—429. Lucernaria MuELL. Body gelatinous, radiate, the rays tenta- culiferous at the tip, above flattish, with mouth central, funnel- shaped, protracted, below elongated into a pedicle disciform at the extremity. Sp. Lucernaria quadricornis Zool. dank. Tab. xxxix. JOHNSTON, Hist. Er. Zooph. pp. 244 — 252. fig. 3 — 7. Comp. on this genus LAMOUROUX, Mem. du Museum, n. pp. 460 — 471. PI. XVI. Does it belong here ? LAMARCK refers this genus to the Acalephce. Edwardsia QUATREF. Body free, cylindrical, rounded behind. The middle portion of the body with thicker epidermis, opaque; the anterior and posterior pellucid, retractile within the middle. Mouth furnished with tentacles, hollow, arranged in single or double row. Sp. Edwardsia Beautempsii QUATREFAGES, Ann. des Sc. nat. ie Serie. Tom. xviu. Zool. PI. i. fig. i, &c. These remarkable animals, discovered by QUATREFAGES, live on the sea- shore in the sand, like Sipunculus and some Annulata. The tentacles are not perforate at the extremity, as little as they are so in Actinia, in which preceding authors (RAPP, RYMER JONES and others) admit a reception of water through the presumed apertures. ORDER IV. Bryozoa. Nutrient canal supplied with double aperture (mouth and anus), replicate, the posterior portion ascending by the side of the anterior. Tentacles long, furnished with vibratile cilia, surrounding the mouth. The anterior part of the polyp soft, retractile within the posterior by inversion. EHRENBERG was the first to separate with precision these animals from the other forms of the Polyps — see the Introduction to this class. MILNE EDWARDS makes of them, in company with the Acephala nuda, a division of the type of the Mollusca under the name of Molluscoides. As in our first order of Polyps we see a resemblance to Acalephce or Medusae, in the second recognise the proper type of the Polyps, 'and in the third perceive a transition to POLYPI. 93 the Echinodermata, so in this last order we cannot mistake the affinity to the Mollusca; this affinity is even so close that we hold the union of it with the Molluscs to be almost the more natural one. Family XIV. Stelmatopoda nob. Tentacles disposed in a zone around the mouth. A.) Cell (the posterior harder portion of the animal) covered by a moveable operculum. (Tentacles numerous, 16 or more.) Eschar a LAM. (Species of genus Eschar a PALL., of Millepora L.) Polypary of aggregate cells substony, foliaceous, ramose. Both surfaces of the polypary covered with opposed cells. Crust-Coral. Sp. Eschara foliacea LAM. (not PALL.) ELL. Corall. xxx. fig. a, A, B, C ; — Eschara cermcomis LAM., Cuv. R. Ani. tdit. ill., Zooph. PI. 86, &c. Comp. on this genus MILNE EDWAKDS, Reck, anatomiques, physiol. et zool. sur les Esckares, Annal. des Sc. nat. ie Serie. VI. 1836, Zool. pp. 5 — 53, PI. I — v ; Observations sur les polypiers fossiles du genre Eschare, ibid, pp. 321 — 345. PI. IX — xii. These fossils occur partly in the chalk-forma- tion, partly in the tertiary strata. McCoY, Descrip. Brit. Palceoz. Foss. in the Geol. Mus. of the Univ. of Cambridge. Camb. 1851. 4to. Pt. n. pp. 44 — 47. PL fig. 14—17- Melicerita MILNE-EDWARDS. Fossil genus. Comp. Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e Ser. vi. Zool. pp. 345—347. Eetepora LAM. Polypary reticulato-ramose or perforated reticu- lately, calcareous. Cells of the Polyps situated on one side only of the polypary. Sp. Retepora cellulosa, Millepora cettulosa L., ELL. Corall. Tab. xxv. fig. d, D, F ; ESPER, PflanzentJi., Millep. Tab. I. ; CAVOLINI, Polipi marini. Tab. in. fig. 12, 13. This polypary resembles a piece of fine lace, hence the french name dentelle de mer or manchette de Neptune (/) Adeona LAMOUR., LAM. Polypary frondescent or fan-shaped, on both surfaces celluliferous, calcareous, supported by a stem sub- articulate, not polypiferous. Sp. Adeona foliif era LAM., SCHWEIGGER Beob. auf naturh. Reis. Tab. i; Cuv. R. Ani. edit. ill. Zooph. PI. 88, fig. i ; — Adeona cribriformis LAM., SCHWEIGGEK 1. 1. Tab. II. fig. 5, Cuv. 1. 1. fig. i. In this species the stem bears a flattened expansion, perforated like a sieve or a net, from coalescence of the branches, and permanence of the intervening spaces. Of this genus the Polyps, as far as I know, have not been observed, but it is placed here from the agreement of the Polypary ; an idea may be formed of it by supposing an Eschara to be placed uppn a jointed stem. 94 CLASS II. Flustra L. Polypary of aggregate cells, membranaceous, fron- descent, lobate or expanded into a crust, celluliferous on one or both sides. The cells are often aculeate on the anterior margin, their opening transverse, semicircular, or lunate. Sea-Crust. Sp. Flustra foliacea L., Eschara foliacea PALL., DE JUSSIEU M6m. de FA cad. royale des Sc. AnneV 1742. PL ix. fig. 3 ; ELL. Coratt. PI. xxix. fig. a, A, B, C, E ; Cuv. R. Ani. 6dit. ill. PI. LXXVIII. fig. i ; JOHN- STON, Hist. Br. Zooph. pp. 342, 343. PL LXII. fig. i, 2 ; — Flustra cornuta MILNE EDW., Cuv. R. Ani. edit. ill. PL LXXVIII. 1. L fig. 2, &c. Eucratea LAMOUR., (in part). MILNE EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat., 2e Serie, ix. Zoolog. pag. 204, PL vm. B.) Cell (the posterior harder part of the animal) without oper- culum; a setose collar or a crown of seta3 in the anterior part of the body in many, or a muscular ring in others, in place of operculum. Tendra NORDM. Sp. Tendra zostericola, Cdlepora pontica EICHW. Tubulipora. Polypary calcareous made up of crowded tubular cells, parasitic or incrusting. Aperture of the cells orbicular. Ten- tacles 12. Sp. Tubulipora verrucosa MILNE EDW., Tubulipora orbiculus LAM. (syno- nymes excluded) ; Cuv. R. Ani. edit. ittustr., Zoophyt. PL LXX. &c. Comp. on this genus MILNE EDWARDS, Ann. des Sc. nat. ie Serie, vm. Zoologie 1837. pp. 321 — 338. PL xxn— xxiv. JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. Zooph. pp. 265—274. PL XLVI. fig. 3, 4. Subgen. Diastopora LAM. Cellularia PALL., Cellaria LAM. Polypary ramose, composed of cells arranged in a single or double row or verticillate, tubular, calcareous, with orbicular aperture. Sp. Cellularia ebumea, Crisia eburnea LAMOUB., Sertularia cburnea L., ELL. Corall. xxi. fig. a, A ; Cuv. R. Ani. edit. HI. Zoophyt. PL LXXIII. fig. 2 ; VAN BENEDEN, Nouv. Mem. de FAcad. de Brux. xvm. PL m. fig. 12 — 1 6, &c. Comp. MILNE EDWARDS, Mem. sur les Crisies, les Horneres et plusieurs autres polypes vivans ou fossiles dont ^organisation est analogue a celle des Tubulipores, Ann. des Sc. nat. ie Serie, Zoolog. Tom. ix. 1838. pp. 193 — 238, PL vi — xvi ; VAN BENEDEN, Recherches sur les Bryozoaires, Nouv. Mem. de VAcad. de Brux. Tom. xvm. 1845. PP- IX — 29- On the Polypary of this and some other genera shear-like organs are seen that have some resemblance to a bird's head ; they have joints POLYPI. 95 which admit of motion like the jointed feet of articulata ; their motions persist even when the animal has been for some time dead. Their use is not known. See figures in ELLIS Corall. PI. xx. fig. 2 A. (of Cellularia avicularia LAM. : of Flustra angustiloba LAM.) ; comp. VAN BENEDEN Recherches sur les Bryoz. 1. 1. pp. 14 — 23, and NORDMANN and KROHN cited by SIEBOLD Lehrb. der vergleich. Anat. i. p. 33 : also DARWIN Voyages of Adventure and Beagle, vol. in. pp. 259 — 62 quoted, with figures, by JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. Zooph. pp. 329 — 332. Valkeria FLEMING, FARRE. Sp. Valkeria cuscuta, Sertularia cuscuta L. ; ELL. CoraU. PI. xiv, C, C. FARRE, Phil. Trans. 1837. PI. xxm. Vesicularia THOMPSON, FAREE. Sp. Vesicularia spinosa, Sertularia spinosa L. ; ELL. CoraU. PI. XL fig. 1 7 b, B, C, D ; FARRE, 1. 1. PI. xxn. Serialaria LAM. Polypary homy, ramose, composed of cells cylindrical, parallel, cohering in rows. Sp. Serialaria Undigera, Sertul. lendigera L. ; ELL. CoraU. PI. XV. No. 24 b, B; CAVOLINI, Polipi mar. PI. ix. fig. i, 2 ; the cells stand close together, as in a Pan's-pipe. JOHNSTON, 1. 1. p. 369. Anguinaria LAM. Cells elongate, subclavate, perforated by a lateral aperture, set on a creeping fistulous stolon, erect, distant. Sp. Anguinaria spatulata, Sertul. anguina L. ; ELL. Corall. PI. xxu. fig. 2 c, C ; LISTER Phil. Trans. 1834. PI. xn. fig. 4 ; JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. Zooph. p. 290. PL L. fig. 8, 9. Bowerbankia FARRE. Sp. BoiverbanJcia densa FARRE, 1. 1. Tab. xxi. xxu. Laguncula VAN BENEDEN, Lagenella FARRE. Sp. Laguncula repens FARRE, 1. 1. Tab. xxiv. Note. According to A. S. HASSALL Bowerbankia densa is a younger state of Valkeria imbricata ; Annals and Magaz. of nat. Hist. vii. 1841, p. 363, 364. But in Valkeria and Vesicularia from the observations of FARRE and VAN BENEDEN there are 8 tentacles not spinous; in Bowerbankia and Laguncula 10 — 12 tentacles, besides vibratile cilia, supplied with immoveable setae or spines. — Lusia MILNE EDW. (in a note to LAMARCK Hist. nat. des Ani. s. vert. 2e edit. n. p. 72) is it Laguncula ? 96 CLASS IT. Halodactylus FARRE. Polypary fleshy, gelatinous, pellucid. Polyp with tentacles 12 — 16, often longer on one side. Sp. Halodactylus diaphanus FARRE, Alcyon. gelatinosum L., ELL. Coral! . PL xxxu. fig. d, ESPER, Pjlanzenth. Alcyon. Tab. xvin., FARRE Phil. Trans. 1837. PI. xxv, xxvi. ; VAN BENEDEN Mech. sur Us Bryozoalves 1. 1. PI. v. fig. i, 2 ; occurs on our coast (Dutch), adhering to marine plants and shells resembling a gelatinous, transparent, tubular, and irregularly branched sea-weed. Family XV. Lophopoda DUMORTIER s. Cristatellina. Tentacles set pectinately on two arms, numerous. Cristatella Cuv. Polypary free, disciform, polypiferous on the margin. Sp. Cristatella mucedo Cuv., Cristat. vagans LAM., EOES. in. Suppl. Tab. XOI ; in fresh water ; three, four, or more Polyps are seated in a freely- swimming Polypary. GERVAIS and TURPIN have figured the egg, which is provided with tubular spines terminating in two or more hooks ; it bursts into two valves, when the young animal is born. See Ann. des Sc. not. ie Strie, vn. Zool. pp. 65 — 93. PL n. PL in. A. JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. Zooph. p. 389. Plumatella nob. Polypary affixed, tubular, with extremities of tubules retractile, polypiferous. Plume-Polyps (Polypes d, pannache TREMB.) Comp. Memoir e sur TAnatomie et la Physiologic des Poly piers composes d'eau douce nommes Lophopodes, par B. C. DUMORTIER. Tournay 1836. 8vo. (published in part at an earlier date in the Bulletin de FA cad. des Sc. de Bruxelles 1835, p. 422 &c.) Propagation occurs by eggs and buds. TREMBLEY also observed spontaneous fission of the Polypary in Plumatella cristata. Plumatella LAM. Naisa LAMOUR. Stem branched or lobate. Sp. Plumatella cristata LAM. ; TREMB. Polyp. Tab. x. f. 8, 9 ; the body transparent, i'" long, the plume nearly of the same length ; about sixty tentacles ; it lives in fresh water beneath Lemna. Plum, campanulata LAM. ROES. Ins. T. in. Suppl. Tab. 73—75. (LiN- N^EUS united this species with the former, under the name of Tubularia campanulata.} Probably Plumatella repens LAM., SCHAEFFER Armpo- lypen 1754 (2nd edit. 1763). Tab. I. fig. i, 2, EICHHORN Wasserthiere. 1781. Tab. iv. p. 43 (der Polyp mit dem Federbusch), is only a variety of this. According to NORDMANN, the tube continues to grow for some time after the death of the Polyp. When full-grown it has up to sixty te,n- tacles, but in young animals they are less numerous, shorter and thicker. POLYPI. 97 Fredericilla GERVAIS. Sp. Plumatella sultana, Tulularia sultana BLUMENB. Handb. d. nat. Hist. PI. i. fig. 9. Alcyonella LAM. Polypary incrusting, irregular, multiform, com- posed of tubules aggregate, cylindrical. Sp. Plumatella funyosa nob., Alcyonella stagnorum LAM., Encycl. method. Vers. PI. 472. fig. 3, a, b, c, d, RASPAIL Hist, naturelle de I'Alcyondleflu- viatile, Memoires de la Soc. d'ffist. nat. de Paris, TV. 1828. pp. 75 — 130, pi. 12 — 16. To this species probably BAKER'S figure belongs, Employ- ment for the microscope, PI. xn. fig. 13 — 22 (Bell-flower animal). See JOHNSTON, Hist. Br. Zooph. pp. 391 — 395. RASPAIL is of opinion that this animal is merely a form of Plumatella campanulata altered by age, from which he does not distinguish Plumat. cristata j as soon as the animal breaks the egg, it moves freely about, and should then be described as Cristatella, so that all of them belong to one and the same species at different periods of life. But amongst other objections to the union with Plumatella cristata and campanulata is the number of the tentacles which in Alcyonella is, according to RASPAIL, only forty-four (according to EHRENBERG forty-two), whilst here, if it were an older state of Plumatella campanulata, the number might rather be expected to be greater. Also in Cristatella there are more tentacles. However, it is possible that Cristatella may be .a younger form of another species of Plumatella, and so at some future time to be excluded from the list of genera. PALLAS, as it seems, first discovered the Alcyonella in our country in the well-known lake of Rockanje, in the island Voorn, and described it by the name of Tubularia fungosa, Nov. Commentar. Acad. Scient. Petropol. xii. 1768. The name Alcyonella should be rejected, for it was borrowed from a supposed resemblance with Alcyonium, which on further investigation was found to be totally unfounded. VAN BENEDEN has observed the sexes to be distinct in Alcyonella, male and female individuals occurring in the same Polypary. Bullet: de I' Acad. des Sc. de Brux. Tom. vi. 1841. p. 276. Paludicella GERVAIS. Sp. Alcyonella articulata EHRENB. Symbol. ? Comp. VAN BENEDEN Bvlh-l. \f '-CLASS in. finished: the halves again divide in a direction perpendicular to the former line of division : but here the fission does not always begin in the stomach. How often the process may be repeated is not known. No trace of fission was observed in Mesonema, though it was often seen to occur in the larval forms, even when ova were already distinctly visible on the vessels.] [The Siphonophorm have been shewn, by the investigations of HUXLEY, LEUCKART, KOELLIKER, GEGENBAUER and VOGT, to be compound animals, or colonies, connecting the hydroid polyps with the acalephs. They are named by KOELLIKER, in consequence, Swimming Polyps (polypi nechalei). They consist in general of a stem, usually cylindrical and long (Diphyes), sometimes shortened and sacciform (Physalia), sometimes disciform (Velella), to which appendages are attached which differ remarkably in form and func- tion. Some of these are suctorial tubes or stomachs, others motive organs, others feelers and prehensile organs, others again protective laminae (bracts) and sexual capsules. Great differences prevail with respect to the number, arrangement, and development of these parts, in the different families : those which are constant in all siphono- phors are the stomachs, the prehensile apparatus, and the sexual capsules. The stem is muscular, and hollow — the interior forming a canal in which the nutrient fluid moves with rapidity. The swim- ming apparatus is either passive or active — when passive it is a hydrostatic apparatus consisting of a bladder filled with air which is always placed at the upper extremity of the common stem : when active it consists of swimming-bells, which are also placed at the upper extremity of the stem, and are variously grouped, and in variable number in different genera : the swimming-bells may exist conjointly with the air-sac or without it. These bells are, in general, formed on the plan of a Medusa, consisting of an elastic bell-shaped mantle, very various in form, with an internal mus- cular- layer which surrounds the swimming-sac. On the outer sur- face of the latter, there is a system of four radiating vessels, which, at the circumference of the aperture, fall into a circular vessel, and at the summit of the bell arise from a single vessel, which passes through the pedicle of the bell and falls into the cavity of the com- mon stem. All the other appendages of the stem have also a more or less perfect system of vessels, which communicate with the inter- nal cavity of the stem in a similar way. The only communications SEA-NETTLES. 103 from without with the cavity of the stem are by the mouths of the digestive tubes, which answer to the bodies of polyps. The food digested by these stomachal polyps is conveyed from their extremity into the cavity of the stem, from whence it is carried through the vessels of all the appendages, partly by the contractility of the walls of the stem, partly by the action of the cilia which line the vessels of the appendages. The polyps, or suctorial tubes, or stomachs, have no tentacles round the mouth. They consist of three portions; the external, very variable in form, the proboscis and mouth : the middle swollen portion, the digestive stomach, with dark streaks containing bile- cells : the terminal rounded portion, with thick cellular walls. At the base of the stomach, or sometimes immediately on the common stem, is the prehensile apparatus for the capture of prey. This usually consists, for each polyp, of a single long and thin thread with lateral subdivisions, which do not branch ; more rarely of sim- ple threads or shorter cylinders. This apparatus is always supplied with multitudes of thread-cells, which in the case of lateral acces- sories are grouped in very regular and constant forms, and are con- spicuous from their bright yellow colour. The sexual appendages have large swimming bells of the general medusan form. They consist of a bell-shaped mantle and vessels — and a nucleus, more or less conspicuous, which contains in its substance the sexual ele- ments, and is dependent from the vertex like the clapper of a bell. In some cases the medusan form of the mantle is in great measure suppressed, whilst in others it is quite complete, and here the sexual appendage is detached at an early period, as in certain hydroid polyps, and the sexual elements are developed afterwards : where the medusan form is not thus perfect, the contents of the sexual capsules, when detached, are found to be mature. The Diphyidce are, according to LEUCKART, all uni-sexual, but the observations of GEGENBAUER (Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool. v. p. 313) shew that some at least have the organs of different sexes on different groups of the same stem : the Physophoridce are all bi-sexual, in some (Stephanomia) the organs of the two sexes being on different pedi- cles, in others (Physalia) on the same pedicle. The organs of less general occurrence are the Bracts, Laminae or Covers, and the Feelers. The Bracts or Covers, more solid than the other organs, are for their protection : they contribute little 104 CLASS III. to the motion of the colony, but sway gently to and fro with the contractions of the stem. The Feelers are cylindrical or vermiform structures having much resemblance to the polyps, but without an external opening. In some cases they are in constant motion, feeling about in all directions : in others they are more sluggish and are loaded with the general nutrient fluid. The latter fact would seem to suggest a respiratory function. Some writers have considered them to be receptacles for the fluid forced from the interior of the prehensile apparatus during its violent contractions : and hence the name, sometimes given to them, of fluid-holders. But it has been objected to this explanation, that the two sets of organs are often at great distances from each other, and that their alternate action has not been established. The composition of all the organs in the Siphonophors cor- responds to that of the other acalephs. As in these, the specific gravity of the mass differs little from that of sea-water. The shell found in some families, (velella, porpita] is the thickened and hard- ened wall of the air-sac1.] On the Nervous System of Acalephs, the observations are hitherto imperfect. In the Medusae EHRENBERG observed, at the base of each of the eight marginal corpuscles which he takes to be eyes, a part which he considers to be a ganglion. Each of these ganglia is double, or consists of two limbs that diverge towards the marginal corpuscle. Besides these a row of ganglia lies near the tentacles at the margin of the disc ; every ganglion divides into two twigs, each of them for one of two adjoining tentacles: so that every tentacle receives two nervous twigs coming from different ganglia. This ring of ganglia round the margin is interrupted by the larger double ganglia of the marginal corpuscles. Moreover, EHRENBERG saw four groups of ganglia lying in the cavities for the four genital organs and in connexion with the tentacles of these cavities. EHRENBERG could not detect a nervous ring round the mouth, the usual form of the nervous system in Eaclials2. Some writers are of opinion that it by no means follows from these obser- vations that the parts so described are really nerves. GRANT de- scribed in Cydippe pileus a nervous ring with eight ganglia, each 1 Corap. LEUCKART Zoologische Untersuchungen, s. 3 — 41 ; KOELLIKER in Zeit. f. Wissmsch. Zool. iv. s. 306 — 315. 2 EHRENBEBG Die Aka-lepken- &c. s. 25, 26. SEA-NETTLES. 105 giving off three nerves, of which the largest ran lengthwise between two bands of cilia1 close to the external surface of the body; but a later observer, F. WILL, was not so fortunate as to find this system of nerves. On the contrary he detected a conical ganglion above the funnel-shaped structure from whence the water-canals arise, consequently opposite to the mouth. From this ganglion many fine threads arise, to be distributed to the substance of the body and its different parts. In the same situation MILNE EDWARDS also saw a ganglion in the genus Lesueuria, from which numerous nerves, collected into four bundles, arose2. EHRENBERG considers the eight prominent organs, situated in Medusas, at the edge of the disc, to be eyes : they contain a sandy or stony concrement, a quantity of minute hexagonal prismatic crystals composed of carbonate of lime. Such calcareous concre- ments are often found in the animal organism in the neighbourhood of nerves ; as for instance in Frogs by the sides of the vertebral column near the exit of the spinal nerves. A red pigment which moreover generally distinguishes these marginal corpuscles, (it is sometimes wanting,) caused EHRENBERG to conjecture that they were eyes3. There is more probability in KOELLIKER'S idea, that they are to be considered as auditory organs4. Even in vertebrates little stones or grit of carbonate of lime are found in the auditory sac or vestibule of the membranous Labyrinth. In Beroe and the allied genera only a single organ of the sort is found, a pedunculated vesicle with calcareous crystals at that end of the body which is opposite to the mouth5. The apparatus for motion consists of transparent muscular fibres, having sometimes a longitudinal, sometimes a circular course : they exhibit the same microscopic transverse stripes which are characteristic of the voluntary muscles of higher creatures6. Several of the Animals belonging to this Class are phospho- rescent. According to EHRENBERG the Arabians on the Red Sea 1 Trans. oftkeZooloy. Soc. London,!. 1833, P- IO- 2 Ann. des sc. not. IQ S£rie, Tom. xvi. Zoolog. p. 206. 3 Die AkalepJicn, s. 14. 4 FRORIEP'S Neue Notizen, xxv. Bd. (Januar. 1843) s- 8l — 84- 5 MILNE EDWARDS, 1. 1., WILL, Horce Tcrgest. s. 45, 46. 6 WAGNER Ban der Pelagia noctiluca ; his Tab. Zoot. xxxm. fig. 30 ; WILL, 1. 1. s. 46—49- 106 CLASS III. name the entire family of Medusae Sea- Candles (Kandil el Bahr1). Bosc, and other writers after him, went too far when they main- tained that all Medusa, nay all Acalephes (EscHSCHOLTz) are phosphorescent. Still, not Medusse alone, but other Acalephes also do possess this property : the phenomenon has been observed in species of Beroe ( Cydippe pileus, Eucharis multicornis, &c.) : Ste- phanomia also diffuses a lively light by night. This phosphorescence is a vital phenomenon, and ceases on the death of the animals : though some of them, like other organic substances, are luminous even after death ; but that light is of a different nature from phos- phorescence during life. Thus WILL, for instance, saw Beroe ru- fescens emit a light after death, which differed by its bluish-green colour from the yellowish-red irradiations of the living animal. Dead Acalephce, or mucus arising from decomposition of animal sub- stances, can contribute little or nothing to the gorgeous spectacle of the illumination of the sea, of which so many voyagers have given striking descriptions : the chief cause of the brilliant sparks resides in minute marine animals, especially Medusae, like the species which SURIRAY named Noctiluca miliaris, and which, being not larger than a pin's head, looks like a globule of mucus to the naked eye2. Acalephes are met with in all seas. A very large number of species occur in the Mediterranean belonging to the most different forms. In the seas of the cold and temperate zones scarcely any Siphonophorce are found, at least not in the northern hemisphere ; however the currents may occasionally bring with them southern forms from a distance, as is proved by the fact that OWEN, on the south-west coast of England, observed Velella and Porpita, and HYNDMAN, on the coast of Ireland, Diphyes3. Some species are widely diffused, asAurelia aurita, and Cyancea capillata: the first was 1 EHBENBERG das Leuchten des Meeres, s. 146. Comp. especially on this subject the work already quoted p. 53, so instructive as well from the author's own observa- tions as from the extensive use he has made of earlier works. 3 [VAN BENEDEN refers Noctiluca miliaris not to the Acalephes but rather to the Rhizopoda; see note by Dr SCHLEGEL in the german translation of this work, p. 106.] 3 OWEN Lectures on the comp. Anat. of the invertebr. Animals, 1843, P- IO2 ; HYND- MAN Note on the occurrence of the Genus Diphya on the coast of Ireland, Ann. of Nat. Hist. vii. 1841. p. 164. SEA-NETTLES. 107 found by EHRENBERG in the Red Sea, and he could not discover any difference between it and that found in the northern and the Baltic seas. Oftentimes many species of Medusae are collected in such quantities at certain places, that they form as it were banks in the sea, which it requires days to sail through1. In fine calm weather Medusae come to the surface : during storms they seek the quieter waters of the depths. 1 PERON d LESUEUE Annales du Mus. xiv. p. 222 ; such a bank of Medusa aurita, in the Baltic at the mouth of the Weichsel was also described by V. SIEBOLD, Beitr. z, Naturgesch. der wirbellosen Thiere, s. 5. SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF ACALEPH^. CLASS III. ACALEPH^E. GELATINOUS animals, swimming freely. Stomach included in the parenchyme of the body, without an abdominal cavity ; canals arising from the stomach, filled with water. Ovaries and testes in one and the same individual or the sexes distinct without organs of copulation. Vestiges of a nervous system not always distinct. Arrangement of parts usually quaternarian. ORDER I. SiphonopJiorce. [Swimming Polyps without tentacles round the mouth, attached to a common stem of variable length, and moving freely by means of special swimming apparatus, with prehensile filaments, feelers, and protective covers or bracts, or some only of these organs, attached mediately or immediately to the same common stem.] This first order includes the A caUphes hydrostatiques of CUVIER and a part of his Acalephes simples. Family I. Velellidce or Chondrophorce. Common body, sup- ported by a cartilaginous1 lamina, which is cellular internally. The part of the body which faces upward is supported by a disc, which in Porpita is even in some degree calcareous, and con- f1 The disc contains horny substance, not cartilage, according to LEUCKART.] ACALEPHJE. 109 tains cells which are full of air. Above, this disc is covered by the integument alone; below, it sustains all the parts of which the [compound] animal consists. [The shell of Velella with its horizontal and perpendicular plates consists of a single piece. The thicker horizontal portion is formed of two lamiiise connected by perpendicular concentric pieces, so that annular canals are formed which are filled with air. These canals communicate with each other in Velella, but not in Porpita : in both they open externally by many minute pores on the upper surface. The soft parts constitute a mantle which covers the shell and projects beyond its edge by a free border. At the inferior excavated portion of the shell, the mantle has on its outside the attached polyps and appendages, on the inside the large liver. The polyps are of two sorts, a single large and central polyp, and many small ones disposed around it in irregular rows. They have been designated " stomachs " and " suctorial tubes." But observers do not agree respecting their function. LESSON attributes to both sets a digestive power, Voyage de la Goquille, pp. 49 — 56, and Acalephes p. 561 : whilst Y. SIEBOLD Vergl. Anat. s. 63, note, thinks that the smaller polyps alone discharge the office of digestion, and consigns the large one to the respiratory system : and HOLLAED Ann. des Sc. Nat. T. in. 1845, p. 250, says that the large central pouch is the stomach and the small ones canaux aquiferes. KOELLIKER however assures us that he has found small Crustacea both in the large and the small tubes, and has seen the residue of digestion pass from them all indifferently. Consequently we conclude with him and others, that the Velellidce are colonies or compound animals. The liver is a large brownish mass placed above the central stomach : it fills the inferior cavity of the horizontal plate. It is a collection of fine canals formed of homogeneous membrane lined with brown cells. A certain number of the canals branch from two openings in the base of the central polyp : they frequently anastomose and form a network on the surface of the liver from which fine vessels pass to the perpendicular plate and to the margin of the horizontal plate (Velella). These vessels, then, would seem to have received the nutriment which has passed from the central stomach into the liver-canals, for the purpose of redistribution to the soft parts when it has been modified by the biliary secretion. Of the smaller polyps a few, which hang beneath that part of the liver which projects beyond the large polyp, open into liver-canals: but the 110 CLASS III. greater part of them have no connexion with these canals, or with the central polyp, but lateral branches of the vessels open into their pedicles, so that they at once give the product of digestion to the vascular system. In Porpita the lesser polyps open into liver-canals and not into vessels. The generative organs are seated, as clusters of minute bodies, on the pedicles of the smaller polyps. They become transparent and pyramidal, and having gradually assumed the medusan form are detached. They were first noticed by DELLE CHIAJE, Descriz. iv. p. 107, Tav. 146, fig. 10, 12. The sexual germs are formed on the wall of the radiating vessels. HUXLEY, GEGENBAUER, 1. 1. The prehensive organs are placed around the lesser polyps on the horizontal margin of the mantle. They are hollow and open into a vessel like the lesser polyps. They have no special nettle-nodes, but numerous scattered thread-cells. The air-canals were discovered by KROHN ; they are minute vessels which pass from the innermost air-spaces of the horizontal cartilage, perforate the mass of the liver, and reach the walls of the polyps where they appear to terminate by closed extremities. They are most numerous in Porpita. See KOELLIKER Die Siphonoph. pp. 46 — 64.] Velella LAM. A semi-orbicular crest, compressed, containing a cartilage within, placed obliquely albove the disc. Marginal ten- tacles simple. Sp. Velella spirans, Medusa velella L., Holoth. spirans FORSK. Icon. Rer. nalur. Tab. xxvi. fig. k, Armenistarium velella COSTA Ann. des Sc. nat. sec. se'rie, Tom. XVI. PI. 13, fig. 3, (figure of the vessels from the stomachs on the inferior surface of the cartilaginous disc), in the Mediterranean. According to FORSKAL the French sailors call the animal Vallette: they eat it fried with flour and butter. The name Velella appears to be derived from velum and from the crest, which like a full-spread sail, adorns the upper surface. The beautiful blue colour of the animal is imparted to the water in which it is examined, but disappears in spirit of wine. During life the creature is not unattractive ("non invenusta est quantum vermi licet," FORSK. Descr. Animal, p. 105) ; see the coloured figure of LESUEUR in PERON, Voyage aux terres austr. PI. xxx. fig. 6. (This species is from the Tropical Seas, Velella scaphidia PERON). For the other species, not easily to be distinguished, of this genus, consult chiefly ESCHSCHOLTZ Syst. der Acalephen, s. 168 — 175. Subgen. Rataria ESCHSCH. Crest membranous, placed longitudi- nally on the disc. ACALEPH.E. Ill Note. If the figures in FORSKAL, Tab. xxvi. fig. k^, k^ k$, belong to a young Velella, as appears from the explanation of the plate, this genus must be suppressed ; which is BLAINVILLE'S opinion. Porpita LAM. The Lamina cartilaginous (?), circular, marked with concentric stride decussated radially. Marginal tentacles appendiculate. Sp. Porpita mediterranea ESCHSCH., Porp. Forskalii, DE HAAN, Hoi. denu- data FORSK. Icon. Rer. nat. Tab. xxvi. fig. L., in the Mediterranean ; — Porp. umbella ESCHSCH., Porp. gigantea PE'RON, Voy. aux terres austr. PI. xxxi. fig. 6, in the Tropical Seas ; Porp. chrysocoma LESS., GUERIN Iconogr., Zoophytes, PL xvin. f. 2. — (Medusa Porpita L. is merely the cartilaginous disc of some species of this genus.) Family II. Physsophoridce (Hydrostatica Cuv.) Body sus- pended in the water by means of a swim-bladder or of receptacles filled with air. Bladder-bearers. The opinion that these animals are able to expel the air from the air-bladder at will was rendered doubtful, as a general rule, by OLFEKS, who could find no opening in the large bladder of Physalia. [Subsequent observations however have deter- mined that Physalia is the only one of the Physsophoridce whose bladder does really communicate with the external air. But, though there be no such communication in the rest, LEUCKART states that in many of them (and he believes it to be true of all) the air may be readily caused to pass from the cavity of the bladder into that of the common stem, by the expansion of the upper extremity of which the air-bladder is in all cases surrounded. a) with short stem or axis without swimming bells. Physalia LAM. Swimming bladder very large, crested above, with an aperture at one extremity : the whole of the common stem expanded so as to form a receptacle for it : from the inferior surface of the expanded stem the polyps are suspended together with feelers and prehensile organs, of different thickness and of great length.] /Sea-bladder. The colony swims constantly on the surface of the sea, and for that purpose makes use of the crest on the top of the bladder as a sail. Hence its name, het bezaantje, the Portuguese man of war, la petite galere, &c. If in the nomenclature we ought strictly to hold to priority, then this genus ought to be named 112 CLASS III. Salacia, for thus LINN^US announced it in the earlier editions of his Syst. Nat. ; in the tenth and following editions it is no longer met with, and LINNJEUS afterwards arranged the species known to him under the genus Holothuria. VON OLFERS especially threw much light upon the organisation of this genus by the investigation of Physalia caravella ESCHSCH. (Phys. arethusa TILES.) A Physalia has two bladders, the internal is filled with air, and was described by OLFERS as perfectly closed; the external has an aperture situated at one extremity and surrounded by a sphincter. [QUATREFAGES has described the action of this sphincter muscle, and the connexion of both bladders with the aperture ; he also caused the air contained in the interior bladder to be analysed, and found that it contained less of oxygen than atmospheric air by about 3 per cent. : the animal appeared to be able to expel the air volunta- rily at intervals, and to distend the bladder again after a short time: it would therefore seem to be a respiratory organ for the colony : the air-bladder is surrounded on all sides by the external bladder or envelope, which is in fact the expanded stem of the colony : with the under surface of this the various appendages are connected, and into its cavity the cavities of them, all open more or less directly : the bladder in Physalia did not appear to QUATREFAGES * to be merely a passive organ, for besides the power of emptying and distending it the animal seemed to be able to direct the fluid contained in the cavity of the appendages into this or that bundle of them at will, and so to alter the position of the center of gravity of the bladder, and by thus bringing different regions of it to the surface to steer its course.] The larger and smaller tentacles are capable of extension and contraction, and serve probably for feeling and seizing. Small clumps of red corpuscles, which are situated between the larger tentacles, are, according to OLFERS, eggs : but the sexual organs of the Physsophoridce require further investigation. See v. OLFERS in Physical. Abhavdl. der Koniyl. Akademic der Wissenscft. zu Berlin a. d. Jahre 1831, Berlin 1832, s. 155 — 200. Comp. also on this genus J. C. VAN HASSELT in Algem. Kunst. en Letter- bode 1828, No. 44, 45 ; F. W. EYSENHABDT, Nov. Act. Acad. Ca>s. Leop. 1 Ann. des Sc. not. 30 Se'rie, Tom. 11. p. 1 15. ACALEPH.E. 113 Carol Tom. x. s. 410 — 416, Tab. xxxv. fig. 42 ; ESCHSCHOLTZ in o. v. KOTZEBUE'S Entdedcungs-veise in. 1821, s. 193, and Syst. der Acalephen, s. 157 — 164. LEUCKAKT in ZeitscJir. fur Wiessensck. Zoologie in. 189—213. Athorylia EsCHSCH. (Eliodophysa BLAINV.) [The motor organ of the colony a coronet of solid bracts, or covers, fixed to the stem immediately beneath the air-bladder. Polyps, feelers and prehen- sile filaments attached to the very short remainder of the stem. Sp. Athorybia rosacca ESCHSCH. KOELLIKEE Die Siphonoph. Tab. vn. The Polyps are not nearly as numerous as the bracts. In large colonies KOEL- LIKER could not count more than eight of them whilst the bracts numbered 20 — 40. They are seated in the space covered by the bracts, and with their points project somewhat beyond them when the coronet opens, but lie entirely concealed when it closes. The feelers are more numerous than the polyps (n — 20), long and nearly filiform, and play between the bracts when they open. The lateral stibdivisions of the prehensile organs terminate by two filaments. b) with short axis or stem and swimming bells. Pliyssophora FORSK. Several swimming bells disposed verticil- lately round the common stem. The polyps with feelers and prehensile organs, but without bracts (GEGENBAUER), attached to the remainder of the stem immediately below the swimming column.] Physsophora (from (f)vj.—Diph. Sieboldei KOELL. Die Siphon, v. Messina, s. 36 — 41. Taf. xi. fig. i — 8. — Diph. gra- cilis GEGENB. Zeitschr. f. w. Zool. v. s. 313 — 315. Taf. xvi. fig. 5 7. Diph. Kochii WILL Hor. Tergest. Tab. 11. f. 22 — 26 ; figured without the posterior portion which WILL did not meet with in any one of the six speci- mens examined by him1. Abyla ESCHSCH. QUOY and GAIMARD (Calpe of the same). The two swimming bells of very different size, the anterior much the smaller. The bracts cover the members of the groups imper- fectly, are massive, and have a cavity communicating with the stem. Sp. AlyU pentagona ESCHSCH., KOELLIKER Die Siph. v. Mess. s. 41—46, Tab. X. ; here the single polyps have no covers : see a complete specimen described and figured in LEUCKART Zool. Untersuch., i. s. 56—61, Taf. nr. fig. i— 10. The bracts, or covers, which are not visible on the polyps at 1 Compare also on this genus LESSON Centurie Zoologique, 1830, p. 161 183, PL 55—57- ACALEPH^E. 119 the upper part of the stem, undergo remarkable metamorphoses after their first appearance as buds until they attain the cubical form, when the group of which it forms a part exactly resembles a young Eudoxia cuboides, QUOY and GAIM. See also GEGENBATJER Zeitsck. fur wiss. Zool. v. s. -292 — 295. Praya LESSON. The two swimming pieces of the colony nearly similar and equal, the covers of the developed groups bounded by round surfaces above and concave beneath. Sp. Praya diphyes LESS., KOELLIKEE Die Siphon, von Mess. s. 33 — 36, Taf. ix. — Praya maxima GEGENB. Zeitsck. f. wissensch. Zool. v. s. 301 — 309, Taf. xvn. fig. i — 6. The genera Eudoxia, Erscea, Aglaisma ESCHSCH., which have only a single polyp, have been termed monogastric diphyidce by HUXLEY ; but it is almost certain that they are not independent genera. It has been noted above, when treating of Abyla penta- gona, that a single group of this compound diphyes exactly resem- bles Eudoxia cuboides; and here the groups have been seen to detach themselves from the colony both by LEUCKART and by GEGEN- BAUER — as indeed the same fact had previously been observed by SARS in his Diphyes truncata. Eudoxia campanulata is believed by LEUCKART to be a group of Diph. acuminata, a new species observed by him at Nice j whilst he has found that Aglaisma pentagonum is not a monogastric diphyes, but an imperfectly developed Abyla pen- tagona, see Zoologisch. Untersuch. s. 54. Erscea is suspected by LEUCKART to be a detached group of Diphyes Koch. WILL. Eudoxia (&c.) consists of a cover or bract, a polyp with its pre- hensile organs, a swimming bell (sexual capsule), and usually a smaller bell sprouting from the base of the polyp, which is destined to replace the larger when this has been detached. These parts are all connected by their canals to a portion of common stem.] Sp. Erscea pyramidalis WILL, i. 1. fig. 27, &c. ; — Comp. LEUCKART Zool. Untersuch. i. s. 43 — 61, GEGENBAUER Zeitsck. f. wiss. Zool. v. 285 — 296. ORDER II. Ctenophorce, or Beroecea. Mouth simple, stomach situated in the axis of the body. Vibra- tile cilia disposed in rows on the surface of the body. Swimming bladders none. The Beroecious animals are Acalephs of very different form, which, however, are distinguished from the former order by the absence of swimming bladders [bells] and cartilaginous laminse, as 120 CLASS III. well as suctorial mouths : [they are single animals, in short, and not colonies.] The projecting edges, usually named ribs (costce) which are beset with cilia, especially characterise this family : whence the German name Rippenquallen. Whether these vibratile cilia, whi«h occasionally are so arranged as to form vibrating laminae, do really cause the progression of these animals, as is usually assumed, is in consequence of the objections raised by MERTENS and by WILL (Iforce Tergest. s. 8 — 13) exceedingly doubtful. The name Eeroe given by BROWN (Nat. Hist, of Jamaica) to the animal discovered by him in the middle of the last century, is borrowed from Mythology ; it is that of one of the numerous daughters of Oceanus : Clioque et Beroe soror, Oceanitides ambo. — VIRGIL, Georgic. Lib. iv. 341. Comp. on this order : RANG, Etdblissement de la Famille des Beroides et description de deux genres nouveaux qui lui appartiennent ; Memoires de la Soc. d'Hist. nat. de Paris, Tom. iv. 1828, pp. 166 — 173, PI. 19, 20. MERTENS Beobachtungen und UntersucTiungen uber die ~beroeartigen Aca- lepken, Mem. de I'Acad. imp. des sc. de St. Petersbourg, sc. pJiysiq. sixieme s^rie, Tom. n. 1838, pp. 479 — 543, Taf. i. — xm. (A copious extract may be found in OKEN'S Isis, 1836, s. 311 — 321.) LESSON, Mem. sur la famille des Beroides, Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e se"rie, Tom. vi. Zool. 1836, PP- 235—266. Family V. Beroidea. (The characters of the order are those of the single family.) A) Stomach small. Cestum LESUEUR. Body transverse, elongate, gelatinous, with ciliated margins. Sp. Cestum Veneris LESUEUR Nouv. Bullet, de la soc. philom. Juin, 1813, PI. v. (Recus. in OKEN'S Isis, 1817, s. 1505 — 1508, Tab. xn.) GUE'RIN, Iconogr. Zooph. PI. 18, fig. i. (after a drawing by LAURILLARD) in the Mediterranean. This girdle of Venus has the form of a band of more than five feet long, and full two inches high. In the thinner inferior edge is situated the oral aperture (opposite to the place assigned to it by LESUEUR in the thicker superior edge). In Cestum Najadis ESCHSCH. Acal. Tab. I. fig. i, from the South-Sea, near the Line, two long tentacula beset with fine threads are present, which in the species from the Mediterranean are often, and in Cestum Amphitrites MERTENS (1.1. Tab. i.) are (always ?) wanting. The genus Lemniscus QUOY and GAIM. is probably founded on a detached piece of Cestum. ACALEPH^E. 121 Callianira PERON. Body lobate or supplied with lateral wing's. Subgenera : EucJiaris ESCHSCH., Leucotkea MERTENS, Mnemia * ESCH. (Alcinoe RANG), Lesueuria MILNE EDW., Calymma ESCHSCH. (Ocyroe RANG), Callianira PEKON, ESCHSCH. In bringing these numerous genera together, and giving greater extension to the name Callianira, than has been done by former writers, my sole object is to facilitate the review, and at the same time to indicate the affinity of these animals. Beyond doubt the genera are too numerous here. The genus Buceplialon of LESSON (Callianira bucephalon REYNAUD, LESS. Centur. zool. PL 28) also belongs here, and probably does not differ from Calymma Trevirani. Sp. Callianira hexagona ESCHSCH., Chilian. Slabberi DE HAAN, Natuur- kundige Bijdragen II. 1827, pp. 150 — 152 ; this species has been con- founded with Beroe hexayonus of BRUGUIERES (found at Madagascar). In the genus Callianira proper, there are two filiform branched tentacles ; the other subgenera have mostly four conical or triangular ciliated tentacles. Cydippe ESCHSCH. (B&roe FEEMINVILLE, MERTENS.) Body globose or ovate, with eight longitudinal, ciliated ribs. Tentacles two, retractile within two subcutaneous vesicles. Sp. Cydippe pUeus, Beroe pileus MUELL., Volvox bicaudatus L. ; L. TH. GRONOVIUS in Uitgezochte Verhandelingen Amsterd. 1758, in. p. 464, PI. 26, f. i— 5 ; BASTER Natuurk. Uitsp. i. PL xiv. fig. vi. vn. ; Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Zooph. PL 56, fig. 2, &c. (Since the vesicles, in which the tentacles lie, open towards that extremity of the body which is opposite to the mouth, the nervous ring (?) described by GRANT, cannot surround the mouth, (see above, p. 104). The tentacles are able to lengthen themselves greatly ; why ESCHSCHOLTZ describes them as indivisa, is not apparent ; at least in most species they are much divided. J5) Stomach large. A circle of vessels (aqueducts) round the oral aperture. Beroe ESCHSCH. (spec, of the genus Beroe GRONOV., MUELL. and others) Idya FREMINV., OKEN, MERTENS. Body oval, ribbed, with large circular aperture beneath. Sp. Beroe ovata BROWN, not. Hist, of Jamaica, PI. xiv. fig. i ; (this animal was the first named Beroe ; LINN^US named it in the tenth edit, of the Syst. Nat., Medusa Beroe, in the twelfth (1767) Volvox Beroe); — Beroe ForsTcalii, Medusa Beroe Forsk., MILNE EDW. Ann. des sc. not. i* s^rie, Tom. xvi. Zool. PL 5, 6 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. illustr., Zooph. PL 56, fig. i, &c. 122 CLASS III. ORDER III. Discophorce. Body disciform or campanulate, above naked, below usually provided with arms or tentacles. The Meduso'ids or Sea-blubber. They have a gelatinous disc, on the upper surface more or less spherical, which from its form has been compared to an umbrella or a hood ; the form has some re- semblance to toad-stools (agarici). These animals move themselves by expansion and contraction of the hood. The mouth, or the suc- torial organs which take the place of the mouth, are situated in the center of the inferior surface, sometimes elongated into a pedicle and provided with different tentacles. On this difference are founded the numerous genera which modern writers have felt jus- tified in adopting. Compare on this order : PERON et LESUEUR, Tableau des carac- teres generiques et specifiques de toutes les espeees de Meduses con- nues jusqu'a cejour. Annal. du Museum xiv. 1809, pp. 325 — 366. J. F. BRANDT, Ausfiihrliche Beschreibung der von C. H. MERTENS auf seiner Weltumsegelung beobachteten Schirmquallen ; mit 34 meist colorirten Tafeln. St Petersburg, 1838, 4 to (from the Mem. de HAcad. des Sc. de St. Petersburg, vie. Serie, Tom. iv.) A) Many oscules. Family VI. Geryonidce. A peduncle from the center of the inferior surface of the disciform body, with the free extremity lobate, or furnished with arms. The border of the body mostly tentaculate. ( Genus Diancea LAM.) It is not so completely established that all the forms here brought together are really characterised by the absence of a simple mouth. WILL at least, in the animals placed by him in the genus Geryonia, found a mouth surrounded by four lobes. In some the pedicle is supplied at its extremity with a folded appendage (Geryonia), in others at its base, or at its extremity, it is beset with threads : Favonia, Lymnorea, &c. Genera : Geryonia PERON, Proboscidactyla BRANDT, Diancea, Linuche ESCHSCH., Sajihenia ESCHSCH., Eirene ESCHSCH., Limnorcea PERON, Favonia PERON. ACALEPH^E. 123 Sp. Geryonia proboscidalis, Medusa proboscidalis FORSK. Icon, rer. not. Tab. 36, fig. i ; GUERIN Iconogr., Zooph. PI. 16, fig. i ; CUVIER, R. Anim., edit, illustr., Zooph., PI. 52, fig. 3. This species from the Mediterranean, with six threads or tentacles at the margin of the disc, may be considered as the type of this division. Family VII. Ehizostomidce. Arms ramose, with many suc- torial oseules. Margin of the body without tentacles. Disc with four ovaria or testes, sometimes (in Cassiopea) eight. Rhizostoma Cuv. Tentacles amongst the arms none; arms confluent into one pedicle inserted in the disc. Sp. Rhizostoma Cuvierii, REAUMUR Mem. de VAcad. des sc. de Paris, 1710, PI. xi. fig. 27, 28 ; CUVIER Journ. de Physique Tom. XLIX. p. 436; Cuv. R. Anim. edit. ill. Zooph. PI. 49. This species sometimes attains to a great size. The Rhizostoma has four pairs of suctorial arms, which are provided with absorbent vessels ; by these it receives its nutriment, which consequently consists of minute animalcules, or of animal matters in solution. These absorbent vessels and their branches coalesce into four stems, which run along the pedicle and end in the stomach. From the stomach run laterally vessels through the hood. Surrounding the stomach are four cavities, with very wide opening below, in which the organs of propagation are seated. The uppermost portion of the hood consists of a substance more firm than the rest of the body. See K. W. EYSENHARDT, Zur Anatomic und Naturgeschichte der Quatten, Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Carol. Nat. Curios. T. x. pp. 375, &c. with figures. Rhizostoma Aldrovandi PE'RON, GUERIN Iconogr. , Zooph. PI. 15, fig. i, &c. Cassiopea PERON. Tentacles amongst the arms none. Arms eight or ten, very much branched, not conjoined at the base into a peduncle, furnished with vesicular appendages. Sp. Cassiopea frondosa, Medusa frondosa PALL., Spic. Zool. x. Tab. II. fig. i — 3 ; Cassiopea borbonica DELLE CHIAJE, Memorie sulla storia e notomia degli Animali senza vertebre del Regno di Napoli, I. 1823. Tab. in. ; GUERIN Icon. Zooph., PI. 15, fig. 2 ; Cuv. R. Anim. edit, illustr., Zooph. PI. 51, fig. 2, &c. (See other figures of TILESIUS Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. Natur. Curios. Tom. XV. 2. 1831, pp. 247 — 288, Tab. 69 — 73. Cephea PERON. Large cirri amongst the arms. Sp. Cephea cyclophora PERON. Medusa cephea FORSK. Icon. rer. not. Tab. xxix. fig. (copied in Cuv. R. Anim. edit, illustr., Zooph. PI. 51, fig. 4) &c, B) Mouth single central. Family VIII. Medusidea. Mouth tetragonal central. Arms four, mostly very distinct, very rarely none. Four lateral cavities in the disc, open beneath, inclosing the genital organs. 124 CLASS III. This family nearly coincides with the genus Gyancea Cuv. The four openings beneath the disc, conducting to the cavities which contain the organs for propagation, were by PERON and LAMARCK incorrectly considered to be four mouths. Cyancea Cuv. (and species of the genus Pelagia ejusd.) Genera : Sthenonia ESCHSCH., PhaceUophora BR., Cyancea ESCHSCH., Aurelia PERON; Pelagia PERON, Chrysaora PERON, Ephyra ESCHSCH. (Euryale and Ephyra PERON.) Sp. Cyancea aurita, Medusa aurita L. ; MUELLER Zoolog. danic. Tab. 76, 77 ; EHRENB. Abhandl. der Alcad. zu Berlin, physik. Klasse 1835 ; Cuv. R. Anim. edit, ill., Zooph. The four arms are considerably longer in old than in younger specimens ; these arms consist of two laminae crumpled at the edges, which during life face each other in such a way as to form a canal ; after death they are flaccid and parted asunder. The disc is not quite circular, but in some degree divided by indentations of the margin into eight lobes. The four arms unite at the center of the body to form a circular aperture : this mouth leads to the stomach, which has four lateral cavities. From the stomach there run sixteen vessels to the margin of the disc, of which eight, divided into branches, alternate with eight others un- divided and open at the margin. In addition, there are eight corpuscles at the margin, which EHRENBERG considers to be eyes, and which were noticed above. This species is found in the North Sea and the Baltic. Comp. H. M. GAEDE Beitrdge zur Anatomie und Physiologic der Medusen, mit i Kupfertafeln, Berlin, 1816, 8vo ; BAER Ueber Medusa aurita, MECKEL'S Archiv fur die Physiol. vm. 1823, s. 369—391, with fig. ; F. KOSENTHAL Beitrag zur Anatomie der Quallen, Zeitschrift fur Physiol., herausgegeben von F. TIEDEMANN, G. R. und L. C. TREVIRANUS, I. 2, 1825, s. 318 — 330, with fig. Gyancea capillata, Medusa capillata, BASTER Natuurk. Uitsp. n., Tab. v. fig. i. Pelagia noctiluca ESCHSCH., Medusa noctiluca FORSK., WAGNER Bau der Pelag. noctiluca and Icon. Zool. Tab. XXXIII. ; in the Mediterranean, &c. Ephyra ESCHSCH., probably rests on young forms of Cyancea; comp. WILL Hor. Tergesl. Tab. n. fig. 20, and SARS in ERICHSON'S Archiv, 1841, Tab. n. Family IX. Oceanidce. Disc without lateral cavities to in- close generative organs. Body campanulate. Mouth and oeso- phagus often elongated into a proboscis. Arms conspicuous or lobes around the mouth. Canals proceeding from the stomach elongate. ACALEPH^E. 125 Oceania PEKON (with the addition of several species, and other genera). Subgenera : Oceania PERON, Circe MERTENS, Conis BRANDT, Callirhoe PERON, Thaumantias ESCHSCH., Tima ESCHSCH., Melicer- tum OKEN, Cytceis ESCHSCH., Phorcynia PERON. Sp. Oceania marsupialis ESCHSCH., Medusa marsupialis L. ; PLANC. de Conch, min. not. Tab. iv. fig. 5 ; MILNE EDWAKDS, Ann. des Sc. not. xxvm. 1833, pp. 248 — 266, PI. ii — 13, Mediterranean; — Callirhoe Basteriana PEKON, BASTER NatuurTc. Uitsp. n. Tab. v. fig. 2, 3, &c. Family X. JEquoridce. Disc without lateral cavities, inclosing organs of generation. Body depresso-campanulate or plane. Mouth and oesophagus not elongated into a proboscis. Arms none or little evolved. Stomach with sacculated appendages or canals radiating, elongate, numerous. ^Equorea PERON, Cuv. Subgenera : JEquorea PERON, Stomobrachium BRANDT, Mesonema ESCHSCH., Eurybia ESCHSCH., Polyxena ESCHSCH. Sp. JEquorea Forskalina ESCHSCH., Medusa aquorea FORSK. Icon. rer. not. Tab. xxxn. ;—JEquorea violacea MILNE EDWARDS Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e serie, Tom. xvi. Zool. pp. 193 — 199 ; Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Zooph. PL 72 ; the margin has many conical cirri, the mouth is wide and round ; from the stomach proceed about eighty long undivided rays (water-canals), which run towards the margin, and appear to open on a small conical point between two cirri. The genital organs are situated below on the disc, on each side of every ray as folded borders, but they do not extend as far as the margin. (EsCHSCHOLTZ divided the Discophorce into Cryptocarpce and Phanerocarpce, Syst. der Acal. p. 41 ; to the last, which have the sexual organs placed crucially in the disc and attracting observation by their colour, belong the Rhizostomidce and Medusidce ; to the first the Geryonidce, Oceanidce and ^Equoridce ; in all of these the sexual organs have not yet been detected, but they will probably be found at the under side of the disc, and since in ^Equorea molacea, according to the observations of MILNE EDWARDS, they strike the eye on this surface, and are also dis- tinguished by their violet colour, we cannot accept the name Crypto- carpce. [The Cryptocarpse of ESCHSCHOLTZ include the naked- eyed Medusae of FORBES.] Note to the Discophorce. There remain certain genera of authors, in which a mouth has not been found, namely Eudora and Berenice PERON. (Sp. Berenice rosea, Cuvieria PERON Voyage aux terr. austr. PI. 30, f. 2 ; GUERIN Iconogr. Zooph. PI. 16, fig. 1.) These 126 CLASS III. genera, to which may be added Staurophora BRANDT, form a family in the system of ESCHSCHOLTZ, to which he has given the name JBerenicidce. This family appears to me to be doubtful, as it does to BRANDT and others ; we must leave the decision to time, I prefer to wait the result of new observations, rather than to attribute to Acalephs nutrition by superficial absorption. For the rest, several genera of Acalephs are founded on. figures of authors alone — and these sometimes imperfect and faulty. Hence no part of Zoology is more uncertain than this. Accordingly there are many genera which I have not recorded, and possibly more might have been omitted. For here excess of timidity is better than dearth of prudence. CLASS IV. ECHINODERMS (ECHINODERMATA)1. THE name JEchmodermata was used by J. T. KLEIN rather more than a century ago, to denote the shells of the sea-urchins, called Echini. 'E^II/OS, with the Greeks, denoted both an urchin and a sea-urchin. Afterwards BRUGUIERES gave the name of Echinodermata to a division of the animal kingdom that comprised at once the sea-urchins and the star-fishes. CUVIER retained that name for this division, but added to it animals having a coriaceous skin without spines or quills. Although the name is no longer applicable to all the species of this class, yet the class itself must be looked upon as an extremely natural division of the Animal Kingdom. These animals are distinguished by an intestinal canal hanging free in the cavity of the body by single threads or mem- branes, usually long and tortuous, or provided with lateral append- ages if it be short: blood vessels and respiratory organs are present; the genital organs, in both sexes of the same external form, are without any special apparatus for copulation ; the fertilisation being 1 Consult on this class : L. AGASSIZ, Monographies d' Echinodermes vivans etfossiles. Neuchcatel, 1838 and fols. 4to. (The parts thus far have reference only to certain figures of Echini. The fourth, published in 1842, contains the anatomical description of Echinus lividus, by VALENTIN.) E. FORBES, A History of British Star-fishes and other animals of the class Echino- dermata. Illustrated by woodcuts. London, 1841, 8vo. A capital work on the anatomy of this class is : F. TIEDEMANN, Anatomic der Rohren-Holothurie, des pomeranz-farbigen Seestems und Stein-Seeigels. Landshut, 1816, folio; a prize Essay crowned by the French Institut in 1812. W. SHARPEY, The article Echinodermata in TODD'S Cyclopaedia of Anat. and Phy- siolog. n. pp. 30 — 46 (1836). J. MUELLER, Ueber den allgemeine Plan der Entwickelung der Echinodermen. Mit 8 Kupfertaf. Berlin, 1853, 4to, and previous papers in the Abh. d. AJcad. der Wissen- schaf. zu Berlin 1849, J85O. G. L. DUVERNOY, Mem. sur V Analogic de Composition et sur quelques points de r Organisation des Echinoderms. Mem. de I'Acad. des Sciences, XX. Paris, 1848. 128 CLASS IV. effected by means of the sea-water in which these animals live. When parts are multiple, the number five prevails as remarkably in this class, as did the number four in the preceding : and the quintuple organisation is often obvious, as in star-fishes and sea- urchins, in the external form of the body. This is round or some- what pentagonal in the sea-urchins ; flat and spread out in rays in the star-fishes, with the mouth on the inferior surface. The Holo- thurice have, on the contrary, a cylindrical body. In the star-fishes, of which the body is flat, the mouth conducts to a wide stomach that fills the disc of the body. It was supposed formerly that this stomach was in all of them a blind sac, as TlEDEMANN has described it in Asterias aurantiaca (Astropecten aurantiacus MUELL. and TE.) Afterwards MECKEL detected in Comatulce a second opening of the intestinal canal, that lies on the same surface of the body with the mouth1. Only lately it has become apparent from MUELLER'S investigations, that in most of the proper Asterice an anus exists, and that the structure in Ast. aurantiaca is to be considered as the exception rather than the rule. But this second opening does not lie, as in the Comatulce, on the same surface as the mouth, but opposite to it, on the back of the disc. In the Opliiurce and Euryale it is wanting: conse- quently these, with some star-fishes (the genera Astropecten, Cteno- discus, and Luidia .of the moderns), and some Crinoids are the only Echinoderms in which the intestinal canal forms a blind sac, as in the Anthozoa. In the Asterice proper, the intestinal canal has csecal appendages, which divide into branches, and fill the rays of the body ; in those species whose intestinal canal is a blind sac, the appendages proceed laterally' from the stomach, at whose base on the dorsal surface there are usually two cgecal appendages in addition. In those Asterise which have an anal opening, the stomach is divided by a circular fold from a second compartment, to which the cgecal appendages of the rays are attached ; to this succeeds a third compartment, the rectum, a short straight tube, which has also csecal appendages ; sometimes they are placed round the intestine in rays, like the appendages of the rays, and fill up 1 Archiv filr die Physiologic viu. 1823. s. 470 — 477. The same observation was made by LEUCKART and HEUSTNGER ; see the not very clear description by the last- named in MECKEL'S Archiv f. Anat. u. Phy*iol. 1826. s. 317—324. ECH1NODERMS. 129 the spaces between the rays. In the disciform genus Culcita, the appendages of the rectum are greatly developed, five in number, each divided into two branches, and clustered1. In Ophiura and Euryale the csecal stomach has lateral recesses, or even branched blind appendages, mostly ten in number, which, however, do not penetrate the rays. In Comatula the intestinal canal is tubular, and winds round a spongy structure in the axis of the disc ; from this an edge projects, that penetrates into the canal and forms a valve2. In the sea-urchins (Echinus} the intestinal canal is very long. The oesophagus is tortuous, narrow, and beset with numerous follicles. Where it passes into the much wider intestinal canal, there is a csecal appendage. The walls of the canal are very thin : its course is close to the shell in five arcs directed outwards ; when it has returned nearly to the point from whence it began, it bends round and follows a similar route in an opposite direction, until at last, having become somewhat narrower, it mounts up to the anus (at the uppermost part of the shell). In the Holothurice the intes- tinal canal is nearly of the same width throughout. It proceeds from the mouth along one side of the body to the lower extremity, then bends back to the anterior part, and finally descends along the other side to the cloaca, into which the respiratory organs also open. In Echiurus the intestinal canal is, in like manner, mucli longer than the body, and makes many convolutions : it has numer- ous cystiform widenings, and very thin walls. In $ipunculus, where the anus is placed not at the end, but in the anterior half of the body, the intestinal canal, with its threefold bending, is nearly four times the length of the body. In Synapta, on the other hand, it is nearly straight, and about the length of the body, the anus being at the posterior extremity3. In the star-fishes probably the radiating appendages are to be considered as organs for preparing bile (liver) : they are filled in Ast. rumens with a yellow turbid fluid4. 1 J. MUELLEB und F. H. TBOSCHELL, System der Asteriden. Braunschweig, 1842, 4to, s. 132. Taf. XIT. fig. i. 2 J. MUELLER, Abhandl. derBerl Akad. a. d. J. i%4i,Physik.Kl. Tab. v. f. 7—10. 3 QUATBEFAGES, Ann. dcs Sc. nat. sec. se'rie xvn., Zoologie, p. 51. 4 Other -writers consider the blind appendages at the bottom of the stomach or at the rectum as a rudiment of liver. OWEN, Led. on the Comp. Anat. of invertebr. Animals, 1843, p. 115. In these appendages a rudimentary form of kidney might also be recognised, an opinion, however, which does not rest on chemical investigation. VOL. I. 9 130 CLASS iv. Notwithstanding much careful investigation, there still exists great obscurity about the circulation of the blood in Ecliinoderms. TIEDEMANN and DELLE CHIAJE give very conflicting descriptions of the vascular system — the difference being founded in the inter- pretation of the dermal vessels, which are connected with the organs of motion. The first of these authors considers the motion of fluid observed in these vessels to be altogether distinct from the circulation, whilst, according to the other, they are a part of the system of blood-vessels. In Asterias TIEDEMANN found on the inner surface of the skin of the back, a vascular ring, which he considers to be venous. The vessels which run upon the surface of the visceral appendages of the rays open into this ring. From it a canal arises, which performs the office of a heart, lying near the so-called lime-canal which is found there. The canal runs into a vascular circle surrounding the mouth, which TIEDEMANN holds to be arterial, and from which branches proceed to the intestines. Besides these two vascular rings (one on the dorsal and one on the abdominal surface), there is a third ring of an orange-yellow colour found on the inferior surface beneath the skin. TIEDEMANN was not able to discover any communication between this ring and the rest of the vascular system. In Echinus vascular rings occur, in like manner, round the mouth and the anus, on each surface two, of which one is to be considered arterial, the other venous. The heart is oblong, divided into many cells, and lying on the oesophagus1. In Holothuria there is a circulating system without a heart, or rather the heart has the form of a contractile vessel, that runs at the outside on the surface of the intestine. At the anterior extremity of the intestinal canal this vessel forms a vascular circle, whence very fine branches arise ; when near the anus it has become small, having given off a multitude of fine branches, which run on the surface of the intestine. There is a transverse vessel which connects the longitudinal trunk on the first loop of intestine with that on the second. Many intestinal veins, which seem at the same time to perform the part of absorbents or 1 Comp. the descriptions and figures of VALENTIN, Anatomic du genre Echinus, pp. 89—96. Tab. vii. fig. 119, 125, 127. Tab. vm. fig. 144—152, &c. There is a figure also of the heart and part of the blood-vessels in Spatangus in CUVIER'S Regne Anim. $d. illustree, Zoophytes, PL n bis. ECHINODERMS. 