BIOLOGY LIBRARY

HANDBOOK

OF

ZOOLOGY

HANDBOOK

or

ZOOLOGY

BY

J. VAN DER HOEVEN,

PHIL. NAT. ET M.D. PKOFESSOE OF ZOOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN, KNIGHT OF THE ORDER
OF THE DUTCH LION AND OF THE SWEDISH ORDER OF THE POLAR STAR, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, OF THE DUTCH SOCIETY OF SCIENCES AT HAARLEM, OF THE IMPERIAL
LEOPOLDO-CAROLINE ACADEMY, OF THE IMPERIAL SOCIETY OF NATURALISTS AT MOSCOW, COR-
RESPONDING MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION, OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AT
TURIN, OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF MEDICINE AT PARIS, ETC.

Trado quae potui.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOLUME THE SECOND.

( VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. )

TRANSLATED FROM THE SECOND DUTCH EDITION

BT

THE REV. WILLIAM CLARK, M.D. F.R.S. &c.

LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, AND PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY
IK THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.

PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,

FOR

LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS,
LONDON.

1858.

TO

RICHARD OWEN, ESQR. F. E. S. &c. &c.

MY DEAR SIR,

I beg leave to offer you a joint tribute. The author
of this work expresses much satisfaction that the translation of it
is dedicated to one whom he so greatly respects and admires. To
myself it affords peculiar pleasure to present to you, in an English
dress, The HANDBOOK OF ZOOLOGY of one so learned, which, ap-
pealing in so many of its pages to the authority of your works,
recalls those epochs of still increasing lustre in that distinguished
career which is the admiration of the cultivators of that and the
allied branches of natural science throughout the world.

That you may long enjoy in health and happiness your well-won
laurels is the sincere wish of your friend and admirer

THE TRANSLATOR

CAMBRIDGE,

Feb. 10, 1858.

297313

PREFACE.

To a work comprising such an extensive body of science as the
Handbook of Zoology of Prof. VAN DER HOEVEN, it is impossible
that in a few years or even months much matter for additions and
corrections should not be presented. It is clear, moreover, that
the printing of a book of more than 800 pages, like the first
volume of the English Translation, cannot be completed in a few
weeks. The English translator, therefore, could not avail himself
of the contributions of Prof. LEUCKART who, in the beginning of
1856, gave a supplement to the first volume of the German edition
(Nachtrage und Berichtigungen zu dem ersten Bande von J. VAN
DER HOEVEN'S Handbuch der Zoologie, printed after the translation
of the second volume, Leipzig, Leopold Yoss, 1856). At the date
of that publication the greatest part of the first volume of the
English edition had been already long printed. From the same
cause also reference to the second edition of Prof. OWEN'S Lectures
on the Compar. Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate Ani-
mals, was for the most part impossible.

The English translator, however, gave in the body of the first
volume additions and remarks in great part similar to those which
are to be found in LEUCK ART'S comprehensive review of the pro-
gress of Zoology during the six or seven years subsequent to the
publication of the first volume of the original. In the chapter on
the Iniusories he made a large use of Prof. STEIN'S observations.
Amongst these the affinity asserted to exist between Vorticellce and
AcinetcB would seem to have been disproved by Dr LACHMANN
(MUELLER'S Archiv f. Anat. u. Physiol 1856, pp. 340—398), who
followed the roving embryos from Acinetae until, having fixed
themselves, they lost their cilia and developed the peculiar suctorial

Vlll PREFACE.

processes that distinguish this family. On the other hand M. J.
D'UDEKEM (M6m. sur le developpement des Infus. in Mem. de V Acad.
de Bruxelles 1857) has shewn that Epistylis plicatilis in the course
of its multiplication by metamorphosis, does pass through the
form of Acineta, and in it develops an internal ciliated germ. At
all events, it is established by different observers that, in addition
to multiplication by fission and gemmation, infusories also pro-
pagate embryos in the formation of which the nucleus is con-
cerned.

Prof. LEUCKART would reject the first and third of VAN DER
HOEVEN'S orders of Infusories, excepting only the PeripJirygana
which, by a modification of the definition of the fourth order he
would receive into it, the rest being referred to lower forms of Algce,
&c. But this proceeding would seem to be premature, for a number
of the Atricha have been seen to take in food, as by COHN, Nov.
Act. Acad. Leop. Car. xxu. P. i. p. 182, and LACHMANN 1. 1. p.
167, in Monads and Cryptomonads, arid J. MUELLER and others in
Bodo grandis or an Astasia. In the former the mouth was observed
close to the insertion of a flagelliform appendage and the vent at the
posterior extremity. According to LACHMANN at least one con-
tractile vesicle may be seen in all the transparent individuals of
this family, whilst a similar vesicle has been observed by BUSK
in Volvox (Quarterly Journ. of Microscop. Soc. I. 1853) and by
CLAPAREDE in several species of Euglena. LACHMANN contends
that no such pulsating spaces have been found hitherto in any
vegetable cell or in the spore of any undoubted plant (1. 1. p. 369),
and he agrees with SCHNEIDER that creatures thus constituted
ought to be placed amongst animal Infusories until it be distinctly
shewn that such organs exist also in undoubted vegetable cells.
See A. SCHNEIDER Beitrdge zur Naturgesch. der Infusorien in MUEL-
LER'S Archiv 1854, pp. 191—207.

The argument for the animal nature of all organisms present-
ing pulsatory spaces is strengthened by the fact that in very many
instances vessels have been shewn to be in connexion with these
spaces or vesicles, and hence by the probable inference that where
there is a pulsatory vesicle there also a vascular system exists.

The opinion of 0. SCHMIDT, Vergl. Anat. p. 250, that the pul-
satory vesicle opens externally, has not been confirmed by other
observers; and appears to be directly contradicted by what is seen

PREFACE. IX

in Actinoplirys Eichhornii, where it lies close to the surface. See
CLAPAR&DE Ueber Actinophrys Eichhornii in MUELLER'S Archw,
1854, pp. 398—419.

!No notice was taken by the translator of an order of minute
parasites, the Gregarince, which may be most naturally arranged
amongst the Infusories after the RMzopoda. They were discovered
by LEON DuFOUR in the intestine of insects (Forjicula, Melasoma,
&c.), and were so named by him on account of their congregating
in numbers. They are of various form, round, oval, elongate; con-
sist of an external, structureless, elastic membrane, and a fluid
content in which innumerable granules of various form and size
are embedded, whilst within the granular mass a circumscribed
body with one or more opaque spots, the so-called nucleus, is found.
There is neither mouth nor vent.

There are two families of Gregarince: 1, Monocystidce of STEIN,
where the animals are solitary ; 2, Zygocystidce, where two indivi-
duals are conjoined. The Monocystidce have for their type the
simple animals found abundantly in the space between the skin
and the intestine in the earth-worm and in the testes. The Zygocy-
stidce contain two genera: 1, Gregarina LEON DUFOUR; 2, Sty-
lorhynclius STEIN, with a proboscis which is sometimes surrounded
by a circle of booklets.

STEIN believed that the Gregarince are propagated by the con-
jugation of two individuals which become included in a common
cyst. From this intimate union arise spores (Pseudonavicellce,
Spindle-cells, Psorospermice] , which after a time allow new indivi-
duals to escape. But although two individuals are often thus
included in the same cyst, a process like that of the conjugation
of cryptogamous plants does not occur, for the psorosperms are
equally produced when only a single Gregarina is encyste'd. The
process begins with the disappearance of the nucleus, and consists
of many stages, according to N. LIEBERKUEHN (Evolution des Gre-
garines in Mem. couronnes des Sav. Etrang., Acad. Roy. de Brux-
elles, 1855). This author concludes from his observations that
instead of the Gregarince escaping directly from the shell of
the Psorosperms i Amcebce are the product, and that finally these
Amcebce are transformed into Gregarince. All the successive stages
are to be seen in the testes and abdominal cavity of the Earth-
worm, where chiefly they were studied by LIEBERKUEHN.

VOL. ii. I

X PREFACE.

On the Gregarince see in addition L£ON DUFOUB Ann. des Sc. not. xm.
pp. 366 — 368; FRANZIUS Observationes qucedam de Gregarinis, Berolini,
1846, and in WIEGM ANN'S Archiv f. Naturgesch. xiv. s. 194, &c., STEIN
in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1848, pp. 182 — 223, KOELLIKER in KOELLIKER u.
SIEBOLD'S Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool. I. pp. i — 37, with a description of
many species, LEIDIG in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1851, Ueber Psorospermien u.
Gregarinen, pp. 221 and 223.

Many authors are now disposed to refer the sponges to the ani-
mal kingdom. This opinion of LAMARCK was afterwards sup-
ported by GRANT, ME YEN and L. LAURENT, and to this conclusion
tend also the observations recently published by N. LIEBERKUEHN
on the development of the fresh-water Spongilloe.

Sea-sponge (Spongia L.) consists of a loose, porous, horny mass,
formed of fine unjointed, branching threads more or less trans-
parent. In fresh-water sponge (Spongilla lacustris) the frame- work
is formed of fine spicula in which a green granular mass is disposed,
whilst in this at certain times of the year small round masses are
seen, the so-named gemmules. These are cysts of spongillae ; when
the envelope bursts, the spongillar mass creeps forth and after-
wards develops tubular processes. Besides these there are ciliated
embryos, which after a while attach themselves and lose their cilia.
These young spongillae soon develop a tubular process with an
aperture capable of being closed and opened. There are ova also
with a germinal vesicle and spot and spermozoid bodies which are
formed in fixed capsules. It seems uncertain where this addition
to the animal kingdom is to find its true relation. Doubtless it
has some analogy with the Bhizopoda, pp. 45, 46. If the sponge
be not a colony but an individual, then the relation to the Rhizo-
poda would be best illustrated by that between Actinia and Fungia
amongst the Anthozoa. LAMARCK considered the sponges to be
colonies, polyparies with unknown inhabitants, and placed them
with Alcyonium (not to be confounded writh Lobularia LAM., Alcyo-
nium of recent authors) amongst the Polyparia porosa or Polypiers
foramin&s.

On the sponges may be cited : LAMARCK Hist. not. cks Anim. sans
verttbres, 2e edit, par M. DESHAYES et MILNE EDWARDS, n. pp. 529 — 590,
1836, Papers of GRANT in the Edinb. Phil. Journal, xm. p. 94, p. 333,
XIV. p. 113, p. 336, On spongia friabilis, xiv. p. 270, On Calcareous
Sponges, Ed. Phil. Journ. New Ser. I. p. 166, On Silicious Sponges, ibid,
p. 341, Hist, of British Sponges, by GEORGE JOHNSTON, Edinb. 1836,
METEN Beitrdge zur ndheren Kenntniss un^ercs sitis-wasser Schicammes in

PREFACE. xi

MUELLEB'S Archiv, 1839, PP- 83 — 89> LAURENT Recherches sur I'Hydre el
VEponge d'eau douce, Paris, 8vo, av. Atl. fol. (1844), N. LIEBERKUEHN Eel-
trage zur Enticickdungsgeschichte der Spongitten in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1856,
B. 399 — 414, s. 496 — 514, CARTER on Spongilla in Ann. and Mag. of Nat.
Hist. 2nd Ser., xvni. p. -242, and ibid. XX. p. 21 and foil.

To the works on the Rhizapoda, cited Vol. I. p. 47, may be added by
MAX SCHULTZE Beobachtung ueber die Fortpflanzung der Polythalamien in
MUELLER'S Archiv, 1856, pp. 165 — 173, from which it appears probable
that the shell of the young animal is formed within the body of the mother;
and by CARPENTER Researches on the Foraminifera in Phil. Trans. 1856,
I. pp. 181 — 236.

The Hydra-form polyps are placed by LEUCKART in nearer
relation to the Acalephs under the name of Hydrasmedusce ; but the
great affinity between these animals had already been noticed by
VAN DER HOEVEN at p. 70 of the first volume : " It is possible that
all hydra-form polyps may be only imperfect forms of Medusce. ... At
all events the perfect form of Hydra would then be unknown."
Amongst the sea-nettles (Acalephce) most of the important disquisi-
tions of LEUCKART, VOGT and others, shewing that the Siphono-
phorce are compound organic bodies (as had already at a previous
period been the opinion of DELLE CHIAJE and MILNE EDWARDS
respecting some of them), were duly related at p. 102 and foil. So
also in the class of the Echinoderms, the investigations on the
metamorphosis by Prof. JOH. MUELLER up to the date of the Eng-
lish translation were supplied by the translator, pp. 137, 138. To
the memoirs of MUELLER, cited p. 138, must now be added another,
Ueber die Gattungen der Seeigellarven. Siebente Abhandlung ueber
die Metamorphose der Echinodermen. Mit 9 Kupfert. Berlin, 1855
(Konigl. Ahad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, Jahrgang 1854).

One of the most questionable points in the classification of in-
vertebrate animals is the true position of Bryozoa (called also by
Prof. ALLMAN and other, chiefly English, Naturalists, after THOMP-
SON, Polyzoa}. LEUCKART seems to hesitate whether they belong
to the worms in the vicinity of the Eotatoria or to the molluscs.
It seems indeed better to form of them a separate class, and not to
unite them to the Polyps. If, however, this class be placed near the
Tunicata in the great type of the Mollusca, in that case as many
objections might be urged1 as are now advanced by different writers
against their union with the anthozoic type. There must always be

1 See OWEN Lectures, &c. sec, edit. I. p. 154.

xii PREFACE.

something of arbitrary selection with respect to the position of
osculant groups in a systematic arrangement.

To the citations on Bryozoa add ALLMAN, Monograph on the Fresh-water
Polyzoa, Ray Soc. 1856.

In the class of Entozoa the most important discovery of modern
times consists in the demonstration that the Cystica are only imper-
fect conditions of Cesto'idea, of Tcenia. It is hoped that the English
reader will be satisfied with the important additions at pp. 173—
176, and p. 181. It must not be omitted however that the state-
ment of V. SIEBOLD, p. 175, that the different forms of Coenurus and
Cysticercus depend upon the locality assumed by the embryo and
not upon original difference of the Tcenice of which they are the
the progeny, is not tenable. For LEUCKART has found that though
Cysticercus pisiformis, C. tenuicollis and Ccenurus cerebralis are all
developed into Tcemce, called collectively Tcenia serrata, when
swallowed by a dog, yet that the first and third at least of these
species certainly differ in the number and form of the booklets and
in other respects ; and also that a sheep is not rendered vertiginous
by swallowing the eggs of Tcenia solium, or of T. pisiformis.
Hence Tcenia solium and T. serrata are different species.

KOELLIKEK in his Zeitschr. f. Wissensch. Zool. IX. 1857, p. 139, confirms,
in the scolex of a tape- worm from Murcenophis saga, the existence of many
free openings externally of the vascular system already observed by
WAGENER (Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. xxiv. Suppl. pp. 16 and 33), as stated by
KOELLIKER.

It has been already related, p. 188, that Pentastoma ought to be
removed from the Entozoa and placed amongst the parasitic Crus-
tacea Lernceacea. See chiefly the memoir of the first discoverer of
the young form, Prof. VAN BENEDEN, cited p. 625.

It appears that Prof. VAN DER HOEVEN is of opinion that the
Acanthocephala, p. 184, would stand more properly after the Trema-
toda, p. 188, intermediate between these and the Nematoidea.

With respect to the place of the Rotatoria in the systematic
arrangement, many memoirs have been recently published in
V. SIEBOLD u. KOELLIKER'S Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool. by LEYDIG
(vi. 1854), C. VOGT (vn. 1855), and H. BURMEISTER (vin. 1856).
But the result of all these discussions seems to lead to no other con-
clusion than that they form a class of low-developed, articulate ani-
mals, allied to the ringed worms and the inferior forms of Crustacea,

PREFACE. Xlll

I. p. 196. The distinct sexuality (p. 197, 198) of this class has
been further extended by COHN, who has also discovered a second
mode of propagation by the so-named winter-eggs. See his paper
Ueber die Fortpflanzung der Raderthiere, in V. SlEBOLD and KOELL.
Zeitschr. VII. p 431—486.

The very difficult investigation of the generative system in
several of the abranchiate ringed-worms has of late years engaged
the attention of M. D'llDEKEM. In Lumbricus terrestris he has
made the discovery of the ovaria and ova hitherto unknown. The
ovaries are extremely minute vesicles situated one on each side of
the nervous chord in the 12th ring of the body. They are pear-
shaped, closely united to the membranes of the chord by their
anterior broad extremity and terminate backwards in a canal, the
oviduct, which is believed to open with the vas deferens, but was
too delicate to be followed to its termination. The ova are quite
microscopic. The testes are six in number, three on each side of
the intestinal tube, the anterior pair in the 8th ring, the middle
pair in the 9th ring, the posterior and largest pair in the 10th and
llth rings. Between the testes and the mid-plane are two ciliated
infundibula, with the anterior of which the two anterior testes com-
municate, with the posterior the posterior testis. The two infundibula
on each side are the internal extremity of canals which, after many
convolutions, unite to form a vas deferens, which runs backwards to
terminate in a transverse orifice on the 15th ring. There are also
accessory organs : two hollow spherical bodies on each side attached
to the ventral wall by a short pedicle, which is the duct by which
they open externally; these were supposed by DUGES and others
to be the testes on account of their containing spermatozoa, but
are called by D'UDEKEM spermatic reservoirs, having no com-
munication with the interior of the lumbricus, and therefore re-
ceiving the spermatozoa from without. The remaining accessory
bodies, situated like the last on the outer aspect of the testes, are
a variable number of vesicles in pairs from the 8th to the llth
ring; they are setigerous glands modified for the secretion of
matter to form capsules for the ova (glandes capsulogenes). The
earth-worm is oviparous, and the number of ova included in a
capsule is 2, 3, 4 or more, though usually one alone is developed.

In Enchytrceus the testis is single and situated below the intes-
tinal tube; it extends from the llth to the 13th ring. It has the

XIV PREFACE.

form of a vesicle and is completely invaginated in the ovary. There
are two openings at its anterior part by which it communicates
with the vibratile infundibulum on each side, which is the begin-
ning of the vas deferens ; after forming many convolutions each vas
deferens opens externally on the ventral surface of the 12th ring.
Here also are glandes capsulogdnes, but they are found at the
anterior part between the 5th and 8th rings, and open at the 5th
ring on each side.

In Tubifex rivulorum and Nais proboscidea also the female
organs more or less invaginate the male.

See D'UDEKEM Hist. not. du Tubifex des ruisseaux, Mem. couronne",
Acad. Roy. de Belgique, XXVI. 1855, by the same, De"veloppement duLombric
terrestre, ibid. xxvu. 1856.

In this class the distinction between blood, generally red-
coloured and contained in close vessels, and the nutrient fluid of
the general cavity of the body (chylaqueous fluid WILLIAMS),
becomes marked. The blood contains no corpuscles, these are
confined to the fluid that circulates in the visceral cavity, which
is the product of digestion mixed with water. The form of the
corpuscles is various, is least constant in the lower classes, where
the chylaqueous is the sole nutrient fluid, but even in the molluscs
does not attain the regularity of form which prevails in the lower
vertebrates. These corpuscles in many of the articulate, when
removed from the body, send out processes like Amoeba, and are
supposed by N. LIEBERKUEHN to be parasites. It is from the fluid
of the peritoneal cavity that the blood derives nutrient matter.

See on this subject : QUATEEFAGES Mini, sur la cavitt ge"ne"rale du corps
des inverte'bre's, Ann. des Sc. not., Ser. in. Tom. xiv. pp. 302 — 320; WHAR-
TON JONES, The blood-corpuscle considered in its different phases of develop-
ment, Mem. n. Invertebrates, in Phil. Trans. 1846, pp. 89 — 101 ; WILLIAMS
On the British Annelida in Report of Brit. Association for 1851, pp. 159 —
272, describing the blood-circulation and his views also of the generative
system in Lumbricus, Hirudo and Nais, for which see also, RYMEB JONES
Animal Kingd. edit. 2, pp. 272 — 275, pp. 282 — 284, pp. 287 — 289, and
WILLIAMS On the blood proper and chylaqueous fluids of invertebrate animals,
Phil. Trans. 1852, pp. 595 — 653; the same On the Mechanism of Aquatic
Respiration in Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. Vols. xiv, xvi, xvn.

In the class of insects Prof. VAN DER HOEVEN is of opinion that
the order Strepsiptera pp. 305 — 307 might conveniently be sup-
pressed. In all the genera included in it there appears to be the

PREFACE. XV

greatest affinity with Mordellona p. 501 (Rhipiphorus and Symbius,
p. 502), to which indeed BURMEISTER (Handbuch der Naturgesch.,
1837, p. 343) had already referred them, and afterwards also
SHUCKARD, and more recently NEWMAN Zoologist, 1850, pp. 2684 —
2694.

The multiplication of insects without previous copulation was
noticed in Aphis at pp. 263, 264. It has been observed in other in-
stances, as in Lepidoptera and in Bees, but under different circum-
stances. In Aphis the parent is imperfectly developed, there is neither
bursa copulatrix nor receptaculum seminis. In the others both these
organs are complete. The eggs laid by the virgin queen-bee always
produce males: those which are impregnated produce females (work-
ing bees or queens) ; the queen has the power at will of laying an
egg that shall produce a male or a female, i.e. she can during ovi-
positure impregnate the egg with spermatozoa or not. In Bombyx
mori SIEBOLD found that only few of the uniinpregnated eggs are
productive, and that from these males or females proceed indis-
criminately. In Psyche it was males that required impregnated
eggs for their production.

See OWEN On Parthenogenesis, London, 1849 an(i V. SIEBOLD Wahre
Parthenogenesis, Leipzig, 1856.

In the Crustacea the remarkable discoveries of DARWIN respect-
ing the Cirripedia were referred to by the translator at pp. 608,
609, and 635—640.

Amongst the Molluscs, with regard to the Lamellibranchiata,
if Prof. VAN DER HOEVEN had to write his book again he would
entirely alter the order of succession of the families.

What had become known respecting the Hectocotylus of di-
branchiate CepJialopods was recorded by the translator at pp.
821—823.

With regard to the second volume of this work the translator
has made few additions beyond the notice of the principal fossil
reptiles at pp. 321 — 327. But such large additions and alterations
have been contributed by the author himself, particularly in
the class of Fishes and that of Reptiles, that this volume may be
regarded rather as a third edition of the original, than simply a
translation of the second.

At p. 37, note 1 it is stated that in the class of fishes alone the
existence of corpora Wolffiana had not been ascertained. This

XVI PKEFACE.

class now ceases to be an exception to the rest of the vertebrates
in this respect. The primordial kidneys have been demonstrated
in the early period of the fish-embryo by REICHERT. See his
paper Ueber die Mueller- Wolff 'schen Korper bei Fischembryonen in
MUELLER'S Archiv, 1856, pp. 125—133.

It is to be much regretted that the original and highly valuable
memoir of Prof. OWEN On the characters, principles of division,
and primary groups of the class Mammalia published in the
Proceedings of the Linnean Society for 1857, should have made its
appearance at a period too recent to admit of that general discus-
sion of it by Zoologists, which in the opinion of the author of this
work ought to precede the adoption of any great change in the
systematic arrangement. The memoir contains in its preliminary
portion a condensed view of the author's various determinations
respecting the dental characters of the class. It will be found that
full use has been made of these in the characters of the genera in
the present volume.

In this memoir the fourfold primary division of the mammalian
class is founded upon the four leading modifications of the cerebral
system. In some mammals the cerebral hemispheres are only
partially connected by the fornix and the anterior commissure ; in
the rest of the class the corpus callosum is added.

Those in which the corpus callosum is absent are the impla-
cental or marsupial mammals. This first group includes the
Lyencephala, so called from the comparatively loose and discon-
nected state of the cerebral hemispheres. The hemispheres, again,
are so small that the olfactory ganglions and cerebellum are ex-
posed, and more or less also of the optic lobes. The surface of the
hemispheres is generally smooth.

In the next stage of development of the brain the corpus cal-
losum is present, but connects hemispheres not exceeding those of
the former class in bulk and external character; there are no convo-
lutions, except in a small number of the largest members of the group,
where they are simple and few. In this subclass the testes are
either permanently or temporarily concealed in the abdomen; there
is a common genito-urinary aperture in most; there are two anterior
vence cavce terminating in the right auricle of the heart, with other
remarkable indications of resemblance to birds and reptiles. These
are named Lissencephala.

PREFACE. XV11

The third leading modification of the mammalian cerebrum is
such an increase in its relative size that it extends over more or
less of the cerebellum, and generally over more or less of the
olfactory lobes. Except in a few inferior forms of the Quadrumana
the superficies is folded into convolutions, whence this third sub-
class is named Gyrencephala. As a general rule there is a scro-
tum; the vulva is externally distinct from the anus. With the
exception of the elephants, there is a single anterior cava.

In man the hemispheres overlap the olfactory lobes and the
cerebellum; their posterior large development includes the posterior
horn of the lateral ventricle and the hippocampus minor. Man forms
a distinct sub-class, Archencephala.

For the definitions of the secondary groups of these four pri-
mary diseases the memoir itself is referred to.

Prof. OWEN'S Table of the Subclasses and Orders (reversed to
facilitate comparison with the arrangement of the present work) is
annexed.

w.c.

CAMBRIDGE,

Feb. 10, 1858.

CLASS MAMMALIA.

SUBCLASS.

ORDER.

f MONOTREMATA ...

1 Oniithorkynckus.
\ Echidna.

1

[ MARSUPIALIA

1 Entomophaga,
1 Carpophaga.
I Po€phaga.
1 Rhizophaga.
t Claviculata.

INSEOTIVORA

\ Non-Claviculata.
Soricidce.

CHEIROPTERA ...

1 alpiace.
Insectivora.

Frugivora.
Edentula.

|

' CETACEA <

Dasypodid<e.
Bradypodidce.
Balcenidat.

Mutilata

Delphinidce.

SIRENIA

\ Halicore.

Gyrencephala

' TOXODONTIA
PROBOSCIDIA

[ Manatus.
\ Nesodon.
[ Toxodon.
f Dinotherium.
1 Elephas

PERISSODACTYLA . .
ARTIODACTYLA ...

CARNIVORA

MuUungula.
Solidungula.
Ruminantia.
Omnivora.
Pinnigrada.

Archencephala

Unguiculata

QUADRUMANA
BlMANA .

Plantigrada,
Digitigrada.
Strepsirhina.
Platyrhina.
Catarrhina.
Homo.

CONTENTS

OF

VOLUME THE SECOND.

PA OB

Of the last four Classes of the Animal Kingdom, or on the vertebrate

animals in general I — 9

CLASS XIV.— FISHES (Pisces). . . . 10—55

Systematic Arrangement of Fishes 56—205

Section I. Dermopterygii 56

Order I. Leptocardii 56 — 58

Fam. I. Amphioxini ib.

Order II. Oyclostomi 5s— 6°

Fam. n. Myxinoidei 5$ — 59

„ in. Petromyzonini 59 — 60

Section II. Chondropterygii 60—70

Order III. Desmiobranchii 60 — 69

Fam. iv. Batides 61 — 65

„ v. Selachii 65—69

Order IV. Meutherobranchii 69 — 70

Fam. vi. Ckimceroidei 69 — 71

Section III. GanoLepidoti 7°

Order V. Chondrostei 7*— 7*

Fam. vn. Sturiones „ 71 — 72

Order VI. Ganolepidoti 7«— 77

Fam. vni. Sauroidei 73 — 75

Section IV. Osteopterygii 75

Order VII. Lophobranchii - - - 75—77

Fam. ix. Lophobranchii • • 76 — 77

XX CONTENTS.

PAGE

Order VIII. Pectognathi . 77— 81

Fam. X. Gymnodontes . . , . . * . 78 — 80

XI. Sclcrodermi . 80— 8 1

Order IX. Malacopterygii » . 81 — 129

Fam. xn. Siluroidd ; 81—89

„ XIII. Cyprinoidei . . . ... . 89 — 94

„ XIV. Cyprinodontes 95— 96

„ XV. Characini . . . . . . . 96 — 102

,, XVI. Scopelini . . . . . . . 102 — 105

„ XVII. Salrnonacei 105 — 107

„ xvni. Esocii 107 — no

„ xix. Mormyrini no — in

„ xx. Clupeacei in — 117

„ xxi. Heteropygii 118

„ XXII. Gymnotini 118 — 120

„ xxni. Symbranchii 120 — 121

„ xxiv. Murcenoidei m — 123

„ XXV. Ophidini 123 — 124

„ xxvi. Gadoidei ....... 124—127

„ xxvii. Pleuronectce . . . . . . . 127 — 129

Order X. Acanthopterygii . . .... . . . 129 — 204

Fam. xxvin. Chromides 130 — 131

„ xxix. Pomacentrini ... . . . 131 — 132

„ XXX. Labroidei . . ... . . 133 — 136

„ xxxi. Aulostomi . ... . . . 136 — 138

„ xxxii. Theutides . . . .... 138—140

„ XXXIII. Hcdibatrachi 140 — 143

,, xxxiv. Blennioidei . . . . . . 143 — 146

„ xxxv. Gobiodei . .... . . . 146 — 151

„ xxxvi. Notacanthini . . . . . . j^i—i^

,, xxxvu. Tcenioidei i^—i^^

„ xxxvui. Scomberoidei . . . . . 155 — 166

„ xxxix. Squamipennes . *' ' . . . . 166 — 170

„ XL. Sparoidei . . . . . ... • 170 — 175

,, XLI. Scicenoldei . 175 — 181

„ XLII. Mugiloidd . . . . ... . ^ 181 — 182

„ XLIII. Aspidoparei . . j ... ' .,,..,» , . . 182 — 189

„ XLIV. Percoidei . ... . . . 189 — 201

,, XLV. Osphromenidei . » - ... . 201 — 204

Section V. — Protopteri . . . . . . . . . . 204—205

Order XI. — Protopteri . . ... . ••>**•.*•*• 2O4 — 2°5

Fam. XL VI. Sireno'idei . 204 — 205

CONTENTS. XXI

CLASS XV. — REPTILES (Reptilia). . . . 106 — 236

Systematic Arrangement of Reptiles . .-.. » .... 237 — 254

Section I. Diplopnoa, .......... 237 — 254

Order I. Opkiomorpha ......... 238 — 239

Fam. I. Ccecilice ....... 238 — 239

Order II. Saurobatrachi ......... *39— 245

Fam. n. Protoldea ....... 239 — 242

„ m. Salamandrina ...... 242 — 245

Order m. Batrachii .......... 245—254

Fam. IV. SatracJui ....... 245 — 254

Section II. Haplopnoa, .......... 255 — 282

Order IV. Ophidii .......... 255—282

Fam. v. Viperina ....... 259 — 262

„ VI. Elapina ....... 262 — 265

„ VII. Hydropke* ....... 265 — 266

,, vni. Asineophe* ...... 266 — 269

„ IX. Colubrina ....... 269 — 274

„ X. Acrochordina ...... 274 — 275

„ XI. Pythonina ....... 275 — 277

,, XII. Cylindrophes ...... 277 — 278

„ Xin. Khinophes ....... 278 — 279

„ XIV. Typhlina ....... 279 — 281

„ xv. Amphisbcence ...... 281 — 282

Order V. Saurii ........... 282—316

Fam. xvi. Scincoidei ....... 283 — 289

,, xvn. Zonosauri ...... 289 — 293

„ xvin. Lacertini ....... 293 — 298

„ XIX. Jguanoidei ...... 299 — 308

,, XX. Chamcdeonidei ...... 309 — 310

, xxi. Ascalobotce ...... 310 — 313

„ xxii. Crocodolini .."..... 314 — 316

Order VI. Chdonii .......... 316—327

Fam. xxm. Chdonii ....... 316 — 327

CLASS XVI. — BIBDS (Aves). . . . 328 — 555
Systematic Arrangement of Birds ........ 377*— 555

Order I. Natatores .......... 377 — 392

Fam. I. Brevipennes . ..... 378 — 382

„ II. Anatince ....... 382—386

,, in. Steganopodes ...... 386 — 389

„ iv. Longipennes ...... 389—392

XX11

CONTENTS.

Order II. Grallatores
Fam.

v. Macrodactyli . ... . , 39*— 395

VI. Longirostres 396 — 402

vil. Cultrirostres . . . ....,,. . 402 — 410

vin. Pressirostres . . 1 . . . 410 — 415

ix. Glides %. . « . . . . 415 — 416

x. Proceri . ." . ' .1 . . . 416 — 418

XI. Alectorides . . . .. . . ., 418 — 419

Order III. Gallince . .

Fam. xii. Megapodii '.

„ xiii. Penelopince .

„ xiv. Phasianince

,, XV. Crypturince

„ xvi. Tetraonince

„ xvn. Pteroclince .

„ xvin. Thinocorince

„ xix. Columbines .

OrderlV. Scansore* . . . .

Fam. xx. Pstttacince .

,, xxi. KhampJiaslinas .

,, xxn. Pogonophorce

„ xxiii. Trogonince ,

xxiv. Cuculince

419—440

420 — 221

423—427

. 427—428

428—433

• 433—434
434—435

• 435—440

440—459

. 441—446
446—447

• 447—449

450

• 450—456

„ xxv. Sagittilingues . . ,... , \ . . 456 — 458

,, xxvi. Angulirostres . . , . ... . . . 458 — 459

Order V. Passerini . . . .... . . . , ..v 459 — 540

Fam. xxvii. Opisthocomidcc . «*&& , >. ,k i . 460—461

„ xxvin. Bucerotince . ,~>- . . . . 461 — 462

„ xxix. Coraciance . ^ . . . ... 462 — 463

,, xxx. Aferopince . *; . . . . 463 — 464

,, xxxi. Halcyonince . . *• .. .... 464 — 466

„ xxxii. UpupincB . »- :..-...• t . / •. . . 466 — 467

,, xxxni. Trochilidce . ; . . . . . 467 — 470

,, xxxiv. Anabatidce . . . . - ,« 47o — 472

,, xxxv. Eriodoridce .'..'»'. . . 472 — 475

,, xxxvi. Cdopterida • . »•';>'- *. '- . . . 475—483

„ xxxvu. CorvincK ..... . . 483 — 488

., xxxviii. Paradiseince 489 — 491

,, xxxix. Stumince - . * . . . . 491 — 495

,, XL. Fringillince . " . c'~rt\ V" . . 495 — 502

,, XLI. Alavdina . . 502 — 504

„ XLII. Parina . . . \. ." . . :» 504—505

,, XLIII. Certhiance . . . «' . . 505 — 507

,, XLIV. Nectarinice . . . '. . ' . 507 — 511

,, XLV. lAotrichince . . . "'> . ' . . 511 — 514

CONTENTS. XX111

PAOB

Fam. XLVI. TurdincR . . .-.-.-.* . . 5*4 — 5I(5

„ XLVII. Motacillince i . ,«; •-,? .?-; ' . •* •••? . 5*7 — 5*4

„ XLvm. Muscicapince . . - . ., . . ... 524 — 528

„ XLIX. Laniince 528 — 533

„ L. Chelidones 533 — 53^

„ LI. Nyctichelidonea . . . . . . 536 — 540

Order VI. Raptore* . . . . ... . . . 54°— 555

Fam. LII. Strigidce 540 — 544

„ Lin. Accipitrinos 544 — 553

„ LIV. Vulturince 553 — 555

CLASS XVII. — MAMMALS (Mammalia). . . 556 — 758

Systematic Arrangement of Mammals 609 — 758

Section I. Mammalia acotyhdcma 609 — 611

Order I. Monotremata 609—611

Fam. I. Monotremata, ...... 609 — 612

Order II. Marsupialia 612 — 622

Fam. II. Glirina 612 — 613

„ in. Macropoda 613 — 615

,, IV. Pkalangistce 615 — 618

„ V. Peramelina 618 — 619

„ vi. Dasyurina 619 — 621

„ vii. Pedimana 621 — 622

Section II. Mammalia placentalia 622 — 758

Order III. Cetacea 622 — 631

Fam. vm. Cetacea 623 — 628

,, ix. Sirenia 628 — 631

OrderlV. Pachydermata 631 — 643

Phalanx I. Proboscidea 632 — 643

Fam. x. ElepJiantina 632 — 634

Phalanx II. Perissodactyla . . . 634 — 640

Fam. XI. Nasicornia 634 — 636

„ xn. Lamnungia 636 — 637

,, xni. Tapirina 637 — 638

,, xiv. Solidungula 638 — 640

Phalanx III. Artiodactyla . . . 640—643

Fam. xv. Suina 640 — 642

„ xvi. Hippopotamina 643 — 644

XXIV CONTENTS.

MM

Order V. Ruminantut . ,.«., 643 — 660

Fam. xvn. Tylopoda . . . ' . •'.- V • . 644 — 646
„ xvm. Elaphii . -":* • ^' .j " • -f. .-.- .646 — 649

„ xix. Cavicornia . . . . • - . 649 — 660

Order VI. Edentata . , ,-..••. 660—665

Fam. XX. Effodientia 660 — 664

„ XXI. Tardiyrada . * . . . . . . 664 — 665

Order VII. Glire* .. .. .. .. ,../..; . .. . * . .. 665—696

Fam. xxii. Duplicidentata . •' .'" .' ;•. ... .666—667

„ xxiii. Subunyulata 667 — 669

„ xxiv. AcuLeata 669—671

„ XXV. Palmipedia 671 — 672

„ XXVI. Murina 672 — 680

„ xxvu. Cunicularia 680 — 684

„ xxvin. Muriformia 684 — 688

,, XXIX. Eriomyina 688 — 689

„ xxx. IHpoda 689 — 691

„ xxxi. Sciurina 691 — 696

Order VEIL Ferce 696—730

Fam. xxxn. Pinnipcdia 696 — 702

„ xxxni. Felina . . . . . . . . 703—705

„ xxxiv. Viverrina 705 — 710

„ xxxv. Canina . ... .' . . . 710—712

„ xxxvi. Mwtelina 717 718

„ xxxvu. Urgina . . . . . . . . 718—721

„ xxxvm. Talpina . ... . . . 721—724

„ xxxix. Soricina 724 — 729

„ XL. Erinaceina ....... 729 — 730

Order IX. Ckiroptera 731 — 742

Fam. XLI. Nycterina . 732 — 740

„ XLII. Pterotocyna 740 — 742

Order X. Ptenopleura . . ... . . . . 742 — 743

Fam. XLIII. Galeopitheci . . .., . . . . 742 743

Order XI. Quadrumana + 743 7^5

Fam. XLTV. Lemurina . . . . . . 7^3 747

XLV. Simia: . ,--«• -.: „ . . . 747— 75<5

Order XII. Bimana . ...... . .4 . . 757 758

Fam. XLVI. Erecta . « . . •«. ?. . . . 757 758

ERRATA AND CORRECTIONS.

Additional in Vol. I.
Page Line

283 20 from top, for antenna read muscles.
317 5 from bottom, for Condylura read Cordylura.
347 14 from top, for under jaws read upper.
385 before 1. 26, Family xxm. insert :

B. Phytophaga. Abdomen sessile. Larva furnished with six or
numerous feet (to correspond to section A. Entomophaffct, p. 371).
556 note, L 15, 17, for HANN read HAHN.

604 i for Parabcea read Porcellio.
769 5 from bottom, for probable read improbable.

In Vol. II.

17 after last line of note 2, add Berolini, 1847, 4to.

26 7 from bottom, for GeschiecLer read Geschieden.

37 21 for Sphyrna read Sphyra.

53 14 from bottom, for 4 mmodotes read Ammodytcs.

62 1 6 from bottom, for aguila read aquila.

63 5 insert :

ft ^Vb spur a< <Ac 6ose of tail (compare p. 62, 1. 7).

71 15 from top, for 76 — 78 read 69 — 78.

72 i for KILTARY read KITTARY.

73 3 note, for Frieslebenense read Freislebenense.
,, 4 note, for Frieslebeni read Preislebeni.

78 7 from bottom, for RANZINI read RANZANI.

82 13 and 9 from bottom, for Pansencelse read Panzcrvdse.

84 17 for five rays read ZArec.

92 9 from bottom, for AGARS read Ac ASS.

135 i for Xyrichtkys read Xirichthys.

262 7 from bottom, for Merrem read MERREM.

266 17 from bottom, for Opisthoglyptes read Opisthoglyphes.

319 17 from bottom, Cistuda: is not this a misprint in FLEMMING'S work for

Cistula?

555 i for Philodota read Pholidota.

615 12 and 5 from bottom, for Dendroloyus read Dendrolayus .

ON THE LAST FOUR CLASSES

OF THE

ANIMAL KINGDOM

IN GENERAL.

WE have already seen (Vol. I. p. 32) that modern Zoologists,
in imitation of LAMARCK and CUVIER, unite the Fishes, Reptiles,
Birds and Mammals, under the common name of vertebrate ani-
mals, to form a large division of the animal kingdom. In these
animals the main trunk of the nervous system, the spinal cord and
the brain, is inclosed in a bony or cartilaginous cavity, which is
usually formed of distinct rings or vertebrae.

The muscles are almost all inserted into internal supports,
which, together with the hard investiture of the brain and spinal
cord, form what is called the frame-work or skeleton. The body
has in general a symmetrical form on the two sides, and is divided
by an imaginary axis into a right and left half, in which especially
the organs of animal life, the nerves and muscles, are correspond-
ingly formed and placed. There are never more than four limbs
present in these animals; some have only one pair of limbs; in
others the limbs are entirely absent. Their blood is red1. The
sexes are always distinct, so that bisexual individuals occur as
pathological exceptions alone.

There are always two jaws, one situated above the other, of
which the lower especially is moveable. The motion of these parts
occurs vertically and not laterally, as is the case in the Articu-
late Animals. Ordinarily the jaws are armed with teeth; in the

1 In Amphioxus lanceolatus alone has colourless blood been observed; J. MUELLER
Uebei' der Bau u. die Lebenserscheinungen des Branchiostoma lubricwm COSTA, Amphioxus
lanceolatus YAKRELL. Berlin, 1844 (Physik. Abhandl. der Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin,
Jahrgang, 1842).

VOL. II. 1

•«OH tVI^RTSBRATE ANIMALS

tortoises and birds a horny covering, and in the whales a row of horny
plates (in the upper jaw, — the so-called baleen), takes the place
of the teeth which are wanting. Teeth are, as it were, ossified '
papillas on the mucous membrane of the jaws ; they may also occur
on the palate, on the tongue, and, in fishes, on the branchial arches.

The intestinal canal is of various width in different parts, and
receives various fluids, which are secreted by different glands.
Such a fluid is the saliva, which is mixed with the food during
mastication and deglutition, such also the bile and the pancreatic
juice. In all vertebrate animals the liver, besides arterial blood,
receives also much venous blood, which, as it returns from the
viscera, is taken up by a venous trunk (the portal-vein) , that like an
artery divides into branches to be distributed through the liver.

From the food which has been changed by the action of the
stomach and of these secreted fluids, and is called chyme, the
chyliferous or lacteal vessels take up the nutritious part, and convey
it in a fluid state (called chyle) to the veins. Other vessels, in
addition, which resemble the lacteals, but which are not, like these,
spread over the intestinal canal, absorb from the different parts of
nearly the entire body a watery fluid (lymph), which becomes
mixed with the chyle. These vessels, with the preceding, make up
the lymphatic system, which appears proper to vertebrate animals
alone. They begin with blind extremities, and are formed of an
epithelium, which is covered by a fibrous membrane formed of fila-
ments running longitudinally and mutually crossing in form of a
net. On the outside of this membrane lies a covering of circular
fibres which pass into those of the surrounding connective tissue.
In the interior of the lymph-vessels, at least in most, are placed in
mammals and birds membranous valves, which favour the motion
of the fluid from the circumference of the body inwards, towards
the larger vessels. In mammals and in man almost the whole
fluid of this entire system meets in a principal stem, the thoracic
duct, which opens into the left subclavian vein. There are, how-
ever, smaller trunks also, which are situated on the right side, and
sometimes form connexions with other veins. The lymphatics
form repeated networks, and also as in warm-blooded animals, by
their rolling up and intertwining, glands improperly so named
(glandulce conglobatce). The spleen is also a part which is found
in vertebrate animals alone, and of which the presence and the

IN GENERAL. 3

function are probably in connexion with those of the lymphatics l.
This organ is situated in the neighbourhood of the stomach, and thus
more on the left side, at the upper part of the abdominal cavity;
it consists of a red, highly vascular tissue surrounded by a fibrous
external membrane, from which white productions as envelops of
the blood-vessels penetrate the internal soft substance and support
it like transverse joists. Peculiar vesicles, of microscopic size,
filled with a white pultaceous mass (MalpigJiian bodies), are attached
to these productions; the red pulpy substance contains many red-
brown granules2.

We have already indicated that the blood of vertebrate animals
is red; hence the ancients, though incorrectly, ascribed blood to
these animals alone, and called the invertebrates bloodless animals.
The veins of the body convey the blood to the heart, from which it
is driven to the respiratory organs: that is, the heart of vertebrate
animals is venous. In invertebrate animals, on the contrary, the
heart is arterial, i. e. it receives those veins which return the blood
from the respiratory organs, and sends the blood to the vessels
which are distributed to the various parts of the body. In verte-
brate animals, an arterial heart also may be present, but never
unless at the same time a venous heart be found. The two hearts
in that case lie close together (the two ventricles in mammals and
birds), or they coalesce to form one cavity, as in most of the
reptiles. Thus, whenever the heart receives the veins of the body
alone, as in fishes, then there is only one auricle and one ventricle;
if, on the other hand, it receives the veins of the body (the vence
cavce), and the veins of the respiratory organs as well, then there
are two auricles (atria), but not on that account always two ven-
tricles. In those vertebrate animals in which the two ventricles
are united to form one cavity, not all the blood but only a part of

1 It is asserted that the chyle acquires greater coagulability by admixture of fluid
contained in the lymphatics of the spleen. Compare P. W. LUND Physiologische
Residtate der Vivisectionen neuerer Zcit. Kopenhagen, 1825, 8vo, s. 78 — 83.

2 The spleen appears to be absent in the Cyclostomes alone, although a gland
situated on each side of the superior orifice of the stomach is referred to it by MEYER
and others. Notwithstanding, however, the general presence of the organ in verte-
brate animals, it does not seem to be essential to life, but may be excised without
danger, as has occurred as well in animals as in man ; see the notes in HALLEB Ele-
ment. Physid. VI. p. 421.

1—2

4 ON VERTEBRATE ANIMALS

it, is conducted to the respiratory organs; arterial blood is mixed
with venous blood.

The respiratory organs of vertebrate animals are gills or lungs.
Vertebrates alone inspire by the mouth, and such as have lungs
exspire by the mouth also.

In all vertebrate animals kidneys are present, parts by which
the urine so rich in nitrogen is secreted, and of which the internal
structure consists of fine tubules. In the lower vertebrates these
tubules unite to form branches which open into excretory ducts
(ureteres) running along the whole kidney; in birds and mammals
they unite to form bundles — pyramids, — which are arranged around
the cup-like commencement of the ureters. The two ureters, again,
often terminate in a bladder in which the secreted fluid is collected
before being discharged.

As to the sexual organs, we have already stated above, that the
sexes are constantly distinct. Not by any means, on that account,
however, is there a copulation in all, but sometimes the eggs, as in
most fishes, are impregnated after they have been laid. The ovary
is single or double (paired). In this organ the eggs are formed,
and leave it in order to undergo further development in another
situation. With most vertebrate animals this situation is external
to the body of the mother, and the development depends upon
external conditions of light, water and warmth: according to the
difference of these conditions the egg may require a longer or
shorter period for the development of the germ ; the germ alone of
a future independent being is present at the time of birth, or of the
separation of the egg from the body of the parent animal. In other
cases the eggs, so to speak, are brooded within the parent body
itself; and here the birth, which terminates the period of foetal life,
is contemporaneous with the relinquishment of the foetal enve-
lops. Such animals are usually named viviparous1, but the limit
between these and the oviparous cannot always be defined with
precision. Most fishes and reptiles and all birds are oviparous.

In the yolk of eggs, that still lie in the ovary, there is seen a
small transparent vesicle or a cell, which is surrounded by a ring
or by a small accumulation of a granular mass. This germ-vesicle,

1 BURDACH names these animals nudipara, Die Physiologic ah Erfakrungswissen-
schaft, ii. Leipzig, 1828, s. 45 (2te Auflage, 1837, s. 48).

IN GENERAL. O

first accurately indicated by PURKINJE in the bird's egg, also con-
tains a nucleus, to which the name of germ-spot (macula germinativa)
has been given, and of which the discovery is due to R. WAGNER.
The investigations of the latest period have demonstrated the uni-
versality of these parts of the ovarian egg. When the egg passes
from the ovary into the oviduct, the germ-vesicle disappears, and is
replaced by a disciform germ-membrane from which the first
development of the embryo takes a beginning. In mammals, as
early as the latter end of the seventeenth century, the vesicles of
the ovaries had become known through the investigations of REG-
NERUS DE GrRAAF, which after their discoverer were named folliculi
graafiam, and were generally regarded as eggs. But only about
twenty years have passed since YON BAER found the true egg in
the ovary of mammals, which, however, he took for the germ-vesicle
then lately discovered by PURKINJE, and thought that in mammals
alone this vesicle passes from the ovary into the oviduct, whilst in
oviparous animals the entire egg, the yolk, is taken up by the
oviduct. Consequently, according to VON BAER, the folliculi graa-
fiani were to be regarded as ovarian eggs, which inclosed within
them the ovum fetale, the germ- vesicle1. It was afterwards2 dis-
covered that this so-named ovum fetale also included within it a
germ-vesicle; in other words, that it was a perfect egg, which was
still further confirmed by the discovery of the germ-spot in this
vesicle. The folliculi graafiani are thus not eggs, but each of
them contains an egg which occupies only a small space of it,
but yet in its composition, in its inclosing a germ-vesicle with its
germ-spot, is similar in form to the egg in the ovary of birds and
other animals.

On development the germ lies, as in invertebrate animals, in
form of a gelatinous disc on the yolk, immediately under the vitelline
membrane. The germ-disc separates into three layers; a serous
layer the most external, a mucous layer the most internal, and a
vascular layer between the two, but more intimately connected with
the mucous layer. In the middle part of the serous layer arise the
vertebral column, the spinal marrow and the cerebral mass. On
the outer surface of the serous layer arise two projecting lines, which

1 C. E. A. DE BAER De (hi Mammaliuni et ffominis genesi. Lipsiie, 1827.

2 COSTA, WHABTON JONES, VALENTIN, BERNHAKDT enz.

6 ON VERTEBRATE ANIMALS

afterwards unite above and enclose the spinal marrow. Beneath,
this layer bends itself round in order to form the abdominal cavity.
The mucous layer gives origin to the intestinal canal.

It is worthy of remark that the position of the embryo with
respect to the yolk differs from that in the articulate and other
invertebrate animals. In these the yolk lies on the dorsal surface,
in the vertebrate animals always on the abdominal surface of the
embryo. The central portion of the germ, from which the develop-
ment begins, is, in vertebrate animals, the dorsal part. Hence it
arises also, that if we suppose the intestine to be the axis by which
the body is divided longitudinally, the principal mass of the nervous
system, the stem — the brain and spinal marrow — lies above this
axis, whilst the gangliated cord of articulate animals which corre-
sponds to the spinal marrow lies under its axis, on the abdominal
surface; the spinal marrow is here replaced by an abdominal cord.
Inversely the heart in vertebrate animals lies below, in invertebrate
animals above the same axis1. We have seen above that the
dorsal vessel of insects takes in them the place of a heart (compare
Vol. I. p. 258).

The position of the central part of the nervous system (the
spinal cord and brain) on the dorsal surface, and its enclosure in a
special cavity distinct from that of the viscera, form two principal
characters of vertebrate animals. If we follow the branches from
which the nerves of the skin or those of the muscles arise to their
origin in larger and still larger trunks, then we find that they all run
towards the brain or the spinal marrow, and lose themselves in the
substance of these parts. Brain and spinal marrow are consequently
the central parts of the nervous system of animal life. They are,
however, only two divisions of one and the same whole, of which
the development and magnitude are usually inversely proportional
to each other. In the most perfect vertebrate animals, namely the
mammals and especially in man, the mass of the brain far surpasses
that of the spinal cord.

In the brain and in the spinal cord the nerve-substance
appears under two modifications. Chemical investigation has

1 Compare H. RATHKE Untersuchungen uber die Bildung und Entwickelwng dcs
Flusskrebses. Leipzig, 1829, s. 77 — 90; see also BAEE De Ovi Mammal, et Hominis
genesi, p. 74.

IN GENERAL. 7

hitherto indicated no remarkable difference between them; only
the one seems to contain less fat, a softer albumen1, and more water.
This is of a grey colour and receives a greater quantity of blood-
vessels than the other, which is white and is named medullary sub-
stance (comp. Vol. I. p. 11). This denomination and that of corti-
cal substance are derived from the relative position of the two
substances in the brain, where usually the white substance is sur-
rounded by the grey. In the whole of the spinal marrow on the
contrary the cortical substance is situated internally.

In vertebrate animals two nervous systems may generally be
distinguished, one for the vegetative, another for the animal life,
although many invertebrate animals also, as we have formerly
noticed, already indicate a commencement of this division2. On
the other hand, in some vertebrate animals the nervus sympathicus
is little developed, and is in part replaced by the vagus. The
nerves of vegetative life unite in irregular flat or round bodies
which are named nerve-ganglia. Here the branches of nerves form
many nets or plexuses, which principally surround the blood-
vessels. The whole is destitute of symmetry.

In proportion to the larger development of the nervous system,
the organs of the senses in vertebrate animals are also more perfect.
Four of these, the organs of sight, hearing, smell and taste, are
situated in the anterior part of the head, included in bony cavities
and protected. The olfactory organ, formed by a folded mucous
membrane upon which the branches of the first pair of nerves are
spread out, is in most fishes entirely segregated and placed on the
upper surface of the bony head, but in those vertebrates that breathe
by lungs is connected behind with the cavity of the mouth, and
so with the respiratory organs. The sense of feeling (and more
particulary that of tact) is in some animals especially developed
in the fingers, in others in the lips, in others again probably in the
tongue. Eyes are always present, as it would seem, in vertebrate
animals, although they are often very small and sometimes concealed
under the skin, and in certain fishes are two little balls surrounded
by pigment without refracting media, and so can have no other
office than that of distinguishing light.

1 JOHN Chemiscke Tabellen des Thierveichs, s. 7.
3 See Vol. i. p. 766.

8 ON VERTEBRATE ANIMALS

An especial characteristic of vertebrate animals consists in the
possession of an internal skeleton, of which the spinal column forms
the stem. However strange it may sound, it is nevertheless true
that all vertebrate animals do not possess vertebra. The first com-
mencement of the skeleton is a cord situated in the back, which
is sometimes fibrous but usually gelatinous, and consists of elongated
cells, and is inclosed invariably by a fibrous sheath. This cord
(chorda dorsalis) does not undergo ossification, but during the
formation of the bony vertebrae is gradually superseded or included
by the ossified sheath. At the same time there are imperfect fishes
where this dorsal cord is persistent, and where no special vertebras
are found. The spinal marrow lies above this cord, protected by
two fibrous laminae, or by cartilaginous arches. Consequently a
vertebral column cannot be assigned as the universally prevalent
type of vertebrate animals, but first of all a dorsal cord (chorda
dorsalis} which either persists during the whole of life, or is replaced
by a vertebral column ; and next, a spinal marrow, as central mass
of the nervous system, which is situated upon this cord or upon the
vertebral column.

The basal pieces of the cranial bones, upon which the mass of
the brain rests, resemble the bodies of vertebrae. The brain is sur-
rounded by very wide vertebral arches1. All the cranial bones
however do not arise from ossification of the original cartilage which
is to be regarded as a continuation of the vertebral column in the
head. This cartilage, this primordial skull, is in part covered over
and inclosed by bones which arise from a membranous blastema
which lies upon the cartilage, and so have never been cartilaginous2.
In general all fibrous and tendinous parts may become bony. Hence
the muscles of the legs in birds are seen to terminate in bony ten-
dons ; in other animals portions of bone are found in the diaphragm,

1 OKEN adopts three cranial vertebrae : Ueber die Bedeutung der Schadelknochen.
Jena, 1807, 4to; OWEN four: On the archetype and homologies of the Vertebrate
Skeleton. London, 1848.

3 Attention was directed to this point by the celebrated physiological anatomist L.
JACOBSON especially. See his memoir Om Primordial-craniet in Forhandlingar vid de
Skandinaviske Naturforskames tredje Mote. Stockholm, 1842, pp. 739 — 744; compare
also A. KOELLIKEB in Berichte von der Koniglichen Zootomischen Anstalt zu Wurzburg
(Leipzig, 1849), 8- 35 — 42> where also are found anatomical notices on the labours of
some writers who preceded JACOBSON on this point.

IN GENERAL. 9

in the crocodiles abdominal ribs, which are nothing else than the
ossified transverse tendinous strips of the straight muscles of the
abdomen.

The vertebral column and the skull are the only essential parts
of the internal skeleton. The limbs are wanting in most snakes
and in some fishes, the ribs in the frogs and others. If now from
the skeleton of a four-footed mammal or of man the limbs and the
ribs be subtracted, then there will remain nothing but the verte-
bral column and the bony head.

The division of vertebrate animals into four classes, derived
from LINN^US, has since his time been generally adopted and
maintained, although some writers have wished to compose a fifth
class from the scaleless Amphibia. That division is founded upon
the temperature of the blood1 and of the internal organs, upon the
various forms of the heart, upon the difference of the respiratory
organs, which are either gills or lungs, and upon the distinction of
the parturition, the laying of eggs or the bringing forth of living
young.

These four classes are those of fishes, reptiles, birds and mam-
mals. Fishes and reptiles are cold-blooded, birds and mammals
warm-blooded. Fishes breathe by gills, the remaining vertebrate
animals by lungs ; birds and mammals are thus warm-blooded ani-
mals that breathe by lungs ; but of these the first are oviparous, the
last viviparous.

1 If, during life, the temperature of animals undergoes only very little variation,
and is almost entirely independent of that of the medium in which they li ve, theii they
are said to be warm-blooded. Animals whose temperature is dependent in great part
on that of the air or of the water, in which they reside, are, on the other hand, named
cold-blooded.

CLASS XIV.

FISHES (PISCES)1.

THE Fishes are vertebrate cold-blooded animals, which live in
water, and breathe by gills. Their external form is very various,
yet in their internal structure there is still a correspondence suf-
ficient for regarding the class of fishes as a natural division of the
animal kingdom. LINNAEUS and BRISSON, at the beginning of the
preceding century, separated from it the cetaceous animals, which,
in the first edition of the Systema Naturce, the great Swedish
Naturalist had arranged with the fishes, although ARISTOTELES had
already regarded the fishes and cetaceans as two large distinct
genera or classes, adducing the gills as a special characteristic of
fishes, which, moreover, as he sagaciously remarked, differ by the

1 On the class of fishes may be consulted amongst other works :

P. BELONII De Aquatilibus Libri n. Parisiis, 1553 (forma oblonga).

H. SALVIANI Aquatilium Animalium Historia. Romae, 1553, folio.

G. RONDELETII De Piscibus marinis. Lugduni, 1554, folio.

G. WILLUGBEJI Historia Piscium, cura J. RAJI et C. MORTIMERI. Londini, 1743,
folio.

P. ARTEDI Ichthyologia, s. opera omnia de Piscibus posthuma, edidit C. LINN.EUS.
L. B. 1738, 8vo.

M. E. BLOCK (ETconomuche NaturgescTiichte der Fische Deutschlands. Berlin, 1782,
1784, in. Bd. 4to (with col. plates in folio).

M. E. BLOCH Ichthyologie ou Histoire naturelle generate et particuliere des Poissons.
Berlin, 1787 — 1797, xn. Vol. fol. (with 432 coloured plates).

BLOCH Systema IcUhyologice, edidit J. G. SCHNEIDER, 1801, 8vo, r Vol. (with
no, mostly coloured, plates).

LACEPEDE Hist, naturelle des Poissons. Paris, 1798 to 1803, 4to, v. Vol. (also
in small 8vo, XI. parts, with many figures).

CUVIER and VALENCIENNES Histoire naturelle des Poissons. Paris, 1828 — 1849,
22 Vols. (8vo or 4to) with 650 plates, coloured or un coloured. The whole contains
the Acanihopterygii and Malacopterygii abdominales. VALENCIENNES has undertaken
a second series on the remaining Malacopterygii and the Chondropterygii.

On the anatomy of fishes, besides the work last cited, in which the internal structure
of this class is illustrated by many figures from the river Perch, compare :

A. MONRO The Structure and Physiology of Fishes explained and compared with
those of Man and other Animals. Edinburgh, 1785, fol.

R. OWEN Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate
Animals. Part I. Fishes. London, 1846, 8vo.

Special works on the fishes of particular countries and writings on different points
of the anatomy of these animals will be cited now and then in the sequel.

FISHES. 11

absence of the glands that secrete milk, from the sucking dolphins
and cetaceans. LINNAEUS, in the last edition of his arrangement,
referred the cartilaginous and some other fishes, to which he erro-
neously ascribed, in addition to gills, lungs also, to the class of the
Amphibia. This position was rejected by subsequent writers, and
GMELIN, in the thirteenth edition of the Systema Naturce, restored
these animals to the fishes.

Fishes, as is well known, occur in water alone ; and, however
some or even many species from all the other classes of animals
live in water, still fishes form the greatest number of the in-
habitants of water, at least among vertebrate animals ; so that it is
not strange that, by the uninitiated and in common language, the
appellation of fishes should be transferred to other water-animals.

Let us first consider shortly the external structure of fishes;
this will afford us, at the same time, the opportunity of explaining
some terms which are employed in the description of these animals.

The body of fishes may be divided into head, trunk, and tail.
The head is an immediate continuation of the trunk ; fishes have no
proper neck, since the respiratory organs are seated under the head,
and the thoracic cavity immediately succeeds to that of the mouth,
or is even confluent with it. Hence the form of the body is very
simple, usually attenuated gradually towards the two extremities.
In some the hinder end is, as it were, cut off, as in the sun-fish
(Orthagoriscus). In the rays the tail is much narrower than the
trunk.

The body of most fishes is compressed laterally (corpus com-
pressum s. cathetoplatewri), so that the section is an oval, of which
the back forms the broadest end. In others, as in the rays, it is
depressed or flat (corpus depressum s. plagioplateum) ; in others,
still, it is cylindrical, as in the eels ; in others almost spherical, as
in some species of the genus Diodon ; in some, finally, angular, sur-
rounded by flat or slightly concave surfaces, meeting in three or
four projecting edges, as in the so-named Coffer-fishes, the genus
Ostracion.

In general, the body is covered with scales (corpus squamosum] .
Sometimes the scales are small, and the smooth slimy skin seems
to be naked, as in the eels; in some fishes, however, as in the
cyclostomes, the scales are really wanting (corpus nudum s. alepi-
dotum).

12 CLASS XIV.

On each side of the body lies a row of apertures, sometimes
extremities of bony tubes or of small pipes perforating the scales,
and forms the so-called lateral line (linea lateralis); under this
lateral line a glandular tissue, at least when these parts are more
developed, has been observed. The slimy fluid, with which the
body of fishes is covered, is secreted here. The line lies, in some
cases, closer to the back, in others, more towards the abdominal side ;
it is in some fishes (as Chromis, Xirichthys) interrupted, i. e. behind
it ceases on the back, and suddenly arises lower down, pursuing a
new direction on the tail.

The head of fishes may, like the body, be narrow and compressed,
or flat and broad, naked or scaly. In the frog-fish (Lopliius pisca-
torius) it is almost as large as the body, in most fishes much smaller.
The jaws are not always equally long. In some, as in Xiphias,
the upper jaw, in others (especially in the genus Hemiramphus)
the under jaw is extraordinarily elongated.

The aperture of the mouth in the sharks, rays and sturgeons
is situated on the under side, in most fishes at the anterior ex-
tremity of, the head. In the genus Uranoscopus the mouth is placed
upwards. The lips and the jaws have often various appendages,
filiform feelers (tentacula, cirri), &c.

The teeth are distinguished by their form and the different
parts on which they are affixed. Besides the jaws, they may occur
on the vomer, on the palate, the tongue, the branchial arches, and
the small bones of the gullet.

The nasal apertures and the eyes are the only organs of sense
that can be distinguished externally. In the genus of the soles
(Pleuronectes) the two eyes are placed on the same side of the head.
In others they lie one on each side, sometimes turned more towards
the upper surface (as in Uranoscopus), rarely more downwards, as
in the sucking-fish (Echeneis).

The gills have ordinarily on each side behind the head a single
opening, through which the water, on expiration, is expelled (aper-
tura branchiarum) , and which mostly is in form of a semilunar
fissure, convex backwards. They are protected by bony plates as
a cover (operculum), of which the posterior margin is free. Beneath
this is a membrane, which is folded and supported by bony rays
that can expand it (membrana branchiostega). We shall advert to
these parts more particularly in the sequel.

' FISHES. 13

The fins are in part unpaired, situated in the plane that divides
the body into two lateral halves, in part paired, lying on each side.
The last may be four in number : two pectoral fins (pinnce pec-
torales), which are placed higher and behind the gills, and two
ventral fins (pinnce ventrales), which are situated more below. In
some fishes, as the haddock, these last are placed quite forward, in
front of the pectoral fins (pisces jugulares}', in others they lie almost
directly below the pectoral fins (pisces thoracici) ; but usually they
lie nearer to the tail, behind the pectoral fins, as in the carp (pisces
abdominales) .

The unpaired fin at the end of the tail is called the caudal fin
(pinna caudalis), that which is attached to the body below, the
anal fin (pinna analis), that which is situated above upon the back,
the dorsal fin (pinna dorsalis). The dorsal and the caudal are
sometimes divided, or several separate fins are placed behind each
other. Adipose fin (pinna adiposa) is the name given to a small
dorsal fin without rays, which lies behind the ordinary dorsal fin,
as in the salmon.

The small bones which support the fins, and between which the
skin of the fins is extended, are named rays (radii). These are
either composed of joints and often split at the point into different
filaments (radii molles), or simple, hard and pointed (aculei s. radii
spinosi}. When these last are present, they are situated at the fore
part of the dorsal and anal fin. The number of rays is used as a
specific character. Ordinarily the ventral fins are situated in front
of the anus, whilst the anal fin begins behind it. In some fishes
that have no ventral fins, the anus is placed far forward, close under
the head (the genus Sternarchus).

This may suffice for the external form of fishes. We must now
consider their internal structure a little more closely, and to that
end shall first treat of their frame-work1.

1 On the osteology of fishes, besides the general works on comparative anatomy by
CUVIER, MECKEL, &c., the following may be consulted: BOJANUS Versuch einer
Deutung der Knochen im Kopfe der Fische in OKEN'S Isis, 1818, I. s. 498 — 510;
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE Philosophic Anatomique, i. Paris, 1818, 8vo; G. BAKKER
Osteographia piscium. Groningse, 1822, 8vo (with folio plates, in which the parts of the
skeleton are principally illustrated in the haddock) ; L. AGASSIZ Recherches sur les
Poissons fossiles. Neuchatel, 1833 — 1843, 4to, I. pp. 91 — 152 (du Squelette desPoissons
en general) ; also in the work itself many osteological observations and -descriptions
of the skeleton of different genera are to be found, ex. gr. of Esox in the fifth part,

14 CLASS

The chief constituents of bony tissue are, as is well known,
phosphate of lime and gelatine. The organic constituent of the
cartilaginous bones in sharks is, according to CHEVKEUL, a peculiar
animal matter, which, in its chemical properties, has more resem-
blance to mucus than to gelatine. According to MUELLER, the gela-
tine from the bones of osseous fishes does not jelly. The cartilagi-
nous fishes have some parts of their skeleton which are more
ossified, and contain much phosphate of lime, as the bodies of the
vertebrae of sharks and rays, or they are coated with a hard ossified
layer1. The difference therefore between cartilaginous and bony
fishes is not very definite, since in these last moreover there is
much cartilage remaining, especially in the skull.

We will now, first of all, confine ourselves to the form of the
skeleton. It consists of the trunk, the head, the bony or cartilagi-
nous apparatus of the respiratory organs and the fins. The spinal
column consists of dorsal and caudal vertebrae; for, since fishes
have no pelvis, there are no sacral nor lumbar vertebrae ; as little
are there cervical vertebras, for the cavity of the thorax is situated
under the head. Some writers indeed name those vertebrae that lie
nearest to the head and to which no ribs are attached, cervical ver-
tebrae ; but since there are many fishes that have no ribs at all, no
general use can be made of this distinction.

The notochord [OwEN] (chorda dorsalis) is persistent in some
imperfectly organised fishes, and supplies the office of distinct bodies
of vertebrae. It is deserving of remark that this embryonal state
was very general in fishes of the earliest geological period, whence
the explanation is given that, in the remains of the so-named
Ganoids no bodies of vertebrae are met with2. In most of the
cartilaginous fishes, however, and in the bony fishes, bodies of

pp. 60 — 68; Qwe,^ Lectures on the Comp. Anat. and Physiol. of the Vertebr. Anim. Pt. I.
Fishes. London, 1846, pp. 40 — 162. Here his theory of the cranial vertebrae is also
fully propounded.

The richest collection of figures of the piscine skeleton is to be found in F. ROSEN-
THAL'S Ichthyotomische Tafeln. vi. Hefte. Berlin, 1812 — 1825. CUVIER, in the first
part of his Hist, natur. des Poissons, has figured and described the skeleton of Perca
fluviatilis in detail.

1 Abhandlungen der physikalisck-mathematiscken Masse der Konigl. Alcademie der
Wissensch. zu Berlin. 1834, s. 136.

3 AGASSIZ ascribed this previously to the accidental decomposition. Recherches
tiitr les Poissons fossiles, n. i, pp. 83, 84.

FISHES. 15

vertebras more or less ossified are present. These present in front
and behind a conical cavity which is filled with a soft matter, the
remains of the gelatinous cord. These two cavities often communi-
cate in the middle of the body of the vertebras by a small aperture
between them, and thus have the form of an hour-glass placed
horizontally. In Lepidosteus the remarkable exception occurs, that
the bodies of the vertebrae exhibit a hemispherical surface at their
anterior part, an articular head, and at the back part are con-
cave1.

Above the body of the vertebrae is situated a process on each
side (neurapophysis OWEN). These processes are ossified earlier
and more generally than the bodies of the vertebrae ; they approach
each other above, and thus form a ring above each of the vertebrae,
the superior vertebral arch, in which the spinal marrow is lodged,
and on which a spinous process is usually affixed. At the base of
this superior vertebral arch there is generally situated forwards and
backwards, sometimes forwards alone, a small articular process on
each side, which serves, with the conical cavities of the bodies of
the vertebrae, to connect the vertebras ; the anterior articular process
overlaps the posterior process of the preceding vertebra, and is
received in an excisure at the base of the superior vertebral arch.
Sometimes, as in Polypterus, the superior arches of the bodies of
the vertebrae remain distinct, but in most fishes they sooner or
later coalesce with them. The dorsal vertebrae have transverse
processes (parapopliyses OWEN) ; the caudal vertebrae processes
which bend downwards and approach each other to form in this
way an inferior vertebral arch, within which the trunks of the
blood-vessels are situated that run beneath the bodies of the caudal
vertebras. The number of vertebrae is very different in different
fishes ; in Orthagoriscus mola, for instance, there are only seven-
teen, in Anarrhichas lupus seventy-six, in Murcena more than an
hundred. The tail is formed by nearly the half, and often by many
more than the half, of these vertebrae. For the tail is in fishes the
chief instrument of motion, and in most of them constitutes the
greatest part of the body ; all the organs are pushed forward to
leave room behind for the large muscular mass which serves for
motion.

1 AGASSIZ Reck, sur les Poiss. fos&iles, n. 2, p. 23, Tab. /3', figs. 10 — 12. A similar
disposition is found in most of the Reptilia, but in them the articular head is behind.

16 CLASS XIV.

In most fishes ribs (pleurapophyses OWEN) are present : each rib
is attached to one vertebra alone, sometimes to its body, but
ordinarily to the extremity of the transverse process. These ribs do
not inclose the thoracic but the ventral cavity, and are not at-
tached to a sternum below. Only in very few fishes, as in the
herrings, the genus Clupea, is there a sternum present, which, as it
consists of parts that belong to the dennal skeleton, might almost
be called external : to it the extremities of the ribs are attached.
Often, in addition to the ribs, there are little slender bones which
are attached to the ribs or to the vertebrae and lie amongst the
muscles. These fine spines are named the ossicles of Artedi (spince,
epipleurales OWEN).

The unpaired fins belong to the dermal skeleton and conse-
quently have no relation to the morphological survey of the vertebrae.
The caudal fin is usually attached to a triangular lamina which
consists of the body of the last caudal vertebra and a connexion of
the upper and lower spinous processes of some preceding vertebrae.
The rays of the dorsal and anal fins are attached by means of a
hinge-joint to small triangular flat bones, whose points are turned
towards the vertebral column, and which may be named interspinal
ossicles, since they lie between the spinous processes of the vertebrae.
Sometimes interspinal ossicles occur to which no rays are attached.
The first interspinal ossicle of the anal fin limits the ventral cavity
behind, and often unites with the inferior spinous processes of the
first caudal vertebrae to form a firm part in form of an arch1.

The proper rays of the fins consist of two lateral parts, more or
less coalesced ; some are formed of joints and towards the extremity
split into branches. This applies equally to the rays of the ventral
and pectoral fins2.

The pectoral fins are the anterior limbs of fishes, and correspond
to our arms or to the wings of birds. They are attached to an
osseous belt, which, in the bony fishes and sturgeons, descends
from the skull, in the sharks and rays from the spinal column, and

1 In some species of Chcetodon this bone is very thick, especially downwards. Here
belongs that singular bone which OLAUS WORMIUS described, "quod suafigura quasi
murem reprcesentat," Museum Wormianum. Amstelodami, 1655, folio, p. 271. Com-
pare the figure of the skeleton of Ephippus gigas Ccv. in B. WOLF Diss. inaug. med.
de Osse pecullari Wormio dicto. Berolini, 1821, 4to.

2 Compare on the spines of the fins ROSENTHAL in REIL'S Archivf. die Physiol. x.
i8rr, s. 359—372, with figs.

FISHES. 17

unites beneath with that of the opposite side. Each half of this
belt, which in osseous fishes is situated behind the gill-cover,
consists of two pieces at the least. The uppermost is usually re-
garded as a scapula; in most fishes it consists of two divisions, one
placed below the other, of which the uppermost is situated like a
scaly plate at the side of the head, and begins with two arms.
The lower was by CUVIER compared with the upper arm-bone
(humerus) , but seems rather, as most writers conclude, to correspond
to the clavicle (according to OWEN to the coracoid clavicle}. Most
anatomists are of opinion that the coracoid bone in the osseous
fishes is represented by one or two bones, of which the lowest has
the form of a pointed osseous style ; this bone, or the uppermost
when there are two, is attached to the upper extremity of the above-
named osseous belt, and its lowest point, or the second bone, pene-
trates obliquely backwards and downwards amongst the muscles1.
Downwards are attached to the posterior margin of the osseous belt
two, seldom three, small bony laminae. The two, which are usually
present, may be regarded as the representatives of the bones of the
fore-arm (radius and ulna] ; the third is probably a rudimentary
upper arm-bone (humerus}, which, however, as a rule, appears to be
wanting in fishes.

To the outer extremity of the two bony plates, compared to
the radius and ulna, a row of four or five cylindrical or doubly-
conical small bones is attached corresponding to the carpus. To
these no metacarpal bones are attached2, but they sustain imme-
diately the rays of the pectoral fins, which may thus be compared
with fingers, but usually their number far exceeds that of the
carpal bones.

The ventral fins are attached to a triangular bone with the point
directed forwards, which meets that of the opposite side in the
mid-line of the abdomen, the two being almost always connected
by suture. This bone represents the pelvis. Besides this, the

1 Os epicoracoldeum of OWEN corresponding with the clavicle. Here OWEN recog-
nises the homologue of an inferior vertebral arch (hcemapopJiysis) belonging to the first
vertebra. Lectures, 1. 1. pp. 123, 160.

2 In Polypterus alone there is a row of small bones, which may be compared with
the metacarpus, inserted between the carpus and the fin-rays, as also in the posterior
limbs between the pelvic bones and the rays of the fins there lies a row of four long
opicles, which might be named metatarsal bones. Compare on the pectoral fins
C. METTENHEIMEB, Disquisitiones de Membro Piscium pectorali.

VOL. II. 2

18 CLASS XIV.

fingers alone of the posterior extremities are present, which cor-
respond to the rays of the ventral fins.

The comparison of the skull-bones of fishes with those of the skull
of the other vertebral animals, is a rock upon which the ingenuity
of many naturalists has been wrecked. The skull of bony fishes con-
sists of a much greater number of bones than that of man; and this
peculiarity may in part be explained on the supposition that what in
the embryo state of man and mammals are distinct points of ossi-
fication, in fishes persist as distinct bones during their entire life.
Chiefly numerous are the bones which collectively represent the
temporal bone in man1. On a superficial inspection the difficulty
appears to be rendered still greater by the bones related to the
largely developed tongue-bone and to the respiratory apparatus,
which are connected with the bones of the skull. Moreover, some
bones, which do not correspond to any in the skull of higher ver-
tebrate animals, are to be referred to the dermal skeleton 2.

At the base of the skull three bones are readily distinguished,
placed in front of one another in a row; the basal piece of the
occipital bone, the body of the sphenoid, an elongated bony lamina
channelled above, and the vomer, which becomes broader and thicker
forwards, and often on its under surface is armed with teeth. The
basal piece of the occipital bone is a true body of a vertebra, and
has behind a conical cavity for connexion with the first dorsal
vertebra. Above it on each side lies a lateral occipital bone or
articular portion (occipitale laterale, superior vertebral arch), which
corresponds with the condylo'id portion of the human occipital bone.
These bones approach one another above, but leave between them
and the basal piece below an aperture nearly triangular (foramen
magnum], through which the spinal marrow passes into the cavity of
the cranium; they are perforated by a conspicuous aperture, through
which the nervus vagus, and a smaller one through which the
n. glossopharyngeus, leaves the skull. Above the occipital foramen
is an unpaired bone, which sometimes forms a sharp crest in the

1 On this bone, and on the skull of vertebrate animals in general, much that is
interesting is to be found in the celebrated work of E. HALLMANN Die vergleichende
Osteologie des Schldfenbeins, mit 4 Kupfertafeln. Hannover, 1837, 4to.

2 Without greater prolixity than this handbook permits we cannot offer more precise
explanations of the names by which we describe the bones of the skull, and therefore
must refrain also, for the most part, from criticising other designations of them.

FISHES. 19

middle, and corresponds to the squamous portion of the occipital
bone (crista occipitalis) . It often separates the two parietal bones
above, whence it was named by CUVIER the interparietal bone. At
the side of this bone and above the lateral occipitals on each side
is a small bone, which is also usually referred to the occipital bone,
the os occipitale externum of CUVIER. BOJANUS regarded this bone
as the petrous bone, because one of the semicircular canals of the
labyrinth is covered by it1. But this circumstance affords no
sufficient ground for such a determination, since, on account of their
great development, the semicircular canals of fishes may be pro-
tected by different bones. I rather suppose, with HALLMANN, that
it is a part of the temporal bone 2. Above the body of the sphenoid
bone and immediately in front of the lateral occipital bones, there
lies a flat bone on each side, ordinarily very large, and presenting
a foramen or notch, through which the second and third branch of
the fifth pair of nerves pass. These bony plates are the large alse
of the sphenoid (os alisphcenoideum OWEN3). On the skull above lie
the two parietal bones, which ordinarily are small. Only rarely do
they meet in the middle of the head at the upper part in a sagittal
suture, as in Cyprinus.

More in front, above the body of the sphenoid (which with
OWEN we regard as formed of the bodies of two vertebrae), are the two
small wings of the sphenoid (orlito-sphcenoidea) , which follow upon
the anterior margin of the large wings and mount up to the frontal
bones. Under these wings through a membranous part the optic
nerves proceed from the skull to the capsule of the eye. There are
ordinarily two large frontal bones, distinguished by a median suture,
which from the parietals and the occipital bone become narrower
forward. Sometimes they are united to form a single bone, as in
the haddock and the cod; in some a crest is found here in the mid-
line, which is a continuation of the occipital crest4; sometimes they

1 BOJANUS Anatome Tcstud. Europ. p. 171.

2 [OWEN, parapophysis of the epencephalic vert., corresponding to the jugular
process of the human occipital bone.]

3 MECKEL names this bone os petrosum, in which also HALLMANN and STANNIUS
concur. On its inner surface, at the inferior margin, lies the sac of the membranous
labyrinth.

4 As in Lampris guttatvs, Zeus lunaGvxLL., BAKKEB 1. 1. p. 171, Tab. n. fig. in. a,
in Vomer, &c.

2—2

20 CLASS XIV.

are separated from each, other by a membranous part (fontanelle), as
in Orthagoriscus.

Under the small or anterior wings of the sphenoid and the
sphenoid, there is situated in the perch and many other osseous
fishes an unpaired bone, which divides above into two arms and
rests upon the body of the sphenoid below. CUVIER names this
part anterior sphenoid (rostrum ossis sphceno'idei, spheno'ide ante-
rieur). More justly, as AGASSIZ determines, may it be regarded as
the sethmoid bone; in many fishes it remains cartilaginous. Above
it joins the anterior and the large wings of the sphenoid J. In front
of this and below the anterior portion of the frontal bones lies the
nasal bone, a single bone, which is commonly described as the
gethmoid (by BoJANUS as the crista cethmo'idalis) . On each side of
this are situated the so-named anterior frontal bones (frontalia ante-
rwra), which are small and closely connected with the nasal bone.

An interposed bone (os intercalare) may be observed on each
side of the skull under the parietals and the external occipitals,
which was named mastoid (os masto'ideum) by CUVIER. Often it
is produced into a point at the back part of the skull. It may be
compared to the squamous portion of the temporal bone, since the
external occipital is rather to be regarded (p. 19) as the mastoid2.
In this bone there is often on the inferior part a small bony piece,
which is attached to the lateral occipital bone. It is present in the
perch, for instance, but is absent in the pike. CUVIER supposes it
to correspond with the petrous bone, which we think is not present
in osseous fishes 3; it is an accessory of the squamous portion of the
temporal. Other parts of the temporal bone, which relate to the
articulation of the lower jaw, belong to the bones of the face.

The cranium is connected with the lower jaw on each side by a
belt of different bones, which collectively make up the articular
portion of the temporal bone. In the sharks and rays there is only
a single cartilage on each side (suspensorium) , which corresponds
with the quadrate bone (os quadratum s. tympanicum) of birds anc

1 [OWEN names this bone entospheno'id, as the common base of the two orbito
sphaeno'ids : it is peculiar, as a distinct bone, to fishes. See Homologies, p. 44.]

2 [According to OWEN the squamosal is normally absent in fishes. Homol. p. 62
With OWEN as well as CDVIEB the bone in question is the mastoid.]

3 [See OWEN Homologies, p. 28. The petrosal is the capsule of the labyrinth, anc
is never entirely ossified in fishes; if so, it belongs to the splanchno-skeleton.]

FISHES. 21

reptiles. In the osseous fishes there are four or five bones on each
side, of which the uppermost (epitympanicum OWEN) is connected
with the skull (with the squamosal [mastoid OWEN] and posterior
frontal) by articulation, whilst at the upper part behind it has an
articular surface for the gill-cover (operculum). Under this bone is
a flat osseous disc, often of a circular form ; to this CUVIER gives the
name of os tympanicum; behind it lies a styliform bone1, and
under the two a triangular bony lamina with a smaller inferior
extremity and an articular head, which is connected with the lower
jaw. CUVIER names this the jugal bone. (In the batrachians the
jugal bone runs from the upper jaw to the quadrate bone, and then
forms a portion of the articular head for connexion with the lower
jaw.) Behind this connecting arch there lies between the skull and
the lower jaw the gill-cover, consisting of various bones, of which
the first descends as an elongated curved bone nearly as far as the
lower jaw. This prceoperculum seems to be simply a portion of the
temporal bone, according to GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE the proper
os tympanicum, according to AGASSIZ the styliform process (proces-
sus styloideus2) .

The upper jaw-bones are commonly without teeth, and lie in
the upper lip; they run obliquely backwards and downwards, with-
out being connected at the extremity with other bones. The inter-
maxillary bones are, on the other hand, usually armed with teeth ;
as are also the palate-bones, which are situated at the sides of the
vomer. Behind each of these palate-bones lie two bones which are
attached by cartilage to the jugal bone and the lamelliform middle
portion of the quadrate bone, and may be aptly compared with the
pterygoid processes that divide into an external and internal wing3.

Below the orbits of the eye is placed a row of bony scales,
quite external, which form a half-ring connected behind with the
anterior frontal bone. Some writers regard these bones as parts of
the jugal bone; but they belong perhaps to the dermal skeleton,
and thus may be compared with the apparatus of the lateral line

1 Os symplecticum CUVIER, Tympano-malhale AGASSIZ, Meso-tympanicum, OWEN.

2 [OWEN Homoloffies, p. 65. The opercular bones have no special homologues in
higher animals. They form collectively the diverging appendage of the descending or
tympano-mandibular arch of the third cranial vertebra.]

3 [OwEN Homologies, p. 114. The diverging appendage of the maxillary arch of
the fourth, or anterior, vertebra of the head.]

22 CLASS XIV.

(tinea later alls] for secreting mucus, as its continuation on to the
head1. The anterior of these sub-orbital bones, which is also the
largest, forms the outer or inferior margin of the nasal cavity.
The superior margin of the sac of the olfactory organ is formed by
a small plate of bone (the nasal bone according to CUVIER), which
also appears to belong to the dermal skeleton, and runs on each
side of the anterior frontal bone to the bone of the upper jaw. It is
the turbinated bone according to OWEN.

The under jaw is divided into a right and left portion ; these
two halves are united in the middle by cartilage and ligamentous
tissue alone. Each half usually consists of three pieces ; an ar-
ticular piece on each side (os articular e), beneath it a small bony
piece for the angle of the lower jaw (os angular e], and an anterior
piece, in which the teeth are fixed (the dental piece, os dentale), in
the posterior margin of which is a triangular excisure for the recep-
tion of the articular piece.

We must next consider the tongue-bone, which presents a large
development in the class of fishes, from its connexion with the gills,
as an osseous respiratory apparatus. The body of the lingual bone
lies under the head in the mid-plane, and usually consists of a
series of unpaired bony pieces placed behind one another; forward, a
cartilaginous or bony lamina penetrates into the tongue (glossoJiyale
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE). To these bony pieces five arches are
attached, like ribs to a sternum. The hindmost arc is incomplete,
and is simply laid on the under side of the gullet ; it consists on
each side of a bone, which, on its upper surface, almost always bears
teeth (the so-named ossa pharyngealia inferiora}. In some fishes
(Scarus, Labrus] the two unite to form a single unpaired bone.
The four anterior arches consist of several bony pieces, of which the
uppermost mount up beneath the skull and bear teeth on their
inferior surface (ossa pharyngealia superiora) ; the two middlemost,
which are grooved beneath, bear the branchial laminae. At the
side, and in front of the first branchial arch, two small bones are
situated on each side, to which the horns of the tongue-bone are

1 Compare STANNIUS Ueber die Knochen des Seitenkanah der Fische, FKOKIEP'S
Neue Notizen, Bd. xxui. s. 97 — 100 (April, 1842). Of the same kind are certain bony
plates, which in many fishes are situated laterally near the parietal bones, the os
supra-temporalia of BAKKEB and CUVIER.

FISHES. 23

affixed, consisting of two flat bony pieces, that mount beneath the
lower jaw, and are connected by means of a small styliform bone to
the inner surface of the uppermost bone of the mandibular arch
(epitympanicum] , which connects the lower jaw to the cranium. A
laterally compressed unpaired bone runs backwards from the union
of the two horns of the tongue-bone, and is usually connected to
the belt of the clavicles which sustains the pectoral fins. Beneath
the horns of the tongue-bone is the so-named branchiostegous
membrane (see above, p. 12), which completes the branchial aper-
ture ; this membrane is supported by long ossicles bent backwards,
called rays of the branchiostegous membrane, of which the number
varies in different fishes, by which the generic characters may be
compared; many fishes have seven such rays, the Cyprini only
three, where however they are broader.

The three bony plates situated behind the prceoperculum may
be regarded as radiations from that bone corresponding to the bran-
chiostegous rays from the horns of the tongue-bone. These plates
form the gill-cover, the most external part of the bony apparatus
for respiration. The largest of these pieces (operculum Cuv.) is a
lamina attached to the epitympanicum, and forms the upper and
outer edge of the branchial aperture. It has an irregular, more or
less triangular, form ; beneath it lies another small bony plate (sub-
operculum Cuv.), and a smaller is placed in front of this below the
prceoperculum (interoperculum Cuv.). In the sharks, divided, carti-
laginous radiations, like fingers, at the posterior margin of the os
tympanicum, are met with, corresponding with the gill-cover; below
they are repeated by similar appendages of the tongue-bone, which
represent the branchiostegous rays. The sturgeons have no bran-
chiostegous rays, but they have gill-covers like other fishes1.

After this concise description of the skeleton, which in verte-
brate animals must form the commencement of all anatomical sur-
vey, we may proceed to treat of the remaining internal parts of
fishes.

The teeth, whose insertion upon various bones we have already
indicated above, usually serve rather for seizing the prey and holding

1 This subject is excellently treated by H. KATHKE in Anatomisch-philosophische
UntersucJiungen uber den Kiemenapparat und das Zungenbein der Wirbelthiere. Riga
u. Dorpat, 1832, 4to.

24 CLASS XIV.

it fast, than for dividing it. In form and number they present
much variety in this class. In some fishes, as in the genus Acipenser,
Syngnathus, &c. the teeth are entirely absent; in others, as the
pike, they exist in great numbers in the lower jaw, the intermax-
illary bone, the vomer, the palate-bones, the tongue, the branchial
arches and the pharyngeal bones. Teeth are rarely met with in
the two upper jaw-bones that lie in the lip. The form is very vari-
ous, sometimes that of laminae, mostly that of a cone, much like the
corner teeth of mammals. Sometimes the teeth are as fine as hairs,
as in the genus Chcetodon. The mode of attachment differs, yet
only seldom are they contained in sockets; ordinarily they are
united to the bones by ligamentous matter alone or are coalescent
with them by ossification. They are usually renewed constantly,
and a regular replacement of teeth that occurs only once is met with
in the mammals alone1.

Salivary glands are not met with in the class of fishes. As a
rule, these organs are more largely developed in animals that live on
vegetable food than in those that make use of animal food ; fishes
live mostly on the last. Saliva also may more easily be dispensed
with where no mastication is performed, and the food, as in fishes,
is rapidly swallowed. There are, however, as in the sharks and
rays, under the palate acinous glands, which secrete a slimy fluid;
but these cannot be regarded as homologous with salivary glands.
As little is there any excretory duct to the structure which in the
carp is situated under the skull, in front of the ossa pharyngealia,
which by some has been looked on as a salivary gland2, and of
which the strong contraction under the action of various irritants
has been announced by WEBER and MUELLER 8.

The tongue in most fishes is small, and possesses slight mobi-
lity. The oesophagus commences like a funnel in the wide cavity

1 For obtaining a well-grounded knowledge of the teeth of fishes, the accurate and
comprehensive work of R. OWEN", Odontography, London, 1840 — 1845, 8vo, pp. i — 178,
must be referred to.

2 H. RATHKE Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Tkierwelt, n. Halle, 1824, 4to, s. i — 7.
Such a spongy tissue RATHKE found not only in Cyprinus, but also in Cobitis, Silurus,
Belone, &c. (very small in the last-named genus) ; he is of opinion that it occurs uni-
versally in those (osseous) fishes that have no appendices pyloricce.

3 E. H. WEBER, in MUELLER'S Archiv fur Anat. u. Physiol 1827, s. 308—311,
regards it as an organ of taste. MUELLER found in it animal muscular fibre. Physiol.
n. 35-

FISHES. 25

of tlie mouth, is usually very short, and furnished internally with
longitudinal folds. It is often difficult to distinguish the stomach
from the oesophagus, which directly passes into it, and to assign
precisely the limit of the two. In some, as in the genus Cyprinus
and in Cobitis fossilis, there is no distinction.

The gullet (pharynx) is constantly surrounded by a layer of
circular fibres, a true sphincter muscle, behind the ossa pharyngealia.

In some fishes, as the pike, the stomach has an elongated form,
wider in the middle, and the pylorus is situated at the posterior
extremity, opposite to the superior orifice. In others the stomach
is reflected at an angle or arch, the cardiac portion (pars cardiaca)
being divided from the pyloric by a constriction, and the latter
towards its extremity where it passes into the intestine is sensibly
narrower, whilst the former preserves nearly the same width
throughout. Such, for example, is the form of the stomach in
Cyclopterus lumpus. The most usual form however of the fish's
stomach is that where the cardiac portion is prolonged into a blind
sac below, whilst the pyloric portion lies transversely above this
last on the right side of the stomach, like a narrower portion of
intestine ; such a stomach is found for instance in Lophius piscato-
rius, Scicena aquila, &c., and, amongst our fresh-water fishes, in
the perch. The muscular membrane of the stomach is always
thinner than that at the commencement of the oesophagus, and con-
sists of longitudinal and circular fibres.

With very few exceptions there exists at the pylorus an annu-
lar fold or membranous valve, which indicates the commencement
of the small intestine. The distinction between the small and the
large intestine is not always very obvious ; the circumference of the
posterior part of the intestine is not always larger, sometimes even
smaller than that of the so-called small intestine. Almost never is
there to be found a trace of a coecum at the commencement of the
large intestine, but often (at least in the osseous fishes) an annular
membranous valve, like that of the pylorus, is met with at the termi-
nation of the small intestine. The intestinal canal is of very various
length, more or less convoluted ; on the whole, however, it is short.
In Petromyzon, Syngnathus, Belone, and some others, it holds an
entirely straight course, without any flexure from the mouth to the
vent. In the sharks and rays also the canal is short, but here a
membranous valve of a spiral form, present also in the sturgeons

26 CLASS XIV.

and Polypterus1, enlarges the absorbent surface and delays the pas-
sage of the food. In the sturgeons this spiral valve extends to the
anus. Usually it is turned obliquely, like a staircase, but in Zy-
gcena, and some other sharks, it is attached lengthwise to one side,
and is convoluted on itself, so that, when unrolled, it appears like
a broad lamina2.

The internal surface of the mucous membrane of the intestinal
canal usually presents longitudinal projecting lines or folds, which
often have a sinuous edge, or are incised transversely, or are united
like a net, as in Lophius piscatorius. Only in very few fishes do
true villi occur, like those commonly met with in the small intestine
of the higher vertebrates.

The position of the anus is very various. When fishes have
a ventral fin it lies behind this, more or less remote from it. In the
jugular fishes (p. 13), and such as have no ventral fins (apodes), the
vent is situated below the gullet, and the intestine towards its ter-
mination bends directly forwards, as for instance in the genus Ster-
narchus. In some Pleuronectes (Solea) a part of the intestinal canal
lies external to the abdominal cavity, or rather the abdominal
cavity, with its lining of peritoneum, is prolonged behind the first
interspinal bone of the pinna analis, which constitutes the osseous
boundary between the ventral cavity and the tail3. The perito-
neum has, in the Plagiostomes and some osseous fishes, two aper-
tures near the anus which conduct outwards (pori abdominales] , by
which in these last-mentioned the eggs and the sperma are dis-
charged ; the internal sexual organs lie with the intestinal canal in
the sac of the peritoneum. External to and behind, or rather above,
the peritoneum lie the kidneys and the swimming bladder upon

1 In the so-named Ganoids. See a figure of the intestinal canal of Polyplerus bichir
in J. MUELLER'S notice of this fish, Abhandl. der Konigl. ATcad. der Wissensch. zu
Berlin, Physik. Klasse, 1844, Tab. vi. fig. i. In Lepidosteus also MUELLER observed
an indication of the valve in the intestinal canal at the lower part; ibid. p. 91.

2 MECKEL'S System der vergl. Anat. iv. 1829, s. 35, in Zygcena; in Galeus Thalassi-
nus (Thalassorhinus vulpecula), and Glaucus, DUVERNOY Ann. des Sc. not. sec. Se*rie,
in. 1835, pp. -274 — 284, and STEENSTRA TOUSSAINT Tijdschr. voor not. Geschied. er
Physiologic, x. 1843, pp. 103 — 107, PI. 3. (According to MUELLER and HENLE this
arrangement occurs commonly in Zygcena, Carcharias, Galeocerdo and Thalassorhinus.)

3 Numerous figures of the stomach and intestinal canal, in different fishes, are to
found, amongst others, in HOME'S Lectures on comp. Anat. II. Tab. 85 — 97, and espe-
cially in KATHKE Beitrage zur Gesch. der Thierwelt, n. Tab. i— iv., and in his memoir
on the intestinal canal of fishes in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1837, s. 335 — 356, Taf. 17 — 19.

FISHES. 27

the spinal column. The productions of peritoneum by which it is
connected with the lamina that surrounds the intestine, are mostly
filaments or narrow bands remote from each other, and only rarely
form a mesentery. In these productions, and also in the free folds
of peritoneum, which may be compared with the omentum, there
often lies a larger or smaller quantity of very white and soft fat.

The blind appendages (cceca, appendices pyloricce) deserve a
special notice, which are attached to the intestinal canal in the
neighbourhood of the pylorus, and in which a tenacious, slimy fluid
is secreted. They are wanting in the Plagiostomes and Cyclostomes,
in the Plectognathi and Lophobranchii, as also in some common bony
fishes, as in the pike and in the carps (the genus Cyprinus L.).
When present they differ much in form, size, and number. Poly-
pterus and Ammodytes tobianus have only one such appendage,
Lophius piscatorius has two, the perch three, in Trigla five or
more are counted, nine or ten in Scicena aguila, and they are still
more numerous in the genus Gfadus, in the herrings and salmons.
When they are numerous they sometimes unite at their insertion in
the intestinal canal to form common ducts, so that there are fewer
openings into the intestine than blind appendages. Sometimes they
are collected into bundles and connected by cellular tissue, as in
Xiphias gladius*, and in the sturgeons, where they form a gland-
like body with a single efferent duct2. Accordingly these append-
ages have been usually regarded as supplying the office of a pan-
creas, which in the sharks and rays presents itself in the ordinary
form. In the pike the pancreas, as a long whitish-yellow gland,
lies along the left side of the stomach, connected with the liver by
many short vessels, and covered by it. In the pike the pancreas,
as a longitudinal whitish-yellow gland, lies along the left side of
the stomach, connected with the liver by many short vessels, and
covered by it. Also in the eel, Murcena anguilla, a pancreas is
found, which, as an elongated reddish-white mass terminating in a
point backwards, lies upon the intestinal canal, and delivers its

1 KOSESTTHAL Abhandl ungen aus dem Gebifte der Anatomic, Phy»lol. und Pathologie.
Berlin, 1824, 8vo, s. 79. The branches of these bundles unite here to form two stems,
which are inserted close to the pylorus.

2 Observationes anatomicce Cottegii privati Amstelodamensis. Amstelodami, 1673,
i2mo, pp. 17 — 24, Tab. in.; MONBO Struct, and Physiol. of Fishes. Edinb. 1785, fol.
PI. ix.

28 CLASS XIV.

secretion by two ducts close to the duct of the gall-bladder1. In
Cyprinus E. H. WEBER had found a duct close to the ductus
choledochus, opening into the intestine, and dividing into branches
in the liver, but containing no bile2. Since however in the in-
vestigation of fishes that have appendices pyloricce a distinct pan-
creas has lately been discovered in addition3, it would seem that
the opinion which assigns to these appendages the place of this
gland can no longer be maintained ; probably, however, they also
secrete a fluid that assists in the conversion of the food; for that
they merely supply the intestine with a larger surface for absorp-
tion, at least where they are closely collected into bundles or divided
into branches, is not easily to be imagined4. In Lepidosiren the
appendices pyloricce and the pancreas are wanting.

Fishes have a large, soft liver, saturated, as it were, with oily
fluid. It often extends far backward in the abdominal cavity, and
sometimes fills the spaces between the convolutions of the intestinal
canal, as in the molluscs. In many fishes it lies more to the left
than the right side. Its form is very various ; when it is divided
into lobes the number of these is very different, mostly, however,
two, which are united by a small strip. In Myxine the liver
consists of two portions quite distinct from each other. The gall-
bladder is absent in very few species only of fishes ; commonly it
is large. Its duct, or the gall-bladder itself, receives the hepatic
duct from the liver and penetrates the intestinal canal mostly close to
the pylorus. The venous blood of the intestines is carried by three
or two trunks, or by a single larger trunk, and usually by smaller
branches in addition, to the liver. The venous blood from the
swimming bladder, and in some fishes that also which returns from
the organs of propagation, also flows to the liver before returning to
the heart5.

1 Observed, anat. Coll. privat. Amstel. n. p. 35, Tab. vm. fig. i; F. G. MIEREN-
DOBFF De Hepate piscium. Berolini, 1817, 8vo, p. 50, fig. 2.

2 MECKEL'S Archiv f. Anat. u. Pkysiol. 1827, s. 294 — 299, Tab. iv. fig. 22.

3 InAcipenser Sturio by ALESSANDRINI, Ann. des Sc. not. Tom. xxix. 1833, PP- J93>
194, and lately by STANNIUS, in many fishes of different families. MUELLER'S Archiv,
1848, s. 405—407.

4 Very rarely, if ever, has chyme been found in the appendages.

5 Compare on the liver of fishes, besides the work of MIERENDORFF cited above,
H. RATHKE in MECKEL'S Archiv f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1826, s. 126 — 152, and in
MUELLER'S Archiv, 1837, s. 468—475.

FISHES. 29

The spleen is absent in the Cyclostomes and Lepidosiren alone.
It is of a blood-red colour, lies mostly on the right side, close to the
stomach or the anterior portion of the intestine, and has sometimes
one or more parts distinct from it (accessory spleens). In the perch
it is placed as a narrow, elongated mass, within the first convolu-
tion of the intestine; in the pike it lies behind the stomach, which
it surrounds like a hood. In Squatina two spleens occur, a smaller,
elongate and oval, in the neighbourhood of the pancreas, and
another circular, placed on the stomach at its lower part. In Lamna
and Carcharias there are several spleens distinct from each other.

The lymph-vessels of fishes were first described by HEWSON
and A. MONRO (in 1769 and 1770). According to the researches
of FOHMANN, who, some years ago, described and figured them
more completely, they consist of a simple membrane, resembling
serous membrane, and very smooth on the inside. They have no
valves, except where the larger stems empty themselves into the
veins. These larger stems fall into veins which may be compared
to the subclavian veins. In addition there are still other communi-
cations between smaller lymph-vessels and venous branches. The
chyle, at least in the rays, is of a grey colour. Neither in the
mesentery nor elsewhere are conglomerate or lymphatic glands met
with in fishes1.

The venous trunks, which return the blood from the different
organs, conduct it to a large venous sinus situated between the peri-
cardium and the membrane which supplies the office of diaphragm,
and is properly nothing but the anterior part of the peritoneum
strengthened by some tendinous filaments. The auricle, on the
other hand, lies in the pericardium with the ventricle, and is
ordinarily broader than it. At the opening of the auricle into the
ventricle valves are situated which prevent the reflux of the blood.

The heart of fishes is small, and its weight forms ordinarily only
4-0-0 , sometimes only K^OO part of the weight of the whole body.
It is situated behind and between the gills, in osseous fishes under
the head, above the junction of the two clavicles (see above, p. 17).
The muscular substance of the heart is of a red colour, although
the voluntary muscles, as is well-known, are pale or even white.

1 FOHMANN, Das Saugadersystem der Wirbelthiere, Heft I. Heidelberg u. Leipzig,
1827, fol.

30 CLASS XIV.

In the osseous fishes the heart is more elongated, conical, in the
rays and sharks broad. Its walls are very thick, and the muscular
fibres are arranged in two layers, which sometimes separate from
each other after death. Commonly not more than 20 or 30 beats
of the heart are counted in fishes in a minute, whilst in birds 100
and more occur in the same period. The irritability of the heart
continues long after death ; it beats, too, often for hours after it has
been removed from the body.

From the anterior part of the heart arises a single arterial stem.
In the osseous fishes it commences with a conical thickening
(bulbus)\ in the Cyclostomes this thickening is absent. At the
origin of this arterial stem are semilunar valves, commonly two in
number, which prevent the return of the blood into the ventricle
after its contraction. In the sturgeons, the Plagiostomes, and, ac-
cording to the investigations of MUELLER, in Polypterus and Lepi-
dosteus also, the muscular substance of the heart is prolonged into
a cylindrical part before the origin of the arterial stem, and in that
cylindrical appendage (a true elongation of the ventricle) are many
valves arranged in three or more longitudinal rows1.

The continuation of the arterial stem now comes to view from the
pericardium, and distributes itself as branchial arteries to the respi-
ratory organs. The heart of fishes is thus venous alone, and in
a physiological point of view is to be compared to the right
ventricle of the human heart, whilst the arterial stem, conducting
the venous blood to the gills, agrees in function with the pulmonary
artery. But it does not follow from this that the heart of fishes
corresponds also, in the view of comparative anatomy, to the right
ventricle of birds and mammals. The metamorphoses of frogs and
salamanders, and the development of the embryo of the higher
matter, must here afford the illustration. This comparison teaches
us, that from the heart, originally still undivided, there arise on
each side different arterial arches, and that the pulmonary arteries
are at first only branches of the hindmost of these arches.

Thus in fishes the branchial arteries are to be compared to the
arterial arches of the embryonal state. But, instead of immediately
bending round to form the aorta, they separate into branches and

1 The work of F. TIEDEMANN, Anatomie des Fischherzens, mit 4 Kupfert. Landshut,
1809, 4to, contains many details on the heart of this class.

FISHES. 31

a fine network of capillaries on the gills. From this the roots of the
branchial veins arise, which mounting along the branchial arches,
afterwards unite to form the large artery. Hence in fishes a system
of capillaries is placed between the heart and the aorta; and this is
one of the most characteristic peculiarities in the anatomy of this
class.

Already from the branchial veins, before they unite to form the
aorta, certain arteries arise especially for the head. In the bony
fishes the branchial veins of each side first unite to form a vein
(vena branchialis communis), and pass backwards into the aorta,
whilst, according to the discovery of HYRTL, they are united in front
by a transverse vessel, and thus form an arterial circle (circulus
cephalicus) beneath the cranium1. The arteries (arterice axillares)
for the anterior limbs (pectoral fins) are, in Torpedo and Chimcera,
provided with a muscular covering and expanded into lateral hearts2.
In Amphioxus lanceolatus, where the heart is not enclosed in a
pericardium and is tubular, contractile swellings have also been
observed on the branchial arteries, and, moreover, on each side
a pulsating arch, which passes immediately from the heart to the
aorta*.

The venous system also of fishes may be illustrated by the
history of development in higher vertebrate animals. This teaches
us that originally there are two anterior and two posterior venous
stems which conduct the blood back to the heart. The anterior are
the persistent venae jugulares ; the posterior, which, at a later period,
when the cava is developed, in great part disappear, are named by
RATHKE vence cardinales. On each side the anterior and posterior
venous stems meet in a transverse canal (Ductus Cuvieri), which

1 Similar in form to the arterial circulus Willisii within the human skull. — The
work of HYRTL on the vascular arrangement of fishes (Medic. Jahrb. der (Estterr.
Staates. Neueste Folge, Bd. xv. 1838) is known to me, and perhaps to many others, from
citations alone. Compare also on this subject, J. MUELLER in Abkandl. der Konigl.
Alcad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, aus d. J. 1839, Vergl* Anatomie der Myxinoiden, dritte
Fortsetzung. This entire work is published separately, Berlin, 1835 and 1841.

2 According to J. DAVY in Torpedo, Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 259; according to the
investigations of DUVERNOY, and afterwards of VALENTIN in Chimara, Ann. des Sc.
natur., sec. Se'rie, vin. 1837, pp. 35—41. MUELLER'S Archiv, 1842, s. 25.

3 Here also the portal vein and the cava are pulsating tubular hearts. See MUEL-
LER Ueber dm Bau und die Lebenserscheinungen der Branchiostoma lubricum. Abh. der
Konigl. ATcad. der Wissenschaft, zu Berlin aus d. Jahre 1844.

32 CLASS XIV.

unites with that of the opposite side, and thus conducts the blood
to the auricle of the heart. What, therefore, is thus seen in the
embryonal state of other vertebrate animals remains in fishes as the
permanent form. There are properly no posterior cavae, which in
fishes are usually so named, but venous stems which correspond to
the venae cardinales of the embryo, and of which in osseous fishes
that of the right side is usually much the most developed, so that
a single posterior cava alone is ascribed to them. The venous stem,
or the veins that come from the liver (vena hepatica or vence hepaticce),
join the common venous sinus into which the two ductus Cuvieri
open. The hepatic veins alone are those that can be compared
with the posterior cava1.

In Anguilla and Murcenophis the veins of the caudal fin unite
to form a pulsating venous heart on each side of the last caudal
vertebra2. In Myxine the portal vein is distended into a large sac,
which contracts and expands alternately3. In fishes, as in other
classes of animals, arterial and venous plexuses (retia mirabilia4)
occur, in which the stem is suddenly lost as it were, and of which
the vessels at first lie side by side without dividing into branches,
but afterwards either pass into capillaries or unite to form one
or more larger trunks. They occur in the vessels of the viscera
in Thynnus and some sharks, also in the swimming bladder of

1 H. RATHKE, Ueber den JBau und die Entwickelung des Venensystems der Wirbel-
thiere; dritter Berickt ilber das Naturwissensch. Seminar zu Konigsberg. 1838, 4to.

2 According to the discovery of MARSHALL HALL in the eel; according to MUELLER,
in Murcenophis also. At the same part many osseous fishes have a sinus, which belongs
to the lymphatic system of vessels. See HYRTL in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1843. s. 224 —
240, with fig.

3 MUELLER'S Archiv, 1842, s. 477.

4 In Thynnus vulgaris and Thynnus brachypterus the veins from the stomach, the
intestinal canal and the spleen, before entering the liver, form very large retia mira-
bilia of pencil-shaped branches, from which subsequently larger veins arise as portal
branches ; the artery that goes to the abdominal viscera \arteria codiaca) distributes
its blood by such nets alone to the stomach and the intestinal canal, but to the liver by
an hepatic artery not deviating from the ordinary form. D. F. ESCHRICHT u. J.
MUELLER Ueber die arteriosen und venosen Wundcrnetze an der Leber des Thunfisches
(Abh. der ATcad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1835). In Lamna cornubica such arterial
and venous networks are met with, here formed by the hepatic veins ; in Carcharias
vulpes there are venous and arterial retia m. of a pennate form on the stomach and that
part of the intestinal canal where the spiral valve is situated : see A. EARTH Diss. inaug.
de Eetibus mirabilibus, Berolini, 1837, 4to> after observations of J. MUELLER.

FISHES. 33

many fishes; the red, apparently glandular body, that in most bony
fishes surrounds the entrance of the optic nerve into the ball of
the eye at the choroid coat (glandula choroidalis), is merely such
a vascular network.

The respiratory organs of fishes, the gills, consist in most of
small leaflets usually triangular and of equal breadth, attached by
their bases to the branchial arches on which the branchial arteries
ramify. These leaflets mostly form two rows on each branchial
arch ; if one such row alone be present, then the name of half-gill
is given to such an arch. In the bony fishes and the sturgeons the
branchial arches are on the outside free; the water is taken in by
the mouth and afterwards expelled by two gill-apertures behind
the gill-covers (one on each side). In the sharks and rays, on the
contrary, there proceeds from each branchial arch, between the
branchial leaflets of the anterior and posterior row, a membranous
production as far as the skin, entirely covering the gills in these
fishes, excepting five apertures for the expulsion of the water;
hence arise complete partitions between the pharynx and the skin,
in which the branchial arches are situated. The posterior wall of
the fifth gill-cavity is here without branchial leaflets. The leaflets
are cartilaginous internally, or rarely bony, and are covered with
a rich vascular net, so as to have a bright red colour *. The entire
apparatus is covered by a continuation of the mucous membrane of
the mouth. In the respiration of fishes the air contained in the
water is alone effectual, and by no means the oxygen of the water,
which is not decomposed by this function. Some fishes mount to
the surface of the water to breathe atmospheric air itself, and they
die when this is rendered impossible by gauze interposed. But
fishes cannot live long out of water ; some die even very rapidly,
because the leaflets fall together and cohere, so that the circulation
of blood in these organs is interrupted, and the oxygen of the air
cannot act upon the parts that thus cover each other2.

With the half-gills or the accessory gills, which in the stur-
geons occur on the gill-cover, those false gills (pseudo-branchice)

1 DOELLIXGER gave a very beautiful figure of this vascular net in Abhandl. der
mathem. physik. Klasse der Akad. zu Munchen, II. 1837. Ueber die VertheUung des
Elides in den Kiemen der Fisclie, s. 785 — 794, Tab. I. fig. 3.

2 See FLOURENS Experiences sur le mecanisme de la respiration des Poissons, Ann.
des Sc. natur. xx. 1830, pp. 5 — 25.

VOL. II. 3

34

CLASS XIV.

must not be confounded which in many fishes are found on the
palate, above and outwards from the gills, sometimes presenting a
more glandular lobulated structure, but mostly a pennate or pecti-
nate form with a single row of leaflets. Since these organs receive
arterial blood, they cannot be for respiration. The blood that
returns from them unites with that of an arterial branch (arteria
ophthalmica magna) which supplies the choroid coat of the eye-ball,
where usually it forms a rete mirabile, which, connected with a
similar venous net for the blood returning from the eye-ball, forms
the choro'id gland lately spoken of, and which usually occurs simul-
taneously with the false gill1.

As little as this organ does the swimming-bladder of fishes
deserve to be regarded as serving for respiration2. This bladder
occurs in the sturgeons and many osseous fishes, and is situated
above the intestinal canal towards the spine, but under the kidneys,
almost always as an unpaired symmetrical organ. Its walls are
formed by two membranes ; an external tendinous membrane and
an internal thin mucous membrane, richly supplied with vessels
and covered with flat epithelium on the inner surface. In addition,
this bladder is invested on the ventral surface with a production
from the peritoneum. In some fishes a duct proceeds from it to the
oesophagus or to the stomach ; in some there is a fissure, as a
species of glottis, which leads immediately from the oesophagus to the
swimming-bladder. Since the swimming-bladder comes into being
as an eversion of the intestinal canal, it is probable that even in cases
where it is quite closed a canal existed at an earlier period, which
has been condensed to form a ligament, or has been entirely absorb-
ed. In many fishes, in most sea-fishes especially, the swimming-

1 Compare J. MUELLER Abhandl. der Alcad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, aus d. Jahre
1839, s- 213—240, 247—261.

2 There are very numerous publications on this organ, of which we are content
to notice the following : G. FISCHER Versuch uber die Schwimmblase der Fische,
Leipzig, 1795, 8vo ; DE LA EOCHE Observations sur la vessie aerienne des Poissons,
Ann. du Mus. xiv. 1809, pp. 184 — 217, pp. 245 — 289 ; H. RATHKE Bemerlcungen uber
die Schidmmblase einiger Fische in his Beitrage zur Gesch. der Thierwelt, 4te Abtl
1827, s. 102 — 1 20, and his later investigations in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1838, s. 41;
— 445, Taf. 12; K. E. VON BAER Untersuchungen uber die Entwiclcelungsgesch.
Fische, nebst einem, Anhange uber die Schwimmblase, Leipzig, 1835, 4to; H. S. R.
JACOBI De vesica aerea Piscium, Diss. inaug. Berolini, 1840, 4 to, under the auspic
of J. MUELLER.

FISHES. 35

bladder is entirely closed. A few fishes have a cellular swim-
ming-bladder, by which Lepidosteus in particular is distinguished.
The form of the bladder is usually elongate ; sometimes provided
at the anterior extremity with lateral blind appendages ; sometimes
with a row of such appendages extending the whole length on each
side. In some fishes it is constricted in the middle, and divided
into two chambers lying one behind the other. The blood-vessels
divide in a fan-like form into fine branches over the internal mucous
membrane, or form retia mirabilia at particular points, which have
been described as red glandular masses. Formerly it was thought
that such nets are absent in fishes whose swimming-bladder is pro-
vided with a duct; but this, however, is not a general rule1.

The air contained in the swimming-bladder consists of a mix-
ture of oxygen and nitrogen, with sometimes a small quantity of
carbonic acid gas. In fishes of the same species chemical investi-
gation often indicates remarkable differences. According to BIOT
and DE LA ROCHE, the quantity of oxygen increases with the
depth in which the fishes live ; thus in general it is much more
abundant in marine than in fresh-water fishes ; in the last a con-
siderable quantity of nitrogen is always present, and in the carps it
has even been supposed that the air of the swimming-bladder con-
sists of this gas alone ; in marine fishes the air of the bladder may
contain even eighty per cent, of oxygen gas. This air is secreted
by the inner surface of the swimming-bladder, as appears from
those fishes that have the bladder entirely closed; but even in those
whose swimming-bladder has a duct, it is difficult to suppose, as
RATHKE has suggested, that the air penetrates into the bladder
from without. More probably the duct serves for the escape of
the air.

Opinions differ respecting the use of the swimming-bladder in
the animal economy of fishes. The name that has been given to
it indicates the presumed connexion with swimming. This is the
common opinion, first advanced by BORELLI, according to which
the fish by compression or expansion of the bladder can make itself
specifically heavier or lighter, and alternately sink and rise in the

1 For further particulars on these blood-glands of the swimming-bladder, see
J. MUELLER Abhandl. der Akad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, a. dem Jdhre 1839, s. 262
—271.

3—2

36 CLASS XIV.

water. This compression is effected by motions of the ribs, whilst
in addition sometimes proper muscles are present in the swimming-
bladder1. But in many fishes it is difficult to shew how they are in
a condition to expand the bladder and to rarefy the air. Whatever
opinion, however, be entertained respecting the use of the organ, it is
difficult to explain why, if it really exerts an important influence
on the life or the economy of fishes, it should be absent in so many
species, and even in some genera of fishes should be present in certain
species whilst in others of the same common form it is not found.
Certain it is that a bladder filled with air will render specifically
lighter the body of the fish, which, without it, is only a little above
the specific gravity of water ; and since it is placed near the back,
that part especially of the body which in other respects is the
heavier, so that the centre of gravity of the fish will sink, and its
turning belly upwards be prevented. Deep-bodied, compressed fishes
have also usually a well-developed swimming-bladder. According
to the experiments of MUELLER, however, the fins and especially
the vertical fins (dorsal and anal fin) principally resist this upset-
ting. In some fishes, according to the discoveries of E. H. WEBER,
the swimming-bladder is in connexion with the auditory apparatus,
as an organ that intensifies and conducts sound. That this bladder
is a second respiratory organ and to be compared with the bladder- I
like lung of certain reptiles, as some suppose, is sufficiently refuted
by the course of the blood-vessels ; for if this were true it would
receive venous and not arterial blood2.

The secretion of urine is effected by two kidneys, lying
upon the spinal column, which are often united with each other
at their posterior extremity. In most osseous fishes they extend
from the head backwards as far as above the anus. They are usually
of a loose spongy tissue; here the difference between internal

1 In some of the Siluridce (Auckenipterus, Euanemus, Synodontis, Doras and Mela- 1
pterurus) there is a bony lamina that descends obliquely on each side from the first
vertebra to the swimming-bladder, and compresses it like a spring. This lamina can
be raised by a muscle arising from the cranium, on which the bladder expands. See
J. MUELLER A bhandl. der Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, a. d. J. 1842.

2 G-. FISCHER modifies the opinion that the swimming-bladder is a respiratory
organ in this way : it is for the respiration of the air contained in the water, whilst the
gills serve for decomposing the water ; but in the respiration of fishes the water is not
decomposed, as has already been noticed above.

FISHES. 37

and external substance (substantia corticalis and medullaris) does
not exist. The entire substance of the kidneys is formed of ccecal
tubes which open into the ureters. These usually coalesce in a
bladder, or become wider at their inferior extremity. The bladder
is situated upon the rectum and the urethra opens behind this1.
Kenal capsules (renes succenturiati, cctpsulce renales), formerly
thought to be absent in fishes, occur in the cartilaginous fishes as
narrow, elongated, yellow bands situated on the inner side of the
kidneys, and in the bony fishes usually as two small, round, whitish
bodies, mostly at the posterior extremity of the kidneys2.

The organs of propagation of fishes are on the whole not very
composite. The sexes are always distinct, but often, as in the lower
animals, there is a great similarity between the parts that prepare the
germ and the seed (ovaries and testes). Sometimes the entire appara-
tus of the organs of propagation is limited simply to these indispen-
sable and essential parts. Ordinarily there are two ovaries present
and two testes ; there are however fishes in which these organs are
unpaired, of which the examples are more frequent in female speci-
mens. One ovary alone is developed in the perch, in Blennius
viviparus, Ammodytes tobianus, Gobitis harbatula, Cobitis tcenia; in
many sharks also (Scyllium, Carcharias, Sphyrna, Mustelus and
Galeus) only one ovary is present, mostly situated on the right
side. In most bony fishes the ovaries form two long and large
sacs, which lie on each side near the intestinal canal and the
liver (the so-called roe). From the inner surface folds arise which
ordinarily form transverse partitions ; in these folds the eggs are
developed, which in some fishes are exceedingly numerous in
the spawning-season, sometimes some hundreds of thousands. The
inferior part of the ovary is without such plates, and serves only for
transmitting the eggs ; thus it may be named an oviduct ; and here

1 See on this subject A. J. D. STEENSTRA TOUSSAINT Commmtatio de systemate
uropoetico Piscium, Ann. Acad. Lugd. Bat. 1835. The opening of the urethra behind
the anus is a special characteristic peculiarity of fishes. From this fact RATHKE and
V. BAEB concluded that the kidneys of fishes do not correspond to those of the higher
vertebrates, but to the embryonal corpora Wolffiana (the primordial kidneys). In the
embryo of fishes at least no corpora Wolffiana, except these kidneys, are met with.
H. KATHKE in BURDACH'S Physiologic, n. s. 569 ; V. BAER Entwickelungsgesch. der

\-Thiere, n. 1837, s. 314.

2 Comp. STANNIUS in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1839, s- 97 — IOI> Taf- 1V-

38 CLASS XIV.

we find a disposition which in the invertebrate animals is normal,
but in the vertebrates does not occur elsewhere, namely that the
oviduct is an immediate continuation of the ovary. The two ovi-
ducts afterwards meet in a single canal which opens in front of the
urethra behind the anus in a small groove, sometimes on a papilla.
In other fishes (the eels, the salmons, the Cyclostomes) the ovary
consists of an elongated lamina, which is attached to the spinal
column by a duplicature of peritoneum, and has many projecting
folds ; oviducts are not present ; the eggs developed in these folds
are detached when ripe, fall into the cavity of the abdomen, and
escape by one or two ventral apertures1. In the Plagiostomes and
in Chimcera the ovaries are much smaller than in the rest of the
fishes ; they lie in the anterior part of the abdominal cavity near the
liver, and form bunches as in birds ; whilst some eggs on the surface
are more developed, others as smaller granules lie concealed in the
stroma. Here there are always two oviducts, even when there is
only one ovary. These have a common opening near to or in front
of the ovaries, and are by no means immediately connected with
them as in the bony fishes. They are very long, provided internally
with longitudinal folds, and become wider at the lower part. Above
the widening a glandular tissue is situated which surrounds the
oviduct as an annular swelling ; it is more developed in those which
are oviparous, and consists of many coecal tubes, laid close toge-
ther, which open into the oviduct2. In the viviparous sharks the
inferior wider part of the oviduct may be named uterus, which thus
is double, as in the marsupial animals and the ornithorhynchus in
the class of mammals.

The testes (in the bony fishes named milt] are in the male in-
dividuals placed in the same situation as that occupied by the ovary
in the females. They are larger in this class than in any other
vertebrate animals, and the secretion of sperma is as abundant as
the eggs are numerous in the ovarium. On the inside of each of

1 See a figure of the ovarium of the salmon in CARUS Tabulae anatom. comparativam
illustrantes, ~Fa.sc. v. Tab. iv. fig. vn. ; of Petromyzon marinus in Catalogue of the Series
of compar. Anatomy in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, iv. PL 59; of the
eel, ibid. PL 60, and in HoHNBAUM-HoRNSCHUCH Diss. inaug. de Anguittarum Sexu
et Generatione. Grijphise, 1842, 4to.

2 In the rays J. MUELLER has figured this part in his great work, Depenitiori
glandularum structura, Tab. n. figs. 14, 15.

FISHES. 39

the testes runs the vas deferens, and the two unite to form a common
canal, longer or shorter, which joins the urethra, and thus opens in
a groove or on a papilla behind the anus1. In most osseous fishes
the tissue of the testes consists of tubes, of which the blind extremi-
ties are directed towards the outside of the organs, sometimes
dividing there into two branches, and open on the inside into the
efferent vessel2. In the eels3 and in Petromyzon, on the other hand,
the testes are flat bands like the ovaria, of a granular tissue.
Efferent ducts are absent ; the seed is received by the abdominal
cavity and escapes by an aperture behind the vent. In the Plagio-
stomes the testes are of a vesicular tissue, and in these vesicles
granules are contained which are filled with sperma. Fine ducts
(vasa efferentia) run to the epididymes, situated behind the testes,
and from these arise the two efferent vessels, at first very tortuous,
afterwards straighter, which run over the kidneys and finally
widen into two vesiculce seminales, which are supplied internally
with annular partitions. From these the seminal fluid is conducted
to the penis, which lies in the cloaca. There are, in addition,
behind the pelvis, near the tail, appendages which are supported
internally by cartilage ; they serve to embrace the female during
copulation by affixing themselves to her tail4.

Most osseous fishes do not copulate, but the males sprinkle the
eggs laid by the female with their seminal fluid. It is probable that

1 See a figure of the testes in Trigla lyra in the Tabula of CARUS cited above, Fasc.
v. Tab. IV. fig. 4.

2 This tubular structure, first observed by RATHKE, was afterwards more fully
illustrated by TREVIRANUS and J. MUELLER. See TREVIRANUS Zeitsckr. fur Physiol.
ii. Darmstadt, 1827, s. 10 — 13, Tab. in. fig. 4, MUELLER Depenitiori glandular, struct.
p. 104, Tab. xv. fig. 8.

3 According to SCHLUESSER, it is not improbable that the parts described by HOHN-
BAUM-HORNSCHUCH as testes in eels, are only undeveloped ovaria, and that male eels
are still unknown. Gr. SCHLUESSER de Petromyzontum et AnguUlarum, Sexu. Diss.
inaug. Dorpati, 1848.

4 Compare TREVIRANUS Ueber die Zeugungsorgane des Dorrihay, Zeitschr. fur
Physiol. n. 1827, s. 3 — 10, Tab. in.; STANNIUS in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1840, s. 41 —
43. On the sexual organs of fishes consult especially RATHKE Beitr. zur Gesch. der
Thierwelt,iiQ Abth. s. 117 — 206, and in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1836, s. 171 — 186, and on
the development of these parts, Beitr. zur Gesch. der Thierw., 3teAbth. s. i — 18. — Also
J. MUELLER Ueber den Tcornigen Ban der Hoden lei mekreren Fischen, in TIEDEMANN
and TREVIRANUS Zeitsckr. f. Physiol. iv. 1831, s. 100—113, and H. STANNIUS Ueber
di€ mdnnliche Geschlechtstheile der Rochenu. ffaien, MUELLER'S Archiv, 1840, s. 41 — 43.

40 CLASS XIV.

the males are attracted by the olfactory sense, by which they collect
around the females of their species at the season of spawning and
come into their neighbourhood. Amongst those which copulate,
some species are also oviparous. Only few bony fishes are vivi-
parous, as, for instance, Anableps, Blennius viviparus. Of the carti-
laginous fishes, on the contrary, amongst the Plagiostomes the Rajce,
in a proper sense, and the species of sharks of the genus ScylUum
alone, are oviparous. The egg in these rays and sharks has a tough,
horny, flat, elongated shell, of which the four corners terminate in
the rays in long tortuous filaments, wound round each other.

The development of fishes is distinguished from that of the
scaly reptiles, the birds and mammals, in that neither amnion nor
allanto'is is formed. In the beginning that dividing or cleaving of
the yolk is perceptible, which we have already spoken of in different
classes of invertebrate animals1. When the yolk has again become
smooth, the germinal disc appears, and as it grows spreads itself
over the yolk until it quite surrounds it. After it has thus become
a vesicle, or in other fishes even before this period, there arises, in
that part of the germ-disc which is first formed, a longitudinal groove
as the first commencement of the embryo. Two projecting edges
surround this groove and approach each other, whilst at the bottom
of the groove the dorsal cord, as the first commencement of the
skeleton (comp. above, pp. 5, 8), is formed. The innermost layer of
the germ-membrane (the mucous layer) presents a constriction, and
is thus divided into a canal situated beneath the dorsal cord and into
a vitelline sac. In some fishes this vitelline sac is included in
the ventral cavity with the intestinal canal by the walls of the
abdomen, formed from the serous layer ; there is thus an internal
vitelline sac present in these, and the abdomen of the embryo
presents an unusual projection ( Cyprinus, Perca, Salmo) ; in others
the abdominal covering is drawn together by constriction like the
mucous layer, and the vitelline sac hangs on the outside of the
ventral cavity, being attached to it by a short pedicle (Blennius

1 Observations on this subject, in eggs of fishes impregnated artificially, have been
published by EUSCONI, MUELLER'S Archiv, 1836, s. 278 — 288, Taf. xin. The eggs
acquire an elevation or protuberance, and this, not the entire yolk, is the seat of the
regularly increasing grooves. Later observations have shewn that this phenomenon
depends upon the development and change of the germinal vesicle.