131 lymphatics, run upon the mesentery to form a stem, having a curved course, from which other vessels arise to run to the respira- tory organ and so may be named pulmonary arteries. With these pulmonary arteries the pulmonary veins are in connexion, from whose union a longitudinal stem arises from which branches proceed to the arterial vessel with which we began our description l. Besides the blood-vessels already described there are other vessels which in Echinoderms provided with suckers or feet are in connexion with these organs of motion. The integument of the body is perforated by numerous pores arranged regularly in rows ; in the sea-urchins the rows have been called, on account of their regularity, Ambulacra, from a comparison with orderly rows of trees and garden- walks. Through these pores membraneous cylin- drical feelers (the feet) pass out, each terminating in a minute suctorial disc. According to the investigations of VALENTIN these feelers are in Echini perforated at their extremity by a fine aperture. Within the integument there are vesicles in connexion with them. The feelers, hollow within, are filled with a fluid, usually sea- water, which the animal can press at will from the vesicles, or, by contraction of the former, can cause to flow back. In this way the animals move their body, the numerous feet contracting and elon- gating, and adhering by means of the suckers. There are vessels corresponding to the rows of feet or feelers, from which lateral branches proceed to the vesicles of the feelers. The ordinary number of these longitudinal vessels of the integument is five ; in the star-fishes their number corresponds with the number of the rays of the body. These lymphatics fall into an annular vessel surrounding the mouth. In Holothuria the appendages of the feelers which surround the mouth proceed from this annular vessel : and from it there arise also five other vessels that descend along the commencement of the intestinal tube, where they terminate in another annular vessel from which one or two oblong csecal vesicles depend (Ampulla Poliana), that are in like manner filled with watery fluid2. The change of the blood from venous to arterial, the proper 1 See TIEDEMANN, Anat. der Eohren-HolotJiurie, s. 15—18, Tab. m. ; comp. also CUVIER, Regne Anim., edit, ill., Zoophytes, PI. 18. 2 See the figures in TIEDEMANN, Tab. in. fig. 4, 6. 9—2 132 CLASS TV. object of respiration, may be effected in any part of the animal organism, where the finest branches of the blood-vessels (the Capillaries) are bathed in the medium in which the animal lives. Hence it is easy to conceive that this function is not always neces- sarily connected with determinate parts. In almost all Echinodertns the sea-water penetrates into the cavity of the body, and bathes as well the internal surface of the integument as the outer surface of the intestines. Where no especial respiratory organ exists, the function of such an organ, the change of the blood, may be effected in the fine vessels which run on the surface of the intestinal tube. In the Star-fishes the sea-water penetrates to the cavity of the body by means of fine tubules in the integument, which are found in great numbers on the dorsal surface x. In Ophiura there are on the abdominal surface in each of the five fields between two rays, two or four fissures leading into the cavity of the body. In the Echini it is not known with certainty in what way the water penetrates the cavity of the body. The ten branched organs round the mouth, which TIEDEMANN considers to be tubules to convey the water in and out, have, according to VALENTIN, no external apertures 2. As little is known hitherto of the course which the water takes in most Holothurice to reach their cavity. In those which have no special respiratory organ, the genus Synapta has between the ten- tacles that surround the mouth four or five small papilliform eminences, having an opening at the apex and conducting to as many tubules that open between the muscles of the mouth. The openings are beset with cilia, like the tubules of the integument in Star-fishes 3. In other Holothurice, as in those which TIEDEMANN investigated, there are special respiratory organs. From the Cloaca in which the intestinal canal terminates, there proceeds upwards a short tube, that soon divides into two very long principal branches which run as far as the anterior part of the intestinal canal. From these smaller tubes arise which subdivide into twigs which termi- 1 [This is TIEDEMANN'S opinion with respect to star-fishes, but the observations of SHARPEY, EHRENBERG and MUELLER, are opposed to it ; they saw the streams of water from within turn back when they reached the extremity of the tubules.] 2 VALENTIN, op. cit. p. 83. 3 QUATREFAGES, Op. Clt. p. 65. PI. 5, fig. 7, /. ECHINODERMS. 133 nate in csecal vesicles, or pulmonary cells. The right branch is intimately connected with the intestinal veins ; the left branch of the respiratory organ is connected, by means of muscular fibres, with the internal surface of the integument. The form of this respiratory organ agrees with that of Lung, although Holothuria^ breathe water and not air. These parts are very contractile : in a Holothuria that was opened alive they did not cease, as long as life lasted, to force the water in and out by alternate contraction and expansion. But in respiration it is not the contraction of the muscular membrane alone of these branches that acts, but the contractility of the common integument of the body also. This con- tractility of the skin is so great, that occasionally, when the creature is irritated, a portion of the intestines together with the right branch of the respiratory organ is forcibly ejected from the Cloaca. In the Sea-urchins VALENTIN considers the ten branched organs surrounding the mouth, first described by TIEDEMANN (and noticed above, vid. p. 132), to be external gills. As internal gills KROHN1 and VALENTIN consider the foliated vesicles, which, in the interior of the shell, are in connexion with the ambulacral tubules : and which have a closely-woven vascular net-work. VALENTIN found, as has been stated, the ambulacral tubules perforated at the extre- mity in Sea-urchins. Through these openings the water penetrates into the vesicles, and the general opinion that the fluid is urged into the tubules from the vesicles and so distends them is not valid, according to VALENTIN, in the case of Sea-urchins2. In that of the Star-fishes and Holothurice, where the tubules appear to be im- perforate, it has not been satisfactorily made out to what extent, if at all, the attached vesicles contribute to the respiratory act. The organs for propagation are in different families of this class of a different form, but still, as was stated above, have, in the two sexes of the same species, exactly the same form. Hence, it appears that the discovery of the different sexes belongs exclusively to the latest scientific period, since formerly it was believed that all the individuals were of the same sex, either really bisexual or solely female 3. 1 MUELLEK'S Archiv. 1841, s. 5, 6. 2 [This observation of VALENTIN is contradicted by MUELLER, Archiv. 1850, p. 123.] :? WAGNER first discovered the difference of sex in Holothuria tubulosa; then PETERS, 1840, in Echinus, RATHKE in Ophiura and Sea-stars, &c. 134 CLASS IV. Yet, without microscopic investigation, even,, the colour of the organs of propagation is sufficient to point out the difference of the sexes; the testes are distinguished by a milk-white, the ovaria by a yellowish-brown or red colour. In ninety-eight specimens of Echinus PETERS found that forty-three were males and fifty-five females, so that the two sexes are nearly equal in numbers. In Comatula also, MUELLER found the sexes distinct ; the ovaria and testes are here situated on the pinnulce *. In Ophiura, on the other hand, they lie in the disc, round the stomach as ten structures composed of lobes and blind pouches, that run into a pedicle ; in the spaces between every two rays two such structures are placed close together so as to form five pairs 2. In the Star-fishes they lie in the angles between the rays, and have the form of bunches of beaded strings : in some species they extend into the rays ; their number is double that of the rays. On the dorsal surface, in some species, in each inter-radial space, two spots are found, which are perforated, sieve-like, by numerous closely arranged pores ; these openings allow the ova or the seed to escape. In other species the products of the genital organs, which have been poured into the cavity of the body are probably allowed to pass out by the respira- tory tubules on the back. In the Sea-urchins five ovaries or testes lie on the inner surface of the shell, and fill the spaces between the ambulacral plates. They are of an oblong flattened form, and con- sist of numerous csecal pouches, which open into an excretory duct running through the midst of the organ. The duct then runs freely like a footstalk, by which the testis or the ovary is attached to the upper surface of the shell where it opens. There are thus five such openings, in five pentagonal calcareous plates around the anus. In Holothurice the ovary or testis is a bundle of branched tubes ; these hang by their blind extremities downwards, and open above into a single excretory duct, being fastened to it like a brush. The oviduct or the efferent vessel lies along the anterior portion of the intestinal canal, and terminates near the anterior extremity of the body by a distinct opening on the dorsal surface. Near this canal 1 They are figured in the Abh. der Berl. ATcad. Ban des Pentacrinus, Taf. v. fig. 17, 1 8. 2 H. RATHKE Beitrdge zur vergl. Anal. u. Physiol., JReisenbemerkungen aus SJcandinavien, Danzig, 1842, 4to, s. 116, 117. Tab. n. fig. 3 — 7. ECHINODERMS. 135 are situated pear-shaped vesicles, collected in some species into bunches, which TIEDEMANN conceives to be male genital organs, an opinion which falls to the ground now that the sexes are known to be distinct. Moreover they do not lead into this canal, but are in connexion with the oesophagus. It must be noted as a remark- able exception that in Synapta, according to the investigations of QUATREFAGES, a complete hermaphroditism prevails. The genital organs have the form of long strings, whose internal surface is beset with conical structures containing Spermatozoa, whilst the inner- most cavity is filled with a pulpy substance in which the eggs are found. These eggs, as they grow, are pressed against the conical structures and so fertilized ; and then the germ-spot, which was before visible, disappears. As the development of the eggs pro- ceeds, the testes which adhered to the inner wall of the string and surrounded the eggs, are so much compressed that they become atrophied and disappear. This periodical development is a very remarkable physiological phenomenon 1. With the exception of some interesting observations of SARS little was known respecting the development of Echinoderms until the last few years. [To the distinguished and unremitted labours of MUELLER we are principally indebted for nearly complete informa- tion respecting the very curious and unexpected processes which occur in different species. Very remarkable differences are observed according as more or less of the development is effected within the body of the parent, or according to the locality where the embryo is deposited on leaving the egg, or according to the different modes in which it is destined to acquire its food. As a general rule it may be stated that in littoral species when the embryo escapes at an early period from the egg the series of metamorphoses is less numerous: but that in pelagic species, where the embryo has to seek its food by swimming on the surface, the necessity for provi- sional organs of a complicated nature renders the changes very 1 Ann. des sc. nat., sec. seV. xvii. 1842. Zool. pp. 66, 73. A talented observer, whom we have already quoted when treating of Polyps, (p. 70.) STEENSTRUP has with much acuteness endeavoured to reject ffermaphroditism altogether, and is of opinion, that even here QUATREFAGES has taken cells of spermatozoa for eggs without the germinal spot. Undersoegelser over Hermaphroditismus Tilvaerelse i Naturen, Kjobenhavn, 1845, 4to, pp. 63, 64. (SIEBOLD also surmises the same mistake of QUATREFAGES.) We shall perhaps recur subsequently to STEENSTRUP'S opinion. 136 CLASS IV. remarkable. Amongst the Ophiurce, Ophiolepis squamata is vivi- parous. The young, about ten in number, are developed between the integument and the wall of the stomach of the parent, in the inter-radial spaces, each in its own compartment, formed by mem- brane extended between the wall of the body and the stomach and suspended by a ligament attached near one of the angles of its disc. When fully formed it passes out by one of the genital fissures1.] In Eckinaster sanguinolentus the embryo according to the observa- tions of SARS2, on its escape from the egg is of an oval form and covered with cilia. Presently excrescences, club-shaped processes, arise at one extremity by which it adheres to the inferior surface of the disc of its parent, now converted by the infolding of the rays into a brooding cavity. When the arms begin to shoot forth these processes disappear, and feet or tentacles, few in number but pro- portionally very long, serve for the creeping and adhesion of the creature. The whole development occupies six or seven weeks. When the clavate processes are about to disappear they are near the edge of one of the inter-radial spaces of the disc of the Echinoderm. Of CamatulcB it had been discovered by THOMPSON3 that during an early period of their life they are fixed to a stem and then resemble Pentaerini, in other words, that the form which in Pentacrini is permanent, is in them transitory. But their previous metamorphoses were unknown. [BusCH has observed these changes from the egg until the period when the embryo is about to be attached. The egg having passed from the parent by an aperture at the side of the pinnulce, remains attached to the pinnula by an abundant mucus, from spherical becoming oval, and the embryo may be seen rotating within the egg by means of its general covering of cilia. When the egg falls from the pinnula the embryo escapes : its oval form is elongated, the straight sides assume a gently undulating contour : on the tops of the undulations transverse bands of larger cilia are seen in place of the general ciliated covering : the bands are at first three in number, afterwards four, surrounding the body in parallel circles : the longitudinal axis of the body now becomes gently curved, and a mouth is seen on the concave surface : the bands of cilia disappear 1 KROHN in MUELLER'S Archiv. 1851, s. 338 — 343. 2 SARS in WJEGMANN'S Archiv. x. s. 169. 3 THOMPSON, Edinb. New Philos. Journal, xx. p. 295. ECIIIXODERMS. 137 and the creature having lost its apparatus for motion sinks to the bottom : tentacles in the meanwhile, five on each side of the mid- line, have been developed, and hooks are seen at the two extremities of the body which shew by their peculiar form that those extremities correspond to the ends of the arms : the embryo now cup-shaped from the increased convexity of its dorsal surface attaches itself to the bottom by this surface from which it secretes its pedicle. The absence of symmetry in the relation of the Echinoderm to its larva is indicated by the stern of the Echinoderm being placed at right angles to the axis of the larva, and the tentacles and mouth on the opposite surface1. In by far the greater number of Echinoderms the embryos pass gradually into forms which, however remarkably they may differ, are all laterally symmetrical. The axis becomes bent and on the ventral surface (that where the mouth opens) is a depression bounded above and below by transverse bands of cilia which are continuations of the lateral bands which bound the dorsal surface. They all have a complete digestive tube consisting of mouth, oesophagus, stomach, intestine and anus. This tube is placed in the median plane, the mouth in the ventral depression described above, and the tube curves from it to terminate beyond the transverse band of cilia above the mouth on the same ventral surface. Also they have all an aquiferous system, a tube terminating externally in a dorsal pore and internally in a sac. When MUELLER observed the singular forms of the larvae of Ophiurce, and Echini with their long processes supported by slender rods of carbonate of lime he named them Pluteus from their general resemblance to a painter's easel with his work upon it. In Asterice and Holothurice the larvae have a more flattened form, like a coat of arms witli its surrounding ornaments. The process of development in these different larval forms is two- fold. In the first case the body of the Echinoderm is formed by gemmation round the stomach of the larva, which continues to be its stomach, and when it is formed, all that remains of the larva, with the exception of certain structures in connexion with the aqui- ferous system is gradually ( Ophiura and Echinus) or simultaneously (Bipinnaria asteriyera} rejected. In the second case the symmetrical 1 [Coinp. Beobacli. ubcr Anatomic u. Entwickeluny einiger ivirbcllosen Secthicrc von DR. W. BUSCII. fol. Berlin, 1851, s. 82—88.] 138 CLASS TV. larva with its bilateral ciliated band passes into the radial type, as in the larva of Comatula: it has a cylindrical form with five trans- verse bands of cilia. From this pupa-state the Echinoderm is developed without the rejection of any part of the pupa. It is either formed upon a part of the pupa, and the rest is absorbed by it ( Tonnaria of certain Asterice) , or the entire pupa is simultaneously metamorphosed into the Echinoderm (Holothurice) . In both these cases, but especially the first, the axis of the Echinoderm does not coincide with the axis of the larva, but crosses it at a large angle. Caecal processes are formed round the stomach of the larva in con- nexion with the vesicle of its aquiferous system : they are the rudiments of the water-canal around the mouth of the Echinoderm and of the vessels which proceed to the tentacles and feet. Where the afferent water-tube meets the surface of the Echinoderm the madrepore-plate is formed, and the portion of the tube within the body of the Echinoderm becomes its stone- or lime-canal. In Ophiurce the madrepore-plate has been discovered by MUELLER*, its pores do not open externally being covered by a plate of the inferior surface of the disc. In Holothurice it is within the abdominal cavity, in Asterice on the dorsal surface, in Echini it coincides with one of the genital plates. In all these cases a tube, whether it be hardened by carbonate of lime (stone-canal) or not, runs from the madre- pore-sac or plate to the circular aquiferous canal surrounding the oesophagus.] The power of reproduction in Echinoderms is very great. Star- fishes are frequently seen with one or more small arms or rays, that have been formed anew in consequence of the loss of the parts. GUETTAKD and BERNARD DE JIJSSIEU confirmed the reproduction by many experiments3. In Holothurice even viscera may be lost and formed anew; and some species are propagated by spontaneous division4. 1 MUELLEB Archiv. 1850, p. 121. 2 Comp. MUELLER Die larven u. metamorphos. der Ophiuren u. Seeiyel. Berlin, 1848, 1849 an(^ I852' MUELLER Uber die larven u. metamorph. der Ifolothurien u. Astcrien, Berlin, 1850. MUELLER Ueber den allgemeinen Plan in der Entwidceluny der Echinoder- men. Berlin, 1853. 3 REAUMUR Mem. pour servir a PHist. des Ins. vi. Preface, pp. 6r, 62. 4 According to the observations of SIR J. GRAHAM DALZELL, quoted by FORBES, Hist, of British Star-fishes, pp. 199, 200. ECHINODERMS. 139 The nervous system of Ecliinoderms was first described and figured by TIEDEMANN in Asterias aurantiaca (Astropecten) l. There is found around the mouth a nervous ring without ganglia, whence is given off a fine thread for each ray, and running along it. On each side of this thread is another, which descends into the cavity of the body. In sea-urchins also and in star-fishes, in which TIEDEMANN could only detect obscure traces of a nervous system, KROHN dis- covered a few years ago a distribution similar to that of Asterice. In Echinus the ring surrounds the mouth within the apparatus usually named Aristotle's Lantern (see below in the systematic arrange- ment) : in Holothuria in the calcareous ring to which the longitudinal muscles are attached. Five principal nervous stems run with the vessels that are in connexion with the ambulacral apparatus 2. Little is known of special organs of sense in Echinoderms. In star-fishes EHRENBERG discovered at the point of the rays on the abdominal surface, a small red spot, surrounded by a ring of cal- careous tubercles, which he considers to be an eye. In specimens preserved in spirit the pigment disappears, and so the existence of the spots cannot be recognized. Moreover they are wanting in many species3. FORBES discovered five similar spots in sea-urchins, on the upper surface, situated upon as many pentagonal plates that alternate with five larger plates on which the oviducts open. Both in the star-fish and sea-urchin each of the five principal nerves runs as far as one of these spots and ends beneath it4. But in neither of these animals has a lenticular transparent body been discovered. The ambulacral tubes and the feelers around the mouth may, as highly sensitive parts, be ranked amongst the organs of touch. To the motive apparatus of Echinoderms belong the little feet or tentacles, already noticed, the ambulacral tubules by means of which the animals creep. They have muscular fibres on their walls. In Echinus VALENTIN found in them both transverse and longi- tudinal bundles, and radiating fibres in the suckers at their termina- tion. He conceives that the motions of the ambulacral tubes are 1 In MECKEL'S Archiv f. die Physiol. i. 1815, s. 161, &c. and in his often quoted prize essay. 2 MUELLEE'S Archiv. 1841, pp. i — 13, Tab. r. 3 Die Akalepken des rothen Meeres, a. 32 — 34, Tab. vm. fig. n, 12. 4 Comp. VALENTIN, op. cit. pp. n, 100, Tab. n. fig. 12, Tab. IX. /. 188 — 190. 140 CLASS IV. effected by means of these muscular fibres, and in no degree by forcing fluid into and out of them. To how great an extent these parts can be elongated may be judged by the length of the spines of the shell in sea-urchins : they must have the power of extending beyond the longest spines. In specimens that have been kept in spirits these tubules are found to be short and mutually entangled. The teeth, and the curious apparatus that encloses them (ARISTOTLE'S Lantern) have a number of proper muscles. As to the general muscular system, that which moves the whole body, it is found especially developed in Holotliurice. Here ten muscles run the whole length of the body, beneath the skin: they are arranged in pairs, which are separated by spaces in which transverse circular fibres are found that cover the entire inner surface of the skin. By means of the longitudinal muscles the body can be shortened and bent : by the transverse fibres it is contracted transversely, and so attenuated and elongated. The longitudinal muscles are inserted into a cal- careous ring composed of five large and five smaller pieces, and surrounding the commencement of the intestinal canal. All these animals inhabit the sea. They are found in all parts of the world : yet, most of the species only in limited regions. Since we have only a partial acquaintance with foreign species, many more of which will doubtless be hereafter discovered, we are not in a condition to give a survey of the geographical distribution of the genera. Unlimited confidence is not to be reposed in the accounts given by some writers of the localities in which the species are native. Of the Asterice nearly one-third of the known species are found in the East-Indian seas, one-fifth in the seas of Europe. Of Opliiurce, on the other hand, the European and African species are more numerous than the East-Indian. The western hemisphere has, on the whole, fewer star-fishes than the eastern : in America there are no species of Scytaster, as, for instance, of Culcita, Astro- gonium, Stellaster ; Echinaster, on the other hand, is peculiarly American. The species of Euryale are chiefly found in the Arctic and in the Indian seas. To the species which are very generally distributed belongs that which occurs on the coast of Holland, Asterias (Asteracanthion) rubens. The Red sea so rich in species of the class of Polyps, has only a comparatively small number of star- fishes, and, in this respect is much behind the Mediterranean, which is especially rich in species of Astropecten. The Baltic appears to be ECHIXODERMS. 141 avoided by Star-fishes1. Of Sea-urchins about one-third of the known species are found in the East-Indian seas : here especially are found Cidarites and Scutella. Of Holothurice more species appear to be met with in the southern Pacific than in other seas. The western hemisphere is as much behind the eastern in respect of Echini and Holothurice as of Star-fishes. 1 Comp. MUELLER u. TROSCHELL Ueber die geographische Verbreitung der Asteriden in WIEGMANN'S u. ERICHSON'S A rch. f. Naturgesch. x. 1843, s- I23 — 13°- We have borrowed the above short notices on the geographical distribution of the Echinodermata from the System der Asteriden of these writers, and from LAMARCK Hist. not. des Anim. sans vertebres, (compared with the specimens in the Leyden Museum). SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF ECHINODERMS. CLASS IV. ECHINODERMATA. ANIMALS with integument coriaceous, often calcareous; with distinct nutrient canal, freely suspended in an abdominal cavity. Organs of circulation and generation conspicuous ; sexes nearly always distinct. Disposition of the organs most frequently quinary, with body mostly radiate or globose, in some cylindrical. Distinct vestiges of a nervous system, a ring for the most part surrounding the mouth and sending off nerves radially. OEDER I. Pediculate Echinoderms. Tentacles numerous, membraneous, contractile, terminated by a suctorial disc, and issuing from minute apertures in the integument. Family I. Crino'idea. Integument calcareous (external skele- ton). Rays articulate, supplied with a central canal, absent in some. Mostly two apertures of the nutrient canal. The name Crindidea, given by MILLEK to this division of the ani- mal kingdom, is derived from Kpivov, a lily. At the beginning of the last century the name sea-lily, stone-lily was given to the Encrinus moniUformis, or liliiformis, a remarkable petrifaction of the Muschel- kalk. Most of them are set upon a stem ; the non-pediculate (Coma- tula LAM.) in the young state, according to the observations of THOMPSON, are also fixed to a pedicle. The non-pediculate species known to LINNAEUS were placed by him in the genus Asterias (Aste- rias pectinata, Ast. multiradiata) ; the pediculate species in the ECHINODERMATA. 143 genus Isis, confounding the fossil Encrinus and the Pentacrinus caput Medusae of the existing creation under the name of Isis Asteria. This singular union of an Echinoderm with a genus of Polyps had doubtless an influence upon the later arrangement of LAMARCK, who placed Encrinus (see above, p. 80) amongst the sea- feathers. SCHWEIGGEB, and CUVIER restored it to the proper place, already assigned to it in the middle of the previous century by GUETTARD, who first described Pentacrinus caput Medusce. This whole family belongs rather to the former period of the history of our globe, than to the present. The species now living in our seas are almost all non-pediculate, whilst geological investigation has made us acquainted with numerous forms of pediculate sea-lilies. What is now a youthful mutable form of life was then the prevalent and permanent. The same thing may be observed in other classes also with respect to the fossil representatives of genera that are living at the present time. The chief work on this family is : J. S. MILLER, Natural History of the Crino'idea, Bristol, 1821, 4to.' A. Cr ino'ids affixed, •a) Sessile. Holopus D'ORBIGNY. Calyx affixed, hollow, undivided, with scattered tubercles. Four calcareous pentagonal parts at the upper margin of the calyx, sustaining four pairs of articulate and pinnate arms. Sp. Holopus Rangii, D'ORBIGNY, GUERIN Magasin de Zool. 1837, Cl. x. PI. 3; from the Caribbean Sea at Martinique. Both in the want of a stem and the number of the arms this genus differs from the other Crino'ids. b) Pediculata. An articulate column sustaining the calyx. * Tesselata. Calyx non-articulate, a) Rays or arms none. Genera : Sphceronites HisiNGER, Pentatrematites SAY (Pentremites GOLDF.), Echinosphcerites WAHL., Hemicosmites GRAY, Sycocystites v. BUCK. Fossil genera from the Transition- and Mountain-limestone. Comp. BRONN, Lethcea geognostica 1835, Tab. IV. fig. i, &c. According to the opinion of some these were pediculate Echini. j3) With rays. 1 See also W. BUCKLAND, Geology and Mineralogy, London, 1835, pp. 416 — 442. 144 CLASS IV. Genera: Caryocrinites SAY, Platycrinites MILL., Actinocrinites MILL., Ehodocrinites MILL., Cyatlwcrinites MILL., Poteriocrinites MILL., Melocrinites GOLDP. For these fossil genera and others unnoticed we must for want of space refer to MILLER'S work already cited, to GOLDFUSS die Petrefacten Deutchlands, and other geological works. Comp. also GOLDFUSS Ueber fossile Crinoideen, Nov. Act. Acad. Goes. Nat. Curios. XIX. I. 1839, p. 329—352, and L. v. BUCK on Caryocrinus ornatus in his work Ueber Cystideen, Berlin, 1845, 4to. In these and the following pediculate Crinoids, the cup-like part at the extremity of the stem and base of the arms is named Calyx. The bottom of this part, which is pentangular, and composed of five, four, or sometimes three plates, is named by MILLER pelvis ; JOH. MUELLER names the plates basalia; at the margin of these plates are the basal-pieces of the arms, forming the uppermost part of the calyx; there are two or three rows, and the uppermost bears the arms. MILLER gives to this part the name of scapula; the two pieces situated below are costce. JOH. MUELLER names these pieces radialia (radiale primum, r. secundum and r. axillare; his radiale axillare is the scapula of the English author). In those now named Crino'idea tesselata these parts are joined together without articulation. The fossil species of this division are found in the transition-limestone and the grey-wacke. ** Articulata. The rays free directly from the pelvis of the calyx, the first radial conjoined to the second, and the second to the third by articulation. • Apiocrinites MILL. Column incrassated towards the calyx, pyriform. Sp. Apiocrinites rotundus MILL. Tab. I — vn. Apiocrin. ParTcinsonii BRONN, Letfuza Tab. xvn. fig. 15, (MILLER'S figure) fossil from the oolite forma- tion, like other species of this genus. Encrinus GUETTARD (in part). Column round, not incrassated towards the top. Sp. Encrimis liliiformis LAM., Encrinites moniliformis MILLER, pp. 37 — 44,- Tab. i — in. ; ELLIS Corall. Tab. 37, fig. K, &c. One of the most character- istic fossils of the Muschelkalk. The head, on account of the numerous articulations of the arms that lie side by side, resembles an ear of Turkish wheat (Zea Mays) ; the joints of the stem, sometimes found in incredible numbers, changed into calcareous spar, are named Trochites1. 1 QUENSTEDT (Ueber die EnTcriniten des Muschelkalks, WIEGMANN'S Archiv. 1835, TI- s. 223—228, Taf. IV.) describes a species with different division of the arms, under the ECHINODERMATA. 145 Pentacrinus MILLER. Column not incrassated towards the top, pentagonal with joints having a pentapetalous mark. Cirri adher- ing to the column in whorls. The fossil species of this genus belong to the oolite period, as ex. gr. Pentacrinus briar eus MILLER, pp. 56 — 58, Tab. i. u. Guv. R. Ani. ed. illustr., Zooph. PI. 7, fig. 1, from the Lias-schist. The living species of this genus, Pentacrinus Caput Medusae, is found in the Caribbean Sea, and was first described by GUETTAED Mem. de TA cad. Roy. des Sc. 1755 (Paris, 1761) pp. 224, &c. PL 8 — 10 j another, more mutilated specimen, found on the coast of Barbadoes, was described by ELLIS in 1761, Phil. Transact, vol. 52, p. 357, PI. xm. Specimens of this species are rare in Museums, seven only, as far as is known, existing in the different Cabinets. The most complete description was given not long ago by J. MUELLER ( Ueber den Bau des Pentacrinus Caput Medusae, Berlin, 1843, folio). The stem of Pentacrinus has no muscles, but is merely passively motile or flexible by means of fibrous bundles and an elastic tissue between the joints. The arms and pinnulce are moveable by muscles without transverse stripes ; these muscles are situated on the side corresponding to the mouth, and can only flex the parts : extension, or motion outwards, seems to be effected merely by the elasticity of the parts. The growth of the joints of the stem occurs in the part at the top nearest to the calyx, which corresponds to what is observed in the growth of the joints in worms and entozoa. B. Free Crino'ids. a) Tesselate. Marsupites MANTELL. Marsupiocrinites BLATNV. Calyx of parts calcareous pentagonal striated ; arms ? Sp. Marsup. ornatus MILL. Crinoid p. 134, with figure, BKONN, Leth. Tab. xxix. f. 13 ; (Tab. xxxiv. fig. 9, with conjectural restoration of the arms after the figure of MANTELL) ; fossil from the chalk-period. 6) Articulate. Comatula LAM. (Alecto LEACH, MUELL. Cirri dorsal articu- late, around a pentagonal disc. Eadials mostly without basals name of Encrinites Sckottheimii of which H. V. MEYER has formed a new genus, Chelocrinus. See the paper of the latter ; Isocrinus und Chelocrinus, Zwei nette Typen u. s. iv., Museum ScnJcenbergian., n. p. 249. VOL. I. 10 146 CLASS IV. composing the calyx. Kays pinnate ; pinnae silicate, the furrows confluent with the longitudinal furrow of the rays ; tentacula situ- ated in the furrows. Mouth and anus on the ventral side ; mouth central in the bottom of the calyx ; anus lateral, tubular. See J. MUELLER, Ueber die Gattungen und Arten der Comatulen, ERICHSON ArcMv fur Naturgesch. 1841, s. 139 — 148, and Neue Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Arten der Comatulen, ibid. 1843, s. 131—136. * Rays of Calyx Ufid (ten-rayed). Sp. Comatula rosacea, Alecto europcea LEACH, FOKBES Brit. Starf. p. 5. To this species belong the observations of THOMPSON spoken of above, (pp. 136 and 143). Memoir on the Pentacrinus europceus, Cork, 1827. Comat. carinata LAM., GUER. Iconogr. Zooph. PI. i. fig. 2. ** Rays of Calyx multiftd (many-rayed). Sp. Comatula multiftda MUELL., Com. multiradiata LAM. &c. The species, which like Pentacrinus have a pelvis, form the genus Comaster AGASS., MUELL. Here belongs Comatula multiradiata GOLD, (not LAM.) Fossil species of this genus are found in lithographic stone. Family II. Asteridea. Body depressed, free (not pediculate), multangular or radiate, with integument coriaceous or calcareous. Kow of joints calcareous internal, running along the middle of the rays and taking their origin from the mouth. Mouth central, inferior ; anus dorsal or none. A capital work on this division was published some years back, System der Asteriden von J. MUELLER und F. H. TROSCHELL, mit 12 Kupfertafeln, Braunschweig, 1842, 4to. As plates for this and the preceding family may be recommended : J. H. LINCKII De Stellis marinis Liber singularis, Lipsise, 1733, fol. Phalanx I. Ophiurce. Disc distinct from the arms ; with arms non-sulcate. Anus none. Euryale LAM. (G-orgonocephalus LEACH). Arms prehensile, contortile towards the mouth, not scutate, sub-rotund, flattish be- neath. Disc tumid, sub-globose, with five obtuse angles. According to the division of the arms the species of this tribe are arranged in three different genera by MUELLER and TROSCHELL. They are undivided in Asteronyx, divided dichotomously and only towards the end in Trichaster AGASS., divided from the base, first ECHINODERMATA. 147 dichotomously and afterwards into many branches, in Astrophyton LINCK. To the last division belongs : Sp. Euryale verrucosum LAM., Asterias Caput Medusae L. (in part) RUMPHIUS, Amb. Rariteitlcamer Tab. xvi. Cuv. R. Ani., edit. Mus., Zooph. PL 5, from the Indian Sea ; a very similar species is found in the North Seas, and distinguished by MUELLER and TROSCHELL as Astrophyton Linckii ; LINCK de Stell. mar. Tab. 29, fig. 48. These Medusa-heads belong to the most singular and beautiful forms of radiate animals. Vid. FORBES Br. Star- 8, pp. 67—70. Ophiura LAM. Arms five, undivided, serving for creeping, scu- tate, articulate. Disc plane, with two or four genital fissures in each interbrachial area on the ventral side. The name Ophiura, from acpis, serpent, and ovpd, tail, denotes very appropriately the form of the arms by which these Sea-stars are distinguished, and which are often so long as to exceed five or six times (nay in Ophiura longipeda even twenty times) the diameter of the disc. Sub-genera : Ophiocoma AGASS., Ophiolepis, Ophiarachna, Ophia- cantha, Ophiomastix, Ophiomyxa, Ophioscolex, Ophiothrix, Ophio- cnemis, Ophioderma, MUELL. and TROSCH. Sp. Ophiura teocturata LAM., Asterias ophiura L. (in part), Ophiolepis ciliata MUELL. and TROSCH., LINCK de Stell. mar. Tab. n. fig. 4, Encydop. PI. 123, fig. 2, 3. FORBES British Starf. p. 22, &c. in the Mediterranean, the North Sea, &c. Phalanx II. Asterice. Body depressed, angulate or stellate the angles being produced, with tentaculiferous furrows below, ex- tending as far as the point of the angles. Anus dorsal in most, surrounded by a mound of calcareous papillae. Asteria LAM. (Most are species from the genus Asterias L.) The Sea-stars. The form is very various, so that in some species the entire body seems to consist only of arms, ex. gr. in Ophidiaster, in others only of a pentagonal disc. But the arms are never sharply separate from the disc as in the Ophiurce, but are an immediate continuation of it. In most of the species there are five rays, however in these sometimes four or six occur as exceptions ; six arms as the normal number are found in Asterias gelatinosa, in Echinaster eridanella, six or seven in Asteriscus Diesingii, seven to nine in the sub-genus Luidia, eight to ten, mostly nine, in Solaster endeca, eleven to fourteen, generally twelve, in Solaster papposus, twelve or thirteen in Asterias aster, fifteen in Asteriscus rosaceus, 10—2 148 CLASS IV. fourteen to one-and-twenty in Echinaster Solaris; finally, in Asterias helianthus the rays are found up to thirty and more. The greater the number that any species possesses, the less is it constant. On the dorsal surface is placed a calcareous star-formed plate between two rays of the disc (verruca dorsi, tubercule madreporiforme, Madrepore- plate), which in Ophiura is wanting, and in Euryale lies on the oral surface. AGASSIZ who endeavours, with great acuteness, to prove a lateral symmetry in the Echinodermata, considers the ray that is opposite to this plate to be the first ray of the body. A tortuous tube proceeds from this dorsal plate downwards as far as the mouth, and is filled internally with a calcareous matter (see above, p. 130). This tube was named byTiEDEMANN (Anat. der Roehren-HolotJi., &c. 53, 54) Stone-canal or Sand-canal; it terminates, becoming narrower, in the circular vessel surrounding the mouth and filled with watery fluid ; see above, p. 131. SIEBOLD has closely investigated the calcareous balk, consisting of several joints and internally hollow, which occupies this canal and described its complicated structure ; MUELLER'S Archiv. 1836, B. 291, &c. [Also SHARPEY, in TODD'S Cyclop, of Anat. and Phys. n. PP- 35> &c., describes in the interior of the jointed calcareous tube a lamina attached longitudinally, which passes inwardly a certain way and then separates into two which are rolled in opposite directions, something after the manner of the inferior turbinated bone of the ox.] The Sea-stars can bend their rays towards each other, which is serviceable in moving through narrow fissures arid between stones. They do not swim, but creep by means of their tentacles with mouth downwards. They feed principally upon Molluscs. Though the genus Asterias of LAMAKCK, by the exclusion of Comatula, Ophiura and Euryale, be much more narrowly limited than the same genus in the Systema Naturae, of LINNAEUS, still the species are too numerous and the forms too various not to be regarded rather as a natural group which ought to be divided into several genera or sub-genera. This has been done by LINCK, and more lately especially by AGASSIZ and MUELLER and TEOSCHELL, to whose works we refer. The primary division of the group by MUELLER and TROSCHELL is founded on the Tentacles, which in most of them are placed in two rows in every furrow, but in others in four rows. A. Ventral furrows, with two rows of tentacles. Astropecten LiNCK. (Astropecten and Ctenodiscus MUELL. and TROSCH.), Luidia FORBES. ECHINODERMATA. 149 Sp. Astropecten aurantiacus, Asterias aranciaca L., LINCK, de Stett. mar. Tab. 5, fig. 6, Tab. 6, fig. 6, TIEDEMANN Anat. Tab. 5, 6, FORBES Br. Starf. p. 1 30 ; in the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean. * Anus central, or sub-central, dorsal. a) Body disciform, with short rays. Asteropsis MUELL. and TROSCH., Stellaster GRAY, Goniodiscus MUELL. and TROSCH., Astrogonium MUELL. and TROSCH., Asteriscus MUELL. and TROSCH., Pter aster MUELL. and TROSCH., Culcita AGASSIZ. Sp. Culcita discoidea, Asterias discoldea LAM., SCHMIDEL in Naturforsch. xvi. 1781, Tab. i., BLAINV. Actinol. Tab. 23, f. i ; Asteriscus palmipes, Asterias membranacea RETZ, G-MEL., LINCK, de Stett. mar. Tab. i, fig. 2, BLAINV., Actinol. Tab. 23, fig. 2, FOKBES Brit. Starf. pp. 116, &c. 6) Body stellate, with rays distinct, surpassing the disc three times or more. Archaster MUELL. and TROSCH., Oreaster MUELL. and TROSCH., Scy taster MUELL. and TROSCH., Ophidiaster AGASS., Chcetaster MUELL. and TROSCH., Solaster FORBES, Echinaster MUELL. and TROSCH., (and Echinites in ERICHS. Archiv. 1844). Sp. Solaster papposus, Asterias papposa L., LINCK de Stett. mar. Tab. 32, Tab. 34, fig. 54, FOKB. Brit. Starf. p. 112, in the Atlantic, on the coast of England and Scotland, &c. ; when fresh of a beautiful red colour above, of a yellowish brown below ; Echinaster Solaris, Echinites Solaris, Asterias Echinites LAM., Naturforsch. xxvii. 1793, Tab. i, II. from the East Indian Seas, &c. B. Ventral furrows with four rows of tentacles. Body with distinct rays, with integument coriaceous, aculeate. Anus dorsal, sub- central. Asterias GrRAY, (species of the genus Asterias L., Asteracan- thion MUELL. and TROSCH.) Sp. Asterias rubens L., LINCK de Stett. mar. Tab. 36, fig. 61, EASTER Natuurk. Uitsp. i. Tab. xn. fig. i — 4, FOEBES Brit. Starf. p. 83 : the com- mon Sea-star, Cross-fish ; so common on some coasts as to be used for manuring the land in the neighbourhood. Asterias helianthus LAM., Encyclop. PI. 108, 109, BLAINV. Actinol. Tab. 23, fig. 5, in the Pacific and at Chili ; one of the most remarkable and most beautiful species, &C.1 1 For a knowledge of the numerous species of Asteridea comp. also J. E. GRAY, Synopsis of the Genera and Species of the class Hypostoma (Asterias L.) in the Annals 150 CLASS iv. Family III. Echinidea. Body sub-globose or depressed with- out radiant lobes. Mouth and anus distinct. Mouth inferior. Inte- gument calcareous, beset with moveable spines. Sea- Urchins. Compare on this family (besides the Monographies tfEchinodermes of AGASSIZ cited above) JAC. THEOD. KLEIN Natu- ralis dispositio Echinodermatum cum tab. Gedani 1734, 4to. Ordre naturel des Oursins de Her et fossiles par M. THEODORE KLEIN, Paris 1754, 8vo. av. fig. (Many of KLEIN'S figures are copied in the Encyclopedic methodique, Vers.) M. VAN PHELSUM, Brief an C. NOZEMAN over de gewelv-slekken ov Zee-egelen. Met 3 pi., Hotter- dam, 1774, 8vo. CH. DESMOULINS, Etudes sur les Echinides, Bordeaux, 1835 — 1837, 8vo. The shell of these animals consists of an arrangement of plates having a pent- or hexangular form. They compose ten girdles, each made up of two rows of such plates. Five of the girdles, commonly narrower than the others, have two rows of small apertures and alternate with these. The rows of apertures are named ambulacra : they either entirely surround the periphery (ambulacra perfecta), or are found only on the uppermost part, resembling in their arrange- ment a star or five-petalled flower (ambulacra circumscripta). By these apertures the tentacles or ambulacral tubes are exserted, of which we have treated above. The Sea-Urchins effect their movements by means of these tubes1, they appear to have a great power of elongation, to be able to stretch farther than the extremities of the rigid spines, which in certain species are some inches in length. Around the anus are five larger apertures (in some genera only four) which are the outlets of the oviducts or efferent vessels ; they are situated in as many pentagonal calcareous plates, with the point directed outwards, of which one, larger than the rest and of a different structure, corresponds to the calcareous plate (madrepore-plate) of the Sea-stars, as BASTER had previously of Natural History vi. 1841, pp. 175 — 184, pp. 275 — 290. Want of space prevents our noticing the numerous generic names of GRAY ; some genera agree with those of MUELLER and TROSCHELL, of which a more detailed notice by AGASSIZ may be found in the preface to the second number of his Monoyraphies d'Echinodermes, pp. 5, 6. 1 GANDOLPHE Quelles sont lesjambes des Oursins? Mem. de VAcad. des Sc. de Paris pour 1709, Histoire, p. 33. With his observations those of BASTER, TIEDEMANN and others completely agree ; AGASSIZ, who at one time considered the spines to be organs of motion, and doubted that such was the office of the ambulacral tubes, has since renounced that opinion. ECHINODERMATA. 151 observed1. Between these five genital plates, lie five smaller (the ocellar plates), also pentagonal but with the point turned inwards, so that the plates are wedged into the spaces between the points of the first five. There are still other smaller plates, variable in number, that lie within the ring formed by these ten, and immedi- ately surround the anus. The chemical composition of the calcareous shell is remarkable on account of the extremely small proportion of organic matter ; it consists almost entirely of carbonate of lime. The growth of the shell is effected by enlargement of the plates, and by addition to their number upwards ; hence younger individuals are flatter than older ones, and the form of itself alone becomes a deceptive criterion in determining species. The moveable spines, of which the number increases with the age, have at their base a small cavity, by which, as by an articular surface, they are connected with the tubercle of the shell. These tubercles are placed in rows, like the apertures of the ambulacra, and are found both on the ambulacral and on the interambulacral fields. The mouth is provided with five teeth, whose points are sharp and hard, and meet in a pentagon at the inferior aperture. These teeth are long rods, which become soft and transparent inwards. They perforate five triangular pyramids, which by their mutual arrangement form a conical apparatus with the broad base facing inwards, and to which base still other small calcareous pieces are united. This very complicated apparatus, with its provision of muscles, bears the singular name of ARISTOTLE'S lantern*. Sea-urchins cannot swim, but only creep along the bottom of the sea. There are species that sometimes live in cavities which they have formed in the rocks3. The food of the Sea-urchin consists, according to the microscopic investigation of the excretions in JEchinus lividus by VALENTIN, 1 NatuurTc. Uitsp. i. bl. 132. 2 This apparatus is described in detail by CUVIER Lemons d'Anat. comparee, Paris 1805, in. pp. 329—335, and 2e e"dit. Paris 1837, VL PP- 377 — 382 ; comp. also the works of TIEDEMANN and VALENTIN already cited, and R. JONES, Outline of the Anim. Kingd. pp. 166 — 169. 3 Echinus lithophagm of LEACH, which does not appear to differ from Echinus lividus, is often thus found on the western coast of Ireland ; E. T. BENNETT Linn. Transactions, xv. 1827. pp. 74 — 77. 152 CLASS IV. principally, if not exclusively, of marine plants (Fuel, Confervce); according to others it would seem to live on Molluscs, but the fragments of shell, often found with considerable quantity of sand in the intestinal canal, may have been contained in the sea-water swallowed, and need not by any means to be looked on as the remains of shell-fish that had been consumed. Petrified shells of Sea-urchins are found in great numbers in secondary strata, particularly in the chalk-formation, the interior being usually filled with silicious earth. * Anus eccentric superior or inferior, a) Mouth eccentric. (Genital pores 4.) Spatangoidea AGASS. Spatangus KLEIN, LAM. Ambulacra circumscript, five or only four, the odd one (the anterior) being either little distinct or wanting. Test ovate or cordate, often at the fore-part furnished with a furrow proceeding from the summit. Genera Holaster, Hemipneustes, Micr aster, Spatangus, Amphi- detus, Brissus, Schizaster AGASSIZ. Some species of this division are fossil, and occur especially in the chalk-formation, others in tertiary deposits. Amongst the species now living, which chiefly belong to the genus Brissus AGASS. we note : Spatang. ventricosus, RUMPH. Amb. Rariteitk. Tab. xiv. No. i ; this foreign species attains a very large size. To the proper genus Spatangus AGASS. belongs Spat, purpureus, BLAINV., Actinol. PI. xiv., FOKBES Brit. Starf. p. 182, in the North Sea and Mediterranean. The form is heart- shaped. Of this species MILNE EDWARDS has given an anatomical figure in CUVIEB R. Anim. 3d. illustree, Zoophytes, PI. xi. bis. See also some notices on the Anatomy of Spatangus in SCHWEIGGER'S Handb. der Natur- geschicJite der skelettl. ungeglied. Thiere, s. 538, 539. The mouth is in this genus without teeth. There are only four ovaria or testes present, as also only four pori genitales. PHILIPPI not long ago described three American species in which only three genital pores existed, and which he united under the name of Tripylus. See ERICHSON'S Archiv f. Naturgesch., 1845, s. 344, f- IO — J6> MIBAM, Beitrag zu einer Anatomie des Pent, tcenioid. Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. Tom. xvii. 1835, pp. 623 — 646, Tab. 46, Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e se"rie, Tom. vi. 1836, Zool. p. 135, PL 8 ; in the frontal sinus of the dog and the wolf, also in the larynx of these animals, and, according to some observations, in the frontal sinuses of the horse and the ass ; the male is four times smaller than the female, which attains a length of three inches and more. Pentastoma moniliforme DIESING 1. 1. Tab. iv. figs, n — 13 ; in the lungs of the Indian serpent (Python). The name Pentastoma is to be rejected, because the four lateral openings near the mouth are not mouths, and because by its resemblance to similar names of genera of Trematoda it may easily mislead to the idea of an union with this division. It is, however, so generally received, that it can scarcely be altered without needless confusion. The name Linguatula of FRGELICH as the older would deserve the preference, but it applies properly ENTOZOA. 189 only to some species from Mammalia, which have a flat tongue-like form, and especially to that found in the lungs of the hare by FR in th* swim-bladder of trout. Odontobius ROUSSEL DE VAUZEME. (Is this its place ?) Ascaris L. (in part), RUD. (Ascaris and Heterakis DUJ.) Body acuminate at each extremity. Head trivalved. Male genital organ a double spiculum. Most of the species live in the intestinal canal of vertebrate animals. Sp. Ascaris lumbricoldes L., A. VALISNIERI Opere fisico-mediche, Venezia, T733> i' PP- 27i — 282. Tab. 34, 35, BREMSER Ueb. leb. Wilrmer, Tab. i. figs. 13 — 17, Icon. Helm. Tab. iv. figs. 10, n ; round worm, le lombric, der Spul-wurm, &c. This species lives in the intestinal canal of man, and attains the length of 15 inches ; with this is usually united a similar worm from the horse, which, however, according to CLOQUET and GURLT, differs from it (Ascaris megalocephala). Also the round- worm which occurs in the swine, is, according to DUJARDIN, specifically different (Ascaris suilla DUJ.) Comp. on the structure of the round- worm the work of CLOQUET indicated above. Oxyuris RUD., BKEMS. Body cylindrical or fusiform, the pos- terior part in the female attenuate, subulate. Mouth orbicular or triangular. Penis vaginate simple, with a small posterior accessory part. (Small worms, the females much bigger than the males.) ENTOZOA. 191 Sp. Oxyuris vermicularis, Ascaris vermicularis L., BREMSER Ueb. leb. Wiirm. Tab. i. figs. 6 — 12; Der Mastwurm, Springwurm ; it lives in the large intestine of man (especially in children), and causes a very troublesome itching and occasionally various nervous symptoms. The male was first discovered by BREMSEK in 1815, in a specimen sent to him by SCEMMERRING, (see S. TH. v. SCEMMERRING'S Leben u. VerJcehr mit seinen Zeitgenossen von E. WAGNER. Leipsig, 1844. I. s. 340) previously the much larger female alone was known. Tricocephalus GOEZE. Body filiform, elongate anteriorly capil- lary, passing suddenly into the more ample posterior part. Male genital organ a simple spiculum, long, vaginate. Sp. Tricocephalus dispar EUD., BREMSER Ueb. leb. Wurmer. Tab. I. figs, i — 5 ; this species has frequently been met with in the intestinal canal of man, especially in the ccecum, first by MORGAGNI, afterwards by E(EDERER, &c., in bodies of persons dying of typhus (EoKiTANSKY Handb. d. path. Anat.) ; frequently in cholera-subjects in Italy by DELLE CHIAJE (Isis, 1843, P- 557). Trichosoma RUD. Comp. EUD. Entozoor. Synops. p. 13, DUJARDIN Ann. des Sc. not. T.Q Se"rie, xx. 1843, Zoologie, p. 332, pi. 14. Genera : T/iominx, Eucoleus, Calodium DUJARD. Filaria MUELL. Body very long, filiform, subequal. Mouth orbicular. Male genital organ a long spiculum with a contorted accessory part. Sp. Filaria medinensis, Gordius medinensis L., BREMSER Ueb. leb. Wurm. Tab. iv. fig. i. Dracunculus, Vena medinensis, the hair-worm, guinea-worm, le dragonneau, &c. This worm lives in man under the skin in the cellular tissue, especially in the legs, and may attain a length of ten feet ; male individuals of this species do not seem to have been observed hitherto. Sometimes this worm occasions severe pain ; it is met with in hot countries especially of the old world, less frequently in America, except in the island of Cura§ao, where it is endemic, although the worm-sickness does not always prevail there with the same intensity. See the still interesting notices of B. HUSSEM in the Vehr. van het' Zeeuwsch. Genootsch. IT. 1771, 443 — 464. The thread- worm is viviparous, and the young differ in form from the mother. See JACOBSON and DE BLAINVILLE in Ann. du Museum, nouvelle Serie in. pp. 80 — 85. Liorhynchus RUD. Body round. Head without valve, with tubule of mouth emissile, smooth. (Doubtful genus.) Sp. Liorhynchus- denticidatus EUD., BREMS. Icon. Helm. Tab. v. figs. 19 — 22 ; in the stomach of Murcena anguilla. Cheiracantkus DIES. Body annulate, posteriorly attenuate, an- teriorly armed with palmate or dentate spinules, which in the middle 192 CLASS v. of the body are simple, in the posterior part evanescent. Head sub- globose, beset with simple spinules. Mouth bivalved naked. Tail of male spiral, with genital spiculum elongate, simple. Sp. Cheiracanth. robustus DIES. Ann. des Wien. Mus. II. 1840, Tab. xv. ggs> i — 7 • in the stomach of different species of Cat. This animal has four long sacs near the oesophagus which recal the lemnisci of the Acan- thocephala. According to DIESING the genus Gnathostoma OWEN, (Pro- ceedings of the Zool. Society iv. 1836, pp. 123 — 126), a worm found in the walls of the stomach of a tiger, is not distinguishable from this ; the mouth however is differently described by OWEN. Lecanocephalus DIESING. Body anteriorly obtuse, with head expanded in form of a platter, and mouth trilabiate. Simple spines surrounding the body in zones. Tail of male inflected, witli double spiculum. Sp. Lecanoc. spinulosus DIESING, Ann. des Wien. Mus. 11. Tab. xiv. figs. 12 — 20. Ancyracanthus DIESING. Body acuminate at both ends. Mouth orbicular, armed with four spinules pinnatifid, disposed in a cross. Tail of male inflected, with double spiculum. Sp. Ancyr. pinnatifidus DIESING, Ann. des Wien. Mus. n. Tab. iv. figs. 21 — 27 ; in the stomach and small intestine of South American tortoise. Here also there are four long csecal sacs near the oesophagus, as in Ckeira- canthus. Note. — To the Nematoidea are also referred some filiform entozoa, included in a vesicle. In the peritoneum of various fishes, between the coats of the intestines and elsewhere a white worm of this sort, convoluted spirally, is found, which LINNAEUS called Gordius marinus, EUDOLPHI Filaria piscium. Comp. SIEBOLD in WIEGM. Archiv. iv. 1838, pp. 305, &c. Here also belongs a microscopic worm found by OWEN in the muscles of man, and called Trichina spiralis. See Transact, of the Zool. Soc. I. 4to. 1835, pp. 315 — 324, Tab. 41, figs, i — 9. Is it a Nematoid in an imperfect state, the rest of whose fortunes are unknown ? [This is V. SIEBOLD'S opinion. The encysted Trichina is sexless and does not increase in size. Sometimes the liver of different marine fishes is beset with cysts containing round worms which have grown to an inch or more in length ; they have been named A scar is capsularis, Filaria piscium, &c. SIEBOLD could never discover in them sexual organs, but still they have so remarkable a resemblance to Ascaris osculata, spiculigera, angidata, &c., worms with developed sexual organs which live in the intestinal canal of the Seal, the Cormorant, the Diver, the Gull, and predaceous fishes, that they may be suspected to be related to them. SIEBOLD believes that the encysted sexless worms only attain their perfect development in the intestine of the verte- brates which have swallowed their temporary hosts. VON SIEBOLD Band u. Blasen-wiirm. s. 32, 33. APPENDIX TO THE CLASS OF INTESTINAL WORMS. THERE are certain worms which do not live in other animals, >ut reside in water, or in moist earth, or in vegetable substances undergoing acetous fermentation, and which, nevertheless, since in brm and internal structure they correspond with Ascaris, Oxyuris, or Filaria, appear to belong to the order of thread- worms. Some )f them were by former writers arranged amongst the Infusories, as species of the genus Vibrio. To these belong the minute animals which LINNAEUS brought together under the name of Chaos redivi- vum, and which were described and figured by MUELLER as varieties )f one species, Vibrio anguillula (Animalcula infusoria, pp. 63-68), •though he doubted whether they ought not to be regarded as different species of a genus for which he had altready proposed the name Anguillula, by naming them Anguillula aceti, Ang. glutinis, Ang. fluviatilis, and Ang. marina. The genus Anguillula was afterwards adopted by EHRENBERG to distinguish these animals rom Vibrio 1. DUJARDIN named the same genus RJiabditis, but assigned to it somewhat different characters. Anguillula EHRENB. (Rhabditis DUJ.) Body filiform, pellucid. VIouth round, terminal, naked. Anus before the posterior extre- mity, sub-terminal. The male with tail naked or amplified by a membrane (alate). External genital organ a double spiculum. Tail of the female conical, acute. Sp. Anguillula aceti G(ETZE Naturforscher xvm. Tab. in. figs. 12 — 18; DUGES Ann. des Sc. not. ix. 18-26, PI. 47, fig. 2 : from i — 2 millim. in size ; these animals may be frozen without dying, whilst occasionally on the other hand a slightly increased temperature affects them mortally. Another species, Anguillula glutinis, lives in sour paste (MuELL. In/us. Tab. IX. 1 Symbolce physicce, Pliytozoa, and Organisation, systematic und geographisches Verhaltniss der Infusionsthiercken, Berlin, 1830, s. 68, 105. OKEN in his Lehrb. der Naturgesch. in. i, 1815, s. 191, places these animals under the genus Gordius, yet in the index he keeps Anguillula as the name of a genus, (see s. 847). VOL. I. 13 194 CLASS V. figs. I — 4) ; this is killed by vinegar. A third species that lives in the grains of blighted ears of corn may be revived, after lying dry for months and years, by moistening, (NEEDHAM and BAUER). Comp. on these species GCEZE Naturforscher i. 1774, s. i — 53, ix. 1776, s> ^7 — 182, xvin. 1782, s. 36 — 65, BAUER Philos. Trains. 1823, p. i, PI. i, 2, (Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. n. 1824, pp. 154—167, PI. 7, 8), DUGES Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. ix. 1826, pp. 225 — 251, PL 47, 48. Also in the intestinal canal of insects minute worms have been observed and commonly considered to be Ascandes, which belong to this division1. In other species the mouth is provided internally with three unciform structures or jaws. They may be included in the genus Enoplus DUJARD. (Enoplus, Oncholaimus DUJARD., Ambtyura EHRENB.?) They live in fresh and salt water. Finally, certain small worms that live in water and in moist earth cannot well be placed otherwise than in the neighbourhood of the Nemato'idea; they are included in the genus Gordius L. (the Filarice excepted). They are, however, distinguished from the Nematoids by their structure, and especially by the absence of a posterior aperture in the intestinal canal. DUJARDIN and V. SIE- BOLD have shewn that these animals in the early period of then- life live parasitically in insects. Family Gordiacea. Body filiform, extremely slender, elastic. Anus none ; sexes distinct. Gordius L. (in part). Head rotund, mouth none, or not distinct. Tail of male bifid, of female rounded. Sp. Gordius aquatics L., Encydop. Vers. PI. 29, fig. i. Seven to ten inches long, scarcely half a line thick ; comp. CHARVET Nouv. Ann. du Mus. in. 1834, pp. 37 — 46 ; BERTHOLD Ueb. den Bau des WasserTcalbes, Gottingen, 1842, 4to; V. SIEBOLD Entomol, Zeitung, 1843, s. 77, ERICHSON'S Archiv. 1843, ii. s. 302—308. Mermis DUJARD. Mouth terminal. In female the vulva for- ward, transverse. Comp. Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e Se"rie, Tom. xvin. 1842, pp. 129, £c., PI. 6. 1 Here, too, may be placed Oxyuris gryllo-talpce, LEON DUFOUR Ann. des Sc. nat. •2e S^rie, Tom. vm. Zool. PI. i. fig. 2, and perhaps the genus AnguilUna of HAMMER- SCHMIDT not described in detail (AnguilUna monilis in Apkodius conspurcatus), OKEN'S 7s/.s, 1838, p. 318, which however more probably belongs to Mermis DUJARDIN. CLASS VI. WHEEL-ANIMALCULES (ROTATORIA}1. WE return from the consideration of different animals whose Dodies amongst the Invertebrates may be styled large to that world, .nvisible to the naked eye, with which in the class of the Infusories we began to treat of the animal kingdom. And in the classes that follow, however some species may be found that are scarcely Derceptible to the unassisted eye, no one of them consists entirely of creatures so small as Infusories and Wheel-animalcules. Wheel- animalcules, as a whole, surpass Infusories in size ; still they are very minute animal forms, mostly between J — ^5 millimeter. LEEU- WENHOECK, who discovered the Infusories, was also the first who observed some species of Wheel-animalcules. The name of Wheel-animalcules is borrowed from the vibratile cilia which at the anterior extremity of the body are set upon the margin of a disc capable of eversion and inversion. In species, where that margin is not divided or indented, an optical illusion is caused by the motion of the cilia, as though a toothed wheel were revolving with great velocity in a circle, and so LEEUWENHOECK thought such was really the case, who compared the rotatory organ with the wheel of a watch-work2. Every one who has observed the phenomenon of vibrating cilia is aware that the deceptive appearance of a rapid motion or current in a given direction is pro- duced : if, then, vibrating cilia be met with on the smooth margin of a circular structure, the appearance of a rotating wheel will follow of course. It is to be remarked, however, that the motion is 1 See on this class the works referred to (p. 37) at the class of Infusoria of MUELLER, EHRENBERG and DUJARDIN. Also may be compared O. SCHMIDT Versuch einer Darstellung der Organisation der RdderihiercJien, in ERICHSON'S Arcliiv f. Natur- geschichte, 1846, s. 67 — 81, Taf. in. 2 Send-brieven, 1718, vn. Brief, bl. 67. DUTROCHET has attempted to explain the phenomenon by muscular motion ; according to him the wheel is merely a circular, muscular string, which by its contraction causes other parts of the gelatinous substance to project alternately in the form of conical papillae, whence a circular motion appears to arise. Ann. du Museum, XX. 1813, pp. 469 — 473. 13—2 196 CLASS VI. subjected to the will of the animal, for otherwise the vibratile cilia would be in a constant motion, which ceases only on death. The Wheel-animalcules are capable of contraction in a remark- able manner, many of them assuming thereby an oval form. This faculty of contraction gave occasion to the name Systolides, by which DUJARDIN wishes to distinguish this class of animals, but which probably will not supersede that of Rotatoria. In some the integument is hard and rigid, so as to form a shield or a shell (Bracliionus, Anurcea, &c.). In most there is a caudiform appendage on the abdominal surface (EHRENBERG names it processus pediformis or pseudopodium) , which can be drawn in and out annularly like a telescope, and ends in a suctorial disc or in a forceps; by it the Rotatories fix the posterior extremity of the body, whenever, being at rest, they set the wheel-organ in motion. The intestinal canal is straight, in by far the greatest number of species, and the anus is found at the hinder end, at the base of the tail. At the commencement of the intestinal canal, behind the oral aperture, is a muscular organ of cylindrical form armed with two lateral horny jaws. LEEUWENHOECK, BAKER and FONTANA took this structure for a heart, and its motions of grasping and opening, as the first of these authors so aptly describes them1, for the con- traction and expansion of the heart; whereon FONTANA expresses his surprise that such motions should be dependent upon the will of the animal. The lateral jaws indicate a similarity of form with articulate animals, the insects and crustaceans, and some writers have even supposed that the Wheel-animalcules may be regarded as very simply organised crustaceans2. On the whole, by inserting these animals between the intestinal and the articulate worms, the nearest affinities and natural place of the class are not indicated; but in an arrangement that gives the classes in succession, there must always be much that is arbitrary, for the affinities cannot be represented by a single ascending series. The lateral jaws present themselves under two forms. In the greater number they consist of two pieces ; the posterior serves as a pedicle, for the attachment of the muscles of mastication; the anterior passes transversely inwards at a right or obtuse angle, and 1 Scvende vervolg der Brieven, Delft, i 702, 144 ste Missive, bl. 405. 2 Such was the determination of NITZSCH in 1824 on the genus Bracltiomix. WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 197 ends in a single point, or in several teeth when the part becomes broad and indented in form of fingers. In other Rotatories the jaws have the form of two stirrups, with the bases turned towards each other, on which lie two or more teeth transversely, which arise from the outermost arch l. [Where the oesophagus opens into the stomach, or lower down, are two or more oval glandular pouches, which EHRENBERG com- pared to the pancreas. The stomach is large and sacculated, and in the saccules are large nucleated cells, or coeca are appended to them. The cells and cosca are supposed to supply the office of a liver. The intestine narrower, and of variable length, but generally short, opens into a cloaca, of which the outlet is on the dorsal sur- face at the extremity of the body. But sometimes the intestine and anal outlet are wanting, and then the residue of digestion is returned by the mouth2. The stomach and intestine are covered with fine vibratile cilia. This description applies only to the females ; for, in the year 1849, the very interesting discovery of the male of Notommata anglicawas made by BRIGHTWELLS of Norwich, and in it the entire intestinal tract was absent ; there were neither pharynx, jaws, oeso- phagus, nor digestive tube, and the mouth was closed. There is no circulating system. The nutrient fluid fills the cavity of the body, and bathes all the contained organs. The re- spiratory organ is supposed to be represented by tortuous tubes, which are seen at each side of the body. A highly contractile transparent vesicle opens into the cloaca, and from this vesicle the tubes in question arise. To the tube on each side, minute pedi- culated structures, various in number, with vibratile leaflets, are attached. The female organs consist of an ovary situated under the diges- tive tube, generally of an oval form, or like a horse-shoe, of which the efferent duct opens into the cloaca. The ova are of two different kinds, summer- and winter- eggs, thin- or thick-shelled. The summer-eggs are developed within the parent body, and the animal is then vivi« parous. The winter-eggs have been described by EHRENBERG, by HUXLEY, and by LEYDIG, in many different species: their thicker external covering is granular, or tuberculated, or beset with hairs. The winter-eggs are always laid, or are attached 1 See EHRENBERG Zur Erkenntniss der Organisation in der Richtung des Jcleinsten Raumes, Berlin, 1832, s. 46 — 51, Tab. IV. 3 [DALRYMPLE Descript. of an Infusory Anim. allied to Notommata, Phil. Tram, l849> P- 333-] 3 [Annals of Nat. Hist. Sept. 1848.] 198 CLASS VI. to the mother and carried about by her (BracJtionus, &c.) ; and thus, in the cold season of the year, these animals are oviparous. Besides the male of Notommata anglica, discovered by BRIGHTWELL, that of N. Sieboldii has been observed by LEYDIG, who further gives reasons for believing that Enteroplca hydatina EHR. is the male of Hydatina senta, Notommata granularis the male of Notom. Bratitiionus, and Diglena granularis the male of Dig. catcllina. GOSSE also has ascertained that the sexes are distinct in many others1. The males are less than the females, and also differ in form in most cases. The dioecious character of the class may thus be considered to be established. The generative organs of the males consist of a white and round bladder or testis, filled with spermatozoa, and an efferent duct (penis DALRYMPLE) ciliated in the interior, which opens close to the outlet of the respiratory vesicle. All the males observed are entirely destitute of digestive tract; they possess the respiratory organs of their species, whose function seems to suffice for the maintenance of their short life, employed exclusively in impreg- nating the females.] The nervous system has been discovered by EHRENBERO in different genera, and he described, as central portion, different ganglia (ganglia cephalica seu cerebralio^ situated close to the wheel-organ, from which distinct nerves arise. In Hydatina senta, according to the investigations of the same observer, two threads also arise from them that run downwards on the abdominal surface, and unite to form a ganglion from which a single nervous string with many small ganglia or swellings arise2. As organs of sense, in most of them red eye-spots (generally two, sometimes one or three, seldom more than four) have been perceived; sometimes these exist in young individuals alone, and disappear on full growth, as in the genus Floscularia. Besides the muscles of the special parts, there are found in many species thin bundles of muscles running longitudinally, one on the dorsal surface, one on the abdominal surface, and two lateral. With respect to the geographic distribution of Wheel-animalcules nothing deter- minate can yet be specified. Only do we know, from the observations and notices of EHRENBERG, that, besides Europe, they are found in northern and western Asia, in the north of Africa and in North America. Beyond doubt they occur in all quarters of the world. The physiological peculiarity of life suspended for a length of time, to be again awakened by the vital stimulus of fluid, has given a special celebrity to these animals. On this subject we refer to what will be offered below when we notice Rotifer vulgar is, in which this phenomenon has been chiefly observed. 1 [GOSSE On the dioecious charact. of the Rotifera, Proceedings of the Royal Soc. Vol. vin. pp. 66, 68.] 8 Die Infusionsthierchen, s. 416. Somewhat differently ordered is the nervous system in Notommata (s. 425) and in Diglena (s. 443), but in all there lies a principal mass, as the collection of nervous ganglia, on the dorsal surface of the anterior extremity of the body. SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF ROTATORIA, CLASS VI. ROTATORIA. MICROSCOPIC animals, contractile, crowned with vibratile cilia at the anterior part of the body, which by their motion often resemble a wheel revolving rapidly. Intestine distinct, terminated at one extremity by a mouth, at the other by an anus ; generation ovipa- rous, sometimes (periodically) viviparous. ORDER SINGLE. Rotatoria. (The characters of the class are those of the single order.) Family I. Floscularice. Tentacles or lobes around the mouth (with rotatory organ deeply cloven EHRENB.), furnished with cilia. Body affixed by a pedicle. The hairs of this wheel-animalcule are, according to DUJARDIN, PELTIER and other observers, not vibratile cilia, but are capable individually of expansion and contraction ; EHRENBERG, who admits that these hairs may for a long 'time continue at rest and be flaccid, still maintains that they occasionally vibrate, and refers to EICHHORN who perceived the same thing in his crown-polyp, Stephanoceros (Seitrdge zur Naturgesch. der kleinsten Wasserthiere, s. 21-). Floscularia OKEN, EHRENB. Body clavate, or campanulate, anteriorly expanded, five or six lobes sustaining a fasciculus of long cilia. A vagina transparent, cylindrical, often covering the solitary animal. Sp. Floscularia ornata EHRENB., Der Fdnger EICHHORN 1. 1. Tab. in. figs. G — L, p. 39 ; EHRENB.- Organisation in der Richt. des Id. Raum. ^tter. Beitr. Tab. vni. fig. 2 ; Infusionsth. Tab. XLVI. f. 2 ; DUJARD. Infusoir. PI. 19, figs. 7, &c. 200 CLASS VI. Stephanoceros EHRENB. Body campanulate, surrounded by a transparent vagina. Tentacles five around the mouth, covered with cilia in whorls. Sp. Stephanoceros Eichhornii EHRENB., Der Kron-Polyp EICHH. 1. 1. Tab. i. fig. i ; EHKENB. Organis in d. Richt. d. Id. Raum. $tter Beitrag, Tab. xi. fig. i, Infusionsth. Tab. XLV. fig. 2. Family II. Melicertina. Botatory organ simple, with margin entire or lobate. Two stapediform maxillae, with teeth transversely incumbent. Body affixed by a pedicle. Ptygura DuJARD. (Ptygura, (Ecistes, Conochirus EHRENB.) Lacinularia OKEN, SCHWEIGG. (Megalotrocha EHR. and Laci- lunaria ejusd.) Rotatory organ large, incised on one side, hence bilobed or reniform. Animals often social, and sometimes covered by a gelatinous envelope. Sp. Lacinularia socialis SCHWEIGG., Hydra socialis L., Brachionus socialis PALL., Vorticella socialis MUELL., Infusor. Tab. XLIII. figs. 13 — 15, (and Vortic. floscidosa MUELL. ibid. figs. 16 — 20), KCESEL, In*, in. Supp. Tab. 94, figs, i — 6; EHEENB. Infusionsth. Tab. XLIV. fig. 4. They form minute, white, conical bodies, which adhere to the roots of water-plants (Lemna, CeratophyUum, Chara, &c.), and consist of fifty or more such wheel-animalcules, whose extremities are all directed to the centre. After a time the young ones separate themselves from this connexion, move away and adhere to different plants, to form new colonies. Megalotrocha albo-flavicans EHR., KOESEL Ins. in. Suppl. Tab. 95, 96, (Megalotr. alba EHRENB., Zur Erkenntniss d. Organis. in der Richtung des Tdeinsten Raumes. 2ter Beitrag, Tab. in. f. 15, intestinal canal), EHR. Infusionsth. Tab. XLIV. fig. 3, is distinguished from the former species by the absence of an envelope, though united with it by former writers, Tubicolaria LAM. (in part), EHRENB. Body clavate, with rota- tory organ four-lobed, and respiratory tube double, included in a gelatinous vagina. Sp. Tubicolaria najas EHRENB., Rotifer albo-vestitus DUTROCHET, Ann. du Mus. Vol. xix. PI. 18, figs. 9, 10 ; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. XLV. fig. i. Melicerta SCHRANK, OKEN. Body clavate, with rotatory organ four-lobed, and double respiratory tube, retractile within a vagina conico-tubular, granulose, opaque. Two ocelli in the younger age. Sp. Melicerta ringens SCHRANK, Sabella ringens L., Syst. nat. ed. xn. LEEU- WENHOECK, Phil. Transact. 1704, Vol. xiv. p. 1784, figs. 3, 4 ; Sendbrieven, Delft, 1718, vii e. Brief, bl. 63, &c. ; SCH^EFFER Die Blumenpolypen der siissen Wasser. Mit 3 Kupfert. Eegensburg, 1755, 4to; Rotifer quadricir- KOTATORIA. 201 cularis DUTROCHET Ann. du Mus. Vol. xix. PI. 18, figs, i— 8; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. XLVI. fig. 3. These animalcules seated in a case that adheres to duck-weed, belong to the forms which were first discovered by LEEUWENHOECK. Limnias ScHRANK, EHRENB. Body clavate, with rotatory organ bilobed, and respiratory tubule none, solitary, retractile into an opaque envelope. Ocelli two. Sp. Limnias ceratophylli, EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. XLVI. fig. 4. Family III. Brachioncea. Animals swimming freely, covered with a membraneous scute univalve or bivalve, furnished with rota- tory organ double or multiple (zygotrocha or polytrocha EHRENB.) Pterodina EHRENB. Shield orbicular or oblong. Eotatory organ double. Two ocelliform points. Tail cylindrical, transversely rugose, terminated by a suctorial disc which is often ciliated. Sp. Pterodina patina EHRENB., Brachionus patina MUELL., Infusor. Tab. 48, figs. 6 — 10, EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. LXIV. figs. 4, &c. BracJiionus HILL, MUELL. (in part). Scute urceolar, open in front and behind, with anterior aperture or both denticulate. Rota- tory organs two. Maxillse digitate. I. Tail articulate, forked at the point. a] With ocelliform point above the maxillae. (Genus Brachionus EHRENB.) Sp. Brachionus urceolaris MUELL., Infusor. Tab. L. figs. 15 — 21. EHRENB. Organis. in d. Richt. des Id. Raumes, $tter Beitrag, Tab. ix. fig. in., Infusionsth. Tab. LXIII. figs. 3, &c. 6) Without ocelliform. point. (Genus Noteus EHRENB.) Sp. Noteus quadricornis EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. LXII. fig. II. II. Tail none. (Genus Anurcea EHRENB.) Sp. Brachionus squamula MUELL., Anurcea squamula EHRENB., MUELL. Infusor. Tab. 47, figs. 4 — 7, &c. Lepadella BORY (spec, of BracJiionus MUELL.) Scute oval, convex above, flattish beneath, open at both ends. Eotatory organ divided into several lobes. Tail triarticulate, forked at the extre- mity. Maxillae naked, terminated by a single point, or by two or three teeth. Genera : Lepadella, Metopidia, Stephanops, and Squamella EHRENB. Sp. Lepadella (Stephanops EHRENB.) lamellaris, Brachionus lamellaris MUELL., Infus. Tab. 47, figs. 8 — 11 ; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. Lix. figs. 13, &c. 202 CLASS VI. Euchlanis EHRENB. (spec, of Gercaria MUELL,) Sp. Euchl. luna, Cercaria luna MUELL., Furcocerca luna LAM., MUELL. Infusor. Tab. xx. figs. 8, 9 ; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. LXII. figs. 10, £c. Dinocharis EHRENB. Salpina EHRENB. Colurus EHRENB. Monura EHRENB. Rattulus LAM. (Mastigocerca and Monocerca EHRENB.) Body oval, covered with a scute carinate, narrowed posteriorly. Rotatory organ divided into several lobes. Tail styliform, long, rigid. Ocelliform point single. Sp. Rattulus carinatus LAM., Trickoda rattus MUELL., EICHHORN Wasser- thiere, Tab. n. fig. o, die Wasserratte MUELL., Infusor. Tab. xxix. figs. 5 — 7. (EHRENBERG distinguishes here two species and two genera: Mastigocerca carinata MUELL. 1. 1. fig. 7, Infusionsthier. Tab. LVII. fig. 7, which has a shell, and Monocerca rattus, Tab. XLVIII. fig. 7, to which EICHHORN'S drawing and the first two figures of MUELLER 1. 1. belong, which wants the shell, whilst he however remarks, that both are very similar ; DUJARDIN is of opinion that only one species should be adopted.) Rattulus EHRENB. With two ocelliform points, and tail styli- form, inflected. (Animal naked? Is this its place ?) Sp. Rattulus lunaris, Trickoda lunaris MUELL., Infus. Tab. xxix. figs. 1—3, EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. LVI. fig. r. Polyarthra EHRENB. Triarthra EHRENB. Sp. Triarthra longiseta EHRENB., EICHHORN Wasserthiere, Tab. i. fig. 7, EHRENB., Organisat. in d. Richt. des kl. Raumes, $tter Beitray, Tab. vin. fig. i, Infusionsth. Tab. LV. figs. 7, &c. Family IV. Hydatincea (Furcularina DUJARD.) Animals swim- ming freely, naked, with integument contractile, flexible, often marked by parallel rugae. Tail forked. A. Rotatory organ single, continuous, not lobed at the margin. (Ichthydina EHRENB. in part). Ichthydium EHRENB. (species of Cercaria MUELL.) Body smooth. Sp. Ichthyd. podura EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. XLIII. fig. i. Chcetonotus EHRENB. (species of Trickoda MUELL.) Body hairy. Sp. Chcetonotus larus, Trichoda larus MUELL., Infmor. Tab. 31, figs. 5 — 7; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. XLIII. figs. 4, &c. ROTATORIA. 203 [DUJARDIN (Infus. p. 268, 1841) gave reasons for the exclusion of Chcetonotus and Ichthydium from the JKotatoria, and placed them provisionally in his order Infusoires symetriques. Afterwards C. YOGT referred them to the Turbellaria. SCHTILTZE discovered in the sea-sand at Cuxhaven (1853) a new genus and species closely allied in anatomical structure to our Ichthydina, which he named Turbanella hyalina. Neither in Ichthydium nor Chcetonotus do the cilia form a true wheel-organ round the mouth capable of protrusion and retraction. In Ichthydium they are spread over the entire abdominal surface ; in Chcetonotus over the whole of the anterior half of the abdomen, and at the margin of the posterior half form a band which surrounds the closely set, stiff hairs, which are much finer than the spines on the dorsal surface and directed backwards to cover the non- ciliated portion of the abdomen. The tail is forked, but not jointed. The intestine is straight, the anal opening at the fork of the tail. Neither vessels, nerves, nor muscles can be seen, except that the oesophagus is muscular. The sexual organs are situated between the intestinal canal and the integument of the back, the testes consisting of a loose cluster of vesicles in front of the ovary. SCHULTZE concludes that the Ichthydina of EHRENBERG (exclusive of his genera Ptygura and G-lenophora which are true rotatories) must be excluded from the Rotatoria, and that they belong more nearly to the Turbellaria than to any other order of worms. There are however remarkable differences of structure between them and any family of Turbellaria. For in those Turbellaria which have a straight intestine with anal opening, the sexes are distinct j whilst in those which are hermaphrodite the intestine has no anal opening. SCHULTZE contends however that in worms the characteristic derived from the form of the intestinal canal is of greater systematic value than that derived from the formation of the sexual organs : and recommends that the Ichthydina, limited as above, be placed pro- visionally amongst the Microstoma of the order Turbellaria, which will then require to be subdivided into the dio3cious and the monoe- cious (Ichthydina). See SCHULTZE in MUELLER'S Archiv. 1853. s. 241-253. Taf. vi.] B. Rotatory organ multilobed or parted (Hydatincea EHRENB.) Otoglena EHRENB. Maxillse none. Ocelliform points three, the middle one sessile, the two lateral pediculate. Enteroplea EHRENB. Body oval, oblong, anteriorly truncate. Maxillaa none. Ocelliform points none. 204 CLASS VI. Sp. Enteroplea Jiydatina KHRENB. Tab. XLVII. fig. i, DUJAKD. fnfusoires, PI. xix. fig. 2. Hydatina EHRENB. Body oval, anteriorly truncate. Maxillte digitate at the extremity, terminated by teeth five in number, free. Ocelliform points none. Sp. Hydatina senta, Vorticella senta MUELL., Infusor. Tab. XLI. figs. 8 — 14 ; EHRENB. Organisation, Systematic, &c. 1830, Tab. viu. Infusionsth. XLVII. fig. i • this is the animal in which EHRENBERG first demonstrated the com- posite structure of the Rotatoria. Notommata EHRENB. (in part). Body oval or oblong, posteriorly narrower, anteriorly truncate. Maxillae digitate, with several teeth at the extremity. Ocelliform point single, forward, dorsal, or several points clustered. Sp. Notommata clavulata EHRENB., Organisation in der Richtung d. kl. Raumes, $tter Beitrag, Tab. x. fig. i, Infusionsthierchen, Tab. L. figs. 5, &c. Cycloglena lupus EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. xvi. fig. 10, (the form of the maxillae not yet accurately known). Syncliceta EHRENB. Body broad anteriorly. Eotatory organ armed with styles. Ocelliform point single, anterior, dorsal. Sp. Synchceta baltica EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. LIII. fig. 5 ; phosphorescent, in the Baltic, &c. Furcularia LAM. (in part), DuJARD. Maxillae forcipate, with extremity usually undivided and acuminate, or bidentate, protrac- tile as far as the margin of the rotatory organ. a) Ocelliform point none. Pleurotrocha EHRENB. Sp. Pleurotrocha constricta EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. XLVIII. figs, i, &c. b) Ocelliform point single. Furcularia and Scaridium EHRENB. Sp. Furcularia gibba EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. XLVIII. figs. 3, &c. — Furcul. longicauda LAM., Trichoda longicauda MUELL., Infusor. Tab. xxxi. figs. 8 — 10, Scaridium longicaudum EHRENB., Infusionsth. Tab. LIV. fig. i, with a hook in front on the wheel-organ and a very long tail, by which the animal progresses in the water by leaps. c) Ocelliform points two (Diylena and Distemma EHRENB. exclusive of Distemma marinum ejusd.) Sp. Furcularia forcipata, Cercaria forcipata and vermicular^ MUELL., Infu- sor. Tab. xx. figs. 18 — 23 ; EHRENB. Infusionsth. Tab. LV. fig. i, Dekinia vermicular is, MORREN Bijdragen tot de natuurk. Wetensch. v. pp. 227, &c. d) Ocelliform points three (Triophthalmus, Eosphora EHRENB.) e} Ocelliform points numerous, disposed in two clusters (Thcorns EHRENB.) ROTATORIA. 205 Lindia DuJARD.V Note, — Genus Albertia DUJARD. is distinguished by a shield in front of the rotatory organ and by a tail which is conical, short, un- divided. Body cylindrical, elongate. It lives parasitically, in the intestinal tube of earth-worms and slugs. Comp. Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e serie, Tom. x. p. 175, Tab. n. Family V. Philodinasa EHRENB. (Rotifera DUJARD.) Animals swimming freely or creeping (after the manner of geometric cater- pillars). Body elongate, fusiform, contractile into a ball. Rotatory organ double. Tail articulate, furnished posteriorly with little horns or styles. The stapediform maxillae with two parallel teeth, sometimes with three. Rotifer Cuv.1 (The characters of the family.) a) Without proboscis. Typhlina EHKENB. (and Hydrias ejusd. Ocelliform points none). Monolabis EHRENB. Ocelliform points two. b) Anterior process retractile, proboscidean. *) Ocelliform points none. Calladina EHRENB. **) Ocelliform points two. Philodina. The ocelliform points situated behind the proboscis. Sp. Philodina erythrophthalma EHRENB., Organisation, Systematic, &c. Berlin, 1830, Tab. vii. fig. 2; Infusionsth. Tab. LXI. fig. 4; by former writers confounded with Rotifer vulgaris. DtJJARDlN names this species, with which he thinks some other species of Philodina EHRENB. ought to be united, Rotifer inflatus, Inf moires, PI. 17, fig. i. Rotifer EHRENB. (and Actinurus ejusd.). Ocelliform points situated at the anterior part of the proboscis. Sp. Rotifer vulgaris SCHRANK, EHRENB., Furcularia redhiva LAM., Vorticella rotator ia MUELL., Infusor. Tab. XLII. figs, ir— 16; EHRENB. Organisat., Systematic, &c. 1830. Tab. vii. fig. i, Infusionsth. Tab. LX. fig. 4; DUJAR- DIN, Inf moires, PI. 17, fig. i. This Wheel-animalcule was first discribed and figured by LEEUWENHOECK in 1702. (Sevende vervolg der Brieven, i ^ ste Missive, bl. 406). He observed Tableau elcmrntaire, 1798, p. 653. 206 CLASS VI. that this animal, which he had found in a leaden gutter of his house, after it had been dried with the sand and other matters that adhered to it, revived again, when after two days he poured water upon it, which, having been previously boiled, could contain no living animalcule. He afterwards found that the same phenomenon occurred after a lapse of five months (bl. 413). Different observers repeated these experiments. FONTANA found Wheel-animalcules that had been dried for two years and a half revive on being moistened (Traite sur le venin de la Vipere I., Florence, 1781, 4to. pp. 90, 92), and SPALLANZANI saw the waking from slumber occur even after four years (Opuscules de Physique, traduits par J. SENEBIER, Geneve, 1777, II. p. 310). The last-named observer saw the same pheno- menon many times in succession ; nay, even eleven times he saw alternately apparent death and life. A few minutes are often sufficient to revive the creatures ; but such alone as were surrounded with sand and other matter, not those which lying quite bare had been dried, were revived. Observations in the present century also are not wanting, by DUTROOHET, C. SCHULTZE (according to EHRENBERG on Philodina), and others. This phenomenon does not stand quite alone. We have spoken above of Anguillula (p. 194), and SPALLANZANI observed the same phenomenon in a microscopic aquatic animal, which he named Tardigrade, and which has been called Arctiscon by other writers. DUJARDIN brings this and other similar animals as well as the Wheel-animalcules into the same class of Systolides; but we are of opinion that they ought rather to be placed, as very imperfect forms of Arachno'idea, with the Acari. It is on these tar- digrades that DOYERE not long ago performed his very interesting experi- ments, and also, after most perfect desiccation of the animals when quite uncovered, succeeded in reviving them (Ann. des Sc. not. 2e geVie, 1842. Tom. xvni. Zoologie, pp. 5—35). To these observations no exception can well be taken ; the facts must either be stoutly denied or be accepted as we find them. SPALLANZANI asserted incorrectly that life was quite gone, and that a real revival occurred (1. 1. p. 322). LEEUWENHOECK expressed himself more cautiously. BONNET too speaks of a seeming death, and says that life is not quite extinguished (Consid. sur les corps organises, (Euvres, Neuchatel, 1779, 8vo. vi. p. 224, Contemplation de la nature, ibid. Tom. vm. p. 262). VON HUMBOLDT calls the state of apparent death in these animals one of sleep, or of suspended life (Versuche uber die gereizte Muskel-und Nervenfaser, 1797. 8vo. I. s. 296). In this desiccated state life is potentially present, but does not announce itself by actual phenomena. If we choose to name this life latent, we must not call death itself a latent life; certainly these animals are not dead, but their life is brought to a stand by the want of one of the most common and most necessary of vital stimuli, by the want of water. CLASS VII. RINGED WORMS (ANNULATA^. LINNAEUS placed (vid. p. 30) all animals that are destitute of a proper internal skeleton in two classes, that of Insects and that of Worms. In reviewing the principal modifications which subsequent writers have introduced into the general classification of the animal kingdom, we find that they relate chiefly to the animals placed by LlNNJEUS in the latter class. All those classes which we have hitherto treated of have been formed by separation from the Lix- N^EAN class of worms ; all the animals which we shall describe in the sequel as Molluscs formed collectively a portion of the same great division. Amongst creatures so numerous and of such variety of form, there are some which in type, or plan of organisation, approximate towards insects; they are, like insects, articulate animals, but differ from them by the absence of articulate feet. As early as the end of the last century CUVIER made of these a distinct division of the animal kingdom under the name of Worms, and, at 1 Compare on this class : — O. F. MUELLER, Vermium terrestrium et Jluviat ilium sen Animalium infworiorum, helminthicorum et testaceorum, non marinorum, succincta Historia, Haunise et Lipsise, 1773, 1774, ii Volumina 4to. (This work describes the Worms of LINN.EUS, that is, the invertebrate inarticulate animals and the ringed Worms.) 0. F. MUELLER, Naturgeschiclite einiger Wurmarten des siissen und salzigen Wassers, mit Kupf., Kopenhagen, 1771, 4to. (new edit. 1800). Descriptions and observations referring chiefly to the genera Na:is, Nereis and Aphrodite. J. C. SAVIGNY, Systfrne des Annelides, Description de VEgypte, Tom. xxvi. Paris, 1826, (pp. 325—472). AUDOUIN et MILNE EDWARDS, Classification des Annelides et Description de celles} qui hdbitent les cdtes de la France. Annales des Sc. natur. Tom. xxvii. 1832, pp. 337 — • 447, Tom. xxvm. 1833, pp. 187—247, xxix. pp. 195—269, pp. 388—412, xxx. pp. 411—425. MILNE EDWARDS, Annelida in TODD'S Cydopcedia i. 1835, pp. 164 — 173. A. S. OERSTED, Greenland's Anmdata dorsibranchiata in Kongl. DansTce videnska- bemes Selskabs Naturvidenskdbelige og mathematishe Afhandlinger x. 1813, pp. 153 — 216, with figures. A. E. GRUBE, Die Familien der Annelidcn, Ein Systematisches Versuch. Berlin, 1851. 208 CLASS VI. the same time, added to it the Entozoa1. Some years afterwards CUVIER discovered that many of these animals have red-coloured blood, and thought that a name implying this was justifiable (vers a sang rouge], whilst LAMARCK, on account of the rings into which their body is divided, named them Annelides. It was necessary to premise these historical notices in order to make it clear why we have given to this class of animals the name "Kinged Worms;" and, notwithstanding, include in it animals whose body is not divided into rings. The name may be defended by similar instances from other classes of animals, where names do not always suit all the individuals in them2. But, further, we prefer this name to that of " Worms," because this last is too indeterminate, and, as has been alleged above, has a double meaning. One of the best writers on the Annulata is 0. F. MUELLER, to whom the whole of Zoology is indebted for distinguished services. The immortal PALLAS, also, -described many ringed worms, and investigated them anatomically. In the present century they have been especially investigated by SAVIGNY, MILNE EDWARDS, GRUBE and OERSTED. EHRENBERG has placed some of these worms, on account of the vibratile cilia with which their integument is beset, in a separate class, under the name Turbdlaria. But, besides that we think too great a multiplicity of classes is to be avoided, some of these Turbellaria approach far too nearly to other natural divisions of the Annulata to allow us to place them in a distinct class of the animal kingdom3. CUVIER and LAMARCK placed the Annulata higher in the animal kingdom than the rest of the articulates ; above the Crustaceans. It is true that the last-named Zoologist considered the Crustaceans to be the more highly organised, but believing that the Annulata ought to stand above the Insects, and that it was inexpedient to break the con- nected series formed by the Insects, Arachnoids, and Crustaceans, 1 Tableau element, de VHist. not. des Animaux, 1798, p. 624 ; Le$. d'Anat. com- paree I. ivi&me Tableau. LAMAKCK adopted the same class in his Systeme des Anim. sans vertebres, i8or, p. 315. 2 The class of the Acalephce for instance, the order of the hemiptera, a name which is properly applicable to the division of the heteroplera alone. 3 In the following general view of the internal structure of this class we shall especially fix oiir regards on those animals which indicate most clearly the articulate type; for the rest we refer to the special notices in the Systematic Arrangement. RINGED-WORMS. 209 by the Annulata, he preferred to place these last at the top. We are quite as ready to acknowledge that Articulates with articulate feet form a single connected series, and would not therefore separate them from each other; but we place the Annulata below the Insects, not above the Crustaceans. This arrangement, formerly adopted by us when it was less common, appears now to be generally received; even by Frenchmen, as, for instance, MILNE EDWARDS. The body of ringed-worms is generally much elongated and cylindrical; in some instances it is broader and oval. It is divided by transverse folds into rings or girdles, which, in most species, are very numerous, and in one and the same species may vary greatly in number, at least when that number is very great. The common Leech has about 100 such, Eunice gigantea above 400 ; in Phyllo- doce laminosa SAV., AUDOUIN and MILNE EDWARDS found nearly 500 rings, whilst in other individuals of the same species there were sometimes only 300. The integument is always soft, not corneous, but some of them live in sheaths or shells, sometimes compacted with bits of shell or grains of sand into a mosaic work of considerable strength, and sometimes consisting of calcareous matter, as in the genus Serpula. In some the head is not distinct from the succeeding rings of the body. In others it is distinguished from the trunk by its different form, and is provided with eyes and even with threads, which many authors name Antennae, after the so-named parts in Insects and Crustaceans; but they differ from these, and can be pushed in and out like the horns or feelers on the head of snails. The number of these feelers differs ; there are rarely more than five, and some species have only a single thread of the kind. On the rings of the body spines or hairs are usually set, which however may be entirely wanting in some, as in the leech. In most the hairs or spines are placed upon minute lateral tubercles, which may be considered as rudiments of feet. These rudimentary feet are, however, never jointed as in insects. They are usually divided into two parts, which may be named oars or fins; one on the dorsal surface, another on the ventral surface (rame dorsale et rame ventrale SAVIGNY). On each of these two projections a bundle of hairs (setce) is set, of very different form ; and, besides this, each projection has, as the rule, a conical spine that can be re- tracted into its sheath and is called needle (acus). Moreover, at the VOL. I. 14 210 CLASS VII. base, or foot-piece of each of these oars there is usually placed a filiform appendage (cirrus). In the Dorsibranchiates there are found, in addition, on the dorsal surface towards the sides and near the oars, or upon them, the external respiratory organs, Gills, of various forms ; sometimes divided like a comb, or branched like a tree, sometimes composed of simple filiform appendages resembling the cirri of the oars. In other ringed-worms the gills are situated at the most anterior part of the body. In the Leech, the Earth- worm, and allied genera, no respiratory organs are visible externally. In those ringed-worms that have not a distinct head, the mouth is usually found quite at the anterior extremity of the body ; in the rest it is situated on the* inferior surface, and usually a muscular proboscis can be everted (Phyllodoce Nereis, &c.). In these, more- over, the mouth is ordinarily armed with horny jaws, placed late- rally, differing in number in the different genera. Occasionally the number is not the same on the two opposite sides. Thus the genera (Enone and Aglaura SAV. have four jaws on the right, five on the left ; Lysidice and Leonice three on the right, and four on the left. The intestinal canal is, for the most part, straight, yet there are exceptions. In Sabella ventilabrum the canal makes a great num- ber of transverse flexures, lying upon one another, and winding sometimes to the right, sometimes to the left : the first portion alone, the oesophagus, is straight1; GRUBE observed the same dis- position in Cirratulus2. In Amphictene (Amphitrite auricoma bet- gica Cuv.) the intestinal canal makes two flexures, as in Holothuria, first proceeding backwards, then straight forwards, and then back- wards again with a narrower portion between the two others3. In the remainder, where the canal is straight, there are usiially lateral appendages, or it is as though divided into cells by transverse constrictions. In the Earth-worm a short round stomach succeeds to the oesophagus, and then there is another muscular stomach. In Arenicola the middle wider portion of the intestinal canal has very thin walls, and is covered with very regular vascular reticulations 1 MECKEL, System der Vergl. Anat. iv. 1829, s. 71, R. WAGNER in OKEN'S 7*w, 1832, s. 657, Tab. x. fig. 13. 2 A. E. GRUBE, Zur Anatomic und Physiologic der Kicmcmwirincr, Konigsbcrg, 1838, 4to. s. 34. 3 PALLAS, Misc. Zoolog. p. 129, Tab. ix. figs. \i, 13. RINGED- WOKMS. 211 dividing it, as it were, into cells. Two conical yellow coecal pouches are placed at the commencement of this portion of intestine : they may probably be considered to be rudiments of the liver. In the common Leech, the short oesophagus, of an oval form, wider towards the middle of its length, passes into a long stomach, which is divided by transverse walls into eleven portions: on each side are seen ten coecal appendages to the stomach, the last of these being the longest ; the inferior opening of the stomach (Pylorus) extends, like a funnel, into the intestine by a narrow opening. In other genera of Hirudinea, ex. gr. in Hcemopsis, the intestinal canal is more simple, having only two ccecal appendages1. In Aphrodita there succeeds to a very muscular cylindrical tube, which PALLAS described as stomach, a thin intestinal canal of considerable width with about twenty coecal appendages on each side2. These append- ages are narrow at their insertion into the intestine, wider in their middle, where they are provided with branched lappets, and termi- nate in longish ccecal sacs. This structure recalls the disposition of the intestinal canal in Planarice and Distomata, and the blind branched appendages of the intestinal canal in Star-fishes may be compared with it. They are filled, as these are, with yellow fluid, and may be compared to rudiments of liver. In other animals again the liver appears as a protrusion of the intestinal canal. The system of Blood-vessels presents very many modifications in this class. As to the blood itself, we have seen above, that CUVIER believed it to be red in all the ringed-worms. Such is really the case in by far the greater number, as Hirudo, Lumbricus, Arenicola, Nereis, Terebella, Serpula, &c.: in others it is nearly colourless, as in Aphrodite: yellow, as in Polynoe and Phyllodoce, or even green, as MILNE EDWARDS found it in a species of Sabella. The general arrangement of the circulating apparatus is as follows: there are two main stems, one on the dorsal surface, the other on the ventral surface, which run in the midst through the whole length of the body, and as far as the course of the blood could be deter- mined in the living body — (for which investigation small indivi- duals are frequently more fitted than large ones, on account of their 1 See a figure in BRANDT und RATZEBURG, Medizinische Zooloyic, n. Bd. 1833, Tab. xxix. B. fig. 12. 2 PALLAS, 1. 1. Tab. vn. fig. lod, d, fig. ng,g. G. R. TREVIRANUS in Zeiischrift fur Physiologic in. 1829, s. 159 — 161, Tab. xn. fig. 9. 14—2 212 CLASS VII. transparency), the blood moves in the dorsal vessel from behind for- wards, in the abdominal vessel from before backwards l. In the Earth- worm (Lumbricus) the two trunks are united in the anterior part of the body by five or more (7 — 9) arches widened like strings of pearls. (It is almost impossible not to recall here the vascular arches which in the embryos of mammals run along the branchial fissures.) In others the connexion forwards is effected by vascular plexuses (retia mirabilia)*. The dorsal vessel is usually considered to be arterial, the abdominal venous : and in most of the ringed-worms this opinion is not without ground, as might indeed have been con- cluded from analogy with other articulates. Sometimes the anterior part of the dorsal vessel becomes wider, resembling a rudiment of a heart, which then is in most cases an arterial heart like that of spiders and crustaceans. The exception however observed by MILNE EDWARDS must not be forgotten; in Terebella the heart drives the blood to the gills, and must therefore be considered to be a venous heart, analogous to that of fishes. Other less important modifications of the vascular system consist in the breaking up of the two main stems into several, which are sometimes quite separate from each other, though placed in proxi- mity (Nephthys, Eunice), or in the presence of lateral longitudinal stems. In Pleione carunculata there are as many as seven longitu- dinal stems : four on the ventral surface, of which the middle ones are small and lie at the sides of the nervous system, and the two outer which are larger and give twigs to the gills, and three on the dorsal surface, of which the two lateral receive the blood from the gills, and are connected by transverse branches with the third or median trunk3. In the Leech there are four principal stems, one dorsal, one abdominal, and two, larger than these, lateral. 1 In this simple fundamental form the vascular system presents itself in Nals, where an arched vessel at the anterior extremity of the body unites the two longitudinal vessels. GRUITHUISEN, Anat. der gezungelten Nalde, Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leap. Tom. xi. p. 233. And Ueber die Nais diapkana, ibid. Tom. xiv. pp. 407, £c. 2 In Nereis : see H. RATHKE, de Bopyro et Nereide commentationes duce, 1837, 4to. who calls these parts organa reticulata. MILNE EDWARDS, Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e Se"rie, Tom. x. ZooL 1838, PI. 12, fig. i. Similar vascular plexuses exist also in Pleione carunculata, see G. R. TREVIRANUS, Beobachtungen aus der Zool. u. Physiol. Bremen, 1839, s- 54* and A. E. GRUBE, De Pleione carunculata Diss. Zootom. Regiomonti Prussor. 1837, p. 19. 3 GRUBE, De Pleione carunculata, pp. 18, 19. On the circulation in the ringed- worms I. MUELLER in BURDACH'S Physiologic iv. 1832, s. 143 — 149, may be also RINGED-WORMS. 213 Eespiration is effected by the skin, or by external gills of very different form, or by vesicles on the sides of the body. In the Leech there are found about seventeen such vesicles on each side, which open on the abdominal surface. The openings are extremely minute, and between two of them on each side there are four rings or seg- ments of the body without such openings. A white convoluted structure is connected with these vesicles by means of a thin pedicle, and contains (according to DUGES) a blood-vessel in its interior. That these vesicles secrete mucus, is no proof that they are not respiratory organs ; some writers think that it is their sole function to supply that secretion; and BRANDT believes that respiration in the Leech is effected by the skin. At all events, though these vesicles receive and return blood-vessels, they have not a perfectly separate circulation of blood in them, and the respiratory organs would seem to receive in this case, as in that of Reptiles, a portion only of the venous blood. In the Earth-worm there are more than a hundred such vesicles ; their openings are on the abdominal surface, according to LEO and DUGES, whilst MECKEL and MORREN think that they are connected with a single series of apertures on the dorsal surface, which WILLIS formerly described and compared to the spiracles of Insects1. The ringed-worms, until within the last few years, were sup- posed, almost universally, to be bisexual. It was only in the AphroditcB that a separation of the sexes was, with some hesitation, accepted, when PALLAS had shewn that certain individuals were full of eggs at the same time that in others the cavity of the abdomen contained a tenacious milky fluid2. Afterwards EATHKE also found a separation of the sexes in Amphitrite*, and QUATREFAGES observed the same in a large number of marine ringed-worms (tukicolce and errantia) 4. The observations of STEENSTRUP on Lepidonote, Phyllo- doce, Nereis , Nephthys, Terebella, and Serpula are to the same effect: in the last genus the sexual distinction may be recognised by the consulted, and especially MILNE EDWARDS, Ann. des Sc. not. sec. Sdrie, Tom. x. pp. 193 — 221, PI. 10, ir. (These figures are also transferred to the new edition of CUVIER, Reyne Animal, Annelides, PI. i, &c.) 1 De Anima Brutorum, Amstelodami, 1674, 8vo. pp. 34, 35, Tab. IV. fig. 3. 3 Misc. Zool. p. 90. 3 Bdtrdge zur vergl. Anat. u. Physiol. Danzig, 1842, s. 66 — 68. 4 MILNE EDWARDS, Rapport sur une Serie de Memoircs de M. A. DE QUATRE- FAGES, Ann. des Sc. nat. 3ibme Sdrie I. p. 21. 214 CLASS VII. colour shining through the skin, which is white in male individuals and reddish in female. Other differences of external appearance in the two sexes are not known, unless we except an observation of OERSTED, which however is not altogether free from doubt, accord- ing to which in a new genus very nearly allied to Syllis, which he names Exogone, the male individuals are distinguished by longer hairs, as they are in the genus Nais1. There still remain the genera of the Hirudinea and Lumbricmi, in which STEENSTRUP in- deed adopts separation of sex under similar external form of the parts : but this requires confirmation after accurate investigation, for it is in conflict with earlier observations, whilst by later it is in part contradicted2. On the whole, no common type can be assigned for the genital organs : for the most part, there are some pairs of vesicles (ovaria, testes) in the fore part of the body. In some Annulata setigera, apertures at the base of the foot-swellings have been seen, through which passes seed or eggs : but in many of them such an outlet is still unknown. For the most part, external genital organs are deficient : neither does copulation occur, except in Lumbricini and Hirudinea. The development of the egg has been investigated only in a few species. Here also that remarkable cleaving and successive division of the yelk has been observed, which KiJSCONi and YON BAER first detected in the eggs of frogs and of fishes. The deve- lopment of the embryo begins on the abdominal surface, and the yelk lies on the dorsal surface, as in Crustaceans and Insects : two abdominal streaks are observed at the commencement of develop- ment, which recall the dorsal plates of vertebrate animals3. The most recent times have made us acquainted with some remarkable metamorphoses in the course of the development of ringed- worms. LOVEN found the first stage in a worm of the family of the Nereids (probably a species of Phyllodoce) to resemble 1 EBICHSON'S Archivf. Naturgesch. 1845, i. s. 20 — 23. 2 See F. MUELLEE on the Hermaphroditism of the Hirudinea, in the German translation of STEENSTRUP'S work cited above (p. 135) Untersuchungen ueber das VorJcommcn des Hermaphroditismus in der Natur. Greifswald, 1846, s. no — 114. 3 Most of the observations refer to Hirudinea. Such are the following works : — E. H. WEBER, Ueb. die EntwicTcelung des medicin. Blutegels, MECKEL'S Archiv. 1828, s. 366 — 418, Taf. x. xi.; R. WAGNER, Bruchstucke aus der Entwickelung des gemeinen Bluteycls, Hirudo vulgaris L., Nephelis tesselata Sav. OKEN'S Isis, 1832, s. 398 — 408, Taf. iv.; A. E. GRUBE, Untersuchungen ueber die Entwickelung der Clepsinen. Mit 3 Kupfert. Konigsberg, 1844. We may expect several observations on marine annulata from QUATREFAGES. See Ann. des Sc. nat. 3101116 Serie, Zoologie i. p. 21. RINGED-WORMS. 215 a hemispherical or conical body of about J millim. terminating in a ciliated disc on whose edge the mouth seemed to be placed. At the pole of the hemisphere was the anus. This conical body increased gradually in length and became divided into rings gra- dually more numerous, the last formed ring being that next the disc (just as in ESCHRICHT'S observations on BoihriocepJialus the new rings were formed in the anterior part of the body). Each ring originally consisted of four pieces : an anterior and a posterior piece being larger, almost a semicircle, and a smaller piece on each side connecting them. The disc with its vibrating cilia diminished gradually and became changed into two fin-like appendages to the head, from which the feelers probably proceed1. SARS saw the incipient form of Polynoe cir-rata as a short, oval, inarticulate body with a transverse circle of vibratile cilia round the middle2. It may be confidently asserted therefore that there is a metamorphosis; parts are present which afterwards disappear (the vibratile cilia), others are deficient which are afterwards developed, and the entire form is changed. The Reproductive force is, in some animals of this class very great, in others small, although worms that have been cut through transversely continue to live for a long time, as has been observed in the leech, and by 0. F. MUELLER in Nereis versicolor. TREM- BLEY'S experiments on the Fresh-water Polyp induced BONNET to repeat them on Fresh-water Worms (Naides), and he found that the pieces he had cut off grew into new worms3. MUELLER also succeeded in similar experiments4. It has been thought also that they have succeeded in the Earth-worm, but here they have con- stantly failed with other experimenters. According, however, to the experiments of DUGES a few rings at the anterior part of the body may be reproduced and gradually changed into a head5. 1 S. LOVEN, Zoologiska, Bidrag ; Metamorphos hos en Annelid (Aftryck ur K. Vetensk-ATcadem. Handlingar, 1840) ; translated into most of the. zoological journals : Ann. des Sc. not. IQ Se"r. xvm. p. 288. 2 EKICHSON'S Archiv. 1845, i. s. n — 19, Tab. i. 3 Observations sur quelques esp&ces de Vers d'eau douce; (Euvres (e*dit. 8vo.) pp. 167, &c. Especially in Lmribricus variegatus MUELL. (Lumbricidus variegatus GEUBE) is this reproductive power great, in which BONNET saw the amputated head renewed eight times in two months. 4 Von Wurmern des sussen u. salzigcn Wasscrs, s. 43, 82, &c. 5 Ann. des Sc. nat. xv. 1828, pp. 317, 318. 216 CLASS VII. The Nervous System in the Annulata proper consists, as in Insects, of ganglia connected by two cords and placed behind each other in a series in the middle of the body on the abdominal sur- face. Originally each ganglion consists of two lateral portions, as is proved by the process of development : on the regeneration also of parts that have been cut away the nervous system appears to be formed of two lateral portions. A larger ganglion lies in the head, and is connected, by two nervous threads that form a ring around the oesophagus, with the first ganglion of the abdominal chain. But the Nervous System presents much variety in different genera, as well in the number as in the greater or less development of the ganglia and in the nerves that spring from them ; whilst in the earth-worm, for instance, the numerous ganglia of the abdominal chain almost touch each other, in the leech they are only twenty- four or twenty -five in number, and are placed far asunder, especially in the middle. In Pleione carunculata the Nervous System con- sists, according to GRUBE, besides the middle chain, of two lateral cords, also with ganglia, which are connected with the former by transverse threads1. In Eunice sanguinea QUATREFAGES found minute ganglia at the base of the rudimentary feet, which however were not connected, as a chain, by longitudinal filaments. In ad- dition to this nervous apparatus a special nervous system has been detected in many instances, agreeing with that portion of the nervous system in Insects which has been compared to the Nervus sympathicus of the higher animals : of which we shall treat more at large at the class of Insects. In Hirudo medicinalis BRANDT discovered three minute ganglia in the head, which are united by threads with the cerebral ganglion, and from which the maxillary nerves arise ; with the middlemost of the three ganglia a nerve is probably in connexion, which runs beneath the stomach in a longi- tudinal direction and finally divides into two branches ; but this nerve differs from the sympathetic of insects in respect of its position on the inferior surface. In Eunice sanguinea and some 1 Diss. zootom. de Pleione carunc. p. 9, figs, i, 5. STANNIUS (his, rSsi) observed the same thing in another species of Pleione (Amphinome rostrata). It is as though there were a repetition of the form of the vascular system on the dorsal surface, which here consists of three stems; see above (p. 212). Perhaps this arrangement occurs in several Annulata; at least WAGNER describes it also in Pontobdella muricata, Lehrb. der vergl. Anat. 1835, s. 381. RINGED-WORMS. 217 Nereidce QUATREFAGES found this system to be composed of differ- ent ganglia, and named it, on account of its position on the pro- boscis, systime susoesophagien, or proboscidian superieur1. With respect to organs of sense, with the exception of tentacles and other appendages subservient to a finer sense of touch, for sight there are found in most species only coloured spots, usually black, of variable number, as special organs. According to I. MUELLER'S investigations in a Nereis, the eyes of ringed-worms contain no transparent parts, but are merely swellings of the visual nerves sur- rounded by black pigment. They are endowed with sensibility for light, and the worms can distinguish between light and darkness : but what is properly named sight, perception of the form of objects, such eyes cannot afford. In Alciopa lepidota KROHN however found a lens and a vitreous body. A special auditory organ has not been detected ; the first portion of the oesophagus is supposed to be the seat of taste. The organs of motion are in some more complicated than in others. In all muscular fibres are found beneath the skin, which may be separated more or less completely into layers : the external layer has a circular, the internal a longitudinal course. In some, as Aphrodite, these fibres are united to form distinct bundles. By means of the layers or bundles the body can be moved, contracted, extended, bent. Besides this general muscular system, motion of the body in the Leech can be also effected by means of a suctorial disc at its posterior part, in which there are circular and radiating fibres. The proboscis, which is capable of eversion and retraction, has proper muscles for these purposes. Concerning the bristles and hairs, which are found on many, we have already spoken above. These parts, springing from the sides, supply fixed points for the motions of the body, like the spines of the Echini: they are retracted, ex- tended or moved sideways by proper muscles. Many species of this class diffuse a phosphoric light. It is 1 There lies also a small ganglion in front of the brain (ganglion cervical QUATRE- FAGES), and from the lateral parts of the brain a thread arises, which with that of the other side surrounds the mouth (Systeme sous-cesophagien labial au proboscidien inferieur) ; this last portion of the nervous system may be compared with the arrange- ment in the Mollusca gasteropoda. See on the nervous system of the Annelids a memoir of QUATREFAGES illustrated with beautiful figures, Ann. des Sc. not. 30 SeVie, Tom. II. Zoologie, 1844, pp. 81 — 104. 218 CLASS VII. asserted that this phenomenon has been occasionally observed in the earth-worm (Lumbricus terrestris L.) It is quite certain that it has been seen to occur in very many marine Annelides: and hence these are creatures also which contribute to the illumination of the sea. Nereidce are especially noted in this respect : DUGES observed the phenomenon in a Mediterranean species 4" long, Syllis fulgu- rans1. QlJATREFAGES made the important discovery that, in certain minute marine Annelides (species of Syllis and Polynoe), the seat of the phenomenon is at the base of the feet-tubercles — in fact in the muscles: it was only when the muscles contracted that the light appeared like an electric spark2. Ringed-worms are found in all countries and seas : but it is im- possible to present a view of the geographical distribution of the species hitherto known, for this class is perhaps more generally neglected by voyagers than any other, and we are acquainted with few marine annelides except those from the Atlantic ocean, the Mediterranean, and the Red sea. Of the genus Palmyra only one species is known, which was found at the Mauritius. From the Indian sea some large and beautiful species are known, as Laodicea gigantea; Serpula gigantea is from the West Indies : and, in general the large and beautiful species are most numerous in warm regions. Some species appear to have a very wide geographical distribution, as Hesione splendida, found by SAVIGN Y in the Red sea, and brought by MATTHIEU from the Island of Mauritius : and Pleione carunculata, which, according to PALLAS and SAVIGNY occurs in the American seas, according to SEBA in the Indian sea, and was found by GRUBE in the Mediterranean at Sicily. The Hirudinea and Lumlricini have scarcely been investigated elsewhere than in Europe. 1 Ann. des Sc. not. Tom. xxix. p. 229. The Nereis noctiluca L. is a small animal- cule, probably the same species as Nereis cirrigera of VIVIANI. Polynoe fidgurans, at most half a line long, was observed and figured by EHKENBEKG, Leuchten des Meercs, Tab. i. fig. r . 2 Ann. des Sc. not. sec. S^rie, xix. 1843, Zooloyie, pp. 183 — 192. SYSTEMATIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANNULATA CLASS VII. ANNULATA. ANIMALS elongate, living in waters or moist earth, not parasiti- cally in other animals, mostly articulate, without jointed feet, but often in place of feet supplied with setae or setiferous tubercles which are retractile. Respiration effected either by external branchiae or in- ternal sacs or by the skin itself. Organs of circulation in most distinct ; contractile vessels instead of heart. The nervous system composed of a cephalic ganglion single or double, and most fre- quently of a double ventral cord with ganglia at intervals. ORDER I. Turlellaria. Body cylindrical or depressed, most frequently inarticulate, or ringed by transverse rugse, beset with vibratile cilia. Family I. Planariece. Nutrient canal with one distinct aperture alone, anus none. Body inarticulate. This family was originally formed from the genus Planaria of O. F. MUELLEE, which was divided by later writers into other genera, and round which in consequence of new discoveries other different genera were arranged. It appears to us to be inconsistent with the idea of a class, to raise this group to that rank, as VON SIEBOLD has done, who has formed his class of the Turbella/ria, of it alone. The name Turbellaria was first, though in a more comprehensive sense, used by EiiEENBERG1 (see above, p. 208). The phenomenon of rotatory motion in the water surrounding these animals, which gave Symboke physicce Anim. cverlebrata exclusis insectis, I. Berolini, 1831, fol. 220 CLASS VII. occasion to the name, was first, as it seems, observed by DUGE*S in Planarice, although he did not refer it to cilia (Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. xv. p. 165), whilst VON BAER observed at the same time an- other phenomenon which coul'd only be an effect of these cilia, that when a portion of these animals is cut off it continues to rotate circularly in the water (Nov. Act. Acad. Ccesar. Leop. Carol. Tom. xiii. P. 2, p. 711). The internal structure of these creatures was first recognised with precision in this century, especially through the investigations of DUGES, Y. BAER, FOKKE, OERSTED, and QUATREFAGES; it presents important differences in different genera whilst the external habitus is similar. We must confine ourselves to the notice of a few general traits. Besides the cilia on the external surface, the external integument in many is distinguished by the presence of cells with nettle-threads, like as we stated in Acalephae. Beneath the integument there is a layer of transparent, homogeneous tissue, which, according to QUATREFAGES, supplies, as it seems, the place of muscle, and by its contraction effects the movement of the body. The motion occurs by swimming in the water, the lateral margins beating to and fro, by creeping with bending and straightening of the body, or by equably gliding, much as the gasteropod molluscs move with their so-named foot. The oral aperture is sometimes more forward, sometimes more in the middle of the body on the ventral surface. The intestinal canal is in some straight, and extends itself, when the mouth is not placed quite forward, anteriorly as well as posteriorly, with blind termina- tions in both directions. In others the intestinal canal is like a tree divided into branches j in our fresh- water species one branch is seen to run forwards, on both sides provided with blind appendages, and two stems or main branches backwards at the sides of the body (in Planaria lactea the branches may be readily distinguished externally by their dark colour). In other species from sea- water the division of the branches is somewhat different ; sometimes quite retifonn. In the cavity of the mouth is situated a part that can be extended by eversion, serving for the seizure of food, and various in form. It is able, when severed from the living creature, to move independently for some time whilst it swallows greedily surrounding substances which are seen to pass out by the posterior open ex- tremity as through a funnel. With respect to the vascular system little is known ; that which is described as such by some writers, ANNULATA. 221 belongs probably to the nervous system. In some species with straight intestinal canal, there have been observed at the sides two tortuous canals running longitudinally, which, without giving off lateral branches, bend round in a loop at the back part. Respira- tion is probably effected by the skin itself, and the water on the surface is constantly renewed by the vibratory motion. As nervous system in many a double nervous ganglion has been observed, which lies at the anterior end, and from which many branches arise. The eyes, which are in some instances very nume- rous, present in many a transparent body, corpus vitreum or lens crystallina. The reproductive power is very great, and severed parts grow, as appears from the observations especially of DUGES and J. R. JOHNSON, to new animals. In some propagation occurs by spontaneous division. The sexual organs have one common or two separate openings behind the mouth; in the latter case the anterior opening belongs to the male organs of copulation. Two long tubes supply the office of testes, and end as vasa deferentia in a seminal vesicle, with which a penis of various form is connected. The spermatozoa have been observed by QUATREFAGES and YON SIEBOLD. A double oviduct leads to a spacious vagina, into which two special hollow bodies also open. The eggs lie dispersed in the parenchyme of the body, between the ccecal branches of the intestinal canal (QUATREFAGES), where probably they are contained in special ramified tubes (ovaries). Compare on this family : YON BAER, Ueber Planarien. Nov. Act. A cad. Gees. L. G. not. cur. Yol. xiii. P. 2, pp. 690 — 730. DUGES, Recherches sur Vorganisat. et les mwurs des Planariees, Ann. des Sc. nat. xv. 1828, pp. 139 — 187 ; Observations nouv. sur les Planaires, ibid. XXL 1830, pp. 72—92. A. S. OERSTED, Entwurf einer systematischen EintJieilung und speciellen Berschreibung der Plattwurmer. Mit Holtz-schnitten und 3 Tafeln. Copenhagen, 1844, 8vo. A. DE QUATREFAGES, Memoire sur quelques Planariees marines, Ann. des Sc. nat. 3me Serie, Tom. iv. 1845, Zoolog. pp. 129 — 184. PL 3—8. M. S. SCHULTZE, Beitrdge sur Naturgeschichte der Turbellarien. Erste abtheilung. Mit Kupfertaf. Greifswald, 1851, 4to. also in WIEGMANN'S Archiv. 1849. § 290. 222 CLASS VIT. Phalanx I. fihabdoccda. Intestine simple, cylindrical, not ex- sertile from the mouth. Body elongate, roundish or depressed. Prostoma OERST. (not DUGES), Gyrator EHRENB. Oral aperture anterior terminal. Sp. Prostoma lineare OERST., Gyrator hermaphroditus EHRENB., Abhandl. der AJcad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1835, Tab. I. fig. 2. Vortex EHRENB. Sp. Vortex Iruncatus, Planaria truncata, Zool. danic. Tab. 106, fig. i, a, b, EHRENB. 1. 1. figs. 3, &c. Derostoma OERST. (DuGES in part). Mesostoma DUGES, OERST. Body depressed, transparent; oral aperture annular, rotund, situated a little in front of or in the middle of the body. Eyes two anterior. Sp. Mesostoma Ehrenbergii, Planaria tetragona MUELL., Fasciola qitadrangu- laris PALL., Spicil. Zool. x. Tab. i. fig. 12; Zool. danic. Tab. 106, figs, i — 5 ; FOKKK, Ann. des Wiener Museums, i. 1836, pp. 191 — 206, Tab. xvili. This species has been elaborately investigated by the last-named writer ; it undergoes various changes of form ; from the flat form a quad- rangular arises, as though the animal were about to divide itself in the length. PALLAS had already observed this Planaria more than 70 years earlier at Sorgvliet, and it has lately been found again at Leyden by HERR HERKLOTS. Strongylostoma OERST. Typhloplana EHRENB. Macrostoma OERST. Microstoma OERST. (Vid. SCHULTZE quoted p. 203.) Convoluta OERST. Phalanx II. Dendroccela. Nutrient tube branched. Body depressed. (Dendroccela and Cryptocmla OERST.) a) Appendages numerous, tubular or papillce on, the back. Thysanozoon GRUBE, Eolidiceros QUATREF. Eyes sessile, nu- merous ; body excised anteriorly and cloven into two tentacles. Sp. Thysanozoon Brocchii, Solid. Brocchii QUATREF. 1. 1. PI. 5, fig. i, (perhaps the same species as Thysanozoon Diesingii GRUBE, Aclinien, Echinodermen u. Wiirmer, fig. 9) ; in the Mediterranean. The intestinal canal has here a retiform division. ANNULATA. 223 b) Body smooth. Styloclms EHRENB. Eyes numerous, all or most of them sup- ported by dorsal tentacles. Leptoplana EHRENB. Planaria EHRENB. (Species of genus Planaria MUELL.) Pla- naria and Dendroccelum OERST. Eyes two or a row of many eyes in the anterior margin of the body. Oral aperture in the middle of the body. Sp. Planaria lactea MUELL., Zool. dan. Tab. 109, figa. i, 2, Planaria torva MUELL., ibid. figs. 5, 6 ; Planaria nigra MUELL., figs. 3, 4, all in fresh- water. Polycelis EHRENB. (and Prosthwstomum QUATREF.) Tetracelis EHRENB. Tricelis EHRENB. Monocelis EHRENB. Note. — On these, and some other genera all of which are not yet sufficiently limited, consult EHRENBERG Synib. phys. Anim. evertebr. exclusis insectis, L, and OERSTED 1. 1. Family II. Nemertini. Nutrient tube simple, with double aperture, anus terminal. Body elongate, extremely contractile, roundish, or depressed, indistinctly annulate. It is not without hesitation that, after OERSTED, we have given these characters of the family of the Nemertini, whilst amongst the different writers, with respect to the true nature of the distinct parts, a remarkable variety of opinion prevails, so that it is un- certain whether the aperture, considered as anus, really belongs to the intestinal canal. Beneath the skin in these worms muscular fibres are seen, of which the external layer runs longitudinally, the innermost annularly or transversely. A canal of uniform width, by many supposed to be the intestine, runs straight through the body (DELLE CHIAJE, HUSCHKE, RATHKE). On its dorsal surface lies a canal, which is closed at its termination backwards, becomes narrower forwards and ends in a long proboscis. This part is, according to QUATREFAGES, the proper intestinal canal, which consequently has no anus. HUSCHKE supposed it to be an organ of propagation (testis ?) and the proboscis an external copulative organ ; hence the 224 CLASS vn. name Notospermus, which he gave to the worm examined by him. The Nemertini appear, according to E.ATHKE and QUATREFAGES, to have the sexes distinct, and the organs of propagation (testes, ovaria) consist of blind saccules, which lie beneath the integument longitu- dinally, upon the wide canal already described. There are three blood-vessels running longitudinally, two on the sides and more towards the ventral surface, and one on the dorsal surface, which divides anteriorly into two branches which pass into the lateral vessels. The nervous system consists of two head-ganglia united by a transverse cord, from which (besides other nervous branches) two very notable nerves arise, which run longitudinally backwards, along the sides of the body. Compare for the anatomy of this family, besides OERSTED and the other writers cited above, DELLE CHIAJE, Memorie n. pp. 406 — 409 and 427, (extract by K. WAGNER in OKEN'S Isis, 1832, s. 555, 556, s. 647—649) ; HUSCHKE, OKEN'S Isis, 1830, s. 681 — 683, Tab. vn. figs, i — 6; RATHKE, Beitrdge zur vergl. Anat. u. PhysioL Danzig, 1842, s. 93 — 104 ; QUATRE- FAGES, VInstitut, Journal universel, &c. No. 660, 1846, p. 286, and a figure in the new illustrated edition of CUVIER, Regne Animal, Zoophytes, PI. 34 (and also a Memoire sur la famille des Nemertiens, Ann. des Sc. not. sieme Serie, Tom. VI. Zool. pp. 173 — 303). Nemertes Cuv., Borlasia OKEN. Several eyes (often indistinct). Two pits (respiratory?) at the sides of the head, surrounded with vibratile cilia. Sp. Nemertes Borlasii, Borlasia Anglice OKEN, BORLASE, Nat. Hist, of Cornwall, fol. 1758, PI. xxvi. fig. xiu. (cited by CUVIER), QUATREFAGES in Cuv. R. Ani. e~dit. ill., Zuoph. PI. 33 ; this worm becomes more than four feet long ; &c. . — OERSTED cites as synonyms of this genus Notospermus HUSCHKE, Meckelia LEUCK., Ophiocepkalus QUOY and GAIM. OERSTED has given the name Borlasia to species with constricted head, without respiratory fissures, with indistinct eyes. Add several genera, of which the synonyms cannot be made out except by com- parison of the specimens : Cephalothrix OERST., Astemma OERST., Tetrastemma EHRENB., Polia DELLE CHIAJE, Polystemma, Om- matoplea, Amphiporus EHRENR., Cerebratulus RENIERI, Amphiporm OERST. (not EHRENB.), Serpentaria GooDSiR1. 1 Descriptions of some gigantic forms of invertebrate animals, Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist. Vol. xv. 1845, P- 37 7> P1- xx- AXNULATA. 225 ORDER II. Suctoria. Body annulate, without setas, terminated by a prehensile cavity posteriorly or at both extremities. External branchiae none. Family III. Hirudinea. (The characters of the order are also ;hose of the single family.) The family of the blood-suckers (leeches) is formed from the genus Hirudo L. These animals are able to convert the anterior extremity of the body into a suctorial cavity, or have there, as at the posterior extremity, a round suctorial disc. They creep along the ground, by affixing this sucking apparatus and by alternately contracting and extending the body. They swim with a serpentine and sinuous bending of the body, which is effected with much velocity. Comp. on this family MOQUIN-TANDON, Monographic des Hirudintes, nouv. edit, av.pl. color. Paris, 1846, 8vo. A. Head made up of several segments of the body, slightly or not at all distinct from the rest of the body, capable of change into a suctorial acetabulum by its own motions. Clepsine SAV. Body depressed. Mouth unarmed, furnished with a proboscis exsertile, tubular. Eyes 2 — 6 (sometimes eight ?) . Sp. Clepsine hyalina, Hirudo hyalina L., TREMBLEY, Polyp. PI. vn. fig. 7 ; Clepsine complanata, &c. This animal lays its eggs on water-plants (Stratiotes aloldes) and continues to sit thereon. The eggs also attain their development even when the mother is driven away, but are then frequently affected and spoilt by confervas. These eggs are thin-skinned vesicles in which numerous yelk-spheres, 15 to 30, are contained, and from which a corresponding number of young are developed. Comp. on the species of this genus F. MUELLER, De Hirudinibus circa Berolinum hucitsque observatis, Berolini, 1844, 8vo, and T. BUDGE, Clepsine bioculata. Mit 2 Taf. Bonn, 1849. Under this genus F. MUELLER also places Hirudo marginata and Hir. tessulata of O. F. MUELLER, though the last has eight eyes, whilst in Clepsine the number does not exceed six ; the arrangement of the eyes is in two rows longitudinally which meet forwards, just as in the six-eyed Clepsines; the blood also is white. Nephelis SAV. Body elongate, posteriorly incrassated, obtuse, with acetabulum obliquely terminal. Mouth unarmed. Eyes eight, disposed in a series semicircular, transverse. VOL. I. 15 226 CLASS vii. Sp. Nephelis vulgaris, Hirudo octoculata L., Encydop. method., Vers. PI. 51, figs. 5 — 7 • STURM, DeutschL Fauna vi. 2 Heft ; JOHNSON, Phil. Trans. 1817, PI. iv. (reprinted in his Further Observat. on the Leech, 1825); this species swallows small worms. Trocheta DUTROCHET, Trochetia LAM. (Geobdella BLAINV. in part). Branchiobdella ODIER. Body somewhat depressed, with large rings, not numerous. Two horny jaws. Eyes none. Sp. Branchiobdella astaci ODIER, Mem. de la Soc. cTHist. nat. de Paris i. 1823, pp. 69 — 78, PL iv. (already observed and figured by ROESEL, Ins. in. PI. LIX. figs. 19 — 7.21); Branch, parasita, comp. HENLE, Ueb. die Gattung Branchiobdella, MUELLER'S Archiv. 