FISHES. 41

viviparus, Coitus gobio, Syngnathus}. In the Plagiostomes (sharks
and rays) an external vitelline sac is similarly observed, which
here, however, has a longer pedicle, which in some sharks is beset
externally with villi. In most of these fishes the umbilico-intestinal
duct is continued within the abdomen into a second internal vitelline
sac : a blind sac, which occupies a large part of the ventral cavity,
and is inserted into the anterior bladder-like portion of the intestinal
canal above the commencement of the spiral valve1. The lateral
walls of the body of the embryo, which are at first smooth, suddenly
present on each side 5 (or 6) fissures of equal width. Between
these fissures four small streaks are formed as the commencement of
the branchial arches. In front of the first fissure and behind the
mouth arises a wider arch divided by a groove into two parls.
The anterior half of this is changed into the under jaw and the
various bony pieces which unite it with the cranium. From
the posterior half arise the horns of the tongue-bone ; at the
posterior margin of these parts in bony fishes the gill-covers and
the branchial rays are developed at a later period only, the branchial
arches being at first unprotected. The unpaired fins arise at first
as a long fold of skin, which surrounds the body, and is much
more extensive than the future pinna dorsalis and analis. All the
bony fishes whose development has been hitherto observed, quit
their egg-covers at a very early period and whilst still imperfectly
formed. In the embryos of sharks and rays the filaments which
hang freely from the branchial fissures, productions of the internal
leaflets of the gills, reminding us of the external gills of larvse of
Salamanders, are especially deserving of regard2.

1 This vesicular part of the intestinal canal was named by COLLINS bursa Entiana,
after GEORGE ENTE, by whom it was first discovered; System of Anatomy, 1685, Tab.
33, fig. 2 #. In Carchanas and Mmtelus Icevis MUELL. an external vitelline sac alone is
present, and this is attached by many folds to the inner surface of the wider inferior
part of the oviduct named uterus. These sharks have thus a placenta, which however
differs from that of mammals, and is formed by the vitelline sac. Compare especially
J. MUELLER Ueber den glatten Hai des Aristoteles, &c. Ab h. d. Alcad. zu Berl. Jahrg.
1840, Physik-math. Kl. 8. 187 — 257, with fig.

2 On the development of fishes, amongst other works may be compared H. RATHKE
Abhandlungen zur Bildungs- und Entwickelungs-gesckichte, n. Leipzig, 1833, 4to, s.
i — 68 (on the development of Blennius viviparus) ; V. BAER UntersucTiungen iiber
die EntwicJcelungs-geschichte der Fische, Leipzig, 1835, 4to; the same, Ueber Ent-
wicM ungs- geschichte der Thiere, n. Konigsberg, 1837, 4to, s. 295 — 315 ; RATHKE in
BUBDACH'S Physiologic, 2te Aufl. n. 1837, s. 276 — 296; C. VOGT Embryologie des

42

CLASS XIV.

Let us now consider shortly those organs in fishes which have
reference to the functions of animal life. Here in the first place
the nervous system claims attention. Of this the central parts, the
spinal marrow and brain, offer commonly a different relation to each
other than in the higher vertebrates. The mass of the spinal
marrow or cord, in proportion to that of the brain, is very large ;
the cord extends, with few exceptions, to the end of the vertebral
column. Consequently a cauda equina is only seldom present:
a disposition by which the last spinal nerves arising far from the
place where they pass outwards from the vertebral column, and so
also leaving the cord under a very acute angle, lie close together in
a bundle1. On the under and upper surface the spinal cord is
divided longitudinally by a fissure into two lateral parts. In the
interior, through the entire cord, there runs a narrow canal which
extends into the brain to the fourth ventricle, into which it expands.

The brain is small, not only, as we have said, in proportion to
the preponderant spinal marrow, but also to the whole body, of the
weight of which it commonly forms less than the TWo"tn or
even the •§Q'QQ th part2. This small magnitude of the brain may be
inferred from the smallness of the cranial cavity, though even this,
at least in bony fishes, is still much larger than the brain which it
includes. For there remains between the delicate membrane which
immediately covers the surface of the brain and the hard membrane
that covers the inner surface of the cranial bones, a space which is
occupied by a loose cellular tissue, a species of arachnoid, which is

Salmones (Coregonus palcea, Cuv.) in AGASSIZ Hist, natur. des Poissons d'eau douce,
i Livr., Neuchatel, 1842 ; DUVERNOY Sur le dtveloppement de la Poecilie de Surinam,
Ann. des sc. natur., 3i£me Serie, I. 1844, PP- 3X3 — S^o. PI. 17. On the development
of rays and sharks may be consulted, RATHKE JBeitrage zur Gesch. der Tkierwelt, iv.
1827, s. 4 — 66, and F. S. LEUCKART Untersuchungen iiber die dusseren Kiemen der
Embryonen von Rochen u. ffayen, Stuttgart, 1836, Svo.

1 In the sun-fish (Orthagoriscus), according to ARSAKY, and also in Diodon, accord-
ing to OWEN (Lectures on Comp. Anat. II. p. 173), there is a very short, conical spinal
cord, with a cauda equina; in Lophius the cord is also short, but extends as far as the
twelfth vertebra ; here also there is a cauda equina, which in part covers the spinal cord.

2 In a pike the cerebral mass was found to be j^Q-g- of the weight of the body ; in
a sheat-fish, scheidfisch or sly silurus (silurus glanis), only . *• ?. of it. Comp. HALLER
Elem. PJiysiol. iv. pp. 5, 6, and CUVIER Lee. d'Anat. comp. u. p. 152, where several
examples are adduced. The weight of the brain in a full-grown man may be estimated
at about JQ. — -^. of the weight of the whole body, although such estimates cannot easily
be rigorous, since the weight of the human body is so different in different individuals.

FISHES. 43

saturated with a fatty matter mostly in a fluid state. In younger
fishes, however, the brain is relatively larger, and fills the cranial
cavity in a greater degree than in older individuals.

In breadth the brain exceeds the spinal cord but slightly, is
flat and elongate, and consists of eight lobes partly in pairs, partly
unpaired, lying behind one another. The unpaired part that lies in
front of the medulla oblongata above the fourth ventricle, corresponds
to the lesser brain or cerebellum; and, however various the opinions
of different writers on other points, here there is the most perfect
agreement. Internally this part is hollow, for the fourth ventricle
at its upper part extends into it. In front of this cerebral mass lie
two convex bodies, hollow internally, which in bony fishes consti-
tute the largest division of the brain, whilst in the cartilaginous they
are smaller. CAMPER, CUVIER, and amongst the latest writers
GOTTSCHE, compare these parts with the hemispheres of the larger
brain (cerebrum), whilst others place them on a par with the corpora
quadrigemina of man ; HALLER regarded them as the thalami ner-
vorum opticorum. In the bony fishes there lie in the interior of
these parts and behind, two or four small round tubercles of grey
substance, which are wanting in cartilaginous fishes. In these last
the two convex bodies are also smaller, and in front of them lies an
unpaired hollow eminence, open above (lobus ventriculi tertii), which
in the bony fishes does not appear as a distinct part. The anterior
division of the brain in the osseous fishes is formed of two conical
parts, not hollow internally, united by a commissure; from this
division arise the long olfactory nerves (the first pair of nerves),
issuing from the inferior surface, but fortified in most bony fishes by
a swelling at the anterior extremity of these lobes, or by two such
in Murcena. In the Plagiostomes these anterior lobes, broad and
hollow within, are united with one another. On the inferior
surface of the brain the hypophysis or glandula pituitaria, some-
times attached to a long pedicle, is seen, near to which on each side
lies an oval or kidney-shaped eminence (the lobi inferiores, the
tubercula reniformia of HALLER1).

1 The origins of the optic nerves pass along the outside of these parts, and the third
pair of nerves springs from their posterior margin. They are usually compared to the
corpora candicantia of the brain of mammals, to which notion, however, well-founded
objections have been raised by CuviEB. It were more prudent to regard them, with
GOTTSCHE, as special parts peculiar to the brain of fishes.

44 CLASS XIV.

The comparison with tfye brain of reptiles, and especially the
history of development of the brain in higher vertebrates, which is
most perfectly known to us in the embryo of the bird, induces us to
recognise in the hollow lobes in front of the cerebellum in fishes
the union of the corpora quadrigemina and of the space for the third
ventricle of the brain (lobi optici}. If this be right, then fishes have
no corpus callosum, unless a transverse communication between
these lobes, which some writers regard as such, deserves that appel-
lation. As little is there a pons Varolii on the inferior surface in
front of the m,edulla oblongata. In addition to these two negative
characters of the brain of fishes, the small development of the
cerebrum (anterior brain) in comparison with that of the optic lobes,
may be assigned as distinguishing the brain of fishes from that of
reptiles and birds. Those parts of the brain, which in man are
covered above by the hemispheres of the brain, are here placed
behind one another as middle and posterior brains1.

The spinal nerves arise, as in the rest of the vertebrate animals,
by two roots, one from the posterior or upper, and one from the infe-
rior strand of the spinal cord. The posterior roots of these nerves,
which swell into a ganglion, are the sentient roots, the anterior
the motor roots2. As to the cerebral nerves, the common type of
the vertebrate animals prevails in fishes also, and, with the excep-
tion of the nervus hypoglossus and accessorius Willisii, all the pairs
of nerves that spring from the human brain, occur in almost all

1 Whenever a glandula pinealis is found, as is the case in some fishes, it is situated
behind the anterior and in front of the middle lobes of the brain, and thus affords an
additional proof that the middle lobes of the brain do not correspond to the cerebrum.
See, on the brain of fishes, HALLER Elem. Physiol. iv. 1766, pp. 591 — 596; and more
fully in VerJiandelingen van die Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wentensch. Haarlem, x.
i, pp. 314 — 386; A. ARSAKY Dissert, de piscium cerebro et medulla spinali. Halse,
1813 (new edition by MINTER, Leipzig, 1836, 4to); CUVIER Hist. not. des Poiss. T.
pp. 415 — 434; C. M. GOTTSCHE Vergleichende Anatomic des Gehirns der Grdtenfische,
MUELLER'S Arckiv, 1835, s. 244—294, 433—486, Taf. iv. vi. Kespecting the reduc-
tion of the brain of fishes to the common typus, the most important questions are
investigated by MUELLER Physiologie, I. (third edition, 1838, s. 824 — 829).

2 We presume that this physiological truth, of which the discovery is due to C.
BELL, is known to the reader ; it applies to all vertebrate animals, and is to be regarded,
especially since MUELLER'S experiments on frogs (Physiologie, I. 3tte Auflage, s. 651 —
653)* as a well established general proposition in our still limited knowledge of nervous
function.

FISHES. 45

fishes1. The fifth and the tenth pairs of nerves (the nervus tri-
geminus and n. vagus] are remarkably developed. The facial nerve,
which by many writers is denied to fishes, appears to be represented
in bony fishes by the opercular branch of the fifth pair. Of the
three pairs of nerves of special sense that for the eyes is the most
developed in the greatest number of fishes. The optic nerves
arise from the hollow lobes that compose the middle brain, and are
at their origin connected by transverse bundles. In the Plagio-
stomes there is a chiasma or crossing of the fibres, but in the bony
fishes the two nerves themselves lie crosswise upon one another;
so that the nerve which springs from the right side runs to the left
eye, and that from the left side to the right eye. Here, where the
nerves cross one another, they are not connected by any nervous
tissue, so that they may be separated and thrown apart without
artificial division. The olfactory nerve, when there is no ganglionic
swelling in front of the hemisphere of the cerebrum, has such a
swelling at its extremity, immediately before it enters the olfactory
organ, as in Gadus, Silurus, most Cyprini, and the Plagiostomes.
The auditory nerve arises, close to the fifth pair, from the medulla
oblongata. The n. vagus arises by two roots from the medulla oblon-
gata ; the posterior root is the most conspicuous, and the medulla ob-
longata sometimes presents here a considerable swelling (lobus nervi
vagi"2} as in Cyprinus. This nerve mostly surpasses the trigeminus
in thickness ; its branches run especially to the branchial arches, but
besides this to the oesophagus, the stomach, the heart, the swim-
ming-bladder, and in Torpedo and Malapterurus electricus to the
electric organ. Moreover from the n. vagus a nerve arises, which
runs longitudinally amongst the large lateral muscles, sometimes
deeper, in other instances immediately beneath the skin, and which,
in those fishes where it lies deeper, gives off a superficial branch
which runs longitudinally under the linea lateralis. This nervus

1 In the Myxinoidce the nerves of motion of the eye are wanting, according to
MUELLEK. Compare also on the peripheral nervous system of fishes, besides the works
already cited, especially BUECHNER Memoire sur le syst. nerveux du Barbeau, Memoires
de la Soc. d'Hist. nat. de Strasbourg, II. 1835, and H. STANNIUS Das peripJierische
Nervensystem der Fische. Mit 5 Steintafeln. Rostock, 1849, 4*°-

2 See a figure of it, given by E. H. WEBER, in MECKEL'S ArcJdv, 1827, Tab. iv.
fig. 26.

46 CLASS XIV.

later alls cannot be a nerve of motion1; its brandies, even when it is
situated more deeply, go to the skin.

The sympathetic nerve is not present in the Cydostomes, its
place being supplied apparently by the n. vagus. In the Plagio-
stomes the cephalic portion is wanting ; in the bony fishes this por-
tion is situated on the outside of the cranium between the nervus
trigeminus, glossopJiaryngeus and vagus on each side, where it
forms three ganglia situated behind one another, which are con-
nected by a string running longitudinally, a continuation of the
sympathetic nerve of the trunk. Mostly the two sympathetic
nerves are united by a transverse branch beneath the bodies of the
anterior vertebras. There are two nervi splanchnic^ usually one on
each side ; in different fishes the two arise from one ganglion on the
right side, and are then only very rarely united at their origin into
one stem2.

The sense of touch is little developed in fishes. Proper organs of
tact, like our fingers, by which the form of objects may be investi-
gated, are wanting, although the lips perhaps may partly serve for
tact. Often there are soft conical appendages or filaments at the
lips or jaws which, like the whiskers of mammals, serve for the
investigation of external obstacles, and put fishes in a condition
to avoid them. The entire skin is little adapted to convey a fine
sense of touch ; it is the seat of a mucous secretion often largely
developed, and is usually covered with scales (see above p. 11).
The scales present many striae parallel to the edge, and thus appear
to be formed, like the shells of bivalve molluscs, of superposed
laminae, as LEEUWENHOECK supposed. Later observers, however,
have opposed this laminated origin of scales as horny plates. The
scales are not situated in the epidermis alone, but really in the skin,
and are included by it; on a fibrous layer formed of connective
tissue there lies a layer of pigment, which is covered by an epidermis

1 As little is the ramus lateralis n. trigemini, less usual in fishes, a motor nerve ; it
arises as a branch which mounts upwards to the cranium, mostly joined by a branch
from the n. vagus, and afterwards continues its course along the whole of the back
(beneath the dorsal fin). This nerve receives a small branch from all the spinal

nerves.
2

Compare on the nervus sympathicus of fishes E. H. WEBER Anatomia compar.
nervi sympatkici. Lipsise, 1817, 8vo, pp. 35 — 66; C. M. GTLTAY Diss. inaug. de nervo
sympatMco. L.B. 1834, 8vo,pp. 41 — 74; and STA.XKIVS Das peripheriscke Nervensystem,
s. r3i— 143.

FISHES. 47

formed of flat cells (pavement-epithelium). The scales contain a
considerable quantity of phosphate of lime (in well-dried scales
it often forms forty per cent, of their weight), and a much smaller
quantity of carbonate of lime1.

Taste in fishes appears to be very small. The part named
tongue in fishes consists merely of the anterior extremity of the
tongue-bone covered by mucous membrane. Besides, this part is
often armed with teeth, and possesses no proper muscles, so that it
is moved in conjunction with the branchial arches alone. The
glosso-pharyngeal nerve supplies it with no branches, but is distri-
buted chiefly to the first branchial arch, although another branch,
usually smaller, is spread upon the palate. If fishes possess the sense
of taste, the palate, rather than the tongue, would appear to be its
seat.

The organ of smell is commonly placed in front of the eyes on
each side, on the upper surface of the head ; in the Cyclostomes and
Amphioxus alone it is single or unpaired. In Lophius piscatorim
the organs of smell appear as two small cups attached by a pedicle
to the upper lip. The interior of their cavity is covered by mucous
membrane, with folds at the bottom which radiate from a centre, or
which form transverse striae proceeding on each side from a middle
axis. In the osseous fishes each nasal cavity has usually two aper-
tures, one in front and one behind. Except in the Myxino'ids the
cavity of the nose has no communication with that of the mouth, as
is the case in vertebrates that breathe by lungs.

The eyes of fishes, the soles (the genus Pleuronectes) excepted,
are situated on each side of the head, often more above, sometimes
quite at the side, as in the hammer-fishes (Zygcence). The bony orbit
is not perfectly closed, but open forwards and backwards. The
eye-ball is commonly flatter in front and irregularly convex behind.
Although capable of little motion, it has still six muscles in most
fishes, four straight and two oblique, as in man. In some fishes the

1 Compare on the structure of fishes' scales AGASSIZ (Poiss. foss.), MANDL (Ann.
des Sc. not. 2e Se*rie, Tom. xi. 1839, P- 34 7> an(^ ^e objections of AGASSIZ ibid. Tom.
xrv. 1840, pp. 98 and foil.), and PETERS in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1841, Jahresberickt,
s. 209 — 216. In the Ganoids, where the scales are covered by an enamel, microscopic
investigation indicates bone-corpuscles (lacuna), like those which occur in bone. See
WILLIAMSON On the microscop. struct, of the scales and dermal teeth of some ganoid and
placold fishes, Phil. Tr. 1849, pp. 435 — 475, with plates.

48 CLASS XIV.

eye-ball, which in such cases is small, is covered by a production
of the skin neither attenuated nor transparent : in the most the skin
forms round the anterior margin of the eye-ball a circular fold, and
then becoming thin and transparent passes over it as conjunctiva.
Only few have eye-lids with free edges ; some sharks have also a
third eye-lid, the membrana nictitans. Lachrymal glands are want-
ing. The external coat (sclerotica) is elastic and fibrous ; it has on
the inside a cartilaginous layer, which sometimes partially ossifies.
The cornea is flat, or at least not very convex. On the inside next
the sclerotica is situated the external lamina of the vascular coat
(choroidea), a glistering silvery or gold-coloured membrane, which
passes into the iris ; to it succeeds the vascular layer, formed of a
network of blood-vessels and covered by a layer of black pigment ;
this last passes at the posterior surface of the iris into the uvea. At
the entrance of the optic nerve into the eye-ball is situated in most
osseous fishes a vascular body, which surrounds the nerve like an
incomplete ring (glandula choroidalis, comp. above, p. 34). The
place where the optic nerve enters the eye-ball is frequently not in
the axis of the eye. The retina arises from a streak or irregular
white spot, where the optic nerve, mostly in form of a folded
band, is expanded. In many osseous fishes a production of the
choroidea as a sickle-shaped band (processus falciformis) penetrates
the vitreous humour, opposite the entrance of the optic nerve, and
attaches itself to the margin of the capsule of the crystalline lens ;
generally the attachment is effected by means of a transparent but-
ton (campanula Hatteri], of which the structure is not yet suffi-
ciently known. The vitreous humour is more fluid than in the rest
of the vertebrates. The crystalline lens is almost spherical and
very large ; it projects through the pupil at its anterior part. The
aqueous humour is present in small quantity alone1.

The auditory organ of fishes consists exclusively of that part
which in the higher vertebrate animals constitutes the labyrinth.
The external auditory passage, the cavity of the tympanum, the
J&ustachian tube and the ossicles of the ear are wanting. The

1 Compare ROSENTHAL Zergliederung des Fischauges in REIL'S ArcJiiv, x. s. 393 —
414; D. W. SCEMMERRING De Oculorum kominis animaliumque sections korizontali.
Gottingae, 1818, fol. pp. 62 — 71 ; GOTTSCHB Ueber die Retina im Auge der Gratenfiscke,
MUELLER'S Archiv, 1834, i. s. 457 — 466.

FISHES. 49

membranous labyrinth in the bony fishes and sturgeons lies for
Ihe most part free in the cavity of the cranium at the side of the
brain, and surrounded by the same fatty substance ; in the Plagio-
stomes and Cyclostomes the auditory apparatus is situated on each
side of the cranium in a special cavity, and is included in a carti-
laginous labyrinth. In almost all fishes three very large semi-
circular canals are present, of which the two perpendicular (the
anterior and the posterior canal) have the part between the two
in common, and thus together open into the vestibule by three
apertures, whilst the outermost, horizontal canal, opens into it by
two apertures. This vestibule (vestibulum, alveus communis) is
situated below the semicircular canals, and has an elongated sac
as an appendage, which is separated from it by a constriction.
The posterior part of this sac has a small vesicular appendage
(cysticula BRESCHET), whilst at the anterior part of the alveus
communis there is also a small expansion (utriculus, appendix
clavata vestibuli). In each of these three parts there lies a small
stone, of which that which lies in the anterior part of the sac
is the largest. These ossicles are hard in the bony fishes,
generally grooved, crimped at the margin and sometimes very
glistering and of a pure white; in the Plagiostomes and sturgeons
they are softer and granular ; they consist of carbonate of lime1.
In the Cyclostomes neither the stones nor any such sand has been
met with. In these the auditory apparatus is also more simple.
In Petromyzon and Ammoccetes two semicircular canals alone
are found. They are short and thick, and lie towards the mem-
branous vestibule, into which they open, as well by their broad
extremities (the two ampullae], as also by a common aperture at the
part where they unite. In Myxine and Bdellostoma MUELL. the
entire membranous labyrinth is a single circular canal, which
may be regarded in part as a canalis semicircular is, in part as
vestibulum. In the Plagiostomes the cartilaginous labyrinth is
prolonged beneath the skin and extends to the upper part of the
cranium; in the rays also the membranous labyrinth is pro-
longed upon the cranium and leads to a membranous sac, which,
situated between the cranium and the skin, opens on the skin
by one or by three small apertures. These parts are filled with

1 Compare E. KRIEGER De Otolithis, Dissert, inaug. physiol. Berolini, 1840, 4to.
VOL. II. 4

50 CLASS xiv.

a calcareous matter. In some bony fishes the labyrinth is extended
by a production which unites with that of the opposite side (sinus
impar), and afterwards, on the outside of the occiput on each side,
terminates in an atrium on the first vertebra. Here, by means
of a chain of small bones, it is brought in connexion with the
swimming-bladder1, so that by this the intensity of the vibrations
of sound may be augmented. In other osseous fishes the swimming-
bladder extends, without such a chain of bones, to membranous
spaces in the cranium which are in connexion with the auditory
apparatus2.

The muscles of fishes consist of loosely united fibres, generally
white. On each side of the trunk a large muscular mass is
situated, which extends from the head and the osseous belt of the
pectoral fins to the base of the caudal fin, on the rays of which it
terminates by tendinous bands. This muscular mass is divided
by tendinous strips (ligamenta intermuscularia) , as though by ribs,
into segments lying behind one another ; the margins of these strips
appear on the surface under the skin as zigzag tendinous incisures
(inscriptiones tendinece) descending from the back to the abdomen.
This muscular mass is the lateral layer of the trunk-muscles,
of which in man the dorsal portion alone is present, and has been
developed to form the different muscles of the back. In fishes, on
the contrary, it extends over the abdomen. Where ventral fins
exist, the two lateral muscular masses separate from each other
to leave a fissure in which these fins are received; the pectoral

1 These bones were named by E. H. WEBER, to whom we owe their discoveiy, Ge-
horknochelclien, ossicula auditus. GEOFFROY DE ST. HILAIRE, J. F. MECKEL and SAAG-
MANS MULDER refer them to the first vertebra; the largest, ensiform, hindmost bone,
which is immediately connected with the swimming-bladder, would seem to be the rib
of the second vertebra. See in detail the investigations of the author last named in
Bijdragen tot de NatuurJc. Wetensch. vi. 1831, bl. 84 — 105. According to OWEN these
bones, with the bony labyrinth, belong to the splanchnic skeleton. Lectures, n. p. 210.

2 The first good description of the auditory organ of fishes was given by P. CAMPER
Verhandelingen van de Holl. Maatsch. der Wetensch. te Haarlem, vn. i, bl. 79 — 117,
with figs. 1 763. Great in this respect are the deserts of MONRO and SCARPA. This
subject has been treated with great completeness and detail by E. H. WEBER, in his
work De Aure et Auditu hominis et animalium. Cum tab. x. Lipsise, 1820, 4to. Comp.
also G. BRESCHET Hecherches anatotn. et physiol. sur I'Organe de Vouie des Poissons, avec
17 Planches. Paris, 1838, 4to, and J. MUELLER Ueber den eigenthumlichen Bau des
Gehororganes lei den Cyclostomen. Berlin, 1838. Mit 3 Kupfertafeln fol. (printed
separately from the Abhandl. der ATcad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, aus dem Jahre 1837).

FISHES. 51

fins, situated more on the side, with their muscles pass through
a fissure in the anterior part of each of the lateral muscles, which
here divide into two bundles. By means of the lateral muscles
the spinal column is bent to the right or the left. The principal
means of progression for the fish consist in the lateral flexures, the
alternate relaxations and curvatures of the tail, or, in the case of
cylindrical fishes, as the eel, of the entire trunk1. The surface
which reacts upon the water may be greater or less in proportion
as the vertical fins (the dorsal, anal and caudal fins), of which the
rays are capable of separation from each other and of erection, are
more or less expanded. This is effected by muscles, two in number
on each side of the interspinal bones : one in front and one behind
the projecting line seen on each side of these bones. That in front
moves the ray forward and thus extends the fin ; that behind draws
the ray towards the back, or in the case of the anal fin towards the
belly, and thus depresses the fin. Above these muscles there
is situated on each side of every ray a superficial muscle inserted
into the skin ; these last, of which the fibres have an oblique direc-
tion as regards the large lateral muscles, move the fins laterally.

The ventral and pectoral fins act as oars, and serve the fish
principally in directing its course and securing its position in the
water. In some fishes the pectoral fins are large enough to be able
to support the body in the air for a certain time (flying fishes,
Exocoetus, Dactylopterus). The pectoral fins can be moved from
or towards the body, can be expanded and moved up or down.
The forward and backward motion is dependent on the osseous belt
to which these fins are attached, and is very limited. These fins
are moved by muscles which are attached to the inner and outer
surface and inserted into the rays. Those of the inner surface
draw the pectoral fins nearer to the body (musculi adductores), those
I of the outer surface move them from it (musculi abductores).
[The ventral fins can draw their rays together or render them more
remote from each other, can move themselves perpendicularly
[downwards or horizontally outwards and inwards.

The head is very slightly, if at all, moveable on the trunk ; the
jjaws, the palatine arch, the tongue-bone, the branchial arches, on the

1 S. J. BRUGMANS pointed out that the stream of water issuing from the gill-
iperture on expiration, also assists the progressive motion of fishes. Verhandel. der
Klasse van het ffollandsche Instituut, i. bl. 185 — 217. Amsterd. 1812.

4—2

52 CLASS XIV.

other hand, have great capacity of motion. The principal muscles,
which widen the cavity of the mouth and move the gill-covers, are
attached to the inner and outer surface of the arch of the palate
and to the bones which connect the lower jaw with the cranium.

The restorative power of fishes is limited to the reproduction of
the parts of fins which have been removed. Many fishes may
attain a great age ; carps and pikes have been recorded to have
lived more than a century. In general they seek their food,
especially marine fishes, by night, and then are most easily
captured ; perhaps they sleep in the day-time. Many fishes pro-
bably are torpid during winter.

Of the instinct of fishes little is known. The principal inclination
of the fish is the hunting for food, and most of them feed on living
prey. For stupifying it some have the power of giving electric
shocks. The most remarkable example of art-instinct in the over-
powering of prey, is afforded by an East Indian fresh-water fish
( Toxotes jaculator)', which squirts drops of water upon insects on
water-plants in its neighbourhood, to cause them to fall into the
water. The instinct which is directed to the preservation of the
species, propagation, offers less that is remarkable in this class than
in that of insects and birds, although some species are known that
prepare a kind of nest under the water for their offspring1.

Many fishes change their abode at certain seasons of the year.
Thus, for example, some fishes in spring or summer ascend the
mouths of rivers to cast their spawn, as the shad ( Clupea alosa) ;
salmons ascend even far inland against the stream of rivers. Some
would seem to undertake expeditions annually in countless shoals,
as the herrings, which, according to GTLPIN, describe in the
northern ocean a circuit returning into itself, so that in January
and February they appear off Georgia and Carolina, in April off
New York, and there in the rivers and bays deposit their spawn,
then return to the sea and move towards Newfoundland. Afterwards

1 To these belongs the <f>VKl$ of ARISTOTELES, a marine fish, that makes a nest of
leaves (algce), Hist. Anim. I. vm. cap. 30 (according to CUVIER a Gobius), Hist. nat.
des Poiss. xn. p. 7, the Doras Hancockii, Cuv. and VAL., according to the observations
of HANCOCK; to these, finally, also different species of fresh-water sticklebacks belong,
Gasterosteus, where the males build the nests, according to the observations of COSTE,
lately published. Compare Diet, universal d'Hist. nat. vm. 1847, pp. 650, 651,
P&issons, PI. 20.

FISHES. 53

they run north-eastwards to the Orkney Islands, where they
are found in June, divide at the British Isles about August, and
again unite to run towards the south-west in October and
November, whilst in December they are found at some distance
from the west coast of America, in about 18° or 20° N. L. Then
they return northwards to Georgia, &C.1 These results, indeed,
are founded upon the supposition that the herring of the east
coast of North America belongs to the same species with that
of the North Sea, which, however, has been since found not to
be the case2. On the whole there still prevails much uncertainty
respecting the migration of fishes. Most of them do not migrate,
or their expeditions are rather to be compared with those of birds
of passage, which, without any determinate course, betake them-
selves now and then from one place to another. Those marine
fishes, which may really be named fishes of passage, change in the
northern hemisphere the northern for more southern regions in the
spring of the year, whilst birds of passage do the same in the
autumn. The cause, therefore, of the passage of fishes must be
different from that of birds3.

Some species of fishes can exist for a longer or shorter period on
dry land, as the common eels. Different species of Callichthys and
Doras bury themselves in the mud when the ponds in which they
live become dry, or even creep, as HANCOCK witnessed in a species
of Doras, over the ground, sometimes in large troops to another
pond. The sand-eel (Ammodotes tobianus) lives in the sand and
especially in the clayey bottom of the sea, in which it buries
itself deep and through which it winds in all directions ; it some-
times approaches so close to the shore that it may be dug out at

1 Observations on the annual Passage of Herrings, Transact, of the Americ. Philos.
Soc. Vol. II. Philadelphia, 1786, pp. 236 — 239.

2 The herring of New York is Clupea elongata LESUEUB. See Cuv. et VAL., Hist,
not. des Poiss. XX. p. 247. ["There can be no doubt that the herring inhabits deep
water all round our coast, and only approaches the shores for the purpose of depositing
its spawn." YARRELL British Fishes, u. p. 112; see the paper of McCuLLOCH quoted
by YARRELL in Journ. of Roy. Institution, Jan. 1824.]

3 A prize essay of MARCEL DE SERRES on the History of Fishes of Passage (NatuurL
Verhandelingen van de Holl. Maatschappij der Wetenschappen te Haarlem, lie Verzam.
IQ Deel. 1842, 4to) throws little light on this matter, and may be regarded as a failure.

54 CLASS XIV.

ebb-tide with a spade, as in some parts of Zealand1. Salarias
alticus climbs over the rocks by the aid of its fins, and leaps four
or five feet when attempted to be taken. That many fishes,
swimming on the surface of the water, often make short leaps into
the air, is known to all : the flying fishes (Exocoetus), noticed above,
can leap full twenty feet whilst flapping with their large pectoral
fins.

Fishes, in respect of their residence, may be divided into such
as inhabit the sea, and others fresh-water, although some, as we
have lately said, migrate from the sea to rivers and from these to
the sea. The number of species that dwell in the sea is, how-
ever, much larger than those in fresh water, and is to the last
probably as 3:1. Most of the fresh- water fishes are found
amongst the soft-finned (Malacopterygii) in the families of the
Salmonacei, Siluroidei and Cyprinoidei, of which the last is
especially abundant in species; amongst the Acanthopterygii the
number of fresh-water species may be stated as certainly less than
the thirtieth part of all the known species. On the whole the
physical distribution of fishes is bounded by narrower limits than
that of the other animal species. As a rule, no fishes are found in
hot springs, in which many other animals frequently live, although
a species of Cyprinus (Leuciscus thermalis) has been found in the
Island of Ceylon in a hot spring of 50° centigr. On high mountain
levels, where there is often a luxuriant vegetable growth, and where
many birds and insects live, only a few fishes are found in the rivers
and ponds, as the Eremophilus Mutisii in the river Bogota, 8000
feet above the level of the sea. In the brooks on the highest
Altaic mountains no fishes are found. Some fishes live in sub-
terranean lakes.

The geographic distribution of fishes indicates some general
results which agree with those presented by molluscs (see above,

1 The Dutch reader will here recall probably the well-known romance of BELLAMY,
and the lines :

Dan gaat dejeugd met spade en ploeg
Naar't breede vlakke strand, &c.

Anabas (Perca scandens), an Indian fresh- water fish, not only quits the water, accord-
ing to DALDORF and JOHN, but even climbs the palms upon the bank, by aid of the
spines on its gill-covers. Other writers, however, and especially HAMILTON BUCHANAN,
contradict these statements.

FISHES. 55

Vol. I. p. 770). There are few species alone which may be regarded
as cosmopolitan, and then only in an improper sense, whilst they
occur, for example, in most seas only, but not in the North Sea, as
Temnodon saltator. The fishes of the Mediterranean are met with
in part in the North Sea also; but many are peculiar to this
large lake, or spread themselves along the west-coast of North
Africa to the Atlantic Ocean. The Ked Sea is in many respects to
be regarded simply as a part of the Indian Ocean, and contains
many genera which do not occur in the Mediterranean, and even
many species which extend themselves to the extreme limits
of the Indian Archipelago, and sometimes even to the Southern
Pacific. Amongst the fresh-water fishes, the numerous genus
Cyprinus L. especially, and the allied genus Cobitis, are to be
regarded as a group of the Eastern hemisphere, of which the
greatest number of species occur in India, whilst only a few are
met with in North America and none in South America. On
the other hand, the Siluroids occur equally in both hemispheres
of the earth, although many forms are found in the Western hemi-
sphere alone.

The use which man derives from the fishes is very great.
Many races of people live exclusively or principally on fish.
Salted or dried, and thus rendered fit for transmission to a distance,
they form an important branch of commerce for seafaring nations ;
they afford us train oil, isinglass, &c. The number of fishes
of which the use is injurious, is only small when compared with
that of the edible and useful.

The arrangement of fishes is attended with great difficulties,
and it seems to be rather the avoidance of what is frail than the
attainment of what is perfect, that the most earnest investigations
and the most learned disquisitions have yet to offer us.

SYSTEMATIC
ARRANGEMENT OF FISHES.

CLASS XIV.
FISHES.

VERTEBRATE animals breathing during the whole life by per-
sistent branchiae, having cold blood and a ventricle of the heart
single, branchial alone ; aquatic, mostly oviparous.

I. Organ of smell unpaired.

SECTION I. Dermopterygii.

Fins surrounding the body at the back and abdomen with a
cutaneous border: pectoral and anal fins none. Dorsal cord per-
sistent, in place of a vertebral column. (Swimming-bladder none.
Ribs none.) Body covered by a soft skin, not scaly.

ORDER I. LeptocardiL

Pulsating vessels in place of heart. Blood pale. Branchial sac
in front of oesophagus, included in the cavity of body.

Family I. Amphioxini. (Characters of the order those of the
single family.) Body compressed.

Amphioxus YARRELL (Branchiostoma COSTA). Body acuminate
at both ends ; dorsal fin extended at the back through the whole
length, confluent at the tail with the anal. Mouth inferior, pre-
senting a longitudinal fissure, furnished with somewhat rigid cirri
(12 — 15 on each side).

This genus of fishes is the most imperfect of the typus of verte-
brate animals. There is no brain present, at least not as a distinct

PISCES. 57

organ ; this part of the central nervous system is represented by the
anterior obtuse extremity of the spinal cord. The chorda dorsalis,
terminating in a point at both ends, has two sheaths, from the most
external of which a fibrous lamina is extended upwards on each
side ; these two laminae approach each other and finally coalesce.
In this way a canal is formed above the chorda dorsalis in which
the spinal marrow is contained. But the entire canal is not filled
by this : it is divided by a thin transverse partition into a larger
inferior portion inclosing the spinal cord, and a smaller upper portion
containing a cellular tissue saturated with fat. Above this last
portion the two laminae unite to form a crest on which the rays of
the dorsal fin rest. The mouth is surrounded by two strips of
cartilage, consisting of jointed pieces, each of which terminates
laterally in a conical point ; these points are the supports of the
cirri that surround the mouth. Behind the mouth commences the
branchial cavity, which is supported by numerous cartilaginous
strips and invested by a nmcous membrane covered with vibratile
cilia ; small fissures are left between the strips of cartilage, which
do not open on the skin but terminate in the cavity of the body.
In front of the anus is an aperture (porus abdominalis) by which
the water escapes, and which may therefore be regarded as a
respiratory aperture, but through it the eggs and the sperma are
also evacuated. The intestinal canal, as in the Ascidice (of the
branchial sac of which Amphioxus reminds us), commences at the
bottom of the branchial cavity, and has a lateral expansion of a
green colour terminating in a blind extremity forwards, which
probably corresponds to the liver. The intestinal canal throughout
its entire extent is beset with vibratile cilia ; it has no convolutions,
and becomes narrower below j the anus is situated at a short dis-
tance from the extremity of the body, somewhat to the left side.
The sexual organs are in both sexes of the same structure, and
form on each side of the abdominal cavity a series of irregular four-
sided organs, which extends to the porus abdoniinalis, and are
visible through the skin. On the under surface, on each side, a fold
of skin has been observed, extending to the porus abdominalis, in
which a canal is situated terminating close to this last behind and
in front in the mouth.

We give the preference to the name Amphioxus, although devised a
couple of years later than that of Branchiostoma for this genus of animals,
since the last is less commonly known, and moreover originated in the
mistake that the oral cirri are gills.

58 CLASS XIV.

Compare on this genus :

W. YARBELL History of British Fishes, n. 1836, pp. 468 — 477.

H. EATHKE BemerTcungen uber den Bau des Amphioxus lanceolatw. Mit
einer Kupfertafel. Konigsberg, 1841.

J. MUELLER Ueber den Bau u. die Lebenserscheinunyen des Branchio-
stoma lubricum COSTA. Mit 5 Kupfert. Berlin, 1844, 8vo.

A. DE QUATREFAGES Mtmoire sur le systeme nerveux et sur Vhistoloyie
du Branchiostome ou Amphioxus, Ann. des Sc. not. 30 Se'rie, Tom. iv.
Zool. 1845, PP. 197 — 24-8, 1*1. 10 — 13- The descriptions of the Neapolitan
naturalist COSTA (Cenni Zoologici, 1834, Fauna del Reyno di Napoli, 1839),
are known to me from citations alone. Also of the paper of J. GOODSIR,
Trans, of the roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xv. 1841, I have only been able to
consult the short account in the Ann. of not. Hist. vii. pp. 346 — 348.

Sp. Amphioxus lanceolatus YARRELL, Branchiostoma lubricum. This species,
the only one as it seems of this genus, occurs in different seas, and nume-
rously in some places in the Mediterranean ; it buries itself in the sand of
the shore ; its length is from i ^ to 2". PALLAS, who first described and
figured it, held it to be a mollusc, whence he named it Limax lanceolatus.
Spicileg. Zoolog. Ease. x. Tab. i. fig. n.

OEDEE II. Cyclostomi.

Blood red. Heart distinct. Branchial artery without bulb,
furnished at the base with two valves. Body, cylindrical. Branchiae
furnished with external spiracles, sacciform, six or seven on each
side.

Family II. Myxinoidei (Hyperotreta MUELL.). Body cylin-
drical, obliquely truncated anteriorly. Mouth anterior, cirrose ;
olfactory cavity furnished anteriorly with a tracheal tube leading to
an external aperture above the mouth, posteriorly with a canal
perforating the palate. Single horny tooth in palate ; smaller teeth
in a double row on each side in tongue, recurved. Branchiae on
each side with internal ducts leading to the oesophagus.

The work of J. MUELLEK, already cited, Vergleichende Anatomie
der Myxinoiden, Abhand. der Koenigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, 1834, 1838, 1839, 1842, has, in particular, greatly
illustrated this family. The perforated palate, the connexion of
the cavities of the nose and the mouth, is not found in other fishes,
and is besides a common character of vertebrates that breathe by
lungs. The inferior margin of the mouth, since no under-jaw is
present, is formed by the anterior extremity of the tongue-bone.

PISCES. 59

Myxine L. Two spiracles approximate on the ventral surface
behind the branchiae, each spiracle receiving the external ducts of the
six branchiae of its own side. Eyes very small, hidden by muscles.

Sp. Myxine glutinosa L., Gastrobranchus ccecus BLOCK, LINN. Mus. Ad. Fred.
Tab. vin. fig. 4, BLOCK Syst. Ichth. Tab. 104; CUVIEB R. Ani., ed. itt.,
Poiss. PL 1 20, fig. 3 ; lives in the North Sea. LINN.EUS referred it to the
worms, regarding the two lateral parts of the tongue as transverse jaws
(maxillce transver sales), which do not occur in vertebrate animals. There is
a duct which leads immediately from the oesophagus to the left spiraculum ;
a similar duct occurs also in the following genus, going to the posterior
spiraculum branchiate of the left side. The animal is about 1 1" long.

Bdellostoma MUELL., Heptatrema DUMER. Branchiae on each
side six or seven, each supplied with an external spiracle. Eyes
small, conspicuous through the skin.

Fishes from the southern seas, for which the name Heptatrema can
scarcely be retained, since individuals are met with having six gill-apertures
on each side, or six on the right side and seven on the left ; the species are
not yet sufficiently defined ; they closely resemble Myxine glutinosa in
internal structure, notwithstanding the external characters ; frequently, how-
ever, they attain a larger size. There are seven gill-apertures on each side
in Petromyzon cirratus, Bdellostoma Forsteri MUELL. ; see BLOCK Syst. Ichth.
pp. 531, 533. To this genus belongs a species imperfectly described and
badly figured by LACEPEDE Gastrobranchus Dombey; Poiss. I. PL 23, fig.i.

Family III. Petromyzonini (Hyperoartia) . Body cylindrical,
with mouth anterior, lip circular or lunate. Olfactory cavity open
above by an external nasal foramen, produced posteriorly into a
blind canal, not perforating the palate. Thorax cartilaginous, sus-
taining the branchial apparatus, composed of strips descending on
each side beneath the skin from the back towards the ventral sur-
face. Two dorsal fins, the posterior conjoined with the caudal fin.

Petromyzon L. (exclusive oiPetr. Iranchialis} . Several labial and
lingual teeth. Branchiae open internally in a suboesophagean tube,
blind posteriorly. Labial ring circular, margined by many small cirri.

Sp. Petromyzon marinus L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 77, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss.
PL 70, fig. i, YAERELL Brit. Fishes, n. p. 448 ; Petromyzon fliiviatilis L.,
BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 78, fig. T, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. iU., Poiss. PL 120, fig. i
(named Petr. marin.). The first of these species, the marine, comes on the
approach of summer into rivers, and attains a length of more than two feet ;
the last, much smaller, appears to live constantly in fresh water. This
species is named Lamprey (Lampetra from lambendo petras), Pricke, &c.
These animals use their tongue as a sucker, and attach themselves to
different bodies ; they then inspire and expire by the external branchial

60 CLASS XIV.

apertures. On the anatomy, the memoir of H. RATHKE (Bemerkunyen iiU'i'
den innernSau der PricJce, Petromyzon fluviatilis. Dantzig, 1825, 4to) may
be regarded as the chief work.

The Dutch Society of Sciences has published a valuable memoir of
Prof. MAX SCHULTZB of Halle, Die EntwicTcelungsgesch. von Petromyzon
Planeri. Mit vui. Taf. (Natuurkundige Verhandelingen van de ffollandsche
Maatschappij der Wettensch. te Haarlem. Tweede Versameling, Deel xu,
1856, 4to.) The cleavage of the yolk is entire, and in the first stages of
development there is much analogy with that of the frog.

Ammoccetes DUMEB. Teeth none. Branchiae open internally in
the pharynx. External branchial apertures small, placed in a longi-
tudinal furrow. Upper lip semicircular.

Comp. DUM^RIL Dissertation sur les Poissons cyclostomes (Magasin ency-
clopedique, 1808); KATHKE Beitrdge zur Gesch. der ThierweU, iv. 1827, s.
66 — 102, Tab. H. in.

Sp. Ammoccetes Iranchialis, Petromyzon branchialis L., GU£RIN Iconogr.,
Pom. PI. 70, fig. 3, YARRELL Brit. FisJies, n. p. 459. In fresh water in
many countries of Europe, keeping mostly at the bottom or in the sand ;
this species attains a length of 6 or 7".

AUG. MUELLER (Ueber die Entwickelung der Neunaugen, MUELLER'S
Archiv, 1856, pp. 323 — 339) has found that Ammoccetes is the larval form
of Petromyzon. The perfect state is not attained until the fourth year from
the egg. . .

II. Organ of smell double.

A. Muscular bulb at the base of branchial artery, with nu-
merous valves disposed in longitudinal rows.

SECTION II. Chondropterygii.

Fins supported by cartilaginous rays. Pectoral and ventral
fins. Skeleton cartilaginous; cartilaginous arches closed, forming
a canal for the spinal cord; bodies of vertebrae distinct in most, in
some the chorda dorsalis persistent, situated under the arches in-
closing the spinal cord, continuous. Tail recurved upwards, with
caudal fin inferior. Skin mostly rough with small bony scales, or
covered with large dispersed scutes, sometimes naked. Mouth
situated under the head. (Bibs distinct in most; swimming-blad-
der none.)

ORDER III. Desmidbranchii s. Plagiostomi.

Branchiae adhering to the skin by their outer margin, patent by
lateral external apertures on each side. True operculum none.

PISCES. 61

Mouth a transverse fissure on the lower part of the head. Bones of
cranium not distinct by sutures. Copulation.

Compare J. MUELLER und J. HENLE Systematische Beschreibung der
Plagiostomen. Mit 60 Steindrucktafeln. Berlin, 1841, folio.

This order may in many respects be regarded as the most compo-
site and the most highly organised ID the class of fishes, whence
some recent writers place it at the top of the class and far from the
Cyclostomes. The conviction that it is an impossibility to preserve
the natural affinity, when animals are arranged in a single line,
has withheld us from making such a revolution in the previous and
more common arrangement of fishes.

The cranium of these fishes presents no sutures. A single bone
attaches the lower jaw to the skull, taking the place of the jugal
bone, of the tympanicum, epitympanicum, and prceoperculum (see
above, pp. 20, 21). At the posterior margin of this bone cartilaginous
appendages are attached digitally, which correspond to the opercula
of the bony fishes. There are thin cartilaginous strips beneath the
skin which support the margins of the external branchial apertures,
and replace the more composite apparatus of the Petromyzonines.
Hence it is obvious that the apparatus in Petromyzon is not homolo-
gous with branchial arches.

Above, on the head, with few exceptions, are two apertures
behind the eyes, in front of the quadrate or suspensory bone of the
lower jaws ; they conduct to the mouth and transmit the water that
has been distributed to the gills (foramina temporalia, events,
Spritz-locher). A real copulation occurs in these fishes; compare
above, pp. 39, 40. All have a spiral valve in the intestinal canal.

Family IV. Batides. Body depressed. Branchial apertures
on the neck below, five on each side. Eyelids connate with the
eyes or none. Cartilaginous belt sustaining the pectoral fins adher-
ing above to the vertebral column.

This family consists principally of the genus Raja L., to which,
as MUELLER has remarked, Squalus Pristis L. might be added,
which forms indeed the transition to the following family, but
still agrees with the rays in essential characters : the branchial
apertures are situated on the ventral surface, &c.

In this family the dorsal fins are commonly far backwards. In
some species of rays individuals occur with a membrane on the
middle of the disc of the body, as in Raja clavata; such varieties

62 CLASS XIV.

have been regarded incorrectly as distinct • species. See a figure in
LACEPEDE Poiss. i. PL vn. fig. 1.

Many species have spines or tubercles on the back, on the fins
and the tail, which vary in number and development according to
age and difference of sex.

A. Tail slender. Body discoidal, broad.
*t* A serrated spur at the base of tail.

Cephaloptera DUM^R. (Pterocephala SWAINS.). Pectoral fins
very broad, acuminate towards the point, produced in front of the
head like ears. Teeth small.

Sp. Cephaloptera Giorna Risso, Raja giorna LAO., Pom. v. PL 20, fig. 3,
GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 69, fig. 4 ; attains a breadth of more than 4
feet ; this species occurs in the Mediterranean, but species from the East
Indies, Japan and Brazil are also known.

Ceratoptera MUELL. and HENLE.

Myliobatis Cuv. Pectoral fins broad, acuminate towards the
apex, interrupted at the sides of head, surrounding the head an-
teriorly. Teeth large, composed of vertical fibres or cylinders,
forming transverse flat laminae, covering each jaw with mosaic
work. Tail flagelliform, very long, armed with a serrated spur
behind the dorsal fin.

Sp. Myliobatis aguila Risso, Raja agutta L., YARRELL Brit. Fishes, u,
p. 445, Mediterranean Sea, &c.

Sub-genera: Rhinoptera KUHL, Aetobatis MUELL. and HENLE.

Sp. Aetobatis flagellum, Raja flagellum. BLOCH Syst. Jchth. Tab. 73, habit, in
Indian Sea, &c.

Trygon ADANS. Pectoral fins surrounding the head and often
produced into a point in front of head. Disc of body oval, or-
bicular or obtusely rhombic. Teeth placed in alternate rows,
rhombic. Tail mostly of length of body, without finlets, furnished
with single or double serrate aculeus.

Add genera Urolophus and Trygonoptera MUELL. and HENLE.

Anacantlms EHRENB. A genus allied to the Trygons, distin-
guished by defect of spur in the tail.

Sp. Trygon pastinacea BONAP., Raja pastinacea L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 82,
C. L. BONAPARTE Fauna Italica, 1841, in. Tab. 156; in the Mediter-
ranean and North Sea, &c.

PISCES. 63

Some species, with very long pectoral fins, and thus a very broad disc,
resemble in some degree the preceding genera, but have a short taiL (Sp.
Raja altavela L., Syst. not. ed. x. BONAP. 1. 1. Tab. 158, from the Medi-
terranean Sea.) These species form the genus Pteroplatea MUELL. and
HENLE.

Eaja L. (in part). Pectoral fins surrounding the head produced
far as the ventral fins. Disc of body rhombic. Tail slender,
lepressed, without spur, bipinnate above, with a membranous
)order at the sides. Teeth crowded, rhombic, flat, sometimes,
specially in males, acute.

This genus is the most numerous in species of the family. These species
are often oviparous, whilst all the other rays are viviparous.
Sp. Raja clavata L. (and Raja rulus GM.), BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 83, 84, FRIES,
ECKSTEOEM och SuNDEVALL Scandinavians Fiskar, Tab. 35. The body is
thickly beset above with small booklets and some larger spines, which arise
from a flat round root like the head of a nail; upper "surface a dull-brown,
lower white ; this species becomes i — 3 feet large, &c. See, further, ROBIN
Sur un appareil gui se trouve de chaque c6te de la queue sur les poissons
du genre Raja. Ann. des Sc. Nat. 3ieme SeVie, Tom. vn. Zool. 1845, pp.
195, 302. PI. 3, 4.

The ventral fins are usually deeply incised and divided into two lobes.
From a species in which this was not observed, MUELLEE and HENLE form
the genus Sympterygia.

B. Tail fleshy, fusiform.

Torpedo DUMER. Body covered by naked unarmed skin, dis-
eiform, rotundate. Tail pinnate at the point ; dorsal fin above the
;ail, mostly double. Teeth conical, acuminate, crowded.

Temera GRAY. Dorsal fin none. Teeth flat.

Sp. Temera Hardwckii GBAY.

Torpedo auctor. (Astrape MUELL. and HENLE, Narcine HENLE,
and Torpedo MUELL. and HENLE). Dorsal fin sometimes single
(A strape), mostly double. Teeth acute.

Compare J. F. M. VON OLFEES, Die Gattung Torpedo in ihren natur-
JiistoriscTien und antiquarischen Beziehungen erlautert. Mit 3 Tafeln. Berlin,
1831 ; — F. G-. J. HENLE Ueber Narcine, eine neue Gattung, nebst einer
Synopsis der electrischen FlscJie. Mit 4 Steintafeln. Berlin, 1834, 4to.

The species from'the Mediterranean all belong to the sub-genus Torpedo
of the moderns; the exotic species to Narcine (Narcine and Astrape), with
small teeth in alternate rows on a plate projecting from the mouth. The
name Raja Torpedo of the Systema natures is a collective name, for LiN-
N-EUS referred all his descriptions of these fishes to a single species.

These fishes (Napntj, Torpedo, Zttterroche, Krampfrosche) have
been long known, and were recorded by the antients on account of

64 CLASS XIV.

their wonderful property of giving painful and paralysing shocks.
That this property is an effect of the development of electricity
was distinctly proved especially by the experiments of WALSH
(Phil. Trans. 1774) in the latter half of the preceding century. In
the present century also many writers, TODD, H. and J. DAVY, &c.
(compare Phil. Trans, of the Roy. Soc. of London, 1816, 1832,
1834) have continued these inquiries, and have illustrated by many
experiments the chemical and magneto-electric properties of these
fishes. The electric organ of the Torpedo is sitiiated on each side
of the body and consists of a multitude of hexangular prisms or
membranous tubes, arranged side by side perpendicular to the
ventral and dorsal surfaces, which present numerous transverse
partitions of microscopic delicacy, on which the finest nervous fila-
ments are spread, and between which a fluid is contained. The
filaments arise from thick branches of the nervus vagus and also
from the fifth pair, which run to the electric apparatus.

Compare, amongst the earlier writers, S. LORENZINI Observazioni intorno
alle Torpedini. Firenze, 1678, 4to, and J. HUNTER in Philos. Trans. 1773,
pp. 481 and foil. ; and amongst the more recent, especially P. SAVI Etudes
anatomiques sur le syst. nerveux et sur Vorgane electrique de la Torpille (illus-
trated by beautiful figures, and appended to C. MATTEUCCI Traite des pheno-
menes electro-physiologiques. Paris, 1844, 8vo), and R. WAGNER Ueberden
feineren Ban des electrischen Organs im Zitterrochen. Mit einer lithogr.
Tafel. Gottingen, 1847 (4w d. Abhandl. der Konigl. Gesellsch. der Wis-
sensck. in. Bid.).

Sp. Torpedo ocellata RUDOLPHI, Torpedo Narlce Risso, BLOCH Icldh. Tab.
122, BLUMENBACH Abh. naturh. Gegenst. No. 57; — Torpedo marmorata
RUDOLPHI, Torpedo Galvanii BONAP., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL
1 1 6, &c.

Rhinobatus SCHN. Disc of body oblong or cordate, acuminate
anteriorly. Pectoral fins terminating in front of ventral. Head
in front of eyes, carinate. Teeth crowded, arranged in a quincunx.
Skin mostly rough, with scales or spines dispersed; a row of
spines in the middle of back. Tail with two dorsal fins and a
terminal fin bilobed.

Sub-genera : Platyrhina MUELL. and HENLE, Trygonorhina M.
and H., Rhinobatus SCHN., Rhynchobatus M. and H., Rhina SCHN.

Sp. Rhinobatus Icevis BL., SCHN. Syst. IcJith. Tab. 71, GUERIN Iconogr.,
Poiss. PL 69, fig. i ; habit, in Indian and Red Seas. Rhinob. Columnce
BONAP. (Raja rkinobatus L.) &c.

PISCES. 65

Note. Platyrhina M. and H. (Sp. Raja chinensis LAO.), a genus allied
to Torpedo, differs in habit from Rhinobaius. Comp. Plate in MUELLER
and HENLE.

Pristis LATH. Body elongate, depressed anteriorly, covered
with small flat scales. Pectoral fins distant from head, not pro-
duced to the ventrals. Tail with two dorsal and a caudal fin.
Teetli small, crowded upon a plane. Head produced anteriorly into
a depressed ensiform process armed with teeth at the margin on
each side.

Sp. Pristis antiquorum LATH., Sqitalus pristis L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 120,
Cuv. R. Ani., £d. HI., Poiss. PL 117, fig. 2; the saw-fish (serra marina or
serra pristis), irplarts ; the name of the animal is borrowed from the weapon
with which its head is armed ; it measures \ of the length of the body, and
has on each side from 20 to 30 elongato-conical teeth.

Compare LATHAM in Transact, of the Linn. Soc. n. pp. 282 and foil.
(Pristis Perotteti, from the Senegal, would seem to be found in fresh-water
only.)

Family V. Selachii (s. Squali). Branchial apertures at the
sides of neck. Eyelids distinct, with margin free. Cartilaginous belt
of pectoral fins imperfect, not conjoined with vertebral column above.
Pectoral fins not produced in front of head. Anal fin in many.

The Sharks. — This group is somewhat less numerous in species
than the preceding, although about one hundred. are known; more
than a fourth part of that number live in the seas of our part
of the world. In general this group seems, like that of the rays,
and even in a greater degree, to belong to the eastern hemisphere of
the globe ; from the South American coasts, Brazil, and the West
Indies, there are only few species, perhaps only one-tenth of the
whole number. They all live in the sea, although one species of
Carcharias is found in the Ganges at a distance of sixty hours from
the sea. Of these fishes some are widely dispersed, as Spinax
acanthias (Sq. Acantkias L.), Mustelus vulgaris (Squalus Mustelus
L.), which occur in the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, at the Cape,
and even in the South Sea. In this family the largest fishes are
found; many are more than six feet, Selache maxima, (Squalus
maximus) may be more than thirty feet long.

Squatina DuMER. Body depressed; head rotundate, with mouth
anterior, eyes small, situated on the upper part of head. Two tem-
poral foramina behind the eyes. Teeth acuminate, conical. Bran-

VOL. II. 5

66 CLASS XIV.

chial fissures situated in the constricted neck behind the head,
approximate. Pectoral fins rhombic, produced anteriorly at the
sides of the head. Two dorsal fins above the tail. Anal fin none.

Sp. Squatina vulgaris RiSSO, Squalus Squatina L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 116;
YAREELL Br. Fishes, II. p. 407; in the Mediterranean and North Sea.
Compare H. BOURSE WILLS Dissert, med. inaug., continent olservationes
anat. de Squatina Icevi. L. B. 1844, 8vo.

PristiopTiorus MUELL. and HENLE. Head produced into a flat,
oblongo-triangular process serrated on each side. Two long cirri
below in middle of snout. Anal fin none.

Sp. PristiopTiorus cirratus, Pristis cirratus LATH., Linn. Trans, n. PI. 26,
fig. 5, PI. 27, South Pacific, New Holland, Japan.

Notwithstanding the external resemblance to Pristis this fish is a true
shark, with lateral branchial apertures, which are situated in front of the
pectoral fins, whilst in Pristis they are placed below them.

Squalus L. (exclusive of some species). Body elongate, with
head produced into a snout above the mouth. Branchial apertures
at the sides, situated in front of the pectoral fins or above them.
Dorsal fins mostly two, the anterior placed nearly in the middle of
back before the ventral fins.

A. Squall with anal Jin none.

Scymnus Cuv. Temporal foramina. Teeth acuminate. Dorsal
fins two, unarmed, small or moderate, the first at the middle of
back or nearer the second.

(Sub-genera : Echinorhinus BLAINV., Lcemargus and Scymnus
MUELL. and HENLE).

Sp. Scymnus lickia BONAP., Squalus americanus GM., BONAP. Faun. Ital. in.
Tab. 142, Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean; — Scymnus borealis FLEMING,
Scymnus micropterus VALENCIENNES, Nouv. Ann. du Mus. i. p. 454, PL
20, in the North Sea, &c.

Spinax Cuv. (and Centrina ejusd.). Temporal foramina. Spine
in front of each dorsal fin, free or contained in the anterior part of
fin, exsert at the point. Teeth small, acuminate, crowded in several
rows.

Sp. Squalus Acanthias L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 85, Skandinav. Fislcar. Tab.
46; the picked shark; this species is amongst the smaller sharks, and
seldom attains a length of 3 feet.

PISCES. 67

B. Squall provided with anal Jin.

t Dorsal Jin single.

Notidanus Cuv. Temporal foramina small. Branchial apertures
six on each side (Hexanchus RAFIN.) or seven (Heptanchus RAFIN.).
Sp. Squalus cinereus GM., from the Mediterranean Sea.

tf With two dorsal fins.
a) With temporal foramina.

Cestracion Cuv. Eyes without nictitating membrane. Spine in
front of both dorsal fins. Teeth crowded, anterior acuminate,
arranged in several rows, posterior flat, rhombic. Head flat above
or subconcave.

Sp. Squalus Philippi ScHif. Port Jackson Shark, Voyage of Governor
PHILLIP to Botany Say. London, 1789, 4to, figured opposite p. 383. The
teeth are figured in Cuv. R. Ani., &d. ill., Poiss. 115, fig. 3, and in OWEN
Odontogr. Pl.io, n; Southern Ocean near New Holland, and a very similar
species on the coasts of Japan, The only representative of a numerous
group of fossil fishes, which lived principally in the coal-periods.

Selache Cuv. Eyes without nictitating membrane. Teeth small,
conical, not serrate. Dorsal fins unarmed. Branchial apertures
large.

Sp. Squalus maximus GUENNEB, GMEL., BLAINV. Mbnoire sur le Squale
pelerin, Ann. du Mm. xvm. pp. 88 — 135, PL vi.

Add genera Alopias RAFIN., Odontaspis AGASS., Lamna Cuv.
Temporal foramina small, sometimes very small, hence often over-
looked. Tail in Squalus vulpes GM. (Alopias RAFIN.) longer than
body exclusive of tail.

Mustelus Cuv. Eyes furnished with nictitating membrane,
Teeth small, obtuse, rhombic, crowded. Dorsal fins unarmed, first
beginning above the termination of pectoral fins or at the posterior
margin of these ; second dorsal fin opposite the anal. Two poste-
rior branchial apertures above the pectoral fins.

Sp. Squalus mustelus L., Mustelus plebejus BONAP., Faun. Ital. Tab.
132, fig. i, in the Mediterranean Sea and North Sea; the jaws with a
pavement of small teeth, as in many sharks ; a very similar species is dis-
tinguished by a yolk-sac placenta (see above, p. 41, note) during develop-
ment ; it is the Mustelus Icevis MUELL., the smooth shark, yaXebs Xe?os of
ARISTOTELES; see J. MUELLER in the Verhandlungen der ATcademie of Berlin
for 1840 (Mustelus equestris BONAP., Faun. Ital. Tab. 132^ fig. 3?).

Triakis MUELL. and HENLE.
Thalassorhinus YALENC.

5—2

68 CLASS XIV.

Loxodon MUELL. and HENLE.

Galeus Cuv. (and Galeocerdo MUELL. and HENLE). Teeth acute,
with margin crenate or serrate.

b) Temporal foramina none.

Carcharias Cuv. Eyes furnished with nictitating membrane.
Teeth acute, serrate.

Sp. Squalus glaucus L., BLOCH Ichih. Tab. 86, &c.

Add sub-genera Tricenodon MUELL. and HENLE, Prinodon, Aprion,
Physodon VALENC., Scoliodon, on which see MUELL. and HENLE 1. 1.

Sphyra nob. Sphyrna KAFINESQUE, BONAP., MUELL. and
HENLE, Zygcena Cuv. Body elongate, with head transverse, broad,
and eyes lateral, supplied with nictitating membrane. Two un-
armed dorsal fins ; anal fin. Temporal foramina none. Teeth acute.

Hammer-fish. In no other vertebrate animal does the head present so
strange a form as in this fish. It is prolonged in front of the mouth into
two transverse arms. It is only in the head of certain dipterous insects
(Addas, Diopsis), or in the position of the eyes upon long pedicles in many
decapod crustaceans, that we find a corresponding disposition. — The nasal
apertures are situated along the anterior margin of the broad head. The
name Sphyrna of RAFINESQUE, which we think ought to be changed into
Sphyra (<T<j>vpa., hammer), is preferable to Zygcena, already given to a genus
of Lepldoptera.

Sp. Sphyra malleus, Squalus Zygcena L., in the Mediterranean Sea;
and some other species in various other seas. Compare VALENCIENNES
sur le sous-genre Marteau, Mem. du Mus. IX. 1822, pp. 222 — 228, PI. n,
12. With the exception of the singular head this genus is not very dis-
tinct from Galeus and Carcharias.

Scyllium Cuv. (species of Squalus L.). Body elongate, with
head short, obtuse. Anal fin. Two dorsal fins remote, the first
placed above the ventrals or behind them. Temporal foramina.
Eyes without nictitating membrane. Nostrils approximate to
mouth ; space between the nostrils and the quadrangular bone cir-
cumscribed by two parallel grooves running from the nostrils to the
mouth.

Dog-fish. The teeth are provided with three points, of which the two
lateral are smaller. The dorsal fins are situated far backwards, as in
Scymnus. These species are oviparous.

Sp. Scyllium canicula, Squalus Canicula L., BLOCH Tchth. Tab. 114,
BONAP. Faun. Ital. Tab. 131, fig. i, &c.

PISCES. 69

More than half the known species of this genus are from the southern
hemisphere, principally round the southern coast of Africa.

Add genera Pristiurus BONAP., Hemiscyllium MUELL. and HENLE,
Chiloscyllium MUELL. and HENLE, Crossorhinus MUELL. and HENLE,
(ringlymostoma MUELL. and HENLE (Nebrius RUEPPELL), Stegostoma
MUELL. and HENLE.

ORDER IY. Eleutherobranchii s. Holocephali.

Branchiaj not affixed by their outer margin, covered "by an oper-
culum, emitting the water by a single aperture on each side behind
the head. Dorsal cord persistent.

Family VI. Chimceroidei. Cranium fibroso-cartilaginous, con-
tinuous, produced below on each side into an articular process for
the lower jaw. Operculum small, adhering to the hyoid arch, sus-
taining rays posteriorly. Rays of branchiostegous membrane flat,
concrete at the base, conjoined with the rays of operculum, and
contiguous to them. Four fissures between the branchiae on each
side. Temporal foramina none.

These fishes approach the sharks very nearly, but are distinguished
by many aberrant characters from these and all other fishes. In the
rest of the fishes that have a lower jaw this is always connected
with the cranium by one or more separate bones (os quadratum or
suspens&rium) ; in Chimcera such a distinct bone is not present, but
is replaced by a process from the cranium. Also the bones of the
upper jaw and the palate are fused with the skull, without any
separation or traces of suture. The cJiorda dorsalis presents nume-
rous small cartilaginous rings in its sheath, and in this way offers
some resemblance to an aspera arteria; cartilaginous laminae (much
less numerous than these rings) form the arches of the vertebral
column (neurapophyses). The anterior part of the column, with
which the skull is connected by articulation, is flatter and formed
of a single piece ; above this is a perpendicular cartilaginous lamina
to which the large spine, situated in front of the first dorsal fin, is
affixed.

See SCHULTZE in MECKEL'S Archiv fur die Physiol. rv. s. 348, Tab. rv.
fig. 3, and the figure of the skeleton of Chimcera monslrosa in ROSENTHAL
Ickthyot. Tafeln, xxvu. Compare with this especially J MUELLER in his
Vergl. Anatomic der Myxinoiden, i. 1835, s. 136 — 138, s. 153 — 159, Tab.
v. fig. i, 2 (two skulk of Calloi-Jiynchus).

70 CLASS XIV.

In the lips and at the side of the mouth there are also special cartilages,
which correspond to the cartilaginous parts of the oral ring in Petromyzon.

Chimcera L. Body elongate, fusiform. Tail .pinnate below,
long, ending in a thread. Osseous scutes in the jaws in place of
teeth, two on each side in the upper jaw, one in the lower jaw.
Mouth situated under the head. Two dorsal fins ; the first armed
with a strong spur, situated above the pectoral fins.

CaMorhynchus GRONOV., Cuv., Chimcera Guv.

Sp. Chimcera monstrosa L., BLOCH Jchth. Tab. 124, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Poiss. PL 113, fig. i ; in the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean ;— Cld-
mcera cattorhynchus L., BLOCH Syst. Ichth. Tab. 68, Gu&UN Ineonyr.,
Poiss. PL 67, fig. 3, from the South Sea.

SECTION III. G-anolepidoti.

Fins supported by osseous or cartilaginous rays. Skeleton in
some osseous, in others cartilaginous. Cranium in part osseous.
Dorsal cord persistent in many. Branchiae covered by operculum,
free. Scales osseous, covered with a glassy substance, shining ;
skin sometimes naked. Swimming-bladder, open by a duct to the
oesophagus. Caudal fin mostly asymmetrical, with the supports of
the rays adhering beneath the spines of the vertebrae produced in
the direction of the upper margin of fin. Pectoral and ventral fins,
the ventrals placed behind the pectorals.

The fishes united by AGASSIZ under the name of Ganoids are re-
presented in the present age of the world, besides the cartilaginous
sturgeons, only by a few osseous fishes, but form a large division of
the class, if we take into account the fishes of earlier periods of our
earth. We venture to change the name of Gano'ids into Ganolepi-
doti, and adopt the division in the same sense as that according to
which it has been more closely limited by JOH. MUELLER. These
differ from the osseous fishes in the form of the heart, in the
presence of a spiral valve (sometimes rudimentary) in the intestinal
canal, in the optic nerves not lying crosswise over one another, but
being connected at their origin by a chiasma. In the most there is
a half branchia in front of the branchial arches on the inner surface
of the operculum.

See J. MUELLER, Abhand. der Konigl. Akad. der Wissemch. zu Berlin,
1844, and printed separately, Ueber den Bau und die Grenzen der Ganoi-
den. Berlin, 1846, folio.

PISCES. 71

OKDER V. Sturiones (Chondrostei MUELL.).

Skeleton cartilaginous. Lower jaw attached to the cranium by
means of a suspensory formed of three parts. Bays of branchioste-
gous membrane none. Tail asymmetrical, with fin adhering be-
neath the spine of back.

Family VII. Sturianes. (Characters of the order those also of
the single family.)

Adpenser L. Body with an armour of osseous scutes, disposed
in five longitudinal rows. Head produced beyond the mouth into
a triangular apex, flat below. Cirri in front of the mouth inferior
and edentulous.

Scapliirhynchus HECKEL. Temporal foramina none. Body behind
the pectoral fins covered everywhere with large scales, depressed.

Sp. Scaphirhynchus Rafinesquii HECKEL, Annalen des Wiener Museums I,
Wien, 1836, pp. 76 — 78, Tab. vin ; North America, in the Ohio and Mis-
sissipi ; attains a length of 2' — 3'.

Adpenser L. Temporal foramina. Hows of scutes extending as
far as tail, skin naked in the interstices, rough with small dispersed
squanmles.

Sp. Adpenser sturio L., BLOCH, Tab. 88, BRANDT u. RATZEB. Mediz. Zool.
u. Tab. 3, fig. i, the sturgeon ; attains a length of 6 — 10 feet ; the dorsal
scutes are highest in the middle ; the filaments beneath the head are with-
out appendages and terminate in a point. In other species they are flat
like a band (Adpenser huso~L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 129, BRANDT u. RATZEB.
1. 1. Tab. I a, Suppl. fig. i), or with small appendages like fringes.

The sturgeons live in the seas of the northern hemisphere, and from
thence ascend different rivers. They attain a remarkable size (Adpenser
huso, ex. gr. 25 feet). Most of the species belong to Eastern Europe and
Western Asia (Black Sea, Caspian Sea). From the roe caviar is prepared,
from the swimming-bladder isinglass. To prepare the last (Hausenblase
from Hausen, the German name of Huso), of which the best kind comes from
Astracan, the swimming-bladder is laid in warm water, cut open, washed
and exposed to the air, so that the internal silvery membrane lies upper-
most ; this having been removed by rubbing, the external membrane is
dried.

Compare on this genus BRANDT u. RATZEBURG Mediz. Zool. n. s. i — 30,
s. 349 — 355, and FITZINGER u. HECKEL Annalen des Wiener Museums, i.
s. 261 — 326, Tab. 25 — 30. In some species there are two rows of ven-
tral scutes, little developed, or in old individuals they are very flat (Adp.
ruthenus L.), on which are founded the statements of some writers that
there are sturgeons with only three rows of scutes.

72 CLASS XIV.

MODESTE KILTARY Recfierckes anatom. sur les Poissons du genre Acipen-
ser. Bulletin de Moscou, 1850, II. pp. 389—445, PI. VI. VII. ; Osteol. du
crdne.

Spatularia SHAW. Body elongate, naked ; caudal fin below the
vertebrae, furnished with a lunate lobe. Head produced beyond the
jaw into an appendage, depressed, broad, reticulate, osseo-cutaneous.
Branchial aperture large ; operculum extended posteriorly by a cuta-
neous lobe, elongate, acuminate. Temporal foramina small. (Os-
seous operculum adhering to the suspensory bone of lower jaw,
digitato-laciniate posteriorly. Osseous lamella conjoined to the
hyoid arch on each side, formed of the concrete rays of the bran-
chiostegous membrane).

Sp. Spatularia folium, Polyodon folium LACEP. Poiss. I. PI. xn. fig. 3,
GuisRiN Inconogr., Poiss. PI. 67, fig. 2. There is here no half gill on the
gill-cover, as in Acipenser ; the dorsal fin is placed more forward than in
that genus, somewhat before the anal fin. MAUDUIT first described a fish
of this kind under the name of Squalus spatula. Journal de Physique, 1774,
pp. 384 — 386, PI. II. fig. i ; this was without teeth. In other individuals
there are numerous very small teeth in two rows in the upper jaw, and in
one row in the lower jaw. RAFINESQUE accordingly has distinguished two
genera, Planirostra and Polyodon LAC. ; since however the large specimens
(of 3 or 4 feet) are edentulous 1, and the small ones (of ^ foot or less) pos-
sess teeth, the opinion of VALENCIENNES, that the difference depends upon
age, seems to me probable, and at least the adoption of two genera is the
less advisable as long as the specific difference is not sufficiently demon-
strated. These fishes live in the rivers of North America. The cranium
is quite osseous at the upper part, and the sutures (at least those between
the frontal bones) are as conspicuous as, for instance, in the pike; so that,
according to the characteristics which CUVIER gives for the Chondropterygii,
Spatularia ought not to be united to them. The bony head, as far as
relates to the jaws and the tongue bone, is figured by J. MUELLER, Osteo-
logie der Myxinoiden, Tab. v. fig. vn ; with which figure a specimen in
the Rijks- Museum corresponds.

ORDER VI. Ganolepidoti (Holostei MUELL.).
Skeleton osseous. Body covered with scales, mostly rhombic,
not imbricate, osseous, with vitreous substance externally.

Family VIII. Sauroidei AGASSIZ. Teeth conical, acute, in a
single row in each jaw ; small, crowded teeth behind this row, and
in the palate. (Body elongate.)

1 The specimen, however, described by MAUDUIT was only 5 inches in size, but
perhaps the small teeth were overlooked. Since the teeth are attached to the mucous
membrane alone, they are always missing in the skeleton.

PISCES. 73

We unite three genera here, of which perhaps each might, with
as much propriety, be placed in a distinct family, as MUELLER forms
of Lepidosteus and Polypterus two distinct families. Amia L. ought
also to be joined with these genera, as has been shewn by VOGT and
MUELLER. Yet Amia can be brought into no nearer connexion
either with Lepidosteus or with Polypterus. Hence for this genus
also a distinct family would be required. In the arrangement of
CUVIER these three genera, with many other osseous fishes, are
placed in the family of the Clupeacii, amongst the Malacopterygii
abdominales.

The family of the Sauroidei of AGASSIZ contains a great number of
extinct genera, which are no longer met with after the Jura-formation, as
Diplopterus, Pygopterus, Saurichtkys, &c. More numerous still are those
Ganolepidoti which are referred by AGASSIZ to another family, quite extinct,
that of the Lepidoides, to which the genus Palceoniscus belongs1; these are
distinguished commonly by small teeth. A third family of the Ganolepi-
doti, characterised by flat, round teeth arranged in many rows, that of the
Pycnodontes, is also entirely extinct. To this is referred the genus Placodus
AGASS., with very large flat teeth in the palate, of which the remains are
found in the MuscJielTcalTc. See AGASSIZ Poiss. foss. II. 2, pp. 217 — 222,
PI. 70. The limits of this Hand-book do not permit us to enter into further
particulars concerning these extinct genera of fishes.

Lepidosteus AGASSIZ (Lepisosteus LACEP.). Jaws produced,
narrow. Hard osseous scales, rhombic, arranged in oblique rows
descending backwards from the back towards the belly. Branchio-
stegous membrane with three rays. Dorsal fin small, remote
towards the tail, placed above the anal or a little behind it. First
ray of dorsal fin, of anal, of pectoral and ventral fins and the
external rays of caudal fin, covered with aculeate imbricate scales,
serrate. Vertebral column produced in the direction of the superior
margin of caudal fin.

Sp. Lepidosteus osseus LAC., Esox osseus L., Lepidosteus Bison DE KAY,
BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 390, AGASSIZ Poiss. foss. n. Tab. A (except fig. of
skeleton) ; — Lepidosteus spatula LAC. Poiss. V. PL 6. fig. 2 ; with a flat
head and shorter jaws ; this species becomes 7 feet long. RAFINESQUE

1 In the Kupferschiefer a species of it occurs which, in honour of the Geologist who
illustrated this formation so greatly by his investigations, has been named Palceonis-
cum Frieslebenense (BLAINVILLE Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. nat., nouv. e"dit. xxvii. p. 320), or
Palceoniscus Frieslebeni AGASS. CUVIER had already observed the resemblance of
these fossil fishes to Lepidosteus and Acipenser, Reck. s. I. Ossern. foss., 3ieme ed. V. 2,
PP- 3<>7> 3o8.

74 CLASS XIV.

distinguishes various other species. They are fresh- water fishes of the new
world, principally from N. America.

The caudal fin, as in the sturgeons and sharks, is attached to the under
side of the vertebral column. The spinous covering of the first fin-rays
(AGASSiz names these parts fulcra] is a character which also occurs in
many Ganolepidoti of the former world. There is a half gill attached to
the gill-cover. A swimming-bladder is found, entirely cellular and very long,
extending to the anus; it is divided into two lateral halves, and communi-
cates by a longitudinal opening (glottis) with the oesophagus below the up-
permost ossa pharyngealia ; see my figure of it in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1841,
Tab. X. Fig. 4. The anatomy of this fish has been illustrated principally by
the investigations of JOH. MUELLER in his work lately cited, Uber den Bau
und die Grenze der Ganoiden.

Polypterus GEOFFR. Head oval, rotundate anteriorly, depressed
above. Two cirri above the mouth. Two spiracles at the sides of
head. Scales hard, osseous, rhombic, arranged in rows running
obliquely backwards. Branchiostegous membrane with a single,
flat ray. Caudal fin rotundate. Dorsal fins numerous, all sup-
ported anteriorly by a single ray sustaining soft transverse rays at
its posterior margin. Anal fin small, situated near the caudal.

Sp. Polypterus bichir GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, Ann. du Mus. 1.1802, pp.
57 — 68, PL v., AGASSIZ Pom. foss. n. Tab. c; with 16 dorsal fins ; this
fish lives in the Nile, and attains a size of about 2' ; another species from
the Senegal has only 10 dorsal fins, Pol. Senegalus CUVIER, GUERIN Magas.
de Zool. 1839, Poiss. PI. I ; finally, a third species from the White Nile has
lately become known under the name of Polypterus Endlicheri, in KOTSCHY
Abbildungen u. Beschreibungen neuer Thiere u. Pflanzen. Stuttgart, 1849,
Tab. xxn. fig. i ; it has 12 dorsal fins.

These fishes have no gill on the gill-cover. The swimming-bladder is
long, sacciform, double, and without cells, with fine longitudinal folds in-
ternally. It opens on the under side of the oesophagus. See GEOFFROY op.
cit. p. 65, and J. MUELLER in his Archiv, 1841, s. 224, 225. F. LEYDIG
Histologische Bemerkungen ilber Polypterus bichir. Zeitschr. fur wissensch.
Zool. v. s. 40 — 74, Taf. n. in.

Amia L. Head osseous, depressed, rotundate anteriorly. Nasal
cirri two. Body covered with large scales, rounded at the free mar-
gin. Branchiostegous membrane with 10 — 12 rays. Dorsal fin
long, depressed. Anal fin short. Caudal fin rotundate, with rays
adhering to the inferior and posterior margin of vertebras running
obliquely upwards through the fin.

There are various species of this genus, all from fresh-water in North
America. What species LINNJSUS indicated by his Amia calva cannot
be determined with certainty ; see VALENCIENNES in CDVIER et VALEN-
CIENNES Hist. not. des Poissons, xix. (1846), pp. 402— 432.— Amia calva

PISCES. 75

BONATERRE Enc. Meth., Poiss. PL 99, fig. 408, BLOCH, SCHNEIDER Syst.
Ichth. Tab. 80 is Amia, lentiginosa YAL.

The swimming-bladder is cellular and double. There is no gill on the
gill-cover. Compare H. FRANQUE Diss. inaug. nonnutta ad Amiam calvam
L. accuratius cognoscendam, Berolini, 1847, under the direction of J.
MUELLER, with figure of the skeleton, the brain, the heart, and the viscera.

B. Arterial bulb elastic, with two valves at the base. (Comp.
above, p. 60.)

SECTION IV. Osteopterygii.

Fins supported by osseous rays. Skeleton osseous. Dorsal
column composed of distinct vertebrae. Branchiae free. (Optic
nerves decussating or placed cross- wise with respect to each other.)

ORDER VII. Lophobranchii Cuv.

Branchial laminae broad, clavate, not numerous, arranged in a
double row along the branchial arches, folded transversely. Bran-
chial aperture small, superior, with a large operculum fixed to the
skin throughout nearly its entire circumference. Rays of branchio-
stegous membrane small, very thin. Body loricate, angular.

Gluster-gilled. The singular structure of the gills was first, as it
seems, remarked by TIEDEMANN (MECKEL'S Archivfur die Physiol.
n. 1816, s. 110—112, Tab. n. fig. 7, 8), but more accurately inves-
tigated by RATHKE (Ueber den Kiemenapparat, s. 50, 51, Tab. iv.
fig. 2) and by E.ETZIUS. The deviation from the usual structure of
gills is, according to these researches, rather apparent than essential.
RATHKE denies gill-rays to these fishes, which however, according to
my observations, is incorrect.

All the species belonging to this order are of small size; only
a few grow to the length of 1'. — In the sea-horse (Syngnathus
hippocampus L.), a species of this order, a hybernation has been
observed, during which the respiration is diminished; see RUSCONI
in MECKEL'S Archivf. d. Physiol. v. s. 268 — 270.

The eggs are carried under the abdomen or at the base of the
tail, mostly under two longitudinal folds of skin which close like
folding doors, and in fact, as ECKSTROEM and other Northern writers
have observed, by the rniale, to whose protection the female consigns
them, and with whom the young ones, when born, continue to live
for a time. Die Fische in den Scheeren von Morko, beschrieben von

76 CLASS XIV.

C. IT. ECKSTROEM. Berlin, 1835, 8vo, s. 122, 132, 133. In Soleno-
stomus the ventral fins form a sac, which serves a similar purpose.

Family IX. Lopholranchii. (Characters of the order those also
of the single family.) Mouth edentulous.

Pegasus L. Snout elongate, with mouth below. Body de-
pressed. Ventral fins narrow, setaceous or cirriform, behind the
ample pectorals. Dorsal fin opposite to anal.

Sp. Pegasus draconis L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 109, figs, i, i, Syst. Ichth. Tab.
107 ; a figure of the skeleton is to be found in ROSENTHAL Ichtkyot. Tafeln,
Tab. x. figs. 13 — 17; the sea-dragon. The broad pectoral fins resemble
expanded wings ; these small, singularly formed fishes are found in the
East-Indian seas. — Pegasus natans L., GRONOV. Zoophyl. i. Tab. xi. figs, r,
2, with an elongated, thinner body, and a long snout. (The figure in
CUVIER R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL in, fig. 2, does not represent this, but
the preceding species.) A third species recorded by LINNAEUS, Pegasus
volans, is unknown to me.

Solenostomus SEBA, LACEP. Snout elongate, compressed, with
mouth terminal. Ventral fins placed behind the pectorals, very
large, concrete with each other, and connected to the sides of body.
Dorsal fins two, posterior opposite to anal. Caudal fin acumi-
nate, with middle rays elongate.

Sp. Solenostomus paradoxus LAC., Fistularia paradoxa PALL., Spicil. Zool.,
fasc. VIII. pp. 32 — 35, Tab. IV. fig. 6 ; from Amboyna, &c., attains a size
of 2".

Syngnaihus L. Snout elongate, tubular, with mouth termi-
nal. Ventral fins none. Dorsal fin single.

In some the trunk is higher than the tail, and bent in a curve ; they form
the sub-genus of the sea-horses, or

Hippocampus Cuv.

Syngnaihus hippocampus L., is a collective name, under which different
species are included. Sp. Hippocampus brevirostris Cuv., YARKELL, Brit.
Fishes, II. p. 342 ; GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 65, fig. 2. These fishes
have no caudal fin ; the tail is prehensile or volute, by which they hang
upon marine plants ; the females have a small anal fin, which is wanting in
the males1.

1 A species from New Holland with leaf-like appendages, Syngnathus foliatus
SHAW, is figured and described by LACEPEDE, Ann. du Mas. iv. pp. 203, 204, PI. 58,
fig. 3, Syngnathe a bandcrolles.

PISCES. 77

In others the body is of a more uniform thickness and much elongated ;
they are named needle- fishes, and form the snb-genus :

Syngnathus Cuv.

* With pectoral and caudal fins none.

Sp. Syngnathus Ophidian L., YAREELL Brit. Fishes, Suppl. n. p. 47, ECK-
STROEM, 1. 1. Tab. vi. figs. 3, 4 ; greenish 6" — 9" long. A low dorsal fin is
the only fin which this animal possesses ; in the early stage of development,
however, pectoral fins are present. The male carries the eggs under the
flat abdomen in small cavities or cells placed longitudinally in three rows,
and not covered by any valves or longitudinal appendages of skin.

** With pectoral and caudal fins.

Sp. Syngnathus Acus L., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. HI., Poiss. PI. in, fig. r, YAR-
RELL Brit. Fishes, n. p. 325, ECKSTROEM L 1. fig. i, 2, &c. These little
animals feed principally on small crustaceans (Palcemon, &c.)

Compare on this genus, and especially in what relates to the details of
anatomy and development, RETZIUS in OKEN'S Isis, 1835, s. 396 — 404,
Taf. xi. (from the Trans, of the Acad. of Stockholm for 1833) 5 H. EATHKE
Reise-Bemerlcungen aus Taurien. Eiga u. Leipzig, 1837, 4to, s. 152 — 178 ;
FRIES in WIEGMANN'S Archiv f. Naturgesch, 1832, s. 236 — 256, V. SIE-
BOLD in ERICHSON'S Archiv, 1842, s. 292 — 300.

ORDER VIII. Pectognathi (s. Pkctognathi Cuv.).

Branchise pectinate, with lamellae narrow, numerous. Upper
jaw-bones united to the sides of intermaxillary tones by immove-
able connexion. Palatine arch immoveable. Body covered either
with multangular scutes or with spines and rough scales. Swim-
ming-bladder in most large, always destitute of duct. Opercula;
rays of branchiostegous membrane covered with a dense mem-
brane.

Pectognathi (from TTI/KTO?, coalescent, fast, connected, and yvddo? tJie
jaw), bony fishes with jaws coalescent. With the exception of
the sub-genus Triacanthus Cuv. (Balistes biaculeatiis) all are desti-
tute of ventral fins. Most of the species occur in the seas of hot
countries, principally in the Indian Sea and South Pacific.

The characters of this order were first propounded by CuviER in his Mem.
sur la Composition de la Machoire superieure des Poisson* ; Mem. du Mus. n.
1815, p. 102, et suiv. See CAMILLE DARESTE, Rech. sur la Classification
des Poissons de Vordre des Plectognathes. Ann. des sc. natur. 30 Se*rie, xiv.
Zool. 1850, pp. 105 — 133.

78 CLASS XIV.

Family X. Gymnodontes Cuv. Jaws at the anterior part
exsert from the mouth, covered with an ivory substance made up of
very small concrete teeth.

In these fishes the three anterior branchial arches alone carry
gills, the fourth does not.

The structure of the teeth has been described by CUVIER (Leg.
tfAnat. comp. in. pp. 126, 127, PL 32, fig. 8), and afterwards with
greater detail and exactness by OWEN (Odontography, pp. 77 — 82,
PL 38, 39). Besides the dental envelope in front of the jaws, there
is seen in Diodon in the upper and lower jaw, behind the margin, a
flat tubercle divided in the middle, with transverse striae on the
surface, formed by the projecting edges of transverse laminae of teeth
placed one behind the other. In some species of Tetrodon a similar
tubercle with enamelled teeth, but much smaller, is found in the
upper jaw; in others it is wanting both in the upper and under
jaws.

Orthragoriscus SCHN. Body compressed, not aculeate, trun-
cated. Maxillae undivided in the middle. Dorsal and anal fins
remote, high, united with the caudal at the posterior truncated part
of the body.

Sun-fish. The fishes of this genus have no swimming-bladder; their
branchial membrane has six rays. Behind the smooth margin of the jaws,
which is invested with dental substance, are some small conical teeth arranged
irregularly. Since the jaws are undivided in the middle, these species ought
in the arrangement of LINNAEUS to be referred to the genus Diodon, although
he placed the species known to him under Tetrodon.

Sp. Orthragorisciis mola SCHN., Tetrodon mola L., WILLUGHB. Tab. i. 26,
BLOCK Icth. Tab. 128, Sun-fish, DOMSMA, Verhandel. van de Haarl. Maatsch.
XII. 1770, bl. 413 — 422, with a figure. The skeleton, heart, and intestinal
canal are described and very beautifully figured in P. H. J. WELLENBERGH
Diss. inaug., Observ. anat. de Orthragorisco mola, L. B. 1840, 4to. (From
the bony pieces at the margin of the caudal fin in the specimen described by
W., it has been imagined that it belongs to the genus Ozodura RANZANT ;
but at all events it is a different species from that described by R., as is
proved not only by the different number of the fin- rays, but also by the form
of the body, which in Ozodura Orsini is elongate.)

The genera Ozodura, Trematopsis and Diplanchias of RANZINI, as also
the genera of the same writer founded upon the division of the under-jaw,
or of both jaws, Tympanium and Ceplialus, are unknown to me, but seem
not to be sufficiently established, and, partly at least, to rest upon insecure
or incorrect determinations. See RANZANI'S memoir in Nov. comment. Acad.
Scientiarum Bononiensis 1839, °f which TKOSCHEL has given an epitome in
ERICHSON'S Archivf. Naturgesch. 1841, n. s. 140, 141.

PISCES. 79

Mold NARDO.
Sp. Cephalus mola Risso, Mola luna NABDO.

Molacanihus S WAINS., Palladia NARDO.

Sp. Molacanthus Pallasii SWAINS., Diodon mola PALL., Spirit. Zool. vm.
Tab. 4, fig. 7.

Diodon L. Maxillae undivided. Body everywhere dotted with
sharp spines. Dorsal fin small, remote, opposite to anal.

Urchin- fishes. They are able to inflate themselves by taking air into their
spacious stomach, and then swim belly upwards. In addition they have a
swimming-bladder divided into two lobes.

Compare on this genus CUVIEB Mem. du Mus. rv. 1818, pp. 121 — 138,
Tab. vi. vii. In some the spines are three-sided, or strongly carinate, as
in Diodon tigrinus Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL in. fig. 3, from the E.
Indian Sea, and in another from S. America ; all of these are conjoined by
LINNJEUS as Diodon atringa (doubtless a misprint for Atinga).

In addition there are species with long round quills, like those of the
hedgehog, Diodon hystrix L., Diodon punctatus Cuv., BLOCH Ichth. Tab.
1 26, from the Indian Ocean. Finally, there is a species with fine spines
like needles, Diodon pilosus MITCHILL.

Triodon Cuv. Upper jaw bipartite, lower entire. Body muri-
cate with short spines. Pendulous sac beneath the body. (Ol-
factory organ perforate in front and behind.)

Sp. Triodon bursarius Cuv., Tetrodon bursarius REINW., Triodon macro-
pterus LESS, and GABN., Voyage de DUPERBEY, Poiss. No. 4, Cuv. R. Ani.,
ed. iU., PL 112, fig. i, from the E. Indian Sea. See CAM. DABESTE Ob-
servations sur VOsteologie du Poisson appele Triodon macropterus. Ann. des
Sc. nat. 36 Se"rie, Zoolog. Tom. xn. 1849, PP- 68 — 83, PL I. fig. i.

Tetrodon L. Both jaws bipartite. Body muricate with short
spines, especially below. (Olfactory organ representing in many a

cirrus or tentacle.)

Four-tooth or Spine-belly. There are five rays in the branchial membrane.
The head is usually short and blunt. The spines are very -various ; some-
times they are entirely absent on the back. The olfactory organ presents
itself in many as a sulcated or fissured appendage in front of and above the
eyes, Tetrodon lineatus L. In some it is a very small channel like the prick
of a pin, with everted margin, as in Tetrodon rostratus, BLOCH Ichth. Tab.
146, fig. 2 ; in others a large, wide cavity, with folded margins, as in Tetro-
don grandispina, a new species from Borneo in the Leyden Museum (Che-
lonodon MUELLEB). Others have imperforate tentacula, in which the
olfactory nerve is situated (Arothon MUELLEB). Others, finally, would

80 CLASS XIV.

seem to be entirely without nasal apertures or tentacida (Anosmius PETERS,
MUELLER)* To these differences in the olfactory organ J. MUELLER espe-
cially has directed attention (Alh. der Akad. zu Berlin, 1844, Ban der
Ganoiden, s. 78, 79). The species are very numerous.

Sp. Tetrodon lineatus L., Fahaca HASSELQ., Iter Palcest. pp. 400 — 405,
with a long brown stripe running longitudinally on the back and at the
sides ; white underneath. The spines are fine, and as though swollen
at the point. This and some other species are supposed to be poisonous.
(This species is quite different from Tetrodon lineatus BLOCH, Faun. Ja-
pon., Pise. Tab. 125, figs, i, 2.)

Many species occur in the sea of Japan, as Tetrodon firmamentum SCHL.,
Faun. Jap., Pise. Tab. 120, fig. 2, Tetr. rubripes SCHL., Faun. Jap,, Pise.
Tab. 123, fig. r, &c.

Family XI. Sclerodermi. Snout conical or pyramidal. Mouth
anterior, furnished with teeth. Body covered with hard scales,
sometimes very small, or with a lorica composed of angular areolse.

Batistes L. Body compressed, covered with scales or with a
rough warty skin. Eight teeth in each jaw, broad, cuneate. An-
terior dorsal fin made up of one or several spines, very near the
head, or inserted into the head, posterior soft, opposite the anal.

Horned fishes. Although no ventral fins are present, there is a pelvis in
all (see above, pp. 17, 18) of which the two bones have coalesced. Hence
arises a bony keel on the abdomen below, connected forwards with the
bones of the pectoral fins, behind with the bones that support the anal fin ;
see a figure in KOSENTHAL Ichthyot. Tafeln, Tab. xii. fig. 3.

In many the scales are very small, or their place is supplied by spine-like
inequalities on the skin. Here belong the genera Triacanthus, Alutera,
and Monacanthus of CUVIER. In others, which form the sub-genus Balistes
Cuv., very large rhomboidal scales are present ; often there are found be-
hind the branchial aperture some larger scales or pentagonal horny plates.

Many species have three or more parallel rows of horny spines on each
side of the tail. Sp. Balistes aculeatus L., Cuv. H. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss.
PL 112, fig. 2; — Bal. Conspidllum SCHN., LAC. I. PI. 15, fig. 2 (Baliste
americain), Faun. Japon., Pise. Tab. 129, fig. i, a large species, black ; the
belly on each side with large pale yellow or dull white oval spots ; from
Japan ; — Bal. lineatus BLOCH, SCHN., Syst. Ichth. Tab. 87, &c. In some
species of Monacanthus Cuv. the tail has a quantity of hard bristles on each
side. Sp. Bal. tomentosus L., GRONOV. Mus. Ichth. Tab. vi. fig. 5.

See HOLLARD Monographic des Balistides, Ann. des Sc. natur. 30 Serie,
Zool, Tom. xx. pp. 71—114, PI. 13; 4ieme Serie, i. 1854, pp. 39 — 72, PI.
2> 35 PP- 303—339. PL 5> n. pp. 321—366, PI. 12—14 ; suite et fin. Alu-
teres, Tom. iv. 1855, pp. 5 — 22, Additions et Corrections, pp. 23 — 27.

PISCES. 81

Ostracion L. Ten or twelve teeth in each jaw. Body trigonal
or tetragonal, loricate, with scute inflexible, continuous, composed
of hexagonal areolae, perforate by apertures for the soft tail, the
fins and the mouth. Branchial aperture linear.

Coffer-fish. The species of this genus are not very numerous, and all
live in the tropical seas.

Sp. Ostracion trigueter L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 130, fig. 3, GulsR. Iconogr.,
Poiss., PL 66, fig. 3, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill, Poiss. PL 112, fig. 2 ; from the
West Indian sea ; — Ostracion comutus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 133, Faun.
Japon., Pise. Tab. 131, fig. 4, from the East Indies and Japan, &c.

ORDER IX. Malacopterygii.

Branchiae pectinate, with narrow laciniae. Supra-maxillary
bones not connate with intermaxillaries. Rays of fins articulate,
except sometimes the first ray of the pectoral fins or of the dorsal

fin.

Soft-finned. The rays of the fins are jointed and mostly split to-
wards the point. This order corresponds in great part with that of
the Cydolepidoti of AGASSIZ, since the scales are usually without
teeth at the posterior margin. Yet some of the Malacopterygii be-
long to the Ctenolepidoti of AGASSIZ, that is, they have toothed scales.
The divisions of MUELLER, which are founded upon the swimming-
bladder, we cannot here adopt, however highly we esteem the merits
of this author in the anatomy and systematic arrangement of fishes.
The presence of an air-tube or its absence and the consequent
closure of the swimming-bladder, cannot supply a primary character
for two divisions in which the swimming-bladder itself is often
absent. Therefore we leave the Physostomi and Anacanthini of
MUELLER in the same division together.

I. Malacopterygii abdominales. Swimming-bladder in most,
Almost always furnished with an air-duct. Ventral fins situated
(in the abdomen behind the pectoral, in a few absent.

We here join together the fishes usually regarded as Malacopterygii abdo-
minales, although some of them have no ventral fins at all (Pristigaster
Gnathobolus), whilst in others (Notopterus and Chirocentrus) they are very
smalL Similarly there are wingless insects amongst the Diptera, ffemi-
ptera, &c.

Family XII. Siluroidei. Body covered with naked skin or
loricate with large osseous scutes. Margin of upper jaw formed by

VOL. II. 6

82 CLASS XIV.

the intermaxillary bones, with supra-maxillary very small or
changed into cirri. First ray of dorsal fin and of pectoral fins in
most a spine, furnished with a moveable joint. Adipose fin behind
the dorsal in many.

A. Mouth inferior, surrounded by a membranous cirrose
velum.

Loricaria L. Body cuirassed. Teeth long, thin, recurved at
the point, sometimes none. (Swimming-bladder none.) Gonio-
dontes AGASSIZ.

Mailed fishes. These fishes live in the rivers of South America.
The ribs are feebly developed and not numerous. The upper and
lower spinous processes have, with the exception of those of some
of the anterior vertebrae, coalesced to form a flat ridge compressed
at the side.

Loricaria L. in part, LACEP. Dorsal fin single.

Loricaria AGASS. Branchiostegous membrane with four rays.

Sp. Loricaria cataphracta L., Mus. Adolph. Fridtr. Tab. 29, BLOCK Syst.
Ichth. Tab. 34 (named Loric. cirrhosce) ; the uppermost ray of the caudal
fin runs out into a filament that equals the body in length ; — Loricaria
maculata BL., Ichth. Tab. 375, figs, i, 2, GRONOV. Mus. Ichth., Tab. n.
Plecostomus; this species has the above filament scarcely as long as the
caudal fin. In Loricaria rostrata, a new species in the Rljks- Museum at
Ley den, the lowest as well as the uppermost ray of the caudal fin runs out
into a filament. This species, from the Caraccas, is very narrow, with a
pointed head. (The thus named species is not that of SPIX with the same
name, but a new one afterwards figured by KNER as Acestra acus.)

See K. KNER Die Panserwelse des Kaiserl. Konigl. Hof-naturalien Cabi-
nettes zu Wien. le Abth. Lwicaria, Mit 8 Tafeln. (Aus dem vi. Bd. der
Denkschr. des Math, naturwiss. classe der Kaiserl. ATcad. de Wissensch. be-
sonders abgedruckt.) R. KNER Hypostomiden, Zweite Hauptgruppe der Fa-
milie der Panserwelse, Mit 5 Tafeln. Wien, 1854. (-4«* dem vn. Bd. der
Denkschriften, &c.)

Rinelepis SPIX, AGASS. (and Acanthicus of the same) VALENC.

Branchiostegous membrane with three rays. Body aculeate or
rough.

Hypostomus LAC. Dorsal fins two. Branchiostegous membrane
with three rays.

Sp. Hypostomus plecostomus VALENC., Loricaria plecostomus L., GRONOV
Mus. Ichth. Tab. in. figs, i, 2, LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 28, fig. 4.

PISCES. 83

Sisor HAM. BUCHAX. Body naked. Teeth none. First ray of
:audal fin produced into a very long seta.

Sp. Sisor rhdbdophorus. Is this its place ? Compare on this fish F. HAMILTON
BUCHANAN, Account of the Fishes found in the Ganges, Edinburgh, 1822,
4to. 207 — 209; J. E. GRAY, Indian Zoology, i. London, 1834, folio, PL
84, fig. r.

B. Mouth terminal or sub-terminal, under the margin of upper
aw.

f Operculum irnmoveable.

Aspredo L., GROXOV. Body naked, head depressed, with eight
r six cirri. Branchial aperture a small fissure. Teeth very small,
etaceous, crowded, incurved. Eyes small, superior. Branchioste-

gous membrane with five rays. Dorsal fin single, small, nuchal;

anal fin long. First ray of pectoral fins very strong, dentate.

Sp. Aspredo Icevis VALEXC., Silu.ru* Aspredo L., (Syst. not.), Amcen. Acad.
i. Tab. n. fig. v. p. 311, BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 372, fig. i, GUEBIN Iconogr.,
Poiss. PL 54, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani.t ed. ill, Poiss. PL 100, fig. i, &c. Fresh-
water fishes from Surinam. In many the belly is beset with little stems, to
which small round bodies, like eggs, are sometimes attached.

ft Operculum moveable. (Silurus L. in part.)

Silivroids proper. — The cranium has in the mid plane an oblong
aperture or fontanelle in front of the frontal bone between it and the
aethmoid, and usually another further back between the frontal bone
and the interparietal. The teeth are mostly small, card-shaped, and
very numerous, placed close together. The suboperculum is want-
ing, and thus the gill-cover consists of three pieces only. The num-
ber of branchial rays is very various, but the two hindmost, espe-
cially the last, are sometimes much broader than the rest, and supply
the place in some degree of the suboperculum. The first ray of
the pectoral fin is in many thick and bony, and is so affixed to
an angular articular cavity of the humerus, that the extended ray
can be rendered immoveable as by a bolt. Mostly a large, strong,
cordifonn swimming-bladder is present ; there are no blind append-
ages at the inferior aperture of the stomach.

Many of these fishes live in fresh-water, some as well in rivers as
in the sea; but numerous also are the species which, especially in
warm regions, must be regarded as marine, the species of Arius and
Plotosus in the East Indies, <fec.

6-2

84 CLASS XIV.

Brachystacus nob. Head depressed, broad; eyes small, superior.
Mouth transverse, with gape large. Teeth thin, crowded in the
jaws; palate edentulous. Branchiostegous membrane with seven
rays. Dorsal fins two, the anterior near the head, with first ray
strong, short; the posterior depressed, confluent with caudal, and
with a second anal at the apex of tail; the anterior anal fin separate
from the terminal fin.

Sp. Brachystacus chaca, Platystacus ckaca BUCHAN., Chaca lophioides VALENC.,
HAMILTON BUCHANAN Account of the Fishes found in the Ganges, PI. 28,
fig. 43, VALENCIENNES Hist. not. des Poiss. xv. PI. 451 ; 9" long ; found
by BUCHANAN in Bengal. The Rijks- Museum, at Leyden possesses also
specimens of this singular fish from Borneo. The colour is blackish.

Callichthys L. (previously, species of Silurus Syst. nat. ed. 12,
Cataphractus LAC., SWAINS, and Hoplisoma SWAINS.). Body lori-
cate at the sides, with a double row of scutes, naked below.
Mouth small, with teeth very small. Cirri four. Branchiostegous
membrane with five rays. Dorsal fins two, the second adipose, with
single ray.

Sp. Callicthys asper VAL., Silurus callicthys L., Tamoata MARCGRAVI, Hist,
nat. Brasil. 1648, p. 151, BLOCK /cfa^.Tab. 377 ;—CaU. longifilis VALENC.,
GU^RIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 53, fig. 4. Fresh- water fishes from S. America;
they have no swimming-bladder.

Doras LAC., Mystus SWAINSON. Head mailed. Body at the
lateral line armed with a single row of carinate or aculeate scutes,
elsewhere naked. Teeth crowded, small, in both jaws, or in lower
alone. Cirri six. Branchiostegous membrane with 6 — 8 rays.
Dorsal fins two, second adipose. Bone of humerus ending in
spine above the pectoral fin.

Sp. Doras carinatus VAL., Silurus carinatus L., Cuv. et VALENC. Hist, des
Poiss. xv. Tab. 442 ; Doras costatus LAC., Silurus costatus L., GRONOV.
Mm. ii. Tab. v. figs, i, 2, BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 376, &c. Fresh-water fis
from S. America.

Synodontis Cuv. Head mailed. Body naked. Teeth small,
conical in upper jaw; teeth of lower jaw compressed, thin, mobile,
recumbent, with incurved ascending apex. Cirri six; the foi
inferior pinnate or ramose. Branchiostegous membrane with sevei
rays. Dorsal fins two, the second adipose. Bone of humerus end-
ing posteriorly in a spine. First ray of pectoral fins very strong,
dentate.

PISCES. 85

Sp. Synodontis macrodon ISID. GEOFFB. SAINT-HILAIBE, Silurus Clarias
HASSELQUIST ; — Synod, ardbi VALENC., Silurus schal BLOCH, Syst. Ichth.,
SONNINI Voyage en Egypte, PL 21, fig. 2 ; — Synod, serratus RUEPPELL,
Beschr. und Abbild. neuer FischeimNil entdeclct, 4to. 1829, Tab. II. —Synod,
maculosus RUEPPELL, ibid. Tab. in. fig. i.
All the known species are found in the Nile.

Pimelodus VALENC. (species of Pimelodus LACEP.). Body
naked. Teeth in maxillae very thin, crowded, sometimes none;
palate edentulous. Branchiostegous membrane mostly with eight
ravs (5 — 12). Dorsal fins two, the second adipose, frequently small,
placed above the anal. Cirri six or eight.

Sp. Pimelodus Sebce Cov., Silurus clarias L., excl. synon., SEBA Tkesaur. m.
Tab. 29, fig. i ; Pimelodus catus Cuv., Silurus catus L., Cuv. et VALENC.
Poiss. xv. PI. 432, &c.

The species of this genus are very numerous in warm regions, especially
in the western hemisphere.

Calophysus MUELL. and TROSCH.!

Hypophthalmus SPIX (in part), YALENC. Teeth none. Eyes
placed at the inferior margin of jaw. Branchiostegous membrane
with fourteen or fifteen rays.

Sp. Hypoplithalmus marginatus VALENC., Cuv. et VALENC. Hist. not. des
Poiss. xv. PI. 439 -,—HypophtJi. Spixii VAL., Hypophthalmus edentatus
SPIX, &c.

Ageneiosus LACEP., YALENC.

Ketengus BLEEKER. Genus unknown to me, with four cirri2.

Arges YALENC. Teeth bifid at the apex. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with four rays. Eyes small. Cirri two.

Sp. Arges Sabalo VAL., Hist. not. des Poiss. PL 444, Peru.

To this genus VALENCIENNES refers the small species of fish which HUM-
BOLDT has described under the name of Pimelodus cyclopum, and which
lives in brooks in the high ranges of Quito. It resides also in subterranean
lakes, which appear to communicate with the volcanos of these regions, at
least if, as the natives assert, it is the same species which is ejected with
mud from the Cotopaxi sometimes by thousands. HUMB. Recueil d'Obser-
rations de Zoologie et d'Anat. compar. I. pp. 21 — 25, PL 7.

1 Compare MUELLEB and TBOSCHEL Horce Ichthyologic^e, 3, 1849, pp. i, 2.
3 P. BLEEKEB, Nieuwe Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Siluroieden von Java. Batavia,
$46, p. 9.

86 CLASS XIV.

Brontes YALENC.

Distinguished from the preceding genua by the absence of a second dorsal
fin. Sp. Brontes prenadllla VALENO. 1. 1. PI. 445 ; this fish also lives at
great heights in brooks that flow1 from the Cotopaxi, and is also, as is re-
ported, ejected by the Volcano.

Astroblepus HUMB., YALENC. Dorsal fin single, radiate. Ventral
fins none.

Sp. Astroblepus Ch'ixalvii HUMS., Recueil d'Observ. I. pp. 19, 20.

Trachelyopterus YALENC.
Auchenipterus YALENC.

Bagrus Cuv. (with the addition of some species of Pimelodus
ejusd.). Body naked. Teeth setaceous, crowded in jaws; palatine
teeth in some arranged in the vomer in a parallel row, similar to the
maxillary, in others at the sides of mouth in the bones of palate
and the pterygoids, sometimes globose. Branchiostegous membrane
with rays various in number, mostly 6 — 10. Dorsal fins two, the"
second adipose. Cirri 2 — 8.

Arius YALENC. Palatine teeth arranged in two lateral groups.
Branchiostegous membrane with 5 — 8 rays.

Sp. Arius militaris VALENC., Silurus militaris L.? Cov. et VALENC. Hist,
des Poiss. XV. PI. 430. Two stiff bony cirri at the upper jaw. BLEEKER
has discovered some new species of this division which he unites under the
generic name of Osteogeneiosus. In the remaining species the cirri are mem-
branous and flexible ; many of these species occur in America, others in the
East Indies, as Arius rita VALENC. 1. 1. PI. 429.

Bagrus Cuv. Palatine teeth crowded in a continuous parallel
row behind the teeth of upper jaw.

Silundia YALENC. Two small cirri. Adipose fin small, anal long.
Branchiostegous membrane with 12 rays.

Pangasius VALENC. Cirri 4. Branchiostegous membrane with 10 rays.

Galeichthys VALENC. Head rotundate. Branchiostegous membrane with
6 rays. Cirri 6 or 4.

Platystoma, AGASSIZ. Snout depressed. Branchiostegous membrane with
1 6 or 17 rays. Cirri 6.

Phractocephaliis AGASS. Branchiostegous membrane with 9 rays. Cirri 6.
Osseous rays imperfect in the upper margin of adipose fin.

JBagrus VALENC. Branchiostegous membrane with 8 — 10 rays. Cirri 6
or 8. Adipose fin without rays.

PISCES. 87

Sp. Bagrus Bajad VALENC., Silurus Bajad FOBSK. and GMEL., Description
de I'Egypte, Poiss. PL 15, fig. i, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 52, 53, fig. i.
Bagrus Schilbeides VALENC., Hypopthalmus niloticus RUEPPELL, Beschr. u.
Abb. neuer Fische im Nil, Tab. I. fig. i, &c. See section of the skull in
OWEN Homologies, &c. PL i. fig. 3.

The species of the sub-genus Bagrus are chiefly from the eastern hemi-
sphere, and are particularly numerous in Asia ; also those of the subdivisions
Silundra and Pangasius, are from the E. Indies. On the other hand, the
species of Galeichthys, Platystoma, and Phractocephaliis are from the western
hemisphere, principally from Brazil1.

Silurus CUT. Body naked. Teeth crowded, setaceous in max-
illse; a row of teeth in palate, parallel to the maxillary teeth.
Dorsal fin single, short, rather near the head. Anal fin long. Cirri
six or four. Branchiostegous membrane with 10 — 19 rays.

Sckilbe Cuv., VAL. First ray of dorsal fin spinose, thick, dentate.
Sp. Silurus mystus L., Descr. de VEgypte, Poiss. PL n, fig. 3, GUERIN Icon.,
Poiss. PL 51, fig. 2, &c.

Silurus Cuv., VAL. Dorsal fin unarmed.

Sp. Silurus glanis L., BLOCK Ichth., Tab. 34, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. til., Poiss.
PL 96, fig. r, BRANDT u. RATZEBURG, Mediz. Zool. n. Tab. v. fig. 2, the
sheat-fish ; six cirri, two on the upper jaw, very long, four below the under-
jaw ; anal fin long and coalescing behind with the caudal fin ; is often more
than four feet long, and after the sturgeon is the largest fresh-water fish of
Europe, where it occurs especially in the eastern parts, as also in some regions
of Asia. In Holland the fish is found only in the Haarlem meer, with the
draining of which it will disappear from the catalogue of our native fishes.
A figure of the skeleton is found in ROSENTHAL Ichth. Tafeln, ix. figs, i — 7,
and in BRANDT u. RATZEBURG 1. 1. Tab. vi.

Cetopsis AGASS. Dorsal and pectoral fins unarmed. Eyes veiy
small, covered by skin. Branchiostegous membrane with nine rays.
Sp. Cetopsis coscutiens AGASS. ; — Cet. Candira AGASS. Brazil.

Saccobranchus VALENC., Heteropneustes MUELL. Body naked.
Teeth crowded, setaceous in maxillae and in vomer. Dorsal fin
single, small, unarmed, situated above the pectorals. First ray of
pectoral fins osseous, denticulate. Anal fin long, extending almost
as far as caudal. Rays of branchiostegous membrane seven. Cirri
eight. Two lateral sacs at the back below the muscles, resting on
the vertebras, connected with the branchial cavity.

1 Compare MUELLER and TROSCHEL, Hor. Ichth. pp. 6 — n, where also some other
sub-genera are announced.

88 CLASS XIV.

Sp. Saccobranchus fossilis, Silurus fos&ilis BLOCK, Ichlh. Tab. 370, fig. 2 ;
H. BUCHANAN, Fishes of the Ganges, PL 37, fig. 46 ; in Bengal. The sin-
gular, elongated air-sacs receive a branch from the branchial arteries, and
their veins go to the aorta ; consequently they are respiratory organs sup-
plementary to the gills ; see J. TAYLOK, Edinburgh Journal of Science,
v. 1834.

Clarias GnONOV., VALENC., Macropteronotus LACEP., Hetero-
branchus GEOFFR. Head mailed. Body naked. Teeth very thin,
crowded in both jaws and in vomer. Branchiostegous membrane,
with 9 — 15 rays. Dorsal fins two, the second adipose, or a single,
long fin, supported by rays. Cirri eight or six. Arborescent
appendages, adhering to the third and fourth branchial arch.

a) Dorsal fin single; with 8 cirri. Clarias GRONOV., VALENC.

Sp. Clarias ffasselquisti VALENC., Silurus anguillaris L. (excl. synon.),
SONNINI Voyage en Egypte, PI. 22, fig. 2, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Poiss. PI.
101, fig. 2 (the branchial appendages fig. 2a, 2b.) — Charmuth HASSELQUIST,
It. Palastin., p. 371, Yarmouth SONNINI ; in the Nile ; — Clarias marpus
VALENC., GRONOV. Zoophylac. Tab. 8, fig. 3—5, &c.

b) Dorsal fins 2 ; with 6 cirri, ffeterobranchus VALENC.

Sp. ffeterobranchus Geoffroyi VALENC., ffeterobranchus bidorsalis GEOFFR., &c.

Plotosus LACEP. Head and body naked. Teeth conical, crowded
in maxilloe, globose or rotundate in vomer. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with ten or eleven rays. Dorsal fins two, supported by rays,
second elongate, confluent at the acuminate apex of tail with the
caudal and anal. First ray of dorsal fin and of pectoral fins
dentate.

Sp. Plotosus lineatus VALENC., LACEP. Poiss. v. PI. 3, fig. 2, Platystacus an-
guillaris BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 373, figs, i, 2, Syst. Ichth. Tab. 74 ?— Plotosus
albilabris VALENC., GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 53, fig. 3, &c.

Malapterurus LACEP. Head and body naked. Teeth small,
congested into a cres.centic row in each maxilla. Branchiostegous
membrane with 7 — 8 rays. Dorsal fin single, adipose, remote.
Pectoral fin unarmed.

Ailia GRAY, VALENC. Ventral fins approaching the pectoral,
subthoracic. Anal fin long. Body compressed. Eight long cirri.

Sp. Malapterus (sic) Ailia Bengalensis GRAY, Indian Zoology, PI. 85, fig. 2.

Malapterurus LAC., VALENC. Ventral fins remote. Anal fin
short. Body round. Six short cirri.

PISCES. 89

Sp. Malapterurm electricus LAC., Stturus electricus GMEL., Encycl. me"th.,
Poiss. PL 62, fig. 245, (copied from a figure of BflOUSSONET ; see his me-
moir, Mem. de TAcad. royale des Sc. de Paris, 1782, pp. 692 and following),
Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 99 ; le trembleur; this fish lives in the
Nile and other rivers of Africa, in the Senegal, and even to the I9th deg.
south lat. in the Zambeze. Like the Torpedo and Gymnotus electricus it can
give shocks, concerning which ADANSON, FORSKAL, and BROUSSONET have
imparted observations. The electric organ lies below the integument on
each side of the body, between two tendinous membranes formed of crossed
filaments, of which the innermost covers a layer of loose conjunctive tissue,
which has been regarded as a second or internal electric organ. The proper
electric organ is thickest at the abdomen, gelatinous, transparent, and con-
sists of many cells, visible to the naked eye, mostly rhomboidal ; it receives
its nerves from the nervus vagus. See GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE Ann.
du Mus. i. pp. 401 — 403, PI. 26, fig. 4; KUDOLPHI, Abhandl. der Alcad.
der Wissensch. zu Berlin, aus d. Jahre 1824, s. 137 — 144, Taf. I. — IV. ;
J. MUELL. Handb. der Physiol. I. 3tte Aufl. 1838, s. 66 ; VALENCIENNES
Archives du Museum d'Hist. nat. n. 1841, s. 43—61, PL rv. ; W. PETER'S
in MOELLER'S Archiv, 1845, 8- 375 — 377> Taf- T3> fig3- 8— u. This fish
is also eaten and noted for its flavour; it attains a length of one to
two feet.

Trichomycterus (HuMBOLDT) nob. Body naked, round, com-
pressed towards the tail. Fins unarmed. Dorsal fin single, sup-
ported by rays. Teeth small, setaceous, crowded in jaws; palate
edentulous. Branchiostegous membrane with eight rays. Cirri
six, two filiform in front of nostrils, two conical maxillary at both
sides of mouth.

Trichomycterus VALENC. Ventral fins.

Sp. Trychomycterus punctulatus VALENC., Hist. nat. des Poiss. xvin. PL 553,
&c. Fresh-water fishes from South America, which form the transition to
the genus Cobitis. They have, like the following genus, no swimming-
bladder.

Eremophilus HUMB., VALENC. No ventral fins.

Sp. Eremophilus Mutisii HUMBOLDT, Observ. de Zool. I. pp. 17 — 19, PL vi.,
VALENCIENNES, 1. 1. PL 553, in fresh- water on the high table-land of
Bogota. VON HUMBOLDT had already proposed for this fish the name
Trichomycterus , which VALENCIENNES has given to the species, discovered
at a later period, which have ventral fins.

Family XIII. Cyprinoidei. Body almost always covered with
rounded scales. Dorsal fin single, radiate. Mouth small, edentulous,
in many cirrose. Branchiostegous membrane with three rays. In-
ferior pharyngeal bones armed with large teeth. Swimming-

90 CLASS XIV.

bladder connected with the labyrinth by a set of ossicles, con-
stricted in the middle or divided into an anterior and a posterior.

a) No scales.

Aulopyge HECKEL. (Cirri four, moderate. Uro-genital aper-
ture and vent in females at the apex of a fleshy process connate
with the anterior part of the anal fin.)

Sp. Aulopyge Hilgelii HECKEL, Abbildungen und Besckreibungen der Fische
Syriens, Stuttgart, 1843, 8vo- (aus BUSSEGGEB'S Reisen abgedruckt) s. 31 ;
Dalmatia and Bosnia.

This fish, which I have not seen, is regarded by HECKEL as a form inter-
mediate between Cobitis barbatula and Cyprinus Barbus.

b) Body scaly.

Gobitis L. (excl. of some species). Body scarcely narrowed at
the tail, elongate, covered with small scales, mucose. Mouth eden-
tulous, guarded with (6 — 10) cirri. Fins all unarmed, ventral
remote, placed under the dorsal fin.

Mud-creeper. The swimming-bladder in most lies in a bony cavity, which
is attached to the third vertebra (see WEBER, de Aure animal, aquatilium,
pp. 63, 64, Tab. vi., ROSENTHAL Ichthyot. Tafeln, Taf. x. fig. 8, OWEN
Hornol. &c. PL i. fig. 7). LINNAEUS in his genus Cobitis counted three
species which belong here. {Cobitis Anableps and Cob. heteroclita L. must
be referred to other genera.) These three species are : Cobitis barbatula L.
(FRIES, EKSTROEM och SUNDEVALL, Skandinaviens Fiskar, Tab. 53), Cob.
tcenia L., and Cob. fossilis, all European ; but subsequently many species
of this genus have been discovered in different parts of Asia. They are
all fresh-water fishes, of which few surpass 6" in length. Cobitis fossilis L.
(BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 31, fig. i), comes to the surface of the water when the
weather is changing, and is very tenacious of life ; this fish gulps in air,
abstracts from it the oxygen, and gives out carbonic acid gas by the vent1.
In these species the caudal fin is roundish, but there are also exotic species
with a forked caudal fin (Schistura MACCLELLAND). In a species from
Syria, described by VALENCIENNES under the name of Cobitis malapterura,
there is a fold of skin on the back like the rudiment of a second dorsal or
adipose fin, which recalls the preceding family. Compare however HECKEL,
who attaches little importance to the fold. Fische Syriens, p. 151.

See CZERNAY Notice sur le Cobitis merga KRTNICKII, Bulletin de la Soc.
Imp. des natur. de Moscou, i. pp. 548. 549, Tab. vm. fig. i.

1 See on this intestinal respiration ERMAN in GIBERT'S Annalen, Bd. xxx. 1808,
s. 140—159.

PISCES. 91

Homaloptera VAN HASSELT, Balitora GRAY. Body elongate,
covered with small scales, partly naked beneath. Mouth inferior,
small, with six cirri. Eyes small, placed in upper part of head.
Pectoral fins large, flattened. Dorsal fins placed above the ventral.

Sp. Homaloptera ocellata V. HASS. (fig. in the first edition of this Handbook,
PI. 13, fig. 12) ; — Homaloptera erythrorUna V. HASS., VALENC. Hist. not.
des Poiss. xvm. PI. 524, from Java. This genus, as it seems, is inter-
mediate between Colitis and Cyprinus. The caudal fin is forked, and not
truncated, as in most of the species of Cobitis. According to VALENCIENNES
the swimming-bladder is wanting.

Cyprinus L. Head naked, with mouth small, edentulous. Teeth
of inferior pharyngeal bones large ; a hard lamina below the occiput,
in place of the superior pharyngeals. Branchiostegous membrane
with flat, broad rays.

Carp; a large genus or a natural group of sub-genera in which
all the species admitted by LINNAEUS may be left, with the excep-
tion of Cyprinus dentex (Salmo dentex HASSELQ.) and Gonorhynchus
GROXOV. There will then remain twenty-nine species which were
known to LINNAEUS, whilst now more than 400 species are known1.
In some the dorsal and anal fins, or the first alone, are furnished
with a hard and dentate ray ; in others all the rays are soft. In some
the dorsal fin is very long, in others, on the other hand, the anal fin ;
in many both these unpaired fins are short. Some have four or two
barbules (cirri) at the mouth. On these characters, to which were
afterwards added those which are supplied by the different disposi-
tion of the teeth of the ossa pharyngealia (AGASSIZ, HECKEL),
depends the division of the groups which must in our opinion be
regarded as sub-genera alone, not as genera.

These fishes live in fresh -water, and live principally on seeds and
plants, yet also on insects, worms, &c. Most of them are found in
Asia and Europe; many species are indigenous.

Compare on this genus amongst others N. G. LESKE, IcWiyologice Lipsi-
ensis Specimen, Lipsiae 1774, 8vo ; AGASSIZ Distribution des genres des
Cyprins, Mem. de la Soc. des Sc. natur. de Neufchatel, 1836, Tom. I. p. 33,
and foil. (WIEGMANN'S Archiv f. Naturg. 1838, s. 73 — 82) ; J. HECKEL,
Ueber einige neue Cyprinen, nebst einer systematischen DarsteUung der Europ.
Gattungen dieser Gruppe, Ann. des Wiener- Museums, I. 1836, a. 219 — 234,

1 L. C. BONAPARTE reckons the number even at 650, for which the grounds
are unknown to me.

92 CLASS XIV.

Taf. 19 — 21 ; and Fische Syriens, s. n — 53, &c., Tab. I. (figures of the
pharyngeal teeth).

t Dorsal fin long (i. e. beginning above the ventral fins and pro-
duced as far as the posterior part of the anal fin).

Cyprinus Cuv. A dentate spine in the anterior part of the
dorsal and the anal fins. Anal fin short. Pharyngeal teeth masti-
catory, with crown mostly sulcate.

Sp. Cyprinus carpio L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 16, YARR. Brit. Fishes, i. p. 305.
Cuv. R. Ani., e"d. ill., Poiss. PL 93, fig. i ; the Carp, la Carpe, der Karp-
fen ; four short barbules at the upper jaw, the back round, olive- coloured,
belly yellow; in still waters, especially in the south of Europe; this species
may be 3' long. A variety with very large scales and naked spots is named
Spiegelkarper, Carpe a miroir, BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 17. Monstrous indi-
viduals sometimes occur with an arched head and short impressed snout.

In others there are no barbules. They form the genus Carassius NiLS-
SON, Cyprinopsis FITZINGER. Sp. Cyprinus carassius L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab.
n, STcandinaviens FisTcar, Tab. 31 ; the steenTcarper, stone- carp, with a very
deep body, is seldom more than i' long. C. Gibelio BLOCK, GMEL., which is
less deep and more elongate, ought, according to ECKSTROEM, to be regarded
simply as a variety of this species.

Cyprinus auratus L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 93 ; the gold-fish (Kin-Yu), from
China and Japan, naturalised in our stews ; it was first imported into Hol-
land in the middle of the last century (see BASTER Verhand. van de Haarl.
Maatsch. vii. bl. 215 — 246, Natuurlc. Uitsp. II. bl. 83 — 101, Tab. XI.);
according to BLOCK it was introduced into England in 1611, in the reign of
James I. The varieties of this fish are very numerous, there are also modi-
fications of the fins ; some have no dorsal fin.

Gibelion HECKEL. Dorsal and anal fin without osseous ray. Anal
fin short.

Sp. Cyprinus abramoides SYKES, Trans, of the Zool. Soc. u. Part 5, PI. 61,
fig. 2 ; from India, like the other species of this division.

Wiodeus AGARS. Dorsal and anal fin elongate. Anal fin without
osseous ray.

Sp. Cyprinus amarus BLOCK, Tab. 8, fig. 3, &c. (Add genus Devario HECK.)

•ft1 Dorsal fin short.

a) Anal fin shorter than, or equalling dorsal.

Barbus Cuv. Osseous ray in dorsal fin, and sometimes in anal
fin. Cirri four. Dorsal fin placed above the ventral. Pharyngeal
teeth cylindrical, uncinate towards the apex, hollowed by an oval
fossa before the apex.