1835, s. 574, &c. Taf. xiv. Hirudo L. (exclusive of several species). Body oblong, sub- depressed, with numerous rings. Three horny jaws. Eyes usually ten. Bdella SAV. Jaws not denticulate. Eyes eight. Sp. Bdella nilotica SAV., GUERIN, Iconogr., Ann4l. PI. 4, fig. 10. Hcemopis SAV. Maxillae armed with a double row of denticles not numerous. Eyes ten. Sp. Hcemopis sanguisorba, Hirudo sanguisuga L., Encydop. meth., Vers. PI. 51, figs. 3, 4, black, grey-green beneath; this species is larger than the common Leech. Commonly two species have been here confounded, which MOQUIN-TANDON places in two different genera: Aulastoma (Hir. sanguisuga MUELL., Hir. Gulo BRAUN, STURM, DeutschL Fauna vi. 2) and Hcemopis (Hir. sanguisuga BERGM., L.) /Sanguisuga SAV. Jaws armed with a double row of denticles very slender and crowded. Eyes ten. Sp. Hirudo medicinalis L., Hirudo vencesector BRAUN, STURM, Deutschl. Fauna vi. i Heft ; BRANDT u. RATZEBURG, Mediz. Zool. n. Taf. xxvni. fig8- 3> 4 > GUERIN, Iconogr., Annel. PI. 10, fig. 3 ; above, blackish -green, with six long stripes spotted reddish and black, beneath olive-coloured with many black spots (four to five inches long). Another species, Hir. ojficinalis SAV., is also used for medicinal purposes, which is yellowish beneath with a broad black edge, without spots, see BRANDT u. KATZEB. 1. 1. Taf. xxx. fig. i; J. J. KNOLZ, Naturhist. Abhandl. ueber die Blutegel, Wien, 1820, 1 This genus must by no means be confounded with Branchiobdellion EUD., Bran- chdlion SAVIGNY, which like Clepsine and Nephelis has no jaws, but only three project- ing points ; if the semicircular little plates on the same part of the body be really gills, as SAVIGNY says, (CuviER doubts and MOQUIN-TANDON denies it,) then it does not belong to this order. LATREILLE places it near the genus Arenicola. ANNULATA. 227 8vo. Tab. i. fig. i • according to KNOLZ it is this species especially which is used in Vienna and brought there from Hungary1. Hirudo medicinalis is the most useful species of Leech (sangsue, leech, Blutegel), which almost everywhere in Europe lives in fresh water, especially in ponds, marshes and canals, and in winter, rolled up annularly, conceals itself in the mud. This animal lives on the blood of animals (vertebrate and invertebrate) exclusively; the jaws serve to wound and to penetrate the skin. The first segment of the body, which also is occasionally parted by a trans- verse stripe, has a semilunar form and is not closed beneath. It can extend itself as an upper lip for feeling or bend itself downwards to cover the mouth. The ten black eye-spots are arranged in form of a horse-shoe on the back-side of the head ; the first on the first segment, the two next on the third, and the two last on the sixth ring of the body. The organs of propagation of the leech are by different writers determined very differently, whilst, however, the latest investigations (especially of H. MECKEL, MUELLER'S Archiv. 1844, s. 476 — 480) bring us back to the generally received opinion of former times. According to it, nine pairs of round vesicles of a white colour are testes, (TREVIRANUS thought they must be held to be ovaries, Zeitschr. fur Physiol. iv. 2, 1832, s. 159 — 167). By means of short transverse tubules these vesicles are connected with a com- mon canal which runs at each side of the body ; this canal goes forward into a structure which is white and consists of many convolutions (the epididymis or the seminal vesicle). From each of these two seminal vesicles arises a, short vessel (vas ejaculatorium), which runs to the spherically widened sheath of the penis : the penis can be everted outwards through an opening in the twenty-fourth ring of the body. In the fifth ring behind this is seen the second sexual opening, that of the female parts ; it leads to a wide vagina (uterus, according to BOJANUS) which, by means of a tube that divides forwards into two branches, is connected with two small ovaries or vesicles filled with granular bodies. These two ovaries lie between the seminal vesicles and the vagina. The impregnation in Leeches is mutual. The Leech lays eggs, or rather capsules, in which eggs are contained, 5 — 16 in number. These capsules or cocoons are three- fourths of an inch long, oval and surrounded with a spongy or frothy substance, and filled with a brown albuminous fluid. The germs appear as round discs ; these minute yelks grow by means of the surrounding albumen, which is absorbed by a structure which closely resembles a funnel- shaped oesophagus, and is already visible on the germ when only half a line in size (E. H. WEBER in MECKEL'S Archiv. 1828, s. 366 — 418, MUELLER'S Archiv. 1846, 8.428 — 434). Comp. on the Leech amongst others : JOHNSON, Treatise on the Medicinal Leech, London, 1816, 8vo, and by the same, Further Observat. on the Med. Leech. With engravings. London, 1825, 8vo ; KUNTZMANN, Anatomische Physiol. Untersuchungen ilber den Blutegel, m. 5 Kupfert. ; BOJANUS in 1 Other species still, which have been discovered, may be used for drawing blood, \ the large black species spotted with white which was discovered in Sweden some jars ago by WAHLBEEG, and named Hirudo albopunctata. 15—2 228 CLASS YII. OKEN'S Isis, 1817, s. 881 (with fig.), the same 1818, s. 2080; KNOLZ (seep. -226); BRANDT Mediz. ZooL n. 1833, s. 230 — 297; MOQUIN-TANDON Monographic des Hirudin6es, &c. Amongst the foreign species we note Hirudo zeylanica, found in the Island of Ceylon ; its poisonous bite is followed by very tedious ulcers. TYTLER, Edinl. new Philos. Journ. 1826, p. 375. B. Acetabulum of the mouth of a single segment, distinct from the rest of the body by stricture. Hcemocharis SAV., Piscicola BLAINV., LAM. Body cylindrical, attenuated forward, with few rings, little distinct. Anterior aceta- bulum slightly excavate, with mouth triangular, edentulous, placed in the bottom towards the inferior margin; posterior acetabulum large, obliquely terminal. Sp. Hcemocharis piscium, Hirudo geometra L., ROESEL Ins. m. Tab. xxxn. ; LEO, Ueber einige ausgezeichnete anatomische und physiologische Verhdltnisse der Piscicola geometra, MUELLER'S Archiv. 1835, s. 419—427, Taf. xi. This species lives in fresh-water and adheres very firmly to Carp, Tench, &c. It moves like a geometrical caterpillar ; on the back-side of the cephalic disc are four black eye-spots ; copulation occurs in the upright position, in which the animals support themselves on the ventral disc and embrace in form of an X. They lay eggs of a yellow-brown colour, three-fifths of a line long. Piscicola respirans TROSCHELL, new species, Archiv f. Naturgesch. xvi. 1850. Pontobdella LEACH, LAM., Albione SAV. Body cylindraceo- conical, attenuated forwards, with unequal rings. Acetabula very concave ; mouth small unarmed, placed at the bottom of the anterior acetabulum ; posterior acetabulum exactly terminal. These animals live in the sea and adhere to different fishes, especially to Bays. Most of the species are beset with nodes or with warts on the rings, which are flatter in Pontobd. verrucosa, BASTER Natuurk. Uitspan- ningen I. Tab. x. fig. II., more pointed in Pontobd. muricata LEACH. In others these nodes are entirely absent, as in Pontobd. lubrica GRUBE ; eyes seem not to be present. OKDER III. Setigera. Body annulate, provided with setae or with setigerous rudiments of feet. External branchiae in most. A. No external organs of respiration (Abranchia). Family IV. Lumbricini. Branchiae none. Body provided with setae, without rudiments of feet. ANNULATA. 229 ChcBtogaster V. BAER. Eyes none. Fasciculi of set® ventral, ings slightly distinct. Sp. Ckcetogaster limncei V. BAER, Nov. Act. Acad. Gees. L. C. Nat. Curios. Vol. xm. PL i, pp. 611—615, Tab. XXIX. fig. 23; DUGES Ann. des Sc. nat. sec. Se'r. vni. Zool. PL i, f. 24. jEolosoma EHRENB. Eyes none. Body distinctly articulate ; iteral fasciculi of setae in each joint. Mouth anterior inferior sur- lounted by a lip dilated, produced. Sp. JSolosoma Hemprichii EHRENB. Symb. phys. Phytozoa, Tab. v. fig. i. Pristina EHRENB. Eyes none. Upper lip produced into a soft earded proboscis. Setae lateral. Sp. Pristina longiseta EHRENB. Symb. physic, evertebr. Dec. I. &c. Nals MUELL. (exclus. sev. spec.) Eyes two. Setae lateral, long: asciculi of short setse on the belly. Sub-gen. Stylaria LAM. Proboscis frontal, styliform, soft. Sp. Nais proboscidea, Nereis lacustris L., TREMBLEY M&m. sur les Polyps, PI. 6, fig. i, (Millepied a dard) ; KOES. Ins. in. Tab. 78, figs. 15 a, 1 6, 17, 1 8, g, h, i, Ic; Tab. 79, fig. i ; MUELLER Naturgesch. einiger Wurmarten, s. 14 — 73, Tab. i; GRUITHUISEN Nov. Act. Acad. Leop. Car. Natur. Curios. Tom. xi. pp. 233 — 248, Tab. xxxv. Sub-gen. Ndis LAM. Proboscis none. Sp. Na:is serpentina GMEL., EOES. Ins. in. Tab. xcn. ; MUELLER Naturgesch. einiger Wurmarten, s. 84, Tab. IV. &c. On the propagation of Na'is see B. LEUCKART Ungeschlechtliche Vermehrung lei Nats proboscidea, Archivfur Naturgesch. 1851. SCHULTZE on the same subject, ibid. 1852, s. 3 — 7. The genera noted above form a small natural group of worms, for the most part living in fresh-water, the Naidina of EHRENBERG. Comp. on these and some other genera P. GERVAIS, Note sur la disposition systematique des Annelides chetopodes de la famille de Na'is, Bullet, de VAcad. r. de Bruxelles, Tom. v. no. 1 ; O. SCHMIDT Beitrdge zur Anat. u. Physiol. der Na'iden; MUELLER' sArchiv. 1846, s. 406, &c. Besides the propagation by eggs, these animals are also multiplied by spontaneous division. The most complete observations on this point relate to Na'is proboscidea. In the last joint of a simple Na'is (which MUELLER calls Jung-fer Na'id, Virgin Na'is) a young Na'is with eye-spots is gradually developed; it grows and remains connected with the mother : sometimes on this a second or 230 CLASS VIT. third daughter is found to be developed, which always arises more forward (the last is the oldest, that which first came into being), and ordinarily the first daughter already possesses the rudiment of a little daughter before she separates herself; the vessels, the in- testinal canal, the nervous cord run uninterruptedly through these united animals ; at length the united or compound animal is broken, and the eldest daughter (herself already a mother) separates herself, after the mother-nais has made frequent strokes to and fro with her tail. On the eggs of the Ndidce see DUGES Ann. des Sc. nat. xv. pp. 322 — 324. Six or seven eggs are enclosed in a common capsule, a grey-coloured vesicle of f line in diameter. [From later observations, as those of LEUCKART and SCHULTZE referred to above, the process of non-sexual multiplication does not appear to be quite so simple as here described. The first and all- important step is the development of a bud between two rings nearly in the middle of the length of the body; so that this now consists of three portions, the anterior, the posterior, and the inter- vening bud. All the three become distinct individuals, the first, by developing its tail, the last its head, and the bud the head- segments and anal portion in the same order of succession as in development from the egg. Previous to the separation of these three worms a new bud is usually formed in front of the middle worm, and in front of it a third bud, &c., so that sometimes a chain of many connected individuals is met with which all receive nutri- ment (introduced by the mouth of the anterior member of the chain) from the intestinal canal common to them all. This process appears to have been observed in other families also (Aniphitritce, Nereidce), but would seem in all to be limited to the period pre- ceding the sexual development.] Enchytrceus HENLE. Mouth inferior, sub-terminal. Sexual ori- fice in the eleventh ring of the body. Four fasciculi of usually three setge short and uncinate in each ring. Body round, anteriorly acuminate, posteriorly truncated. Sp. Enchytrceus albidus HENLE, MUELLER'S Arc/iiv. 1837, s. 74 — go, Tab. vi; a white worm two to six lines long, it lives in the earth and is especially found in flower-pots. Tubifex LAM., Tubilumbricus BLAINV. Body filiform, transpa- rent, doubly aculeate, attenuated at both ends, inclosed in a tube composed of particles of mud and open at both ends. ANNULATA. 231 Sp. Tubifex rivulorum, Lumbricus tubifex MUELL. ; TREMBLEY Polypes, PL 7 ; fig. i ; Encyclop. meth., Vers. PL 34, figs. 4—7 j MUELL. ZooL dan. Tab. 84, figs. 1,2. This reddish little worm lives at the bottom of ponds and becks ; by the union of many accumulated worms of this species red spots are caused at the bottom of the water, which, on being touched, immediately vanish, for the worms hide themselves in the ground. Scenuris HoFFMEiSTER. Upper lip exsert, spoon-shaped. Cli- tellum little, distinct. Four fasciculi of five to eight setae in each ring. Comp. HOFFMEISTER Des vermibus quibusdam, ad genus Lumbricorum pertinentibus, 4to. Berolini, 1842. Lunibriculus GRUBE. Body round, with four rows of double aciculse. Mouth inferior; a lobule resembling an upper lip, not distinct from the following segment. Cingulum none. Segments of the body numerous. Sp. Lumbriculus variegatus (Lumbricus variegatus MUELL.?) GRUBE in ERICHSON'S Arckivf. naturgesch. 1844, s. 200 — 207, Taf. vii. fig. 2 ; about two inches in length ; through the transparent skin the motions of the dorsal vessel full of red blood, and of its blind digitiform lateral appendages which contract and expand in every segment, may be seen. Sub-genus Euaxes GRUBE (Rhynchelmis HOFFM.). First segment (head) elongate, sometimes produced into a long thread. Sp. Euaxes Jilirostris GRUBE, ERICHSON'S Archiv. 1844, pp. 204 — 207, Taf. vii. fig. i, in fresh-water like the former ; 3^ inches long. Euaxes obtusi- rostris MENGE, ERICHSON'S Archiv. 1845, Taf. in. fig. i. Lumbricus L. (exclusive of species). Enterion and Hypogceon SAV. Body cylindraceous, attenuated at both extremities, obtuse posteriorly. Mouth sub-terminal, under the exsert upper lip. Setae not retractile, disposed in longitudinal rows. Clitellum or cingulum, L e. a tumid fleshy glandular zone mostly composed of a various number of rings in the anterior part of the body (saddle or girdle). Of this genus there are different species in Europe which were formerly confounded under the name of Lumbricus terrestris. See S AVION Y Analyse d'un Mem. sur les Lombrics, Comptes rendus des travaux de PInstitut. 1820; DUGES Ann. des Sc. nat. xv. 1828, pp. 289 — 294:, ibid. sec. ser. ZooL vm. 1837, pp. 18 — 25; FITZINGER, in OKEN'S Isis, 1833, pp. 549 — 553 ; HOFFMEISTER Diss. de Vermibus quibusdam ad genus lumbricorum pertinentibus. Berolini, 1842, (ERICHSON'S Archiv f. Naturgesch. 1843, p. 183); the same: Die 232 CLASS vn. bekannte arten aus der Familie der Regenwilrmer, mit Zeichnungen nach dem Leben. Braunschweig, 1845, 4to. On the anatomy compare MONTEGRE Observations sur les Lom- brics ou vers de terre, Mem. du Museum, I. 1815, pp. 242 — 248, PL 12 ; J. LEO De structurd Lumbrici terrestris, Regiomonti, 1820, 4to, cum Tab. cen. ; C. F. A. MORREN Commentatio de structura anatomica et historia naturali Lumbrici vulgaris sive terrestris (Annal. Acad. Gandavensis), Gandavi, 1829, cum tabulis, &c. The setse are short and rigid, in every ring 8, on each side two pairs, so that eight rows run longitudinally on the body, four laterally, and four beneath ; in Hypogceon SAV. there is moreover another row of single hairs in the middle of the back. The intestinal canal is straight, with a membraneous pyriform proventriculus and a round or spherical muscular stomach ; behind the stomach it is divided by many transverse folds into blind pouches, which further back are less developed, where also the intestinal canal becomes smaller though on the whole it is wide throughout. In the interior of the canal on the dorsal side is a band, which begins a little behind the stomach, at this anterior end, as also at the posterior, runs to a point, and consists of two membranes, of which the external is yellow, the internal white ; intestinum in intestino WILLIS, typhlo- sole MORREN. This enigmatical part is probably a duplication of the membrane of the intestine, an internal mesentery (MORREN) ; it may be compared with the valvular membrane of certain sharks *. To the sexual organs belong in the first place three pairs of grey- yellow saccules which are situated in the anterior part of the body (in the common large earth-worm, Lumbricus agrieola HOFFMEISTER, in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth ring), and of which the posterior pair is the largest. These parts are usually considered to be ovaries, but STEENSTRUP, who here also denies Hermaphroditism, supposes them to be testes in which the seed is formed with the spermatozoa in cells, that may be readily mistaken for eggs. H. MECKEL maintains that these organs are in all individuals testes, and says, that the ovaria, intimately conjoined with them, lie like a brown-yellow lobe on each of these saccules. Four small vesicles, resembling barley-corns, placed more laterally (two on each side), contain in the pairing season a white fluid with spermatozoa free and developed : by most writers they have been signalised as the 1 Perhaps also it is furnished with a vessel ( Vena mesenterica interior] ; see DUVERNOY in the second edition of CUVIER, Le$. d'Anat. comp. Tom. v. 1817, p. 335. ANNULATA. 233 testes ; STEENSTRUP on the contrary thinks that they ought not to be considered to be the parts where the seed is formed, but where it is collected (as seminal vesicles in the male subject, as bur see copulatrices in the female). The efferent ducts of these vesicles open externally, according to SAVIGNY ; but later writers have failed to discover the openings ; rather are they in connexion with the efferent ducts of the yellow saccules ; these ducts fall at length into a common canal 011 each side backwards and end with two openings at the fifteenth or sixteenth ring of the body. At the origin of these two canals lie two small irregular saccules, covered by a thin and glistening mem- brane, which according to DUGES and STEENSTRUP are filled with many convolutions of the efferent canal and form the passage of the yellow saccules to the straight part of the canal which runs back- wards \ Earth-worms are oviparous, not viviparous ; they pair during the whole Summer, especially by night, when they creep from the earth ; but how impregnation is effected, is not yet suffi- ciently explained, since the apertures of the sexual organs are not brought immediately together. The anterior portions of the two worms lie next each other, but with the heads in opposite directions (see in MOREEN 1. 1. Tab. xxvn). Thus the part named by WILLIS Clitellum (saddle) in each of the two worms lies towards the place where the sexual openings of the other worm are found. This cli- tellum is a round swelling of the body which occupies from six to nine rings (in Lumbricus agricola from the 29th to the 36th or from the 31st to the 38th ring), and which during the time of copulation is more strongly developed, and in young individuals is entirely wanting. Sp. Lumbricus agricola HOFFM., Lumbricus terrestris L. (in part), HOFF- MEISTER Die bekannte Arten aus der Fam. der Regenw. fig. i ; the largest species in northern Europe, from eight inches to more than a foot in length. Family V. Maldanice SAV. Branchiae none. Month bilabiate, inferior. Kudiments of feet provided with setse ; the three anterior pairs without ventral pinna, the rest with a transverse tubercle, supplied with uncinate setse, in place of a ventral pinna. Clymene SAV. Body cylindrical, with few elongate segments, 1 The best description and figure of the organs of propagation in Lumbricus were given by G. R. TREVIRANUS, Zeitsch. fur Physiol. v. s. 154 — 166, Tab. in. ; see also STEENSTRUP, Hermaphroditismus Tilvcerelse, pp. 35 — 40, Tab.i. figs, i — 7, and H.MEC- KELin MUELLER'S Archiv. 1844, 8.480 — 483. 234 CLASS vii. the posterior extremity infundibuliform with margin usually denti- culate. A membraneous tube covered with fragments of shells, open at both ends, including the animal. Sp. Clymene amphistomaSAV. Descr. deVEgypte, Annil. PL i. fig. i; GUE"RIN, Iconogr., Annel. PI. 10, fig. i, from the Ked Sea. See fig. of other species, Cuv. R. Ani. td. ill, Annel. PI. 22. B. External organs of respiration. * Tubulate. Note. — The Cephalobranchiate, or tubicolous EDW. Anmdata, are more imperfect than the roving or notobranchiate. It seems right therefore to introduce them here, although the affinity by which Arenicola is connected with the Lumbricini points to a different arrangement. Family VI. Amphitritce SAV. Head not distinct, eyes none, body usually encased in a tube. A. Branchiae anterior, more or less composite, with one, two or three pairs. Siphonostoma OTTO. Two larger tentacles (branchiae ?) and seve- ral soft cirri around the mouth. Fasciculi of setae in double pairs in every segment ; the setae in the anterior segments extremely long, directed forwards, glistening with gold. The worm not included in a tube. Sp. Siphonostoma diplochaitus OTTO Nov. Act. Acad. Natur. Curios. Tom. x. i, 1821, p. 628, Tab. 51, in the Mediterranean at Naples; other species have been described by MILNE EDWARDS, GRUBE and RATHKE ; see RATHKE Beitr. zur Fauna Norwegens, Nov. Act. Acad. Natur. Curios. Tom. xx. i, 1843, pp. 211—219, Tab. xi. To the same division also appears to belong the worm described by ABILDGARD in the Zoolog. danic. Tab. 90, as Amphitrile plumosa, but which differs from Amphitr. plumosa of O. FABRICIUS (Fauna grcenl. p. 288) ; OKEN formed from it the genus Pherusa1, (Lehrb. d. Zoolog. i. s. 377) : Siphonostoma plumosum RATHKE Beitr. zur vergl. Anat. u. Physiol. 1842, p. 84, Tab. vi. figs, i — 7, Beitr. zur Fauna Norwegens, p. 208, Tab. XI. f. i, 2. 1 The name Pherusa was also given by LAMOUROUX to a genus of the class of Polyps, of which the polypary alone is known and to which Flustra tubulosa belongs ; Hist, des Polypiers flexifoles, 1816, p. 117 ; G. JOHNSTON formed from Amph. plumosa the genus Flemingia, from which his genus Trophonia does not differ. Ann. of Nat. Hist. xvn. p. 294. ANNULATA. 235 Note. — Chlorcema DUJARD. Ann. des Sc. nat. sec. Ser. Tom. xi. 1839, Zool. p. 288, Tab. 7, fig. 1, is a species of Siphonostoma beset with villi secreting mucus ; comp. Siphon, villosum KATHKE Faun. Norweg. 1. 1. In Siphonostoma plumosum also the blood has a green colour, RATHKE 1. 1. p. 211. Amphitrite Cuv. (in part), Amphictene SAV. Mouth surrounded by numerous tentacles, and covered by a denticulate velum. Setae glistening with gold, in a double row in the anterior segment of the body. Branchiae on both sides, two in the third and fourth segment of the body, incurved, pectinate. The worm included in a thin oblongo-conical tube made of sand cemented together by gelatinous substance. Sp. Amphitrite auricoma, Sabella granulata ~L., Pectinaria belgica LAM.; PALLAS Misc. Zool. Tab. ix. figs. 3 — 5 ; RATHKE, Beitr. z. vergl. Anat. u. Physiol. Tab. v. : these worms, whose tube is known by fishermen under the name of Sand-quiver, is met with on our coast. Ampk. cegyptia SAV. Descrip. de I'Egypte, Annel. PI. I, fig. 4, GU^BIN Iconogr., Annel. PI. 2, figs. 3, &c. Terebella Cuv. (spec, of genus Terebella GM.) Mouth bilabiate, transverse; upper lip produced, surrounded by numerous long tenta- cles. Eudiments of feet with a double row of uncinate setae at the ventral pinna, except the first pair. Branchiae ramose in the anterior segments, which are without rudiments of feet. The worm included in a tube composed of sand and fragments of shell cemented together. Sp. Terebella conchilega, Nereis conchilega PALL., Misc. Zool. pp. 131 — 138, Tab. IX. figs. 14 — 22 ; very common on our coast, where whole heaps of the cases or houses (generally empty) of these animals are met with. Tere- bella medusa SAV., GUEKIN Iconogr., Annel. PL 2, figs. 2, &c. Terebellides SAKS. Four pectinate branchise. Sp. Terebellides Stroemii SAKS, BesTcrivelser og Jagttagelser over nye i Havel ved den Bergenske Icyst levende Dyr. 1835, Tab. 13, fig. 31. Sabella Cuv., SAV., Amphitrite LAM. (sp. of Sabella L.) Mouth transverse, not tentaculated, situated amongst the branchiae. Bran- chiae two flabellate, infundibuliform or pectinate, spiral, large, with bearded laciniae and a soft cylindrical filament at the base in the first segment of the body, which is without rudiments of feet. The anterior pediform tubercles with uncinate setae at the ventral pinna, with a fasciculus of subulate setae at the dorsal pinna; the posterior 236 CLASS vii. tubercles supplied with uncinate setae at the dorsal pinna, with a fasciculus of subulate setae at the ventral pinna, The worm included in a gelatinous tube covered with sand. Sp. Sabella pavonina SAV. ; Amphitrite penicillus LAM., BASTES, Natuurk. Uitsp. i. p. 88, Tab. ix. fig. i ; Tubularia peniciUus, Zool dan. Tab. 89, figs. i, 2, in the North Sea; Sabella magnifica SAV. ; Tubularia magnifica SHAW Linn. Transact. V. p. 228, Tab. ix. ; Sabella (amphitriie) taurica RATHKE Fauna der Krym, M&m. des Sav. Strangers de VAcad. imp. de Saint- Petersb. Tom. in. 1837, p. 426, Tab. vm. figs. 8 — 15, &c. Serpula L. Mouth situated between the branchiae, not tentacu- late, transverse. Branchise two, large, pectinate, flabellate, with bearded laciniae and a cylindrical filament at the base of different length in each branchia, the longer sustaining an orbicular disc or infundibuliform operculum. Feet as in the preceding genus. Calcareous tube procumbent, twisted or convoluted into a spire, including the animal. Sp. Serpula contwtuplicata L., GUERIN Iconogr., Anne"l. PI. i, fig. i, (the animal) ; ELLIS Corallines, Tab. 38, fig. 2 ; Serpula vermicularis L., Zool. danic. Tab. 86, figs. 7 — 9, &c. Comp. on this genus, which is somewhat differently determined and into which Sabella protula Cuv. is also brought, A. PHILIPPI in ERICHSON'S Archiv. 1844, s. 186 — 198. Spi/rorbis LAM. Sp. Serpula spirorbis, Spirorbis nautiloides LAM., Zool. danic. Tab. 86, figs. i — 6 ; GUERIN Iconogr., Annel. PI. i. fig. 6. B. Branchise dorsal numerous. Hermella SAV. (Amphitrite Cuv. in part), Sabellaria LAM. First segment of the body supplied on both sides with a triple series of very glistering tufts, the external very patent, the internal close. The rudiments of the feet, in addition to setae, supplied with a cirrus elongate, adhering above to the base, performing the office of branchiae. Animals living gregariously, included in tubules made of sand and fragments of shells, conjoined to form a common honey-combed mass. Sp. Hermella alveolata, Sabella alveolata L., ELLIS Corallines, Tab. xxxvi. ; on the English and French coasts. Formerly the bundles of threads beneath the first segment were supposed to be gills. MILNE EDWARDS was the first who indicated the true gills, on account of which this animal belongs to the ANNULATA. 237 Annttides dorsibranches of CUVIER, whilst, however, in a natural arrange- ment it might better remain with the Amphitritce, Ann. des Sc. nat. sec. Se'r. x. Zool. p. 208. ** Naked, roving. (Commonly NotobrancMate, Dorsibranches ClJV.) Family VII. Arenicolce ( Telethusce SAV.) Rudiments of feet of a dorsal fasciculus of setae and a ventral transverse tubercle with setae very minute, plane, incurved. Branchiae arborescent in the middle of the body, with a double row at the sides of fasciculi of dorsal setae. Head not distinct; eyes and jaws none. Arenicola LAM. Body elongate, with segments subdivided by transverse folds, incrassated forwards, becoming smaller backwards, without setas or other appendages behind the last pair of branchiae. Mouth terminal supplied with a proboscis retractile, papillose. Sp. Arenicola piscatorum, Lumbricus marinus L., Nereis himbricoides, PALLAS Nov. Act. Petrop. n. 1788, p. 223, Tab. v. f. 19, 19*; HOME Phil. Transact. 1817, Pt. i. Tab. 3 ; OKEN, his, 1817, p. 469, with fig. ; AUDOUIN and MILNE EDWARDS, Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. 30, 1833, PI. 22, fig. 8. This species has thirteen pairs of gills. It lives in deep canals excavated in the sea-sand, which the worm forms with its head, whilst the sand is swallowed and passed through the intestinal canal ; this worm is flesh- coloured, sometimes blackish (Arenicola carbonaria LEACH), and exudes a yellow fluid on being touched. Fishermen use it as bait to catch shell-fish with the hook. Arenicola branchialis AUD. and EDW. 1. 1. fig. 13, has nine- teen or twenty pairs of gills, and is smaller than the former. Arenicola Bcechii RATHKE, Fauna Norwegens, p. 181, Tab. viu. f. 19 — 22, differs from the former species by the much more numerous gills and by the rings, which lie behind the last pair of gills, possessing bundles of hairs ; also the anterior part of the body is not incrassated like the former species. It seems, therefore, that this species should form a sub-genus. It seems that the genus Scalibregma RATHKE ought to be added to the Arenicolse : it has four pairs of arborescent branchiae (in the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh segment) with a proboscis not warty ; 1. 1. p. 182, Tab. ix. figs. 15—21. Family VIII. Chcetopterina. Anterior and posterior rudiments of feet with a fasciculus of dorsal setae, without uncinate setae, the middle feet with a dorsal appendage, membraneous, large (bran- chial?). Head not distinct; maxillae none. Chcetopterus Guv. (Worm elongate, included in a coriaceous tube). 238 CLASS vii. Sp. Chcetopterus pergamentaceus Cuv., MILNE EDWARDS Ann. desSc.nat. Tom. xxx. PL 11, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Anntt. PI. 10, fig. i ; in the West Indian Sea. A species of this genus occurs also in the Mediterranean. Family IX. Peripatina. The rudiments of feet are conical tubercles, supplied with a fasciculus of thinly set setae at the point. Head distinct, provided with two cirri (antennae) annulate, large, a short proboscis, and two jaws. Peripatus LANSDOWN GUILDING. Body with few segments subdivided by annulate folds, obtuse at both extremities, gibbous above, plane beneath. Sp. Peripatus iuliformis LANSDOWN GUILDING, Zool. Journal, n. PI. xiv. fig. i ; AUDOUIN and MILNE EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. xxx. pp. 412 — 414, PI. 11, figs. 5 — 7 ; West Indies. This animal would seem, according to some, to be a myriapod insect ; the English author who first made it known, considered it to be a mollusc. MILNE EDWARDS, on anatomical grounds, defends its reception into this class ; Ann. des Sc. nat. sec. SeY. XVIII. Zoolog. pp. 126 — 128. Branchice are not present, if the conical rudiments of feet are not to be considered as respiratory organs. Family X. Aricice. Body cylindrical, attenuated at both ex- tremities, with head little distinct. Proboscis short, without jaws. Kudiments of feet with cirrus usually single; branchiae either none distinct or resembling cirri or lobes adhering to the 'base of the feet. This small group, regarded by AUDOUIN and MILNE EDWARDS as a distinct family, contains imperfect ringed worms, which in part belong to the Nereids of former writers. Where no special gills are present, the cirri appear to serve for respiration. Cirratulus LAM. Body elongate, round, with few dorsal and ventral setae remote, and long dorsal cirri. The branchiae very long cirri in the anterior part of the body. Sp. Cirratulus borealis, Lwribricus cirratus MUELL., 0. FABEICII Fauna grcenl. pp. 281 — 283, fig. 5, Encyclop. meth., Vers. PI. 34, figs. 10 — 12 ; Cirrat. Lamarckii AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. xxvii. PI. xv. figs. i — 4, xxix. pp. 410, 411 ; GRUBE Kiemenwurmer, 1838, pp. 32, 33. Ammotrypana B-ATHKE (Beitr. z. Fauna Norweg.) A genus related to the preceding: it differs by defect of the long cirri (bran- chiae) in the anterior part of the body. Sp. Ammotrypana aulogaster BATHKE, 1. 1. p. 188, Tab. x. figs, i — 3, &c. Ophelia SAV. Comp. EDW. and AUD. Ann. des Sc. nat. xxix. pp. 403 — 407. According to SAES the animal is so described that ANNULATA. 239 the dorsal surface is taken for the ventral, the anterior part for the posterior; the author, Ann. des Sc. not. sec. se'r. vn. Zoologie, p. 247, counts it amongst the Nereids. Aonis SAV. Comp. AUD. and Edw. Ann. des Sc. not. Tom. xxvu. pp. 400 — 403, PL xvin. figs. 9 — 13. Aricia SAV. Body elongate, attenuated at both ends, with conical head. The ventral oar of the anterior feet with a transverse incised crest, of the posterior with a conical setiferous tubercle and small cirrus, with soft branchial appendage. Dorsal cirri triangular, plane. Sp. Aricia Cuvierii AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. not. xxix. p. 397, xxvir. PL 15, f. 5— 13, &c. Scoloplos BLAINV. Comp. OERSTED Gronl. Annul, dorsibr. p. 199. Here also seems to belong the genus Travisia JOHNSTON, Ann. of Nat. Hist. iv. p. 373, PI. XT. f. n— 18. Spio O. FABR. Head with two very long antenniform tentacles. Mouth inferior or subterminal, little exsertile and without jaws. Body elongate, slender. Superior pinna with uncinate or capillary setas, inferior with capillary setae; branchiae ligulate, dorsal, in the anterior part of the body very large, in the posterior evanescent. Sp. Spio seticornis 0. FABR., BASTER Nat. Uitsp. n. pp. 149, 150, Tab. xn. fig. 2. 0. FABRICIUS, von dem Spio-Geschlecht, Scriften der Berliner Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde vi. p. 256. KATHKE, Beitr. zur Fauna der Krym, Tab. vin. figs, i — 6, p. 421 (Spio Icemcornis), OERSTED Grcenl. Annul, pp. 202, 203. The genus Malacoceros QUATREFAGES is distinguished by the defect of eyes, GUERIN, Magas. de Zool. 1843. Family XI. Nereides. Body elongate, slender, with head distinct, supplied with tentacles (antennae) and eyes. Rudiments of feet similar throughout the whole body. Branchiae not distinct from the feet or small appendages of the feet, like lobes or tu- bercles. Proboscis large, often armed with two horny jaws. Goniada AUD. and EDW. Head conical ; with pinnae of segments remote, each of them supplied with an acus and setae with conical lobes or cirri. Proboscis large, furnished beneath with a double row '240 CLASS VII. of horny denticles, without maxillae or armed at the point with two maxillae. Sp. Goniada emerita AUD. and EDW., Ann. des Sc. not. xxix. PI. 13, figs. 1—4. Ephesia EATHKE. Head conical; with dorsal pinnae of the segments mammillate, setiferous, the ventral supplied with a fasci- culus of short seta?-. Proboscis large, clavate, smooth. Sp. Ephesia gracilis RATHKE, Beitr. zur Fauna Norweycns, pp. 174 — 176, Tab. vii. figs. 5—8. Glycera SAV. Head conical, at the extremity with four tentacles small, subulate, arranged in a cross. Dorsal and ventral pinnae approximate, inserted in a common tubercle, supplied with acus and a fasciculus of few setae. Cirrus at the base of each pinna; branchial appendage simple or bifid in every segment, except only the anterior and posterior. Proboscis large, usually with four jaws. Sp. Glycera Meckelii AUD. and EDW., Ann. des Sc. nat. xxix. p. 263, xxvu. PL xiv. figs, i — 4 ; Glycera alba, Nereis alba MUELLEK, Zool. dan. Tab. LXII. fig. 6. (Comp. JOHNSTON, Ann. of Nat. Hist. xv. p. 148, RATHKK, Beitr. zur Fauna Norweg. p. 173.) Follicita JOHNSTON (Bebryce THOMPSON). Comp. Ann. of Nat. Hist. xvi. pp. 4 — 6. Nephthys Cuv. Head truncated anteriorly, supplied with four small tentacles. Dorsal and ventral pinnae remote, setiferous, in- creased by a membraneous lobe. Branchiae ligulate at the dorsal pinnae. Proboscis large, furnished with conical tentacles and two maxillae not exsert. Body linear, elongate, with terminal style. Sp. Nephthys Hombergii Cuv., AUD. and EDW., Ann. des Sc. nat. xxix. PL XVII. figs, r — 6, Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Annel. PL XV. fig. i ; Neph. longise- tosa OEBST. Grceril. Annul, p. 195, Tab. vi. figs. 75, 76, (perhaps the same as Nepth. ciliata RATHKE, Beitr. z. Fauna Norwegens, p. 1 70). Phyllodoce SAV. (R,ANZANi). Head small, supplied with two eyes, and four or five tentacles, the fifth unequal, very small, remote. Tentacular cirri in the anterior segments. Setigerous tubercles undivided, with dorsal and ventral appendage lamellose, branchial. Body terminated by two styles. Proboscis thick with small tentacles at the orifice, without jaws. Sp. Phyllodoce laminosa SAV., AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. xxix. p. 244, PL 16, figs, i — 8; Phyllod. clamgera, Nereis viridisM-UELL., Eulalial SAV., ANNULATA. 241 AUD. and EDW. 1. 1. p. 248, PL 16, figs. 9 — 13 ; Phyllod. saxicola QUATRE- FAGES, GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1843, Annel. p. i, PI. i, &c. Psamathe JOHNST. lo'ida JOHNST. Comp. JOHNSTON, Ann. of Nat. Hist. iv. pp. 229 — 231. Myriana SAV. Alciopa AUD. and EDW. Eyes large, lateral. Tubercles lobate (glandular) at the base of the pediform tubercles. Other characters as in Phyllodoce. Sp. Ale. Reynaudii AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. not. xxix. pp. 236 — 238, Tab. xv. figs. 6 — n; Comp. A. KROHN, Zool. und anat. BemerTcung&n ueber die Alciopen, ERICHSON'S Archiv. 1845, s. 171 — 184, Tab. vi. Besides the description of some new species this memoir contains also anatomical details, amongst which, especially those upon the eyes are worthy of notice (see above, p. 217). The glandular appendages of the rudimentary feet AUDOUIN and MILNE EDWARDS consider to be gills. Hesione SAV. Head broad, truncated, furnished with four lateral eyes and four small tentacles. Long tentacular cirri at the sides of the head. Setigerous tubercles of the segments undivided, with dorsal and ventral cirrus filiform, the dorsal long. Body oblong, |\vith segments not numerous. Proboscis large, without jaws. Sp. Hesione splendida SAV. Descr. de VEgypte, Annel. PI. in. fig. 3, GUER. Iconogr. Annel. PI. 8, fig. 3. Note. — Genus Halimede RATHKE is distinguished from Hesione by three branchiae (lobed appendages) at each of the pediform tubercles (Beitr. z. Fauna Noriv. pp. 166 — 169). Syllis SAV. Head bilobed, anteriorly emarginate, with four kyes placed in transverse row, and three tentacles, thin, moniliform. [Setigerous tubercles of the segments undivided, with dorsal cirrus •long, moniliform. Proboscis without jaws. Body elongate, slender, [with numerous segments. Sp. Syllis monilaris SAV. Descr. de I'Egypte, Annel. PI. iv. fig. 3, GU£R. Iconogr. Annel. PI. 8, fig. i ; Sytt. Maculosa EDW., Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Annel. PI. 15, figs, i, &c. Nereis Cuv. (spec, of gen. Nereis L., Lycoris SAV. and Lycastis Head anteriorly attenuated, with four eyes arranged in two ries and four short tentacles, the external larger, conical. Subulate VOL. I. 16 242 CLASS vn. tentacular cirri at the base of the head in the first segment of the body; two cirri in each segment. Proboscis thick, cylindrical, armed with two horny exserted jaws. Body elongate, with nume- rous segments. A. The dorsal pinna of the feet confluent with the ventral or not distinct, without branchial appendages. Lycastis SAV., AUD. and EDW. B. The dorsal pinna distinct from the ventral, with aciculus and bundle of setas at the extremity of each, and appendages or lacinise supplying the office of gills. Lycoris SAV., Nereis of Authors. Sp. Nereis nuntia, Lycor. nuntia SAV. Descr. de VEgypte, Annel. PL iv. fig. 3, GUE"RIN Iconogr., Annel. PI. 7, from the Red Sea ; Nereis pelagica L., BASTER NatuurJc. Uit-sp. n. Tab. vi. fig. 6, OERSTED Grcenl. Annul, p. 175, Tab. iv. figs. 53, &c. ffeteronereis OERST. Sp. Heteronereis arctica OERST. 1. 1. Tab. iv. fig. 51 ; Nereis grand i folia RATHKE, Beitr. z. Fauna Norwegens, pp. 155, &c. Family XII. Eunicece. Body elongate, with numerous seg- ments. Kudiments of feet supplied with a single pinna, a terminal setiferous tubercle, and two cirri. Proboscis armed with seven, eight or nine horny jaws. Branchiae in some none (cirri supplying the office of branchiae) , in others above the dorsal cirrus adhering to many segments of the body, pectinate. A. Branchiae not distinct from the cirri. * Head covered by the first segment of the body. Jaws nine. Genera Aglaura SAV., (Enone SAV. Comp. GUERIN Iconogr. Annel. PI. 6. ** Head not covered by the first segment of the body. Lumbrineris BLAIN., AUD. and EDW. Head obtusely conical, with tentacles either none or two inserted into small tubercles at the posterior margin. Jaws eight. Sp. Lumbrineris d'Orbygnii AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. xxvn. PI. 12, figs. 9 — 12 ; Lumbrineris pectinifera QUATREP., GUER. Mayas, dt Zool. 1843, Annel. pp. 6—8, PI. n. figs. 3—8, &c. Lysidice SAV. Head broad, small, with three short tentacles, Jaws seven. ANNULATA. 243 Comp. AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. xvm. pp. 233 — 237, Tom. xxvii. figs, i — 8. B. Branchiae distinct. Jaws seven. Diopatra AUD. and EDW. Head small, with nine tentacles. I Filaments of branchiae numerous, placed on a petiole twisted I spirally. Sp. Diopatra amboinensis AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. xxvili. pp. 229, 230, PI. x. figs. 6—8. Onupliis AUD. and EDW. Head small, furnished with seven j tentacles. The first two pairs of pinnae larger, directed forwards. Branchiae in every segment, except the first two, the anterior of a I simple filament, the posterior pectinate. Sp. Onuphris eremita AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. xxvili. pp. 226, 227, PI. X. figs, i — 5; Onuphris Eschrichtii OEKST. Grcenl. Annul, p. 172, Tab. in. figs. 33 — 41, fig. 45. These worms live in cases ; they are some- times covered with bits of shell, like that of Terebella, as in the last-named species, from which I suspect that Onuphris concliilega SAKS, Beskrivelser, 1835, pp. 61 — 63, PI. x. fig. 28, does not differ. Eunice Cuv., AUD. and EDW. (Leodice SAV.) Head distinct, >und or lobate, with five tentacles. Pectinate branchiae above the lorsal cirrus in most of the segments, or in the anterior part of the Ly. Sp. Eunice gigantea, Nereis aphroditois, PALL. Nov. Act. Petropol. Tom. II. pp. 229, 230, Tab. v. figs, i — 7, Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Annel. PI. 10 ; this species becomes more than four feet long : — Eunice sanguinea, Nereis sanguinea MONTAGU Trans, of Linn. Soc. Tom. xi. pp. 20, 21, Tab. 3, figs, i — 3 ; Eunice antennata SAV., Descrip. de VEgypte, Annel. PI. v. fig. i, GUERIN, Iconogr., Annel. PI. v. figs, i, &c. Family XIII. Amphinomacece. Body depressed, oblong. Head rished with two or four eyes and mostly five tentacles. The liform tubercles supplied with setae only, not with aciculae. Jranchiaa arborescent or fasciculate in all the segments of the body, three or four anterior excepted, placed at the sides of the back. Proboscis without jaws. Amphinome BRUGUIERE. (Spec, of Aplirodita PALL., of Terebella HT.) A. Pediform tubercles with undivided pinna and single cirrus. Tentacles five in the head ; caruncles behind the base of the middle tentacle none. Branchiae ramose. 16—2 244 CLASS vir. Hipponoe AUD. and EDW. Sp. Hipponoe Gaudichaudii AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. not. Tom. xx. 1830, pp. 156 — 159, PL in. figs, i — 5, GUERIN Iconogr., Annel. PI. 4 bis. fig. 3, in New Holland (Port Jackson). B. Pediform tubercles with double pinna, remote, each provided with a cirrus. Caruncles behind the base of the intermediate tentacle at the dorsal surface in the head and anterior part of the body. Euphrosyne SAV. Head with single subulate tentacle, and two eyes. Branchiae made of many branched appendages, arranged in a row between the dorsal and ventral pinna. Sp. EupJirosyne laureata SAV. Descr. de VEgypte, Annel. PL II. fig. i, GU£RIN Iconogr., Annel. PI. 4 bis. figs, i, &c. Amphinome AUD. and EDW. Pleione SAV. Head with five short tentacles, and four eyes. Branchiae ramose, or fasciculate at the base of the dorsal pinnae. Sp. Amphinome rostrata PALL. Misc. Zool. Tab. vm. figs. 14 — 18, from the Indian Ocean; Amphinome carunculata PALL. fig. 12; comp. A. E. GRUBE, De Pleione carunculata Diss. Zoot. cum tab. cen. Regiomontani, 1837, 8vo. Chloeia SAV. Head supplied with five tentacles and two eyes. Branchiae like a tripinnatifid leaf, placed on the back, remote from the base of the pinnae. Two terminal styles at the posterior part of the body. Sp. Amphinome capillata, Aphrodita flava PALL. Misc. Zool. Tab. vm. figs. 7 — ii ; Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill. Annel. PI. 9 ; in the Indian Ocean, from Amboyna, &c. The bundles of setce are yellow, the gills, which nearly resemble leaves of Fern, are purple- coloured. Family XIV. Aphroditacece. Body in most depressed, oval. Head supplied with tentacles usually five (2 — 5) and with four eyes. Dorsal and ventral pinnae distinct, furnished with acus, a fascicle of setae and a ventral cirrus. Squamae (Elytra SAV.) in most, in place of cirri, placed on the dorsal pinnae that alternate with dorsal pinnae supplied with a cirrus. Proboscis usually armed with four jaws. Palmyra SAV. Dorsal squamae none. Sp. Palmyra aurifera SAV., AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. xxvu. PP- 445> 446, PL x. figs, i — 6, from the island Mauritius. Genus Spinther JOHNSTON ; is it of this family ? Body oval with back convex, abdomen plane. Head indistinct. Elytra none I ANNULATA. 245 Tubercles of the feet similar in all the segments, supplied with a ventral cirrus only. Comp. JOHNSTON, Ann. of Nat. Hist. xvi. 1845, pp. 8 — 10, Spinther oniscoidcs, PI. n. figs. 7 — 14. Sigalion AUD., EDW. Body depressed, elongate, with numerous segments. Dorsal squamae together with dorsal cirrus in most of the segments; the anterior segments that are without squamae alter- nating with squamiferous segments. Sp. Sigalion MatMldce AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. xxvu. pp. 441—443, PI. ix. figs, i — 10 ; Sigalion boa JOHNSTON, Ann. of Nat. Hist. ii. pp. 439 — 441, PI. xxin. figs. 6 — 15, (probably the same species as Sigalion Idunce RATHKE, Beitr. zur Fauna Norweg. pp. 150 — 155, Tab. ix. figs, i — 8 ; comp. also Sigalion Estellce GUKR. Magas. de Zool. 1833, Ann6l. PL 3). Acdetes AUD. and EDW. Body elongate, with numerous seg- ments. Branchial tubercles at the base of the pediform tubercles in all of them, dorsal squamae large, the squamiferous segments, without dorsal cirrus, alternating with segments supplied with dorsal cirrus. A coriaceous tube longer than the body concealing the worm. Sp. Acoetes Pled AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. xxvu. p. 437, PL x. figs. 7—14. Polyodontes KENIERI, AUD. and EDW. (Phyllodoce EANZANI). Head small, with three tentacles and two pedunculate eyes. Dorsal cirri in the segments destitute of elytra, which alternate with squa- miferous segments; ventral cirri short, subulate in all the segments; distinct branchiae none. Proboscis with two subulate cirri and warty margin, with four large denticulate jaws. Polyodontes Ranzanii, Phyllodoce inaxillosa RANZANI, Opuscoli scientifici, Bologna, 1817, Tom. i. pp. 105 — 109, Tab. IV. figs. 2 — 9, Mediterranean. Polynoe SAV. Body in some oblong or oval, in others slender, elongate. Head with four eyes set on tubercles, and five, sometimes four, tentacles. Jaws large, horny. Branchiae and dorsal cirri in pediform tubercles destitute of squama, which alternate with squamiferous feet. Sp. Polynoe squamata, Aphrodita squamata L., BASTEK, Natuurk. Uitsp. n. Tab. vi. fig. v. PALLAS Miscell. Zool. p. 91, Tab. vn. fig. 14 ; Polynoe Icevis, AUD. and EDW. Ann. des Sc. nat. xxvn. p. 421, PL ix. figs, n — 19, GUERIN, Iconogr. Annel. PL 9, figs. 4, &c. 246 CLASS vii. Aphrodita L. (exclusive of some species) , Halithea SAV. Head concealed under squama? or setse, furnished with two pedunculate eyes and three tentacles. Jaws small or none. Branchiae and dorsal cirri in feet destitute of squama, which alternate with squa- iniferous feet. Body oval, depressed. * Dorsal squamw naked. Sp. Aphrodita hystrix, Halithea hystrix SAV., AUD. and EDW., Ann. den »V. not. xxvn. PI. 7, figs, i — 9. * * Dorsal squamae covered by a stratum of villose setae. Sp. Aphrodita aculeata L., BASTER, NatuurTc. Uitsp. Tab. vi. figs, i, 2, PALL. Misc. Zool. pp. 77, &c. Tab. vn. figs, i — 13 ; Physalus SWAMMERD. Bibl. not. Sea-Home. Ordinarily five or six inches long and an inch and a half broad. The hairs on the two sides of the body are glistering, green and red, or playing with all the colours of the rainbow ; the back is clothed with a felty covering, that consists of interwoven hairs. When this covering is opened, five nearly circular plates (squama, elytra) are seen on each side, which partially cover each other, and of which the middlemost are the largest. If two consecutive plates be separated, there are seen on the ring that lies between them, small longitudinal nodes, which are parted by a pit, and are provided outwards and backwards with pectinated appendages as though torn at the margin (the gills). In the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean, &c. Note. — The genus Sagitta SLABBER, QUOY and GAIM., whose place is uncertain, seems to approximate closely to the Annulata. Body not annulate, elongate, pointed at both extremities, supplied with lateral pinnae and a terminal truncated pinna; head distinct from the body by a neck, with two eyes, and horny teeth on both sides. All the individuals hermaphrodite. Comp. A. KROUN Beobachtungen ueber die Sagitta bipunctata, Hamburg, 1844, 4to; R. WlLMS, Observations de Sagitta, Berolini, 1846, 4to. CLASS VIII. INSECTS LINNAEUS united all those invertebrate animals, whose body is divided into rings and which have feet consisting of different joints, into a single class, that of Insects. Together with the class of Kinged- Worms they make up one of the four principal groups into 1 There is no class of animals on which more has been written than that of Insects ; comp. LATREILLE, who has given a sketch of the history of Entomology (M£m. du Museum, vni. 1822, pp. 461 — 482, also J. N. EISELT, Gesckichte, Systematik und Litteratur der Insectenkunde, Leipzig, 1836, 8vo, and J. PERCHEHON, Bibliographic Eutomologique, Paris, 1837, 2 vols. 8vo). As observers deserve to be named especially REAUMUR (Memoires pour servir a I'Hist. des Insectes, Paris, 1734 — 1742, 6 vols. 4to), A. J. ROESEL (Insecten-Belustigung, Niirnberg, 1746 — 1761, 4 vols. 4to, with excellent coloured figures) and C. DE GEER (Mem pour servir a I'Hist. des Insectes, Stockholm, 1752 — 1/78, 7 vols. 4to). The anatomy was excellently treated by our great country- man, SWAMMERDAM (Biblia naturae, Leiden, 1737, 2 vols. fol.), and afterwards by P. LIONET (Traite anatomique de la Chenille qui ronge le bois de Saule, la Haye, 1762, 4to). In this part also in the present century RAMDOHR, TREVIRANUS, HEROLD, BRANDT, LEON DUFOUR, STRAUS, DRUCKHEIM, BLANCHARD, NEWPORT, &c. have published many important investigations. Comp. the Articles, Insectes, by AUDOUIN, in the Dictionnaire classique d'llist. nat. Tom. vm. 1825, pp. 559 — 579? and Insecta, in TODD'S Cyclopaedia of Anat. and Physiol. n. 1839, PP- ^73 — 994- As general works, introductions and systematic handbooks, the following, amongst others, may be used with advantage : J. C. FABRICII, Philosophia Entomologica, Hamburgii et "Kilonii, 1778, 8vo. Ejusd. Entomologia Systematica, Hafnias, 1792, IV. Tom. (6 vols.) 8vo; Index cdphabeticus, in J. C. FABRICII, Entomol. System. Hafnise, 1796, 8vo. Supplementum Entomol. Systematise, Hafnise, 1779, 8 vo. P. A. LATREILLE, Hist, natur des Crustacees et des Insectes (suite aux CEuvres de BUFFON, par SONNINI), Paris, 1802, 1803, 14 vols. 8vo, avec fig. Ejusd. Genera Crustaceorum ct Insectorum, Parisiis et Argentorati, 1806, 1807, iv. Tom. 8vo. W. KIRBT and W. SPENCE, Introduction to Entomology, 5th Edit. London, 1828, 4 vols. 8vo. H. BURMEISTER, Handbuck der Entomologie, i Bd., Algemeine Entomologie, Mit 16 Steindrticken, 4to. Berlin, 1832, 8vo. J. O. WESTWOOD, An Introduction to the modern Classification of Insects. Lon- don, 1840, 2 vols. 8vo (with many woodcuts). As engravings we may, besides ROESEL, especially notice the figures of the Icono- graphie du Regne animal, by GUERIN, and those of the Dictionn. des Sciences natureUes, which are also to be found in A. M. C. DUMERIL, Considerations generales sur la Classe des Insectes, Paris, 1823, 8vo. 248 CLASS viii. which Cuvier, as stated above (p. 33), divided the entire Animal Kingdom. We allude to the Type of Articulate Animals, which may be separated into two divisions. The first division includes articulate animals without jointed feet (apoda, the Annulata), the other articulate animals with feet (Condylopoda] . Again, articulate animals with limbs (Insects of LINNAEUS) are divided into three classes, of which the first, immediately to be treated of, retains the name of Insects; the two other classes, those of the Arachnids and of the Crustaceans, comprehend those animals which LINNJEUS con- sidered as wingless Insects. Insects (in the narrower meaning of modern systematic Zoology) are mostly provided with wings ; but the presence of these organs of motion does not constitute the character of the class. That is to be sought for in the head distinct from the trunk, to which two antennae are attached, and in the Respiration by means of air-canals distributed internally through the body and generally divided into very fine branches. The first of these characters distinguishes the Insects from the Arachnids in which the head and thorax form a single piece, and which have no antennas, the other distinguishes them from the Crustaceans, whose respiratory organs are gills or other external appendages. The names Insecta, notched animals, and in Greek evro^a, have all the same meaning. From the last is derived the word Entomo- logy (Insect- Science). The species belonging to this class are very numerous : in this respect no other class can be compared with Insects. In treating therefore of this class we must keep within strict limits, that we may not too greatly extend our work in the estimation of those who take less interest in this special part. We will first describe the external structure of these creatures a little more precisely The body of the six-footed Insects, which make up by far the largest portion of this class, is separated into three parts : head, trunk, and abdomen. On the head, besides the parts about the mouth, the antennae and eyes are distinguished. By Antennce are understood moveable jointed threads, which, unconnected with the oral organs, are attached to the head, usually close to the eyes. The number of joints is very different; in But- terflies, for instance, very large, in Beetles, mostly eleven, &c. All insects in the perfect condition or last period of life have two INSECTS. 249 antennae. Their relative size is very different. Sometimes as in Locustce, they exceed the length of the body, in others again they are very short and almost concealed beneath the eyes. The form likewise is different : the antennae are said to \>z filiform when they are thin and of the same thickness throughout : clavate when they have a knob at the end formed of thicker joints, as in butterflies (Papiliones) , &c. The eyes (oculi) are either simple or compound. The simple eyes are named eye-points (ocelli, stemmata) : they look like smooth shining points placed usually in a triangle behind the larger eyes ; they are seen in Bees, Wasps, &c. The larger eyes are composed of numerous six-sided facettes, and are occasionally of such magni- tude (as in Diptera, Libellulce), as to meet, the head seeming to consist almost entirely of these two eyes. In some instances the number of facettes is surprisingly great: LEEUWENHOECK counted 8000 in the eye of a fly, STRAUS nearly 8820 in that of a cockchafer1. The oral apparatus (organa cibaria, Trophi) consist of six principal parts, of which four are in pairs and move transversely, whilst two face each other above and below. Of these last the uppermost is the upper lip (labrum) : it is horny and fixed by a joint transversely to the most anterior part of the head. The part of the head to which the upper lip is fastened is named head-shield (clypeus, in French chaperon). The undermost part, facing the other, is named the under lip (labiwn): it closes the mouth below: is composed of two parts of which the inferior and more rigid is named chin (mentum), and the superior,' generally membraneous, tongue (ligida). Sometimes the ligula has two lateral lobes (paraglossce) . The remaining four parts are known as upper and under jaws. The upper jaws (mandibulce) are two, placed immediately beneath the upper lip: they move transversely from within outwards, and are often very hard. The under jaws (maxilla?) are ordinarily softer: are placed beneath the mandibles, and also move laterally, but are less serviceable for cutting the food small than for holding it in the mouth and conveying it to the gullet to be swallowed. In the Orthoptera there is a membraneous valve which is fastened to the maxilla. It is called the helmet (galea) of the lower jaw. In addition to these principal parts there are also feelers (palpi, 1 See plate xx. of SWAMMERDAM'S^/;^ der natuur, where the simple and com- pound eyes of a bee are figured. 250 CLASS Vlll. antennulce), jointed threads, attached to the under lip (palpi labiales, s. poster 'tores), and to the under jaw (palpi maxillares). The upper jaws in Insects are not provided with palps. In masticating Insects, as Beetles, Locusts, &c., the parts of the mouth, that have been described, may be best and most readily- observed. In those which feed by sucking fluids the structure is in appearance very different; yet even here it may be observed that nature remains true to her plan, and that she has provided the suckers not with different but with modified oral parts. We are indebted to the illustrious SAVIGNY for the knowledge of that plan1. The sucking Insects possess oral organs which are named Tongue, Beak, Sucker and Snout. The Butterflies ( Glossata FABR.) afford an example of what has been called tongue, or spiral tongue (lingua, lingua spiralis). It is a canal, occasionally of great length, composed of two laminoe which are corneous or membraneous, on the inside excavated and round externally. When at rest it is rolled up and concealed between two palps. This was almost the entire amount of what was known of the oral parts of Butterflies. But SAVIGNY pointed out in addition two minute upper jaws, placed at some distance from each other, and little, if at all, adapted for motion or mastication. The upper lip is small and membraneous. The laminae of the tongue, as LATREILLE2 had already shewn, are in fact nothing else than greatly elongated and extended lower jaws. Their base is united to the head and upper lip, and bears a palp composed of two or three joints. The two larger palps which include the tongue and conceal it when at rest are seated upon a triangular horny under lip. The case is similar with the suctorial apparatus of the Hemiptera, (Bugs, Gicadce, &c.) named beak (rostrum). It consists of a horny sheath (vagina) in which setas are contained (setce rostelli), that at first sight appear to be three in number. The two lateral setae are elongated upper jaws: the hair in the middle is double, and consists of two similarly elongated and united under jaws: the under lip, usually jointed, forms the sheath. In the same way in Diptera (Flies, &c.) the under lip forms the snout (proboscis) . In its interior 1 J. C. SAVIGNY, Memoires sur les Animaux sans vertebres, Paris, 1816, 8vo. lifere fascicule. 2 LATREILLE, Histoire naturelle des Crustacees et des Insectes. An. xn. 8vo. T. n. p. 140. INSECTS. 251 are setae, like as in the beak, which form the sucker (haustellum). A triangular upper lip covers the basal piece of the beak in Hemi- ptera, as it does that of the snout in Diptera. To the head succeeds the trunk or thorax. This part consists of three pieces, of which each bears a pair of feet. The first ring is named Prothorax, the second Mesothorax, the third MetatJwrax. In four-winged Insects the anterior wings are placed on the middle piece, the posterior wings on the hinder piece. The wings of Di- ptera are placed on the mesothorax. The inferior surface of the trunk is called breast (pectus), on which there is sometimes fixed a pointed elongated appendage, the breast-bone (sternum). The shield (scutellum) is a part found on the upper part of the thorax behind (at the mesothorax) stretching between the wings1. The feet are attached on the inferior surface of the body : in the hexapod Insects every ring of the thorax carries a pair. Between the sternum and epimeron is an articular cavity (acetabulum) . The first joint is termed hip (coxa, condylus) ; sometimes there is a small and very moveable piece between the epimeron and coxa (trochan- terium, trochantin AUDOUIN), but it is usually wanting or has coa- lesced with the coxa. The second joint is termed Trochanter, it is very small and mostly annular. Then comes the thigh (femur), the stoutest, and often also the longest joint of the leg. To it succeeds the shank (tibia) more slender, and in general flattened laterally. Last is the foot (tarsus), consisting of many joints placed in a line like the small bones of our fingers. The number of these joints is different in different families; occasionally, in certain coleopterous 1 The upper surface of the thorax (dorsum of AUDOUIN) may be named notum, the under surface sternum, and just as the entire thorax is divided into three rings, so also a pronotum and prosternum, mesonotum and mesosternum, metanotum and metasternum may be distinguished. Moreover, each ring of the thorax consists of definite special parts, which, however, are not distinctly seen in every ring, whilst some coalesce with others, or by the greater development of others are suppressed ; these parts are a sternum on the under surface, on either side an episternum as a chief part, and behind this an epimeron; and, finally, on the upper four pieces placed behind each other, to which AUDOUIN gives the names of prcescutum, scutum, scutellum and post- scutellum; thus there are properly three scuteUa, but what is usually named scutellum is a part of the mesonotum; at the sides of the scutum the wings are attached. Comp. on this interesting subject AUDOUIN, Recherches anatomiques sur le thorax des Animaux articules, Ann. des Sc. nat. i. 1824, pp. 97 — 135, 416 — 432, W. S. MAC-LEAY, Comp. Anat. of thorax in winged Insects. Zoolog. Journal, No. 18, or Ann. des Sc. nat. xxv. 1832, pp. 95 — 151, with remarks by AUDOUIN and NEWPORT, TODD'S Cyclopcedia,, II. pp. 911 — 924. 252 CLASS vin. insects it is not the same in the first two pairs of feet and in the last pair, yet in most Insects the number is five. In some coleopterous insects, the penultimate joint is extremely short, and was in conse- quence overlooked formerly. The last joint of the foot usually ends with two booklets, or claws : in addition, its inferior surface is often covered with fine hair, to attach it to small inequalities which even the smoothest objects present. Sometimes these hairs are set on two or three delicate membraneous appendages (cushions, pulmlli] which the Insects mould to the surfaces over which they run. In this way flies can move upwards on mirrors, or with head down- wards on smooth ceilings, as is seen daily1. Besides the feet, wings also are placed on the thorax of volant insects : on the meso- and meta-thorax, as stated above, when there .are four: when only two, on the meso-thorax. They are set on the dorsal surface, and may be compared with the elytra or squamce in Aphrodita: with the wings of vertebrate animals (Birds, Bats), which are only modifications of the anterior limbs, they have only similarity of use : they are not modified feet : they exist contemporaneously with feet and are independent of them 2. Wings are membraneous, arid, usually transparent, composed of two laminae grown together at the edges ; these laminae are expansions of the skin like the parachute extended between the fingers of Bats and between the ribs of flying Lizards (Draco). Canals (improperly named Veins or Nerves) run between the laminge, and are more or less numerous, more or less branched. These veins are branches of the air-tubes, which lie between two wide horny semicanals of the upper and under laminae that compose the wing. In some species the males alone have wings. Bees, Wasps, Butterflies, &c. have four wings. In the Diptera, besides the wings there are two parts which may be considered as traces of hind- wings, called poisers (halter es] ; they consist of a little button with a pedicle, and are often covered by a membraneous scale (squama halterum) 3. The anterior wings are 1 BLACKWELL, Remarlcs on the pulvilli of Insects. Transact, of the Linn. Soc.Vol. xvi. Pt. 3, pp. 487—492. 3 OKEN names the wings of insects gills; the elytra of Coleoptera he considers, less happily, to be gill- covers ; they must have the same anatomical interpretation, (Bedeu- tung), as the under- wings. Lehrbuck der NaturpkUosophie, in. 1811, s. 271; the same work entirely revised. 1843, s- S1^' 3 See AUDOUIN, Diet, class. d'Hist. not. II. pp. 140 — 142, at the word Balanciert, and NEWPORT, 1. 1. p. 926. INSECTS. in some insects harder, horny and opaque ; they are then called wing- covers (elytra), and the under- wings, usually larger, are when at rest folded transversely beneath the covers and concealed (as in Beetles, Coleoptera). In other instances the under wings disappear, and the wing-covers coalesce by their inner edges (elytra coadu- nata). Hemelytra is the name given to the anterior wings, when horny or coriaceous at the base but membraneous towards the apex (in Hemiptera, as Water-scorpions, Nepa cinerea, &c.) The hinder-body (abdomen) constitutes the third portion of the body of Insects, and usually consists of nine rings, of which however the last are in some instances so much concealed, and in others so small or so fused with the preceding, that they seem to be entirely wanting. As the organs of sense have their seat in the head, and those of motion in the thorax, so do the principal organs of vegetative or organic life reside in the abdomen. The digestive organs present differences according to the Orders and Families. Here the comparative length of the intes- tinal canal does not always depend, as in vertebrate animals, upon the nature of the food, and many species that live on animal substances have a longer and more convoluted canal than others which live on plants; in Grasshoppers for instance (G-rylli, Locustce) it is almost straight, though these insects live exclusively on vegetable food. In those Insects whose body consists of uniform rings (as the myriapods) and in vermiform larvae of Insects with a complete Metamorphosis, the intestinal canal is straight, or makes only few and inconspicuous curves. The intestine has the greatest length in proportion to the body in certain Coleoptera and Hemiptera. In the last it is at least twice, often four or five times the length of the body (ex. gr. in Lygceus apterus FABR.) ; in Cicada orni the intestinal canal is about ten times as long as the body 1. Amongst Coleoptera the Scarabceides, to which the common cockchafer belongs, are remarkable for their very long and tortuous intestinal canal, which in Copris lunaris measures ten or twelve times the length of the body. The membranes or coats of the intestinal canal are, first, a thin covering, which without sufficient reason has been compared with 1 L£ON DUFOUR, Recherches anat. et physiol. sur les H&mipt&res (Extrait det Mim. des savans etrangers, Tom. IV.) Paris, 1833, 4to. p. 92, PL VIII. fig. 95. 254 CLASS viu. the peritoneal covering of the intestines in vertebrate animals; next, a muscular coat of longitudinal and transverse fibres ; then a white, smooth membrane, a layer of areolar tissue probably corre- sponding to the tunica propria of the intestine in vertebrates, but which is often beset with minute glands in transverse rows : and lastly the innermost membrane, an Epithelium, that occasionally, as in the muscular stomach of the Orthoptera, is found hard and horny, forming the teeth or sharp plates with which the stomach is armed. In the intestinal canal of Insects several parts are to be distinguished : but it is much to be wished that writers in the names given to them had been careful to preserve greater uni- formity. The first part is the oesophagus, it has often an expan- sion named crop (ingluvies) ; next follows a muscular stomach (ventriculus musculosus, der Kaumagen, le gesier, the gizzard) ; it is found in the Orthoptera and amongst the Coleoptera in the genera Staphylinus, Dytiscus, and the family of the Carabici1, and is remarkable for the great development of the innermost coat, for the projecting plates, teeth or hooklets of corneous tissue which serve for bruising the food ; it is usually folded and has a round, more or less spherical, form2. Then comes a long cylindrical stomach in which the proper digestion proceeds. LEON DUFOUR names it ventricule chylifique ; RAMDOHR calls it simply the sto- mach, which name appears to me to be sufficient and preferable to the other. This organ is always present, and beneath its termina- tion the vasa urinaria (of which hereafter) are always inserted3. To this succeeds a longer or shorter, sometimes (as in the Hemi- ptera) a very short canal, the small intestine (intestinum tenue), which is continued into the short large intestine (intest. crassum), having occasionally a caecum or expanded portion when the con- nexion takes place obliquely and at the side4. 1 LEON DUFOUR has also discovered a muscular stomach in Tomicus typographic . Ann. des Sc. not. iv. p. 108. 2 RAMDOHR names it Faltenmagen (plicated stomach, omasus), a very ill-chosen name. 3 MARCEL DE SERRES considered the stomach to be duodenum ; in that case many insects must have no stomach at all. The name of Crop (jabot succenturie) by which STRAUS denotes this part in the Cockchafer is not explicable. 4 We are indebted to LEON DUFOUR for most of the investigations of the intes- tinal canal in Insects. They were preceded by those of RAMDOHR, who published a work on the subject, (Abhandlungen iiber die Verdauungswerkzeuge der Insecten, mit 30 Kupfertafeln, Halle, i8n, 4to). INSECTS. 255 The intestinal canal of Insects is connected to the other parts of the body partly by a large quantity of fat (the adipose body, of which below), and partly by numerous branches of air-tubes, and so retained in its place. In very many Insects Salivary Glands are present; they are placed at the commencement of the intestinal canal. In Coleoptera, for the most part, they are wanting; RAMDOHR found them in Curculio ( GryptorJiynchus] lapathi, LEON DuFOUR, besides in other Curculwnida, also in Blaps, Diaperis, Mordella and some other Coleoptera; moreover in the other orders of Insects they are present in by far the greater number of Families, probably in all Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera and Myriapoda. Amongst the Neuroptera they are wanting in Libellula and Ephe- mera, amongst the Hemiptera in Aphides. It is very remarkable, and not easily explicable, that in Panorpa amongst the Neuroptera the female has no salivary glands, or more correctly only small rudiments of them, whilst the male has them largely developed1. They have here the form of long convoluted canals (three on each side), which towards the end are turned upwards, and becoming thinner terminate by blind extremities. This form of blind con- voluted canals occurs also in the salivary glands of some other insects, ex. gr. of the Lepidoptera; but it is by no means general, for in the Hymenoptera and Orthoptera these organs appear commonly as blind sacs grouped in clusters. Microscopic investigation has demonstrated in these salivary vessels and glands, as in other glands, a layer of epithelial cells with nuclei2. Below the inferior orifice of the stomach in Insects very fine vessels are implanted, the so-called Malpighian vessels, which in former times were generally looked upon as organs for the prepara- tion of bile (vasa hepatica] — an opinion still maintained by LriON DUFOUR, OwEN3 and other writers. It is, on the other hand, the 1 Our meritorious countryman BRANTS first made this interesting observation, Tijdsckr. voor not. Gesch. en Physiol. vi. 1839, bl. *73 — T9^- It was afterwards also made known by LEON DUFOUR (Memoires presents a I' A cad. royale des Sc. vn. 1841, PP- 582, 583, PL n, fig. 169,) who overlooked, however, the rudimentary salivary glands in the female. 2 See the beautiful investigations of H. MECKEL, MUELLER'S Archiv. 1846, s. 25 — 35. 3 [It is not to be inferred that OWEN holds this opinion now : his Lectures were published many years ago, and a new edition of them is now in the press.] 256 CLASS viii. opinion of most writers of the present day, that they correspond to the kidneys of the higher animals, whence the term used above p. 254, (vasa urinaria) for these vessels. Besides other grounds for this opinion, it is supported by chemical investigation1. These vessels appear to be present in all Insects, with the exception of Aphidii amongst the Hemiptera, where it has not been possible to find a trace of them. Their number is very different, and seems to be on the whole inversely proportional to their length ; they are short and very numerous, more than twenty, in the Hymenoptera and Orthoptera, and in Libellula and Ephemera amongst the Neuroptera. Here they are arranged in a ring round the intestinal canal which they perforate, whilst at the free extremity they terminate coecally. In Gry llotalpa and AchetaY ABE. they fall into a common canal before opening into the intestine. In the remaining Insects there are usually only four or two of them present (Diptera, Hemiptera, many Coleoptera), or six, as in other Coleoptera (the Heteromerata, Tetramerata, and Trimerata). When there are only two, they form a loop on each side of the intestinal canal, which seems to arise from the fusion of two vessels ; and so open by four termi- nations into the canal. In those Coleoptera which have six, they are also attached to the inferior extremity of the intestinal canal (the Rectum) , but do not open into it there ; they run upwards as very fine vessels between the coats of the intestine and terminate blindly2. If we consider these organs as Kidneys it becomes uncertain whether Insects have a Liver ; for the idea that these vessels may represent at once both Kidneys and Liver (whence it has been proposed to name them vasa urino-biliaria] is not, as appears to me, the result of comparative investigation either anatomical or 1 See RENGGER'S Physiologische Untersuchungen uber die thierische Haushaltung der Insecten, Tubingen, 1817, 8vo. Comp. WUR/ER, Ckemische UntersucJiung des Sloffes, ivelcher sick in den sogenannten Gallengefdssen des Schmetterlings der Seidenrausse befindet in MECKEL'S Archiv. iv. 1818, s. 213 — 215. Also CHEVREUL found in the matter of these vessels potass, ammonia and uric acid; see STRAUS Considerations generates sur V Anatomic des Anim. articules, auxquelles on a joint I'Anat. descriptive du Melolontha vulgaris. Paris, 1828, 4to, p. 251. In a Lucanus little stones have been found in these canals consisting of uric acid. AUDOUIN Ann. des Sc. not. 2e Se*r. Tom. v. 1836, p. 129. C. VERLOREN found in larvae of Lepidoptera (Sphinx ligustri) no uric acid in these vessels, but hippuric acid, as he informed me by letter in 1843. 2 LiDON DUFOUR, Mem. sur les vaisseaux biliaires des Insectes. Ann. des Sc. nat. ae SeYie, Tom. xix. 1843, PP- 145—182, PI. 6—9. INSECTS. 257 physiological, and would never have been entertained but for the attempt to reconcile two conflicting views, and which ought always to be distrusted when it interferes with more extended enquiry. But if we suppose an organ answering to the liver to be alto- gether wanting in insects, then it must be proved that the separa- tion of bile is more important in the animal economy than the excretion of urea, before an argument can be borrowed therefrom against the function ascribed to the Malpighian vessels. We do not forget that by respiration and the elaboration of bile the quantity of carbon in the living body is diminished, and that from be large development of the respiratory organs in insects the xcretory office of the liver is in a great measure dropped *, sTevertheless it is still highly probable that parts, whose function grees with that of a liver, are not altogether absent in Insects, n the first place we might here refer to the great quantity of it — the adipose body — situated between the skin and the intes- ne, which invests every organ and is of very great extent, more specially in larvae whose respiration is less perfect; the carbon nd hydrogen which in other instances is combined with oxygen to uit the body by respiration, here forms that provision of com- ustible matter so necessary in the animal economy for the support f respiration, especially in the case of Insects, which as Nymphs ike scarcely any food. Since then this production of fat exerts le same influence on the composition of the fluids as the separa- xm of bile, it is not to be considered as a proceeding entirely rbitraiy if some recognise in the adipose body an analogon of liver2. The adipose body consists of a multitude of minute acs or vesicles bound together by air-tubes which spread them- slves as a fine network on their surface. In the second place, coecal ppendages are seen below the muscular stomach in the Orthoptere sight in Mantis, six in Gryllus, two in Acketa) which involuntarily all to mind the appendices pyloricce of osseous fishes : they pro- ably secrete a fluid that performs the office of the bile in diges- lon3. In other insects, finally, as in the Carabici among the 1 CURMEISTEB ffandb. der Entomol. I. p. 403. 2 OKEN Lehrb. der Naturphilosophie, in. 1811, s. 270 ($tte Auflage, s. 425). s That these blind appendages arise from an immediate extension (protrusion) of the itestinal canal is no proof, as LEON DUFOUK supposes, that they cannot be secretory VOL. I. 17 258 CLASS viii. Coleoptera the entire stomach (ventricule chylifique DlTFOUii) is beset with numberless conical or filiform saccules, giving a flocculent aspect to its external surface. It may be, that these parts, whose office was formerly supposed erroneously to be the absorption of nutrient fluid from the intestine, prepare the bile : but it seems more probable that they serve to separate the gastric juice1. The Heart of Insects has the form of a long vessel that terminates behind by a blind extremity and lies above the intes- tinal canal on the dorsal surface. This dorsal vessel becomes narrower forwards, after it has curved slightly downwards. The smaller part may be considered to be an artery, whilst the wider posterior portion answers more closely to the heart of other crea- tures. In this posterior part are different lateral openings, mostly eight or nine pairs : and in front of each opening is a valve formed by a duplicature inwards of the wall. In the diastole of the heart the blood flows into it between two sets of valves, of which the posterior pair come into apposition, whilst the anterior lie folded against the wall and so permit the onward motion of the blood. Systole and diastole succeed each other alternately, moving along the length of the dorsal vessel from behind forwards. SWAMMER- DAM long ago, and STRAUS in more recent times noticed in the dorsal vessel longitudinal and transverse muscular fibres, the latter forming the innermost layer. Surrounding the heart is a space which some writers consider to be a sinus venosus; it is covered by lateral muscles, flat, and of triangular form, which have their broad base towards the heart and fix it in its position (les ailes du Cceur o: LYONET). From behind, the blood flows through the lateraj openings into the heart, and moves forwards ; from before, it flow; \ from the aorta between the organs, especially along the course o i organs. Mim. prtsentes, vn. p. 302. In Leucopsis also amongst the ffymenoptera tw such blind saccules are met with ; LEON DDFOUR, ibid. p. 524. 1 The great uncertainty which prevails concerning the interpretation of tl secretory organs in the lower animals, is a necessary consequence of the fact that tl selfsame secretion, as we learn from comparative anatomy, may be effected by ve} differently formed glands ; see ,T. MUELLER'S Handb. der PhysioL, n. Buch, Abschn. (l. Bd., s. 457, 3fte Aufi.) Chemical investigation alone can here afford light, ai a beginning of the enquiry has been made in invertebrate animals in these last yea) C. SCHMIDT'S _ Investigations: Zur vergleichenden Physiologie der wirbdlosen Thic'. Braunschweig, 1835, deserve, therefore, our thanks, and make us hope for further co munications. INSECTS. 259 the air-tubes, in regular streams backwards. These streams of blood on the outside of the heart were first observed by CARUS twenty years ago in the three fin-shaped caudal processes of the larva of Agrion / afterwards he observed a similar motion of fluid in the imperfect wings of the Nymphs ; the blood-globules (accord- ing to many, rather according to VERLOREN, the fat-globules) , which swimming in a clear fluid indicate the direction of the current. The later observations of various authors, on transparent larvae principally, have ascertained the phenomenon in Insects of every order — and it may therefore be confidently accepted as general. A question which requires further investigation for its solution is this, whether the circulation is effected in vessels, as ex. gr. NEW- PORT and BOWERBANK believe, or in free spaces between the organs, without special walls. The writers who maintain the .atter opinion, allege that the Aorta has an open termination in the Head. In the Myriapoda, besides the dorsal vessel, there are still others present; amongst which a trunk that lies upon the nervous cord in the abdomen, ought to be mentioned. In the Butterflies also TREVERANUS discovered on the ventral surface a vessel, lying on the nervous cord and running longitudinally, from which on each side numerous transverse branches arise1. NEW- PORT found this vessel in the genus Sphinx, and thinks that the blood flows in it backAvards, as it does forwards in the aorta. This last author discovered in this same genus, and in certain Coleoptera branches from the aorta in the head, but was not able, on account of the delicacy of the parts, to follow their further course2. The Respiratory organs of Insects are their air-canals (trachea) , 1 Zeitsckr.fiir Pkysiol. iv. 2, 1832, s. 181 — 184, Taf. Xiv. fig. 13. 3 Comp. on the dorsal vessel and the circulation of insects LYONET, Trait'e Anat. de la Chenille, pp. 413, &c.; on the fluid contained in it, ibid. pp. 426, 427; HEROLD, Pkysiol. Untersuchungen iiber das Rudcengefass der Insecten, Marburg, 1823, 8vo. ; STRAUS Anat. comp. des Anim. articuUs, pp. 345 — 358 ; J. MUELLER, Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. Tom. xn. 2, 1825 (on a connexion between the dorsal vessel and the ovaries) ; C. G. CARUS, Entdeckung eines einfachen vom Herzen aus beschleunigten UlutJcreislaufes in den Larren netzfluglicher Insecten. Mit 3 Kupfert. Leipzig, 1827, 4to ; WAGNER, Beobachtungen ilb. d. Kreislauf des Blutes u. d. Ban des Rilckengef asses bei den Insecten, OKEN'S Isis, 1832, s. 320 — 331, Taf. n. ; NEWPORT, TODD'S Encyclop. II. pp. 975 — 982. The treatise of our excellent M. C. VERLOREN, crowned by the Brussels Academy of Sciences in 1844 (!) is impatiently waited for ; I have made use of the observations he had the goodness to communicate to me when treating of the dorsal 17—2 260 CLASS VIII. which are usually filled with air by external openings (stigmata}. These canals have three coats: an external, loose, transparent membrane, in which fibres and scattered points (cell-nuclei) may be distinguished ; a middle, composed of a flat, horny, sometimes brown or yellow elastic thread rolled spirally : and an inner coat which is composed of Mtine, a continuation of the external skin, and is thrown off at every moult1. Through the elasticity of the spiral thread the air-canals are duly kept open : its turns lie close to each other, and so the appearance of rings is produced, as in the wind-pipe of mammals (this the representation of the trachese of Pediculus in SwAMMERDAM, Bill, natur. Tab. I. fig. VII. resem- bles too closely) ; but the similarity is only in appearance ; there are no absolute rings, but only the turns of a single uninterrupted thread. Each branch, arising from a stem, has a new thread, whether the branch proceeds laterally from the stem, or two branches arise at the end of the stem ; this thread is finer than that of the stem, and in the terminal branches is only visible when very highly magnified. From being full of air, the canals, when Insects are dissected under water, have a silvery splendour, and present on account of the extreme fineness of their branching a very beautiful appearance to the observer2. Usually the air-canals divide, like arteries, into continually finer branches. In some Insects however there spring from a large stem on every side throughout a greater or less extent extremely fine and numerous branches (as ex. gr. according to LEON DUFOUR, in Prionus, from the double stem which lies between the last stigma of the thorax and the first of the abdomen). In Nepa and Ranatra saccules are seen in the cavity of the thorax, between which similar fin* branches (retia mirabilia) of the air-canals lie, and which are sur- rounded by a muscular coat3. Care must be taken to distinguish these saccules from the sacculated dilatations of the air-canals them- selves, which are met with in flying Insects in the last period q 1 It has not been made out, as far as T know, whether the innermost membrane o the air-tubes is present in those insects also which have no stigmata, but gill-plates, the larvae of Ephemera, for instance. 2 M. MALPIGHI, who first made use of the names of trachece and stigmata, says " Tanta est fructificatio horum vasorum, tain mirce implicationes ut nilpulchrius conspic possit." De Bombyce, p. 12. Opera om. Tom. II. Londini, 1687, fol. 3 LEON DUFOUR, Rech. svr let IL'niiptires, p. 253. PI. xvnt. INSECTS. 261 their life, and which beyond doubt are of service in diminishing weight during flight. These dilatations are oval or pear-shaped, and occasionally a tubular trachea proceeds anew from their further side. In the Apiarice amongst the Hymenoptera, the two lateral main trunks of the air-canals in the abdomen are in this way converted into large reservoirs of air. The stigmata are present in different numbers in the hexapod Insects, but it is rare to find more than nine pairs of them; in Dytwcus amongst the Coleoptera and in Locusta amongst the Ortkoptera there are ten pairs (BiTRMEiSTER Handbuch der Ento- mologie I. p. 175). Also in Gryllotalpa I found ten pairs, three in the thorax and seven in the abdomen. These air-slits are small, generally oblong fissures (like button-holes), often surrounded by a horny ring (peritrema) with a cavity behind them which again, by a second fissure whose posterior half can be retracted by muscles, leads to the air-canals. In other instances there is no peritrema, but the stigma is formed by a fissure between two lips, whose edges are beset with hairs. Sometimes there are in the cavity of the stigma special moveable horny plates (epiglottides STRAUS), which can close the entrance of the air-canal that proceeds from it. By means of the oblique position of the lips, of which one often projects over the other, by means of the narrow opening, and of the hair or down on their edge, the entrance of dust or other small bodies into the stigmata is prevented, whilst the air alone is admitted as through a sieve. From every air-slit, or its cavity (vestibule) there arises an air-canal (trachee d'origine STRAUS) which divides into numerous branches (in Scolopendra) , or proceeds transversely after having given off one or two lateral main-stems. These main-stems running along the length of the body, (in most Insects there is only one on each side,) receive all the canals that spring from the air-slits or fissures, and connect them together. ! They give off the numerous branches which spread through every i part of the body. The distribution of the air-canals after the I manner of vessels is interesting ; by such a disposition of the respiratory organs in Insects, the atmospheric air has access in equal degree to every part of their body *. But it is too much to " In nobis et consimilibus sanguinis massct pulmones petit ... in insectis non totn fftnyninis moles in pulmones conflult, sed inversa via pulmones ipsi, vasorum ritu, in 262 CLASS vin. conclude from hence that the circulation of blood is unnecessary in Insects, and consequently does not exist. The circulation of blood has not respect to respiration alone, it is not merely for the con- version of venous blood into arterial ; it is necessary that arterial blood should circulate that it may serve for nutrition and secretion. Many Insects live in water : but of these the greater number breathe atmospheric air ; like whales amongst mammals some come to the surface of the water for that purpose. But usually there are special arrangements for conducting the air, so that the Insect can remain under water. This is seen ex. gr. in the larva? of Dtytera, which live under water; those of Culex have at the posterior part of the body a lateral canal with fine hairs at the orifice ; the larvse of Stratiomys have a canal at the end of the abdomen, whose orifice is fringed with a circlet of plumose hairs ; the genera Nepa and Ranatra have a tail composed of two filaments at whose base are two air-slits1. These water-insects die in a few hours if the air has no access to the water. Other Insects breathe in the water itself, that is, they breathe the air that is diffused through the water, as fishes do by their gills. Such Insects have no air-slits : the air must therefore penetrate the walls of the tracheae, which to that end are spread out either in filiform or capillary appendages (in the larvae of Gyrinus, of Semblis, the nymphce of Chironomus) or in leaf-like plates at one side of the body (Ephemera), or at the extremity of the abdomen (Agrion). These parts have been termed Gills*; they are not found in perfect Insects. Gills of this sort, from which blind air-tubes arise, occur in the rectum of the larva of Libellula, as five rows of plumose incised leaflets. From them arise six longitudinal steins, of which two, larger than the rest, universum corpus disperguntur, sic ut singulce paries aeris particulars per pulmones et sanguinis portiones per arterias recipiat." MALPIGHI Anatome plantarum, Op. om. I. p. 15. 1 Figures of Culex in SWAMMERDAM, Bibl. nat. Tab. xxxi. figs. 4, 5 ; of Stratiomys, ibid. Tab. xxxix. ; of Nepa, in DUFOUR, 1. 1. The abdomen of Nepa and Ranatra has besides three pair of conspicuous, but closed, air-slits, in which very large branches of air-tubes terminate with blind ends. 3 This nomenclature is only in part correct. The proper respiratory organs of Insects, the air-tubes, belong to the category of lungs, whether the air penetrates by external apertures (stigmata), or the tubes be filled with air from endosmotic action. The air in fact is in the inside, and the stream of blood (along the tracheae) on the outside, and this relation is just the reverse of that which prevails in gills. INSECTS. 263 become afterwards the main trunks of the perfect Insect which are in connexion with the air-slits1. Observations have shewn that Respiration in Insects effects the same chemical changes of the air, as in higher creatures ; respira- tion is more active, the need of air greater and the production of carbonic acid more abundant in the perfect Insect than in the larva. In the perfect Insect, moreover, respiration is performed principally by the air-slits of the thorax, which are larger than those of the abdomen, whilst in the larva that function is distri- buted more equally amongst all the stigmata. This fact is in connexion with the development of the thorax and with the mechanism for motion affixed there in the perfect Insect. Accurate investigations have shewn that Insects, at least under certain cir- cumstances, have a proper ivarmth, and that they can raise the temperature of their body remarkably by motion, or by voluntary acceleration of respiration2. The sexes are distinct in all Insects, and the eggs are not fertilized, as in fishes, after they are laid, but union of the sexes must precede the laying of the eggs if they are to prove fruitful. A remarkable peculiarity has been observed in Plant Lice (Aphides), 1 Comp. on the respiratory organs of insects, besides MALPIGHI, SWAMMERDAM, LYONET, STRAUS and other writers already cited, C. SPRENGEL Commentarius de partibus, quibus Insecta spirilum ducunt, Lipsise, 1815, 4to. cum tabulis; SUCKOW, Respiration der Insecten, insbesondere uber die Darmrespiration der Aeschna grandis, HEUSINGER'S Zeitsch. f. die organ. Physilc. n. 1828, s. 24 — 29 ; BURMEISTER ffandb. der Entomol. I, s. 169 — 194 (a very careful revision of the observations of others and of his own) and NEWPORT, Phil. Trans. 1856, Pt. 2, pp. 529 — 566 (or in TODD'S Cyclop. II. pp. 982 — 990). We refer also to the beautiful figures in LYONET Traite an. de la Chenille, PI. xxi., and STRAUS Anat. des anim. artic. PI. 7, in order to give an idea of the minute division of the air-tubes. MARCEL DE SERRES has figured the tracheae and air-sacs in some Orthoptera (Truxalis, Mantis) in Mem. du Museum, IV. PI. 15, 16. 2 Already in T 792 VAUGUELIN had made experiments on the respiration of Insecta (Locusta viridissima). Comp. also G. R. TREVIRANUS, Versuche uber das Athemholen derniedern Thiere, Zeilschr. f. Physiol. iv. 183 r, s. 1—39, and NEWPORT, Phil. Trans, 1. 1., for the specific warmth, which was formerly denied by J. DAVY, against whose observations NOBILI and MELLONI had already advanced objections (Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, 1831, Octobre, pp. 207 — 210). All animals, LIEBIG justly observes, are •warm-blooded, but only in such as breathe by lungs (better, in mammals and birds), is the specific warmth entirely independent of the external temperature. Die organ. Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiol. u. Pathol. 1842, s. 20. Comp. also BERTHOLD, Neue Versuche iib. d. Temperatur der Icaltblutigc Ihiere, Gb'ttingen, 1825, s. 35, 36, 264 CLASS vnr. where a single impregnation suffices for many families in succes- sion ; the males are not observed until the end of summer or in autumn ; they impregnate the last family, consisting of wingless females, which without copulation would be barren. Their eggs remain during the winter on branches of trees, and in spring produce only female plant-lice which without copulation are prolific and viviparous. BONNET, to whom we owe this discovery, found that in the space of three months nine successive generations were produced without copulation1. Amongst the Myriapoda the Chilopods have only a single ovary, in form of a long sac situated beneath the intestine. In the remaining Insects there are two ovaries. Sometimes they have the same form of tubes or sacs (Forficula, Ephemera, Stratiomys) ; in some flies the sac is very long, rolled spirally like a watch-spring, and separated by many transverse partitions into cells2. In most Insects each ovary consists of a number of tubes (games ovig^res LEON DUFOUR). Sometimes these are situated around a sacciform dilatation from which the oviduct arises (ovaria baccata), as in Meloe L. and Lycus (coleoptera)3. Or these tubes are situated lengthwise along the origin of oviduct (ovaria ramosa), as in Cicada4; sometimes on one side only, like the teeth of a comb, as in PJiasma and Tenthredo (Athalia). But in by far the greatest number of cases, these tubes are situated at the beginning of the oviduct like the leaflets of a digitated leaf, at the end of a common stalk (ovaria digitata, fasciculata). Such ovaries are seen in the Lepidoptera, where each of them consists of four tubes. The number of these tubes is however very different, not only in the different orders, but even in the same order, and occasionally in the same natural family ; whilst, ex. gr. Bombyx and Xylocopa (Hymen- optera) have four, in the Honey-Bee are more than one hundred5. In 1 C. BONNET, Traite dlnsectologie, i. Observations sur les Pucerons, Paris, 1845, iamo. (Euvresi. 1771, Svo. DUVAU has obtained even eleven successive generations without copulation; Ann. dcs Sc. nat. v. 1825, p. 224. There are also some examples of the same phenomenon in insects of other orders. BURMEISTER, 1. 1. s. 336, 337. 2 REAUMUR, Mem. pour servir a VHist. des Ins. IV. PI. -29, f. 7 and 8. 3 BRANDT and KATZEBURG, Medizin. Zoologie n. Tab. xvu. fig. i k, Meloe vane- gains, Tab. xix. figs, u, 15, Lytta vesicatoria ; LEON DUFOUR, Ann. des. Sc. nat. vi. PI. 1 8, fig. i, Lycus rufipennis. 4 LE"ON DUFOUR, Hemipteres, PL 17, fig. 189. 5 LE"ON DUFOUR, Mem. pretends, Tom. vn. p. 408. According to SWAMMEBDAM, INSECTS. 265 many Hemiptera heteroptera there are seven, as also in many Cara- lici ; the Cockchafer and other Lamellicornia have six, the Stag- Beetle (Lucanus cervus) twelve, &c. The length of these tubes is different, but on the whole is more marked in proportion as the number is fewer, as in the Butterflies ; they contain the eggs in a string; the largest and most developed are at the lower end, the smaller above. Here the ovarial tubes run out into a fine thread which LEON DUFOUR terms Suspensory Ligament, whilst J. MUELLER considers the parts to be vessels which connect the ovaries with the dorsal vessel. In most instances the threads unite on each side to form a cord; in others (in Phasma ex. gr.} they proceed separately to the dorsal vessel. From the inferior termination of the ovaries proceed two oviducts (tuba3), which coalesce to form a common tube beneath the rectum: it is ordinarily much shorter than the tuba; in the cockchafer, on the contrary, it is longer than these. Different horny plates surround the dilated inferior termination of this common tube; it has a sphincter muscle to contract it, as well as several others J. Generally it falls, with the rectum, into a common cloaca, or it opens beneath and in front of the anus. Sometimes the external sexual organs of the female, generally seated in the ninth ring of the abdomen, which is included and hidden in the eighth, are prolonged into an appendage externally. Here belongs the tubular vagina of Flies (vagina tubi- formis), in Chrysis, &c.2, which is formed of the last abdominal rings that can be drawn within each other like an opera-glass. In others the vagina is two-valved (vagina bivalvis), as in Locusts (Locustce), and projects beyond the last segment of the abdomen as an ensiform compressed prolongation. In others there is a per- forator borer (terebra) or a sting (aculeus) ; here, besides the bi- valved vagina, there is a sharp organ for puncturing, with serrated edges, and composed of one or of two horny threads ; when at rest the sting is concealed within the abdomen ; it is connected with a poison-gland3. who has given a highly magnified figure of these parts, each ovarium consists in the Honey-Bee of 150 tubes, Bill, natur. p. 471, Tab. xix. fig. 3. 1 See STRAUS, Anat. des anim. art. p. 299, and the figures of the Cockchafer, ibid. PI. 5, figs. 4, 5 m, PI. 6, fig. i Jc, V . 3 Also in Mycterus curculo'ides amongst the Coleoptera, Ann. des Sc. nat. Tom. vi. PL 19, fig. 5. 8 Comp. here especially BURMEISTER, Handb. der Entom. I. s. 209—215, Taf. 12. 266 CLASS vm. Different appendages belong to the common oviduct, or to the vagina. Of these one is more constant than the rest, and opens into the common oviduct, close to the uppermost part, where this is formed from the union of the two tubes. Previous to copulation it is empty, but after that act is filled with a white fluid — which is the seed, as microscopic investigation has demonstrated beyond doubt, from the presence of the hair-like spermatozoa in motion. This part, generally single, may therefore be called receptaculum seminis. Frequently it has an appendage (glandula appendicularis] . In many insects there is another vesicle present which, during copula- tion, receives the penis (bursa copulatrix,poclie,c,opulatrice AUDOUIN), and which in the cockchafer is a large bladder beneath the oviduct. In the Butterflies this organ opens externally, and not into the ovi- duct, so that there are two sexual orifices, whilst a canal leads from the bursa copulatrix to the oviduct, and conducts the seed into the receptaculum seminis situated above. There are other vesicles, or glands, generally in pairs and situated more behind for the purpose of covering the eggs with an adhesive fluid. In the Butterflies these are seen as two pyriform vesicles laid transversely with their broad bases opposed, which at the other end pass into a very long, contorted, blind canal. In a few Insects still other secretory organs have been observed, which probably secrete a peculiar odorous matter to attract the male1. On the borer (terebra) in the Cicada, see Do YE1 RE in Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e Se'rie, vn. Zoologie, pp. 193 — 199, PI. 8, the middle bristle (le poincon DOYERE) works like a wedge. 1 It is difficult to be brief on a subject which has reference to such an important difference of organisation, and which, on account of the various views of observers, possesses an historical interest. MALPIGHI (de Bombyce) long ago recognised the vesicula copulatrix as the organ which receives the penis and gave it the name of uterus; often the penis or a part of it is broken off, and remains here after copulation. The penis is figured in this part in Sphinx ligustri from a preparation by HUNTER in the Catalogue of the Physiological Series of the Museum of the College of Surgeons, Vol. V. London, 1840, PI. 67, fig. 8. It was with fluid from this vesicle that HUNTEB impregnated artificially the eggs of other butterflies. Phil. Trans. 1792, p. 175 (in Bombyx mori) ; an experiment already devised by MALPIGHI, but attempted without success. SPALLANZANI, before HUNTER had effected the artificial impregnation of the eggs of the silkworm, but with the seed taken directly from the male butterfly, so that his experiment does not belong to our present subject (Experiences pour servir a I'ffist. de la Gener. Geneve, 1785, 8. p. 223). AUDOUIN has the honour of having been the first in our century to direct attention to this subject, whilst previously all these INSECTS. 267 The male individuals amongst Insects have usually two testes, though there be occasionally only one, just as in the female there may be only one ova-Hum. Such is the case with LithoMus where the part has the form of a long tortuous canal. In the Scolopendrce proper (Scol. morsitans, &c.) are different oval testes, much extended in length, (described improperly by KUTORGA as epididymides) which at each pointed extremity send off an efferent canal ; all these canals coalesce to form a single canal which is very tortuous and widens into a sac below (testiculus KuTORGA1). In Scutigera there are two very tortuous canals (testiculi?} present, which begin with an oval sacciform expansion, and then pass into a single fine tube, of great length and winding right and left with close curves ; this tube opens into a canal, which as an arc connects the two efferent canals each of which dilates twice into an oval vesicle2. In Julus there are two long blind tubes, which, connected by transverse canals, have the form of a ladder, and to which laterally blind sacs are appended ; these sacs may be considered to be testes and the two longitudinal canals to be vasa deferentia3. In the hexapod Insects the parts which prepare the seed are always in pairs. There is found indeed in most Lepidoptera and in certain Coleoptera (ex. gr. in Ophonns and Harpalus, genera of the family of the Carabici) a single testis*, but since two efferent canals arise from its lower edge, it is obviously formed by the union of two appendages had been confounded together as secreting organs, Ann. desSc. not. II. 1824, p. 281. We owe to C. TH. VON SIEBOLD the most complete investigation of this subject ; see his Fernere Beobachtungen iiber die Spermatozoa der wirbettosen Thiere, in MUELLER'S Archiv. 1837, s. 392 — 433. If, as VON SIEBOLD assures us, the vesicula copulatrix only seldom contains Spermatozoa, and then usually dead ones, it is less to be wondered at that the experiments of MALPIGHI failed than that those of HUNTER succeeded; they ought to be repeated with better success with the fluid from the receptaculum seminis. LEON DUFOUR still persists in considering all these appendages as ylandes sebifiques. 1 S. KUTORGA, Scolopendrce morsitanlis Anatome, Petropoli, 1834, 4to. pp. 10, n, Tab. n. figs. 3 — 5 ; EYMER JONES in TODD'S Cyclop, n. p. 413, fig. 201. 2 L£ON DUFOUR, who has given a description and figure of these parts, considers the first pair of these vesicular expansions as testes; the tortuous canals as vesiculce seminales, Ann. des Sc. nat. II. 1824, p. 97, PI. v. fig. 3. 3 See figures in TODD'S Cyclopced. in. p. 551, (article Myriapoda, by RYMER JONES) and by STEIN in MUELLER'S Archiv. 1842, Taf. xm. figs. 17, 18. 4 L&)N DUFOUR, Ann. des Sc. nat. vi. p. 133, Tab. vi. fig. 8 of JIarpalus rvfcwnis (copied in WAGNER'S Icon. Pnysiol. Tab. xix. fig. 8). 268 CLASS virt. which were originally distinct, as at least in Butterflies is placed beyond all doubt by the history of development. In many Hymen- optera the two testes lie side by side in a common covering (scrotum DUFOUR). Sometimes these organs, usually white, are distinguished by lively colours (deep red in Papilio brassicce, and in some Hemi- ptera, yellow or orange-coloured in some Coleoptera) which depend upon the investing membrane. Moreover the structure of the testes is very manifold, and, as in glands generally, nature has here solved the problem, in a small given space to increase as much as possible the secretory surface, in very different ways. The simplest form is that of a single blind canal, which is sometimes very tortuous1. In other cases this blind canal has more the form of a sac, ex. gr. in Scutellera, Edessa. Yet they are not always constructed in this simple way, when they have externally the form of a single blind sac and have also been so described by some writers ; in Libellula, for instance, this sac contains a number of small round vesicles2. In by far the greatest number of Insects each testis consists of a collec- tion of different, sometimes very numerous, vesicles, or cylindrical canals (capsules seminifiques LEON DUFOUR) terminating blindly, which are united in form of a fan, of a star, of an umbel, or in bunches, and from which canals arise that afterwards terminate in a single efferent canal3. This efferent canal forms sometimes at its commencement numerous tortuosities, to which the name of epi- didymis has been given (as in many Carabici, in Melolontha*, in Nepa, &c.). The lowest part has often an expansion5 to which the name of vesicula seminalis has been fitly given. Far less propriety is there in giving this name to different blind canals which are met 1 In Dytiscus marginalis the entire canal when unwound appears to surpass the length of the animal twenty times, HEGETSCHWEILER De Insector. genital, p. 19. 3 LEON DDFOUR, Mem. presentes, vn. p. 572. 3 For a methodical review of all these forms an arrangement is requisite in which,- at the same time, there are not too many divisions. Comp. JOH. MUELLER, De glan- dularum secernentium sfructura penitiori, 1830. fol. p. 103 ; BURMEISTER, Handb. der Entom. i. B. 217 — 219 ; WAGNER'S Lehrb. der vergl. Anat. 1834, s. 329 — 332, and the figures chiefly borrowed from LEON DUFOUR'S numerous investigations in MUELLER, 1. 1. Tab. xvi. figs, i — 19, and in WAGNER, Icones Physiol. 1839, Tab- XIX- %s- 1—26. 4 STRAUS, 1. 1. Tab. vi. fig. i, c, c. 5 For instance, in Hydrophilus, in Apis mellifica, in Gerris and Velio, (L£oN DOFOUR, Rech.s.l. Htmipt. Tab. XI. figs. 138, 139), in Oossus marginatus (L£oN DUFOUR, ?7>. Tab. x. fig. is-V INSECTS. 269 with in most Insects and which unite with the efferent canal. That these parts rather serve to effect special secretions and correspond with the prostate and COWPER'S glands in higher creatures is pro- bable even from their composite structure ancl great development. Hence in some Insects they have been even described as testiculi and the true testes as glands of an unknown use, as for instance, by SwAMMERDAM in Oryctes nasicornis1. In this and other Lamelli- cornia (Melolontha, Cetonia) these glands are two tortuous canals, which resemble the testiculi of the Carabici. In Hydropliilus piceus these parts exceed the testes in circumference. Ordinarily there is one pair2: often also there are two pairs of these accessory organs present; in some are found three or even more pairs. They are .ntirely absent only in few Insects (G-ersis, Velia, Ranatra). In Libellula they are also wanting3; yet I think it is nearer the ruth to say that here they are not connected with the testiculi md are present in an unusual situation, which is in agreement with he copulation of these animals4. From this also it is apparent that hese organs are not vesiculce seminales. For determining the purpose of the different parts connected tvlth the organs of propagation microscopic investigation in the ecent state is of great service. C. TH. VON SIEBOLD has never met w^ith spermatozoa in the parts which we consider subservient to pecial secretions, which however they ought to contain if they svere really seminal vesicles as LEON DUFOUR and other writers uppose. The spermatozoa of Insects are like hairs, and are often bund in the testes united in bundles and surrounded by a transpa- ent covering5. We must notice, in addition, that in many species of Insects a !£reat similarity of form has been observed between the organs of propagation in the two sexes. We see this resemblance in certain 1 Bijbcl der natuur. Tab. xxx. fig. 8, m m; these are the true testes. I could almost uppose that LEON DUFOUE so indefatigably laborious in the anatomy of Insects and o rich in experience, has made the same mistake in Ptlogonus ; see the Rech. sur Ics lemipt. PI. xi. fig. 137 A., where I consider the spiral organs b b to be testes. 2 As in the Hymenoptera, for instance. 3 LEON DUFOUR, Mem. presentes, vn. p. 572. 4 See below, in the systematic arrangement, in the family of the Libellulina. 5 See VON SIEBOLD, Ueb. die Spermatozoen der Crustac.een, Inscctcn, Gasteropoden t. einiger anderen wirbettosm Tkiere, MUELLER'S Archiv. 1836, s. 10 — 43, Tab. if, . 270 CLASS VIII. beetles, but especially in several Hemtptera, as well in the form of the accessory glands, as in that of the testes and ovaria, in the num- ber of the oviducts in the last and of the spermatic ducts in the former, &c. We cannot however admit that this similarity has the value of a general rule; the Lepidoptera, for instance, not to speak of other Insects, exhibit an entirely different type in the two sexes. The external sexual organs lie, as in the females, at the hind- most part of the abdomen1. The penis has a very different form and substance. Ordinarily it is surrounded by two horny plates, and enclosed in a membraneous sac in the retracted condition ; in the Coleoptera the penis is covered by a homy case, and supported by two horny threads2. Amongst the malformations of Insects hermaphroditic individuals occasionally occur, in which one half of the body is male, the other female, like the Androgynce in Africa, of whom the ancients fabled, and who had a female breast on the left side, and a male on the right3. This lateral bisexuality is most frequently seen in Butter- flies, in which it strikes the eye more readily from the form of the antennae or the colour of the wings4; yet some instances of it are known in other orders also5. Before we turn from the consideration of the sexual organs of Insects we must shortly notice another peculiarity observed in bees and other Hymenoptera living in societies. Amongst these many 1 The Chilognaiha (Julus) are an exception to this ; the parts, in both sexes, are here situated very far forward, at a short distance from the head. They are also double (two vulvce, two penes), as in the Crustacea. 2 See the figures of STRAUS (op. cit.) in the Cockchafer, PL II. figs. 11, 22, PI. VI. fig. I. WAGNER compares these horny threads with the ossiculum penis, found in many mammals. On the sexual organs of insects, in addition to the works cited above, two monographs (both, however, of somewhat old date) may be consulted, viz. J. J. HEGETSCHWEILER, Diss. de Insectorum genitalibus; cum Tab. Turici, 1820, 4to. and Geslechtsorgane der Insecten von DR SUCKOW in HEUSINGER'S Zeitschr. f. organ. Physik. II. Eisenach, 1828, s. 231 — 264, and further, F. STEIN, Die weibliche Geschlecktsorgant der Kdfer, Mit IX. Kupfertaf, Berlin, 1847, 4 to. 3 C. PLINII, Hist. not. Lib. vn. cap. 2. 4 For instance, in Bombyx dispar by SCHAEFFER, in Bomb, cratcegi, by ESPEB (Beolachtungen an einer neu entdeckten Zwitterphalcene, Erlangen, 1778,4^.) in Vanessa urticce, by RAPP (OKEN'S Isis, 1833, s. 235), &c. 5 As in Scolia macnlata, by ROMAND, Ann. des Sc. entomol. IV. 1835, p. 191, in Lucanut cervus, figured in ASMUSS, Mvnslrwsitates Coleopteror, Riga, 1835, Tab. x. INSECTS. 271 individuals occur, which being incapable of propagating have been commonly considered to be sexless (the so-called neuters, working- bees, &c.) Even the external form indicates that they resemble rather the female than the male individuals, as the same is also indicated by their mode of life and their instinct directed to the care of the young ones. Anatomical investigation has confirmed this conclusion by demonstrating in the working-bees imperfect ovaries1. These individuals thus remain imperfect females, nurses, foster- mothers. Observations are not wanting with respect to the development of Insects in the egg, although hitherto this subject has not been sufficiently investigated to allow a general representation of it to be offered. In eggs that are just laid, nay in those which lie at the owest part of the oviduct and are the most mature, the germinal vesicle has disappeared ; in eggs situated higher up in the oviduct it may be seen clearly with the germinal spot2. On the yelk is 'ormed, from a union of cells, a layer as germinal membrane (blasto- derma) which continues to grow so as to surround the entire yelk. The first rudiment of the embryo, the nota primitiva, lies on the ventral surface ; the yelk lies on the dorsal surface, and becomes enclosed by the constantly growing ventral plates, without the for- mation of a special umbilical- or yelk-sac by constriction. The stigmata are developed only at a late period, and become open only shortly before the escape from the egg3. 1 MADEM. JURINE in HUBEB Nouv. observations sur les Abeilles, IQ e*dit. Paris et •Jeneve, 8vo. II. Tab. xi. fig. i, figure copied by RA.TZEBURG in his enquiries on this subject in Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. Vol. xvi. PI. u. Tab. 47. 2 See the microscopic representation of an egg-tube from Agrion, by R. WAGNER, Abhand. der mathem. physic. Klasse der Akademie in Miinchcn, Bd. II. fig. I ; see s. 558. 3 On the development of insects in the egg there are some observations of SDCKOW, Analomisch-physiologische Untersuchungen der Insecten und Krustenihiere, Heidelberg, 1818, 4to. mit Kupf. s. 19, 23, 35 (eggs of Bonibyx pini); also short, but interesting communications by RATHKE, on Blatta germanica in MECKEL'S Archiv. 1844, s. 27 — 37, Taf. n. (here there is on each side of the abdomen in the embryo, behind the attach- ment of the third pair of feet, a pediculated disciform organ which is, perhaps, a tem- porary respii'atory organ to be compared with the gills of larvae of salamanders ; there are only four Malpighian vessels, which are increased in number after birth), and finally, by KOELLIKER (on Chironomus, Simulia, Donacia) Observationes de prima Insectorum genesi Diss. inaug. Adjectce sunt in. Tabul. Turici, 1842, 4to. The numerous plates of HEROLD in his Disquisitiones de Animalium vertebris curentium in ovo 272 CLASS vni. Most Insects quit the egg in a form entirely different from that which they afterwards possess. An impregnated female butterfly, for instance, deposits eggs, from which caterpillars proceed, which present not the slightest external resemblance with the mother. They are vermiform creeping animals, provided with different pairs of feet, which eat enormously, grow rapidly, cast their skin often, and at the last casting change into quite another creature, with a very hard and horny skin, which has no limbs, does not move from its place1, takes no food, and falls as into a death-sleep. There may however be generally discerned in the seemingly formless mass, on close observation, the external parts of the butterfly, which folded and rolled together are concealed beneath the horny shell, on whose surface they are traced out. After a longer or shorter time, sometimes only after many months, the perfect insect, the butterfly, quits its narrow cell. At first the wings are short, moist and unfit for flying, but soon unfold themselves, become dry, and then support the flapping Insect through the air, which soon fulfils its new destiny, the propagation of its kind, and dies2. In these changes of form (metamorphoses] of Insects the first form or first state is called that of the maslc or larva, and the Insects are then named caterpillars, maggots, &c. The second state is that of nymph or pupa (in day-butterflies called also chrysalis}. The third state is that of the perfect insect (insectum dedaratum, imago) . All Insects do not pass through this threefold state. The wing- less hexapod Insects,, with few exceptions, leave the egg in the same form which they afterwards retain ; only the rings and the feet become more numerous in the Myriapoda. These Insects LATREILLE names Insects without metamorphosis. No winged Insect, on the other hand, comes from the egg with wings ; but evolutione (De generatlone Insectorum in ovo), Francof. ad Mcen. folio, Fasciculi u. (not completed), relate principally to Musca vomitoria and some Lepidoptera, but do not give so much information as might have been expected from the diligent and patient investigations of the author. 1 If the pupa be however in such a situation that the perfect insect would not be able to come out of it (in the branch of a tree, for instance), then it changes its place towards the period of the last change, by pushing on its body by contraction, a motion assisted in many cases by little hooks on the rings of the abdomen. 3 Sometimes the perfect insect, shortly after its coming forth, once more changes its coat, as is commonly known of the Ephemera. INSECTS. 273 amongst the winged there are many, which undergo no other meta- morphosis than that they obtain wings. Their larvce resemble the perfect Insect, but are quite without wings : the pupce have rudi- ments of wings and move themselves : in the last moulting these wings become developed and perfect. These Insects undergo accordingly an imperfect metamorphosis (demi-metamorphose LA- REILLE, metamorphosis incomplete^ • this is the case, for instance, pith the grasshoppers. Most winged Insects, lastly, are subject a perfect metamorphosis (metamorphosis completa), as we have escribed it in butterflies ; the pupa takes no food, and remains in state of rest or slumber. The pupse of flies are entirely motion- ess, surrounded by a hard shell, and shew no limbs of the perfect nsect concealed beneath it ; this shell is formed by the dried ntegument of the larva. Such a pupa is named pupa coarctata. n other dipterous Insects and in the Lepidoptera there is a hard lastic membrane, surrounding the enclosed compressed external arts of the future perfect Insect, and so disposed that they can be istinguished through the covering. Such a pupa is named pupa btecta ; such pupae move the rings of the abdomen. In still other nstances the wings and feet are free, without being surrounded by common covering, as in the pupaa of beetles and bees1. These changes are not confined to the external parts ; in the nternal structure also very remarkable changes occur. The intes- inal canal is in most Iarva3 straight, and consists principally of a vide stomach. The oesophagus and the part of the intestinal canal >ehind the stomach are longer and narrower in the pupa and in lie perfect Insect, since the stomach contracts and is more definitely eparated from the rest of the intestine. The nervous system becomes 1 For pupce of the last kind the word nympha is sometimes specially used ; see WAMMERDAM, Bill. not. pp. io, 16; BLADE, Fundamenta Zoologwe, in LINN. Amtenitat. [cad. Tom. vn. p. 151 ; NEWPORT in TODD'S Cyclop, n. 879. LINNAEUS names a pupa complete (pupa completa), which moves itself, and in all espects resembles the perfect insect ; half -complete (semi- completa), that which is at rest nd takes no nutriment. Syst. nat. Ed. is, I. p. 534. FABRICIUS transferred these ames improperly from the pupa to the metamorphoses, and thus named complete netamorphosis (metamorphosis completa), that which, in fact, is no metamorphosis, as n the myriapods, the spiders, &c. The metamorphosis which LATREILLE names omplete (ex. gr. that of butterflies, beetles) FABRICIUS names incomplete (incompleta) ; he semi-metamorphosis bears with him the name of metamorphosis semi-completa. See FABRICIUS, Philos, Entom. p. 56. VOL. I. 18 274 CLASS V1IT. tortuous in the pupa, and shorter in the perfect Insect ; the nervous ganglia become less numerous, from some of them first approxi- mating to each other and afterwards coalescing, whilst others entirely disappear ; the first ganglion especially, which is situated in the head, increases in amplitude. The sexual organs, of which the germs already existed in the larvse, become developed as well in respect of complex structure as of size. In the pupa new organs also come to view, of which before there was no trace, such as the wings, which are seen folded and rolled together internally at the thorax. The dorsal vessel undergoes less change than most of the other organs. There is in larvge, moreover, a peculiar fatty mass present, of which we have already spoken above; the secretion of this fat constantly increases, the nearer the larva approaches the condition of pupa ; in this condition the fat is consumed again, and in that of the perfect Insect, when it also takes food, fat is no longer secreted. The fatty secretion is thus obviously necessary to supply nutri- ment to the pupa, and to afford the material for the development of the organs of the perfect Insect. Yet the pupaa of Insects which undergo a complete metamorphosis, take, as stated above, no food, and are in connexion with the external world through respiration alone1. The condition of pupa therefore may be com- pared with that of hybernating animals, which are very fat in the autumn, during their sleep take nothing, and in the spring come out of their retreats in a very emaciated condition. The larva? of Insects eat more than is necessary for their own growth ; they are therefore usually inactive ; deficient motion and superfluous food favour, as is known, the secretion of fat2. The reason why inil perfect Insects no more fat is secreted, is found as well in the ji development of the sexual functions as in the greater activity of life ' and rapidity of motion, which are peculiar to them. 1 On this account they lose in weight. This loss is, however, at first very small* and only becomes remarkable on the approach of the last change. See NEWPORT i» TODD'S Cyclop, n. pp. 879, 880. 2 That this fat is not necessary for the life of the larva, is shewn by the examples of caterpillars in which ichneumons have deposited their eggs ; the larvse from these consume the fat of the former, which die from the robbery of their stock of food only at the time they should change into pupae, or have changed. INSECTS. 275 We see therefore in the perfect Insect the manly period of their tife : in the larva the childish period. Between the two nature has •nterposed a deep sleep of development. The marriageable period a deadly for many. There are also many difficulties to be over- liome1. Some organs must for a time stand still, others (as for instance, the silk-secreting tubes of caterpillars) must entirely jlisappear. The development of the sexual organs is essential, [tnd for that everything must wait awhile ; these remain during the tarval state behind other organs ; now they repress in turn by their Development the activity of other organs. Finally, the perfect Insect comes forth, in many respects a new creature. This is the rue object of the phenomena, of which the metamorphosis is mposed, which is not so entirely unique in its kind, as might be first supposed. The perfect Insect lives for propagation, and icn it has attained that purpose of its_being, it dies to make om for others, and serves for food to birds and other animals, s also an annual plant ceases to grow as soon as its bloom is veloped, and dies when the seed is come to maturity2. 1 Every casting of the skin is connected with more or less of danger; the moulting also a distressing season for birds ; but especially the last shedding, when caterpillars changed into pupae, is frequently fatal. Sometimes the casting is incomplete ; the ad of the caterpillar remains attached to the pupa. In this way may be explained occasional occurrence of butterflies with caterpillars' heads. See 0. F. MUELLER, exemption d'un papitton a iite de Chenille, Mem. presentes a I'Acad. des Sc. de Paris, 74, vi. pp. 508, &c., Naturforscher, xvi. 1787, s. 203 — 212, Tab. iv. f. I, 2 ; WES- IEL, Ann. des Sc. not. sec. SeVie. Tom. vm. 1837, Zoologie, pp. 191, 192; BRUINSMA, itengewone afivijlcingen, ^vaargenomen Mj de gedaanteverwisseling des zijdeworms, jdschr., voor natuurl. GescJi. en Physiol. vn. 1840, pp. 257 — 270, PI. iv. and my a/nteeTceningen thereon, ibid. pp. 271 — 275. Somewhat different are other observations MAJOLI in Boiribyx mori, in which the moths, without having first become pupae, pear to have proceeded immediately from the caterpillars. MECKEL'S Archiv fur die hysiol. II. 1816, s. 542. a What is said here relates especially to the complete metamorphosis ; in the complete the changes are less important. Comp. on this subject RENGGER'S Physiol. nters. s. 49 — 87, and HEROLD'S Entwickelungsgeschichte der Schmetterlinge, Casel Marburg, 1815, 4to, (one of the most excellent works on Natural History which ,ve been published in this century), in the numerous plates of which the development ly be followed without a break in the whole and in all its steps. Comp. further, on e changes which the intestinal canal undergoes on metamorphosis, DUTROCHET, urnal de Physique, Tom. LXXXVI. 1818, p. 130, &c., and in MECKEL, Archiv f. d. hysiol. IV. Bd. 1818, s. 285—293; and on the changes in the nervous system, NEW- >RT, Philos. Trans. 1832, ji. pp. 383 — 398, PI. XII. xin. 18—2 276 CLASS vm. The reproductive power in Insects which undergo metamorphosis is wanting in their perfect state ; but if at an earlier period in the state of larva they have lost a foot, it grows out again at the next moulting, and is more or less perfectly restored. Also in the Myriapoda excised antennae grow again1. The nervous system of Insects has for central part a row of ganglia of different number, which are usually connected with one another by two threads that are often very intimately united. This row of ganglia is situated on the ventral surface beneath the intes- tinal canal in the mid region of the body ; the first ganglion however lies in front of and above the oesophagus, and there arises, by reason of the two threads which connect it with the second ganglion, a ring which surrounds the oesophagus. The greatest number of ganglia is found in the Myriapoda, eighteen in Lithobius (Scolop&ndm forficata), twenty-three in Scolopendra morsitans. In the larvae of butterflies thirteen are counted, but ordinarily they are less numerous in the hexapod Insects. Large ganglia are situated in the thorax, and in some there are none in the abdomen, but two nervous strings alone, sometimes close together, sometimes separate from each other, as in Nepa and Cicada. From the ganglion above the oesophagus (ganglion cerebrate] arise the nerves of the eyes and antennas ; this ganglion lies transversely on the oesophagus, formed of two oval or somewhat conical lateral portions with their broad part turned to each other ; the inferior surface is somewhat concave, the upper convex. The second ganglion, the first of those beneath the intestinal canal, is by some writers compared to the cerebellum, by others, OBI better grounds, with the medulla oblongata; the nerves that arise from it proceed to the oral parts, and perhaps correspond to th^ different branches of the fifth pair in vertebrate animals. Earlio writers, as'AcKERMANN, REIL and BICHAT, thought that the abdo- minal cord of Insects might be compared with the nervus sympa- j thicus of vertebrate animals ; CUVIER and GALL, on the contrary- have disowned and rejected this correspondence. It is necessary h this inquiry to determine in the first place what character is to b( considered of sufficient value to distinguish the spinal cord from thi i 1 NEWPORT made experiments on lulus, Lithobius and caterpillars of butterflies See Phil. Trans. 1844, p. 283. In Pkasma sometimes one foot is less than the real being a new growth. I found this once also in Redumus personatus. INSECTS. 277 ystem of the great sympathetic nerve. It is impossible to recognise le position on the dorsal surface as such a character ; for the reversed osition of the heart in the invertebrate animals might lead us rather expect that that of the central nervous system would be reversed o. The peculiarity of the sympathetic system, amongst other things, onsists in this, that it supplies nerves which are distributed to parts ot subject to the will. But since from the ganglionic cord in Insects le nerves of the organs of sense and the nerves of the voluntary mscles arise, there is no reason for comparing it to the sympathetic erve. The ganglia therefore of this cord are to be considered as n union of the ganglia of the spinal nerves of the two sides 1. This iew would seem to receive more support when we reflect, that the )inal ganglia belong to the uppermost (the posterior) or the sensi- ve roots of the spinal nerves, and that in Insects two strings have een discovered in each connecting band between the ganglia, of rhich the undermost alone is connected with the ganglia, whilst le uppermost merely passes with its fibres over the ganglion2, t here the uppermost and not the undermost string, as in the )inal cord of vertebrate animals, is related to motion, is to be xplained by the reversed position of the nervous system. The milarity becomes obvious when we thus consider the matter, that Insects as well as in vertebrate animals the motor strings are Laced towards the interior, the sensorial nearest to the surface. It , however, perhaps more prudent not to pursue this analogy too ar. With these uppermost strings we must not confound the ystem of transverse nerves which LYONET described long ago in the aterpillar of the Willow-hawk under the name of brides Spinieres3. ^hese are situated a little in front of each ganglion, pass transversely ver the straight muscles which lie lengthwise on the ventral urface, and are distributed by their branches to the muscles and specially to the air-tubes and the dorsal vessel. A longitudinal, 1 G. R. TREVIRANUS, Biologic, v. s. 331, 332; E. H. WEBER, Anat. comparata vrvi sympathici, Lips. 1817, p. 95. 2 This important discovery of NEWPORT, who was incited to it by C. BELL, the elebrated discoverer of the distinction of the motor and sentient roots of the spinal erves, may be seen, illustrated by figures, in Phil. Trans. 1834, Pt. i, pp. 406 — 410. 3 Traite anat. de la Chen. pp. 98, 201, PI. IX. figs, i, 2. NEWPORT has very ccurately investigated this nerve in Sphinx Ligustri, Phil. Trans. 1836, Pt. II. P- 544; 545, PL xxxvii. (This figure is transferred to TODD'S Cyclop. II. p. 987.) 278 CLASS viii. single nerve, lying above upon the strings of the ganglionic nervous system, connects each plexus with the following one. In perfect Insects this system is less distinctly visible, and often is completely combined with the rest of the nervous system l. There is found in addition still another nervous system in Insects, destined especially for the organic life, which was made known in part by the investigations of SWAMMERDAM and LYONET in former times, and described by the last under the name of nerf recurrent2, and to which in our century JOH. MUELLER has by his investiga- tions especially directed the attention of anatomists. It has been compared by him and by most modern writers to the sympathetic nerve of vertebrate animals, by others to the nervus vagus. This system of nerves consists of a single middle portion and of two lateral portions. The single portion arises from one or more nervous ganglia situated in the head, which are connected with the most anterior part of the first (the cerebral) ganglion of the ganglionic cord. From this single portion whilst situated in the head nerves arise for the uppermost oral organs, and a thread which runs along the oesophagus on the dorsal surface to the stomach, and at its extremity terminates in a ganglion. In Phasma ferula BRANDT saw numerous branches arising transversely, and running in arches over the oesophagus and stomach to form a fine nervous net. Per- haps a similar distribution may be suspected in other Insects, where the extreme delicacy of the nervous branches does not permit their determination. In most Insects the middle single portion is the most developed ; in Gryllotalpa and Gryllus, on the contrary, the lateral portions are more developed than the single and middlemost. The lateral portions consist ordinarily of two pair of ganglia that lie close together behind the cerebral ganglion, of which the anterior is connected with the cerebral ganglion by one or two fine nervous threads. From these ganglia delicate nervous branches arise which run to the oesophagus whilst they are also in connexion, by fine threads with the single middle nerve that runs over the oesophagus8. 1 Besides the authors cited comp. also especially an excellent paper on the nervous system of Beetles by E. BLANCHARD, Ann. des Sc. Natur., sieme SeVie, Tom. v. Zoologie, 1846, pp. 273—379, PI. 8—15. 2 Traite anat. de la Chen. pp. 413, 578, &c. 3 Comp. JOH. MUELLER, Ueber ein eigenihumliches dem Nervus sympatJiicus amilnya INSECTS. 279 Of the organs of sense of Insects the eyes are best known. We have already spoken above (p. 249) of the distinction between simple and compound eyes. The simple eyes have a crystalline lens and a vitreous humour. The cornea, on which the crystalline lens lies, without being separated from it by an aqueous humour, is formed by the common horny integument of the body, which at that part is raised convexly and is more transparent. The vitreous humour is surrounded by a black pigment of the choroid. The compound eyes, always two in number, present a cornea which is divided into many fa9ettes, ordinarily hexangular. Each of these divisions has the form of a small, usually biconvex lens. Behind them lie an equal number of transparent pyramids or conical bodies which are turned by their base to the cornea and by their apices approach each other inwards1. Lastly, there is a nerve at the apex of every cone; the optic nerve in fact divides into as large a number of branches as there are divisions of the cornea. A dark-coloured pigment, often violet or blackish brown, separates the nervous fibres and the transparent cones, especially at their pointed extremities, from each other. At the base of the cones, beneath the cornea, there is frequently a pigment of a different and more lively colour ; hence arises the metallic splendour of the eyes in some Insects, as in Hemerobius and Chrysops^ which however disappears after death. No eyelids are present in Insects, but between the fa9ettes of the cornea there are found in certain Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, here and there, some hairs, which ward off substances from the eyes and defend them. Surrounding Nervensystem der Einyeweide bci den Insecten, Nov. Act. A cad. Cces. Leop. Car. Tom. xiv. P. T, 1828, pp. 71—108, Tab. vn. ix., and J. F. BRANDT, BemerTcungen ueber die Mundmagen- oder Eingeweidnerven der Evertebraten, Mem. de I'Acad. des Sc. de St. Petersb. (vi. Serie, Tom. in. 2, Sciences not.} published separately, Leipzig, 1835, 4to, with in. plates ; also in French in the Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e SeYie, Tom. v. 1836, Zool. pp. 8 1, &c. and 138. 