PISCES. 93

Sp. Cyprinus barbus L., BLOCK Ickth. Tab. 18 ; the barbel, &c.

NOTE. — Add genera Systomus MACCLELL., Labeobarbiis RUEPP., Lucio-
barbus HECK., Schizothorax HECK., Scaphiodon HECK.

Catostomus LESUEUR (and Khytidostomus HECK.).

Labeo Cuv. Dorsal fin high, beginning in front of ventral fins.
No osseous ray. Mouth with thick fleshy lips, with two cirri,
sometimes with none. Pharyngeal teeth compressed, aggregate,
with crown obliquely truncate.

Sp. Cyprinus niloticus FORSK., GMEL., Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. xvi. PL 485,
GUEKIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 46, fig. 3 ; — Cypr. Forskalii, Labeo Forslcalii

KUEPPELL, Mus. Senckenb. u. Taf. in. fig. i, described by FORSKAL as a

variety of the preceding, &c.

Gyrene HECK., Dangila YALEXC.
Rohita YALENC.
Tylognathus HECK.
Discognathus HECK.

Gobio Cuv. Dorsal and anal fins without osseous ray. Head flat
above. Mouth with two cirri. Pharyngeal teeth uncinate.

Sp. Cyprinus gobio L., Gobio Jluviafilis Cuv., BLOCH Ickth. Tab. 8, fig. 2,
Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xvi. PI. 481 ; the gudgeon, &c.

Isocephalits HECK. (Cirrhina Cuv. YAL., with the addition of
some other species from the East Indies).

Tinea Cuv. Dorsal and anal fins without osseous ray. Dorsal
fin inserted behind the commencement of ventral fins. Pharyn-
geal teeth compressed, clavate. Scales minute, covered with mucus.
Two small cirri.

Sp. Cyprinus tinea L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 14, Skandinav. Fiskar, Tab. 52,
Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 94, fig. i ; the tench, greenish, with 10
rays in the anal fin ; this fish seldom attains more than i' of length, occurs
nearly in the whole of Europe, but is rare in the north, and probably is not
met with in higher latitudes than 60 deg. N.

Chondrostomus AGASS. Dorsal and anal fins without osseous ray.
Cirri none. Mouth inferior, with margin attenuated into a car-
tilaginous edge. Pharyngeal teeth masticatory, compressed, with
naiTOW oval crown.

Sp. Cyprinus nasus, L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 3, &c.

Add genera Gymnostomus, Chondrochylus, and Chondrorhynchus HECK.

94 CLASS XIV.

Leuciscus KLEIN, Cuv. Dorsal and anal fins without osseous ray.
Mouth anterior or superior, with soft lips. Pharyngeal teeth unci-
nate. Abdomen behind ventral fins more or less carinate. Cirri
mostly none, more rarely two or four.

Sp. Cyprinus erythrophthalmus L., BLOCK 7cA^A. Tab. i, Skandinaviens Fiskar,
PI. 1 6 ; the red-eye or rud ; — Cyprinus rutilus L., BLOCK IcJdh. Tab. 2,
Skand. Fiskar, PI. 15, the roach, &c.

A very numerous sub-genus ; the scales are generally of moderate size ;
they are small in Phacinus AGASS.

Here belong the genera Squalius and Scardinius BONAP., Idus, Leucos,
Phoxinellus, Argyreus, and Leucosomus of HECKEL and Opsarius of MAC-
CLELLAND (in part).

b) Anal fin longer than dorsal.

* Mouth superior ; lower jaw ascending at the apex.

Aspius AGASSIZ (Aspius and Alburnus HECK.) Dorsal and anal
fins without osseous ray. Cirri none. Body subcompressed, rotun-
date beneath. Pharyngeal teeth uncinate. Dorsal fin placed above
the space between the ventral fins and the anal fin.

Sp. Cyprinus alburnus L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 8, fig. 4, Skandin. Fiskar,
PI. 5 1 ; the lleak, &c.

Chela Cuv. (Pelecus AGASS.). Dorsal and* -anal fins without
osseous ray. Cirri sometimes four or two, mostly none. Body cari-
nate beneath, compressed or cultrate. Pharyngeal teeth uncinate.
Dorsal fin remote, placed over anal.

Sp. Cyprinus cultratus L., Leuciscus cuUratus VALENC., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 37,
in Russia, &c. Here are arranged some species from India. The genus
Nuria of VALENCIENNES is characterised by the presence of two or four
long barbules.

** Mouth anterior. (Cirri none).

a) Dorsal and anal fins without osseous ray.

Abramis Cuv. (Blicca, JBliccojysis, Abramis, Ballerus HECK.).

Sp. Cyprinus Braina L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 13, STcandin. Fiskar, PI. 41 ; the
'bream, la breme; high ; the long anal fin has 28 to 29 rays. This fish at-
tains a length of more than i'.

/3) Dorsal fin with osseous ray.

Sub-genera: Acanthobrama, Osteobrama, Glossodon HECKEL.

PISCES. 95

Family XIV. Cyprinodontes. Teeth small in maxillae. Su-
perior and inferior pharyngeal teeth conical or subulate, crowded.
Superior margin of mouth formed by the intermaxillary bone.
Rays of branchiostegous membrane 5 — 6. Adipose fin none.
Head, opercula and cheeks covered with scales.

[Swimming-bladder simple. Pyloric appendages none. Small
fishes, or of moderate size, with scales often large; many are vi-
viparous.]

This small family is distinguished from the preceding, with which
it agrees in habitus, by the teeth and by the gill-membrane with
more than three rays, and was first separated from it by AGASSIZ.
Most of the species are found in America, Some however occur in
Europe, in Syria and Egypt.

Anableps AETEDI, BL. (species of Cobitis L.). Teeth slender,
subulate in both jaws, palate edentulous. Eyes protuberant; cornea
divided transversely into two segments. Head depressed between
the eyes. Nostrils produced into a tubular papilla. Branchiostegous
membrane with five rays. Pectoral fins scaly. Dorsal fin small,
remote, placed behind the anal ; anal fin in males adhering to the
posterior margin of a conical scaly process.

Peeper aloft. — The eye of these fishes reminds us of the form of this organ
in the insect genus Ascalaphus. (See Vol. I. p. 420.) The cornea is
divided into two halves by an opaque transverse band; the iris also appears
to be double, and thus to form a double pupil, yet in reality is merely
drawn together by two processes from the iris, that meet under the trans-
verse band of the cornea. The connexion between the seemingly two
pupils is quite apparent, particularly in young fishes. The lens is pear-
shaped, and the broader portion lies under the upper and larger segment of
the cornea. The other parts of the eye offer nothing peculiar. The struc-
ture of these eyes has been described by ABTEDI, CAMPER, LACEPEDE,
BLOCH, J. F. MECKEL (Archiv f. die Physiol. rv. 1818, s. 124, 125), and
circumstantially by D. W. SCEMMERING especially (De oculorum sectione
horiz. Gottingae, 1818, pp. 68, 69, with a figure), and by VALENCIENNES
(Hist. not. des Poiss. xvni. pp. 264, 266, PI. 539).

These fishes, of which for a long time only one species was formed, are
found in Surinam ; they are viviparous.

Sp. Anableps tetrophthalmus BLOCH, Cobitis Anableps L., Anableps Gronovii
VALENC., GRONOV. Zoophyl. Tab. i. figs, i — 3, BLOCH Ickth. Tab. 361,
Syst. Ichfk. Tab. 71, Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. xviu. PI. 538. The skeleton
is figured by ROSENTHAL Ichthyot. Tafeln, Tab. x. figs. 9, 10. Two other
species are noted and figured by VALENCIENNES op. cit. PL 540, 541.

96 CLASS XIV.

Cyprinodon LAC. Head depressed; intermaxillary bone pro-
tractile. Teeth in maxillae small. Branchiostegous membrane with
five rays, more rarely six. Body compressed.

a) Branchiostegous membrane with 5 rays.

P cecilia BL., YAL. Teeth in maxillse mobile, incurved, in a single
row; teeth crowded and very thin behind this row.

Sp. Pcecilia surinamensis VALENC., Cuv. M. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 95, fig. i ;
compare DuvERNAY, see above, p. 42, &c.

Mollienisia LESUEUR. Sp. Mollienisia latipinna LES., Cuv. 1. 1. fig. 4 ;
this species from North America is distinguished by a very long dorsal fin
(of 14 rays) and by the position of the ventral fins close behind the
pectorals.

Cyprinodon LAC., Lebias Cuv. Maxillary teeth in a single row,
tripartite at the apex.

Sp. Cyprinodon calaritanus VAL., Lebias calaritana BONELLI, &c.

Fundulus LAC. Maxillary teeth very thin, crowded.
Sp. Fundulus ccenicolus VAL., Cobitis heteroclita L., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. 18,
PI. 580, &c. All the species of this sub-genus are from America.

b) Branchiostegous membrane with 6 rays.

Hydrargyra LAC. (Cyprinodon YAL. previously). Maxillary teeth
very thin, crowded.

Sp. Hydrargyra swampina LAC. ; — Hydrarg. hispanica VAL., Poiss. PI. 531,
fig. i.

Orestias YALENC. Teeth in maxillae conical, thin, crowded.
Branchiostegous membrane with five rays. Dorsal fin remote,
opposite to anal. Ventral fins none.

Sp. Orestias Cuvierii VALENC., 1. L PI. 352 ; from the lake Titicaca; the
largest species of the genus becoming 8 or 9 inches long. Most of the
other species of Orestias and Cyprinoden are under 3". The eyes are mostly
large. In small species of this and the preceding genus the cranial bones
are very thin, and so transparent that the brain is seen lying within the
cranium.

Family XY. Characini. Body covered with scales distinct,
regular, imbricated. Dorsal fins mostly two, the posterior adipose.
Superior margin of mouth formed in the middle by the intermax-
illary bone, at the sides by the suprarnaxillaries. Eays of bran-
chiostegous membrane mostly four, more seldom five. Teeth

PISCES. 97

various, linguals none. Pseudobranchise none. Swimming-bladder
bipartite transversely, conjoined with the labyrinth of ear by inter-
position of small bones (as in the Cyprini and Siluroidei).

Like the preceding genera these also are almost all found in
S. America.

This family was separated from that of the salmons by JOH.
MUELLER (MUELLER'S Archiv, 1842, p. 307; JOH. MUELLER und
F. H. TROSCHEL, ROTOR Ichthyologicce, Beschreibung und Abbildung
neuer Fische, Erstes und ziveites Heft. Berlin, 1845, 4to). Besides
the characters already stated it differs from the salmons in having
oviducts, which in the latter, where the eggs fall into the cavity of
the abdomen, are wanting (see above, p. 38). Not only in the
swimming-bladder, but also in external appearance, many species
resemble the genus Cyprinus. They have however many blind
appendages at the pylorus, which are absent in Cyprinus.

A. Dorsal Jin single, supported by rays.

Erythrinus GKONOV. Body oblong, round, covered with large
scales. A row of conical, unequal teeth in both jaws. Teeth in
palate thin and crowded. Branchiostegous membrane with five
rays. Dorsal fin placed over the ventrals. Caudal fin rounded.

Sp. Erythrinus Gronovii VAL., Synodus erythrinus BLOCH, GRONOV. Mus.
Ichth. Tab. vn. fig. 6 ; from Surinam. Also the rest of the species of
this genus are from South America, and the name of Esox malabaricus,
given by BLOCH to a species of Erythrinus (Ichth. Tab. 392), is founded in
error. This species and some others belong to the genus Macrodon MUEL.,
in which the lower jaw has some very large conical teeth, whilst a row of
larger teeth, parallel with the teeth of the upper jaw, is found at the fore
part of the palate. In those which are named Erythrini by MUELLER in a
proper sense (Erythrinus GRONOV. &c.) the small teeth in the palate stand
in two lateral masses, and the teeth of the lower jaw are more similar
to each other in size. In these the posterior division of the swimming-
bladder is cellular. See H. S. R. JACOBI De vesica aerea Piscium, Itiss.
inaug. Berolini, 1840, 4to, pp. 23 — 25 ; MUELLER Archiv f. Physio? . 1842,
pp. 3o7—3°9-

Note. — Genera Lebiasina, Pyrrhulina VAL. is this their place?
The swimming-bladder is bipartite ; but the absence of oviducts in
Lebiasina noticed by the author would suggest the negative. The
fishes are unknown to me. Compare CUVIER et YALEXCIEKNES,
Hist. Nat. des Poiss. xix. pp. 531—537.

B. Dor sal fins two, the posterior adipose (Char ax GRONOV.)
t Gape of month small or moderate.

VOL. II. * 7

98 CLASS XTV.

Prochilodus AGASS., Pacu SPIX, MUELL. Palate smooth. A
double row of very thin and very small teeth in lips.

Sp. Prochilodus argenteus AGASSIZ, Curimata MARCGR. Hist. Nat. Bras.
p. 156.

Characinus LACEP. (in part). Palate smooth. Teeth in maxil-
lary bone and in lower jaw in a single row or none. Branchio-
stegous membrane with four rays, more rarely five. Abdomen not
serrate.

Anodus SPIX, MUELL., Curimata Cuv. (in part), Curimatus YAL.

Teeth none. Body elongate.

Sp. Characinus cyprinoides LAC., Salmo cyprinoides L., Salmo edentatus
BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 330; Surinam.

Hemiodus MUELL. Teeth mobile, small, broad, with margin cre-
nate in upper jaw; lower jaw edentulous. Body elongate.

Sp. Characinus unimaculatus, Salmo unimaculatus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 381,
fig. 3 ; Surinam, &c.

Piabuca Cuv., VALENC. (Piabuca and Schizodon AGASS., MUELL.).
Teeth in intermaxillary bone and in lower jaw broad, serrate or
pectinate at the margin. Pharyngeal teeth uncinate.

Sp. Characinus argentinus, Piabuca argentina Cuv., Salmo argentinus L.,
BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 382, fig. i, a very long anal fin ; scales small. — Chara-
cinus Schizodon, Schizodon fasciatus AGASS., SPIX Pise. BrasU. Tab. 36,
with short anal fin and large scales ; both from South America.

Leporinus SPIX, AGASS., MUELL. Teeth in intermaxillary bone
and in lower jaw in a single row, small, procumbent, entire. Pha-
ryngeal teeth uncinate.

Sp. Characinus Friderici LAC., Curimatus acutidens VALENC. formerly, Salmo
Friderici BLOCH, Ichth,. Tab. 378 ; Surinam.

Citharinus Cuv. Teeth in intermaxillary bone and lower jaw
very minute, setaceous or subulate.

a) With maxillary teeth numerous, setaceous ; with pharyngeal teeth
none. Dorsal fin placed over the space between the ventral fins and the
anal fin. Sp. Characinus Qeoffroyi, Serrasalmo citharinus GEOFFR., Descr.
de VEgypte, Poiss. PI. v. figs. 2, 3. Habit, in the Nile.

6) With maxillary teeth few, subulate; with pharyngeal teeth flattened,
uncinate. Dorsal fin placed over the ventrals. (Chilodus MUELL.) Sp.
Characinus chilodus, Chilodus punctatus MUELL. and TROSCH. 1. 1. Tab. 57,
fig. i. Habit, in Guiana.

PISCES. 99

Epicyrtus MUELL. Teeth conical, unequal, in single row, inter-
rupted in intermaxillary bone, supramaxillary and lower jaw.
Palate smooth. Branchiostegous membrane with four rajs. Body
compressed, with abdomen not serrate. Ventral fins near to
pectoral.

Sp. Epicyrtus gibbosus MUELL., Saltno gibbosus L., GRONOV. Mus. Ichth.
Tab. i. fig. 4, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xxii. PI. 636; Surinam.

VALENCIENNES is of opinion that the genus Exodon MUELL. ought not to
be separated from this.

Chalceus CUT. Teeth short, multicuspidate, in double or treble
row in upper jaw, double or single row in lower jaw. Palate
smooth. Body compressed, with abdomen not serrate. Scales
large. Branchiostegous membrane with four rays.

Chalceus Cuv., Brycon MUELL. and TROSCH. Teeth in a triple
row in upper jaw, double in lower. Abdomen rotundate.
Sp. Chalceus macrolepidotus Cuv., Mem. du Mus. IV. PI. 21, fig. i.

Tetragonopterus ARTEDI, MUELL. Teeth in double row in upper
jaw, in single row in lower jaw. Abdomen rotundate.

Sp. Clialceus Artedii, Coregonus amboinensis ARTEDI, Descr. specierum Pise.
p. 44, SEB^f T&esawr. in. Tab. 34, fig. 3, &c.

Brydnus VALENC.

Chalcinus YALEXC., Chalceus MUELL. Double row of teeth in both
jaws. Abdomen carinate.

Sp. Chalceus branchipomus, Chalcinus branchipomus VALENC., Chalceus
angulatus SPIX.

Gasteropelecus GRONOV. Teeth tricuspidate, in intermaxillary
bone in a double row, in single row in lower jaw. Teeth of supra-
maxillary bone conical, in a single row. Palate smooth. Body
compressed, with abdomen convex, carinate. Ventral fins very
small. Scales small.

Sp. Gasteropelecus sternicla PALL., Clupea sternida L., GRONOV. Mus.
Ichth. Tab. vii. fig. 5, PALLAS Spirit. Zool. vin. Tab. 3, fig. 4 ; Surinam.

Myletes Cuv. Teeth prismatic, tricuspid, in a double row in
intermaxillary bone; teeth of lower jaw thick, with crown flat-
tened, the two middle mostly conical, forming a second row. Su-
pramaxillary bone edentulous. Palatine teeth none. Body com-
pressed.

7—2

100 CLASS XIV.

Alestes MUELL., VALENC. Abdomen rotundate. Scales large.

Sp. Myletes Hasselquisti Cuv., Cyprinus Dentex L. (and Salmo niloticus
ejusd.), Cuv. Mem. du Mus. iv. PI. 21, fig. 2, R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss.
PL 103, fig. i, Myletes Baramoze JOANNIS, GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1835,
Cl. IV. PI. 6 ; in the Nile, where it is named by the Arabs Raji; the scales
fall off very readily ; the caudal fin is large and deeply forked. This fish
attains a length of i' to 15".

Myletes Cuv. (in part), MUELL. Abdomen carinate, serrate.
Scales small.

Sp. Myletes macropomus Cuv., Mem. du Mus.v. PL 21, fig. 8, &c. All these
species are from S. America.
Tometes VALENC.
Myleus MUELL.

Serrasalmus Cuv., LAC. Teeth in both jaws mostly in a single
row, triangular, trenchant. Body compressed, with belly serrate.
Scales small. Branchiostegous membrane with four rays.

a) Palatine teeth none.

Sub-genera: Pygocentrus, Pygopristis, Catoprion MUELL.

Sp. Serrasalmus Piraya Cuv., Mem. du Mus. v. PI. 28, fig. 4, Piraya or
Piranha MARCGR. Hist. not. Bras. p. 165 ; this and another species, Pygo-
centrus niger MUELL., swim together in large troops in the rivers of Brazil
and Guyana ; they are very voracious and so bold that they attack even
large animals that chance to get into their shoal, and in a short time con-
sume them to the bone. An ox cannot reach the far side of a stream only
thirty or forty feet wide without nearly dying, and in part gnawed to a skele-
ton. The Guaraunos, who preserve their dead as skeletons, hang, according
to GUMILLA, the bodies in the stream for a night, and on the following day
have a clean-made skeleton1.

b) Palatine teeth triangular, acute, in a single row.

Serrascdmo MUELL.

Sp. Serrasalmus rhomleus LACEP., Salmo rhombeus L., PALL. Spicil. Zool.
vni. PL 5. fig. 3, BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 383. Guiana, Surinam, &c.

of mouth large, produced beyond the eye. Abdomen not
serrate. Hydrocyon Cuv.

1 SPIX Pise. Brasil, Fasc. I. From such stories deductions may be made, and still
much that is remarkable remains. See also the accounts respecting these gluttonous
fishes by AUGUSTE DE SAINT-HILAIRE and SCHOMBURGK in CUVIER and VALENCIENNES
Hist. not. des Poissons, xxn. pp. 290, 291, 293, 294.

PISCES. 101

Cynopotamus VALENC. Teeth conical, acute,' in the 'intermakil-
lary bone in a double row, in a single row in lower jaw. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with five rajs.

Habitus of Epicyrtus. Palate smooth. Scales small.

Salminus AGASS., MUELL. Teeth conical, in a double row in
the intermaxillary bone and the lower jaw. Teeth of supramaxil-
lary bone in a single row, conical, small. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with four rays.

Sp. Salminus Cuvieri VALENC., Hydrocyon brevidens Cuv., Mem. du Mus.
v. PL 27, fig. i, Brazil, &c.

Hydrocyon Cuv. (in part). Teeth conical, large, in both jaws
in a single row, the upper alternating with the lower.

t Palate smooth.

Hydrocyon AGASS., MUELL. Scales large. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with 4 rays.

Sp. Hydrocyon Forskahlii Cuv., Mem. du Mus. V. PL 28, fig. I, in the Nile
and also in the Senegal.

ft Palate furnished with teeth.

Xiphorhynchus AGASS. (Xiphorhamphus MUELL.).

Cynodon SPIX (Raphiodon AGASS., MUELL., and Hydrolycus
MUELL.).

Note. Smaller conical teeth with larger mixed. Scales moderate or
small. Species from S. America.

a) Conical palatine teeth in a single rowt

Sp. Hydrocyon falcirostri* Cuv., Xiphoramphus falcirostris MUELL., M6m.
du Mus. v. PL 27, fig. 3.

b) Palatine teeth minute, with crowded granules. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with 5 rays.

Sp. Hydrocyon scomberoide Cuv., Cynodon scomberoides VALENC., Mem.
du Mus. v. PL 27, fig. 2.

Salanx Cuv. Teeth in both jaws conical, incurved, unequal.
Palatine bones with a single row of small teeth. Head depressed.
Body elongate. Dorsal fin remote, placed behind ventral fins.
Branchiostegous membrane with four rays.

Sp. Salanx Cuvieri VALENC., Salanx Reevesii VALENC., Albula chinensis
OSBECK, Leucosoma Reevesii GBAT, VALENC. Poiss. xxn. p. 363, PL 646;

102 CLASS XIV.

almost the appearance of a Belone. The genus seems scarcely to differ
from XiphorJiynchus^.

Xiphostoma SPIX. Teeth in intermaxillary bone, in supramax-
illary and in lower jaw thin, minute, numerous, in a single row.
Bones of palate rough, with minute teeth. Head conical, acumi-
nate. Branchiostegous membrane with five rays. Dorsal fin re-
mote, placed behind ventral fins.

Sp. Xiphostoma lucius SPIX, Hydrocyon lucius Cuv., Mem. du Mus. v. PI.
26, fig. 2, and some other species from S. America.

Family XVI. Scopelini MUELL. Body in some scaly, in others
naked. Teeth acute, conical in jaws, mostly also in palate and
tongue. Branchiostegous membrane mostly with numerous rays.
Pseudobranchise. Dorsal fins two, the posterior adipose, sometimes
with obsolete rays. Ovaries furnished with oviduct. Swimming-
bladder mostly none.

If this small family be still to be separated from the following,
the presence of oviducts remains as the most important character,
whilst it is distinguished from the preceding by false gills. The
character that the upper margin of the oral aperture is formed by
the intermaxillary bones prevails indeed in many, ex. gr. Scopelus
and Saurus, but is by 110 means general. In Paralepis a swim-
ming-bladder is found, which is wanting in the rest.

a) Intermaxillary bones forming with supramaxillary the upper-
margin of mouth.

Sternoptyx HERMANN. Body compressed, high, scaleless. Max-
illary teeth small, short, in several rows, palatine teeth few. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with five rays. Ventral fins very small. A
long, low, membranous fold in the place of an adipose fin.

Sp. Sternoptyx diaphana HERMANN, Naturforscker, xvi. Tab. i. figs, i, 2,
s. 8—36; CUVIEB R. Ani., eU 2, PL 13, fig. i ; in the Atlantic Ocean near
the tropics; a small fish about two inches long, which is found only
seldom.

Argyropelecus COCCO. Body compressed, high, naked, with tail
attenuate. Maxillary teeth subulate, unequal, in a single row.
Branchiostegous membrane with nine rays.

1 The tongue, according to VALENCIENNES, is armed with teeth. This causes us
in some degree to doubt whether the genus be rightly placed here.

PISCES. 103

Sp. Aryyropelecus hemigymnua Cocco, C. L. BONAP. Faun. ItaL in. Tab.
121, fig. 3, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 103, fig. 3; with round
silvery spots along the belly, i^ inch long; in the Mediter. Sea; — Argyro-
pelecus Olfersii VALENC., Sternoplyx Olfersii Cuv. R. Ani., sec. eMit., PI.
13, fig. 2; from the Atlantic Ocean near the Canary Islands, and found
close to the Cape of Good Hope, from which last locality the museum, of
Leyden has received specimens of this species.

Gonostoma RAFIN., VALEXC., Gonostomus COCCO. Intermax-
illary bones short, the supramaxillary especially forming the upper
margin of mouth. Maxillary teeth in a single row, acute, conical,
in most very small, with few large interposed. Palatine teeth small,
sharp, crowded. Branchiostegous membrane with fourteen rays.
First dorsal fin remote, placed over the commencement of the long
anal fin. Scales moderate, deciduous.

Gonostoma denudata (or better, Gonostomus acanthurus Cocco) C. L.
BONAPARTE, Faun. Ital. m. Tab. 119, fig. i, Mediter. Sea.

Chauliodus BLOCK, SCHN. Head large, short in front of eyes,
with gape of mouth very large. Maxillary teeth in a single row,
conical, acute, the anterior long, exsert. Palatine teeth remote,
acute, in a single row. Anterior dorsal fin near the head, remote
from the second by a long interval. Scales large, thin, deciduous.
Branchiostegous membrane with seventeen rays.

Sp. Chauliodus Sloani BLOCK, Syst. Ichth. Tab. 85, Chauliodus setinotus
BONAP. Faun. Ital. m. PI. 123, fig. 2, Medit. Sea.

b) Intermaxillary bones long, descending by the side of supra-
maxillary, forming the upper margin of mouth.

Scopelus Cuv. Maxillary teeth small, numerous, in several
rows ; palatine teeth very small, tongue smooth. Gape of mouth
large. Branchiostegous membrane with nine rays. Scales often
deciduous.

Sp. Scopelus Hurriboldtii Cuv., Gasteropelecus Humboldtii Risso, Ichthyol.
deNice, 1810, PI. 10, fig. 38; — Scopelus Benoisti BONAP. Faun. Ital. ni.
Tab. 119, fig. 4, Medit. Sea ; — Scopelus lorealis NILSSON, STROEM Skrivter af
Naturhistorie-Selskabet, H. i, 1793, Tab. I. fig. 2, from the coast of Norway,
&c. They are all small fishes with silvery spots on the sides, and below
on the belly.

To this genus ought to be referred Lampanyctus, Ichthyococcus of C. L.
BONAPARTE, Maurolicus Cocco, BONAP., and Myctophum, BAFIN., BONAP.
To Maurolicus, which genus J. MUELLER retains, this author refers the
Scopelus lorealis, which we have recorded above.

104 CLASS XIV.

Odontostomua Cocco. Upper teeth in intermaxillary bone small,
recurved, lower teeth elongate, acuminate, mobile. Palate armed
with long teeth. Branchiostegous membrane with 8 rays.

Sp. Odontostomus hyalinus Cocoo, BONAP. Faun. Ital. in. PL 120, fig. 6;
this species appears to have no scales ; it becomes 5" long, and lives in the
Medit. Sea.

Saurus Cuv. (and Saurida VALENC.). Teeth subulate, crowded
in jaws, in several rows, the internal longer ; in tongue and palate
teeth acute, numerous. Branchiostegous membrane with sixteen
rays, or more1.

Sp. Saurus fcetens VALENC., Salmo fastens L., Encycl. meih. Poiss. PI. 70,
fig. 285 (copied from the figure of CATESBY) ; — Saurida nebulosa VALENC.,
Poiss. xxn. PI. 643, &c.

Aulopus Cuv. Teeth small, acute in maxillae, palate, vomer
and tongue. Ventral fins placed almost under pectoral. Scales
large. Eyes large. Branchiostegous membrane with 10 — 16 rays.

a) Branchiostegous membrane with 16 rays.

Sp. A ulopus filamentosus, Salmo filamentosus BLOCH, Sckriften der Gesellsch.

naturf. Freunde zu Berlin, x. 1792, s. 424, Tab. ix. fig. 2, BONAP. Faun.

Ital. in. Tab. 121, fig. I ; in the male three rays of the dorsal fin are much

elongated ; the margin of the scales is as though haired with fine spines.

&** In the Medit. Sea.

b) Branchiostegous membrane with 10 rays.

Sp. Aulopus Agassizi VALENC., Chlorophthalmus Agasdzi BONAP. Faun.
Ital. in. Tab. 121, fig. 2; also in the Mediter. Sea.

Paralepis Cuv., RiSSO. Teeth very small in intermaxillary
bone, teeth of lower jaw and palate subulate, acuminate, larger,
with smaller interposed. Branchiostegous membrane with seven
rays. First dorsal fin remote. Body elongate, scaly.

Sp. Paralepis c&regonoides RISSO, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 67, GUERIN
Iconogr.y Poiss. PL X. fig. 3, from the Medit. Sea. With this is nearly
allied Paralepis borealis REINH., Konigl. DansTce Videnskabernes Selskabs
Afhandl. vn. 1838, pp. 115, 125, 126, from Greenland and Iceland. RISSO
referred this genus first to the Salmonidce, CUVIER afterwards to the Acan-
thopterygii close to Sphyrcena; REINHARDT again assigned it a place

1 VALENCIENNES found the extraordinarily large number of 25 branchial rays in
Sauru Ophiodon.

PISCES. 105

amongst the Malacopteryg'd. See the fifth part of the Natural-History
Transactions of the Royal Society at Copenhagen, 1832, s. LXXV. LXXVI.

Sudis EAFIXESQUE, BOXAP., MUELL. (not Guv.). Palate with a
serrate carina, edentulous. Inferior teeth flat.

Sp. Paralepis hyalinus Cuv., Sudis hyalina RAFIN., BONAP. Faun. Ital. in.
Tab. 124, fig. I ; the scales, with the exception of those of the lateral line,
readily fall off ; the dorsal fin is placed in front of the ventral fin. The
palate would appear to have no teeth, but to be serrate. In the Mediter.
Sea.

Family XVII. Salmonacei. Body scaly, with scales sometimes
deciduous. Second dorsal fin adipose. Superior margin of mouth
formed at the sides by the supramaxillary bones. Branchiostegous
membrane with 6 — 13 rays (mostly 10 — 12). Pseudobranchiae
pectinate. Swimming-bladder simple. Ovaries without oviduct,
the ova falling from the ovaries into the cavity of abdomen.

Argentina L. (in part). Teeth in tongue and vomer; in max-
illae none. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Scales
deciduous.

Sp. Argentina sphyrcena L. (not GRONOV.), RONDELET de Piscib. mar. p. 227,
la petite sphyrene, BBUNNICH Ichthyol. Massiliensis, Hafnise, 1768, pp. 79,
80, GOUAN Histor, Pise. pp. 197, 198, CUVIEB. Mem. du Mus. I. 1818,
pp. 228 — 236, PI. XI. fig. J ; in the Mediter. Sea; becomes only 8 or 10"
long; the stomach is dull-black; the swimming-bladder glistering and
silvery. BBUNNICH first recognised the affinity of this fish with the
salmons.

Salmo L. (exclusive of Characim). Teeth in jaws, palate,
vomer and tongue in most, in some no teeth. Branchiostegous
membrane with 7 — 13 rays. Body scaly.

A numerous genus of fishes, especially in northern Europe1. The follow-
ing sub-genera may be adopted.

Coregonus Cuv. Teeth none. Branchiostegous membrane with
7 — 9 rays. Body elongate, with head acuminate. Scales moderate.
Caudal fin forked.

Sp. Salmo oxyrhynchus L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 25 (under the name of Salmo
Lavaretus), Cuv. et YAL. Poiss. xxi. PI. 630. The head ends in a pointed
snout, prolonged in front of the mouth. This fish, called by the Dutch

1 Compare Sir WILLIAM JARDINE Nat. History and Illustrations of the Scottish
Salmonidce, folio, 1841 and foil.

106 CLASS XIV.

Routing, is found in the North, and in March and April occurs frequently
in the mouths of their rivers ; the ventral fins begin behind the middle of
the dorsal fin ; there are 7 rays in the gill- membrane.

Salmo Lavaretus Cuv., Salmo Wartmanni BLOCH. Ichth. Tab. 105, Cuv.
et VAL. Poiss. xxi. PI. 627; 8 rays in the gill-membrane; the head is not
prolonged beyond the mouth ; from the lakes of Switzerland (Salmo Lava-
retus L. is a collection of different species).

Coregonus Willugbii JABDINE, YARRELL Brit. Fish. n. p. 89; in lakes
of the south of Scotland (Dumfries) ; this fish appears to feed principally
on small fresh-water crustaceans, water-fleas, &C.1

Thymallus Cuv. Teeth very short, conical, in a single row in
jaws; palate furnished with very small and few teeth. Tongue
smooth. Dorsal fin long, high. Caudal fin forked. Branchiostegous
membrane with 8 — 10 rays.

Sp. Salmo Thymallus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 24 (probably Thymallus gym-
nothorax VAL., Cov. et VAL. Poiss. PI. 625), &c.

In these fishes the dorsal fin has 20 or more rays, whilst there are about
15 in the species of the preceding sub-genus.

Mallotus Cuv. Teeth very short, conical in palate and maxillae,
somewhat longer in tongue. Pectoral fins large. Dorsal fin placed
over ventrals. Caudal fin forked. Branchiostegous membrane with
8 rays. Scales small.

Sp. Salmo arcticus 0. FABR., Clupea villosa GMEL., Salmo groenlandicus
BLOCK. Ichth. Tab. 381, fig. i, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. PI. 622; in the male
along the lateral line are long narrow scales standing close together, which
from their softness resemble felt. These fishes are sometimes found on the
shore of Greenland, inclosed, as modern petrifactions, in a clayey earth.
See the figures in AGASSIZ Poiss. foss. V. PI. 60. Comp. ibid.v. i, pp. 98 —
100, Mallotus villosus.

Osmerus ARTEDI (in part), Cuv. Teeth in maxillae small, in-
curved, conical, in vomer and tongue thick, in palate conical in a
double row. Branchiostegous membrane with 8 rays. Caudal fin
forked.

Salmo Eperlanus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 28, fig. 2, Cuv. et VAL. Pom.
xxi. PI. 620 ; the smelt; occurs abundantly at the mouth of rivers in Hol-
land, confined to the eastern and western coasts of Great Britain, YARRELL
JBr. Fishes, n. p. 75.

Salmo Cuv. (Solar, Fario, Salmo YALENC.). Teeth conical, in a
single row in maxillae; teeth in vomer, in palate and tongue.

1 Cyclops, see Vol. I. p. 632, Daphnia 641, &c.

PISCES. 107

Branchiostegous membrane mostly with 10 or 11 rays (rarely
with 9 or 12). Caudal fin truncate or concave posteriorly, emar-
ginate.

Salmo Fario L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 11, Solar AusoniiVAL., Cuv. et VAL.
Poiss. xxi. pL 618; the trout; in small, rapid streams.

Salmo Solar L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 20, Salmo Salmo VALENC., Cuv. et
VAL. Poiss. xxi. PI. 614 ; the salmon, le Saumon, der Lochs; n broad gill-
rays, the back dark blue, with dark brown round spots, which, after a resi-
dence for some time in fresh water, become indistinct. This is the largest
species of this genus, which attains a length of 3' ; some have been taken
which weighed 5olbs. (old Dutch). This fish lives in winter in the sea after
having shot its spawn in fresh water. The eggs lie 100 days or more before
being hatched (in the spring). In the Mediterranean this species does not
occur; it particularly abounds in Scotland and Norway. The skeleton is
figured by KOSENTHAL, Ichthyot. Tafeln, Tab. vi. fig. i.

Family XVIII. Esocii. Body mostly covered with scales.
Dorsal fin near caudal, almost opposite to anal; no second adipose
fin. Margin of upper jaw partly formed by intermaxillary bone ;
supramaxillary bones edentulous. Swimming-bladder simple. Py-
loric appendages none. Pseudobranchia3 latent, glandular.

+ Inferior pharyngeal bones two.

Galaxias Cuv. Body naked. Branchiostegous membrane
with 6 — 9 rays.

Sp. Galaxias truttoceus Cuv., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xviu. PI. 543 ; — Galaxias
attenuotus VALENC., Mesites attenuatus JENNYNS, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Poiss. PI. 97, fig. 2, &c. Small fresh- water fishes from the southern hemi-
sphere. J. MUELLER, who would either make a distinct family of them or
unite them with the preceding, has drawn attention to the absence of
oviducts.

Esox L. (in part) Cuv. Body elongate, scaly, with snout
oblong, obtuse, depressed. Intermaxillary bones small, armed with
small sharp teeth. Teeth in lower jaw conical, unequal. Teeth in
vomer and palate subulate, small, crowded. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with 13 — 16 rays.

Sp. Esox Lucius L., BLOCH Ickih. Tab. 32, Slcandinaviens FisJcar, PI. 10 ;
the pike, le Brocket, der Hecht; the gill-membrane has mostly fourteen rays,
the number however is variable, sometimes even different on the two sides,
in one and the same fish ; the colour on the head and back is dark olive-
brown, at the sides spotted yellow, white below. This species is found in
the rivers of the whole of Europe and north of Asia, and even in some lakes
of North America (the lake Huron, for instance, RICHARDSON Faun, boreal.

108 CLASS XIV.

Amer. ill. p. 124, &c.), from which however another species must be dis-
tinguished which occurs in North America alone. The pike rarely attains
a length of more than three feet, or weighs more than twelve pounds,
although some have been taken that weighed twenty, thirty, or more
pounds. The pike is a very voracious, predacious fish, which feeds on other
fresh-water fishes, even of its own species, on frogs, rats, &c. ; it may
attain a great age1.

Some other species of pike are also found in North America, as Esox
americanusIjAG. (probably the species announced by SCHOEPF Naturforscher,
xx. p. 26), also Esox estor LESUEUR, Cuv. el VAL. Poiss. PI. 542, &c. The
entire genus would seem to be confined to the northern hemisphere did we
not know from PERON'S Voyage of a species which he appears to have caught
in Van Diemen's Land.

Stomias Cuv. Body elongate, with head short and gape of
mouth large. Lower jaw longer than upper. Teeth long, conical,
in an interrupted row in intermaxillary bone and lower jaw. Cir-
rus under the throat. Branchiostegous membrane with seventeen
rays.

Sp. Stomias boa VAL., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. XVIII. PI. 545, from the Medi-
terranean Sea ; much resembling Chauliodus, and perhaps not belonging to
the present family.

ft Inferior pharyngeal bone single. (Pharyngognathi malacopteryyii
MUELL.) Body elongate, carinate on both sides, with a row of longitudinal
scales. Swimming-bladder closed.

Belone Cuv. Both jaws produced into a subulate snout, the
lower beyond the apex of upper. Small teeth in both jaws ; some
larger, conical, mixed -with the smaller; palate bones edentulous.
Branchiostegous membrane with 12 — 14 rays. Scales small.

Sp. Belone vulgarisVALEXC., Esox Belone L. (excl. syn.), BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 33,
YARRELL Brit. Fishes, i. p. 391, ihe gar-fish, horn-fish, Hornhecht, Orphic;
in the North Sea ; this fish may attain the length of full two feet ; accord-
ing to VALENCIENNES small teeth on the vomer distinguish this species from
the rest, even from a very similar Mediterranean species with which it is
usually confounded (Belone acus Risso, C. BONAPARTE Faun. Ital. Tab. 122,
fig. i). Yet this character would seem at the least to be insecure, for
KROEIJER in the specimens from the North Sea examined by him did not
meet with these teeth. But in a specimen from our (Dutch) coasts I found

1 There is an account or a story respecting a pike which was placed in a fish-pond
at Heilbron by the Emperor Frederic II. in 1230, with a Greek inscription on a ring,
and fished up again in 1497, having been thus more than 267 years old ; it was 19 feet
long. Compare OKEN'S Lehrbuch der Zoologie, n. 1816, s. 100, IQJ, and VALEN-
CIENNES in Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xvin. pp. 305 — 312.

PISCES. 109

small acute teeth on the vomer as VALENCIENNES did, and believe that
KBOEIJER had overlooked them. Denmark's Fislce, in. 1846, pp. 276 — 277.

The spines have a lively green colour. The ribs are very delicate, and
the gill-covers thin, transparent, bony plates. Very young fishes have been
met with about i" long, with a short upper snout which has been regarded
as a species of Hemiramphus, but are the young of Belone. See such a fish,
found by Prof. BEHN in the Baltic in June 1842, and figured and described
by him in my Tijdschrift voor natuurlijke Gesch. en Phy&iologie, x. 1843,
bl. i — 1 i, and HoBNSCHUCH, ibid. bl. 295 — 300. In the western hemi-
sphere also and in the East Indies species of this genus occur, living partly
in fresh water, partly in the sea.

Scomberesox LAC., Sayris RAFIN., BONAP. Teeth very small,
in a single row in both jaws ; palatine teeth none. Tongue smooth.
Snout acuminate, protracted, lower jaw the longer. Branchial
aperture large. Branchiostegous membrane with 12 — 15 rays.
Body elongate, compressed, with small deciduous scales. Several
pinnules behind dorsal and anal fins, as far as caudal fin.

This genus is very similar to the preceding, and is principally distin-
guished by the many small dorsal and anal fins. A species has been found
in the Mediterranean Sea, Scomberesox Rondeletii VALENC., Saurus RON-
DELET, dePiscib. p. 232, BONAP. Faun. Ital. in. Tab. 122, fig. 2, which is
distinguished from that of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea (Scomber-
esox Camperi LACEPEDE, Poiss. v. PI. 6, fig. 3, YARRELL British Fishes,
I. p. 394), according to VALENCIENNES, by the absence of a swimming-
bladder.

ERNST HAECKEL Ueber die Eier der Sconiberesoces, MUELL. Archiv, 1855,
s. 23 — 31. PI. iv. u. v.

HemirampJius Cuv. Teeth small, crowded into a narrow belt
around the margin of each jaw ; palatine teeth none. Symphysis
of lower jaw produced into a narrow process beyond the row of
teeth ; upper jaw short, triangular. Branchiostegous membrane
with 10 — 14 rays. Scales large. Body elongate, with back
rotundate or flat.

Sp. Hemiramphus Brmcnii VALENC., Esox bra&iliensis L. (in part), BROWNE
Jamaica, Tab. 45, fig. 2. Encycl. mtth., Poiss. PL 72, fig. 298 ; West Indies
and Atlantic Ocean. There are also species in the East Indies, amongst
which Hemiramphus longirostris VALENC., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss.,
PI. 98, fig. 2, is distinguished by very large pectoral fins.

Exocoetm L. Teeth very small in the anterior part of both
jaws. Palate edentulous. Gape of mouth small. Branchiostegous

110 CLASS XIV.

membrane with 10 — 11 rays. Scales large. Pectoral fins elongate.
Caudal fin forked, with inferior lobe larger.

Flying fishes. In some species the pectoral fins are as long as the body j
by means of these long fins these fish can keep themselves for a time above
the water. (See above, p. 51). They are all marine fishes, of which more
than thirty species are now known, though LINN.EUS recorded two of them
only, namely Exocoetus volitans L., (Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. xix. PI. 559),
principally in the Mediterranean Sea, and Exoc. evolans L., BLOCH Ichth.
Tab. 398, occurring in the North Sea, the Atlantic, and also in the
Southern Pacific.

Family XIX. Mormyrini. Upper margin of mouth formed
by the intermaxillary and supramaxillary bones; mouth small;
teeth in intermaxillary bone and lower jaw compressed, small,
emarginate or tricuspid; teeth in vomer and tongue subulate,
crowded. Branchial aperture small, linear ; branchiostegous mem-
brane with few (5 — 6) rays. Body compressed, covered with small
scales ; head with naked thick skin. Dorsal fin single, often long.
Swimming-bladder simple, furnished with a duct.

Mormyrus L.

Fresh-water fishes from Africa, of which several species are now
known. They differ from the fishes of the preceding family by a
longer intestinal canal, and two blind tubes (appendices pyloriccc).
At the posterior margin of the mastoid bone (see above, p. 20,)
there is a large oval aperture, which was discovered by HEUSINGER
in Mormyrus cyprinoides, and which is covered by a scale-like os
supratemporale (see above, p. 22 note) ; under the opening lies the
sac of the vestibule.

See MECKEL'S Arckiv fur Anat. u. Physiol. 1826, s. 324 — 327, Tab. iv.
figs. 8—io.

At the tail, which is thickened, are situated on each side under the
lateral muscle two elongate organs, which cause the thickening, divided
into a number of spaces, and probably to be regarded as electric organs,
although, as far as I know, nothing has yet been ascertained respecting the
electric power of these fishes.

ERDL and GEMMINGER observed this arrangement in Mormyrus oxy-
rhynchus and M. dorsalis, KOELLIKER in Mormyrus longipinnis RUEPPELL ;
see KOELLIKER' s description with figures, Berichte von der Tcbnigl. Zooto-
mischen Anstalt zu Wurzburg, n. 1849, 8- 9 — 13- See a^so J- HYRTL,
Anatomische Mitiheilungen uber Mormyrus und Gymnarchus, Wien, 1856,
4to. Mit 6 Tafeln. (xii. J3d. der Denlcschr. der math, natur. Clause der
Kaiserl. A bad. der Wissensch.)

HYRTL has figured remarkable diverticuU at the bulb of the arterial stem
of the gills.

PISCES. Ill

Sp. Mormyrus longipinnis RUEPPELL, Mormyrus Caschive HASSELQUIST, It.
Palcest. pp. 398 — 400 ; — Mormyrus Geoffroyi VALENC., Centriscus niloticus
BL., Sen. Syst. IcJith. Tab. 30, fig. i; — Morniyr. oxyrhynchus GEOFFR.,
Mormyr. kannume FORSK. Descr. Animal, p. 74, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss.
PI. 51, fig. i ; — Morm. anguilloides L., SONNINI Voyage en Egypte, PI. 22,
fig. i, brain, &c.

Gonorhynchus GRONOV. (Genus of uncertain position). Mouth
edentulous, inferior ; middle cirrus in front of mouth. Small scales
covering body and head. Body elongate. Ventral fins somewhat
near to tail; dorsal fin over the ventral fins. Branchiostegous
membrane with 4 rays.

Sp. GonorJiynchus Gronovii VALENC., Cyprinus Gonorhynchus L., GRONOV.
Zoophyl. Tab. x. fig. i, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. Xix. PI. 568, from the Cape
of Good Hope. — Gonorh. abbreviatus SCHLEG. Fauna Japonica, Tab. 103,

fig. 5-

There are several blind appendages at the pylorus, nine in Gonorhyn. Gro-
notni, according to VALENCIENNES ; there is no swimming-bladder. These
peculiarities sufficiently indicate that LINN^US incorrectly united the genus
Gonorhynchus with Cyprinus.

Family XX. Clupeacei. No adipose dorsal fin. Upper jaw
composed of small intermaxillary bones and supramaxillary placed
at the sides. Body covered with distinct scales, often large.
Swimming-bladder furnished with a duct in most. Pyloric append-
ages in very many. Pseudobranchise similar to branchiae or none.
Inferior pharyngeal bones two.

This family has a very close affinity with Exoccetus and Hemi-
ramphus amongst the Esoces, which is interrupted by the preceding
family placed between the two in a linear arrangement. Still these
two genera possess in the unpaired inferior pharyngeal bone a very
aberrant character.

See HTRTL Ueber die accessorischen Kiemenorgane der Clupeaceen nebst
Bemerlcungen iiber der Darmkanal derselben. Mit 3 Tafeln. Aus dem
Xten Bande der math, natur. Classe der Kaiserl. Ale. der Wissensch. be-
sonders abgedruckt. Wien, 1855.

Osteoglossum YANDELLI, Isctmosoma SPIX. Body compressed,
covered with large scales. Head naked, with large infraorbital
bones covering the cheeks. Eyes at the apex of snout. Gape of
mouth large, teeth conical, acute, small in jaws, vomer, palate and
tongue. Two cirri at the symphysis of lower jaw. Branchiostegous
membrane with 10 — 15 rays. Dorsal fin remote, beginning behind
anal ; anal fin very long, approximate to caudal.

112 CLASS XIV.

Sp. Osteoglosswn Vandellii Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. xix. PI. 571 ; in the river
Amazon. The dorsal fin is long; the gill-membrane has 10 rajs; there
are two pyloric appendages, as in Mormyrus. — Osteoglossum formosum MU-
ELLER and SCHLEGEL, Verhand. over de nat. Geschiedenis der Nederl. overze-
esche Bezittingen, 1839 — 1844, Pisces, Tab. I, has a short dorsal fin, and 15
rays in the gill-membrane. This species occurs in lakes and rivers in the
south of Borneo. (Ischnosoma bicirrkosum SPIX, Select. Spec, et Gener.
Pise. Tab. 25, corresponds exactly with Osteoglossum Vandellii, except that
the anal fin is confluent with the caudal fin. VALENCIENNES thinks that
this may be an occasional malformation.)

Sudis Cuv. (not RAFIN.), Arapaima MUELL., Vastres VALENC.
Body elongate, covered with large hard scales. Head covered with
thick scaleless skin. Teeth conical in jaws, the upper in a single
row. Teeth crowded and acute in vomer, sphenoid, palatine and
pterygoid bones, and in tongue. Branchiostegous membrane with
16 rays. Dorsal fin and anal remote, short, covered, as is caudal
fin, with scales.

Sp. Sudis gigas Cuv., Vastres Cuvieri VALENC., Cuv. R. Ani., 1817, PI. x.
fig. 4 (ed. -2, 1829, PI. xn. fig. 4), and some other species ; see VALEN-
CIENNES in Cuv. et VAL. Pows. Xix. pp. 433—464. These fishes attain
a length of 6 or even 8 feet, and live in the river Amazon.

Heterotis EHRENB. (spec, of Sudis Cuv., RUEPP.). Body covered
with large hard scales. Maxillary teeth recurved, slender, approxi-
mate, in a single row ; teeth in pterygoid bones setaceous ; vomer,
sphenoid and palate-bones edentulous. Branchiostegous membrane
with 8 rays. Dorsal and anal fins remote, elongate, depressed;
caudal fin small, rotundate ; scales in these fins none.

Sp. Heterotis Ehreribergli VALENC., Sudis niloticus KUEPPELL Beschr. u. Abb.
mehrerer neuer Fische, 1829, Tab. 3, fig. 2, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xix. PI.
584 (at the third branchial arch EHRENBERG found an enigmatical conical
appendage with a spiral canal). — A similar species occurs in the Senegal,
Heterotis Adansoni VALENC.

This genus also has, like Osteoglossum, two pyloric appendages, which
here are large.

Notopterus LACEP. Body towards the tail recurved, compressed,
covered with small scales; abdomen bicarinate, serrate. Teeth
acute, crowded, in several rows in margin of jaws ; lesser teeth
crowded in palate, vomer and sphenoid bones. Branchiostegous
membrane with 6 — 8 rays. Cheeks and opercles scaly. Ventral
fins very small. Dorsal fin small, high, almost in middle of back.

PISCES. 113

Anal fin covered with small scales, very long, confluent with
caudal.

Sp. Notopferus Pallasii nob., Gymnolus notopterus PALL., Spirit. Zool. vn.
Tab. 6, fig. 2, &c. East Indian fresh-water fishes, which resemble Silurus
in the defect of the sub-operculum. They have affinity with Mormyrus, and,
notwithstanding their small scales, with Osteoglossum.

Chirocentrus Cuv. Body covered with very minute scales,
compressed, with abdomen carinate. Lower jaw produced beyond
upper. Teeth conical in jaws, the lower and two middle upper
larger; teeth very small in palate, in vomer none. Branchiostegous
membrane with 8 rays. Pectoral fins inserted in a furrow between
two lamellae, hard, triangular, acute, covered with scales. Ventral
fins very small. Dorsal fin placed over anal, shorter than anal.

Sp. Chirocentrus dordb VAL., Clupea dorab FORSK., Esoce ckirocentre LACEP.
Poiss. v. PI. 8, fig. i ; in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.

Alepocephalus Risso. Body covered with large thin scales.
Head naked. Teeth very thin in a single row in intermaxillary
bone and lower jaw. Palatine teeth very small, in vomer and
tongue none. Branchiostegous membrane with 6 rays. Dorsal
and anal fins scaly at the base, opposite to each other, remote.

Sp. Alepocephalus restrains Risso, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xix. PL 566 ; in the
Mediterranean Sea at great depths. This fish has no swimming-bladder.
CUVIER refers it to the Esocii, but there are here twelve pyloric appendages,
which, beside other characters, oppose this.

Lutodeira VAN HASS., RUEPPELL, Chanos LACEP. Mouth eden-
tulous. Body covered with scales, moderate. Two triangular scaly
lamellae at the base of both pectoral and ventral fins. Caudal fin
deeply forked, with two horny lamellae on each side at the base
of lobes. Branchiostegous membrane with 4 broad rays. Branchial
aperture ample, produced under the throat.

Sp. Lutodeira chanos RUEPP., Mugil chanos FORSK. Descr. Animal, p. 74;
Red Sea ; — Lutodeira orientalis VAN HASS., Bantam, RENARD Poissons,
Ecrevisses et Crabes de la Her des Indes, PL 34, fig. 184 ; Indian Ocean, &c.

Butyrinus CoMMERS., Albula GRONOV., VALENC. Body elon-
gate, covered with scales, hard, moderate. Head naked, with co-
nical snout produced beyond mouth. Teeth small, crowded, conical,
acute, in intermaxillary bone, in palate and in lower jaw; teeth
VOL. II. 8

114 CLASS XIV.

granular, round in sphenoid bone. Brancliiostegous membrane with
11—13 rajs.

Sp. Butyrinus Plumieri, Albula macrocephala VALENC., Albula Plumieri
BLOCH, Syst. Ichth. Tab. 86, LACEP. Poiss. v. PI. 14, fig. i ; West Indian
Sea. — Butyrinus lananus, Argentina glossodonta FORSK., LACEP. Poiss.
V. PI. 8, fig. 2 ; in the Indian and Red Seas1.

Hyodon LESUEUR. Body compressed, with belly carinate.
Scales moderate. Teeth in jaws conical, with a single row in
upper, a double row in lower. Teeth in vomer, in palate and
pterygoid bone ; teeth of tongue large, subulate, recurved. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with 9 — 10 rays. Dorsal fin small, placed
over the beginning of longer anal fin.

Sp. Hyodon tergisus LESUEUR, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xix. PL 572, &c. ; fresh-
water fishes of North America.

Elops L. Body elongate, with abdomen prominent, round, com-
pressed towards the tail, covered with moderate scales. Gape of
mouth ample. Teeth very small, crowded in jaws, vomer, sphenoid,
palatine and pterygoid bones. Branchial aperture ample ; branchios-
tegous membrane with 25 — 35 rays. Acute lamella at the base
of pectoral and ventral fins, as well as above and below caudal
fin.

Sp. Elops saurus L. (and Argentina Carolina ejusd.), in the Western and
Eastern hemispheres, in the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, the Indian
Ocean, &c.— Elops lacerta VALENC., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xix. PL 575,
Western Coast of Africa.

Megalops LAC.

This genus almost agrees with the preceding, but is distinguished by a
smaller number of gill-rays (22 — 25) and by the elongation of the last ray
of the dorsal fin, which as a long thread reaches nearly to the caudal fin,
also by larger scales and large eyes. Sp. Megalops atlanticus VALENC.,
Cameripuguacu MARCGR. Hist. Brasil. p. 1 79 (Clupea gigantea SHAW),
which attains a length of 3' — 12'; — Megalops indicus VALENC., Clupea
cyprinoides BROUSSONET, Ichth., Decas I. 1782, Tab. 9, Cuv. et VAL.,
Poiss. xix. PL 576; this species, which is often confounded with the pre-
ceding, appears to continue always much smaller.

1 To this genus, beyond doubt, belong the description and figure of eenen zeldza-
men visch, Conorhynchus of C. NOZEMAN in the Uitgez. Verhand. in. p. 381, PL 25. —
N. says that the fish was a native of the Mediterranean. Hitherto, however, no
species of the genus from that sea ia found in collections.

PISCES. 115

Clupea L. (excl. of some genera). Teeth in jaws, palate and
tongue small; sometimes no teeth. Gape of mouth moderate.
Superior maxillary bones divided into 3 laminae. Jaws subequal,
or lower produced beyond upper. Branchiostegous membrane with
6 — 8 rays. Body compressed, elongate, keel of abdomen serrate.
Scales large, thin, deciduous.

A very numerous genus, which VALENCIENNES has lately divided into
many small genera, based especially on the teeth. Since however the teeth
are very fine, and occur sometimes in young fishes of the same species that
are afterwards without them, since moreover many of these groups do not
differ in habitus and other characters, we cannot adopt these divisions as
genera, and even think that some of them are of little service as sub-genera
for the distinction of the species. We shall, nevertheless, as far as our plan
permits, follow them.

t Supramaxillary bone adhering by a movedble joint to the end of the tmaU
intermaxillary bone. Lower jaw produced beyond the upper.

A. Very small teeth in vomer, tongue and palate. Jaws rough, with very
minute teeth.

Clupea VALENC. (and Eogenia ejusd.). Branchiostegous membrane
with 8 rays.

Sp. Clupea harengus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 29, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., 3d. ill.,
Poiss. PI. 104, fig. i ; the herring ', der haring, lehareng, a fish of the North
Sea, which does not occur in the Mediterranean, and of an astonishing
fecundity. When WILLEM BEUKELZ at the end of the fourteenth century
had discovered the mode of curing herrings, the capture of this fish, the
great fishery of Holland, soon became a gold-mine for the country ; which,
in the seventeenth century sent out annually about two thousand herring-
boats. VALENCIENNES has treated at length of the natural history, and
of the history of the fishery, Hist. not. des Poiss. xx. pp. 31 — 242.

Clupea alba YARR., Rogenia alba VALENC., YARR. Brit. Fish. u. p. 126,
Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. PI. 60 1, has teeth not only on the palate-bones, but also
on the pterygoids. This is the celebrated white-bait of the English. In the
beginning of summer white-bait dinners are very common at Greenwich
and Blackwall.

All the known species of this sub-genus are from the northern hemisphere ;
Clupea pontica belongs to the Black Sea, and a fourth different species to
the coasts of North America.

B. Teeth of vomer none ; teeth in tongue, palatine and pterygoid bones.
Jaws with teeth very small or none.

Sardinella VALENC. Jaws edentulous. Dorsal fin placed over
ventral fins. Branchiostegous membrane with 6 rays.

Harengula VALENC. Branchiostegous membrane with 6 or 7
rays.

8—2

116 CLASS XIV.

Sp. Clupea sprattus L., YARR. Brit. Fish. n. p. 121 ; the sprat. — Most of the
species of this sub-genus are exotic.

Pellona VALENC. Ventral fins placed before dorsal fin. Anal
fin long. Branchiostegous membrane with 6 rays. Abdomen com-
pressed, convex, sharply serrate.

Sp. Clupea Iserti, Clupea africana BLOCH, &c. ; numerous, all exotic, mostly
East Indian species.

Pristigaster Cuv. Ventral fins none. Abdomen as in sub. genus
Pellona.

Sp. Pristigaster cayanus Cuv., M. Ani., PI. X. fig. 3 ; e"d. 2, PI. xil. fig. 3.
Species foreign.

C. Teeth of vomer and of pterygoid bones none.

Spratella VALENC. Teeth in palate bones and in tongue alone.

D. Teeth of vomer and palate bones none.

Clupeonia VALENC. Teeth in tongue and in pterygoid bones
alone.

Sp. Clupea Jussievi LACEP. Poiss. v. PI. n, fig. 2 ; Clupea melanura Cuv.,
Clupeonia Commersonii VALENC., LACEP. ibid. fig. 3; Clupea Blochii, Clupea
sinensis BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 405.

Kowala VALENC. Teeth in jaws and in pterygoid bones.

Sp. Clupea Kowal RUSSELL, Corom. Fish. PI. 86, cited by VALENC., SCHLEGEL
Faun. Japon., Pise. PI. 107, fig. i.

Meletta VALENC. Teeth in tongue only. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with 7 rays, more rarely with 6.

Clupea meletta, Meletta vulgaris VALENC., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xx. PL 603 .
— Clupea thrissa auctor (not L.), ChaloessusCvv., BROUSSON, 1. 1. Tab. 10;
in this species the last ray of the dorsal fin forms a long thread ; it is found
on the coasts of America.

Alosa Cuv. Teeth either none, or small, deciduous in jaws alone.
Upper jaw emarginate in the middle. Branchiostegous membrane
with 8 rays.

Sp. Clupea Alosa L., Alausa vulgaris VALENC., YAEB. Brit. Fish. n. p. 136,
Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. XX. PL 604 ; the shad, I'alose ; this fish lives in the
North Sea and the Mediterranean, and belongs to the species which, at a
.certain time of the year, come into fresh water. Thus, in April it is not
rare in the mouth of our rivers, and at Rotterdam, for instance, is com-
monly known. The Clupea finta Cuv., Clupea fallax LACEP., is, according
to VALENCIENNES, by no means to be regarded as a distinct species. — There

PISCES. 117

are about twenty foreign species of this sub-genus, partly in the East
Indies, at China and Japan, partly in the Western hemisphere.

ft Supramaxillary lone behind the intermaxillary inserted into the cethmoid
lone produced. Jaws equal, with snout tumid above the mouth.

Chatoessus VALENC. (Cuv. in part). Teeth none. Branchioste-
gous membrane with 6 rays. Last ray of dorsal fin produced in
many into a long seta.

Sp. Clupea nasus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 42 7, Peddah-Kome RUSSELL, from Pon-
dicherry ; — Chatoessus Cepedianus, Megalops Cepedianus LESUEUB, Cuv. et
VAL. Poiss. XX. PI. 612 ; on the coasts of N.America, &c.

Engraulis Cuv. ^Ethmoid bone produced beyond the mouth.
Gape of mouth very ample, produced behind the eyes, with long
Supramaxillary bones. Vomer, palatine and pterygoid bones mostly
rough or armed with very small teeth. Maxillary teeth very small,
sometimes none. Branchial aperture very ample; branchiostegous
membrane with 9 — 14 rays. Scales thin, often deciduous. Abdo-
men in some rotund, in others carinate, serrate.

Sp. Engraulis encrasicholus Cuv., Clupea Encrasicholus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab.
30, fig. 2, YARR. Brit. Fish. n. p. 140, the anchovy, Vanchois, in the Medi-
terranean and North Sea; there are 12 or 13 rays in the gill-membrane,
15 — 17 rays in the pectoral, and 7 in the ventral fin ; the length is mostly
from 5" to 6".

In some species (the sub-genus Thryssa Cuv.) the upper jawbones are pro-
duced into free, long threads. In these the abdomen is furnished with a
sharp serrated margin. Sp. Engraulis setirostris, Clupea setirostris, BBOUS-
SON, Ichth. Tab. xi. ; from the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.

Coilia GRAY, Trichosoma SWAINS.

Exotic fishes, related to the preceding genus ; with setae elongate,
free over the pectoral fins.

Odontognathus LAC., Gnathobolus SCHN. Body elongate, com-
pressed, covered with deciduous scales, with abdomen serrate.
Supramaxillary bones elongate, cuspidate. Maxillary teeth small,
conical. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Ventral fins
none. Dorsal fin small, remote ; anal fin very long, depressed.

Sp. Odontognathus aculeatus LACEP. Poiss. n. PI. 7, fig. 2, Cuv. et VAL.
Poiss. xxi. PI. 611; from the West Indies. This genus differs little from
Engraulis, except in the absence of the ventral fins.

118 CLASS XIV.

Family XXI. Heteropygii. Upper margin of mouth formed
principally by the intermaxillary bone. Teeth acute, small in jaws
and palate, none in vomer and tongue. Body scaly. Head naked.
Dorsal fin remote, opposite to anal. Vent in front of pectoral fins
behind gills. Ventral fins small. Aperture of gills small. Pseu-
dobranchiae none. Swimming-bladder furnished with a duct to the
oasophagus.

Amblyopsis DEKAY. (Characters of family.) Branchiostegous
membrane with six rays. Two very small black points at the sides
of head, instead of eyes.

Sp. Amblyopsis spelceus. A small fish from the United States of America,
first described by DEKAY" in the Fauna of New York, with which I
am not acquainted. It lives in a subterranean grotto in Kentucky, and
is — like other annuals removed from the light — whitish or colourless.
DEKAY placed this genus with the Siluroidei, from which^however it differs
by the scaly body. There are two small pyloric appendages ; nevertheless,
I think that this genus is best placed in the neighbourhood of the Cyprino-
dontes. It differs from all the other Malacopteryyii abdominales in the
position of the vent. See WYMAN Descr. of a Blind Fish, &c. Annals
of Nat. Hist. xii. 1843, pp. 288, 299 (from SILLIMAN'S American Journal,
1843), an(1 TELLKAMPF in MUELLEU'S Archiv, 1844, s. 381 — 394, Taf. ix.

II. Malacopterygii apodes. Ventral fins none. Body elongate,
skin thick and soft, with scales often small hidden in the skin.
Swimming-bladder in most, either furnished with a duct or closed.

Family XXII. Gymnotini. Pectoral belt affixed to cranium.
Upper margin of mouth formed in the middle by the intermaxillary
bones, at the sides by the small supramaxillaries. Teeth mostly
subulate or conical, small, in the intermaxillary bone and in lower
jaw; some similar teeth in the fore part of vomer and in the sym-
physis of lower jaw. Branchial aperture in front of pectoral fins.
Ovaries furnished with duct. Swimming bladder open by a duct
into the oesophagus, double in many. Pyloric appendages.

* Dorsal fin.

Ch/mnarchus Cuv. Dorsal fin longitudinal. Tail towards the
finless apex acuminate. Head naked; body scaly.

Sp. Gymnarchus niloticus Cuv. R. Ani., 2e edit. PI. 13, fig. 3. A represen-
tation of the skeleton is given by J. HYBTL Denkschr. der mathem. nalur.
Classe der Kaiserl. Akad. der Wissensc/i. zu Wien, 1856. Compare FOERG-
Remarques sur I'appareil pulmonaire du Gymnarchus niloticus, Ann. des Sc.
not. 36 Se'rie, xx. 1853, pp. 151, 162, PI. 5, and HYBTL, 1. 1.

* * Dorsal fin none.

PISCES. 119

Stemarchus SCHN. Body compressed, scaly; head naked.
Caudal fin distinct, separated by an interval from anal. Anal fin
Beginning from throat, with vent placed under the throat. Mem-
branous cirrus in back, affixed by tendinous filaments.

Sp. Stemarchus albifrons SCHN., Gymnotus albifrons L., PALL. Spirit. Zool.
vn. Tab. vr. fig. i ; — Stemarchus oxyrhynchm MUELL. and TROSCH. Hor.
Ichth. ill. Tab. 2 ; in South America, like all the species of this family.
There are two groups of conical teeth in the intermaxillary bone, and two
rows of similar teeth in the lower jaw.

Carapus Cuv. Body depressed, scaly; head naked. Anal fin
)roduced as far as the apex of tail, attenuated, and without dis-
tinct caudal fin.

Sp. Carapus Carapo, Gymnotus Carapo L., BLOCK Ichth., Tab. 157, fig. i, &c.

Carapus rostratus, Gymnotus rostratus L., BLOCH Syst. Ichth. Tab. 106 ;
the mouth is without teeth, at the end of an elongated snout, narrow at its
termination. MUELLER and TROSCHEL form from this species the sub-genus
Rhamphichthys. There are only three rays in the gill -membrane, whilst
the other species have five.

Gymnotus Cuv. (spec, of Gymnotus L.). Body round, with in-
distinct scales. Tail truncate, with caudal fin conjoined with anal.

Sp. Gymnotus electricus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 156, Cuv. R. Ani., td. ill.,
Poiss. PL no, fig. i ; the electrical eel, PAnguille electrique. This species
lives in fresh water, in ponds, &c. in South America, and attains the consider-
able length of more than five feet. The electric organs comprise two larger
above, and two smaller below, and are situated on each side of the body,
occupying about three-fourths of its length ; the large organs lie immedi-
ately under the skin, the inferior are covered by the muscles of the anal fin.
The apparatus is formed by membranous, aponeurotic partitions, which run
in the length of the body almost parallel to each other, and between which
extremely fine transverse plates are situated, thus forming small chambers
filled with fluid. The nerves which run to the electric organs are not here,
as in Torpedo a,ndMalapterurus(see above, pp.64, 89), branches of cerebral
nerves, but branches of spinal nerves, of more than two hundred pairs of
nerves, which for the most part also give branches to the swimming-bladder.
The shocks are subject to the will of the animal ; by repetition of them the
fish loses for a time the electric power ; hence, in order to capture these
electric eels more easily, wild horses are sometimes driven into the water,
and exposed to their first attacks.

Compare J. N. S. ALLAMAND Verhandelingen van de Haarl. Maatschap-
pij, IT. 1755, bl. 352 — 379 ; — J. HUNTER An Account of the Gymnotus elec-
tricus, Phil. Trans. Vol. 65, Part 2, 1775, pp. 395— 407, or in the collec-
tion published by R. OWEN, of his Observations on certain parts of the

120 CLASS XIV.

Animal Economy, 1837, pp. 415 — 421, PI. 56,57; G. VALENTIN, Beiiraye
zur Anatomic des Zitteraales, Neuchatel, 1841, 4to, (A us dem viiten Bde
der Neuen Denkschriften der allg. Schweizer. Gesellsch. f. Naturwissenschaf-
ten,) and in WAGNEE'S HandworterbucJi der Physiol. i. s. 266, 273.

See also, especially on the mode of capture of Gymnotus to which we have
alluded, HUMBOLDT in his Recueil d'Observat. de Zool. et d'Anat. comp. i.
pp, 83 — 148, Reise in die ^Equinoctial Gegenden, m. s. 294 — 324. Physical
and chemical experiments with Gymnotus were performed especially by
FARADAY some years ago; Philos. Transact, for 1839, Part i. p. i, and
following.

Family XXIII. Symbranchii. Pectoral belt annexed behind
the head to the spinal column. Upper margin of mouth formed
by intermaxillary bones descending to the angle of mouth, the
supramaxillaries being placed next to them. Teeth in jaws and
bones of palate. Branchial aperture single under the throat.
Ovaries supplied with duct. Intestinal tract straight, and without
pyloric appendages. Swimming-bladder none, at least in most.

Monopterus COMMERSON. Common branchial aperture trans-
verse, divided by a septum. Teeth very small, subulate, crowded
in jaws and palate. Lips fleshy, expanded beyond the margin of
jaw. Pectoral fins none. Dorsal and anal fins remote, confluent at
the apex of tail. (Branchiostegous membrane with six rays; only
three pairs of branchiae.) Posterior orifice of nostrils above the
eye, anterior below the eye.

Sp. Monopterus javanensis COMMERS., LACEP. The Rijk's Museum possesses
specimens of this genus from Java and Borneo, up to 2' feet in length.

Amphipnous MUELL. Common branchial aperture divided by a
septum. Head narrowed in front of eyes, obtuse at the apex.
Posterior aperture of nostrils above the eyes, anterior at apex of
snout. First and fourth branchial arch without branchiae. Two
small bladders, respiratory, open into the mouth in front of first
branchial arch. Body finless; tail compressed, with a sharp edge
above and below, acuminate.

Sp. Amphipnous cuchia, Unibranchaperlura cuchia, BUCHANAN Fishes of the
Ganges, PL 16, fig. 4, pp. 16, 17. The respiratory sacs receive blood from
the branchial arteries of the second and third branchial arch, and send
their veins to the aorta ; two of the arches of the branchial arteries go
immediately into the aorta. TAYLOR in Edirib. Journal of Science, v. 1831,
pp. 42—49.

PISCES. 121

Symbranchus (Synbranchus BLOCH), Unibranchapertura LACEP.
Common branchial aperture, transverse or oval, not divided by a
septum. Orifice of nostrils (single on both sides) above the eye.
Dorsal and anal fins remote, confluent at the apex of tail. (Bran-
chiostegous membrane with six rays. Teeth obtuse.)

Sp. Symbranchus marmoratus BLOCH, Icktk. Tab. 418, from Surinam, &c.

Alabes Guv.

NOTE. — Genus unknown to me. The characters of Symbranchus, from
which it differs in having pectoral fins, and only 3 rays of branchiostegous
membrane.

Family XXIV. Murcenoidei. Pectoral belt annexed to spi-
nal column behind the head. Superior margin of mouth formed
by intermaxillary bones alone ; rudiment of supramaxillary bone
covered by muscles. Pyloric appendages none. Swimming-bladder
furnished with retia mirdbilia of vessels and with duct. Ovaries
without oviduct.

Sphagebranchus BL. Apertures of branchiae approximate under
the throat. Pectoral fins small or none. Dorsal fin remote ; some-
times no fins. Eyes often very small.

Sp. Sphagebranchus rostratus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 419, Syst. IcJith. Tab. 103,
fig. i • this species has no pectoral fins, neither has the East Indian species
described by VAHL under the name of Ccecula pterygera ; STcrivter of natur.
Selslcabet, in. 2, 1794, Tab. 13, figs, i, -2.

There is a species which is also destitute of both dorsal and anal fin,
consequently is entirely without fins. From this DUMERIL forms his genus
Apterichthus. Murcena cceca L., LA ROCHE Ann. du Mus.xiu. PI. -21, fig. 6.
The small eyes are concealed beneath the skin ; this fish lives in the Medi-
terranean Sea.

Saccopharynx MITCHILL, Ophiognathus HAKWOOD. Body com-
pressed, with abdominal sac ample, terminated by a long filiform
tail. Anal and dorsal fins depressed, longitudinal. Pectoral fins
small. Branchial aperture gaping forwards under pectoral fins.
Gape of mouth large. Eyes small, placed at the extremity of upper
jaw.

Sp. Ophiognathus ampuUaceus HABWOOD Philos. Transact, for 1827, Part i.
pp. 4g — 57^ pi. 7. This singular fish is taken in the Atlantic Ocean. The
size of the specimen described by HABWOOD was 4^ feet ; there was a single
row of teeth, pointed and bent backwards in both jaws. Compare also
MITCHILL, Description, of an extraordinary fish, Annals of the Lyceum of
New York, i. 1824, pp. 82—86.

122 CLASS XIV.

Anguilla THUNB. (spec, of Murcena L.). Teetli subulate in jaws
in a narrow belt and in anterior "part of vomer. Opercular bones
small, surrounded by numerous incurved, slender rays of the bran-
chiostegous membrane. Branchial apertures at the base of pectoral
fins. Anterior orifice of nostrils tubular, in the apex of snout.
Dorsal and anal fins produced to the apex of tail, and confluent.

Anguilla Guv. Dorsal fin commencing at half the interval
between head and the beginning of anal fin.

Sp. Anguilla vulgaris FLEMING, Murcena anguilla L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 73;
the common eel, VAnguille, der Aal; the under jaw is longer than the upper.
This fish is generally known, and becomes 2 or 3 feet long. There are
several varieties (or species according to some writers), which have been
described under distinct names, and have been observed amongst us ; we
record only Anguilla acutiroslris YARRELL, Brit. Fish. n. p. 284, Anguilla
latirostris YARRELL, 1. 1. p. 298 ; the figure of BLOCH, cited above, belongs
to Anguilla acutirostris. Both Norwegian and English naturalists have ob-
served the young eels in the Spring to ascend in the mouths of rivers in large
troops, even by day, at which time the full-grown eels, as is well known, keep
themselves concealed. Although no direct observations on the propagation
of eels are yet known, it is nevertheless very improbable that they should
be viviparous ; sometimes intestinal worm shave been mistaken for embryos;
compare CREPLIN in Arckivf. Naturgeschichte, vn. 1841, s. 230 — 233.

On the generation of the eel see H. RATHKE Bemerlcungen ueber einen
hochtrdchtigen Aal, MUELLER'S Archiv, 1850, pp. 203 — 206.

Conger Cuv. Dorsal fin beginning above pectoral fins. (Upper jaw pro-
tracted beyond the lower.)

Sp. Conger vulgaris, Murcena conger L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 155, YARRELL
Brit. Fishes, II. p. 304 ; conger-eel ; the dorsal fin is edged with black, and
extends close to the pectoral fins; the lateral line is dotted white. This
fish becomes 6 feet long. Specimens have been recorded of even 10 feet in
length.

Murcena THUNB., Crymnothorax BLOCH, Murcenophis LACEP.
(Species from genus Murcena L.). Teeth in jaws in one or more
rows, sometimes crowded; teeth in vomer, often large, conical,
sometimes in a single longitudinal row, in the middle of bone.
Opercular bones small, surrounded by circular rays of the branchio-
stegous membrane, very thin, concealed under the skin. Apertures
of branchiae small, lateral. Pectoral fins none.

On the teeth of the different species of this genus compare Cuv. R. Ani.
i> PP- 35 !> 352 (sec. <$dit.)and OWEN Odontography, pp. 164—166, PI. 56.

Sp. Murcena Helena L., BLOCH Ichth., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 109,
fig. 2. A figure of the skeleton is to be found in KOSENTHAL Ichthyot.

PISCES. 123

Tafeln, Tab. 23. The Romans kept these fishes, which were highly esteemed
by them, in stews. Of VEDIUS POLLIO it is related that he cast his con-
demned slaves to these fishes ; PLINIUS Hist. not. Lib. xi. c. 23 ; compare
SENECA de Ira, Lib. in. cap. 40.

Uropterygius RUEPPELL. Teeth in jaws acute, conical, in a double
row. Solitary conical tooth in vomer. Caudal fin small, as if formed
by the confluence of dorsal and anal fins.

Ophisurus LAC. Dorsal and anal fins not produced as far as the
apex of tail ; apex of tail subulate. (Remaining characters almost
those of Anguillce, but some species approach the Murcence by their
small pectoral fins, scarcely distinguishable.)

Sp. Ophisurus colubrinus, Murcena colubrina GMEL., LACEP. Poiss. v. PI. 19,
fig. i; — Murcena ophis L.; — Murcena serpens L. &c.

Tribranchus PETERS.

Leptocephalus GRONOV., PENNANT. Body compressed, sub-pel-
lucid. Head very small, acuminate. Teeth very minute. Pectoral
fins very small, placed behind the branchial aperture. Dorsal and
anal fins longitudinal, confluent with one another at the tail.

Sp. Leptocephalus Morrisii PENN., GBONOV. Zoophylac. I. Tab. 13, fig. 3,
LACEP. Poiss. n. PI. in. fig. 2, YABRELL Brit. Fishes, n. p. 311 ; in the
North Sea and Mediterranean.

Family XXV. Ophidini. Swimming-bladder either closed and
without pneumatic duct, or none. Pyloric appendages mostly none.
Pseudobranchise pectinate. Ovaries furnished with oviduct.

Ammodytes L. Body elongate, covered with very small scales.
Head compressed, acuminate; lower jaw produced beyond upper.
Teeth none. Branchiostegous membrane with six or seven slender,
setaceous rays. Dorsal and anal fins long, depressed, produced
nearly to the distinct, forked caudal fin.

Sp. Ammodytes Tolianus L., BLOCH Jchfh. Tab. 75, fig. t, Skandinaviens
Fiskar, PI. 54; the sand-eel; (compare above, p. 53). RAY and
LINN.EUS were of opinion that two species occur on the coasts of
Europe. The accurate discrimination of the two is principally due to
LESAUVAGE. The other species is named by CUVIEE Ammodytes lancea;
it continues smaller than the preceding, has the under jaw less projecting,
and a dorsal fin which is prolonged more forwards, to above the pectoral

124 CLASS XIV.

fins. Sandlaunce; a figure is to be found in YAEBELL British Fishes, u.
p. 322.

The ovary is single, but divided by a partition ; the oviduct is wide, and
more to the left side, inserted in the ovary almost at a right angle ; an
appendage of the ovary extends behind the vent into the tail. See RATHKE
in MUELLER'S Archiv f. d. Physiol. vi. s. 597, 598.

The position of this genus in a natural arrangement is doubtful. It has
no agreement however with the preceding family except in the absence of
ventral fins.

Ophidium L. Body oblong, ensiform, covered with small scales
immersed in the skin. Small teeth in jaws, in vomer and palate.
Dorsal and anal fins connate with caudal. Pectoral fins. Branchial
aperture larger, with six or seven short rays.

Sp. Ophidium larlatum L., BLOOH Ichth. Tab. 159, fig. i ; four barbules
below the under jaw. This species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea. The
skeleton is remarkable for a bony apparatus at the first vertebra, which
serves for fixing the swimming-bladder. It is figured in ROSENTHAL
Ichthyot. Tafeln, Tab. 22, figs. 7, 8. Pyloric appendages are wanting in
this genus, with the exception of Ophidium blacodes, where there are six ;
MUELLER iiber den Bau u. die Grenzen der Ganoiden, s. 61. The teeth in
the jaws are like cards, and are placed in several rows close together ;
those of the palate are conical, short and roundish. These fishes form the
transition to the Gadoidei, and in some degree to Blennius.

The absence of barbules distinguishes the sub-genus Fierasfer Cuv.
(Ophidium imberle L.). Here belong the following sub-genera.

Machcerium RICHARDSON.

Compare Annals of Nat. Hist. xn. 1843, pp. 175—178, Tab. vi.
Echwdon THOMPSON.

Compare Trans, of the Zool. Society, u. 3, 1839, PP- 2O7> 2I2> P1- 38-

Enchelyophis MUELL.

NOTE. — The single Species, from the Philippine Isles, Enclielyophis ver~
micularis MUELL., is unknown to me. Pectoral fins none. Vent placed
forward, behind branchiae. MUELLER Ganoiden 1. 1.

III. Malacopterygii subbrachn. Ventral fins placed under the
pectoral or in front of them.

Family XXVI. Gadoidei. Body elongate, scaly; head sym-
metrical. Swimming-bladder without pneumatic duct. Pyloric
appendages numerous.

PISCES. 125

Macrurus BLOCK, Lepidoleprus Risso. Head and body covered
with scales mostly carinate or spinose on the posterior margin.
Snout produced over the mouth ; mouth inferior. Numerous small
teeth in intermaxillary bone and lower jaw; lingual and palatine
teeth none. Cirrus under chin. Branchiostegous membrane with
six rays. Ventral fins placed under pectoral. Dorsal fins two,
second very long, confluent at the point of the acuminate tail with
anal.

Sp. Macrurus Fdbricii SUNDEV., Coryphcena rupestris FABR., BLOCH Ichih.
Tab. 177, from Greenland, with scales sharply carinate ; — Macrurus Stro-
emii REINH., Coryphcenoides rupestris GUNNERUS, with flat scales having fine
spines at the posterior margin ; on the coasts of Norway. A very similar
species occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, Lepidoleprus codorhynchus BiSSO,
BONAP. Faun. Ital. ni. PL 123, fig. i.

In other species the snout is more prolonged and pointed ; as in Lepido-
leprus trachyrhynchus Risso, Ichih. de Nice, PL 7, fig. 21, and a very
similar species from Japan, Macrurus japonicus SCHLEGEL, Faun. Japan.
Pise. Tab. 112, fig. 2. These fishes appear to reside at great depths in
the sea.

Compare on this genus SUNDEV ALL Kongl. Vetenslc. Acad. Handlingar
for 1840, pp. i — 14 (transferred to OKEN'S Isis, 1845, s- IO1 — IO3)-

Ateleopus SCHLEGEL. Scales inconspicuous or none. Head pro-
duced beyond the mouth, obtuse ; mouth protractile, inferior. Teeth
small, crowded in intermaxillary bone and lower jaw; teeth in
palate and vomer none. Cirri none. Branchiostegous membrane
with eight rays. Ventral fins placed in front of pectoral, consisting
of a single cirrus formed of two rays intimately joined. Dorsal fin
small above the pectoral fins. Anal fin very long, distinct from the
small caudal.

Ateleopus Schlegdii nob., Fauna Japonica, Pise. Tab. 112, fig. 2; the
only known specimen of this rare Japan fish was 2' 2" long. The genus
Ateleopus appears to stand between Macrurus and the sub-genus Brotula
(under Gadm) ; of the internal structure nothing is known.

Gadus L. Head smooth. Body covered with scales mostly very
small, circular, entire at the posterior margin. Teeth conical, nume-
rous in intermaxillary bones, in lower jaw and in vomer. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with seven rays. Ventral fins jugular, acu-
minate. Mostly several dorsal and anal fins.

A numerous genus of marine fishes, of which many species in
northern countries constitute the chief food of man, and form when

126 CLASS XIV.

dried or salted an important article of commerce. The capture of
these fishes is for the people of some countries, as of Iceland, what
the harvest is for the inhabitants of more temperate regions ; their
favourite food is the cod.

A. Head broader than 'body, depressed.

Raniceps Cuv. Dorsal fins two, first scarcely to be distinguished,
second long; anal fin long. Ventral fins distant, with first and
second rays elongate. Single cirrus of throat.

Sp. Raniceps /wscwsKROEYER, Blenniusfuscus STROEM.,
NICH, MUELLER Zool. Danica, Tab. 45, Skandinaviens Fiskar, Tab. 21.
This fish has only two rudimentary pyloric appendages, and differs more
from the ordinary Gadi than the rest of the sub-genera. It lives in the
North Sea, and also comes sometimes into the Baltic. Gadus trifurcatus
PENNANT (Raniceps trifurcatus, YARRELL Brit. Fishes u. p. -204), does not
differ from this species, according to FRIES and KROEYER.

B. Head not broader than body, compressed.
t Ventral fins uniradiate.

Phycis AETEDI. Dorsal fins two. Single gular cirrus. Head
and body covered with thin scales (larger than in the other Ga-
doids).

Sp. Phycis mediterraneus LAROCHE, Ann. du Mus. xm. pp. 332, 333, Blen-
nius phycis ~L., RONDELET p. 186, WILLUGHB. Tab. No. 12, fig. 3.

Phycis furcatus, Gadus furcatus PENN., YARRELL Brit. Fishes, n. p. 201 ;
the ventral fins are not placed very close together.

Brotula Cuv. Dorsal and anal fins united with caudal. Cirri
several, sometimes none. Ventral fins contiguous.

Sp. Brotula barbata, Enchelyopus barbatus SCHN., Syst. IcJith. p. 52 ; a species
from the West Indian Sea, figured by PARRA, PI. 31, fig. 2 (whose work
(Description de diferentes piesas de historia natural, Havana, 1787, 8vo,) is
known to me from citations alone. To this genus belong two species from
Japan, Brotula multibarbata SCHLEGEL, Faun. Japonica, Pisces, Tab. in.
fig. 2, and Brotula imberbis SCHLEGEL, ibid. fig. 3.

In Brotula multibarbata there are only two small pyloric appendages, as
in Raniceps. Faun. Japonica, Pise. p. 253.

Gadopsis nov. gen. VERANY, FILIPPI.

Sp. Oligopus ater Risso. Compare Ueber die Schwimmblase des Oligopus
ater Risso, Aus einem Schreiben der Prof. FILIPPI in Turin an A. KOEL-
LIKER, Zeitschr. f. ivissensch. Zool. vn. 1855, s. 170, 171.

nscES. 127

ft Ventral fins with several rays, mostly 5 or 6.

a) Dorsal fin single, long; anal fin single.

Brosmius Cuv.

Sp. Gadus brosme GMEL., Brosmius vulgaris Cuv., YABRELL Brit. Fishes, n.
p. 197.

b) Dorsal fins two ; anal fin single.

Motella Cuv. First dorsal fin very low or rudimentary, inserted
in a furrow. Ventral fins distant.

Sp. Gadus Mustela L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 165, &c.

Lota Cuv. First dorsal fin exsert. Mental cirrus. Ventral fins
distant.

Sp. Gadus Lota L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 70 ; Cuv. R. Ani., ed. M., Poiss.

PI. 1 06, fig. 3 ; the eel-pout, burbot; the only species of this family that
ascends rivers and is taken in fresh water.

Merluccius Cuv. First dorsal fin exsert. Chin without cirrus.
Teeth large, acute, disposed almost in a single row.

Sp. Gadus Merluccius L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 164, Skandinaviens Fiskar,
PL 33 ; the under jaw longer than the upper ; the haJce.

c) Dorsal fins three, anal two. Mental cirrus single or none.
Gadus Cuv. (with add. of genus Merlangus ejusd.)

Sp. Gadus Merlangus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 65, Skandinaviens Fiskar,
PI. 1 8 ; the whiting; without barbule ; upper-jaws longer. Gadus jEgle-
finus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 62, Skandinaviens Fiskar, PI. 19; the
haddock; Gadus (Call arias and) Morrhua L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 64,
Skandinaviens Fiskar, PL 47 ; the cod; these species have a barbule at the
lower jaw. (Gadus Callarias of authors is, according to FRIES, KBOEYEB
and others, a name given to younger cod-fishes.) When dried this species
(and Gadus Merluccius also) supplies the so-called stock-fish, when salted
the Haberdine (salt-fish). The oil of the liver (Oleum jecoris asetti) cod-
liver oil is much used, especially in glandular affections.

Family XXVII. Pleuronectce. Body compressed, covered
with scales small or moderate, mostly denticulate at the posterior
margin. Head asymmetrical ; both eyes placed on the same side.
Branchiostegous membrane mostly with 7 rays. Dorsal and anal
fins very long. Pectoral fins small, very often unequal, sometimes
none. Swimming-bladder none.

The soles or flat-fishes, forming the genus Pleuronectes L., are
marine fishes, which commonly keep in deep water; some species

128 CLASS XIV.

occur also at times in fresh water. They are found in both
hemispheres and in all climates. On account of their dentate scales
AGASSIZ refers this family to the Ctenoides, which division, but for
it, contains Acanthopterygii alone; but we must observe, that the
rays of the dorsal and anal fins, although soft, are still mostly not
split into threads. This family forms in fact the transition to the
Acanthopterygii. In almost all the species there are 7 rays in the
gill-membrane; Pleuronectes limandoides BLOCH has 8.

These fishes are distinguished especially by the position of the
eyes on one side of the head ; in some they lie on the right side,
but in as great or perhaps even a greater number of species on the
left. Sometimes varieties are observed in this respect, and the eyes
lie on the opposite side to that on which they are usually placed in
that species, which has been often seen in Pleuronectes flesus L., the
flounder; nay, it has even been observed, that on both sides of the
head an eye was placed, as in other vertebrate animals f. The side
on which these eyes are placed is coloured, the other white; the
side with the eyes is in some sense to be regarded as the back, and
in swimming is turned upwards; often the jaws are more strongly
developed on the opposite side, and the teeth larger; sometimes
these last are entirely wanting on the upper side. On account of
the great development of the tail the abdominal cavity is placed
quite forward and is very small. The pectoral fins, which are of
small service in swimming, are wanting in some, and are always
little developed. The ventral fins also, which lie close together and
are situated under the pectoral fins, always remain very small.

On the structure of these fishes interesting remarks may be found
by AUTENRIETH in WIEDEM ANN'S Archiv fur Zoologie u. Zoot. I, 1800,
s- 57 — ^o ; skeletons are figured in KOSENTHAL Ichthyot. Taf. xi.

See P. J. VAN BENEDEN Note sur la Symmetric des Poissons pleuronectes
dans leurjeune Age, Ann. des Sc. not. 30 Se*rie, xx. pp. 340 — 342.

•»

Pleuronectes QUENSEL, SUNDEV. Maxillae apparent externally,
not covered with scales. Superior maxillary bone with free, dilated
apex. Opercula free above pectoral fins. Eyes moderate. Nostrils
remote from jaws, placed on the blind side at the dorsal margin.
Caudal fin always distinct, truncate or rounded.

1 In Pleuronectes maximus; see SCHLEEP, OKEN'S Isis, 1829, s. 1049 — IO53>
Taf. in.

PISCES. 129

Rlionibus Cuv. Teeth minute, acute, in several rows. Dorsal
fin commencing in head in front of eyes.

Sp. Pleuronectes maximum L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 49 ; the turbot ; the eyes on
the left side, which is coloured brown and beset with small tubercles. In
some species the eyes, which are very large, are far asunder, as in Pleuro-
nectes rhomboides BONAP., Pleuronectes mancus Risso, BONAP. Faun. Ital.
in. Tab. 99, fig. i, from the Mediter. Sea, and Rhombus myriaster SCHLEG.
Faun. Japon., Tab. 92, fig. 2, from Japan.

Platessa Cuv. Teeth in a single row, obtuse or subacute. Dorsal
fin beginning over the upper eye. Interstice of eyes small. (Eyes
mostly on the right side.)

Sp. Pleuronectes Platessa L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 42 ; the plaise or plaice; the
brown-coloured right side with orange or red spots ; between the eyea
a stripe of six or seven tubercles ; — Pleuronectes Limanda L., BLOCH Ichih.
Tab. 46, the dab, &c.

HippoglossuA Cuv. Teeth strong, acute, incurved, the anterior
very large, arranged in multiple row. Interstice of eyes depressed,
broad, with upper eye often placed almost at the ridge of back.
(Body somewhat narrow, elongate.)

Sp. Pleuronectes Hippoglossus L., BLOCH, Tab. 47 ; the halibut, &c.

Solea QUENSEL, SUNDEV. Jaws concealed under the scaly
skin, the upper rotund, the lower shorter. Mouth incurved.
Teeth on lower side alone, thin, cylindrical, minute, in several
rows. Branchial aperture below pectoral fins. Eyes small ; lower
eye placed behind the other, almost at the angle of mouth. Nostrils
placed on both sides behind the maxillary margin. (Body oblong,
narrowed towards tail ; with caudal fin often confluent with dorsal
and anal.)

Sp. Solea vulgaris GOTTSCHE, KROEYER, Pleuronectes Solea L., BLOCH Ichth.,

Tab. 45, Skandinaviens FisTcar, Tab. 39 ; the sole ; sometimes only six

rays in the gill-membrane ; eyes on the right side.

Add genera Monochirus Cuv. (with pectoral fin on lower side
none) and Achirus LAC. (with pectoral fins none).

ORDER X. Acanthopterygii.

Branchiae pectinate, with narrow laciniae. Supramaxillary bones
not connate with intermaxillary. Eays supporting the anterior
part of dorsal and anal fins inarticulate, mostly hard, strong, acumi-
nate at the apex.

VOL. II. 9

130 CLASS XIV.

Spine-finned. This order of fishes is the most numerous of all. The scales
are in most furnished with fine spines or points at the posterior margin
(Ctenoides AGASSIZ). The ventral fins have commonly a hard pointed ray,
like the first rays of the dorsal and anal fins ; they are placed in almost
all under or in front of the pectoral fins, and only in few behind these, as is
the case in so many malacopterygians.

t Lower pharyngeal bone unpaired. (Pharyngognathi acanthopterygii
MUELL.)

Family XXVIII. Chromides. Pharyngeal bone divided by a
longitudinal suture into two lateral portions. Dorsal fin single.
Ventral fins placed under pectorals. Scales almost always ctenoid,
often large. Fleshy lips duplicate. Brancliiostegous membrane
with five rays. Pseudobranchiae none.

Etroplus. Teeth of jaws arranged in a double row with acute
margin exsert or tripartite. Anal fin with several (11 — 13) pun-
gent rays.

Sp. Etroplus coruchi Cuv. et VAL. P<riss. v. PI. 136; — Etroplus maculatus
Cuv., Chcetodon maculatus BLOCH, Ichlh. Tab. 427; East Indian fresh- water
fishes, which were placed by CUVIEB in the family of the Scicenoids with
filyphisodon LAO.

Ghromis Cuv. (in part) Acara, Heros, Greophagus, Chceto-
Iranchus HECK. Body compressed. Teeth of jaws thin, conical,
crowded, forming a band, with front row somewhat larger. Lateral
line interrupted, anterior part convex, parallel to back, posterior
straight in the middle of tail. Dorsal, anal and ventral fins acumi-
nate, with some rays produced into filaments.

Sp. Chromis niloticus Cuv., Labrus niloticus HASSELQ., Iter Pcdcest. p. 346.
SONNINI Voyage en Egypte, PI. 27, fig. r ; this fish, named Bulti or Bolti,
is, according to HASSELQUIST, the best in the Nile, and reaches a size of
2'. The head is broad and thick. This species has cycloid scales, whilst
in the other species they are ctenoid. This Chromis, or another nearly allied
species, occurs also in South Africa : Tilapia Sparmanni SMITH ; comp.
J. MUELLER in ERICHSON'S Archivf. Naturgesch. 1843, PP- 3%l> 382.

Chromis Gronovii, Acara Gronovii HECK., Labrus bruneus GRONOV.
Mus. Ichth. p. 36, Zoophylac. Tab. V. fig. 4, (probably not specifically
different from Labrus punctatus L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 295, fig. i) from
Surinam; the head and the anterior part of the back very thick and
round.

Here belong different species of S. American fresh- water fishes, on which
compare HECKEL Ann. des Wiener Museums, n. 1840, s. 337—407.

Here also belong the genera Uaru, Symphysodon, Pterophyllum and
Batrachops of the same writer.

PISCES. 131

Cichla BL., SCHN. (excl. of some species). Maxillary teeth
small, thin, crowded, forming a broad band, with no front row of
larger teeth. Body oblong. Scales small. Lateral line abruptly
deflected, or interrupted.

a) With prseoperculum entire. Cichla HECK. Habitus of Perca.

Sp. Cichla brasiliensis, Perca Irasiliensis, BLOCH Ichtk. Tab. 310, fig. i, &c.

b) With praeoperculum denticulate. Crenicichla HECK. Habitus of Esox.

Sp. CicJda saxatilis, Sparus saxatilis L., GRONOV. Mus. Ichth. 2, p. 29, ibid,
and Zoophl. Tab. VI. fig. 8 ; a brown stripe behind the eye above the
operculum, and a black oval spot bordered with white in front of the
caudal fin ; from Surinam.

Family XXIX. Pomacentrini. Inferior pharyngeal bone un-
paired, without longitudinal suture, with teeth conical or subulate,
acute. Dorsal fin single. Ventral fins placed under pectorals.
Scales large, ctenoid. Rays of branchiostegous membrane 4 — 6.
Pseudobranchise. Lateral line convex, ending at the termination of
dorsal fin.

This family, which contains marine fishes alone, whilst the pre-
ceding consists of river-fishes, is also distinguished by the absence
of lips or folds of skin around the jaws. CUVIER referred the
genera belonging to it to the Scicenoids ; HECKEL first pointed out
their affinity with the Labroids, Ann. des Wiener Museums, n. p. 330.
By far the greatest number of species belong to the Indian seas.
Comp. H. SCHLEGEL and S. MUELLER in Verhandelingen over de
Natuurlijke GescMedenis der Nederlandsclie Overzeesche Bezittingen;
Vischen, 1.1. 17 — 25.

Most of the species are striped with broad bands across the body, of
a white or darker colour, strongly contrasting with the ground-colour,
which in the first case is blackish, in the other white. They are all
small, or only of moderate size.

i) Several rows of m<ixillary teeth.

Heliases Cuv. Teeth thin, conical, those of front row larger
than the rest. Body compressed, broad. Prseoperculum with
margin entire. Branchiostegous membrane with five rays. Ventral
fins acuminate. Caudal fin forked.

Sp. Helioses insolatus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. v. PL 137, from the Antilles, one
of the few species of this family from the W. Hemisphere; — Heliaces
cinerascens Cuv. et VAL., SCHLEG. and S. MUELLER 1. 1. PI. 6, fig. 5, from
Java, &c.

9-2

132 CLASS XIV.

To this genus belongs also, according to HECKEL, Sparus chromis L.,
Chromis castanea Cuv., Helioses chromis nob., RONDELET De Piscibus,
p. 152, Cuv. JR. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 90, fig. i ; a small fish, of dark
brown or black colour, found in the Mediterranean Sea. Since this species
was the first that caused CUVIER to form the genus Chromis (Mem. du Mus. I.
P- 353) HECKEL would allow it to retain the name Chromis.

Dascyllus Cuv. Teeth conical, numerous. Body compressed,
broad. Prseoperculum denticulate. Branchiostegous membrane
with five or six rays. Caudal fin bilobed.

Sp. Dascyllus aruanus, Chcetodon aruanus L. Mus. Adolphi Frider. Tab. 33,
fig. 8, BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 198, fig. 2 ; — Dascyllus niyer BLEEKER, Poma-
centrus trimaculatus RUEPPEL, from the Red and Indian Seas, &c.

2) Single row of maxillary teeth.

Glyphisodon LAC. Teeth equal, with margin acute, often ex-
sert. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Prseoperculum
with margin entire. Caudal fin forked or bilobed.

Sp. Glyphisodon codestinus Cuv., Ldbrus sexfasciatus LAC. Poiss. in. PL 19,
fig. 2, Cuv. et VAL., Poiss. v. PI. 135; from the Indian Sea and Southern
Pacific ; with numerous other species from the eastern and some from the
western hemisphere.

Pomacentrus LACEP. (excl. of species), Cuv. Teeth small.
Branchiostegous membrane with four rays. Prseoperculum den-
ticulate. Operculum entire. Caudal fin excised, or bifurcate.

Sp. Pomacentrus pavo LAC., Cuv., Chcetodon pavo BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 198,
fig. I. Cuv. E. Ani., td. ill., Poiss. PI. 32, fig. 3 ; from the Indian
Sea, &c.

Premnas Cuv. Teeth obtuse. Praeoperculum denticulate. Sub-
orbital bone with one spine or two directed backwards. Branchio-
stegous membrane with six rays. Caudal fin rounded.

Sp. Premnas trifasciatus Cuv., Chcetodon Uaculeatus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 219,
fig. 2, SCHLEG. and S. MUELLER 1. 1. Tab. 5, fig. 5 ; Premnas semicinctus
Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. V. PI. 133, fig. I ; both from the Indian Sea at the
Sunda Isles.

Amphiprion BL., SCHN. (excl. of several species). Teeth coni-
cal, obtuse, small. Operculum, suboperculum and prseoperculum
striate, with margin serrate. Branchiostegous membrane with five
rays. Caudal fin rounded.

Sp. Amphiprion ephippium SCHN., Cuv., Lutjanus Ephippium BLOCH Ichth.
Tab. 250, fig. 2, at Java ; — Amphiprion percula Cuv., BLOCH Ichth.
Tab. 316, fig. 3 ; at Java, Sumatra and Celebes, &c.

PISCES. 133

Family XXX. Labroidei. Lower pharyngeal "bone unpaired
and without longitudinal suture ; pharyngeal teeth globose, thick
or lamellose, oval, tranverse, placed in transverse rows. Mouth with
fleshy lips. Dorsal fin single, supported anteriorly by spines,
posteriorly by split rays, the spines often increased by a filiform
appendage. Ventral fins placed under pectorals. Body oblong,
covered with cycloid scales; Pseudobranchia3. Branchiostegous
membrane with five rays, in few with six.

Lip-fishes. As the Pleuronectce are soft-firmed fishes, which be-
long to the Ctenolepidoti, so this family with some others forms an
exception amongst the spine-finned fishes, which usually have
toothed or spined scales, and is provided with smooth-margined
(cycloid) scales. A primary character, which also occurs in the two
preceding families, consists in the unpaired inferior os pliaryngeale ;
but from both the preceding the present family is distinguished by
the large, blunt teeth which cover that bone as well as the upper
ossa pharyngealia in form of a pavement. (See the bones figured in
Scarus, OWEN'S Odontography, PL 51.)

The fourth branchial arch has branchial leaflets on the fore side
alone; the fourth gill is thus only a half gill (see above, p. 33).
All the fishes of this family live in the sea.

Near the Labroidei seems to be the place for some new species
of fishes from San Francisco, Hollonoti. Comp. GIBBONS and
GIRARD Archivfur Naturgesch. XXL 1 (1855) s. 331 — 341, 342 —
354.

Scariis FORSK., GMEL. (excl. of some spec.). Jaws rather pro-
minent, convex, covered with teeth grown together imbricately.
Fleshy lips simple. Pharyngeal teeth transverse, vertical laminae,
arranged in lower pharyngeal bone in alternating rows. Body
covered with large scales. Lateral line branched, interrupted.

Parrot-fish. The articular portion of the lower jaw (os articulare, p. 27) is
connected with the anterior portion (the os dentale) by a joint, so that it has
here a moveable connexion at both extremities, and not at the upper part
alone, with the jugal bone (p. 21). In the dental piece there is a cavity on
each side, which serves for the joint.

The species are very numerous, and we may reckon the species now
known at about one hundred, of which a fourth part are at home around
the Sunda Isles and in the Moluccan Archipelago. They keep principally
upon the coral reefs.

134 CLASS XIV.

Sp. Scarus cretensis RONDEL, (not BLOCH), Labrus cretensis L., ALDROVANDI
de Piscib. p. 7, fig. 4, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 44, fig. 3; at one time co-
loured red, then blue again ; this fish lives in the eastern parts of the Mediter-
ranean Sea, and was highly esteemed by the ancients; — Scarus Abildyaardi
VAL., Scarus coccineus, BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 259, LACEP. Pom. in. PI. 33, fig.
3, from the West Indies, &c. See on this genus especially Cuv. et VALENC.
Poiss. Tom. xiv. pp. 132 — 284 ; compare also P. BLEEKER Overzigt der te
Batavia voorkomende gladschubbige Labroieden, Verhandelingen van het
Batav, Genootsch. vanKunsten en Wittensch. xxn. Batavia, 1849, PP- 4 2 — 64.

Callyodon GRON., (in part) Cuv. (Calliodon). Upper jaw with
lateral teeth remote, acute, with an inner row of smaller teeth.

Sp. Callyodon ustus VALENC., GRONOV. Mus. Ichth. Tab. 7, fig. 4, Cuv. et
VAL. Pom. PL 405 ; — Calliodon japonicus VAL., Cuv. et VAL. PL 406, and
better, Fauna Japonica, Pisces, Tab. 89.

Odax Cuv.

Epibulus Cuv. Teeth in jaws in a single row, the two inter-
mediate above and Ibelow larger, exsert, the rest small. Mouth
protractile, exsert, longer than head. Pharyngeal bones with coni-
cal teeth. Body compressed, covered with large scales. Lateral
line interrupted.

Sp. Epibulus insidiator Cuv., Sparus insidiator PALL. Spicil. Zool. vin.
pp. 41 — 44, Tab. V. fig. i, (with snout protracted), Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill.,
Poiss. PL 88, fig. 2 ; der Betriiger, le filou; in the East Indies, at Java,
Sumatra and the Molucca Islands. This fish captures other fishes almost
in the same way that the larvae of libellulce overpower their prey (see above
I. p. 421); it watches, without moving, until a small fish in its neighbour-
hood swims past, and then seizes it by very rapidly projecting the tube, at
the extremity of which are the jaws. The intermaxillary bones have long
pedicles which, when the snout is retracted, lie in grooves upon the skull,
and when it is extended bound the margin of the tube at the upper side.
The articular pieces of the lower jaw are long, and the jugal is a thin curved
bone whose convex margin is turned forward ; when the intermaxillary
bones glide forwards, the jugal also is drawn forward and causes the under
jaw to project.

Cheilinus LAC., Cuv. Maxillary teeth conical; middle and
inferior incurved, two middle and upper small, placed between
two large, incurved, divaricate ; lesser teeth in second row, behind
the middle ones of both jaws. Pharyngeal teeth in some conical,
in others cylindrical or sub-globose. Scales large. Lateral line
interrupted.

Sp. Cheilinus fasciatus Cuv., Sparus fasciatus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 257;—
Cheilinus trilobatus LAC., Poiss., III. PL 31, fig. 2, &c. ; species from the
Indian and Ked Seas and the Pacific Ocean.

PISCES. 135

Xyrichthys Cuv. Maxillary teeth conical, in a single row,
with two larger, exsert, incurved in the middle of both jaws.
Pharyngeal bones covered with globose teeth. Head truncato-
declivous, with eyes approximate to the back, very remote from
mouth. Body compressed, covered with scales mostly large.
Lateral line interrupted. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays1.

Sp. Xyrichthys cultratus VALENC., Coryphcena, Novacula L., RONDELET de
Piscib. p. 146, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. xiv. PI. 391 ; in the Mediterranean
Sea. — In some species the first three rays of the dorsal fin are placed much
forward and separate from the rest. From the species with small scales
under the eyes, on the prceoperculum, VALENCIENNES forms the sub-genus
Novacula. To this belong Xyrichthys pentadactylus, Coryphcena pentadac-
tyla L. (exl. syn. WILLUGHB.), BLOCH Ichth, Tab. 173, Cuv. et VAL. 1. L
PI. 395, from the Indian Sea, at Celebes.

Ldbrus L. (in part), Cuv. (add Cremlabrus and Coricus ejusd.).
Maxillary teeth conical, in a single row, or in front row, with
lesser and crowded teeth forming a second row. Pharyngeal teeth
cylindric, globose or conical. Upper lip duplicate, with skin folded
transversely in front of suborbital bones. Cheeks and opercula
scaly. Lateral line continuous.

Sp. Labrus mixtus L., Ldbrus variegatus GM., Ldbrus vetula BLOCH, Ichth.
Tab. 293, male, Labrus carneus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 289, fern. (Labrus
trimaculatus GMEL., VALENC.). All these names, to which probably
Labrus ossifragus L. might be added, refer to one species, which occurs in
the Mediterranean and in the North Sea, and of which the two sexes are
marked very differently ; see the figures of both in the celebrated work of
FRIES, EKSTROEM and SUNDEVALL, STcandinaviens Fislcar, PI. 37, 38.
Probably this, like other northern species, occurs now and then on the
Dutch coasts, although, as far as we know, it has not yet been observed.
As found on our coasts we are alone able to record : Ldbrus maculatus
BLOCH, Ldbrus Berggytta ASCAN., VALENC., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 294,
Skandinav. Fisk. PI. i ; this is the largest of the northern species, and
attains a length of 15". The lively colours of this, as of many other
fishes, change rapidly after death, and in this respect the figures cited in the
work on the fishes of Sweden are to be relied on in preference to all the
rest, since they were always taken from living specimens. YARBEL describes
ii species of Ldbrus and Crenilabrus as frequenting the British coasts.

Crenildbrus Cuv. Prseoperculum denticulate. Mouth not pro-
tractile.

Coricus Cuv. Prseoperculum denticulate. Mouth protractile.

1 In Tautoga also BLEEKER found six gill-rays. All the other genera of this family
appear to have five.

136 CLASS XIV.

Gomphosus LAC. Head naked, narrowed anteriorly, with
mouth small, terminal. Maxillary teeth in a single row, the two
middle above and below larger. Lateral line continuous. Caudal
fin truncate or lunate.

Sp. Gomphosus cepedianus QUOY et GAIMARD, Voyage de FREYCINET, Zool.
PI- 55> fig- ^ Cuv- ^ VALENC. Poiss. xiv. PI. 390 ; snipe-fish, KENARD,
VALENTIJN ; from the Moluccan Archipelago and the Southern Pacific ;
— Gomphosus fuscus VALENC., LACEP. Poiss. m. PI. v. fig. 2; — Gomphosus
cceruleus LACEP. Poiss. 1. 1. fig. i.

Anampses Cuv. Head naked. Only two teeth in each jaw,
exsert, curved outwards, the upper broader. Lateral line continuous.
Branchiostegous membrane with six rays.

Sp. Anampses Cuvieri QUOT et GAIM., Voyage de FREYCINET, PI. 55, fig. r.
South Pacific; — Anampses geographicus VALENC., Cuv. etVAi. Poiss. xiv.
PL 389, from the Indian Ocean, at Celebes, &c. All the species are from
the eastern hemisphere, but some from the Red Sea.

Julia Cuv. Head naked. Maxillary teeth subulate, two or four
middle above and below larger; lesser teeth in second row. Lateral
line continuous, abruptly geniculate. Branchiostegous membrane
with six rays. (Scales in some species small. Colours variegated,
lively.)

Sp. Julis vulgaris VALENC., Labrus julis L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 387, fig. i,
Cuv. et VAL. Pom. Xili. PI. 384 ; from the Mediterranean Sea ; — Julis
hortulanus VALENC., Labrus centiquadrus LAC. Poiss. m. PI. 79, fig. i ;
East Indies, at the Sunda Islands ; — Julis lunaris VALENC., Labrus lunaris
L., GRONOV. Zoophyl. i. Tab. vi. fig. 2, Labrus zeylanicus PENNANT, Indian
Zoology, London, 1790, Tab. xvi. fig. 2, Scarus Gallus FORSK. ; Red Sea,
Indian Ocean, &c.

Most of the species of this numerous genus, (about 100 are known),
•which well deserves and requires a monograph, are from the Indian Ocean ;
there are, however, also some species from the western hemisphere.

•f*t Lower Pharyngeal bones two, separate. (Order of Acanthopten

MUELL.).

Family XXXI. Aulostomi (s. Fistulares). Body in some
covered with scales denticulate on the posterior margin, in some
with scaleless skin.. Ventral fins placed in abdomen behind pec-
toral fins. Head elongated into a cylindric snout. Jaws at the
apex of snout. Dorsal fin remote.

PISCES. 137

Pipe-snouted jishes. The production of the head in front of the
eyes, resembling that of the head in Syngnathus, is formed by the
length of the ethmoid bone and vomer and of the prceoperculum.
The jaw-bones are of the usual length. These fishes differ from
almost all the other A canthopterygii in this, that, according to the
position of the ventral fins, they belong to the abdominales of LIN-
NAEUS. They belong chiefly to the tropical seas. Some species of
this family have been found fossil in the Monte-Bolca.

Centriscus L. Body oval or oblong, compressed, with ab-
domen carinate. Head, produced into a very narrow snout, with
mouth small. Dorsal fins two, very remote, the first with a
strong anterior spine. Branchiostegous membrane with two or
three rays.

Sp. Centriscus Scolopax L., BLOCH Ickth. Tab. 123, fig. i, GUEBIN Iconogr.,
Poiss. PI. 45, fig. 2; from the Mediterranean Sea; the body is covered
with small scales. In an East Indian species the body is more elongate
and covered above or on the sides also with long thin scales, whilst the tail
behind the first dorsal fin is bent downwards; this species is Centriscus
scutatus L., GRONOV. Mus. L Tab. vn. fig. 3, BLOCH 1. 1. fig. 2. From this
is formed the genus Amphisile KLEIN, Cuv. — Centriscus velUaris PALL.,
Spic. Zool. vm. Tab. iv. fig. 8, makes in some sense the transition between
these two forms. I have not seen this fish myself, yet from the figure
of PALLAS, I am disposed rather to leave it with Centriscus scolopax, than
to refer it to the sub-genus Amphisile.

Aulostomus LAC. Body elongate, covered with small scales.
Mouth edentulous at the end of the compressed, obtuse tube.
Short conical cirrus under the apex of lower jaw. Body higher at
the very remote dorsal and anal fins, from thence attenuated into
the short tail. Several separate spines in a furrow of back in front
of dorsal fin. Caudal fin rounded. Branchiostegous membrane
with four rays?

Sp. Aulostomus chinensis LAC., Fistularia chinensis L., BLOCH Ickth.
Tab. 388; in the Indian and Chinese seas, also rarely at Japan. The
specimens which I have seen of this fish had, with the exception of a small
black spot at the base of the ventral fins and of two brown or black spots
on the caudal fin, the body of one colour. BLOCH has drawn this fish with
many spots.

A specimen coloured red, with a row of black spots on the belly and
some similar spots on the tail, in the Rijlcs-Museum at Leyden, appears to
agree with Aulostoma maculatum VALENC., Cuv. R. Ani.} ed. ill., Poiss,

138 CLASS XIV.

PL gi, fig. i, (in which figure, however, as in all with which I am
acquainted, the barbule at the lower jaw is omitted). According to
VALENCIENNES this species is from St Domingo.

Fistularia L. (in part). Body elongate, covered with naked
skin. Snout compressed, very long; teeth small, subulate, few, in
a single row in intermaxillary bone, in lower jaw and on both sides
of palate. Lower jaw without cirrus. Dorsal fin single, short.
Ventral fins small, distant. Caudal fin forked, with single or
double very long terminal seta between the lobes. Branchiostegous
membrane with six or seven rays.

Sp. Fistularia tdbacaria L., Mus. Adolph. Frider. Tab. 26, fig. i. BLOCH
IchJLk. Tab. 387, fig. i ; this has only one thread at the caudal fin (i) ;
— Fistularia serrata BLOCH, ib. fig. 2 ; with two threads. Both species are
from South America.

F'istularia immaculata CoMMERS., J. WHITE Journal of a Voyage to
New South Wales, PI. 64, fig. i • in the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific ;
common at Japan. The colour during life is brown-red ; there is a single
thread at the caudal fin.

Family XXXII. Theutides. Body compressed, scaly, oblong
or oval. Scales small, smooth, mostly rough posteriorly with thin
spines. Mouth small, with maxillary teeth in a single row; pala-
tine teeth none. Dorsal fin single, long. Ventral fins thoracic.
Caudal fin narrow at the base, ample towards the extremity, trun-
cate or excised. Lateral line, parallel to back, curved at the com-
mencement, posteriorly straight.

A small family of marine fishes from warm regions, all living on
vegetable food. In the habitus they approach nearest to some
Scombero'ids, as Stromateus.

t Hard pungent rays in anal fin two or three. Skin rough, with
scales very small, sometimes inconspicuous or none.

Keris VALENC. Teeth subulate. Tail unarmed. Ventral fins
jugular, with a single pungent ray and five soft.

1 Does this species also occur on the coast of Africa ? The Rijlcs- Museum received
a specimen from Guinea resembling in marking that of BLOCH. The species of
this genus are not yet sufficiently distinguished.

PISCES. 139

Priodon Cuv. Teeth serrate. Tail unarmed. Branchiostegous
membrane with three rays. Ventral fins with one ray pungent
and three soft.

Sp. Priodon annularis Cuv., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. x. PL 294, Indian Sea at
Timor.

Acanthurus FoKSK., LACEP. Teeth serrate. Tail with a move-
able sharp spine on each side, the apex directed forward, or armed
with a row of compressed, carinate laminae (Prionurus LAC.).
Branchiostegous membrane with five rays. Ventral fins with single
ray pungent and mostly with five soft.

Sp. Acanthurus hepatus Cuv., Teuthis hepatus L. (excl. synon. in part), Cuv. et
VAL. Poissons, x. PL 288 ; — Acanthurus triostegus Cuv., Chcetodon triostegus
L. (omissa synon. in part), BBOUSSONET Ichth. Tab. 4, (and less good, SEBA
Thesaur. in. Tab. 25, fig. 4, LACEP. Poiss. iv. PL 6, fig. 3), yellow-green
with five black stripes; in the Indian and Pacific Ocean; — Acanthurus
chirurgus BL., SCHN., Chcetodon chirurgus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 208, from the
West Indies; — Acanthurus Delisiani Cuv., VAL., GUEBUT Iconogr., Poiss.
PL 35, fig. 2 ; Indian Ocean, from the island Mauritius to Ceylon, &c.

Prionurus microlepidotus LAC., Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. x. PL 292;
— Prionurus scalprum, Acanthurus scalprum LANGSD., SCHLEGEL Faun.
Japon., Pise. Tab. 70.

Naseus COMMEES., Monoceros BLOCH, SCHN. Teeth conical, in
a single row. Scales scarcely conspicuous. Head often tumid in
front of eyes or produced into a horn. Tail with two spines on
each side, or with triangular lamellas placed upon an oval scute.
Branchiostegous membrane with four rays. Ventral fins with a
single pungent ray and with only three soft rays.

Sp. Naseus fronticornis COMMEBS., WILLUGHB., Hist. Pisc.t Tab. O, 4;
GUEBIN Iconogr. Poiss. PL 35, fig. 3, (under the name of Naseus longi-
rostris) ; Red Sea, Indian Ocean, South Pacific ; — Naseus tuber COMMEBS.,
LAC. Poiss. in. PL 7, fig. 3, &c.

Axinurus Cuv. Teeth thin. Tail armed on each side with a
compressed, sharp, horizontal lamella. Head gibbous and without
horn j mouth small. Branchiostegous membrane with five rays.

Sp. Axinurus thynnoides Cuv., Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. x. PL 298 ; New
Guinea.

The length of the intestinal canal is remarkable in these fishes. In a
specimen of Naseus fronticornis of 10" long, the intestinal canal was
observed to be 4' long j Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. x. p. 268.

140 CLASS XIV.

ft Pungent rays in anal fin seven. Scales distinct, small or
moderate, with posterior margin entire (cycloid).

Amphacanthus BL., (Seganus Fc-RSK. Centrogaster HoiJTT1).
Teeth small, in a single row in both jaws, emarginate at the apex
or cuspidate. Ventral fins with two rays, external and internal,
pungent, with three soft rays interposed. Tail unarmed.

Fishes from the eastern hemisphere which are distinguished, like
Etroplus (see above, p. 130) and the genera Centrarchus Cuv. and
PolyacantJius V. HASS., by the numerous spinous rays of the anal fin;
more characteristic still is the furnishing of the ventral fins with a spinous
ray on the inside, a peculiarity which occurs in no other genus of fishes.
The styliform bone of the belt of the pectoral fins, which is regarded
as a coracoid bone (see above, p. 1 7), is strongly developed, and extends
in an arch backwards to attach itself to the first inter-spinal bone of the
anal fin3. A species from the Red Sea (Amphacanthus luridus EHRENB. or
Amphacanthus siganus RUEPP. ?) is named by the Arabs Sidjan, from which
the generic name Siganus is borrowed.

Sp. Amphacanthus javus Cuv., Teuthis javus L., Hepatus GRONOV. Zoophyl.
I. Tab. 8, fig. 4 ; on the back dark-coloured, greenish, below grey, with
yellow- white round spots on the back, which on the sides pass into elongated
spots, and downwards into stripes; — Amphacanthus guttatus BL., SCHN.,
BLOCH Ichth. 196 ; — Amphacanthus corattinus Cuv., VAL. Verh. over de not.
Gesch. der Nederl. Bezittingen, Pise. Tab. 2. fig. 2, Dictionn. univ. d'Hist.
not. Poiss. PI. u, fig. i; — Amphac. marmoratus QUOT et GAIM. Voy. de
VUranie, PI. 62, Diet, class. d'Hist. nat. PI. 108, &c.

Family XXXIII. Halilatrachi s. Chironectce. Bones of car-
pus elongate, forming a pedicle, sustaining pectoral fins. Body
mostly scaleless, with head large. Ventral fins jugular. Branchiae
only three complete, with last arch naked or branchiferous on the
anterior margin alone. Rays of branchiostegous membrane six.

Chironectes Cuv. (Antennarius CoMMERS.). Body compressed,
naked. Three branchiae with semibranchia. Branchial aperture
narrow, rotund, behind pectoral fin. Three spinous rays above head,
separate from dorsal fin, the dorsal supported by soft rays, com-
mencing in back in front of anal fin, long.

1 M. HOUTTUYN described a couple of species of this genus under the name of
Centrogaster; Verhand. van de Holl. Maatsch. der Wetensch. te Haarlem, xx. Dl.
•ze Stuk, 1782, pp. 332—334.

a GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE Anat. philos. I. p. 471, PI. ix. fig. 108.

PISCES. 141

Comp. CUVIEB &ur le genre Chirontcte; Mem. de Museum, n. 1817,
pp. 418—435, PL 16— 18.

These fishes are on the whole small. They have a large swimming-
bladder, and are able, by distending the stomach, to inflate their body.
The pediculated pectoral fins and the ventral fins placed in front of them,
resemble four feet, by means of which these fishes creep over the ground.
The different species of them are found in the tropical seas, especially
amongst forests of Fucus natans, which cover large tracts of the surface of
the ocean.

Sp. Ckironecfes pictus VALENC., Lophius histrio L. in part, Cuv. et VALENC.
Poiss. xii. PI. 364; Atlantic Ocean, West Indies; — Chir. marmoratus
VALENC., SCHLEG. Faun. Japon., Pise. Tab. 81, fig. i : Indian Ocean, as
far as the seas of China and Japan ; — Chir. punctatus Cuv., Lophius hir-
9utus LAC., Cuv. Mem. 1. 1. PL 18, fig. 2, &c.

Chaunax LOWE.

Comp. Transact, of Zool. Soc. m. 4, 1846, p. 339, PL 51.

NOTE. — Does genus Ceratias KBOEYER, unknown to me, belong
here 1 Ventral fins none. Teeth conical, subincurved in inter-
maxillary bones and lower jaw; teeth in vomer and palate-bones
none.

Sp. Ceratias Hottoelli, from the Greenland Sea. Comp. KBOEYER Tidsskrift;
ny Raelcke, I. 1845, p. 639.

Lophius ~L. (in part), Cuv. Body naked, depressed. Head very
large, depressed, rotundate. Branchial aperture small behind
pectoral fins. Mouth very ample, with lower jaw produced beyond
tipper. Teeth subulate, unequal in jaws, vomer and palate-bones.
Dorsal fins two, the first composed of separate rays, the three
anterior remote forwards, placed on head, mobile ; the second dorsal
fin small, opposite to anal. Only three pairs of branchiae, with last
branchial arch naked.

Sp. Lophius piscatorius L., CHARLETON Onomastic. Zoic., Mantissa anatom.
Tab. i. p. 201; BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 87, GU^RIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 41, fig. 4;
the wide gab, sea-devil, angler; /Sdrpaxos, Rana piscatrix of the ancients.
The widely gaping mouth is armed with numerous conical teeth. On the
head are three moveable filaments, which are to be regarded as free rays of
the first dorsal fin. That the fish moves these filaments to entice small
fishes, is a statement already advanced by the ancients, and which a few
years ago found a wordy defender in BAILLY Mem. du Museum, IX. 1824,
pp. 117 — 131. But this fish would seem not only to take its prey with
the fishing-rod but also with the net, and to this end makes use of the sac,
which is formed behind the gill-cover by the elongation of the gill-
membrane. GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE Ann. du Museum ix. pp. 417 — 420,
x. pp. 480—481. At the fore part of the head on each side of the first

142 CLASS XIV.

ray, lies the olfactory apparatus in form of a small stalked cup. (See
a figure in SCAEPA De Auditu et Olfact. Tab. rv. fig. 3.) This species
occurs in the North Sea and in the Mediterranean Sea. Another species
from Japan is Lophius setigerus VAHL, SJcrivter of. not. Selskdbet, iv. i,
Tab. 3, figs. 5, 6, Faun. Japon., Pise. Tab. 80.

Malthe (or Malthcea) Cuv. Body scaleless, rough or muricate,
anteriorly depressed, broad, posteriorly narrow, conical. Dorsal fin
single, remote, with soft rays. (Branchiae two and a half, with
first branchial arch naked, and last branchiferous at the anterior
surface alone.) Teeth crowded, small in both jaws.

a) Teeth in vomer and palate-bones none. Anterior part of body in
front of pectoral fins circular, larger than trunk or caudal portion.

Halieutcea VALENC.

Sp. Halieutcea stellata VALENC., Lophius stdlatus VAHL, 1. 1. figs. 3, 4, Faun.
Japon., Pise. Tab. 82 ; from the sea of China and Japan ; when alive deep
red ; the body is beset with spines above, which proceed from the skin with
three or four ray-like roots.

&) Teeth in vomer and palate-bones. Anterior part of body in front of
pectoral fins cordate or trigonal, running out into a rostrum, with mouth
inferior.

Malthe Cuv., VALENC.

Sp. Malthcea vespertilio VALENC., Lophius vespertUio L. in part, BLOCH Ichth.
Tab. 1 10, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Poiss. PI. 85, fig. i ; West Indies, and also
some other species, all from the east coast of America, as Malthcea angusta
Cuv., Malthcea cubifrons RICHARDSON, Faun. lor. Amer., Pise. PI. 96, of
which ROSENTHAL has figured the skeleton, Ichthyot. Taf. Xix. fig. 2, and
others, distinguished by VALENCIENNES; CDVIEB et VALENC. Poiss. xn.
pp. 450—455.

Batrachus BL., SCHN. (Spec, of Coitus and Gadus L.). Head
depressed, broader than trunk. Body naked in some, in some
scaly. Teeth conical, in intermaxillary bone thin, small, crowded
in a narrow belt, in lower jaw and in palate-bones and vomer larger,
with apex rounded. Operculum small, spinose. Dorsal fins two,
the first short, with three spinous rays, almost concealed in the
skin, the second elongate, with soft rays. Ventral fins narrow,
triradiate.

Toad-fish. These fishes hide in the sand and the muddy bottoms of bays.
Species are found in the seas of both hemispheres. The pectoral fins are
seated upon short arms, consisting of five (not as in Lophius only of two)
carpal bones. The fourth branchial arch is without gills. Most of the

PISCES. 143

species are without scales ; this is the case in the two species that were
known to lAnnceus. Sp. Batrachus grunniens BLOCH, Cottus grunniens L.
(excl. synon. MARCGR.), BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 179, Batrachoides gangene
BUCHANAN, Gangetic Fishes, PI. 14, fig. 8 ; in the East Indies; — Batrachus
tau, Gadus tau L. (not BL.), Batrachaides vernullus LESUEUR, Mem.
du Mns. v. pp. 157, 158, PL 17, fig. 2 ; west coast of North America.