1 WILL considers these cones, which MUELLER compares to the vitreous humour, for the most part as crystalline lenses, and supposes that behind them there is still a vitreous body with concave anterior surface to be found. In Sphinx Atropos, where these cones are very large, (I found them one-seventeenth Par. lin. long,) I have several tunes observed the separation pointed out by WILL at the posterior extremity of the cone. In other insects the cones are so short, that the separation, even if it be present, cannot well be perceived, whilst even on that account TREVIRANUS thought there was reason to suppose that in some insects the cones in question were absent in their compound eyes. Erscheinungen u. Gesetze des organ. Lebens II. i, Bremen, 1832, s. 77. 280 CLASS VIII. the eyes are large air-sacs or wide air-tubes, from which fine branches arise, which in part run to the pigment and connect its granules, in part pass into blind cylindrical tubes situated between the nerve-threads of the vitreous cones1. DE LA HIRE, who first discovered the simple eyes of Insects, thought he might conclude from their presence, that the larger (compound) eyes were not organs of vision. That they also serve for vision the experiments of SWAMMERDAM, who smeared them in flies with black varnish, have proved. REAUMUR also did the same with bees. It is more difficult to determine exactly in what respects the office of the compound and simple eyes differs, although the last probably serve principally for seeing near objects. The bees, in which REAUMUR had smeared these eyes with a dark varnish, whilst their compound eyes remained uncovered, could not find their hives2; moreover all flying Insects are invariably pro- vided with compound eyes. There are Insects which have simple eyes alone, as the Myriapoda and Parasitica (also the larvae of the Lepidoptera] ; few Insects are entirely without eyes, like a parasitic Insect of bees (Braula NiTZSCH3), and a new genus of the Carabica Anophihalmus of SCHMIDT4, and different Myriapoda. In the diurnal butterflies and most Coleoptera, there are two compound eyes alone, without simple eyes ; simple eyes are also wanting in certain Diptera, in Forficula, Blatta and other Orthoptera, in many Hemiptera / where they occur in company with compound eyes, usually three are present, sometimes, as in Castnia, Sesia, Noctua, Gryllotalpa, two5. 1 See on the compound eyes of insects amongst others HOOKE, Micrographies Londini, 1667, Tab. 24, SWAMMERDAM, Bibl. nat. pp. 487 — 498, Tab. xx., J. MUELLEB, Zur vergl. Physiol. des Gesichtsinnes, Leipzig, 1826, 8vo. s. 307 — 390 ; by the same, Fortgesetzte anatomische UntersucJiungen ueber den Ban der Augen lei den Insecten u& Crustaccen, in MECKEL'S Arckiv, 1829, s. 38 — 64, and Ueber die Augen des MaiMfers, ibid. B. 177 — 181 ; F. WILL, Beitrdge zur Anat. der zusammengesetzten Augen, Leipzig, 1840, 4 to; A. BRANTS on the air-tubes in the compound eyes of the Articulata, Tijd- schrif. voor nat. Gesch. en Physiol. xn. 1845. 2 Mem. p. servir a I'Hist. des Ins. v. pp. 287—289. 3 GERMAR, Magazin der Entomol. HI. 1818, s. 314. 4 See JAC. STURM, Deutschland's Insecten xv. 1824, pp. 129 — 137, Taf. 303. Also a genus of the Xylophagi, Anommatus terricola, ROBERT, A cad. roy. de Bruxelles, 1836. 5 KLUG, Ueber das Verhallen der einfache Stirn und Sclieildaugen bei den Insecten rn.it zusammenges Augen. Physikal-Abhandlungen der Konigl. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, aus den Jahre 1831, s. 301 — 312. INSECTS. 281 For touch, in some Insects the sucker serves as the organ ; in others the palps which belong to the organs of the mouth, in many the antenna. Of taste, smell and hearing, little is known. Taste has its seat in the internal surface of the mouth. In some Insects there is a part present, which may be compared to a tongue1. Respecting smell different opinions are offered. On theoretical grounds, from presumed analogy with vertebrate animals in which the first pair of cerebral nerves always goes to the olfactory organ, BLAINVILLE has concluded, that the antennae, to which the first nerves from the cerebral ganglion proceed, must be the organs of smell2. B ASTER, REIMARUS, DUMERIL and STRAUS place the sense of smell in the air-slits (stigmata), which admit the external air to the air-tubes. TREVIRANUS however has with reason alleged against this opinion, that the stigmata, inasmuch as they are dispersed over the body, must be useless for determining the place from which the odorous matter proceeds ; also that in Insects, which have no stigmata and which respire by tracheal gills, it would be diffi- cult thus to account for the sense of smell. ROSENTHAL discovered in flesh-flies (Musca carnaria) a red-brown, folded membrane, which is situated in the head beneath the setting on of the antennae3. TREVIRANUS thinks that in sucking Insects, which are especially distinguished by their acute sense of smell, the seat of this sense ought to be sought for in the sucking organ itself, or in the oesophagus. If these animals suck in air, then they may smell with the same organ, by means of which, when they imbibe fluids, For the theory of vision with compound eyes it is necessary that the partial images be erect; hence JOH. MUELLER (Zur vergl. Physiol. des Gesichtsinnes) has concluded that insects see with their compound eyes not by refraction of the rays, but by keeping separate the rays of light that come from different points. Hence he denies to the fagettes of the cornea, which are true lenses, a refractive power ; yet that vision in insects with compound eyes occurs by dioptric means, has been shewn by Dr. A. BRANTS, and established" by means of an instrument constructed on the plan of the insect's eye. Tijdschr. voor natuurl. Geschied. en Physiol., XD., 1840, pp. 12 — 56, PI. I. 1 See this part figured and described in some hymenopterous insects by G-. R. TREVIRANUS, Verm. Schriften 11. s. 125, 131 — 133, Tab. xin. fig. i, L, fig. 4, 7 ; Tab. iv. fig. 5, 7, 8, 9, L' and L. 2 See DUGES, Physiol. compar. I. 1833, pp. 157 — 161, who endeavoured to establish the same views by experiments, as also LEFEBVRE, Ann. de la Soc. entomol. de France, 1838. 3 BEIL'S Archivf. die Physiol. x. s. 427 — 439. 282 CLASS vm. they taste. An observation of HUBER respecting bees pleads for this opinion. Bees are very averse to oil of turpentine ; these insects were not, however, repelled when HUBER brought a pencil dipped in it to the air-slits and other parts of the body, but flew away as soon as he approached it to the mouth. LESSER had already noticed that flesh-flies, whose eyes had been smeared with oil of turpentine, still flew to "tainted meat, but not so when their snout had been smeared with it1. In Insects that do not suck the seat of smell is probably at the beginning of the ossophagus also2. Just as uncertain are we respecting the auditory organ of Insects, although it was known to the ancients that they have hearing3. Of this sense also several writers, and lately NEWPORT4, have sought the seat in the antennae. Yet the experiment that grasshoppers, when their antennae have been cut off, continue to hear, is even less favourable to this opinion, than is the presence of hearing in spiders that have, as is known, no antennae5. RAMDOHR thinks that bees hear by means of their mandibles ; TREVIRANUS thinks that he has discovered in Blatta orientalisG, in Libellula and in bees, and BLAINVILLE in Cicadce, a special auditory organ7. When we remember that for an auditory organ in its simplest form nothing more is required than a nerve specifically receptive of undulations of sound and so expanded that such undulations may be conducted to it by means of the hard covering of the body, it is 1 The secretion of Slapelice, which resembles putrid flesh in smell, deceives flesh-flies into laying their eggs on the flowers (see ROESEL, Ins. n. Muscar. et Culic. Tab. IX.) ; a clear proof that the instinct of these animals is influenced more by smell than sight. 2 G. R. TREVIRANUS, Verm. Schr.u. a. 146 — 155, Biologic, vi. 8.307 — 318, Erschein- ungen u. Geselze d. organ. Leb. 11. s. 141. 3 See for instance, on bees, ^ELIANI de Animalium not., L. v. c. 13. Of the moderns BRUNELLI amongst others has proved hearing in Crickets by interesting experiments ; Comm. Acad. Bononiens. vn. 1791, pp. I99> 200. 4 TODD'S Cy doped, n. pp. 892, 961. 5 M. G. C. LEHMANN, De Antennis Insectorum Dissertatio posterior, Londini et Hamburg!, 1800, 8vo. pp. 45 — 47. 6 In Blatta orientalis there is on each side of the head, behind the base of the antennae, a white spot, formed by a round membrane, under which portions of the first nervous ganglion are immediately situated, TREVIRANUS, Annel. der Wetterauischen GeselhcJiaft, i. s. 169 — 171, Taf. v. figs, i — 3. BURMEISTER thinks these white spots are rudiments of simple eyes. 7 Comp. TREVIRANUS, Biolog. vi. s. 358 — 360 ; BLAINVILLE, De I organisation des Anim. 1822, i. p. 565, &c. INSECTS. 283 readily seen, that it is not very possible in all cases to determine by anatomical investigation the situation of this organ. VON SIEBOLD not long ago thought he had discovered in Orthoptera an auditory organ which is not in the head. In Locusta there are on the tibia of the first pair of feet two oval apertures, covered by a tense membrane, which DE GrEER1 had already figured. Behind this there is a vesicular expansion of the air- tube of the fore-feet and at its anterior margin a nerve, which coming from the first thoracic ganglion, spreads out into a band-like swelling in which oval, granular bodies, together with long pediculated, remarkable rods, are contained. In Acridium and Truxalis there is situated in the first segment of the abdomen, on each side above the third pair of feet, a tense membrane, behind which there is a vesicle filled with a clear fluid: this vesicle is surrounded by an air-sac, and to it there runs a nerve from the third thoracic ganglion, which is also swollen, and in the swelling exhibits similar rod-like bodies to those which in Locusta occur in the nervous swelling of the fore- feet. There still remains something to be said by us respecting the organs of motion in Insects. The antenna of insects are attached to the horny covering of the body, which forms an external frame- work, a dermal skeleton. This ought not on that account, as has sometimes happened in consequence of incorrect and confused notions, to be. put on a par with the skeleton of higher animals ; for the bones or cartilages which form the framework of vertebrate animals belong for the most part to the neural skeleton, that is, the most essential and central parts that compose the column of the vertebral skeleton protect the spinal cord and brain and separate them from the rest of the body2. Yet there are parts present in Insects which 1 For a more detailed description I refer to the observations of VON SIEBOLD him- self in EBICHSON'S Archivfur Naturgesch. 1844, s. 52 — 81, Taf. i. With every con- sideration for SIEBOLD'S great merits in the anatomy of the lower animals, I venture to express modestly my doubts that in insects organs of sense can occur in such an unusual situation. The eyes on the margin of the mantle in Pecten and Spondylus afford little support to this view, inasmuch as the type of the acephalous molluscs, has just as little claim to the possession of a head, as that of the Acalephce and Echinoder- mata. 2 It is a merit of CARUS well deserving of acknowledgement, that he recognised and clearly defined the difference between the dermal, the visceral and the nervous 284 CLASS vni. may be looked on as the rudiments of a neural skeleton. There is in each division of the thorax a process, which often has the form of the letter Y, supports the nervous cord, and by the expansion of its two branches, which are directed upwards, partly covers it. To this process AUDOUIN has given the name of Entothorax ; it is even found in the head and sometimes in the first abdominal ring. These are the same processes which TREVIRANUS had already com- pared to vertebrae1. These vertebrae, however, are not joined together to form a spine, but are separated from each other by certain spaces. The dermal skeleton of Insects consists of a pecu- liar substance to which ODIER gave the name of Chitine, LASSAIGNE that of Entomolme2, which occurs also in the integument of Arach- no'idea and Crustacea, and which is not soluble in caustic potas neither is rendered yellow by nitric acid, like corneous tissue. Il burns without fusion or intumescence. It forms different layers which the most external is composed of irregular cells3. The arrangement of the muscles is different in the different orders of Insects, nay, in the same insect in its different states, if it undergoes complete metamorphosis. The difference between the muscles of the thorax and of the abdomen, which in the per- fect insect is so marked, is absent in the vermiform elongate* larva, for instance, in caterpillars. Along the dorsal and venti surface riband-like muscles run longitudinally ; there are different oblique muscles in addition. The muscles present in their bundle transverse stripes, as in vertebrate animals4. They are usuall; skeleton ; see especially his excellent work Von den Ur-Theilen des Knochcn- und Scha- len-Geriistes, Leipzig, 1826, folio. 1 Verm. Schriften, IV. s. 229, 230. 2 See ODIER, Mem. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat. de Paris, I. 1823, pp. 29 — 42, and the later investigations of C. SCHMIDT, Zur vergleichenden Physiologie der Thiere, Braun- schweig, 8vo. s. 32, 52. 3 Comp. H. FREY and R LEUCKART in the new edition of E. WAGNER, Lehrb. der Zootomie, revised by them, 1845, pp. 3 — 5 ; also H. MAYER in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1842, s. 12 — 16. In the skin of the Silkworms and their pupae (and also in other pupce of lepidoptera) there are found stellate cells, which PLATTNER compares with the bone- corpuscles in the osseous tissues of vertebrates, MUELLER'S Archiv, 1844, s. 46, 47. 4 Since in every ring of the Larva's body the same arrangement of the muscles is observable, the number of the muscles, when those of all the rings are counted together, is very great. LYONNET found in the larva of the Willow-hawk more than 4,000 muscles. INSECTS. 285 white, sometimes pale red or brown-yellow, and are not surrounded by a fibrous membrane, so that, when detached from their inser- tions, they may be spread out like a pencil. Many insects are distinguished by special art-instincts, by their cunning in overpowering their prey, by the care for their eggs or young, by the construction of artificial habitations, &c. Their field of observation is greatly extended by the high development of heir visual organs. The faculty of indicating beforehand changes >f the weather by certain actions, by which some insects are dis- inguished, rests probably on their finer sense of the different con- itions of the atmosphere, since the air penetrates their whole body >y the tracheae. In this respect, as in so many others, they resemble lirds amongst vertebrate creatures, whose air-sacs and hollow bones ire in connexion with the respiratory organs, and in which also perfect correspondence between the external atmosphere and the nternal parts of the body is thus maintained. Manifold is the damage which Insects occasion to us, as well >y spoiling our luxuries, as by injuring or annihilating our pro- perty. On the other hand they procure for us many advantages, imongst which I need only name silk, wax and honey. But much nore important still is the use they supply in the great economy of lature, and therefore indirectly to us1. The injury which they ometimes cause us, is not only more than counterbalanced by hese benefits, but is for the most part only a consequence of the 3eneficent action itself. It is these small animals that nature em- >loys for her great purposes, and which effect by their numbers rhat the largest animals working separately are unable to perform, lence they are less dependent on the will of man, which indeed lere and there may be able to destroy a species, but is unable to sxterminate it throughout entire districts, as it has annihilated Lifferent mammals in lands which they formerly inhabited. Insects maintain the due equilibrium in the vegetable kingdom, diminish )utrefaction, and lastly afford to many other animals, especially )irds, an abundant and ever present nutriment. The geographical distribution of Insects opens a wide field for in- quiry, which however has only been lately entered. Many families, 1 On the benefit and the injury caused by Insects, see in detail KlKBY and SPENCE, Introduction to Entomology, I. pp. 80 — 338. 286 CLASS viu. nay, whole orders of insects, have been collected in other parts of the world with more or less of inadvertency by travellers and collectors, or at least not with such care as to allow us to deduce from the species yet known any general rules. Thus, for instance, if we compare the number of Diptera found out of Europe with the European, and thus form a measure of the proportion which sub- sists between exotic and European species, we shall arrive at a conclusion which will certainly vary much from the truth. Some genera are proper to the warm regions of the earth alone, and in Europe are represented either not at all or only by a few speciea from the southern part of our quarter of the earth, as the Cicadce (Tettigonice FABR.) and the genus Phasma. On the whole our knowledge of some orders of insects, especially of the Hemiptera and Orthoptera, would be very confined, were we to limit ourselves to European insects. The distribution of the same or very similar species in countries widely distant from each other, the remarkable richness of the same natural group giving a special character to Faunai, often depends upon the same quality of the soil and a resemblance in the vegetation. Thus for instance the insects of the sandy regions of Asia near the Caspian Sea correspond to those of North Africa, nay even to those of the Colony at the Cape. A similar remark may be made in relation to the class of Mammalia. It is this remarkable abundance of certain forms which leads us at first sight, and even without having determined a single species, to distinguish a collection of insects from the Cape of Good Hope, for instance, from one from the Indian Archipelago; Mylabris, Pimelia (Trachynotus, Sepidium), BracJiycerus, Acrydium, Mantis, &c. in the first, Phasma, Pentatoma, numerous resplendently coloured Papiliones in the second, give to the two a totally different appear- ance. Some species of insects are confined within very narrow limits ; others, as for instance, Papilio cardui, Plusia gamma, occur in a considerable portion of the old world, and also in North America1. — The limits of vegetation on mountains, as well as near 1 On the geographical distribution of Insects comp. LATEEILLE, Introduction a fa Geographic generate des AracJinides et des Insectes, Mem. du Museum, iv. 1817, pp. 37 — 67; the same in Diet. Class. d'Hist. Nat. vn. 1825, pp. 290 — 296, and especially LACOKDAIRE, Introd. a VEntoinol. n. 1833, pp. 528 — 619 (the best hitherto known on this subject). See also C. G. BEICH, Beitray zur Lehre von der geographischen Verbrei- * INSECTS. 287 ie poles, are also usually those of the distribution of Insects ; some species live even on snow and ice, as a small black insect from the order TJiysanura, which some years ago (1839) was first discovered by DESOR on the glacier of Monte fiosa, and after him is named Desoria glacialis. tung, der Insecten, insbesondere der Kafer, Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. XVI. i, pp. 805—840. SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. CLASS VIII. INSECTA. ARTICULATE animals, with articulate feet. Head distinct, fur- nished with two antennae. Heart situated in the back, similar to a longitudinal vessel. Organs of respiration tubular, branched, distributed throughout the whole body (tracheae). Sexes distinct. SECTION I. Apiropoda. With numerous feet. With thorax not separate from abdomen. ORDER I. Myriapoda. Wingless. Feet numerous (24 or more), disposed according to the length of the body, terminated by a single claw. Two clusters of simple eyes, in various number ; in some no eyes. Myriapods. LEACH and other modern writers consider this order as a class, and wish the name of Insects to be restricted to six- footed articulate animals, of which the body consists of three prin- cipal parts : head, thorax, and abdomen. Here there is no separa- tion between thorax and abdomen, but the whole body is parted into rings. The reason why we have placed these insects at the beginning of the class, is to be found in their resemblance to the ringed worms, to which they are related, not in their external form alone, but also in their internal structure ; for even the six-footed insects, which undergo complete metamorphosis, often in the larval state approximate to the myriapods. We willingly admit, on the other hand, that the myriapods accord with certain Crustaceans, and even form an unconstrained transition to them. But this natural transition is in some degree broken by other insects, which on the INSECTA. 289 contrary pass through the order of the Parasites to the Arachnids. The Arachnids again conduct us by another road (through the genus Scorpio to Limulus) to the Crustaceans. Thus is the entire animal kingdom a net everywhere connected, and every attempt to arrange animals in a single ascending series must necessarily fail of success. The oral organs consist in most of two mandibles, which are toothed at their broad extremity, and of a four-lobed underlip whose two lateral lobes represent the two lower jaws (maxillce). In some the second pair of feet forms, by coalescence of their basal pieces, a sort of second underlip, which covers the oral organs and the first pair of feet from beneath. In certain species the jaws and the lip are represented by pointed organs which coalesce to form a sucker ; but by far the greater number are manducating insects. Myriapods in the first period of their life have fewer rings and only three pairs of feet ; as they grow new rings arise and the number of feet is augmented. In this respect also they resemble the ringed- worms, whilst in the metamorphosis of Insects the homologous parts, rings, segments, are not multiplied, but are developed unequally or are united, to form the different divisions of the body in the perfect Insect. The number also of simple eyes increases during the development of myriapods. These Insects live in obscure places, under the bark of trees and on the ground under fallen leaves, stones, &c. Comp. on this order amongst others : LEACH, A tabular View of the ex- ternal Characters of four Classes of Animals which LINNB arranged under Insecta, Transact, of the Linn. Soc. xi. 1815, p. 306, &c. (pp. 376 — 386) ; P. GERVAIS, Etudes pour servir a I'NisL nat. des Myriapodes, Ann. des Sc. nat. sec. SeVie, Tom. vu. 1837 ; Zool., pp. 35 — 60; also, 36 Sdrie, Tom. n. 1844, Zool., pp. 51 — 80; J. F. BRANDT, RecueiL de Memoires relatifs a Vordre des Insectes Myriapodes (extrait du Bulletin publiee par V A cad. des Sc. de St. Petersbourg, Tom. v.— IX.) 1841, 8vo ; A. F. WAGA, Observations sur les Myriapodes, Revue zool. publiee par GUERIN, Mars 1839, pp. 76 — 90; G. NEWPORT, List ofMyriapoda in the British Museum, Ann. of Nat. Hist. xin. 1844, pp. 94 — 101, pp. -263 — -270; C. L. KOCH, System der Myria- poden, .Regensburg, 1847, 8vo min. Family I. Julidce. (Cliilognatha LATE.) Anterior feet not anged into organs of manducation ; rest of the feet in most of the gments bigemmal, slender, short, of the two sides approximate, serted nearly at the middle of the abdomen. Antennae short, iform, with six or seven joints. Organs of copulation situated at e anterior part of the body. VOL. I. 19 290 CLASS VII T. Comp. J. F. BRANDT, Tentaminum quorundam Monographicorum, Chi- lognatha spectantium Prodromus. Hullet. de la Soc. imp. des Naturalistes de Moscou, vi. 1833, pp. 194—209. Tab. v. Phalanx I. Sugentes (Siphonizantia BRANDT). Mandibles and maxillae coalesced to form a tube. Body elongate, narrow. Polyzonium BRANDT, Platyulus GERV. Two series of three small eyes in the frons. Sp. Polyzonium germanicum, Platyulus Audouinianus GERV., KOCH in PAN- ZER'S Deutschl. Insecten, fortgesetzt von HERRICH SCH.EFFER, Heft 190, No. 17. Siplionotus BRANDT. Two distinct eyes in middle of frons. Siphonophora BRANDT. Eyes none. Phalanx II. Manducantes (Gnathogena cliilognatha BRANDT). A. Middle segments of the body formed of a single complete ring, to which the feet are inserted in the sides of the abdominal protuberance. Monozonia BRANDT. Pollyxenus LATR.1 Body soft, with segments not numerous, with hairs or scales elongate, pinnatind, fasciculate, set on a tuber- cle at the sides, with the last segment penicillate. Eyes aggregated in two clusters. Sp. Pollyxenus lagurus, Scolopendra lagura L. ; DUM:£RIL, Consid. gener. PI. 58, fig. 7 ; GUERIN Iconogr. Ins. PI. I. fig. 5 : this little animal lives under the bark of trees and in moss, and then attains a size of more than a line. In this species also DE GEER has observed the increase in number of rings and feet (Mem. presentees a I'Acad. des Sciences de Paris, I. 532; Mem. pour VHist. des Ins. vn. pp. 576 — 578. The full-grown insect has 11, or according to KOCH, 1 3 pairs of feet. Polydesmus LATR. (species of Julus L.) Body covered with a hard skin, with segments produced at the sides, depressed. Polydesmus LEACH. Eyes none. (Sub-genera Tropisoma, Scyto- notus, Platyrhceus, Polydesmus, Rhacophorus, Euryurus, Oxyurus, Fontaria KOCH). 1 Some zoologists write Polyxenus, but we leave the word, of which the derivation is unknown to us, as LATREILLE wrote it ; he wished to express by it crafty (rus€)t (Hist. not. des Crust, et des Insect, vn. p. 62), although as little of particular craft is known to us in this little animal, as of a Gi*eek word agreeing with this name, which denotes crafty. INSECT A. 291 Sp. Polydesmus complanatus, Julus complanatus Lv DUMERIL, Consid. gener. PI. 57, fig. 2, DE GEER, Ins. vin. PI. 36, fig. 23 ; 8 lines long, i line broad; 31 pairs of feet. There are many foreign species of this genus ; comp. BRANDT, Bulletin scientifiqm de I'Acad. de St. Petersbourg, Tom. v. and ix ; Receuil deMemoires, &c. pp. 125 — 141 ; NEWPORT, Ann. of Nat. Hist. xm. pp. 265, 766 ; GERVAIS, GUERIN, Magasin de Zool. 1838. PL 240, fig. i ; (Poly- desmus margaritiferus from Manilla), &c. In the male there are in the seventh ring of the body, on the ventral surface, two hook-like organs directed forward, and (behind them) only one pair of feet. Craspedosoma LEACH. Eyes distinct. (Sub-genera Craspedosoma, Chordeuma, Campodes KOCH). Strongylosoma BRANDT. Body covered with a hard skin, elon- te, round. Eyes none. B. Middle segments of the body composed of three parts, with the ring nearly complete at the dorsum and sides, and two middle ventral laminae, one situated behind the other, in whose posterior margin the feet are inserted. Trizonia BRANDT. Julus L. (exclusive of some species). Body elongate, cylindri- ., covered with hard skin, with segments not marginate. Feet merous. Sub-genera : Julus, Spirotrephon BRANDT, Spirotreptus BR., Spirocydistus BR., Spiropceus BR., Spirdbolus BR., Eurygyrus KOCH, Nemasoma KOCH, Blanjulus GERV., (Allajulus KOCH, no eyes), Lysiopetalum BRANDT. Comp. on the internal structure of these animals TREVIRANDS, Vermisch. Schrif. II. 1817, s. 39 — 47 ; SAVI, Osservazioni per servire alia storia di una specie di Julus, Opuscoli scientif., Bologna, i. 1817, pp. 321 — 337. (Julus communis SAVI, Julus varius FABR.) ; SAVI Osservaz. sulV Julvs fostidissimus (Lysiopetalum fatidissimum BRANDT), op. cit. in. 1819, p. 52 ; NEWPORT, On the Organs of Reproduction and the Uevelopm. of the Myria,- poda. Phil. Trans. 1841. Pt. n. pp. 99 — 130, (the article Myriapoda by RYMER JONES in TODD'S Cyclopaedia, in. pp. 551 — 560, contains a full extract from it). These Insects (the Myriapods) live principally on vegetable food ; some also eat dead earth-worms and small molluscs. They diffuse, like many other animals of this family, an unpleasant smell which in some species is very powerful ; it is caused by an unctuous fluid, with acid reaction (SAVI), which is secreted in small sacs or vesicles, of which there is a pair situated in each ring. TREVIRANUS erro- neously supposed these vesicles to be respiratory organs, and their 19—2 292 CLASS vin. apertures, which form a row on each side of the body, to be air-slits (stigmata). The true air-slits lie quite beneath, near the insertion of the feet, (SAVI op. cit. Tom. i. p. 334, BURMEISTER in OKEN'S I sis, 1834, s. 134 — 138. Taf. i.) These animals can roll themselves up spirally, with the head in the middle ; in which posture they pass the winter. In copulating they bring the anterior part of the body in which the sexual organs are situated (in the female in the fourth, in the male in the seventh ring), perpendicularly upwards ; the posterior part of the body rests tortuously on the ground. In the spring the female deposits her eggs in masses of sixty or seventy in a hole excavated for the purpose under the ground ; after three weeks or more the young make their appearance, but still continue to adhere for some days by a string to the shell, which has burst longitudinally, without motion, and surrounded by a proper membrane ; at that period they have no legs at all ; as soon as they have got three pairs of feet, they separate themselves from the shell ; they have now a great resemblance to the larvae of some Coleoptera ; soon the number of rings and feet begins to be increased in that part of the body which is seated in front of the penultimate ring. Sp. Julus sabulosus L., KOCH in PANZER u. HERRICH SCHJSFFER Deutschl Ins. Heft 162, No. 7. Some foreign species attain a length of five inches and more, as Spirotreptus javanicus BRANDT, and Spirobolus spinosus DE HAAN, Mus. Lugdun. &c. The last species, from New Zealand, is black, with different rows of spines running longitudinally. Glomeris LATR. Body elongato-oval, gibbous above, plane or concave below, contractile into a ball, with the first segment made up of a small dorsal lamina, semicircular, the second broader than the rest, the last semicircular. Antennas thick, with the sixth joint the largest. A. E}res on both sides eight : seven disposed in a curved line, I the eighth on the outside, out of rank. Joints of antennas seven, the penultimate including the last. Sub-genus Glomeris BRANDT, j Sp. Glomeris limbata LATR., Glom. marginata LEACH, DUMER. Consid. I ybntr. PI. 57, fig. 3, Oniscus zonatus PANZER, Deutschl. Ins., Heft 9, No. 23, BRANDT u. RATZEBURG, Medizin. Zool. n. Tab. xm. figs. 7—10. 1 These animals resemble in external form some of the Oniscinea (Oniscus, I Armadillo), and are even met with in apothecaries' shops, amongst the so- i called Millipedes, mixed up with A rmadillo officinarum. Comp. on th< |j anatomy of this insect BRANDT in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1837, s. 320 — 327 Taf. xii., and Recueil deMemoires, pp. 15-2 — 158. INSECTA. 293 B. Two oval clusters of numerous eyes (50 and more), trans- verse, situated in front of the antennae at tlie sides of the head. Sub-genus Sphcerojwus BRANDT. Joints of antennae six, the last large, truncated at the point. Sp. Sphceropceus insignis BRANDT, Zephronia ovalis GRAY ; a large species from Java, figured in this Manual. Sub-genus Sphcerotherium BRANDT. Joints of antennae seven, the sixth oblong, the seventh the least. Most of the species of this sub-division are from the Cape of Good Hope. The genera Sphceropceus and Sphcerotherium are exotic, and seem to repre- sent Glomeris in warm regions. Family II. Scolopendridce. (Chilopoda LATR.) Second pair f feet cheliform, terminated by a strong hook, which is perforate, overing the first pair of feet and the organs of manducation )eneath, joined at the base, dilated, as if forming a second labium. 3ody depressed, covered above and below with horny scutes, the ides membraneous. Feet lateral, mostly a single pair in each egment, the last longest, extended backwards. Antennae usually nore slender towards the extremity, with numerous joints (14 — 40 nd more). Organs of copulation situated at the posterior extremity f the body. These animals live on animal food, insects, &c. Their nippers (feet of the second pair) contain the excretory duct of a poison- gland, which secretes a fluid deadly to small animals, as DE GEER1 and LATREILLE2 observed in flies ; the bite of the large native species may cause great pain in man and violent inflammation and swelling 3. Comp. on the family G. NEWPORT, Monograph of the Class Myriapoda, Order Chilopoda. Transact. Linn. Soc. xix. p. 265. A. Tarsi long, slender, multiarticulate. Antennae setaceous, as long as the body. 1 Insect. VII. p. 557, on the bite of Lithobius forficatus. 2 Hist des Crust, at des Ins. vn. p. 88, on the bite of Scutigera araneo'ides. 3 LEEDWENHOECK first observed and figured the perforated nipper, Vervolg. der Irieven &c. pp. 138—140, fig. 10 (59th letter), and Sevende Vervolg. der Brievcn, >p. 184—186 (i 24th letter), 294 CLASS viii. Scutigera LAM. Cermatia ILLIG. Feet elongate, especially tlie last. Body behind the head covered with scutes above, the fourth longer than the rest. Eyes two, compound. Sp. Scutigera araneoldes auctor. (Scolopendra coleoptrata L.?) DUMER. Cons. g£n. PI. 58, fig. 6 ; GUERIN Iconogr., Insect. PI. I. fig. 7 : this animal has 15 pairs of long feet, which readily fall off as in gnats and harvest-spiders (Phalangia) ; it is found in France and other parts of Europe. LEON DUFOUR has communicated some anatomical details regarding it in Ann. des Sc. not. II. 1824, pp. 92 — 98. The compound eyes of Scutigera may be looked on as a special anomaly in this order ; the cornea presents hexangular fa£ettes, as already figured by SAVIGNY, Descr. de VEgypte, Myriapodes, PI. i.1 There are still some other species in the warm regions of the old and new world, but they appear to me to be not sufficiently determined. The figure of PALLAS (July* araneoldes in his Spicilegia Zool. ix. Tab. iv. fig. 1 6), ordinarily considered as synonymous with Scutigera araneoldes, is cer- tainly a different species. The figure of PANZER, Deutschl. Insect. Heft 50, No. 11, under the name of Scolopendra coleoptrata, however it be still referred to by later writers, has no relation to Scutigera, but appears to represent Lithobius forficatus. B. Tarsi short, uniarticulate. Antennae shorter than the body. Lithobius LEACH. Superior scutes imbricate, unequal. Fifteen pairs of feet behind the cheliform feet. Antennae with numerous joints, in adults above 40. Two groups of eyes in the external margin of the head behind the antennae, the hindmost eye larger than the rest. Sp. Lithobius forficatus, Scolopendra forficata L., GUERIN Icon., Ins. PI. L, fig. 6; PANZER Deutschl. Ins. Heft 50, No. 13, Heft 190, No, 20; com- mon in dunghills, under flower-pots, &c. ; 10 lines long, i^ lines broad. See on its anatomy TREVIRANUS, Verm. Schrift. II. 1817, s. 18 — 33. Taf. iv — vii., LEON DUFOUR, Ann. des Sc. not. n. pp. 81 — 91. It has seven pairs of stigmata. Here also in young animals the number of rings of the body and of the feet is smaller ; the augmentation, as the animal grows, appears to occur in a manner different from that in Julus, so that new segments and new feet appear not behind, but between those already formed ; and thus it is explained that the smaller dorsal shields are between the larger. GERVAIS, Ann. des Sc. nat., sec. Serie, Tom. vn. Zool. pp. 57, 58. Sub-genus Henicops NEWP. 1 In a species still unnamed from Japan in the Leyden Museum, two Paris inches in length, (the European species attains a length of only 8 or 10 lines), I found these fagettes J^- millim. in diameter. INSECTA. 295 Scolopendra L. (exclusive of several species). Superior scutes >lane, in some subequal, the posterior gradually larger in others (unequal, with larger and smaller almost alternate. More than 15 pairs of feet (almost always 21), behind the cheliform feet. An- tennas with 17 — 20 joints. Eyes four on both sides, at the margin of the head behind the base of the antennas. To this genus belong the largest species of this division. In these Myriapoda there are g pairs of air-slits present, in the membraneous part between the dorsal and ventral scutes (in the 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 ring), above and behind the insertion of the feet, (see my observa- tions in the Tidschr. voor nat. Gesch. en Physiol. v. bl. 332 — 337. PI. vi.) Comp. for the Anatomy GAEDE in WIEDEHANN'S Zool. Magazin, I. 1817. s. 105 — 109 with fig., and KTJTORGA, Scolopendrce morsitantis anatome. Petropoli, 1834, 4to. The species investigated by this writer is Scolopendra cingularis LATR., which occurs in the south of Europe, in the Crimea and in Egypt. In north and central Europe no species of this genus occur. Formerly many species from different regions were confounded under the name of Scol. morsitans L. ; the species figured by KOLLAR under this name (Brasttieris lastige Insecten, Reise iin innern v. Brasilien von DR POHL, Wien, 1832, 4to, fig. 4) ought apparently to be referred to Scolopen- dra subspinipes GERV. Cryptops LEACH. Twenty-one pairs of feet behind the cheliform feet. Eyes none. Antennas with 17 moniliform joints. Sp. Cryptops Savignii LEACH, Scol. germanica PANZER u. HERRICH SCH.EFFER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 142, No. 2, &c. The species of this genus are distinguished, besides the absence of eyes, also by their much smaller size from those of the former1. GeopJiilus LEACH. Pairs of feet numerous, 40 and more. Body linear. Eyes none, antennas with 14 joints. Add sub-genera Mecistocepkalus, Necrophloeophagus, Gonibreg- matus NEWPORT, and some others formed by KOCH, Syst. der Myriapod. pp. 176 — 189. Comp. on this genus also, GERVAIS, GUERIN Magas. de Zoologie 1835 (with a figure of a large species from France, Geophilus WalkencerU), and NEWPORT, Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. 1842, pp. 178 — i8r. Sp. Scolo- pendra flava DE GEER, Ins. vn. PI. 35, figs. 1 7 — 20, Geophil. longicomis LEACH, PANZER u. HERRICH SCHJSFFER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 142, No. 5. Of this species TREVIRANUS has given an anatomy, Verm. Schr. n. s. 33-38. 1 Here also belongs the genus Scolopendropsis BRANDT, that appears to differ from Cryptopt only by having two segments more. 298 CLASS vnr. The phosphoric light which some species diffuse (Scol. dectrica phos- phorea) is to be ascribed to a fluid that passes upon the skin from open- ings similar to those in the Julidce (Waga). Numerous observations are recorded that myriapods of this division, after having caused lingering head-ache, have been sneezed forth by men from the nose (F. TIEDEMANN, Von lebenden Wurmem u. Insekten in den Geruchsorganen des Menschen, Mannheim, 1844, 8vo, s. n — 17, to which examples many others may be added). To reject the observations, is certainly more easy than to explain the continued life of these insects in such an unusual situation. Scolopendrella GERV. Antennae with twenty joints, moniliform. Ocelli two. Segments of the body sixteen. Mouth not chelate, suctorial. Habit of Geophylus. Comp. Ann. des Sc. nat. troisienie Ser. Zool. Tom. n. p. 79, 8vo, PL 5, figs. 15, 16. Is this its place? Are the sucking Scolopendrce to be com- pared with the Siphonizantia chilognatha BRANDT ? SECTION II. Hexapoda. Feet six. Thorax separate from the abdomen. ORDER II. Thysanura. Hexapod, apterous, not undergoing metamorphosis, not para- sitic. (Mouth with mandibles and maxillae. Two groups of simple eyes. Setas or a bifid tail in most at the end of the body). Ovadvovpoi from 6v 3- Phalanx I. Nycteribiidce. Head small, placed at the upper part of the thorax like an obconical tubercle. Thorax semi-^ orbicular. Wings and poisers none. Feet long, with first joint of tarsus very long, and last supplied with two claws incurved, den- tigerous at the base, and with two oval appendages. Nycteribia LATR. Sp. Nycteribia vespertilionis, Acarw vespertilionis L., Phtkiridhon rcxperii- lionis HEBM., M€m. apterol. PL v. fig. i ; Nftdcribia LntrciUii Wi> 313 LATKI:II,U: ///Jrf. not. d. Crust,, et dot Ins. Tom. xiv. 1*1.97, f. n, :mi.. Physik, Bd. xvi. 1876, 4. s. 436). Comp. on this genus J. O. WESTWOOD, Transact, of Zooloy. Soc. I. 1835, 4to, pp. 275 — 794. PI. 36. All the Hpcrii'H of this ^enus live on ImtS. II. HippoboscidcB (Coriacea LATR.) Head received in the (DIM r-inate thorax. Wings divaricate or incumbent, in some vi i v small or none. Last joint of tarsus the longest of all. Braula NiTZSCH. Eyes and ocelli none. Wings none. Sp. Braula cceca NITZSCH, GEBMAB Mayaz. der Entom. in. pp. 314, 315; AHBENS, Faun. Ins. Europ. Fasc. vi. Tab. 75 ; B£AUM. Mtm. v. PI. 38, figs, i — 4 ; this small insect lives parasitically on bees ; the metamorphosis is unknown. Is this its place ? M<',/f>j,/i'ila NITZSCH, Mdophayus LATR. Eyes small, ocelli none. YV i 1 1 ii-s JIM « 1 poisers none. Sp. Md.njiJii.lii, ovina, Hippobosca ovma L., FBISCH, Beschreib. vonallerl. Ing. v. H. 40. 4. Tab. 18; PANZEB, Deuttchl. Int. Heft 51, 14; GUBLT, Mayaz. f. d,. t/rmmmt. Thierheilk. 1843, IX- Tab. i, fig. 15. The sheep-louse is a wingless fly ; RAMDOHB has given a description and figure of its digestive organs ; and LYONNET in his posthumous works a careful and elaborate pic- ture of its structure, especially as concerns the external parts ; Recherche* gur I'Anatomie et let me'tamorph. &c. pp. i — 77, PL i — 3. There are two small oblong eyes each consisting of a hundred round fagettes remote from each other, (groups of simple eyes ?) Sub-genus Lipoptena NITZSCH., (Spec, of Melophagm LATR., MEIG.) differs from the preceding by very short rudiments of wings, by distinct poisers, by moderate eyes. Sp. Pediculus cervi L., FABB., PANZEB, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 51, Tab. 15. Omithomyia LATR., NITZSCH. (Spec, of Hippobosca L., and Eyes distinct; ocelli usually three in vertex. Wings distinct. Tarsi with tridentate claws. Snl)-genera: Anapera MEIG. (Oxypterum LEACH.) Eyes none, short, acuminate. Stenopteryx LEACH, MEIG. With three ocelli, wings very narrow, longer than the abdomen. Omithomyia LEACH, MEIG. With three ocelli, wings incumbent, 314 CLASS VIII. Sp. Ornithomyia hirundinis, Hippol. hirundinis L., Stenopt. hirundinis LEACH, MEIG., GUKKPN Iconogr., Insect. PI. 104, fig. 7 : on the common Swift, Cypselus murarius. Strebla WIEDEM ANN. Eyes very small, triangular. Ocelli 1 Wings incumbent, ro tun date, longer than the abdomen, with parallel veins. Sp. Strebla vespertilionis WIEDEM., Aussereurop. ziueiflug. Ins. u. Tab. x. fig. 13 ; on a bat of South America. Hippobosca LATR. Nirmomyia NlTZSCH. (Species of Hippobosca L.) Eyes distinct, large ; ocelli none. Wings parallel, incumbent, obtuse, multinervose. Tarsi with bidentate claws. Sp. Hippobosca equina L., Cuv. R. Ani. ed. illustr., Ins. PI. 182, fig. i; PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Fasc. 7, Tab. 23 ; GURLT, Magaz. f. d. gesammt. ThierJieilk. IX. Tab. I, figs. 13, 14; mouche Bretonne, mouche d'Espagne, Pferde-laus, Forest-fly ; thorax dark-brown, spotted with yellow ; abdomen brown-grey, hairy. This species sucks the blood of horses, and attaches itself especially to the belly and the inside of the hind legs. If we were told that a bird laid an egg that produced a young one as large as the mother, we should think the account fabulous and ridiculous ; the fabulous part would not be diminished were the bird ever so small or even a winged insect. Of this insect however the story is accurately true. Let the reader consult the beautiful and circumstantial natural history of this fly which REAUMUR has recorded. M&n. pour servir a I' Hist, des Ins. vi. pp. 569—608. PL 48. Sub-genus Olfersia WIEDEM. (Feronia LEACH.) Family X. Athericera. Antennae with two joints or three, the last undivided, and presenting the form of a patella or capitulum, and in most supplied with a seta or spicate appendage. Proboscis retractile or slightly prominent, with haustellum composed mostly of two, sometimes of four seta ; in some the mouth is closed, with tubercles in place of proboscis. Pupa coarctate. The name Athericera (from adrjp, spica, arista), aristate or awned antennae, expresses the character by which this family of Diptera is distinguished. The larva has in this and the following family a soft, ringed, somewhat conical, anteriorly pointed body. Progression is effected by extension and contraction of the body, whose form is very variable. On the whole the larva does not change its skin, and has no feet ; in that of Helophilus and Eristalis alone are there seven pairs of membranous feet provided with small hooks, on the body beneath, which is the only example of such appendages in this INSECTA. 315 order1. The most have no proper head, but a very moveable mouth well adapted for extension, and two horny hooks curved downwards. The skin of the larva when it changes to a pupa is not cast, but becomes hard, and is changed into the covering of the pupa ; the anterior extremity becomes thicker and rounder, and the whole recalls the form of an oval keg. The perfect insect, by moving its head, which is extended forward like a bladder, breaks this shell at its upper extremity, whilst a piece of it springs open like a lid. Few genera of this family are in the perfect state carnivorous, most of them living on flowers and plants. Phalanx I. Proboscis in some very short, in others none, in place of proboscis and palps three tubercles ( (Estrus L.) Larva? parasitic, some living beneath the skin, others in the frontal sinuses, or in the intestinal canal of mammalia. a) Proboscis small. Genera : Cephenemyia LATE., Cuterebra CLAKK, LATE., Trypo- derma WIEDEMANN. b) Proboscis none. Genera : Hypoderma CLAEK, ((Estrus MEIG.), (Edemagena CLAEK, Cephalemyia CLAEK, Colax WIEDEM., (Estrus CLAEK, (Gastrus MEIG.) Note. — Antennae triarticulate, with seta naked in most, in Cute- rebra plumose. Gastrus MEIG. differs from (Estrus MEIG. by the naked poisers, and wings without a transverse nervure at the apex. Comp. CLAKK, Observ. on the genus (Estrus, Trans, of the Linn. Soc. in. 1796, p. 289, &c. ; the same, An Essay on the Bots of Horses, &c., London, 1815, 4to, with fig. ; the same, On the Insects called Oistros by the Ancients, Trans. Linn. Soc. xix. -2. 1843, PP- 81 — 94. A. NUMAN Waarnemingen omtrent de horzelmasTcers, welke in de maag van het paard huisvesten, Amsterdam, 1834, 4to, mit pi. J. L. C. SCHBCEDEK VAN DEE KOLK, Memoire sur I'Anatomie et laPhysiol. du Gastrus equi} Amsterdam, 1845, av. pi. Sp. (Estrus equi FABR., Gastrus equi MEIG., GUERIN, Iconogr., Ins. PI. 101, fig. 5, CLAKK, Essay on the Bols, PI. i. figs. 13, 14, (LINN.EUS described this species under the name of (Estrus Bovis). About 5 lines long, body 1 In these BOUCHE has frequently observed a moulting ; Beitriige zur InseldenTcunde, in Nov. Act. Acad. Gees. L. Car. Tom. xvn. i. 1835, p. 498. 316 CLASS VIII. hairy, yellow, thorax in the middle black, wings with a brown-grey, trans- verse stripe in the middle and two similar spots at the point ; the female has a long black ovipositor at the end of the abdomen. This fly lays her yellow eggs in various situations on the hair of the horse, to which they remain firmly attached by a glutinous fluid. The young larvae come from the eggs, which spring open by a lid, as very long and active little worms, and are conveyed by the lick of the horse's tongue into his mouth and gullet (with respect to those eggs which lie beyond the reach of the tongue, we may suppose, with NUMAN, that the larvae themselves creep to other situations nearer the head). Subsequently the larvae live in the stomach of the horse, to which they have become attached in very great numbers (several hundreds at once). Here they remain several months, from spring till the beginning or middle of summer, then are detached, being expelled with the excrement, and change into pupae, from which, after about five weeks, the perfect insect comes to view. This species is found in the horse and ass ; besides these, and sometimes simultaneously with them, larvae also of other species (Gaslrus hcemorrhoidalis for instance) live in the same resort ; the larvae of this last species are smaller and deep red ; see NUMAN, PL n. fig. i. (Eslrus JowsFABR., MEIG., GUERIN, Iconogr., Ins. PL ioi,fig. 3, CLARK, 1. 1. PI. n. figs. 8, 9, Cuv. R. An., ed. ill., Ins. PL 176, fig. 2. The larva of this species lives under the skin of the bullock ; that of (Estrus (Cephale- myia) ovis L., GUERIN, Icon. Ins. PL 101, fig. 4, MEIGEN, Syst. Beschr. iv. PL 38, fig, 1 6, lives in the frontal sinuses of the sheep1. Phalanx II. Proboscis distinct. Two setae of haustellum. A. Muscarice (species from genus Musca L.) Proboscis distinct, membranous, retractile, bilabiate at the point. Though the Fly genus (Musca), thus defined, be much smaller than that of LINNAEUS, it is still a very extensive group, in which the moderns distinguish many genera. Here may be compared ROBINEAU DESVOIDY, Essai sur les Myodaires, Mem. presentes a FAcad. des Sc. de Ulnstitut de France, Tom. n. 1830, 4 to. 1 A species is spoken of in man: (Estrus hominis (GMEL., Syst. nat. Ed. 13, I. p. 2811) ; comp. KIRBY and SPENCE, Introduc. to Entomol. I. pp, 136, 137. Of later observations ISID. GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE has given an account in the Ann. de la Soc. Entom. n. p. 518. That larvae of (Estrus bovis and of other Diptera may sometimes live under the skin of man is probable from some observations ; a few years ago an insect was shewn me that had come out of a boil under the skin in a girl, it was the pupa of a dipterum, and agreed very well with that of (Estrus. A larva which in many respects resembled that of a Tachina, but yet differed from all the species of larvae of Diptera yet known, was observed by Dr SMITT ; this larva was pressed from a boil on the head of a girl 63 years old ; see J. J. SMITT and C. J. SONDEVALL, Veterslc. Alcad, Handlingar, Stockholm, 1840, pp. 63 — 68. INSECTA. 317 *Palps external. Nervures of wings longitudinal only, none transverse. Phora LATR., MEIG. (previously Trineura MEIG.) Antennae inserted at the margin of the mouth, with elongate simple seta. Posterior feet elongate. Wings rotundate, ciliate, with two thick nervures at the outer margin, and three or four others nearly parallel, running obliquely from the second marginal nervure to the posterior margin of the wing. Poisers naked. Fig. MEIGEN, Europ. zweif. Ins. vi. Tab. 63, figs, i — 13 ; GUERIN, Iconogr., Ins., PI. 104, figs. 3, &c. Add sub-genera : Gymnopliora, MACQ. and Conicera MEIG. **Palps inserted in the proboscis, retractile and capable of being concealed with it. Nervures of wings longitudinal and trans- verse. Antennas inserted in the frons. a) First posterior cellule of the wings open, transverse apical nervure none. * Poisers naked. 1) Squamse of the poisers small or none. Head elongato-globose or broad, transverse, with eyes remote. Tetanocera DUMEE., LATE., MEIG. Antennas longer than the head, with second joint longest. Sepedon LATE., MEIG., Baccha FABR. Thecomyia PERTY., MACQ. Loxocera MEIG., LATE. Antennse oblique, with third joint longest. Abdomen elongate, sexannulate. Sp. Loxocera icJineumonea, Musca ichneumonea L., PANZER, Deutsdd. Insect., Heft 73, Tab. 24, SOHELLENBERG, Tab. 7 &c. Sub-genus : Platystyla MACQ. Condylura FALL., MEIG., LATE. Antennae shorter than head. Abdomen sexannulate, in males clavate at the apex. a) Seta of antennae plumose. Sub-genera: Lissa MEIG., Merodina MACQ., Tetanura FALL., Chyliza FALL., Cordylura MACQ. 318 CLASS VIII. ((3) Seta of antennae simple (naked or pubescent). Sub-genera: Cleigastra MACQ., Myopina ROBIN., MACQ.' (species from genus Goenosia MEIG.) Scatophaga MEIG., LATE., Scatomyza FALL. Antennas shorter than head. Head barbate beneath. Abdomen quinqueannulate. Wings incumbent, parallel, extending far beyond abdomen. Add sub-genera : Dryomyza FALL., Sapromyza FALL., MEIG., Toxoneura MACQ., Sciomyza FALL., Lucina MEIG., Helomyza FALL., Blephariptera MACQ., Heteromyza FALL. Sp. Scatopkaga stercoraria, Musca stercoraria L., CUVIER, R. Ani. 3d. ill., Ins. PI. 178 bis, fig. 10, REAUMUR, Hist. nat. des Ins. iv. PL 27, figs. 1—7 &c. Comp. J. W. ZETTEESTEDT, Monographia Scatophagarum Scandinavia1, Ann. de la Soc. Entomol. iv. 1835, pp. 175 — 189, Tab. iv. B. Psilomyia LATR. (Psila MEIG.) Add sub-genera : Oxygma MEIG., Trigonometopus MACQ., (species from genus Tetanocera MEIG.,) Eurina MEIG., Tetanops FALL., Pyrgota WIEDEM., Otites LATR., MACQ., PlatycepJiala FALL., Dorycera MEIG. Ortalis FALL., MEIG. Sub-genera: Herina, ROBIN., MACQ. (Richardia ROBIN., and Eevellia ROBIN.,) Ceroxys MACQ., Cleitamia MACQ., Ametliysa MACQ., Notacanthina MACQ., RopaloTnera WIEDEM., Eurypalpus MACQ., Platystoma LATR., Loxoneura, MACQ. Trypeta MEIG., Tephritis LATR., FABR. Add sub-genera: Ensina, Acinia, Terellia and Urophora ROBIN., Petalophora, Senopterina and Leptoxyda MACQ., Bactrocera, GUER., Dacus MEIG. Sp. Trypeta Arctii MEIG., DE GEEK, Ins. vi. Tab. 2, figs. 6—14, PANZER, Deutschl. Ins., Heft 103, Tab. 22 ; yellow-green body with yellow-brown feet ; wings with four transverse brown stripes, which at the external or anterior margin of the wings are united two and two. The larva lives in the flowers and seeds of Arctium Lappa and other Synantherece j each peri- carp holds only a single larva, which is placed in it head downwards. Other species live in excrescences (like those of gall-nuts) on thistles. The species of this genus are very numerous. The head is broad ; the abdomen has five segments, and ends in the female in an ovipositor extended to a point. The wings during life are mostly in a quivering motion and erect ; they are usually spotted or striped with darker bands. INSECTA. 319 Sepsis FALL., MEIG. (Cephalia MEIG.) Antennge shorter than head. Head elongate. Eyes rotund. Abdomen quadriannulate, narrow. Wings erect, vibrating. Sub-genera: Chelig aster MACQ., Nemopoda ROBIN., Michogaster MACQ. Diopsis L. Eyes very remote, the head being produced on both sides into a transverse petiole, oculiferous at its apex, and before the apex antenniferous. Antennae short, with three joints, the last suborbicular with a long naked seta. Scutellum bispinose, two or four other spines at the sides of the thorax. Comp. A. DAHL, prseside C. LINN.EO Bigce Insectorum 1775, Amcenitates Acad. vui. p. 303. PI. vi. figs, i — 5 (reprinted in FUESSLY, Archives de I'Hist. des Ins. pp. 19, 20, Tab. 6); DALMAN, Act. Holm. 1817, Analect. Entomol. No. i. (OKEN'S Isis 1820) ; J. O. WESTWOOD, On Diopsis, Trans. Linn. Soc. xvni. 1835, pp. 283 — 312, pi. See also figures of two species of this genus in GUERIN, Iconogr., Ins. pi. 103, figs. 8, 9. LINN^US described only one species of Diopsis (Diops. ickneumonea), now about twenty are known. They are all exotic and from the old world (west coast of Africa, India, Java) ; Diopsis brevicornis SAY, WIEDEM., a species from Pennsylvania, seems not to belong to this genus. According to WESTWOOD there are four setae in the sucker in Diopsis Sykesii, as in Syrphus. These small *lies by their pediculated eyes remind us of Podophtkal- mus LATE., amongst the Crustacea, and of Zygcena, amongst the fishes. Calobata MEIG., Micropeza LATE. Micropeza FALL., Calobata LATE. Tanypeza FALL., Tceniaptera MACQ., Nerius FABE., WIEDEM. Longina WIEDEM. Antennae longer than head, with first joint longest. Thyreophora LATE,, MEIG. Actora MEIG. Ccelopa MEIG., (Psalidomyia DOUMEEC). Comp. DOUMERC, Mtm. sur le Psalydomyia fucicola, diptdre vivant sur les lords de la mer, Ann. de la Soc. Entom. IT. 1833, PP- 89 — 93. The male has at the abdomen a forceps almost like that of the Forficulce, but with obtuse and hairy points. Ulidia MEIG., Mosillus LATE. Gymnopoda, MACQ., Lipara MEIG., Timia MEIG. 320 CLASS VIII. Lauxawia LATK. Pachycerina MACQ., Lonchcea FALL., MEIG., Teremyia MACQ., Pterodontia GEAY. Cdyphus DALM. Antennae of the length of the head. Scutel- lum convex, entirely covering the abdomen. Notiphila FALL., MEIG. Ochthera LATH., Dryxo ROBIN., Dichceta MEIG., Hydrellia ROBIN., Discocerina MACQ., Trimerina MACQ., Discomyza MEIG., Coenia ROBIN. Piophila FALL., MEIG. Trichomyza MACQ., Ephydra FALL., MEIG., Anisophysa MACQ., Ochthiphila FALL., Campichceta MACQ., Gitona MEIG., Drosophila FALL., Stegana MEIG., Diastata MEIG., Leptopezina MACQ., Opomyza FALL., MEIG., (Geomyza FALL.,) Graphomyzina MACQ. Sphcerocera LATR., JBorborus MEIG. Ceroptera MACQ., Crumomyia MACQ., Heteroptera MACQ., Limosina MACQ., Apterina MACQ., (wings none). Sp. Borborus pedestris MEIG. Europ. zweifl. Ins. vi. PL 62, fig. 21, two lines long, brilliant black, wingless ; this curious insect was discovered by V. WINTHEM near Hamburg. Oscinis LATR., FABR., Chlorops MEIG. Diasema MACQ., Aulacigaster MACQ., Leptomyza MACQ., Leucopis MEIG., MUichia MEIG., Gymnopa FALL., MEIG., Siphonella MACQ., Homalura MEIG., Cnemacantha MEIG., Heteroneura FALL., MEIG., Therina MEIG., Meromyza MEIG., Chlorops MEIG., MACQ., Oscinis LATR., MACQ., Leiomyza MACQ., Agromyza FALL., MEIG., Phyllomyza FALL., Asteia MEIG., Elachiptera MACQ., Myrmemorpha DUFOUR. 2) Squamae of poisers small or moderate. Head sub-globose, with eyes in males (sometimes in both sexes) approximate. (Abdo- men quadriannulate). Seta of antennae inarticulate, often plumose (Anthomyidce). Ccenosia MEIG. Eyes distant, especially in females. Abdomen of male clavate at apex. Wings incumbent. INSECTA. 321 Anihomyia MEIG. Eyes in each sex, or in males, approximate, in last more frequently contiguous. Wings divaricate or incum- bent. Sp. Anthomyla pluvialis, Musca pluvialis L., Gu^RiN Iconogr, Ins. PL 102, figs. 9, &c. A very numerous genus. Sub-genera : Aricia ROBIN., Spilog aster MACQ., Hydrophoria ROBIN., Hylemyia ROBIN., Chortophila MACQ., Atomogaster MACQ., Eriphia MEIG. (with eyes contiguous in male). Drymeia MEIG. Lips of proboscis elongate, inflexed, forming a terminal hamate capitulum. Sp. Drymeia obscura, Musca hamata PALL., MEIG. Europ. Zweifl. Ins. v. Tab. 44, figs. 10—13. ** Poisers obtect. Lispe MEIG. Wings incumbent. Abdomen quadriannulate, oval. Palps dilated at apex, cochleariform. (Habitus of Antho- myia. Seta of antennas plumose. Eyes distant). 6) Wings with a transverse apical nervure, closing the first posterior cellule completely or for the most part. Poisers covered with large squamae. Seta of antennae with two joints or three (Creophilce LATE.) Abdomen mostly quadriannulate. Wings often divaricate. 1) Seta of antennce plumose. Idia MEIO., WIEDEM. Head produced beneath into a rostrum above the proboscis. AcJiias FABR. Head transverse, produced on both sides into a thick oculiferous peduncle. Antennae short, inserted in the frons. Sp. Achias oculatus FABR., Syst. antliator. p. 247, GUERIN, Magas. de Zool. i. 1831, Ins. PI. 7, CUVIER.R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 178, fig. 3, Java, and some other smaller species, on which comp. C. B. G. WIEDEMANN, Achias, Dipterorum genus iUustratum novisque speciebus auctum, cum Tab. 2 lithogr. Kiliae Holsatorum, 1830, 8vo. This genus is distinguished from Diopsis by many characters, by the position of the antennae, and by the habitus. Musca nob. (Spec, of genus Musca L.) Head globose, not produced either anteriorly or transversely. a) Feet moderate. Seta of antennce plumose to the apex. Sub-genera; Curtoneura MACQ., Mesembrina MEIG., Pollenia MACQ., (Pollenia ROBIN, and Ntiellia KOBIN.), Musca MACQ., Calli- VOL. I. 21 322 CLASS vin. phora MACQ., (Calliphora KOBIN., Mufetia and Melinda ROBIN.), Lucilia MACQ., (Lucilia KOBIN., Phormia and Pyrellia ROBIN.), Ochromyia MACQ. Z>) Feet moderate. Seta of antennce naked at the apex. Sub-genera : Onesia ROBIN., Cynomyia ROBIN., Agria ROBIN., MACQ. (Agria, Gesneria, Clyto ROBIN.), Sarcophaga MEIG., Phrisso- podia MACQ. c) Feet elongate. Sub-genera : Dexia MEIG., Prosena SATNT-FARGEAU and SERV., Diner a ROBIN., Scotiptera MACQ., Rutilia ROBIN. To the division a) the common house-fly Musca domestica L., belongs, SCHELLEN. Tab. i., J. C. KELLER Geschichte der germeinem Stuben-fliege, mit 4 Kupfertafeln. Niirnberg, 1764, 4to. The larvae live especially in horse-dung, and these insects are only found in the neighbourhood of human habitations. In a month's time one generation succeeds another, for the larva is full grown in fourteen days ; the fly also after fourteen days comes from the pupa, and the egg has only to lie a single day before the young maggot creeps out. Hence it is that they multiply so astonishingly, and that in warm summers, especially at the beginning of autumn, they may prove so numerous. In the open country and on the roads various species of fly are met with of the same size, which are usually confounded with them, as Musca corvina FABR., PANZER Deutschl. Ins., Heft 60, Tab. 13, Musca nigripes male, Heft 105, Tab. 13, Musca ludifica fern. Also the unspotted, gold-green glistering Musca ccesar L., the blue flesh-fly Musca vomitoria, L., (Calliphora fulvibarUs ROBIN.), ROES. Ins. n. Mus. et Culic. Tabs. ix. x., PANZER Deutschl. Ins. Heft x. Tab. 19, which has a shining blue abdomen with black stripes, the head black with red-brown palps. This fly has a fine sense of smell, and readily penetrates into houses in summer to lay its eggs on meat in kitchens and larders. The same applies to those belonging to the Division 6) Musca carnaria L., (Sarcophaga carnaria MEIG.,) REAUM. Ins. iv. Tab. 28, figs. 2, 8, DE GEER Ins. vi. Tab. 3, figs. 5—18, Cuv. JR. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 178, fig. 2 ; still larger than the former, abdomen grey with black spots ; black antennae and palps. It has been estimated that the progeny of a single female of this species may in one summer amount to more than 500 millions of flies l. 2) Seta of antennce downy or naked MEIG. (Species of TJiereva FABR.) 1 MEIGEN Syst. Besch. der Eur. Zweiflug. Ins. v. s. «i, " Hatte die Natur also Keine mdchtigwirkenden Gegenanstalten zur Vertilgung getroffen . ... so wilrde dieset Herr den Menschen wohl wenig Fkisch ubrig lassen, und die Fastentage wlirden stets an der Tagesordnung seint" INSECTA. 323 Phasia LATE. Antennae short, the third joint a little longer than the second. Abdomen depressed, downy, quinqueannulate. Wings divaricate, broad, often coloured, thickish. Fig. SCHELLENB. Tab. n. fig. i ; GUE*R. Iconogr. Ins. PI. 102, fig. 4. Sub-genera : Hyalomyia, Alophora, Elomyia ROBIN. Tmchopoda LATH. Xysta MEIG. Antennae short, two last joints sub-equal. Abdo- men convex, oval with five rings or six, pubescent or sub-nude. Wings lanceolate, divaricate. Gymnosoma MEIG. Antennae moderate, with two last joints sub-equal. Abdomen quadriannulate, globose, sub-nude. Sub-genera : Cistogaster LATR., Strongygaster MACQ. Ocyptera LATR. Antennae moderate, with third joint longer than second, linear, compressed. Abdomen elongate, subsetose, quadriannulate. Phania MEIG. Antennae moderate, third joint elongate, linear, compressed. Abdomen oval, subsetose, quadriannulate, inflexed towards the extremity. Lophosia MEIG. Antennae moderate, third joint the largest, compressed, obtrigonal. Abdomen cylindrical, quadriannulate, subsetose. Curtocera MACQ. Tachina MEIG., Echinomyia DUMER. Antennae moderate or short, with second joint often long, sometimes exceeding the third ; triarticulate seta at the base of the third joint. Abdomen conical or oval, quadriannulate, setose. A numerous genus, which beyond any other gives us an idea of the inexhaustible riches of nature in the forms and modifications of animal organisation. MEIGEN counts more than three hundred species which are found in Europe, and of the foreign species, yet known so fragmentarily, still more than a hundred have been described. In some, as for instance in Tachina grossa, the second joint of the antennae is much larger than the last (see DE GEER Ins. vi. PI. I. fig. 2) ; to such species LATREILLE applies exclusively the name of Echinomyia, to which accordingly Tachina, larvarum does not belong, and which only answers to a small part of the Tachina; of MEIGEN. 21—2 324 CLASS viu. The larvae of these flies live parasitically in other insects, many species in caterpillars, and, with the ichneumons, are the most serviceable in pre- serving a balance in the economy of nature, by restraining the excessive multiplication of noxious insects. Many are viviparous. Comp. C. TH. VON SIEBOLD, Ueber die u-eiUiche Gescldecktsorgane der Tachinen, WIKG- MANN'S Archiv f. Naturgcsch. 1838, s. 191 — 201. Some larvse leave the insect in which they live before changing into pupae. Sp. Tachinafcra,Muscafera~L., PANZER Deutschl. Ins. Heft 20, Tab. 18, &c. Sub-genera : Echinomyia DUMER., LATR., MACQ., Micropalpus MACQ., Thryptocera MACQ., Trixa MEIG., Nemorcea ROBIN., MACQ., Senometopia MACQ., Eurig aster MACQ., Masicera MACQ., Metopia (MEIG. previously) MACQ., Lydella ROBIN., MACQ., Tachina MACQ. Chrysosoma MACQ., Clysia ROBIN., Myobia ROBIN., MACQ., (Hebia, Melia, Myobia ROBIN.), Zophomyia MACQ., Cassidcemyia, MACQ., Sericocera ROBIN., MACQ., Philocera ROBIN., Melanophora (MEIG. previously) MACQ. Gonia MEIG. Antennae with third joint elongate, surpassing the two preceding taken together. Seta of antennae triarticulate, geni- culate. Miltogramma MEIG. Antennae with third joint elongate, sur- passing the two preceding taken together. Seta of antennae biarti- culate, straight. Abdomen oval or conical, in some not setose, downy. To this genus the observations of C. TH. VON SIEBOLD refer (Observ. quced. entomologicce de Oxybelo uniglume atque Miltogramma conica. Erlangae, 1841, 4 to) ; the female of Oxybelus uniglumis, a species of hymenopterum, digs for each of her eggs a hole in sandy ground, and deposits near it some flies, her booty. In this work she is watched and followed by Miltogramma conica, which lurks near the entrance of the hole for an opportunity to slip in with her as she enters, and to fix some young larvse on the booty, which afterwards penetrate from it into the larva of Oxybelus; the reason why the Oxybelus does not drag this Miltogramma itself into the hole as food for the larva of her egg, is readily explained by this dipterum being viviparous, for then she would have drawn in the Trojan horse ; and hence these Tachinarice are avoided. LEPELETIER DE SAINT-FABGEAU has made similar observations as well on Oxybelus as on Cerceris; Hist. Nat. des Hymen. 1841, n. pp. 567, 568, 573. B.} Conopsarice. Proboscis exsert, in most filiform, in some cylindrical or conical. * Wings imperfect, very short, unfit for flying. Carnus NITZSCH. INSECTA. 325 Sp. Carnus hemapterus NITZSCH, GERMAR Magaz. dcr Entomol. m. pp. 305 — 307, E. F. GERMAR Faun. Inseclor. Europ. Fasc. ix. Tab. 24, 25. An animalcule about the size of a flea ; it lives parasitically on Sturnus vulgaris. Abdomen is broader in the female, and terminated by an exsert style. ft Wings adapted for flying. Stomoxys GEOFFR., FABR. Antennae shorter than head, tri- articulate, with third joint longer than rest, compressed, with dorsal seta. Proboscis exsert, geniculate. Abdomen oval, quadri- annulate. Wings divaricate. Bucentes LATR., Siphona MEIG. Seta of antennae triarticulate, naked or downy at the apex. Proboscis geniculate at the base and the middle. The larvas of this genus live, like those of the Tachinse, parasitically, in caterpillars; DE GEER Ins. VI. pp. 38, 39; Mouche coudee, PI. 2, figs. 19—23. tSto'moxys MEIG., LATR. Seta of antennae biarticulate, naked or plumose. Proboscis horizontal, geniculate at the base alone. Sp. Stomoxys calcitrans, Conops calcitrans L., GEOFFROY Ins. Paris, II. Tab. xvin. fig. i, SCHELLENBERG, PI. 17, fig. i, GuERiN Iconogr. Ins., PL 101, fig. 8 ; grey, with abdomen spotted black. This fly fixes itself on the legs of cattle, and in rainy weather, especially at the end of summer, enters our houses and attacks our legs ; the uninitiated fancy that the house-flies are then pricking, and so confound this species with Musca domestica. Myopa FABR. Antennae shorter than head, with second joint longer, or second and third sub-equal, the third ovate or globose, stylate at the back. Proboscis exsert, geniculate. Abdomen elongate, inflected downwards. Wings parallel, incumbent. Ocelli three. Zodion LATR. Proboscis geniculate at the base alone. Myopa LATR. Proboscis geniculate at the base and the middle. Add sub-genera : Stachynia MACQ. (Dalmannia EOBIK), Stylo- gaster MACQ. Conops L., (exclusive of species). Antennas porrect, of length of head, with first joint cylindrical, second and third forming a fusiform club. Style of antenna apical, biarticulate. Proboscis exsert, geniculate at the base. Abdomen elongate, sexannulate, inflected. Wings parallel, incumbent. Ocelli none. 326 CLASS viii. Sp. Conops flavipes L., DUM£R. Consid. ggn. «. I. Ins. PI. 46, fig. 4, PANZER Deutschl. Ins., Heft 73, Tabs. 21, 22, &c. Phalanx III. Proboscis distinct, bilabiate at apex. Four I setae of haustellum, an upper (labrum) fornicate, emarginate at the [ extremity, two lateral (maxillce) linear, supplied with a palp j incrassated towards the extremity. Syrphidce. These diptera, which for the most part were placed by LINN^US in his genus Musca , form the genus Syrphus FABR., and numerous small genera of more modern writers. A. Antennae of the length of the head, or longer than the head, t Antennce with apical style. Ceria FABR. Antennae inserted on a common frontal pedicle. Abdomen cylindrical. Callicera MEIG., LATE. Antennse inserted on a common tubercle. Abdomen conical. tt Antennae with dorsal seta. Psarus LATR., FABR., MEIG. Antennae inserted on a common frontal pedicle. Chrysotoxum MEIG., LATR. Antennae inserted on a conical frontal tubercle. Scutellum unarmed. Wings divaricate. Sp. Chrysotoxum arcuatum, Musca arcuata L., GuiaRiN Iconogr., Ins. PI. 99, figs. 6, &c. Ceratophya WIEDEM. Microdon MEIG., Aphritis LATR. Antennae inserted on a small frontal tubercle, little distinct, with first joint elongate, cylindrical. Scutellum bidentate. Sp. Microd. apiformis, Musca apiformis DE GEER, GU£RIN Iconogr. Ins. PI. 100, fig. i ; Micr. mutabilis, Musca mutabilis auctor. (in part) ; the larva of this species is, according to the investigations of SCHLOTHAUSER, the same animal which VON SPIX and VON HEIJDEN have described as a slug, under the name of Scutelligera and Parmula, OKEN's/m, 1840, s. 922, 923. Paragus LATR., METG. Antennae inserted on the frons, approxi- mate, of the length of the head. Abdomen elongato-quadrate, depressed. Wings parallel, incumbent. Sp. Paragus bicolor, Syrphus bicolor FABR., GU^RIN, Iconogr. Ins. PI. 99, figs. 5, &c. INSECTA. 327 B. Antennae shorter than head. t Proboscis moderate. a) Wings congruous, parallel, incumbent. Milesia LATR., FABR. Antennas with naked dorsal seta. Nasal tubercle none. Abdomen mostly elongate, narrow. Eumerus nob. (JSumerus MEIG., Xylota ejusd., Ascia ejusd., Sphegina ejusd., Merodon ejusd.) Hinder thighs incrassated, spinose beneath. Sp. Milesia (Xylota MEIG.) pipiens, Musca pipiens L., PANZER Deutschl. Ins. Heft 32, No. 29, SCHELLENBERG, Tab. x. figs. 3, &c. Milesia MEIG. (Pipiza, Psilota ejusd.) Feet simple; posterior thighs little or not at all thicker than anterior. Triglyphus LOEW. (OKEN'S Isis, 1840, p. 565.) Syrphus LATR. Antennas with dorsal seta naked or downy. Nasal tubercle. * With abdomen elongate, attenuate anteriorly, clubbed at the apex. Sub-genus : Baccha MEIG. * * With abdomen oval, depressed. Sub-genera : Chrysogaster MEIG., and Syrphus ejusd. Sp. Syrphus pyrastri, Musca pyrastri L., DUMERIL Cons. gen. s. 1. Ins. PI. 50, fig. 10 ; Syrph. ribesii, Musca ribesii L., Cuv. R. Ani. 3d. ill., Ins. PI. 174, figs. 6, &c. This pretty family of flies, mostly adorned with yellow transverse bands, often continue hovering in the air in the same place, moving their wings with very rapid vibrations, and producing a peculiar hum in a high note. Their larvae, conical and pointed forwards, feed on plant-lice. See GOED.ERDT Metamorphosis naturalis, Medioburgi, ismo, I. p. 99, Observ. 47, KEAUMUR Ins. in. PI. 30, &c. Note. — Sub-genus Platycheirus SAINT- FARG. and SERV., with anterior tarsi dilated in the male. Comp. STAGER in KROTER'S Naturhist. Tidsskr. IV. 1843, P- 32i. Sericomyia MEIG. Antennae with plumed dorsal seta. Nasal tubercle. b) Wings congruous, divaricate or deflected. Helophilus MEIG. (with the addition of several species of genus Eristalis ejusd. and Mallota ejusd.) Antennae with dorsal seta naked or downy. Abdomen oval or conical. 328 CLASS viii. Sp. Hdophilus tenax, Musca tenax L., PANZER Deutschl. Ins., Heft 14, Nos. 23, 24, SCHELLENBERG, Tab. 9, fig. i ; common with us towards autumn, and often mistaken by the uninformed for bees or wasps. The larva leaves its hiding place in August and September, to undergo its metamorphosis in chinks of walls. The body of the larva of this and of other species ends with a long tail ; hence the French name Vers a queue de rat; they live in cavities of stems of trees in which water is collected, in cesspools and necessaries, and breathe by this tail. See GOED^ERDT Melam. Nat. I. Observ. i, p. 20, Tab. ii. ; SWAMMERDAM Bijb. d. Natuur. pp. 644 — 646, Tab. 38, fig. 9 ; REAUMUR Ins. iv. PI. 20, &c. Volucella GEOFFR. Syrphus FABR. Antennas with dorsal seta plumed, mostly long. Abdomen oval or conical, thick, hirsute. Sp. Volucella intricaria, Syrphus intricarius (and Syrph. bombyliformis FABR.), Musca intricaria L., PANZER Deutschl. Ins., Heft 59, Nos. n, 12, &c. The larva of one species, of which the metamorphosis is known, lives in the nests of Bombus, and feeds on its larvae ; this is Volucella zonaria, Syrphus inanis FABR., REAUMUR Insect. HI. pp. 482 — 485, PI. 33, figs. 15 — 19. The body of this larva is pointed before, broad behind, with six rays disposed in a semicircle. They are also found in wasps' nests. Pelicocera HOFFMANNSEGG, MEIG. Antennse with short dorsal seta, incrassate, triarticulate. c) Wings more than twice the length of the abdomen (incum- bent, parallel). Brachyopa HOFFMANNSEGG, MEIG. ft Proboscis elongate (of the length of head and thorax). Head porrect beneath into a conical beak. RJiingia SCOP., FABR. Wings incumbent, parallel. Sp. Rhingia rostrata, Conops rostrata L., PANZER Deutschl. Ins., Heft 87, No. 22, DUMER. Cons. gen. s. L Ins. PI. 47, fig. 7. Family XI. Tanystomata. Antennse mostly with three joints, the last setigerous. Proboscis exsert, containing an haustellum composed of four or six setae. Longbeaks. The larvae resemble oblong worms, and have no feet; they have ordinarily a horny and hard, others a soft head, but which is constantly provided with hooklets or retractile append- ages, of which they make use in gnawing or sucking their food. The most live underground. They moult before changing into INSECTA. 329 pupce ; the pupse are naked, and shew many parts of the perfect insect. LATREILLE, Cuv. R. Ani. sec. ed. v. p. 455. A. Setae of haustellum four. Phalanx I. Proboscis shorter, terminated by two large labia. Scenopinus LATR. Antennae triarticulate, with third joint elongate, sub-cylindrical, truncate, no seta. Wings incumbent, parallel. Sp. Scenopinus fenestralis, GUERIN Iconogr. Ins. PI. 96, figs. 8, &c. A genus of uncertain place. The larva of Scenopinus senilis which BOUCHE described, linear, supplied with few hairs, acuminate at both ends like the larva of Thereva, and the naked nymph (not a coarctate pupa), sufficiently prove the genus to differ from the division of the Muscat. Naturg. der Ins. 1834, Tab. IV. figs. 21, 23. Pipunculus LATE. Antennas triarticulate, the first joint the least, the third ovate, compressed, with erect seta at the base. Head globose. Wings large, incumbent, parallel. Platypeza MEIG. Antennse triarticulate, with third joint ovate, compressed, and a terminal seta. Head globose, with eyes in male contiguous. Wings large, parallel, incumbent. Hind feet thicker. The larvae live in Agarici. See the larva and pupa of Plat, holosericea figured by LEON DUFOUR, Ann. des Sc. nat. 2e Se*rie, xm. PI. in. figs. 24 — 26. Callomyia MEIG. Dolichopus LATR. Antennas with third joint triangular or ovate, and furnished with seta. Abdomen compressed, in males incurved at the apex. Wings incumbent, parallel. Feet long, slender. Sp. Dolichopus nobilitatus, &c. Sub-genera : Ammobates STANNIUS, Sybistroma MEIG., Rhapliium MEIG., Porphyrops MEIG., Medeterus FISCH. Comp. H. STANNIUS Die Europaischen Arten der zweiflugler Gattung Dolicho- pus, OKEN'S Isis, 1831, s. 28 — 68, s. 122 — 144, s. 248 — 271 ; STAGER Danske Dolichopoder, KROYEE'S TidssTcr. iv. 1843, PP- l — 44- Sub-genus: Ortochile LATR. Proboscis exsert, perpendicular, with palps acute, incumbent. Clinocera MEIG. Antennas porrect, triarticulate, with terminal incurved seta. Wings incumbent, parallel. Tarsi with three pulvilli. 330 CLASS VIII. Comp. MEIGEN, System. Be&chr. der eur. zweifl. Ins. n. p. 113, Tab. 16, figs. T— 4. Leptis FABR. Antennae porrect, with third joint setiferous. Palps exsert. Wings divaricate. Tarsi furnished with three pul- villi. Abdomen conical, elongate. Sp. Leptis scolopacea, Musca scolopacea L., SCHELLENB. Tab. 31, Fig. r, DUMER. Cons, gen, s. I. Ins. PL 48, figs, i, &c. The larva (BoucHE 1. 1. p. 44, Tab. IV. fig. i) lives under ground, and is long and conical. That of another species from France and the South of Europe, Leptis vermileo, Musca vermileo L., SCHELLENB., 1. 1. fig. -2, digs, like the larva of the Lion- ant, funnel-shaped pits in the sand to catch the insects that fall in. See REAUMUR M$m. de I'Acad. royale des Sc. de Paris, 1753, fig. 402, PL i ; DE GEER Ins. vi. pp. 168 — 183, PI. x ; EOMAND Ann. de la Soc. Entomol. ii. 1833, pp.498, 499, PI. 180. Sub-genera; Atherix MEIG., Psiolina ST^EG., ZETTERST. Thereva LATR., MEIG. (Bibio FABR.) Palps sheltered in the cavity of the mouth. Antennae porrect, of the length of the head, with third joint subulate or oblongo-conical, with a small biarticu- late terminal style. Wings divaricate. Abdomen conical, tomentose. Sp. TJiereva plebeia L., DUMER. Consid. gen. s. L Ins. PI. 48, fig. 2 ; Ther. anilis, Musca anilis L., PANZER Deutschl. Ins. Heft 5, Nos. 23, &c. Philocephala ZETTERST. Mydas FABR. (Midas WIEDEM.) Antennae longer than head, quinquearticulate, clavate. Wings incumbent. (Ocellus single, at least in some, frontal, transverse, situated between two exsert rugae.) Sp. Midas filata FABR., DUMER. Cons. gin. s. I. Ins. PL 48, fig. 8 ; Midas giganteus WIEDEM., Cuv. R. Ani. 3d. ill. Ins. PI. 172, fig. 2, both from South America. The species, with the exception of a few from Portugal, are all exotic and very large. Comp. WIEDEMANN, Nov. Act. Acad. C&s. Leop. Carol, xv. 2, pp. 19 — 56, Tab. n. — iv, 1831, WESTWOOD Arcana entomologica, i. 1841, p. 49, PL 13, 14. Respecting the place of this genus in the natural arrangement there are different opinions. According to the observations of HARRIS, the larva and pupa agree with those of Asilus. Note. — Genus Cephalocera LATR., related to Mydas, differs from the other genera of the family by a long, porrect, slender proboscis, yet it ought not to be severed from Mydas. INSECTA. 331 Phalanx II. Proboscis exsert, tubulose. Labia at the end of the proboscis, sometimes scarcely discernible. t Wings incumbent. Asilus L. Proboscis straight, porrect. Antennae porrect, approxi- mate, triarticulate, with third joint elongate. Body elongate. Head transverse, above much broader than long, anteriorly barbate, posteriorly separate from the thorax by stricture. a) Tarsi without pulvilli. Gonypes LATR., Leptogaster MEIG. Abdomen elongate, narrow. Posterior feet elongate, with clavate tibiae. Antennae with biarti- culate pilose style at the point. Sp. Gonypes cylindricus, Asilus tipuloides FABK., SCHELLENB. Tab. xxx. fig. i. b) Tarsi with two pulvilli. *) With apical seta of antennae distinct. Ommatius ILLIG., WIEDEM. Seta of antennae plumose. Asilus MEIG. Seta of antennae naked, biarticulate, sometimes clavate. Sp. Asilus crabroniformis L., SCHELLENB. Tab. xxix, figs, i, 2, DUM£R. Cons. g£n. s. I. Ins. PL 46, figs. 10, &c. Add sub-genus : Mallophora MACQ. * *) With style of antennae conical, short. Dasypogon MEIG. * * *) With style of antennae short, obtuse, biarticulate. Antennas larger than head. Sub-genera : Ceraturgus WIEDEM., Dioctria MEIG. * * * *) Without apical style of antennae. Laphria MEIG. Add sub-genera : Rhopalog aster, Xiphocera and Megapoda MACQ. Hybos MEIG. (Ocydromia HoFFMANNSEGG, MEIG.) Antennas >rrect, triarticulate, with the two inferior joints small, often con- jjoined, scarcely distinct. Proboscis horizontal, short. Head small, globose. Thorax oval, gibbous. Wings large, longer than the cylindrical abdomen. 332 CLASS vin. Leptopeza MACQ. (spec, of Ocydromia MEIG.) On the synonomy of certain species comp. STAGER in KROYER'S Tids- skrift, iv. pp. 93 — 102. (Edalea MEIG. Empis L. Proboscis exsert, perpendicular, or inflected under the body. Last joint of antenna terminated by a seta or style.; Head small, globose. a) With antennse Inarticulate (the two inferior being confluent). Tacliydromici MEIG. (Sicus LATE.). Anterior thighs incrassate. Add sub-genera : Hemerodromia HOFFMANSEGG, Drapetis ME- GERLE, Platypalpus MACQ. (spec, of Tachydromia MEIG.), Xiphi- dicera MACQ., Ardoptera and Elaphropeza MACQ. (sp. of Hemero- dromia). Cyrtoma MEIG. Is this its place ? 6) With antennae triarticulate. Empis MEIG. (Empis, Pachymerina MACQ.), Rhamphomyia MEIG., Hilaria MEIG., Brachystoma MEIG., Gloma MEIG., Microphorus MACQ. (Trichina MEIG.) Sp. Empis tessellata FABR., Empis opaca FABR., &c. ft Wings divaricate. Cyrtus LATR. Proboscis inflected under the body. Antennae approximate. Poisers small, covered by large squamae. Head small, globose. Thorax v gibbous. Abdomen inflated, vesiculose. Tarsi with three pulvilli. a) Proboscis short (sometimes not discernible in the dried insect). *) With antennae biarticulate, no style. Pterodontia GRAY. *• *) With antennae biarticulate, and terminal style. Henops ILLIG., FABR., Ogcodes (Oncodes) LATR., (Henops MEIG., Acrocera MEIG.) Comp. ERICHSON Archivf. Naturgesch. 1846, p. 288. Sp. Henops yibbosous, Musca yibbosa, L., GUERIN Iconogr., Ins. PI. 94, fig. 10. * * *) With antennae triarticulate, no style. Astomella DUFOUR, LATR., Ocnea ERICHS., Pialea ERICHS. INSECTA. 333 Sp. Astomella curviventris DUP., Astom. marginata LATR., LEON DDFOUR, Ann. des Sc. not. xxx. 1833, pp. 210. 211, PL 17 A, fig. i, antenna. Habitat Spain. b) Proboscis elongate. *) With antennae biarticulate ; long terminal seta. Cyrtus LATE., MEIG., Acrocera MEIG., LATR., Psilodera GRIFF., Thyllis ERICHS., Philopota WIEDEM. Sp. Cyrtus gibbus MEIG., Cyrtus acephalus LATR., DUMER. Consid. gen. s. I. Ins., PL 48, fig. 7, VILLERS Entom. Linn., Tab. x. fig. 21. * *) With antennae triarticulate, longer than the head, no style. Panops LAM., LATR., Lasia WIEDEM. Sp. Panops Baudini LAMARCK, Ann. du Mus. in. 1804, pp. 263 — 265, PI. xxii. fig. 3, habit, in New Holland ; Panops ocelliger WIEDEM., GUERIN Iconogr., Ins. PL 94, fig. 9. Comp. on these genera of Diptera ERICHSON Entomographia, 1840, pp. 135, &c. Bombylius L. Antennas porrect, approximate. Proboscis por- rect, slender, mostly elongate. Palps uniarticulate. Squama of )oisers small, not covering the poisers. Trunk gibbous. Feet slender, elongate. a) Abdomen elongate, narrow. Phthiria MEIG., WIEDEMANN (Phthiria and Megapalpus MACQ.), Geron HOFFMANNSEGG, Systropus WIEDEM., Amictus WIEDEM., Apa- tomyza WIEDEM., Thlipsomyza WIEDEM., Cyllenia LATR., MEIG., Toxophora WIEDEM., Xestomyza WIEDEM. Comp. Systropi generis Dipterorum Monographia, auctore J. O. WEST- WOOD, GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1842 ; Systr. eumenoides WESTW., 1. 1. PL 90. Toxopkora Carcelii GUERIN, Magas. de Zool. I. 1831, Ins. PL 16. &) Abdomen short. Body hirsute. Ploas LATR., MEIG. Proboscis of the length of the head. First joint of antennae longer than the rest, very thick. Usia LATR., MEIG., Bombylius MEIG., LATR. Proboscis longer than the head (sometimes of the length of the body). Third joint of antennce longer than the rest. Comp. J. C. MIKAN Monogrophia JBombyliorum Bohemice, iconib. illustr. Pragae, 1796, 8vo. 334 CLASS VIII. Sp. Bombyliux medius L., Bonibyl. discolor, MIK., Mono/jr. Tab. u. fig. i ; Boinbyl. tricolor Gu^R. Iconogr. Ins. PI. 95, fig. 4, from Bengal. In the proper genus Bonibylius the body is woolly ; they hover over flowers, whilst they suck them, like humming bees (Bombi). According to MACLEAY the larvas live upon larvae of these bees ; the pupae are found under ground. WESTWOOD, Introduction, n. p. 542. Nemestrina LATE. Antennse porrect, remote, triarticulate, with style elongate, setiform, terminal. Proboscis very long, at rest inflected under the body. Thorax not gibbous. Tarsi with three pulvilli. Sp. Nemestrina longirostris WIEDEM., Aussereurop. zwdfl. Ins. Tab. u. fig. 5, GUERIN Iconogr., Ins. PI. 95, fig. 7 ; from the Cape of Good Hope. In this species, and in most of the remaining, the point of the wing is di- vided into many cells (retiform) ; this is not the case in some others, which make up the genus Fallenia MEIG. Anthrax ScOPOLi, FABR. Antennae small, triarticulate, fur- nished with terminal style, mostly remote. Proboscis mostly short, sometimes retracted. a) Tarsi with three pulvilli. Hirmioneura WIEDEM., MEIG. Proboscis retracted. Anterior ocellus remote. &) Tarsi with two pulvilli, often little distinct. *) Proboscis longer than head. Genera : Mulio LATR., Corsomyza WIEDEM., Enica MACQ. **) Proboscis short, concealed or subexsert. Genera : Lomatia MEIG. (previously Stygia, ejusd.), Tomomyza WIEDEM. with antennae approximate. Anthrax MEIG., with antennae remote. Sp. Anthrax morio, Musca morio L. ; Anthr. semiatra HOFFMANNSEGG, DUMER. Cons. gen. s. I. Ins. PL 48, fig. 4 j Cuv. X. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 168, fig. 7. Most of the species are exotic. SCH^FFER figures the larva and pupa of a species of dipterum that lives as a parasite in the nest of the mason-bee (Megachile). Die Maurerbiene, Regensburg, 1 764, 4to. Tab. v. figs, u, 12. WESTWOOD quotes these figures under Anthrax. B. Setae of Haustellum six (in females). Phalanx III. (Tabanii LATR.) Tabanus L. Antennae porrect, triarticulate, with last joint divided into several rings, without terminal seta or style. Wings INSECT A 335 divaricate in by far the most, in some parallel, deflected. Eyes very large, contiguous in males. Tarsi with three pulvilli. a) Proboscis of the length of the head or shorter than the head, bila- biate at apex. *) Antenna longer than head. Sub-genera : Hexatoma MEIG., Hcematopata MEIG. Wings de- flected, parallel. Ocelli none. Sp. Hcematopota pluvialis, Tabanus pluvialis L., PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 13, no. 23 ; four lines long, blackish, thorax with white stripes, wings clouded grey ; the female pricks sharply, especially in warm rainy weather ; very common all over Europe. Sub-genera : Chrysops MEIG., Silvius MEIG. Wings divaricate. Ocelli three. Sp. Chrysops ccecutiens, Tdban. ccecutiens L., DUM^B. Cons. g€n. s. L Ins. PI. 47, fig. 8. ** Antennae of length of head, (ocelli none, wings divaricate). Sub-genus : Tabanus MEIG. Sp. Tabanus bovinus L., PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 2, no. 20 ; Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PL 171, fig. 2, &c. This species has naked eyes; in other species the eyes are haired. Comp. ZELLER in OKEN'S Isis, 1842, s. 812 — 823. The larvae live under ground : the pupa state lasts in Tabanus bovinus about four weeks. DE GEES Ins. VI. pp. 214 — 219, PI. 12, figs. 6, 7. 5) Proboscis elongate (of length of head and thorax), acuminate. (Ocelli mostly three, in some none.) Sub-genera : Pangonia LATR., MEIG. (previously Tanyglossa MEIG.), Rhinomyza WIEDEM. Family XII. Notacantha s. Odontomyiidce. Antennae with several joints, four or more being terminal, very often joined to brm an annulate body cylindrical or conical. Setse of haustellum bur. Palps small, clavate. Tarsi with three pulvilli. Scutellum m many armed with spines or teeth, whence the family name. Thorn-lacks, armed files. REAUMUR gave to some species of this family the name of mouches armes, which GEOFFROY (Hist, des In- sectes qui se trouvent aux environs de Paris, n. 1762, p. 476) ren- dered by Stratiomys, to which name well-founded objections may be made (ZELLER, OKEN'S Isis, 1842, p. 828), but since it was adopted by FABRICIUS, it is now in too general use to permit its rejection 336 CLASS vin. without occasioning much confusion. LIKNJEUS referred these flies to the genus Musca. By their antennae they approach the last family of the diptera, the Nemocera, in which there is constantly found a great number of joints, whilst the rest of the families have ordinarily three alone. At the same time the majority of writers • consider the antennae of the Notacantha to be three-jointed in like manner, in which view the last joints are merely noted as rings in the terminal joint. But there is much that is uncertain and arbi- • trary here. That the seta of the Athericera may be counted as a joint of the antenna, and that it is not separated by any sharp boundary from a stylus, which is itself often jointed also, will be readily admitted by every one who has not studied nature from books alone. The true place of the Notacantha in a natural system cannot in any case be far from Tabanus, although some only agree with Tabani in the metamorphosis, the genus Pachystomus for in- stance (LATKEILLE Genera Crust, et Ins. iv. pp. 286, 287), the properly so-named Xylophagi, and perhaps Co&nomyia (see WESTWOOD, Introd. to modern Classif. of Insects, n. p. 535). Most of the species, on the other hand, the species of all the genera which establish the essen- tial type of this family, do not cast their skin. Under the skin of the larva, which however does not, as occurs in Athericera, contract itself to a ball, the pupa is formed. Some larvae live underground, others in decayed wood, others in water. The antennae are mostly cylindrical or conical, sometimes club- shaped, and seldom longer than the head ; this last is a semi-round, of which the eyes in the male occupy almost the whole bulk; there are three ocelli. The body is flat ; the wings are long and cross one another, lying flat on the abdomen, and mostly leaving its sides uncovered. A. Antennas mostly with ten joints, the last eight confluent into a single subulate body, style none. t Antennae not longer than head. Ccenomyia LATR. (Sicus FABR.) Scutellum bidentate. Sp. Ccenomyia ferruginea MEIG., Europ. zweifl. Ins. II. Tab. 1 2 ; DUMER. Cons. gin. s. I. Ins. PI. 48, fig. 3. XylopJiagus MEIG. Scutellum unarmed. Xylophagus WESTW. First joint of antennae elongate. Sp. Xylophagus ater MEIG., Europ. zweifl. Ins. n. Tab. 12, fig. 14; Empis subulata PANZEB, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 54, no. 23. INSECTA. 337 The name Xylophagus is, according to the observations of DREWSEN, unsuitable, for the larvae do not feed on wood, but suck those of Tipula and PyrocJiroa, which have the same habitat (old trunks of trees). KROYER'S Tidsskr. iv. p. 103. Note. — Here is to be referred genus Pachystomus LATH., with five joints of antennae, the last three conjoined. LATKEILLE Gen. Crustac. et Insector. iv. pp. 286, 287. Subula MEGEELE, WESTW. (spec, of Xylophagus MEIGEN). First joint of antennae short. (A genus differing from the preceding in the metamorphosis, according to the observations of KOSER, HOPE and others ; comp. WESTWOOD Introduct. n. p. 534). Beris LATE. Scutellum armed with four, six or eight spines. Sp. Beris clavipes PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 9, no. 19, &c. Acanthomera WEIDEM. Raphiorhynchus WIEDEM. (This genus with Acanthomera is placed by MACQUART amongst the Tdbanii.} ft Antennae longer than head. a) Antennae simple. CypJwmyia WIED. Scutellum bidentate. Sp. Cyphomia auriflamma WIEDEM., GUERIN Iconogr., Ins. PI. 98, fig. 5. Habit, in Brazil. All the species are American ; the habitus is that of Stratiomys, from which genus they seem to differ by artificial character alone. Hermetia LATR. Last joint of antennae oval, elongate, set upon ;he constricted apex of the preceding. Scutellum unarmed, Species all exotic, mostly American. b) Antennae flabellate. Ptilocera WiEDEMANN. Sp. Ptilocera qnadridentata, Stratiomys quadridentata FABR., WIEDEMANN Aussereurop. zweifl. Ins. n. p. 59. Tab. vm. fig. 4. Habit, in islands Sumatra and Java. B. Antennae with joints not more than eight, with long seta terminal or near the apex. Sargus FABR., MEIG. (Sargus and Chrysomyia MACQ.) Antennae with last joint orbicular or elliptic. Scutellum unarmed. Wings lanceolate, longer than abdomen. VOL. I. 22 338 CLASS viii. Sp. Sargus cuprarius, Musca cupraria L., DUM^RIL Cons. g£n. s. I. Ins. PI. 50, fig. 8 ; with us not rare, four lines long ; two white" spots on the head at the base of the antennae, breast blue-green, abdomen copper- coloured, towards the hinder part violet, glistening prettily. — Sargus for- mosus, Chrysomia formosa MACQ., &c. Chrysochlora LATK. Sp. Sargus amethystinus FABR., Cuv. R. Ani. 3d. ill., Ins. PL 173, fig. 6; on the island Mauritius. Dicranophora MEIG. Scutellura with very long appendage forked at the apex. SP. Dicranophora furcif era, Sargus furcifer, WIEDEM., GU^RIN Iconogr., Ins. PI. 98, fig. 12; from the Brazils. C. Antennae with six or seven joints, furnished with conical terminal style (Nemotelus GEOFFR. in part). Vappo LATR., FABR., Pachygaster MEIG. t Proboscis long. Nemotelus MEIG. (Spec, of genus Nemotelus GEOFFR., FABR.) ScutellunTunarmed. Sp. Nemotelus pantkerinus MEIG., PANZER DeutscJd. Ins. Heft 46, No. 21, 22. (Nemot. uliginosus and marginatus). *H" Proboscis short. EpJiippium LATR., Clitellaria MEIG. (Ephippium and Cy clog aster MACQ.) Oxycera MEIG. Antennae sexarticulate, cylindrical at apex, with style terminal or dorsal, Inarticulate, slender. Scutellum bispinose. Sp. Oxycera trilineata MEIG., Musca pantherina L. (exclus. syon.}, PANZEE Deutschl. Ins. Heft I. n. 13 ; 3 lines long, yellow-green, breast with three black longitudinal stripes, abdomen with black transverse bands on the dorsal surface, feet yellow. D. Antennas septarticulate, of length of head or longer than head (with first joint elongate), no terminal seta. Stratiomys GEOFFR., FABR. (exclusive of species.) Note. — The genus Odontomyia MEIGEN, afterwards abolished by himself, but preserved by LATREILLE, differs by the shorter antennae, acuminate at the apex. INSECTA. 339 Sp. Stratiomys chamceleon FABR., MEIG., Musca chamcdeon L., RCESEL Ins. ii. Muscar. et Culic. Tab. v. PANZER Deutschl. Ins. Heft 8, No. 24, 7 lines long ; the scutelluin, the feet and under surface of the abdomen yellow, the upper surface of the abdomen black, with three yellow transverse stripes interrupted in the middle, and yellow point. Here are to be referred the observations and descriptions of SWAMMERDAM, Hist. not. Ins. 1669, p. 151, Tab. iv. (under the name of Tabamis), and Bifid der Nat. pp. 649 — 694, Tab. 39 (under the name of Asilus). The larva is elongate, pointed at both extremities, with a star-shaped ring of more than twenty feathered filaments at the end ; it moves very slowly on the surface of the water. Family XIII. Nemocera or Tipularice. Antennae filiform or setaceous, with numerous joints, mostly fourteen or sixteen, never fewer than six. Head small, globose, with large eyes. Proboscis exsert, in some short, terminated by two large labia, in some pro- duced into a rostrum. Palps two, external, inserted at the base of he proboscis, filiform or setaceous. Thorax large, gibbous. Wings oblong. Poisers naked, with nconspicuous squamae. Abdomen elongate, composed mostly of line joints. Feet long, slender. Pupa incomplete (nympha). Thread-antennate, Gnat-like. Many, especially the smaller species, fly iri great troops dancing through the air. The females lay their eggs on the water, some on plants, or on the ground. The larvae are long and vermiform ; their body has twelve rings, besides the clearly distinct horny head. The head is provided with man ducat ing oral organs (mandibles and maxillce). The stigmata are in number and position various. These larvae constantly cast their skin before changing to pupae. In the pupa the parts of the insect may be clearly recognised. Almost always these pupae lie uncovered in the water or under the ground j only in some are they enclosed in a case or web (Sciara, Mycetophila). Many of these pupae are pro- vided with spines or horns, by means of which, about the time of the last changing, they are able to work to the surface of the earth. This family consists of the Linnaean genera Tipula and Culex. If the genus of the flies of LINJLEUS, the Athericera of the moderns, with short antennae and tun-shaped pupae, be considered to be the proper type of the two-winged insects, then the insects before us deviate the most from that type, and make the transition to other orders, to some Neuroptera (Phryganea) and Lepidoptera (Pterophorus, 22—2 340 CLASS VII I. Alucita). We begin, in enumerating the genera, with those that approximate most nearly to the flies. A. Proboscis short, thick, terminated by two large labia. Setae of haustellum in many only two. Palps with four joints, sometimes five, mostly incurved or uniarticulate, straight. Tipula L. (Tipu- larice or Tipulidce of the moderns). t Antennae scarcely longer than head (or at least shorter than head and thorax together), mostly with eleven joints, filiform, moni- liform or perfoliate. Wings broad, rounded at the apex. Aspistes HOFFMANNSEGG, MEIG. Antennae octarticulate, clavate at the apex. Ocelli three. Sp. Aspistes lerolinensis, MEIG. Europ. Zweifl. Ins. I. p. 319, Tab. XI. fig. 16; one line long, on the leaves of Tussilago petasites and the flowers of Daucus carotta in North- Germany. Bibio GEOFFR., MEIG., (Hirtea FABR.) Antennae novemarticu- late, perfoliate. Ocelli three. Tarsi with three pulvilli. Anterior tibiae armed with a spine. Sp. Bibio Hard, Tipula Marci L., REAUMUR Ins. v. PI. ; PANZER, DeutscU. Ins. Heft 95, No. 20 ; known amongst us by the name of black fly ; the larva has ten pairs of air-slits ; it lives underground, and passes the winter ; the pupa lies in an oblong round cavity of loosely compacted earth ; after three or four weeks, early in the spring (in the last half of April), the per- fect insect makes its appearance. Comp. LYONET'S observations and figures, Recherches, &c., Ouvrage posthume, pp. 58 — 72, PI. 7. That these flies cause injury to the blossom of apple-trees is a common opinion, but entirely without proof; it is quite untrue, at least, that they lay then- eggs in the blossoms. The larvae, which are found in apple-blossom, are those of a small rostrated beetle, Anthonomus pomorum; see P. H. VAN BERCK, V&rhandeling over de zwarte vliegen, Haarlem, 1807, 8vo. Dilophus MEIG. Antennae undecimarticulate, perfoliate. Ocelli three. Thorax pectinate, with a double row of denticles. Sp. Dilophus vulgaris, Tipula febrilis L. ; MEIGEN Europ. zweifl. Ins. I. Tab. XI. fig. i ; Diloph. collari& GU£R., Iconogr. Ins. PI. 93, fig. 7, South America, &c. Plecta HOFFMANNSEGG, MACQ. Penthretria MEIG., LATR. Antennae undecimarticulate, per- foliate. Ocelli three. Palps exsert, incurved, quadriarticulate. Feet unarmed, long. INSECT A. 341 Scatopse GEOFFR., MEIG., FABR. Antennae undecimarticulate, perfoliate. Ocelli three. Palps very small, with a single joint. Sp. Scatopse notata, Tipula notata L., METGEN Europ. ziceifl. Ins. i. Tab. x. fig. 13 ; DE GEEK Ins. vi. Tab. 28, figs, i — 4, &c. Simulia MEIG., Simulium LATR. Antennas undecimarticulate, monilifornij cylindrical or fusiform. Ocelli none. Palps quadri- articulate. Small, but very troublesome species, with oral organs developed as in the genus Oulex (according to the observations of CURTIS, cited by WESTWOOD, Introd. ii. p. 558), but shorter. With these they prick, which the Tipulce, on the contrary, do not. In the south of Hungary, in the Banat, Simulia, maculata, Musca columbaschensis GMEL., is sometimes, from the enormous numbers, very troublesome, and even dangerous. Here belongs also Simulia pertinax KOLLAR, Brasiliens Idstige Insecten, fig. 14, which, under the collective name of Musquitos (Mosquitos, Moustigues), is joined to the gnats (Culices}. According to HUMBOLDT, in all the Spanish colonies these last are not called Mosquitos, but Zancudos. In North America it seems to be the Culices which are named Mosquitos, whilst the Simulice are dis- tinguished from them as 'black flies.' ft Antennae longer than head, mostly of the length of head and thorax together. Joints of antennse various, mostly twelve or sixteen. Cecidomyia MEIG. Antennas with 12 or more joints, filiform, porrect. Ocelli none. Wmo;s incumbent. o The larvae of many species live in excrescences of plants, like the gall- wasps. Here belong Cecydomia destructor, the Hessian Fly of the North Americans, and Cecidomyia tritici KIRBY in Linn. Trans, iv. p. 232, v. p. 96, Tab. 4, fig. i. By such an insect, Cecidomyia salicina, those ex- crescences also are caused, which are sometimes seen in the form of double roses on the top of willow-branches. SWAMMERDAMM Bijbel der Natuur. pp. 749, 750, Tab. XLIV. fig. 16 ; DE GEER Ins. vi. pp. 412 — 416. PI. 26, figs, i — 7 ; Cecid. Pini. Comp. RATZEBURG Forst. Insecten,, in. 1844. Taf. x. fig. 14 ; ERICHSON'S Archivf. Naturgesch. 1841, s. 233 — 247. Taf. xi. &c. ; L:EON DUFOUR Histoire des Metamorphoses des Cecidomies, &c. Ann. des Sc. not., sec. Sdr. Torn. xvi. 1841, p. 257. Psychoda LATR., MEIG. (previously Trickoptera MEIG.) Antennas porrect, moniliform, pilose, multiarticulate. Palps exsert, with four equal joints. Ocelli none. Wings broad, pilose, furnished with many longitudinal nervures. Sp. Psychoda phalcenoides, Tipula phalcenoides L., DE GEER Ins. vi. p. 422. PI. 27, figs. 6—9 j MACQUART Diptcr. i. PL 4, fig. 12. This small (i£ line) 342 CLASS vni. ash-grey insect, that resembles a small moth, is found on walls in moist situations ; it can turn itself about very cleverly, and springs more than it flies. The larva is dirty yellow, with a black-brown head and awl-shaped horny tail, and lives in decaying vegetable matter. BOUCHE Naturgesch. d. Ins. Taf. n. figs. 20, 21; Psych, palustris MEIG. GU£R. Iconogr. Ins. PI. 92, f. 5, &c. Lasioptera MEIG. (Diomyza MEGERLE.) Sub-genus : Lasiopteryx STEPH., WESTW. (spec, of Lasioptera METG.) Zygoneura MEIG. Sub-genus : Lestremia MACQ. Mycetophila MEIG. Antennae porrect, cylindrical, sedecim- articulate. Palps incurved, quadriarticulate. Ocelli two or three, unequal, the middle one the least. Tibiae spurred at the apex, the posterior with spiny sides. Sub-genera : Leia MEIG., Boletina STAGER, Sciophila HOFFMANN- SEGG, Gnoriste HOFFMANNS. Comp. H. STANNIUS BemerJcungen ueber einige Arten der ziveiflugler Gattungen Macrocera, Platyura, Sciophila, Leia, und Mycetophila, OKEN'S Isis, 1830, pp. 752 — 758 ; STAGER, KKOEYEB'S TidssTcrift, in. 1840, pp. 228 — 288. Platyura MEIG. (excl. PI. tipulo'ides.) Geroplatus Bosc, FABR., LATR. Comp. Bosc Actes de la Soc. d'ffist. not. de Paris, Tom. i. p. 42, &c. ; LiioN DUFOUR Revision et Monographic du genre Ceroplatus, Ann. des Sc. not. sec. SeVie. Tom. xi. 1839, Zool. pp. 193 — 213, PI. 5. Cordyla MEIG., LATR. Antennas duodecimarticulate, com- pressed, clavate. Ocelli none. Sciara MEIG. (Molobrus LATR.) Campylomyza WIEDEM., MEIG. MycetoUa MEIG. Macronewra MACQ. Asindulum LATR. Synapha MEIG. Rhyphus LATR. Macrocera MEIG. Antennae long, setaceous, with the two basi- lar joints thick, the rest indistinct. Ocelli three. Wings obtuse, parallel, incumbent. INSECTA. 343 a) Antennae longer than body. Ocelli three, disposed in a tri- angle, Macrocera MEIG. b) Antennae shorter than body. Ocelli three, placed in a trans- verse line. Bolitophila HOFFMANNSEGG, MEIG. On the metamorphosis, comp. GUERIN, Memoire sur un Insecte du genre Bolithophile, Ann. des Sc. not. x. 1827, pp. 399 — 411. PI. xvm. Chionea DALM. Antennae setaceous, with ten joints. Palps with four sub-equal joints. Ocelli none. Body apterous, with poisers. Sp. Chion. araneoldes, DALMAN Kongl. VentensTc. Acad. Handb. 1816, 102 ; OKEN'S Isis, 1824, p. 419, Tab. v. ; GUERIN Iconogr., Ins. PL 93, fig. 2 ; found in Sweden on the snow. Anisomera HOFFMANNSEGG, MEIG. (Hexatoma ~LA.TR.,Nematocera MEIG.) Antennae very long, setaceous, with first joint cylindrical, second short, cup-shaped, third elongate, filiform. Palps with four equal joints. Wings incumbent. Megistocera WlEDEM. Dixa MEIG. Macropeza MEIG. Trichocera MEIG. Polymera WIEDEM. Limnobia MEIG. Antennae setiform, joints 15 — 17; first joint cylindrical, second cup-shaped, rest oblong or globose. Palps with four equal joints. Ocelli none. Wings incumbent, parallel, with nervures naked or pilose (Erioptera MEIG.) Add sub-genera : Symplecta MEIG., Cylindrotoma MACQ. (antennae with thirteen cylindrical joints), Limnophila MACQ., Idioptera MACQ., Rhamphidia MEIG., MACQ. Sp. Limnobia picta, Tipula picta FABR., SCHELLENBEBG Tab. 38, fig. i ; GUERIN Iconogr., Ins. PI. 92, fig. 9 (named Limnobia ocellaris), &c. Comp. T. E. SCHUMMEL, Beschreibung der in Schlesien einheimischen Arten von Limnobia, Beitragezur Entomologie I. Breslau, 1829, 8vo, s. 97 — 201. Tab. i — 5 ; B. STANNIUS zur Verwandlungsgesch. der Limn. Xanthoptera, ibid. s. 202 — 206. Rhipidia MEIG. Ozodicera MACQ. 344 CLASS vi ii. Tipula (Sp. of Tipula L.) Antennae filiform or setaceous, with 13 joints, the first elongato-cylindrical, second cup-shaped, short, the rest cylindrical, pilose. Palps incurved, with last joint longer than .the rest, cylindrical, annulate or nodose. Ocelli none. Wings divaricate. Sub-genera : Pachyrkina MACQ., Tipula ejuscl. Ctenophora MEIG. (antennae pectinate in male). In this division are found the largest species of Nemocera, for instance, Tipula prcepotens WIEDEM. from the island of Java, whose body is 16 lines long, and the slightly smaller European Tipula giyantea SCHEANK, SCHEL- LENBERG, Dipt. Tab. 36, CUVIER R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 162, fig. 5 , Tipula oleracea L., DE GEER Ins. vi. PI. 18, figs. 12, 13 ; Tipula crocata L., VILLERS Entonwl. Linn. Tab. IX. fig. 2, dull black, with a yellow ring behind the head, yellow spots on the thorax, and three orange-coloured rings on the first part of the abdomen ; wings brownish, with a black spot at the margin ; feet dark brown. With this species is often confounded Tipula flaveolata F., Ctenophora flaveolata MEIG., REAUMUR Ins. v. Tab. I. figs. 14—16; CUVIER R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 162, fig. 2, which is easily distinguishable by its thicker and yellow feet, by seven yellow rings on the abdomen, of which one is at the base, and by its shining black, whilst the male, moreover, has plumed antennae. The larva of this species lives hi hollow stems of trees. Dictenidia, Xiphura, BRULLE Ann. dc la Soc. Entom. de France, I. pp. 205 — 209, PI. v. Species of Ctenophora. Pedicia LATE. NepJirotoma MEIG. Pty chapter a MEIG. Antennae with sixteen joints, the third joint long, cylindrical. Last joint of palps very long, setaceous. Ocelli none. Wings divaricate, folded on the posterior margin. Sp. Ptych. contaminata, Tipula contaminata L., Cuv. R. Ani. ed. itt., Ins. PI. 162, fig. 4. Chironomus MEIG. (with addition of some genera), FABR. Antennae plumose. Ocelli none. Ceratopogon MEIG. Antennae with thirteen joints in both sexes, pilose ; the eight inferior joints in the male barbate outwards. Wings parallel, incumbent. The larvae live under the moist bark of dead trees. The head excepted, every ring has on the upper part two very long hairs, with a round knob at the extremity, not transparent, which looks like a pearl. See GUE"RIN Ann. de la Soc. Entom,. de France, n. pp. 161 — 167, PI. vm. INSECTA. 345 Corethra MEIG. Antennas with fourteen joints in both sexes, with hairs verticillate, very long in male. Wings incumbent. Sp. Corethra plumicornis MEIG., Corethra lateralis LATE., PANZEK Deutschl. Ins., Heft 109, No. 16 ; CUVIER R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 161, fig. 4 ; the larva lives in fresh water, has forward on the head two curved booklets, and is very voracious ; REAUMUR Ins. v. PI. 6, f. 4 — 15 ; SLABBER Na- tuurk. Verlustig. Tab. in. iv. ; LYONET, Ouvrage post. PI. 1 7, figs. 14, 15, 19- Chironomus MEIG., Tanypus ejusd. Wings deflected. Anterior feet remote from the rest, inserted almost beneath the head, very long (at rest porrect). Antennae filiform, with thirteen or fourteen joints in both sexes or in males alone, in females sexarticulate (Chi- ronomus MEIG.) Sp. Chironom'us plumoisus, Tipula plumosa L., Cuv. R. Aid. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 1 6 1, fig. 5. The larva is a blood-red worm, often met with in rain reservoirs ; see REAUMUR Ins. V. PI. 5, figs, i — 5. On the head are two black eye-spots, and two short antennae consisting of one joint and two threads at the point (these are wanting in REAUMUR'S figure). The head is alternately drawn into and pushed out of the next following joint by the larva. The eggs of Chironomus, oval or navicular and united in strings, were formerly taken for plants (Diatomacece) : Gloinema AGARDH and Echinella ; see the observations of BERKELEY Ann. of Nat. Hist. vn. 1841, pp. 449 — 451. PL xin. figs. i—8; comp. KOELLIKER Observ. de prima Insect, genesi, 1842. B. Proboscis porrect, of the length of thorax, or longer than thorax, made up of seven setce. Palps quinquearticulate, porrect. Culex L. Antennae porrect, in male plumose, in female pilose. Wings squamate, incumbent. JEdes HOFFMANNSEGG. Palps in both sexes very short. Sp. ^Edes cinereus HOFFMANN., Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 161, fig. 3. Culex MEIG. Palps of male longer than proboscis, of female short, with first two joints very short. Sp. Culex pipiens L., SCHELLENBERG Tab. 41, Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill, Ins. PI. 1 6 1, fig. I ; everywhere very common, especially in the neighbourhood of turf-diggings, as in the province of Holland. The hum or song adds to the inconvenience. The females alone sting ; the males, known by their plumed anteunee, little or not at all. Another species, with black- spotted wings and white-ringed feet, Culex annulatus FABR., has been often met with by me here in Leyden in winter and in the first days of spring, in mild weather, in dwellings. The gnat (Cousin, Schnacke, Milcke) is commonly known. The larvae live in water, and hang on the surface to breathe, with head downwards. 346 CLASS vin. On the back, at the ninth ring of the abdomen, there is a tube for respira- tion. These larvze swim expeditiously, change their skin a few times, and become pupae, which also move sinuously, but do not eat, and advance in the water head upwards, it being kept in this position by two little tubes or horns that stand above the thorax and serve for respiration. On j the last metamorphosis the skin splits between the tubes, and the perfect insect creeps into view through the opening thus effected. It drifts for a time upon the cast-off skin as on a little boat, until the wings are strong ! enough, when the gnat leaves the water. These metamorphoses occur within j a period of three or four weeks. See SWAMMERDAM Bijb. d. Natuur. pp. [ 348 — 362. Tab. xxxi. xxxn. ; REAUMUR Ins. iv. Tab. 43, 44 ; J. M. BAR- THII, De Culice Dissertatio, Eatisbonnse, 1737, 4to, c. Tab. &c. Anopheles MEIO. Palps in both sexes of the length of proboscis. Sp. Anopheles bifurcatus, Culex bifurcatus L., GUER. Iconogr. Ins. PI. 92, fig. 2. Comp. on genus Culex ROBINEAU-DESVOIDY, Essai sur la Tribu des Culicides, Mem. de la Soc. d'Hist. nat. de Paris, in. 1827. pp. 390 — 413 (new genera Sabaihes, Psorophora, Megarhinus). ORDER VII. Hymenoptera. Hexapod Insects, with four membraneous wings, the inferior less and with fewer veins. Maxillae elongate, mostly slender, encasing the labium. Abdomen of females almost always terminated by a terebra or aculeus (borer, sting). Metamorphosis complete. Hymenoptera L., Piezata FABR. Amongst other works the fol- lowing treat of this order : J. L. CHRIST, Naturyeschichte, Classification und Nomenclatur der Insekten vom JBienen, Wespen und Ameisengeschlec/it. Mit 60 ausgemalten Kupfert. Frankf. a Main, 1791, 4to. J. C. FABRICTI, Sy sterna Piezatorum. Brunsvigse, 1804, 8vo. G. W. F. PANZER, Entomologischer Versuch die Jurineschen Gat- twigen der Hymenoptern nach dem Fabriziusschen system zu prufen. Niirnberg, 1806, 8vo. (also under the title of Kritische Revision der Insektenfauna Deutschlands lies Bandchen.) (The work of JURINE, Nouvelle Methode de classer les Hymeno- pteres et les Dipteres, av. fig. Tom. I. Geneve, 1807, T have not been able to meet with). C. DAHLBOM, Clams novi Hymenopterorum systematic adjecta synopsi Larvarum Scandinav. cruciformium. Cum Tab. litliog. color. Lundae, 1835, 4to. INSECTA. 347 Ejusd. Synopsis Hymenopterologice Scandinavice. Lund., 1840, 4to. (Of this the first part alone, which treats of the genus Crabo, is known to me). A. LEPELETIER DE SAINT-FARGEAU, Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Hymenopteres. Paris, 1836—1846, 8vo, av. PL, iv. Yol. (the last part by BRULLE). This order is distinguished by four naked, membranous wings. GEOFFROY united the Neuroptera with it ; LINNAEUS, however, had already (in the sixth edition of the Sy sterna Naturce, 1748) distin- guished this order ; and to the present day it has been preserved in systematic arrangements. The Neuroptera have usually retiform wings, with numerous small cells ; in the Hymenoptera they are merely veined, and the under wings are commonly smaller than the upper. The lower jaws are mostly elongated, and form with the under lip a kind of proboscis by which fluids are conducted to the O3sophagus. The under jaws serve not for manducation, but for the gnawing off matters with which these insects construct their nests, for the bearing of burdens, &c. There are three simple eyes pre- sent; the compound eyes are large, especially in the bees. The foot (tarsus^) has constantly five joints. The abdomen of the female is almost always armed at the extremity with a sting, or with a borer for laying eggs. Already had it been justly remarked by ARISTOTLE1, that the two-winged insects are distinguished by a sting in front, and the four- winged by a sting behind; the first wound in order to feed, the last to defend or to avenge themselves. In some species there are wingless individuals, of which more hereafter. The hind wings have at the anterior margin, nearly in the middle, a row of stiff hairs or hooklets Qiamuli), placed at equal distances, and only visible when magnified, by which they are fixed fast to the posterior or inner margin of the fore wings, and in flying lie in the same plane with these. It is especially in this order that in the determination of the genera use may be made of the veins and cells of the wings. JURINE has for this purpose devised a terminology, of which we must give a short account. His names have all a reference to the fore wing. The first vein of the up- per wing, that next to the anterior or outer margin, he names radius, the second, that lies more inwards, cubitus. These two terminate 1 TeTpdirrepa. . . 6Trir/3a. AftiST. Hist. Anim. L. i. cap. 5, med. 348 CLASS vin. in a thickened point (^punctum alee s. carpus) in the middle of the outer margin of the wing. (It is, as may be readily supposed, without any intention of indicating an analogy with the bones of the fore- arm in vertebrate animals, that these names of radius, cubitus and carpus have been selected.) The following veins, or nervures, which like the radius and cubitus arise from the base of the wing, he names nervi brachiales. These veins form by their branching and mutual communication certain cells on the wing (cellulce s. areolce). The outermost vein, which runs from the punctum alee to the apex of the wing, is named nervus radialis, because it seems to be a con- tinuation of the radius ; between it and the outer margin lies the radial cell (cellula radialis). From the cubitus there arises the nervus cubitalis, continued in like manner from the punctum, alee; the space which lies between this vein and the radial vein is named that of the cubital cells (cellulce cubitales). Finally, there arise from the brachial veins nervi recurrentes, or such as form communications with each other or with the cubitus, and thus form other cells, the humeral cells (cellulce humerales1}. These insects undergo a perfect metamorphosis. The larvae of most species are worms without feet ; in some species, however, the larvae have six horny feet ; still other larvae have membranous feet; the larger number of these feet (from 12 to 16) distinguishes them from the caterpillars or larvae of butterflies, which in other respects they resemble. The food of the larvae is various ; the per- fect insect feeds especially on the juices of plants, or swallows the honey of flowers. Many species also attack other insects, and thus appear to live on prey ; this prey, however, does not serve for their own nutriment, but for that of the larvae ; they are the females that bear it to their nest. The hymenoptera on. the whole do not live longer than a year, from the egg to the last change. Many, as the ants, wasps and bees, live socially together in large bodies, and form a regulated society. The intestinal canal of the hymenoptera begins with an oesopha- gus, narrow and ordinarily long, which runs straight through the thorax. In the abdominal cavity the oesophagus usually forms an oval expansion ; only in some (Crabro, Larra, Trypoxylori) does this expansion form a lateral crop. The muscular stomach is little 1 Compare the article A He des Insects, by AUDOUIN in Dictionn. classique cVHist. not., Paris, 1822, 8vo. i. pp. 176—185, and Encycl. metkodique, Hist. not. Ins. Tom. X. 1825, p. 264, or the article Radiate, byLEPELETiER DE SAINT- FARGEAU and SERVILLE. INSECTA. 349 developed, and has above four membranous valves; below it is nan-owed in shape of a funnel, and usually is introduced into the next stomach by iiivagination. This stomach is cylindrical, of vari- ous length, and ordinarily divided by transverse folds as though into rings. The small intestine (beneath the insertion of numerous vasa urinaria) is narrower than the stomach, ordinarily not longer, sometimes even shorter than it ; the rectum is wider again. The whole intestinal canal has no very considerable length ; in many it is little longer than the body. In the larvae of the wasps, according to RAMDOHR, there is nothing but a large blind stomach present ; also in the pupae of the bees there is no anus; but these have an- terior to the stomach a narrow oesophagus, and behind the stomach an intestinal canal terminating blindly. The air-tubes present in most hymenopterous insects sacciform expansions. In the bees and wasps even the lateral primary stems in the abdomen are widened into large air-sinuses. The nervous system exhibits different modifications in the different families. The first nervous ganglion, the cephalic ganglion, is usually large, since the optic nerves especially are much developed. The second ganglion under the oesophagus lies very close to the first. In the thorax there are ordinarily only two ganglia, of which, the posterior is large ; in Athalia centifolice NEWPORT found three. The abdomen has from four to seven ganglia, ordinarily, however, only five or six. This order does not contain any particularly large species, although in the mean they are somewhat larger than the Diptera. Only a few species are bright coloured; the colours most frequently occur- ring are brown, black and yellow. The species are uncommonly numerous, so that in this respect the order of Hymenoptera is per- haps inferior to the Coleoptera alone. Most of them indicate a very remarkable instinct, and many construct their nests artfully. There is one species from which man derives a great and immediate advan- tage, and which he has transported with himself to different regions of the globe. We mean the honey-bee, of whose history we shall shortly treat in the sequel. In their metamorphosis these insects correspond with the beetles ; in this respect they differ entirely from most of the Neuroptera. Some of them by their larvae approximate to the butterflies ; and some butterflies (Sesia) shew a great similarity with hymenopte- rous insects. However, beyond doubt, the Hymenoptera have the greatest affinity with the two-winged insects, and we believe that, 350 CLASS VIII. in a natural arrangement, they can take no other place than in the immediate neighbourhood of these. By inserting the Lepidotera between the two, as is done by LATKEILLE, the natural transition is interrupted. Section I. Aculeata. Abdomen always petiolate, in females (and neuters) armed with a puncturing sting that conducts, in many at least, a poison, or containing glands that secrete and ejaculate an acrid humour . Antennae mostly with 12 joints (in females] or 13 (in males). Larvae apodous. Sting-bearers. The wings are constantly veined. The larvae have a quantity of food sufficient for the entire state laid near the egg by the mother, or are provided with it daily by the sexless nurses. The latter is the case with those which live in society. The sting here takes the place of the ovipositor of other insects ; it is connected with an apparatus for the secretion of poison, which, in the bee, consists of two long blind tortuous tubes, which coalesce at an acute angle to form a single tube that expands into an oval bladder. From this bladder a fluid passes into the sting, just as from the excretory duct of the poison-gland of the viper into the hollow tooth. The sting consists of a pointed case grooved on the ventral surface, in which groove two fine spiculce drawn to a point are placed. At the extremity these spiculse are provided with sharp teeth, having their points or barbs reverted, which are less power- fully developed in the female (amongst bees in the queen) than in the sexless individuals (the working bees) ; also in the former the sting is longer and turned upwards, hollow on the ventral surface. Certain horny plates cover the base of the sting. In the males these parts are wanting. Comp. SWAMMERDAM £ijbel d. Nat. bl. 456 — 466, Tab. xvm. figs, n — iv ; REAUMUR Ins. v. pp. 340 — 369, PL 29 j KUNZMANN in HUFELAKD'S Journal d. Praktischen ffeil- kunde, 1820, s. 119 — 127. On the sexless individuals in the order of Hymenoptera we have treated above, p. 271. Family XIV. Mellifera s. Antliopliila. All the individuals winged. Wings expanded. First or basilar joint of posterior tarsi (planta KIRBY) large, compressed, elongato-quadrate or triangular. Maxillae elongate, membranous, forming with the labium the pro- boscis. The larvse live on the pollen and honey of flowers. Most of the species unite for a time, or for the duration of their life, to form a large community. When the society is for life, there are constantly INSECTA. 351 many sexless individuals whose business it is to construct the nest, and to feed the larvae uninterruptedly1. Phalanx I. Apiarice. Median division of ligula filiform or setaceous, of the same length as mentum, or longer than mentum, inflected downwards, with the maxillae, quite, from the insertion of the maxillary palps. Two joints of labial palps mostly conjoined, forming a compressed horny seta or lateral lacinia of the ligula; two succeeding joints very small, set laterally upon the acuminate apex of former. Two short paraglossge at the base of ligula. The proboscis of the bee has been investigated by SWAMMEKDAM (Bijb. d. Nat. bl. 445 — 451), REAUMUR (Ins. v. Qieme Memoir e, pp. 304 — 326), Gr. R. TREVIRANUS (Verm. Schriften von G. R. u. L. C. TREVIRANUS. 11. 1817 ; Ueber die Saugwerkzeuge der Insecten, s. 112 — 130), and other writers; and although by these researches we are able to learn its structure and its peculiarities even to minuteness, yet there still remain obscurities and conflicting opi- nions, especially relating to the function of the parts. The maxillse form an external case (demi-etuis exterieurs REAUMUR) ; the labial palps may be regarded as a second case, if the ligula alone be consi- dered to be the proper proboscis. Concerning this ligula, SWAMMER- DAM and TREVIRANUS adopted the opinion that it is perforated at the extremity by a fine aperture, and imbibes honey by its internal cavity. According to TREVIRANUS a canal runs from the base of the proboscis to the esophagus, though he could not trace the canal to it. In this case bees must have two mouths, which is contrary to all analogy. The proper mouth lies, as REAUMUR correctly observed (whilst SWAMMERDAM placed it in the supposed aperture of the pro- boscis), in the ordinary situation, behind the maxillae, and above the ligula ; it is covered above by a little valve attached to the labrum (epipharynx or epiglossa of SAVIGNY 2). According to REAU- MUR the bees lick honey with the proboscis, just as many mammals drink by licking with the tongue. It is probable however that honey is sucked up by the bee, and that the proboscis at the time, like the sucker of a pump, is moved up and down between the maxillae. See DUGES Physiologie comparee, n. pp. 317, 318, and especially the 1 We possess on this division a Monograph by the Nestor of modern Entomologists, KIRBT Monographia Apum Anglice, Ipswich, 1802, 8vo. 2 vols. 2 We have noticed this little valve above at p. 281. This part, already recognised by REAUMUR, and considered by him to be the tongue, was also named by TREVIRANUS in bees Zunge (tongue), in wasps vordere Zunge (anterior tongue). 352 CLASS vnr. Bijdrage tot de kennis der mond-dulen van eenige Hymenoptera, by our accurate and profound BRANTS, Tijdschrift voor nat. Gesch. vm. 1841, bl. 71—126. a. Social. Males, females and neuters or workers. Maxillary palps short, uniarticulate. Posterior tibise in neuters dilated out- wardly towards the extremity. First joint of tarsi tomentose externally, or furnished with brushes. 1. Posterior tibiae with spurs either none or obsolete. Apis FABR., nob. (spec, from genus apis L.) Mandibles with dorsum smooth. Comp. LATREILLE, Ann. du Mus. iv. pp. 383 — 394, PL 69, v. pp. M 61 — 171, PL 13 ; DE HUMBOLDT et BONPLAND, Recueil d' Observa- tions de Zoologie et d'Anat. comp. i. 1811, 4to. pp. 270 — 297. PL 19— 21; Des A beilles proprement dites, et plus par ticulierement des insectes de la meme famille qui sont propres a FAmerique meridionale ; par LATREILLE). Melipona ILLIG., LATR., Trigona JURINE. Cubital cells two. First joint of posterior tarsi obtrigonal. Exotic species, almost all from South America, with mandibles denticu- late (Trigona LATE.), or edentulous (Melipona LATR.) Comp. LATREILLE 1.1. ; M. SPINOLA, Observations sur les Apiaires Meloponides, Ann. des Sc. nat. seSe'rie, Tom. xin. 1840. Zool. pp. 116 — 140. PL i ; BLANCHARD, Diet. Univ. d'Hist. natur. vm. 1847, PP- 85 — 89, art. Meliponites. Sting none, or rather rudiments alone of sting, not adapted for puncturing. Apis LATR. Cubital cells three. First joint of posterior tarsi elongato-quadrate, in neuters covered with hairs disposed in trans- verse rows, and produced anteriorly into an external tooth or auricula l. Sp. Apis mellifica L., Honey-bee, Abeille domestique, Mouchea miel, Hausbiene, Honigbiene, Bee ; Ann. du Mus. v. PL 13, fig. i — 3 ; DUMERIL Consid. gen. s. 1. Ins. PL 29, fig. 4 ; BRANDT u. KATZEBURG, Mediz. Zool. n. Tab. 24 ; blackish, yet apparently of a lighter colour from greyish hair, especially on the thorax ; a transverse, woolly, gray stripe at the base of the third and following rings of the abdomen ; length of the body about half an inch, breadth of outspread wings ten lines (in workers). This species is domes- ticated in Europe, and has been transported into America. All the species of the genus Apis LATR. belong originally to the Eastern hemisphere. In one hive there are commonly 15,000 or 20,000 working bees, 600 — 800 males, named drones (the ancients named them Ktj^ves, fuel), and 1 Comp. Annal. du Mns. iv. PI. 69, fig. 5. INSECTA. 353 usually one female, the queen, (the king of the ancients). The working bees are smaller than the queen, which is also distinguished by a larger abdomen. The drones are as large as the queen, or larger, (the wings especially are larger) ; they have no sting, and the first joint of the tarsus of the posterior feet is neither invested with a woolly covering, nor length- ened into a point ; the eyes are larger and close together. The working bees are, as was first discovered by SCHIRACH, nothing else than imperfectly developed females. If the larvae of workers in the first three days after leaving the egg receive a more abundant and more fluid nutriment, and be transferred to the larger royal cells, there proceed from these, according to observations, which have been often distrusted, but, as it seems, are not deceptive, fruitful females or queens. The instinct of the working bees is consequently the instinct of female animals ; they accomplish a part of the maternal duties and take care of the larvae, the progeny of their more highly preferred sister. Some of the working bees have the charge of collecting food and material for building ; others, apparently weaker, remain in the hive, care for the feeding of the larvae, and fulfil domestic duties. These insects live originally in hollow stems of trees. Our domestic bees build in hives, to which different forms have been given. When a swarm of bees first comes into a hive, they cover it internally with an adhesive, resinous fluid, to keep out the cold air. This substance the ancients named propolis ; the bees obtain it from the clammy buds and young leaves of willows, elms, &c. Next they build with the wax (which was formerly thought to be prepared from the pollen of flowers, but is a true secretion from the honey1) perpendicular flat cakes or combs, beginning from above. These cakes consist of hexagonal cells, placed horizontally on each side, and opposed to each other by their tops, which are formed of three rhombs that meet in a solid angle. Each of these cells has 5^ millimeters in mean diameter, and, the royal cells excepted, the rest are nearly of the same size. Between the cakes they leave spaces, which serve as passages, and in which two bees can creep at the same time. Some cells contain eggs, others larvae or pupae, others again honey or pollen. The cell for the future queen is more spacious, almost cylindrical; its outer surface is rough, from impressed angular cavities, resembling imperfect cells. The number of these royal 1 As early as the middle of the last century (1774), a german priest (HORNBOSTEL), nder the name of MELITTOPHILUS THEOSEBASTUS, published observations on the sepa- ation of wax, which however were rescued from oblivion by TKEVIRANUS only twenty ears ago. The observations of JOHN HUNTER, Phil. Trans. 1792, p. 143, are better nown. The secretion of wax occurs in very thin transparent little plates on the bdominal surface of the working bees, and is collected in the folds between the rings. >ee G. R. TREVIRANUS in FR. TIEDEMANN, G. R. and L. C. TREVIRANUS Zeitschr. f. xiol. in. 1829, s. 62—71 ; comp. on the chemical question of the production of ?ax, a note in LIEBIG'S Organ. Chem. s. 307 — 315, from W. F. GUNDLACH'S Natur- •esch. der Bienen, Cassel, 1842, and the observations of DUMAS and MILNE EDWARDS, upported by accurate weighing, communicated to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, inn. des Sc. not. ie SeYie, xx. Zool. pp. 174 — 181. VOL. I. 23 354 CLASS vin. cells is from two to twenty1. They usually hang like stalactites at the margin of the honey-combs. Much wax is bestowed on these cells, which sometimes weigh as much as 150 common cells. Copulation, concerning which there has been much of fable, seems to occur during flight, and the lazy drones require to be excited to it by the queen. According to HUBER the penis remains in the queen, and the male dies in consequence ; the rest of the males also, as well as the male larvae, are put to death at the end of the summer, and cast forth from the hive. The larvae leave the egg after three days. After five days they prepare for changing. They surround themselves with a fine web, on which they are busied i^ days, and three days afterwards change into pupae. From the pupa after seven or eight days the perfect insect comes to view. This metamorphosis requires a shorter time in the queen, and a longer in the drones than we have here given for the workers (HuBEE). The working bees, when the perfect insects make their appearance, purify the empty cells, that they may be ready for the reception of new eggs. If the queen, as occasionally happens, should lay more than one egg in a cell, they carry out the supernumerary one. In the first beginning of spring (from February to April) no other eggs are laid by the queen than those which are to produce working bees ; the eggs of the drones are laid at a later period (April, May), and in succession ; shortly afterwards follow queen- bee eggs. In this way the society increases, and then sends colonies forth. The old queen is at the head of the colony, and leaves a daughter behind in the kingdom which she is leaving. This is called swarming. Bees swarm several times in the summer ; sometimes three or four swarms proceed from one hive ; but the last swarms are small and commonly perish. That a hive is about to swarm, may be known by a certain noise or song, and an unusual movement within it. The swarm leaves the hive on a favourable day, and gathers on the branch of a tree, on which the bees hang like a large bunch of grapes. Respecting the age which bees attain, there is difference of opinion. It is probable, however, as the experiments of HUBER shew, that they do not form an exception to other insects in this respect, and that, however a beehive may last five, ten, or even thirty years, there is no cause for believing that the bees themselves reach such an age as ARISTOTLE sup- posed, according to whom they may be six or seven years old. The queen lives longer than the working bees2. Bees have many enemies, especially amongst birds and insects ; we shall afterwards have occasion to mention some of them. They are also exposed to many diseases. Amongst the numerous works on bees we must limit ourselves to noting some. The two chief authors on Natural History amongst the ancients, 1 Occasionally, even more numerous according to some observations (REAUMUR once saw 40), but if ten be met with in a hive it must be considered to be a great number. 2 F. G. DESBOROUGH, On the durat. of Life in the Queen, Drone, and Worker of t/ie Honey-bee. Trans, of the Entomoloy. Soc. of London. New Series, London, 1853, II. pp. 145— lyr. INSECTA. 355 ARISTOTLE and PLINY, must be used with caution, (AmsT. Hist. Anim. v. 21, 22 ; PLINII Hist. Nat. Lib. xi. cap. v — xx). Amongst the moderns our SWAMMEEDAM made many observations on bees, and bestowed especially much care on their anatomy, Bijbel de Natuur. bl. 369 — 550. The chief sources for knowledge of the economy of bees are : REAUMUR, Mem. pour serv. a I' Hist. nat. des Ins. V. pp. 207 — 728 ; M. A. G. SCHIRACH, Hist. nat. de la Reine desAbeilles, la Haye, 1771, 8vo ; HUBER, Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris et Geneve, 1814. A review of the collected observations of different writers was given first by CH. BONNET, Contempl. d. 1. Nat. onzieme partie, chap. 26, 27, (Euvres, Tom. ix. (e'd. 8vo. Neuchatel, 1781), pp. in — 145, and afterwards by KIRBY and SPENCE, Introd. to Entomol. n. pp. 119 — 214, Letters 19, 20. Several works are quoted and used with deep erudition in the extensive article on the honey-bee, contained in the excellent work of BRANDT und RATZEBURG, Medizin. Zoologie, n. s. 177 — 205. 2. Posterior tibiae armed with two spines at the inferior and inner part. (Cubital cells three.) Euglossa LATE, Body smooth, shining. Proboscis elongate, bram quadrate. Aglae LEPELET. Comp. Encycl. method., Hist. Nat. Entomol. Tom. x. 1825, p. 105. (These insects appear to be parasitic, and differ from Euglossa as genus Psithyrus does from Bombus ; see below.) Bombus LATI?. Body hirsute. Proboscis moderate. Labium nsverse. Humming -bees. These insects construct their nest with mosses under the ground. Sp. Bombus terrestris, Apis terrestris, L., REAUM. Mem. s. I. Ins. T. vi. PI. in. fig. i, PANZER, DeutscU. Ins. Heft i. Tab. 16 ; black, with a yellow ring in front on the thorax and a yellow stripe at the base of the abdomen, of which the extremity is white. Bombus lapidarius, Apis lapidaria L., REAUM. Ins. T. vi. pi. i. fig. i — 4, CHRIST, Tab. 7. fig. i, black, the extremity of abdomen orange or reddish. The species of this genus are numerous. They live in small societies and in inartificial dwell- ings, which bear the same relation to the thickly inhabited artistic habita- tions of bees, that hamlets or villages do to large towns. Amongst the females two varieties are found, of which the smaller alone lays eggs that produce males ; so also in Apis mellifica workers are seen, that stand half way between common workers and the queen, and which appear to proceed from larvae of workers, into whose cells some of the queen's food has casually fallen. Some species have no neuters, and do not live in society, but parasiti- cally in the nest of other Bombi. They ought, therefore, according to the strict requirements of systematic division, to be arranged with the follow- ing. Here belongs Apis campestris PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 74, Tab. 1 1 . They form the genus : 23—2 o- 356 CLASS vin. Psithyrus LEPEL. DE ST. FARG., Apathus NEWMANN. Coinp. CHR. DREWSEN og J. SCHIODTE, Forteynelse over Danske Arter of Slcegterne Bonibus og Psithyrus; KROJER'S Tidsskr. n. 2. 