Other species have scales. Sp. Batrachus surinamensis BLOCH, SCHN.
Syst. Ichth. Tab. 7, LAC. Poiss. II. PI. 12, fig. i ; — Batrachus conspicillum
Cuv., Gadus tau BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 67, fig. 2.1

Family XXIV. Blennioidei MUELL. Body elongate, com-
pressed, with skin naked, mucous or covered with small scales
(cycloid). Dorsal fin very long. Ventral fins separate, supported
by only two or three rays, thoracic or jugular, sometimes none.
Pyloric appendages none. Swimming-bladder none. Branchioste-
gous membrane mostly with six rays.

Anarrhichas L. Body compressed, with scales small, covered
by mucous skin. Head anteriorly obtuso-rotundate. Mouth ante-
riorly with strong conical teeth in both jaws, and with rotun-
date tubercles dentiferous at the apex at the posterior part of both
jaws, on vomer and palate-bones. Branchiostegous membrane with
seven rays. Ventral fins none. Dorsal fin very long; caudal
fin distinct, rounded.

Sp. Anarrhichas lupus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 74, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss.
PI. 79, fig. i ; Sea-wolf, Loup marin, Chat marin, &c. ; in the North Sea,
not in the Medit. Sea ; common in the North, especially at Iceland,
where it is eaten dried and salted, whilst its skin is made into bags, and
its gall used for soap. This fish is very predacious, and may attain a
length of seven feet, quite an extraordinary size in this family. The brain
is very small. In a specimen of 1.04 meters I found it not more than 0.02
long (from the origin of the olfactory nerves to the posterior margin of the
cerebellum), and the greatest breadth (of the corpora quadrigemina) only
o.oi. Compare on the osteology KUHL'S Beitrdge.

Dictyosoma SCHLEG. Dorsal fin low, very long, produced
from behind the head nearly as far as the apex of tail, supported
by numerous pungent rays, in the posterior part by some only

1 Here would seem to belong the species which NILSSON described as Batrachus
borealis, but which does not appear to have been since observed. See KROETER,
Danmark's Fiske, pp. 473, 474. It occurs to us that this species may be Batrachus
barbatus VALENC., Batrachus didactylus BL., SCHN., of which a specimen had strayed
from the African to the Swedish coast.

144 CLASS XIV.

that are soft and ramose. Ventral fins none. Branchiostegous
membrane with six rays. Body covered with small scales, marked
with transverse furrows.

Sp. Dictyosoma Burgeri nob., SCHLKGEL Faun Jap., Pise. Tab. 73, fig. 3.
This Japanese fish, which forms the transition between Zoarces and Anar-
rhichas, becomes 10" long.

NOTE. — PatoBcus RICHARDSON ; is this its place ? Comp. Ann. of
Nat. Hist. xiv. 1844, p. 280.

Zoarces Cuv. Body elongate, anguilliform, with scales small,
not imbricate, resembling points dispersed through the skin. Dorsal
fin long, depressed before the termination, supported at this part by
undivided, inarticulate rays, elsewhere by soft rays, confluent with
the long anal fin at the extremity of tail. Ventral fins jugular,
triradiate. Teeth conical in both jaws, in a single row at the sides,
the middle in two or three rows ; palate edentulous. Papilla be-
hind the vent in both sexes.

Sp. Zoarces viviparus Cuv., Blennius viviparus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 72,
YARRELL Brit. Fish. I. p. 243 ; Skandinav. FisTcar, PI. 8, fig. i ; the eel-
pout; yellowish-brown, with black spots on the back, along the dorsal fin ;
this fish is only rarely i' long. That it is viviparous is already indicated
by the name; the young continue for four months in the body of the
mother, and are commonly born in December or January, although at
other times also females have sometimes been found with fully developed
young. Females have been observed with 300 young ; usually however there
are between 100 and 200. This species does not occur in the Mediterra-
nean, but in the North Sea from 50 to about 70° N.L. Some Ame-
rican species also of this genus are known, of which one attains the
remarkable length of 2'. Zoarces Idbrosus, Blennius labrosus MITCH., Cuv.
at VALENO. Poiss. xi. PI. 341.

Ounnellus Cuv., VAL. (Murceno'ides LAC., Gentronotus SCHN.)
Body compressed, elongate. Teeth small, obtusely conical, in a
single row in jaws, a few others behind this row in upper jaw;
some very thin teeth in vomer. Head small, with mouth ascend-
ing obliquely. Dorsal fin long, with all the rays pungent, short.
Ventral fins small, jugular, supported by one only or by two rays.
Branchiostegous membrane with five or six rays. Scales small,
dispersed, immersed in the skin.

Sp. GunneUus vulgaris Cuv., VAL., Blennius gunnellus L., BLOCH Ickth.
Tab. 71, fig. i, Skandinav. Fislc. PI. 25, fig. i, YARREL Br. FisJi.i. p. 239,
become 8" or at most 9" long, five branchial rays; there is a row of deep

PISCES. 145

black spots (mostly ten) along the back and at the base of the dorsal fin
partly bordered by a white edge. This species is oviparous, and occurs in
the North Sea. It is more than probable that LINX^EUS confounded this
fish with Ophidian imberbe (p. 124), when' he admitted the last-named
species into the Swedish Fauna. — In the Fauna Japonica two new species
are described of this genus of Blennoids. For other species compare Cuv.
et VALENC. Poiss. xi. REIJTHARDT distinguishes here the following genus.

Stichceus REINH. Rays of branchiostegous membrane six. Several
rows of pores or lateral lines.

Sp. Gunnellus punctatus VALENC., Blennius punctatus 0. FABRICIUS, Shrivter
af Naturhistorie Selskabet, n. i, 1793, p. 84, Tab. 10, fig. 3. This species
has indeed superficially some resemblance to Gunnellus vulgaris, yet the
eye-shaped spots do not lie half on the back and half on the dorsal fin, but
entirely on the last, and are less numerous ; moreover the ventral fins are
more developed and the head is larger, which is also the case with another
species of this subdivision, Stichceus unimaculatus REINH.

Clinus Cuv. Body compressed, scaly. Larger conical teeth in
the front row of both jaws, lesser, crowded, arranged in a belt
behind the former. Small teeth in vomer, sometimes also in palate-
bones. Dorsal fin supported by many spinose rays, with a few
posterior rays, soft, articulate. Ventral fins biradiate, jugular.

Sp. Clinus argentatus VAL., Blennius argentatus Eisso and Bl. Audifredi
ejusd. Ichth. de Nice, PL 6. fig. 15, from the Medit. Sea ; — Clinus superci-
liosus, Blennius superciliosus L., GBONOV., Zoophyl. Tab. v. fig. 5, BLOCH
Ichth. Tab. 168 ; a feeler above the eye ; the first three dorsal fin-rays pro-
duced ; rock-fish, very common at the Cape of Good Hope, &c.

Add genera or sub-genera : Cristiceps Cuv., VALENC., Tripterygion
Risso, VALENC., Cirribarbis Cuv.

Myxodes Cuv.

Sp. Myxodes ocdlatus Cuv., VAL. Poiss. XI. PL 335 ; from the sea of Chili,
like the other Sp. of this genus.

Salarias Cuv. Teeth numerous, setaceous, mobile, in a single
row in each jaw; palatine teeth none. Ventral fins biradiate,
jugular. Scales none. Dorsal fin mostly emarginate or divided
into two lobes. Cirrus on each side above the eye.

Sp. Salarias quadripennis Cuv., VAL., Salarias ornatus EHBENB., Elennius
gattorugine FORSK. (not WILLUGHB.) ; Red Sea, Indian Ocean, &c. To
this genus belongs also Blennius fasciatus BLOCH Ichth, Tab. 162, fig. i.

Blennius Cuv. Maxillary teeth elongate, thin, in a single row,
with last tooth on both sides sometimes larger in lower or in both
YOL. II. . 10

146 CLASS XIV.

jaws. Palatine teeth none. Scales none. Sometimes a fimbriate
or pinnate cirrus over the eye on both sides. Ventral fins triradiate
or biradiate, jugular.

Sp. Blennius ocettaris L., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 167, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d.
ill., Poiss. PI. 77, fig. i; YARRELL Brit. Fish. i. p. 223; the dorsal fin
deeply incised ; on the first and higher part is a black, round spot, sur-
rounded by a white ring ; in the Mediter. and occasionally in the North
Sea, observed a few times on the English coast.

Pholis Cuv.

Blennechis Cuv., YALENC.

Chasmodes Cuv., YALENC.

Family XXXY. Goliodei MUELL. Anterior rays of dorsal
fin inarticulate, all thin, flexile. Yentral fins jugular, supported by
more than three rays, often broad and united together. (Swimming-
bladder in some ; in a few pyloric appendages, in most none.)

I. Yentral fins distinct, with first ray aculeate, the rest split.
Four complete branchiae.

Opisthognathus Cuv. Eyes large. Superior maxillary bones
large, protracted. Teeth thin, crowded into a belt in both jaws.
Scales small. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. (Swim-
ming-bladder small.)

Sp. Opisthognathus Sonneratii Cuv. ; — Opisth. Cuvierii VALENC. Poiss. xi.
PL 343-

Platyptera YAN HASS. (Platypterus) . Body scaly. Head short,
depressed. Mouth small, with very small teeth crowded in both
jaws, in palate none. Branchial aperture large; branchiostegous
membrane with six rays. Two distinct dorsal fins.

Sp. Platyptera aspro Cuv., VALENC. Poiss. xn. PI. 360; fresh- water fishes
of Java (Bantam) and Celebes.

Callionymus L. (excl. Gallionymus indicus). Head depressed,
broader than body, with eyes approximate, looking upwards. Body
naked. Jaws with thin crowded teeth ; palate edentulous. Bran-
chial aperture small, nuchal ; branchiostegous membrane with six
rays. Dorsal fins two, distant. Yentral fins jugular, broad.

Sp. Callionymus Lyra L. (male and Cattionymus Dracunculus fern.), BLOCH
Ichth. Tab. 161, fig. 2, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill, Poiss. PI. 82, fig. i, Skan-

PISCES. 147

dinav. Fislcar, PL 11, 23 ; in the North Sea : this fish seldom is more than 10"
long; there are four rays in the first dorsal fin, which in the male are very
long; in the second dorsal fin, which in the female (Call. Dracunculus) is
higher than the first, nine or ten are counted ; there are neither pyloric
appendages nor a swimming-bladder. In other species also of this genus
the sexual difference is great ; in Callionymus ocellafus PALL. Spicil. Zool.
vm. Tab. iv. figs, r — 3, the female, unless PALLAS be mistaken, would
seem to have a higher first dorsal fin, with four ocelliform spots, which are
absent in the male.

Hoplichthys Cuv.

Sp. Hoplichthys Langsdorfii Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. iv. PI. 81, Faun. Jap., Pise.
Tab. 79, fig. 2. (The learned SCHLEGEL thinks that this genus has its place
here, and not with the Aspidognathi.)

Hemeroccetes Cuv., YALENC.

Sp. Callionymus acanthorhynchos FORSTER, Callionymus monopterygius BL.
Syst. Ichth., from the Pacific, near New Zealand. Body scaly. Palate
furnished with teeth. Dorsal fin single. Is this its place ?

Trichonotus BL., SCHN. Body scaly, slender. Eyes superior,
almost contiguous. Mouth with small acuminate teeth, crowded in
jaws, vomer and palate-bones. Branchial aperture large; bran-
chiostegous membrane with seven rays. Ventral fins jugular.
Dorsal fin single, with first two rays very long.

Sp. Trichonotus setiger BL., Syst. Ichth. Tab. 39. Habitat ?

Comepkarus LAC. Body naked. Mouth large, with teeth very
small, crowded in jaw, vomer and palate-bones. Branchial aperture
large ; branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Ventral fins none,
pectoral long. Dorsal fins two.

Sp. Comephorus baibalensis LAC., Callionymus Balcalensis PALL., Nov. Act.
Petrop. i. PI. 9, figs, i, 3.

Eleotris GROXOV. Body scaly, with trunk attenuated posteriorly,
compressed. Head depressed, with eyes remote. Teeth small,
crowded, arranged in both jaws in several rows. Branchiostegous
membrane with six rays. Dorsal fins two, the first with flexile
rays. (Swimming-bladder.)

Philypnus VAL. Small teeth in the anterior margiii of vomer.
(Maxillary teeth of front row larger, conical, distant.)

Sp. Eleotris dormitatrix Cuv., Platycephalus dormitatorJ$LOCH, Syst. Ichth.,
Tab. xn. (the scales are not shewn), GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 40, fig.
i ; a fresh- water species from S. America, which attains a size of i to i£'.

10—2

148 CLASS XIV.

BLEEKER refers to this sub-genus a species from Java, Eleotris opkicepha-
lus K. and V. H.

Eleotris VAL. Teeth in vomer none.

Sp. Eleotris strigata Cuv., Gobius strigatus BROUSS. Dec., Tab. i ;— Eleotris
mugiloides Cuv., VALENC., Scicena maculata BLOCK, Ichih. Tab. 299, fig.
2, &c.

II. Ventral fins with first raj' aculeate, the rest split, united
together or joined to form a single infundibuliform fin.

Periophthalmus BL., SCHN. Teeth cylindric or conical in a
single row in both jaws, palatine teeth none. Eyes contiguous,
furnished at the inferior margin with a folded eye-lid. Pectoral fins
placed upon a scaly peduncle. Dorsal fins two. Branchiostegous
membrane with five rays.

Sp. Periophthalmus Schlosseri BL., SCHN., Gobius Schlosseri PALL., Spicil.
Zool. Tab. I. figs, i — 4, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 81. fig. i; Mo-
lucca Islands. In some species the teeth of the lower jaw are very fine,
with the exception of the two middle teeth, which are placed somewhat
backward. They form the genus Boleophthalmus of VALENCIENNES. To it
belongs Periophthalmus Boddcerti, Gobius striatus BL. Syst. Ichih. Tab. 14,
&c.

Sicydium VALENC.

Cornp. VALENC. in Cuv. et VAL., Poiss. xn. p. 167. Sp. Gobius
Plumieri BLOCH, IcMh. Tab. 178, fig. 3, LACEP. Pom. PI. 15, fig. i ;—
Gobius lagocephalus PALL., Spic. Zool. vm. Tab. 2, fig. 6, 7, &c.

Gobius L. (in part). Body covered with scales, sometimes very
small ; cheeks and opercles naked. Teeth crowded, numerous,
small in both jaws, with an arrterior row of teeth conical, larger ;
palatine teeth none. Branchiostegous membrane with five rays.
Ventral fins united by the inner edge and by a transverse limb at
the base, resembling a funnel.

a) Dorsal fins two.

Sp. Gobius niger L., YABBELL Brit. Fishes, i. p. 251, Skandinav. Fislcar,
PI. 36; in the North Sea; — Gobius capito Cuv., GUER. Iconogr., Poiss.
PL 39, fig. i ; in the Mediterranean Sea. — There are also fresh-water
species of this genus; Gobius fiuviatilis BONELLI, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Poiss. PL 80, fig. 2 ; in Italy, and others in the East Indies.

b) Dorsal fin single. Gobio'ides LAC., VALENC.

Sp. Gobioides Broussoneti LAC., Gobius oblongus SCHN., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss.
xii. PL 348.

PISCES. 149

Apocryptes VALENC. Scales very small, immersed in mucous
skin. Maxillary teeth in a single row. Dorsal fins two. Charac-
ters of Gobius.

Sp. Gobius pectinirostris L. &c.

Amllyopus VALENC., Tcenioides LACEP. Body naked, elongate,
anguilliform. Dorsal fin single. Mouth simous. Maxillary teeth in
a single row, exsert, long. Eyes very small.

Sp. Amllyopus cosculus VALENC., Gobius anguittaris L.? Amllyopus Her-
mannianus VALENC., Tcenioides Hertnanni LAC. Poiss. n. PL 14, fig. i;
Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. xn. PI. 350.

Trypauchen VALENC.

III. Ventral fins concrete into a disc, with all the rays undi-
vided. (Discoboli.) Branchiae three only or three and a half, with
the last branchial arch naked on its posterior or on both sides.
Swimming-bladder none.

Cyclopterus L. Body scaleless, covered with mucous skin, with
some osseous points dispersed. Teeth small, acute, crowded in
intermaxillary bone and lower jaw. Branchiostegous membrane
with six rays. Pectoral fins large, produced under the throat.
Kays of ventral fins conjoined by an orbicular membrane, disposed
to form an oval disc. (Pyloric appendages numerous.)

J. MUELLER has separated this genus from the Malacopterygii, under
which it was placed previously, and asserted its affinity with the Goliolds.
There are either two dorsal fins or a single longer one (Liparis ARTEDI) ;
the rays of the first dorsal fin, or the anterior rays of the single dorsal fin,
are simple bony rays, without joints.

The skeleton of these fishes is always soft and for the most part carti-
laginous. It contracts much in drying, and then exhibits a laminated
texture. The rays of the ventral fins are placed around an oval plate
of bone : the whole forms a hollow sucker, which by its thick margin
attaches itself by adhesion to the surface of solid bodies ; if the attempt be
made from without to detach the fish, it loosens the innermost part of the
cavity, thus causing a vacuum, by which the attachment is rendered
stronger. The loosing can be effected without considerable force bv the
volition alone of the fish, which moves the rays and thus raises the edge
of the disc, so that the water can penetrate between it and the surface
to which it adhered. — Comp. EATHKE Bemerlcungen uber den JBau des
Cyclopterus Lumpus, MECKEL'S Archiv f. d. Physiol. vn. 1822. s. 498 —
524, with fig.

Sp. Cyclopterus Lumpus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 30, LACEP. Poiss. n. PI. 3,
fig. i, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 62, fig. 2 ; the lump-fish; a figure of the
skeleton is to be found in ROSENTHAL Ichthyot. Taf. xix. fig. i. Young

150 CLASS XIV.

specimens of this fish are described under the name of Cydopterus minutus
PALL., SpicU. Zool. vn. Tab. 3, figs. 7—9, and Golius minutus, Zool.
Danic. See THOMPSON Annals of not. Hist. in. 1839, pp. 38 — 43. This
species has two dorsal fins, of which the first is almost entirely hidden in
the thick skin. It occurs in the North Sea, as does another, Cyclopterus
Liparis L., Liparis barbatus EKSTROEM, NOZEMAN Uitgez. Verhandel. I.
bl. 581, PI. ix. figs. 3, 4, BLOCK IcTith. Tab. 123, figs. 3, 4, with a single/
dorsal fin, which is very long, extends close to the caudal fin, and has thirty
rays, of which the first thirteen are not jointed. On this species is founded
the genus Liparis of AKTEDI, which has also been adopted by many mo-
dern writers.

Lepadogaster GoUAN. Pectoral fins large, descending below
the throat, supported by four firmer rays at the lower part on each
side, united around an oval disc in front of the concave disc of
the ventral fins. Rays of branchiostegous membrane five or four.
Dorsal fin single, remote, opposite to anal. Pyloric appendages
none.

Lepadogaster Gouani LAC., Lepadogaster rostratus SCHN., GOUAN Hist.
Pise. Tab. I. figs. 6, 7, YAEKELL Brit. Full. II. p. 264; in the North
Sea, &c.

Gobiesox LAC.

A genus scarcely distinct from the preceding, and imperfectly
described by LACEPEDE. Maxillary teeth conical, the anterior
rather large. Ventral disc single, formed anteriorly by the united
pectoral fins, posteriorly by the ventrals. •

Sp. Lepadogaster dentex, Cyclopterus dentex PALL., Spic. Zool. Fasc. vn.
Tab. I., Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Poiss. PI. 108, fig. i ; the specimens in the
RijTcs- Museum are from the Cape of Good Hope.

Cotylis and Sicyases MUELL. and TROSCH. Branchiae only three.
Cornp. MUELLER Bau der Ganoiden, p. 43, note, Horce Ichth. in.
1849; pp. 17—20, Tab. 3.

IV. Ventral fins thoracic, narrow, contiguous at the base.
Four perfect branchiae. Head flat above, with an oval disc trans-
versely costate. (Naucratoidei.)

Echeneis L. Teeth in jaws, vomer and palatine bones small,
subulate, crowded, in palate towards the back part very small,
passing gradually into a roughness scarcely to be distinguished.
Lower jaw produced beyond upper. Eyes at the sides above the
angle of mouth. Scales very small. Branchiostegous membrane
with eight rays. (Body elongate, attenuate posteriorly ; habitus
almost of Gradus.}

PISCES. 151

Sucking-Fishes. Above the head and the anterior dorsal vertebrae there
is a flat, oval disc or shield, presenting from the middle to both sides,
obliquely placed, transverse plates, which may be compared with the slats
of a sun-blind (jalousie) • these parts are furnished in the middle, on
the under-surface, with spine-like projections, which are connected by short
bands with the skull and the anterior vertebrae. The upper margin of the
plates is beset with fine teeth. By means of this disc these fishes can suck
themselves fast to the shore, the sides of rocks, to other fishes, &c. Hence
the story that they are able to stop a ship at full sail1. The organ,
according to BLAINVILLE, is an anterior dorsal fin whose rays are split and
expanded horizontally on each side, instead of standing up, Journal de
Physique, Ao&t 1822, pp. 132 — 134. The dorsal fin begins at the second
half of the body opposite to the anal fin. These fishes have 6 or 8 pyloric
appendages, but are without a swimming-bladder. AGASSIZ and MUELLEB
first removed this genus from the Malacopteryyii, where it had previously
been placed.

Sp. Echeneis Remora L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 172; fig. of the skeleton in
ROSENTHAL Ichthyot. Taf. xx. fig. i, and figs. 5 — 8 figures of the sucking
disc, which in this species has 17 or 18 plates (LiNNJSUS names them strice).
In the Mediterranean Sea ; it has also been found a few times in the
Atlantic Ocean. The Rijks-Museum contains a specimen from the Cape of
Good Hope ; and this species has been also seen a few times on the English
coast; YARRELL Brit. Fish. n. p. 280.

But more widely dispersed is Echeneis naucrates L., BLOCH Ichth.
Tab. 171, which occurs in the Atlantic Ocean, on the coasts of America
and Africa, in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, nay even in Japan, with
23 or 24 (rarely 22) plates on the sucking disc. There are still some other
species of this genus. The smallest number of plates observed on the
sucking disc is in Echeneis lineata BLOCH, SCHN. Syst. Ichth. Tab. 53,
fig. i, which, with a body much elongated and a longitudinal head-shield,
has only 10.

Family XXXVI. NotacantJiini (MuELL.) Body elongate, com-
pressed, covered with small scales. Free spines numerous, taking
the place of dorsal fin, or placed in front of dorsal fin. Ventral fins
abdominal or none. Pseudobranchias none.

MUELLER has separated this small group of fishes from the large
family of the Scomberoids, to which they were referred by CUVIERJ
he leaves it doubtful whether Tetragonurus belongs to it, which
genus we leave in the neighbourhood oiMugil until further investi-
gation has thrown light on the question.

1 The ancients ascribe to these fishes still more strange properties ; such stories are
recorded in PLINIUS with singular credulity. Hist. not. Lib. IX. cap. 25, and especi-
ally Lib. xxxn. c. i.

152 CLASS XIV.

Notacanthus BL., Kampylodon 0. FABR., Acanthonotus BL.,
SCHN. Body elongate, compressed. Teeth thin, numerous in
upper jaw in a single row, in lower in several rows in the middle,
in a single row at the sides. Palatine teeth thin, in several rows.
Branchiostegous membrane with eight rays. Ventral fins abdomi-
nal. Several spines, short, separate, in the place of dorsal fin.
Anal fin long, extending as far as the small obtuse caudal fin.
(Scales small. Upper jaw protracted beyond lower, obtuse.)

Sp. Notacanthus Fdbricii, Campylodon Fabricii BEINH., O. FABRICIUS in
Skrivter of Naturhistorie SelsJcabet, IV. 2, 1798, pp. 22 — 26, Tab. 9, fig. i,
Ccv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Pom. PL 55. fig. 2 ; a rare fish from Greenland.
CUVIER holds this fish for the same species as Notacanthus nasus BLOCH,
Tchth. Tab. 431, Syst. Ichth. Tab. 77, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vm. PL 241,
which would seem to be from the East Indies ; there is however no cer-
tainty as to this last habitat ; but the two fishes present some difference,
especially in the ventral fins, which in the specimen of FABRICIUS had
three spinous rays in front of the eight jointed rays, in that of BLOCH
only one; compare BEINHARDT in Kongel. Danske Videnskab. Selskabs
naturvidensJcab. og mathem. Afhandlinger, vn. 1838, p. 120. There were
until lately only two specimens of this genus preserved in cabinets; the
specimen of FABRICIUS at Copenhagen, that of BLOCH at Berlin ; not long
ago the Parisian Museum obtained one through GAIMARD from the voyage
of discovery to the North, which is figured in the illustrated edition of
CUVIER'S R. Ani.

Mastacembelus GfiONOV. (Rhynehobdella BL., SCHN.). Head
rostrate, acute. Mouth with very small teeth, crowded in several
rows. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Ventral fins
none. In place of first dorsal fin several loose spines; second
dorsal fin opposite to anal, low, produced as far as caudal fin, or
confluent with anal and caudal. Three spines in front of anal fin.

Mastacembelus haleppensis Cuv., AL, BUSS-EL Hist, of Aleppo, &c. Lond.
1756, 4to, Tab. v. figs, i, i, GRONOVIUS Zoophyl. I. Tab. vm. a, figs, i, 2,
HECKEL Fische Syriens 1843, Tab- T9> fig- 35 fresh- water fish of Asia
Minor. The other species, also from Asia, are seldom more than 10 or n"
long, ex. gr. Mastacembelus ocellatus, JRhynchobdella orientalis and aral
BLOCH, SCHN. Tab. 89, &c. A species however from Borneo appears to
attain a greater size than the rest, of which the Rijks-Museum has a couple
of specimens under the name of Mastacembelus pictus; it seems to be the
same as that lately described by BLEEKER under the name of Mastacembelus
erythrotcenia. (Verh. van het Batav. Gen. xxm. Dl. 1850.)

The distinction of Rhynchobdella (Macrognathus LAC.) and Mastacembelus
as two genera is not essential. In Rhynchobdella aral BLEEKER found in
a large specimen the caudal fin confluent with the anal and dorsal fins,
which in younger specimens are distinct from each other. Also the
greater protraction of the upper snout (the jaws are never of the same size)
is no very essential character. These fishes have a swimming-bladder.

PISCES. 153

Family XXXVII. Tcenoidei. Body compressed, elongate,
ensiform, with scales very small or none. Eyes large. Dorsal fin
very long. Ventral fins thoracic, or none. Teeth small or none.
(Branch iostegous membrane with rays mostly six. Swimming-
bladder in some.)

A. Mouth protractile, aperture small.

Stylephorus SHAW. Mouth edentulous. Body scaleless. Ven-
tral fins none. Caudal fin erect upwards, with last ray continuous
with body and produced into a seta longer than body. Branchioste-
gous membrane with four rays.

Of this genus one specimen alone is known, which was taken in the
Mexican Sea, Stylephorus cordatus SHAW, LINN. Trans, i. p. 90, Tab. vi.
(an unnatural figure, copied in BLOCH Syst. Ichih. Tab. 99) ; BLATNVILLE
has given a more accurate figure and description of that specimen, Journal
de Physique, Tom. 87, 1818, pp. 68 — 71, PI. I. fig. i. Compare the
description in Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. x. pp. 382 — 386, according to the
investigations of VALENCIENNES.

, Bogmarus BL.,

SCHX. Mouth protractile, narrow, longitudinal, fornicate above,
with teeth few, conical, small, distant in both jaws. Body scale-
less. Lateral line armed with small osseous scutes furnished with a
short spine directed forward. Ventral fins thoracic, with several
rays, often elongate. Dorsal fin extended through the whole length
of body, high at the anterior part, with rays produced. Caudal fin
erect. Rudiment of anal fin at the apex of tail. Branchiostegous
membrane with six (or seven ?) rays.

Sp. Trachypterus bogmarus VALENC., Gymnogaster arcticus BRUENNICH ; this
fish from the North Sea at Iceland, sometimes also captured on the Norwe-
gian and Scottish coasts, was figured accurately for the first time by E.EIN-
HARDT Kongd. Danske Videnskdbern.es Selskabs naturvidensTc. og mathem.
Afhandlinger, vn. 1838, pp. 65 — 82, Tab. i. n., which figure reduced
is copied by YARRELL Brit. Fish. Suppl. 1839, P- J4- Th*8 fisn> named
Vaagmcer (pronounced Vogmer), is from three to near eight feet long. The
body continues of the same height for more than one half the length,
whilst in some species from the Medit. Sea it becomes suddenly lower
towards the tail. Such is Trachypterus iris Cuv., Cuv. et VAL. Pmss. x.
PI. 297. In this respect, on the other hand, a specimen from the Cape of
Good Hope, which the Rijks-Museum received through Dr HORSTOK, agrees
with the northern Vaagmaer, or is perhaps not specifically distinct from it.

There are in these fishes numerous pyloric appendages ; the swimming-
bladder is absent. The skin is covered with a silvery envelope, corresponding

154 CLASS XIV.

to the silvery covering of the choroid* of the eye in fishes, and consists
of microscopic needle-shaped crystals. Comp. on these and some other
anatomical peculiarities of the Vaagmaer, REID in Annals of not. Hist.,
Sec. Series, in. 1849, pp. 456— 477.

Gymnetrus BLOCH, VALENC.

NOTE. — CUVIER (R. Ani. n. p. 219) joined the preceding genus
with Gymnetrus under this common name ; VALENCIENNES again
separated the genera. Gymnetrus differs from Trachypterus, an
allied genus, in the ventral fins being with one ray, which is very
long and increased towards the extremity by membrane. Body
without scales, with hard osseous points scattered ; lateral line un-
armed. Teeth none. Caudal fin none or small, confluent with
dorsal.

Sp. Gymnetrus remipes BL., SCHN., Regalecus glesne ASCAN., BLOCH Syst.
Ichth. Tab. 88, Encycl. meth. Poiss. PI. 86, fig. 258; North Sea, on the
Norwegian coast; becomes ten or twelve feet long. — Gymnetrus Banksii
VALENC.; comp. HANCOCK and EMBLETON, Account of a Ribbon Fish
(Gymnetrus) taken off the coast of Northumberland, Ann. of not. Hist., Sec.
Series, IV. 1839, pp. i — 18, PI. I. n. ; this specimen was 12' 3'' long. In
the Medit. Sea also one or two species of this genus occur, of 6 — 8 feet in
length, Gymnetrus Gladius VALENC. (Gymnetrus longiradiatus Risso), Cuv.
et VAL. Poiss. x. PI. 298, and Gymnetrus telum VAL. ibid. PI. 299.

B. Mouth scarcely or not at all protractile, with aperture large,
oblique, the lower jaw ascending.

Lophotes GIORNA. Body scaleless. Teeth small, scattered in
several rows in jaws; small teeth in palate-bones and vomer.
Head with a vertical crest sustaining an elongate strong spine, the
first ray of dorsal fin. Dorsal fin extended through the whole
length of body, with numerous simple rays ; anal fin small, placed
towards the end of tail; caudal fin small, distinct. Ventral fins
very small, distant, adjacent to pectoral fins.

Sp. Lophotes cepedianus GIORNA, Mem. de I'Acad. de Turin, 1805 — 1808,
pp. 12 — ig, PI. 2 (cited by CUVIER), Cuv. Ann. du Mus. xx. 1813, pp.
393—400, PI- 17; Guv. et VAL. Poiss. x. PI. 301 ; in the Medit. Sea; this
species becomes more than 4' long ; it has been observed only seldom. A
Japanese species, also very rare, is figured in the Fauna Japonica, Pisces,
Tab. 71, fig. 2.

Cepola, L. Body covered with small scales. Teeth in jaws in
a single row, distant, subulate, thin, the middle in lower jaw
larger, in palate and vomer none. Dorsal and anal fins very long,

PISCES. 155

extending as far as the apex of tail. Caudal fin very narrow, with
middle rajs longer. Ventral fins moderate, approximate.

Sp. Cepola rubescens L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 170 (named Cepolce tcenice L., a
species to be suppressed), YABRELL Brit. Fish. I. p. 195, Diet. univ.
d'Hist. nat., Poiss. PI. 10, fig. 2 ; in the Medit. Sea; — Cepola Krusensterni
SCHL., (Cepola liiribata and Cepola marginata VAL. ?) Faun. Jap. Pise.
Tab. 71, fig. i ; from Japan; in this species the scales are more conspicu-
ous, the head also under the eyes and the gill-covers are covered with
scales. In this genus a large swimming bladder is present, and some
moderately large appendages (in Cepola rubescens eight) surround the
pylorus.

Family XXXVIII. Scomleroidei. Body smooth, covered
with very small scales, mostly compressed. Lateral line in the
last part often marked with larger carinate scales, or with a mem-
branous crest. Tail and mostly caudal fin signally developed.
Eyes large. Scales sometimes at the base of dorsal and anal fins ;
the remaining part of the membrane connecting the rays feeble,
soft, in some entirely absent, the fins being resolved posteriorly into
spurious fmlets. Ventral fins thoracic or none. Opercular bones
with margin smooth. (Pyloric appendages numerous. Swimming-
bladder present in some, in others wanting.)

I . Month not protractile into a tube.
A. Lateral line not carinate.

Lepidopus GOUAN. Body compressed, elongate, scaleless. Gape
of mouth ample, with lower jaw prominent. Maxillary teeth acute,
compressed, disposed in a single row, a few larger in the middle
on each side behind the continuous set. Branchiostegous membrane
with eight rays. Two rigid scales in place of ventral fins. Dorsal
fin continuous, very long. Anal fin small. Caudal fin distinct.

Sp. Lepidopus argyreus Cuv., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vm. PI. 223, R. Ani., id.
itt., Poiss. PL 671, Trichiurus gladius HOLTEN, Slcrivter af naturh. Seh-
Icalet, v. 2, 1802, pp. 19—28, Tab. 2, fig. i; in the Med. Sea and the
AtL Ocean. Is the Lepidopus Gouani BL., SCHN., GOUAN Hist. Pise. Tab.
i. fig. 4, BL. Ichth. Tab. 53, fig. 2, the same species with the caudal fin
mutilated?

Trichiurus L. Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays.
Ventral fins none. Numerous short spines in place of anal fin.
Tail subulate, finless. (Remaining characters almost those of the
| preceding genus.)

156 CLASS XIV.

Sp. Trichiurus lepturus L., BLOCK Jchth. Tab. 158, from the S. American
coasts ;—Trichiurus savala Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 68, Indian
Sea, &c.

Xiphias L. (with addit. of some new species). Body elongate,
somewhat round and tapering, covered with very small scales.
Snout narrow, produced, with upper jaw longer, ensiform. Jaws
with teeth small, acute, crowded, sometimes scarcely distinct, or
only forming a rough surface. Rays of branchiostegous mem-
brane seven. Dorsal fin very long. Caudal fin broad, divided
deeply into two lobes. Tail with a middle carina or with two
cutaneous folds on each side at the base of caudal fin.

* Middle crest on each side at the base of caudal fin.
Xiphias L. Ventral fins none.

Sp. Xiphias gladius L., BLOCH IcJith. Tab. 79, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss.
PI. 50; the skeleton in ROSENTHAL IcJithyot. Taf. 21; the sword-fish;
Medit. Sea, Atl. Ocean, rarer in the North Sea, sometimes also in the
Baltic ; this fish attains a length of 12, sometimes even of 18'. In old speci-
mens the dorsal fin is divided in the middle, so that there appear to be
two dorsal fins. In younger individuals the jaws are less unequal. The
long upper snout is formed by the vomer and the intermaxillary bones.

On the pyloric appendages of this fish see above, p. 27. The little gill-
plates are here connected in a retiform manner, so that each gill consists
of two laminae. See the figures in F. ROSENTHAL, Abhandlungen, 1824,
Tab. 6.

** With two crests on each side at the base of caudal Jin. Snout slender.

Machczra Cuv. (Makaira LAC.). Ventral fins none.

Comp. CUVIER Nouv. Annales du Mus. I. 1832, pp. 43 — 49, PL 3, Ma-
chcera velifera, from W. Indies. — This sub-genus appears to me doubtful
unless it be established that the ventral fins are also wanting in younger
specimens; it is certainly more nearly allied to Histiophorus than to
Xiphias.

Histiophorus LAC. (Notistium HERM.). Ventral fins thoracic,
long, with two or three rays. Dorsal fin very high. Maxillary
teeth crowded, small, unequal.

Histiophorus americanus Cov. Xiphias velifer BL., Guebucu MARCGK.
Hist. not. Bras., p. 171 ; — Histiophorus indicus Cuv. Hist, des Poiss. vin.
PI. 229; — Histiophorus orientalis SCHLEG. Faun. Japon., Pise. Tab. 55; —
Histiophorus immaculatus RUEPPELL, Transact, of the Zool. Soc. n. Part I.
1836, PI. 16, &c.

Tetrapterus RAFIN. Dorsal fin higher at the commencement,
elsewhere low. (Other characters almost those of Histiophorus.)

PISCES. 157

Sp. Tetrapterus belone RAFIN., Cuv. et VAL. Hist, des Poiss. vm. PI. 227,
228; Medit. Sea.

Coryphcena L. (exclusive of some species). Body compressed,
elongate. Teeth subulate, crowded in the middle part of both
jaws, with an anterior continuous row of somewhat larger. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with seven rays. Head compressed, high,
truncato-declivous. Dorsal fin long, continuous. Ventral fins
thoracic.

a) Teeth crowded, small in vomer and palate-bones. Dorsal Jin of the
length of back, beginning above the eyes. Eyes approximate to the margin of
mouth.

Sub- genus Coryplwena Cuv., (add Lampugus Cuv., VAL., Caranx-
omoms LAC.).

Sp. Coryphcena hippurus L., ROXDELET De Piscib. p. 255, Cuv. et VAL.
Poiss. IX. PL 266, BONAP. Faun. ItaL, Pise. Tab. 126, fig. i ; in the Medit.
Sea. The dorsal fin is high forwards. The high bony ridge on the top of
the skull is remarkable, which extends to the upper jaw ; the superior spi-
nous processes also of the five anterior vertebrae are strongly developed,
and compressed laterally. This fish becomes fully two, sometimes nearly
four feet long. — Coryphcena pelagica, Scomber pelagicus L., BONAP. 1. 1. fig.
2, with lower dorsal fin and shorter body ; also in the Med. Sea ; some
exotic species also, principally from the AtL Ocean on the east coast
of South America, as that which is figured by PLUMIER, and copied by
BLOCH as Coryphcena hippurus, Ichth. Tab. 174.

b) Teeth in vomer and in palate-bones none. Dorsal fin beginning behind
the head.

Centrolophus LACEP. (PompUus RONDEL., WILLUGHB.)

Sp. Coryphcena pompUus L., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 65, BONAP.
Faun. Ital., Pisces, Tab. 127, fig. 2; in the Medit. Sea and the Atlantic
Ocean ; this fish attains a size of fully 2'. With respect to the exact species
which LINNAEUS described some uncertainty prevails, but the fish here
recorded is certainly the PompUus of RONDELET.

Schedophilus Cocco, BOXAP.

Is this its place ? Prseoperculum denticulate, operculum furnished with
a spine produced over the pectoral fins. Some short free spines in front of
dorsal fin. Sp. Schedophilus medusophagus Cocco, from the Mediter.
Sea; see BONAP. Faun. Ital. Tab. 127, fig. 3.

Astrodermus BoxELLi. Body compressed, covered with small
scales, discoidal, pedunculate, radiant at the margin. Dorsal fin
of the length of back, high. Ventral fins approximate, jugular.

158 CLASS XIV.

Maxillary and palatine teeth small, thin; maxillary in a single
row. (Rays of branchiostegous membrane four or five.)

Sp. Astrodermus coryphcenoides BONELLI, Coryphcena elegans Risso, Cuv. et
VALENC. Pom. ix. PI. 270, BONAP. Fawn. Ital. Tab. 170, fig. i ; Mediter.
Sea, very rare.

Pteraclis GROXOV., Oligopodus LACEP. Body compressed,
covered with large broad scales emarginate posteriorly. Teeth
thin in jaws, vomer and palate-bones. Branchiostegous membrane
with seven rays. Dorsal and anal fins long, high; dorsal of the
length of back. Ventral fins jugular, approximate.

Sp. Pteraclis vdifera BL., SCHN., Pteraclis guttatus VALENC., Coryphcena
vdifera PALLAS, Spic. Zool. vin. Tab. 3, fig. i, GRONOV. Act. Ilelvet. vir.
Basilise, 1772, p. 43, Tab. 2; from the Indian Sea? QUOY and GAIMARD
brought a fish of the kind from the Strait of Mosambique, Pteraclis ocel-
latus VALENO., CDV. et VAL. Poiss. ix. PI. 271; Bosc brought a small
specimen from the Atlantic Ocean at Carolina, Pteraclis Carolinus. The
species of this genus, of which a few specimens only are found in cabinets,
are however far from being sufficiently defined.

Kurtus BLOCK. Body compressed, high, with back carinate.
Scales very small, scarcely distinguishable. Teeth very minute in
jaws and palate. Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays.
Dorsal fin moderate, in the middle of back ; anal fin long. Ventral
fins jugular.

Sp. Kurtus indicus BLOCH, Kurtus Blochii LAC., BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 169,
Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. ix. PI. 277; from the Indian Sea, at Java, &c.

Stromateus L. Body compressed, ovate. Teeth very minute,
in a single row in jaws, in palate none. Branchiostegous membrane
with six rays (more rarely seven). Dorsal fin opposite to anal,
longitudinal, with short, concealed anterior spines: both scaly.
Ventral fins none or small, jugular. Caudal fin large, bifid.

a) With ventral fins small.
Seserinus Cuv.

Sp. Stromateus microchirus, Seserinus microcJiirus Cuv., RONDEL. De Piscib.
p. 287, BONAP. Faun. Ital. Tab. 125, fig. 2; Mediterranean Sea.

b) With ventral fins none (or obsolete in adults).

Sub-genera : Stromateus Cuv., Rhombus LAC., Cuv. et VAL. (pre-
viously Peprilus Cuv.).

Sp. Stromateus Jiatola L., BELON de Aquatilib. p. 153, BONAP. 1. 1. fig, i ; in
the Mediterranean Sea; — Stromateus niger BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 160 (and 422),

PISCES. 159

Indian Sea at Java, &c. (According to a communication of Dr P. BLEEKEB,
ventral fins are present in young individuals of this species, and it is upon
such that the genus Apolectus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vin. PL 338, is founded.)

Luvarus RAFIN., Proctostegus NARDO.

Sp. Luvarus imperialis RAFIN. ; from the Mediterranean Sea.

Note. — This fish is unknown to me: is this its place? Teeth none.
Branchiostegous membrane with 3 or 4 rays. Body scaleless. Anus
covered by an osseous scale. Ventral fins none. Authors say that it is
allied to the genus of the Stromatei. Comp. RAFINESQUE, SCHMALZ Caratteri
di alcuni nuoi-i generi, &c. Palermo, 1810, 8vo, p. 22 ; and J. D. NABDO
De Proctostego novo Piscium genere Specimen, Patavii, 1827, 4to.

Seriola Cuv., Micropteryx AGASS. Body compressed, covered
with small scales. Teeth minute, thin, crowded in jaws, vomer
and palate-bones. Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays.
Ventral fins thoracic. Dorsal fins two, the anterior aculeate,
shorter. Aculeus incumbent in front of the anterior dorsal fin ;
two aculei in front of anal fin.

Sp. Seriola cosmopolita Cuv., Scomber cJdoris BL. Ichth. Tab. 339, SPIX Pise.
Brasiliens. Tab. 59, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. ix. PI. 259 ; in the Atlantic,
on the coasts both of America and Africa, and in the Indian Ocean.

Temnodon Cuv. (Characters almost of the preceding genus,
but jaws with front row of teeth acute, flat, distant.)

Sp. Temnodon saltator Cuv., Gasterosteus saliatrix L., Pomatomus Slcib LAC.,
Poiss. IV. PI. 8, fig. 3, (also under the name of Cheilodipterus heptacanthus,
figured in the same work, in. PL 21, fig. 3, according to COMMEBSON)
Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 56, fig. 3; this species lives in almost the
whole ocean, and also in the eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea.

Lactarius Cuv., YALENC.

Sp. Lactarius delicatulus VALENC., Scomber lactarius BL., SCHN.

Nomeus Cuv. Body elongate, covered with very small scales.
Teeth subincurved, distant, in a single row in jaws, in vomer and
palate-bones. Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays. Ven-
tral fins thoracic, large, broad, concrete at the inner margin.
Dorsal fins two.

Sp. Nomeus Mauritii Cuv., Gobius Gronovii GM., Eleotris Mauritii BLOCH,
SCHN., Gobiomorus Gronovii LAC., MABCGB. Hist. Nat. Brasil. p. 153 *;
— Nomeus Peronii Cuv., GUEBIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 31, fig. i.

1 MABCGRAF does not, as is stated by LACEPEDE and others, name this fish
Harder, but only says, piscisfigura similis illi, quern vulgo Harder appellamus.

160 CLASS XIV.

Porthmeus Cuv., VALENC.

Nauclerus Cuv., VALENC.

Psenes Cuv., VALENC. Body oval, compressed. Head obtuse
anteriorly, declivous, short. Jaws with thin teeth, in a single
row; palatine teeth none. Branchiostegous membrane with six
rays. Dorsal fins two, contiguous. Ventral fins thoracic. Scales
moderate.

Sp. Psenes cyanophrys Cuv., VAL. Poiss. ix. PL 265. &c.

Trachinotus LAC. (Trachinotus and Lichia Cuv.). Body com-
pressed, oblong or oval. Teeth thin, crowded in jaws and palate.
Branchiostegous membrane with 7 — 9 rays. An incumbent spine,
directed forwards in the anterior part of back, over pectoral fins;
several other short free spines, in place of first dorsal fin ; second
dorsal fin soft, opposite to anal. Two spines in front of anal fin.
Ventral fins short, thoracic. Caudal fin large, deeply bifid, with
elongate, produced lobes.

Sp. Trachinotus glaucus Cuv., Chcetodon glaucus BLOCH, IcUh. Tab. 210,
South America, West Indian Sea; — Trachinotus amia, Scomber amia L.,
Lichia amia Cuv., RONDEL. De Piscib. p. -254, Cuv. R. Ani., id, ill.,
Poiss. PI. 54, fig. 3 ; this species becomes more than 4' long ; it occurs in
the Mediterranean Sea and in the Atlantic Ocean as far as the Cape
of Good Hope, as does Scomber glaucus L. (Lichia Cuv.), Cuv. et VALENC.
Poiss. vin. PI. 234.

Chormemus Cuv., VALENC. (Scomberoides LAC.).

(Characters and habit nearly of Trachinotus, but there are several
false dorsal and anal finlets. Scales small, lanceolate).

Naucrates EAFIN. Body elongate, fusiform. Head compressed.
Teeth thin, crowded in jaws and palate. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with seven rays. Some free spines in place of first dorsal
fin. Two spines in front of anal fin.

Sp. Naucrates ductor Cuv., Gasterosteus ductor L., Scomber ductor HASSELQ.,
BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 388, Cuv. et VAL. Pom. vin. PI. 232, YAREELL Brit.
Fish. I. p. 149 ; bluish, with broad perpendicular darker bands. This fish
lives in the Mediterranean Sea and in many parts of the Atlantic Ocean ;
and since it follows ships, like sharks, in order to catch what falls over-
board, is well known to sailors by the name of the pilot-fish, loots-mannefje,
lootse, le pilote, &c. — Naucrates indicus Cuv., GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss.
PI. 30, fig. r, &c.

PISCES. 161

Elacate Cuv. (Characters of the preceding genus, but no spines
in front of anal fin. Head elongate, depressed.)

Sp. Elacate atlantica Cuv., Scomber niger BLOCH, Ickth. Tab. 337, Cuv.
et VALENC., Poiss. vin. EL 233, &c.

Lucoscombrus mihi (Gempylus and Thyr sites Cuv.). Body
elongate, compressed, with scales none or conspicuous only at the end
of tail and along the lateral line. Teeth compressed, acute, unequal,
in a single row in jaws, the middle of upper jaw much larger than
the rest. Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays. Head elon-
gate, depressed above; lower jaw produced beyond upper. Ventral
fins thoracic. Dorsal fins two contiguous, and several free finlets
behind the second.

Gempylus Cuv. Vomer and palate-hones edentulous. Ventral
fins very small.

Sp. Lucoscombrus serpens, Scomber serpens SOLANDEE ; — Lucoscombrus coluber,
Gempylus coluber Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vrii. PL 111, &c.

Gempylus approaches Lepidopus by its much elongated body.

Thyrsites Cuv. Teeth in voiner and palate-bones few, in a single
row, conical. Ventral fins small or moderate.

Sp. Lucoscombrus atun, Scomber atun LAC., Thyrsites atun Cuv., Cuv. et
VAL. Poiss. vm. PL 219, Cuv. R. Ani., id. itt., Poiss. PL 49, fig. i ;
a fish from the sea around South Africa, very common at the Cape of
Good Hope, and known to the Dutch colonists as a palatable and very
cheap food under the name of SnoeJc (Pike). This species attains a length
of more than 3'.

Euvettus Cocco, Rovetus CANTKAINE. Body elongate, com-
pressed. Teeth conical, compressed, in a single row in both jaws;
teeth few, incurved in vomer and palate-bones. Branchiostegous
membrane with seven rays. Small biaculeate horny shields dis-
persed in regular rows throughout the body; scales very small.
First dorsal fin long, depressed, second higher, almost contiguous
to the former. A single false finlet behind the second dorsal fin,
opposite to a similar accessory anal fin.

Sp. Ruvettus pretiosus Cocco, Rovetus Temminckii CANTEAINE, BONAP. Faun.
Ital., Pisces, Tab. 1-28, Memoir, de I'Acad. de Bruxelles, Tom. x. 1835.
This fish attains a length of from 4' to 5', and is found in the Mediterranean
Sea at Sicily and Malta.

Cylium Cuv. Body compressed, oval. Teeth in jaws in a
single row, triangular, often large ; teeth in palate small. Branchi-

VOL. II. 11

]

162 CLASS XIV.

ostegous membrane with seven rays. Tail carinate in the mid-
dle, and with two oblique cutaneous folds on each side at the base
of caudal fin. Dorsal fins two, contiguous ; posterior part of second
resolved into spurious fins, opposite to anal finlets. Ventral fins
thoracic, short.

Sp. Cybium Commersonii Cuv., Scomber Commersonii LACEP., &c. Species
from the Indian and West Indian Seas.

Pelamys Cuv. (Sa/rda previously). Larger scales in a belt
around the pectoral fins.

Sp. Cybium Pelamys, Scomber Pelamys BRUENNICH (not L.), Scomber Sarda
BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 334, Cuv. et VALENO. Poiss. vin. PL 217 ; in the
Mediterranean Sea and also in the Atlantic Ocean, along the east coast of
America.

Thynnus Cuv. (with addit. of subgenus Orcynus Cuv. R. Ani.}.
Body compressed, oval, with tail slender. Teeth small, subulate, in
a single row in jaws ; fine crowded teeth in vomer and palate-bones.
Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays. Tail carinate in the
middle, and with two oblique cutaneous folds at the base of caudal
fin on each side. Dorsal fins two, subcontiguous ; posterior part of
second resolved into several spurious pinnules, opposite to the
anal finlets. Scales larger, and somewhat coarser round the pectoral
fins, in the anterior part of back and at the lateral line.

Sp. Thynnus vulgaris Cuv., Scomber Thynnus L., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vin.
PL 210, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 27, fig. 2; the tunny; this fish
becomes more than 8' long, lives principally in the Mediterranean Sea, but
is, however, also captured in the Atlantic Ocean and North Sea. The pec-
toral fin is long, scythe-shaped ; still longer is it in Thynnus alalonga, Scomber
alatunga GMEL., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vin. PL 215, where it extends as far
as behind the connected part of the second dorsal fin, and attains almost
one-third of the length of the whole body. In the seas of warm regions
is found Thynnus Pelamys Cuv., Scomber Pelamys L., Cuv. et VALENO.
Poiss. VIII. PL 213, Faun. Jap., Pise. Tab. 49, with short pectoral fins and
four brown longitudinal bands on each side of the belly (la bonite a venire
raye).

Scomber Cuv. (Species of gen. Scomber L.). Teeth (and
almost all the other characters) of the preceding genus. Dorsal fins
two, remote from each other, with a large part of the middle of
back finless.

Auoczs Cuv. Scales larger at the anterior part of back and around
the pectoral fin. Tail carinate in the middle.

PISCES. 163

Sp. Auxis vulgaris, Cuv., Scomber bisus RAFIN., Scomber Rochei Risso,
KAFINESQUE Caratteri, &c. Tab. n. fig. i, Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. vm.
PL 216, in the Mediterranean Sea; — Auxis taso Cuv., Scomber taso COM-
MEBSON, New Guinea.

Scomber Cuv. Scales of whole body small, almost equal. Tail
with two cutaneous folds on each side at the base of caudal fin,
without a middle keel.

Sp. Scomber scomberlj., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 54 ; Skandinaviens Fiskar, PI. 29;
the mackerel; five false finlets (pinnce accessorial) on the back, and five
or four of the same behind the anal fin ; the scales are very small, almost
invisible to the naked eye ; this fish may attain a length of 2', but is seldom
longer than 16''. The mackerel is very common in the Mediterranean Sea,
and occurs also in the Atlantic Ocean as far as 30° N.L. ; also in the North
Sea, perhaps to 61° N.L. ; on the Dutch coast, especially in the middle of
summer, from June to August. The common mackerel has no swimming-
bladder, which however is present in other very similar species from
the Mediterranean, Scomber colias GM., Cuv., and Scomber pneumatophorus
LA ROCHE.

B. Lateral line carinate, marked by aculeate shields or larger scales.

Caranx (CoMMERS., LAC. in part) Cuv. Body depressed.
Lateral line loricate, or armed with spines throughout its whole ex-
tent or in posterior part. Teeth in jaws small, conical, crowded,
sometimes larger in front row, in some none. Teeth in vomer and
palate-bones very often small, acute, few. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with seven rays. Pharyngeal teeth globose. Ventral fins
thoracic. Dorsal fins two; an incumbent spine, pointing forwards
in front of first fin, the second sometimes resolved into false fins.
Two free spines in front of anal fin. Ventral fins thoracic.

Sp. Caranx trachurus LAO., Scomber trachurus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 56, Cuv.
et VAL. Poiss. IX. Tab. 246; the scad, or horse-mackerel; teeth very small;
second dorsal fin undivided; the shields along the lateral line begin close
behind the head. This fish usually becomes i' long, although occasionally
larger specimens of 16" or more are captured. It is met with in the Medi-
terranean Sea, the North Sea, and in the Atlantic Ocean as far as the Cape
of Good Hope, and even in the Indian Sea. There are however different
varieties, or perhaps species, which have been united under the same name.
In the other species of this numerous genus the lateral line is armed
with shields in its hindmost part only. In some, of which CUVIER formed
the sub-genus Citula, the first soft ray of the second dorsal and of the anal
fins is produced into a long filament. Sp. Caranx citula Cuv., Caranx
cirrhosus EHBENB., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. ix. PI. 250.

Vomer Cuv. (Zeus L. in part). Body compressed, high. Head
compressed, declivous. Scales very small or inconspicuous, larger

11—2

164 CLASS XIV.

in the lateral line. Teeth small in both jaws, crowded in a narrow
zone; some very small teeth in vomer. In pharyngeal bones small,
globose, crowded teeth. Kays of branchiostegous membrane seven.
Dorsal fins either two, the anterior low, or short disjoined rays in
place of anterior fin; the second, like the anal fin, with rays often
elongate, filiform. Ventral fins thoracic.

Olistus Guv. Lateral line almost parallel to back. The middle
rays of second dorsal fin and of anal fin not branched, produced into
very long filaments.

Sp. Olistus malabaricus Cuv. et VAL. Pom. ix. PI. 251.

Vomer (Scyris, Blepharis, Gallichthys Cuv., Argyreiosus LAC.,
Cuv., Vomer Cuv.). Lateral line convex above pectoral fins, almost
semicircular, then running straight in the middle of body to the
caudal fin.

Sp. Vomer vomer nob., Zeus vomer L., Abacatuia MAROGR. Hist. Nat. JSrasil.
p. 161, LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 31, fig. 9, BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 193,
fig. i ; the second ray of the dorsal fin is prolonged into a filament longer
than the body. This species lives on the East Coast of America, from New
York to Brasil.

Vomer Gallus, Gallichthys major Cuv., Zeus Gallus (L. ?) RUSSELL, BLOCH
Ichth. Tab. 192, fig. i, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. ix. PI. 254; in the Indian Sea
at the Sunda Islands, &c. ; — Gallichthys JSgyptiacus EHRENB., GUER.
Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 31, fig. 3. In this species the ventral fins also have
much elongated rays. The ventral fins on the contrary are very short in
Vomer Brownii Cuv., and the rays of the dorsal and anal fins are not
prolonged 1.

Hynnis Cuv. Dorsal fin single, opposite to anal. Lateral line
at the posterior part of tail loricate with spined shields. Remaining
characters those of the preceding genus.

Sp. Hynnis Goreensis, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. ix. PL 257.

II. Mouth protractile. Body compressed, high. Ventral fins thoracic
in att.

A. Two contiguous dorsal fins. Caudal fin rounded.

Zeus L. (in part), Cuv. Teeth very small, acute, subulate,
crowded in a narrow belt in jaws, teeth few in vomer. Branchioste-

1 There are different fossil species from the tertiary formation, which belong to the
Scomberoids, especially in Monte Bolca. Very common amongst these is Gasteronemus
rhombeus AGASS., Poiss. foss. v. Tab. 2, with strongly projecting inferior margin of the
belly, as in Mene (see below, p. 166), and the second ray of the ventral fin filiform, far
surpassing the length of the body.

PISCES. 165

gous membrane with seven rays. Spines of first dorsal fin increased
by a long filament. A row of osseous shields in the keel of belly,
and at the sides of second dorsal fin. Lateral line incurved equably
throughout its entire length, parallel to back. Scales small, oval.

Sp. Zeus faber L., WILLUGHB. Tab. s. 16, BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 41, GUERIN
Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 32, fig. i ; the skeleton figured in ROSENTHAL
Ichthyotom. Taf. xiu. fig. i, and AGASSIZ Poiss. foss. v. Tab. B, fig. 2 ;
the Dory, Sonnenfisch, la Doree; in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic
Ocean; in the North Sea this fish has the northern limit of its distribution,
as it seems, at 54°. The colour of the fishes observed by me was, in
agreement with CUTTER'S statement, bluish-grey (lead- coloured), and not
a lively yellow as in the figure of BLOCH. Above and behind the pectoral
fin is a large round black spot, surrounded by a ring of lighter colour and
an outermost very black ring. In old individuals this spot is more undefined
and dull. In the specimens also of Zeus pungio Cuv. which I investigated,
I saw the same spot. This species from the Mediterranean Sea is distin-
guished by a large spine from the scapula, which extends backwards above
the gill-covers. Cuv. et VALENC., Poiss. x. PI. 280.

Capros LAC. Scales small, coarse, aculeate (ctenoid). Eyes
very large. Branchiostegous membrane with five rays.

Sp. Capros aper LAC., Zeus aper L., Perca pusilla BRUENNICH, RONDELET
De Piscib. p. 161, YARRELL Brit. Fish. i. p. 169, Cuv. et VALENC. Hist. nat.
des Poiss. x. PI. 281, from the Mediterranean Sea- Whether this fish has
so great an affinity with Zeus as to allow of its being placed next to that
genus, appears to me very doubtful. The internal structure, too, is in
many respects very different; there are, ex. gr. only two short pyloric
appendages, which are so numerous in the rest of the Scomberoids.
AGASSIZ would place this fish with Datnia amongst the Percoids. But
near Centriscus amongst the Aulostomes, where it has also been proposed
to arrange it, it would have been beyond doubt in a much less appropriate
position than near Zeus.

B. Dorsal fin single. Caudal fin forked.

Lampris KETZIUS, Chrysotosus LAC. Scales small or moderate,
deciduous. Teeth none. Branchiostegous membrane with seven
rays. Dorsal fin with three undivided rays, the third ray longest.
Ventral fins with numerous rays (14 or 15), elongate.

Sp. Lampris guttatus RETZ., Zeus guttatus BRUENN., Zeus luna GMEL.,
Encycl. meth., Poiss. PI. 39, fig. 155, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 32.
fig. 2, YARRELL Brit. Fish. i. p. 173, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. x. PI. 282, &c.
This rare and beautifully ornamented fish, silver-coloured with white shining
spots and deep-red fins, is found in the North Sea, and attains usually
a length of more than 3', sometimes even more than 4'. The skeleton is
circumstantially described and figured in its particulars by G. BAKKER in

166 CLASS XIV.

his Osteographia Piscium, 1822, pp. 170 — 212. This fish feeds principally
on Cephalopoda and also on Medusce.

Mene LACEP. Body much compressed, with back nearly straight,
abdomen convex, prominent. Teeth very small, crowded in jaws.
Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays. Anal fin low. Ventral
fins with few and short rays, except the second, which is produced
into a long filament. Caudal fin with lobes divaricate.

Sp. Mene moculota Cuv., Zeus maculatus BL., Mene Annce Carolines LACEP.
Poiss. v. PI. 14, fig. 2, BLOCH Syst. Ichih. Tab. 22, SCHLEQEL Faun.Japon.,
Pise. Tab. 67, fig. 3; in the Indian Sea and at Japan.

Equula Cuv. Teeth in jaws mostly small, setaceous. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with five rays. Dorsal fin with several pun-
gent rays (7 — 9). Ventral fins with a strong pungent ray. Scales
small. Lateral line parallel to back.

Sp. Equula insidiatrix, Zeus insidiator BLOCH, Ichih. Tab. 192, figs. 2, 3 ;
—Equula fasciata Cuv., Mem. du Mus. I. PL 23, fig. 2, &c. This genus
belongs to the eastern hemisphere and contains species from the Bed Sea,
the Indian Ocean and the Southern Pacific, all of small size.

Family XXXIX. Squamipennes. Body compressed, mostly
high, covered with ctenoid scales. Teeth in jaws, sometimes also
in palate. Dorsal and anal fins covered with scales, mostly thick,
continuous with trunk. Ventral fins thoracic.

Scaly-finned fishes. All have a compressed body, and almost all
a large swimming-bladder. They are in great part fishes from the
tropical seas; one species alone occurs in the North Sea.

A. Teeth in palate. Branchiostegous membrane with 7 rays.

Scorpis Cuv. Body oval, covered with small scales. Head
short, scaly. Teeth crowded in a broad band, thin in jaws, with an
outer row of larger, cylindrical, acute teeth. Teeth in palate-bones,
vomer and tongue, sharp, short, crowded. Dorsal fin with several
(10) short spines, the soft part acuminate anteriorly. Caudal fin
lunate.

Sp. Scorpis georgianus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vm. PI. 245, from the South Sea
at New-Holland.

Brama Cuv. (spec, of genus Brama BL., SCHN.). Body oval,
attenuated posteriorly behind the dorsal and anal fins. Head com-
pressed, truncato-declivous. Maxillary teeth subulate, acute, dis-
tant, in upper jaw with a single outer row somewhat larger ; teeth of

PISCES. 167

second row larger in lower jaw. Teeth acute, thin, in a single row
in palate-bones. Teeth in vomer and tongue none. Dorsal fin long,
low, anteriorly higher, with only three spines. Scales moderate,
covering the body, head, and vertical fins. Caudal fin deeply ex-
cised, with lobes acuminate, elongate.

Sp. Brama JRaji BL., SCHN., WILLUGHB. Hist. Pise. Tab. v. fig. 12, BLOCK
Ichth. Tab. 273, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vn. PI. 190; the skeleton in ROSEN-
THAL Ichthyotom. Taf. xn. fig. i ; the back black, the sides bluish, the belly
silver coloured, pectoral and ventral fins yellowish ; the last small. This fish
attains a length of i|' — 2|' ; it occurs in the Mediterranean and also in the
North Sea. The cranium has a high, erect crest, like that of Coryphcena
hippwrus L., which on the whole it resembles, although the rest of the
skeleton is very different. There are five pyloric appendages ; a swimming-
bladder is not present.

Pempheris Cuv. (spec, of Kurtus BL). Body broad anteriorly
with abdomen convex, attenuate posteriorly, covered with large deci-
duous scales. Head scaly, short, with eyes very large. Teeth small,
thin, crowded in jaws, in palate-bones and vomer. Dorsal fin short,
acuminate, towards the fore part placed over the pectoral fins; anal
fin long. Lateral line nearer to back, parallel with it.

Sp. Pempheris mangula Cuv., Pempheris taitensis ejusd. Cuv. et VAL. Poiss.
vii. PL 101 (according to BLEEKER Pempheris vanicolensis and Pemph.
nesogallica Cuv. ought to be united with it) ; in the Indian and Pacific
Oceans, from the island of Mauritius to Otaheite ; — Pempheris mexicana,
Cuv., GUER. Iconogr., Poiss. PI. -26, fig. 2. To this genus belongs also
Kurtus argenteus BL., SCHN. Syst. Ichth. Tab. 41.

Toxotes* Cuv. Head flat above the very large eyes. Jaws,
vomer and palate-bones rough with very small, short, crowded
teeth. Lower jaw longer; gape of mouth large. Dorsal fin oppo-
site to anal, remote towards the tail, furnished with four strong
spines.

Sp. Toxotes jaculator Cuv., Scicena jaculatrix SCHLOSSEB, Scarus Schlosseri
GMEL., LAC., Ldbrus jaculatrix (sic) LACEP., Coins chatareus BUCHAN.,
Fishes of the Ganges, PI. 14, fig. 34, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 26, fig. 3;
in the sea, and in rivers, in the East Indies, at the Sunda Islands, the
Moluccan Archipelago and New-Guinea. This fish throws drops of water
upon insects that chance to be on water-plants, and thus causes them to
fall into the water, in order to overpower them.

Pimelepterus LAC., Cuv. (Xyster COMMERS.). Scales large,
covering body and head. Maxillary teeth of outer row broken at a
right angle, sectorial by their anterior vertical portion, affixed by

168 CLASS XIV.

their posterior horizontal portion; other small, thin teeth placed
behind the outer. Yomer and palate-bones rough with small teeth.
Dorsal fin long, beginning over ventral fins, with ten or eleven pun-
gent spines, with its soft part opposite to anal fin.

Sp. Pimelepterus Boscii LAC., Poiss. iv. PI. 9, fig. i, Cuv. et VAL., Poiss.
vni. PI. 137, at Carolina; — Pimelepterus altipinnis Cuv., GUERIN Iconogr.
Poiss. PI. 25, fig. i ; from New-Guinea, and different species from the
Indian Ocean.

B. Teeth in palate mostly none. Branchiostegous membrane with six or
with jive rays.

Note. — CUVIEB divided the Squamipennes according to the presence and
the defect of palatine teeth, and disallowed these teeth to the following
genera entirely. Yet in the skeleton of Platax artkriticus I observe some
few acute teeth in the vomer, and in Psettus rhombeus very minute teeth
are present in five parcels, namely, in the vomer, the palate and pterygoid
bones. On this account I think that this character must be restricted
to the majority, and have added another taken from the number of rays
of the branchiostegous membrane.

Dipterodon Cuv. Strong teeth with sharp flat margin, ar-
ranged in jaws in a single row, behind this row in upper jaw
others small, short. Dorsal fins two contiguous (or dorsal fin deeply
emarginate in front of soft rajs).

Sp. Dipterodon capensis Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vn. PI. 188.

Psettus COMMERS., Cuv. Maxillary teeth crowded, very small,
distinguishable rather by touch than sight. Body in some oval, in
others very high, short. Dorsal and anal fins falciform, with the
points only emergent of the pungent rays in the anterior part.
Ventral fins with a small spine conspicuous, and one or a few soft
rays, scarcely distinguishable. Scales moderate.

Sp. Psettus Sebce Cuv., Chcelodon rhombeus BL., SCHN., SEBA Thesaur. in.
Tab. 26, fig. 21, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss.vu. PL 189, from the coast of Guinea;
— Psettus Commersonii, Monodactylus falciformis LAC. Poiss. n. PI. 5, fig.
4, &c.

Platax Cuv. Teeth sharp, subulate or setaceous, densely crowd-
ed in jaws like a little brush. Body very high ; dorsal and anal
fins falciform, with pungent spines in the anterior margin immersed,
almost concealed. Scales small. Ventral fins elongate.

Sp. Platax JBlockii Cuv., Chcetodon vespertilio BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 199, fig. 2 ;
BLEEKER unites with this species Platax Ehrenbergii Cuv., R. Ani., ed.
ill., Poiss., PL 42, fig. i, which probably agrees with Chctfodon pinnatusL.

PISCES. 169

Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 33, fig. 6. This species lives in the Bed Sea and
in the Indian Ocean, like Platax teira Cuv., Chcetodon teira BLOCH 1. 1.
fig. i, with which BLEEKEB unites Platax vespertilio japonicus SCHLEG.
Faun. Japan., Pise. Tab. 43. The length of the dorsal and anal fins can-
not supply a character, since these fins in old individuals become obtuse
and rounded. See P. BLEEKER in the Verh. van het Batav. Genootechap
xxni. Deel, 1850.

Platax arthriticus Cuv., Chcetodon arthriticus W. BELL, PhUos. Transact.
for 1793, PI. 6; Sumatra, Java. The skull is remarkable from a thick,
high crest; many of the spinous processes and interspinal bones have
tubercles or soft bony swellings. This species attains a very conspicuous
size.

Amongst the fossil fishes of Monte Bolca, with many other squami-
pennes, species also of this genus occur, as Platax altissimus AGASS.,
Poiss.foss. IV. PI. 41.

Chcetodon L. (excl. of some species1). Body oval, often high.
Teetli in jaws setaceous, crowded. Gape of mouth small. Ventral
fins distinct. Palate edentulous.

Rock-fish. These fishes, mostly very beautifully coloured, of the
tropical seas, are very numerous. The form is various, and in this
respect even the species of the sub-genera or smaller groups differ
from each other, so that there are transitions from the one form to
the other. Four principal groups may be distinguished, round each
of which other smaller sub-genera arrange themselves.

a) Prceoperculum armed at the lower part with a large spine directed
backivards.

Holacanthus LAC. (and Pomacanthus ejusd.). Dorsal fin single,
caudal fin mostly rounded.

Sp. Chcetodon armatus L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 33, fig. 5, BLOCH Ichth. Tab.
20 1, fig. 2; this and some other species with a very high body, and in
that case without spinous rays in the dorsal fin (Pomacanthus Cuv.), are
from South America. — Others have an oval body, with a great number of
spinous rays in the dorsal fin (13 — 15), and the praeoperculum with a margin
usually toothed (ffolacanthus Cuv.). Of this division species are found in
both hemispheres; ex. gr. in the gulph of Mexico : Chcetodon ciliaris L.,
Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 33, fig. i, BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 214, GUBRIN Iconogr.,
Poiss. PL 23, fig. i ; — Chcetodon nicobarcensis BL., SCHN., Holacanthus geo-
metricus LACEP., Cuv., BLOCH Syst. Ichth. Tab. 50 (a small elegantly
marked species), and Chcetodon imperator BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 194, Encycl.
Meth., Poiss. PL 93, fig. 284, are on the other hand from the E. Indies.

1 Compare above, Dascyllus, p. 132, Acanthurus, p. 139; — Chcetodon saxatUis L.
and Ch. rotundus L. belong to the genus Glyphisodon LAC., p. 132.

170 CLASS XIV.

b) Prceoperculum unarmed.

Ephippus Cuv. Dorsal fins two, or dorsal fin deeply emarginate
in front of soft rays (Taurichthys Cuv.), posterior alone scaly.
Add sub-genera Scatophagus and Drepane Cuv.

Sp. Chcetodon argus L., Scatophagus argus Cuv., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 204,
fig. i ; — Chcetodon taurus, Taurichthys varius Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vii. PI.
181 ; both from E. Indies. — Chcetodon gigas PARKINSON, Ephippus gigas
Cuv. from the east coast of America, from New York to Brasil. This species
becomes 16" long, which in this family is an extraordinary size. To this
species belongs the club-shaped bone described and figured by OLEAKIUS
(Gottorfische KunstJcammer, Schleswig, 1666, fol. p. 18, Tab. ix. fig. 3) and
WOBMIUS (Mus. Reg. Hafnice, 1696, fol. p. 18, Tab. IX. fig. 2); it is the inter-
spinal bone, much thickened downwards, to which the first two rays of
the anal fin are attached. See a figure and description of the skeleton of
this fish (erroneously given as Chcetodon faber) in B. WOLF Diss. de Osse
peculiari, Wormio dicto. Berolini, 1824, 4to.

Henioclius Cuv. Dorsal fin single, entirely scaly, with one or two
anterior rays produced into a very long filament. Body high, short.
(Branchiostegous membrane with four or five rays).

Sp. Chcetodon macrolepidotus~L. (and acuminatus ejusd., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab.
33, fig. 3), BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 200, fig. i, from the Indian Sea, from the
Island of Mauritius to New-Guinea. In another species the scales are
very small (Chcetodon cornutus L., Zanchis cornutus Cuv.).

Chcetodon Cuv. Dorsal fin single, quite scaly; pungent rays sub-
equal or anterior and posterior less. Tail short, caudal fin truncate.
(Branchiostegous membrane with six rays.)

Sp. Chcetodon rostratus, Chelmon rostratus Cuv., LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab.
33, fig. 2, BLOCK Ichth. Tab. 202, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL
40, fig. i ; this fish besprinkles insects that sit on water-plants, like the
Toxotes (see above, p. 167). «

Chcetodon chrysozonus K. and V. HASS. (Chcetodon enneacanthus Cuv.,
Chcetodon Idbiatus K. and V. H., Chcetodon melanopus Cuv., auct. BLEEKER)
Cuv. S. Ani., ed. ill., PL 38, fig. 2. Both these species are from the E.
Indies, as is Chcetodon vagabundus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 204, and some
others.

From the western hemisphere there are of the Linnean species Chcetodon
striatus L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 33, fig. 7, BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 205, fig. i,
and the small Chcetodon capistratus L., Mus. Ad. Frid. 1. 1. fig. 4, BLOCH
1. 1. fig. 9, the last named very common in collections.

Family XL. Sparoidei Cuv. (with the addition of Mcenoidei
ejusd.). Body compressed, elongate or oval, covered with large
scales, not thick, ctenoid. Eyes large. Teeth mostly in jaws only ;

PISCES. 171

palate edentulous, or small teeth in vomer. Kays of branchi-
ostegous membrane mostly six. Opercles never spinose. Pectoral
fins large, often falcate, protracted as far as the middle of body or
further. Ventral fins thoracic. Caudal fin forked. Dorsal fin long.
Lateral line parallel to back, continuous, mostly very distinct.

This family contains marine fishes, of which many species occur
in the Mediterranean ; only four or five of these species have been
also observed in the North Sea. They have much affinity with
the Percoids, but in these the palate-bones are mostly furnished
with teeth, which is not the case here, and in very few do teeth
occur on the vomer. Moreover in the Sparoids the opercular bones
are without teeth or spines; at most the prseoperculum is finely
striated or incised at the margin. There are but few pyloric appen-
dages, commonly four or five (in some six, in others only three).
They have a very large swimming-bladder. TROSCHEL has lately
drawn attention to the peculiarity which the scales present in this
family. The striae on the scales do not extend over their whole sur-
face, as is usual, in a direction parallel to the margin, but at the
sides of each scale they run obliquely or almost at right angles to
the margin from the middle, and are the prolongations of the con-
centric striae of the posterior part. TROSCHEL, however, observed
similar scales in some other genera of fishes, Mullus, Upeneus, SUlago,
Apogon and Psettus. TROSCHEL, Ueber die Begrenzung der Familie
der Sparoiden, Archivfilr Natwrgesch. 1849, s. 382—386, Taf. 8.

To the character of the uninterrupted lateral line there is only one excep-
tion known in the new S. American genus Acharnes MUELL., TROSCH., in
which also there are only five branchial rays, however on the other hand it
belongs, from the protractile mouth, to the division of the Mcenids. See
E. SCHOMBURGK Reisen in BrUisch-Guiana, m. Thl. 1848, s. 622. A figure
of this fish is in MUELLER u. TROSCHELL, Horce Ichihyolog. in. Tab. v.
%. 3-

A. Mouth protractile. (Long pedicles of the intermaxillary bones
received between the orbits.) Mcenoidei or Mcenides. Branchios-
tegous membrane with six rays.

Smaris Cuv. (with addition of genera Mcena Cuv. and Ccesio
COMMERS., Cuv.). Teeth small, crowded in a narrow belt in jaws.
Dorsal fin single, long, in most nearly of the same height throughout
its whole extent. Three elongate scales at the ventral fins, two
acuminate, lateral, the third lanceolate, placed between the two fins.

172 CLASS XIV.

Caudal fin lunate or forked. Body elongate, fusiform or oval.
Pharyngeal teeth setaceous, crowded.

Ccesio COMMERS., LAC. Dorsal fin scaly throughout or at the
base, beginning behind pectoral fins.

Sp. Ccesio erythrogaster KUHL and V. HASS., Sparus cuning BLOCH, Ichth. Tab.
263, fig. i, Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. vi. PL 166. In this species BLEEKER
found in large specimens the vomer rough from very small teeth. He ob-
served the same in a new species, which he names Ccesio Pingalo ( VerTi. van
Tiet. Batav. Qenootschap xxm. Deel, Bijdrage tot de kennis der Sparoiden en
Mcenoiden van den Soenda-Molukschen Archipel.). This observation is for us
an additional reason why we should not divide Mcena Cuv. as a genus from
Smaris. All the species hitherto known of the sub-genus Ccesio are from
the eastern hemisphere, from the Indian Ocean and some also from the
Red Sea.

Smaris Cuv. Dorsal fin not scaly, beginning over pectoral fins.
Vomer in some edentulous, in others (Mcena Cuv.) furnished with
a row of fine, crowded teeth.

Sp. Smaris Mcena nob., Mcena vulgaris Cuv., Sparus Mcena L. ? Cuv. R. Ani.,
ed. itt., Poiss. PI. 36, fig. 4 (icon capitis) ; — Smaris (Mcena Cuv.) OsbecMi,
Sparus tricuspidatus SPINOLA, Ann. du Mm. x. PI. 28, fig. i-— species
from the Medit. Sea.

Smaris vulgaris Cuv., Sparus Smaris L. in part, BONAP. Faun. Ital. Pise.
Tab. 90, fig. i ; BONAPARTE distinguishes from this, under the name of
Smaris gracttis, the fish described by DELAROCHE, Ann. du Mus. xin. 1809,
p. 344, PI. 25, fig. 17; — Smaris alcedo Cuv., GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL
21, fig. i, and some other species from the Medit. Sea. Species of this
group occur also in the Atl. Ocean.

Gerres Cuv. Teeth small, crowded, in a narrow belt in jaws,
teeth in vomer and palate-bones none. Dorsal fin inserted in a
narrow groove, surrounded by erect scales. Anterior inferior pha-
ryngeal teeth setaceous, the rest globose. Body compressed, with
back and abdomen acute, breast flat in front of ventral fins. Pra3-
operculum often denticulate. Protracted mouth, bent obliquely
downwards, head with retracted mouth short in front of eyes.
Caudal fin deeply bilobed.

Sp. Gerres oyena Cuv., Ldbrus oyena FORSK., Labrus longirostris LAC. Poiss.
in. PI. 19, fig. i ; — Gerres Plumieri Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi. PL 167, &c.
Species from the Tropical Seas. Like the other fishes of this division, these
species have three spinous ravs at the anal fin ; BLEEKER has discovered
species at Java which has five such rays ; he forms from it the genus Pe
taprion ; Sp. Pentaprion gerreoides.

PISCES. 173

Note. — Emmelichthys RICHARDS, and Aphareus Cuv. appear to
me doubtful genera or of uncertain position. Rays of branchios-
tegous membrane seven, and in Emmelichthys two distant dorsal
fins. Mouth protractile into a horizontal tube; see BLEEKER, L L
p. 26. Aphareus is distinguished by the mouth not protractile,
with gape ample, dorsal and anal fins single, with last ray of both
elongate. Comp. Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi. pp. 485 — 491.

Sp. Aphareus ccerulescens Cuv., Caranxomorus sacrestinus LACEP., Labrus
furca ejusd. Poiss. m. PL 22, fig. i, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi. PL 167 Us;
hab. in Indian Ocean ; — Aphar. rutilans Cuv., habit, in Red Sea.

Chcetopterus SCHLEG. — Habitus of Apliareus, but branchiostegous
membrane with four rays.

Comp. Faun. Japan., Pise. pp. 78, 79.

B. Mouth not protractile. — Rays of branchiostegous membrane
six, in few five. Teeth none in vomer or in palate-bones. (Sparoidei
Cuv.) Genus Sparus ART., L. (excl. some species).

A. Teeth some conical, others small, crowded.
* Cheeks scaly.

Pentapus Cuv. Teeth fine, short, crowded, in a narrow belt in
both jaws; a few teeth larger, sharp, anterior. Three elongate
scales at the ventral fins, two lateral, the third in the middle be-
tween them. Eyes large.

Sp. Pentapus mttatus Cuv., Sparus vittatus BLOCH Ickth. Tab. 275, &c.

Dentex Cuv. Maxillary teeth in several rows in the middle, at
the sides large, conical in a single row; some of the anterior often
larger, sharp.

Sp. Dentex vulgaris Cuv., Sparus dentex L., BLOCH Ichih. Tab. 268, Cuv. et
VAL. Poiss. vi. PI. 153 ; in the Mediterranean Sea. To this genus belong
many species from the Atlantic Ocean, the Ked Sea, and especially from
the Indian Ocean. Many fossil species also from Monte Bolca are
known.

** Cheeks naked.

Lethrinus Cuv. (Posterior lateral teeth in some conical, in
some rounded).

Sp. Lethrinus nebulosus EHBENB., Sci&na nebulosa FORSK., Red Sea;
— Lethrinm rostratus K. and V. HASS., from the Indian Ocean, as are most
of the species. Some are famed as great delicacies, as Lethrinus centurio

174 CLASS XIV.

Cuv. et VAL., Poiss. vi. PI. 158, and the Japanese Lethrinus hcematopterus,
SCHLEG., Faun. Japan., Pise. Tab. 38. This genus surpasses all the others of
this family in the number of species.

B. Teeth all small, sharp, crowded. Cheeks scaly.

Cantharus Cuv. Teeth in outer row somewhat larger, conical;
behind them others crowded, subulate.

Sp. Cantharus vulgaris Cuv., Spams cantharus L., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi.
PL 1 60, in the Mediterranean Sea; — Cantharus griseus Cuv., YARRELL Brit.
Fish. i. p. 114; — Cantharus Blochii Cuv., Sparus Brama BL. (not L.),
BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 269, from the Cape of Good Hope, &c.

C. Teeth flat, sectorial. Cheeks scaly.

Box Cuv. Teeth contiguous, in a single row, the upper emar-
ginate or crenate at the apex.

Sp. Box vulgaris, Sparus loops L., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi. PI. 161 ; Mediter-
ranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean along the north coast of Africa, &c.

Scatharus Cuv. Teeth contiguous, in a single row, flat, acumi-
nate towards the apex.

Sp. Scatharus grcecus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. VI. PI. 162 ter; Mediterranean Sea
at the Grecian Archipelago.

Oblata Cuv. Teeth in outer row contiguous, anterior sectorial,
those at the sides subulate; others minute, crowded behind that
row.

Sp. Oblata melanura Cuv., Sparus melanurus L., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi.
PL 162 bis; in the Mediterranean Sea; silvery grey; a black spot above
on the tail, behind the dorsal fin.

Crenidens Cuv. Teeth sectorial, crenate, in a double row in
jaws; others crowded, rounded, very minute behind those rows.

Sp. Crenidens ForsJcalii Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. VI. PL 162 quater.
Melanichthys SCHLEG. (Comp. Faun. Japon. Pise. p. 75.)

D. Lateral teeth globose, with crown flat or rounded, resembling
molars, arranged in a single row or in several. Cheeks scaly.

Pagellus Cuv. Anterior teeth subulate, small, in several rows;
lateral globose, in two or more rows.

Sp. Pagellus erythrinus, Sparus erythrinus L., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi.
PL 150; Mediterranean Sea, also occasionally in the North Sea; GRONOVIUS

PISCES. 175

has described a specimen that was captured at Scheveningen, Mm. Ichth.
p. 38, No. 90 ;—Pagettus centrodontm Cuv., Sparus centrodontus LA ROCHE,
Ann. du Mus. xm. PL 23, fig. 2, GUEBIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 20, fig. i,
YABBELL Brit. Fishes i. p. 107 ; KROETEB Danm. FisTce, i. p. 206 ; 18" long
or more ; reddish, with a large black spot behind the head at the beginning
of the lateral line. Some exotic species also from the Atlantic Ocean
belong to this genus.

Pagrus Cuv. Anterior teeth conical, middle strong, behind
these small and crowded teeth. Lateral teeth globose, in two
rows.

Sp. Pagrus vulgaris Cuv., Sparus pagrus L. (in part), Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vr.
PL 148; Mediterranean Sea, different species from the Red Sea and the
Indian Ocean, &c.

Sparus L. (in part), nob., Chrysophrys Cuv. Anterior teeth
conical; lateral teeth globose, in three rows or more.

Sp. Sparus Aurata Lu (in part), Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi. PL 145 ; la daurade,
de goudbrasem, the gilt-head, with a shining gold stripe between the eyes ;
in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The figure which BLOCH
has given as of this fish is, according to CUVIER, that of a young individual
of Chrysophrys globiceps Cuv., from the Cape of Good Hope. The species
of this genus are numerous ; SCHLEGEL has described and figured several
from the sea at Japan.

In other specimens the place of the round lateral teeth is supplied by
much larger oval teeth. See on the position and succession of these
teeth in Sparus aurata, CUVTEB Hist. not. des Poiss. vi. p. 380, PL 163,
figs. 3—12.

Sargus Cuv. Anterior teeth broad, with crown narrow, trans-
verse, resembling human incisors. Lateral teeth rounded, large, in
several rows, more rarely in a single row. (Char ax Risso, Cuv.)

Sp. Sargus annularis Cuv., Sparus annularis L., LA ROCHE, Ann. du Mus.
xm. PL 24, Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. vi. PI. 149 ; in the Mediterranean
Sea, &c.

Family XLI. Scicenoidei. Body compressed, mostly oblong.
Scales ctenoid, mostly large, thin, flexile, covering body, opercles
and cheeks, often also a part of ventral fins. Teeth in jaws; vomer
and palate-bones smooth. Branchiostegous membrane with seven
rays, sometimes six, or more rarely five. Ventral fins thoracic.
Bones of head often furnished with exsert lines, circumscribing
hollow areolse; hence the form of the head tumid. Lateral line
continuous, anteriorly incurved, convex, posteriorly straight, some-
times indistinct.

176 CLASS XIV.

Umbre-fisJies. Almost all the species of this large family are
marine. Some however are captured at the mouth of rivers ; a few
live in fresh water (Macquaria Cuv., Scolopsides cancellatus Guv.
&c.). There is always a swimming-bladder, usually large, and often
furnished with many, very composite appendages.

Compare CUVIER Hist. not. des Poiss. v. PL 138, 139, and especially on
the swimming-bladder of Scicena aquila, Mem. du Mus. I. pp. 18 — 21,

PI. I. fig. 2, PI. II. III.

The remarkable structure of the bones of the head, of which many,
especially the frontal bone, the row of sub-orbital bones and the prce-
operculum, have in most species projecting lines, with cavities or depressions
between them, may be found illustrated in CUVIEB et VALENCIENNES, Poiss.
v. PI. 140; see also a figure of Corvina nigra, under the name of Scicena
umbra, in ROSENTHAL -Ichthyot. Taf. xvn. fig. i, and of Umbrina vulgaris
Cuv., Scicena cirrosa L., in AGASSIZ Poiss. foss. iv. Tab. K.

In many the ossicles of the auditory sac are very large ; whence a sub-
genus has its name (Otolithus). The uneducated multitude, who are so
ready to attribute miraculous powers to whatever is strange, thought in
the times of BisLON, that the auditory ossicles of Scicena aquila, worn at
the neck, were a cure and a preventive of the colic. De Aquatilibus,
Parisiis, 1553, p. 118.

Phalanx I. Dorsal fin single, continuous, or slightly emarginate
between the spines and the soft rays.

Macquaria Cuv. Mouth edentulous. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with five rays.

Sp. Macquaria australasica Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. v. PI. 131.

Lobotes Cuv. Body high, short. Head in front of eyes short,
with snout declivous, sub-concave. Teeth small, crowded, thin.
Margin of praeoperculum denticulate. Branchiostegous membrane
with six rays. Dorsal and anal fins produced into a rounded apex.

Sp. Lobotes surinamensis Cuv., Holocentrus surinamensis BLOCH, Icliih.
243, along the east coast of America, from New York to Brasil;-
erate Cuv., RZgne Ani., 6d. ill., Poiss. PI. 31, fig. i, a species, mi
resembling the preceding, from the Indian Ocean, &c.

Glaucosoma SCHL. Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays
Dorsal fin low anteriorly, with fewer pungent rays than in the
preceding genus, with which in other respects it has much
common.

Sp. Glaucosoma Burgeri nob., Glaucosoma SCHLEG., Faun. Japon.,
Tab. 27.

PISCES. 177

Note. — Here also would seem to be the place for a new genus from
the Indian Sea near Celebes, Labracinus Mus. L. B. of which I
think the description may be expected from Dr SCHLEGEL.

Genus Polycentrus MUELL., TROSCH. is unknown to mej is this
its place1? Rays of branchiostegous membrane six. Operculum
armed with a spine. Prseoperculum and first infraorbital bone
denticulate. Anal fin with numerous spines. Caudal fin !\

Sp. Polycentrus Schoniburgldi M. and TR. ; habit, in West Indies, Essequebo.
See R. SCHOMBURGK Reisen in Britsch Guiana, in. Leipzig. 1848, p. 622.

Note. — In the preceding genera the caudal fin is rounded ; but
in the following genera of this phalanx it is almost always lunate
or forked.

Latilus Cuv. Head declivous. Teeth small, arranged in seve-
ral rows in jaws. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Dorsal
fin long, low, with somewhat few (6 or 7) flexile spines.

Sp. Latilus doliatus Cuv., VAL., Poiss. v. PI. 130, &c.

Pteronemus nob. (Cheilodactylus LAC.). Teeth small or seta-
ceous, arranged in several rows, sometimes conical in external row.
Branchiostegous membrane with five or six rays. Inferior rays of
pectoral fins longer, not remote, articulate. Ventral fins placed a
little behind pectoral, almost abdominal.

Sp. Pteronemus cynadus, Cheilodactylus fasciatus LAC., Cyncedus GRONOV.
Zoophyl. p. 64, No. 221, LAC. Poiss. v. PL i. fig. i, from the Cape of
Good Hope (and from the East Indies ?) — Pteronemus zonatus, Cheilodactylus
zonatm Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. v. PL 129, Faun. Jap., Pise. Tab. 29.
Here the dorsal fin, which in the preceding species was almost of uniform
height, is very low in front of the soft rays, and then becomes higher. In
a South American species, Cheilodactylus cinctus, figured by V. TSCHUDI,
this is still more remarkably the case, and V. TSCHUDI even speaks here of
two dorsal fins. Fauna Peruana, St Gallen, 1844, 4to, Fische, Tab. n.

Scolopsides Cuv. Teeth in jaws subulate, very thin, crowded
in a narrow row. Praeoperculum denticulate. Branchiostegous
membrane with five rays. Two suborbital spines, one directed
backwards, decussating the other directed forwards.

Sp. Scolopsides lycogenis Cuv., Cov. d VAL. Poiss. v. PI. 127; Scolopsides
Vosmeri Cuv., An'thias Vosmaeri BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 321, Dictionn. univ.
d'Hist. not. Poiss. PL 6, fig. 2, and other species from the Indian Sea.
Some species occur also in the Bed Sea.
VOL. II. 12

178 CLASS XIV.

Heterognathodon BLEEKER. Suborbital bones smooth, without
any spine. Jaws with setaceous teeth in many rows, and a few
anterior large, conical (canines). Other characters those of the pre-
ceding genus.

Sp. Heterognathodon Ufasciatus, Scolopsides caninus Cuv.? and two new
species from the Indian Ocean. Compare Verh. van het. Batav. Genootsch.
XXIII. 1849.

Pristipoma nob. Teeth subulate, thin, numerous, in several
rows, larger in outer row. PraBOperculum denticulate. Branchioste-
gous membrane with seven rays. Pharyngeal teeth conical, strong.
Pores under lower jaw.

Hcemulon Cuv. Scales in the soft part of dorsal and anal, and
in the forked caudal fin.

Sp. Pristipoma elegans, Anthias formosus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab.323, Cuv. R. Ani.,
id. ill., Poiss. PL 30, fig. i ; — Pristipoma formosum, Perca formosa L.,
Labrus Plumieri LACEP. Poiss. in. PL 2, fig. 2, and some other species
from the West Indies and Brasil.

Pristipoma Cuv. Fins not scaly. Two pores under the apex of
lower jaw ; a middle groove behind them, as in the preceding sub-
genus, from which it scarcely differs. Caudal fin mostly truncate
or lunate.

Sp. Pristipoma Commersonii Cuv., Labrus Commersonii LAC., and Lutjanus
microstomus ejusd., LACEPkDE Poiss. in. PL 23, fig. i; PL 34, fig. 2; at
Madagascar in the mouth of rivers ; — Pristipoma japonicum Cuv., SCHLEG.
Faun. Japon., Pise. Tab. 16, fig. 2, and many other species from the
Indian Sea and some from the western hemisphere.

Diagramma Cuv. Fins not scaly. Six pores under lower jaw.

Sp. Pristipoma orientate, Anthias orientalis BLOCH, Ickthyol. Tab. 326, fig. 3,
Diagramma orientate Cuv., VAL. Poiss. v. PL 124 ; a small fish from the
Indian Archipelago, marked black and yellow, with round caudal fin;
— Pristipoma pictum nob., Diagramma punctatum EHBENB., Cuv. (and
Diagramma pictum et cinereum sec. BLEEKER), Red, Indian and Japan
Seas; — Pristipoma plectorhynchum, Plectorhynchus chcetonoides LAC.,
Poiss. II. PI. 13, fig. 2, &c.

Note. — Here also is to be inserted sub-genus Ckilotrema TSCHUDI, Faun.
Peruan., Ichth. p. 13, Tab. i.

Phalanx II. Dorsal fins two, or dorsal Jin single deeply incised
between the spines and the soft rays.

a) Margin of prceoperculum entire. Ventral fins jugular ; soft
part of dorsal fin long. No cirri under jaw.

PISCES. 179

Eleginus Cuv. Gape of mouth small, with teeth very thin,
arranged in several rows. Branchiostegous membrane with six
rays. Anal fin long.

Sp. Eleginus madovinus Cuv., VALENC. Poiss. v. PL 115.

Nebris Cuv. Gape of mouth ample, with teeth small, arranged
in several rows. Eyes small. Branchiostegous membrane with
seven rays. Anal fin small, opposite to the last part of dorsal fin.
Caudal fin rounded or rhombic.

Sp. Nebris microps, Cuv. et VAL. Pom. v. PL 112, from W. Indies.

b) Margin of prceoperculum denticulate or crenate. Ventral fins
thoracic.

Eques BLOCH. Body compressed, high anteriorly. Teeth sub-
ulate, small, crowded. Branchiostegous membrane with seven
rays. First dorsal fin high, falcate, second low, long ; this last, as
well as caudal and anal fins, scaly. Caudal fin rounded. No cirri
under jaw.

Sp. Eques punctatus BLOCH. Sysl. Ichth. Tab. m. fig. 2, Cuv. et VALENC.
Poiss. v. PL 1 1 6, from the West Indies, as is also Eques balteatus Cuv.,
Ckcetodon lanceolatus L., Eques americanus BLOCH, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Poiss. PL 29, fig. 2, which also occurs at Brasil.

Boridia Cuv. Genus of uncertain position.

Sp. Boridia, grossidens Cuv., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. v. PL 114, from Brasil.
Teeth globose, in several rows as in Spari.

Scicena L. Teeth subulate, crowded sometimes only in upper
jaw, in a single row in lower. Branchiostegous membrane with
seven rays. Anterior dorsal fin short, scarcely or not surpassing
the other in height. Caudal fin mostly truncate, or rounded, more
rarely emarginate or lunate.

a) Lower jaw cirrose.
Micropogon Cuv. Cirri very small, few under jaw.

Sp. Scicena undulata, Perca undulata L., CATESBT, Carol, n. Tab. 3, fig. j,
figure re-engraved in Encycl. meth., Poiss. PL 54, fig. 209 ; N. America in
the large lakes. The other species also of this sub-genus are from the
western hemisphere.

Pogonias Cuv., LAC. Several slender cirri, by the sides of lower
jaw. Pharyngeal teeth globose, large.

12-2

180 CLASS XIV.

Sp. Scicena chromis LAC., Pogonias chromis Cuv., Labrus chromis L., Scicena
gigas and Scicena fusca MITCH, (according to Cuv.), Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Poiss., PL 29, fig. i; — Pogonias fasciatus LAC., Poiss. II. PL 16, fig. 2,
Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. v. PL 118. The fishes that belong to the sub-genus
Pogonias often accompany ships and then produce a loud sound. Hence
the name drum, which the North- Americans have given to them.

Lonchurus BL. (excl. of some species), Cuv. Two cirri under the
jaw. Teeth thin, crowded in both jaws.

Sp. Lonchurus barbatus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 359.

Umbrina Cuv. Single cirrus under the symphysis of lower jaw.
Teeth thin, mostly equal, crowded in a broad belt. Upper jaw
obtuse, longer than lower.

Sp. Scicena cirrosa L., Umbrina vulgaris Cuv., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 300, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 28, fig. 3, in the Medit. Sea, &c.

b) Lower jaw without cirrus.

Corvina Cuv. Second spine of anal fin large, thick. Teeth
crowded, often larger in the outer row.

Sp. Scicena nigra GMEL., Corvina nigra Cuv., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 297, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 28, fig. i ; in the Medit. Sea. There are many
exotic species ; in the Indian species the second spine of the anal fin is
generally shorter ; they form in part the genus Johnius BLOCH. The sub-
genus Lepipterus Cuv. (Sp. Lepipterus Francisci Cuv., VAL. Poiss. v. PL
113) has a very elongate form and scales on the second dorsal and the
caudal fins. According to T. T. REINHARDT this sub-genus is identical
with Pachyurus AGASSIZ, a name to be preferred from its priority.

Otolitus Cuv. (and Ancylodon ejusd.). Teeth conical, unequal,
in the anterior row few, small or very small, the posterior teet
crowded, in the middle of each jaw. The two middle upper teei
long, tearing.

Sp. Otolithus maculatus KUHL and V. HASSELT, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Pois
PL 27, fig. i, in the Indian sea; BLEEKER has recently made known
new species of this division, from the Sunda-Moluccan Archipelago.

Scicena ancylodon, Ancylodon jaculidens, Lonchurus ancylodon Bi
Syst. Ichth. Tab. 25, from Surinam.

Scicena Cuv. Teeth conical, subincurved, distant, in a
row in both jaws; others very small behind the former in upp(
jaw, in the lower jaw interposed between the larger in the same
row. Anal fin with a single, slender pungent ray, or with two vei
short.

Sp. Scicena aquila Cuv., Scicena umbra L. (in part), BONAP., Cuv. Mem. di
Mus. i. pp. i— 21, PL i, fig. i, R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 27, fig. i,

PISCES. 181

YARRELL Brit. Fish. I. p. 90; Sea-Perch, Umbrina or Ombrina of the
Italians, Aigle, Maigre, in the Medit. Sea and North Sea; becomes 5 or 6
feet long, and was formerly in high esteem in Italy. We have already
remarked above on the swimming-bladder of this fish. The stomach is
very long; there are 9 (or, according to CUVIER, 10) large and wide pylo-
ric appendages ; the last part of the intestinal tube is very narrow.

Note. — On some other sub-genera, omitted here, comp. Cuv. et VAL.,
Poiss. Tom. v.

Family XLII. Mugiloidei. Body elongate, scaly, with two
dorsal fins, almost always small, distant; the first with pungent
spines nearly in the middle of back, the other supported by soft
rays, almost opposite to anal fin. Caudal fin forked. Ventral fins
abdominal, placed before the first dorsal. Teeth small, very thin,
sometimes none. Eyes large. (Branchiostegous membrane with
six rays, more rarely with five.)

Tetragonurus Risso, Cuv. Scales arranged in oblique rows,
surrounding the body verticillately. Anterior dorsal fin long, low,
with numerous spines. Teeth conical, in a single row in jaws ;
teeth acute in vomer and palate-bones. Tail in front of fin bicari-
nate on each side. Branchiostegous membrane with five rays.

Sp. Tetragonurus Cuvierii Rrsso, Mugil niger KONDELET, Corvus niloticus
ALDROVANDI dePiscib. (ed. Francof.), p. 236, Tab. 26, fig. 14, Cuv. et VAL.
Poiss. XI. PI. 318 ; from the Medit. Sea ; this species becomes 13" long, and
seems to be rare. It has many pyloric appendages and no swimming-
bladder. In some respects this genus approaches the Notacanthini (see
above, p. 151); the hard scales disposed in oblique rows recall the Gano-
lepidoti, Lepidosteus and Polypterus.

Mugil L. Body and head scaly. Opercles large, smooth, thin,
gibbous. Scales large (ctenoid), rough posteriorly with small den-
ticles. Head flat above ; eyes remote from each other. Body elon-
gate, with back almost straight. Mouth small ; lower jaw with a
longitudinal crest, exsert internally, received in the excised margin
of upper jaw. Maxillary teeth in a single row, very thin, some-
times none; vomer and palate-bone edentulous. Two dorsal fins
distant, small, the first with four spines.

Sp. Mugil capita Cuv., YARRELL Brit. Fish. I. p. 200, in the Medit. Sea
and the N. Sea; LINKEUS confounded this species with Mugil cephalus,
GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 37, fig. I ; on the different species in the
Medit. Sea, see Cuv. et VAL. Tom. xi. Different exotic species are known,
especially from the Indian Sea. In this genus there is a large swimming-

:

182 CLASS XIV.

bladder. There are only two pyloric appendages and the pyloric portion
of the stomach has thick muscular walls. Sometimes the first dorsal fin
has accidentally in one or another species five rays ; LINNJSUS has given
this, incorrectly, as a specific character of Mugil cepJialus.

Atherina L. Body elongate, with back sub-convex. Scales
moderate, cycloid. Mouth protractile. Small teeth in jaws, often
also in palate. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Two
dorsal fins small, distant ; the first with 4 — 9 spines, mostly six or
seven. Body with a silvery lateral band.

These fishes are small; they have a swimming-bladder, but no pyloric
appendages. With much external resemblance to the preceding genus,
they differ from it in the scales, which AGASSIZ has described (Rech. s. les
Poiss. foss. I. p. 8, 83), and in anatomical particulars.

Sp. Atherina hepsetu» L., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. x. p. 302, fig. i, in the Medit.
Sea and the Black Sea, also in the Atlantic Ocean along the Northern
coast of Africa; — Atherina presbyter, Cuv., GUKRIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 37,
fig. 3, YARRELL Brit. Fish. I. p. 214, from the North Sea, &c.

Family XLIII. Aspidoparei (Cataphracti MUELL.). Body
compressed or fusiform, with head mostly large, aculeate. Sub-
orbital bones large, conjoined posteriorly with the praeoperculum,
covering the cheeks with a shield. Scales ctenoid, often small,
oval. Teeth crowded, mostly thin in jaws, often also in vomer and
palate-bones. Ventral fins in most thoracic or jugular, in few
abdominal.

Mail-cheeked fishes (joules cuirassees Guv.). These fishes have
much resemblance to the Perches. In some, according to the ob-
servations of J. MUELLER, there are only three gills and a half
present, and the fissure behind the last branchial arch is wanting.
This character, however, cannot well serve for dividing the family,
for then Pterois, for instance, would be separated from Scorpcena,
and each of these nearly allied genera be placed in a different
division.

Phalanx I. Free spines in front of dorsal fin, which is supported
by soft rays.

Gasterosteus L. (exclus. of some species). Jaws with very small,
crowded teeth ; palate edentulous. Branchiostegous membrane with
three rays. Body at the sides often covered with transverse osseous
scutes, elsewhere scaleless. Tail carinate on both sides. Ventral

PISCES. 183

fins abdominal, with a strong spine, and one, sometimes two short,
soft rays. Bones of pelvis large, forming an abdominal sternum.

Sp. Gasterosteus Spinachia L., BLOCH IcJith. Tab. 53, fig. i, Skandinaviens
Fiskar. Tab. 4, fig. 3; the sea stickleback ; 14 or 15 free spinous rays on
the back ; the head long, body much elongated ; becomes 5" or 6" long ;
occurs in the N. Sea, YABRELL Brit. Fish. i. p. 87.

Gasterosteus pungitius L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 53, fig. 4, Skandinaviens
Fiskar. Tab. 4, fig. 2 ; the stickleback, our smallest fresh-water fish, is not
more than 2|" long, and has from 8 to 10 spines on the back. Another spe-
cies, which is somewhat larger, has only 3 spines on the back : Gasterosteus
aculeatus L. Skandinav. Fisk. Tab. 4, fig. i, a, b. In this species there
are bony plates at the sides which in Gast. pungitius are wanting; they
extend more or less backwards over the tail, in which respect transitions
are observed, which render the establishment of two species (Gasterosteus
trachurus and leiurus Cuv.) less acceptable.

Monocentris BL., SCHN. (Lepisacanthus LACEP.). Teeth short,
thin, crowded in jaws and in palate-bones, none in vomer. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with eight rays. Body short, compressed,
with scales large, hard, carinate, rough. Pungent rays thick in
back. Ventral fins with a very strong spine, and three very small
soft rays.

Sp. Monocentris carinata BL., SCHN., Gasterosteus japonicus HOUTTUYN,
Verh. van de Maatsch. der Wetensch. te Haarlem, xx. se Stuk, biz. 329,
330, Scicena cataphracta THUNB., BLOCH, SCHN. Syst. Ichth. Tab. 24 (fig.
of THUNBEBG), GUEBIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 16, fig. i, SCHLEGEL Faun.
Japon., Pise. Tab. 22, fig. i; from the Japan Sea; this species is eaten
by the Japanese and is common with them, although it is only rarely
found in European collections; it attains a length of only 5".

Phalanx II. Dorsal fin single,. Ventral fins thoracic. (Genus
Scorpcena L.)

Synanceia BL., SCHN. Body scaleless, often warty. Head
cavernous, tuberculate, mostly large. Eyes approximate in vertex.
Teeth crowded, thin in jaws; vomer mostly edentulous, sometimes
furnished with teeth (Synancidium MUELL.). Branchiostegous
membrane with seven rays. Pectoral fins ample, with all the rays
cloven at the point. (Branchiae three and a half.)

Sp. Synanceia horrida Cuv., Scorpcena horrida L., GBONOV. Zoophylac.
Tab. i r — 13, LAC. Poiss. n. PI. 17, fig. 2, from the Indian Ocean, becomes
about 8 or 9" long; — Synanceia brachio Cuv., LAC. Poiss. ill. PI. 12, fig.
i, BLOCH Syst. Ichth. Tab. 45, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Poiss. PI. 25, fig. 3;
also from the Indian Ocean, from the Arabian gulph and the island of

.:

184 CLASS XIV.

Mauritius as far as New Guinea; this species becomes 10" long; — Synan-
ceia elongata Cuv., a species, not yet figured, also from the Indian Ocean,
becomes only 3 or 4" long and has a much smaller head than the other
species.

Pelor Cuv. Teeth crowded, minute in jaws and vomer.
Mouth directed obliquely upwards. Orbits pedunculate. Spines of
dorsal fin elongate. Two free rays under pectoral fins. Other
characters almost those of the preceding genus.

Sp. Pelor obscurum Cuv., Scorpcena didactyla PALL., Spic. Zool. vn. Tab. 4,
from the Southern Pacific; — Pelor japonicumCw., Cuv. e^VAL. Poiss. IV.
PI. 93, and better Faun, japon. Pise. Tab. 18, fig. 2, &c. Species from
the western hemisphere of this as well as of the preceding genus are
unknown hitherto.

Apistus Cuv. Head compressed, aculeate. Teeth small, thin,
crowded in jaws and vomer ; palatine teeth in some, in others (sub-
genus Minous Cuv.) none. Branchiostegous membrane with 5 — 7
rays. Branchiae three and a half (MuELL.). Suborbital bone and
prasoperculum armed with a very strong erectile spine. Body in
some naked, in others scaly. Dorsal fin extending from head to-
wards the point of tail. Free rays under the pectoral fins.

Sp. Apistus trachinoides Cuv., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 92, fig. i, Indian
Sea at Java; — Apistus marmoratus Cuv., R. Ani., 3d. ill., Poiss. PI. 24,
fig. 3. East Indies at Timor ; this species is without scales, &c. All the
species are from the Eastern Hemisphere; small fishes from 2" to 4" long.

Agriopus Cuv. Body compressed, covered by skin naked,
smooth or rough. Head in front of eyes descending almost strait
to the small mouth. Teeth crowded, slender, in jaws, sometimes
also in vomer. Branchiostegous membrane with five rays. Dorsal
fin long, high anteriorly, beginning above the eyes or shortly be-
hind the eyes and produced to the point of tail. Soft rays of fins
not branched.

Sp. Agriopus torvus Cuv., Blennius torvus GRONOV; — Agriopus verrucosus
Cuv., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 91 ; both from the Cape of Good Hope.
— Agropus peruvianus Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 25, fig. i.

Haploactis SCHLEO. Dorsal fin higher posteriorly. Ventral
fins triradiate. Praeoperculum armed with several spines. Kemain-
ing characters nearly those of the preceding genus.

Sp. Haploactis cottoides nob., Faun. Japon. Pise. Tab. 22, figs. 3, 4 ; a small
fish about 3" long.

PISCES. 185

Blepsias Cuv.

Sp. Blepsias trilobus Cuv., VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 90, Traehinus cirrosus PALL.,
on the coast of Kamschatka ; from the same coasts is also Blepsias bilobus
Cuv., R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PI. 24, fig. i. This genus is very nearly
allied to Haploactis SCHLEG.

Genus Tcenianotus LAC., Cuv. Is it sufficiently distinct from
Agriopus? Head compressed, aculeate, cirrose ; body much com-
pressed, covered with small scales. Dorsal fin high, of the length
of back, joined to caudal. (Teeth . . . ? Rays of branchiostegous
membrane . . . ?)

Sp. Tcenianotus triacantJius Cuv., VAL. Poiss. IV. PI. 89, R. Ani., ed. Hi.,
Poiss. PI. 23, fig. 2 ; the specimen of uncertain origin, 3" long.

Hemityndotus Cuv.

Sp. Hemilepidotus Tilesii Cuv., Coitus hemilepidotus TILES., Cuv. et VAL.
Poiss. IV. PL 85, R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 22, fig. i.

Pterois Cuv. Head compressed, aculeate, furnished with laci-
niated cirri. Teeth thin, short, crowded in jaws and vomer, none
in palate-bones. Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays.
Anterior rays of dorsal fin and rays of pectoral fins elongate; of
these the first are sometimes produced as far as the caudal fin.
Body covered with small scales.

Sp. Pterois volitans Cuv., Gasterosteus volitans L., Scorpcena volitans GM.,
BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 184, BENNETT Fishes on the Coast of Ceylon. London
1830, PL I, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. rv. PL 88, in the Red and Indian Seas; —
Pterois zebra Cuv., R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 24, fig. i, in the Indian Sea,
from the Island of Mauritius to New Guinea. All the species are from the
Eastern Hemisphere.

Scorpcena L. (excl. Scorpcena horrida). Head compressed,
covered by naked soft skin, aculeate, often cirrose. Eyes large.
Teeth sharp, subulate, crowded in jaws, vomer and palate-bones,
with a zone broad anteriorly in jaws. Body scaly. Kays of bran-
chiostegous membrane seven. Branchiae three and a half.

Sp. Scorpcena scrofa L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 182; the skeleton in ROSENTHAL
Ichthyotom. Taf. xv. fig. 2. This species attains a size of i£', at most of
2'; — Scorpcena porcus L., Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Poiss. PL 4, fig. 2; this
species is smaller than the preceding and has smaller scales. Both occur
in the Medit. Sea and the Atl. Ocean ; the last comes now and then to the
Canal.

Sebastes Cuv. Body scaly, without cirri. Remaining characters
ilmost those of the preceding genus. Habitus of Perca.

186 CLASS XIV.

Sp. Sebastes norvegicus Cuv., Perca norvegica O. F. MUELLER, Cuv. et VAL.
Poiss. IV. PI. 87, a fish from the N. Sea, which usually attains a length of
fully i', and has a red colour; at Greenland, Iceland and along the coast
of Norway; — Sebastes variabilis Cuv., Perca variabilis PALL., GUERIN
Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 14, fig. i, at Kamschatka.

Chirus STELLER, Labrax PALL.

Sp. Labrax leucogrammus, Labrax decagrammus cet. PALLAS Mem.deTAcad.
de Petersbourg, n. 1810, pp. 382 — 398. Fishes from the sea between
Northern Asia and America. Pores arranged in longitudinal rows on the
body, as though the lateral line were multiplex. This genus is referred by
CUVIEB to the Gobio'ids.

Phalanx III. Two dorsal fins, the anterior supported by spines.

f Ventral fins situated behind pectoral, almost abdominal.

Platycephalus BL. (excl. of some species). Head much de-
pressed, spinose; eyes in vertex, approximate. Lower jaw longer
than upper. Teeth very thin, crowded in jaws, with the middle
and posterior in upper jaw conical, larger; subulate teeth in a
narrow belt in the anterior part of vomer, and in an oblique, lon-
gitudinal row on each side in palate-bones. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with seven rays. Body scaly.

Sp. Platycephalus insidiator BL., Callionymus indicus L., Cottus spatula
BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 424, Cottus madagascariensis LAC. Poiss. m. PI. XT.
figs, i, 2 ; in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean; — Platycephalus scaber, Cottus
sealer L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 180; — Platyc. grandispinis Cuv., GUKRIN
Iconogr. , Poiss. PI. 13, fig. i, &c.

•H* Ventral fins thoracic (or siibjugular).

Beinbras Cuv. Head spinose, with snout depressed, obtuse.
Teeth thin, crowded in jaws, vomer and palate-bones. Branchio-
stegous membrane with seven rays. Body scaly.

Sp. Bembras japonicus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. iv. PL 83, Faun. Japan., Pise.
Tab. 16, fig. 8 ; — Bembras curtus SCHLEG. ibid. figs. 6, 7.

Cottus L. (excl. of some species). Head broader than body,
depressed, spinose. Teeth thin, crowded in jaws. Branchiostegous
membrane with six rays. Body attenuated posteriorly. (Branchiae
three and a half, with fourth arch adnate posteriorly.)

Agonus BL., SCHN. (Aspidophorus LAC., Cuv., Phalangistes Pall.).
Body mailed with hard osseous scales, angulate. Ventral fins small,
triradiate.

Sp. Cottus cataphractus L., Aspidophorus europceus Cuv., BLOCH Ichth. Tab.
39, fig. 3, Skandinaviens Fiskar. Tab. 40, YARRELL Brit. Fish. i. p. 70 ;
the armed bullhead, in the North Sea ; about 6" long. This species, like
most others of this northern sub-genus, has two dorsal fins, and no other
teeth than those of the intermaxillary bone and the lower jaw.

PISCES. 187

There is another species from the high north (above 60 N. L.), which
has only a single dorsal fin, far from the tail, and which is distinguished
by teeth in the palate and vomer, Agonus monopterygius BLOCH, IcJilh, Tab.
178, figs, i, i, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vi. PI. 169.

Cottus Cuv. Body fusiform, mostly quite scaleless or covered at
the sides with scales. Teeth in the anterior part of vomer. Ventral
fins small, mostly with four rays, sometimes five or three.

Sp. Cottus gobio L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 39, figs, i, 2, Skandinav. Fiskar. PL 7,
fig. 1 ; in fresh water; there are five rays in the ventral fins; this species
is small, not much above 4" long. — Cottus scorpius L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab.
40, Slcandinaviens Fiskar PI. 5, YARRELL Brit. Fish. p. 60 ; the sea-scorpion
(donderpadde Dutch, Rotsimpa Swedish, Ulk Danish) ; the prceoperculum
has usually four spines, of which the uppermost is the longest, but does
not reach to the extremity of the large spine of the operculum; the upper
jaw mostly extends slightly beyond the lower. This species becomes 8 — 10"
long, and occurs on the west coast of France, and as far as Iceland in the
North Sea.

In some exotic species teeth are found on the palate-bones in addition to
those on the vomer. Cottus ctsper RICHARDSON, Fauna boreali-Americ.,
Fishes, PI. 95, fig. i, Cottus uncinatus SCHL., Faun. Jap. Pise. p. 38. From
this RICHARDSON has formed the sub-genus Centridermichthys. The skin
is rough from small warty inequalities or spines; the praeoperculum has
a spine directed upwards. Here belongs, a» it seems, also Cottus platy-
cephalus PALL.

Uranidea DEKAY.

Hemitripterus GUY. Head sub-depressed, aculeate, armed with
many jagged cirri. Teeth sharp, crowded in jaws, vomer and
palate-bones. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Anterior
dorsal fin deeply emarginate. Body scaleless.

Sp. Hemitriplerus americanus Cuv., Cottus tripterygius and hispidus BLOCH,
Syst. Ichth. Tab. 13, Cuv. R. Ani^ ed. ill., Poiss. PL 22, fig. i; on the
coasts of N. America.

Pangitius L. (Mus. Ad. Frid.), CepJialacanthus LAC. Head
obtuse anteriorly, flat above, with a long lateral spine on each side
produced to the base of dorsal fin. Eyes large. Prseoperculum
armed with a long spine, directed backwards below the pectoral
fins. A row of very small teeth in jaws. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with three rays. Pectoral fins small, bifid. Body covered
with keeled scales.

Sp. Pungitius pusillus L. (Gasterosteus spinarella L. Syst. not.}, Mus. Ad.
Frid. Tab. 32, fig. 5, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. til., Poiss. PL 20, fig. 4; a small
fish from the east coast of tropical America.

188 CLASS XIV.

Dactylopterus LAC. Teeth conical, short, rounded at the apex,
crowded in jaws, none in vomer or palate-bones. Branchiostegous
membrane with six rays. Pectoral fins bifid, the posterior part
with very long, simple rays, forming a wing. (Kemaining charac-
ters almost those of the preceding genus.)

Flying fishes, like the genus Exocoetus; see above, p. no. There is a
species in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, Dactylopterus
vulgaris, Trigla volitans L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 351, and one in the Indian
Ocean; from the Island of Mauritius to the Sunda Islands, which also
extends itself to the east coast of Asia, at China and Japan, Dactyl,
orientalis Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. iv, PI. 76, SCHLEGEL Faun. Jap., Pise.
Tab. XV. A. This genus differs from the otherwise nearly allied genus
Pungitius, not only in its elongated pectoral fin -rays, but also in its much
larger size ; they attain a length of more than a foot. The Indian species
has a long free ray of the dorsal fin on the back of the head, and is of a
red colour with yellow-green, round spots; the pectoral fins are blue.
The cranial bones are thick and porous on the surface.

Trigla L. (excl. of Trigla volitans). Head from vertex to
mouth very declivous, loricate, armed with rugged crests. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with seven rays. Pectoral fins ample, with
two or three inferior rays free (digiti LINN.).

A. Fingers three. Teeth small, crowded, thin in jaws and in the anterior
part of vomer. Body scaly.

Trigla nob. (Trigla recentiorum and Prionotus LAC.)

Gurnards, Knurrhaknen of the Germans, Grondins of the French.
These fishes feed principally on crustaceans. Their swimming-bladder
is large, oval, with stiff walls. They have a pretty long intestinal canal
with thin tunics, but the wide stomach has thick walls. There are 5 — 10
pyloric appendages.

Some species (all from the western hemisphere) have large pectoral fins,
which extend almost as far as behind the second dorsal fin, and teeth in the
palate-bones. Here belong Trigla evolans and Trigla Carolina L. In most
of the species the pectoral fins are smaller and extend only as far as the
beginning of the second dorsal fin ; they have no teeth in the palate, except
those of the vomer. Sp. Trigla hirundo L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 60 ; red,
with dark violet, very large pectoral fins ; this species becomes two feet
long ; — Trigla gurnardus L. (and Trigla hirundo L. in part), Skandin.
Fiskar. PI. 3, fig. 2, YARRELL Br. Fish. I. p. 48, the grey or small gurnard;
this species is rarely more than i' long; the lateral line has larger and
carinate scales. There are different species also of this genus in the
Mediterranean Sea, and some in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Southern
Pacific at New Zealand. The exotic species, however, are not numerous.
Trigla alata HOUTTUYN, a Japonese species, is not clearly to be determined,
perhaps Trigla Burgeri, Faun. Jap.

PISCES. 189

B. Fingers two. Mouth and palate edentulous.

Peristedion LAC. Snout furcate, elongate. Body mailed with
large, bony, keeled scales. Several branched cirri at the lower jaw.

Sp. Trigla cataphracta L., EONDELET de Piscib. p. 299 (Cornuta sive lyra
altera), Cuv. R. Ani., 3d. ill., PL -20. fig. 3, from the Mediterranean Sea.
A figure of the cranium in EOSENTHAL Ichthyotom. Taf. xviu. fig. 4.
A species also from Japan is known, Peristedion orientale SCHL. Faun.
Japon. ; and a few years ago the Rijks-Museum received one from the Indian
Sea, at the Moluccas, through the deceased FORSTEN (Peristedion laticeps,
n. sp.)

Oreosoma Cuv. Body compressed, high, scaleless, furnished
with conical tubercles on the back and at the belly. Mouth verti-
cal; teeth small, thin, crowded in jaws, vomer and palate-bones.
Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays.

Only one species of this anomalous genus is known, Oreosoma coniferum (or
atlanticum) Cuv., a small fish, discovered by PERON; GUERIN Iconogr.,
Poiss. PL 16, fig. 3, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. UL, Poiss. PL 26, fig. 4.

Family XLIV. Percoidei. Body oblong, covered with rough
scales (ctenoid). Prasoperculum or operculum rough with teeth or
spines. Teeth in jaws and vomer, often also in palate-bones.
Branchiostegous membrane mostly with seven rays. Ventral fins
thoracic in most.

Percdid fishes. This large family contains principally the different
sub-divisions which modern writers have adopted in the large genus
Perca of LIXN^EUS, to which are added some smaller genera of the
great Swedish naturalist, Uranoscopus, Trachinus, Polymmus and
Mullus. The most aberrant is the last-named genus, which we
therefore place in a division distinct from the rest; it has some
conformity with the Sparoi'ds.

Section I. Mullini. Two cirri in lower jaw. Branchiostegous
membrane with four rays.

Mullus L. Head compressed, scaly. Eyes large at the top of
head, remote from mouth. Body covered with large, deciduous
scales. Ventral fins thoracic.

Upeneus Cuv. Teeth in both jaws.

Note. — All the species of Upeneus are extra- European marine fishes.
BLEEKER distinguishes the sections of this genus of CUVIER as sub-genera ;

190 CLASS XIV.

one section, with maxillary teeth in a single row, palatine and vomerine
teeth none, this he calls Upeneus: another, with maxillary, palatine and
vomerine teeth in several rows, very small, under the name, not the
best, of Upeneoides: finally a third, with a similar name, Mulloides, where
the maxillary teeth are in several rows, and without teeth in palate-bones.

Sp. Upeneus lateristriga Cuv., LAO. Pom. ra. PL 13, figs, i, 2, Cuv.
R. Ani., id. ill, Poiss. PI. 19, fig. 3;— Upeneus Vlamingii (Upeneoides
BLEEK.), Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 71 ; from the Indian Ocean.

Mullus Cuv. Teeth in upper jaw none, crowded in lower jaw
and vomer.

Sp. Mullus surmuletus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 57, Cuv. R. Ani., €d. ill.,
Poiss. PI. 19, fig. 2 ;— Mullus barbatus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 348, fig. 2,
(this figure gives erroneously teeth in the upper jaw), Cuv. ek VAL. Pom.
PI. 70. Both these species in the Mediterranean Sea and also in the
Atlantic Ocean, and now and then (especially the first) in the North Sea.
These species have no swimming-bladder, whilst in most of the species of
Upeneus that organ is very large.

The Romans made much ado about this fish, and often paid \mprecedented
sums for large MuUi of two or more pounds, (Mullus bilibris, MAKTIAL.
Lib. xi. 50, v. 9, Lib. in. 45, v. 5 ; trilibris, HORAT. Satirar. Lib. 11. 2,
v. 33). The Mullus barbatus was kept by them in vivaria; they amused
themselves with the beautiful red colour of the fish, as we do with the gold
fish (Cyprinus auratus) ; they caused them to be exhibited alive to their
guests at table before they were set before them: " Vitreis ollis inclusi offe-
runtur, et observatur morientium color, quern in multas mutationes mors
luctante spiritu vertit, olios necant in garo et condiunt mvos. — Nihil est mullo
exspirante formosius," &c. SENEC. Nat. Qucest. L. in. c. 17, 18.

Section II. Percini. No cirri in lower jaw. Bays of bran-
chiostegons membrane more than four.

A. Ventral fins abdominal (a little more posterior than
pectoral) .

Sphyrcena ARTEDI, BL., SCHN. Body elongate, covered with
small scales. Teeth sharp, unequal in jaws and palate-bones,
none in vomer. Gape of mouth large; lower jaw produced beyond
upper, cuspidate. Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays.
Two dorsal fins, small, distant.

Sp. Sphyrcena vulgaris Cuv., Esox sphyrcena L., BLOCH Ichth. PI. 389,
GUEBIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 10, fig. 2; in the Mediterranean Sea; — Sphy-
rcena becuna LAC., Poiss. v. PI. 9, fig. 3, BLOCH Syst. Ichth. Tab. 29,
fig. i, from the West Indies, Brasil, &c. Some species also of this genus
occur in the Indian Ocean, as Sphyrcena Commersonii and Sphyr. jetto Cuv.,
which with the colonists bear the name of snoek (pike). (The snoek of the

PISCES. 191

Cape-colonists is, as was stated above, a scomberoid; Sphyrcence have much
more the habitus of pikes, than these.)

Polynemus L. Head scaly, with snout obtuse, prominent. Teeth
small, crowded in jaws, vomer and palate-bones. Branchiostegous
membrane with seven rays. Two dorsal fins distant. Free fingers
below pectoral fins, in various number. Ventral fins little remote
from pectoral, adhering to the osseous belt of these. Caudal fin
large, deeply bilobed.

Sp. Polynemus longiflis Cuv., Polynemus paradiseus L. (and Polynem. quin-
quarius L., sec. Cuv.), SEBA, HI. Tab. 27, fig. -2, Encycl. metJi., Poiss.
PL 74, figs. 307 and 308, (figures copied from the work of EDWARDS) ; the
mango, from the Indian Ocean, the mouths of the Ganges and at Borneo ;
seven free rays, of which three are longer than the body; — Polynemus
plebejus BROUSSON. IcJith. Tab. vn. ; — Polynemus lineatus LAC. Poiss. V.
PI. 13, fig. 2, SCHLEG. Faun. Japon., Pise., Tab. IX. fig. i; in the Indian
Ocean, the South Pacific and at Japan, with five free rays at the pectoral
fins, which are short and scarcely reach as far as behind the ventral fins.
The greatest number of free filaments that have hitherto been observed at
the pectoral fins in this genus is fourteen (in Polyn. multiJUis Mus. L. B.,
a new species from Borneo), the smallest three.

Haplodactylus Cuv., VAL.

Note. — Fish of Chili unknown to me, with four inferior rays of pectoral
fins undivided, rays of branchiostegous membrane six, maxillary teeth in
several rows, the anterior larger, crenate, with small crowded teeth in the
anterior part of vomer, palatine teeth none. Comp. Cuv. et VAL. Poiss.
vin. pp. 476 — 481, PL 242.

B. Ventral fins jugular.

Uranoscopus L. Head depressed, rugged, large. Gape of
mouth ascending, with upper jaw shorter. Teeth small, crowded
in jaws, vomer and palate-bones, sometimes larger, conical, in
a single row at the sides of lower jaw. Branchiostegous membrane
with six rays. Dorsal fins mostly two, of which the first is small,
or the dorsal fin single, long. Pectoral fins ample. Body covered
with small scales, rarely scaleless.