1838, pp. 105 — 126. Tab. n. /?. Solitaries. Males and females alone, without neuters. Posterior feet with tibiae not excavated outwards, with first joint of posterior tarsi not tomentose internally. 1. First joint of posterior tarsi produced at the external angle of the apex or slightly prominent : second joint placed in the oppo- site or internal angle. Posterior feet often large, very hirsute. t Paraglpssse shorter than labial palps. (Cubital cells three.) Epicharis KLUG, LATR. Maxillary palps very short, with single joint. Acanthopus KLUG. Centris FABR. (in part). Maxillary palps with four joints. Species exotic, American. Fig. GUERIN, Iconogr. Ins. PI. 74, fig. 6. Comp. on this genus LEPELETIER, Encyd. method., Hist. Nat. Ins. Tom. x. P- 70S- Ancyloscelis LATR. (Tetrapedia KLUG), Ptilotopus KLUG. Saropoda LATR. Maxillary palps with five joints. Anthophora LATR. Maxillary palps with six joints. Sp. Anthophora hirsuta LATR., Apis plumipes PALL., PALLAS, Spic. Zool. ix Tab. I. fig. 14; — Anthophora parietina LATR., Annal. du Mus.m. 1804 pp. -251 — 259. Tab. xxn. fig. i, A — D. Melliturga LATR. ft Paraglossse setaceous, of the length of labial palps or longe than these. (Cubital cells in some two, in others three.) Eucera ScoPOLi, FABR., LATR. (and Macrocera SPINOLA). Comp. J. A. SCOPOLI Annus quartus historico-naturalis. Lipsias, 1770 8vo. Dissert, de Apibus, pp. 8, 9. Sp. Eucera, longicomis, Apis longicornis L., SWAMMERDAM Bill. not. Tal xxvi. fig. 6; PANZER, Deutschl. Ins., Heft 64. Tab. 21. The antennae i the male are somewhat longer than the body. Melissodes LATR. 2. First joint of posterior tarsi nearly of the same breadth narrowed gradually from base to apex, with external angle litt INSECTA. 357 or not at all produced; second joint inserted into the middle of apex of former. t Labial palps different in form from maxillary, with two large basal joints compressed, dilated. Nomada ScoPOLi, FABR. Mandibles small, narrow, unidentate or edentulous. Cubital cells in some three, in others two. Sub-genera : Oxea KLUG, Crocisa JUEINE, LATE., Melecta LATE., Pasites JUEINE, Epeolus LATE., Phileremus LATE., Ammobates LATE. Sp. Nomada succincta PANZ., Deutschl. Ins., Heft 55, Tab. 21 ; Nomada Roberjeotiana PANZER, ibid. Heft 72, Tab. 19, &c. Comp. HEKEICH SCH^SFFEE, Auseinandersetzung der europdischen Arten einiger Bienengattungen, in GEBMAE'S Zeitschr. f. die Entomol. I. i. 1839 s. 267 — 288 ; the same in his continuation of PANZEE'S Deutschl. Ins. Heft 1 66 and 176. Megachile LATE. (Anthophora FABR., Phyllotoma DUMER.) jabrum elongate, inflected, porrect below under the mandibles, andibles broad, dentate or narrow, porrect, bidentate at apex, pubital cells mostly two. i. With two cubital cells. a] With abdomen smooth or only downy, not pollinigerous. Sub-genera : Coelioxys LATE., Stelis PANZEE, LATE. b) With abdomen in females provided beneath with long setae forming brushes for collecting pollen. * With abdomen oval or triangular. Antkidium FABE., LATE. Maxillary palps with single joint. Comp. LATEEILLE, M6moire sur le genre d'Anthidie : Annales du Mu- xin. 1809, pp. 29—53 : pp. 207—234, PI. i. Sub-genera: Osmia PANZEE (Trachusa JUEINE, in part, Osmia and Anthocopa LEPELET.), Lithurgus LATE,, Megachile LATE. (Chali- codoma LEPELET.) Maxilliary palps with two to four joints. Sp. Megachile centuncularis, Apis centuncularis L., DUMBE. Cons. gen. s. I. Ins. PL 29, fig. 3, GUEEIN Iconogr. Ins. PL 73, fig. 7. These bees cut pieces off rose-leaves, which they stick together and form into cases rolled artfully together in form of thimbles. They arrange several of these cases behind one another in a row, and lay in each of them an egg and a supply of food for the larva. See EEAUMUE, Ins. VI. Mem. IV. — Megachile mu- raria, Xylocopa muraria FABB., REAUM. ib. Mem. in. PL 7, 8 ; G. C. SCHJEFFEE, die Maurerbiene, 1764. 358 CLASS viii. * * With abdomen elongate, cylindrical. Sub-genera : Heriades SPINOLA, LATR., Clielostoma LATR, 2. With three cubital cells. Ceratina LATE. Maxilliary palps with six joints. Sp. Ceratina albilabris, Prosopis albilabris FABR., GEKMAK and AHRENS, Faun. Ins. Ewrop. Fasc. v. Tab. 17, Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 126, fig. 5 ; in the south of Europe : on the economy of this insect comp. the observations of SPINOLA, Ann. du Mus. x. 1807, pp. 236 — 248. ft Labial palps similar to maxillary. a) Cubital cells three. Xylocopa LATE. Labrum very hard, horny, transverse, with anterior margin ciliate. Mandibles sulcate, with point bidentate. Abdomen depressed, broad, with sides hirsute. Feet very hirsute. Sp. Xylocopa, violacea, Apis violacea L., DUMER. Cons. gen. s. I. Ins. PL 29, fig. i; Cuv. R. Ani. £d. ill., Ins. PL 126, fig. 4, in southern Europe, &c. Many large native species of remarkable size, with black or violet glister- ing wings, belong to this division, as also Xylocopa morio from Java, &c. Sub-genus : Mesotrichia WESTW. Systropha ILLIG. Antennae of males convoluted into a spire at the apex. b) Cubital cells two. Panurgus PANZ., LATR., Eriops KLUG. Antennas clavate 01 subclavate. Camptopceum SPINOLA. • Rophites SPINOLA, LATR. Phalanx II. Andrenetce. Median portion of ligula shorte than mentum, lanceolate or cordate. Labial palps similar to maxil lary, quadriarticulate. (Genus Melitta KIRBY.) These bees are all solitary, and consist of male and female indivi duals alone. The females collect pollen, not only with the hind fee but with other haired parts of their body ; they dig under grouii' and place by their egg a provision of pollen and honey. Other; not formed for gathering pollen, lay their eggs in the nests of othe bees. Andrena FABR. Median division of ligula acuminate at th apex, lanceolate or hastate (triangular, auriculate on each side). INSECTA. 359 Sub-genera : Nomia Halictus, Sphecodes, Dasypoda, Andrerta LATE. Hylceus LATR, (not FABR.), Prosopis FABR., JURINE, LEPELET. Ligula dilated at apex, sub-emarginate. Cubital cells two. Body smooth. Sp. Hylceus annulatus, Apis annulata L., Sphex signala PANZER DeutscJd. Ins. Heft 53, Tab. 2 ; Cuv. R. ani. ed. ill, Ins. PI. 125, fig. i &c. Colletes LATR. Ligula emarginate, with lobes divaricate (cor- date). Cubital cells three. Body hirsute. Sp. Collates fodiens, PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 105, Tab. 21, 22, &C.1 Family XV. Diplopteryga. All the individuals winged. Anterior wings longitudinally duplicate, the insect being at rest. First joint of posterior tarsi not dilated. Eyes emarginate (reni- form). Antennae filiform or thicker towards the apex. Prothorax produced laterally as far as the the origin of the posterior wings. Body smooth. Females and neuters armed with a strong poisonous sting. Wasps. The inner edge of the upper wings is turned down so that their upper surface lies on the under wings2; hence the name Diploptera (double-winged), which KIRBY, because the termination ptera denotes the names of orders of insects, changed into Dip- lopteryga (J. RICHARDSON, Fauna £oreali-Americana, iv. 1837, p. 263). The wasps are mostly coloured yellow or red and black. The pupae are vermiform, and without feet. They are inclosed in sepa- rate cells, where they find food placed by the mother with the egg she has laid, or are fed daily by the mother or by the sterile working-wasps. Phalanx I. Antennae with only eight distinct joints, the rest conjoined to form an obtuse or rounded club. Ligula with two terminal lacinias, received in the tubular base. Cubital cells only two complete. 1 Comp. Entomologica, auctore J. IMHOFF, OKEN'S Isis, 1832. s. 1198 — 1208; de- scriptions of species of the genera Colletes, Hylceus and Andrena, with remarks on the synonymy. 2 The genus Ceramius seems to be the only exception to this, which however is denied by LEPELETIER, Hist. not. dcs Hymenopteres, n. p. 590. 360 CLASS VIII. Masaris- FABR. Masaris LATR. Antennae (of males) longer than head. Abdomen elongate. Celonites LATR. Antennae in both sexes very short, terminated by a globose club. Abdomen scarcely longer than thorax. Sp. Celonites apiformis, PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 76, Tab. 19 ; DUMEUIL, Cons. gen. s. I. Ins. PL 31, fig. 9 ; Cuv. R. ani. id. ill., Ins. PI. 123, fig. 9; in southern Europe. Phalanx II. Antennas with all the joints distinct, 13 in males, 12 in females, with second joint geniculate, thicker from third joint towards apex, acuminate at apex. a) Solitary1. Mandibiles elongated-triangular, connivent, like a rostellum. Ligula narrow, elongate. Clypeus sub-cordiform or oval, with anterior margin produced and truncated. t Cubital cells only two. Ceramius LATR., KLUG. Labial palps longer than maxillary. Sp. Ceramius Fonscolombii LATR., GUERIN, Iconogr. Ins. PL 72, fig. 2. ft Cubital cells three. Synagris LATR., FABR. Ligula produced into four very long sub-plumose setse. Maxillary palps short, with four joints. Man- dibles of males very large, porrect. Sp. Synagris calida, Vespa calida L., GUERIN, Iconogr. Ins. PL 72, fig. 3 ; — Synagr. cornuta, Vespa cornuta L., Encycl. meth., Ins. PL 382, fig. 10. Comp. on this genus LEPELETIER in Encycl. meth. Ins. Tom. x. pp. 509, 510. Eumenes LATR., FABR. Ligula tripartite, with -middle part deeply incised, bifid. Four glandular points at the apices of ligula. Maxillary palps with six joints. a) With abdomen oval or conical, thicker at the l>ase. Sub-genera : Pterochilus KLUG (with labial palps plumose), Ody- nerus LATR. (Rhynchiwm SPINOLA). Sp. Odynerus auctus, Vespa aucta FABR., PANZER, Deutschl. Ins., Heft 81, Tab. 17 ; Odyn. spinipis, (fern. Od. murarius), PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 17, Tab. 18. (Here belong, according to AuDOUiN, the observations of REAUMUR, Ins. vi. pp. 251 — 268. PL xxvi. figs, i — 10.) 1 H. F. DE SAUSSURE, Monographic des Gu&pes solitaires, av. 21 pi. color. Paris et Geneve, 1852, 8vp. INSECTA. 361 Cornp. on this genus WESTMAEL, Monogr. des Odyneres de la Belgigue, Bruxelles, 1833, 8vo, (Ann. des Sc. nat. xxx. 1833, pp. 426 — 432) ; HER- RICH-SCHJEFFER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 173, 176 ; LEON-DUFOUR, Mem. pour servir a VHist. de I'industrie et des metamorphoses des Odyneres, Ann. des. Sc. nat, 2e Serie, Tom. xi. 1809. Zool. pp. 85 — 103. (Odynerus rubicola) ; AUDOUIN, Observations sur les mceurs des Odyneres, ib. pp. 104 — 113. b) With first tivo joints of abdomen coarctated to form a petiole, ike first narrow ob-coniccd, the second sub-campanulate. Sub-genus : Eumenes LATR. (Zethus FABR., Discc&lius LATR.) Sp. Eumenes coarctata, Vespa coronata PANZ., GEOFFR. Ins. n. PI. xvi. fig. i ; PANZER, Deutschl. Ins., Heft 64, Tab. 126, and Vespa coarctata PANZ. ibid. 63, Tab. 6; Vespa pomiformis, PANZ. ib. 63, Tab. 7, fem. &c. b) Social. Mandibles subquadrate, obliquely truncated and denticulate at apex. Lingula little elongate, tripartite, with middle part bifid. Four glandular points at apices of lingula. Labial palps quadriarticulate, maxillary sexarticulate. Cubital cells three. Vespa (Species from genus Vespa L., Vespa, Polistes LATR.) In wasps the upper lip (labruni) is hidden behind the head-shield (clypeus) and upper jaws (hintere Zunge, TREVIRANUS, Verm. Schr. n. Tab. xv. figs. 7, 8, 9, L'). Close under the upper-lip is found a valve, which SAVIGNY names epipharynx or epiglossa (vordere Zunge TREVIRANUS). The hypopharynx of SAVIGNY (Klappe TRE- VIRANUS, 1. 1. s. 134, Tab. xv. figs. 6 — 8, letter v.) is a valve closing a cavity which was discovered by BRANTS, and named gluten-cavity (see his work cited above, p. 452, Tijdschr. voor. Nat. Gesch. vm. bl. 97) ; in this cavity, not unlike the buccal sacs of certain mammals, the wasps keep small pieces of wood for building their nests l. The wasp's nest consists of a kind of paper, prepared from small pieces of old wood and bark of trees ; they gnaw off the pieces with their upper jaws ; the cakes are usually horizontal ; the uppermost are formed first and afterwards the lower j they hang together by little pedicles, and the uppermost of all is fixed to the common covering; for most wasps form a common covering for their nests, whilst bees merely hide their waxen dwellings in hollow trees or under the ground. A wasp's nest either hangs freely in the air, or is formed under ground or in cavities of trees. The cells are hexangular, perpendicular, and generally with the opening facing downwards. 1 On the under-lip (ligula) and the other parts of the mouth in wasps, comp. the fig. lin REAUMUR, Mem. s. 1. Ins. vi. PI. 16, fig. 2. 362 CLASS vin. . In bees we saw a monarchy with a queen at the head ; here the form of government is a republic, the members of which are supported less by their own industry than by rapine. Wasps are freebooters ; they are very eager for the juice of fruits ; they suck the fluid that adheres to meat in slaughter-houses, cut pieces off, rob bees of their honey and murder them, as well as other insects, not for their own use, but to feed their larvae with them. This robber-state, however numerous its citizens may be, owes its origin to a single mother. She is fertilised in the autumn, and lives over the winter, whilst the neuters and males die, and in the spring commences the work alone. After a while she is assisted by sexless wasps which are her first-born children. In autumn males an cT females are born. At that time some hundreds of the last are often found in a single nest, dwelling in uninterrupted peace, whilst amongst bees only two or three females are able to be of one mind together, for a short time. The working wasps are smaller than the rest ; they all die from the cold of winter. Comp. REAUMUR, Mem. s. 1. Ins. vi. Mem. vi. vii ; BONNET, Contempla- tion de la Nature, XI. partie, chaps. 23 — 25 ; (Euvres d'llist. Nat. et de Philos. Tom. ix. 8vo, pp. 99 — 100; KIBBY and SPENCE, Introd. to Ento- mol. ii. pp, 107 — 112. Polistes LATR. Clypeus produced anteriorly into a sharp tooth. Abdomen in some adhering to the thorax by a long petiole. Sp. Vespa nididans FABB., Epipone chartaria LATB., Hist. not. des Crust, et des Ins. xni. Tab. 102, f. 6 ; GUEBIN, Iconogr. Ins. PI. 72, fig. 7. This South- American species makes very large nests, as though of pasteboard, hung to a branch of a tree, like long sacks with a conical lower end, with an opening in the middle. The cells are attached to different transverse partitions, which are perforated in the middle ; this is the Guepe cartonniere of REAUMUB, Ins. vi. Mem. vn. p. 224, &c. PL 20 — 24, &c. To this division also belongs the honey-gathering wasp of the Brazils, named Lecheguana ; see LATBEILLE, Mem. du Mitseum, XL pp. 313 — 320, and another species which A. WHITE names Myropetra scutellaris, whose nest differs from that of Vespa nidulans by the conical knobs with which it is beset externally. Ann. of not. Hist. vn. 1841, pp. 315 — 322. To the division Polistes belong some European wasps whose nest has no common covering, the cells lying bare. SWAMMEBDAM, Bijbel der Nat. Tab. -26, fig. 15 ; KOESEL, Ins. n. Bomb, et Vesp. Tab. vn. Vespa LATR. Clypeus truncated anteriorly, emarginate. Sp. Vespa crabro L., EEAUMUB, Ins. vi. PI. xvin.1 — Vespa vulgaris L., REAUM. ibid. PI. xiv. figs, i — 7, PANZEB, Deutschl. Ins., Heft 49, Tab. 19, &c. 1 That this insect, the largest and .most voracious wasp of Europe, may be to some extent tamed, and then is not to be feared, appears from the observations of P. W. J. MUELLEB ; see his amusingly written paper in GEBMAB und LINCKEN, Magazin der Entomologie, in. 1818, s. 56 — 68. INSECTA. 363 Family XVI. Heterogyna. Females (amongst the solitary) or neuters (amongst the social) apterous ; males less than females. Wings not plicate, with cells often few, incomplete. First joint of posterior tarsi not dilated. Females and neuters in some furnished with a sting, in others with anal glands that secrete a peculiar acid. Ligula small, membranous, round, excavated or hooded. Antennas geniculate. Phalanx I. Socialia or Formicaries. Males females and neuters, or abortive females. Neuters apterous, without ocelli, with head very large, and labium large, descending under the mandibles. Mandibles strong, often denticulate. Antennas filiform or subin- crassated towards the apex, with first joint very long, cylindrical or obconical. Petiole of abdomen formed of one or two globose nodes. Formica L. Ants (fourmis, Ameisen, miereri}. The females have wings that easily fall off, or are stript off by themselves after copulation. The sexless individuals on the contrary are without wings, and without simple eyes (ocelli) also ; they are, like the working bees, imperfect females, as appears also from the observation of HUBER, who fre- quently saw males copulate with them, but the act always caused the death of the neuters. The males and females are found as per- fect insects in the nests for a short time only, for they desert them as soon as they have gotten their wings. The males are smaller than the females, and have also a smaller head and smaller upper jaws, but larger eyes. These animals live together socially, construct for themselves nests of earth, leaves, straw1, &c., in which other insects and their larvae often reside, as those of Cetonia and other Coleoptera, especially Brachelytra, which in these last times has given occasion to much inquiry among entomologists2. Above the place where they dwell the ants raise small hillocks or round heaps of earth. Other species live in hollow stems of trees. Along straight roads 1 Hence there exists a species of vegetable manure and a high temperature in an ant's nest, which continues even after it has been deserted by its inhabitants. ROBERT, Ann. des Sc. not. sec. Se'rie, xvm. Zool. 158. 2 On insects living in ants' nests, see amongst others : MANNERHEIM, Bulled, de la Soc. imp. de Moscou, xvi. 1843, pp. 70 — 78, M^EKLIN, ibid. xix. 1846, pp. 157 — 187, and especially FR. MAERKEL in GERMAR'S Zeitschr. /. d. Entomol. in. 1841, pp. 20 — ii$,ibid. v. 1844, s. 193 — 271. 364 CLASS viii. over the ground, often a hundred feet long, which all end like rays at the dwelling, the ants pass to and fro ; irregular and tortuous passages lead to the separate habitation of the future generation. All the labour of building, of nursing and feeding the larvae &c. is discharged by the neuters. They live on fruits, insects and their larvae, on dead birds and small mammals. They are very fond of sugar, and follow the plant-lice in order to swallow the sweet sap (the honey-dew) that drops from their body. They lay up no provision for winter, as far at least as relates to our native species, but pass the winter in a state of torpor, taking no food at all in the severest cold. The working ants bear the larvae and nymphs with the great- est care between their jaws to the surface when the sun shines on their dwelling, and down again when rain falls on the earth, and they defend with incredible courage the commonwealth which has no other government but a true republic. The larvse and pupae are commonly taken for eggs by the uninformed, and serve for food for certain singing birds in cages : nightingales especially are fond of them. In the last days of summer (August), in warm clear weather, the winged males and female leave the nest in which they have been brought up, fly in swarms through the air, copulate, and die soon afterwards, being swallowed by birds, or drowned in water and made food for fishes. The females that are left divest them- selves with their feet of the wings that are now useless, and found a new colony ; working ants, in whose neighbourhood they chance to be, drag them to their nest to lay their eggs there ; when that is accomplished they are driven without mercy from the nest. Comp. on Ants : SWAMMERDAM, Bifid der nat. bl. 287 — 299; CH. DE GrEER,/ns. xvmifeme Mem. n. pp. 1042 — 1107; BONNET, Contempl. de la Nature, Partie xi. chap. 22, (Euvr. compl. 8vo, ix. pp. 89 — 98 ; KIRBT and SPENCE, Introd. to Entom. I. pp. 479 — 484 ; n. pp. 45 — 106 ; OKEN, Allgem. Naturgesch. Vol. 2, 1835, pp. 895—945. LATREILLE, Hist. nat. des Fourmis, i Vol. 8vo, av. fig. Paris, 1802. P. HUBEB, JRecherches sur les moeurs des Fourmis indigenes, i Vol. 8vo, av. fig. Paris et Genfeve, 1810. LUND, Sur les habitudes de quclques Fourmis du Bresil. Ann. des Sc. nat. xxm. 1831, pp. 113 — 138. A. Petiole of abdomen composed of two distinct nodes. Females and neuters furnished with sting. Myrmica LATH, (with addition of other genera). Sub-genus : Atta FABR, LATR., Maxillary palps short, with five joints or fewer. INSECTA. 365 Sp. Atta cephalotes FABR., Formica cephalotes L., DE GEER, Ins. m. PI. 31, fig. ir, LATR. Fourmis, PI. ix. fig. 57, KOLLAR, Brasil. voziigl. last. Ins. fig. 10. The neuters are five lines long with a very large head, heart- shaped, armed behind with two small spinules, chestnut-brown all over. These ants can strip whole trees of their leaves in a few hours. In Suri- nam and Brazil1. Add sub-genera : Cryptocerus LATE., Stenamma, WESTW., Myrme- cina CURTIS, Myrmecaria SAUNDERS, Carebara WESTW., Solenopsis WESTW., Pheidole WESTW. Comp. J. 0. WESTWOOD, Descriptions of several exotic species of Ants, Ann. ofnat. Hist. vi. pp. 86 — 89. Sub-genera Myrmica LATR. (and Ecriton ejusd.). Maxillary palps long, with six joints. Sp. Myrmica rubra, Formica rubra L., FABR., SWAMMERDAM, Bijbel d. not. Tab. xvi. figs, i — 13. LATREILLE, Fourmis, PI. x. f. 62. Comp. on this ant, whose sting he has also figured, LEEUWENHOECK, 586, Missive von g Sept. 1687, Vervolgder Brieven, bl. 97 — 107. B. Petiole of abdomen with a single joint. Ponera LATR. Females and neuters aculeate. Add sub-genera : Odontomachus LATR, (Daceton PERTY does not differ from Odontomachus, on WESTWOOD'S authority), Condylodon LUND, Typhlopone WESTW., Anomma SHUCK. Comp. SHUCKARD, Ann. of Nat. Hist. v. pp. 326 — 328 ; WESTWOOD, ibid. vi. pp. 8 1 — 85. Formica LATR. (spec, from gen. Formica L.) Sting none. Add sub-genus : Polyergus LATR. Sp. Formica rufa L., LATR., Fourmis, PI. v. fig. 28, AB, (fern. Formica dorsata PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 54, Tab. i). This species, without a sting, affords the formic acid (Acidum formicarum s. formicicum, acide for- mique), a secretion from glands in the abdomen of the females and neuters. This acid is constantly fluid, colourless, of a pungent smell and sharp taste. FOURCROY and VAUQUELIN were of opinion that it consists of a mixture of acetic and malic acid; but the experiments of GEHLEN and others have shewn that it is a peculiar acid. Formica rufescens LATR., Fourmis, p. 186, PI. vn. fig. 38; this species robs the nests of other species of ants of the larvae and pupae of neuters, and carries them to its nest, where they are brought up with the young of their robber by neuters which have proceeded from larvse and pupce stolen 1 Ants are very numerous in South-America, and, by removing dead animals and destroying other insects, perform the same office in the economy of nature with the Carabici and Dermestes and other Clavicornes. The natives also eat ants. Smoked ants ( Vacliacos) are a favourite article of food with the Indians at the Rio-negro; V. HUMBOLDT'S Reise in die ^Equinoctial- Geycnden, iv. s. 315. 366 CLASS viii. at an earlier period. These ant-nests are thus inhabited by two different species, of which one alone works. They are the Amazon-ants of HUBEB, whose observations have been confirmed by LATREILLE (Mernoires sur divers sujets, Paris, 8vo, 1819, pp. 236 — 240), and by HANHART (Wissen- schaftlicher Zeitechr. von Lehrem der Baseler Hoclischule, cited by OKEN, Allg. NaturgesJi. v. 2. s. 943 — 945). Phalanx II. Solitaria s. Mutillarice. Males and females alone. Males winged. Females apterous, without ocelli, furnished with sting. Antennge filiform, with first and third joints elongate. BURMEISTER and WESTWOOD place these insects in the neighbour- hood of Scolia in the following division. Dorylus FABR., LATE. Antennas short, inserted near the mouth, above the forcipate mandibles. Head small. Abdomen elongate, cylindrical. Body, especially thorax, downy. Insects of which the males alone are known, perhaps parasitic in ants' nests. Sp. Dorylus helvolus, Mutilla helvola L., DUMER. Consid. g£n. s. I. Ins. PI. 32, fig. i (below) ; Cuv. £. Ani. 'ed. ill, Ins. PI. 118, fig. i (the feet are here badly depicted) ; habit. Cape of Good Hope. All the species are exotic, from the eastern hemisphere, particularly Africa. (There is in the Leyden Museum a species from Java and from Siberia ?) (Add sub-genera : Rhogmus and JEnictus SHUCKARD). Labidus JUEINE, LATR. All the species American. According to SHUCKARD, genus Typlilopone WESTW. should belong here and contain the females of the Labidi, on which point see the opinion of WESTWOOD, Ann. of Nat. Hist. vi. But on Dorylus comp. by all means SHUCKARD, Monograph of the Dory- lidea, Annals of Nat. History, v. 1840, pp. 188 — 201, pp. 258 — 272, pp. 315—396. Mutilla L. (exclusive of Mut. helvola.} Antennas inserted above the anterior margin of the clypeus. Head transverse, broad. Abdo- men oval or conical. Feet of females strong, with tibiae spinous ciliated. A. Mutilla LATR. (spec, of Mutilla L.) Thorax undivided. Sp. Mutilla rufipes FABR., Mutilla scllata PANZER, 6 or 7 millim. in size, thorax and feet red-brown, abdomen black with a white spot on the middle and a transverse band of white hairs at the posterior extremity. The male is Mutilla epliippium FABR., Cuv. R. Ani. 3d. ill., Ins. PL 118, fig. 3. Add sub-genus : Apterogyna LATR., DALM. Antennae long, in males almost of the length -of body. Thorax undivided. Two anterior segments of abdomen narrower, discrete. Sp. Apterogyna Olivier ii, Dictionn. class. d'Hist. not. Tab. 71, fig. 9, from Arabia and Egypt &c. INSECTA. 367 Psammotkerma LATE. Antennae (of males) bipectinate. Sp. Psammoiltenna flabdlata, Cuv. R. Ani. ed.ill., Ins. PI. 118, fig. 6. B. Thorax (in females) divided or nodose. Sub-genera : Me- thoca LATH, (male Tengyra LATE.), Myrmosa LATE,, Myrmecoda ejusd. (male Thynnus, Scotcena). Note. — That Tengyra is the male of Metlioca was observed by VAN DEE LINDEN, Ann. des Sc. natur. xvi. 1829, pp. 48, 49; on the others, comp. WESTWOOD, Introd. to Modern Classif. n. p. 215. Genus Scleroderma KLUG. Is this its place 1 Family XVII. Fossores s. SpJiegina. Wings in both sexes )bvious, expanded. Tarsus of posterior feet simple. Aculeate, soli- aiy hymenoptera, (males and females alone). Diggers. This family consists principally of the genus Sphex (sand-wasp) of LINNAEUS. The females of most of the species dig in the ground nests for their young, and lay in these holes near their eggs insects or larvae, sometimes spiders, as food for their larvse when they leave the egg. The larvse have no feet, resemble mag- gots, and spin themselves in, before changing into pupae. The per- fect insect is usually very lively, and sucks with avidity the honey- sap of flowers, on which (especially on the Umbelliferce) it is frequently met with. In many the lower jaws and under-lip are prolonged and form a rostrum ; the ligula however is not filiform, but commonly has a broad termination. Crabro FABR. Prothorax very short, linear, transverse, remote rom the origin of anterior wings. Feet short or of moderate length, lead large, quadrate above. Labrum concealed or scarcely exsert, xansverse. Abdomen obovate, constricted or clavate at base, jetiolate. Antennas often thicker towards the apex. Sub-genera : Cerceris LATE., Philanthus FABE., LATE., Psen LATE,, JUE. (Mimesa SHUK.), Alt/son JUEINE, Mellinus FABE., Pemphredon LATE., Stigmus JUEINE, Crabro FABE., Gorytes LATE,, Trypoxylon LATE., FABE. Note. — Genus Crabro (in the stricter sense) is distinguished by antennae geniculate, mandibles bifid at apex, a single cubital cell alone complete, a radial cell appendiculate (another imperfect). LEPELETIER DE ST. FAR- GEAU divided it into several genera, of which for the sake of brevity I omit the names. See his Hist. nat. d. Hyme'n. ill. pp. 99, &c., and a critical revision by HERRICH SCH^EFFER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 179 — 181. Comp. also DAHLBOM, Synops. Hi/men oplerol. Scandinav. I. 368 CLASS vin. These insects are mostly coloured black with yellow spots and stripes. The anterior part of the head (clypeus) is beset with fine smooth hairs that often have a beautiful silvery or golden lustre. They lay their eggs in holes, which they excavate with their fore- feet, and place near them a provision of food (insects or spiders — every species appears to select by preference a definite kind), which they drag either with their jaws or their hind feet. LEPELETIER DE ST. FARGEAU was of opinion that certain species whose fore-feet are not at all or only slightly haired, and hinder-feet without spines, are unfit for digging, and that they lay their eggs in the holes of other species, like the cuckoo in the class of birds. But later observations oppose this ; see WESTWOOD, Introd. to Mod. Classif. n. pp. 188—190. Sp. Crabro cribrarius, Spkex cribraria L., DUMEB. Cons. gen. s. 1. Ins. PI. 31, fig. 3; PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 15, Tab. 18,19 ; black ; a yellow trans- verse streak forward on the thorax, as also a small double spot on the middle of the thorax between the posterior wings and different transverse stripes, of which the two middlemost are interrupted in the middle ; the tibiae and tarsi of the same colour ; length 7 lines. The male of this, as of some other species, has on the tibiae of the forefeet a disciform expansion, which on copulation serves to clasp the female. This disk has been taken for a sieve (from whence the specific name is borrowed), and the property of sifting the pollen of plants been recognised in the insect. (ROLANDEB, VentensJc. AJcad. ffandlingar, Stockholm, 1751). This strange opinion owes its origin to the erroneous notion that the light transparent points seen on the disc are apertures : it was refuted by DE GEEB (Mem. s. les Ins. II. p. 818) and GOEZE (Natursforscker n. 1/74, s. i\ — 65). Nysson LATR. Antennas filiform. Abdomen conico-ovate or conical, broader at the base. Head moderate. The rest of the characters of the preceding genus. Mandibles entire. Sub-genera : Pison SPINOLA, LATR., Nitela LATR., Oxybdus LATR., JURINE, Nysson LATR., JURINE, Astarte LATR. (Dimorpha JURINE.) Sp. Oxybelus uniglumis, Crabro uniglumis PANZ., Deutschl. Ins. Heft 64, Tab. 44 ; GUEBIN, Iconoyr. Ins. PL 71, fig. 2, &c. Larra FABR. Prothorax short, transverse, linear, not extended as far as the origin of anterior wings. Feet short or moderate. Labrum concealed. Mandibles at the base deeply emarginate or the outer side. Abdomen conical. Dinetus JURINE, Miscophus JURINE, Larra FABR. (in part), LATR. Lyrops ILLIG., LATR. (Liris FABR.), Palarus LATR., Dryudella SPI NOLA, Gastrosericus ejusd. (Ann. de la Soc. entom. de France.*) INSECTA. 369 Sp. Larra ichneumoniformis FABR., PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 76, Tab. 1 8, &c. Bembex FABR. Prothorax and feet as in the preceding genus. Labrum exsert, often triangular, inflected. Mandibles narrow, dentated on the internal side. Maxillae and labium often extremely elongate, inflected. Body elongate, abdomen ovato-conical. Sub-genus £embex LATE., (and Monedula ejusd.) Labrum trian- gular. Maxillae and labium very long, linear, inflected, forming the promuscis. Sp. Bemlex rostrata, Apis rostrata L., PANZER, Deutsckl. Ins. Heft i. Tab. 10 ; DUMER. Cons. gen. s. 1. Ins. PI. 30, fig. 10; LATR. Ann. duMus. xiv. PI. 16, figs. 9 — 13; black, felty, with yellow feet, and light greenish yellow transverse bands on the abdomen ; 9 — 10 lines long. The female digs holes in the sand, and lays in each of them an egg with a sufficient quantity of Diptera (especially Eristalis tenax) for feeding the larva. Most of the remaining species are at home in warm regions ; but the species quoted occurs occasionally all over Europe, even in Sweden. Sub-genus Stizus LATE., JUEINE. Labrum small, semicircular. Maxillae and labium porrect, not inflected, nor elongato-liiiear. (In- termediate lacinia of labium elongato-cordate. Maxillary palps somewhat long, extended beyond the apex of maxilla.) Sp. Bembex ruficornis FABR., Ent. syst., Larra ruficornis ejusd. Syst. Piez., Cuv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 121, fig. 3 ; habit, in south of Europe and Numidia, &c. Sphex LIN. (exclusive of many species). Prothorax continued aterally as far as the anterior wings, narrowed forwards, resembling joint or node. Labrum scarcely or not at all exsert. Three com- ete cubital cells. Antennas slender, with joints elongate, often, t least in females, convolute or arcuate. Posterior feet very long, h tibiae and tarsi spinose. Abdomen adhering to thorax by a ong petiole. * With mandibles edentulous. Sub-genera : Pelopoeus LATE,, FABE., Podium FABE., (Trigonop- sis PEETY), Podium LATE, (not FABE.), Ampulex JUE., LATE. (Chlorion FABE. in part). * With mandibles on inside dentate. Sub-genera : Dolichurus LATE., Trirogma WESTW., Aphlelotoma VOL. I. 24 370 CLASS vi ir. WESTW. l, Chlorion LATR. and FABR. in. part, Sphex LATR., Pronceus LATR., Ammophila KiRBY2. Sp. Sphex sabulosa L. (Ammophila) , PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 65. Tab. 12, &c. Pompilus FABR. Protliorax produced as far as anterior wings, subquadrate, not narrower forward. Abdomen with very short petiole. Posterior feet long, ciliated on the inner margin. Cubital cells three, or two, alone. Antennae as in the preceding genus. Sub -genera : Aporus SPINOLA, Planiceps LATR., Pompilus LATR., Ceropales LATR., FABR., Pepsis FABR. (in part), LATR. On these and other sub-genera conip. LEPELET. Hymenop. in., and J. SCHIODTE de speciebus Pompttidarum in Dania obviis, KROYER'S Tidxakr. i. 1837, pp. 313—354. Tab. IV. Sp. Pompilus viaticus FABR., Sphex fusca L., PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 65, Tab. 16; DUMER. Cons. gen. s. L Ins. PI. 33, fig. 3, &c. Sapyga LATR., Hellus FABR. Prothorax transverse, produced to anterior wings. Abdomen elongate, shortly petiolate. Labrum not or scarcely exsert. Mandibles strong. Eyes emarginate (lunate). Antennae of length of head and thorax at the least, towards the apex thicker or sub-clavate. Feet short, slender, with smooth tibiae. Sp. Sapyga quinquepunctata LATR., Gener. Crust, et Ins. Tab. xni. fig. 9, (of which perhaps Sapyga varia, Encycl. meth. and GUERIN, Iconogr. Ins. PI. 69, fig. n, is merely, as LEPELETIER supposes, a variety), habit, in France. Note. — Genus Polochrum SPINOLA, unknown to me, differs from Sapyga by its antennae filiform. Here also were referred formerly genera Thynnus FABR. (in part), LATR., and Scotcena LATR. Partly at least they belong to the Mutillaria, and contain males of genus Myrmecoda. Comp. also genus Amblysoma WESTW. anc Anodontyra ejusd., GUERIN, Magas. de Zool. 1841, Ins. PI. 80, 81; females are unknown. Scolia FABR. Prothorax produced laterally as far as wings, as in the preceding genus. Eyes emarginate, reniform. Antenna thick, filiform, in males almost of the length of head and thorax 1 Annals and Magazine of not. Hist. vn. 1841, p. 152. 2 Transact, of the Linn. Soc. Vol. IV. 1798, p. 195. For some other sub-genera w may refer to LEPELETIER, Hymenopt. in. INSECT A. 371 females shorter, arcuate. Labrum retracted. Mandibles strong, :ruciate. Abdomen elongate, with short petiole; body hirsute. Sp. Scolia quadrimaculata F., DUMER. Consid. gen. s. L Ins. PL 31, fig. 2, habit, in North America, &c. Most of the species exotic, some very large. . In the South of Europe occur Scolia hortorum FABR., Scolia, insubrica (Scolia interrupta) PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 62, Tab. 14, &c. Note. — The males are distinguished by longer abdomen, trispinose at apex (anus tridentate), whence the name of the genus appears to be derived ((T/ccDXos, spina). Feet of females thicker, very hirsute. Add sub-genera Meria ILLIG., LATK., Myzine LATR., Tiphia FABR. Section II. Terebrantia. Abdomen in females furnished with borer or ovipositor, sessile in many. Antennse various, usually ith joints more or fewer than thirteen. Upper capitulum of femur ostly distinct, as though forming a second trochanter. Amongst these Hymenoptera, which deviate more from the usual type, there are many species whose larvae are provided with six horny feet. HARTIG first drew attention to the difference of articu- lation between the hip and the thigh, and named these hymenoptera, on that account, ditrocha, and those of the former division, on the other hand, monotrocha. SUNDEVALL has given a better explanation of this disposition, which we have followed in our statement of characters; Arsberattelse om nyare zoologiska Arbeten 1837 — 1840. Stockholm, 1841, pp. 324, 325. The genus Chrysis according to this character ought to belong to the first division. A. Entomophaga (Pupivora LATR.) Abdomen petiolate. Larvae )odous, mostly living parasitically in other insects. Family XVIII. Chrysidides. Inferior wings with no cells, ut only some longitudinal veins ; superior with radial cell long, ngle cubital cell imperfect. Antennae filiform, with thirteen joints both sexes. Abdomen joined to thorax by narrow, very short etiole, below plane or vaulted, composed of only three or of four onspicuous segments, dentate posteriorly in many. Integuments : body hard, smooth. Borer of females inclosed in concealed irminal segments of abdomen, receiving one another by inva- ination, composed of three setge, the groove of one containing the svo others. The golden-wasps. These insects were thus named on account of the shining metallic colours in which they glitter (the abdomen is 24—2 372 CLASS VITl. mostly gold-green or purple-red, sometimes blue, just as the head and thorax usually are), and which have caused them to be compared with humming-birds. The first joint of the antennae is elongate ; at the second joint they are bent geniculately. The females lay their eggs in the nests of other hymenoptera, whose larvae are eaten by theirs. These insects are protected from the sting of bees and other hymenoptera, their natural enemies, by their hard integument ; and besides this, they have the power of bending the abdomen under towards the thorax, and so, like the Armadillos amongst the mammalia, of contracting themselves into a ball. They form the transition between the first and second divisions, and are joined to the first, that of the aculeata, by HARTIG, because they are without the part which he considers to be a second trochanter. Comp. on this family LEPELETIER, Mem. sur quelques espdces nouv. d'in- sectes de la section des Hymenopteres porte-tuyaux, av. fig. col., Ann. du Mas. vn. 1806, pp. 115 — 129. The borer, improperly named a sting, is described and figured by DE GEER, Mem. p. I' Hist. d. Ins. n. pp. 834—836, PI. 28, f. 19—21, PI. 29, figs, i, 2. Parnopes LATE. Maxillas and labium very long, linear, form- ing a kind of promuscis inflected beneath the thorax. Maxillary and labial palps very short, biarticulate. Sp. Pamopes carnea LATR., DUMER. Cons. gen. s. I. Ins. PI. 31, fig. 7 ; AH RENS (GERMAR) Faun. Ins. Eur. Fasc. II. Tab. 10. This species has it. habitat in the south of Europe, and lays its eggs in the nest of Bembex ros trata; see LATREILLE, Ann. du Mus. d'Hist. nat. xiv. p. 415. Chrysis L. Labinm not in form of a promuscis. Maxillary palps with five joints, labial triarticulate. a) Palps equal. Sub-genus Stilbum SPINOLA, (Stilbum and Euchrceus LATR.) 6) Maxillary palps longer than labial. Sub-genera : Cleptes LATR., Chrysis SPINOLA, Elampus SPINOU Hedychrum LATR. Sp. Chrysis ignita L., FRISCH, Ins. ix. Tab. x. fig. i, SULZER, Die Kennz. Ins. Tab. xix. fig. 121, Guv. R. Ani. ed. ill., Ins. PI. 116, fig. 6, glittering with thorax green, and abdomen golden from above of a fire-red plaj and having at its extremity four denticles. Chrysis cycmea L., PANXKI Deutschl. Ins. Heft 51. Tab. 10, late. Sp. Mymar pulchellus WALKER, GUERIN, Iwnogr. Ins. PL 68, fig. 6 ; HER- RICH-SCHJ<:FFER, DeutscU. Ins. Heft 184, Tab. 135, (fig. copied in CURTIS, Brit. Entom. Tab. 411). 374 GLASS vnr. Note. — Here belong various sub-genera constituted by HALIDAY, on which comp. WESTWOOD, 1. 1. Generic Synopsis, pp. 78, 79. Platyg aster LATR. (with the addition of genera Scelio and Teleas ejusd.) Palps short. Abdomen depressed, sessile or affixed by a short petiole. Antennae broken, with ten or twelve joints, in females incrassated towards the apex. Sp. Teleas Iceviuscidus RATZEBURG, Forst-Insekten, in. Tab. viu. fig. 8 ; the larva lives in the eggs of the Bombyx pini ; in those of Bomb, neustria lives the larva of Teleas terebrans RATZEBURG, Teleas ovulorum BOUCHE. Add genus Iphitrachelus HALID. (tarsi with four joints) ; other sub-genera of this author are enumerated in WESTWOOD, Generic Synops, pp. 77, 78. Sparasion LATR. Abdomen depressed, sessile. Antennae in- serted below the frons, twelve-jointed. Maxillary palps long, filiform, five-jointed, labial three-jointed. Wings almost without nervures, with stigma distinct. Sp. Sparasion frontale LATE., Ceraphron cornutus JUKINE, Hymen. PI. 1 3, fig. 44, CUVIER R. ani ed. illustr., Ins. PI. 116, fig. i. HERRICH- SCH^EFFER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 184, Tab. 25. Ceraphron JURINE (in part). Abdomen subsessile, conico-acu- minate. Antennae broken, with eleven or twelve joints, the first elongate. Maxillary palps long, four-jointed, labial with two or three joints. Wings without nervures, in some none. Sub-genera : Megaspilus WESTW., Microps HALID., Calliceras NEES. Sp. Ceraphron sulcatus JURINE, Hymen. PI. 14. Dryinus LATR., Gonatopus KLUG., DALM. Abdomen convex, subsessile. Antennae ten-jointed, porrect, mostly short or moderate. Mandibles somewhat prominent, acute, frequently dentate. Max- illary palps elongate, five- or six -jointed. Anterior wings with stigma pretty conspicuous, and radial cell incomplete, with two brachial cells ; posterior wings increased by a lobe, in some no wings. a} With anterior tarsi of females raptorial. Sub-genera : Dryinus LATR., Anteon LATE., Chelogynus HALID., Gonatopus LJUNG. INSECTA. 375 Sp. Dryinus cursor HALID., GUERIN, Iconogr., Ins. PI. 68, fig. i, HERRICH- SCH.EFFER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 184, Tab. 21, (fig. cop. in CURTIS, Brit. Entom.) ; — Dryin. formicarius LATR., Gener. Crust, et Ins. I. Tab. xii. fig. 5, &c. 6) With anterior tarsi of females simple. Bethylus LATE., Omalus JUEINE, NEES. (Maxillary palps sex- articulate.) Sp. Bethylus cenopterus, Tiphia cenoptera PANZER, Deutsch. Ins. Heft 81, Tab. 14, &c. Add sub-genera Aphelopus DALM., NEES, Myrmecomorphus, Enibolemus, Epyris WESTWOOD, 1. 1. p. 76. Proctotrupes LATE., Codrus JUEINE, NEES. Abdomen conico- petiolate, with anal segments attenuated to form a curved tubule sheathing the borer. Antennae inserted in middle of frons, thir- teen-jointed in both sexes, straight, porrect. Maxillary palps four- jointed, much longer than labial. Superior wings with longitudinal nervures and stigma distinct. Sp. Procotrupes campanulator, Bassus campanulator FABR., GERMAR, Faun. Ins. Europ. Ease, v. Tab. 16 ; Proctotrupes pallipes, JURINE, Hym6n. PI. 13, fig. 46, &c. Diapria LATE., Psilus JUEINE. Abdomen petiolate, campanu- late. Antennas inserted in frons, with 12 — 15 joints. Maxillary- palps elongate, five-jointed. Wings often without nervures, and with stigma little distinct or none. Sp. Diapria verticillata, Psilus elegans, JURINE, Hymen. PL 13, fig. 48 ; Diapria cornuta, PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 83, Tab. n, &c. Add sub-genera Helorus LATR., Belyta LATR. (\Belyta JURINE and Cinctus ejusd.), and several genera of recent authors, principally English, on which comp. WESTWOOD, 1. 1. pp. 75, 76. Family XX. Chalcidice s. Chalcides. Posterior wings without nervures or with a single nervure submarginal, short ; anterior with only one cubital cell, imperfect, radial cell mostly wanting. An- tennse with joints various in number, not more than thirteen, with first joint elongate, almost always geniculate, often thicker towards the extremity. Head anteriorily bisulcate for receiving first joint of antennas. Palps very short. Borer originating from a chink of inferior surface of abdomen remote from apex, mostly concealed or exsert at the termination alone. 376 CLASS viii. The Chalcidice are small Insects, mostly shining with metallic lustre, many species of which are able to leap, though that is not always the case where the ability might be inferred from the thick- ness of the hind-feet. Their larvse live parasitically in those of other insects, especially of Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, and also in their eggs ; they are small maggots without feet. The pupae are mostly not included in a web. The number of species of this division is extraordinarily great ; in Great Britain alone nearly 1200 species have been found. Comp. on this family amongst others, SPINOLA, Essai d'une nouvelle Classification des DiploUpaires, Ann. du Mus. xvn. 1811, pp. 138 — 152 ; NEES VON ESSENBECK, Hymenopt. IcJineumonib. aff. Moncgr. n. pp. i — 310. (Monographia Pteromalinorum, amongst which some families are arranged that belong to the preceding family) ; the monographs of DALMAN and BOHEMAN, in the Trans, of the Swedish Acad. at Stockholm, for 1820 and 1833 ; BOYER DE FONSCOLOMBE, Monogr. chalciditum, &c., Ann. des Sc. natur. xxvi. 1832, pp. 273 — 307, and WALKER, Descriptions of the British Chalddites in Ann. of Nat. Hist. Vol. I — iv. 1838, 1839. A. Prothorax narrower than mesothorax, attenuated towards the head. Femora of posterior feet scarcely larger than the rest ; tibiae straight. Eulophus GEOFFR.J LATE., Entodon DALM. Antennae with seven or eight joints, very rarely with nine, in males sometimes ramose (pectinate with three internal branches). Tarsi with four joints. Sp. Eulophus pectinicornis, Ichneumon pectinicornis L., GUERIN, Iconogr. Ins. PI. 67, fig. 15, &c. Add sub-genus Cirropsilus WESTW., and several more, on which comp. WESTWOOD, Introd. to modern Classification of Ins. n. Generic Synopsis, pp. 73 — 75. Encyrtus LATR. Antennas eleven- or twelve-jointed. Inter- mediate feet longer than rest, with tibiae terminated internally at the extremity by a strong spine. Species numerous ; here belongs a figure of SCHELLENBERG, Tab. Xiv. of Mira mucora by name, placed wrongly amongst the Diptera. On several sub-genera, to be referred to Encyrtus, comp. WESTWOOD, 1. 1., pp. 72, 73« Pteromalus SWEDER. (in part), LATR., Antennae eleven- to thirteen-jointed. Middle feet like the rest. IN SECT A. 377 Sp. Pteromalus puparum, Ichneumon puparum L., GCED^EEDT, Metam. natur. i. Tab. 77, p. 144, KXESEL, Ins. II. Bombylior. et Vespar. Tab. in. &c. Add genera Cleonymus LATH., Perilampus ejusd. and numerous sub-genera of more recent authors ; on which comp. WESTWOOD, 1. 1. pp. 67—72. Does genus Eucharis LATR. also belong here 1 Prothorax short, narrow, mesothorax gibbous, elevated. Antenna? moniliform, eleven- or twelve-jointed, straight. Abdomen with long petiole. Feet slender, with posterior femora not incrassated. Sp. Eucharis adscendens, Oynips adscendens PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 88, Tab. 1 8, &c. B. Prothorax transversely quadrate. 1) Posterior feet not much differing from anterior, with tibiae straight. Eurytoma ILLIG., LATR. Antennae eleven- to thirteen-jointed, in males longer, with joints distinct, nodose. Add genus Spalangia LATE., and other sub-genera; on which see WESTWOOD, 1. 1. pp. 66, 67. Toracantha LATE. 2) Posterior feet with femora very large, ovato-lenticular, with tibiaa arcuate. Chalcis FABR., LATR. Prothorax much broader 'than long. Antennae eleven- or thirteen-jointed, thicker towards extremity. Borer concealed. Sp. Chalcis ininuta FABR., Chalcis femorata DALM., PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 32, Tab. 6, DUMER. Cons. gen. s. 1. Ins. PI. 34, fig. i, &c. (Sub- genus Brachymeria, WESTW.) Sub-genus Chirocera LATR. (With antennae of males pectinate). Dirhinus DALM. Palmon DALM. Conura SPINOLA. (With abdomen conical, acuminate.) Sp. Conura flavicans SPINOLA, GUERIN, Magasin de Zool. 1837, Ins. PL 180 ; hab. in Brasil. On some other sub-genera comp. WESTWOOD, 1. 1. p. 66. 378 CLASS MIL '(i»y>/,s' FA UK. Thorax gibbous, prothorax transversely <\uad- rato. I'ppor wings doubled Longitudinally. Antenmv with twelve or fifteen joints, incrassated at apex. Borer reflected above the baek. Sp. Leucotpis giyas FABR., KLUG., P Heft 84, Tal>. 17, iS. I'rv. 7>\ ani. eel. HI., Ins. PI. 116, fig. 6. Lciico$j>i.i intermedia ILI.U;.. dorsigcra PANZER, Deutochl. Ins. Heft 15, Tab. 17, DUMKHIL. Conn. #. /. i,)*. ri. .^4, fig. «, &c. This genus contains species of A inch and more, whilst the sinallost species are still more than 3 lines in size, so that it may be considert.il gigantic in this family of dwarfs. In Europe species of Zefuv.^ found in the southern regions alone, principally in Italy. To the extrica- tion of the synonomy ILLIGKR, KLUG, and lately AVi-.srwoon. have contri- buted : see the monograph of the last-named author, £i)tomol. Mti>ia*. n. p. a i a, &c. Family XXI. Ichneumonides. Wings four, veined, the anterior always furnished with complete cells. Maxillary palps distinct, elongate. Antennae mostly setaceous or filiform, lon^. with numer- ous joints. Body elongate, slender. Ovipositor straight, often exsert, bivalved, including a borer of three seta\ Slip-wasps, Ichneumons. We unite in this family the Ic/nieu- manides and Evaniales of the systematic entomologists of recent times. Of many species the economy is yet unknown, yet of all whose mode of life has been observed the larva? are found in other insects, and nearly always in the lurvre of these. They are especially caterpillars, the larvae of Lepidoptera, in which Ichneumon- their eggs; the larvae of JBvania are parasites of the genus Bhttta, and probably live, according to an ol^ervation of MAO LEAY (related by WESTWOOD, Introd. to mod. Chissif. of Ins. i. p. ±22) in the membrane of their eggs. Comp. on this family amongst others : J. J. TRKNTKPOHL, Hcrisio critica generis Ich-aeumotiu. OKE.N 1816, pp. 55—87, pp. 293—308. J. L. C. GRAVKXHORST, Ickneumonologia curopcea. Vrntislavia m. Vol. 8vo. NEES AB ESSENBECK, ffynienopteroruni Ichneumonib. a,rnn. M< pkite. Volumen lum. J. T. C. RATZEBURG, Die Ickneumoncn der Forstinteben. Berlin, 1844, 4to. Phalanx I. Ickneumones. Abdomen inserted between the two -'erior feet. Antenna1 mostly setaceous or filiform, composed of 'I A. great number of joints (sixteen, and many more1). Maxillary palp.s, mostly five, articulate. A. Ichneumones adsciti, s. Braconides. A dis^oidal cell under the first cubital cell extended to the margin of wing, not divided a recurrent nervure. Second cubital cell frequently large. Aphidius NEES. Head transverse, with vertex broad. Abdo- affixed by a short cylindrical petiole, incurvatile beneath the ix. Borer not exsert. Antennae with joints very distinct, rather few (eleven to twenty-four). Maxillary palps shortish (five- or four-jointed). Sp. Ichneumon Aphidum L., Aphidius varius NEES, DE GEEB, Ins. II. PI. 30, f. 12, 13. (The fig. of PANZEB, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 95, Tab. 13, also belongs to this species according to NEES.) This small species lays its eggs in Plant-lice, in each one a single egg. The pupa of the Ichneumon lies curled up in the body of the Aphis. See LEEUWENHOECK, Sevende ven-<>l'j van Brieven, bl. 225 — 294, 1346 Missive van 26 Oct. 1700, (and the fig. hi. 217 — 281), also DE GEEB, 1. 1. pp. 866 — 875 2. Sub-genera : Trioxys HALID., Monoctonus ejusd., Toocares WESTW. (Trionyx HALID.), Ephedrus HALID., Praon HALID. Alysia LATR. Head broad. Abdomen sessile. Borer exsert. Mandibles subquadrate, with apex tridentate, divaricate (even when drawn together, distant). Maxillary palps sexarticulate. Antennae moderate or long, with more than twenty joints. Sp. Alysia manducator, Ichn. manducator, PANZEB, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 72, Tab. 4, GU&UN, Iconorjr. Ins. PI. 66. fig. n, &c. The larvae of many species of this genus live in the pupae of Diptera, others in the larvae of Scarabcei. Sub-genera : Ccelinius NEES (comp. HEKRICH-SCH^EFFER Deutsch. Ins. Heft 153, 154, 156), Chcenusa, Chorebus, Dacnusa, (Enone, Chasmodon HALIDAY, (WESTWOOD, Generic tiynops. f. 65), Copisura SCHIODTE. 1 Some species of the genus Aphidius NEES, of which HALIDAY forms the genus Ephedrus, make an exception to this, and have only eleven or twelve joints in the antennae. 2 These small parasites have their own in return : larvae of Cynips, parasites of the second order. See GOEZE, Naturforschcr, xil. 1778, s. 197 — 220. 380 CLASS VIII. Bracon FABK. (in part), LATR. Clypeus exscinded, a hiatus being left above the mandibles. Maxillary palps quinquearticulate. Head transverse or subglobose. Sp. Bracon impostor NEES, Bracon denigrator FABK. (excl. syn. L.), PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 45, Tab. 14, &c. Rogas NEES. (See WESTWOOD, 1. 1. p. 64 for other sub-genera). Sigalphus LATR. (Chelonus JURINE). Clypeus entire. Abdo- men fornicate beneath, triannulate above, or continuous, no vestige of incisures remaining, with all the segments united into one. Maxillary palps sexarticulate, labial shorter, quadriarticulate. Sp. Sigalphus irrorator, Cryptus irrorator FABR., DE GEER, Ins. I. Tab. 36, fig. 12 ; GUERIN, Icognogr., Ins. PL 68, fig. 9 (in this figure the division of the nervures in the wings is incorrectly represented as though there were a second recurrent nerve, as in the Ichneumones genuini) ; 4^ lines long ; expanded wings 8 lines ; abdomen glistering at the extremity with brownish green from fine smooth hairs, wings brownish with blacker exter- nal margin and a white spot in the middle under the radial cell. The larva, according to DE GEER, lives in the caterpillar of Noctua psi, 1. 1. P- 577- Helcon NEES. Microgaster LATR. Note. — For other genera and sub-genera, here omitted 011 account of our limited space, the works recommended above may be con- sulted. B. Ichneumones genuini. Recurrent nerves two, one dividing the area situated under the cubital cells. First cubital cell large, confluent with the first discoidal cell ; second cubital cell rhombic, pentagonal or trigonal, very small, in some none. Maxillary palps with five joints, labial palps with four joints. In this division no such small species occur as in the preceding (ex. gr. the genus Aphidiua). The larvae live principally in cater- pillars. Some species do not lay their eggs in the caterpillars, but fasten the eggs, which are provided with a pedicle for the purpose, on the skin of the caterpillars. See HAKTIG, Ueb. d. qestielten Eier J- t/ der Schlupfwespen, WIEGMANN'S Archiv, 1837. s. 151 — 158. Taf. iv. GRAVENHORST has described more than 1600 species of Ichneumones genuini ; a number which will be continually increased by fresh observers. INSECTA. 381 t Genuine Ichneumons, with abdomen convex, or depressed, a) With abdomen petlolate or sub-petiolate. Ichneumon L. (exclusive of man y species). Head narrower than lorax. Borer subexsert or concealed. Second cubital cell dis- tinct, mostly pentagonal. Sp. Ichneumon sputator FABK., PANZER, Deutschl, Ins. Heft ig, Tab. 20; — Ichn. Troscheli RATZEB., in the caterpillar of Noctua piniperda. Tryphon FALL. Head narrower than thorax. Borer subexsert or concealed. Second cubital cell almost obsolete, triangular. Abdomen elongate. On this genus, which contains very numerous species, comp. GRAVEN- HORST, IchneumoL n. pp. i — 368. Add sub-genus Polyblastus HARTIG, SCHIODTE. Megastelus SCHIODTE. Trogus PANZER, GRAVENH. Head transverse. Borer concealed. Second cubital cell triangular or quinquangular. Scutellum gib- bous, prominent. Abdomen distinctly petiolate, oblong. Trogus lutorius, Ichneum. lutorius FABR., DE GEER, n. PI. 29, fig. 9, p. 848 ; one of the largest native hymenoptera, 10 lines to i inch long ; thorax black, scutellum sulphur-yellow, feet and head yellow beneath, abomen red-brown, at the extremity blackish. The larva lives in the cater- pillar of Sphinx ocellata, Sph. pinastri, &c. Alomya PANZER, GRAVENH. ' Cryptus FABR. Head transverse. Abdomen oval, distinctly petiolate. Borer exsert. Note. — Some species are distinguished by their small size, the defect of wings, or by rudiments alone of wings : sub-genus Pezomachus GRAVENH., Sp. Crypt, nigro-cinctus, Ichn. pedicularius PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 8 1, Tab. 13, &c. Add genus Cylloceria SCHIODTE, see GUERIN, Magas. de Zool. 1839, Ins. PL 9, 10. Xorides LATE. Accenitus LATR. 1* /3) With abdomen sessile (eodremely short petiole). Pimpla FABR. Head transverse. Borer exsert, long. Antennas long, filiform, slender, with numerous joints. Mandibles bifid at apex. 382 CLASS viii. a) With second cubital cell evanescent. Sub-genera : Glypta GRAVENH., Polysphincta ejusd., Scliizopyga, ejusd., Clistopyga ejusd. b) With second cubital cell distinct, mostly triangular. Sub-genera : Rhyssa GRAV., Trachyderma, ejusd., Ephialtes SCHRANK, GRAY., Pimpla GRAY., Lissonota GRAV.1 Sp. Pimpla (Ephialtes) manifestator, Ichneumon manifestator L., PANZER, Deutsclil. Ins. Heft 19, Tab. 21, DUMERIL, Cons. g£n. s. 1. Ins. PI. 32, fig. i. Cuv. .ft. ami., ed. ill., Ins. PI. no, fig. 8, &c. Metopius PANZ., GRAVENH., (Peltastes Illig.) Sp. Ichneumon necatorius FABR., Ichn. vespoldes PANZ., Deutschl. Ins. Heft 47, Tab. 19. Bassus FABR., GRAV. ft Genuine Ichneumons with abdomen compressed. Banchus FABR. Abdomen sessile, or with very short petiole. Ophion FABR. Abdomen falcate, distinctly petiolate. Antennae slender, filiform. Sub-genera: Anomalon JURINE (in part), GRAVENH., Ophion, Paniscus, &c. Sp. Ophion glaucopterw FABR. ; — Ophion circumflexus, Ichneum. circum- flexus L., KATZEB. Forst. Ins. in. Tab. vi. fig. 2, &c. Hellwigia GRAV. Abdomen petiolate. Antennge clavate. Comp. GRAVENHORST, Hellwigia, novum insectorum genus ; Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. Natur. Curiosor. xi. 1823, pp. 315 — 322, Tab. 43. Phalanx II. Evaniales. Abdomen inserted into thorax above, before the origin of the two posterior feet. Antennae filiform or setaceous, with thirteen or fourteen joints. Anterior wings with distinct cells, posterior veined, destitute of cells. Maxillary palps longer, sexarticulate, labial quadriarticulate. Posterior feet with coxae long and strong, and femora often incrassate. 1 Of what small value this second cubital cell or areola is as a character in Pimplce, appears from some species of Lissonota GRAVENH., where it almost entirely disappears, or is sometimes present on the right wing and wanting on the left. GRAVENHORST, 1. 1. in. INSECTA. 383 A. Abdomen of moderate size or elongate. t Borer exsert. Aulacus JURINE. Abdomen compressed. Antennae setaceous. Sp. Aulacus striatus, JURINE, Hymen. Tab. 7, fig. 13: habit, on the moun- tains of Switzerland. Fcenus FABR. Abdomen elongate, clavate at apex? exceeding the length of head and thorax. Antennas filiform. Sp. Fcenus jaculator, Ichneumon jaculator L., REAUMUR, Ins. IV. PL 10, figs. 14, 15, PANZER, Deutschl. Ins. Heft 96, Tab. 16, DUMERIL, Cons, gen. s. I. Ins. PL 32, fig. 2, &c. ft Borer concealed. Pelecinus LATR., FABR. Inferior wings almost without ner- vures. Abdomen very long, filiform in females, moderate and clavate in males. Sp. Pelecinus polycerator LATR., GUERIN, Iconogr., Ins. PL 65, habit, in North and South America. Comp. on this genus LEPELETIER and SERVILLE, Encyl. method., Ins. Tom. x, 1825, pp. 29, 30; DE ROMAND, Note sur le genre Pelecinus, GUERIN, Mag. de ZooL, 1840, Ins. PL 48, 49 ; ejusd. Notice s. I. genre Pelec. ; ibid. 1842, PL 86 ; KLUG, die Arten der Gattung, Pelec., GER- MAR'S Zeitschr.f. d. Entom. in. 1841, s. 377 — 388, Tab. 11. (A genus in the opinion of this author related to the Oxyura, the genus Monomaclius WESTW., forming the transition to the genus Proctotrupes.) B. Abdomen very short, ovato-triangular, compressed, abruptly petiolate, often inserted almost beneath the scutelmm. Evania FABR., LATR. Sp. Evania appendicig aster, KIRBY and SPENCE, Introd. to Entom. PL IV. fig. 2, DUMER. Cons. gen. s. 1. Ins. PL 32, fig. 3, &c. Sub-genera: Brachygaster LEACH, Hyptia ILLIG. Comp. on this genus and the allied sub-genera SPINOLA, GUERIN, Revue Zoolog. 1840, pp. 244 — 248, and WESTWOOD, Trans, of the Entom. Soc. of Lond. in. 1843, p. 237, &c. Family XXII. Cynipsea s. Gallicolce. Posterior wings with QO nervure or one only, anterior with radial cell, and two or three cubital cells, the second triangular, third incomplete produced to apex of wing. Antennas of the same thickness, or gradually thicker towards the apex, with twelve to fifteen joints. Maxillary 384 CLASS Yin. palps four- or five-jointed, labial with two or three joints. Thorax gibbous, with mesothorax very large. Abdomen compressed. Borer extremely slender, with three setas, concealed, rolled spirally, between a bivalve sheath, exsertile from the last ventral chan- nelled segment of abdomen. Gall-wasps. The females of this family pierce different parts of plants (leaves, leaf-stalks, buds, &c.) and lay an egg in the wound. The irritation thus produced causes the sap to flow in greater abun- dance to the wounded part, and thus different excrescences, often of very singular kinds, arise, which serve the larva both for food and habitation. The form of the excrescences is different for different species, and may serve for recognising and distinguishing them. The larvae, bent into a semicircle, lie as thick white maggots in the cavity of these excrescences. Some species undergo their metamorphosis in this situation ; others leave it before becoming nymphs, and change under ground. It is true that species also of Chalcides are found in these excrescences, which were formerly placed with species of Cynips in one genus, and to which GEOFFROY gave the name of Cynips exclusively, which occasioned much confusion in the nomenclature : they are ichneumons which have taken the place of the natural inhabitants. Gall-wasps, although living upon vegetable food, have neverthe- less a great affinity with the Ichneumonides, and this is shewn more distinctly by the fact that some species (Allotria WESTW.) really live like ichneumons in insects (Aphides), without on that account differing from the rest of the Cynipides by natural characters or organisation (WESTWOOD, Introd. to modern Classificat. of. Ins. n. p. 132, RATZEBURG, Die Forst-Insecten, m. p. 54). To the excrescences, caused by gall-wasps, belong also the gall- nuts or gall-apples, of which those that come from the East (from Aleppo) are iu most esteem. They consist, besides gallic acid, in great measure of tannin, and are consequently very astringent. Hence their use in medicine. Their property of forming a black pre- cipitate with salts of oxyde of iron, causes these gall-nuts to be employed in the preparation of writing-ink. Comp. on this family : MALPIGHIUS de Gallis, in Anatomes plantar-urn, parte alterd (Operum ed. Londin. 1686, fol. Tomo n. pp. 17 — 38); OLIVIER, Encycl. m&th., Hist. not. des Ins. v. 1790, pp. 772 — 792, BRANDT u. KATZEBURG, Medizin. Zoolog. n. s. 144—158; BOYER DE FONSCOLOMBE, Description des Ins. de la fam. des Diplolepoire.* Tab. xxv. 2 On this insect, whose larva may be very destructive to turnips by eating the young leaf, we have an excellent monograph by G. NEWPORT, Observ. on the Ana,t. and Economy of Athalia centifolice ; Prize Essay of the Ent,omol. Soc. With a plate. London, 1838, 8vo. INSECTA. 389 cera) . Kadial cell one, sometimes with accessory apical cell ; cubi- tal cells four or three (Ptilia LEPELET.) Sp. Hylotoma rosarum FABR. (not Tenthr. rosce L.) K(ESEL, n. Bombylior. et Vespar. Tab. n., DUMERIL, Cons. gen. s. I. Ins. PL 35, fig. 6, &c. (Tenthr. rosce L. is a species of Athalia.) Cimbex OLIV. Antennae clavate, five- to seven-jointed. Radial ells two, cubital three. Sp. Cimbex variabilis KLUG, Tenlhredo latea L. (and Tenthr. fetnorata ejusd.), ECESEL, Ins. u., Bomb, el Vesp. Tab. xni., KATZEBURG, Forst-Ins. in. Tab in. fig. 10, &c. These species are the largest of this family ; the larvae have twenty- two feet. The larva of Cimbex lucorum was not long ago described and figured by SNELLEN VAN VOLLENHOVEN, Tijdschr. voor not. Gcsch. I. 1843. Tab. II. Sub-genera : Abia LEACH, Perga LEACH, and others of this author. Add sub-genus Pachylosticta KLUG, genus Syzygonia ejusd. differing from all other cimbices in the cells of the wings, but plainly resembling the Hylotomace (Brazilian species.) OKDEH VIII. Lepidoptera. Hexapod insects, with four membranous wings, covered with ninute coloured scales. Mouth with involute spiral tongue, com- posed of protracted maxillae. Metamorphosis complete. Butterflies (Lepidoptera L., from \67rk scale, and inepov, Glossata FABR ) The two chief works on the anatomy of this order, that of LYONET and of HEROLD, have been already cited (see above, pp. 247 and 275). To give a list approaching to completeness of the works which treat of the arrangement of butterflies, or illustrate their species by figures, would require too much space for our purpose. We satisfy ourselves therefore with indicating some of the prin- cipal sources for the knowledge of this order. J. C. SEPP, Beschouwing der wonderen Gods in de minst geachte Schepselen, of Nederlandsche Insekten, &c. 4to. Amsterdam, 1765, and foil. Of this work, which is still being continued, 6 parts, each of 50 plates, have hitherto appeared. P. CRAMER, Uitlandsche Kapellen, iv. parts, and STOLL'S Aanhang- sel, 4to. Amsterdam en Utrecht, 1779 — 1791. (With this may be usefully consulted the academic prize-treatise of H. YERLOREN, Catalogus systematicus ad CRAMERUM, Traj. ad Rhen. 1837, 8vo.) 390 CLASS VIII. Systematisches Verzeichniss der Schmetterlinge der Wienergegend herausgegeb. von einigen Lehrern am K. K. Theresianum, Wien. 1776, 4to. (mit 3 col. Taf.) JAC. HUBNER, Sammlung europdischer Schmetterlinge, nebst Fort- setzung von C. GEYER, gr. 4 to. Augsburg, 1805 — 1841 ; — by the same, Geschichte europdischer Schmetterlinge (Rauj>en, Puppen u. Futterpflanzen} gr. 4to. ibid. 1806 — 1841 ; — by the same, Sammlung exotischer Schmetterlinge, nebst Fortsetzung von C. GEYER, in. Bde, gr. 4to. ibid. 1806 — 1841; and Zutrdge zur Sammlung exotischer Schmetterlinge, ibid. 1818 — 1837. (I have not been able to consult these comprehensive and costly works whilst preparing this order). F. OCHSENHEIMER, Die Schmetterlinge von Europa,fortgesetzt durch FR. TREITSCHKE, x. Bde, 8vo. Leipzig, 1807—1835. BOISDUVAL, Species general des Lepidopteres, Tom. i. av. pi. Paris, 1836, 8vo. This excellent work, which makes a part of the well- known Suites a BUFFON, published by RORET, appears to be discon- tinued, to the great injury of science. The scales, which cover the wings of these insects on both sides, appear to the naked eye as dust, but when seen through the microscope, are arranged in regular rows, like house-tiles1. These scales are implanted, by means of little pedicles, in short conical tubules, whose openings are constantly directed to that margin of the wing which is opposite to its base. Each scale consists of two (or perhaps even of three) membranes or layers. On the uppermost membrane lie granules of colouring matter. Elon- gate, parallel stripes (ribs) run from the base to the free extremity, which has sometimes a smooth margin, and sometimes ends in certain points or lappets. The underside of the scale, which lies next the wing, often presents a play of various colours2. When the scales are removed, the wings are whitish and semi-trans] >a- rent ; some butterflies have constantly such patches on the wings where the scales are wanting ; in some the wings are almost quite naked, whether because the scales are wanting from the first, 1 Numerous figures of this are to be seen in the works of microscopists, as in LEEUWENHOECK, Derde vervolg van Brieven, ye Missive, 24 Junij, 1692, bl. 409, fig. i ; see also R