Sp. Uranoscopus sealer L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 163, LAC. Poiss. n. PL xi.
fig. i, Cuv. B. Ani., ed. ill,, Poiss. PL 17, fig. i; the skeleton in
ROSENTHAL Ichthyot. Taf. 1 8, fig. 5 ; in the Mediterranean Sea; also some
species from the coasts of India and Japan, and from the South Pacific, as
Uranosc. inermis Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. HI. PL 65, Cuv. JR. Ani., ed. ill.,
Poiss. PL 1 7, fig. 3, with single dorsal fin. In the western hemisphere this
genus is represented by a species with two dorsal fins, on the coast of North
America, Uranosc. anoplos Cuv.

192 CLASS XIV.

Trachinus L. Head compressed, small. Eyes approximate.
Gape of mouth ascending obliquely. Teeth thin, crowded in jaws,
vomer and palate-bones. Operculum with a very strong spine.
Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Dorsal fins two, conti-
guous, the first short, the second, like the anal, long; this pro-
duced forwards almost to the pectoral fins. Body elongate,
compressed, covered with small scales.

Sp. Trachinus draco L., BLOCK Syst. Ichth. Tab. 10 (named Trachinus
lineatus), Skandinav. FisTcar. Tab. 3, fig. i ; the tveever, la vive, de pieterman ;
flesh excellent, seldom i' long (mostly only 10"), the second dorsal fin has
twenty-nine or thirty rays ; — Trachinus vipera Cuv., Track, draco BL. Ichth.
Tab. 6 1, Cuv. R. Ani., td. ill., Poiss. PI. 15, fig. i ; this species is smaller
and shorter than the preceding, and has not more than about twenty-four
rays in the second dorsal fin. Both species are from the North Sea; the
first occurs, with two other species, in the Mediterranean Sea also. That
the sharp rays of the first dorsal fin and the spine of the gill-cover are
dangerous and even poisonous weapons in these fishes, especially in
Trachinus vipera, was formerly a general opinion, and beyond doubt they
can produce painful wounds ; ALLMAN compares a wound which he received
from the opercular-spine to the sting of a wasp, Ann. of Nat. Hist. VI.
1841, pp. 161—165.

Percis BL., SCHN. Head depressed. Dorsal fins conjoined. No
teeth in palate-bones. Remaining characters and habit nearly those
of Trachinus.

Sp. Percis maculata BLOCH, Syst. Ichth. Tab. 38 ; — Percis cylindrica, Scicena
cylindrica BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 299, fig. i ; — Percis cancellata, Labrus tetra-
canthus LAC. Poiss. u. PL 1 3, fig. 3, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 9, fig. 2,
&c. — Fishes from the Indian Ocean, the Eed and Pacific Seas, which seem
to be the representatives of the European genus Trachinus.

Note. — Perhaps genus Trichodon STELLER is to be placed near
Trachinus. The ventral fins, however, are thoracic rather than
jugular. Dorsal fins two. Body scaleless.

Sp. Trichodon Stelleri Cuv., VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 57, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss.
PI. 7, %. 3.

Bovichthys Cuv., VAL.

Sp. Bovichthys diacanthus Cuv., VAL. Poiss. vin. PI. 244; a fish occurring
both on the east and west coasts of South America, unknown to me,
described formerly by CARMICHAEL under the name of Callionymus
diacanthus, related to the Trachini but distinct from that genus by seven
rays of the branchiostegous membrane, by very large eyes, and by habit.

Pinguipes Cuv. Head broad, protracted, with fleshy lips. Eyes
remote from mouth. Teeth crowded, thin in jaws behind a row of

PISCES. 193

larger, conical teeth. Teeth in vomer and palate-bones. Branchio-
stegous membrane with six rays. Pectoral fins rounded, ventrals
thick. Dorsal fin single, longitudinal.

Sp. Pinguipes brasiliamis Cuv., VAL. Poiss. m. PI. 63 ; — Plnguipes chilensis
Cuv. £. Ani., ed. itt., Poiss. PL 16, fig. i.

Percophis Cuv. Head scaly, acuminate, with lower jaw longer
than upper. Unequal teeth in jaws, palate-bones and vomer. Bran-
chiostegous membrane with seven rays. Dorsal fins two ; anal fin
and second dorsal fin long. Body cylindrical, elongate.

Sp. Percophis brasiliamis Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 64, Cuv. R. Ani., e"d.
ill., Poiss. PL 1 6, fig. 2.

Aphritis Cuv., VAL.

Sp. Aphritis Urvilii Cuv., VAL. Comp. Hist. not. des Poiss. vui. Tab. 243,
pp. 483—485.

C. Ventral fins thoracic.

f Ventral fins with seven soft rays or more.

BranchiostegoiAS membrane with eight rays. Eyes large. (Holo-
centrini nob.)

Beryx Cuv. Teeth short, crowded in jaws, vomer and palate-
bones. Body high, short. Dorsal fin single, moderate.

Sp. Beryx decadactylusCuv., GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL vm. fig. 3; — Beryx
lineatus Cuv., VAL. Poiss. in. PL 60.

Hoplostethus Cuv.

Note. — Is this its place? In the opinion of CuviER this genus is to be
referred to the Aspidoparei. Vomer edentulous. Subventral shield of keeled
scales. Sp. Hoplostethus mediterraneus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. PL 97, bis.

Myripristis Cuv. (witli add. of Holocentrum ejusd.). Teeth
thin, crowded in jaws, vomer and palate-bones. Body high, com-
pressed, covered with large, rough scales. Infraorbital and opercular
bones denticulate. Dorsal fins two, contiguous, sometimes conjoined ;
first long, with strong spines.

Rliynchichthys Cuv. Snout prominent beyond mandibles, acumi-
nate.

Sp. Khynchichthys pelamidis Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vn. PL 208. Here also is
to be referred Holocentrus GRONOVII Zoophylac. Tab. IV. fig. 3.

VOL. II. 13

194 CLASS XIV.

Myripristis Cuv. Snout not produced. Prseoperculum denticu-
late on the margin and on a crest parallel to the margin, destitute
of spine.

Sp. Myripristis Jacobus Cuv., DESMAREST Diet, class. d?Hist. not., Atlas,
1831, PI. 95, from the West Indies; — other species from the Eastern
hemisphere, the Red Sea, the Indian and Sea of Japan, as Myripristis
seychellensis Cuv., GU&RIN Iconogr., Poiss. PI. 8, fig. i, &c.

Holocentrwm ARTEDI, Cuv. Snout not produced. Prseoperculum
denticulate at the margin and armed with a strong scabrous spine
pointing backwards.

Sp. Holocentrum longipinne Cuv., Bodianus pentacanthus, Scicena rubra and
Holocentrus sogho BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 232 ; in the West Indies and on the
coast of Brasil. The species are more numerous from the warm regions of
the eastern hemisphere, as Holocentrum orientate Cuv., SEBA TJies. in.
Tab. 27, fig. 3, from the Indian Ocean, from the Island of Mauritius to the
Moluccan Archipelago, Holocentrum leo Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. HI., Poiss. PI. 14,
fig. i, from the Indian Ocean and Southern Pacific, Hoi. Sammara Cuv.,
Labrus angulosus LAC. Poiss. in. PI. 22, fig. i, from the Red Sea and the
Indian Ocean, &c.

Fossil species from the division of the Holocentrini are more numerous
than from the proper Percce and Serrani. Besides extinct genera, different
species of Beryx occur in the chalk formation in England and Germany ;
of Holocentrum and Myripristis fossil species are known from the tertiary
period, from Monte Bolca. Compare AGASSIZ Pom. foss. iv.

ft Ventral fins with five soft rays.
* Branchiostegous membrane with six rays or fewer.

Cirrites COMMERS. Some larger conical teeth in jaws interposed
with thin, crowded teeth ; teeth in vomer crowded, in palate-bones
none. Bays of branchiostegous membrane five or six. Dorsal fin
single, longitudinal. Inferior rays of pectoral fins undivided, pro-
duced at the point beyond the membrane.

Sp. Cirrites maculatus LAC., Cuv. Labrus marmoralus LAC. Poiss. in. PL 5,
fig. 3 ; — Cirrites arcatus Cuv. R. Ani., 3d. ill., Poiss. PI. 10, fig. 2, &c.
Fishes from the Red Sea, the Indian Sea and Southern Pacific.

Therapon Cuv., nob. (with add. of Datnia, Pelates, Helotes,
Dules Cuv.). Teeth in jaws crowded, thin, sometimes larger
in outer row. Palatine teeth sometimes none. Branchiostegous
membrane with six rays. Operculum spinose; praeoperculum den-
ticulate. Dorsal fin single, longitudinal ; spines strong, the poste-
rior less than the first soft rays.

PISCES. 195

Sp. Therapon servus Cuv., Holocentrus servus BLOCH, IchtJi. Tab. 238, fig. i,
LACEP. Poiss. in. PL 30, fig. 3; — Therapon puta GUERIN, Iconogr., Poiss.
PL 7, fig. i ; — Dules auriga Cuv., Cuv. et VAL. Pom. ni. PL 5 1, species
from the Red Sea, the Indian and South Pacific seas.

Nandus Cuv. Teeth thin, short, crowded in jaws, in vomer and
palate-bones. Margin of prseoperculum and interoperculum finely
denticulate; operculum with a spine small or none. Rajs of bran-
chiostegous membrane six. Mouth protractile. Eyes large. Body
high, compressed. Dorsal fin single, deeply incised in front of soft
rays.

Sp. Nandus marnwratus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vn. PL 207, from Bengal.
This fish almost agrees with the sub-genus Dules of the preceding genus,
but differs from it especially in the protractile snout. The genus Anoplus
SCHLEGEL may be also united with it. Sp. Nandus anoplus nob., Anoplus
SCHL. Faun. Japan., Pise. Tab. vm.

Priacanthus Cuv. Teeth crowded, thin in jaws and palate-
bones. Angle of prasoperculum produced into a denticulate spine.
Entire head and body covered with small scales. Branchiostegous
membrane with six rays. Eyes very large. Dorsal fin single, con-
tinuous, higher posteriorly. Ventral fins ample.

Sp. Priacanthus macrophthalmus, Anthias macrophthalmus BLOCH, Ichth.
Tab. 319, from Brasil; — other species are from the Indian Sea, the Southern
Pacific, and especially from the east coast of Asia, as Priacanthus japonicus
Cuv., VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 50, Priacanthus niphonius Cuv., VAL., Faun.
Jap., Pise. Tab. vn. A, &c.

Ichthelw BAFIN. Teeth crowded, thin in jaws ; palatine-teeth
sometimes none. Praeoperculum entire or slightly denticulate.
Branchiostegous membrane with six rays. Operculum and cheeks
scaly. Dorsal fin single. Body compressed, high. Tail thin,
short.

Compare CDVIEB et VALENCIENNES Poiss. vii. pp. 454 — 469. To this
genus belong fresh-water fishes from America, especially from the northern
half of that part of the world.

Sub-genus Pomotis Cuv. Teeth in palate-bones and tongue none.
Prseoperculum denticulate. Operculum with a membranous appen-
dage ear-shaped, rounded. Anal fin with three spines, or more
rarely with four.

Sp. Pomotis vulgaris Cuv., VAL. Poiss. m. PL 49, R. Ani., 3d. ill., Poiss.
PL 10, fig. 3, &c. — Pomotis elongatus HOLBROOK, Journal of the Acad. of
Nat. Sc. of Philadelphia, Sec. Ser. in. 1855, PL 5, fig. i, and two others.

13—2

196 CLASS XIV.

Sub-genus Bryttus Cuv. Teeth in palate-bones few, in tongue
none. Prseoperculum entire. Operculum without membranous
auricle. Anal fin with three spines. (Habit of the preceding sub-
genus, from which it is distinguished artificially rather than in
reality).

Sub-genus Centrarchus Cuv. Teeth in palate-bones and in tongue.
Prseoperculum entire. Spines of anal fin in most 5 — 7, more rarely
only three.

Sp. Centrarchus sparoides Cuv., Ldbrus sparol'des LAC. Poiss. in. PI. 24,
fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani.y ed. ill., Poiss. PL 10, fig. i ; with nine spinous rays in
the anal fin; — Centrarchus hexacanthius Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. in. PL 48, &c.

Sillago Cuv. Head conical, with narrow mouth at the apex of
snout. Teeth very thin, small, crowded in jaws and vomer. Angle
of operculum produced into an acute spine. Branchiostegous mem-
brane with six rays. Two distinct dorsal fins, second long. Body
elongate.

Sp. Sillago acuta Cuv., Scicena maldbarica BLOCH, Syst.Ichth. Tab. 19; called
Spiering (smelt) by the Dutch at Batavia ; — Sillago erythrcea Cuv., GUERIN
Iconogr.f Poiss. PL 8, fig. i, &c. — Fishes from the Red Sea, the Indian and
South Pacific Seas, with somewhat of the habitus of Sphyrcena, but with
eyes moderate or small ; they deviate much from the preceding genera, in
whose neighbourhood they are placed solely from the agreement in number
of the rays of the branchial membrane.

** Branchiostegous membrane with seven rays.
A. Dorsal Jin single.

a) Some conical (laniary) teeth, interposed with the rest, crowded,
thin.

Serranus nob. Teeth small, thin, crowded in jaws, vomer and
palate-bones; larger incurved teeth in the anterior part of jaws and
at the sides of lower jaw. Prasoperculum denticulate. Dorsal fin
single, longitudinal.

Mesoprion Cuv. (and Diacope ejusd.). Operculum with apex flat,
obtuse, not aculeate. Prseoperculum often more or less excised
above the angle, for receiving the tubercle of interoperculum.

Sp. Mesoprion octolineatus BLEEKEB, Diacope octolineata Cuv., Holocentrus
lengalensis BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 246, fig. 2, Faun. Japon., Pise. Tab. VI.
fig. 2, from the Red Sea, the Indian and Pacific Oceans ; — Mesoprion unino-
tatus Cuv., VAL. Poiss. n. PL 39, Brasil, St Domingo, &c. ; — Mesoprion aya

PISCES. 197

Cuv., Bodianus aya BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 227, GUJSBIN Iconoyr., Poiss. PL 4,
fig. 2, and many other species.

Serr anus Cuv. (and Plectropoma ejusd.). Operculum spinose.

Sp. Serranus guttatus Cuv., Bodianus guttatus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 224; this
species, as also Serranus variolosus Cuv. and some other spotted species from
the Moluccan Archipelago, have been from old times commonly known to
our sailors by the name of Jacob Evertsen (from resemblance to the pimpled
and spotty countenance of that admiral).

This sub-genus counts more than a hundred species from different,
principally tropical, seas. Some also occur in the Mediterranean Sea;
Serranus antJiias Cuv., Labrus anthias L. (excl. synon. CATESB.), BLOCH
Ichth. Tab. 315, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. n. PL 31, Serranus hepatus Cuv.,
Labrus hepatus L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 235, fig. i, Holocentrus siagonotus
LA ROCHE, Ann. du Mus. xm. PL 22, fig. 3, (with darker ventral fins and
a round dull black spot on the soft part of the dorsal fin ; compare on the
extensive synonomy of this species Cuv. Poiss. n. pp. 231 — 234); Serranus
scriba Cuv., Perca scriba L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 240 (named Holoc.fasciatus),
Cuv. et VALENC. Poiss. 11. PI. 28; — Serranus cabrilla Cuv., Perca cabritta
L., Holocentrus virescens BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 233, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. u.
PL 29; — Serranus gigas Cuv., Perca gigas BRUNNICH and GJT., Cuv. et VAL.
Pom. n. PL 33, &c. These fishes have either small or only moderately
large scales, a large swimming-bladder and numerous pyloric appendages.

Note. — It is stated above, p. 37, that the sexes in fishes are
always distinct. This statement would appear to require modifica-
tion. See DUFOSSE Ann. des Sc. nat. 4e Serie, Tome v. p. 295,
PL 8, fig. 1 — 6, 1856. The author contends that hermaphroditism
is normal in at least three species of Serranus, viz. Serranus hepatus,
S. cabrilla and S. scriba, and gives the anatomy and relations of the
bisexual organs.

b) All the maxillary teeth thin, crowded.

Polyprion Cuv. Head rough. Prasoperculum denticulate.
Operculum with a rough transverse crest. Cheeks and opercles
scaly. Body short.

Sp. Polyprion cernium Cuv., VALENCIENNES in Mem. du Mus. xi. 1824,
pp. 265 — 269, PL xvn. BLOCH Syst. Ichth. Tab. 47 (named Amphiprion
australe), Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 9, fig. i ; in the Mediterranean
Sea, in the Atlantic Ocean as far as the Cape of Good Hope, and in the
Southern Pacific. The skeleton of this fish, so widely distributed, is
figured in ROSENTHAL Ichthyot. Taf. xvi. under the name of Scicena
aguila.

Acerina Cuv. Head naked, cavernous, with pits subseriate.
Prseoperculum aculeate.

198 CLASS XIV.

Sp. Acerina vulgaris Cuv., Perca cernua L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 53, fig. i,
Skandinav. Fiskar, Tab. I, fig. 2 ; the ruffe, (commonly 6", perhaps never
more than 8"), from fresh water in the north of Europe; of an excellent
flavour; — Acerina Schraitzer Cuv., Perca Schrcetser L., from the Danube;
comp. J. C. SCH.EFFER Piscium Bavarko-Ratisbonensium Pentas. Ratisbonae,
1761, 4to.

Centropristis Cuv. (and Aulacocephalus SCHLEG., Faun. Jap.).
Grystes Cuv.
Apsilus Cuv.

Pentaceros Cuv. Body high, trigonal, with belly flattened be-
tween the ventral fins remote from each other. A conical tubercle
on each side above the eye. Spines of dorsal fin strong.

Sp. Pentaceros capensis Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 43.

Rypticus Cuv. Operculum and prseoperculum spinose. Scales
very small, concealed under the skin. Dorsal fin long, depressed,
with few (3 — 4) spines; anal fin with only a single very small
spine, all the other rays soft.

Sp. Rypticus saponaceus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. in. PI. 46, a marine fish
9" long, from South America.

B. Two dorsal fins.

a) Some larger conical teeth in jaws interposed, with tJie rest thin,
crowded.

Etelis Cuv. Dorsal fins contiguous. Margin of praeoperculum
with very fine denticles.

Sp. Etelis carlunculus Cuv. et VAL. Pom. n. PI. 18, GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss.
PL II. fig. i ; at the island of Mauritius.

Niphon Cuv. Dorsal fins contiguous. Operculum with three
sharp spines; praeoperculum denticulate with angle produced into j
a spine running backwards. Cheeks and opercles scaly. Head
acuminate. Body elongate.

Sp. Niphon spinosus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. n. PI. 19, Faun. Japon., Pise.
Tab. i.

Lucioperca Cuv. Dorsal fins approximate or contiguous. Mar-
gin of prseoperculum denticulate, the inferior denticles larger.
Body elongate.

PISCES. 199

Sp. Lucioperca sandra Cuv., Perca lucioperca L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 51,
Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. n. PI. 15, GUEBIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 3, fig. 3 ; a well-
flavoured fish from the rivers in the east and north of Europe, which may
attain a length of 3'.

Chilodipterus Cuv. (species from genus Cheilodipterus LAC.,
with add. of Acropoma SCHLEG.). Dorsal fins short, distant.
Operculum smooth, not aculeate, with margin smooth or with
angles plane, obtuse, covered with membrane. Scales large. Eyes
large.

Sp. Chilodipterus octovittatus Cuv., Chtt. lineatus LAC. Pom. m. PI. 31, fig.
i ; — Chilod. arabicus Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. IL PI. 23, fig. i, &c. Fishes from
the Red Sea, the Indian Sea and South Pacific.

(Acropoma SCHL. Faun. Japon., Pise. Tab. 12, figs. 2, 3.)

b) Maxillary teeth all thin.

Apogon LAC., Amia GRONOV. (not L.). Praeoperculum margined
by a crest, denticulate. Head large, with eyes large. Two dorsal
fins remote. Scales large, deciduous.

Sp. Apogon rex MuUorum Cuv., Mullus imberbis L., CUVIEB Mem. du Mus.
I. PI. XI. fig. 2, GUEBIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 3, fig. i ; in the Mediterranean
Sea. There are also species of this genus in the Red Sea, the Indian
Sea, &c.

Pomatomus Eisso (not LAC.). Operculum emarginate at the
upper part ; prasoperculum striate. Eyes very large. Dorsal fins
distant. Scales large, deciduous.

Sp. Pomatomus tdescopium Risso, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. n. PL 24, GUERIN
Iconogr., Poiss. PL 3, fig. 2, in the Mediterranean Sea, rare.

Ambassis COMMERS.

Sub-genus Priopis KUHL and Y. HASS.? Denticles above the
orbits.

Aspro Cuv. Prseoperculum finely crenulate ; operculum ter-
minated by a spine. Snout obtuse, produced. Dorsal fins
distant.

Sp. Aspro vulgaris Cuv., Perca Asper L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 107, figs, i, 2,
GUEBIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL i, fig. 3 ;— Aspro zingel Cuv., Perca, Zingel L.,
in some rivers of middle Europe, the Danube, &c. Compare on these two
species the Pentas of SCH^EFFEB already quoted at Acerina.

Grammistes ARTEDI, Cuv. (species from genus Gramm. BL.).
Pr&operculum and operculum scaly. Scales very small, hidden

200 CLASS XIV.

under the skin. Very small cirrus under the symphysis of jaw.
Dorsal fins contiguous.

Sp. Grammistes orientalis BLOCH, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. n. PI. 27, GUERIN
Iconogr., Poiss. PL i, fig. i, from the Indian Ocean, dark brown with
three longitudinal stripes running throughout and three shorter white ; a
small fish.

Centropomus Cuv. (spec, from genus Centropomus LAC.).
Huro Cuv.

Diploprion KUHL and V. HASS. Body high, compressed,
covered with small scales. Operculum with four spines, two
large; prseoperculum denticulate, margined with a rough line.
Dorsal fins contiguous.

Sp. Diploprion bifasciatum K. and V. H., Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. n. PL 21,
GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 2, fig. 2, in the Indian Ocean and at Japan.

Ertoplosus LAC. Body compressed, high, with head concave,
declivous. Dorsal fins contiguous, high. Praeoperculum serrate,
with two larger spines at the angle ; operculum with two obtuse
points. Suborbital bone denticulate.

Sp. Enoplosus armatus, Chcetodon armatus SHAW, Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. n.
PL 20, from the South Pacific.

Perca Cuv. (with add. of Lates and Labrax ejusd., species from
genus Perca L.). Body elongate. Dorsal fins contiguous. Cheeks
scaly. Operculum aculeate ; praeoperculum denticulate.

Labrax Cuv. (not PALL.). Tongue rough with thin crowded teeth.
Cheeks and opercles scaly.

Sp. Perca labrax L., Labrax lupus Cuv., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 20? (named
Sdcena diacantha), Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. itt., Poiss. PL 7, fig. i ; sea-perch,
the basse, i' to 3' long, in the Mediterranean, and also, though more rare,
in the North Sea ; — Labrax lineatus Cuv., Perca septentrionalis BLOCH, Syst.
Ichth. Tab. 20, &c.

Lates Cuv. Tongue smooth. Cheeks and opercles scaly. Bone
of humerus serrate above pectoral fins.

Sp. Perca nilotica L., Lates niloticus Cuv., — Lates nobilis Cuv. et VAL. Poiss.
II. PL 13; in the Indian Sea, the mouths of the Ganges, £c.

Perca Cuv. Tongue smooth. Opercles naked. Cheeks scaly.

Sp. Perca fluviatilis L., BLOCH Ichth. Tab. 52, STcandinav. Fiskar, Tab. i.
fig. i ; the perch, de boars, der Borsch, la Perche, &c. In fresh water,
nearly throughout Europe and in some parts of Asia ; yellowish green, with

PISCES. 201

dark bands on the back, white below; ventral and anal fins fine red,
a black spot at the back part of the first dorsal fin. The perch spawns in
the third year and is then about 6" long; attains a length of i1 ', but is
rarely taken so large. — There are different species of this sub-genus in
North America, which closely resemble the European species, as Perca
serrato-granulata Cuv., GUEKIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL i, fig. i.

Family XLV. Osphromenidei (s. Labyrinthici}. Third bony
piece of the first branchial arch on each side irregularly deve-
loped, lamellose, contorted, folded, labyrinthiform, forming cells.
Head and opercles scaly; scales mostly large. Ventral fins tho-
racic. Single dorsal fin long. Branchiostegous membrane with
4 — 6 rays.

This family consists of fresh-water fishes which are found in the
eastern hemisphere, principally between the tropics. They are dis-
tinguished by the property of being able to live long out of water,
which some of them even leave for a time. The water remains
suspended in the cells or cavities of the convoluted, lamellose
pharyngeal bones above the gills, so as to keep the latter moist
when the fishes are on dry land. Almost all these fishes have a
swimming-bladder and only two or three pyloric appendages.

See PETERS Ueber das Kiemengerust der LdbyrintJi-fische, MUELLEB'S
Archiv, 1853, pp. 427—430, Taf. xm. fig. 4.

Phalanx I. Several pungent rays in the anterior part of anal
and dorsal fins. Scales ctenoid.

a) Palatine teeth.

Spirobranchus Cuv. Maxillary teeth subulate, thin, crowded.
Gape of mouth produced as far as under the eyes. Lateral line
interrupted. Operculum with two angles produced posteriorly,
not denticulate. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays.

Sp. SpirdbrancJius capensis Cuv. ct VAL. Pom. vn. PI. 200 ; in the rivers at
the Cape of Good Hope ; about 3" long.

Ctenopoma PETERS. Characters almost of the preceding genus,
but operculum, interoperculum and suboperculum with margin den-
ticulate, pectinate.

Sp. Ctenopoma multispinis, PETERS in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1846, s. 480—482,
Taf. x. figs. 10 — 15, from Mozambique, a small fish like Spirobranchus.
According to an oral communication of Dr PETERS there are two pyloric
appendages, in which respect also this fish agrees with Spirobranchus.

202 CLASS XIV.

b) Palatine teeth none. Gape of mouth small.

Osphromenus COMMERS. (with addit. of Macropodus LAC. and
Trichopus ejusd.). Body compressed. Lateral line continuous,
sometimes indistinct.. First soft ray of ventral fins undivided,
produced into a long filament.

Osphromenus COMMERS., Guv. (and Trichopus LAC., Guv.). Caudal
fin moderate, rounded, or sublunate, with lobes obtuse.

Sp. Osphromenus olfax COMMEKS., LAO., Poiss. in. PL 3, figs. 2, 3, Cuv. et
VAL. Poiss. vn. PI. 198, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 73, fig. i ; the
gourami; one of the best flavoured fresh- water fishes, which may attain a
length of 20", from the East Indies, at the Sunda Islands, now also trans-
ferred to Cayenne. The younger individuals have brown bands and a black
spot (Osphromenus notatus KUHL and V. H.).

Trichopus trichopterus LAC., Labrus trichopterus PALL., GMEL., Cuv. et
VAL. Poiss. vii. PL 199, Java, Sumatra, Borneo; only 4" long; the dorsal
fin is short, and terminates much in front of the caudal fin. According to
BLEEKER this fish is subject to great variations in colour and in the number
of the fin-rays.

Macropodus LAC. Caudal fin large, forked ; soft rays of dorsal
and anal fins, as also the rays of caudal fin, elongated into fila-
ments.

Sp. Macropodus viridi-auratus LAC., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Poiss. PL 74,
fig. 2 ; China, Cochin-China.

Tilapia SMITH. Head naked.

Sp. Tilapia Sparmanni SMITH ; South Africa.

Betta BLEEKER.

Sp. Betta trifasciata BLEEKER, Verh. van het Batav. Genootschap. xxm. 1850.

Polyacanthus KUHL and V. HASS. Body compressed. Mouth
ascending obliquely, small. Lateral line interrupted. Dorsal and
anal fins very long, with several pungent rays.

Colisa Cuv. Yentral fins with single soft ray, produced into a
very long filament, after a very short spine, scarcely distinguishable.
Rays of branchiostegous membrane five?

Sp. Polyacanthus colisa, Colisa vulgaris Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vn. PL 196,
GUERIN Iconogr., Poiss. PL 36, fig. 2, &c. Different species from the
continent of India, from the Ganges, &c.

Polyacanthus KUHL and V. HASS., Cuv. Ventral fins with six
rays. Branchiostegous membrane with six rays.

Sp. Polyacanthus Hasselti Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vn. PL 195, Cuv. R. Ani., ed.
ill., Poiss. PL 72, fig. i ; 6" long, on the Island of Java.

PISCES. 203

Helostoma KUHL and V. HASS. Mouth small, with fleshy lips.
Teeth very thin, adhering to lips not jaws. Dorsal and anal fins
placed in a furrow surrounded by scales. (Other characters and
habit nearly those of Poly acanthus.}

Sp. Helostoma Temminckii Cuv. et VAL. Poiss. vn. PI. 194; at Java and
Borneo.

Anabas Cuv. Body oblong, round, posteriorly subcompressed.
Head gibbous, flattened between the eyes, which are remote from
each other, marked with pores in rows. Margin of operculum and
suboperculum denticulate. Lateral line interrupted. Dorsal and
anal fins received in a longitudinal furrow surrounded by scales.

Sp. Anabas scandens Cuv., Anthias testudineus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 322,
BUCHANAN Fishes of the Ganges, PL 13, fig. 38, GUEBIN Iconogr., Poiss.
PL 36, fig. i ; fig. of the skeleton in EOSENTHAL Ichthyot. Taf. xiv. fig. 2,
of the gills, figs. 3, 4 ; this fish is met with both in the rivers of the continent
of the East Indies and on different islands of the Indian Archipelago; it
attains a length of 6 — 7". According to DALDORFF (Linnean Transact, m.
p. 62) and JOHN (BLOCH Syst. Ichth. p. 205) this species sometimes climbs
up the palms on the bank and stays in the rain-water collected between the
leaves. BUCHANAN did not observe this peculiarity, and casts doubts upon
it, although he states that the fish can remain alive five or six days out of
water, 1. 1. p. 29.

Phalanx II. All the rays of fins soft, articulate, except the
first ray of ventral fins simple. Scales cycloid.

Ophicephalus BLOCH. Body elongate, round, posteriorly sub-
compressed. Head flat, covered with polygonal scutes. Gape of
mouth ample, produced below the eyes. Anterior orifices of nos-
trils with a very short tubule, placed at the lips. Teeth small,
crowded in jaws, vomer and palate-bones, sometimes with a few
larger interposed. Branchiostegous membrane with five rays.
Lateral line continuous.

SnaTce-head, Korave (Pondicherry), Varal (Tranquebar), flcan Gabus
(with the Malays and Javanese). These fishes ought properly to belong
to the Malacopterygians, but they agree too nearly in the structure of the
laminiform gill-appendages and in other particulars with the other genera
of this family, to allow of their being placed elsewhere.

Sp. Ophicephalus punctatus BLOCH, Ic/tth. Tab. 358 (Ophiocephalus lota,
BUCHANAN, Fish, of the Ganges, PL 34, fig. 18); — Ophic. marginatus Cuv.,
Ophic. gachua BUCHANAN, 1. 1. PL 21, fig. 21, Hindostan, Java; Ophic.
striatus BLOCH, Ichth. Tab. 359, Syst. Ichth. Tab. 52, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill,
Poiss. PL 75, fig. 2, Hindostan, Java, Celebes, &c.

204 CLASS XIV.

C. Muscular bulb at the base of arterial trunk with two spiral
valves or longitudinal folds. Respiration at once pulmonary and
branchial.

See above, pp. 60, 75.

SECTION V. Protopteri (Diplopnoi).
ORDER XI. Protopteri.

Dorsal chord (Notochord OWEN) in place of bodies of vertebra?.
Skeleton partly cartilaginous, partly osseous. Pectoral and ventral
fins resembling subulate, flexible cirri. Body covered with cycloid
scales invested with epidermis.

Family XLVI. Sireno'idei s. Pneumo'ichthyi.

We here subjoin to the class of fishes a family of which the dis-
covery is very recent, and which has caused no small perplexity to
zoologists, inasmuch as it appeared doubtful whether it was to be
referred to this class or to that of reptiles. The first species known
was from Brasil, and was described as a reptile (1837); shortly
after a similar animal, but of less size and shorter body, was dis-
covered in Africa, and was regarded by OWEN as a fish.

Compare Annalen des Wiener Museums der Naturgeschichte, 1837, II. Bd.
s. 165 — 170, Tab. X. (Lepidosiren paradoxa, eine neue Gattung aus der
Familie der Fixchahnlichen Reptilien, VON J. NATTEBEB).

TH. L. W. BISCHOFF, Lepidosiren paradoxa, anatomisch untersucht und
beschrieben. Mit 7 Steindrucktafeln. Leipzig, 1840, 4to.

Lepidosiren paradoxa. Monographic von DB J. HYBTL. Mit fiinf
Kupfertafeln. Prag. 1845, 4^°-

R. OWEN Description of the Lepidosiren annectens, Transactions of the
Linncean Society, Vol. xvn. 1840, pp. 327 — 361, Tab. 23—27.

W. PETEBS Ueber einen dem Lepidosiren aunectens verwandt-en Fisch von
Quellimane, MUELLEB'S Archiv, 1845, s. i — 14, Taf. I— in.

Lepidosiren NATTERER. Two small teeth, conical, moveable in
intermaxillary bone; two large teeth, folded longitudinally in the
margin of each jaw, cohering with jaw. Body round, posteriorly
compressed, surrounded by dorsal and anal fin confluent at the
acuminate extremity. Branchial aperture vertical in front of pec-
toral cirrus or fin. Ventral fins abdominal, remote, resembling the
anterior but nearer to the lower surface of body.

Sp. Lepidosiren paradoxa NATTEREB, 1. 1. ; from Brasil, in morasses by the
river Amazon; this species becomes more than 3' long. Lepidosiren
annectens OWEN, from Africa, first discovered in the Gambia, afterwards

PISCES. 205

found also on the east coast of South Africa in the morasses of Quellimane.
PETERS saw specimens 2' long; from the Gambia none are known that
were much longer than i'. External gill-leaflets above the gill-aperture
occur in Lepidosiren annectens from the Gambia (at least sometimes) as well
as in the fish from Mozambique. In one specimen I saw two on the left
side whilst on the right side they were wanting; PETEES gives three
on each side to the fish observed by him. The inferior margin of the awl-
shaped fins has a membranous border with fine rays, which OWEN has not
noticed, but which in the specimen from the Gambia observed by me was
not absent, although it was much smaller than that recorded by PETEBS in
the fish from Mozambique. In Lepidosiren paradoxa, which I know only
from figures, the border appears to be absent; external gills were not
observed either by BISCHOFF or by HYBTL.

In the internal structure of Lepidosiren paradoxa and Lepidosiren
annectens there is some difference, but considering the great agreement
of these two species I think it unseasonable to adopt a separate genus for
each of them. Perhaps also much of the difference may disappear on
closer comparative investigation.

When the morasses or brooks, in which these animals live, have lost their
water in the dry season, these fishes keep at the depth of some feet under-
ground. They live on vegetable matters, as the Brasilians report, and as
indeed is apparent from microscopic investigation of the remains of the food
in the intestinal canal.

The branchial arches are cartilaginous strips without connexion with the
hyo'id bone ; the African species has six on each side, the American five.
These arches however do not all bear gills ; only on two arches (on the
third and fourth, or in the African species on the fourth and fifth) is there
a double row of gill-leaflets present. On each side there are three or four
arterial arches which arise from the bulbus arteriosus ; branches alone
of these go to the gills. Perhaps at an earlier period of life the gills are
more developed and are present on all the branchial arches, as HYBTL sur-
mises ; but in the adult animal the change from venous to arterial blood is
chiefly effected in the swimming-bladder; this forms two large cellular sacs
under the back, behind the peritoneum, and has in front a common part
which bends round the oesophagus below and opens with a short canal on the
abdominal surface, not in the middle, but somewhat towards the right side,
by a fissure (glottis) into the oesophagus. The vein of the swimming-
bladder, the pulmonary vein, enters the auricle of the heart separately,
at a distance from the vence cavce. In Lepidosiren paradoxa the auricle is
double ; the partition however is not a continuous membrane, but a reti-
form tissue everywhere perforated.

The urinary bladder is situated and opens behind the rectum. This is a
piscine conformation. The stomach is little wider than the oesophagus,
which passes into it without any definite boundary. At the pylorus there
is an annular membranous valve near which the gall-duct opens. The
intestinal canal has a spiral valve (as in many Plagiostomes), which
terminates at some distance from the extremity. The anus is not situated
in the middle, but sometimes more to the right (commonly so in Lepido-
siren annectens), sometimes more to the left.

CLASS XV.
EEPTILES (REPTILIA}\

THE Keptiles are vertebrate animals, mostly oviparous and cold-
blooded2, that breathe by lungs. Some breathe at first by gills,
which afterwards disappear, when the lungs have been developed;
whilst in a few, during the whole life, there are both gills and
lungs.

The spinal column is in this class of very various length, and
by this is already indicated the much greater diversity of form by

1 On this class may be consulted :

LACEP. Quadrup. ovip. et serp., LACEPEDE, Histoire naturelle des Quadrupedes ovi-
pares et des serpens. Paris, 1 789, i Vol. 4to, with many (mostly very defective) figures.

J. E. SCHNEIDER Historic Amphibiorum natur. et literarice Fasc. n. Jenae, 1799,
1 80 1, 8vo, with plates.

DAUD. Rept. F. M. DAUDIN, Histoire natur. generate et particuliere des Reptiles.
Paris, An. X. XI. (1802, 1803) vni. Tom. 8vo, with plates.

MERREM Beitr. B. MERREM Beitrdge zur Gesch. der Amphibien. Duisburg, Leipzig
und Essen, 1790 — 1821. 3 Heft, 4-to, with coloured plates.

DUMER. et BIBRON Erpetol. A. M. C. DDMERIL et G. BIBRON, Erpetologie generale
ou Hist. not. complete des Reptiles, ix. Vol. 8vo, Paris, 1834 — 1854, avec Atlas de 108
PI.

As systematic works we may add the following :

J. N. LAURENTI Specimen medicum exhibens synopsin Reptilium. Cum tab. sen.
Viennae, 1768, 8vo, — A. BRONGNIART, Essai d'une classification des Reptiles. Paris,
1805, avec 2 PI. 4to, — B. MERREM Tentamen systematis Amphibiorum. Marburgi,
1820, 8vo, — L. J. FITZINGER Neue Classification der Reptilien. Wien, 1826, 4to, and
by the same, [Systema Reptilium, Fasciculus primus. Amblyglossce. Vindobonse, 1843,
8vo, — J. WAGLER Naturliches System der Amphibien. Miinchen, Stuttgart und Tubin-
gen, 1830, 8vo.

As collections of figures we may cite :

H. SCHLEGEL Abbildungen neuer oder unvollstandig belcannter Amphibien. Dussel-
dorf, 1837 — J^44 (50 col. plates in large 4to, with explanatory text in 8vo); many
Reptilia are figured in the first and second parts of the great work of SEBA, Locuple-
tissimi Rerum naturalium Thesauri accurata descriptio et iconib. artif. expressio, Amstelod.
1734 — 1765, IV. Vol. folio; also the Abbildungen zur Naturgeschichte Brasiliens. by
Prince MAX of Wied (15 Liefer. Weimar, 1822 — 1831, folio) contain principally species
of Reptiles (only a few Mammals and Birds). Of the German species of Eeptiles
small but generally good figures are to be found in STURM Deutschlands Fauna, 3te
Abth. Die Amphibien 6 Hefte. 1797 — 1828, i2mo.

2 On the temperature of Eeptiles see A. DUMERIL Rech. experimentales sur la tem-
perature des Reptiles, Ann. des Sc. not., 3ieme SeVie, xvn. 1852, Zool. p. 522.

REPTILES. 207

which this class is distinguished from others, and particularly
from that of birds and mammals. For whilst in the tail-less ba-
trachians, only nine or eight vertebrae are counted, some serpents
have full three hundred. In most reptiles the body of the verte-
bra3 is convex on the posterior surface, concave on the anterior ;
in serpents especially these parts are to be regarded as true articu-
lar heads and articular cavities, whilst in them the vertebral
column has great mobility. The inferior spinous processes, which
exist in most of the vertebrae of the trunk in serpents, are curiously
modified in Rachiodon ( Tropidonotus scaber) : here these processes
of thirty or thirty-one vertebrae following the second are bent for-
ward, and the seven or eight posterior of them penetrate through the
oesophagus, and have enamelled point-like teeth1.

The vertebrae of the batrachians have long transverse processes ;
ribs are wanting or are represented on some vertebrae merely by
cartilaginous excrescences at the extremity of the transverse pro-
cess. In the serpents the ribs are both very numerous and very
moveable; where they cease, the tail begins ; here the caudal
vertebrae may be distinguished from the other vertebrae of the
trunk, whilst all distinction of cervical, dorsal and lumbar vertebrae
fails. In the lizards such a distinction prevails, although the
lumbar vertebrae, and often the cervical vertebras also, are provided
with smaller ribs or rudiments of ribs. In the Chelonians, the ribs,
in conjunction with the spinous processes of the vertebrae, changed
into broad plates, form the dorsal shield (carapace), which covers
the body of these animals above. The ventral shield (plastron), on
the other hand, is formed by the large sternum, consisting of nine
pieces. In part, however, the dermal skeleton also enters into the
formation of these shields, by the marginal pieces on each side of
the dorsal shield, as well as by the unpaired dorsal plates, which
do not lie upon vertebral arches, and probably also by coalition
with the plate-like spinous processes of the vertebrae, and by am-
plification of the ribs and of the sternal pieces2.

1 JOURDAN Institut. 1834, No. 60, 6r, DUM. et BIBRON Erpet. vi. p. 160 et suiv.
vii. p. 491 et suiv., STANNIUS Handbuch der Zootomie, ate Aufl., stes Heft, s. 20.

2 After CARUS had expressed the opinion, that there is also an external skeleton,
a dermal skeleton, in the shield of tortoises which has coalesced with the neural
skeleton, the conception was more fully developed and defended by Dr W. PETERS,

208 CLASS XV.

In the true serpents the sternum and the belt of the clavicles
are both wanting. In the frogs the sternum is as it were super-
seded by the two pairs of clavicles, which meet one another in
the mid-plane, and is almost limited to a triangular piece in front
of these and a stiliform piece behind them (the episternale and
xiphisternale) , to both of which a thin round cartilaginous disc is
attached. In the sternum of the lizards a rhomboidal principal
piece is seen, and in front of it frequently a bone that runs out into
two transverse arms and a stiliform part behind, that extends over
the rhomboidal disc. Other small bony pieces may range them-
selves backwards, to which, as well as to the central rhomboid
piece, the ribs are attached at the sides.

There are usually, as in birds, two clavicles on each side. The
anterior clavicles, which correspond to the furcula of birds, are
thin, and lie towards the anterior margin of the sternum; the
posterior clavicles are broader (ossa coraco'idea} and run obliquely
to the anterior side of the rhomboid piece of the sternum. If only
one pair of clavicles are present (crocodilus, chamceleon], it is the
anterior pair, those which correspond to the clavicles of mammals,
that are wanting.

The pelvis of the frogs consists of two long iliac bones (ossa
flea), which are fastened to strong and broad processes of the
sacral vertebra, and meet behind at an acute angle the long tri-
angular compressed caudal vertebra lying between them. At the

Observationes ad Anatomiam Cheloniorum. Berolini, 1838, 4to, MUELLER'S Archiv,
1839, s. 290 — 295. H. RATHKE however declared himself against this view, and only
regarded the marginal pieces of the dorsal shield, together with the whole thoracic
shield, as dermal skeleton ; Ueber die Entwickelung der Schildkroten. Braunschweig,

1848. This controversy was afterwards discussed by R. OWEN, Phil. Transactions for

1849, Part I. pp. 151 — 171, PI. 13, whose conclusions respecting it have principally
formed the basis of the view we have presented. [The nine sternal pieces were named
by GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE as follows, a middle piece the entosternal, with 4 pairs of
pieces, viz. 2 episternals in front of entosternal, 2 hyosternals, 2 hyposternals, 2 xiphi-
sternals, one on each side from before backwards. "The entosternal, and perhaps
the episternals, are the sole parts of the plastron which can >be referred to the sternum
. . . the parial or lateral parts, more especially the hyosternals and hyposternals, are the
true hsemapophyses, " (sternal and abdominal ribs) "but inconnation with dermal bony
plates to which their characteristic breadth, especially in the land and fresh-water
chelonians, is chiefly due." OWEN 1. 1. p. 166.] On the sternum of Saurians see
H. RATHKE Ueber den Ban und die Entwiclcelung des Brustbeins der Saurier. Kb'nigs-
*>erg, 1853, 4to.

REPTILES. 209

union of the iliac bones, the ischiadic and pubic bones are placed,
forming together a round, laterally compressed disc. In the Saurians
the pelvis is usually more perfectly formed ; the three bones, which
compose it on each side, meet each other at the articular cavity for
the thigh-bone, and the ischiadic bones unite behind the junction
of the pubic bones, whilst between these two unions a very large
aperture remains. Often the resemblance is here very striking to
the osseous belt formed by the two clavicles and the scapula.

In the Ophidians no limbs are present, except only in the genus
Chirotes, in other respects so similar to Amphisbcena, where short
anterior limbs occur, and except the traces of hind limbs which are
found hidden beneath the skin in many serpents, either wholly, or
with the exception of the conical nail-joint. The rest of the
reptiles have, on the other hand, very commonly four limbs, mostly
provided with five fingers, and on the whole composed upon the
same fundamental plan as in the mammals. The upper-arm bone
and the thigh-bone are however directed outwards, whence the
elbow and knee-joints are at a distance from the trunk. The bones
of the carpus are more numerous than those of the tarsus. In the
anterior extremities of the frogs, the place of radius and ulna,
as in the hinder extremities that of tibia and fibula, is occupied by
a single bone ; yet even externally, but more obviously when it is
sawn across, it may be seen that two bones which have coalesced
compose that single bone.

On the bones of the head it is difficult to say anything general.
The occipital bone in batrachians consists principally or exclusively
of two lateral pieces, which meet above and below, and so surround
the occipital hole. Each of these lateral occipital bones has an
articular tubercle, which is connected with the first vertebra. In
the scaly reptiles, the serpents, lizards and tortoises, the articular
tubercle serving for connexion with the atlas is, on the contrary,
placed in the middle under the large occipital foramen, as it is in
birds, and is principally formed by the basal piece of the occipital
bone, and only in part by the lateral occipitals, which close upon
it. A large part of the cranium in the frogs continues mem-
branous or cartilaginous. The base of the cranium is formed almost
exclusively of the flat body of the sphenoid. The other cra-
nial bones are very aberrant and various ; they are, as in fishes,
more numerous than in mammals. The temporal bone is always

VOL. II. 14

210 CLASS XV.

composed of several separate bony pieces, of which one serves for
articulation with the lower jaw (the quadrate bone). In the batra-
chians the jugal bone also contributes to form the articular tubercle,
which is received by the articular surface of the lower jaw. The
cranium is always small in comparison with the rest of the bony
head, so that in some (the frog, ex. gr. and the chameleon) the
orbital cavity is larger than the space in which the brain is
contained.

In forming the upper jaw the intermaxillary bones are of much
less importance than in the class of fishes; here they constitute
only the middle part of the upper margin of the oral aperture. In
the serpents and in most of the saurians they coalesce to form an
unpaired bone. The under jaw constantly consists of a greater
number of pieces than in mammals. The articular piece, which
is in connexion with the quadrate bone, always continues distinct
from the anterior part, in which the teeth are fixed. The two
halves of the lower jaw are united with one another in the middle
without suture in the chelonians, but continue distinct from each
other in the rest.

Most reptiles have teeth, which, however, in all the chelonians
and in Pipa amongst the batrachians are wanting. In the first of
these the two jaws are usually covered with a fibrous horny tissue.
The teeth serve, not so much for dividing or chewing, as for hold-
ing fast the food ; their form too does not differ, as in the mammals
and many fishes, in the different parts of the oral cavity, and the
distinction as incisive, cuspidate and molar teeth, falls to the ground.
In most saurians the teeth are only in a single row in both jaws ;
in some there are also teeth in the palate. In the serpents there is
a row of teeth on each side in the palate, and usually a row in the
two jaws. On the poison-teeth of serpents we shall treat after-
wards in the systematic arrangement of this class. In the batra-
chians teeth are usually found in the palate (in the vomer), and also
a row of small, thin, conical or card-shaped teeth in the upper jaw,
which however are wanting in most toads. The salamanders have
such teeth in both jaws.

The tongue sometimes serves for the capture of food. The
batrachians catch small animals with it; here the tongue is at-
tached forwards to the margin of the lower jaw and with the free
part thrown back; this part can reverse itself and be projected

REPTILES. 211

from the mouth ; the adhesive mucus, with which the surface of
the tongue is covered, causes the little worms and insects that are
touched by it to adhere. A cylindrical tongue, capable of great
extension, which is shot from the mouth with much rapidity, is the
weapon by which the chameleon overpowers his prey. In most of
the saurians however, and in the serpents, the tongue does not serve
for seizing the food, but is rather an organ of feeling or tact, of
which these animals avail themselves almost as insects do of their
feelers and antennae.

Salivary glands, which are missing in fishes, are here also often
wanting, as in the batrachians, or are only slightly developed.
In many lacertine animals and in serpents small glands are situ-
ated along the jaws, or in the lips, which give out the fluid secreted
by them through numerous apertures. Often also there is a sub-
lingual salivary gland, in serpents and lizards, as well as in land
and fresh-water tortoises1. The poison-glands of serpents we shall
describe subsequently.

The oesophagus is longer than in fishes and more clearly
distinguishable from the stomach2. In the salamanders, however,
the oesophagus passes insensibly into the elongated stomach,
which becomes narrower near the pylorus, and forms a fold before
it terminates in the duodenum. The stomach of serpents is only
slightly wider than the rest of the intestinal tube; it is with-
out curvature, and has thicker walls than the oesophagus; its
inner surface presents longitudinal folds. These occur also in
the stomach of tortoises, where also are seen numbers of small
apertures of glands that lie in its walls. The oesophagus of
turtles is beset on the inside with large conical papillae placed close
together, which have a horny envelope (epithelium), and whose
points are turned backwards ; in the rest of the tortoises they are
wanting. In the crocodiles the stomach is round and the muscu-
lar coat thick ; it has a great resemblance to the stomach of birds3.

1 See this gland in the European fresh-water tortoise, where it has many ducts
that perforate the tongue, figured by L. H. BOJANUS in his eminent Anatome Te&tu-
dinis Europece, 1819—1821, folio. Tab. 26, figs. 140, 141 H.

2 On the deglutition of reptiles compare DUGES Ann. des Sciences not. XII. 1827,
PP- 337—395, PL 48.

3 The stomach of Crocodilus acutus is very beautifully figured in the Catalogue of
the physiological series of comparative Anatomy in the Museum of the College of Surgeons.
London, 1833, I. PI. 9, p. 266.

14—2

212 CLASS XV.

The length of the intestinal tube in most reptiles is only twice
that of the body ; in the lizards it is about as long as the body,
if the tail, which is usually very long, be included ; sometimes the
length of the body, estimated in this way, surpasses that of the
intestinal canal1. The larvae of frogs and the land-tortoises, which
live on vegetable food, have the longest intestinal canal ; in these
its length surpasses that of the body three, nay even six times or
more.

The boundary between the small and large intestine is often
indicated in reptiles by an annular membranous valve, or by a
coecal tube at the origin of the large intestine. This coecal tube,
which is almost never found in fishes, is wanting also in various
reptiles, in most batrachians, in many serpents, in the crocodile,
the turtles, &c., but still is present in many, especially in most of
the lacertine animals2.

The reptiles have a cloaca or cavity in which are found the ter-
mination of the rectum, the aperture of the bladder, and those of the
ureters and oviducts or seminal ducts. Sometimes this cloaca is
to be regarded as. a dilatation of the rectum. The anus or the
external opening of the cloaca is in the frogs and toads situated
behind on the back, in the tortoises sometimes under the point of
the tail. The opening is round or oval in the frogs and tortoises,
but in the serpents and most of the saurians is formed by a trans-
verse fissure under the base of the tail.

The liver is large in reptiles ; often it is not divided into lobes,
but only incised at the margin. In the crocodiles, however, in
the frogs and tortoises, the liver consists of two lateral portions,
sometimes quite distinct from each other and connected solely by
a duplication of the peritoneum, yet usually united by two or three
transverse strips. The liver receives a large quantity of venous
blood. In almost all (and the exceptions are not always constant)
there is a gall-bladder, which, however, is of less size than is
common in birds and mammals. Sometimes it lies hidden in the

1 Comp. CUVIER Lep. d'Anat. comp. in. p. 457, 2nde ed. IV. 2, p. 308.

3 Comp. TIEDEMANN Ueber den Blinddarm der Ampkibien, in MECKEL'S Archiv
f. d. Pkysiol.iii. a. 368 — 374, and generally on the intestinal canal in this class, a paper
of MECKEL himself in the same vol. s. 199 — 232, with figures. On the intestinal tube
of serpents, see DUVEENOY Ann. des Sc. not. xxx. pp. 128—155.

REPTILES. 213

liver, but mostly free and close to the concave surface of the liver ;
in some serpents only, where the liver lies very forward, the gall-
bladder is found at a distance from it, and placed more backward.
Sometimes the cystic duct arises from the hepatic duct ; sometimes
the hepatic ducts pass immediately into the gall-bladder (ductus
hepaiico-cystici). Mostly the cystic duct unites with the hepatic
duct to form a common ductus choledochus1.

The pancreas, constantly present in reptiles, is often large,
but varies in form in the different genera. The number also of
the ducts differs; usually there is only one; in the Nilotic cro-
codile there are two, which penetrate the intestinal canal below
or behind the gall-ducts; in the European fresh-water tortoise
there are, according to BOJAXUS, two. In some serpents also the
ducts are two or even more; in Python the pancreas is divided
into many distinct lobes, each with its separate duct ; these ducts
fall, like veins, into larger trunks which penetrate the intestinal
canal2.

The spleen in this class is always present, generally small,
and often situated close to the stomach, although it varies in this
respect as also in that of its size. In the serpents it is mostly
situated in front of the pancreas and in close connexion with it3.

Productions or duplicatures of the peritoneum, by which the
intestinal canal is supported and attached, and which bear the
name of mesentery, are always present, though in various degrees
of development. The productions of the peritoneum, on the con-
trary, which hang from the stomach or the intestinal canal, the
omenta, are wanting, although two appendages of the peritoneum

1 In some crocodiles, as Alligator sclerops, the cystic duct continues distinct from
the hepatic duct, and the two open into the duodenum by separate apertures ; see
W. VBOLIK in the Bijdragen tot de natuurTcundige Wetenschappen, i. biz. 167, PI. ur,
fig. r.

3 DUVERXOY, Ann. des Sc. not. xxx. p. 123.

3 According to MECKEL (System der vergl. Anat. TV. s. 371) the spleen is wanting
in serpents, a statement confuted by PUVERNOY 1. 1. pp. 113 — 121. According to
ARISTOTELES, BARTHOLINUS and PERRAULT the chameleon should have no spleen.
Some years ago this was also asserted by G. R. TREVIRANUS (Die Erscheinungen und
Gesetze des organischen Lebens, i. 1831, s. 345). He however himself described a small
dark body, apparently the same with that which W. VROLIK considers to be the spleen
(Opmerkingen over den Chameleon, biz. 57), and which has also been observed by myself.
It lies under and behind the stomach between the laminae of the mesentery.

214 CLASS XV.

which are loaded with fat, in many saurians, and membranous
filaments, also containing fat, in the serpents, somewhat resemble
them.

The lymphatics seem in reptiles to be destitute of valves,
except at the place where they open into the veins. They are
highly developed, form numerous plexuses, and here and there
sacciform expansions, but no lymphatic glands. The large blood-
vessels are often surrounded by wide lymphatics or by lymphatic
plexuses, as by a sheath. There are two thoracic ducts, or the
single thoracic duct divides anteriorly into two branches, which
deliver the chyle, mixed with the lymph, into the subclavian veins,
or anterior venous stems. In different reptiles pulsating lymphatic
spaces have been discovered, which are in connexion with veins,
and force the lymph into them. In the frog, and in many other
reptiles, two such lymphatic hearts are situated on the back,
behind the joint of the thigh-bone, immediately beneath the skin ;
they empty their lymph into a branch of the ischiadic vein. These
pulsating cavities occur also in lizards and tortoises, and in
serpents they lie under the vertebra in front of the commence-
ment of the tail. In the frog, besides these lymphatic hearts, there
are two other anterior, which lie under the scapula on the trans-
verse processes of the third vertebra1.

In most reptiles the two ventricles of the heart are united to
form a single cavity, or are only imperfectly separate. Invaria-
bly a portion only of the venous blood is distributed to the
lungs, whilst another portion, mixed with arterial blood, is sent
to the different parts of the body. The heart is thus at once
both arterial and venous, and not, as in fishes, solely venous ;
but the arterial part is not, or not so completely, distinct from
the venous, as in the birds and mammals.

1 Compare the splendid work of PANIZZA, Sopra il Sistema linfatico dd Retiili
Ricerche zootomiche, Pavia, 1833, folio- The work of RUSCONI on the same subject is
known to me only from extracts (see ex. gr. DUVERNOY Ann. des Sc. nat. 3ieme SeYie,
1847, VII« Zoologie, pp. 337 — 381). The pulsating lymphatic hearts were first discovered
in the frog by J. MUELLER, and almost simultaneously by PANIZZA, in this and other
reptiles; see also E. WEBER on similar lymphatic hearts in Python, MUELLER'S Archiv,
II. 1835, s. 535 — 547, Taf. 13, figs. 5 — 10. They were last demonstrated in tortoises,
also by MUELLER; see Ab/i. der Berl. Akad. der Wissenschaften, Physik. Klasse, 1839,
a. 31 — 33, with fig.

REPTILES. 215

Formerly it was supposed that the batrachians have only a
single auricle of the heart. Later investigations, however, first by
J. DAVY, and afterwards the nearly contemporaneous observations
of other anatomists, have proved that the auricle of frogs is divided
internally by a partition, and thus is really double1. In the sala-
manders also and Proteidce there is a similar partition, which, how-
ever, in some is incomplete or perforate2. The pulmonary veins
empty themselves in all these animals not, as earlier writers on com-
parative anatomy state (who usually gave merely an extract from
the description of the circulation in the frog offered by Swammerdam
more than a centuiy and a half previously), into the anterior cava3,
but into the left auricle either separately and close together, or
(in frogs) after they have formed a short common stem. The
ventricle in these naked reptiles is single. It has a muscular
appendage (bulbus arteriosus] at the origin of the arteries, which
corresponds to the appendage of the heart in cartilaginous fishes,
and in the Prote'ids, as well as in these, is provided with different
rows of valves3. In the serpents the ventricle is of a conical
form and divided by an imperfect muscular septum into two
chambers. From one of the cavities the pulmonary artery arises,
and from the other, or uppermost, towards the right side, two
arterial stems. The one of these large arterial stems, which runs
forward and to the right, gives off the arteries of the anterior part
of the body (two stems, the cephalic, artery or common carotid, and
the arteria collaris, which CUVIER names vertebral artery). This
artery afterwards bends downwards to the right and gives off
some other branches, when it unites with the second large artery,
which on the left side of the heart, after having formed an arch,
runs backwards, and conveys blood to the parts only which are
situated behind the heart. Since the serpents have no limbs, they
have no subclavian arteries as distinct stems. Two descending vence

1 DAVY made the discovery in 1825, in toads; see Edinburgh new PJiilos. Journal,
Vol. ix. pp. 160, 161. In 1832 two independent observers, MARTIN SAINT-ANGE and
M. J. WEBER, arrived at the same result. See M. J. WEBER Beitrdge zur Anai. und
Physiol. i. Bonn, 1832, 4to, s. i — 5, Tab. I. figs, i — 6.

2 OWEN, Transact, of the Zool. Soc. 1835, i. pp. 213 — 220, PL 31. According to
HYRTL, the septum in Proteus is incomplete.

3 See the figure of the heart of Menopoma in the Catalogue of the physiol. series of
comp. Anat. in the Museum of the Coll. of Surgeons, n. 1834, PI. xxin. fig. 2.

216 CLASS XV.

cavce, which here, in the absence of subclavian veins, are formed
by the jugular veins, and one posterior or ascending vena cava,
return in the serpents the venous blood to the heart1.

In the lizards and tortoises the heart is formed of two auricles,
usually completely separate from each other by a septum, and two
ventricles only incompletely separate from each other, with the
exception of the crocodiles. However in the tortoises, according to
CALDESI and others, the arterial blood is distinguished by a bright
red colour from the darker venous blood2. In the tortoises the
heart is broader than long, and has very spacious auricles and thick
muscular walls. From the heart arise two arterial stems or in
some a single stem, which, however, divides immediately after
leaving the heart, into a right and left stem. Of these the right
stem is the thicker and divides into a common truncus anonymus
and a descending stem ; the first divides into a left and a right
branch, from which the subclavian and jugular arteries of each
side arise. The descending stem forms on the right side an arch,
and afterwards unites with a branch from the left stem to form
the descending aorta. Before giving off the connecting branch,
which may be regarded as the continuation of the stem, the left
aorta supplies arteries for the stomach and the mesentery3. The
pulmonary artery divides into two branches ; between each of these
branches and the arch of the left and right aortae there is a com-
municating branch (ductus Botalli] , which, however, in the tortoises
is consolidated and closed at an early period ; consequently, the pul-
monary artery becomes suddenly smaller before it arrives at the
lung. In the lacertine animals also the left aorta gives off no
branches forward, to the head or anterior limbs, but only to the
intestines, except a communicating branch to the descending right

1 F. SCHLEMM Anatom. Beschreibung des Bluttgef ass- Systems der Schlangen, in
TIEDEMANN u. TuEViRANUS Zeitschrift filr Physiol. n. s. 101 — 124, Taf. vn. On the
circulation of serpents see H. JACQUART Mem. sur la circulation chez le Python, Ann.
des Sc. nat. 4ieme Se"rie, iv. 1855, pp. 321 — 364, PL 9 — n, H. RATHKE Bemerkungen
iiber die Carotiden der Schlangen,, Wien, 1856 (DenJcschr. der mathem. naturw. Classe
der kaiserl. ATcad. der Wissensch.}.

2 BLUMENBACH'S Kleine Schriften. Leipzig, 1804, 8vo, s. 70, 71.

3 Hence CUVIEB names the left aorta also aorte viscerate. See figures of the heart
and large vessels in Emys europcea in the classical work of BOJANUS, Tab. xxix. figs.
160, 161.

REPTILES. 217

aorta, so as to form the aorta abdominalis1. By this union of the
arteries from the t\vo sides which meet at the back to form the
abdominal aorta, there is formed in the reptiles a vascular ring, in
which the oesophagus is situated.

In many respects the arrangement in the crocodiles is the same
as in the other lizards, but there is this modification here in the
structure of the heart, that it is divided into two distinct ventri-
cles2. In front of the ventricles the different arteries form an elon-
gated sac, comparable to the buttws arteriosus of the fish's heart;
this appendage lies with the heart in the pericardium. This arterial
sac is formed by the right and left aorta and the pulmonary
artery. The left aorta, which here also is a descending aorta
visceralis, arises with the pulmonary artery from the right ven-
tricle, and thus conveys venous blood. The right aorta, which
divides into an aorta adscendens and a second descending arterial
trunk, conies from the left ventricle of the heart. By this arrange-
ment the head and the anterior limbs receive arterial blood, the
viscera and the posterior parts of the body mixed blood. At the
same time it is not only in the aorta abdominalis that a mixture
of blood takes place, but there is also in the common septum (here
cartilaginous) of the two aortic stems an opening concealed behind

! the semilunar valves, by which, as it seems, blood can pass from the
right ventricle into the right aorta, when the animal is under
water and the respiration for a time suspended3. The left aorta,

\ arising from the right ventricle, corresponds with that arterial stem

1 See the figures in an Egyptian Varanus in the elegant dissertation of A. COBTI,
De systemate vasorum Psammosauri grisei. Vindobonae, 1847, 4to, fig. i.

2 The priority of this discovery is due neither to MECKEL nor to MARTIN SAINT-
ANGE, but to HENTZ ; Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series.
Vol. II. Philadelphia, 1825, p. 216 and foil. Comp. my Memoir on the heart of the Cro-
codile, Tijdschr. voor. natuurl. Gesch. en Physiol. vi. 1839, bl. 152 — 167.

3 See BISCHOFF Ueber den Ban des Crocodil-Herzen, in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1836,
s. I — 12, Tab. I. In the beautiful figures, which have been often copied in later
works, ex. gr. in the English translation of MUELLER'S Physiologie, we may remark
that G indicates the arteria carotis communis (or according to UATHKE the arteria
cottaris), and by no means the left subclavian artery; E and F are the subclavian
arteries. Concerning the origin of the large arteries in crocodiles, which is not always
the same but presents varieties of different kinds, we cannot discourse here for want of
space. Compare also H. KATHKE Ueber die Carotiden der KrolcodUe und Vogel,
MUELLER'S Archiv, 1850, s. 184 — 192, and further observations by the same,
MUELLER'S Archiv, 1852, s. 374.

*

218 CLASS XV.

of the mammalian foetus which gives branches to the lungs, but is
principally continued into the descending arch of the aorta (as the
so-named ductus Botalli). The heart of reptiles, that even of the
crocodiles not excepted, is a persistent foetal heart.

There are one posterior and two anterior venae cavae in reptiles;
the posterior cava is formed by the venous trunk of the sexual
organs, the hepatic and renal veins. The venous blood of the pos-
terior parts of the body passes for the most part through the kid-
neys before it returns to the heart1.

The lungs of reptiles are larger or smaller sacs with projecting
folds on the walls, whence cells arise, which are sometimes very
large, and at the lowest part are often entirely deficient. Even when
the lungs are large and, as occurs in many, extend far into the abdo-
men, the surface presented to the inspired air is rendered by this
less composite arrangement relatively smaller than in mammals.
When the respiration is interrupted, reptiles do not so quickly die
as warm-blooded animals, and they live longer in gases which are
unfit for respiration. In many serpents, many species of the genus
Coluber, in Vipera berus, there is only one lung present; Naja,
on the other hand, Crotalus, Boa, Amphisbcena, have two lungs,
which in Boa are almost of equal size, whilst in others they are un-
equal, so that sometimes there scarcely remains a vestige of one
of them, which is mostly the left lung. In the tortoises the lungs
are broad and flat ; they extend along the back to the pelvis. The
reptiles have no bronchial artery, but the pulmonary vessels appear
to supply nutrition to the lungs. The pulmonary veins always
terminate in the left auricle, mostly separately, but sometimes after
having united to form a single stem2. In the serpents the anterior
part alone of the lungs receives blood from the pulmonary artery;
the part that lies farther back receives blood from the abdominal
aorta / these arteries anastomose with branches of the pulmonary

1 Comp. p. 227. See GEUBY RecJierches anatomiques sur le systeme veineux des
Grenouittes, Ann. des Sc. not. 2e Serie, xvn. 1842, Zool. pp. 209 — 230. The vein which
GRUBY regarded as running from the anterior abdominal vein to the heart was after-
wards shewn by RUSCONI to be a cardiac vein that perforates the pericardium and falls
into that abdominal vein. Ann. des Sc. not. 30 Se"rie, IV. Zool. p. 282.

3 Compare on the respiration of reptiles CUVIEB Lep. d'Anat. comp. iv. pp. 323 —
326, 330 — 332, 346, 347 (second edition of DUVEBNOY, vn. 1840, pp. 26 — 40, 86 —
100, 128 — 146, 151 — 154), and M ECKEL Uebcr das Respirations-system der Reptilien,
Archivfiir die Physiol. iv. s. 60—89, Tab- n-

REPTILES. 219

artery, and the venous branches corresponding to them return their
blood to the portal vein1. From this arrangement in serpents,
arterial blood also is mixed with venous, and like as in all the
reptiles, venous blood is mixed with arterial.

The ribs of lizards and serpents serve for respiration; in the
frogs, which have no ribs, inspiration is effected by the motions of
the tongue-bone. Keeping the mouth closed, they fill its cavity
with air through the nostrils; when the nostrils have been closed,
they contract the oral cavity, raise the larynx, and press the in-
closed air into the glottis. Without closure of the mouth that
complete inspiration cannot be effected in batrachians by which
the lungs are sufficiently distended2. In the tortoises the same
explanation of inspiration has been given, since here the ribs are
immoveable. It has, however, been shewn by experiments, that
here the inspiration is not effected by deglutition, and that if an
opening be made in the trachea it is continued, so that what in
other animals is performed by the ribs, is here effected by the
moveable belt of the shoulder-bone and clavicle. Expiration is
effected partly by contraction of the abdominal muscles, partly by
contraction of the lungs themselves.

In the naked amphibians, the diplopnoa, larynx and trachea
form a whole, and in the batrachians this part consists more of
larynx, in the proteids more of trachea, that is, in the last it is more
developed in length. In Proteus the trachea has a slip of carti-
lage on each side ; of such a slip in the Batrachii the greater part
is developed into a crico'id cartilage, or into a cartilaginous ring,
representing at once the thyroid and cricoid cartilages ; at its
; posterior part it has transverse processes, which are afterwards
developed into rings of the trachea. Moreover this trachea in
batrachians is still entirely membranous, as also are the two
bronchi, into which it divides, with the exception of the genus

1 CUVIER Lef d'Anat. camp. TV. p. 337. The hindmost part of the lungs is without
vessels. Comp. HYRTL Strena anatomica de novis pulmonum vasis in Ophidiis.
Pragse, 1837, 4to.

2 HERHOLDT shewed the necessity that the mouth should be closed during the
inspiration of frogs ; some of his experiments, however, of which the result was, that
frogs when prevented closing the mouth quickly died, have been justly rendered doubtful
by RUDOLPHI Grundriss der Physiologic, II. i, s. 339. See also on this subject, and on
the respiration of tortoises, HARO Ann. des Sc. not. 2e Se'rie, xvui. Zool. 1843, pp. 36
— 50, and PANIZZA ibid. 3ieme Se'rie, in. 1845, PP- a3° — 247-

220 CLASS XV.

Pipa, where bronchial rings exist. In the scaly reptiles, the
haplopnoa, the larynx, trachea and two bronchi are mostly dis-
tinguishable. The cartilaginous rings of the trachea are usually
complete circles and placed close together. In many serpents the
trachea is provided with rings at its lower part only, whilst the
anterior part expands into a thin cellular network. The bronchi
are in lizards usually very short, in the tortoises alone are they
longer, especially in the land-tortoises. The bronchus does not
usually divide in the lung, but ends suddenly or terminates in
a membranous band. In the crocodiles and tortoises the bron-
chus extends throughout the lung, and is perforated by many
openings, which lead into cells or sacs, whose walls are beset
with small cells.

In the naked reptiles gills are present, either in their young
state, or, as in Proteus, during the whole of life, in the latter case
simultaneously with lungs, in the first before the lungs are de-
veloped. To the consideration of these gills we shall afterwards
revert in the systematic arrangement of this class.

In vertebrate animals that breathe by lungs, the production of
sound is effected by an arrangement at the trachea, consisting of
elastic ligaments, which are caused to vibrate by the current of air.
In reptiles, birds and mammals, a voice can be produced by this
means, and the vocal ligaments, in the first mentioned, as in mam-
mals, are situated at the upper part of the trachea in an organ
named larynx. Many reptiles, however, emit no sound except
only a blowing, on the rapid expulsion of the air through the
glottis, as in the chameleon. Serpents give only a hissing sound
when disturbed. The glottis lies close behind the root of the
tongue, in serpents on the membranous sheath in which the tongue
at its hinder part is inclosed. The arytcenoid cartilages of batra-
chians are two triangular or oval parts, externally convex, internally
concave, and having a tense membrane at their inferior margin.
They form a dome-like eminence, on which, between the margins of
the cartilages, the opening of the glottis is situated1. The male of
many species of frog, as of Rana esculenta, have two vesicles under
the membrane of the tympanum, behind the angle of the mouth ;

1 Comp. VICQ. D'AZYB, Mem. de VAcad. des Sc. 1779, Paris X782> PP- T95>
PI. xm. figs. 40—44.

I

EEPTILES. 221

they open into the mouth on each side near the lower jaw, and are
much distended during the croaking that is heard, especially in
spring and the beginning of summer, at pairing time1. In the
lizards the arytasno'id cartilages are usually present as distinct
pieces : in most serpents merely as processes at the posterior part
of the thyroid cartilage, and forming with it a whole. When the
larynx is more perfectly developed, the anterior apex of the
thyroid becomes free as an epiglottis. Most serpents and some
lizards have an epiglottis*.

The kidneys in which, as in those of fishes, a cortical and a
medullary portion cannot be distinguished (p. 37), have in this class
a very various magnitude and form. They are much elongated
in the serpents, thick and oval in the tortoises, longitudinally oval
in lizards and batrachians. In the serpents the right kidney is
placed more forward than the left, in the others they lie more at the
same height, and often at the back part close together. In the
lizards they lie far backward, are attached to the sacrum, and
extend frequently under the tail. They are mostly incised at the
margin or divided into lobes by transverse grooves. In the
kidneys of serpents and tortoises these divisions on the surface
resemble the convolutions of the brain in mammals. The kidneys
are formed of tubules, which in some proceed immediately from the
ureters, and run transversely to the surface, where they terminate
blindly, whilst in others they leave the branches into which the
ureters divide for every lobe of the kidney. The ureters never pass
from a renal pelvis, but always arise from the successive union of
branches, or from the tubules of the renal substance itself. The
Malpighian bodies are present in reptiles as in the rest of the ver-
tebrate animals, and in the batrachians are sufficiently large to
be seen by the naked eye. In serpents the ureters are long, and

1 P. CAMPER gave good figures of these parts, Verhandelingen van het Bataafsch
Genootsckap te Rotterdam, I. 1774, bl. 245 — 251, PI. X. These vesicles consist of two
membranes, the skin and a very thin production of the mucous membrane of the mouth.
The muscular coat of the skin compresses the internal membrane ; when the skin is
removed the vesicle can be much more largely distended by inflation than in the natural
state.

2 HEXLE has given a general and comparative view of the larynx in this class,
illustrated throughout by the necessary figures, in his excellent VergleicTiend-
anatomische Beschreibung des Kehlkopfs. Leipzig, 1839, 4*°-

i

222 CLASS xv.

expand in some degree before ending in the cloaca ; there is no
urinary bladder. In the crocodiles also, and some other lacertine
animals, the urinary bladder is wanting, although it is present in
most of the other lizards as well as in the tortoises and the
naked amphibians1.

According to the discovery of JACOBSON veins run on the out-
side of the kidney, which, like the portal vein in the liver, divide
like arteries in the kidney (vence renales advehentes). These venous
stems are formed by the veins of the posterior parts of the body,
of the tail in serpents, and in other reptiles of those also of the
hinder limbs ; a part only of the venous blood of these parts goes
immediately to the cava or to the liver. The blood from the renal
arteries and afferent renal veins is returned by other renal veins
(efferent) to the vena cava2. Supra-renal capsules (renes succentu-
riati) are found in most reptiles, generally however small and often
remote from the kidneys, situated on the inside of the kidneys
near the efferent veins3.

1 In the tortoises and frogs the urinary bladder is broad and is divided into two
lateral parts, which in the last are very spacious and with thin walls. TOWN SON (Observ.
physiol. de Amphibiis, Getting. 1795, p. 29) and JACOBSON (MECKEL'S Archiv f. d.
Physiol. in. s. 148) have not been willing to recognise as urinary bladder the part
previously so named ; that the ureters do not terminate in this bladder is no reason for
assigning to it any other office; even in the tortoises the ureters run to the neck
of the bladder or to the urethra itself, and thus the urine, like the bile .in the human
gall-bladder, can in no other way reach the bladder than by that of regurgitation. On
the kidneys of reptiles J. F. LINK De Amphibiorum systemate uropoetico, Halae, 1817,
8vo, may be consulted. The urine of serpents is a consistent white substance which
hardens on drying.

2 Compare L. JACOBSON De systemate venoso peculiari in permuUis animalibus obser-
vato. Hafniae, 1821, 4to. See also the experiments with ligature of the afferent veins
of A. DE MARTINO Ann. des Sc. not. 1841, Tom. xvi. ZooL pp. 305 — 309, and
especially BOWMAN'S description of the ' portal system ' of the kidney of the boa in hia
memoir On the structure and use of the Malpighian bodies of the kidney, Phil. Trans.
1842, Pt. i. p. 64, PL iv. fig. 17.

3 In the European fresh-water tortoise they lie on the inside of the kidneys,
BOJANUS Anat. Testud. figs. 186, i88r. In the frog the yellow or orange- coloured
bodies situated above the kidneys and divided into elongated finger-shaped slips, were
formerly supposed to be the supra-renal capsules. RATHKE and E.ETZIUS, on the
contrary, regard as representing the supra-renal capsule yellow bands composed
of granular matter that lie on the abdominal surface of the kidneys along the princi
branches of the efferent veins; see NAGEL in MUELLEB'S Archiv, 1836, s. 380, Taf.
fig. 4, GRUBY 1. 1. pp. 218—220, PI. 10, figs. 8— ro.

REPTILES. 223

The organs for preparing the germ and the seed (ovaries and
testes) are always in pairs, mostly of the same size and placed
symmetrically on the two sides. In the serpents, however, and in
the genus Proteus the right ovarium and the right testis lie more
forward than the corresponding organs on the left side, which often
also are less. The oviducts are never, as in many bony fishes and
in invertebrate animals (see above, p. 38), immediate continuations
of the ovary, but have free openings into the cavity of the abdomen,
as for instance in batrachians, where they are situated in the up-
permost part of the abdominal cavity close to the heart; here
the oviducts are very tortuous, and have when straightened out a
length of more than two feet. The lower ends of the oviducts exhi-
bit thicker walls, and have, especially in the species that are vivi-
parous, as the land-salamanders, a great width. In the frogs the
lower apertures of the tubes terminate in a membranous sac capable
of much distension from the eggs, and to which the scarcely appro-
priate name of uterus has been given. In the tortoises the inferior
apertures of the ovaries are situated near the neck of the urinary
bladder, at the upper part of the cloaca.

The ovaries have the form either of sacs, — which in the tailed
diplopnoa are undivided, but in the batrachians, serpents and
lizards are divided into cells, — or of laminae, on the abdominal
surface of which the eggs are developed, and when ripe are
separated, as in the crocodiles and tortoises.

The testes lie on each side of the spinal column, in front of the
kidneys in lizards and serpents, in batrachians on the fore part
of the kidneys, in chelonians on the hind part of the same, which
are always situated more towards the back. In the salamanders the
testes are divided into roundish bodies, sometimes different in
number on the opposite sides (two, three or four), placed behind
one another.

The arrangement in frogs, already noticed by SWAMMERDAM, is
1 remarkable, viz. that the ureters are also the efferent vessels *. In

1 Bifid der not. pp. 795, 796. What RATHKE and others supposed to be a
fas deferens distinct from the ureteres, is, according to BIDDEB, a communicating
vessel covered with dark pigment forming an anastomosis between the iliac artery and
the axillary; F. H. BIDDEB Vergleichend-anatomiscke u. histologische Untersuchungen
tiber die mdnnlicTie GescJdechts- und Harnwerlczeuge der nackten Amphibien. Dorpat, 1846,
4to, s. 21.

224 CLASS xv.

the salamanders some vasa efferentia from the testes unite to form a
longitudinal canal, from which many tortuous branches arise, whose
union forms an epididymis near the testes, and which afterwards
run straight outwards and are inserted into the efferent vessel 1. In
the tortoises, to each of the efferent vessels a long convoluted
organ resembling intestine is attached before they terminate in the
cloaca. A penis does not exist in the frogs and most of the naked
amphibians, but in the land- and water-salamanders there is an im-
perforate and very vascular penis of an inversely heart-like form2.
In the scaly reptiles, the haplopnoa, there is on the contrary always
an external sexual organ for copulation. This penis is a double
coecal tube, which can be inverted like the finger of a glove, in most
of the lizards and the serpents. A furrow runs along the inside of
the tube, which on erection and inversion becomes an external furrow
for transmission of the sperm. This double penis lies on the outside
of the cloaca on the dorsal surface or under the tail. In the croco-
diles and chelonians, on the other hand, the penis is simple, composed
of two fibrous bodies which have coalesced in the mid-plane, and
with a channel or groove on the upper part, which is covered by an
erectile spongy body (corpus cavernosum) that is enlarged into a
gland at the extremity. This organ is attached to the anterior wall
of the cloaca, where in the females of these animals a clitoris is also
attached3.

1 This epididymis lies in front of the kidneys, of which BIDDER considers it to form
a part, so that, as in the frogs epididymis and kidney are united to form a whole, in
the salamanders also these organs are not distinct (1. 1. p. 36). Moreover from
the firmer and posterior kidney, which is usually regarded as the sole kidney,
there proceed in the salamanders a number of ducts which unite to form a short
ureter. According to DUVEBNOY the ureter opens separately, according to BIDDER
united with the vas deferens, into the cloaca. See DUVERNOY Fragments sur les organes
genito-urinaires des Reptiles, Paris, 1848, Mem. de VAcad. des Sc. de Paris, Sav. etrang.
XI. PI. I. fig. 9.

3 See J. H. FINGER De Tritonum genitalibus eorumque functione. Marburgi, 1841,
4to, pp. 22, 23, figs. 2, 3. Compare also on the uro-genital apparatus, VON WITTICH
Beitrdge zur morphologischen u. histologischen Entwiclcelung der Ham- und Geschleckts-
iverJczeuge der nackten Amphibien, Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool. iv. 1852, pp. 125 — 167,
Taf. ix. x. ; the same, Harn- und Geschlechtsorgane von Discoglossus pictus und einiger
anderer aussereuropdischer Batrachier, ibid. pp. 168 — 177, Taf. x. figs, i, 2.

3 Conip. J. MUELLER Bau der erectilen mannlichen Geschlechts organe, &c. Berlin
1838, (Abh. der Eimigl. ATcad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, Physik. Kl.) Tab. m. figs. 4, 5.
On the organs of propagation in reptiles, besides the works already quoted, may
be consulted KATHKE Ueber die Entwiclcelung der Geschlechtstheik bei den Amphibien,

I

REPTILES. 225

The eggs of reptiles are various in form. In the batrachians
they are covered in the oviducts with a gelatinous substance swell-
ing greatly in water, in which they are developed. The eggs
of lizards and turtles have a leathery shell; in other tortoises the
shell is harder and contains more carbonate of lime, less however
than the eggs of birds. The membranous shell consists in most
cases of many layers of very fine fibres, or of different films of
various tissue.

In the impregnated egg of the frog the remarkable cleaving or
regular division of the yolk was first observed1, which precedes the
existence of the embryo, and which we have already alluded to in
different invertebrate animals and in fishes, and which also occurs
in the egg of mammals. In the development of the animals of the
present class there is a remarkable difference; those reptiles which
have a smooth skin and at first breathe by gills, or which have both
lungs and gills (diplopnoa), resemble fishes in the development of the
embryo, for neither amnion nor allantois is formed (see above p. 40).
In the Jiaplopnoa, on the other hand, that is in those which breathe
by lungs from the beginning and never possess gills, as the serpents,
lizards, and tortoises, there is formed in the embryo, as in birds
and mammals, an amnion and an allantois. In the diplopnoa there is
no external yolk-sac constricted by the abdomen ; the animal leaves
the egg in a still very imperfect condition, as a larva without limbs
and with external gills, and the development continues after birth,
until the lungs arise, and with them the circulation of blood is

Beitrdge zur Gesch. der Thierwelt, m. 1825, s. 19 — 48, and Untersuchungen ueber die
Geschlechtsu-erlczeuge der Schlangen, Eidechsen und SchildTcrdten, Abhandlungen zwr
Bildungs- wnd EnticicMungsgesch. i. Leipzig, 1832, s. 21 — 44, Taf. 2. In the tortoises
there is on each side of the penis near the groove a canal that terminates blindly ; it
is a production of the peritoneum. In the crocodiles also there proceeds on each side
a funnel-shaped prolongation from the peritoneum to the cloaca, but here it opens at
the base of the penis or clitoris. Coinp. on these peritoneal canals IsiD. GEOFFROY
' SAIXT-HILAIRE and J. G. MARTIN Ann. des Sc. nat. xin. 1828, pp. 153 — 206, MATER
Analecten fur vergl. Anat. Bonn, 1835, 4to, s. 44, 45, Tab. m. fig. 9.

1 PREVOST et DUMAS Ann. des. Sc. nat. n. 1824, p. no. See also RUSCONI
Dereloppement de la Grenouille commune, Milan, 1820, 4to, p. 10, PL 2, fig. 3. But
hints are met with in the works of earlier observers which prove that this phenomenon
had not entirely escaped them, although they formed a different notion respecting
it from that afterwards given by PREVOST and DUMAS ; see ex. gr. SWAMMERDAM Bijb.
d. nat. Tab. 48, figs. 5, 8. Compare on the changes of the egg and the impregnation
in frogs a memoir of NEWPORT Pkilos. Transact. 1851, Part I. pp. 169 — 242.

VOL. II. 15

226 CLASS xv.

changed1. In the other reptiles the embyro leaves the egg in a much
more perfect state. The development of the young in the egg is
effected, according to different external circumstances of temperature,
&c., in different periods of time. In many serpents and lizards the
development begins before the egg is laid, in the body of the parent,
and in some the membrane of the egg is broken by the young one
before birth. In the tortoises, on the contrary, development begins
after the egg has been laid, and is completed only after the lapse of
several weeks2.

Let us now consider the organs of animal life. In the central
nervous system we remark that the spinal marrow is constantly
large in comparison with the brain. From the great length which
it has in serpents it is very thin, whilst, on the contrary, in frogs,
whose spinal column consists of only a few vertebrae, with remark-
able shortness, it is much broader. In the middle of the spinal
cord, as in fishes, there runs a canal which is continued into the
fourth ventricle of the brain. Where the nerves for the limbs arise,
a swelling or expansion of the cord is seen corresponding to the
size of the limbs; in frogs, for instance, this swelling is very con-
spicuous at the place where the lumbar nerves arise for the hinder
limbs3.

The brain still forms in reptiles only a small part of the weight
of the body. According to the statements of HALLER and CUVIER
(see the places quoted above p. 42) the ratio in the frog is rfe, in
the ringed snake (coluber natrix] 7^2, in a land tortoise 5^*17, in a
turtle, according to CALDESI, SF&F. The numbers given are sufficient

1 Compare, besides the works already quoted in the preceding note, VON BAER
Ueber EntwicMungsgeschickte der Thiere, n. 1837, s. 280 — 295 ; K. B. EEICHERT Das
EntwicMungsleben im WirbetiJiier-Reich, Berlin, 1840, 4to, s. 5 — 85 ; and C. VOGT
Untersuckungen fiber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Geburtshelferkrote, Solothurn,
1842, 4to.

2 We cannot here unfold the history of development. Besides the contributions to
it in earlier works (as for the development of lizards by EMMERT and HOCHSTETTER,
REIL'S Archiv. x. s. 84 — 122, of tortoises in the work of the celebrated TIEDEMANN,
Zu S. T. VON S<EMMERRING'S Jubelfeier, 1828, 4to), this subject has given occasion to
two excellent works by RATHKE in later times; Entwickelwngsgeschickte der Natter,
Konigsberg, 1839, 4to, and Ueber die Entwickelung der SchildJcroten, Braunschweig,
1848, 4to.

3 CARUS Versuch einer Darstellung des Nervensystems und insbesondere des Gehirns.
Leipzig, 1814, 4to, s. 170 — 174, Tab. in. figs, i, 2 c, the spinal marrow of the frog;
see for the tortoise BOJANUS 1. 1. Tab. xxi. figs. 83, 84, p. 87.

I

REPTILES. 227

to shew tliat these proportions afford no measure of the greater or
less perfection of organisation. The brain of reptiles presents on the
upper surface a great resemblance to that of fishes. The hemi-
spheres are still without convolutions, but always hollow inter-
nally (lateral ventricles), and surpass in circumference the second
portion of the brain, the mass of the corpora quadrigemina
or optic lobes, which in the bony fishes constitute the principal
mass of the brain. These optic lobes are larger in proportion to
the size of the eyes, as in the chameleon; they are hollow inter-
nally; between them and the hemispheres, and partially covered
i by both, are placed the thalami of the optic nerves, which here are
I still small and, as always, without an internal cavity. In front of
the corpora quadrigemina lies the pineal gland, not covered by
the ventricles of the brain. The cerebellum is feebly developed in
frogs, and consists almost solely of a thin plate of medulla where
the two lateral walls of the fourth ventricle approach each other.
A laminated part, of a red colour, is attached to its posterior
margin, and covers the fourth ventricle of the brain at its upper
part1. A similar part is present in tortoises, and has been named
by BOJANUS the vascular covering of the fourth ventricle. More-
over in these animals, as also in the lizards and especially in the
crocodiles, the cerebellum is more fully developed. On the under
surface of the brain there is not found, any more than in birds and
fishes, the transverse commissure in front of the cerebellum above the
medulla oblongata, which in man and mammals forms the bridge of
YAROLIUS. In the lizards, especially in the crocodiles and in the
serpents, the brain is broader, whilst in the tortoises, as in the frogs,
it is narrow and elongate2. The cerebral nerves correspond, on the

1 CARTTS, op. cit. B. 175 — 179, Tab. in. figs. 1—3.

8 The brain of AUigatvr has been figured by MUELLEB, Vergl. Neurol. der Myxi-
lolden, Tab. iv. fig. i ; that of the fresh-water tortoise by BOJANUS, whose figures
have been in part copied in WAGNER Icones physiol. Tab. 23 (which may be consulted
'or the entire comp. anat. of the brain) ; of the brain of Rana, besides CABUS, KUHL
ilso gave figures, as also of Agama marmorata, Lacerta agilis and Coluber natrix,
Beitraye zur vergl. Anatomic, Tab. ni. s. 57 — 60; the brain of Proteus has been
lescribed and figured by TEEVIBANTIS, Comment. Societ. Gcetting., Vol. rv. 1819, pp.
97 — 202, Tab. i. ii. by RUSCONI Del Proteo anguino Monografia, Tab. rv. fig. 4,
'jid by VAN BEEN Tijdschr. voor not. Gesch. en Physiol. i. bL 127, PI. vi. fig. 2; of
he brain of the chameleon TREVIRANUS has given a description and figures, Eeobach-
»nrjen aus der Zootomie u. Physiol. 1839, s. 93, 94, Tab. xn. figs. 81, 82, &c.

15—2

228 CLASS xv.

whole, in number of pairs and in origin, with those of the higher
animals and of man. In some instances the nervus glossopharyngeus
is only a branch of the nervus vagus. In the diplopnoa the motor
nerves of the eye are united to the course of the fibres of the first
branch of the fifth pair. The vagus in the Iarva3 of salamanders
and frogs, and in those genera of diplopnoa where the gills are per-
manent, gives off, as in fishes (p. 45), a nerve that runs along the
side (nervus lateralis)1. The hypoglossal nerves in the diplopnoa
arise from the spinal cord; in the frogs they are the first pair of
spinal nerves; in the salamanders they are formed by the first two
pairs2.

The cephalic portion of the great sympathetic nerve is con-
nected with the vagus, the fifth and sixth pairs of nerves and the
facial nerve. In the serpents the anterior part of the sympathetic
nerve of the trunk is wanting, and its place is supplied by the vagus
nerve. Lower down in the trunk branches proceed from each of
the spinal nerves to the viscera, and are connected by arched
loops which represent the sympathetic. In the frogs, on the other
hand, and the tortoises, the trunk of the sympathetic is very con-
spicuous on each side of the spinal column, and in the last of these
the trunks of the arteries of the intestines are surrounded by very
beautiful plexuses of nerves3.

1 VAN DEEN Disguisitio physiologica de differentia et nexu inter nervos vttce anim.
et organic. L. B. 1834, p. 96, figs. IV. V., and Tijdschr. 1. 1. pp. 112 — 129.

2 See A. W. VOLKMANN Ban und Verrichtungen der Kopfnerven des Frosches,
MUELLER'S Archiv, 1838, s. 70 — 89, Taf. n. figs, i, 2 ; C. VOGT Zur Neurologic von
Python tigris, ibid., 1839, s. 39 — 58, Taf. III. figs, i — 4. H. BENDZ Bidrag til den sam-
menlignende Anatomie af Nervus glossopharyngeus, vagus, accessorius og hypoglossus hos
Reptilierne. DansTce VidensTc. Selsk. math, og naturvidensTc. Afhandl. x. 1843, pp.
113 — 152, with 10 plates; J. G. FISCHER Amphibiorum nudorum Neurologies Speci-
men primum. Accedunt tabula 3 ceri incisce. Berolini, 1843: this first (and only?)
part of FISCHER'S work contains descriptions and figures (larger than natural) of the
basis of the brain and the cerebral nerves of Bufo palmarum, Hyla arborea, Bombinator
igneus, Pelobates fuscus, Pipa dorsigera, Salamandra terrextris, Triton cristatus, Rana
esculenta, Hypochthon anguinus and Ccecilia annulata; — JEFFRIES WTMAN Anatomy
of the nervous system of Rana pipiens. Washington City, 1853, 4to, 2 Plates (Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. v. art. 4). The Rana pipiens of WYMAN is
evidently that large frog called by others Rana mugiens. Rana pipiens of SCHNEIDEB
and SCHREIBERS is the Rana halecina of DAUDIN and MERREM, Rana palustris GUERIN,
Iconogr. du R. anim., Rept. PL 26, fig. i, a species not larger than our common frog.

3 Comp. CARUS op. cit., s. 179, 180, Tab. in. fig. 2; WEBER Anat. comp. nervi
sympathici, pp. 41 — 49, Tab. in. fig. 4 ; BIDDER «. VOLKMANN Die Selbstandigkeit des

REPTILES. 229

Amongst the organs of sense in reptiles that of feeling, or the
modification of it as tact, comes in the first place under consideration.
The skin of animals is not merely adapted as a covering to protect
them from injurious external stimulants, but serves at the same time
as a seat for feeling. In this class, however, the skin is generally
to be regarded rather as a protective covering, since scales or hard
shields render it unfit for feeling. The true skin (corium) is in the
greater number very firmly connected to the muscles or bones which
are situated beneath it. In the frogs, on the contrary, it forms a
loose sac, except only on the head and the extremities of the limbs ;
and this sac, which may be inflated, is attached to the subjacent
parts, only here and there at the back or near the joints, by filaments
of nerves and vessels or fibrous tissue ; a serous fluid, lymph, occu-
pies the space between the skin and the muscles below it. The
corium in this class is always composed of several layers of fibres
(sometimes of very many when its thickness is considerable), which
lie close together: and it has been noticed that the direction of the
fibres in each of the layers alternates with that of the previous
and succeeding layers, making with them nearly a right angle.
The casting or moulting of the cuticle is very general also in the
naked diplopnoa; in the serpents the external covering of the eye-
ball is moulted with the cuticle. In some lizards, in the crocodile,
&c., the scales or scutes are ossified. Perhaps by grasping of objects
fwith the tail, in certain lizards, or with the whole body, as in
serpents, a perception of the form and surface of such objects may
be procured. Probably the tongue in some serves as an organ
of tact (see above p. 211).

Taste appears to be feebly developed, for most reptiles gulp their
prey very rapidly. TREVIRANUS, indeed, from having observed that
frogs, when by chance they have swallowed what is disagreeable to
:hem, quickly reject it again, would conclude that they possess the
iaculty of distinguishing their food by taste1; but this may be>
'egarded, and perhaps with greater truth, as a proof that the stomach

ympathischen Nervensy stems, Leipzig, 1842, 4to, s. 32, 33, Tab. in. fig. 7; BOJANUS
I not. Testud. pp. no — 113, Tab. 23, figs. 116, 117; GILTAT Diss. de Nervo sympa-
nco, pp. 75—96 ; MUELLER Vergl. Neurologic der Myxinoiden, s. 59 — 63, Tab. rv.
gs- 3» 4, 5-

1 Biologic, VI. s. 245.

230 CLASS XV.

receives a disagreeable stimulus from certain objects. The tongue is
here principally of service as an instrument for seizing or swallowing
the food, or, as we have just said, as an organ of touch. In many
toads and frogs the tongue is membranous, smooth, covered with
mucus, attached in front and free behind, and when at rest thrown
back in the mouth, whilst in seizing the prey it is thrown over, and,
with the hinder part forward, is extended from the mouth. The
Pipa and the genus Xenopus have no tongue at all. In the sala-
manders the tongue is free at the edges alone. In most serpents it
is very smooth, and is divided at the apex into two flexible fila-
ments; its base is inclosed in a membranous sheath; the same
disposition is found in certain lizards. The prehensile tongue of
the chameleon is capable of great extension, and is knob-shaped
anteriorly. In most lacertine animals the tongue is elongate, trian-
gular, slightly notched in the middle at the apex, and but seldom,
as in Iguana, closely beset with fine papillae or villi, ordinarily only
wrinkled or covered with scales. The tongue in the crocodile is
membranous, attached at the point and sides to the bottom of the
oral cavity between the lateral pieces of the lower jaw, so that
formerly its presence was not recognised. Its hinder part is how-
ever capable of motion and can be elevated by the tongue-bone, so
that a fold or plait is formed which covers the entrance into the
ossophagus and prevents the water from entering it. Deglutition
therefore, by which this fold is again depressed, is not performed in
water but on dry land1. The tongue of the tortoises is thick and
membranous; in the turtles without papillse, but with many furrows
on the surface, in the land-tortoises covered with numerous very
thin flat villi thickly set. In the fresh-water tortoises some small
papillae alone are set on the fore part of the tongue, whilst elsewhere
it is free from them, though in some degree furrowed. In these last,
as in Iguana, taste is probably more fully developed than in other
reptiles.

The cavity of the nose in reptiles has apertures opening into
the mouth or the gullet, a communication which prevails in all
vertebrate animals that breathe by lungs. The distance between

1 A. DE HUMBOLDT Recutil d' Observations de Zoologie et d'Anat. Comp. Paris,
1811, i. p. 10, PL iv. No. x. OWEN Catal. of the Physiol. Series of Comp. Anat. of the
Roy. Coll. of Surgeons, n. London, 1834, p. 161, PI. xxvm. fig. i.

REPTILES. 231

the anterior and posterior apertures of the nasal cavity is very
short in the batrachians, very long, on the other hand, in the croco-
diles, in which the anterior opening is surrounded by the inter-
maxillary bones alone, and is placed on the upper part of the
jaw close to its apex; the posterior, a heart-shaped opening at
the posterior margin of the palate, is circumscribed by the ptery-
goid bones. In the chelonians this cavity is wide and short, and
has at the fore part of the bony head an almost quadrangular open-
ing, which is bounded by the lateral ethmoid or anterior frontal
bones and by the intermaxillary bones. The reptiles never have
frontal sinuses comparable to those of mammals. Some cartilaginous
folds, continuations of the cartilaginous partition of the nasal
cavities, take the place of the superior and inferior turbinated
bones, and are covered with a highly vascular mucous membrane
provided with black pigment. A cribriform lamella is absent here,
as it is in fishes. The olfactory nerve, which is very large, proceeds
to the nasal cavity of its side, divides there into branches, and
is distributed to the folds of the mucous membrane. In some
reptiles there are cartilaginous parts and layers of muscular tissue
near the nostrils, by means of which these apertures can be dilated
and contracted1.

All the reptiles have two eyes. In most, especially in serpents,
they are small in comparison with the size of the body; in the frog,
however, in the geckos and the chameleon, they are large. In
some they are covered by the skin; in Proteus, the skin is only
slightly attenuated, and the stimulus of light appears, according
to the experiments of RUDOLPHI, to produce little effect upon this
animal. In the serpents and in the genus Gecko also there are no
eyelids, but the skin, becoming thinner and transparent, passes over
the anterior surface of the eye-ball and forms with the conjunctiva,
immediately surrounding the eye-ball, a capsule which is moistened
by the lachrymal fluid8. In the remaining reptiles there are three
eyelids present, of which one is situated perpendicularly at the inner

1 See on the olfactory organ of reptiles, A. SCAEPA Anatomicce disquisitiones de
Auditu et Olfactu, pp. 75, 76; compare also DE BLAINVILLE Principes d'Anat. camp.
I. pp. 3*4— 330.

3 On the lachrymal glands of serpents see J. CLOQUET in Mem. du, Mus. d'Hist. not.
vn. 1832, pp. 62—84, PL n.

232 CLASS xv.

angle of the eye, behind the two horizontal eye-lids. The third eye-
lid (membrana nictitans) and the lower have often a greater extent
of motion than the upper. With the third eye-lid a special lachry-
mal gland (glandula Harderi] is in connexion, as in birds. The
proper lachrymal gland, which lies on the outside of the eye-ball, is
often very large, especially in chelonians. The form of the eye-
ball usually differs much from that of a regular sphere. In the
chelonians and in most of the lacertine animals, at the anterior part
of the cornea, there is a ring of bony plates which support the eye-
ball. The lens is more or less spherical, in front however mostly
somewhat flatter than on the posterior surface. In many of the
lacertine animals a fold covered with black pigment runs obliquely
from the bottom of the eye-ball through the vitreous humour to the
lens, and corresponds with the pecten in the eye of birds1. The
pupil of the eye is mostly round; in the crocodile it is an elongate
rhomboidal fissure.

The organ of hearing presents a gradual scale of development
from the simple structure of fishes to that of birds. The labyrinth is,
as in the cartilaginous fishes, distinct from the cavity for the brain,
and is inclosed in the petrous bone, or often in a part of the occipital
bone also. The vestibule is filled with a whitish fluid, containing
microscopic crystals of carbonate of lime. There are three semi-
circular canals and afenestra ovalis (foramen vestibuli) present; in
the serpents, lizards and chelonians (the haplopnoa) there is in
addition the commencement of a cochlea and a fenestra rotunda
(foramen cochlece). The cochlea appears to be most developed in
the crocodiles and formed almost as in birds; a membranous parti-
tion, extended between two cartilages, divides the internal space of
the cochlea into two cavities (scala tympani and scala vestibuli). In
both these fundamental forms of the auditory organ, in the imperfect
form of the diplopnoa and in the higher of the haplopnoa, a tympanic
cavity may be present or may be absent; where there is a tympanic
cavity, there is at the same time a tube which conducts from it to
the pharynx (tuba Eustachii). This is the case in most of the frogs,
where the tube is very wide ; in some tailless Batrachii and in all

1 This production is figured by D. W. SCBMMERRING in Monitor, De Oculorum
sectione horizontally Tab. in. In Iguana it is more developed, and forms two folds,
1. I. p. 60.

REPTILES. 233

the tailed, on the other hand, the tympanic cavity is wanting; in
like manner, it is wanting in the serpents. The membrana tympani,
attached behind the quadrate bone, lies free in some, yet in others
is concealed under muscles and skin. An external auditory meatus
is wanting as well as an external ear; in the crocodiles alone is a
vestige of this last present in a fold of skin lying above the mem-
brane of the tympanum, which has some resemblance to an eye-lid.
In the tailed batrachians and in the genus TypJilops there is a carti-
laginous plate by which the fenestra ovalis is covered, as the single
ossicle of hearing; to this the base of the stapes in the human
auditory organ corresponds. To it in most a long stile-shaped ossicle
(columella) succeeds, which in the serpents penetrates amongst the
muscles, but in the reptiles provided with a tympanic cavity is
prolonged to the membrane of the tympanum, and is mostly attached
to it by a small distinct cartilaginous piece1.

The muscles in this class are red, although paler than in birds
and mammals. The arrangement of them is much more compli-
cated than in fishes, where the large lateral muscle (see above,
p. 50) composes the chief mass, extending also over the abdomen.
In this respect the Proteids and the larvse of salamanders still greatly
resemble fishes, but in other reptiles the dorsal portion alone of
these lateral trunk-muscles remains, whilst in the tail only this mus-
cular arrangement persists on the under surface also. On the other
hand, the system of the intercostal muscles is developed, to which
also the straight muscles of the abdomen belong, and the system of
the lateral abdominal muscles. On this account, as well as from
the development of the limbs in most orders of reptiles, a great uni-
formity prevails in the arrangement of the muscles in them and in
man, and a common plan in the muscles of vertebrate animals is as
unmistakable as in the other chief parts of their organisation2. The

1 Compare, besides SCARPA 1. 1. pp. 23 — 31, especially C. J. H. WINDISCHMANN
De penitiori auris in Ampkibiis structura. Lipsiae, 1831, cum tab. ; see also MUELLER
Physiol. n. s. 414 — 416. (Elements of Physiology, translated by Dr BALT, n. pp. 1-233 —
1235.)

3 On the myology of the Reptilia, besides the general works on comp. anatomy,
may be consulted BOJANUS for the tortoises, D'ATON for the serpents (MusTcelsystem
eines Python bivittatus, MUELLER'S Archiv, 1834, pp. 346 — 364, s. 432 — 450. s. 528 —
543,) ZENKER (Batrachomyologia, Jenae, 1825, 4to), and especially DUGES (Recherches sur
I'osteologie et la myologie des Batraciem, Paris, 1835, 4*°) for tne batrachians. Comp.

234 CLASS xv.

motions also in these animals are not very different ; some are able
to swim and spring, others run and climb ; most have only a creep-
ing motion. A single genus alone (Draco amongst the lizards) is
able in some degree to fly, or rather flutter, by means of an expan-
sion of the skin along the sides of the body which is sustained by the
elongated ribs. One genus of a former period of the world (Ptero-
dactylus) was able most probably to fly in a proper sense by means
of a membrane which was supported by a very long finger.

The intelligence of reptiles is very feebly developed, and in this
respect they stand scarcely on a higher footing than fishes. They
grow slowly and live long; in temperate and cold regions they un-
dergo hybernation or winter-sleep; perhaps many in warm climates
have a summer-sleep, whilst the rainy season causes them to emerge
again from their concealment. They are very tenacious of life ;
some remain alive for months in captivity without food ; they can
endure great heat and cold1. The irritability of the muscles per-
sists for a long time after death, as it also does in amputated parts
of the animal. The reproductive power is very great, especially in
water-salamanders ; in these not only the tail and legs that have
been removed grow again, but the eye also can be restored, if only
the entire ball as far as the optic nerve be not cut away2.

The geographic distribution of reptiles affords occasion for some
general conclusions, which perhaps are the more interesting because
the species of this class, from being less under the influence of man
than those of the other classes of vertebrate animals, have not
been forced from their original residences or introduced into other
regions3. In cold regions the number of genera is very small, and
in the tropics alone is there presented a full exhibition of this class.

also the elaborate compilation of RYMER JONES, in his article Reptilia in TODD'S
Cyclopaedia, iv. pp. 273 — 287.

1 BLUMENBACH observed a tree-frog, that had been stiffened and frozen in the ice,
come to itself again, when the ice had melted, and move and live for a long time after-
wards. Kldne Schriften, s. 98.

8 Comp. C. BONNET, (Euvres d'hist. nat. et de Philos. xi. 8vo, 1781, pp. 62 — 179;
BLUMENBACH'S Kleine Schriften, s. 128 — 130.

3 Interesting contributions to knowledge on this subject, especially in respect of
serpents, are to be found in H. SCHLEGEL, Physionomie des Serpens, La Have, 1837,
8vo, pp. 195—251 ; translated into English (abridged) byTnos. STEWART TRAIL, M.D.
&c. Edinburgh, 1843.

REPTILES. 235

Of the division of the frogs some species are found in every
region of the world. The genus of the tree-frogs is peculiar to
temperate and warm countries, and the species belonging to it are
especially numerous in America. The genus Pipa belongs exclu-
sively to South America. In Africa only few species of toads and
frogs are met with. Most of the genera of serpents, particularly
those of poisonous serpents, belong to warm regions ; the rattle-
snakes (Crotali) are found in America alone, the spectacle-serpents
(S'ajce) only in the old world. Amongst the serpents that are not
poisonous the Pythons belong to the eastern hemisphere, the Boas,
some smaller species excepted, to America. Africa has only few
species of serpents ; in most of the islands of the southern Pacific
they are absent entirely. Amongst the lacertine animals most of
the forms are restricted to warm countries, especially the family of
the Iguanoi'ds so rich in species. The genera Chamceleon, Varanus
and Agama ( Trapelus) , are proper to the eastern hemisphere, the last
almost exclusively to Africa ; to Asia in particular that of the flying
lizards (Draco) is limited, and the sub-genus of the Gavials; to
America, on the other hand, the sub-genus of the Caimans or A lli-
gators, amongst the crocodiles, belongs; in America exclusively
are species of the genera Anolis, Polychrus, and some others of
the Iguano'ids found, whilst still other genera are common to both
hemispheres. Amongst the tortoises, the genus Chelys or Matamata
is peculiar to South America alone ; the land-tortoises ( Testudines)
are found in the warm regions of the old and new world, especially
in Africa ; the turtles also are most numerous in the seas of warm
regions. Of the fresh-water tortoises different species are found
indeed in temperate regions, principally of North America, yet still
the greatest number belong to tropical lands. Since then some
species of lizards, serpents and frogs are found in cold regions1,
of which the frogs are the most numerous in species and especi-
ally in individuals, whilst, on the contrary, no tortoises live in these
regions, being limited to warm countries, the frogs and tortoises
thus form the two extremes in the geographic distribution of the
reptiles : of which the first-named have the widest dispersion in

1 In Sweden, for instance, Coluber natrix, Vipera berus, Lacerta agilis are
found.

236 CLASS xv.

cold regions, whilst the last are the most limited to warm countries ;
the mean between these two extremes is formed by the lizards and
serpents.

The fossil reptiles are of greater interest for the knowledge of
the secondary mountain strata than any other vertebrate animals;
most of the extinct lacertine animals occur in the Jura-lime, or in
the Liassic and oolitic formations ; in the tertiary formations some
remains of serpents and batrachians have been observed.

SYSTEMATIC
ARRANGEMENT OF REPTILES.

CLASS XV.
EEPTILIA.

VERTEBRATE animals with red, cold blood; with heart pul-
monary and also aortic, a single or double ventricle and two auri-
cles ; mostly oviparous ; covered with scales, scutes or naked skin.
Respiration in some pulmonal and branchial, with branchiae either
persistent for the whole of life, or disappearing in the adult state.

SECTION I. Reptilia diplopnoa s. Psiloderma.

Branchiae deciduous or persistent. Skin glutinous, smooth,
mostly destitute of scales, sometimes with colourless thin scales
concealed amongst folds of skin. Two occipital condyles. Laby-
rinth furnished with fenestra of vestibule alone.

Compare on this division J. J. TSCHUDI Classification der Batra-
chier mit Beruchsicktigung der fossilen Thiere, Neuchafcel, 1838,
4to, (printed separately from the Memoires de la Societe des Sc. not.
de NeuchdteT). The name Dipnoa was first employed by F. S.
LEUCKART for these animals ; J. MUELLER limited the characters of
this division by different anatomical peculiarities; but the division
of the class into two principal groups is to be referred to MERREM,
who gave, in his Tentamen systematis Amphibiorum (1820), to this
division the name of Batrachia.

BRONGNIABT undoubtedly made the first advance towards a natural division
of the reptiles, who (in the beginning of this century) adopted four orders
of this class : Chdvnii, Saurii, Ophidii and Batrachii ; the second advance
was the union of the three first-named orders into a common division, and
the placing of this division on a level with that of the Batrachii. Some
writers go still farther, too far according to us, in adopting two classes for

238 CLASS xv.

reptiles, as was done by DE BLAINVILLE, and followed by others after-
wards, as, for instance, C. L. BONAPARTE. The name of Amphibia was
given to the division of the Diplopnoa, whilst that of Reptilia was restricted
to the Pholidota of MEBREM or Monopnoa of FITZINGER (Ophidii, Saurii,
Chelonii).

It appears to us that the naked or diplopnoic reptiles may be divided into three
natural orders, which correspond as analogous groups to the three orders of
scaly or haplopnoic reptiles. We have thus serpentine, lacertine and
chelonian Diplopnoa. This conception conducts us to a division which
corresponds with that proposed by DUM&RIL and BIBRON.

ORDER I. Ophiomorpha 8. Peromela.

Feet none. Body anguiform, round, with skin ringed by trans-
verse wrinkles.

Family I. Ccecilice. Characters of the order those of the single
family. Teeth subulate, recurved in jaws and palate. Eyes con-
cealed by skin, very small or indistinct. Vent almost at the ex-
tremity of body, tail none.

As early as 1807 DUMERIL pointed out the affinity of the genus
Ccecilia L. with the Batrachii; OPPEL afterwards removed them to
this division, when previous writers had placed them with the
serpents. The discovery of two branchial apertures, in a young
specimen of Ccecilia glutinosa (hypocyanea VAN HASSELT) in the
Leyden Museum, by J. MUELLER in 1830, has placed the natural
affinity of this genus beyond all doubt. The vertebrae, as in the
fishes and in Siren, Proteus, &c. are connected together by conical
cavities, which are filled with a cartilaginous or gelatinous sub-
stance (a remain of the chorda dorsalis).

Compare on the Ccecilice, SCHNEIDER Hist. AmpJiib., Fasc. n. pp. 359 — 388;
HEMPRICH Ccecilia ophidiorum genus recensuit et illustravit, Verhandl. der
Gesellsch, naturforsch. Freunde zu Berlin, 1829, s. 284 — 296; J. MUELLER
in TIEDEMANN u. TfiEViRANUs Zeitschr. f. Physiol. iv. 2, 1832, s. 213 —
222, Taf. xviii., and in his ArcMvf. Physiol. 1835, s. 391 — 398, Taf. vni.
figs. 12 — 14. The scales were first observed by SCHNEIDER, and afterwards
described more particularly by MATER (Nov. Act. A cad. Cces. Leop. Car.
Tom. xn. p. 2; Zeitschr. fur Physiol. in. 1829, s. 254 — 256. They are
wanting in Ccec. annulata).

Ccecilia L.

Sp. Ccecilia glutinosa L., SEBA Thesaur. n. Tab. 25, fig. 2, LINN. Mus. Ad.
Frid. Tab. IV. fig. I ; very numerous annular folds, forming on the middle
of the abdomen an angle, which is open forwards ; dirty brown or blackish

REPTILIA. 239

with a yellow stripe along the sides; Java, Ceylon. The species from
South America are more numerous, amongst which is the long and very
thin CcBcilia lumbricoldea DAUD., Ccecilia tentaculata L. in part, LINN.
Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. v. fig. 2, BAUD. Kept. vn. PL 92, fig. 2, from Suri-
nam. LINN^US unites this with another, entirely different, species pre-
viously described and figured by him in the Amosn. Acad. I. Tab. xvn.
fig. i as Ccecilia tentaculata ; this is said to be from Surinam. The Leyden
Museum received a Ccecilia from the coast of Guinea that agrees with it.
The genus Ccecilia counts scarcely ten species. Hence a division of it,
according to less essential characters, like those on which the new genera
Siphonops WAGL., Epicrium WAGL. (Ichthyophis Frrz.) and Rhinatrema
DOM. et BIBB, are founded, is not necessary. These characters are derived
especially from the position of two small grooves, not unlike the nostrils,
either under these or under the eyes. More important is the prolongation
of the head above the mouth in Epicrium and Ccecilia, which is not found
in Siphonops, and more particularly the presence of two rows of teeth in
the under jaw in Epicrium (Ccecilia glulinosa), remarked by MUELLER,
which would be valuable characters if they were constant. Arckiv 1. 1.
P- 397-

OBDEE II. Saurobatrachi s. Sozura.

Feet four or two anterior. Tail persistent. Cavity of tympanum
none.

Family II. Proteldea. External branchige persistent in most
throughout the whole life. Eyes concealed under the skin, without
eyelids, mostly small. Bodies of the vertebras with conical excava-
tions. Carpus (and tarsus) cartilaginous.

To the genera Siren L. and Proteus, which have three pairs of
external gills, that continue to be the principal respiratory organs
during the whole of life, Amphiuma and Menopoma succeed in
natural order; they lose the gills indeed, but they retain a branchial
aperture behind the head for the whole of life. That the giant
salamander of Japan cannot be separated from Menopoma was
pointed out by me at an earlier period, and is now generally ac-
knowledged. At the same time this animal loses the gills and
presents no branchial aperture. The sole character therefore of
this division, otherwise so natural, is not to be sought in the per-
sistence of the gills.

The Prote'ids, from their habitus, fall into two natural groups.
One of these contains Siren, Proteus, Amphiuma; the other group
contains Menopoma or Cryptobranchus and Sirenodon (the AxolotJ),
and passes through the last, which perfectly resembles a larva of

240 CLASS XV.

Salamandra, to the following family. Compare^ on this group
SPENCER F. BAIIID'S Revision of the North American tailed Batra-
chia, Journal of the Acad. of Nat. Sc. of Philadelphia. Sec. Series,
i. 1850, pp. 281—294.

Phalanx I. Anguinea. Body elongate, round, with feet very
short and slender, either four in number or two anterior only.
Skin smooth. Tail compressed, two-edged, with adipose fin. Habit
of snakes or seines.

Siren L. Branchiae persistent. Two very short feet, emergent
from trunk behind the branchiae, tetradactylous or tridactylous ;
hind feet none. Head obtuse ; upper jaw produced beyond lower.
Teeth subulate, crowded in palate.

Sp. Siren lacertina L., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI. 42, fig. 2, ELLIS Phil.
Transact. 1766, p. 189, Tab. IX. (reproduced in J. HUNTER'S Observations
on Anim. (Economy, with notes by K. OWEN, London, 1837, PI. 52), (EsTER-
DAM in LINN. Amcen. Acad.; from S. Carolina and attains a length of three
feet ; the feet have four toes. The siren feeds on worms and insects.
The skeleton has about ninety vertebrae, eight pairs of short ribs, of which
the first pair is affixed to the second vertebra, and no trace of pelvis. The
three cartilaginous branchial arches are attached to an osseous tongue-bone.
The lungs consist of two long sacs, of which the extremity is reflected
forward. SCHNEIDER and other earlier writers regarded this animal as
the larva of an unknown species of salamander, an opinion which cannot
now be any longer maintained. See especially CUVIER in HUMBOLDT
Recueil cFObserv. de Zool. &c. i. pp. 98— 109, PI. xi. xiv., and Rech. sur
les ossem. foss. (Nouv. e"d. 1824) v, i. pp. 417 — 426, PI. 27.

Two other smaller species are known, Siren intermedia and Siren striata, both
from North America; LECONTE Annals of the Lyceum of Nat. Hist, of New
York, Vol. I. 1824, pp. 52 — 54, PI. IV. Vol. II. p. 133, PL I. ; Siren striata
has only three fingers; see a figure by DUMER. and BIBRON, PI. 96, fig. i.

Hypochthon MERE., Proteus LAUE. Branchiae persistent. Four
short limbs, anterior tridactylous, posterior remote, didactylous.
Teeth subulate in both jaws and in palate. Head triangular, nar-
rowed towards the obtuse snout. Eyes very small.

Sp. Hypochthon Laurentii MERR., LAURENTI Specim. Tab. iv. fig. 3, p. 37,
STURM Deutschl. Fauna, Abth. in. Heft 5, &c. This animal lives in certain
caverns of Illyria and Dalmatia in subterranean waters, is of a pale flesh-
colour with bright red gills, and attains a length of u". Compare SCOPOLI
A nnus quintus Historico-naturalis, Lipsiae, 1772, 8vo, p. 73; SCHREIBERS,
Phtios. Transact. 1801, i, pp. 241 — 246, PI. xvi. xvin. ; CUVIER in HUMB.
Recueil, &c. i. pp. 117 — 122, PI. xni. figs. 5 — 10, and Ossem. foss. 1. 1.
pp. 426 — 430, and especially the beautiful monograph of P. CONFIGLIACHI

REPTILIA. 241

and RUSCONI Del Proteo anguino di Laurenti, Pavia, 1819, 4to. Constant
local varieties occur in the different districts where this animal is found
(or, as some think, different species), which are characterised by the form
of the head and of the gills, and by the proportions of the body. See FITZIN-
GEB Ueber den Proteus anguinus der Autoren, Sitzungsberichte der math,
naturw. Classe der Tcaiserl. Akademie der Wissensch. October, 1850. The
most distinct of these is Hypochthon xantkostictus FITZ., of a dull purple
colour, with yellow spots, and with large, widely extended, coarsely divided
gills.

Amphiuma GARDEN, HARLAX, Cuv. Branchiae evanescent.
Branchial apertures behind the head persistent. Four feet, didac-
tylous or tridactylous. Teeth sharp, subulate in jaws and palate.

This genus, peculiar to North America, is very similar to the Proteus of
Europe, but without permanent gills; though named as early as 1773 by
Dr. GARDEN of Charleston™., in his correspondence with ELLIS, it was
first made generally known by the descriptions of the North-American
zoologist HARLAN, Annals of the Lyceum of Neic York, I. p. -269, and espe-
cially by those of CUVIER, Mem. du Mus. xiv. 1827, pp. i — 14, PI. i. u.
According to TSCHUDI, Amphiuma, means Cuv. (with two fingers) is not
specifically different from Amphiuma tridaetylum Cuv. Comp. also a fig.
of Amphiuma tridactylum in Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Reptiles, PI. 41, fig. i.

Phalanx II. Cordulina. Body depressed, with four short legs.
Skin in adults often rugose, warty. Habit of salamanders.

MenobrancJius HARLAX, Netturus RAFIX., FITZ. Branchiae
persistent, broad, with short fringes, adhering to a depressed petiole.
All the feet tetradactylous. Eyes small.

Sp. Menobranchus lateralis HARLAN, Proteus tetradactylus LAC., Ann. du
Mus. x. 1807, pp. 230 — 233, PI. 17, HARLAN Ann. of the Lyceum of New
York, I. PL 16; HOLBROOK, North, American Herpetology, Vol. in. Phila-
delphia, 1838, PI. 30; GUKRIN, Iconogr., Rept., PI. 29, fig. 4, Cuv. R. Ani.,
ed. ill., Rept., PI. 41, fig. 2; North America, in lake Erie, the rivers Alle-
ghany and Ohio. This animal appears to attain a length of 2'. One or
two other species of this genus have been discovered in North America.

Cryptobranchus LEUCK., FlTZ., nob. Menopoma HARL., Sala-
mandrops WAGL., (add Megalobatrachus TSCHUDI, Sieboldia Bo-
NAP.). Branchiae evanescent. Head depressed, broad. Teeth in
jaws and palate cylindrical, with apex subulate, in rows, crowded;
palatine teeth arranged in a parallel row near the maxillary. An-
terior feet tetradactylous, posterior pentadactylous. Skin plicate,
undulate, loose at the sides of body.

Sp. Cryptobranchus Alleghaniensis nob., Salamandra gigantea BARTON, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept., PI. 41 bis. fig. i, BARTON Memoir concerning an
TOL. II. 16

242 CLASS xv.

Animal of the class Reptilia, which is known in the United States by the names
of Alligator and Hell-bender. Philadelphia, 1812, 8vo, with fig. (copied in
GRIFFITH'S Animal Kingdom, IX. p. 475) ; a permanent gill-aperture behind
the head, in front of five legs. This animal is met with in many rivers of
N. America, and attains a length of 18", or, as has been asserted, even of
2'. It is named Tweeg by the Delaware Indians. HOLBROOK, in his North
American Herpetology, in 1842, made known another species, Menopoma
fuscum, V. PL 33, from the west of S. Carolina.

Cryptobranchus japonicus nob., Salamandra maxima SCHLEG., Megalobatrachus
Sieboldii TSCHUDI, Tritomegas Sieboldii DUM. and BIBR., SCHLEG. Faun.
Japon., Kept. Tab. vi. — vin. ; in this species, which becomes more than 3 feet
long, there is no gill-aperture present, or rather it has early disappeared.
It is the largest of all the known naked Amphibia, and is not distinguished
from Menopoma by any single generic character. Compare my article in
the Tijdschr. voor nat. Gesch. v. pp. 375 — 386, and in the Me"m. de la Soc.
d'Hist. nat. de Strasbourg, 1840, in. Fragmens zoologiques sur les Batraciens,
pp. 7 — ii. To the same genus also belongs the extinct species met with
in the tertiary fresh-water formations of (Eningen, of which the remains
were formerly regarded as fossil human bones. SCHEUCHZER'S Homo
diluvii testis, Philos. Transact. 1726, p. 38, CUVIER Ann. du Mus. xin. pp.
411 — 420, PI. 30, figs. 2, 3, and Rech. sur les oss. foss.; Andrias Scheuchzeri
TSCHUDI, Class, d. Satr. Tab. 3 — 5. This species might be named Crypto-
branchus primigenius.

Siredon WAGL., FITZINGER (Axolotl Cuv., Axolotes OWEN).
Branchiae persistent, large, with peduncle subulate and long, fili-
form fringes. Eyes moderate. Lower jaw slightly produced in
front of upper. Anterior feet tetradactylous, posterior penta-
dactylous.

Sp. Siredon mexicanum, Siredon axolotl WAGL., Cuv., in HUME. Recueil
d'Observ. de Zool. i. PI. xn., HOME Phil. Trans., 1824, I. p. 419, Tab. 21
• — 23, DUMER. et BIBR. Rept. PI. 95; this species becomes 14" long, and
perfectly resembles a larva of Salamandra or Triton.

Family III. Salamandrina. Respiration in the perfect state
solely pulmonal ; external branchiae in larvae. Eyes with distinct
eyelids, moderate. Four feet, with carpus and tarsus osseous in
most; anterior tetradactylous, posterior almost always pentadac-
tylous.

Salamandra SCHN. (Salamandra and Triton LAURENTI). Cha-
racters of the family.

SCHNEIDER has reunited the water-salamanders with the land-
salamanders, which LAURENTI had separated from them under the
generic name of Triton; see his Hist. Artiphibior. natur. et litter.

REPTILIA. 243

Fasc. i. pp. 1 — 5. These animals form a family belonging to the
northern hemisphere, of which different species occur in Europe
and in Japan, but which are especially numerous in North America.
The larvae live constantly in water, even of those species which, in
the adult state, keep on land. The external gills persist until the
development of the pulmonal respiration, when with the gill-aper-
tures they entirely disappear. In the larvae the fore limbs are
developed earlier than the hinder. The animals of this class may
be termed small, at least all of them continue far below most of the
species of the preceding family.

Compare J. P. WURFFBAINII Salamandrologia, h. e. Descriptio historico-
philologico-philosophico-medica Salamandra^. Norimbergise, 1683; — P. A.
LATREILLE Hist. nat. des Salamandres de France, amc figs, color. Paris,
1800, 8vo; — EUSCONI Descrizione anatomica degli organi della circulazione
delle larre delle Salamandre aquatiche; fig. Pavia, 1847, 4to; M. B.USCONI
Hist., developpement et metamorphose de la Salamandre terrestre. Ouvrage
posthume publie par le Doct. Jos. MORGANTI. Av. 6 pi. Pavie, 1854, 4to;
and by the same, Amours des Salamandres aquaiiques. Milan, 1821, fol.
avec figs. ; — C. TH. E. DE SIEBOLD Observationes quadam de Salamandris et
Tritonibus. Accedit Tabula cen. Berolini, 1828, 4to; — J. L. C. GRAVEN-
HORST Reptilia Musei Zoologici Vratislaviensis, I. Lipsise, 1829, fol. pp. 73
— 88, pp. 91 — 104;— TSCHUDI 1. 1. pp. 56 — 6 r, 91—95.

t With tail compressed throughout or towards the extremity.

Triton LAURENTI, WAGL., Molge MERR.

Sp. Salamandra cristata SCHNEID., Lacerta palustris L., BECHST. in LAC.
Germ, translat. n. Tab. xix., LATR. Salam. de Fr. PI. in. fig. 3, STURM
Deutschl. Fauna, Amphib. Heft 3, TH. BELL History of British Rept.
London, 1849, pp. 129 — 139; skin uneven, warty; this species attains a
length of 6", and is the largest water- salamander in Europe ; the upper lip
hangs over the margin of the lower jaw ; the male has in summer a mem-
branous crest on the back which is divided into slips and is distinct from
a similar crest on the tail. SCHLEGEL refers also to this species Triton alpes-
tris and carnifex of LAURENTI. — Salamandra punctata LATR., Salam.
tceniata SCHNEID., BECHST. 1. 1. Tab. xxi., LATR. 1. c. PI. vi. fig. 6,
STURM 1. c. Heft 5, BELL 1. c. pp. 143 — 153; smaller than the preceding,
the skin smooth, the membranous crest on the back continuous with that
on the tail, &c.

In the water-salamanders the eggs are impregnated before being
laid. The female deposits her eggs on aquatic plants, and folds
every leaf to which she has attached an egg in such a way that its
under surface is turned inwards, the plait or fold being caused to stick

16—2

244 CLASS xv.

together by the gelatinous covering of the egg1. The European
species usually lose their gills as early as the third month ; but if they
have not lost them on the approach of winter, they retain them the
winter through, and themselves continue to grow. They are capa-
ble of propagating not before the third year, as has been noted of
our frogs. The larvae feed on aquatic insects, molluscs and worms,
as do the adult animals. Many species in the adult state live both
on land and in water.

Of the exotic species we mention only the Salamandra unguiculata SCHLEG.,
Salamandra japonica HOUTT., SCHNEID., which in the state of larva and at
the period of pairing has nails, a fact not observed in any other Salamander
or Prote'id. HOUTTUYN Ver/t. van het Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetensch.
ix. 1/82, p. 329, fig. 3 opposite p. 336, and SCHLEG. Faun. Jap., Kept.,
Sour, et Batrach. Tab. 5, figs, i — 5. TSCHUDI forms from this species his
genus Onychodactylus. In some species from North America, besides the
usual teeth on the palate (in the vomer), there are also teeth on the inferior
surface of the sphaenoid bone, set close together, as in a card. To such
belong the genera Hemidactylium, Plethodon and Cylindrosoma of TSCHUDI
(Spelerpes RAFIN.). Hemidactylium, Desmodactylus DUM., BIBR., like
Salamandrina FITZING. has only four toes on the hind feet ; to Salaman-
drina belongs Salamandra perspicillala SAVI, BONAP. Fauna Italic. Amfibi,
Tab. 84, fig. 8. (Of this Sal. tridactyla LAC. n. PI. 36, is an imperfectly
preserved specimen.) The sub-genus Pleurodeles MICHAHELLES, OKEN'S
Isis, 1830, s. 191 — 195, differs by the larger development of the ribs, of
which the points are visible at the side through the skin, TSCHUDI 1. 1. Tab.
i, fig. i, SCHLEG. Abbild. Tab. 39, figs. 2, 3. Compare on other sub-genera
TSCHUDI 1. 1. and SPENCER BAIRD, Revision of the North American tailed
JBatrachia, Journal of the Acad. of not. Sciences of Philadelphia. Sec.
Series, Vol. I. 1849, pp. 281 — 294.

H" With tail round, fusiform.

Salamandra LAURENTI, MERR. Head with a glandular, porous
tuber on each side behind the eyes. Anterior feet with four toes,
posterior with five toes.

Sp. Salamandra maculata MERR., Lacerta Salamandra L., LATR. Salam. de
Fr. PI. i., STURM Deutschl. Fauna, Amph. Heft n., A. F. FUNK De Sola-
mandrce terrestris vita, evolutions, formatione; cum tdbulis cen. Beroliui,
1827, folio; yellow with black spots, or black with yellow spots; some-
times almost entirely black. Different however from this black variety is

1 Such was the account given by BECHSTEIN in his translation of LACEP^DE,
Naturgesch. der Amphibien 2, s. 235, with which the observations of RUSCONI entirely
agree, Amours des Sal. aquat. pp. 21, 22, PL n. fig. 2. SPALLANZANI had said that
the eggs are laid adhering together in long strings; this has been repeated by later
writers, to whom the observations of RUSCONI might have been known.

REPT1LIA. 245

Sal. altra LAUR., Syn. Rept. Tab. I. fig. 2, STURM DeutscJd. Faun., which
lives on high mountains. Both species are viviparous, but the last brings
forth only two young ones at a time, the first a much larger number,
twenty-four and more. See my Fraym. Zool. 8. 1. Batrac., Mem. de la
Soc. d' Hist. nat. de Strasb. m. The genus of the Land-salamanders appears
to be limited to these two European species.

Order III. Batrachii s. Miura.

Legs four. Tail in adults none. Lower jaw edentulous.
Cavity of tympanum with an Eustachian tube nearly in all. Re-
spiration in the larvae branchial, with branchiae external at first,
afterwards internal.

Family IV. Batrachii. (Characters of the order those of the
single family. Skin naked, smooth. Anterior feet with four toes,
posterior with five. Rana L.).

All are oviparous. The larvae of these animals breathe by
internal gills; during the first period of time external gills also
are present, as in the larvae of salamanders ; these gills have the
form of finger-shaped tubes, and are divided into two, three or
more lobes. They disappear a few days after birth, and then the
internal gills alone remain, which are attached to four pairs of carti-
laginous branchial arches connected with the tongue-bone; they
consist of small crests divided into numerous branches, and con-
tinue rudimentary on the last branchial arch, whilst on the first
they are arranged in a single, on the second in a double row. After
the disappearance of the gills, the tongue-bone also alters its form,
loses its branchial arches, and becomes flatter. The larvae, which
at first have no limbs, shew their hind legs first; the tail, very
large in some, disappears slowly by resorption, which proceeds from
the point to the base.

Compare RUSCONI Developpement de la Grenouille commune, avec 4 pi. color.
Milan, 1826, 4to; MARTIN ST. ANGE Recherckes anat. et physiol. sur les
organes transitoires et la Metamorphose des JBatraciens, Ann. des Sc. not.
Tom. 24, 1831, pp. 366, 408 — 418; RATHKB Untersuchungen uber den
Kiemen-Apparat u. da* Zungenbein, 1832, 4to; LEREBOULLET Anat. comp.
de I'appareil respiratoire dans les animaux vertebres. Paris et Strasbourg,
1831, 4to, pp. 104, in, 112.

Two chief works on this family are, R<ESEL Historia natiiralis Ranarum nos-
tratium, Norimb. 1758, folio, with excellent coloured figures, and F. M.
DAUDIN Histoire naturelle des Rainettes, des Grenouilles et des Crapaud*.
Avec 38 planches. Paris, xi. (1803).

246 CLASS XV.

By modern writers, especially by WAGLEK and TSCHUDI, a great number of
genera have been adopted which replace the genus JRana of Linnaeus. The
greater part however of these divisions can only be noticed as sub-genera.
That these animals moreover represent the chelonians amongst the diplo-
pnoa is obvious, especially from the habitus of certain toads ; and it is
remarkable that in some of them a dorsal shield, however rudimentary,
may be observed.

A. Tongue none.

Pipa LAUR., MERE., DUM. and BIBR., Asterodactylus WAGL.
Body broad, depressed. Head broad, anteriorly acuminate, trigonal.
Eyes very small in the margin of jaw. Teeth none. Anterior toes
slender, with the last joint quadrifid.

Sp. Pipa americana LAUR., Rana Pipa L., SEBA Thesaur. i. Tab. 77, DAUD.
Rain., Gren. et Crap. PI. 31, 32, fig. 2, BLUMENB. Abbildung. naturhistor.
Gegenst. No. 36 ; in Surinam and Brasil. The development of the young
takes place on the back of the mother ; the male places there the impreg-
nated eggs ; there are small cavities, or nearly hexangular cells, in which
the eggs are received. Here the young pipas undergo their change, and
do not quit the cells before they have lost their tail. See FERMIN'S
A bhandlungen von den Surinamischen Krote oder Pipa, iibersetzt von J. A.
GOEZE. Mit 4 Kupfert. Braunschweig, 1776; F. G. BREYER, Observations
anatoinicce circa fabricam Ranee Pipce. Cum Tab. i aan. Berolini, 1811 ;
C. MAYER, Beitrdge zu einer anatoinischen Monographic der Rana Pipa,
Nov. Act. Acad. Ccesar. Leop. Car. Vol. XII. p. 2. Only one species of
this genus is known hitherto.

Xenopus WAGL., Dactylethra Cuv., DUM. and BIBR. Teeth in i
upper jaw. Anterior legs small, slender, with toes subulate, thin,
subequal; posterior large, with soles palmate, three inner toes un-
guiculate. Head short, with eyes moderate.

Of this genus also only one species is known hitherto, Xenopus Bojei WAGL., 1
Dactylethra capensis Cuv., DUM. and BIBR., Cuv. R. Ani., sec. 4d., PI. 7,
fig- 3> C. MAYER Analecten f. vergl. Anat. 1835, Tab. n. figs. 5, 6, pp. 29 1
— 35, Dactylethra Delalandii Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI. 38, fig. 2, at
the Cape of Good Hope and the coast of Mozambique.

Like Salamandra unguiculata in the preceding family, Xenopus amongst I
the frogs is the only example of the presence of claws, which occur no-
where else amongst the Diplopnoa. The skeleton of Xenopus has much
resemblance to that of Pipa, especially in the pelvis ; the transverse pro- I
cesses of the sacrum are triangular plates, with the apex turned inwards, !
which afford a broad attachment for the iliac bones. In Pipa and
Xenopus the two Eustachian tubes terminate in a small common opening
in the middle of the ridge behind the palate. The membrane of the tym-
panum is cartilaginous.

REFftLIA. 247

Myobatrachus ScHLEG. (Is this its place?)

Note. — A genus imperfectly known from a single specimen, not
very well preserved. Two subulate teeth in palate (vomer); no
maxillary teeth. No tongue seems to be present. Feet short, im-
mersed in trunk.

Sp. Myobatrachus paradoxus SCHL. Mus. L. B, from New Holland.

B. Tongue distinct.

a) Teeth in upper jaw.
+ Points of toes not expanded.

Bombinator MERE, (in part), DuG^S. Cavity of tympanum
none. No glandular tuberosities behind eyes. Tongue orbicular,
affixed on all sides.

Sp. Bombinator igneus MERR. Rana Bombina L., Bufo bombinus DAUD.,
R(ESEL Ran. Tab. 22, 23, CUVIER R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI. 39, fig. i; a
small species, dirty brown above, below yellow or orange-coloured with
irregular blue-black spots. — Bombinator fuscus FITZING., Bufo fuscus
LAUR., Pelobates fuscus WAGL., DUM. et BIBR., RCES. Ran. Tab. 17 — 19,
Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill, Rept. PI. 38, fig. i; this species diffuses an odour re-
sembling garlick ; the larvae retain the tail a long time, until they are already
very large, much like the Rana paradoxa of Surinam; see below, pp. 250,
251. The granular uneven surface of the cranial bones also is peculiar in
this species. The hind legs present on the inside of the tarsus a flat, sharp-
edged process, covered with hard horny skin; here also belongs a species
from the south of France and Spain, named by CUVIER Rana cultripes
(Cultripes provincialis MUELL., Pelobates cultripes TSCHUDI). The transverse
processes of the sacrum are triangular plates, broad at their extremity, as
in the two preceding genera.

Alytes WAGL. (Spec, of Boinbinator MERR.). Membrane of
tympanum distinct. Glandular tuberosities above tympanum.
Tongue orbicular, affixed on all sides. Toes of posterior feet joined
by membrane at their base alone.

Sp. Alytes obstetricans WAGL., Bufo obstetricans LAUR., BROKGNIART Essai,
&c., fig. 9, STURM DeutscJd. Fauna, Amphib. Heft 4. This small species,
which is found in France and Southern Germany, Switzerland and Italy,
produces a shrill sound, like that of a bell (the true Rana campisona of
GESNER, which LINNAEUS confounded with Rana bombina). It is still
more celebrated for the assistance which the male affords the female when
laying her eggs, which causes them to adhere to his hind legs by small
pedicles. The eggs have a yellow colour; they remain attached to the
male, until the embryo is sufficiently developed; then he leaves his place of
concealment underground and betakes himself to the water; except at this

248 CLASS xv.

time the adult animals appear to live constantly on land and also to copu-
late there1. The development of this species has been investigated by
C. VOGT; see above, p. 226. — Alytes punctatus TSCHUDI, Peldbates punctatus
FITZ., Bonap. Faun. Italica, Anifib.

Note. — Here should be referred sub-genus Scaphiopus HOLBHOOK, approach-
ing very nearly to Alytes by several characters, agreeing with Pelobates in
the spatulate process to the tarsus.

Sp. Scaphiopus solitarius HOLBKOOK, North American Herpetology. Phila-
delphia, 1836, Vol. i. PL 12.

Ceratophrys BOIE, SCHLEG. Membrane of tympanum naked in
some, in others hidden under the skin. Anterior feet cloven, pos-
terior semipalmate. Head large. Eyelids protracted above the eye
into a conical process. Tongue orbicular, free behind, entire or
emarginate.

MegalophrysKuHL, Ceratophrys GRAVENH.. Head depressed; mem-
brane of tympanum small, little distinct. Teeth of upper jaw thin,
setaceous. Skin of back smooth. Posterior extremities elongate.
(Habit of Frogs.)

Sp. Ceratophrys montana GRAVENH., Megalophrys montana KCHL, Mus. L. B.,
SCHLEG. Abbild. Tab. x. fig. 3; on the Island of Java.

Ceratophrys BOIE, DUM. and BIBR., Stombus GRAV. Head very
large, with gape of mouth very ample. Teeth subulate, somewhat
large. Membrane of tympanum distinct, covered slightly or not at
all. Skin of back tuberculate. Posterior limbs moderate. (Habit
of Frogs.)

Sp. Ceratophrys cornuta SCHL. (in part), Rana cornuta L., Ceratophrys dorsata
MAXIM., Prinz. v. NEUW. Abb. z. Naturgesch. Brasil., Lief. XI. male,
Lief. x. fern. SCHLEG. Abbild. Tab. x. figs, i, 2. One of the largest
species of this family; the skin of the back contains bony laminse. The
skeleton of this species is figured in C. G. KLCETZKE (prces. RUDOLPHI)
Diss. anat. de Rana cornuta, Berolini, 1816, 4to; Ceratophrys Boiei MAX.,
GRAVENH. Rept. Mus. Vratisl. Tab. ix. figs, i, «, GUERIN. Iconogr., Rept.
PI. 26, fig. 2. &c. These animals inhabit the forests of South America.

Asterophrys TSCHUDI. Membrane of tympanum naked. Tongue
oblongo-orbicular, posteriorly entire, thin. Feet with cloven toes.

1 This peculiarity in the mode of life of this species of frog or toad was first
observed by DEMOURS M£m. de VAcad. royale des Sciences de Paris p. I'annee 1741,
P. 13-

REPT1LIA. 249

Transverse, convex row of conical papillae in palate. (Upper eyelid
with a conical tubercle and some small conical warts.)

Sp. Ceratophrys turpicola (sic! is it for turpicula?) MUELL., SCHLEG. Abb.
Tab. x. fig. 4 ; New Guinea.

Note. — Rana scutata SPIX, genus Hemiphractus WAGL., is unknown to me.
Teeth are described in the lower jaw, an instance, if there be no error,
which is unique in the Miura.

Pyxicephalus TscHUDi, DUM. and BIBR. Head broad, short,
gibbous above. Membrane of tympanum mostly distinct. Teeth
subulate, somewhat large. Bones of cranium rough, granular above.
Anterior feet cloven, posterior semipalmate; with a flat, sharp spur
in the sole, at the inner margin of first toe. Tongue oval, free
posteriorly, bilobed. Trunk short, broad.

Sp. Pyxicephalus Delalandii TSCHUDI, DUM. and BIBB. Rept. PI. 87, fig. i,
South Africa.

Discoglossus OTTH, DUM. and BIBR. Head flat, continuous
with trunk. Membrane of tympanum concealed. Anterior feet
cloven, posterior semipalmate. Tongue free posteriorly, rotundato-
trigonal or suborbicular.

Sp. J>lscoglossus pictus OTTH, BONAP. Faun. Italica, Amfibi, Fasc. xxiv.
Sicily, Sardinia, Greece.

Cystignathus WAGL., DUM. and BIBR. Membrane of tympanum
distinct, or scarcely visible. Anterior feet cloven, posterior semi-
palmate, or cloven, with slender toes. Subgular vocal sac in males
or two lateral sacs. Tongue large, orbicular, free posteriorly, entire
or emarginate.

Sp. Cystignathus ocellatus, Rana ocellata L. (in part), SEBA Thes. I. Tab. 75,
fig. i, BAUD. Rain., Gren. et Crap. PI. 19, Rana pachypus, Rana sibttatrix
MAXIM. Pr. zu Wied. South America, West Indies; one of the largest
species of this family. Almost all the species of this genus are from
America.

Pseudis WAGL., DUM. and BIBR. Membrane of tympanum
, scarcely distinct. Anterior feet cloven, with first toe capable of
' opposing the others like a thumb; posterior feet palmate, with

membrane ample. Gular vocal sac in males. Tongue orbicular,

entire, connate with chin, free at the margin only.

Sp. Pseudis paradoxa TSCHUDI, Rana paradoxa L., MEBIAN Ins. Surinam.
Tab. 71, SEBA Thesaur. Tab. 78, figs. 15 — 21 (not all the figures, as

250 CLASS XV.

quotes them). This species retains the tail very long, and is
smaller when adult than before the loss of the tail; hence MERIAN and
SEBA fell into the mistake that it undergoes a retrograde metamorphosis
into a fish; it is met with in Surinam.

Rana L. (exclusive of many species). Membrane of tympanum
distinct. Anterior feet cloven, posterior palmate. Tongue oblong,
posteriorly deeply emarginate, free, exsertile. Two lateral vocal
sacs in males, emerging externally in some when distended with
air.

Sp. Rana esculenta L., K(ESEL Hist. Ranar. Tab. 13—16, STURM DeutscU.
Faun.) Amphib. Heft I., DAUD. Rain., Gren. et Crap. PL 15, fig. i, BELL
Hist. Brit. Rept. sec. ed. London, 1849, p. no; the green frog, der gmne
Wasserfrosch ; green above, with black spots, under-surface of body whitish ;
the vocal sacs in this species become visible externally (see above, p. 221).
The croak, very loud and especially by night, is heard at a great distance.
This species is very common in Holland, but in England is confined to par-
ticular localities. — Rana temporaria L., KCESEL 1. 1. TAB. I. — vm. STURM
1. 1. DAUD. PI. 13, fig. 2, BELL 1. 1. p. 89; the brown frog; yellow-brown
or reddish ; a dark brown longitudinal spot behind the eyes, which passes
obliquely over the membrane of tympanum and ends in a point backwards.
In this species the vocal sacs do not pass out externally. Rana temporaria
contains, according to STEENSTRUP, two species, oxyrhinus and platyrhinus.
The last is the most common (Bericht der 24^ Versamml. der deutschen
Naturforscher, in Kiel.). See also THOMAS Ann. des Sc. nat. 4ieme
se'rie, Tom. iv. 1855, p. 365. These animals make only a growling sound,
especially when uneasy and in pairing time ; at this time only do they live
in water, at other times they keep on land. A very large species of this
genus occurs in the East Indies, Rana cutipora DUM. and BIBR., Rana
saparuce REINW. M. S., Dactylethra benghalensis I LESSON Illustr. de Zool.
PI. 47, and one still larger in North America, Rana mugiens MERR., the
Bull-frog of CATESBY. Most of the species of the genus Rana of modern
writers are from the eastern hemisphere.

On some other sub-genera, here omitted, cons. DUMERIL and
BIBRON 1. 1. Vol. vm. In habit, and especially in the small and
slender fore feet, Leptobrachium TSCHUDI differs from the rest of the
Ranee.

Sp. Rana Hasseltii Mus. L. B. ; head broad, depressed ; back obscurely
fuscous, with black spots. Hab. in Java.

*H* Apices of fingers and toes dilated orbiculately .

Hyla LAUR., FITZINGER and others, Calamita SCHN., MERR.

The tree-frogs, Eainettes, Laubfrosche. These frogs live on trees
and climb with ease, like the Geckos amongst the Saurians. The

REPTILIA. 251

adhesion is effected by appression of the dilated extremities of their
fingers and toes and by a viscosity ; see v. WITTICH Der Mechanis-
mus der HaftzeJien von Hyla arborea, MULLER'S Arcftiv, 1854, s.
170 — 183, PL viii. figs. 2, 3. The species are very numerous, but,
with the exception of a single one, foreign to our quarter of the
world; more than half of those now known are natives of the new
world. The skin is mostly smooth on the back, whilst on the abdo-
minal surface and along the inside of the legs it is beset with small
tubercles or warts placed close together. The colours are often
lively and are also variable. Hyla viridis has two kinds of pigment-
cells beneath the skin which are essentially different, and one of
them consists of two subdivisions. The one kind is irregularly
polyhedral and filled -with gold-yellow pigment-granules. They
never change their form. The cells of the other kind are starred or
polyhedral of variable form ; one class of these is black, the other
light brown. The difference of colour depends upon the mass of the
contained pigment -molecules, which singly are light brown. The
brown pigment-cells exhibit interference-colours that belong to the
third Newtonian system of rings. The black pigment-cells shew
here and there a shade of blue. The yellow pigment-cells are placed
the deepest below the cuticle. The brown pigment-cells in particu-
lar places have long anastomosing processes, and under different cir-
cumstances of excitement the pigment-granules are caused to pass
from the processes, which then contain only a fluid on which the in-
terference-colours depend. Thus the change of colour arises from the
variable quantity of the brown molecules in the more superficial
layer of cells, which on the one hand allows of a greater or less trans-
parency for the yellow cells below them to be seen, and on the other
a quantity of fluid, more or less unmixed with pigment-molecules,
for the production of the interference-colours. See HARLESS Ueber
die Chromatophoren des Frosches, Zeitschr.f. wissensch. Zool. v. 1854,
pp. 373 — 379. For the skin of Rana temporaria see A. HEXSCHE
Ueber die Drusen und glatten Muskeln in deraussern Haut von
Rana temporaria, Zeitschr.f. wissensch. Zool. vn. 1855, 273 — 282.

On this genus see A. DUMERIL Mem. sur les Batraciens anoures
de la Famille des Hylceformes ou Rainettes, Ann. des sc. nat.
serie, xix. 1853, p. 135 — 179.

* With membrane of tympanum covered, latent.
Microhyla TSCHUDI.
Theloderma TSCHUDI.

252 CLASS xv.

Notodelphys LICHTENST. and WEIXLAND.

See WEINLAND Ueber den Beutelfrosch, in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1854,
s- 449_477, Taf. xvn — xix. A fissure in the dorsal integument of the
female leads to two lateral pouches for the reception of the eggs. Similar
seems to be the disposition in Hyla marsupiata DUM. and BIBB., apparently
a distinct species of the true Hyla division.

** With membrane of tympanum distinct.

a) With palms and soles palmate, ample.

Eacophorus KUHL, TSCHUDI, Hypsiboas WAGL. Tongue oblong,
posteriorly free, forked. Teeth in vomerine bones in a transverse
row, interrupted in the middle. Trunk posteriorly narrow, slender.
Posterior feet long.

Hyla Reinwardtii SCHLEG. Abbild. Tab. 30, in the East Indies.

£) With palms cloven or semipalmate, with soles semipalmate or palmate.

1) With palatine teeth none.

Eucnemis TSCHUDI, DUM. and BIBR. (and Orchestes TSCHUDI,
Ixalus DUM. and BIBR.).

2) With palatine teeth.

Hyla, TSCHUDI, DUM. and BIBR. Tongue orbicular, adnate, or
posteriorly subfree. Anterior feet mostly cloven, posterior semi-
palmate.

Sp. Hyla viridis LAUR., Rana arborea L., ROESEL Hist. Ran. Tab. 9— 1 1,
STURM Deutschl. Fauna, Amphib. Heft i; the tree-frog; the males have a
sac beneath the throat which, when they cry, is dilated.

Polypedates TSCHUDI.

Limnodytes DUM. and BIBR. (Tongue in these genera posteriorly
free, furcate.)

Litoria TSCHUDI, DUM. and BIBR., Acris DUM. and BIBR. Tongue
discoid or cordate, posteriorly free. Points of fingers with discs
small.

7) With palms and soles cloven.
Hylodes FITZ. (add Phyllomedusa WAGL.). Teeth in palate.

Sp. Hyla bicolor, Rana bicolor BODD., GMEL., BAUD. Rain., Gren. et Crap.
PI. 5, 6, GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 26, fig. 3 • South America.

Crossodactylus DUM. and BIBR., and Phyllobates eorund. Palatine
teeth none.

REPTILIA. 253

b) Upper jaw edentulous.

t Apices of fingers and toes dilated orbicularly.

Dendrobates TsCHUDT (Hylaplesia BOIE in part). Tongue ob-
long, posteriorly free. Teeth in palate none. Glandular tuberosi-
ties at the sides of head none. Membrane of tympanum naked.
Fingers and toes cloven.

Sp. Dendrobates tinctorius WAGL., Hyla tinctoria DAUD., Rain. Gren. Crap.
PL 8, DUM. et BIBB. Kept. PL 90, fig. i ; South America. The habitus is
entirely that of Hyla.

Hylcedactylus DUM. and BIBR. (Hyladactyla TsCHUDl). Tongue
large, adnate, free at the margin only. Palatine teeth. No glan-
dular tuberosities at the sides of head. Membrane of tympanum
latent. Head depressed, immersed in trunk. Body broad, feet
short. Fingers cloven, toes semipalmate.

Sp. Hylcedactylus 'baleatus, Bombinator baleatus ( ? sic) MUELL. ; Java.

ft Apices of fingers and toes not expanded.
* Membrane of Tympanum distinct.

Bufo LAUR., MERR. (excl. of some species). Teeth none.
Tongue oblong, oval, free posteriorly. Anterior limbs tetradacty-
lous, cloven, posterior pentadactylous, mostly semipalmate. Tu-
berosity on both sides behind the eyes, above the tympanum,
porous, cushioned.

Toads. — This genus contains nocturnal animals which hide them-
selves during day-light. Two cushion-shaped groups of glands
occur here, as in the salamanders, improperly named parotids in
descriptive zoology. The head is obtuse in front ; the upper jaw de-
scends directly downwards, so that the intermaxillary bones do not
project in front of the cranium. A similar form of the upper
jaw occurs in most of the Hylce, whilst in the frogs (Ranee) it is
very flat and runs into a sharp edge, so that the intermaxillary
bones lie nearly horizontal in front of the cranium.

Sp. Bufo vulgaris LAUB., Rana bufo (and Rana rubeta) L., ROESEL Ran.
Tab. 20, 21, STUBM DeutscTil. Fauna, Amphib. Heft I. (figures of
ROESEL), GUEBIN Iconogr., Rept. PL 27, fig. i, BELL Brit. Rept. p. 115;
usually grey-brown, a black stripe externally along the parotids. — Bufo
viridis DUM. and BIBB. (Bufo calamita and Bufo viridis LAUB., Rana
portentosa BLUMENB., Bufo variabitis PALL.), ROES. Ran. Tab. 2 1, STUBM
1. 1. DAUD. Rain., Gren. et Crap. PL 28, figs, i, 2 ; smaller than the preceding ;

254 CLASS xv.

a yellow-green iris, which in the preceding species is red or gold-co-
loured ; often a yellow stripe along the middle of the back. — Bufo mari-
nus GEAV., Rana marina L., Bufo agua DAUD. et alior., SEBA Thesaur. I.
Tab. 76, fig. i, DAUD. Rain., Gren. et Crap. PI. 36, 37, MAX. NEUW. Abb.
zur Naturgesch. Bras.; the largest species of toad, 10" — 12" without the
legs; in different parts of South America. Bufo margaritifer DAUD.,
Rana typhonia L., DAUD. 1. 1. PI. 33, fig. i, MAX. NEUW. Abb. z. Naturg.
Bras, (under the name of Bufo oxyrhynchus] also from South America; on
each side of the head above the orbit runs a bony ridge ; the cranium is
excavated above. CUVIER forms from this species his sub-genus Otilophus.

** Membrane of Tympanum concealed.
Lateral tuberosities behind the eyes none.

Uperodon DUM. and BIBR. Palatine teeth. Head small, round-
ed. Gape of mouth narrow. Tongue adnate, free at the margin,
orbicular, large.

Sp. Uperodon marmoratus, Engystoma marmoratum Cuv., GUERIN Iconogr.,
Rept. PI. 27, fig. 3. Bengal.

Phryniscus WlEGM. Palatine teeth none. Tongue oblong, free
posteriorly.

Sp. Phryniscus nigricans WIEGM. Monte Video.

Brachycephalus FiTZ., Ephippifer CoCTEAU.

Microps WAGL., FITZ. (previously Engystoma FITZ., in part),
Stenocephalus TSCHUDI. Palatine teeth none. Eyes small. Head
small, anteriorly acute, triangular. Gape of mouth small.

Sp. Microps ovalis nob., Rana ovalis SCHN., Microps unicolor WAGL., Engy-
stoma ovale DUM. and BIBR., DAUD. 1. 1. PI. 33, fig. 2, GUERIN Iconog.,
Rept. PI. 27, fig. 2 ; a very small species from South America.

Breviceps MERE., Sysioma WAGL. Palatine teeth none. Head
continuous with trunk, very short, truncate; gape of mouth very
narrow. Feet short, immersed at the base in trunk. Body
gibbous.

Breviceps gibbosus MERREM, Rana gibbosa L., LACEP. i. PI. 40, DAUD.
1. 1., PI. 29, fig. 2, PI. 35, fig. 2, in South America.

Note. — On some other sub-genera, omitted here, comp. DUMER. et BIBRON,
vni. pp. 640 — 760.

REPTILIA. - 255

SECTION IT. Reptilia haplopnoa. (Monopnoa FITZIXG., Philodota

MERR.).

Branchiae neither persistent nor deciduous. Kespiration solely
pulmonal. Body covered with scaly skin or loricate with scutes.
Occipital condyle mostly single under the foramen magnum for arti-
culation with the first vertebra. Labyrinth in addition to the
fenestra of the vestibule also furnished with a fenestra rotunda and
a rudiment of a cochlea.

ORDER IV. Ophidii.

Cavity of tympanum none. Eyes covered with eyelid, single,
immobile, pellucid. (Feet mostly none; vestiges of hind feet in
some ; in a single genus two anterior very short feet, in the rest no
vestiges of sternum and shoulder-bones.)

The most obvious character of the serpents is the entire absence
of limbs. But if this character were relied on exclusively to de-
termine whether an animal of this class belonged to the serpents,
the Ccecilice (see above p. 238) also would have to be referred to it.
Hence it is necessary to have recourse for a basis to the anatomical
characters first brought forward by J. MUELLER (Zeitschr. fur Phy-
siologie, herausgegeben von TIEDEMANN u. TREVIRAJTCTS, iv. 2, 1832,
s. 222 — 240), and to refer the genera Anguis, Acontias, and
Ophisaurus, notwithstanding the absence of limbs, to the lacertine
animals. In this way the genus Chirotes, although it possesses an-
terior limbs and vestiges of a sternum, is not separated from Am-
phisbcena, but is placed in the order of the serpents; the Amphis-
bcence themselves having vestiges of a scapula. (See RATHKE Ueber
den Bau und die Entwickelung des Brustbeins der Saurier.) The
eye-ball, constantly covered by an immoveable transparent eye-lid,
is thus a chief character of this order.

Whilst anterior limbs are met with in Chirotes alone, in many
genera imperfect posterior limbs occur. Internally there is found,
close to the tail, yet not united with the vertebral column but at some
distance from it, an elongated little bone on each side, which ends
below in an articular head by which two small bones that diverge
from each other, the one directed downwards the other inwards,
are connected. Between the two is situated a somewhat larger bone
curved in form of the letter S, as a phalangeal bone which supports a

256 CLASS xv.

conical nail. These nails or spurs (calcaria) are observed, near the
anus, in front of the commencement of the tail, in the genera Boa,
Python, Eryx and Tortrix. This bony apparatus is moved by its own
proper muscles. In other serpents there is only the first elongated
bone present beneath the skin, as in Amphisbcena and Typhlops.
In most serpents this apparatus is wanting altogether. See MAYER
Ueber die hintere Extremitdt der Ophidier, Nov. Act. Acad. Goes.
Leop. Carol. Tom. xn. p. 818 and foil.

Through the absence of feet the serpents are restricted to creeping,
and for this purpose, according to the observations of BANKS and
HOME, they avail themselves of their numerous ribs, the extremities
of which they alternately fix on the ground and slide forwards, just
as caterpillars and myriapods deal with their feet. Philos. Transact.
for 1812, p. 163 sqq.

Most serpents keep by preference in moist places, and within the
tropics shew themselves chiefly in the rainy season. In this order
very large animals are met with, which attain a length of 20 or 30
feet1, and on the other hand species also which are scarcely a span
long.

Compare on this order PATRICK RUSSELL, An account of Indian Ser-
pents, collected on the coast of Coromandel, London, 1 796, fol. Continuation,
London, 1801 ; F. BOIE JSemerkungen uber MERREM'S Versuch eines Systems
der Amphibien. ErsleLieferung; Ophidier in OKEN'S Isis 1827, s. 508 — 566;
H. SCHLEGEL Essai sur la Physionomie des Serpens, La Haye, 1837, 8vo, et
Atlas contenant 1 1 planches et 3 cartes. SCHLEGEL'S work has been translated
(abridged) into English, see p. 234. Here may be added, on the habits of the
serpents of Germany, the prolix work of H. O. LENZ Schlangenkunde. Mit
Abb. Gotha, 1832, 8vo, containing many of his own observations. The most
recent arrangement of DDM£RIL and BIBRON (Erpe"tologie, Tom. vi. vn.)
founded on the disposition of the teeth, is given in a succinct revision by
the former in the xxm. Vol. of the Mem. de I' Acad. des Sciences, 1853. It
need scarcely to be mentioned that exclusive attention to this point has
occasioned artificial genera and arbitrary separations or combinations.

TRIBE I. Serpentes.

Tongue bifid, exsertile. Lower jaw divided in the middle.
A. Eurystomi.

Palate-bones mobile, armed with sharp, recurved teeth. Quad-
rate bone mobile, suspended to the mastoid bone, itself mobile,

1 ADANSON speaks of serpents 40 or 50 feet long, which however were not seen by
himself. Hist. nat. du Senegal, p. 150.

REPTILTA. 257

in most. The two branches of lower jaw conjoined by a cartila-
ginous elastic ligament. Mental furrow.

The serpents with a large mouth capable of great expansion on de-
glutition, form the largest part of their order, and exhibit to us the
proper typus of it. Along the under jaw on each side lie a row of
scutes (Scuta marginalia labiiinferioris), between which two pairs of
mental scutes (Scuta mentalia) are situated, and again in front of
these two small scutes, behind the unpaired scute at the point
of the lower jaw (Scutum labiale medium). Between these mental
scutes there runs in the middle a longitudinal furrow.

The upper jaw is formed by two upper jaw-bones and a single
intermaxillary bone. The upper jaw-bones are longer in the in-
nocuous serpents, and armed with a row of teeth, continued
throughout. In the poisonous serpents, on the contrary, the
upper jaw-bones are short, and the outer pterygoi'd bone (Os
pterygdideum externum) to which they are fastened, is transformed
into a much elongated style.

f Venomous serpents. (Solenoglyphes, previously Tkanatophides,
BUM. and BIBR.)

The venomous serpents, amongst which are some whose bite has
for men speedy death as a consequence, have brought an evil name
upon the whole order. They are, however, far less numerous than
the innocuous species. Even in Brasil, for instance, according to
the Prince of NEUWIED, the innociious species are to the venomous
as 38 : 5. This is the place to say something on the poison-glands
and poison-teeth of serpents.

In most poisonous serpents each superior maxillary bone has
only a single tooth projecting from the gum, and, to succeed to
which, two or three others behind and above it lie upon the palate
with their point turned backwards. Through these teeth there
runs a canal which opens close to the point on the convex anterior
surface with a fine fissure. In some poisonous snakes the upper
maxillary bone has some smaller teeth in addition, which are not
perforated, and succeed further back to the poison-tooth. Finally,
there are (as was first observed by Professor REINWARDT and con-
firmed by the investigations of BOIE, and especially of SCHLEGEL, by
whom this peculiarity was published,) some serpents which have a
tooth behind a row of imperforate teeth which is a little longer
VOL. II. 17

258 CLASS xv.

than the rest, and is not perforated but grooved l. In these last the
excretory duct of a gland is received in the groove, the gland
agreeing in texture with the superior maxillary salivary gland
or seeming merely to be a lobe of it, whence it has been supposed
that these serpents do not belong to the venomous division.

The large perforated tooth, placed on each side of the mid-plane
at the fore part of the mouth, is the means by which the venomous
serpents inflict wounds and shed the poison into them. The poison
is secreted by a gland of an elongate form which is situated behind
and under the eye upon the upper jaw, and is compressed by the
temporal muscle. It consists of blind tubes, which in some are un-
divided, in others ramified and disposed in flat lobes or plates that
are separated from each other by partitions of the membrane that
surrounds the gland2. The long excretory duct of this gland runs
forward and ends in a membranous sheath which surrounds the
base of the poison- gland; here the poison is received in an aperture
situated in front of the base of the tooth. Besides this gland there are
still others in the head of serpents, viz. along the edge of the upper
and lower jaw, under the tongue, and lastly a lachrymal gland behind
the eye; these glands are common to the venomous and innocuous
serpents, yet all of them are not always equally present. The poi-
son-gland, on the contrary, is peculiar to the venomous serpents,
and in these the other glands of the head, especially those along
the margin of the jaws, are generally less developed3.

As to the poison itself, it is an unctuous gelatinous fluid, without
taste, and drying in the air into little plates or scales ; it long retains
its injurious power, is soluble in water, insoluble in spirit of wine
and volatile oils, and is generally stated to be neither of an alkaline
nor an acid nature 4. CANTOR, however, has found that the poison

1 H. SCHLEGEL, Onderzoeking van de speekselklieren der slangen met gegroefde tan-
den, in vergelijking met die der niet giftige en giftige, in the Bijdragen tot de natuurk.
Wetenschappen, n. 1827, bl. 536 — 551, and in the Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Tom.
XIV. DUVERNOY afterwards treated this subject more at large, Annales des Sc. not.
Tom. xxvi. Paris, 1832, pp. 113 — 160, PI. 5 — 10, and again in a Supplement, ibid.
Tom. xxx. pp. 6—32.

3 See J. MUELLER, De glandularum secernentium structura penitiori, pp. 55 — 57.
PI. vi. fig. 1—3.

3 Compare on these different glands, besides DUVERNOY loc. cit., also MECKEL in
his Archivf. Anat. u. Physiol. 1826, s. i — 13, Tab. I. figs, i — 10.

4 See the celebrated work of F. FONTANA, Traite sur le venin de la vipere, &c.
Florence, 1781, n. Tom. 4to.

KEPTILIA. 259

of Dendroaspis (Hamadryas) and of some other Indian snakes red-
dens litmus paper slightly *. The same fact is noticed by HARLAN
with regard to Crotalus3. In common with other animal poisons
and contagious matters a very small quantity is sufficient to produce
the effect. The poison of serpents is innocuous, if introduced into
the digestive passages by swallowing, but shews its natural action
when, by a wound or by being introduced into a vein, it enters the
current of the blood. The bite of all venomous serpents is not
equally dangerous to man; of some the effect is extraordinarily
rapid; death mostly occurs after violent spasms and other nervous
symptoms, and the body quickly becomes decomposed.

Family V. Viper ina. Upper jaw with a single large perfo-
rate tooth on each side. Head cordate or trigonal, broader than
trunk.

Crotalus L. Pit between the nostrils and eyes on each side.
Trunk and tail scaly above, scutate below, with all or most of the
subcaudal scutes simple (unpaired). Rattle composed of horny
rings, different in number, at the end of tail.

Rattlesnake, Klapperschlange, Serpent a sonnettes, &c. The rattle consists
of horny pieces varying in number with the age of the individual. The
last (3 — 8) vertebrae of the animal coalesce to form a terminal bone of
a compressed conical form. This is covered by muscle and skin. The skin
is here thick and spongy, and has the general conical form of the bone
below it, but has also two deep annular grooves which divide it into three
transverse swellings, decreasing in size from before backward. This skin
secretes the pieces of the rattle in succession. In adult animals the rattle
may consist of 20 — 30 hollow horny joints. The joints decrease in size
from the base to the extremity of the rattle, each joint the farthest succes-
sively from the end having been secreted at a period when the secreting
surface was larger. The pieces hang loosely but securely together, the
basal ring of one joint grasping the projecting second ring of the preceding
joint, and this again inclosing the third ring of the joint next but one pre-
ceding. Since the second rounded annular portion of each joint is thus
securely grasped by the first rounded annular portion of the piece behind
it, and the third by the second, and yet all of them so loosely as to leave
room for motion, it has been supposed that when the uppermost piece has
been completed and a new piece above this is about to be formed, the skin
which is to secrete it is so modified that its first swelling which secreted
the first projection of the former piece assumes that shape and size which

1 CANTOR, Proceedings of Zool. Society, 1838, p. 75.

2 HARLAN, Medical and Physical Researches, p. 501, quoted by CANTOR.

17—2

260 GLASS XV.

are accommodated to the shape and size of the second projection of the new
piece, whilst the second swelling which secreted the second projection of
the piece takes the dimensions suited to the third projection of the future
new piece. It is further supposed that these two swellings are caused to
move from before backward by the development of a new swelling of the
skin suited to the dimensions of the first projection of the new piece which
is to be secreted by it. It will be understood that all that is visible of the
rattle externally is the surface of the basal projections or rings of each
succeeding joint. The first joint alone has vital connexion with the skin
of the animal ; it is caused to vibrate by the muscles of the skin, and its
vibration communicates a quivering motion, accompanied by sound, to the
dry horny pieces behind it. See J. CZERMACK Uber den schallerzeugenden
Apparatvon Crotalus. Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool. viu. 1856, pp. 294 — 301.
Taf. xii.

The species of this genus are all found in America. They are highly
venomous, but dull. The species from South America (from Surinam,
Brasil) has not only the part of the head in front of the eyes covered
with scutes, but also four small scutes above the eyes. This appears to be
the species which may be regarded as Crotalus Durissus L. On the back
are seen rhomboidal spots lighter in the middle. VOSMAER Beschrijv. van
eene Surinaamsche ratelslang, 1768, 4to; MAXIM. Abb. zur Naturgesch.
Brasil. Lief. xi. ; Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI. 32. A large species from
North America has scales between the eyes and brown transverse bands,
Crotalus horridus L., GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 23, fig. 2, Crotalus du-
rissus HOLBR., N. American Herpetology, n. PI. 17. DAUDIN, SCHLEGEL,
and DUMERIL make an opposite use of these Linnean names. — A smaller
species from North America, Crotalus miliarius L., has a more oval head
covered with scutes (one scutum vertebrate and two scuta occipitalia).
HOLBR. 1. 1. Vol. n. PI. 15.

Trigonocephalm OPPEL, Cophias MEEREM. Tail round, with
apex simple, conical; several subcaudal scutes in pairs, with un-
paired interposed. Remaining characters those of the preceding
genus.

a) With head scaly.

Cophias BOIE. (Lachesis BAUD., Craspedocephalus KUHL, Bothrops WAG-
LER, &c.)

Sp. Trigonocephalus crotalinus nob., Crotalus mutus L., SCHLEG., Lachesis
rkombeata MAXIM. Abb. z. Naturg. Bras. Lief. v. SuruTcuTcu (Qurucucu
MARCGR.) ; the tail has at the base first two or three undivided scutes ; to
these succeed the paired scutes ; the extremity of the tail both above and
below is covered with scales, and terminates in a horny point. This serpent
is found in Guiana and Brasil, and is very dangerous ; it attains a length
of 10'.

Trigonocephalus atrox SCHLEG., Coluber atrox L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab.
22, fig. 21 ; Brasil, Surinam; — Trigonocephalus viridis Cuv., Bothrophis

REPTIL1A. 261

riridis FITZ., Trimeresurus viridis LACEP., Ann. du Mus. IV. PI. 56, fig. 2,
Bodroopam BUSSELL, Ind. Swp. PI. 9 ; East Indies, Sunda-islands, New
Holland, &c.

b) With head scutate.

Trigonocephalus BOIE (Tisiphone FITZ., Trigonocephalus FITZ., and Cen-
chris DAUD., FITZ.)

Sp. Trigonocephalus Cenchris SCHL., Cenchris mokeson DAUD., Kept. v. PI. 60,
fig. 25, PI. 70, figs. 3, 4, Trigon. contortrix HOLBEOOK 1. 1. Vol. u. PI. 14,
in North America1; Trigonocephalus rhodostoma REINW., Leiolepis rhodo-
stoma DUM., SCHLEGEL Abbild. PL 19, 49, Java. KUHL saw two work-
men in Buitensorg die in a few minutes after having been bitten by this
serpent.

Vipera DAUD., SCHLEG. Pit between nostrils and eyes none.

Note. — All the species hitherto known are from the eastern
hemisphere.

Vipera DAUD. Subcaudal scutes paired.

a) With head covered above with scales or graniform scutes. Echidna
MEBE. (Vipera LAUEENTI.)

Sp. Vipera Cerastes, Coluber Cerastes L., LACEP. Quadr. ovip. et Serp. II. PI.
i, fig. 2, DAUD. Kept. vi. PI. 74. fig. 2, BEUCE Travels to discover the source
of the Nile, Edinb. 1790, v. PL opposite p. 199, Diet. univ. d'Hist.
nat., Kept. PL 13, fig. 2; lancet-shaped, strongly keeled scales, light
grey-yellow colour; two little horns above the eyes, variable in
their development and sometimes entirely absent ; this serpent, which
occurs in Egypt, was known to the ancients, who make mention of
it in different places. MEEEEM confounds with it a species from
South- Africa, which has some erect scales above the eyes, but is
coloured quite differently, Vipera cornuta DAUD., Vipera lophophrys
Cuv. ; — Vipera ammodytes DAUD., Coluber ammodytes L., Amomii. Acad. I.
p. 506, Tab. 17, fig. '2, DAUD. Kept. vi. PL 74, fig. i, STUEM Fauna, Am-
phib. Heft 2 ; at the point of the head a conical, erect and scaly tubercle ;
this species occurs in the south and especially the south-east of Europe. —
Vipera aspis SCHL. Coluber Aspis L., Vipera berus Cuv., GUEEIN Iconogr.,
Kept. PL 23, fig. i ; France, Italy, &c. To this species the observations
and experiments of CHAEAS refer, Nouvelles Experiences sur la Vipere.
Paris, 1669, 8vo.

b) With head covered above with small scutes. Pelias MEEE. (Coluber
LAUE.)

Sp. Vipera berus DAUD., Coluber Berus L. (and Chersea L.), Vipera cher-
sea Cuv., LAUEENTI Synops. Rept. Tab. n. fig. r, Coluber chersea STURM,

1 Toxicophis leucostoma TEOOST, described in Ann. of the Lyceum of Nat. Hist, of
New York, in. 1825, p. 174, known to me only from an extract in OKEN'S Isis 1844.
s. 113, 114; is referred by DUMBEIL to Trigonocephalus piscivorus.

262 CLASS xv.

Faun., Amphib. Heft 3, BELL Brit. Kept. p. 61, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
JKept. PI. 3r, fig. i, VAN LIER Verhandel. over de slangen en adders van het
landschap Drenthe, Amsterdam, 1781, 4to, PI. n. bl. 84 and foil. ; adder,
viper, Vipdre commune, Natter &c. In many countries of Europe, in Sweden,
Russia, Germany, England, north of France, Lornbardy, &c. The number
of unpaired abdominal scutes is about 140, and of the caudal scutes there
are 40 — 43 pairs. The bite of this species is but seldom fatal to man, and
VAN LIER states that, after all his inquiries, he has not been able to find
a single example in the district Drenthe of death having followed the bite
of a viper. BELL gives the same as the result of his investigations in
England ; the viper of the south of Europe, recorded above, Vipera aspis,
appears to be more dangerous. Vipera prester, Coluber prester~L. is generally
considered to be a variety of Vipera berus; it is quite black; it is the
Coluber Vipera anglorum LAURENTI 1. 1. Tab. iv. fig. i ; STEENSTRDP regards
it as a distinct species ; KRONER'S TidsJcrift, n. 1839, pp. 544, 545-

Echis MERR., DUM. and BIBR., Scytale DAUD. Subcaudal scutes
unpaired. Head scaly.

Sp. Vipera echis SCHLEG., Scytale bizonatus DAUD., Echis carinata MERR.
( Vipera pyramidum, Descr. de VEgypte), Echis pavo REUSS, DAUD. He.pt. v.
PI. 70, fig. i, copied from RUSSELL; — Echis frenata DUM. and BIBR.,
Echis arenicola and Echis varia REUSS, Mus. Senkenb. I. Tab. vii. fig. i ;
species from North Africa and the continent of the East Indies.

Acanthophis DAUD., WAGL., Ophryas MERR. Tail with several
unpaired scutes below, towards the extremity covered with scales,
with apex aculeate. Head scutate; superciliary scute erect, pro-
minent.

.. '• "'. • •••• .' . :

Sp. Vipera palpebrosa nob., Acanthophis cerastinus DAUD., DUM. and BIBR.,
Ophryas Acanthophis MERR., MERREM Bietrage, n. Tab. 3, GUERIN Iconogr.,
Kept. PI. 24, fig. -2 ; in New HoUand.

Family VI. Elapina. Upper jaw with a large grooved tooth
and some other smaller and solid placed "behind it. Head scutate,
differing in breadth from the trunk slightly or not at all. Tail j
round, short, often conical or fusiform.

Sepedon Merrem (Species of Naja BOIE, SCHLEG.). Teeth in
upper jaw none except the poison-tooth. Head short, coni-
cal. Loral scute none1. Scales carinate. Tail below covered with
paired scutes.

1 For the explanation of the terminology of the scutes of the head employed by
MERREM, and of which we here and elsewhere make use, see PI. XX. figs. 5, 6, 7, of
this volume.

EEPTILIA. 263

Sp. Sepedon hcemachates MERR., FITZ., DUM. and BIBR., SEBA Thesaur. 11.
Tab. 58, figs, i — 3, LAC. Quadrup. ovip. et Serp. II. PI. 3, fig. i; habitat
Cape of Good Hope.

Naja LAUR. Head flat above, with eyes lateral. Posterior
ocular scutes three. Frenal scutes none. Anterior part of trunk
behind the head expansible into an oval depressed disc. Scales
smooth. Subcaudal scutes paired.

All the species of this genus are from the eastern hemisphere. They
have, without exception, smooth scales, which are very large and lancet-
shaped. That this genus belongs to the present division was, as I suppose,
first shewn by SCHLEGEL ; I find, besides the poison-tooth, only a single
small tooth in the cranium examined by me, at some distance from it at the
posterior extremity of the short upper jaw-bone. The anterior ribs (about
20 pairs) lie flat, i. e. they do not bend downwards, and increase in length
to the tenth or eleventh pair, after which they become gradually shorter.
When these ribs are drawn forwards an oval expansion is caused,
surpassing the head in breadth, which characterises most of the species of
this genus, but not all in an equal degree1. The name of spectacle- snake,
serpent a lunettes, is borrowed from two eye-like spots on the disciform
expansion of the back, which are connected by a black streak curved
forwards, a mark, however, which occurs only in one species. This is Naja
tripudians MERR., Coluber Naja L., Aspis Naja WAGL., LINN. Mus. AdolpTi.
Frid. Tab. 21, fig. i, SEBA TJies. n. Tab. 90, fig. 2, (and less good in dif-
ferent figures of that great work), Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI. 34; in
Bengal. — Naja haje MERR., Coluber Haje L., Urceus Haje WAGL. ; in
Egypt ; brownish, head of a lighter colour with a dark ring round the eye,
which at the margin of the upper jaw terminates in a small spot. On
this species the so-called serpent-charmers in Egypt, as on the preceding
in India, exercise their art. The KoperTcapel (Cobra di Capello) of the
Dutch Colonists is a variety of the same species.

Caucus WAGL., DUM. and BIBR. (Species of Naja BOIE,
SCHLEG.) Teeth in upper jaw besides the poison-tooth none.
Frenal scute small. Dorsal scales subcarinate. Kemaining cha-
racters almost those of the preceding genus.

Sp. Causus rkombeatus WAGL. ; Vipera V nigrum Cuv., Sepedon rhombeatus
LICHTENST., SCHLEGEL Phys. d. Serp. PL 17, figs. 12, 13 (head); coast of
Guinea, Cape of Good Hope.

Dendroaspis FiTZ. (Trimeresurus DUM., BlBR., add Alecto
eorumd.) Some small solid teeth in upper jaw behind the poison-
tooth. Posterior ocular scutes two or three ; frenal scute none.

1 Compare HOME Philos. Transact, for 1804, pp. 346 and foil.

264 CLASS xv.

Scales smooth. Tail below covered with undivided scutes, or
partly with paired, partly with undivided scutes,

Sp. Dendroaspis ophiophagus, Hamadryas ophiophagus CANTOR, Proceedings
of Zool. Soc. 1838, p. 73, Naja Bungarus (and Naja Elaps according to
DUMER.) SCHLEG. Verh. over de natuurk. Gesch. der nederl. overzeesche
bezittingen, Rept. PL 10; Java, Sumatra; — Dendroaspis porphyriaca, Naja
porphyrica SCHL., Phys. d. Serp. PL 17, fig. 9, (head), A canthophis tortor
LESS., GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 24, fig. i ; New South Wales.

Dendroechis FisCH., Dendroaspis SCHLEG. (not FITZ.) Head
flat above, scutate, elongate. Some small solid teeth in upper jaw
behind the poison-tooth. Posterior ocular scutella four. Frenal
scute none ; with frontal scutes at the sides of the head behind the
nasal scute produced on each side to the marginal scutes of upper
lip. Scales large, smooth, thin, in the middle of back larger.
Scales at the sides of abdominal scutes smaller, lanceolate, imbri-
cate, with apex acuminate, horny.

Sp. Dendroechis Jamesonii, Elaps Jamesonii TRAILL, Dinophis Hammondii
HALLO WELL, Journal of A cad. of not. Sc. Philad. Sec. Series, n. 1854,
PL 29, T. G. FISCHER Abkandl. der naturhist. Vereins zu Hamburg, in.
1856, Tab. i • from the west coast of Africa. This snake grows to a
length of 5 or 6 feet, and has a slender elongated form ; lives on trees,
and represents Dendroaspis in the Naja-tribe. Dr SCHLEGEL has given a
short notice of this species in Verslag der werTczaamheden van het Zoologisch
Genootschap te Amsterdam. March, 1848.

Elaps SCHN., MERE. (excl. some species). Head small, flat
above, scutate. Eyes small. Gape of mouth narrow; upper jaw
gibbous, obtuse, protracted beyond lower. Body slender, round.
Subcaudal scutes paired.

Sp. Elaps lemniscatus MERR., Coluber lemniscatus L., Mus. Ad. Frider. Tab.
xiv. fig. i, SEBA Thesaur. n. Tab. 76, fig. 3, (and other places), Surinam ; —
Elaps corallinus MERR., Cuv. R.Ani., £d. ill., Rept. PL 35. fig. i, MAXIM.
Abb. z. Naturg. von Bras., Lief. vi. Brasil. Species are also found in the
East Indies, Africa and New Holland. They are mostly black snakes,
ringed with white and red. See also SCHLEGEL Abb. neuer Amphib. Taf.
46, 47. A South- African species is Elaps Hygecs MERR., Coluber lacteus L.
Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 13, fig. i, MERREM Beitrdge, i. Tab. vi. Another
South- African species was placed by SCHLEGEL in the genus Naja, Elaps
lubricus MERREM, Bdtr. i. PL 2. This species is the type of the sub-
genus Aspidelaps FITZ.

In these species and many others, according to DUMBRIL and BIBRON,
there are no teeth in the superior maxillary bones except the grooved
poison-fangs. There are other species with several small solid teeth
following the fangs ; DUMERIL and BIBRON have founded on these a separate

RBPTILIA. 265

genus Pseudelaps (Aspidomorphus FITZING.). Here also several small
snakes of Australia seem to find their place. They shew some resemblance
to Calamaria, in which genus SCHLEGEL placed the only one known to him
(Calamaria diadema}. With DDMERIL and BIBEON these species form the
genus Furina.

Bungarus DAUD., MERR., DUM. and BIBR., Aspidodonion
WAGL. Head scutate above, obtuse. Several small teeth behind
the poison-fang in upper jaw. Subcaudal scutes all unpaired.
Larger hexagonal scales, in a single row in keel of back.

Sp. Bungarus Candidas mihi, Bungarus semifasciatus KUHL, SCHLEG., Coluber
candidus L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. vn. fig. i, Bungarus cceruleus DAUD.,
DUM., BIBR., RUSSELL Serp. i. fig. i ; according to DUMERIL and BIBRON
a distinct species ; — Bungarus annularis DAUD., RUSSELL, PI. in., DAUD.
Rept. v. PI. 65 ; compare also SCHLEGEL, Abbild., Tab. 18 ; both from the
continent and the large islands of the East Indies.

Note. — Here would seem to belong Megcerophis, a genus indi-
cated by GRAY, Annals of Nat. Hist. Second Series, iv. 1849, p. 247.

Family VII. Hydrophes. Head scutate, small. Several
small slender teeth in upper jaw behind the poison-fang. Body
round, elongate, slender anteriorly, gradually becoming thicker
and terminating in tail, compressed, broad, two-edged. Scales
hexagonal, often scarcely imbricate, covering body as though
with a net.

Water-snakes. Some species occur occasionally at the mouth of
rivers, others live in the open sea, where they are often met with
far from all land; they swim together in large troops, and are very
venomous. ^ELIANUS has very distinctly indicated these serpents
as inhabitants of the Indian sea, with a flat tail, and many teeth in
their mouth. De Natura Animal., Lib. xvi. c. 8.

Compare CANTOR Observations upon pelagic Serpents, Trans, of Zool.
Soc. n. 1839, PP- 3°3 — 3J3> P1- & and T- G- FISHER Die Familie der
See-schlangen systematisch beschrieben. Abhandl. herausgegeb. von dem
naturJiist. Verein in Hamburg, in. 1856, pp. i — 78, Tab. i — in.

Platurus LATR., DAUD., FITZ. (and Aipysurus LAC., DUM.,
BIER). Abdomen scutate; subcaudal scutes in a double row.
Scales smooth.

Sp. Platurus colubrinus nob., Platurus fasciatus LATR., Coluber laticaudatus
L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. xvi, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill, Kept. PI. 36 ; in
the Indian Ocean. — Aipysurus Icevis LAC., Thalassophis anguillceformis
SCHMIDT, Ann. du Mus. iv. PI. 56, fig. 8, (a distinct species).

266 CLASS xv.

HydropMs DAUD., Enhydris MERR. Scales carinate with
a tubercle in the middle, hexagonal. In the keel of abdomen a
row of larger scales biturberculate, sometimes irregular and di-
vided throughout.

Sp. Hydrophis doliatus, Disteira dollata LAC. Ann. du Mus. IV. PL 57, fig. 2 ;
— Hydrophis gracilis SCHL., Hydrophis fasciatus GUERIN, Iconogr., Rept.
PL 25, fig. i, RUSSELL Serp. i. PL 44, CANTOR 1. 1. PL 56. — Hydrophis
striatus SCHLEG. Faun. Japon., Serp. PL 7, &C.1

Acalyptus DUM. BIBR. Head scaly posteriorly, with occipital
scute none. Scales imbricate.

Sp. Acalyptus superciliosus DUM., BIBR. ; from PisROx's Voyage, considered
by SCHLEGEL as a variety of Hydrophis palamidoides.

Pelamys DAUD. Abdomen and tail covered below with small
hexagonal scales, tuberculate in the middle. Abdomen compressed
below, with acute margin between two rows of scales.

Sp. Pelamys bicolor DAUD., Hydrophis Pelamis SCHLEG., RUSSELL Serp. i.
PL 41, VOSMAER Beschrijv'mg van de bruinrug-platstaart-slang , 1774, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PL 36 bis, fig. i ; in the Indian Sea and South
Pacific ; the most common species of this family.

tf Innocuous serpents.

A. With last 'tooth of upper jaw larger than the rest, sulcated.

Family VIII. Asineophes s. Glyphodontes (Opisthoglyptes
DUM. and BIBR.) Head scutate. Subcaudal scutes almost always
in pairs.

Dipsas LAUR. Head flat above, broader than trunk, triangular,
obtuse anteriorly. Eyes large. Body compressed. Tail acumi-
nate, long. Mostly a row of larger hexangular scales in the keel
of back.

Sub-genera: Telescopus WAGL., DUM., BIBE., Rhinobothryum
WAGL., DUM., BIBR., Himantodes DUM., BIBR., Triglyphodon DUM.,
BIBR, (Cephalophis FITZ.), Anholodon DUM., BIBR., Heterurus DUM.,
BIBR.

Sp. Dipsas Nattereri SCHLEG., (Di-yophylax), Coluber Nattereri MIKAN., MAX.
Pr. v. WIED, All., Liefer, xiv.;— Dipaa* Cynodon Cuv., Opetiodon Cyno-

1 Hydrophis palamidoides SCHLEG. belongs to this genus, and not to Pelamys.
Here also is to be placed Hydrophis schizopholis SCHMIDT; Abhand. herausgegeben von
dem naturwissensch. Verein in Hamburg, I. 1846, Taf. xv. (afterwards raised into a new
genus by FISCHER 1. 1. p. 37, under the name of Astrotia).

REPTILIA. 267

don DUM., BIBR., GUERIN Iconogr., Kept. PL 2 i, fig. 2 ; this species from
the Sunda Islands attains a considerable size (7' or 8'); there is an oblique
black stripe behind the eye.

Dryophis DALMAN, BOIE, Dryinus MERE. Head narrowed,
triangular, elongate, excavated at the sides in front of eyes, flat
above. Upper jaw protracted beyond lower. Scales narrow,
lanceolate. Body slender ; tail often longer than half the trunk,
thin, acuminate.

a) With scales carinate. Dryophis WAGL. (Xiphorhynchus WAGL.,
DUM., BIBR.)

Sp. Dryophis fulgidus WAGL., Coluber mycterizans L. (in part), Dryophis
Catesbyi SCHLEG. Abb. Tab. 36; in the southern part of North America
and in Surinam; — Dryophis Langaha SCHLEG. (Xiphorhina FITZ.), Langaha
madagascariensis, BRUG. Journal de Physique, 1781, Fevrier, LACEP.
Quadrup. ov. et Serp. n. PL 22, fig. i, SCHLEG. Abb. Tab. 7, figs. 7 — n ;
Madagascar ; this species is grey-brown, and has at the head forwards a
long, pointed and scaly appendage.

b) With scales smooth. Tragops WAGL., DUM., BIBR. (and Dryinus
DUM., BIBR., Oxybelis WAGL., DUM., BIBR.)

Sp. Dryophis nasutus BOIE, LACEP. 11. PI. 4, fig. 2, EUSSELL Serp. I. PI. 12,
GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 2-2, fig. 2; found on the continent of India,
as also in the Indian Archipelago ; this species is bright green, with a yellow
stripe on each side along the belly. The pupil is a transverse fissure, as in
Dryophis prasinus REINW., SCHLEG. Abb. Tab. vm. figs, i — 6, a very com-
mon species in the same countries. All these snakes live on trees.

Psammophis BOIE, FITZ. Head narrow, towards the apex
rotundato-acuminate. Anterior lower teeth longer. Eyes large,
covered by the exsert margin of superciliary scute ; pupil round.
Body elongate, with scales lanceolate or elongato-hexangular,
mostly smooth. Tail longer than half the trunk, covered below
with scutes in pairs.

a) With middle teeth in upper jaw longer.

Sp. Psammophis sibilans nob., Coluber sibilans L., Coluber moniliger LACEP.
Quadr. ovip. et Serp. n. PL 12, fig. i; in almost the whole of Africa, in
Egypt, on the coast of Guinea, and even as far as the Cape of Good Hope,
from whence it was described and figured by MERREM, Beitr. I. Taf. 3,
under the name of Coluber crucifer; DUMERIL and BIBRON, however,
believe this to be a distinct species.

b) With teeth in upper jaw equal, except the last, which is grooved. (Codo-
peltis WAGL., DUM. and BIBR.)

268 CLASS xv.

Sp. Psammophis lacertinus SCHLEG., Coslopeltis lacertina WAGL., Rhabdodon
fuscus F. L. FLEISCHMANN, Dalmatice nova serpentium genera. Erlangae,
1831, 4to, Tab. [11. ; this snake is found in the south of Europe and the
North of Africa ; the scales are grooved in the middle ; this species attains
a length of more than 4'.

Bucephalus SMITH, DUM., BIBR.

Sp. Bucephalus typus SMITH, Dendrophis colubrina SCHLEG., Dispholidus
Lalandii DUVERNOY, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PL 29; Cape of Good
Hope, Boomslang of the Dutch Colonists.

Note. — Here also is the place for some new genera of DUM., BIBR.
Hemiodontus, Chorisodon, and Tomodon.

Tarbophis FLEISCHMANN, DUMER., Ailurophis FlTZ., BONAP.
Head small, distinct from trunk. Frenal scute produced to eye.
Eyes moderate, with pupil vertical, narrow. Anterior lower teeth

longer. Tail short, covered below with scutes in pairs.

^

Sp. Tarbophis fallax FLEISCHM., Dipsas fallax SCHLEG., Ailurophis vivax
FITZ., FLEISCHMANN 1. 1. Tab. i. BONAP. Faun. Jtal. Amfibi., Tab. 68; in
the south-eastern part of Europe ; it attains a length of about 2'.

LycognatJius DUM., BIBR.

Sp. Lycognaihus scolopax DUM. and BIBB., Lycodon audax BOIE, SCHL.,
Sibophis audax FITZ., Coluber audax DAUD. Rept. vi. PI. 19, South
America.

Homalopsis KUHL, FITZ. Head elliptic, depressed anteriorly,
with small scutes ; sometimes scales in place of occipital scutes.
Eyes small, superior. Nostrils horizontal, small, situated towards
the apex of snout. Trunk cylindrical, thick, covered below with
short scutes. Tail thin, much shorter than trunk.

Sp. Homalopsis buccatus KUHL, Coluber buccatus'L., SEE A Thesaur. 11. Tab. 12,
fig. i, Tab. 21, fig. 3, LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 19, fig. 3, MERR. Beijtr.
II. Tab. 10, Java; — Homalopsis Schneideri SCHLEG., Coluber Schneiderianus
DAUD., Cerberus Russellii Cuv., Cerberus boaformis DUM., BIBR., SEBA
Thesaur. II. Tab. 15, fig. 3 ; East Indies, New Guinea. These serpents
reside in lakes and rivers ; they live mostly on fish.

Note.— Here belong the sub-genera: ffypsirhina WAGL., (Homalopsis A er
SCHL.), EuroslusDuM., BIBR., Trigonurus DUM., BIBR., Campylodon DUM.,
BIBR., Cerberus Cuv.

Herpeton LAC., Rhinopirus MERR. Two scaly appendages in
front of nostrils. Abdominal scutes minute, bicarinate. Tail scaly
below.

REPTILIA. 269

Sp. Homalopsis herpeton SCHLEG., Herpeton tentaculatiim LAC. Ann. du, Mus.
n. PI. 50, GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. -20. fig. 3, SCHLEGEL Alb. Tab. 16.

Erythrolamprus F. BOIE, WAGL. (Species of Coronella SCHL.)
Head narrow, not distinct from trunk, with snout obtuse, short.
Eyes moderate, with anterior ocular scute single, posterior ocular
scutes two. Teeth small, numerous, equal, except the posterior
upper tooth. Scales smooth. Tail short, acuminate at the ex-
tremity.

Sp. Erythrolamprus agilis WAGL., Coluber agilis (and Coluber JEsculapii) L.,
Mus. Ad. Frid. PI. ii. fig. 2, PI. ai, fig. i, SEBA Thes. n. Tab. 18, fig. 4,
MERREM Beytr. I. Tab. v. Surinam. — Erythrolamprus venustissimus WAGL.,
Coluber venustissimus MAXIM. Pr. v. WIED, Lief. I. Tab. vi. and Lief. vn.
Tab. i, var. ; Brasil. Bright coloured snakes, with white, black and red
rings, marked almost like the Elaps corallinus (see above, p. 264), which
lives in the same countries, with which it may be easily confounded on
superficial examination, but may at once be distinguished by the much
larger eyes.

Note. — To this division also are to be referred Elapomorphus
WIEG., DUM., BIBR., Homalocranion and Stenorhina DUM., BIBR.
— Scytale BOIE, DUM., BIBR. ; and some other genera of those authors
comprehend species with nearly equal teeth, and are placed by
SCHLEGEL chiefly in his comprehensive genus Lycodon (Dun. and
BIBR. VIL 2, p. 988 — 1046). It requires further investigation to
determine whether Scytale coronata MERR., MAXIM. Prinz zu WIED,
Abb. Lief. vn. (with undivided subcaudal plates) be really distinct
from Coluber Clelia DAUD., which is placed in a distinct genus,
Deiropeda FITZINGER, Brachyruton DUM., BIBR., although SCHLEGEL
considers both as varieties of the same species.

B. Without any sulcated tooth (Stereodontes s. Aglyphodontes
DUM., BIBR.)

Family IX. Colubrina. Spurs (rudiments of posterior ex-
tremities) none. Head scutate. Tail covered below with paired
scutes.

LINNAEUS united all the serpents that have divided scutes, as
they are called, on the under surface of the tail, or better two
rows of scutes, in a single genus which he named Coluber. After
the poisonous serpents ( Viper a, Naja, Elaps, &c.) and those which
have a grooved posterior tooth in the upper jaw have been sepa-
rated from them, there still remain very many species which

270 CLASS XV.

CUVIER left together in a single large genus, Coluber. The Pythons,
large serpents from the Eastern Hemisphere, which correspond to
the Boas, it was thought right, notwithstanding the divided caudal
scutes, to place in the neighbourhood of these last. LINNJEUS was
acquainted with only one species of the former, which he had seen
in the cabinet of DE GEER, (Coluber molurus1). In this way a
large genus or natural family remained, in which modern writers,
especially BoiE2, and afterwards WAGLER, FITZINGER, DUMERIL and
BIBRON, adopted many more genera, which they distinguished by the
form of the head, by the size of the teeth, &c. We shall not record
all these genera, but only those which appear to be most natural,
and are distinguished in some other respects, as by their peculiar
interest or the number of their species.

Xenodon BOIE, FITZ. (add. Liophis WAGL.). Head flat, broad.
Gape of mouth ample ; upper jaw with apex rounded, obtuse,
emarginate, mostly longer than lower. Last tooth or two last of
upper jaws longer than the rest, compressed, ensiform. Eyes
moderate. Trunk thick, round, or with back carinate and abdomen
compressed. Scales smooth.

Sp. Xenodon severus BOIE, Coluber severus L., SEBA Thesaur. n. Tab. 24,
fig. i, LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 8, fig. i, Brasil, Surinam; — Xenodon
Merremii mini, Coronella Merremii SCHLEG., Liophis WAGL., MAXIM. Pr. z.
WIED, Abbild. Liefer, vm. &c.

Heterodon BEAUV., LATR. Rostral scute porrect, erect. Head
short, flat. Circle of numerous quadrangular scutes surrounding
the eye. Maxillary teeth small, subulate, recurved ; posterior upper
larger ; row of palatine teeth produced almost to the extremity of
the external pterygoid bones. Scales carinate. Tail short.

Sp. Heterodon simus HOLBR., Coluber simus L., CATESBY Carol, n. Tab. 56,
HOLBROOK N. Amer. Herpetol. i. PI. 26, Cuv. R. Ani., e"d. ill., Rept.
PI. 27, fig. 2; — Heterodon platyrhinos HOLBR., Coluber heterodon BAUD.
Rept. PI. 60, fig. 28, (fig. of head), HOLBR. 1. 1. u. PI. 21 ; — Heterodon niger
TROOST, CATESBY, n. PL 44, HOLE. n. PI. 23. This last species is Pelias

1 Syst. not. i ed. 12, p. 387, " SimilUmus Boce, sed scuta et squamce capitu majores,
ut in Colubris."

2 H. BOIE in the unpublished Erp6tologie de Java, of which his brother F. BOIE
communicated an extract in OKEN'S Isis, 1827, s. 508—566.

REPTILIA. 271

niger MERE., and has been confounded with TrigonocepTialus or Cenchris
Mokeson. Usually the first two species are regarded as varieties, but HOL-
BROOK considers that they ought to be distinguished as species.

HeUcops WAGL. (in part), DUM., BIBR. Head scarcely broader
than trunk, covered with small scutes, with anterior frontal scute
unpaired. Eyes placed at the anterior and upper part of head.
Nostrils perforated in the nasal scute towards its upper part. Two
last upper maxillary teeth rather more remote from the rest, larger.
Scales carinate. Tail moderate.

Sp. HeUcops carinicaudus WAGL., Homalopsis carinicauda SCHL., Coluber
carinicauda MAXIM. Pr. v. WIED, Abb. zur Naturgesch. Brasil. Lief. xi. ; —
HeUcops angulatus WAGL., Homalopsis angulatus BOIE, SCHLEG. Species
from South America, analogous to Homalopsis, but without a groove on the
large hinder tooth of the upper jaw.

Tropidonotus KUHL, WAGL. Head distinct from trunk, ovato-
oblong. Gape of mouth ample. Some posterior teeth in upper
jaw longer than the rest, which are moderate, equal. Posterior
ocular scutella mostly three. Scales all or the most carinate.

These serpents deserve in the proper sense the name of Amphibia, and
many seem to prefer a residence in water to that on land. They live on
fishes, frogs, &c. Species of this form are found in the temperate and warm
countries of the ancient world and in North America.

Sp. Tropidonotus torquatus mihi, Coluber Natrix L., VAN LIER 1. 1. Tab. I.
STURM Deutschl. Fauna, Amphib. Heft in. ; the ringed snake, la Couleuvre
a collier, die Ringelnatter, &c. ; the tail forms nearly one-fifth of the whole
length, and has commonly between 48 and 68 pairs of scutes; the
abdominal scutes are about 1 70 ; there is a whitish-yellow collar behind the
head ; the back is greyish-green, the belly white, with black spots. There
are however many varieties of colour in this species ; sometimes it is almost
quite black. The ringed snake attains a length of 3' ; it pairs in June and
July, and lays its eggs, about 30 in number, in the autumn, on dunghills
and in sheepfolds ; it hides underground in winter, in mole-runs, &c. This
species is found in almost all the countries of Europe. — Tropidonotus
vittatus, Coluber vittatus L., Mus. Ad. Prid. Tab. 18, fig. 2; BECHST.
Naturgesch. d. Amphib. IV. Taf. 10; at Java, &c.

Note. — In some species there is a space without teeth in the upper jaw in
front of the two or three larger ones. Such are placed by DUMERIL and
BIBRON in a separate Genus Amphiesma, Sp. Tropidonotus stolatus, Coluber
stolatus L. ; and some others ; all belonging to the East Indies and the
oriental parts of Asia.

Racliiodon JoiJRDAN, Deirodon OWEN. Teeth small, few in
the posterior part of jaws; palatine few, very small. Inferior

272 CLASS xv.

-.

spinous processes of some of the anterior vertebras produced
into the oesophagus, directed forwards, acute, supplying the office
of teeth. Posterior ocular scutes two; frenal scute none. Scales
lanceolate, carinate. Tail short.

Sp. Rachiodon scdber JOUEDAN, Coluber scaber L. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. x.
fig. i, MERR. Beitr. I. Tab. 9, (REINHARDT has given a figure of the
Cranium, Danske Vidensk. Selsk. naturvidensk. og math. Afhandl. x.
1843, Tab. I. fig. 24); comp. p. 207, note. This species is from South
Africa. LINNAEUS described it as edentulous ; such was also the opinion of
Dr A. SMITH, who named this genus Anodon. This snake lives upon birds'
eggs ; these, "from the almost edentulous state of the jaws, glide along the
mouth nearly unbroken, and it is not until they have reached the gullet
and the mouth is closed and prevents the escape of the nutritious matter
that the shell is exposed to instruments adapted to its perforation. The
shell having been sawed open longitudinally by the vertebral teeth, the
eggs are crushed by the contraction of the gullet and carried to the
stomach." Comp. OWEN Odontography, pp. 220, 221. DUMERIL and
BIBRON describe another species of this genus, Rachiodon abyssinus, Herpet.
PI. 81.

Lycodon Bo-IE, FITZ. Head depressed, narrowed in front of
eyes, with snout obtuse. Anterior teeth -in both jaws longer than
the rest.

Sp. Lycodon Hebe BOIE, Coluber Hebe BAUD, (and Coluber aulicus KUSSELL,
I. Tab. 21, LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 12, fig. 2; East Indies).

Note. — Some species have the scutella of the abdominal surface of
the tail in a single row (subcaudal scutes undivided). Such is Ly-
codon lineatus KEINH. 1. 1. Tab. i. fig. 1—9. DUMERIL and BIBRON
form from these species the genera Cyclocorus and Cercaspis.

Herpetrodryas BoiE, ScHLEG., Herpetodrys WAGL. Head
narrow, elongate, rounded towards the apex. Teeth equal, or
posterior superior, larger, but not separated from the rest. Eyes
large, pupil round. Posterior ocular scutes two, more rarely
three. Body compressed. Tail slender, elongate.

Sp. Herpetodryas carinata SCHLEG., Coluber carinatus L. (and Coluber fuscus
ejusd.), LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 17, fig. i, MERREM Beytr. i. Tab. x.
MAXIM. Pr. v. WIED, Abb. Liefer. VIII. ; in Brasil and Surinam; whilst in
all other species of snakes an unpaired row of scales lies on the back, there
are in this species two rows of scales in the middle. Herpetodryas lineata
SCHLEG., Lygophris lineatus FITZ., Coluber lineatus L. Mus. Ad. Frid.
Tab. 12, fig. T, Tab. 20, fig. i, SEBA Thesaur. n. Tab. 12, fig. 3; from
Surinam, &c.

EEPTILIA. 273

This species and some others having the posterior teeth of the upper jaw
longer are placed by DUMERIL and BIBRON in a separate genus named
Dromicus. These authors place also Herpetodryas Helena SCHLEG.,
KUSSELL Serp. I. PL 32, in a separate genus Plagiodon, because the teeth
of the upper jaw and the palatine teeth are incumbent, with their points
directed to the middle (denies recumbentes, introrsum directi).

Dendrophis BOIE, SCHLEG. (in part), DUM. BIBK. (add.
Leptophu BELL, BUM. BIBR.). Teeth numerous, superior maxillary-
teeth in a continuous row, equal, or the last larger. Head elongate,
narrowed anteriorly, truncate. Eyes large, somewhat prominent.
Anterior ocular scute single, posterior two. Nostrils perforated
between the two nasal scutes. Body long, slender, angulate below,
covered with narrow scales above. Tail slender, very long.

Sp. Dendrophis liocercus SCHL., Coluber Ahcetutta L., Leptophis AJicetulla
BELL, LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. xxn. fig. 3, LAC. Quadr. ovip. et Serp.
n. PL u, fig. i, MAX. Pr. v. WIED, Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras. Lief. xiv. ;
brown or green above with a metallic lustre ; scales carinated, no frenal
scute (scutum loreum), which exists in all the other species hitherto known,
narrow and elongate. The species where the teeth in the upper jaw are all
of the same size, and where the median line of the back is covered with a
row of longer, hexagonal scales, compose the genus Dendrophis in a more
strict sense ; Sp. Dendrophis pictus BOIE, SCHLEG., Coluber pictus L. M us.
Ad. Frid. Tab. xvii. fig. 2, LAC. Quadr. ovip. et Serp. n. PL 10, fig. 2,
PL 1 1, fig. 2, from the East Indies, &c.

Coluber L. (exclus. of several species). Head elliptic,
more or less distinct from trunk, in some scarcely distinct. Gape
of mouth moderate. Eyes moderate ; pupil round. Posterior
ocular scutes two. Scales mostly smooth, more rarely carinate.

Coronella LAUR. (in part), Zacholus WAGL., FITZ. Teeth sub-
equal, small, last two upper teeth longer. Nostrils in middle of
nasal scute. Trunk cylindric, nearly equal. Tail short. Scales
very smooth.

Sp. Coluber amtriacus GMEL., Coronella austriaca LAUR., Coronella Icevis
BOIE, LAURENTI Specimen, Tab. v. fig. i, STURM, Deutschl. Fauna,
Amphib. Heft 2 ; in many countries of Europe.

Coluber BOIE, SCHLEG. Teeth equal (Elaphis BONAP., DUM., BIBR)
or gradually increasing in upper jaw towards the hinder (Chorisodon
DUM., BIBR.), continuous, or the larger separated by an interval
(Zamenis DUM., BIBR.). Nostrils perforated in the suture between
the two nasal scutes. Trunk incrassate towards the middle. Tail
moderate.

VOL. ir. 18

274 CLASS xv.

Sp. Coluber JEsculapii LAC., MERB. (not L.), Zamenis JEsculapii WAGL.,
LAO. Quadrup. ovip. et Serp. n. PL 7, fig. 2, STURM. Deutschl. Fauna,
Amphib. Heft 2, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Kept. PL 30, fig. i ; in the South
of Europe; attains a length of more than 4'; — Coluber viridiflavus LAO.,
Coluber atro-virens MERR., Hierophis vvridiflavus FITZ., LAC. Quadr. ovip.
et Serp. n. PL 6, fig. i, Coluber luteostriatus C. G. GMELIN Naturforscher,
VIII. 1 799, Tab. ill. fig. 2 ; a prettily marked species also from the south
of Europe, &c.

Calamaria BOIE. Head small, not distinct from trunk. Gape
of mouth small ; teeth thin, setaceous. Eyes small. Trunk
cjlindric, covered with smooth scales. Tail short.

Sp. Calamaria Linncei BOIE, Coluber calamarius L., Mut. Ad. Frid. Tab. vi.
fig. 3, SCHLEGEL'S Abbild. Tab. 4; in the East Indies.

Here are to be placed the sub-genera Homalostoma WAGLER (Sp. Cala-
maria arctiventris SCHLEG., Coluber lutrix L., Coluber arctiventris MERR.
Beitr. I. Tab. I., a very common little snake from the Cape of Good Hope),
Khdbdosoma DUM., BIBR. (BracJiyorrhos KUHL, BOIE in part), Rhabdion
DUM., BIBB, and Carphophis DUM., BIBB. The species with carinated
scales form the genera Elapoides and Conocephahis of DUMEBIL and BIBBON.
From a species having simple scutes under the tail WAGLER has formed the
genus Aspidura (Calamaria Scytale SCHL.).

Oligodon BOIE. Palatine and pterygoi'd teeth none. Maxillary
teeth conical, the posterior in upper jaw larger.

Sp. Calamaria oligodon SCHL., Oligodon bitorquatus BOIE, RUSSELL Serp. ir.
Tab. 34, SCHLEGEL Abb. Tab. 25. Habitat Java.

Family X. Acrochordina. Spurs none. Head and body
covered every where with small scales rhombic, carinate with
a sharp crest, arranged quincuncially. (Mental groove none.)

Acrochordus HORNSTEDT. Head flat, obtuse at the apex, not
distinct from trunk. Teeth subulate, recurved, in jaws and palate.
Eyes small, distant, often superior, in the anterior part of head.
Longitudinal carinate suture of scales along the middle of belly.
Tail short.

Sp. Achrochordus javanicus HORNST., LAC. Quad. ovip. et Serp. n. PL 22,
fig. 2, (fig. HORNST.), G. I. KNEPPELHOUT Natuurk. Verh. van de HoU.
Maatsch. der Wetensch. te Haarlem, vm. 1817, bl. 234 — 240, PL 3, (a very
good figure) ; this species, which appears sometimes to attain a length
of 8 feet, is found at Java and Borneo, and lives in water and on land.
It was first described by HORNSTEDT, in 1787, in the Vetensk. Acad. nye
Handl. The head is very obtuse in front and the tail conical. The cranium
presents a very long os tympanicum directed backwards, and the under jaw

REPTILIA. 275

extends very far backwards. Acrochordus fasciatus SHAW, SCHL., Hydrus
granulates SCHN., Chersydrus fasciatus Cuv., R. Ani., id. ill., Kept. PL
36 bis, fig. i ; with white transverse bands, which on the back pass into
the brown fundamental colour; the tail is somewhat flattened laterally.
The eyes are very small; the nostrils lie more upwards; the upper jaw
extends beyond the lower with a round margin. This species, smaller than
the preceding, is met with at Java, Celebes, Sumatra and Timor.

Xenodermus REINHARDT. Head distinct from trunk, cordate,
depressed, scutellate on snout and lips, elsewhere scaly. Abdo-
minal and subcaudal scutes undivided. Body furnished above with
minute appressed scales and with a triple longitudinal row of
larger scales, gibbous like tubercles. Lateral scales oval, con-
tiguous, not imbricate.

Sp. Xenodermus javanicus REINHARDT, Danske Videnslc. SelsJcab. Math, og
Naturvid. Afhand. x. Tab. n. figs, i — 8, DOM., BIBB. Erpetol. PL 63.
WIEGMANN, DUMERIL and BIBRON place this genus near A chrochordus, but
REINHARDT believes that there is no true affinity between them. I know
this genus only by the descriptions and figures of REINHARDT and
DUMERIL, and hence it is only with hesitation that I pronounce that this
genus might perhaps be placed in the following Family near Boa and
Python.

Family XI. Pythonina. Spurs or rudiments of posterior
feet (two mobile hooks, one on each side, near the anus). Body
covered above with small scales, below with scutes. Subcaudal
scutes often entire. Teeth subulate, recurved in jaws and palate.

Eryx DAUD. (excl. of some species), OPPEL, MERE. Head
small, covered with granulate scales, anteriorly with a large
rostral scute produced beyond the lower jaw and declivous towards
mouth. Maxillary teeth small ; intermaxillary bone edentulous.
Eyes small, surrounded by a circle of small scales ; pupil oblong,
vertical. Abdominal and subcaudal scutes narrow, in a single
row. Tail very short, conical or obtuse. Jugular groove short,
sometimes none.

Sp. Eryxjaculus DAUD., DUM., Anguis jaculus L., HASSELQ., Boa turcica
OLIVIER, Voyage dans I'Empire Otkoman, &c. PL 16, fig. 2, Cuv., R. Ani.,
&d. ill., Rept. PL 27, fig. i ; Greece, Tartary, Arabia, Egypt. — Eryx conicus
DUM., Boa conica SCHN., Eryx bengalensis GUERIN, Iconogr., Rept. PL 20,
fig. I, RUSSELL Serp. I. PL 4, and two other species also from the eastern
hemisphere. Eryx Johnii RUSSELL, which is the largest of all, has
rhombo'idal scales raised in the middle, and in this somewhat resembles
Acrochordus.

18-2

276 CLASS xv.

.Boa L. Head distinct from trunk, flat above, elongato-
cordate or oblongo-trigonal, obtuse at the apex, covered with
scales or anteriorly with scutes. Eyes moderate. Teeth in
intermaxillary bone none. Subcaudal scutes entire. Tail pre-
hensile.

Sp. Boa constrictor L., SEBA Thesaur. i. Tab. 53, fig. i, MERR. Beitr. n.
Tab. I. Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Kept. PL 26, fig. 3; the head entirely
covered with scales, no pit in the marginal scutes of the upper lip. This
prettily coloured species, of which the name is in general use as that of a
gigantic snake, is, however, by no means the largest species of this family,
and seldom attains a length of more than 10 feet ; it bears on the east coast
of Brasil, according to the Prince MAXIMILIAN VAN WIED, the name
of Jiboya, as does also the Boa cenckria L., MAXIM. Abb. Lief, vi., which
climbs trees and never lives in water ; this species has scutes on the head and
little grooves at the margin of the upper jaw. The largest species, on the
contrary, is Boa murina L., Eunectes marinus WAGL., Boa aquatica MAXIM.
Abb. Lief, n, Boa aboma DAUD. Kept. v. PI. 62, fig. 2, PI. 63, fig. 2, which
attains a length of more than 20' ; it resides much in water, and, besides
fish, lives also on mammals that come to the banks of rivers to drink.
A very beautifully coloured species, blue-green with white bands, has
a compressed body : Boa canina L., (Xiphosoma caninum WAGL.), Mus.
Ad. Frid. Tab. 3, LAO. Quadr. ovip. et Serp. n. PI. 17, fig. i, GUER.
Iconogr., Kept. PL 19, fig. 2. All these species are found in South
America. There are also, however, some species in the eastern hemisphere ;
Boa carinata SCHN., Enygrus carinatus WAGL., from the island Amboyna
and New Guinea, and Enygrus Bibroni DUME"R. from the island Viti or
Fejee, with scales carinate and larger than in the other specias, where they
are usually very small. Also there is a Boa of the division or the
sub-genus Xiphosoma, and another species that lives in water from which
DOMERIL and BIBRON form their genus Pelophilus, which have been
observed on the Island of Madagascar.

Note. — On the divisions of this genus, to which almost 20 species belong,
into numerous sub-genera (Enygrus WAGL., Leptoiboa DUM., BIBR., Tropi-
dophis DUM., BIBR., Eunectes WAGL., &c.) compare DUM., BIBR. Erpetol. vi.
PP-474— 566-

Platygaster DUM. and BIBK., Uroleptis FITZ. Head scutate,
conical, scarcely distinct from body. Scales carinate. Ventral and
subcaudal scutes broad. (Pits at lips none. Habitus of Coluber.)

Sp. Boa pseudo-eryx nob., Platygaster multi carinatus DVM.. and BIBR., Tortrix
pseudo-eryx SCHLEGEL, Abbild. Tab. 34, New Holland.

Python DAUD. (Spec, of Coluber L.) Teeth in intermaxillary
bone four. Head distinct from trunk, elongate, truncate, anteriorly
scutate, posteriorly often scaly. Tail prehensile, with all or most
of the scutes below in pairs. Scales small, smooth.

REPTILIA. 277

a) Pits on each side in the posterior scutes of lower Up, in scutes of upper
lip none.

BotkrochttuA FITZ., Nardoa GRAY, DUM. and BIBR.

Sp. Python Schlegelii, Nardoa Schlegelii GRAY, Tortrix Boa SCHLEG. Abb.
Tab. 13; discovered at New Ireland by LESSON and GARNOT.

b) Pits in scutes of both lips.
Python DAUD.

t With head almost entirely scutate above.

Sub-genus Liasis GRAY, DUM. and BIBR. Sp. Python amethyslinus
DADD., MERR. ; Moluccan Islands, New Ireland.

ft With head anteriorly scutate. (Nostrils in the suture of two nasal
scutes.)

Sub-genus: Python DUM. and BIBR.

Sp. Python molurus GRAY, Coluber molurus L., Python ligris DAUD., LAO.
Quadr. ovip. el Serp. n. PI. 10, fig. i, SEBA Thesaur. I. Tab. 37, fig. 2,
RUSSELL Serp. I. PI. 22, 23, 24, 39; Bengal, Java. This species becomes
20 feet long, as does a species from the coast of Guinea, very similar in
marking and confounded with it, Python Sebce DUM. and BIBR., Coluber
Sebce GMEL. (Python bivittatus KUHL, Python hieroglyphicus MERR.), SEBA
Thesaur. n. Tab. 19, fig. i, 27 fig. i, 99 fig. 2, DUM. and BIBR. Erpetol.
PI. 6 1 ; — Python Schneideri MERR., SCHL., Python reticulatus GRAY, SEBA
Thesaur. II. Tab. 79, fig. i, Tab. 80, fig. i, GUER. Iconogr., Rept. PI. 21,
fig. i ; Sumatra, Java, Borneo, also on the continent of India; this prettily
marked species is more slender than the two preceding, but becomes, like
them, 20 or more feet long.

•f°H* With head short, broad, almost entirely scaly. (Nostrils in single
nasal scute.)

Sub-genus : Morelia GRAY, DUM. and BIBR.

Sp. Python Peronii Cuv., SCHL., Coluber argus L., Seba Thesaur. n. Tab. 103,
fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PL 28, and GRIFFITH and PIDGEON
Reptiles, Animal Kingdom, IX. opposite to p. 331; New Holland. No species
of Python from America is known, where this genus is replaced by Boa.

B. Stenostomi (see above p. 256).

Gape of mouth small. Mastoi'd bone concrete with the other
bones of the skull ; quadrate bone short. Mental groove in some
none, in others short.

Family XII. Cylindrophes s. Tortricina. Head scutate, not
distinct from trunk. Teeth in jaws and palate. Eyes small.

278 CLASS xv.

Trunk cylindric, covered above with smooth, imbricate scales.
Abdominal and subcaudal scutes narrow.

Ilysia HEMPR., FITZ., LICHTENST. (Tortrix OPP., Cuv.,
MERE.). Maxillary teeth conical, thick, curved backwards;
palatine teeth less. Spurs at the vent, contained in a cavity open
by a small foramen on each side near the vent. Abdominal scutes
small, scarcely distinct from scales. Tail very short, below, with
scutes undivided.

Cylindrophis WAGL., DUM. and BIBR. Eyes surrounded by scutes.
Intermaxillary bone edentulous.

Sp. Ilysia maculata LICHTENST., Anguis maculata L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab.
21, fig- 3, GUE"R. Iconogr., Rept. PI. 19, fig. i, Ceylon; Ilysia rufa
LICHTENST., Tortrix rufa MEBB., SEBA Thesaur. n. Tab. 25, fig. i, &c.,
Java, Borneo, Bengal.

Ilysia WAGL., Tortrix DUM. and BIBR. Eyes in the middle of
scute. Intermaxillary bone furnished with teeth.

Ilysia scytale HEMPR., Anguis scytale L., SEBA Thes. n. Tab. 73, fig. 3,
LINN. Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. vi. fig. 2, SCHLEGEL Abbild. Tab. 33, fig. i,
cranium, figs. 2 — 4, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Rept. PI. 8, fig. i ; Surinam,
a very common species in collections.

Note. — That the name Tortrix OPPEL (Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gat-
tungen der Reptilien, Miinchen, 1811, p. 55) should be changed for Ilysia,
is recommended by the more familiar use of the same name in Entomology,
already authorised by LINNAEUS. See above, Vol. I. p. 395.

Xenopeltis REINW. Head depressed, narrowed anteriorly, trun-
cated. A second vertebral scute interposed between the two occipital
scutes resembling large scales. Upper jaw protracted beyond lower.
Teeth setaceous, sharp, numerous, set upon intermaxillary bone,
both jaws and palate-bones (superior maxillary bone thin, styli-
form). Scales flat, broad, hexagonal, subimbricate. Spurs at vent
none. Tail short, conical, covered below by divided scutes.

Sp. Xenopeltis unicolor REINW. (and Xen. leucocephala), Tortrix Xenopeltis
SCHLEG. Abb. Tab. 35, GUER. Iconogr., Rept. PI. 21, fig. 3, (the head).
From the Sunda Isles.

Family XIII. EJiinophes s. Hyperolia. Head scutate, not
distinct from trunk, small, with snout acuminate. Maxillary
teeth ; palatine teeth none. Eyes small, occupying the middle of

REPTILIA. 279

the covering scute. Scales smooth, tetragonal, broader in the
middle abdominal row, resembling scutella. Tail very short,
truncated, with a horny disc descending obliquely from the upper
part, or covered at the apex with carinate scales. Gular groove
none. Rudiments of pelvis none.

This small family, to which also two new genera of DUMERIL and
BIBRON belong, Coloburus and Plectrurus still unknown to me, was
placed by CUVIER with Tortrix, and by SCHLEGEL was referred to
the genus Typhlops. The characteristics of external structure and
the osteological peculiarities have been investigated by J. MUELLER;
see Zeitsch. fur Physiol. von F. TIEDEMANN u. TREVIRANUS, iv. s.
248 — 253. Compare a figure of the same in DUMERIL and BIBR.
Erpet. PL 76. fig. 1.

Uropelta. (Uropeltis Cuv., add Ehinophis HEMPR., Pseudo-
typhlops SCHL.).

Sp. Uropelta ceylonica Cuv. R. Ani. n. 3d. 2, p. 76, PL vn. fig. 2, COCTEAU,
GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1833, Kept. PL 2; — Uropelta Philippine Cuv.,
ETDOUX et GERVAIS in GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1837, Rept. PL 13.

Note. — Coloburus is distinguished by an oblique truncated tail, covered
at the truncation with bicarinate scales.

Family XIV. TypUina (Hopoterodonta DUME*R.). Head not
distinct from trunk, mostly scutate. Mouth small, inferior. Teeth
few, in one or other of jaws (mostly none below). Eyes minute,
covered by scute. Scales very smooth, imbricate, covering body
everywhere. Gular furrow none. Tail very short, conical, mostly
acuminate with a terminal scale resembling a spine. Rudiments of
pelvis, styliform ossicles covered by skin (placed in front of vent).

In these small serpents, resembling earth-worms, the anterior
part of the cranium is broad, expanded like a vesicle in front;
the short under jaw consists of two lateral pieces united in
the middle by an elastic ligament. The upper jaw-bones (or
the bones which MUELLER regards as palate-bones) are short
and armed with a few (at most five) teeth; the under jaw com-
monly has no teeth, but, if it be provided with them, the
teeth are absent in the upper jaw, and the upper jaw-bones are
in that case thin. See J. MUELLER op. tit. s. 241 — 245, Taf. 20,
fig. 10—15, DUM. and BIBR. Erpet. vi. p. 241—249, Atl. PL 75, figs.
1, 2. The head has mostly in front a large scutum rostrale which is
bent downwards, and in many the nostrils are situated on the under

280 CLASS XV.

surface of the snout prolonged above the mouth. Most of the
species are from America, but some others are also met with in the
Indian Archipelago. One species occurs in Greece and in Western
Asia.

Typhlops SCHN., Cuv., MERE., SCHLEGEL.

Note. — Characters of the family. The author of the genus is
J. G. SCHNEIDER, Hist. Amphib. n. 1801, p. 339.

A. With teeth in lower jaw; upper jaw edentulous.

Catodon DUM., BIBR. Head depressed. Eyes subindistinct.
Stenostoma DUM., BIBR. Head round, rotundate. Eyes distinct.

Sp. Typhlops nigricans SCHL., Abb. Tab. 32, figs. 21 — 24; Cape of Good
Hope ; — Typhlops undecim-striatus Cuv., Stenostoma albifrons DUM. ; Bra-
sil, &c.

B. With lower jaw edentulous.
•h With head scaly.

Cephalolepis DUM. and BIBR.
Sp. Typhlops squamosus SCHLEG. Abb. Tab. 32, figs 9 — 12, Cayenne.

ft With head scutate.

a) With nostrils lateral.
Cathetorhinus DUM. and BIBR.
Typhlops DUM. and BIBR.

Sp. Typhlops reticulatus Cuv., GRAY, Anyuis reticulata L., Typhlops lumbri-
calis SCHLEG. Abb. Tab. 32, figs, i — 4; BEETHOLD Neue oder seltene
Amphibienarten, Gottingen, 1842, p. 8, Tab. I. figs, i — 3, Diet. univ.
d'Hist. not., Kept. PL vn. fig. 3 (under the name of Typhlops lumbricalis),
DUM. et BIBR. Erpet. PL 60 ; Surinam, the largest species of this family ; —
Typhlops "Richard™ DUM., Typhlops cinereus GUER., Iconogr., Rept. PL 18,
fig. 2, Antilles; — Typhlops vermicularis MERR., Typhlops Jlavescens LAC.
Quadr. ovip. et Serp. n. p. 455, PL 20, fig. i ; Morea, Island of Cyprus,
Georgia, &c.

b) With nostrils inferior.

Typhlina WAGL., Pilidion DUM. and BIBR. With eyes not con-
spicuous.

Ophthalmidion DUM. and BIBR,

Onychocephalus DUM. and BIBR. Eyes conspicuous. Rostral
scute produced above the head into an elliptic flat disc.

REPTILIA. 281

Sp. Typhlops Delalandii Mus. Par. L. B., SCHLEG. Abb. PI. 32, figs. 17 —
20, Cape of Good Hope; — Onychocephalus nigrolineatus HALLOWELL,
Journal of the Academy of not. Sc. of Philad. Sec. Ser. n. p. 301, PI. 28,
fig. I, Liberia.

TRIBE II. Amphicephali.

Tongue short, thick, posteriorly bilobed, anteriorly with apex
double, narrow, very short. Branches of lower jaw conjoined
anteriorly by symphysis.

If the separation of the lower jaw, and the narrow, forked, exten-
sile tongue be made the characteristic of the order of serpents, then
the genus Amphisbcena ought to be removed from it, and placed
amongst the lizards. This is the opinion of modern authors, and
may in fact be justified by the resemblance between some lacertine
animals (Ophisaurus, Pseudophis) and Amphisbcena. The row of
pores in front of the cloacal aperture corresponds to the pori f&mo-
rales which are met with in many Saurii.

Family XV. Amphisbcence WIEGM. Teeth in intermaxillary
bone, in upper and lower jaw-bones; upper and lower teeth
alternating and interlocking when the mouth is closed; palatine
and pterygoid bones edentulous. Trunk cylindric; skin ringed
with numerous deep, circular folds ; rings divided by longitudinal
inscriptions into small rectangular areas resembling scales. Head
scutate. Eyes small, covered by scute. Tail short.

Amphisbcena L. Feet none.

a) Teeth concrete with jaws.

Trogonophis KAUP, FITZ., DUM. Anal pores none. Tail conical.

Sp. Amphisbcena Wiegmanni nob., Trogonophis Wiegmanni KAUP, Isis 1830,
p. 880, Tab. 8, fig. i, Amphisbcena elegans GERVAIS, GUERIN Magas. de
ZooL 1837, Rept. PI. ii ; yellow, with red brown, four-sided spots,
arranged like a chess-board; this species occurs on the north coast of
Africa.

b) With teeth adhering internally to the margin of jaws.

Lepidosternon WAGL. Head short, conical. Anal pores none.
Tail round, obtuse. Some larger, irregular scutes, behind the
throat.

Sp. Amphisbcena microcephala nob., Lepidostemum microcephalum WAGL.,
Amphisbcena punctata MAXIM. Pr. v. WIED (not BELL), Abb. zur Natur-

I!

282 CLASS xv.

gesch. Bras. Lief. IX. Brasil; — Amphisbcena scutigera HEMPB.,'also from
Brasil ; resembling an earth-worm ; it is distinguished from the other species
by two large scutes, which cover the head. MUELLER formed of it a distinct
genus, Cephalopeltis ; Zeitschr. f. Physiol. von TIEDEM. u. TREVIR. iv. 2,
p. 253, Tab. 22, fig. 5. Compare on the sub-genus Lepidosternon,
WIEGMANN in his Archivf. Naturgesch. 1836, i. pp. 152 — 158.

Amphisbcena DUM. and BIBR. (Amphisbcena and Blanus WAGL.).
Head obtuse, gibbous. Row of pores in front of vent.

Sp. Amphisbcena alba L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. iv. fig. 2, LAO. Quadr. ovip.
et serp. 11. PI. 21, fig. i, Amphisbcena flavescens MAXIM. Pr. v. WIED, Abb.
zur Naturgesch. Bras. Lief. IX. ; yellow or reddish brown on the back,
white below; the largest species, becomes i' 9" long, of which the tail
makes one half, with twenty rings; Surinam, Brasil; — Amphisbcena
fuliginosa L., SEBA Thes. i. Tab. 88, fig. 3, n. Tab. 73, fig. 4, Tab. 100,
fig- 3, Cuv. R. Ani., td. ill, Kept. PL 25, fig. i, (on the plate fig. 2
erroneously stands by the figure); this species from Guiana and
Surinam is spotted irregularly yellow and black ; it is smaller than
the preceding, and the tail has from 26 to 30 rings, without being longer
on that account. — In these and some other species the tail is blunt;
Amphisbcena cinerea VANDELLI, Blanus cinereus WAGL., GERVAIS in
GuisRiN, Magas. de Zool. 1837, Kept. PI. 10, from Portugal, Spain and
North Africa ; is distinguished by a conical, pointed tail.

., Cuv., MERE. Limbs two anterior, short, placed
near the head, with hand broad, pentadactylous, four fingers ungui-
culate, subequal, fifth very small, clawless. Row of pores in
front of vent.

Sp. Chirotes canaliculatus MERR., Lacerta lumbricoides SHAW, LAC. Quadr.
ovip. et Serp. i. PI. 41, DAUD, Rept. iv. PI. 58, fig. 4, GUERIN Iconogr.,
Rept. PI. 16, fig. 3; a small animal, 8" or 9" long, which is found in
Mexico. CUVIER had announced that it agrees with Amphisbcena in
internal structure and ought to be placed near it : this has been confirmed
by the investigations of J. MUELLER, and is now generally received ; see
Zeitschr. f. Physiol. cited above, pp. 257 — 260, where also the skeleton and
the tongue are figured.

ORDER V. SauriL

Cavity of tympanum distinct, covered in most by a naked
tympanic membrane, in some by strata of muscles. Eyelids mostly
distinct, mobile. (Lower jaw with symphysis immoveable.
Maxillary teeth in all, in some palatine teeth also. Feet almost
always four, in some two posterior, in very few none.)

This most numerous order of reptiles contains some species which
correspond externally with serpents to such a degree, that formerly,

REPTILIA. 283

and even in the beginning of the present century, they were united
therewith. The rest, with the exception of the small genus Draco,
were all referred by LINNJEUS to the genus Lacerta, which, however,
also contained the tailed species of Diplopnoa which were known to
him. We divide this order into two principal groups, of which the
second contains the family of the crocodiles alone, the first and
largest group all the remaining lacertine animals.

TRIBE I. SquamatL

Teeth concrete at their base with jaws or adhering to the
internal margin of jaws. Cloacal fissure transverse. Penis double.
Body covered with scales.

Family XVI. Scincoidei. Tongue not extensile, flat, with
apex mostly emarginate or bifid. Head scutate. Body everywhere
covered with imbricate scales. Feet short, often imperfect, some-
times none. Femoral pores none.

Of this family only a small number of species occur in our quarter
of the world; they are most numerous in Asia and the Indian Archi-
pelago, on the islands of the southern Pacific and in New Holland.
They are for the most part small animals, of which some few attain
a length of I7; very few which become more than 1^ feet long,
may be regarded as gigantic forms in this family.

The whole body is covered with scales that lie over one another
in the fashion of roof-tiles, like the scales of a carp. Only very few
have teeth in the palate; we shall indicate the cases in which these
teeth occur when characterising the genera.

Acontias Guv. Teeth short, conical. Apex of snout masked
by a broad scute. Nostrils very minute, cut in rostral scute above.
Body elongate, serpent-like. Feet none, or very short vestiges of
hind feet. Tail short, with apex rounded, obtuse.

a) With eyes latent under the skin, very small.

Dibamus DUM. and BIBR. Rudiments of hind feet small, flat,
adactylous, scaly.

Sp. Acontias subccecus, Mus. L. B., Dibamus Novce Guinea DUM. and BIBB. ;
a small animal of New Guinea met with also at Celebes ; the small eyes
are distinctly visible under the skin.

284 CLASS xv.

Typhline WIEGMANN. Rudiments of feet none. Groove behind
the nostrils on each side in rostral scute.

Sp. Typhline Cuvieri WIEGM., Acontias ccecus Cuv., Cape of Good Hope,
b) With eyes small, naked; eyelid single, inferior, short.

Acontias WIEGM., DUM. and BIBR. Rudiments of feet none.
Groove behind the nostrils on each side in rostral scute.

Sp. Acontias meleagris Cuv., Anguis meleagris L., SEBA Thes. n. Tab. 21,
fig. 4, GUERIN Iconogi;., Rept. PI. 1 7, fig. 3, DUM. and BIBB. Erpetol. PI.
68 ; from the Cape of Good Hope.

Anguis Cuv. (Species from gen. Anguis L.). Feet none.
Eyes furnished with eyelids mobile, opening by a longitudinal
aperture. Aperture of auditory passage very small, scarcely dis-
tinguishable or concealed under scales. (Sternum, clavicle and
scapula ; rudiments of posterior extremities latent under the skin.)

a) With teeth conical, straight. Nostrils placed in the suture between
two scutes, (Ophiomorus DUM. and BIBR.). Sp. Anguis miliaris PALL.,
GMEL. ; in the Crimea, the Morea, and also in Africa.

b) With teeth subulate, long, recurved. Nostrils perforated in the middle
of scute, (Anguis DUM., BIBR.). Sp. Anguis fragilis L., LAURENTI Speci-
men, Tab. v. fig. 2, VAN LIER Slangen, Tab. in., WOLF in STURM'S Fauna,
Amphib., Heft in., BELL Brit. Rept. p. 41 ; the blind-worm, slow-worm,
die Blindschleiche, I'Orvet; the back mostly copper- coloured or brownish
with a silvery glance ; sometimes with a longitudinal black stripe on the
middle; the belly is bluish. This species grows to a length of full i' (or
sometimes 15") and to a thickness of 6'"; the tail, which is variable in
length (often as long as the trunk), is easily broken off. Anguis lineata
LAUR., Anguis lineatus WOLF (STURM'S Fauna 1. 1.), is a younger individual
of the same species. The slow-worm is viviparous, feeds on slugs, insects
and earth-worms, hides in winter underground and then becomes torpid.
It is found in almost every country of Europe, in the west of Asia, and the
north of Africa.

Hysteropus. Vestiges of hind feet very short, undivided, scaly ;
anterior feet none. Eyes destitute of eyelids, covered with a trans-
parent capsule. Row of pores in front of vent. Scales carinate.

Sp. Hysteropus novae Hollandice DUM., Bipes lepidopus LAC. Ann. du Mus.
iv. PI. 55, fig. i, GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 16, fig. 4, Cuv. R. Ani., ed.
ill., Rept. PL 22 bis, fig. 2, New Holland.

OpTiiophthalmus FITZ., Lialis GRAY. (Characters of preceding
genus. Scutella of head small, irregular; head above flat, smooth,

REFTILIA. 285

narrow, triangular. Nostrils perforated in the single nasal scute,
at the apex of snout. Tongue with apex bifid. Scales smooth.)

Sp. Ophiophthalmus Burtonii, Lialis Burtonii GRAY, Proceed, of the Zool.
Soc. 1834, p. 134; New Holland.

Ophiopsis FITZ., Lerista BELL. Feet four, anterior didacty-
lous, very short, posterior tridactylous. Eyes destitute of eyelids,
covered by a transparent capsule. Body slender. Pores in front
of vent none.

Sp. Ophiopsis lineata, Lerista lineata BELL, Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1833,
p. 99 ; New Holland. This species is unknown to nie.

Grymnophthalmus MERE. Feet four, anterior tetradactylous,
posterior pentadactylous. Eyelids none ; transparent capsule over
eyes.

Sp. Gymnophthalmus quadrilinea.tus MERE., Lacerta quadrilineata L.,
MAXIM. Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras. Lief. xm. (Rept. Tab. xvn. fig. 2); a
small species from South America.

CryptollepJiarus WlEGMANN, Ablepharus FITZ. Feet four,
pentadactylous. Eyes with a circular or lunate rudiment of eye-
lids, further covered by a transparent capsule.

Sp. Cryptoblepharus pannonicus nob., Ablepharus pannonicus FITZ.,
Verhandl. der Gesellsch. der naturforsch. Freunde zu Berlin, I. 1829, Taf.
xiv. Ablepharus Kitaibelii GRAVENHORST, Nov. Act.Acad. Leop. Car. xxn.
I, 1851, Tab. 37; Hungary; in this species the limbs are shorter than in
the others of this small genus, of which one is remarkable on account of
its extensive geographic distribution, namely Ablepharus Peronii DUM.,
BIBR., Ablepharus pcecilopleurus WIEGMANN, Nov. Act. nat. Curios, xvn.
1835, Tab. 8, fig. i, Ablepharus Leschenault COCTEAU, GUER. Magas. de
Zool. 1832, Rcpt. PI. i ; it occurs in the Morea, in Africa on the coast
of Mozambique, at the Sunda Islands, at New Holland, and the Sandwich
Islands.

Bipes MERE. (Species from gen. Bipes LAC., Cuv.), Scelotes
FITZ. Kudiments of hind feet only. Eyes provided with mobile
eyelids. Body elongate, anguineous.

a) Rudiments of hind feet adactylous, clawless, styliform.
Ophiodes WAGL., Pygodactylus FITZ.

Sp. Bipes strialus nob., Pygopus cariococca SPIX, a small species from Brasil
and Guiana.

Prcepeditus DUM., BIBR., Soridia GKAY.

286 CLASS xv.

Sp. Bipes lineatus nob., Soridia lineata GRAY ; also very small, silver-coloured,
two brown longitudinal stripes and darker spots on the back in two rows.
This species occurs in New Holland, (see GRAY Annals of Nat. Hist. vii.
1841, p. 86), whence also the specimen in the Leyden Museum was
received from the traveller PREISS.

b) Rudiments of hind feet didactylous, with toes unequal, unguiculate.

Scelotes FITZ.

Sp. Bipes anguineus GRAY, Anguis bipes L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. 28,
fig- 3, Seps Gronovii DAUD. Rept. iv. PI. 58, fig. 2, from the Cape of Good
Hope.

BracJiymeles nob. (Brachymeles DUM. and BIBR., Chelomeles
eorumd., Brachystopus eorumd., Evesia GRAY). Kudiments of
four feet very short, monodactylous or didactylous. Eyelids mobile.
Aperture of auditory meatus very small or none. Body anguineous,
with scales short.

Evesia GRAY. Rudiments of feet styliform, undivided, covered
with scales. Snout masked by scute.

Brachystopus DUM., BIBR. (Rhodona GRAY). Rudiments of fore
feet conical, undivided, of hinder didactylous, with toes unguiculate.

Brachymeles DUM. and BIBR. Rudiments of fore feet didactylous,
with toes unguiculate, of hinder undivided. Aperture of auditory
meatus none.

Chelomeles DUM. and BIBR. Fore and hind feet didactylous.

Sp. Brachymeles didactylus nob., Chelomeles quadrilineatus DUM. and BIBR. ;
from New Holland ; this species is the only one of this division that I have
been able to observe myself. Compare on these sub-genera GRAY Ann. of
Nat. Hist. II. pp. 335, 336, and DUM. and BIBR. Erptt. v. pp. 774 — 783.

Seps DAUD. (exclusive of some species). Feet very short,
with three or four toes unguiculate. Apex of tongue emargi-
nate. Teeth conical, numerous. Eyelids mobile. Body anguine-
ous ; tail conical, acuminate. Scales smooth.

a) Nostrils situated between nasal and rostral scute. Feet (posterior or
all) tridactylous.

Sp. Seps chalcidica MERR., Lacerta chalcides L. (in part), Seps tridactylus
DAUD. Rept. iv. PI. 57, Seps striata GU£RIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 15, fig. 3,
Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI. 12 Us, fig. i, Seps tridactylus, Diss. inaug.
auctore'B. F. SICHERER, cum icone color., Tubingee, 1825, 4to; 10" to i'

REPTIL1A. 287

long ; bronze-coloured, usually with four longitudinal darker stripes ; belly
greenish- white ; this animal is viviparous, and is found in Spain, Italy and
Dalmatia. A very similar species, which has only two toes on the fore
feet, is met with in North Africa (Heteromeles mauritanicus DDM., BIBB.),
where also (at Algiers) the preceding has been found.

b) Nostrils situated in nasal scute.
Hemierges WAGL. (with feet tridactylous).

Tetradactylus PEBON, DUM., BIBB. (Comp. DUM. et BIBB. Erpetol. v.
PP- 763—767)-

Scincus GRONOV, LAUR., DAUD., MERR. Feet four, low, pen-
tadactylous (in a few posterior or anterior alone pentadactylous,
the others tetradactylous). Tongue emarginate at the apex, beset
with scaly papillae. Eyelids mobile, Teeth subulate in jaws ;
in most the palate edentulous. Aperture of auditory meatus in
all mostly distinct, an oval or oblique chink behind the angle
of mouth, surrounded by small scales. Tail conical.

a) With toes round.

Gongylus DUM. and BIBR. (with addit. of some others; Gongylus
WAGL., Eumeces WIEGM., Euprepes WAGL., Plestiodon DUM. and
BIBR., Lygosoma GRAY, Leilepisma DUM. and BIBR., Tropidole-
pisma DUM. and BIBR., Heteropus FITZ., Campsodactylus DUM. and
BIBR.). Snout conical. Tongue all scaly. Palatine teeth in some.

Sp. Scincus Irachypus SCHNEID., MEBB., Lygosoma brachypoda DUM., BIBB.,
Anguis quadrupes L. and Lacerta chalcides L. (in part), VOSMAEB Afri-
Icaansche gladgeschubde wormhagedis, 1774; this small species, with very
short five-toed feet, is not from Africa, as VOSMAEB supposed, but from the
Island Java. CUVIEB referred this species to the genus Seps; the
auditory apertures are very small, and were not remarked by LINNAEUS
(Syst. not. ed. 12, I. p. 390). Compare also BLOCH Beschdftigungen der
Berlin. Gesellsch. naturforsch. Freunde, n. 1775, s. 28 — 34, Tab. 2.

Scincus oceUatus BAUD., MEBB., Gongylus oceUatus DUM., BIBB., le
mabouya LAC., Quadr. ovip. etSerp. I. PI. 24, OLIVIEB Voyage dans I'JEmp.
Ottoman, PI. 16, fig. i, DAUD. Rept. iv. PL 56; Sardinia, Sicily, Algiers,
Egypt. Comp. Gr. DE NATALE Ricerche anat. sullo Scinco variegato, c. 2
Tavole, Accad. delle Sc. di Torino. Classe di Sc. Fis. e Math. 2da Serie,
Tom. xin. 1852, p. 436 and seq.

Scincus campsodactylus nob., Campsodactylus Lamarrei DUM. and BIBB. ;
from the continent of the East Indies ; five toes on the fore feet, four on
the hind feet. In two other species conversely the fore feet are provided
with four toes, the hind feet with five; they form the genus Heteropus
DUM.

288 CLASS xv.

Amphiglossus DUM. and BIBR. Snout conical. Tongue smooth
anteriorly, posteriorly beset with papillae scaly, imbricate, reversed.
Scales smooth.

Diploglossus WIEGM. Snout conical. Anterior part of tongue
covered with scales, posterior with filiform papillae. Scales marked
with several exsert striae.

Sp. Scincus fossor MERR., Diploglossus Shawii DUM., Qallywasp BROWNE,
Jamaica (and SLOANE Voy. to Jamaica, Tab. 273, fig. 9?); a very large
species from the West Indies; — Scincus Houttuynii, Diploglossus Houttuynii
COOT., Cuv. R. Ani., &d. ill., Rept. PL 21, fig. 2. — Euprepes fasciata
KEUSS, Mus. Senckeriberg. i. Tab. 3, fig. 2 ; Brasil.

Sphenops WAGL. Snout cuneiform, upper jaw with flat margin
exsert beyond the lower. Feet small, distant, anterior with short
toes. Scales smooth. Tail long.

Sp. Scincus capistratus SCHREIB., Scincus sepsoides AUD., SEBA Thes. n. Tab.
12, fig. 6? DUM. Erpe'tol. v. PL 57, fig. 3, (figure of head); Egypt.

b) With toes depressed, serrate at the margin.

Scincus FITZ., DUM. and BIBR, Snout cuneiform; upper jaw
produced beyond lower, with margin acute. Teeth in palate. Tail
short, thick at the base, conical, acuminate. Scales smooth.

Scincus officinalis LAUR., Lacerta scincus L., LAC. Quadr. ovip. et Scrp. I.
PL 23, BLUMENB. Abb. naturh. Gegenst. No. 87, BRANDT u. RATZEB.
Mediz. Zool. I. Tab. 19, fig. 2 ; the Seine. This species lives in Egypt and
some other countries of Africa; when in danger it endeavours to bury
itself quickly in the sand. This little animal is used by the Orientals as a
special excitant (aphrodisiacum). The Scincus of the ancients, on which
compare PLINIUS (Hist. not. Lib. 28, c. 8), was, according to PROSPER
ALPINUS, an entirely different animal, probably a monitor, as CUVIER also
supposes. In the time of GESNER water-salamanders also were sold in
place of seines; C. GESNERI Hist. Anini. Lib. n. p. 24.

Cyclodus WAGL. Four short feet, subequal, pentadactylous,
with toes round. Tongue emarginate, covered with scaly papillae.
Eyelids mobile. Teeth rounded at the apex, posteriorly subglo-
bose. Palate edentulous. Head flat, distinct from trunk by stric-
ture. Nostrils in nasal scute, mostly furnished with a bent groove
behind the aperture. Oblique chink of auditory meatus, situated
behind the angle of mouth. Scales large. Tail shorter than
trunk.

Sp. Cyclodus Boddaertii DUM. and BIBR., Scincus gigas BODDAERT, Nov. Act.
Acad. not. curios, vn. p. 5, WHITE Journal of a Voy. to New South Wales,
p. 242, PL 30 ; New Holland and Amboyna.

REPTILIA. 289

Strobttolepis nob., Trachysaurits GRAY, DUM. and BIBR. Scales
gibbous, or subcarinate, thick. Tail very short, depressed. Re-
maining characters nearly of genus Cyclodus.

Sp. Cyclodus pachyurus, Trachysaurus rugosus GRAY, Trachysaurus Peronii
WAGL., New Holland.

Tropidophorus DUMER. and BIBR. (Leposoma Cuv. not SPIX,
Tropidosaurus GRAY not BOIE.) Four feet pentadactylous, with
toes unequal, subcompressed. Eyelids mobile. Maxillary teeth
cylindrical, palatine none. Tongue emarginate, covered with scaly
papillae. Membrane of tympanum naked. Back flat with carinate
scales. Tail compressed.

Sp. Tropidophorus cocinsinensis, Tropidosaurus montanus GRAY, DUM. et
BIBR. Erpet. v. PL 57, fig. i ; this species from Cochin China, discovered
by DIARD, from whence also the specimen in the Leyden Museum is
derived, differs by the tympanic membrane lying bare and also by its
general form, in a remarkable manner from the rest of the Seines. CUVIER
placed this genus with Agama amongst the Iguano'ids.

Family XVII. Zonosauri nob. s. Ptychopleurce WIEGM.
(Cyclosauri DUM. and BIBR, in part). Tongue not extensile, flat,
oblongo-triangular, emarginate at the apex. Head scutate, flat
above, separated from the nape by a transverse groove. Scales
verticillate, in back mostly subquadrate, or rectangular. Feet
sometimes none or vestiges only of hinder. Eyelids mobile, dis-
tinct. (Femoral pores in many. A longitudinal fold on each side
of the abdomen in almost all.)

A small family, of which some species were formerly placed
amongst the Iguano'ids, whilst others which had no limbs or im-
perfect limbs, were arranged in the neighbourhood of Anguis and
Bipes, or united to them. The belt-like covering of scales dis-
tinguishes these lacertine animals from all the rest.

This is the fittest place to say a few words on the pori femorales. In many
lizards on the inside of the thighs is found a row of tubercles with an
aperture into which the cuticle penetrates. In Amphisbcena and Chirotes
we have already noticed the presence of similar apertures in front of the
vent. The scales in which these little pits are situated often differ some-
what in form from the neighbouring scales. Under each of them lies a
glandular body which terminates broad on a little pedicle turned towards
the outer surface and splits into some blind fotticuli. The presence and
the mode of position of these pori femorales afford good generic characters;
but their number is not constant in each species, and even differs in some
VOL. II. 19

290 CLASS XV.

degree in one and the same individual on opposite sides. These parts
appear to be more developed in males than in females. It has been doubted
whether they are really glands, and whether the organ under the grooved
tubercle ought not rather to be referred to erectile tissue J.

OpMsaurus DAUD., Cuv., FITZ., Hyalinus MERR. Teeth in
jaws conical ; palatine teeth small, numerous, in several rows.
Auditory aperture small, transverse, behind the angle of mouth.
Scales hard, osseous, the dorsal quadrangular, carinate, the ventral
smooth, transverse, tetragonal. Extremities none. Lateral fur-
row on each side produced as far as vent. Body anguineous ; tail
longer than trunk.

Sp. Ophisaurus ventralis DAUD., Anguis ventralis L., DAUD. Kept. vn. PL
88. (v. PI. 6r, figs. 40, 41, the head), Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PL 14,
fig. i (the cranium is figured in Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. I. PL rv, Gd. II. PL vui.
figs. 7 — 9) ; this animal grows to 2 in length, and is met with in North
America; the tail is brittle, like that of the slow-worm, which peculiarity
has occasioned the name of glass snake, given by the Anglo-Americans.

Pseudopus MERE. Palatine teeth small, in a single row. Scales
all carinate, the carina more distinct in the caudal. Two rudiments
of hind feet, adactylous, very small at the end of lateral furrow.
(Remaining characters of Ophisaurus, from which it scarcely differs
generically.)

Sp. Pseudopus Pallasii Cuv., Pseudopus serpentinus MERR., Lacerta apoda
PALLAS, Nov. Comment. Acad. Petrop. xix. 1774, pp. 435 — 454, BECHST.
Naturgesch. d. Amphib. II. Tab. 27, fig. 3, Pseudopus JDurvillii (the young
animal) GUJ^RIN Icon., Rept. PL 17, fig. i; the scheltopusilc ; this lizard,
ranked by CUVIER amongst the serpents, attains a length of more than
three feet. PALLAS first discovered this animal in Astrakan, where it
occurs in the bushy valleys of the sandy steppes ; it is met with also in
Greece and Dalmatia.

Chamcesaura FlTZ., WAGLER (Species of Chamcesaura
SCHNEID.), Monodactylus MERR. Palatine teeth none. Body
anguineous, covered all over with lanceolate scales, without lateral
furrows. Four very short feet undivided, subulate. Tail very
long.

1 Compare on these parts, besides J. MUELLER, who investigated them in Poly
chrus marmoratus (De glandular, secern, structura, p. 43. Tab. I. fig. 22), C. F.
MEISNER De Amphibiorum quorundam papillis glandulisque femoralibus, Basilise 1832,
4to, and OTTH, Ueber die Schenkelwarzen der Eidechsen, in TIEDEM. u. TREVIRANUS
Zeitschr. fur Physiol. V. i, 1833, pp. 101 — 104.

REPTILIA. 291

Sp. Chamcesaura anguina SCHNEID., Lacerta anguina L., VOSMAER, Beschrij-
viny van de zeldzame langstaartige, ruwgeschubde slanghagedis, Amsterdam,
1774, LACEP. Ann. du Mus. n. PI. 59, fig. I, Lezard monodactyle; from
the Cape of Good Hope.

Chalcides DAUD., Cuv. (Chalcis, Tetradactylus,
Palatine teeth none. Four very short feet, with four toes or three,
hinder sometimes adactylous. Lateral furrow behind fore feet.

Chalcides DUM., BIBK. Auditory aperture none. Lateral furrow
evanescent at the middle of trunk.

Sp. Chalcides cophias MERR., LACEP. Quadr. ovip. et Serp. I. PI. 32 (copied
in BECHSTEIN Naturgesch. d. Amph. n. Tab. xv. fig. 2); S. America, &c.

Saurophis FITZ. Auditory aperture distinct. Lateral furrow
extending as far as hind feet. Femoral pores. (Feet all tetra-
dactylous.)

Sp. Chalcides tetradactylus DAUD., Saurophis Lacepedii DUM. and BIBR.,
LACEP. Ann. du Mus. n. PI. 59, fig. 2, GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 16,
fig. a ; South Africa. This sub-genus is perhaps more nearly allied to
Gerrhosaurus (p. 292) than to Chalcides.

Chirocolus'WAGL., FITZ., Heterodactylus SPIX, DUM., BIBR.
Palatine teeth none. Four short feet, posterior pentadactylous,
anterior tetradactylous, with a clawless tubercle for a great toe
(pollex). Auditory aperture none. Femoral pores. Sides of trunk
not fun-owed.

Sp. Chirocolus imbricatus WAGL., Heterodactylus imbricatw SPIX, Spec. nov.
La/cert. Bras. Tab. 27, fig. i.

Ecpleopus DUM. and BIBR.

Lepidosoma Spix, WAGL. Pentadactylus DUM., BIBR.

On the genera, with palate edentulous, feet pentadactylous, lateral furrow
none, comp. DUM. and BIBR. 1. 1. Tom. v. p. 428 — 488, and TSCHUDI Die
Familie der Ecpleopoda, Archivf. Natwrgesch. 1847, s- 41 — 6°> WDO ^ds the
new genera, distinguished by smooth scales, Euspondylus and Proctoporus.
All the species hitherto known, which are not numerous, are from South
America.

Gerrhonotus WIEGM. Maxillary teeth cylindric, palatine very
small, few, sometimes none. Four feet pentadactylous. Femoral
pores none. Membrane of tympanum open, depressed. Longitu-
dinal furrow on both sides. Scales of back hard, scutiform,
mostly carinate. Tail long, verticillate, unarmed.

19—2

292 CLASS xv.

Sp. Gerrhonotus rudicollis WIEGMANN Herpetol. mexic. Tab. x. fig. i ;—
Gerrhonotus Deppli WIEGM. 1. 1. Tab. IX. fig. 3 ; this last-named species
has large dorsal scales not carinate. All the species are from America ;
the greatest number from Mexico.

Gerrhosaurus WIEGM. Maxillary teeth subulate, palatine
conical, many. Four feet pentadactylous, with toes slender.
Femoral pores. Membrane of tympanum open, depressed ; anterior
margin of auditory aperture furnished with a lunate scute. Longi-
tudinal furrow on both sides, produced as far as hind feet. Tail
long, verticillate, unarmed.

Sp. Gerrhosaurus bifasciatus DUM., BIBR. Erpet. PL 47; — Gerrhosaurus
lineatus COCTEAU, GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1833, Kept. PI. 5, 6; these
species are from Madagascar ; some others are known from South Africa,
as Gerrhosaurus sepifomnis, which was referred by SCHNEIDER and MERREM
to the genus Scincus.

Zonurus MERR., Gordylus GRONOV. Maxillary teeth subulate,
equal, obtuse at the apex. Tongue oblong and triangular, emargi-
nate at the apex, beset with filiform papillae. Head triangular, flat
above, declivous at the sides. Aperture of ears large, covered
anteriorly by the exsert side of occiput. Four feet pentadactylous.
Femoral pores in all, sometimes in a double row. Caudal scales
carinate, with carina produced posteriorly into a strong spine.
Longitudinal furrow on both sides. Abdominal scales quadrangular,
flat, smooth.

Sp. Zonurus griseus DUM., BIBR., Lacerta cordylus L., SEBA Thesaur. i. Tab.
109, fig. 5 (tail monstrous, bifid); 11. Tab. 62, fig. 3, Zonurus cordylus
MERR. Beitr. in. Taf. vn. The scales of the back in this species form
rings which correspond with those of the belly; on the other hand, they
are much larger in Zonurus cataphractus GRAY (differing also in other
characters), so that one row of dorsal scales corresponds to two rows
of ventral scales. — Zonurus microlepidotus GRAY, Cordylus tnicrolepidotus
Cuv., GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 6, fig. i, is distinguished by small
tubercular dorsal scales. All these species are from South Africa.

Tribolonotus DUM., BIBR. Maxillary teeth equal, subulate.
Tongue beset with scaly papillae. Head flat above, declivous
posteriorly ; neck constricted, depressed. Membrane of tympanum
naked, behind the angle of mouth. Osseous scutes, armed with
a strong reclined spine, covering back and tail. Scales of abdomen
transverse, imbricate. .Sides of body rugose, without longitudinal

REPTILIA. 293

furrow, with small granulous scales. Four slender feet pentadac-
tylous ; femoral pores none.

Sp. Tribolonotus novce Gulnece DUM., Zonurus novce Guinea SCHLEGEL, in
V. DER HOEVEN en DE VRIESE, Tijdschr. voor not. Gesch. I. 1834, PI. viz.
fig. 2, DUM. et BIBR. Erpet. V. PI. 56. This animal, discovered by the
traveller S. MUELLER on the west coast of New Guinea, is justly sepa-
rated from Zonurus as a distinct genus.

Family XVIII. Lacertini. Tongue exsertile, slender, bifid.
Membrane of tympanum open, superficial or depressed. Body
elongate, with four pentadactylous feet, the toes free, unequal.
Ventral scales larger. Tail often very long. Femoral pores in
many.

Tribe I. Lacertce. Maxillary teeth with a hollow base,
growing to the inner margin of jaws, anterior subulate, posterior
obsoletely bicuspid or tricuspid, subcompressed. Head scutate.
Ventral scales mostly quadrangular, arranged in transverse rows.
Tail long, fusiform, sometimes rotundato-quadrangular at the base,
elsewhere round. Tongue oblong and triangular, beset with scale-
like papillae, divided at the apex into two short, acuminate, smooth
slips.

The true lizards, Lacertce, are all from the old world, principally
from Africa.

Ophiops (OpMsops) MENETEIES (Amystes WIEGM.). Eyes
destitute of eyelids, furnished with an ocular capsule. Palatine
teeth none. Collar none. Toes bicarinate below. Femoral pores.

Sp. Ophiops elegans, MBNETRIES Catalogue raisonne des objets de Zoologie
recueittis dans un Voyage au Caucase. St. Pe'tersbourg, 183-2, 4to, p. 63;
in Persia, Asia Minor and Syria. Compare WIEGMANN Archivf. Natur-
gesch. 1835, s. i — 6, 1837, s. 123; see a fig. in DUM. et BIBR. Erpft. v.
PI. 53, fig. i. BERTHOLD also gave a fig. of the head (Ueber neue oder
seltene AmpJiibienarten, Gottingen, 1842, 4 to, figs. 4, 5), and described a
second species, Ophiops macrodactylus, pp. 14, 15.

Lacerta Cuv., MERE. (Species from genus Lacerta L.). Eye-
lids distinct. Kow of pores at the inside of thighs. Collar in most
or a row of larger scales under the throat, to which succeeds a fold
covered with minute scales, in front of the larger scales of abdomen.

Within the last few years many genera have been adopted
here of which several contain only a single species. After careful

294 CLASS xv.

consideration I am only able, whilst regarding the general habitue, to
notice these as sub-genera, which permit a more convenient view
of the species hitherto known, about fifty in number.

Compare MILNE EDWARDS Recherches Zool. pour servir a I Hist,
des Lezards, Ann. des Sc. natur. xvi. 1829, p. 50 — 89.

a) With toes carinate beneath or sen'ate at the margin.

Psammodromus FITZ., Notopholis WAGL. Palatine teeth none.
Collar none. Toes compressed, carinate beneath. Scales of back
imbricate, carinate.

Sp. Psammodromus hispanicus FITZ., Lacerta Edwardsiana DUG^S, Ann. des
Sc. nat. xvi. p. 386, PL xiv. ; Spain, South of France.

Add genus Calosaura DUM., BIBR. Sp. Lacerta Leschenaultii MILNE
EDWAEDS 1. 1. PI. vi. fig. 9.

Eremias FITZ. Palatine teeth in some, in others none. Collar
distinct. Toes compressed, carinate beneath. Scutella around the
nostrils tumid.

Sp. Lacerta variabilis PALL. ; Tartary. Most of the species are from South
Africa.

Acanthodactylus FITZ. Palatine teeth none. Collar distinct.
Toes compressed, carinate beneath, serro-firnbriate at the margins
with sharp scales.

Sp. Lacerta Boskiana DAUD. JRept. in. PL 36, fig. 2, Egypt, &c.

Scapteria FITZ. Collar distinct. Toes depressed, smooth beneath,
bordered on each side with somewhat long sharp scales.

Sp. Lacerta grammica LICHTENST., DUM. et BIBR. Erpe"t. v. PL 54, fig. i,
Africa.

b) With toes subcompressed, smooth "beneath, and not bordered at the
sides.

Lacerta DUM., BIBR. Collar distinct. Scales of abdomen larger,
smooth, arranged in transverse parallel rows. A few teeth on each
side at the posterior part of palate in most.

Sp. Lacerta, ocellata DAUD. Rept. in. PL 33, le Lizard vert, LAC. Quadr.
ovip. I. PL 20 ; this species, the largest of the genus, attains a length of
full one foot, of which the tail forms the greatest half; it is found in Spain,
Italy, and the South of France ; — Lacerta stirpium DAUD., Lacerta agilis
L. (in part), STURM Fauna, Amphib. Heft 2, DAUDIN Rept. in. PL 35,
fig. 2, BELL British Rept. p. 18; the Sand Lizard, hagedis, die gemeine

REPTILIA. 295

Eidechse; this species becomes 6" long ; it feeds on insects and enjoys basking
in the sunshine ; the female lays from five to eight eggs, which are said to
emit light for a time in the dark (GBUENDLER Naturforscher m. s. 128).
Another still smaller European species is viviparous, or the young come to
view immediately as the eggs are laid: Lacerta viiipara JACQ., Zootoca
crocea WAGL., WIEGM., Lacerta crocea WOLF in STURM'S Fauna, Amphib.
Heft 4, BELL 1. 1. p. 34, Zootoca Guerini COCTEAU in GU&SIN Magas. de
Zool. 1835, Kept. PI. 9.

Tropidosaura BOIE (Algyra Guv.). Collar none. Abdomen
covered with imbricate scales. Scales of back acuminate, acutely
carinate.

Sp. Lacerta algira L., Algyra barbarica Cuv., GU^RIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. v.
fig. i ; from the North African coast, near Algiers ; — Tropidosaura montana
BOIE, found by KUHL and V. HASSELT in Java.

TacJiydromus DAUD., MERE. Head acute. Scales carinate,
quadrate, large in back and tail. Tail verticillate, very long. Two
pores at the vent on each side.

Sp. TacTiydromus sexlineatus DAUD. Repl. m. PI. 39, TacJiydromus ocettatus
GU£R. Iconogr., Rept. PL 5, fig. 3, in the East Indies, Java, Cochin China;
I have not been able to find any teeth in the palate of this little animal.

Heloderma WIEGM. Snout obtuse, covered with four flat
scuta. Head covered above with tuberculate scales. Teeth sharp,
conical, grooved anteriorly; back covered with larger knotty
scales ; scutella of abdomen flat, smooth. Nostrils at the apex
of snout. Third and fourth toe both of the fore and hind feet
longer than the rest, subequal. Tail round, conical, almost equal
to the trunk in length.

Sp. Heloderma horridum WIEGMANN, Herpet. Mexican. Tab. I. pp. 24, 25 ;
TKOSCHEL Ueber Heloderma horridum, Archiv f. Naturgesch. 1853, s. 294
—315. Taf. 13, 14; Mexico.

Tribe II. Ameivce. Maxillary teeth solid at the base, firmly
fixed in a groove at the inner margin of jaws and growing to
it, often directed obliquely outwards, the anterior mostly subulate,
the poster or compressed or tuberculate. Palate edentulous in
most. Often two transverse folds under the neck. Tongue
beset with rhombic, imbricate scales, divided at the apex into two
filaments.

This division contains species from the western hemisphere
alone, where they represent the true lizards. Many of these

296 CLASS xv.

species are of a considerable size. With MERREM they form the
genus Tejus.

Grocodilurus SPIX (add Thorictis WAGL. and Neusticurus
DUM. and BIBR.). Tail compressed, with a double crest above,
serrate, with scales erect. Palate edentulous. Pores femoral or
inguinal. Head scutate.

Neusticurus DUM., BIBR. Back covered with lesser scales and
with scutifonn, carinate scales. Gular fold single, of larger scales.
Row of pores continuous along the inner surface of whole thigh.
Aperture of nostrils small in the middle of scute.

Sp. Crocodilurus bicarinatus nob., Lacerta bicarinata L. (according to
DUMEBIL), Draccena bicarinata GUEBIN Iconogr., Kept. PL 3, fig. 2, DUM.
et BIBB. Erp$t. v. PI. 49 ; from South America, probably Guyana.

Thorictis WAGL., Draccena DAUD., Ada GRAY. Back covered
with large, scutiform, carinate scales, with smaller scales inter-
spersed. Subgular fold double. Pores inguinal. Aperture of
nostrils orbicular, placed in the suture of two scuta. Posterior
teeth hemispherical, subflat.

Sp. Crocodilurus Draccena nob., Thorictis Draccena DUM. BIBB., la Dragonne
LAC., Quadr. ovip. i. PI. 16, DAUD. n. PI. 28 ; Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Kept.
PI. 10 bis, fig. 2 ; this animal becomes more than 2*5" long, and lives in
South America in marshy regions ; not only the tail, but the entire cover-
ing of the body, resembles, to a certain extent, that of the crocodiles.

Crocodilurus SPIX. Back covered with small scales obtusely
carinate, oblong. Gular fold double. Femoral pores small.

Sp. Crocodilurus amazonicus SPIX (and ocettatus ejusd.), Spec. nov. Lac.
Brazil. Tab. 20, i\\ Brasil, Guyana.

Tejus MERE, (in part). Tail conical. Head scutate. Row
of pores in inner part of thighs.

Centropyx SPIX., Trachygaster WAGL. Abdominal scales imbri-
cate, carinate, with keel produced posteriorly into a sharp point.

Sp. Centropyx calcaratus SPIX, WIEGM., GUEB. Icon., Rept. PI. 4, fig. 3;
Brasil, Surinam.

Tejus nob. Scales of abdomen quadrangular, smooth.

Sp. Tejus Atneiva MAXIM. Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras., Lief, v, SPIX Nov.
Spec. Lacert. Tab. 23, GUEEIN Iconoyr., Rept. PI. 4, fig. i; distributed

KEPTILIA. 297

over nearly the whole of South America, very common in Brasil; this
species becomes i h feet long, moves very rapidly, and keeps principally in
sandy regions.

Tejus monitor MERB., Lacerta teguixin L., MAXIM. Abb. Lief. XL, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI. n, fig. i ; this species also is not uncommon in
Surinam and in a large part of Brasil ; it attains a length of three or four
feet; the tail is longer than the trunk; the back is black, with yellow
spots; the belly yellow, with interrupted black transverse stripes. This
animal, which is hunted in Brasil, and which is eaten, lives on insects,
worms, frogs, resides in holes under ground, and hides also in hollow trunks
of trees.

Note. — Here belong sub-genera Salvator DUM. and BIBR. (Podinema
and Ctenodon WAGL.), Ameiva Cuv., DUM. and BIBR., CnemidopJiorus
WAGL., and Dicrodon DUM. and BIBR.

A crantus WAGL. (Tejus viridis MERR.) differs from all the others in
having the hind feet tetradactylous.

Callopistes GRAVENHORST, FITZ., Aporomera DUM. and BIBR.
Tail conical, obtusely quadrangular. Head covered with small
scutella. Femoral pores none.

Sp. Aporomera jlavipunctata DUM. Erpet. v. PI. 51; — Aporomera ornata
DUM., Ameiva ccelestis D'ORBIGNY.

Tribe III. Monitores. Tongue exsertile, elongate, narrow,
sheathed at the base, with two long, filiform, acuminate apices.
Head scaly, narrow, flat above. Palatine teeth none, maxillary
teeth adnate, large, triangular or conical, distant. Neck long, not
more slender than head. Femoral pores none. Feet pentadacty-
lous with nails curved, compressed.

Varanus MERR., Monitor Cuv. Snout elongate, covered with
scales. Scales in back oval or oblong, gibbous, the larger sur-
rounded by a scaly areola. Tail sub trigonal, rounded beneath,
of the length of trunk or longer than trunk.

The species of this genus, all from the old world, are, after the croco-
diles, the largest of lacertine animals ; some attain a length of more than
six feet. The tail in most of the species is compressed laterally and keeled
above.

a) Tail subrotundate or compressed only towards the apex, not carinate
(Psammosaurus FITZ., WAGL.).

Sp. Varanus arenarius DUM. and BIBR., Varanus scincus MERR., Descr. de
VEgypte, Rept. PI. 3, fig. 2, in Egypt ; the land-crocodile with HEROEOTUS,
oaaran of the Arabians, according to FORSKAL.

298 CLASS xv.

b) Tail compressed, carinate above (Polydadalus WAGL., Hydrosaurus
ejusd.)

Sp. Varanus niloticus DUM. and BIBR., Lacerta nilotica L., Tupinambis
ornatus BAUD., Ann. du Mus. n. PI. 48 ; Cov. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI.
10 bis, fig. i ; not in the Nile alone, but in different other rivers of West
and South Africa; — Varanus Bengalensis DOM. and BIBR., Monitor gem-
matus GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 3, fig. i; — Varanus bimttatus, Tupi-
nanibis bivittatus KUHL, SCHLEGEL Alb. Tab. 21, Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat.,
Rept. PI. 4, fig. 2 ; this species, very common in Java and the rest of the
Sunda Isles, grows to nearly 8' in length, lives amongst bushes, in low
situations ; it swims and dives very well.

The species of the division of Monitor resemble the order of the serpents,
not only in their tongue but also in the long narrow under-jaw, only
loosely united in the middle. The covering of scales reminds us of that of
Acrochordus and of Hydrophis.

Family XIX. Iguanoidei. Tongue fleshy, thick, not protrac-
tile, with apex alone free, entire or emarginate at the apex.
Eyelids distinct, free. Teeth in some connected with the inner
margin of jaws, in others fixed upon the free edge (culmen) of jaws.
Head mostly covered with scales or small scutella, more rarely
scutate. Back or tail often crested. Four feet pentadactylous
(posterior very rarely tetradactylous), with toes free, unequal.

This family, very numerous in species, is especially remarkable
from the great diversity of forms, which has occasioned the esta-
blishment of a number of genera. Only a single species, which is
also common to North- Africa and Asia Minor, occurs in the South-
east of Europe ; all the rest are from other quarters of the world,
many from Asia, but by far the most from South America. In
the American species the teeth are attached to the inside of the
jaws (pleurodontes WAGL., prosphyodontes WIEGM.) j in those of the
Eastern hemisphere they are (with a single exception) placed on
the edge of the jaws and soldered there (acrodontes WAGL., emphyo-
dontes WIEGM.). For this observation, more precisely confirmed by
WIEGMANN and WAGLER, the science is indebted to the meritorious
zoologist KAUP. From this different attachment of the teeth this
family may be divided, as has been done by DUMERIL and BIBRON,
into two groups, on better grounds than from the presence or the
absence of teeth in the palate, as was done by CUVIER. The divi-
sion, however, into ground-iguanas or agamas with flat head and
flat depressed body, and tree-iguanas with compressed body, as
proposed by WIEGMANN, appears to be more natural. Consequently

REPTILIA. 299

in each of these two groups two subdivisions may be adopted from
the mode of attachment of the teeth.

Phalanx I. Agamce s. Humivagce WIEGM. (PlatycorncB
WAGL.). Body depressed. Head short, depressed, broad poste-
riorly. Membrane of tympanum mostly depressed, concealed
more or less under spines or amongst folds of skin, rarely covered
entirely by skin.

A. With teeth soldered to the margin of jaws.

Agama DAUD. in part, Trapelus KAUP, (Trapelus Cuv. and
species genus Agama Cuv., Phrynopsis, Podorrhoa, Trapelus and
Eremioplanis FITZ.). Head covered by numerous small scutella,
often muricate with spines around the tympanum. Nostrils sub-
tubular, approximate at the extremity of snout. Palatine teeth none.
Incisor teeth subulate, canines larger, conical, oblique, molar small,
compressed, triangular, obtuse. Submental fold longitudinal, neck-
fold transverse. Femoral pores none, anal pores distinct. Tail of
different length, mostly longer than trunk, covered with imbricate
scales.

Sp. Agama colonorum DAUD., Lacerta agama L. (excl. synon. of SEBA) SEBA,
Thesaur. I. Tab. 93, Tab. 107, fig. 3 (not i and 2) ; this species, one of the
largest of the genus, has a long compressed tail, with large, keeled, pointed
scales ; it occurs on the coast of Guinea; — Agama mutabilis, Trapelus cegypti-
cusCuv., DAUD. Kept. PI. 43, fig. i (under the name of Agama orbicularis),
Agama pallida BJEUSS, Mus. Senckenb. I. Tab. 3, fig. 3; this species has
very small scales, with round tubercles scattered on the back ; common in
Egypt and Arabia ; the tail is shorter than in the preceding species and
conical. This lizard changes its colour like the chameleon.

Amphibolurus WAGL., WIEGM., Gemmatophora KAUP, Gframma-
tophora DUM. (Characters and habits nearly of Agama, but there
are small femoral pores. Head flat, triangular; nostrils near eyes.
Amongst the dorsal scales, which are equal and imbricate, often
some few that are spinose or tuberculate are intermixed).

Sp. Amphibolurus mwrica^MS WIEGM., Lacerta muricata WHITE, Journal of
a voyage to New S. Wales, PI. 31, fig. 2, p. 244, Agama Jacksoniensis GUEB.
Iconogr., Rept. PI. 7, fig. i, from New Holland, like the rest of the species
of this sub-genus.

Moloch GRAY, in G. GREY'S Journals of two Expeditions in
Australia, London, 1841, 8vo. IL, Appendix, pp. 440, 441, PL 2.

300 CLASS XV.

. Sp. Moloch horridiis; New Holland. Comp. DUME"RIL, Catalogue de la Col-
lection des Rept. Paris, 1851, pp. 109, no.

Stellio DAUD. Head covered with numerous small scutella,
spinose, short. Canine teeth distinct; palatine teeth none. Nostrils
lateral, under a crest running from the eye to the snout. Back
covered with small scales and some larger, tuberculate, scattered,
furnished with a longitudinal fold on each side between the legs.
Femoral pores none, anal distinct. Tail verticillate with large
keeled scales.

Sp. Stellio vulgaris DAUD., Lacerta stellio L., Agama cordylea MERR., TOUR-
NEFORT Voyage du Levant, Lyon, 1717, I. p. 373, RUPPELL Atlas zu der
Reise in nordl. Afrika, Rept. Tab. 2, GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 6, fig. 2
(the head); found in Egypt, Asia Minor and Greece; in the sixteenth
century (according to BELON, Observations deplusieurs singularites, pp. 114,
131) the excrement of this animal was used as a paint for the face, under
the name of Stercus Lacerti or Crocodilea. In the same way the ancients
made use of the excrement of the land-crocodile, or Varanus scincus • see
above, p. 297 *.

Uromastix MERR. Head obtuse, covered with numerous very
small scutella. Canine teeth not distinct; superior incisors con-
crete in adults; apex of lower jaw edentulous. Back covered with
very small, smooth scales. Femoral pores. Tail depressed at the
base, broad, covered above with large, aculeate, verticillate scales.

Sp. Uromastix spinipes MERR., GEOFFR. Rept. tfEyypte, PI. 2, fig. 2 ; Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PI. 13, fig. 2. — Urom. HardwicUi GRAY, Uromastix
reticulatus GUER. Iconogr., Rept. PI. 6, fig. 4, &c. The tail of this annual
has some conformity with that of Zonurus.

Leiolepis Cuv. Head and back covered with very small,
granular scales ; scales of abdomen smooth, transverse. Tail very
long, thick at the base, suddenly becoming slender, and running into
a filiform extremity. Row of pores along the whole inner side of
thigh.

Sp. Leiolepis guttatus Cuv., GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 7, fig. 2. Sumatra
(and Cochin-China ?).

PJirynocepJialus KAUP. Head short, obtuse, almost circular.
Membrane of tympanum concealed. Nostrils in the margin of

1 coloi'que

Stercore fucatus crocodili.

HORAT., Epodon, xn. 10, n.

REPTILIA. 301

snout. Body broad, flat. Scales small, ventral scales smooth.
Gular fold. Anal and femoral pores none. Toes serrate. Tail
slender.

Sp. Phrynocephalus helioscopus WAGL., Lacerta kelioscopa PALL., GM., GRA-
VENHORST Nov. Act. Acad. Leop. Carol, xvi. p. 2, T. 64, figs. 9 — 14,
p. 934, in the south of Siberia; — Phrynocephalus auritus KAUP, Lacerta
aurita PALL. Voyages dans plusieurs Provinces de Russie, Tom. v. PI. 9,
fig. i, DUM. et BIBR. Erpet. iv. PI. 42, fig. i, &c.

B. With teeth united to the inner side of jaws.

Phrynosoma WIEGM. Head covered with tuberculate scuta,
armed posteriorly with large spines. Palatine teeth none. Body
flat, aculeate. Gular fold. Tail short, broad at the base, suddenly
gracilescent. Feet short. Femoral pores.

Sp. Phrynosoma orbiculare WIEGM., Lacerta orbicularis L. (in part, excl.
synon. of SEBA referrible to Agama spinosa), GRAVENHORST 1. 1. Tab. 68,
pp. 911—917, WIEGM. Herpet. Mexic. Tab. 8, fig. i; in Mexico and also
in the United States. Here also belong Phrynosoma cornutum, Agama
cornttta HARLAN, and two other species, all figured in HOLBROOK North
Americ. Herpet. in. PL 9 — 12.

Sceloporus WIEGM., Tropidolepis Cuv., DUM. and BIBR.
Head scutate. Palatine teeth none. Large imbricate scales, dorsal
keeled, abdominal smooth. Large femoral pores.

Sp. Sceloporus undulatiis, Agama undulata BAUD., HOLBROOK N. Americ.
Herpet. in. PL 8, North America, Mexico, West Indies; — Sceloporus
torquatus WIEGMANN, Herp. Mex. Tab. 7, fig. i ; from Mexico like various
other species, on which compare WIEGMANN lib. cit.

Tropidurus NEUW., WIEGM. (Proctotretus DUM. and BIBR.,
Ecphymotes Cuv., DUM. and BIBR., not FITZ., Hoplurus Cuv.,
DUM. and BIBR.). Head scutate, short, triangular, not distinct
from trunk. Nostrils tubular. Palatine teeth distinct. Scales im-
bricate, mostly large, the upper carinate, acuminate, the subjugular
and abdominal smooth. Femoral pores none.

Liolcemus WIEGM., Proctotretus DUM., BIBR. Throat not folded.
No crest at nape. Some prseanal pores in males.

Sp. Tropidurus chilensis WIEGM. &c. Comp. WIEGM ANN Nov. Act. Acad.
Leop. Carol. Tom. xvn. p. i. There is a certain conformity of habit with
the Seines.

Tropidurus FITZ., Ephymotes Cuv. Throat folded transversely.
Anal pores none. Nape not crested.

302 CLASS XV.

Sp. Tropidurus torquatus MAXIM., Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras. Lief. vi. ; in
Brasil, on rocks, old walls; runs quickly and climbs with great facility.

Hoplurus Guv., FITZ. Throat folded transversely. Anal pores
none. Nape subcristate.

Sp. Tropidurus Cuvieri GBAY, WIEGM., Uromastix cydurus MEBB., SEBA
TJiesaur. I. Tab. 97, fig. 4, GUEB. Icon., Rept. PL 12, fig. 3; this species
is the true Quetz-paleo of SEBA, which name has been given erroneously to
various other species of Saurii.

Strobilurus WlEGMANN, Steironotus FITZ., in part.

Steirolepis FITZ., Platynotus WAGL., Microlophus DUM. and
BIBR.

Platycercus AUG. DUM. Head covered with polygonal scales,
scabrous. Palatine teeth. Fold at the sides of throat. Two or
three femoral pores on each side, scarcely conspicuous. Tail short,
thick, flat below, armed with aculeate spines above.

Sp. Platycercus aculeatus AUG. DUMEBIL, Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1854, PL
I 2 ; habitat in Brasil.

Urocentron KAUP, Doryphorus Cuv. Palatine teeth none.
Deep jugular fold. Scales of back small, not imbricate, smooth,
gibbous. Femoral pores none. Tail verticillate with large keeled
scales.

Sp. Urocentrum azureum WAGL., Lacerta azurea L., SEBA Thes. n. Tab. 62,
fig. 6, Stellio brevicaudatus DAUD. Rept. iv. PL 47; GUEB. Icon., Rept.
PL 6, fig. 3, &c.

Here also FITZINGEB placed, under the name of Doryphorus Maximiliani,
the species described by the PBINCE of NEUWIED as the Quetz-Paleo of
SEBA, Nov. Act. Acad. Leop. Car. xiv. Tab. 15 (Opiums Maximiliani DUM.
and BIBB.).

(On some other sub-genera comp. FITZINGEB Syst. Rept. 1843, pp.
70—79)-

Phalanx II. Iguanoe, s. Dendrobatce. Body compressed, with
back keeled, often crested. Head tetragono-pyramidal. Mem-
brane of tympanum mostly naked, superficial.

A. With teeth united to the inner side of jaws.

Anolius Cuv., (Anolis DAUD., DUM.), Dactyloa WAGL. Head
flat above, declivous at the sides, covered with numerous scutella,
often tuberculate. Palatine teeth. Aperture of auditory meatus

REPTILIA. 303

small ; membrane of tympanum rather depressed. Scales all small.
Femoral pores none. Toes very unequal, with last phalanx ex-
panded and finely striated beneath with transverse folds. Skin
under the throat mostly expanded into a sac. Tail long.

Dracontura FITZ., Draconura, WAGL. Toes scarcely expanded.
Middle dorsal scales larger than lateral. Tail somewhat round,
very long.

Sp. Anolius refulgens SCHL. ; — Dracontura izlineata BERTH., Dracontura
Bertholdi FITZ., BEKTHOLD Ueber einige neue oder wenig bekannte Amphi-
bienartm, 1842, Tab. n. fig. 7.

Dactyloa WAGL. Toes furnished with an obovate expansion.

a) With abdominal scales flat, often imbricate.

Sp. Anolius punctatus DAUD., Rept. iv. PL 48, fig. i, Anolis viridis MAXIM.,
Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras., Rept. 7; — Anolius lineatus GBAVENH., DUM.,
Lacerta strumosa L., BAUD. Rept. iv. PL 48, fig. i ; — Anolius Cepedii
MEEK., Anolius alligator DUM., BIBB., le Roquet LAC. Quadr. orip. i. PL 27.
These are small species, often with lively colours. In many the tail has an
erect crest, which, in Anolius veliferCuv., R. Ani. PL v. fig. i, is supported
by the spinous processes of the caudal vertebrae.

b) With abdominal scales granular, very small.

Pseudochamcdeon FITZ., Chamcdeolis COCTEAU. Sp. AnoUs chamcdeonides
DUM., BIBB.

Lcemanctus WIEGM., FITZ., Ecphy motes FITZ.

Sp. Lcemanctus acutirostris WIEGM., DUM. and BIBB., Polychrus acutirostris
SPIX, Lacert. Tab. xv. a; no femoral pores ; palate without teeth; the toes
without dilatation.

Note. — FITZINGER places here as sub-genera the genera Norops
WAGL., and Urostrophus DUM. and BIBR.

Polychrus Cuv., MERR. Head depressed above, covered with
flat unequal scutella, the middle and anterior larger. Anterior
maxillary teeth subulate, posterior compressed, obsoletely tricuspi-
date. Palatine teeth short, conical. Scales small, mostly carinate,
imbricate. Throat folded, dilatable like a sac. Row of small
femoral pores. Tail very long.

Sp. Polychrus marmoratus Cuv., Lacerta marmorata L., SEBA Thesaur. 11.
Tab. 76, fig. 4, tongue fancied, LAC. Quadr. ovip. et serp. i. PL 26,-GuEBiN
Iconogr., Rept. PL 1 1, fig. 3, &c. ; Brasil, Surinam. These and some other
lacertine animals of the same family possess the property of changing
colour, like Chamceleon and Calotes of the eastern hemisphere.

304 CLASS XV.

Callisaurus BLAINV., DUM. and BIBR., Megadactylus FITZ.
Head scutellate, short. Palatine teeth none. Scales small, smooth,
imbricate. Throat folded longitudinally, expansile; jugular fold
transverse. Row of femoral pores. Toes slender, elongate. Tail
shorter than trunk, depressed beneath.

Sp. Callisaurus draconoides BLAINV., Nouv. Ann. du Museum, iv. 1835, PL
24, fig. 2. North America, California.

CopJwsaurus TKOSCH.

A genus much resembling the preceding, but distinct from it and the
other congeners in having the membrane of tympanum covered, and in the
defect therefore of auditory pore. Sp. Cophosaurus texanus TEOSCHEL,
Archivf. Naturgesch. 1850, s. 388, Taf. vi.

Hypsibatus WAGL., WlEGM.

Ophryoessa BOIE. Head short, covered with subequal scutella.
Anterior teeth subulate, posterior compressed, triangular, tricuspi-
date. Palatine teeth distinct. Throat folded longitudinally, not
expansile into a sac; jugular fold transverse. Femoral pores none.
Scales small, keeled, imbricate. Crest running above the back and
the very long, compressed tail.

Sp. Ophryoessa superciliosa BOIE, Lacerta superciliosa L., SEBA Thesaur. I.
Tab. 96, fig. 6, n. Tab. 14, fig. 4, Lophurus xipkosurus SPIX, Lacert. Tab.
ro, GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 8, fig. i ; Brasil, Surinam.

Cyclura HARLAN (Ctenosaura WIEGM. previously). Head
covered with scutella. Anterior teeth conical, posterior tricuspid,
compressed. Palatine teeth distinct. Skin of throat lax, folded
transversely, not inflatable. Jugular fold transverse. Membrane
of tympanum superficial. Serrated, low crest, formed of erect
triangular scales along the middle of back and tail. Scales very
small; tail very long with scales larger, aculeate, verticillate.

Sp. Cyclura pectinata WIEGM., Herpet. Mexic. Tab. 2 ; — Cyclura denticulate
WIEGM. 1. 1. Tab. 3, Cyclura acanthura BLAINV. Nouv. Ann. du Mus. iv.
PI. 24, fig. i, &c.

Brachylophus Cuv. Head covered with scutella very small,
flat, numerous, subequal. Skin of throat lax, pendulous. Palatine
teeth. Scales of back granulous, small, scales of feet, belly and
tail carinate. Tail very long. Femoral pores. Low pectinate
crest along the middle of back and base of tail.

KEPTILIA. 305

Sp. Brachylophus fasciatus Cuv., Iguana fasciata BRONGN., Essai classific.
Rept. p. 34, PL i, fig. 5, GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 9, fig. i ; New Guinea,
East Indies. This species is the only one hitherto found in the eastern
hemisphere which belongs to the division of the Pleurodontes.

Iguana DAUD., Cuv., (in part), Hypsilophm WAGL. Head
covered with scutella and scuta in the middle part. Nostrils
tubular. Membrane of tympanum superficial. Palatine teeth dis-
tinct, in a double row on each side. Anterior maxillary teeth
subulate, posterior oval, compressed, with margin denticulate.
Throat with dewlap pendulous, compressed, denticulate. Crest in
middle of back and tail formed of erect acuminate scales. Row of
large femoral pores. Abdominal scales larger, dorsal very small.

Sp. Iguana tuberculata LAUR., Lacerta Iguana L., SEBA Thesaur. i. Tab. 95,
fig. i, Tab. 97, fig. 3, HOUTTDTN Natuurl. Hist. i. 6e Stuk, PI. 52, fig. 2,
DAUD. Rept. in. PI. 40; Cuv. R. Ani., ed. HI., Rept. PI. 17; in South
America, scarcely further than to 14° S. L. ; in Brasil it is called senembi ;
the taste of its flesh and of its eggs is esteemed ; — Iguana nudicottis Cuv.,
Iguana delicatissima LAUR. (excl. synon.), SEBA Thesaur. Tab. 96, fig. 5,
GUERIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 1 1, fig. i ; West Indies, Brasil.

Note. — Add sub-genera: Amblyrhynchus BELL, Aloponotu* DUM.,
BIBR., and Metopoceros WAGL. In Amblyrhynchus the dewlap is
absent, in the others it resembles that of Iguana; these last are
distinguished from the Iguance by a double row of femoral pores,
and by flat subvertical nostrils.

Corythophanes BOIE (and Chamceleopsis WlEGM.). Head short,
covered with small scutella, flat or concave above, crested above
the eyes, produced posteriorly into a kind of helmet. Membrane
of tympanum superficial. Palatine teeth distinct. Back crested.
Throat furnished with dewlap. Jugular fold. Femoral pores
none. Scales of feet, tail and abdomen keeled. Tail very long,
growing slender, not crested.

Sp. Corythophanes cristatas, Agama cristata DAUD., SEBA Thesaur. i. Tab.
94, fig. 4 ; this species has a membranous crest in the neck, on which the
row of erect scales, which is continued along the back, begins ; the scales
of the back are small, smooth, irregular; the throat-sac is dentated be-
low. — Corythophanes chamceleopsis DUM., BIBR., Chamceleopsis Hemandesii
WIEGM., Herpet. Mexic. Tab. 6. In this species the membranous crest in
the neck is absent and the row of erect scales begins above the back ; on
the back some keeled scales stand in three or four inconspicuous transverse
bands. Both species are from Mexico.

VOL. ii. 20

306 CLASS XV.

Basiliscus LAUR., Cuv. (species from genus Basiliscus DAUD.,
MERE., add Corythceolus KAUP). Head crested posteriorly by an
erect cutaneous fold, covered with small scutella. Palatine teeth
distinct. Back and tail to the very end keeled with a row of erect
scales. Throat lax, rugose; neck folded transversely. Scales of
back keeled, disposed in transverse rows. Femoral pores none.
Toes of hind feet denticulate.

Sp. Basiliscus mitratus DAUD., Lacerta Basiliscus L., SEBA T/ies. i. Tab. TOO,
fig. 4 (fig. copied in HOUTTUTN Natuurl. Hist. i. 6, Tab. 52, fig. i), DAUD.
Rept. in. PL 42, GU£R. Iconogr., Rept. PI. 1 1, fig. 2 ; Surinam, West
Indies. In some adult species (probably male) the membranous crest on
the back and tail is very high and is supported by the spinous processes of
the vertebrae.

B. With teeth set upon the margin of jaws and concrete with
jaws. (Palatine teeth none.}

t With femoral pores distinct.

Histiurus Cuv. (and Physignathus ejusd.), LopJiura GRAY.
Membrane of tympanum superficial. Back crested. Toes of hind
feet surrounded by a membrane or denticulate. Scales of back
carinate, less than those of abdomen. Tail long, compressed.

Sp. Histiurus amboinensis Cuv., Lacerta amboinensis SCHLOSSER, Epistola ad
F. DEJEAN, Amstelodami, 1768, 4to, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Rept. PL 15,
fig. i ; a large species from Celebes, Amboyna, &c. In full-grown male
specimens the spinous processes of the anterior caudal vertebrae are much
elongated, and support a high crest which rests on the fore part of the tail
like a dorsal fin; — Histiurus physignathus DUM., BIBB., Physignathus cocin-
cinus Cuv. R. Ani., sec. €d. PL 6, fig. i, GU^BIN Iconogr., Rept. PL 9,
fig.*.

Chlamydosaurus GRAY. Head scaly. Membrane of tympanum
superficial. Back not crested. Scales lanceolate, keeled. A
folded, scaly, ample membrane covering the neck like a cloak,
affixed above tympanum on each side. Toes simple. Tail very
long, round.

Sp. Chlamydosaurus Kingii GRAY, GRIFFITH'S Animal Kingdom, ix. Plate
opposite to p. 217, DUM. et BIBR. Erpetol. PL 45; New Holland; this
species attains a considerable size, like the Histiurus of Amboyna and the
Iguanas of America.

tt With femoral pores none,
a) With hind feet tetradactylous.

REPTILIA. 307

Semiophorus WAGL., FITZ., Sitana Cuv., DUM. and BIBR.
Scales rhombic, keeled. Membrane of tympanum superficial. Throat
of males with a very large dewlap, pendulous, folded; of females,
with the skin tense. Tail slender, very long.

Sp. Semiophorus pondicerianus WAGL., Sitanu pondiceriana Cov., R. Ani.,
sec. edit. PL 6, fig. 2, GUEBIN Iconogr., Rept. PL 10, fig. 2.

b) With all the feet pentadactylous.
* With sides of trunk expanded.

Draco L. Canine teeth large, subulate; molar triangular, with
margin trilobed. A duplicature of skin on each side of the body,
supported by the anterior false ribs, which are elongate, straight.
Throat furnished with a middle pendulous dewlap, long in males,
and two others lateral, small. Tail long, slender ; small imbricate
scales.

Flying lizard or dragon. This genus contains small lizards from the
Indian Archipelago, of which also a single species occurs on the continent
of the East Indies. They live in trees and feed on insects.

Compare on the anatomy F. TIEDEMANN Anatomic und Natur-geschichte
des Drackens. Mit 3 Kupfert., Niirnburg, 1811, 4to; on the species of
this genus, besides DCMEBIL and BIBBON, SCHLEGEL Allild. neuer Amphi-
lien, pp. 81 — 96, Tab. 24, may be consulted.

Sp. Draco viridis BAUD, (and Draco fuscus ejusd.), Draco volans L. (and Dr.
prapos L,), BAUD. Rept. HI. PI. 41, TIEDEMANN 1. 1. Tab. i, SCHLEGEL 1. 1.
fig. i ; — Draco fimbriatus KUHL, GUEB. Iconogr., Rept. PI. 10, fig. i ; both
from Java and Sumatra ; the last is the largest of known species. In some
the tympanic membrane is concealed under the scaly skin, as in Draco
lineatus DAUD., Draco volans BLUMENB., All. Naturh. Gegenst. No. 98,
SCHLEG. 1. 1. fig. 5. From these species WIEGMANN forms the genus
Dracunculus. I have not observed in a single specimen that the fore limbs
are attached to the parachute, as is stated by SEBA in the description of
a figure in his work (i. Tab. 102, fig. 2). On this character Draco prcepos
L. rests.

" With sides of trunk not expanded.
a) Membrane of tympanum conspicuous.

Calotes Cuv. Head scaly. Back crested. Throat lax, pen-
dulous like a sac. Tail very long, gracilescent.

Calotes DUM. and BIBR. Scales of back equal, arranged in oblique
rows. Jugulum not folded.

Sp. Calotes opkiomachus MEBB., Lacerta calotes L., SEBA Thes. i. Tab. 93,
fig. 2, Tab. 95, figs. 3, 4, LAC. Quadr. ovip. et Serp. i. PL 19, DAUD. in.

20—2

308 CLASS XV.

PI. 43 ; light blue, with white transverse bands ; the scales large and thin ;
those of the belly keeled and pointed ; Bengal •— Calotes gutturosus WIEGM.,
Bronchocela cristatella KAUP, Agama moluccana LESS., DUPEBREY Voyage
autour du Monde, Kept. PL i, fig. i ; GUEB. Iconogr., Kept. Tab. 7, fig. 3 ;
a very common species in the Sunda-islands.

Gonyocephalus KAUP, Lophyrus DUM. Scales of back small,
arranged in transverse rows, with larger and rounded interposed.
Jugular fold transverse, angulate. Tail compressed or subcom-

Sp. Calotes megapogon Mus. L. B., Lophyrus dilophus DUM. and BIBB. Erpet.
PL 46, New Guinea; — Calotes tigrinus nob., Gonyocephalus tigrinus GRAY,
SEBA The*, i. Tab. 100, fig. 2, SCHLEG. Abbild. Tab. 23, DUM., BIBB.
Erpti. PI. 41; Java, Sumatra; with a short head, flat or concave above,
strongly declining forwards ; a sharply projecting edge above the eyes.

Arpephorus A. DUME*R.

Sp. Arpephorus tricinctu* A. DUMEBIL, GU^BIN Magasin de Zool. 1851, PI.
7 ; this animal, which is known to me from the figure referred to alone,
would seem to be a native of Java : in addition to the dorsal scales placed
in transverse rows and the compressed tail of Gonyocephalus, it has a flattened
projection of skin, like a sword, that terminates in a point at the fore part
of the head1.

f3) Membrane of tympanum concealed.
Ceratophora GRAY.
Otocryptis WlEGM.

Lyriocephalus MERR., DUM. and BIBR. (Lyrocephalus WAGL.);
Head crested on both sides above the eyes, the crest at the occiput
running out into a point. Globose tubercle at the point of snout.
Throat with dewlap obsolete; jugular fold angulate. Back and
tail with a low, denticulate crest. Tail compressed. Scales at the
sides of back granular, small, with larger subrotund and keeled
interposed. Abdominal scales larger than dorsal, keeled.

Sp. Lyriocephalus margaritaceus MEBR., Lacerta scutata L., SEBA Thesaur.
Tab. 109, fig. 3, Cuv. R. Ani., id. ill., Rept. PI. 15, fig. 2; Ceylon.

1 In the Museum at Leyden there is a specimen with the provisional name
Calotes nasicorn.is, that in colour and in position of the scales corresponds with
figure of Arpephorus, but has only a small pointed and soft appendage on the snc
The scales also, which are very large and almost quadrangular, are conspicuously
keeled, of which DuMEBiL gives no notice. I cannot perceive an external tympanic
membrane.

REPTILIA. 309

Family XX. Chamceleonidei (Chamceleontes WIEGM.). Teeth
of jaws united to the margin; palatine teeth none. Tongue pro-
tractile to a great distance, fleshy, round, thick at the apex,
glutinous. Scales small, granular. Feet four, slender, pentadac-
tylous, with toes divided into two opposite fasciculi. Membrane of
tympanum concealed under skin.

Chamcelean GRONOV., MERR., FITZ., WAGL., Chamceleo LAUR.,
DUM., BIBR. Characters those of the family. (Teeth compressed,
anterior very small, posterior larger, tricuspidate. Occiput produced
into a kind of helmet. Outer toes of fore feet two, of hind feet
three. Femoral pores none. Two horizontal eyelids concrete to
form a single circular eyelid, furnished with a small aperture in
front of the large eye. Back compressed, keeled. Tail prehensile,
long.)

The genus Chamceleon is clearly distinguished from all the other
Saurii, however Lyrioceplialus in some degree resembles it. Most
of the species belong to Africa, and especially to the island of
Madagascar; the common North- African species occurs also in
Spain, and was known to the ancients, who in regard to the changes
of colour of this animal, advanced the erroneous opinion that its
colour changes to that of the objects on which it is placed. Cha-
meleons are not more remarkable for this change of colour than
for the motion of their tongue as swift as an arrow1. By this the
sluggish animals capture the insects on which they feed; with the
mouth itself or with the feet they never seize their prey.

1 According to HOUSTON, when this takes place there occurs at the same time
a swelling from congestion of the blood-vessels, a true erection. Essay on the structure
and mechanism of the tongue of the Chamcdeon, Transact, of the Roy. Irish. Acad.
Dublin, 1828 ; this opinion was, however, afterwards contested by RUSCONI (MUELLER'S
Archiv, 1844, s. 508 — 519). It is simply a muscular action ; the hyo'id bone is pro-
duced into a slender tapering style which penetrates the tongue and is surrounded by
a lax and mucous sheath. The m. m. geniohyoldeus and mylohyoldeus move this style
forwards upon the horns of the hyo'id bone, whilst, in the substance of the tongue
itself, there are also curved and decussating muscular fibres which radiate from the
circumference to the center and press upon the organ in such a way as to cause it to
glide along the lingual style of the hyo'id bone. These fibres form what BRUECKE calls
the m. accelerator lingucs. See his remarks on the tongue of the Chameleon in
Sitzunysberichte der math, naturw. Classe der Kaiserl. Acad. der Wissensch. vin. 1852,
s. 65 and foil. Similar independent observations were published at the same time by
J. ZAGLAS in J. GOODSIR'S Annals of Anat. and Physiol. Edinb. 1852, no. n.,
pp. 138 — 153, PI. vi. See also a careful dissection and explanation of the movements
of the tongue of the Chameleon by SALTER in TODD'S Cyclop, of Anat. and Phy-
siol. iv. pp. 1147 — 1150.

310 CLASS XV.

Compare on the internal structure of this genus W. VBOLIK. Natuur-en
ontleedkundige Opmerlcingen over den Chameleon. Met. PL Amsterdam,
1827, 8vo. See, also, AUG. DUMEBIL Famille des Cameleoniens, Archives
du Mus. d'ffist. nat. VI. 1852, pp. 257 — 264, PI. 21, 22.

Sp. Chamceleon vulgaris Cuv., Lacerta chamceleon L. (excl. of some citations),
Chamceleon carinatus MERB., GUEBIN Iconogr., Rept. PI. 15, fig. i ; figured
in its different colours in my Icones ad illustrandas coloris mutationes in
Chamceleonte, L. B. 1831, 4to; see also E. BBUECKE Untersuchungen uber
den Farbenwechsel des africanischen Chamceleons, Denkschr. der math,
naturw. Classe der Kaiserl. ATcad. ivter Bd. Wien, 1852; — Chamceleon
biftdus BBONGN., Essai classif. nat. des Rept. PI. n. fig. 7, BAUD. Rept. iv.
PI. 54, East Indies, Mauritius, Madagascar (and New Holland ?) ; remark-
able from the two processes projecting in front of the head, formed by the
frontal and upper jaw-bones; see Cuv. Rech. sur les ossem. foss. v. 2, PI.
1 6, figs. 30, 32. Another species from Western Africa, near the Equator,
which I know only from the description, differs by a crest on the back,
which, as in Basiliscus and Histiurus, is supported by the spinous processes
of the vertebrae : Chamceleon cristatus STUTCHBUBY, Trans. Linn. Soc. xvn.
Tab. 10, p. 361.

Family XXI. Ascalobotm. Body depressed, covered with
small imbricate scales and often with scattered tubercles ; scales of
back smaller, of abdomen and feet a little larger. Head depressed,
large, with marginal scutes at each jaw, elsewhere entirely scaly.
Tongue short, fleshy, papillose, with apex free, obtuse, scarcely
emarginate. Aperture of auditory passage distinct; membrane of
tympanum depressed. Palatine teeth none, maxillary thin, subu-
late, numerous, adhering to the internal margin of jaws. Eyes
large, covered by an immoveable eye-lid as though by a trans-
parent capsule; pupil often oblong, vertical. Tail moderate.
Feet short, pentadactylous, the anterior sometimes with thumb
very short, the rest of fingers subequal. (Femoral pores in some
distinct, in most none.)

The Gfecko'id Lizards have many remarkable characters by which
they are distinguished from the other families of this order, and,
like the Chameleons, form an independent group. The eyes, as
J. MUELLER pointed out, are, as in the serpents, covered by a trai
parent eye-lid, behind which the eye has a free motion. Th
animals have mostly a leaf-like expansion at the toes which i
folded below, and the nails (which, however, in some species
wanting on some of the toes or even altogether) are capable of ret
tion, as in cats.

These animals feed on insects. The name Gecko is derived from
the sound which they make, and which in one or more In

REPTILIA. 311

species resembles this word. Species of this family are found in
the warm regions of both hemispheres of the earth ; many live in
houses, and climb with ease the walls and ceilings. Most of the
species are small, 5" — 7", few only attain a length of 10".

On this family may be compared the Monograph (now somewhat anti-
quated) of J. G. SCHNEIDER, Denkschriften der Konigl. AJcad. der Wissen-
schaft&i zu Munchenfur die Jahre 1811 und 1812, s. 31 — 70, Tab. i.

Lomatodactylus mihi. Toes dilated, striated beneath.

Platydactylus Cuv. (and Thecadactylus ejusd.), DUM. and BIBR.
Toes dilated or winged through their whole length, finely plicated
transversely beneath. Tail mostly covered with small scales both
above and below.

A) With feet cloven,.

a) With all the toes unarmed; the back with sinatt sub-equal scales. Sp.
Platydactylus ocellatus Guv. (and inunguis ejusd.), Cuv. R. Ani. PI. 5,
fig8- 3> 4) Cape of Good Hope; a small species, known to the colonists
there by the name of geitje; WIEGMANN formed from this species his genus
Pachydactylus ; — Platydactylus cepedianus Cuv. 1. 1. fig. 5, at Madagascar
and the island Mauritius ; in this species the thumb of the fore foot is only
a short stump ; femoral pores are present, which are wanting in the first-
named species.

b) With thumb and second and third fingers unarmed. (Femoral and
prceanal pores none. Tubercles carinate or gibbous, scattered amongst the
scales of back.) Sp. Platydactylus mauritanicus, Lacerta, mauritanica L.,
Gecko fascicularis DAUD., BONAP. Faun. Ital., Amfibi, Tav. 54, fig. i; ash-
coloured, with transverse bands of tubercles on the back ; this species is
met with in the south of France, Italy, Spain and Algiers; useful in
houses from destroying insects, it is however avoided and persecuted as
venomous, an example of human ingratitude.

c) With thumb alone unarmed, the other fingers unguiculate. (Femoral
or prceanal pores at least in males.) Sp. Platydactylus guttatus Cuv., Lacerta
Gecko L., SEBA Thesaur. i. Tab. 108, figs. 1—9, DAUD. Rept. iv. Tab. 49 ;
one of the largest species of this genus, very common in the East Indies, in
the Sunda-islands, and also in China ; — Platydactylus vittatus, Gecko vittatus
HOUTTUTN, Verhandel. ran het Zeeuwsch Genoostschap, ix. 1782, bl. 336,
fig. 2, BRONGNIART Classif. not. des Rept. fig. 6, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Rept. PI. 20, fig. i ; Amboyna, Timor ; brown red, with a milk-white stripe
along the middle of the back, which divides into two branches at the head,
running towards each eye; the tail with white rings. In this species
pori femorales are present only in males ; they lie in a curved line, almost
from the middle of the abdominal surface in front of the cloaca to the end
of the thighs at the knee-joint.

d) With all the fingers unguiculate.

Sp. Platydactylus seychellensis DUM. and BIBB.

312 CLASS XV.

Note. — To this division belongs sub-genus TJiecadactylus Cuv.,
with toes sulcate below, the groove receiving a nail. Femoral pores
none.

Sp. Platydactylus theconyx DUM. and BIBR., Gecko rapicauda HOUTT. Verh.
van het Zeeuwsch Genootschap, 1. 1. fig. i (tail monstrous from regeneration),
Gecko Icevis BAUD. Rept. iv. PI. 51, Stellio perfoliatus SCHNEID. Denkschr.
der ATcad. zu Munchen, 1. 1. Tab. I. figs, i, i ; in Surinam ; the only species
of this sub-genus.

B) With feet palmate.

a) With thumb unarmed, rest of fingers unguiculate. Ptychozoon KUHL.,
Pteropleura GRAY.

Sp. Platydactylus homalocephalus Cuv., Lacerta homalocephala CREVELD,
Magazin der Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde zu Berl. in. 1809, Tab. 8, DUM. et
BIBR. Erpe"t. PL 29; a flat scaly expansion along the sides is thrown round
like a cloak upon the belly ; the tail is as if finned with round flat lobes on
each side ; in the male pori prceanales are present. This remarkable species
occurs in Java and Sumatra.

b) With fingers all unguiculate.

Sp. Platydactylus Leachianus Cuv. Sub-genus Rhacodactylus FlTZ.

Hemidactylus Cuv. Toes winged at the base, with first phalanx
expanded into an oval disc striated beneath, second phalanx and
third round, slender. Tail covered below with a middle row of
transverse scutes.

Sp. Hemidactylus Mabouia Cuv., Gecko incanescens and G. armatus MAXIM.
Pr. zu WIED ; South America ; — Hemidactylus verruculatus Cuv., Hemidact.
triedrus, BONAP. (not BAUD.) Faun. Ital. Amfibi, Tav. 54, fig. 2; South of
Europe and Northern Africa.

There is a species of this genus with half swimming-membranes at the
feet and a flat tail spinous at the sides. Hemidactylus marginatus Cuv.,
Stellio platyurus SCHN. 1. 1. fig. 3, DUM. et BIBR. Erptt. PI. 30, fig. 2, from
Java. Here also would seem to be the place for the species known only
from a figure of SEBA (Thesaur. H. Tab. 103, fig. 2), from which WAGLER
forms the genus Crossarchus.

Ptyodactylus Cuv. Toes slender, dilated towards the points, with
a disc below folded like a fan, emarginate. Toes all unguiculate,
the nail received in a groove below the disc. Femoral pores none.

Sp. Ptyodactylus Hasselquisti DUM., BIBR., Lacerta Gecko HASSELQ. Ptyodac-
tylus guttatus KUEPPELL, Reise, Atlas, Rept. Tab. iv. fig. i ; Egypt, Arabia;
this species has a round tail. In other species the tail is flat and leaf- shaped,
as Ptyodactylus fimbriatus Cuv., Gecko fimbriatus DAUD., MERR., LACEP.
Quadr. ovip. i. PI. 30, DAUD. Rept. rv. PI. 52 ; the head is very flat; along
the sides of the lower jaw, the neck and the whole of the trunk, runs

REPTILIA. 313

a thin and short border, which is irregularly incised ; this species becomes
still larger than Platydactylus guttatus, and attains a length of 10"; it occurs
at Madagascar.

Sphceriodactylus Cuv. Toes slender, dilated towards the ex-
tremity, with cushion not folded. Femoral pores none.

Phyllodactylw GRAY, WIEGM. Toes all unguiculate, furnished under the
dilated extremity with two squamiform, smooth cushions. Sp. Sphcerio-
dactylus porphyreus Cuv., Gecko porphyreus BAUD., MERB. ; from Southern
Africa.

Diplodactylus GRAY, WIEGM. All the unguiculate toes supplied under
the scarcely dilated extremity with two oval cushions, carnoso-papillose.

Sphceriodactylus GRAY, WIEGM. All the toes unarmed, dilated into an
apical, subrotund cushion.

Sp. Spfueriodactylus sputator Cuv., Anolis sputator DAUD., LAC. Quadr. ovip.
I. PI. 28. (A very small species, only 2'' long, with dark-brown transverse
stripes on the back, from St Domingo.)

Stenodactylus FITZ., Cuv., mihi, (add. Gymnodactylus SPIX,
Cuv., Gonyodactylus KUHL, PhyUurus Cuv.). Toes simple,
slender, all unguiculate.

Stenodactylus Cuv., FITZ. Toes denticulate at the margin with
sharp scales. Femoral pores none.

Sp. Stenodactylus elegans FITZ., Stenodactylus guttatus Cuv., Descr. de VEgypte,
Rept. PI. v. fig. 2.

Gymnodactylus SPIX, (add. Phyllurus Cuv.). Toes with margin
entire, often elongate, geniculate. Femoral pores mostly none.

Sp. Stenodactylus scaber RUEPPELL, Ad. zu der Reise im nordl. Afr., Rept.
Tab. iv. fig. 2, &c.

There is a species with tail leaf-shaped, compressed, becoming narrow
towards the extremity, and with long curved toes, which is found in New
Holland : Stenodactylus phyllurus, Phyllurus platurus Cuv., Lacerla pla-
tura WHITE, Journ. of a Voyage to New South Wales, PI. 32, fig. 2, GUERIN
Iconogr., Rept. PL 14, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PL 20 Us, fig. 2;
it is coloured greyish-black above and covered with many spinose tubercles.

TRIBE II. Loricati.

Maxillary teeth conical, received into sockets at their base.
Slit of cloaca oblong. Penis single. Body covered above with
large scutes tuberculate or carinate.

314 CLASS XV.

Family XXII. Crocodilini. Maxillary teeth conical, palatine
none. Head covered with skin not scaly, adhering closely to the
cranial bones. Tongue adherent on all sides, flat, fleshy. Trunk
and tail mailed above and below with large, quadrangular scutes;
lesser scales at the sides of trunk oval or rounded. Hind feet
palmate or semipalmate. Tail compressed.

Crocodilus GRONOV., LAUR., SCHN. Characters of the family
those of the single genus. (Feet with three inner toes alone
unguiculate, anterior pentadactylous, posterior tetradactylous.
Transverse cutaneous fold above the auditory meatus. Tail longer
than trunk; a serrated crest extending above the tail, double at
its base, confluent and single towards the extremity.)

The crocodiles are large lizards that live in fresh water, and are
met with in warm regions of both hemispheres of the earth. They
are very voracious predacious animals; by day they keep more on
dry land, whilst they pass the night in the water, and then make
quest for their prey. HERODOTUS and ARISTOTELES have noticed
various interesting particulars concerning the crocodile of the Nile,
which have been confirmed by the later accounts of travellers. For
a long period different species of this genus have been known,
which LINNAEUS united under the name of Lacerta Crocodilus, and
which SCHNEIDER, and after him CUVIER more especially, have
distinguished with critical accuracy; about twenty species are
now known.

Compare J. G. SCHNEIDER Hist. Amphib. u. pp. i — 170; CUVIER Sur
les differ entes esp&ces de crocodiles vivans et sur leurs caracteres d'lstinclifs,
Ann. du Mus. d'Hist. not. x. 1807, pp. 8 — 66; also transferred and ampli-
fied in his Recherch. s. I. Ossem.foss., sec. 6d. v. i, pp. 14 — 66; F. TIEDE-
MANN, M. OPPEL and J. LIBOSCHITZ Naturgesckichte der Amphibien, Erstes
Heft, Krolcodil. Mit 15 Taf. Heidelberg, 1817, folio.

•h Upper jaw broad, obtuse, with margin extended beyond the teeth of
lower jaw.

Alligator Guv., Champsa WAGL.1 Hind feet semi-palmate. Teeth

1 This name ought to be suppressed ; it applies rather to the crocodile of the Nile,
which the Egyptians, according to HERODOTUS named thus, as at the present day,
according to the unanimous relation of travellers, temsack. Alligator (a corruption of
the Portuguese lagarto, which word is itself formed from lacerta) is the common name
which English voyagers and colonists give to the American crocodiles, whilst other
Europeans employ the name Kaaiman (Cayman or Caiman).

EEPTILIA. 315

unequal; the point of the fourth tooth of the lower jaw on each side
capable of reception in a pit of the upper jaw.

Sp. Crocodilus sclerops Guv., Ann. du Mus. x. PI. i, fig. 76, 6, the skull,
PI. 1 1, fig. 3, the nuchal shields or scutes, TIEDEMANN, OPPEL u. LIBOSCH.
1. 1. Tab. 5, MAXIM. Abb. zur Naturgesch. Brazil. Lief. xii. ; Caiman
fissipes SPIX, Champsa fissipes WAGL., FITZINGER and J. NATTERER,
Beitrdge zur ndhern Kenntniss der Sud-Amerikanischen AUigatoren, Annalen
des Wiener Museums, n. 1839, p. 321, Tab. 22; this species is met with in
South America, and attains a length of 8'. Other species also from South
America were formerly confounded under the collective name of Sclerops.
All the species of this sub-genus are from the western hemisphere ; they
occur in higher latitudes than the crocodiles of the eastern hemisphere.
Crocodilus lucius Cuv., Crocodilus missisipiensis, DAUD., Cuv. Ann du
Mus. 1. 1. PI. i, figs. 8, 15, PI. 2, fig. 4, TIEDEM., OPPEL u. LIBOSCH. Tab. 4,
with a flat head, round in front, which attains a length of 14'; lives in
North America.

ft Upper jaw not wider than lower. Fourth tooth of lower jaw on each
side received on the emarginate outside of upper jaw. Hind feet palmate.

Crocodilus Cuv. Teeth unequal. Head gradually narrowed
towards the snout. Margins of upper jaw waved (festooned).

Of this sub-genus of the crocodiles proper most of the species are from
the eastern hemisphere. From the western are Crocodilus rhombifer Cuv.,
TIEDEM., OPPEL u. LIBOSCH. 1. 1. Tab. 10, from Mexico and Cuba, and
Crocodilus acutus GEOFFR. Si.-HiL., Ann. du Mus. n. PL 37, fig. i, Cuv.
Ann. du Mus. x. PI. i, figs. 3, 14, PI. 2, fig. 5, TIEDEM., OPPEL u. LIBOSCH.
1. 1. Tab. 13, from St Domingo.

Of the species of the old world we notice, in the first place, that earliest
known from the Nile, Crocodilus vulgaris Cuv., Ann. du Mus. x. PI. i.
figs. 5, 12, PI. 2, fig. 7, WAGL. natiirl. System der Amphib. PL 7, TIEDEM.
OPPEL u. LIBOSCH. Tab. 8; with six keeled plates on the upper part of
the neck, fowr in the first and two in the hinder row; the large dorsal
shields form transverse rows, each consisting of six shields. The nilotic
crocodile is now no longer met with in the Delta, but only in Upper
Egypt ; in addition in many other parts of Africa, in the Senegal, &c. — In
the East Indies at the Sunda-islands, &c. is found Crocodilus biporcatus
Cuv., Ann. du Mus. x. PL r, figs. 4, 13, 18, 19, PL n. fig. 8, TIEDEM.,
OPPEL u. LIBOSCH. 1. 1. Tab. 9, with two tuberculated projecting ridges
running along the head from the eyes forward. This species attains a
length of eighteen feet. — In the interior of Borneo the voyager S. MUELLEB
discovered a remarkable species, with snout much elongated, which,
accordingly, he thought might be regarded as a gavial, Crocodilus Schle-
gelii, Tijdschr. voor natuurl. Gesch. en Physiol. v. 1838, bl. 61 — 87, PL 3;
this species is very beautifully figured in the Verh. over de natuurl. Gesch.
der Nederl. Overzeesche Bezittingen, Eeptilia, Tab. I. n. (GRAY has lately
united this species incorrectly with Crocodilus Journei. Compare on this

316 CLASS XV.

last-named species the article Crocodile by BoRY ST VINCENT, Diet, class.
d'Hist. natur. v. p. in, and the fig. PL 119, Liv. 14, No. 8.)

Gavialis OPP., Rhamphostoma WAGL. Teeth equal; upper jaw
with margin straight. Head narrowed abruptly with a very long
cylindrical snout.

Sp. Crocodilus gangeticus, Lacerta gangetica GMEL., LAC. Quadr. ovip. I.
PI. 15 ; the cranium figured Ann. du Mus. X. PL i, figs. 2, 10, xii. PI. i,
figs. 6, 7, the nuchal shields x. PL 2, fig. 1 1 ; the only species of this sub-
genus hitherto known. Jt lives in the Ganges, attains a remarkable size,
and feeds principally on fish. The adult male has a large tubercle at the
extremity of the upper jaw; compare hereon GEOFFE. SAINT-HILAIBE
Mem. du Mus. 1825, pp. 100 — 115, PI. 5.

OEDER VI. Chelonii.

Cavity of tympanum distinct; membrane of tympanum in most
naked, in some covered. Eyes with three eyelids. Teeth none.
Feet four. Body covered with a double shield, the upper com-
posed of confluent ribs, the lower of the sternum.

Family XXIII. Chelonii. (Characters of the order those
also of the single family.)

Tortoises. — They form with LINNAEUS only a single genus Testudo,
with 15 species; at present more than 130 are known. On the
composition of the shields we have already spoken shortly, (p. 207).
The scapula and the bones of the pelvis are situated under the ribs
and the spinal column; the muscles which move the limbs are
covered by the shields. In the vertebral column the seven cervical
vertebrae with the first dorsal vertebra, two or three sacral and the
caudal vertebrae, are alone capable of free motion. Ten dorsal ver-
tebrae, on the contrary, are immoveably connected with the angular,
flat, bony pieces, which form the middle row of the dorsal shield.
With these bony pieces the flattened expansions of the ribs are
connected on each side by suture; finally, the dorsal shield is
bordered by eleven bony pieces on each side. The dorsal shield,
consisting of these pieces, is in some tortoises flatter, in others more
round, and especially in the land -tortoises is much arched. As to
the sternal shield, we have already stated above (p. 207) that
it consists of nine pieces ; these leave between them open spaces
in the sea-tortoises (turtles), and in the three-nailed freshwater

REPTILIA. 317

tortoises (the genus Trionyx), which are occupied by nbro-cartilage ;
in the land-tortoises, on the other hand, and in the genus Emys, the
nine pieces of the sternum are mutually united by suture in the
adult period without interposed cartilage. The tortoises are tenacious
of life, and exhibit a long persistence of irritability in parts that
have been divided from the body. They attain a great age \ Most
of them live on vegetable food, or on molluscs also. During the
pairing season the tortoises, at other times usually timorous and
dull, are uncommonly lively and courageous. When copulating,
which is a work of days, the male is carried on the back of the
female. The females lay their eggs on the land, although copula-
tion, in the species that live in water, takes place there; they bury
the eggs when laid in the ground, in open places exposed to the
sun; those that live in water do this at such a distance from the
shore of the sea, or from the bank of rivers, that the highest state
of the water cannot reach them. The number of eggs is various;
the land-tortoises lay the smallest number, four or five, some species
however more, twelve or twenty; the fresh-water tortoises more;
the sea-tortoises the greatest number; commonly a hundred, or
even more.

Compare J. Gr. SCHNEIDER, AUgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schttdhroten,
Leipzig, 1783, 8vo; — J. D. SCHCEPFF Historia testudinum iconibus illus-
trata, Erlangae, 1792, 4to; accurate figures and descriptions distinguish
this work, which is unfinished (32 col. plates, 132 pp.); — T. BELL, A
Monograph of the Testudinata, London, 4to (this work, commenced in
1826, contains very beautiful coloured figures; it is still incomplete. I
have seen 34 plates of it); — L. EITZINGEB Entwurf einer systematischen
Anordnung der Schildkrdten, Ann. des Wiener Museums, I. 1835, s. 103 —
128. (A. F. SCHWEIGGEB Prodromus Monographic Cheloniorum, Eegio-
monti, 1814, is known to me only from quotations.) A. DUMEBIL Descrip-
tion des Reptiles du Museum. Cheloniens. Archives du Mus. d'ffist. not.
vi. 1852, pp. 212 — 249.

The work of BoJANUS already noticed (p. 211) is the chief work for the
anatomy.

A. Toes distinct. Feet palmate.

Trionyx GrEOFFR. (Gymiwpus and Cryptopus DUM. and BIBR.).
Covering of beak horny. Lips distinct, soft. Nose proboscidian.

1 Two examples are adduced of tortoises that continued alive more than a century
in a garden in England; J. G. SCHNEIDER Sammlung vermischter Abhandlungen.
Berlin, 1784, s. 308, 309.

318 CLASS XV.

Neck very long. Shell depressed, covered with smooth skin.
Feet with only three internal toes unguiculate. Tail short.

The absence of horny plates on the flat shield distinguishes this genus
not less than the three-nailed swimming feet. All the species live in fresh
water and are carnivorous. Sp. Trionyx JEgyptiaeus GEOFFR., Tesludo
triunguis FORSK., GMEL., GEOFFR. S-r.-HiL., Ann. du Mus. xiv. PL i, i,
Diet, des Sc. nat., Erp&ol. PL 3 ; this species lives in the Nile and eats the
young crocodiles with avidity as soon as they have escaped from the egg.
See the skeleton described and figured in C. A. MOHRING Diss. inaug.
zootom., sistens descriptionem Trionychos ^Egyptiaci osteologicam, Berolini,
1824, 4to; — Trionyx /eroas SCHWEIGG., Testudoferox PENNANT, LAC. Quadr.
ovip. i. PL 7, Trionyx spiniferus, LESUEUR Me"m. du Mus. xv. p. 258,
PL 6 ; this species, which attains a very large size, lives in North America,
in the rivers Wabash, Tennesee, and Ohio. Most of the species of this
not very numerous genus are from the East Indies.

Chelys DUME"R., WAGL., Matamata MERE. Covering of beak
thin, nearly cutaneous. Nose proboscidian. Head depressed,
trigonal. Dorsal shell depressed, small, covered with horny scutes;
supracaudal (pygal OWEN) marginal scutella two. Anterior feet
with five nails, posterior four. Neck fimbriato-carunculate, not
retractile, capable of flexion towards the sides of thorax.

Sp. Chelys fimbriata SCHWEIGG., Testudo finibriata SCHN., GMEL., SCHOTFF
Hist. Testud. Tab. 21 (figure re-engraved from that given by BRUGUIERE,
Journ. d'Hist. natur. 1792), DAUD. Kept. n. PL 20, fig. i, SPIX Spec. nov.
Test, et Ran. Tab. 1 1 ; Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Rept. PL 7, fig. 2 ; the only
known species of this genus which approaches nearer to Emys than to
Trionyx; this animal lives in stagnant fresh water in Guyana and Brasil.

Emys BRONGN. (DuM.). Covering of mandibles horny. An-
terior feet mostly with five nails, posterior with four. Dorsal
shield sub-gibbous, covered with horny scutes ; supracaudal margi-
nal scutella two.

This genus is the most numerous in species of the entire order of
tortoises ; most of them are met with in America. Emys is a Greek name
of tortoises that reside in fresh water. PLINIUS, Hist. nat. Lib. 32,
cap. 4.

t Neck capable of flexure to the sides of shield. Pelvis conjoined with

Hydraspis BELL, FITZ. (Platemys WAGL., DUM. and BIBR., with
addition of some other genera of modern writers).

Sp. Emys Planiceps SCHW., Testudo planiceps SCHN., SCHCEPFF 1. 1. Tab. 27;
— Emys Maximiliani MIKAN, Hydromedusa Maximiliani WAGL. Syst.

REPTILIA. 319

Amphib. Tab. 3, figs. 25, 26; compare PETEBS in MUELLEB'S Archiv.
1839, Tab. XIV. figs, i — 4, figure of the skull. This species and most
others of this sub-genus are met with in South America. Some others are
from Africa, and some from New Holland, as Emys longicollis, Chelodina
longicollis GBAT, DUM. and BIBB. Erptt. n. PI. 21, fig. 2.

(Note. — Sub-genera Pentonyx DUM. and BIBB., and Sternotherus BELL,
are distinguished by five nails of hind feet.)

H* Neck retractile under the shell between the fore feet. Pelvis not con-
joined with sternum.

Chelydra SCHW., WAGL., Emysaurus DUM. and BIBB. Sternum
small, narrow at the middle part, cruciform, immoveable. An-
terior feet with five nails, posterior with four. Tail elongate,
crested.

Sp. Emys serpentina MEBB., Testudo serpentine L., SCHCEPFF 1. L Tab. 6,
DUM. et BIBB. Erpet. PL 17, fig. i; North America, in lakes and rivers;
the dorsal shield with three keels, excised behind, and with three points on
each side.

Staurotypus WAGL.

Sp. Emys odorata SCHWEIGG., Testudo odorata DAUD. Tab. 24, fig. 3,
SCHOBPFF, Tab. 24, fig. B.

Cinostemum SPIX, WAGL. Anterior part of sternum moveable,
with middle part immoveable, posterior obscurely moveable.

Sp. Emys scorpioides (and Emys Retzii) SCHW., Testudo scorpioides L.

Cistuda FLEMING, Emys WAGL. (Terrapene MEEK, in part).
Sternum divided by transverse suture into two moveable parts,
capable of being drawn towards the dorsal shell when the animal is
retracted.

Sp. Emys Carolina (Testudo Carolina L. ?), Testudo clausa GMEL., SCH<EPFF
1. 1. Tab. 7, Cuv. R. Ani., $d. til., Rept. PI. 4, fig. 2, North America,
Cumberland River, Tennessee ; BLOCH has described this tortoise under the
name of Dosen-Schildkrote, Schriften der Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde zu
Berlin, vn. p. 131 ; — Emys Europcea SCHW., Testudo orbicularislj., Testudo
lutaria SCHN., GMEL., LAC. Quadr. ovip. I. PI. 4, 6, SCH<EPFF 1. 1. Tab. I.
Bo JANUS 1. 1. Tab. I. ; dorsal shield black, with interrupted light yellow
stripes; this species occurs in the south and east of Europe; the shell is
capable of closing like a box less perfectly than in the preceding species.

Emys DUM. and BIBR., Clemmys WAGL. Sternum immoveable,
broad.

Sp. Emyspicta SCHW., SCHCEPFF 1. 1. Tab. 4, Cuv. R. Ani., td. HI, Rept. PI.
4, fig. i ; from North America, as are most of the species of this sub-genus.

320 CLASS XV.

Many species also are known from the East Indies; one of the most
interesting is Emys spinosa BELL 1. 1. Tab. v. with a spine on the middle
of each of the dorsal plates and spines at the margin. From the small
development of the swimming-membrane of the feet this species approaches
in some degree to the land-tortoises.

Note. — To this sub-genus are to be referred sub-genera Tetraonyx LESS.,
with only four nails on both anterior and posterior feet (LESSON Illustr. de
Zool. PL 7), and Platysternon GEAT.

B. Toes indistinct. ( Covering of beak horny.}

Testudo BRONGN., Chersine MERE. Feet truncated, with short
nails. Back gibbous. (Nails of fore feet five, seldom four, of
hind feet four. Posterior marginal scute or supracaudal almost
always single, broad).

Sp. Testudo Grceca L., SCHCEPFF 1. 1. Tab. 8, 9, BONAP. Faun. Ital., Amfibi,
Tab. 48; the shield oval, somewhat broader behind than in front; this
species has commonly (but not always) two marginal shields above the
tail ; it occurs in Spain, Italy, and Greece. Most of the species are from
Africa; as the very common, prettily marked Testudo geometrica L.,
SOHCEPFF 1. 1. Tab. 10, DAUD. Rept. u. PL 23, fig. i, from the Cape of
Good Hope ; a species almost entirely similar in marking, but somewhat
more elongate, without an unpaired scutellum at the fore margin, which is
deeply incised, has been found in the East Indies, Testudo actinodes BELL,
la Geome'trique LAO. Quadr. ovip. I. PL 9. — There lives in South America
the Testudo tabulata WALBADM, SCH<EPFF 1. 1. Tab. 13, MAXIM. Pr. v.
NEUW. Abb. z. Naturgesch. Bras., Rept. Tab. 3, very common in collec-
tions.

Testudo areolata THUNB., SOHCEPFF 1. 1. Tab. 23, from the Cape of Good
Hope, has only four nails on the fore feet. This species belongs to a small
group, to which DUMERIL has given the name of Homopus.

In some the posterior part of the dorsal shield is moveable downwards,
Testudo Homeana, Cinixys Homeana BELL ; in a single species the anterior
part of the sternal shield is moveable, Testudo pyxis, Pyxis arachno'ides
BELL. See TH. BELL, On two new genera of Land Tortoises, Linn. Transact.
xv. 1827, p. 392 — 401, Tab. 16, 17.

Chelonia BRONGN. Feet changed into flat fins, anterior very
long, falcate. Back depressed. Sternum imperfect, in part carti-
laginous. (Nails only two or one; more rarely none.)

Chelonia BRONGN., BUM., Caretta MERR. Back covered with
horny scales.

Sp. Chelonia mydas SCHW., Testudo mydas L., Caretta esculenta MERE., LAC.
Q,uadr. ovip. I. PL T ; in the Atlantic Ocean, in the Indian and other seas,

REPTILIA. 321

in regions far remote, eatable, the shell is not made use of. — Chelonia
imbricate ScHW., Testudo imbricata L., LAC. Quadr. ovip. I. PL 2,
SCHOEPFF L L Tab. 18, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Kept. PL 6, fig. 2 ; with
smooth horny scales on the dorsal shield covering each other like house-
tiles, of a yellow colour with black dashes ; this species occurs in various
seas of warm regions, especially in the East Indies, and affords the best
tortoise-shell. The ancients were used to inlay boxes and even couches
with tortoise-shell, of which CARVILIUS POLLIO set the example.

Dermatochelys LESUEUR, Sphargis MERR., DUM., and BIBR. Back
covered with leathery skin, in younger individuals warty. Nails
none.

Sp. Chelonia coriacea, Testudo coriacea L., LAC. Quadr. ovip. I. PL 3,
SCHLEGEL Faun. Japan., Kept. Tab. i.; Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Rept. PL 7,
fig. i (younger specimen) ; this species attains a length of 6 — 8' ; it lives in
various seas, occurring now and then in the North Sea, on the coasts of
England and France 1.

The form of the anterior fin in the turtles nearly resembles that of the
wings in the genus of the Penguins (Aptenodytes).

[Extinct genera of reptiles occur in the secondary and tertiary
formations. Some of these are of peculiar interest as forming con-
necting links not only between remote families of reptiles, but also
between the class of reptiles and the other classes of vertebrate
animals.

Besides CUVIEB Ossements fossiles, V. 2, we refer especially to OWEN
Report on British Fossil Reptiles, Report of the Brit. Association for 1839,
PP- 43 — 126, ibid, for 1841, pp. 60 — 204, also (published by the Palaeonto-
graphical Society, London) OWEN On the Fossil Reptilia of the London
Clay, Pt. i. Chelonia, 1849, ibid- Pk TI- Crocodilia and Ophidia, 1850, ibid.
On the Fossil Reptilia of the Cretaceous Formations, 1851, ibid. Fossil
Chelonian Reptiles of the Wealden Clays and Purbeclc Limestone, 1853, ibid.
Fossil Reptilia of the Wealden Formations, Pt. in. Megalosaurus JBuck-
landii, 1856.

Saurobatrachi.

Cryptobranchus primigenius VAN DER HOEV. See p. 242. From
the tertiary freshwater lime formation at (Eningen.

Labyrinthodon OWEN, Mastodonsaurus JAEGER. General charac-
ter of skull batrachian, with affinities to the crocodilian structure

1 Here probably is to be referred the account of a large turtle on the coast of
ealand ; Jos. VAN IPEREX Verhandelingen van Tiet Zeeuwsch Genootschap, vi. biz. 620.

VOL. II. 21

322 CLASS xv.

in face and jaws. Nostrils subterminal, with posterior apertures of
air-passages distinct. Single row of small teeth in upper jaw, with
two or three larger tusks at the anterior extremity, and a continua-
tion of small teeth external and anterior to the tusks. Palatine
(vomerine) teeth in a transverse row, and a longitudinal row on
each side of the outer margin. Single row of teeth in lower jaw
with a large tusk on each side of the symphysis.

The teeth are slender in proportion to their length, not very acute,
striated towards the base ; for their structure see OWEN Odontogr. pp. 202 —
205, PL 64 A, figs. 2, 3, 64 B, fig. i, fig. 2. They are anchylosed in
shallow sockets, as in certain fishes. New Red sandstone of Warwick and
Leamington, and lower part of the Triassic series (Keuper) in Germany.
OWEN renders it probable that the foot-prints referred to the so-named
Cheirotherium were made by Labyrinthodon. Brit. Assoc. Iteport, 1841,
p. 1 88. Some of the species attained a length of several feet.

Archegosaurus GOLDFUSS. Teeth similar in structure to those of
Labyrinthodon, but the foldings less complex. Body covered with
small scales.

Sp. Archegosaurus Dechenii; cranium six and a half inches long, breadth half
the length; and other species; GOLDFUSS Beitrdge zur Fauna der Stein-
kohlengebirges, Bonn, 1847, 4to.

Parabatrachus OWEN. Sp. Parabatrachus Colei; from the Coal Shale,
Glasgow; OWEN Journ. of Geol. Soc. ix. 1853, pp. 66 — 70.

Brachyops OWEN.

Brachyops laticeps; sandstone of the lower Jurassic period; Journ. Geol.
Soc. i. 1845, pp. 318 — 322.

Telerpeton MANTELL.

Sp. Telerpeton elginense: this is perhaps the most ancient reptile known.
The fragments were discovered in the Devonian rocks of Morayshire;
Quarterly Journ. Geol. Soc. 1852, vin. p. 100. It is referred to the sala-
manders, but with lacertine characters.

Serpentes.
Palceophis OWEN. Allied to Python and Boa.

Sp. Palceophis toliapicus. London clay at Sheppey (Eocene tertiary). Brifl
Assoc. 1841, p. 1 80, &c.

For other genera see OWEN Palceontogr. Soc. 1850, pp. 57—68.

Enaliosauria OWEN.

Nostrils near the summit of head. Vertebrae biconcave or nearly
flat. Ilium not connected to sacral ribs by synchondrosis, bul

REPTILTA. 323

simply lying upon them. Coracoi'd and pubic bones much ex-
panded. Fore and hind extremities with numerous phalangeal
bones forming paddles.

Plesiosaurus CONYB. Head small, neck of great length (20 — 40
vertebrae) ; tail short. Vertebrae either flat or slightly concave.

Pliosaurus OWEN. Head very large; teeth in distinct sockets
with subtrihedral crown. Neck short, with very short vertebrae.
Vertebrae in back longer. The articular surfaces of the vertebrae
are flat in the cervical, slightly concave in the dorsal, rather more
concave in the caudal.

OWEN states that, as a rule, the length of the vertebrae is constant in
Enaliosaurs, in crocodiles and in lizards, whatever other modifications
they may undergo. The cervical region both in Pterodactyles and in
Pliosaurus forms a remarkable exception; in the first case the vertebrae
being much longer, in the other much shorter, than the dorsal vertebrae.
Though the teeth are in separate sockets yet the septa are much lower than
the outer and inner walls. Report of Br. Assoc. 1841, pp. 60—65.

Ichthyosaurus K(ENIG. Neck short. Head as broad as thorax.
Orbits very large; eye with numerous sclerotic plates. Teeth not
lodged in distinct sockets, but both the outer and inner plates of
alveolar groove are present. Vertebrae deeply biconcave. Tail
relatively much longer than in the preceding genus. Probably a
caudal crest.

On the Enaliosaurs see OWEN Rep. of Br. Assoc. for 1839, pp. 43—126.
Many species of Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus, the former about twice
as numerous as the latter, have been found in the secondary strata from
the Lias and lower Oolite to the Chalk, when they finally perished in the
latter deposit.

Pterosaur-la OWEN.

Pterodactylus Cuv., Ornithocephalus SUMMER. Teeth conical,
recurved, in separate sockets with wide interspaces. Cervical ver-
tebrae longer than the rest. Pectoral extremity modified for flying,
the fourth very long, clawless finger appearing to have sustained a
membrane. Lithographic limestone (Upper Oolitic system) and
the chalk.

These animals were very various in size: some species from the chalk
were gigantic ; the distance between the tips of the wings in Pier. Cuvieri
is estimated by OWEN at not less than eighteen feet. OWEN Palceont. Soc.
1851, p. 104.

21-2

324 CLASS xv.

Saurii.

Tliecodontosaurus RILEY and STUTCHBURY. Differs from the exist-
ing lizards in the dentition, being neither according to the acrodont
form (anchylosed to the summit of alveolar ridge), nor the pleuro-
dont (anchylosed to the outer wall of alveolar groove), but im-
planted in sockets either loosely or confluent with the bony wall of
the cavity. Teeth conical, rather slender, compressed, acute, ante-
rior and posterior edges finely serrated. Pulp cavity remains open
in base of crown. Lacertine form of pectoral and probably of pelvic
arch combined with crocodilian characters of vertebrae and ribs.
Vertebrae biconcave.

Sp. Tkecodontosaurus antiquus BIL. and STUTCH. Oldest division of the New
Bed sandstone.

Palceosaurus RIL. and STUTCH. Same locality. Teeth compara-
tively much broader than in the preceding.

Rhynchosaurus OWEN. Cranial structure lacertine, jaws with
chelonian and ornithic modifications. Vertebrae biconcave. New
Red sandstone. OWEN Rep. Br. Assoc. 1841, pp. 145 — 153. Trans,
of the Cambridge Phil. Soc. 1842, Tom. vn. Pt. 3, p. 335, PL 5, 6.

In the three last genera, from the oldest division of the New Red sand-
stone, containing the most ancient of lacertine animals, the spinal canal is
moniliform, sinking into the middle part of the centrum of the vertebrae.

Dicynodon OWEN. Jaws like the last but with mammalian
canine teeth. Vertebrae slightly biconcave. From sandstone rock
at the south-eastern extremity of Africa, Journal of the Geol. Soc.
i. 1845, pp. 318—322.

Cladyodon OWEN. Teeth compressed, anterior and posterior
edges serrate ; in their breadth, as compared with their length, they
are intermediate between Thecodontosaurus and Palceosaurus pla-
tyodon, thus approaching the form of Megalosaurus.

Sp. Cladyodon Lloydii OWEN. Teeth alone known. Same locality as
Thecodontosaurus.

Protorosaurus MEYER. Thecodont type of dentition, long and
thin. Feet resemble those of the Monitors.

Sp. Protorosaurus Speneri, from the cupriferous schist of Thuringia ; Cuv.
i. foss. v. i, pp. 300 — 306.

Mosasaurus CONYB. Acrodont type of dentition. Teeth smooth
palatine (pterygoid) teeth. Vertebrae concavo-convex. Locomc
tive extremities unknown.

BEPTILIA. 325

Sp. Mosasaurus Hoffmanni CONYBEABE. Discovered about the year 1766 in
the chalk quarries at Mont St Pierre, near Maestricht. See CUVIEB Rech.
s. I. ossemente foss. v. 2, pp. 310 — 338. Approaching the Monitors in the
form of Cranium.

Leiodon OWEN. Acrodont type of dentition. Teeth half the
size of those of Mosasaurus Hoffmanni. Outer surface nearly as
convex as inner, with section of crown elliptic.

Sp. Leiodon anceps OWEN. Teeth alone known. OWEN Sep. Br. Assoc.
1841, pp. 144 — 145. Chalk of Norfolk.

Geosaurus Cuv. Teeth with crown compressed, subrecurved,
anterior and posterior edges trenchant, finely serrate. Eyes with
broad sclerotic plates. Vertebrae biconcave. Lithographic lime-
stone, green sand. Cuv. Oss. foss. v. 2, pp. 338 — 343.

Crocodilia OWEN.

Crocodilian remains have been found from the Lias and Oolite to
the Eocene tertiary, and present differences of structure from the
existing species which are greater in proportion as the strata in
which they are found are more remote. In the existing species
the anterior surface of the vertebral centrum is concave, the poste-
rior convex, (proccelian OWEN). But in the crocodiles of the ter-
tiary system there are two other different types ; in one the position
of the ball and socket is reversed, (ppistlwccdian OWEN), in the
other and more common both articular surfaces are flat or slightly
concave, (amphiccelian OWEN).

Steneosaurus GEOFF. ST.-HILAIRE. Nostril subterminal ; jaws nar-
row with slender, conical, sharp-pointed and equal teeth, like those
of existing Gavials. Vertebrae biconcave.

Teleosaurus KCENIG. Nostrils terminal; teeth as in preceding
but thinner in proportion to their length. Vertebrae biconcave.

Both of these are from the Oolite series of secondary rocks.

Streptospondylus OWEN. Vertebrae with ball and socket articula-
tion reversed, convexo-concave. From the Oolite of Caen, the
Wealden.

Suchosaurus OWEN. Teeth arched, compressed, with two cut-
ting edges, not serrate j the crown with longitudinal ridges termi-
nating before the extremity of the tooth.

326 CLASS xv.

Sp. Suchosaurus cultridens, the only species known; from the Wealden:
OWEN Rep. Br. Assoc. 1841, p. 67, and Odontoyraphy.

Goniopholis OWEN. Dermal plates strong and bony, quadrilateral,
with a conical process received in a corresponding depression of the
neighbouring plate.

Sp. Goniopliolis crassidens; crown of teeth remarkably thick and obtuse,
ribbed: vertebrae nearly flat at both ends ; Wealden.

Poikilopleuron DESLONGCHAMPS. Vertebrae slightly biconcave.
The posterior ventral ribs are composed of two pieces held toge-
ther by ligament and channelled above ; in this channel rests
another rib formed like an S by its ventral portion, whilst the pos-
terior part is in connexion with the spinal column.

Sp. Poikilopleuron Bucklandii; this is the only species known; it was dis-
covered in the oolite of Caen ; its length is estimated at twenty-five feet.
DESLONGCHAMPS in M6m. de la Soc. Linn, de Normandie, 1836, vi.
P- 33-

Cetiosaurus OWEN. Vertebrae biconcave, breadth and depth
great in comparison of length. Wealden and lower Oolite.

Some of the species surpassed all the modern crocodiles in size, and even
rivalled the whales. "In the great expanse of the coraco'id and pubic
bones, as compared with the Teleosauri and crocodiles, the enormous
Cetiosauri manifested their closer affinity to the Enaliosauria." OWEN
Report Brit. Assoc. 1841, pp. 94 — 102.

Dinosauria OWEN.

These gigantic animals made the nearest approach to mammals.
The anterior thoracic ribs had a two-fold articulation to the spinal
column as in crocodiles. Hence it may be supposed that the respi-
ration was similar, and the heart with four chambers. The pectoral
arch was lacertine ; the sacrum composed of at least five anchylosed
vertebrae. The bones of the extremities had a large proportional
size for Saurians, and were provided with large medullary cavities.
Hence their habits were terrestrial. See OWEN Rep. 1841, pp.
102—144.

Megalosaurus Cuv.

Sp. Megalosaurus Bucklandi Cuv. Teeth in distinct sockets, of which the
outer rim is much the highest, compressed, conical, pointed with trenchant
and serrated anterior and posterior edges ; become solid in the course of
development ; the smooth anterior surface presents fine polished wrinkles.
Vertebrae with articulating surfaces nearly flat. Probable length thirty
feet. Wealden and Oolitic periods.

EEPTILIA. 327

Hylceosaurus MANTELL. Resembled the lizards more than the
crocodiles in the dental characters. Vertebrae slightly biconcave.
Wealden.

Sp. Hylaeosawrus armatus MANT.
Iguanodon Cuv. Teeth resembling in shape those of Iguana.

Sp. Iguanodon Mantelli Cuv. Vertebrae either flat or slightly biconcave.
Probable total length twenty-eight feet. Wealden. See Phil. Trans. 1825,
PI. 14, Cuv. Oss.foss. v. 2, PL 21, figs. 28—33.

Chelonii.

Foot-prints of land tortoises have been discovered in the New
Red Sandstone, and impressions of parts of the shield in the Jura
Limestone and Stonesfield Oolite. Ossified remains of extinct genera
have been found in the tertiary divisions and the diluvial.
Amongst the last are portions of the shield of Colossochelys of CAUT-
LEY and FALCONER, indicating an animal of 18 — 20 feet long, found
in the diluvium of the Himalayas. (Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1844, p. 501.)
Extinct Emydians have been found in strata as early as the
Jurassic group and Wealden; Trionychians in the Lias, Eocene,
<fec., and turtles in the Portland stone, Wealden, Chalk, <fcc.

For the extinct genera and species of Chelonians, see Cuv. Ossem.
foss. v. 2, pp. 221 — 249, and the memoirs of OWEN, cited p. 321.]

CLASS XVI.
BIRDS (AVES)1.

BIRDS are vertebrate, warm-blooded, oviparous animals that
breathe by means of lungs. Their heart has two ventricles and
two auricles. Their bill projects forwards, is covered with horn

1 Of the numerous works on birds we here notice some of the most distinguished :

BELON I'Histoire de la Nature des Oyseaux avec leurs descriptions et naifs portraicts,
Paris, 1555, folio.

RAJI Synopsis methodica Avium, Londini, 1713, 8vo.

BBISS. ; — BRISSON Omithologia sive synopsis methodica sistens Avium divisionem.
Cumfiguris aen., Parisiis, 1760, 6 Vols. 4to. (French and Latin text; very good and
numerous figures.)

LATHAM'S General Synopsis of Birds, 3 Parts, London, 1781, 4to; Supplement, ibid.
1792 — 1802, 2 Vols. Index ornithologicus, Londini, 1790, 2 Vols.

BUFF. PI. enl. — DE BUFFON Hist. not. des Oiseaux. (The plates, generally cited
under the title of Planches enluminees, are coloured plates, drawn and engraved by the
same artist, MARTINET, who executed the figures of BRISSON'S work. They are 984
in number, and are subjoined to an edition from the Imprimerie royale, 1770 — 1786
(10 parts, in 4to or small folio).

TEMM. PI. col. — C. J. TEMMINCK et MEYFFREN LAUGIER Nouveau Recueil de
Planches coloriees d 'Oiseaux pour servir de suite aux Planches enl. de BUFFON, Paris,
1:838, 5 Vols. (in 4to or small folio, published from 1820 — 1838, 600 plates in 102
numbers). — A third collection of coloured plates, to serve as the completion of the two
former, was begun in 1845, under the title of Iconographie ornithologique. Nouveau
Recueil general de Planches peintes d' Oiseaux, par 0. DES MURS. It was concluded
with the first part (72 plates) in 1849, or a^ least has been interrupted hitherto.

R. P. LESSON Trait^ d' Ornithologie, Paris, 1831, 8vo, i Vol. and Atlas. — The
plates, which are taken from the Diet, des Sc. not. in 60 Vols., surpass most of the
rest in that well-known work, and will be often cited by us.

For the birds of Europe we note :

C. J. TEMMINCK Manuel d' Ornithologie, 2nd edition, 4 Parties, Paris, 1820—
1840, 8vo.

J. A. NAUMANN'S Naturgesch. der Vogel Deutschlands, umgearbeitet von J. F.
NAUMANN, 8vo, Leipzig, 1822 — 1844. 12 Thle. (with 337 very accurate, coloured
plates ; of this work some supplements have appeared subsequently.)

As a systematic review of this extensive class there appeared not long ago G. R.
GRAY The genera of Birds. Illustrated with 317 plates. 3 Vols. 4to, London, 1844
—1849.

A chief work for the physiology of birds is still F. TIEDEMANN Anatomie und
Naturgesch. der Vogel, 2 Bde. Heidelberg, 1810, 1811, 8vo, being the second and third

BIRDS. 329

and edentulous. The anterior limbs are changed into wings, whilst
the posterior serve exclusively for standing and running.

We will, in the first place, treat shortly of the skeleton. The
dorsal vertebrae are mostly immoveably connected with each other,
sometimes even the bodies of some of them have partially coalesced.
The cervical and caudal vertebrae alone admit of motion. The
cervical region of the vertebral column is the longest, and often
surpasses the whole of the remainder in length. The number of
the cervical vertebrae is constantly greater than in mammals, and in
reptiles also with the exception of the fossil genus Plesiosaurus ;
for there are at least nine, usually between ten and fifteen of them,
and in the wading and swimming birds still more (in the swan
twenty-three). The first two cervical vertebrae are shorter than
the rest; the first has nearly the form of a ring, and receives, in a
deep pit, the single articular tubercle of the cranium situated below
the great occipital foramen. The rest of the cervical vertebrae have
elongated bodies; the perforated transverse processes form a canal
through which the vertebral artery and the cervical portion of the
sympathetic nerve pass. The anterior branch of this transverse
process is prolonged downwards into a stiliform appendage; this
part, lying in front of the foramen transversarmm, may be compared
with a rib; it is only the posterior part that corresponds to the
transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae. The dorsal vertebrae
are provided with moveable ribs. They are much less numerous
and also shorter than the cervical vertebrae, hence the dorsal region
does not usually form more than a fourth part of the length of
the vertebral column, and in birds with a very long neck, as the
stork, only about an eighth part. The transverse processes are
broad, and at their extremity, on a surface covered with cartilage,
receive the tubercles of the ribs. The spinous processes of these
vertebrae are long and ridge-like and close upon each other. The
anchylosed lumbar and sacral vertebrae form the region of the
spinal column which lies between the long ossa mnominata ; they
are usually from ten to fourteen in number. Finally, the tail
forms the smallest part of the vertebral column, and commonly

parts of the Zoologie zu seinen Vorlesungen entworfen of this Nestor of modern ana-
tomy, which learned work has never been completed. See also the article A ves of
OWEN in TODD'S Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and PJiysiol. i. 1836, pp. 264 — 358.

*

330 CLASS XVI.

consists of seven or eight vertebra which are moveably connected
with each other, and, with the exception of the last, are very short.
The last vertebra has no cavity for the reception of the spinal
marrow, and presents the form of a compressed disc; it supports
the tail, and sometimes differs in form according to the difference of
sex, as in the Peacock.

The number of pairs of ribs corresponds of course to that of the
vertebrae which are regarded as dorsal vertebrae. The anterior ribs
do not extend as far as the sternum1. These imperfect ribs are
usually attached to the transverse processes alone of the vertebrae,
whilst the rest of the ribs are attached, each by its head, to the
same vertebra whose transverse process receives its tubercle. The
connexion of these ribs with the sternum is effected not by a
cartilaginous but by a bony piece, so that they are composed of
two bones, — a vertebral piece and a sternal piece. The vertebral
pieces of most of the ribs (except the anterior and one or two last)
have at the posterior margin of their lower part a flat appendage
which mounts obliquely upwards and lies over the succeeding rib;
in some birds this process continues a separate bone.

The sternum is very large (with the exception of the genus
Apteryx], and covers not only the thoracic cavity but a large part
of the abdominal likewise. It is convex forwards and at the upper
part excised on each side for the reception of the coracoid bone. In
the middle of the anterior surface there is a projecting bony plate
running longitudinally, which is absent in the Ostrich, the Casuary
and the genus Apteryx alone.

The anterior limbs are securely connected with the sternum;
there are on each side two clavicles. The proper clavicle (os fur-
culare) is thin and curved; it runs obliquely from the shoulder-
joint downwards and backwards where it meets that of the opposite
side, and commonly coalesces with it completely. This bone is
seldom attached immediately to the sternum, but is usually free,
and connected with it only by a ligament or by cartilage. In the
nocturnal birds of prey and some species of Psittacus this bone is a
very thin spine, and in certain species of the last genus it is wanting,

1 OWEN regards the vertebrae to which these ribs are attached as cervical, so that
thus the number of these would be increased by one, two, or three. On the nature of
Linibs, London, 1849, 8vo, p. 103.

BIRDS. 331

and its place supplied by a ligament1. The two other clavicles
(clavicular coracoidece) are never absent; they lie more behind and
on the outside, are flatter, broader and shorter, and are attached to
the lateral margin of the uppermost part of the sternum. In
conjunction with the long thin scapula these clavicles form the
articular surface for the reception of the head of the humenis. In
many birds there is, in addition, a small bone present, which rests
upon the capsular membrane of the upper-arm bone at the side of
the scapula2.

The upper-arm bone (humerus) is cylindrical; when the bird
does not expand its wings for flight this bone is directed back-
wards. It is especially long in the pelican, where it extends as
far as behind the pelvis, short in gallinaceous birds, where it
scarcely reaches to the last rib. In the ostrich it is long, in the
casuary, on the contrary, very short; also in the penguins (Apteno-
dytes) it is short and very flat besides. To the upper-arm bone
succeed the two bones of the fore-arm, of which the undermost and
thickest is the ulna (ulna s. cubitus), the uppermost the radius;
these bones also are particularly long in the pelicans, and especially
in the frigate-bird (Pelecanus aquilus L.). At the upper extremity
of the ulna is usually seen a small cubital process (olecranum), and
behind it there is often a pisiform bone or arm-pan (patella bra-
chialis) 5. The wrist (carpus) is formed by two short little bones.
At its anterior margin the stiliform thumb is attached, which
consists of one or two joints (phalanges). Next to this lie two
tubular metacarpal bones, which have coalesced both above and
below. At the lower end of these bones are two fingers, of which
the outermost is small and consists of only one awl-shaped joint,
whilst the innermost, which extends far beyond the two other
fingers, is composed of two, or more rarely of three joints, of
which the first is broad and flat.

1 Especially in the smaller species, as Psittacus pullarius ; compare KUHLMANN De
Absentia furculce in Psittaco pullario. Diss. inaug. Kiliae, 1842, 8vo.

8 NITZSCH Osteografache Beitrage zur Naturgesch. der Vogel, Leipzig, 1811, a. 83
and foil. ; the author, who first noticed this bone, names it Scapula accessoria or 09
humero-capsulare.

3 In Aptenodytes there are two such ossicles; see J. F. BKANDT Beitrage zur
Kennlniss der Naturgesch. derVogel mil besonderer Beziehung auf Skeletbau. St. Peters-
burg, 1839, 4to, Tab. xii. figs. 5, 6.

332 CLASS xvr.

The iliac bones in birds coalesce with the lumbar and sacral
vertebrae. They are elongate and deeply excavated on the surface
turned towards the abdomen, the cavities receiving the kidneys.
The spine-like pubic bones (ossa pubis] proceed backwards and are
not connected with each other, except in the ostrich. The ischiadic
bones (ossa ischii) are shorter and broader, they extend from the
cavity of the hip-joint (acetabulum] backwards, parallel to the
pubic bones with which they coalesce at their extremity. Between
the pubic and ischiadic bones is left a large longitudinal aperture
(foramen obturatorium] , which is sometimes divided by a bridge
connecting the two bones into a smaller anterior and an elongated
posterior aperture. Another large aperture in the pelvis lies more
forwards and nearer the back, behind the acetabulum, between the
iliac and ischiadic bones (foramen ischiaticum) .

The thigh-bone (femur) is shorter and thicker than the leg-
bone (tibia], nearly cylindrical, and slightly curved forwards; there
is a single trochanter, on the outside of the head of the bone,
which is large and projects above this head. In birds that cannot
fly, the Ostrich, Casuary, and Apteryx, in which the fore limbs
are so feebly developed, the thigh-bone is very strong and surpasses
the arm-bone (usually much longer) in thickness, and in the
Casuary and Apteryx in length also, remarkably. The tibia is
constantly the longest bone of the hind limbs; close to this bone
lies on the outer edge at the upper part a short and imperfect
fibula, which, coalescing with the tibia, terminates thin down-
wards, without extending to the tarsus. A knee-pan (patella] is
always, or almost always, present; in the Ostrich there are even
two, one above the other.

In some water-birds (Colymbus LATH., Podiceps ejusd.) the
tibia terminates above in a pointed triangular process, keeled in
front, upon which in Podiceps a patella also triangular lies, whilst
in Colymbus this process is broader, and seems to supply the place
of the absent patella1. The region of the tarsus and metatarsus is
represented by a single bone, of which the upper extremity strongly
resembles the head of the human tibia, and in which two cavities,
with a projecting line between them, receive the two articular

1 Compare MECKEL Syst. d. vergl. Anat. n. s. 131, and K. WAGNER in HEUSINGEE'S
Zettschr. f. d. organ. Physik. I. s. 586, Tab. xm.

BIRDS. 333

tubercles of the inferior extremity of the tibia. Most birds have
four toes, three anterior and one posterior. This last toe, named
the posterior thumb (hallux) is not seldom wanting; when present
it is supported by a small cylindrical bone, which is attached to
the posterior surface of the principal bone of the tarsus. This
bone (tarso-metatarsal OWEN) becomes broader at its lower extre-
mity and divides into three processes, to which the three anterior
toes are attached. The number of joints or phalanges usually
increases in birds from the thumb, which has two, to the innermost,
middle and outermost, according to the numbers three, four, five;
the middle toe, although it has a joint less than the outermost, is
generally the longest of all.

The cranium is connected with the first cervical vertebra (as
in the Eeptilia Haplopnoa, p. 255) by an unpaired articular tubercle
situated under the large occipital foramen; this occipital foramen
is placed lower than in the fishes and reptiles. The internal cavity
of the skull is round, and the posterior hollow, for the reception of
the cerebellum, is separated from the anterior in which the cere-
brum lies; the two occupy entirely the internal cranial space.
The bones of the cranium anchylose with each other at an early
period; this is less the case, or not at all, with those of the
face. In the ostrich, however, the cranial bones remain longer
distinct, in which, on that account, they have been especially
investigated, as well as in young birds and in the embryo. The
occipital bone consists of four pieces; the body, two lateral parts,
and the occipital scale. The body of the sphenoid is long, termi-
nating in a point forwards, and supports there the bony partition
of the orbits, the laminiform ethmoid. On the back part of this
body the great alee rest, which are soon anchylosed with it; they
form the posterior margin of the orbits, are connected with the
temporal and frontal bones, and on the outer surface of the cranium
assist in forming a process that is situated behind the orbit. The
lesser ala3 continue in part membranous and are situated more
upwards, round the large aperture for the passage of the optic
nerve. The parietal bones are short and broad; the frontal bones
are much larger, and form a considerable part of the upper surface
of the skull. When the cranium is viewed on the inferior surface
it presents much resemblance with that of the lizards (for instance,
with that of the genus Varanus). From the sides of the body of the

334 CLASS XVI.

sphenoid there pass obliquely backwards and outwards the so-named
ossa omo'idea of H^RISSANT. They are longitudinal, stile-shaped or
flat bones, which with their broader anterior extremity lie towards
the palate bones and are connected with them by articulation, whilst
the posterior extremity is connected moveably with an articular sur-
face on the inner margin of the quadrate bone close to its inferior
extremity. These bones are the ossa pterygo'idea or inferior wings
of the sphenoid and correspond to the ossa pterygo'idea interna
of fishes and reptiles. The quadrate bone of birds is large and
divided above into two arms ; of these the innermost mounts upwards
towards the orbit and terminates freely, the outermost is connected
by articulation with the temporal bone; below the quadrate bone
is connected with the articular cavity of the lower jaw by an elon-
gated articular surface, which runs obliquely inward and forward.
By means of the pterygoid bones the motion of the quadrate bones
is communicated to those of the palate and also to the upper jaw;
when the under jaw descends the quadrate bone is pushed forwards
and the upper jaw lifted up ; when, on the contrary, the mouth is
closed, the quadrate bone during the raising of the lower jaw is
drawn backwards and the upper jaw downwards. To this also
the malar bone contributes, which, elongated and stiliform, extends
downwards along the margin of the lower jaw, and is connected by
a part that always remains distinct (os quadrato-jugale] to an arti-
cular surface which the quadrate bone presents on its inferior
extremity. The intermaxillary bones are thin and flexible above,
in front of the frontal bones; in some birds the flexion occurs
lower, more towards the end or at the middle of the upper jaw1.
The greater part of the upper jaw is formed by the single intermaxil-
lary bone, of which the ascending portions (processus nasales) lie close
together between the nasal apertures and are connected with the
frontal bone. On the outside of these bones the nasal bones are
situated, and more behind and externally on the anterior margin

1 Compare HERISSANT Observations anat. sur les mouvements du bee des Oiseaux,
Mem. de I'Acad. royale des Sc. de Paris, 1748, pp. 345 — 386, with figures; Cuv. Lep.
d' Anat. comp. u. p. 589, iv. pp. 99 — 113; and especially NITZSCH in MECKEL'S Archiv
f. Physiol. ii. s. 361—379, s. 470, m. s. 384—388.

On the bony head of birds compare GEOFFROY ST.-HILAIBB Ann. du Mus. x. 1807,
pp. 342 — 360, PI. 27 (without adopting all the definitions of the bones, some of which
are quite wrong), MECKEL'S Syst. d. vergl. Anat. n. 2, s. 155 — 237, &c.

BIRDS. 335

of the orbits the lacrymal bones, which, in the parrots, unite with
the process (p. 331) behind the orbits to form a ring. In the
other birds the orbit is not closed below; the malar bone lies, as we
have already stated, much lower, and does not contribute to bound
the orbit.

The jaws of birds have no teeth, and are covered with a horny
fibrous investment. This is harder in the birds of prey, and in
those that feed on hard fruits or nuts, as the parrots, the cross-bills
(Loxice) &c., or perforate the bark of trees with their bill, as the
woodpeckers. The hindermost part of the bill has a softer invest-
ment, which is named the cere (ceroma). When this part on the
bill is not concealed under the feathers of the head, but is large
and separated from the anterior hard part by a transverse fold, the
bill is named rostrum cerigerum. On the other hand, the bill
has a softer covering and greater sensibility in birds which have to
seek their food in mud or at the bottom of water, as in the ducks.

Birds have salivary glands, which vary in number and develop-
ment in the different orders. They lie partly on each side under the
tongue, partly behind the anterior margin of the under jaw, and
also in the angle of the mouth under the malar bone. In the
woodpeckers, the hindmost submaxillary gland extends as far back
as the occiput; it has long excretory ducts, which terminate in a
common aperture at the forepart of the mouth *.

The oesophagus has internally on the mucous membrane longi-
tudinal folds. The muscular tunic, which covers the mucous mem-
brane, consists for the most part of circular or transverse fibres;
these form an outer layer, whilst the inner, less developed, is formed
by longitudinal fibres. In many birds the oesophagus has an ex-
pansion which is sometimes not sharply distinguished from the re-
maining part, but in others, especially in the gallinaceous birds and
parrots, is sacciform. The name of crop (ingluvies) has been given
to this part ; it lies usually on the right side of the neck in front of
or within ikefurcula. In the crop the food undergoes a softening,
and is penetrated by the fluid secreted by the numerous mucous
glands of the part. In the pigeons two such sacs are found, one on

1 CUVIEB Lep. cTAnat. comp. in. pp. 220 — 222; MECKEL'S System der vergl. Anat.
iv. s. 403 — 406, s. 465, 466; J. MUELLER De glandular, secern, structura penitiori,
Lipsiae, 1830, fol. pp. 58 — 60, Tab. vi. figs. 6 — 8.

336 CLASS xvi.

the right and one on the left side of the lowest portion of the
oesophagus. Behind the crop the oesophagus is generally nar-
rower than in its anterior part, and afterwards passes into the
stomach.

The stomach of birds consists of two divisions. The first di-
vision, the glandular stomach (proventriculus, bulbus glandulosus) ,
has usually the form of an oval expansion of the lowest part of the
oesophagus. Under the external membrane, which, as a duplica-
ture of the peritoneum, covers both stomachs, there lies in the glan-
dular stomach a thin muscular coat, and to this succeeds on the
inside a layer of numerous glandules, whose apertures are visible to
the naked eye on the inner surface of the stomach. These glands
are small elongated blind sacs, which stand as eversions of the
mucous membrane with their long axis perpendicular to the long
axis of the stomach, and thus are nearly horizontal ; sometimes
their blind extremity is branched.

In the glandular stomach the gastric juice is secreted ; at the
inferior extremity the little glands diminish in number, or even dis-
appear entirely before the commencement of the second division.
This second division is named the muscular stomach. The muscu-
lar tunic is here developed in a much greater degree; its fibres
radiate from two tendinous plates, of which the one is situated on
the anterior, the other on the posterior surface of the stomach.
Internally, this stomach is covered with a horny epithelium, which,
particularly in the gallinaceous birds, where the muscular tunic is
also very thick, possesses much rigidity1. The muscular stomach
is round and flat; in birds of prey it has a thinner muscular tunic.
By the action of the muscular fibres the food is pressed and bruised
between the horny covering of the inner surface, which in other
animals, especially in mammals, is effected previously by masti-
cation. According to A. RETZIUS, this muscular stomach or giz-
zard is to be considered as a development of that part of the
stomach of man and mammals, which is called by WILLIS the
antrum pylori.

1 Sometimes on this horny covering spines are placed in longitudinal rows, as in
the muscular stomach of the Condor (HARLAN American Philos. Transact, in. 2,
p. 466), or tooth-shaped tubercles, as in Procellaria glacialis, CARUS Tab. Anatomiam
comp. illustrantes, iv. Tab. vi. figs. 15, 16.

BIRDS. 337

On the right side of the stomach and at the upper part lies the
pylorus. Here, in some birds (heron, pelican, &c.) is found another
distinct dilatation or supplemental stomach, an appendage which
occurs also in the crocodile, whose round sacciform stomach on the
whole resembles that of birds1.

The first part of the intestinal canal, into which the gall ducts
and those of the pancreas open, is wider than the rest of the small
intestines. Here the intestinal canal forms a transverse flexure,
which turns back again at an acute angle, and thus forms a loop in
which the pancreas is situated. After this the small intestines form
some curvatures and then pass into the short large intestine, which
ends in a bladder-like expansion, the so-named cloaca. In pro-
portion to the body the intestinal canal is usually much longer than
in fishes and reptiles, but shorter than in mammals. It surpasses
the length of the body, measured from the extremity of the bill
to the termination of the coccyx, mostly three, often five times2.
Commonly there are found, where the large intestine begins, two
coeca, which run forwards; also the small intestine at its passage
into the large is bounded by a constriction arising from an annular
fold. The two coeca or lateral appendages of the large intestine
are especially long in the ducks; on the other hand, they are very
short in the diurnal birds of prey. They are wanting in the king-
fisher, the hoopoe, the parrots, and some other birds3. In the
herons only one such coecum is found, which lies backwards. The
internal mucous membrane of the small intestine has villi as a
rule, which sometimes extend into the rectum and the coeca. In
the small intestine, however, especially at its commencement, the
villi are more numerous, longer and finer. Only seldom are these

1 See on this third stomach OWEN, TODD'S Cydopced. i. p. 322, F. S. LEUCKART
Zoolog. BruchstucJce, n. 1841, s. 64 — 71, Tab. 3, 4.

2 Compare the tables in CUVIER Lee. d'Anat. comp. 2e eMit. iv. 2, pp. 182—208.

3 The two coeca are often of unequal length on the two sides ; see R. WAGNER
Beitrdge zur Anat. der Vogel, s. 294, 295, Abhandl. der math, physikal. Klasse der
Akad. zu Munchen, II. 1836. OWEN has treated copiously of these cceca, 1. 1. pp. 323,
SH-

Besides the cceca of the large intestine there is often found at the small intestine
a blind appendage, usually short, a diverticulum, which is the remain of the vitello-
intestinal duct. MACARTNEY Phil. Transact. 1811, p. 207, E. WAGNER Betir. z.
Anat. d. Vogel, 1. 1. s. 286 — 290; this part is most developed in the genera Scolopax
and Numeniut.

VOL. ii. 22

338 CLASS xvi.

villi wanting, as in many singing-birds, when they are replaced by
zigzag longitudinal folds sometimes forming rhomboidal meshes,
which indeed may be present simultaneously with villi, or in the
posterior part of the small intestine may take the place of the villi
which exist in the anterior part.

The rectum ends with a muscular ring in the cloaca, a cavity
surrounded by strong circular muscular fibres, which, as in most of
the lizards, has a transverse external opening. Into this cavity also
the ureters open, and, in males, the efferent vessels; in female birds
the oviduct terminates at its left side. Also behind and between
the ureters, behind a projecting transverse fold in the cloaca, there
opens a sac which, after its discoverer FABRICIUS AB AQUAPEN-
DENTE, is named bursa Fabricii. This part is a blind sac, of which
the base is turned upwards and lies behind the rectum ; it has a thin
layer of muscle with fibres crossing in various ways; the internal
or mucous membrane is thick, whitish, and presenting longitudinal,
projecting folds. This part often appears to decrease in older birds,
or at least to be developed less than might be expected from the size
which it has in young ones; it occurs in both sexes without re-
markable difference in the development1.

The liver is large2, and almost always deeply divided into two

1 Hence the opinion falls to the ground that this part belongs to the system of the
organs of propagation, as, for instance, that of FABRICIUS, who thought that in copu-
lation the sperm was received in this organ of the female bird, and was kept there for
the successive impregnation of the eggs. Other writers suppose this part to be an
arrangement for secretion, and compare it with the glandular sacs which in some mam-
mals are situated near the anus; others see in this bladder a vesica urinaria. HUSCHKE,
the latest writer who, as far as I know, has expressed an opinion respecting it, thinks
that the bursa is the bladder into which, during a certain period of development, the
excretory ducts of the primordial kidneys or corpora wolfiana open, and compares it
in consequence to the vesica urinaria of fishes which is situated upon the rectum,
i. e. at the backside of it (see above, p. 37). The bursa Fabricii is to be seen figured
in K. DE GRAAF Opera omnia, Amstelaed. 1705, 8vo, Tab. xvi, described p. 243, in
TANNENBERG Observ. circa partes genitales masculas avium, Gottingae, 1789, 4to, Tab.
in. fig. id &c. Compare also GEOFFROY ST.-HILAIRE Mem. du Mus. ix. 1832, p. 397,-
who regards the bursa as the excretory duct (?) of the Glandulce Cowperi, A. A. BER-
THOLD in Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Carol, xiv. 2, 1829, s. 903—918, and ^Eii.
HUSCHKE de bursce Fabricii origine, Jense, 1838, 4-to.

2 In some birds the weight of the liver forms ^th, in the peewit T^th, and in
a saw-bill (Mergus albellus) even ^th of that of the whole body. TIEDEMANN'S Zoo-
logic, ii. s. 492.

BIRDS. 339

principal lobes connected only by a small strip, of which that of the
right side is commonly the larger. It is attached to the sternum, the
stomach and the air sacs by duplicatures of the peritoneum, occupies
the upper region of the abdomen, and is for the most part covered
by the sternum. A gall-bladder is generally present, and is wanting
only in a few birds, namely, the ostrich, the pigeons, most species of
parrots, the toucans, &c. Also in some individuals it has not been
found, whilst it has been present in others of the same species. It
lies commonly between the two lobes of the liver and nearer to that
of the right side. From each of the lobes a gall-duct proceeds;
the two mostly unite to form a common duct which opens into the
duodenum, distinct from the duct of the gall-bladder.

The pancreas is whitish red, elongate and large, and usually di-
vided into two lobes, often even double. Commonly it has two,
only seldom three ducts, which do not unite with the gall-ducts,
but open separately into the duodenum, partly in front of, partly
between these last-named ducts. The spleen is small, oval or
spherical, and lies far forward, close to the glandular stomach.

With respect to the lymphatic system, lacteals are very nume-
rous in the intestinal canal. Those of the rectum and of the two
coeca are for the most part in connexion with the veins of the
pelvis1; those of the small intestines form, with the lymphatics
of the rest of the viscera and of the hind limbs, a large plexus on
the arteria aorta and codiaca; from this arise two thoracic ducts,
each of which runs to the superior vena cava of its own side, and
empties itself there under the junction with the jugular vein,
having first received the lymphatics of the neck and of the wing.
Conglobate or lymphatic glands are not found in the mesentery;
hitherto they have been met with only in the neck and the upper
part of the thoracic cavity*.

1 At the lower part of the pelvis there are in some birds (the goose, swan, casuary,
&c.) two small vesicular lymphatic expansions on which STAXXIUS observed muscular
fibres, but which were not seen to pulsate rhythmically, like the lymphatic hearts of
reptiles; from these expansions a vein arises; see them figured from the goose in
PANIZZA Observazioni antropo-zootomico-jigioloffiche, Pavia, 1830, fol. Tab. IX. figs. 3, 8;
compare STANXIUS in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1842, s. 449 — 457.

9 HEWSON first discovered and described the lymphatic system in birds, Philos.
Transact. Vol. 58, and also in his Experimental Inquiries, II. London, 1 774, pp. 64 —
7 1 ; in our century the existence of this system was for the most part denied by
MAGEXDIE, according to whom lymphatics exist in the neck only ; he was, however,

22—2

340 CLASS XVI.

The heart of birds is, like that of mammals, divided into two
perfectly distinct chambers. It rests on the sternum, included in
a thin pericardium, lies along the middle of the body in a straight
direction and has an elongated conical form, terminating in a point
backwards. The left ventricle has very thick and strong walls,
and, since it is longer than the right, the apex of the heart is
entirely formed by it. In the right ventricle of the heart the
walls are much thinner; there is here, in place of the tricuspid
valves of the heart of mammals, a single valve, very muscular and
thick, which is situated in the upper part of the ventricle in front
of the venous aperture or the opening of the cardial sinus (auricle) ;
it has a triangular form, and descends obliquely with its free
inferior margin from the left side to the right. In the left ventricle
there are usually three or two membranous valves (valvulce mi-
trales) situated in front of the entrance from the auricle1.

From the heart arises the large artery (aorta), which, after
having given off at its origin the coronary arteries of the heart,
divides almost immediately into two principal branches. The
right branch, which is the widest, presently divides into a de-
scending artery, which is situated more downwards, bends to
the right and runs backward under the vertebral column, and into
an innominate or subclavian artery, destined for the anterior parts
of the body. The left branch is the left innominate or left sub-
clavian artery. Commonly there arises a carotid artery on each
side; yet in the singing birds and some others one only arises
on the left side and the right artery is then subclavian alone. In
the flamingo (Pkcem'copterus) the single carotid artery is, on the
contrary, the branch of a right innominate artery2. The carotid or
the two carotid arteries ascend upon the inferior surface of the
cervical vertebras; when there is only one then it divides on
reaching the head into a right and left branch. The particularly
large size of the external thoracic artery (art. ihoracica s. mammaria\

entirely refuted by accurate investigations, particularly of LAUTH Ann. des Sc. na
in. 1824, pp. 381 — 410, PL 21 — 25 and of PANIZZA, 1. 1.

1 Compare on the heart of birds R. LOWER Tractatus de corde, Lugd. Bat. 1701
8vo, pp. 60, 6r, BLUMENBACH Kleine Schriften, s. 29 — 32, TIEDEMANN Zoologie, i
s. 557 — 559, and the general works on comparative anatomy of CUVIER, MECKEL, &
See also OWEN, 1, 1, pp. 330, 33 r.

2 Compare MECKEL in his Arckiv f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1826, s. 19, 20, and als
C. L. NITZSCH Observationes de Avium arteria carotide communi, Halae, 1829, 4to.

BIRDS. 341

externa) in birds is remarkable, it is wider than the brachial
artery, which is to be explained by the powerful develop-
ment of the great pectoral muscle. In place of one iliac artery
on each side from the descending aorta for the hind limbs, two
arteries are found in birds, of which the anterior (arteria cruralis s.
femoralis) is small and runs above the pelvis under the last rib
backwards, whilst the posterior much larger (arteria ischiadica) is
the principal artery of the hind limbs, which previously gives off
the middle arteries of the kidney. After this the aorta is much
diminished in size (art. sacra media}. In birds arterial wonder-
nets are often present, as a rete mirabile temporale formed by the
ophthalmic artery, an external branch of the artery of the brain
(arteria carotis interna), a wonder-net at the pecten within the
eye-ball, one by the anterior tibial artery, &C.1 There are always
two superior vence cavce and one inferior, which return the blood to
the right sinus of the heart. The right jugular vein is wider, in
some birds much wider than the left, which close to the head is
connected with it by a transverse branch and conducts to it a part
of the blood2.

There are two lungs present in birds, which lie upon the dorsal
surface of the cavity of the thorax, attached to the ribs and dorsal
vertebras and not covering the heart; they are not divided into
lobes. The two bronchi are, in proportion to the trachea, short;
they penetrate the upper part of the lungs on their anterior surface,
and are perforated by some large apertures which lead into the
wider branches or bronchial tubes of the first order, the extremities
of which open on the surface of the lungs and pass into the air-
sacs which are in connexion with the lungs. These bronchial
tubes again are perforated by smaller apertures which lead into
smaller bronchial tubes which anastomose variously with each other
so as to form a network of tubes. The walls of these tubes are

1 On the arterial system of birds compare F. BAUER Disquisitiones circa nonnuUa-
rum avhim systema arteriosum, c. fig., Berolini, 1825, 4to; E. HAHN Commentatio de
Arteriis anatis, cum tabulis, Hannoverae, 1830, 4to ; and H. BARKOW Anatomische
Untcrsuchungen uber das Schlagader-system. der Vogel, MECKEL'S Archiv fur Anatomic
und Physiol. 1829, s. 305 — 496, Taf. VIII — x.

3 A figure of the principal veins, with the arteries, in the fowl is to be found in
the Catalogue of the Physiol. Series of comp. Anat. contained in the Museum of the
College of Surgeons, n. 1834, PL 25; the veins of the swan are in part figured by
OTTO in CARUS Tabu?. Anat. comp. ittustr. vi. Tab. vi. fig. i.

342 CLASS xvi.

covered by a network of multangular cells, in each of which much
smaller cells are situated, which are surrounded by the capillaries
of the lungs and in which the chemical change from venous to
arterial blood takes place in respiration1. Through the apertures of
the bronchial tubes on the surface of the lungs the air passes into
large air-sacs which are situated partly in the thoracic partly in the
abdominal cavity, and which conduct air to the hollow bones. They
are supplied with blood vessels, but these are not branches of the
pulmonary arteries and moreover are not to be compared in number
and development with the blood-vessels of the lungs. So that if
to the air-sacs, as appendages of the lungs, any participation in the
respiratory function be ascribed, this cannot in any case be great.
But the air-sacs form reservoirs of air for breathing, and as they
receive air from the lungs, so they can return it to them again for
inspiration2.

That birds have hollow bones filled with air had been observed
by earlier writers, by FABRICIUS AB AQUAPENDENTE, BORELLI,
and others; but still our celebrated countryman P. CAMPER was
the first (whilst JOHN HUNTER almost contemporaneously or
shortly after made the same discovery) who proved that these hol-
low bones communicate with the air-sacs, and therefore, mediately,
with the lungs3. The humerus, sternum and cranial bones are

1 The finer structure of the lungs of birds, such as we have here described it, was
first made known by the investigations of A. EETZIUS, communicated to the Academy
of Sciences at Stockholm in 1831, and copied in FRORIEP'S Notizen, Bd. xxx. s. i — 9,
figs. 9 — n, 1838, 4to, pp. 56 — 58; see also LEREBOULLET Anat. comp. de I'Appareil
respiratoire, Strasbourg, 1838, 4to, pp. 56 — 58; ED. WEBER speaks of fine, closed
terminal tubes ; see Amtlicher Berkht uber die Versammlung dewtscher Naturforscher
in Braunschweig, 1845, »• 75 ; RAINEY Minute Anat. of the Lung of the Bird, Medico-
Chirurg. Transact, sec. Ser. xiv. pp. 47 — 58, PI. i ; WILLIAMS' article Respiration in
TODD'S Cyclop, of Anat. and Physiol , Suppl. 1855, pp. 276 — 278.

3 See on these air-sacs CUVIER Lefons d'Anat. comp. iv. pp. 327 — 330, and the
second edition of DUVERNOY, vir. pp. 125 — 128, TIEDEMANN, 1.1. s. 601 — 618, OWEN,
1. 1. pp. 342, 343, and especially NATALIS GUILLOT Mem. sur I'Appardl de la Respira-
tion dans les Oiseaux, Ann. des Sc. natur. 30 Se*rie, v. 1846, Zoologie, pp. 25 — 87,
PL 3, 4.

3 Compare on the hollow bones P. CAMPER in the Verh. van het Bataafsch Genoot-
schap te Rotterdam, i. bl. 235 — 244, with figures. (Also, with additions, in the French
edition of his works, Tom. ill. pp. 457 — 496.) His discovery was made in the year
i77l« In the same year that it was made public in the Transactions of the Dutch
Society, the observations of HUNTER appeared in the Philosoph. Transact. 1774; see

BIRDS. 343

those which are most usually hollow, often also the vertebrae (with
the exception of the first cervical), the ribs, the scapulae, the clavi-
cles, the pelvis, the thigh-bones. Rarely, however, are the thigh-
bones hollow when the upper-arm-bones are not so. The radius
and ulna, tibia and fibula, as also the bones of the wings and feet
which succeed to these, are, on the other hand, almost always filled
with marrow, to which the genus Buceros, according to the obser-
vations of NITZSCH, forms a remarkable exception, in which even the
phalanges of the toes ar^ pneumatic1. The cranial and facial bones
receive the air not from the lungs, but in part immediately from the
Eustachian tube and the cavity of the tympanum2, in part from
the nasal cavities which conduct it to a space situated under the
eye, from whence it penetrates further into the cavities and cells of
those bones3.

We have still, in this place, to speak of the wind-pipe (trachea)
of birds, a part of the respiratory apparatus which we consider in
the last instance in order that we may unite with it conveniently

also his Observations on certain parts of the Animal (Economy, edited by R. OWEN,
London, 1837, pp. 176— 186. For extensive investigations at a later period we are
indebted to NITZSCH Osteografische Beitrdge, Leipzig, 1811, s. I — 62. ALBERS and
G. VROLIK observed that birds can breathe through the perforated or broken humerus
and so continue to live after the ordinary passage for the air has been interrupted by
compressing the wind-pipe; REIL'S Arckiv, vi. s. 469 — 490. Compare also JACQUEMIN
Recherches physiol. et anat. sur la respiration, Memoire sur la pneumaticite des Oiseaux,
etc., Nov. Act. Acad. Ccesar. Leop. Carol. Tom. xix. 1839, PI. 2, pp. 288 — 333, Tab.
59—61.

1 MECKEL'S Archivf. Anat. u. Physiol. 1826, s. 618 and foil.

2 On the inside of the lower jaw, behind the articular surface for the quadrate bone,
is the aperture by which the air from the tympanic cavity has access to them. Here
is sometimes a membranous duct present which leads from the cavity of the tympanum
to the aperture ; in many singing birds this duct is replaced by a bony tube which was
discovered by NITZSCH and named siphonium; Osteogr. JBeitr. s. 30 — 32. In Apteryxt
an entirely abnormal genus of birds from New-Holland, where also the air-cells do not
extend into the abdominal cavity, the under jaw is the only bone in which any trace
of pneumatieity, elsewhere so common in birds, is met with ; R. OWEN Transact. Zool.
Soc. II. 4, p. 286.

3 Whenever the use of the hollow bones of birds is discussed, the opinion offered
by CAMPER is usually the first that is considered, viz. that the air that has been warmed
and rarified diminishes the specific gravity of the bird and so makes it fitter for flying.
But it must not be forgotten, that young birds do not yet possess these cavities though
they fly very well, that many, especially small birds, have no hollow bones, and that
bats are able to fly without any such provision.

344 CLASS xvi.

the consideration of the vocal organs. The wind-pipe of birds dif-
fers from that of other vertebrate animals that breathe by means of
lungs in regard to the part it takes in the production of the voice.
In the mammals, and also in the reptiles, the trachea merely con-
ducts the air which is to serve for the production of sound; in
birds, on the contrary, it conducts the voice itself, which is not pro-
duced at the upper end of the wind-pipe, in the larynx, but at its
inferior extremity, where it divides into the two bronchi. Here
there exists an apparatus which has been improperly named inferior
larynx1. Seldom only is the organ for the production of sound
situated at the lower part of the trachea itself, above its division
into the bronchi, as in Tamnophilus and Myiothera; in Steatornis,
conversely, MUELLER found that the inferior larynx is seated in
each of the bronchi at some distance below the division, and thus is
double2. In most birds the rings of the bronchi are incomplete;
and on the inner surface, where they are turned towards each other,
there is a membrane which is tense and capable of vibration.
From the origin of the bronchi there ordinarily passes a bony
lamina transversely from before backward and extending upwards
into the trachea, along which a production of that membrane
mounts on each side, and is often continued into a border at its free
upper margin (membrana semilunaris) . In the parrots this partition
is wanting. On the outside of each of the bronchi is a fold of the
mucous membrane projecting inwards, provided with elastic fibrous
tissue, and forming a vibrating vocal ligament (lamina glottidis).
Very various are the muscles which move this apparatus. In very
many birds (gallinaceous birds, ducks, &c.) the lower larynx has
no proper muscles, but the vocal ligaments are slackened by
muscles which draw downwards and shorten the wind-pipe. A
pair of these muscles (musculi sterno-tracheales) is the only part of
the motor system of the wind-pipe that is constantly present.
These muscles ascend from the inner surface of the superior angles
of the sternum along the wind-pipe, and are inserted into it at a
greater or less height. A second pair of muscles, less constant
than the preceding, ascends from the furcular clavicle to the wind-

1 This is wanting in only a few birds, as the stork, the struthious birds and the
genus Cafhartes ILLIG.

2 Archiv, 184?, s. 7, Tab. I. fig. ult.

BIRDS. 345

pipe. In addition to these most birds have some proper muscles of
the inferior larynx which draw one or more rings (the second and
third) of the bronchi upwards, running from the lower part of the
trachea to these rings or to the membranous space on the outside of
the base of the bronchi. In many songsters of the old world five
or six pairs of these muscles have been distinguished; and hence
this complex system of muscles (for singing) has been incorrectly
ascribed to all the Passerines, which however in very many Ame-
rican, especially South- American genera, is not present1. The
sound produced in the inferior larynx is conducted, and also in
some degree modified, by the wind-pipe and the superior larynx.
The wind-pipe of birds consists of perfectly closed cartilaginous, or
in very many genera bony rings, which are connected by membra-
nous, mostly small, interspaces. It is, in accordance with the neck,
of remarkable length, and forms in some waders, swimmers and
a few gallinaceous birds special curvatures, mostly included in the
sternum, principally (or sometimes solely) in male individuals, yet
also equally developed in both sexes, as in the wild swan (Anas
cygnus L. or Cygnus musicus}. In some male birds the wind-pipe
has nearly mid-way an oval flat expansion (Anas clangula, Anas
fusca, &c.); sometimes two such expansions lie one behind the
other (Mergus merganser)2. Birds, whose voice has a very exten-
sive musical scale, are able to shorten and lengthen their wind-pipe
considerably, and, to that end, have very thin rings and larger mem-
branous interspaces. The inferior rings of the wind-pipe above the
bronchi are usually nearer together, or are connected by longitudinal
processes, or even, as in many songsters, have wholly coalesced to
form a continuous bony cylinder. We may also remark, that in

1 Compare CUVIER Magasin encyclopedique, Tome n. No. 7, p. 330, suiv., and
translated (uber den untern Larynx der Vogel) in REIL'S Archiv, v. s. 67 — 91, and
Lecons d'Anat. comp. iv. pp. 450—491, sec. e"dit. vin. 730 — 772; SAVART Memoire
sur la voix des Oiseaux, Ann. de Ckemie et de Physique, 1826, MaietJuin; and J.
MUELLER Ueber die bisher unbeJcannten typischen Verschiedenheiten der Stimm- Organe
der Passerinen, Abhandlungen der Alcad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, Physik. Mathem.
Klasse, 1845, s. 321 — 391, Tab. I. — vi.

2 Compare YARRELL Observations on the Tracheae of Birds, Linn. Transact, xv.
1827, pp. 378 — 391, with many figures. In no bird perhaps is the trachea compara-
tively longer than in Anas semipalmata LATH., where it makes four curvatures before
dividing into the bronchi; see PI. 13.

346 CLASS xvi.

many species of ducks, and in the genus Mergus, in the males,
there are lateral expansions at the origin of the bronchi, which are
developed unsymmetrically, so that the swelling on the left side is
usually the larger. In the ducks they are usually bony vesicles, in
Mergus large many-sided spaces, with bony margins, between which
a stout membrane is stretched1. The superior larynx is situated
under the base of the tongue. It consists of ossified cartilages, of
which the largest is high in front and triangular, low behind, annu-
lar and not completely closed, and corresponds to the thyroid carti-
lage of man. The posterior part of the ring is formed by a small
cartilage, the cricoi'd, which projects beyond the ring upwards. On
each side of this projecting portion lies a triangular elongated part;
between these two (arytceno'id cartilages), which are concave on
their inner surface, lies the glottis; it presents no vocal ligaments,
and can be narrowed and widened, but not stretched and slackened.
The anterior and upper part of the thyroid cartilage has sometimes
an epiglottic process, which mostly remains cartilaginous; more
rarely is there found here a moveable appendage as a vestige of an
epiglottis, which, as a rule, is totally wanting in birds. Conical,
homy papillae, with their points turned backwards, generally sur-
round the base of the tongue and the glottis; they prevent particles
of food from falling into this fissure. Also a transverse fold of the
mucous membrane is mostly found in front of the glottis, under
which the larynx, which in deglutition is drawn forward, can
retreat2.

The kidneys are large, and are situated in a depression of the
iliac bones; they have a dark-red colour and a soft tissue, in which
no distinct cortical and medullary substance is observed. The ex-
ternal surface presents convolutions which resemble those of the
brain of mammals. Here are found the terminations of the tor-
tuous secretory uriniferous tubules, which are pennated on each
side by blind terminal branches that run parallel to each other.
In the interior of the kidney the tubules unite to form larger tubes
which are collected into bundles, from which the branches take

1 YARRELL, 1. 1. Tab. 15; compare also ROSENTHAL Abhandlungen a-us dem Gebiete
der Anat. Physiol. u. Pathologic, Berlin, 1824, 8vo, s. 40 — 75, Tab. iv.

3 MECKEL Syst. d. vergl. Anat. vi. 8. 464 — 469, and especially HENLE VergleicTiend
Anatomiscke JBeschreibung des KehlJcopfs, Leipzig, 1839, 4 to, pp. 54 — 66.

BIRDS. 347

their rise, which afterwards terminate in the ureters. The two
ureters run (in the male birds in close proximity to the vasa defe-
rentia) to the cloaca. On the absence of an urinary bladder we
have already spoken; the secretion too is here a pultaceous, white
mass and by no means a liquid substance as in the mammals.
The arteries of the kidneys arise principally from the aorta, but in
addition they derive branches from the ischiadic arteries for their
middle and posterior portions. The veins of the kidneys run into
the iliac veins. An afferent renal vein, which JACOBSON ascribes
to birds, is not present; it is the vena iliolumbalis, which runs
through the anterior part of the kidney, which has been taken for
it1. The succenturiate kidneys, which lie under the anterior por-
tion of the kidneys are of a yellow or orange colour. There seems
to be some relation between them and the sexual organs (ovaries,
testes), close to which they are situated; for they have been
observed to be much larger in the pairing season, when the sexual
organs are also swollen, than is usual at other times.

Usually only one ovary and one oviduct, that of the left side, is
developed. In some of the birds of prey, and occasionally in other
birds also, two ovaries have been 'observed, of which, however,
that of the right side was much more feebly developed, whilst also
a right oviduct that terminated blindly and was much smaller than
the left, mostly without, in some cases however with a right ovary,
has been met with2. Consequently the single ovary of birds does

1 Compare A. FERREIN Mem. de VAcad. des Sc., 1749, p. 489 and foil.; G. R.
TREVIRANUS Beobachtungen aus der Anat. u. Phys., istes Heft, Bremen, 1839, 4*°*
p. 127, Tab. xix. fig. 117; MUELLER de Glandul. secern, structura, pp. 92 — 94, Tab.
xui. figs. 7, 9, 10; R, WAGNER has given a figure of a Malphigian body from Slrix
Aluco, Icones Physiol. Tab. 20, fig. 6, and BOWMAN from the parrot in his paper on
the kidney, Phil. Trans. 1842, Pt I. PL iv. fig. 13.

2 Compare, besides CUVIER and TIEDEMANN (Zoologie, n. s. 712 — 726), EMMERT in
REIL'S A rchiv, x. s. 382 ; G. SPANGENBERG Disquisitio anat. circa paries genitales fcemi-
neas avium, cum Tab. v. sen., Gottingse, 1813, 4to (Tab. n. fig. 4 g, right oviduct in a
duck); GEOFFROY ST.-HILAIRE Mem. du Mus. d'Hist. not., 1823, Tom. x. pp. 57 —
84, PI. iv.; R. WAGNER Beitrage zur Anat. der Vogel, 1. 1. s. 271 — 283; (a figure of
the two ovaries in Falco palumbarius; in Gypogeranus he found a right ovary with
right oviduct).

There are in the chick, as RATHKE has observed, originally two ovaries and two
oviducts. Those of the right side, 'however, soon cease to grow at the same rate as
those of the left, and are absorbed in a few weeks after the chick has left the egg.

348 CLASS xvi.

not lie exactly in the middle, but more to the left side, on the
inside of the anterior part of the kidney of that side. It is a flat
organ, with transverse folds on the ventral surface in which the
eggs are formed. Those eggs which are nearest the surface are
most developed and thus higher coloured and larger; the vascular
envelop with which they are covered forms a cup (calyx), which
at its base extends into a pedicle, so that the ovary, when many of
its eggs are becoming ripe, has a clustered appearance. In the
middle of the calyces a whitish ring or girdle is seen, indicating
the place where the capsule of the egg, when the development in
the ovary is completed, bursts open ; when the egg has escaped the
cup contracts and shrinks up1.

The egg is now received by an oblique elongated opening at
the upper part of the oviduct, which is capacious and funnel-shaped
(infundibulum) . Gradually becoming narrower the long oviduct
proceeds tortuously downwards; its internal surface presents longi-
tudinal folds. In this part of the oviduct the white of egg is secreted,
which is deposited in layers around the yolk. Then a wider part
succeeds, in which the egg tames longer and the calcareous shell
is formed. This part, covered internally with large villi, is named
the uterus by some writers; whilst the last portion which opens
into the cloaca and transmits the egg now completely formed is
named by them the vagina. They are not however distinct organs,
but only divisions of a single tube. The bowel-shaped oviduct is
supported by a fold of the peritoneum and attached to the spinal
column. In some few birds only is there a clitoris present in the
cloaca*.

(Beitr. zur Gesch. der Thierwelt, 1825, in. s. 57, 58). The presence of two ovaries in
adult birds is therefore to be regarded as the persistence of an earlier state (Hemmungs-
bildung, Arrest of development).

1 The ovary of the fowl has been often figured, see, for instance, R. DE GRAAF
Opera omnia, 1705, Tab. xvm. p. 253 ; GEOFFROY ST.-HILAIRE Mem. du Mus. x. P. 4,
fig. i M. M. CARUS Vergl. Zootomik. Tab. xvi. fig. 15; LEREBODLLET Recherches
sur les organes genitaux des anim. vert., Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Carol, xxiu. P. i,
1851, PI. 3, fig. 43, PI. n, fig. no, &c.

2 In the ducks and the struthious birds ; see on the last named, where this organ
presents a groove on the surface like the penis, MUELLER Ueber zwei verschiedene Typen
in dem Ban der erectilen mdnnlichen Geschlechtsorgane ~bei den strausartigen Vogeln.
(Abhandl. der ATcad. der Wissensch. zw Berlin, 1836, Physik. Math. EL) s. 21, 22,
Tab. i. figs. 3, 4.

BIRDS. 349

The male birds have two testes1 which are placed upon the
anterior portion of the kidneys, on each side of the aorta and the
inferior cava. Their form is oval, the colour usually white or
yellowish. Commonly that of the left side is larger. During the
pairing season they increase greatly in size, whilst at other times
they are contracted into a small bulk2 ; in birds living in polygamy
they are at all times larger than in others. A white and very
vascular membrane (tunica albuginea} covers the tissue of the testis,
which consists of many, very fine, convoluted tubules. These
tubules unite to form wider tubes, vasa efferentia; these afterwards
form the epidydimis which, scarcely distinct from the testis, lies as
an oval mass upon the tunica albuginea, and terminates below in
a point. From its extremity the very tortuous efferent vessel (vas
deferens) arises, which passing over the kidney and afterwards
along the outside of the ureter runs to the cloaca. In the develop-
ment of the two efferent vessels that difference is not remarked
which is often observed between the two testes. They become
wider in their course and in many birds expand at their extremity
into a vesicle (vesicula seminalis). The apertures of the two ef-
ferent vessels are situated externally to those of the ureters ; near
each of them is a small conical eminence which is highly vascular.
These two conical papillae are found in all birds ; they were for-
merly regarded, incorrectly, as a double penis. This organ is
wanting in most birds; only some possess a penis, without however
on that account being destitute of the aforesaid papilla?. The
penis which is met with in many waders (Ardea, Ciconia, Otis)
and in some gallinaceous birds (Crax, Penelope, Crypturus), is
only in a rudimentary state, of a tongue-shaped form, sometimes
with, sometimes without a conspicuous groove on its upper surface.
In the Anatince, in the genus Casuarius, and in the American
Ostrich, there is a penis which on copulation is in part brought
outwards by eversion, and which has on its internal surface a

1 Some writers appear to have met with a single testis occasionally, or even with
three.

3 ABISTOTELES De Animal. Hist. Lib. m. cap. i. This wonderful change in the
size of the testes from January to April has been represented by HUNTEB in the com-
mon sparrow (Fringilla domestica L.), Catalogue of the PJiysiol. Series, &c. Vol. IV.
Tab. 50, transferred by OWEN, TODD'S Cyclop. 1. 1. p. 354.

350 CLASS XVI.

groove which then faces outwards. A yellow elastic ligament
retracts this tube inwards. The part of the penis which is not
everted, consists of two fibrous bodies with a groove that is sur-
rounded by spongy tissue. Quite peculiar is the typus observed in
the penis of the ostrich of the old world. This is large, conical,
without a membranous evertible part; besides the two fibrous
bodies there is here an elastic body which occupies the space or
groove between those parts on the under surface, of which the
tissue corresponds with that of the ligamentum nuchce, and which
forms also the extremity of the penis resembling a glans. The
groove on the upper surface of the penis is covered by a spongy
venous tissue. When at rest this penis is bent and concealed
in a sac of the cloaca1.

Here we may remark that in birds the external sexual dif-
ference is commonly much greater than in the rest of the vertebrate
animals, a difference which is especially observable in the marking
and colour of the feathers; usually the males are much more richly
ornamented. This is most striking when the birds have attained
their full size and the capacity to propagate, and is particularly
observable at pairing time (in their wedding-dress).

On the development of birds in the egg, which in its chief
features corresponds with that of the Reptilia haplopnoa (p. 225), we
must not be entirely silent when reviewing their general characters.
The ovarian egg consists, like that of other animals, of the yolk
and the germinal vesicle with the germinal spot (see above, pp.
4, 5). Whilst still in the ovary the yolk 'attains its full size;
it has been observed that its weight, when the egg has fallen into
the funnel of the oviduct, is exactly the same as that of the yolk
of an egg just laid. The white of egg, which is disposed around
the yolk in the oviduct, consists of two layers ; the external layer is

1 Of the male organs of propagation in birds those of the cock especially have been
often figured; see, ex. gr. DE GRAAF, 1. 1. p. 231, Tab. xvn. ; CABUS Vergl. Zootom.
Tab. XVI. fig. 1 6, Catalogue of the Physiol. Series in the Museum of the College of Sur-
geons in London, iv. PI. 50, fig. i ; — of Mergus merganser in CABUS Tab. anat. comp.
illustr. v. Tab. 7, fig. 2. Compare also on this subject G. G. TANNENBERG Diss. inaug.
sistens spicilegium observationum circa paries genitales mazculas Avium, cum tabulis
sen., Gottingse, 1789, 4to, and J. MUELLER, in his Memoir already quoted, Ueber zwei
versckiedene Typen, &c.

BIRDS. 351

formed of a thinner fluid; the second or inner layer of albumen is
present in greater quantity, is thicker, more tenacious and very
clear in colour. Above and below the yolk is a tortuous filament
attached to the yolk-membrane by a broad base, whiter also and
firmer than the rest of the albumen (the two chalazce or grandines).
At the obtuse extremity of new-laid eggs there arises, in conse-
quence of the separation from each other of the two laminae of the
white tough membrane which invests the inner surface of the shell,
a small space. This space is caused by the evaporation of the
albumen whilst the atmospheric air passes inwards through the
shell; it gradually increases during the brooding1.

The development of the young bird proceeds, as is well known,
by means of brooding after the egg has been laid. The birds form
the only class of vertebrate animals of which all the species are
oviparous. Pathological cases, however, have occurred in which
eggs that have been retained in the abdominal cavity or in the
oviduct have been hatched by the warmth of the living body2.
The warmth requisite for the development of the chick in the egg
is about 100° FAHRENH. (35 — 40° C.); in a somewhat lower tem-
perature the development still proceeds, though more slowly; a
temperature above 44° C. causes the death of the chick. Since the
eggs that lie directly under the breast of the hen are necessarily
exposed to a greater heat than those placed at the edge of the nest,
the hen moves the eggs after a time and places those in the middle
at the edge, and conversely, so that the development of the whole
proceeds contemporaneously. This development continues in the
brooded egg of the hen for about twenty-one days. As it proceeds

1 J. C. HEHL 2>iss. inaug. de natura et usu aeris ovis avium incluso, Tubingje, 1 796,
4to, and in REIL'S Archiv, n. s. 496 — 500. Hence arises a diminution of weight in
the eggs, even when not brooded ; but the loss of weight is greater in brooded eggs.

The air of this cavity does not differ materially in the proportion of its gases from
that of the atmosphere; at first, however, it appears to contain more carbonic acid gas.
In irrespirable gases, or when precluded from the access of atmospheric air, the eggs
cannot undergo development. Fresh eggs can endure great cold, before being frozen •
if they have been once frozen and again thawed, or if the capacity to germinate be
destroyed, as, for instance, by a powerful electric shock, then they freeze much more
readily; see experiments of PAGET to this effect, Philos. Transactions, 1850, Part i.
pp. 221 — 226.

2 " Etiam Gattina vivos foetus peperit." HALLEB Elem. Physid. vin. p. 46; com-
pare also the examples of this in TIEDEMANN Zoologie, in. s. 145 — 147.

352 CLASS xvi.

the albumen is first diminished by evaporation, by which the air-
space at the obtuse end is enlarged ; the yolk changed into a milk-
coloured fluid becomes surrounded (on the sixth or seventh day)
by the constantly growing germinal membrane and forms a yolk-
sac connected with the embryo; finally (on the nineteenth or
twentieth day) this yolk-sac is taken into the abdominal cavity of
the embryo.

The first commencement of development consists in this, that
the germ (a round disciform lamina lying immediately under the
yolk-membrane) separates itself more and more from the other parts
of the egg. The germ becomes firmer and more membranous; the
middle becomes transparent (area pellueida s. germinativa], and
has a darker margin; at the same time two or three concentric rings
(halones) in the yolk appear around the germ. The clear area has
first a round, then an oval form, but as early as the second day
becomes elongated, round and broad at both extremities and narrow
in the middle. In the germ itself two layers or laminae are
developed ; the uppermost layer is the serous or animal layer, the
lowest the mucous or vegetative. The serous layer consists of
round or multangular flat cells, with a nucleus and small granules,
placed close together; the mucous layer consists of cells without
nucleus which are smaller in the clear area, whilst at the margins
of this layer larger and smaller cells are intermingled with darker
globules and small granules lying diffused in a formless intercel-
lular substance1. Somewhat later a third layer is seen between
the other two which is named the vascular layer (see above, p. 5).

As the germ separates itself from the other parts of the egg, so
also a separation takes place in the germ itself; one part of it
becomes the embryo whilst the other retains the name of germinal
membrane into which the embryo passes without any determi-
nate boundary at first. Afterwards the two layers of the germ
exist in the embryo, and in it the dorsal part is first formed
from the serous layer. The first rudiment of the chick is seen
about the fourteenth or fifteenth hour of brooding as a narrow
streak (nota primitiva] which is somewhat broader at one extremity
and about 1^ line long; this streak lies in the long axis of the
transparent field (area pellueida} , which itself is situated not in the

1 SCHWANN Mikrosk&p. Untersuchungen, a. 65 — 67, Tab. n. figs. 6, 7.

BIRDS. 353

long direction of the egg, but lies transversely upon the yolk, and
making nearly a right angle with the long axis of the egg. The
primitive streak is a groove; a few hours later there appears at its
two sides an ascending ridge-like dorsal lamina. These two dorsal
laminae, which gradually approach each other above and at length
coalesce in the mid-plane, were named by PANDER the primitive
folds (Primitiv-falten) . In the primitive streak, and so between
these dorsal laminae, the central nervous system is formed; beneath
it arises as a fine thread the notochord (chorda dorsah's, see above,
p. 8), the first commencement and precursor of the spinal column;
afterwards this chord becomes ^tirrounded by the bodies of the
vertebrae, and finally is quite suppressed by them. On each side
of the chorda dorsah's small four-sided white plates begin to be
distinguished in the dorsal laminae, at first four or five, in front of
and behind which others gradually become visible ; these little plates
are usually considered to be the commencement of the vertebrae 1 ;
the mucous lamina is loosely attached to the inferior surface (that
turned towards the yolk) of this first commencement of the chick.
As yet there is no abdominal cavity. The commencement of it is
made, on the second day, by two parts of the animal layer situated
on the outside of the dorsal laminae, the so-named (lammce ren-
trales), which extend superficially and bend downwards. These
laminae thus form the lateral walls of the abdominal cavity, which
is slowly closed, and not completely so before the development of
the chick has been completed. The cavity, on the contrary, which
contains the central parts of the nervous system, the spinal marrow
and the brain, is speedily inclosed. Even on the second day the
dorsal laminae meet by their margins in the mid-plane and coalesce.
In front the dorsal laminae separate farther from each other, and
thus bound a larger space which incloses a clear fluid situated in ve-
sicular spaces behind each other, from which afterwards the cerebral
mass is developed. Already, on the first day, the embryo has
assumed a curved direction, and the anterior extremity (originally
the broader end of the nota primitiva] is bent more and more down-
wards. At the posterior extremity, on the second day also, there
is a curvature, and thus the embryo lies, like an upset boat, with

1 REMAK, on the contrary, thinks these plates may be regarded as rudiments of the
cerebro-spinal nerves, MUELLER'S Archil', 1843, s. 478 — 484.

VOL. ii. 23

354 CLASS xvi.

its keel-shaped back turned upwards and its cavity towards the
yolk. The vegetative layer forms the intestinal canal, which is
still open below and passes into the germinal membrane. This
passage becomes gradually narrower and narrower, and at last
forms the umbilical aperture. On the second day also the forma-
tion of the heart begins, and the circulation of the blood is pre-
pared for by vessels of the germinal membrane, by which the
second period of the history of development is distinguished.

The second period of development commences with the third
day and includes three days. The darker margin, that in the
beginning surrounded the transparent area (see above, p. 350), has
expanded into a larger circle (the area vasculosa). This area is
formed by the vascular layer (p. 350) which has been developed
between the animal and vegetative layers. In this space a vascular
network appears in the second half of the second day. Round the
area is a circular sinus or a vein (sinus terminalis, vena terminalis),
from which the blood by three or four principal stems returns to
the embryo, whilst from the embryo blood flows to the vascular
area by two transverse stems of which the direction consequently
makes a right angle with that of the venous stems1. The cloudy
circles (halones), which as early as the second day had become less
conspicuous, have now entirely disappeared.

During this period the embryo acquires an envelop formed by
a prolongation of the animal layer which is turned up on each side
of it and around its two extremities and thus forms two folds which
gradually meet above the back and unite with each other (on the
fourth day). In this way the embryo is inclosed in a vesicular
membrane, the amnion, which is in connexion with the skin of the
embryo where the walls of the trunk pass into the animal layer of
the germinal membrane. This connecting part is the skin-navel.
The mucous layer, in connexion with the intestine, forms the
intestine-navel (ductus vitello-intestinalis) situated within the skin-
navel. The heart has at first the form of a bent tube, which at its
lower extremity receives the veins of the vascular area. The upper
part of this tube (afterwards changed into the bulbus aortce] gives

1 A beautiful magnified representation of this circulation of blood has been given
in a large figure by PANDER in his Beitrage zur Entwiclcelungsgeschichte des Huhnchens
im Eie. Wiirzburg, 1817, 4to, Tab. vm. See also WAGNER Icon. Physiol. (ed. prim.)
Tab. iv. figs. 4, 5.

BIRDS. 355

off four vascular arches on each side, and between these three
fissures are formed. This disposition, which reminds us of the
class of fishes, was by RATHKE, who first discovered it, actually
compared with the structure in that class; hence the names of
branchial fissures and branchial arches1. On the fourth day a fifth
pair of branchial arches is formed, and the first arch ceases to
convey blood ; the current also in the second becomes weaker, and
this arch disappears on the fifth day, when thus only three pairs of
vascular arches remain. These four or three arches form on each
side a short stem; the two stems unite as roots of the large artery,
to form a single main stem. The large artery thus formed divides,
however, again lower down into two branches, and from these the
arteries proceed, which are distributed transversely over the ger-
minal membrane. In this period also rudiments of the liver, the
pancreas, the allantois and the lungs are formed. All these parts,
according to VON BAER, are merely excrescences from the intestinal
canal, of which the mucous membrane penetrates the vascular layer
and thus forms these parts as conical, hollow appendages. On each
side of the inferior surface of the spinal column the vascular layer
forms a lamina, whilst the mucous layer expands downwards; from
the coalescence of these two laminae the mesentery arises. In this
period also the Wolfnan bodies or primordial kidneys arise, which
are situated on each side of the back along the greatest part of the
trunk, consisting of many tortuous, transverse, blind tubes and
having an excretory duct which opens into the cloaca*. The first
rudiments of limbs are seen, on the fourth day, as small excrescences
on the ventral laminae; on the fifth day they are larger; at that
time they end in a flat and round part which is attached to a nar-
row pedicle.

The circulation of blood through the allantots, which may
be regarded as a respiratory organ, supersedes more and more
after the sixth day the circulation through the vasa omphalo-
meseraica, and characterises the last period, that, namely, from
the sixth day to the end of brooding. The allantois, of which the

1 REICHERT names them visceral arches. See his Dissertatio de Embryonum arcubus
sic dictis branchialibus, Berolini, 1836, 4to.

2 Compare on these parts, amongst others, RATHKE JBeitr. zur Gesch. der Thierwelt,
m. 1825, s. 50 f. f. ; J. MUELLER JBildungsgesch. der Genitalien, Diisseldorf, 1830, 4to,
s. 21 f. f. &c.

23—2

356 CLASS xvi.

first rudiment appears on the third day as a vesicular eversion from
the posterior extremity of the intestinal canal, becomes highly
vascular, rapidly increases in circumference, penetrates externally
between the intestine-navel and the amnion, and grows over the
embryo and the amnion. About the ninth day the vena terminalis
disappears from the vascular area; at a later period its blood-vessels
also diminish and disappear. Towards the fourteenth or fifteenth
day the allantois coalesces with itself and surrounds the entire egg,
being situated immediately under the membrane of the shell; it
may now be compared with the external membrane of the mamma-
lian ovum, the chorion. The development of the chick still pro-
ceeds. From the heart two pairs of vascular arches now arise; the
posterior pair already sends many branches to the lungs, and is
afterwards changed into the pulmonary artery; the two anterior
and an unpaired arch on the right side, between the anterior and
the posterior arch, are the principal branches of the great artery
present in the full-grown bird, namely the two anterior arteries
and the descending artery (see above, p. 338). The permanent kid-
neys and the sexual organs are developed. The skeleton becomes
more and more complete in all its parts, and in the cartilages from
which it is formed many ossific points are now visible. The limbs
which at an earlier period were uniform, now gradually assume the
appearance which afterwards distinguishes them, the anterior that
of wings, the posterior of legs. As early also as the eleventh or
twelfth day rudiments of feathers may be observed. The yolk-sac
contracts, and at last is, for the most part, received into the abdo-
minal cavity, together with the part of the intestinal canal which
is on the outside of that cavity, and with which it is in con-
nexion by the vitelline duct. The bird, whose bill usually lies at
the obtuse end of the shell, perforates on the nineteenth or twentieth
day the membrane of the shell, and is able to breathe in the air-
cavity under the shell, which explains the fact that the chick may
be sometimes heard to chirp before it chips the shell. At last the
young bird breaks the calcareous shell, for which a calcareous,
conical excrescence on the point of the upper bill, which after-
wards disappears without leaving a vestige, serves it as an instru-
ment. It enlarges the aperture thus made, and continues still for
some time with outstretched neck to rest and breathe in the egg.
The circulation of blood in the allantois stops ; the navel-ring closes

BIRDS. 357

and presses off that membrane and a part of the yolk-sac from the
abdomen, and the chick leaves the egg1.

There now remain for consideration the organs of animal life in
the class of birds. The mass of the spinal marrow is smaller
than that of the brain, whilst the reverse was observed in fishes
and reptiles. A narrow canal runs through its middle. Where
the nerves of the wings (plexus brachialis) arise, the spinal marrow,
which in the upper part of the neck is thin, becomes broader; a
still more remarkable swelling appears in the lumbar region, where
the nerves of the hind limbs arise. Here the posterior strands
separate laterally from each other, and the central canal expands
into a sac which is filled with a watery fluid. From this part
downwards the spinal marrow becomes constantly thinner, runs
through the tail, and finally terminates in a fine thread; a so-named
cauda equina is not present2.

The brain is more fully developed than in the two preceding
classes. In the first place, its mass is larger; in general, at least,
it surpasses in relative magnitude that of most reptiles, and of all
fishes3. It entirely fills the cranial cavity. Again, the greater

1 Amongst the numerous writings on the development of the chick we name only
M. MALPIGHII I>iss. epistolica de Formatione pulli in oro in his Opera omnia, Londini,
1687, fol. ii.; A. HALLER Deux Memoires sur la formation du cceur dans U poulet,
Lausanne, 1758; G. F. WOLFF Theoria generationis, Halae, 1759, 8vo (ed. sec. ibid.
1774) ; ejusd. Ueber die Bildung des Darmkanals im bebriiieten Hiihnchens, iibersetzt von.
J. F. MECKEL, Halle, 1812, 8vo; CHB. PANDER Dissertatio inaug. sistens historiam
metamorphoseos quam ovum incubatum prioribus quinque diebus subit. Wirceburgi, 1817,
8vo (and his Beitrage, with 14 beautiful plates by D'ALTON, already cited above) ;
K. E. VON BAER Ueber EntvncTcelungsgeschichte der Thiere, Kb'nigsberg, 1828, 4to, s.
i — 140, and in BURDACH'S Physiologic, Bd. n. 2te AufL s. 335 — 446; lastly, the
excellent plates of M. P. ERDL, in the first part of his work, interrupted by his death,
Die Entmckelung des Menschen und des Hiihnchens, Leipzig, 1845, 4to. We could not
dwell upon the great difference of opinion of the latest writers with regard to the
layers of the germ and other questions not yet sufficiently cleared up, but we have
deviated only slightly from the description given in our first edition, for which the
investigations of VON BAER supplied the ground-work.

2 Compare NICOLAI in REIL'S Archiv, XI. s. 156 — 219, with a figure of the entire
spinal marrow of a goose.

3 The proportion is very various ; thus the ratio between the weight of the brain
and that of the whole body has been found in the sparrow as 1 : 25, in the chaffinch as
i : 22, in the goose as i : 300, HALLER Elem. Physiol. iv. pp. 9, 10 ; Cuv. Lee. d'Anat.
comp. ii. pp. 151, 152, 2e e"d. in. pp. 79, 80. Still smaller than in the goose is the
ratio in struthious birds ; in the Indian Casuary as i : 670 or even i : 1000, MECKEL
Archiv fur Anatomic und Physiol. vi. 1832, s. 352.

358 CLASS xvi.

development of the brain is obvious from the position of its several
parts which are no longer situated in one plane, behind each other,
as in fishes and reptiles. The broad medulla oblongata now makes
an obtuse angle with the spinal marrow of the neck. The second
cerebral mass, which in fishes and reptiles is situated in front of
the cerebellum and behind the hemispheres of the cerebrum (see
above, p. 43), is here placed below, and on the upper surface are
seen the two large hemispheres and the cerebellum alone. This
last, although it has lateral appendages, still consists principally of
the middle part, which in anatomy is named vermis cerebelli. The
medulla of the cerebellum presents that peculiar branching expan-
sion to which the name of arbor vitce is given in human anatomy.
The cavity of the medulla oblongata (the fourth ventricle) pene-
trates far into the cerebellum. On the surface of this medullary mass
many transverse furrows are visible. The cerebrum exhibits no
convolutions, but has an entirely smooth surface; it has capacious
cavities (ventriculi laterales] in which large striated eminences are
seen (corpora striata). Above and behind the anterior commissure
is a thin transverse medullary lamina, which, according to the inter-
esting discovery of A. MECKEL, connects, as a rudimental corpus
cattosum, the two hemispheres1. On the base of the brain no pom
Varolii is yet visible (p. 227) j in front of the medulla oblongata
the under surface of the above-named second cerebral mass is seen
as two lateral eminences corresponding to the corpora quadrigemina
and hollow internally. From these the very thick optic nerves
proceed forwards, form a curve and approach each other transversely
to meet in front of the infundibulum where they split into a number
of medullary laminse, which receive one another on each side like
the fingers of two clasped hands. The olfactory nerves arise from a
conical swelling at the fore part of the hemispheres; white medul-
lary fibres at the base of the hemispheres run in part to these
nerves; those fibres may be followed in the other direction as far
as the optic thalami. The pairs of cerebral nerves are the same in

1 Compare especially A. MECKEL Anatomic des Gehirns der Vogel in J. F. MECKEL'S
Archiv fiir die Physiol. n. 1816, s. 25 — 78, Tab. I. Many figures of the brain of
birds are to be found in the first edition of WAGNEK'S I cones Physiologicce, Tab. 22,
figs. *> 3, 4, Tab. 23, figs. 14—17, Tab. 24, fig. 16, Tab. 25, fig. 9, Tab. 26, fig. 5,
Tab. 27, fig. 13.

BIRDS. 359

number as in mammals; also the principal divisions of them are
the same. The facial nerve is feebly developed. The first branch
of the fifth pair has a distribution which deviates from that in
mammals and seems to indicate that, in part, it also corresponds to
the second branch of that pair; also it is sometimes thicker than
the second; the third branch gives off no lingual nerve (comp.
above, p. 228). The tenth pair, that of the nervus vagus, seems
to take the place of the n. lingualis; a branch from that pair joins
the glossopharyngeus, whilst a distinct lingual branch from the
vagus is often present in addition1.

The upper cervical ganglion of the great sympathetic nerve
lies close to the outlet, from the cranium, of the ninth and tenth
pairs. From this ganglion two branches proceed to the head, which
communicate with branches of the fifth, seventh and ninth pairs.
The cervical portion of the great sympathetic enters the canal of
the transverse processes between the first and second cervical
vertebrae and issues from it again at the penultimate cervical
vertebra, then runs over the brachial plexus and forms in the
thoracic cavity large ganglia which are mutually connected by two
nervous filaments or a double limiting cord. In the posterior part
of the abdominal cavity the limiting cord again becomes single,
and the nerves of the two sides approach each other more and more
towards the mid-plane2.

The sense of feeling cannot be highly developed in birds, since
their body, with the exception of the beak, of the legs, and in
some of certain parts of the head or the neck, is entirely covered
with feathers. The anterior limbs are absolutely unable to serve
for tact since they are changed into wings, the posterior too,
besides their use in standing and progressing, serve only for seizing

1 Compare on the cerebral nerves in birds SCHLEMM Observationes neurologicce,
Berolini, 1834, 4to, pp. 17 — 20, and M. J. THUET Disquisitiones anatomicce Psitta-
corum, Turici, 1838, 4to, pp. 30 — 32.

2 Compare besides E. H. WEBER Anat. camp, nervi sympathki, pp. -24 — 38, also
BISCHOFF Comment, de Nervi accessorii Willisii Anatomia et Physiologia, Darmstadii,
1832, 4to, pp. 41, 42. In the mesentery of birds there is an unpaired nervous cord
which proceeds from the rectum, where it is thickest, to the duodenum along the con-
volutions of the intestinal canal. At the cloaca is placed an elongated, large terminal
ganglion ; at the lowest part of the small intestine this nerve has no ganglion. See
the interesting investigations of REMAK in his memoir, Ueber ein selbstandiges Darm-
Mrvensysfem, Berlin, 1847, folio.

360 CLASS xvr.

without any provision for feeling being observable. In some birds
the bill may serve as an organ of touch, as in the ducks, where
the skin that covers it is thin and soft and has many branches of
the fifth pair of nerves distributed to it.

We may here touch upon the feathers of birds, a covering of
the skin which is peculiar to this class, and to which the body of
these animals is indebted not only for the ornament of beautiful
colours but also for the graceful rotundity of form by which it is
distinguished. The feathers have, at their inferior extremity, a
shorter or longer horny tube, the quill (scapus, calamus), by which
they are attached to the skin. In the part which extends onwards
towards the point, named the shaft (rachis) there is on the outer
surface, which is smooth and somewhat convex, a lamina that is
produced from the horny basal piece, and extends to the extremity
of the feather, becoming gradually narrower. On the inner surface
the shaft has a longitudinal groove. The shaft consists of a white
spongy substance, resembling the pith of an elder-branch, which
arises in the tube of the shaft by two or three roots. The quill,
again, is not entirely hollow but contains some membranous parts
or partitions (the so-named pith of the feather) , which are fixed to
the lower and the upper ends of the quill when the pith of the shaft
begins to be formed, and are received within one another like
funnels. From the shaft proceed obliquely on each side towards
the point of the feather branches (rami NiTZSCH, radii or barbce of
other writers). This branch-like part of the feather is named flag
(vexillum) or vane. The horny laminae of which it is composed
are also provided on each side with finer rays (radii NITZSCH, bar-
bulce) scarcely visible by the naked eye; the anterior row of these
rays, i. e. that which is turned towards the point of the shaft, sup-
ports minute microscopic hairs, which, in part, are bent into hooks
at their extremity and cross the posterior rays of the branch im-
mediately preceding. It is by these booklets that the branches of
the vane, especially in the flag- and tail-feathers so completely
interlock; when the attempt is made to separate them, they seem
to stick together1. In the feathers of very many birds there issues

1 A good figure of this arrangement maybe found in HOOKE Micrographia, Tab. 23,
fig. 2 ; the figure of PERRAULT, on the contrary, given by OWEN in TODD'S Cyclop. I.
P- 35°> does not correspond with nature.

BIRDS. 361

from a little pit or umbilical depression, at the commencement
of the groove on the internal surface of the shaft, an accessory
plume (pluma accessoria, Jiyporrachis NITZSCH), which in the
casuary equals the primary shaft in size, but usually is much
smaller than it, but is similarly formed. In the flag-feathers of the
wings and the tail-feathers this part is never met with. By the quill
the feathers are fixed in a tube formed by a duplicature of the skin.

If the feathers be plucked from a living bird new ones come in
their place, and this reproduction occurs also annually at the so-
named moult. At the bottom of the canal in which the feathers were
fastened, a formative fluid is then secreted anew, which gradually
accumulates and is included in a vesicle open below. This vesicle
quickly assumes the form of an elongated cone of which the base
is turned downwards; it afterwards perforates the skin as a horny
case or sheath, and finally at its point gives passage to the vane of
the new feather developed within the case. In proportion as the
development of the feather proceeds, the horny case is resolved into
small scales and plates and partly falls off by shaking of the
feathers, or is removed by the bird when it dresses its feathers with
its bill. Some downy feathers, of which the shaft is not fully
formed but always remains incomplete, secrete on that account a
substance or powder which falls from this horny case; feathers of this
kind have been long known in the herons, where they occur behind
on the back, but they are found also in other birds, in some parrots,
for instance, and birds of prey.

Consequently it is the point of the feather that is first seen.
The flag also is the part most early formed in the above-named
sheath. Afterwards comes the quill, which at first forms a ring at
the base of this sheath, but is afterwards elongated. Lastly the
shaft is produced, which at first consists of two lateral parts, which
soon coalesce at the horny plate of the anterior side, but remain
longer distinct behind, from whence also the longitudinal groove
arises which we have noticed on the posterior surface of the shaft.
Finally, the membranes that fill the quill are the remnants of the
fluid in which the feather was formed and which has gradually
dried up in that closed space1.

1 On the mode in which feathers are produced various observations have been
published. In our compressed description we have principally made use of A. MECKEL

362 CLASS xvi.

As in mammals, before changing the milk-teeth, the rudi-
ments of the permanent teeth are present, so on the moulting of
birds there already exists in the base of the dermal cell a vesicle
under the old feather, from which subsequently the new feather
proceeds. As in the annual decadence of the horns in stags so also
in that of the feathers, the occurrence is in close connexion with the
sexual function. In like manner as castrated stags no longer shed
their horns, so birds moult no more almost, when they have been
rendered incapable of propagating. The relation between the
sexual function and the feathers is moreover clearly indicated by
the well-known difference of plumage in the different sexes, whilst
finally, certain female birds, which from age have ceased to lay
eggs, sometimes assume a clothing, which resembles that of the males
of their species, as, for example, has been observed in pheasants
and ducks1.

The moulting of birds usually occurs about the beginning of
autumn, when the brooding time has passed; many birds, those,
namely, which have a winter dress, change their feathers twice a
year, casting their winter dress in spring before the time of pairing.

The feathers may be distinguished as contour-feathers (pennce}
and as down-feathers (plumulce] . The first are furnished with a perfect
quill and with firm branches and rays. The down-feathers have an
imperfect, short quill, and the rays, destitute of little hairs or hooks,
exhibit under the microscope darker knotty swellings, remote from
each other, and causing them to appear as though divided into long
joints. There are feathers, which, from the entire absence or slight
development of the vane, almost resemble hairs, and which are
distinguished as a third kind under the name of thread-feathers
(filoplumce). The quill-feathers are mostly placed in certain de-
finite regions (pterylce NITZSCH), between which other fields (apteria)
are situated, which are covered with down-feathers only, or are

Ueber die Federbildung, REIL'S Archiv f. d. Physiol. xn. s. 37 — 96, with figures.
Compare also F. CUVIER Mem. du Mus. xm. pp. 327 — 368. (KECLAM De plumarum
pennarumque evolutione, Ace. Tab. in. Lipsiae, 1846, and G-. SCHRENK De formatione
pennce, Dorpati, 1848, are known to me only from REICHERT'S Jahresbericht in MUEL-
LER'S Archiv, 1847, s- 29> an(l l%49> s' 2I0

1 BLUMENBACH Institutiones physiol., p. 508 (ed. 1798); ISID. GEOFFR. SAINT-
HILAIRE Mem. du Mus. d'Hist. not. xn. pp. 220 — 231, and Essais de Zoologie generate,
Paris, 1841, pp. 493— 5 14, PI. 4, 5.

BIRDS. 363

quite naked, however they be protected by the vanes of the
neighbouring quill-feathers. The various disposition of these
feathered regions has been carefully investigated by NITZSCH in
different genera of birds, and has been employed as an aid in
classification1. The quill-feathers of the wings and of the tail
bear different names. The large quill-feathers, which are inserted
in a row on the outside along the posterior margin of the hand and
the fore-arm, are named flag-feathers (remiges}. Ten or nine (some-
times eleven) of these are inserted on the hand from the point of
the wing as far as the joint (remiges primo-res s. remiges primi or-
din-is); to them succeed the so-named secondary flag-feathers (remiges
secundi ordinis], which are subject to a much greater variety of
number and are attached to the ulna. The thumb-wing (alula,
ala spuria] is a bundle of small stiff feathers inserted externally on
the thumb. Sometimes there is a carpal tubercle above the thumb,
covered with a conical horny investment. The wings are in that
case said to be spurred (alee calcaratce), as in Parr a jacana L.,
Palamedea, &c. The great quill- feathers of the tail are named
rudder-feathers (rectrices)2. The large quill-feathers of the wings
and the tail are covered by smaller feathers (coverts, tectrices ; the
tail-coverts are named calypteria).

Cutaneous glands or sebaceous and sweat glands, which in
mammals are commonly present in great numbers, and are diffused
over most parts of the body, are wanting in birds, with the excep-
tion of a gland situated under the skin, on the tail-bone, which,
however, in some is absent. It consists of two lobes, formed of
blind, parallel tubes, and secretes a white or yellow oily substance,
which the birds press from the excretory ducts with their bill and
with which they smear their feathers. These glands are more
developed in some water-birds (especially in Sula, Sterna, Procel-
laria] than in the rest3.

1 C. L. NITZSCH System der Pterylograpkie, Mit x Kupfertafeln, Halle, 1840, 4to.
In the supplements also by the Editor, Prof. BURMEISTER, contributions to the history
of the development of feathers are to be found, which may be compared with what has
been stated above.

3 In the description of birds these feathers are counted from without inwards so
that each of the outermost feathers is named the first, those that succeed to them the
second, &c. up to the middlemost.

3 Compare SCHNEIDER Abhandlungen zur Aufklarung der Zoologie u. Handlungs-
gescJiichte, 1784, s. 158, 159, 333, TIEDEMANN Zoologie, n. s. 135—137, NITZSCH
Pterylographie, s. 54 — 59.

364 CLASS xvi.

From this interweaving of the description of the skin and
feathers of birds we turn to the consideration of their organs of
sense. Taste is little developed in birds, and in most of the species
the tongue itself is quite inadapted to serve as an instrument of this
sense, being merely a horny covering of the two cartilages or bones
which lie side by side, or have coalesced, and which are attached to
the body of the tongue-bone in front (ossa lingualia s. entoglossa) . In
the parrots however the tongue is thick and muscular, and beset with
some papillae at its base. It is muscular also in many water-birds,
as the ducks, where it is provided at the margin with stiff bristle-like
denticles, armed with rows of hard laminae, and covered at the base
with long soft papillae, in front of which is a large grooved tubercle.
In most birds the tongue serves merely for deglutition, or for seizing
the food, as in the woodpeckers, where it can be extended far from
the mouth. The tongue-bone consists, in addition to the cartila-
ginous or bony nucleus of the tongue itself, which has been noted,
of a body mostly elongate, to which, at the back part, a stiliform
bone is usually attached (urohyale of GEOFFROY), and of two long
horns, which are sometimes cartilaginous at the apex, and mostly
formed of two joints. In the woodpeckers and humming birds
these horns mount upwards upon the cranium and glide downwards
when the tongue is extended. The tongue of birds admits of great
motion as a whole from many extraneous muscles, as extension and
retraction; but it possesses little flexibility, and thus is not in a
condition to bring its surface into that variety of contact with the
food which is required for tasting.

The organ of smell is more highly developed 1. On the back of
the bill, at a greater or less distance from its point, mostly more
towards its base, are seen the two nostrils2. Frequently these
apertures, in order that they may not be obstructed by sand or
other matters, are covered by bristles (stiff, imperfect feathers),
especially in those birds which pick their food from the ground.
The cartilaginous septum of the nasal cavities, that rests upon the
vomer, is perforated in some birds (nares pervice}. The nasal

1 SCARPA De Auditu et Olfactu, pp. 77 — 85, Tab. m. ; compare also HAEWOOD
System, of Comp. Anat. and Phys. Cambridge, 1796 ; 4 to, p. 25.

2 In Sula alba, according to NiTZSCH, they are entirely wanting, Jdhresbericht dcr
Naturf. GeselhcJi. zu Halle, 1825, s. 23. SCHLEGEL, however, found them in this bird,
but they cannot be perceived in Sula piscatrix and parva. Tijdsckr. voor natuurl.
Geschied. en Physiol. n. 1839, s. 168—172.

BIKDS. 365

cavities are spacious and open behind by a fissure in the palate.
Frontal sinuses are not present in birds. Within the nasal cavity
on each side are found three laminae, usually cartilaginous, some-
times bony; of these the middle one has more or fewer spiral
convolutions, the lowest is always very small. These laminae
correspond to the conchce or spongy bones (ossa turbinata) of mam-
mals; they are covered by a velvetty mucous membrane. The
olfactory nerves penetrate the nasal cavities undivided, without
first passing through a cribriform plate (peculiar to mammals).
They divide in the cavity into many fine branches, which spread
themselves over the septum and upon the upper conch, which
especially is the seat of the sense of smell, and of which the size
appears to increase with the fineness of this. The inferior conch
receives its nerves from the first branch of the fifth pair alone.
According to the anatomical investigations and experiments of
SCARPA on birds, the waders would seem to have the finest smell,
and then the water-birds, the birds of prey, and the climbers,
whilst this sense is dullest in the singing and the gallinaceous
birds. Also, according to this great anatomist, the males are some-
what more acute in smelling than the females. To the olfactory
organ a pair of glands also belongs, which JACOBSOX and NITZSCH
have brought into fuller notice. Not in water-birds only, but nearly
in all birds there is found on the frontal bone, or above the margin
of the orbit, or within it, a gland on each side, of which the ex-
cretory duct runs to the cavity of the nose. The fluid which it
secretes is watery, and seems to resemble that of the tears \

The organ of sight is highly developed. In this class no ex-
amples are met with of species which have eyes either small or
covered by the skin, and thus unfit for seeing, as is the case in
certain species of the other classes of vertebrate animals. On the
contrary, the eyes in birds are large, especially in the birds of prey.
With the exception of the nocturnal birds of prey, where they are
directed forward, they are placed laterally, above the angle of the
bill, or more towards the back part of the head on each side, as in
the snipes. The eye-ball before and behind is circumscribed by a
spherical segment, but the anterior segment belongs to a smaller

1 JACOBSOX Bulletin de la Soc. philomatique, Avril, 1813; C. L. NITZSCH in
MECKEL'S Archivfiir die Physiol. vi. 1820, s. 234 — 269.

366 CLASS xvi.

sphere, and hence the curvature of the cornea is much greater than
that of the sclerotic coat in the base of the eye. When the poste-
rior segment is large the two segments are united by a narrow
margin running obliquely forward; if, on the contrary, the posterior
segment be only a small portion of a sphere, then this uniting
margin is elongated to form a truncated cone, and the axis of the
eye becomes much longer, as, for instance, in the owls. At this
part the sclerotic coat receives between its laminae a ring of bony
plates or scales, of which the number differs in different birds, but
is commonly fourteen or fifteen1. Fibres of striped muscle proceed
forward from these scales and are inserted into the inner lamina of
the cornea2. Their action will increase the convexity of the cornea.
The vascular membrane (choro'idea) is covered abundantly with a
black pigment. As an arrangement in the eye peculiar to birds the
black fan or comb (pecten) must be noticed, which consists of a fold
of the vascular membrane (choroidea), and may be regarded as a
higher development of the sickle-shaped band in the fish's eye (see
above, p. 48), and of the fold present in many lacertine animals
(see above, p. 232). This fan proceeds from the entrance of the
optic nerve into the eye-ball obliquely upwards to the axis of the
eye, and in many extends as far as the capsule of the lens. The
number of the folds is various; they are most numerous in the
Passeres, from twenty to thirty ; on the other hand they are fewest
in number in the nocturnal birds of prey and Caprimulgus (five to
seven)3. This part does not contain muscular tissue, and hence
the only effect it can produce by changing its circumference must
be caused by the greater or less distension of the blood-vessels
which are very numerous in it. On the probable use of the fan
many surmises have been formed; we here notice only the opinion

1 A full description of this bony ring has been given by J. A. ALBERS Beitrage
%u.*r Anatomie u. Physiologic der Thiere, istes Heft, Bremen, 1802, 4to, s. 73 — 106,
with figures. In many birds there is also another ossification in the sclerotica, a bony
plate in form of a ring or horse-shoe, at the entrance of the optic nerve into the bulb.
See GEMMINGER Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool. iv. 1853, P- 2I5> F. LETDIG, MUELLER'S
Archiv, 1855, pp. 40—46, Taf. vi. figs. 1—7.

2 These fibres form the musculus cramptonianus, so named after CRAMPTON, its
discoverer. THOMPSON'S Annals of Philosophy, 1813, p. 172.

3 Compare WAGNER JBeitr. zur Anat. der Vdgel. (1. 1.) s. 295 — 300. In Apteryx
this part is wanting, according to OWEN Zool. Transact, n. p. 293 ; this is a single
exception. See also on the pecten Mm. HUSCHKE Commentatio de Pectinis in oculo
Avium potestate anatomica et physiologies. Accedit Tab. sen. Jense, 1827, 4to.

367

formerly advanced by PETIT and afterwards urged by TREVIRANUS,
that ihepecten, by absorbing the rays of light that enter the eye
obliquely, limits the power of seeing objects that are out of the
direction of the axis of the ball, and renders vision in that direction
more definite and sharp. The ligamentum ciliare, which in the mam-
mals contains unstriped muscular fibres, here contains striped mus-
cular fibres; between its two laminae is an open space (canalis Fon-
tance) ; the iris possesses a high contractility, and presents muscu-
lar fibres which run round the pupil in concentric circular bundles,
and lie under the external layer of pigment upon which the diffe-
rent colour of the iris (commonly yellow or brownish) depends.
The pupil is usually round. The lens is commonly more convex
in proportion as the cornea is more flat, as in swimming birds; it is,
however, on the whole, much less convex than in fishes and reptiles,
and is placed far from the convex cornea, so that the anterior cham-
ber of the eye is spacious, and the quantity of the aqueous humour
considerable. The bird's eye is distinguished from that of mam-
mals not only by the pecten but also by the disposition and course
of the ciliary nerves; these in mammals penetrate the eye-ball and
iris on every side, in birds, on the contrary, only on one side of
the eye, the inferior, and afterwards divide into branches which are
distributed circularly over the iris1.

Three eye-lids are present; besides the two horizontal eye-lids,
the upper and the lower, here there is always a third vertical eye-
lid at the inside, the membrana nictitans, which is transparent and
moderates the too powerful action of the light, by drawing itself
like a curtain over the anterior surface of the eye-ball. In different
birds, diurnal birds of prey for instance, in the toucan (Rhamphas-
tos), in Casuarius, in Struthio there is found a row of black eye-
lashes, or stiff, imperfect feathers along the margin of the horizontal
eye-lids. The lacrymal gland is commonly small, round, and
reddish, and is situated upwards at the posterior angle of the eye.
Birds have, in addition, a gland called Harder's gland (see above,
p. 232) on the anterior surface of the eye-ball, of which the excre-
tory duct opens behind the membrana nictitans. This membrane

1 KIESER in OKEN'S und KIESEB'S Beitr. zur vergl. Zodogie, Anatomic u. Physlol.
1807, n- s. 98; see figures in TREVIRANUS Beitr. zur Anat. u. Physiol. der Sinnes-
werlczeuge. Bremen, 1828, fol. Heft i, Tab. I. f. 12, 13.

368 CLASS xvr.

is moved by a muscle (musculus pyramidalis) which arises on the
posterior surface of the sclerotic under the entrance of the optic
nerve and has a very long tendon which passes above the optic
nerve, and is inclosed in the canal of a second- broad muscle (muse,
quadratus) on the upper and back part of the sclerotic ; on leaving
this canal the tendon proceeds over the eye-ball forward and down-
ward to be inserted into the margin of the third eye-lid1. The
eye-ball has also its six proper muscles, as in man, four straight
and two oblique; they partly cover the two preceding muscles, and
are short: the ball has less mobility in birds, and in them the direc-
tion of their sight to different objects is effected less by the motions
of the eye than of the whole head2.

The organ of hearing presents in birds an adherence to a
general form in a much greater degree than in reptiles, where in
different orders it stops at very different grades of development. In
addition to the vestibule the auditory organ has in all birds a tym-
panic cavity, an auditory ossicle, a tympanic membrane, an Eusta-
chian tube, and an external auditory passage. A thin bony lamina
surrounds the membranous vestibule, and, since this lamina is en-
veloped by a cellular and loose bony tissue, the bony vestibule in
birds may be easily exposed. The three semicircular canals are
large. The anterior and inner is the largest ; it runs from before
backwards with its curvature upwards, and unites by its posterior
extremity with that of the posterior canal, whose arch is turned
outwards and stands vertically ; the third canal lies almost at a right
angle under and across the direction of these, and thus is horizon-
tal; it has two openings into the vestibule. The vestibule is small.
The cochlea has the form of an obtuse cone, which at its extremity
swells into an oval tubercle. The interior of this non-convoluted
cochlea is divided by a thin membrane into two cavities; the mem-
brane is stretched between two bent cartilaginous strips connected

1 Here, for the purpose of keeping the tendon in its place, a small bony swelling is
sometimes found on the bony eye-ring. Compare on these muscles NITZSCH Osteogr. ,
Beitr. s. 80, 8 1, Taf. I. figs. 6, 7; see also the drawings and description of these
muscles in the eye of the ostrich, in Catalogue of tlie Physiol. Series in the Museum of
the College of Surgeons, in. pp. 206 — 208, PI. 42, figs. 4 — 7.

3 Compare on the eye of birds KIESER Ueber die Metamorphose des Auges dcs
lebriiteten ffiihnchens, 1. 1. s. 89 — 108, W. D. SCEMMERRING De oculor. sectione hori-
zontali, pp. 47 — 55, &c.

BIRDS. 369

with each other at their extremity, and forming an elongated oval
ring. There is a fenestra of the cochlea and a fenestra of the vesti-
bule; the last, or fenestra ovalis, is the superior and larger; close
below it lies the fenestra of the cochlea, which has also an oval
form, and so the name fenestra rotunda is scarcely applicable to it.
The ossiculum auditus is stiliform, and terminates in an oval or tri-
angular plate, by which it rests upon the fenestra of the vestibule.
The apertures of the Eustachian tubes lie close together in the
palate behind the internal openings of the nasal cavities. The
membrane of the tympanum has its external surface convex. The
external meatus is short ; its opening is surrounded by a circlet of
feathers sometimes of a peculiar form, which in certain birds are
elongated and extend beyond the other feathers of the head. In
the owls there is a cavity in front of the external meatus furnished
with various folds of skin, which in some degree corresponds to an
external ear1.

The muscles in this class are arranged in a way corresponding
to the peculiar mode of life in birds. The cutaneous muscles are
strongly developed, which are divided into numerous distinct
parcels, and do not form such a continuous layer (panniculus car-
nosus] as is present in mammals.

The quills or stiffer feathers on the surface of the body have
proper small muscles, produced from the cutaneous muscular layer,
for each feather four or sometimes five in number, so that the whole
number may be reckoned at more than 12,0002. The other muscles

1 See on the auditory organ of birds SCABPA De Auditu et Olfactu, pp. 32 — 36,
TREVIRANUS Ueber den innern Bau der Schneclce des Okrs der Vogel, Zeitschr. f.
Physiol. I. s. 188—196, Tab. IX. ; WiNDisCHMANN De penitiori in Amphib. struc-
tura, pp. 78 — 36 (with which again compare TKEVIBANUS Die Erscheinungen u.
Gesetze des organ. Lebens, 1832, 11. s. 119, 120); BBESCHET Rech. anat. et physiol.
sur rOrgane de Vouie dans les Oiseaux, Ann. des Sc. not., 2e Se*rie, Tom. V. Zoologie,
PP- 5—52, PL I. n.

2 NITZSCH, quoted by CARDS Vergl. Zoot. I. s. 294. Some cutaneous muscles
compress the air-sacs situated under the skin; they have been described by OWEN
in Sula alba, Proceedings of the ZooL Soc. Part I. 1830, 1831, p. 91. OWEN has
described also, at length, the cutaneous muscles in Apteryx, where they are more than
commonly developed ; this is connected with the peculiar thickness of the skin and
probably also with the habit of this bird to roll itself on the ground, when it has
its use in shaking the loose earth from the feathers. Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. X.
1842, pp. 22—24.

VOL. ii. 24

370 CLASS XVI.

present an accumulation of the fleshy mass as close as possible to
the trunk, a disposition by which the muscles of the limbs have short
bellies with long tendons, which, especially in the legs, have a great
inclination to ossify. The great pectoral muscle is remarkably de-
veloped, surpassing in most birds all the other muscles collectively
in mass ; yet in the struthious birds it is small. This muscle draws
the humerus downwards, and thus is the principal moving power
in flying. The muscles that raise the arm-bone are less developed,
as the deltoid, which is usually described as represented by three
muscles, two of which however (m. deltoideus medius and inferior)
are regarded by RETZIUS as muscles of the scapula (musculus
supraspinatus and m. infraspinatus). The proper muse, deltoideus
arises from the ossiculum humero-scapulare and by a second head,
more downward and backward, from the anterior extremity of the
scapula; it is attached to the crest of the humerus1. Peculiar to
birds are the muscles with long tendons which stretch the dermal
fold, provided with elastic fibrous tissue, of the wings; for the
uppermost fold, between the upper-arm bone and the fore-arm, two
of these are seen; for the posterior fold, between the upper-arm
bone and the trunk, only one such tensor-muscle is present. The
abdominal muscles are thin and feeble; the rectus abdominis has no
transverse inscriptiones teydinece. Muscles corresponding to the
psoas and iliacus internus are usually not found in birds. The
muscles of the neck, in correspondence with its great mobility, are
strongly developed. The midriff is not indeed wanting in birds,
as was generally received formerly, but still differs greatly in them,
with the exception of Apteryx, from that in the mammal, being for
the most part aponeurotic and confined to the ventral surface of the
lungs2.

1 On the horaology of the muscles of the anterior limbs in birds RETZIUS has pub-
lished some conclusions, in which amongst others he asserts that the so-named m. sub-
clavius does not correspond to the similarly named muscle of mammals, but ought
rather to be named costo-coracoideus or pectoralis minor. The muscle regarded as
pectorcdis minor is rather the homologue of the m. subclavius. See Forhandlingar vid
de STcandinaviske Naturforskarnes Mote i Stockholm, 184-2, pp. 659 — 664 (an extract in
MUELLER'S Archiv, 1844, s- T5)-

2 Compare on the muscles of birds, besides the general works of CUVIER, TIEDE-
MANN, MECKEL, &c., HEUSINGER in MECKEL'S Archiv f. d. Physiol. vn. s. 182 — 197,
Taf. 3 ; ScHOEPSS, Beschreibung der Flilgelmuskeln der Vogel in MECKEL'S Archiv f.
Anat. u. Physiol. 1829, ss. 72—176; E. D' ALTON De Strigum musculis commentatio.
Halae, 1837, 4to.

BIRDS. 371

The station of birds, the support of their body by the hind
limbs, is favoured by the flexures of the joints, by the thigh-bone
bent forwards, and the tarsus also directed forward, as also by the
long toes standing far apart. The flexure of the toes in grasping
branches is effected in many birds, involuntarily and even during
sleep, by the weight of the body, which bends the knee-joint. A
muscle, which runs from the pubic bone along the inside of the
thigh-bone (musculus gracilis s. rectus inter nus\ goes with its long
thin tendon over the knee-joint outwards, and is attached to the
upper extremity of the perforating flexor of the toes. The running
of birds is in many small singing birds rather a hopping; in the
struthious birds their rapid course is assisted by the stroke of their
wings. Some birds are peculiarly adapted for swimming, others
for climbing; but a certain law of compensation prevails in these
different motions, so that aptness in one kind is coupled with less
ability in the others. The most common, the chief motion is how-
ever flying; as in swimming the feet expand their swimming-mem-
brane, and the toes are separated from each other whilst they are
extended backwards, and in the succeeding forward movement are
folded together and cleave through the water with the least ex-
posure of surface, so also in flying the wings are spread out so as
to act upon a large surface of air in their down stroke, and are
again folded up when rapidly brought forward. The bird flies to
the right or left, in the first case by moving the left wing more, in
the second the right1. The motion of flying is uncommonly rapid
when compared with the motions of other animals. There are some
birds that can fly over more than 60 feet in a second. The velocity
of the swiftest race-horse is only about 40 feet in a second, and if
some can perform more, they are able to support such velocity
only for a short time. It is related that a falcon of the French king
Henry II. flew in one day from Fontainebleau to the island Malta2.

The intelligence of birds is more highly developed than that of
reptiles. Their memory is testified by their capacity of learning,

1 Such, long ago, was the statement of BOBELLI De Motu Animalium, Hagae
Comitum, 1743, 4to, pp. 196, 197; but BOBELLI held greatly exaggerated ideas
respecting the muscular power of birds, which were refuted principally by J. J.
PBECHTL in his Untersuchungen uber den Plug der Vogel, Wien, 1846, 8vo.

8 BUFFON ffut. nat. <?€« Oiseaux, i. Paris, 1770, 4to, p. 33.

24—2

372 CLASS xvi.

especially remarkable in some species, in the imitation of sounds
and of songs they have heard. Admirable also is their instinct,
which, as in the insect at the last period of its life, has special
regard to the preservation of the species and the care of the young.
The artistic manner in which some build their nest, the solicitude
with which they tend it, with which they conceal it from the eye
of their enemies, the skill with which they contrive to divert the
persecutions of other animals, and of man, from the place where
their nest is, all this reminds us of similar exhibitions in the insect
tribes.

The ordinary abode of birds is in connexion with the disposi-
tion of their moving power; the swimming membrane of the feet,
for example, in the ducks, &c. at once indicates their resort to
water. Some are almost entirely restricted to abide in water, as the
Aptenodytes, which only comes to land for the brooding of her eggs.
The waders live in morasses and on the shores of rivers ; whilst
some are able, if they have long wings, to make their nest in trees, as
the herons. The gallinaceous birds live principally on the ground;
climbing birds, like the monkeys and squirrels amongst mammals,
in the woods. Amongst the songsters and the birds of prey are
some which fly to a great height, and live partly on the ground,
partly in trees. Some birds live only on mountains. Between the
covering also of the body, the peculiar arrangement of the feathers,
and the usual abode of birds, a striking correspondence prevails.
The thick, smooth and often shining feathers of the water-birds
may afford us an example of this.

The geographic distribution of birds deserves, in fine, some
notice. Towards the poles the number diminishes both of genera
and species ; it increases in the temperate zones, and in the torrid
zone of our earth there are found, just as in the other classes of the
animal kingdom and the natural families of the vegetable kingdom,
the greatest richness and the most abundant variety of forms. The)
genera of birds, of which Europe possesses species, do not form one
half of the whole number that is received for the species of birds
discovered on our earth. The swimming-birds are especially nu- j
merous near the poles, and, whilst the number of their species form
scarcely & of that of the entire class, in Sweden it amounts t(
more than £, in Greenland to more than J of the whole number o
species of birds occurring in those countries. The genera Alca

BIRDS. 373

Colynibus (Eudytes) are peculiar to the cold regions of the northern
hemisphere; in the seas of the southern hemisphere, the species of
the genus Aptenodytes, are met with as their representatives. In cold
countries few land-birds, that feed on vegetable food, are found; they
belong to the genera Emberiza, Fringilla, Tetrao. Towards the tem-
perate regions of the northern hemisphere, with the number of vege-
table species, the number also of birds, that derive their food from
the vegetable kingdom, increases. The number as well of species as
of genera of land-birds that never occur in high northern latitudes
increases more and more. The temperate zones of the northern
hemisphere have in all countries a correspondence greater in pro-
portion to their proximity to the polar zone, so that in high lati-
tudes different Asiatic and European species occur also in America.
This is, however, the case with the swimming-birds especially.
Thus, for instance, Mergus albellus, Mergus serrator, many species
of ducks, Anas boschas, Anas clypeata, occur equally in North
America and in Europe. Amongst the fen-birds also there is a
certain uniformity, especially in some species of Tringa, and to
a certain extent amongst the birds of prey ; but amongst the sing-
ing birds the uniformity in the temperate regions disappears almost
entirely, or is limited to some similar species, which former writers,
less acquainted with the accurate discrimination of species, regarded
as identical. The greater the proximity to the tropic the greater also
is the difference of species. Here also the American genera differ
more and more from those of the old world. In tropical regions
the species of the temperate zone almost entirely disappear, but are
often represented, however, by other species of the same genera.
Under the tropics, as it appears, all1 the species of American birds
differ from those of the old world. Species of birds, which in the
proper sense are dispersed over the whole world (species cosmopolites),
do not exist, although there are species which are spread over the
northern hemisphere from the high north to the north coast of
Africa and eastwards over many countries of Asia; such are
Charadrius plumalis, Strepsilas collaris, and some others. Large
genera, dispersed almost everywhere, are Falco, Strix, Turdus,
Corvus, Sturnus, Fringilla, Emberiza, Picus, Columba, Charadrius,

1 Or almost all; an exception is formed by Anas viduata L. from South America
and the west coast of Africa.

374 CLASS xvi.

Orus, Ardea, Numenius, Anas, Larus, Sterna, and some others.
To the old world are proper: Vultur (in the strict sense), many
sub-genera of the genus Sylvia (Sylvia, Luscinia, &c.), Oriolus,
Alauda, except a few species forming the sub-genus Otochoris,
Yunx, Buceros, Phasianus. Of these genera some are common to
Asia, Europe and Africa; to Asia especially are proper Pavo and
Casuarius, to New Guinea Paradisea; African genera are Muso-
phaga, Numida and Buphaga. Proper to New Holland are the
genera Scythrops, Strepera, Menura. As tropical forms, which
have species in both hemispheres, we notice especially in America
and Asia the numerous genus Psittacus, of which, however, some
species are met with in the southern hemisphere and in America at
higher latitudes ; also Parra, and amongst the swimming-birds,
Phaeton, Rhynchops and Plotus. Proper to the western hemisphere
are the genera: Cathartes (Sarcorhamphus) , which represents there
the genus Vultur of the old world, Anabates, Dendrocolaptes, Ty-
rannus, Pipra, Icterus (and Cassicus), Tanagra (which here repre-
sents the genus Fringilla, almost proper to the old world, and in
Africa so numerous in species), Rhamphastos, Grotophaga, Penelope,
Crax, Meleagris, Tinamus, Psophia and others ; also, what we here
name the last, but which perhaps from its numerous sparkling and
ornamented, though small species, is not the least remarkable, the
genus of the Humming Birds ( Trochilus) *.

With the geographic distribution the migration of birds is
closely connected; this is the name given to the journeys under-
taken by many of them at stated times of the year, in order to pass
the winter in warmer regions, often far remote from the countries
where they make their nest2. There are only few birds in the
temperate and cold climates which pass the whole year in the

1 Compare on this subject TREVIRANUS Biologic, n. s. 171 — 263, TIEDEMANN
Zoologie, in. s. 333 — 468, ILLIGER Tabellarische Uebersicht dcr Verbreitung der Vogel,
Abhandl. der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1812, 1813, s. 221 u. ff., WILBRAND und
RITGEN Gemdlde der organ. Natur, Giessen, 1821, 8vo, ss. 89 — in.

3 See respecting it, amongst others, E. D. ECKMARCK Migrationes Avium in LINN.
Amosn. Acad. iv. pp. 565 — 600 (extracts from CATESBY, HASSELQUIST and KLEIN),
H. SCHLEGEL Verhandeling over het trelcken der Vdgels, NatuurTc. Verhand. van de
Hott. Maatsch. der Wetensch. 1823, xvi. 2, 1. 1. 129 — 292. Also the articles compiled
from many writers, by SMELLIE Philosophy of Nat. Hist. Edinb. and London, 1 790, I.
PP- 473— 492; by VIREY Now. Diet, d'ffist. nat. xx. 1818, pp. 534—547, and espe-
cially by TIEDEMANN Zoologie, in. s. 580 — 642, may be referred to.

BIRDS. 375

countries where they were bred. These birds are named permanent
birds (aves manentes). Such, for example, are with us and in the
temperate parts of Europe, the sparrow (Fringilla domestica), the
magpie (Corvus pica), &c. Others migrate from one place to
another without a determinate direction, and do not remove far;
they are named wandering birds .(aves erraticce), as the wood-
peckers (Pici). Finally, other birds undertake, as we have said,
at certain times of the year, mostly united in numerous packs,
long journeys, and pass the winter in warm regions. These are
properly migratory birds (aves migratorice) , as, for instance, the
stork, the cuckoo, the lark, most singing-birds, the swallows, &c.
This distinction, however, applies only to particular countries, for
the same species, which with us are migratory, remain in warm
countries through the whole year. Hence it is in tropical countries
that the largest number of permanent birds are found.

Most of our migratory birds pass the winter in northern Africa.
Swallows winter in Africa, where ADANSON saw them arrive in the
Senegal country in October1; in this wandering they cross the
Mediterranean Sea as well as the Atlantic Ocean along the western
coast of Europe ; the idea that these birds conceal themselves during
winter at the bottom of water, in holes under ground or in hollow
trunks of trees, and become torpid there, does not require serious
refutation at this day.

In the new world, as well as in the old, birds of passage, whose
abode is in the northern hemisphere, migrate on the approach of
winter towards the tropic of Cancer ; those of the southern hemi-
sphere, when winter sets in, migrate towards the tropic of Capricorn.
This simple statement of the matter in its greatest generality leads
of itself to the idea, that the cause of migration is to be sought in
the necessity that birds of passage are under to continue always in
the same mean temperature. For when in the northern hemisphere
during winter the warmth decreases and the snow-line descends,
birds, which at that time migrate southwards towards the tropic,
stop, within certain fixed limits, where the mean temperature of
winter does not differ much from the mean temperature of summer
in those northern regions which they have left. So the migra-
tion of birds is in connexion with the general diminution of life in

1 Hist. not. du Senegal, p. 67.

376 CLASS xvi.

that half of the earth in which winter prevails ; and whilst thus in
one half of the year the number of living creatures from the north
pole to the equator, and from the equator to the south pole in-
creases, the stream turns northward again in the other half of the
year when the southern hemisphere feels the benumbing power of
winter. Here too we should consider the peculiar structure of
birds, by which, being brought into closer relations with the
atmosphere, they are enabled to feel its influence more than other
animals, and so are in a better condition to discover changes in it
by which they may direct their acts. To maintain that birds
migrate from deficiency of food is, as it seems to me, to substitute a
final cause for an active cause, or in other words to confound the
wherefore with the whereby.

SYSTEMATIC
ARRANGEMENT OF BIRDS.

CLASS XVI.

AVES.

VERTEBRATE animals, breathing atmospheric air by means of
lungs ; with warm, red blood, and heart biventriculate and biauri-
culate; all oviparous, covered with feathers, with bill rather pro-
minent, naked, destitute of teeth. Extremities four, the anterior
changed into wings, almost always adapted for flying.

ORDER I. Natatores.

Feet moderate or short, placed more or less behind (averse),
palmate or fisso-palmate. Entire thigh and basal portion of tibia
included by the skin of the trunk.

Surimming-Mrds. — They have the inferior part of the tibiae
mostly covered with a horny skin, as also the tarsi and toes; legs
of this kind are called stilted (pedes vadantes) ; the legs are little
longer than the half of the trunk (mediocres), or even shorter than
this half (breves), and are placed towards the back part of the
trunk (aversi). The plumage is thick, and penetrated as it were
with much oily fluid, and thus protected from the water. The
neck is often much elongated, so that these birds by extending their
head over or under the water seek for and seize their food on
every side. The breast-bone is large, more or less convex, and
extends over the abdomen far backwards ; it is incised at the pos-
terior margin on each side, or provided with an oval opening close
to that margin. On the bony or cartilaginous cavities at the
inferior extremity of the larynx in some ducks and saw-bills, we
have spoken already above (p. 330).

378 CLASS xvi.

Family I. Brevipennes s. Urinatores. Wings short, in some
unfit for flying. Tail very short. Feet averse, short, with tibise
concealed more or less within the skin of trunk. Gait difficult,
erect.

Short-winged. — These birds are thickly covered with feathers,
which have often a silvery glance. They can swim under water,
and use their wings as fins. They live mostly on animal food;
they lay their eggs on the ground or in holes. Some are quite
unable to fly.

Phalanx I. Impennes. Wings unfit for flying, fin-shaped,
minute, without quill-feathers, covered with short, imbricate plumes
with flattened quill. Bill cultrate. Feet very short, with hallux
small, connate with the internal part of tarsus, turned forward.
Covering of tarsus reticulato-granulate. . Interdigital membrane
excised. Short tail formed of a fasciculus of rigid feathers. (Genus
Aptenodytes FORST., GM., ILLIG.)

The Penguins, les manchots. These birds live in the seas of the
southern hemisphere, on the coasts of South Africa, South America,
principally at Terra del Fuego, and the solitary islands of the
southern Pacific. Some species extend to New Guinea and the
western coast of America nearly to the line. Their upright pos-
ture and gait give them a strange appearance, especially when at
the brooding time they congregate in large flocks; see for instance
the plate in COOK'S Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, (1776 — 1780).
London, 1784, Atlas, PL 4. View of Christmas Harbour.

The breast-bone is deeply incised behind on each side; the scapula is
large and broad and flat behind. The humerus, the ulna and the radius
are very flat ; the last two bones form with the first, not an acute, but
rather an angle in some degree obtuse.

Aptenodytes Cuv., GRAY. Bill slender, long, slightly curved
at the point. Upper mandible covered with plumes as far as the
nostrils; groove extending from nostrils to the point of the man-
dible.

Sp. Aptenodytes patagonica FORST., BUFF. PI. enl. 975, GU^BIN Iconogr.,
(Hs. PI. 6 1, fig. i, LESSON Omitk. PI. 119, fig. 2; principally in the
circuit of the straits of Magellan, and not only on the Falkland Islands
lying to the east, but also westward on the groups of islands extending fai
into the southern Pacific. It is the largest species of this family; th<

AYES. 379

head and throat are black ; a yellow or orange- coloured stripe on each side
of the head descend and meet in the breast under the throat, and the yellow
then passes into the white of the belly. This part of the skin may be often
met with amongst fur-dealers. (According to G. R. GEAY two species are
united under a collective name, which he distinguishes as Aptenodytes Pen-
nantii and Aptenodytes Forsteri; Ann. ofnat. Hist. xm. 1844, p. 315.)

Catarrhactes BRISS., Eudyptes ViElLL., GRAY. Bill moderate,
strong, acuminate, slightly hooked at the tip. Lower mandible
shorter than upper, with apex rounded. Groove from nostrils not
produced to the point of mandible, but descending obliquely to its
margin.

Sp. Catarrhactes chrysocome BRANDT, Aptenodytes chrysocome FOBST., GMEL.,
BUFF. PL enlum. 984, BLUMENB. Abbild. naturh. Gegenst. No. 46; bill and
feet red ; a circlet of long, white and yellow, thin feathers round the head ;
Van Diemen's Land ; — Catarrhactes papuensis, Aptenodytes papua FOBSTER,
SONNEBAT Voyage a la Nouv. Guinte, PL 115, &c.

SpJieniscus BRISS. Bill moderate, grooved at the base, straight,
hooked at the tip ; lower mandible truncate at the point. Nostrils
open, placed in the middle of bill.

Sp. Spheniscus demersus, Diomedea demersa L., BUFF. Hist. not. xxiv. PL
31, PL enl. 382, 1005, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 90, fig. i ; on the
south coast of Africa ; — Spheniscus Humboldti MEYEN, Reise urn die Erde,
Zool., Act. Acad. Leop. Carol. YoL xvi. Suppl. Tab. 31 ; from the coast of
Peru, common in the bay of Callao ; very similar to the preceding species
(but larger, according to TSCHUDI Fauna Peruana, p. 315); this bird may
be tamed, and then attaches itself to its master like a dog.

Phalanx II. Alcince. Wings acute, with flag-feathers often
short, with the secondaries especially very short. Feet tridactylous,
palmate, with hallux none. Tarsi reticulate, mostly covered ante-
riorly with a row of transverse scutella.

Alca L. (excl. species), ILLIG., Cuv. Bill moderate, cultrate
and compressed, a little longer than high, with sides grooved.
Nostrils covered by plumes.

Sp. Alca torda L. (and Alca Pica ejusd.), BUFF. PL enl. 1003, 1004, BRISS.
vi. PL 8, fig. i, GUKBIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 61, fig. 2, NAUMANN, Taf. 336 ;
the awJc; this bird flies rapidly, notwithstanding its short wings, but close
to the surface of the water, comes along our coasts in the winter, but
keeps between 62° and 72° N.L., frequents the islands of the North Sea,
the coasts of Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and also the west coast of
America. The awk lays only a single egg, which is dirty white with black

380 CLASS XVI.

spots. Another, larger species, common in Greenland, is unable to fly ;
Aka impennis L., BUFFON PL enl. 367, NAUM. Taf. 337.

The French writers, following BUFFON, commonly give the name of
penguins only to the birds of this and the following genus, although by
voyagers the preceding genera of birds of the southern hemisphere are
thus named. Most of the species of this entire division are coloured white
on the belly, black on the back, with a small white stripe on the wings,
formed by the tips of the secondary flag-feathers.

Mormon ILLIG., TEMM., Prater cula BRISS., GRAY, Lunda PALL.,
NAUM. Bill shorter than head, equal to forehead in height, with
base higher than long, compressed, two-edged. Nostrils denuded,
narrow, linear, placed at the lower margin of upper mandible.

Sp. Mormon fratercula TEMM., Aka arctica L., BUFF. PL enl. 275, Cov. R.
Ani., €d. ill., Ois. PI. 89, fig. i, NAUMANN Taf. 335 ; the parrot-diver;
in the seas of the northern regions of both hemispheres, rare on our coasts.
This bird lays only a single egg, of a dirty white, and larger than a duck's
egg. — Mormon cirrata, Alca cirrata PALL. Spic. Zool. V. Tab. I. BUFF. PL
enl. 761, Kamschatka, &c.

CeratorJiyncha BONAP., GRAY (Cerorkina previously BONAP.,
Chimerina EsCHSCH.). Bill compressed, curved. Small com-
pressed horn above the nostrils at the base of bill. Nostrils not
covered by plumules.

Sp. CeratorJiyncha occidentalis BONAP., Chimerina comuta ESCHSCHOLTZ Zool.
AH. Tab. 12 (the head fig. by GRAY Genera, PI. 174, fig. 2); on the west
coast of N. America.

Phaleris TEMM. Bill short, small, compressed towards the tip.
Nostrils not covered by plumules. Tarsi reticulate.

Sp. Phaleris cristatella GRAY, Tylorhamphus cristatettus BR., A lea cristatetta
PALL. Spic. Zool. V. Tab. 8; from Kamschatka and the islands along the
west coast of the north of America; — Phaleris camschatica BRANDT,
Phaleris cristatella TEMM. PL col. 200, &c.

Note. — Here belong sub-genera Ombria ESCHSCH., BR., Tylorhamphw
BR. and Ptychorhamphus BR. — Comp. J. F. BRANDT Mem. de CAcad.
imp&r. des Sc. de P&tersbourg, 6ieme SeVie, Sc. natur. Tom. in.

Mergulus RAY, YIEILL., BRANDT, Artica MOEHR., GRAY, Cephm
Cuv. Bill short, conical, arched. Nostrils basal, placed in a
membranous groove. Tarsi with an anterior row of transverse
scutella, not resting on their lower surface.

AVES. 381

Sp. Mergulus melanoleucus RAY, BBANDT, Alca Atte L., BUFF. PI. enl. 917;
the winter plumage; the summer plumage differs by the head and neck
entirely black. (See BREHM Handb. der Naturgesch. oiler Vogel Deutsch-
lands, 1831, Taf. 45, fig. 3, NAUMANN Tab. 334, fig. i.) This bird lives
in high northern latitudes, and also visits our shores in the cold season.

Uria BRISS. Bill compressed, moderate or short, not grooved.
Nostrils covered by plumules, basal, lateral, pervious. Tarsi
resting, covered with an anterior row of scutella. Interdigital
membrane excised.

Brachyrhamphus BRANDT. Bill much shorter than head. Feet
weaker.

Sub-genera Apobapton and Synihliboramphus BRANDT. Sp. Uria antiqua
PALL., SCHLEG. Faun. Japonic., Aves, Tab. 80, GRAY Gen. Tab. CLXXVH. ;
— Uria Temminckii nob., Uria Wumizusume TEMM. (umizusume?) Faun.
Jap., Av. Tab. 79, &c.

Uria BRANDT. Bill acuminate, nearly equalling head in length.
Feet stronger.

Sp. Uria Troile LATH., Colymbus Troile L., Uria lomvia BRUNN., BUFF. PL
enl. 903, NAUMANN Tab. 331 ; foolish guillemot, sea-coot, &c.

Phalanx III. Colymbides. Wings fitted for flying, with flag-
feathers short. Tarsi compressed. Feet tetradactylous.

Colymbus LATH. (Species from gen. Colymbus L.), Eudytes
ILLIG. Feet palmate. Tarsi reticulate, with hexagonal scales.
Pollex short, internal, enlarged by membrane internally. Tail
short. Bill moderate, straight. Nostrils oblong, lateral, placed at
the base of bill, pervious.

Sp. Colymbus glacialis L., BUFF. PL enl. 952, LESSON Ornitk. PI. no, fig. -2,
NAUM. Taf. 327; head and neck black green, with a white, black-streaked
collar, back and wings black with four-sided white spots ; breast and belly
white ; the largest species ; like the other species of this genus, it li ves in
the far north on the coasts of America, Europe and Asia; — Colymbus
arcticus L., BUFF. PL enl. 914 (younger bird), NAUMANN Taf. 328, GRAY
Gener. PI. CLXXI. ; northern diver, not unlike the preceding, but with grey
head and smaller; this species visits our shores in winter. (The young
bird of this species has sometimes been described as a distinct species, as
has also occurred in the case of the young bird of the preceding species,
which was recorded as Colyiribus immer by GUNNER, STROEM, BRUNNICH,
&c. and received by LINN>EUS into his Systema nat.) — Colymbus septentrio-
nalis L., BUFF. PL enl. 308, NAUM. Taf. 329; on the back black, below
white, with a brown-red throat. These birds feed principally on fish ; they

382 CLASS xvi.

fly little and progress by small leaps, for their feet are turned outwards,
almost as in frogs ; they lay two grey -brown, spotted eggs.

Podiceps LATH., RETZ., alior., Colymbus BRISS., ILLIG. (species
from gen. Colymbus L.). Feet lobed. Tarsi covered with large
transverse scutella, serrate posteriorly. Pollex posterior, bordered
by membrane. Claws flat, depressed. Tail scarcely any. Bill
in some rather longer than head, in some shorter, straight.
Nostrils oblong, lateral, pervious.

Sp. Podiceps cristatus LATH., Colymbus cristatus L., BUFF. PL enl. 400,
NAUM. Taf. 242, LESS. Ornith. Tab. no, fig. i (named Col. comuii) the
great crested grebe ; in lakes, fish-ponds, &c. ; very common in Holland; —
Podiceps auritus LATH., STURM Deutsch. Faun., Vdgel, i Heft, NAUMANN,
Taf. 246; — Podiceps arcticus BOIE, Colymbus auritus L., NAUM. Taf. 245 ;
— Podiceps minor LATH., BUFF. PI. enl. 905, NAUM. Taf. 247, &c. These
birds live on fishes, water-insects, &c., also on vegetable food. They all
reside in fresh water during the brooding time, make a large nest of rushes
amongst the reeds, and lay three or four dirty- white eggs. Species
are found in all quarters of the world, especially however in temperate
regions.

Podilymbus LESS. (Sylbeocyclus BONAP.). Bill short, compressed,
hooked at the tip.

Sp. Podiceps carolinensis LATH., Colymbus podiceps L., BUFF. PL enl. 943 ;
— Pod. brevirostris, Podilymbus Irevirostris GBAY, Gen. Tab. CLXXII.
(Species American.)

Family II. Anatince (Lamelloso-dentati] . Bill moderate, or
longer than head, straight, rather thick, covered with skin, only at
the middle of tip harder, horny, with margin denticulate or fur-
nished with transverse, parallel, crowded lamellae. Wings fitted
for flying, with flag-feathers elongate, the second primary equalling
the first, or somewhat surpassing it in length. Feet palmate, tetra-
dactylous, with pollex apart.

Duck-tribe. — A numerous and very natural family, of which
more than 150 species are known, which with LINNAEUS form two
genera, of which the genus Anas is the largest. The eggs of these
birds are spotless, seldom coloured (as in Anas spectabilis, blue-
green), but generally white or dirty white. The flesh of most of
the species of the genus Anas has an agreeable taste; many are
useful moreover from their feathers. With the gallinaceous birds
they form principally the feathered animals of the cottage and the
country-seat.

AVES. 383

Mergus L. Bill subulate, hooked at the tip, with margins
denticulato-serrate. Hallux enlarged by a lateral membrane.

Saw~litts, Divers. — These birds swim rapidly and dive often under water;
they fly also very well, but walk with difficulty and with a waddling gait.
They feed chiefly on fish. A genus not very numerous, of which most of
the species live in the high north and in winter visit temperate regions as
birds of passage.

Sp. Mergus merganser L., BUFF. PI. eril. 951, NAUM. Taf. 326, the great
saw-bill, goosander, le harle, der grosse Sager; — Mergus serrator L., BUFF.
PI. enl. 207, LESS. Ornith. PI. 118, fig. 2. In these two species the'bill
and legs are red ; they are lead-coloured, and the bill much shorter in a
small species which is a rarer visitor on the Dutch coast, Mergus albellus
L., BUFF. PL enl. 449, 450, NAUM. Taf. 324, the smew, het nonnetje, la
piette, die weisse Nonne, der kleine Sager. (From this species SELBT has
formed the sub-genus Mergellus.)

Fulix SUNDEV., Hydrobates TEMM. Bill with margins lamelloso-
dentate internally. Hallux furnished with a lax rudiment of mem-
brane. Tarsi short, scutellate anteriorly, posteriorly and at the
sides reticulate with hexagonal scales.

Note. — Here belong many sub-genera, on which compare GRAY Genera
of Birds, pp. 620 — 625. Also on this and the following genera may be
compared T. C. ETTON, A Monograph of the Anatidce or Duck-tribe.
London, 1838, 4to.

Sub-genus: Merganetta GOULD, GRAY, Raphisterus GAY. Bill
short, conical. "Wings spurred. Tail longer, rounded.

Sp. Fulix merganetta, Merganetta armata GOULD, GRAY Gener. PI. CLXX.
Merganetta, chilensis DESMURS, PL peintes 5, 48; this small and pretty
species from Chili (between 34° and 35° S. L.) is referred by GOULD and
GRAY to the division of the Mergi, yet it seems to us that it might with
as much right be regarded as a sub-genus of the ducks.

Erismatura BONAP.
Biziura LEACH.
Sp. Fulix lobata, Anas lobata LATH., TEMM. PL col. 406 ; New Holland.

Oidemia FLEM.

Sp. Fulix fusca, Anas fusca L., BUFF. PL enl. 956, NAUM. Taf. 313; the
great sea-duck, velvet scoter; — Fulix nigra, Anas nigra L., BUFF. PL enl.
972, NAUM. Taf. 312, the llack scoter.

Somateria LEACH.

Sp. Fulix mollissima, Anas moUissima L. BUFF. PL enl. 209 male, 208 fern.,
GU£RIN Iconogr., Ois. PI. 67, fig. i : the eider-duck. The base of the bill

384 CLASS xvi.

is produced on each side into a lamina extending above the head ; the bill
and legs are greenish grey. The male is white above, black below; the
female is greyish brown. This bird sometimes migrates from the north in
cold seasons to our coasts ; it is celebrated for its valuable down, which is
chiefly collected from the nests covered with it on the inside. The seeking
of these nests, which are found on high rocks, is connected with great
difficulty and danger.

Harelda LEACH.

Sp. Fulix glacialis, Anas glacialis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 1008, NAUM. Taf. 319;
the ice-duck, long-tailed ffareld, lives in the high north and is occasionally
seen on our coasts in winter.

Clanyula LEACH.

Sp. Fulix clangula, Anas dangula L., BUFF. PI. enl. 802 ; the golden-eyed
garrot.

Fuligula STEPHENS.

Sp. Fulix cristata, Anas fuligula L., BUFF. PL enl. 1001, male adult (PI.
1007, young of one year), NAUMANN, Taf. 310, the red-crested pochard, le
morillon.

Note. — For other sub-genera, here omitted, see GRAY 1. 1. The Anates
of this division, intermediate between the Mergi and the remaining Anates,
better divers than the rest, inhabit principally the shores of the sea.

Anas L. (excl. many species). Bill with margins lamelloso-
dentate. Nostrils placed in the ridge of bill towards the base.
Hallux simple. Tarsi scutellate anteriorly, reticulate at the sides,
with scales hexagonal or oblong.

Anas Boschas L., BUFF. PI. enl. 776, 777, LESSON Ornith., PI. 118, fig.
I ; the wild-duck, very common in the north of Europe and also in North
America ; most of the races of tame ducks are derived from this species ; —
Anastadorna L., BUFF. PL enl. 53, NAUM. Taf. 298 ; the shiddrake; — Anas
querquedula L., BUFF. PL enl. 946, NAUM. Taf. 303; the garganey, la
sarcelle; — Anas crecca L., BUFF. PL enl. 947, NAUM. Taf. 304; the
teal, &c.

As exotic species we may notice Anas sponsa L., BUFF. PL enl. 980,
981, the Carolina duck from North America; — Anas galericulata L., BUFF.
PL enl. 805, 806, from China, Japan, &c.

Sub-genera: Cairina FLEM., Malacorhynchus SWAINS., Spatula
BOIE, Chaulelasmus GRAY, Pterocyanea BONAP., Querquedula STEPH.,
Anas GRAY, (Boschas SWAINS.), Dafila LEACH, Tadorna LEACH,
Dendrocygna SWAINS.

AVES. 385

Choristopus EYTON, Anseranas LESS., GEAY. Bill moderate,
somewhat thick, with margins lamelloso-dentate, the lamellae de-
pressed, not exsert. Hallux simple. Tarsi rather long, reticulate.
Feet semipalmate.

Sp. Choristopus mdanoleucus, Anas melanoleuca LATH., Cuv. Mem. du Mus.
xiv. 1827, PI. 19, from New Holland ; a species about the size of a stork,
of which it has nearly the feet.

Anser BRISS. Bill shorter than head, narrowed towards the
tip, at the base higher than broad, with conical marginal laminae.
Nostrils in middle part of bill. Tarsi reticulate. Hallux simple.

The geese have their legs higher and placed not so far backward as the
ducks proper ; hence also they run better. Their swimming membranes are
shorter ; they swim less and do not dive. Many species make use of vege-
table food. There is no difference of plumage in the two sexes, a difference
generally so remarkable in the ducks.

Cereopsis LATH. Bill short, high at the base, declivous towards
the tip, convex. Nostrils placed in the cere.

Sp. Cereopsis Novce Hollandice LATH., Suppl. n. p. 325, PI. 138, TEMM. PL
color. 209, LESS. Ornith. PI. 109, fig. i.

Anser BRISS.

Sp. Anser cinereus MEYEB, Anas anser ferus L., LESS. Ornith. PI. 117, fig. 2,
NAUM. Taf. 285 ; bill yellowish- orange, black below, the wings extend to
the point of the tail. From this species the different races of tame geese
descend. — Anas segetum GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 985, NAUM. Taf. 287; the
bill is black at the base and the tip orange in the middle ; the wings extend
as far as or beyond the point of the tail. Both species migrate here in the
cold season of the year.

Chenalopex STEPH.

Anser cegyptiacus, Anas cegyptiaca L., BUFF. PI. enl. 379, Menagerie du
Mus. d'Hist. not. 1804, 8vo, I. pp. 285 — 296; in Africa; according to
GEOFFB. ST.-HILAIBE the x^aXtiirT^ of the ancients, which was sacred
amongst the ^Egyptians on account of the love it shews for its young ; see
^ELIAN. de Anim. Natura, Lib. v. 30, x. 16, xi. 38. Others refer this bird
to the Anas Tadorna L. ; see SCHNEIDEB in his edition of ABISTOTELES de
Anim. Hist. m. p. 61 1 ; F. JACOBS in his edition of J^LIANUS follows the
opinion of GEOFFBOY.

Note. — Add sub-genera: Bemicla STEPHENS, Nettapus BRANDT,
and some others, on which consult GRAY.

Cygnus MEIJER. Bill with margins lamelloso-dentate, at the
base higher than broad, above at the base flat or depressed, not
VOL. ii. 25

386 CLASS xvi.

narrowed at the tip. Nostrils in the middle of bill. Hallux simple.
Tarsi reticulate, with hexagonal scales. Neck very long.

Sp. Oygnus olor GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 913, NAUM. Taf. 295, GU^RIN Iconogr.,
Ois. PI. 66, fig. i ; the swan, le cygne, der Schwan, &c. The feathers on
the whole body are white ; the bill red with a black tip and black sides,
a tubercle at the fore part of the head. This species lives in lakes and
large ponds of the middle of Germany and in the east of Europe, and is
met with almost everywhere as a tame bird, especially in the basins and
ponds of many Dutch towns. The trachea in both sexes runs direct to
the lungs without curvatures. On the other hand the double curvature of
the trachea is remarkable in Anas Cygnus (ferus) L., BRISS. Orniih. VI.
Tab. 28, Cygnus xantkorhinus NAUM., Taf. 296, the wild swan, a species
which, with us, passes along the coast in winter, and is distinguished by
its black bill, yellow only at the base, and by the absence of the tubercle
on the forehead; this species broods in Lapland, Russia, Siberia, &c.—
Cygnus BewicTdi YARR., Cygnus islandicus BREHM, Cygnus melanorhinus
NAUM. Taf. 297, smaller than the preceding; observed sometimes in Hol-
land in the winter.

In New Holland there lives a black species with a red bill, Anas atrata
LATH., Anas plutonia SHAW, Cygne noir du Cap de Diemen, LABILLARDIERE
Voyage a la Reck, de LA PEYROUSE, Atlas, PI. 9, LESS. OrnitJi. PI. 117,
fig. i ; swans of this species may be seen in London in St James's Park.

Family HI. Steganopodes ILLIG. Bill long or moderate.
"Wings adapted for flying, long or rather long. Feet short, tetra-
dactylous, with hallux placed internally and directed forwards,
joined by membrane to the inner toe. Tarsi reticulate, with scales
hexagonal.

Pelecanus ILLIG., TEMM. (species from gen. Pelecanus L.). Bill
longer than head, broad, depressed, terminated by a hook. Nostrils
basal, linear, narrow. An unplumed region at the base of bill.
Lower mandible composed of two flexile branches, sustaining the
lax unfeathered skin of the throat. Tail rounded, short.

The pelicans are large white birds, which live on fish, and occur in
various countries both of the old and new world. With LINN.EUS the
genus Pelecanus comprises almost all the species of this family; to the
genus, as limited by modern writers, only few species belong. On the
specific characters may be consulted, H. LICHTENSTEIN, in AWiandl. der
Alcad. zu Berlin, Physik. Kl. 1838, Beitr. z. ornith. Fauna von California
&c. s. 17 — 32. The skeleton of the pelican is distinguished by its many
hollow bones, its great pneumaticity. With the ancients the common
European species occurs as Onocrotalus (PLiNius) and IIeAe/ai>os (OPPIANUS),
whilst the birds named IleXe/capes by ARISTOTELES were probably Platalece,
but at least were certainly not the birds now named pelicans ; BRANDT

AYES. 387

Descriptions et Icones Animalium Rossic&mm novor., Av., Fasc. i. Petropoli,
1836, pp. 53, 54. Of this genus two species occur in Europe, of which the
one was first distinguished by BRUCH (OKEN'S /«'*, 1832, p. 1109) under the
name of P. crispus, a species which some of the earlier writers had before
them, but whose descriptions and figures were referred by LINNJSUS and
later writers to Pelecanus Onocrotalus. P. Onocrotalus BRUCH (L. in part) is
light rose-coloured, BUFF. PL enl. 87, NAUM. Taf. 282, BRANDT 1. 1. Tab.
v. ; — Pel. crispus NAUM. Taf. 283, BRANDT, Tab. vi. is larger, more of
a greyish white, and has at the sides and back of the head curled feathers.
Both species occur in the south-eastern parts of Europe and at the Caspian
sea, P. onocrotalus also in Egypt. — In the west of North America Pelec.
trachyrhynchus LATH, (see fig. in LICHTENSTEIN 1. 1.) lives, as is reported,
as far as 61° N. L.

Sula BEISS., Dysporus ILLIG. Bill compressed, elongato-conic,
acuminate, with margins crenate. Face and throat featherless.
Claw of middle toe winged internally, incised pectinately. Wings
long, narrow, with the first or the first two quills the longest. Tail
cuneate.

Sp. Sula alba METER, Pelecanus bassanus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 278 (and 986
young bird), LESS. Ornith. PI. 116, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 278; the John of
Gaunt, or common gannet; the adult bird is white with the exception of the
primary flag-feathers and the bastard winglet, which are black ; the size is
about that of a goose. This sea-bird flies high above the sea and darts
rapidly down when it descries a fish. This species is found in the northern
regions of both hemispheres, in Norway, the Hebrides, &c. On the unin-
habited island on the Scotch coast (the Bass Rock} the number of these
birds is very great, and in May and June their nests and eggs cover the
base of the steep rock to such a degree that it is difficult to make a footstep
without treading on them (HARVEJI De general, animal. Exercitat. XI. ;
a drawing of the rock is to be found as a title-plate to the tenth part of
NAUMANN'S Naturgesch. d. Vog. Deutschl.). Each female, however, deposits
at each brood only a single egg, which, as in most birds of this family, is
much elongated and of a dull white; the young birds are eaten. — Sula
piscatrix, Pelecanus piscator L., smaller than the preceding, with red bill
and legs, in the Indian sea and at China ; this species is taught by the
Chinese to catch fish. The nostrils are difficult to discover in this genus ;
see the note above at p. 364.

Sula variegata, Dysporus variegatw TSCHUDI, lives by thousands on the
island San Lorenzo, and is the principal (rMano-maker. V. TSCHUDI Peru.
Reiseskizzcn, i. s. 59.

Plotus L. Bill elongate, straight, subulate, very acute, with
margins obliquely incised towards the tip. Nostrils very small,
placed in a groove at the base of bill. Neck very long, slender.
Wings long, with second and third quills equal, longest of all. Tail
long, rounded.

25-2

388 CLASS xvi.

Sp. Plotus Anhinga L., BUFF. PI. enl. 959, 960, LESSON Ornith. PL 114,
fig. i ; from the south of North America, from South America, Surinam,
Brasil;— Plotus Levaillantii TEMM., BUFF. PL enl. 107, TEMM. PI. col.
380, GuisR. Iconogr., Ois. PL 65, fig. i ; from Africa. The long neck looks
like a snake fastened to the body of a bird. These birds make their nests
in trees ; they swim and dive very well.

Carlo LACEP., MEYER, Phalacrocorax BRISS., Halieus ILLIG.,
Graculus (L. previously) GOULD. Bill compressed, moderate; upper
mandible hooked at the tip, lower mandible truncate. Nostrils
lateral, placed in a groove at the base of bill. Claw of middle toe
incised pectinately on the inner edge. Tibiae plumed down to the
joint. Outer toe longest of all. Tail rounded.

Sp. Carbo cormoranus MEYEB, Pelecanus carlo L., BUFF. PL enl. 927,
LESS. Ornith. PL 115, fig. 2 ; common cormorant; — Carbo graculus METER,
Carbo cristatus TEMM., Pelecanus graculus L., PL col. 322, NAUM. 280,
&c. The species of this genus are almost all coloured black, and on the
whole much resemble each other. It is the most numerous of this whole
order, and the most nearly allied with the preceding genus Plotus. On the
skull of these birds a small triangular pointed bone may be remarked,
which is moveably attached to the occiput.

Tachypetes VIEILL., Atagen MOEHR., GRAY, Fregata'RAY, LAC.
(species of Pelecanus L., sp. of Sula BRISS.). Bill long, with the
tip of both mandibles curved, hooked. Nostrils linear, placed in
a groove at the base of bill, narrow. Feet short, semipalmate.
Tibise and upper part of tarsi covered with plumes ; tarsi very short.
Middle toe longer than outer, with claw pectinately incised inter-
nally. Wings pointed, very long. Tail long, forked.

Sp. Tachypetes aquilus, Pelecanus Aquilus L., BUFF. PL enl. 961, LESS.
Ornith. PL 115, fig. i, GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PL 64, fig. 2; the frigate-
bird. This bird has a very large flight, and is seen at great distances from
land, especially between the tropics. Compare E. BARTON Observations
on the Nat. Hist, and Anat. of the Pelec. aquilus, Transact, of the Linn. Soc.
XII. 1822, pp. i — 12. The humerus is more elongated than in Pelecanus,
and the radius and ulna are one-third longer than the humerus.

Phaeton L. Bill moderate, cultrate, with margins finely incised.
Nostrils in base of bill, lateral, pervious. Wings pointed, long.
Feet palmate, short, with tibiae naked above the heel. Toes mode-
rate; hallux short. Tail with two middle quills very long, filiform,
with shaft subnude.

The tropical birds by their rapid and high flight attract the attention of
mariners, whose ships they frequently accompany between the tropics. —

AYES. 389

Sp. Phaeton athtreus L., BUFF. PL enl. 998, LESS. Ornith. PL 114, fig. i ;
— Phaeton phoenicurus GM., BUFF. PZ. e^L 979, GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI.
65, fig. 3; — Phaeton flavirostris BRANDT, Lepturus candidus BBISS. Orniih.
vi. Tab. 42, fig. 2, BUFF. PL enl. 369. Compare J. F. BRANDT Tentamen
monographic generis Phaeton, Mem. de FAcad. imper. des Sc. de St. Peters-
bourg, 6ieme Se"rie, Sc. math, et phys. Tome v. 2, 1839. (These birds recall
Sterna and Larus, but must, nevertheless, be referred to the family of the
Steganopods.)

Family IV. Longipennes. Bill with margins entire. Wings
elongate. Feet stilted, with tibiae seminude, in some tetradac-
tylous, with hallux free, posterior, simple, in some tridactylous,
with hallux none.

A. Nostrils linear, placed at the base of bill, pervious.

Rhynchops L. Bill long, compressed, straight; lower mandible
two-edged towards the tip, longer than upper, with tip truncate.
Feet tetradactylous, with palmar membrane excised. Wings very
long; first two quills longer than the rest.

Sp. Hhynchops nigra L., BUFF. PL enl. 357; LESSON Ornith. PI. 113, fig. i,
from America ; another species occurs in the eastern hemisphere, Khynchops
flavirostris YIEILL., Sh. orientalis RUEPP. Atlas PL 24. The lower man-
dible with its sharp upper edge is received in a groove of the upper man-
dible like the blade of a pocket-knife in its handle.

Sterna L. Bill long, straight, compressed, pointed, with man-
dibles subequal, the lower shorter. Feet small, tetradactylous, with
palmar membrane mostly excised; tarsi scutellate anteriorly. Wings
very long, with first quill-feather longer than the rest.

a) Tail cuneate, longer. Palmar membrane scarcely excised, large.
(Sub-genus Anous LEACH, GRAY, Megalopterus BOIE.)

Sp. Sterna stolida L., BUFF. PL enl. 997, the Noddy; on the Atlantic Ocean
between the tropics, Indian Ocean and South Pacific, &c.

b) Tail forked, or emarginate. Palmar membrane deeply excised between
the toes.

Sub-genus Sterna. (Sterna, GRAY, with addition of sub-genera Hydro-
chelidon BOIE, GRAY, Phcetusa and Gygis WAGL. and GRAY.)

Sp. Sterna hirundo L., BUFF. PL enl. 987, LESSON Ornith. PL 113, fig. 2,
the sea-swallow; bill and legs red, head on the top as far as the eyes black,
body light-grey above, white below ; the same colours in Sterna minuta L.,
BUFF. PL enl. 998, NAUMANN, Taf. 254, which, however, is much smaller,
and in addition is distinguished by white above the eyes. Similarly

390 CLASS XVI.

coloured as Sterna kirundo, but much larger and with black legs, is
Sterna caspia PALL., NADM. Taf. 748, seldom observed with us ; its nests
cover the dunes on the island Sylt (see a drawing in NAUMANN Ueber den
Haushalt der nordischen Seevogel. Leipzig, 1824, Tab. n). Other species
are dark grey, and have in the summer plumage a black breast, Sterna
nigra L., NAUM. Taf. 256. These birds live together in flocks on the
sea-coast, and lay mostly two or three brown and black spotted eggs.
This genus comprises very many species from all parts of the world.

Larus L. Bill moderate, compressed, cultrate; upper mandible
with tip subhooked, lower, with angle below the tip somewhat
prominent. Wings elongate, pointed. Tarsi scutellate anteriorly,
rather robust. Feet palmate; hallux short, raised, sometimes none.
Tail moderate.

Mews, Gulls. — These birds live mostly on fishes, molluscs and insects,
some on carrion also ; they fly long and take their prey out of the water
while flying with their strong bill ; there are also species which attack and
rob other sea-birds of their prey.

La/rus ILLIG. Nostrils placed in the middle of bill.

a) Tail forked. Sp. Larus Sabinii, Linn. Transact, xii. PI. 29 ; Green-
land. (Sub-genus Xema LEACH, GRAY, related to the Sterns.)

b) With tail even. Sp. Larus ridibundus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 969, 970,
NAUM. Taf. 260; the black-headed Gull; white, light bluish gray above,
like most of the species ; legs red ; head and throat in the summer plumage

, brownish black. — Larus argentatus BRUENNICH, GM., BUFF. PI. 253 (the
hallux is faultily absent in this, otherwise correct, figure), LESSON Ornith.
PL 112, fig. 2; the great sea-mew, silver-mew, herring-gull; very numerous
on the islands along the north coast of Holland, where their eggs cover
whole districts ; from these gulls' eggs the northern part of Texel has
obtained the name of Eijerland. — Larus tridactylus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 387,
NAUMANN, Taf. 262, &c.

These birds moult twice in the year. The males are larger than the
females, but with the same colours. The young birds are mostly grey,
with black or brown spots, and have sometimes been named as different
species; thus Larus ncevius L. is the young bird of Larus marinus L.
This genus also, although not so large as Sterna, counts many species.

Lestris ILLIG., Stercorarius BRISS. Bill covered with a cere
beyond the middle. Nostrils placed at the extremity of bill. Two
middle tail-feathers often elongate.

Sp. Larus parasiticus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 762, NAUM. Taf. 272, 273 (younger
Larus crepidatus GM., BUFF. PL enl. 991, not Lestris crepidata BBEHM,
Lestris Buffonii BOIE), LESSON Ornith. PI. in, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 272,
273, &c. These mews of prey are very ravenous and courageous, and attack

AYES. 391

sea-swallows and gulls which they have seen to capture fish, until these
let fall or disgorge the prey seized or swallowed, which then they catch
with watchful rapidity.

B. Nostrils tubular. Feet tridactylous, with tarsi reticulato-
squamose.

Haladrama ILLIG., Pelecanoides LAC., GRAY. Bill short, de-
pressed at the base, compressed at the tip, hooked. Nostrils supe-
rior, contiguous. Wings short, with first quill longest. Tail short,
rounded.

Sp. Haladroma urinatrix, Procettaria urinatrix GM. ; New Holland ; — Hold-
droma Berardii QUOY, TEMM. PL col. 517; from the Falkland Islands.
These small birds from the southern hemisphere much resemble Alca or
Mergulus, but are easy to distinguish by the covering of the tarsi.

Pachyptila ILLIG., Prion LAC., GRAY. Bill moderate, depressed
at the base, with margins beset posteriorly with parallel lamellae.
Nostrils tubular, placed above the culmen of bill, opening by two
apertures. Wings moderate. Tail moderate, rounded. Claw ses-
sile, remote, in place of hallux.

Sp. Packypthila vittata, Procellaria vittata FOBST., GM., TEMM. PL col, 528,
Cuv. R. ani., 6d. ill., Ois. PL 91, fig. 4; South Africa, &c.

Puffinus RAY, BRISS. Bill moderate, slender, with tip of each
mandible curved. Nostrils tubular, placed above culmen of bill,
opening with double aperture. Wings long, pointed. Tail some-
what short, rounded. Eemote claw in place of hallux.

Sp. Puffinus major FABEB, Procellaria Puffinus L. (in part), BUFF. PL enl.
962; — Puffinus anglorum BAY (Procell. Puffinus L. in part), Puffinus
arcticus FABEB, NAUM. Taf. 277, &c.

Procellaria L. (excl. many species), ILLIG. Bill moderate or
short, hooked at the tip ; lower mandible shorter, with angle some-
what prominent. Nostrils in a tubule above the culmen of bill,
opening by a single aperture, divided by a partition. Wings long.
Tail mostly rounded. Claw sessile, raised, in place of hallux.

Thcdassidroma VIGORS, Hydrobatus BOIE. Tarsus longer than
toes, slender. Wings with second and third quills subequal, longer
than first, the second longest of all. Tail even.

Sp. Procellaria pelagica L., BBISS. Ornith. VI. PL 13, fig. i, NOZEM. NederL
Vog. in. bl. 245, NAUM. Taf. 275, fig. i, GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PL 62,

392 CLASS xvi.

fig. i ; the storm-bird. This bird is so fat that the inhabitants of Feroe,
according to BBUENNICH, string it to a wick and so use it for a lamp or
candle.

Procellaria VIGORS, GRAY and others. Tarsus shorter than mid-
dle toe. (Wings pointed, with first quill longer than the rest.)

Sp. Procellaria capensis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 964, LESSON Ornitk. PI. in,
fig. i; — Proc. glacialis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 59, NAUM. Taf. 276, &c.
Compare on this and the preceding genus KUHL Beitrage zur Kenntniss der
Procellarien in Beitr. zur Zoologie und vergl. Anatom. s. 135 — 149.

Diomedea L. (excl. Diomedea clemersa), ILLIG., GRAY, Albatrus
BRISS. Bill longer than head, thick ; culmen separated by a groove;
tip hooked ; lower mandible with tip compressed, truncate. Nostrils
lateral, at the base of groove, opening forwards. Wings elongate,
with second quill longest. Feet short, robust.

Sp. Diomedea exulans L., BUFF. PL enl. 237 ; the albatross, often noticed by
voyagers, is a large sea-bird of the southern hemisphere, like some other
species, as Diom. melanophrys TEMM. PL col. 456, GU&RIN Iconogr., Ois.
PI. 62, fig. 5, &c.

ORDER II. Grallatores.

Feet stilted for wading, with tarsi long, toes either cloven or
lobate, or palmate, or semipalmate. The whole tibia with the
lower part of femur exsert. Neck moderate or elongate. Bill
mostly elongate, of various form. Wings elongate.

Waders. — In most of them a large part of the tibia is un-
feathered, and, like the long tarsi, is covered with a horny invest-
ment. In some snipes, especially in Scolopax rusticula, this part is
very small and confined to the posterior surface of the lower part
of the tibia only, over which however the feathers placed higher up
extend ; in most, however, it is very large, especially in Himanto-
pus and Recurvirostra. These birds, for the most part, live in
fenny districts or on the banks of rivers. Many live on animal
food, on insects, worms, &c., or, if they have a strong bill, swallow
fishes, reptiles, and even small mammals. Most of the species fly
very well, and during their flight keep their legs extended back-
wards.

Family V. Macrodactyli. Feet tetradactylous, with toes elon-
gate, sometimes lobate. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse
scutella. Wings moderate or short. Body slender; breast com-
pressed, with sternum narrow.

AYES. 393

Podoa ILLIG., Heliornis BONNAT., GRAY. Bill moderate, com-
pressed, carinate; nostrils pervious, lateral. Wings with third
quill, or with third, fourth, and fifth quills the longest. Tail
rounded. Feet short, with toes elongate, lobate. Neck elongate.

a) Tail broad. Toes conjoined at the base.

Sp. Podoa surinamensis, Plotus surinamensis GM., BUFF. PL enl. 893, LESS.
Ornith. PL 107, fig. 2.

b) Tail narrow. Toes lobate, free at the bane.

Another larger species of the size of a duck : Podoa senegalensis LESSON,
GBAT Gen. of Birds, PL CLXXIII. ; from the west coast of Africa. Not
long ago a third species from Malacca was made known, Podoa (Podica)
personata GRAY, Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1848, p. 90.

These birds neither belong to Plotus, nor ought they to be placed with
Pvdiceps; the skeleton of the African species in the Leyden Museum
indicates in the small flat sternum, the short wing-bones (os humeri, radius
and ulna) and other peculiarities, the nearest correspondence with Fulica.

Fulica BRISS., ILLIG. (species from gen. Fulica L.). Bill mode-
rate; upper mandible gradually deflected, thick, compressed, extend-
ing into an unplumed shield over the forehead. Nostrils pervious,
lateral, placed in the middle of bill. Wings short, with second and
third quills longest of all. Tail short. Feet moderate, with toes
very long, lobate.

Sp. Fulica atra L. (and aterrima ejusd.), BUFF. PL enl. 197, LESSON Ornith.
PL 1 06, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 241 ; the common coot, la foulque ou morelle,
das Wasserhuhn; black, belly slate-coloured, shield on the head white; the
size of a hen. The coot lives on insects, worms and water-plants, and lays
eight or more eggs in a nest that floats amongst the bulrushes. This bird
migrates from us (Holland) in November and returns in March; in more
southern countries of Europe it is a permanent bird.

Porphyrio BRISS., TEMM. (species of Fulica L.). Bill shorter
than head, high, compressed, continued into a shield extending
over the forehead. Nostrils rounded, lateral, pervious. Wings
moderate. Feet long, strong. Toes very long, surrounded by a
narrow membrane.

Sp. Porphyrio veterum GM., Porphyrio hyacinthinus TEMM., EDWABDS Birds,
PL 87, LESS. Ornith. PL 105, fig. 2 ; in Sardinia, Calabria and the Grecian
Archipelago; the Porphyrio of the ancients (Laudatissima et nobilissima
avis, cui rostrum et prcdonga crura rubent. PLINIUS Lib. x. c. 46; comp.
also c. 49). With this bird of southern Europe a species from South
Africa is commonly confounded, Porphyrio Madagascariensis LATH., Por-
phyrio smaragnotusTEMM., Fulica porphyrio L., BUFF. PL enl. 810, GUEE.
Iconogr., Oi*. PL 58, fig. 2. — Porphyrio indicus HOBSF., Porphyrio
smaragdinus TEMM. PL color. 421, occurs at Java, &c.

394 CLASS xvi.

Gallinula BRISS., LATH., TEMM., Stagnicola BREHM. Bill
moderate, compressed, curved at the tip, extending into an un-
plumed shield on the forehead. Nostrils placed in a groove of the
bill, longitudinal, pervious. Feet elongate, with anterior toes sur-
rounded by a narrow membrane. Wings moderate, with second,
third, and fourth quills subequal, longest of all.

Sp. Oattinula chloropus LATH., Fulica chloropu* L., BUFF. PL enl. 877,
LESS. Ornith. PI. 105, fig. i, NAUMANN Taf. 240 ; the water-hen, common
gallinule; the legs yellow green with a red ring above the tarsi; the base
of the bill, which is yellow at the tip, red; back dark olive-coloured;
breast and belly grey. This bird feeds on worms, insects, small slugs and
water-plants, lives amongst the reeds, swims well, and lays from six to
eleven eggs, coloured dirty white or yellowish, with larger and smaller
brown spots. — Gallinula, phcenicura PENN., BUFF. PI. enl. 896, from Java,
Celebes, &c.

Tribonyx DUBUS. Bill shorter than head, subproduced on fore-
head, compressed. Nostrils placed in a groove near the middle of
bill. Wings short, tuberculate, with fourth, fifth, and sixth quills
subequal, longest of all. Toes moderate, strong.

Sp. Tribonyx Mortieri DUB., Bullet, de VAcad. de Brux. vn. 215; New
Holland.

Here is to be noted the genus Notornis OWEN, supposed to be
extinct until lately proved to be still living in New Zealand. See
MANTELL Ann. and Magas. of Nat. Hist. 1852, Vol. ix. p. 231 ; also
GOULD ibid. p. 234, and Trans, of the Zool. Soc. n. 2, 1852, PI. 25
(described as Notornis Mantelli, from, the skin supplied by MAN-
TELL). It is of the size of Porphyrio, resembles it in the bill and
colour, but has feet like Tribonyx. It is however unable to fly, and
resembles the Ostrich in the wings and tail.

Ocydromus WAGL., Gfallirallus DE LAFREN.

Rallus L. (in part). Bill moderate, or longer than head, com-
pressed, without frontal shield. Nostrils placed in a groove, per-
vious, narrow. Feet elongate. Wings moderate, with second and
third quills subequal, mostly longest of all.

Crex BECHST., Ortygometra L. (Faun. Suec. 1744), GRAY, Porzana
VIEILL., Zapornia LEACH. Bill shorter than head, high at the base;
lower mandible angulate.

Sp. Rallus Crex L., Crex pratensis BECHST., Gallinula crex LATH., TEMM.,
BUFF. PL enl. 750, NAUM. Taf. 236; this bird is more a land-bird than the
water-hen; it runs very rapidly, flies little and, when pursued, not far;

AYES. 395

lives amongst the high grass in meadows and corn-fields. Since in our
latitudes it comes with the quails (in June) and migrates with them (in
October), it has been named Kwartdkoning, Roi des cailles, Wachtelkonig,
king of the quails; the land-rail, corn-crake. — Rallus Porzana L., NAUM.
Taf. 237, &c.

Eallus LATH., TEMM. Bill longer than head, straight or sub-
arched.

Sp. Rallus aquaticus L., BUFF. PL enl. 749, LESSON Ornith. PL 106, fig. i,
NAUM. Taf. 235; the water-rail; lives on the banks of rivers and brooks,
in moist, rushy meadows, runs very rapidly on water-lilies (Nymphece) and
other water-plants. — Rattus Madagascariensis YERREAUX, Biensis typus
PUCHERAN, DES MURS PI. peiutes, 24, &c.

Ar amides PUCHERAN. Bill longer than head; lower mandible
shorter than upper, angulate. Wings with fourth and up to
seventh quills subequal, longer than the rest.

Sp. Rallus maximiu VIEILL., Fulica cayensis GM., BUFF. PL enl. 352; —
Rallus plumbeus TEMM., GaUinula plumbea SPIX, &c. Large species from
South America.

Note. — Add Corethrura KEICHENB., Alecthelia SWAINS, not LESS., and
Euldbeomis GOULD ; comp. GRAY Genera of Birds.

Parr a L. Bill moderate, straight, compressed, a little thickened
at the tip. Nostrils ovate, placed in the middle of bill, pervious.
"Wings spurred or tuberculate, with first three quills subequal,
longest. Tarsi elongate, with toes very long, thin, anterior sub-
equal, with claws acuminate, long ; posterior claw very long.

* With forehead carunculate. Tail very short. Second and third quills
longest.

Sp. Parra Jacana L., BUFF. PL enl. 322, LESSON Ornith. PI. 92, fig. 2, the
surgeon; in the tropical regions of South America; — Parra cuprea VAHL,
mihi, Parra superciliosa HORSF., Parra melanochloris VIEILL., VAHL
Naturh. Selskdbets Skrivter, IV. i, 1 794, PI. 2 ; the largest known species ;
head, neck, breast and belly violet-black, wings and back copper-coloured
green, a white streak from the eyes to the neck; in Bengal and Java; —
Parra gallinacea TEMM. PL col. 464, Java, Celebes ; — Parra albinuca IsiD.
GEOFFR. Sx.-HtL., GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 57, fig. i, Madagascar, &c.

** With forehead plumed, without caruncles. Four middle tail-feathers
very long; anterior flag-feathers appendiculate, first and second equal,
longer than third. Hydrophasianus WAGL., GRAY.

Sp. Parra sinensis GM. (and lusoniensis GM.), Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat., Ois.
PL x. fig. i ; the young bird SONNERAT Voy. a la nouv. Guinee, PI. 45 ;
Java, Manilla, &c.

The birds of this genus live in the tropical regions of both hemispheres,
and in their mode of life agree with the water- rail of Europe.

396 CLASS xvi.

Family VI. Longirostres s. Scolopacidce SWAINS. Bill mostly
elongate (in a few moderate), slender, soft. Nostrils placed in a
groove of bill. Feet with toes moderate, hallux mostly short,
raised, sometimes none. Wings rather long, with first quill mostly
longest of all.

Longbills. — These birds form the most typical family of the order,
since the preceding family has some resemblance to the gallinaceous
birds. Most of the species of this family live on insects, for which
they feel, and seize them with their bill on or under the ground
or in the mud. It is remarkable that the snipes, the sandpipers
(Tringce) and the godwits (Limosce) are able to move the extremity
of the upper mandible separately, by which they are distinguished
from the genus Tetanus, as LEISLER first remarked (TEMMINCK
Manuel d'Ornith. IT. p. 636). These birds can find worms and
insects under the mud or in the loose earth with their bill simply
by touch; to that end the tip of the bill is supplied with many
nervous filaments from the fifth pair which pass through small
bony cavities of the upper mandible. See NITZSCH in MECKEL'S
Archiv f. d. Physiol n. s. 369—380, in. s. 384—388.

Scolopax L. (in part), ILLIG., TEMM., Cuv. Bill elongate,
slender, soft, somewhat round. Upper mandible with tip obtuse,
produced beyond the lower, grooved from the base to beyond the
middle part. Nostrils basal, linear. Eyes large, distant from the
base of bill, placed towards the upper part of head. Feet moderate;
tarsi scutellate anteriorly; anterior toes unequal, the middle toe far
surpassing the lateral; hallux short, resting on its point. Tail
short, rounded.

The snipes. — Some species live in woods, others in fenny districts or on
moist meadows. They mostly feed exclusively on insects, worms and slugs ;
some add to these plants and seeds, especially of species of grass (Scolopax
gallinula). In Holland they seldom brood, but are birds of passage,
which visit us in the spring and especially the autumn; they pass the
summer in northern countries. They moult twice in the year, but there is
no remarkable difference between the winter and summer plumage, neither
is there between the colour of the feathers of the two sexes and that of
young and old birds.

a) With first, second and third primaries gradually longer, fourth and
fifth longest of all.

Sp. Scolopax microptera mihi, Scolopax minor WILSON, American Ornithology,
PI. 48, fig. 2, in North America ; very similar to the European woodcock,
but smaller. This species forms the genus Phttohda of GRAY.

AYES. 397

b) With first and second primaries sulegual, longest of all.

* With tibiae covered with plumes as far as the heel. Posterior claw obtuse,
not produced beyond hallux. (Sub-genus Scolopax BOIE, BREHM, GRAY.)

Sp. Scolopax rusticula1 L., BUFF. PI. enl. 858, LESS. Ornith. PI. 101, fig. i,
NAUM. Taf. 211 ; the woodcock, la becasse; the largest species; the head is
grey in front, yellow-brown with transverse darker brown streaks behind ;
the feathers are also yellow, ruddy brown, black and grey, in a combination
that recalls the plumage of Caprimulgus or of Strix flammea. The wood-
cock is a nocturnal animal, and in the day-time hides in woods ; this species
is met with all over Europe, in the north of Asia and also in Japan.

* With tibice denuded above the heel. Posterior claw slender, produced
leyond hallux. (Sub-genus Gallinago LEACH, GRAY, Telmatias BOIE,
BREHM, Ascalopax KEYSERLING and BLAS.)

Sp. Scolopax gallinago L., BUFF. PI. enl. 883, NAUM. Taf. 209 ; the common
snipe, la becassine; — Scolopax gallinula L., BUFF. PL enl. 884, NAUM. Taf.
210; the Jack-snipe, la sourde, la petite becassine; this species, like Scol.
rusticula, has 12 tail-feathers, the common snipe 14. In an Indian species
much resembling Scol. gallinago } 24 to 26 are counted : Scol. stenura KUHL,
Java and Sumatra.

Limosa BRISS., LEISL., TEMM. (Actitis ILLIG. in part). Bill very
long, slender, straight or sub-recurved at the tip. Lateral groove
running as far as the tip. Nostrils basal, pervious. Feet with
tibiae denuded for a large space below, with tarsi long, scu-
tellate anteriorly; outer and middle toe conjoined by membrane;
hallux resting on the tip. Wings moderate, with first quill longest
of all. Tail short, even.

Sp. Limosa melanura LEISL., Scolopax limosa L. and Scol. cegocephala L.,
BUFF. PI. enl. 874 (winter plumage}, 916 (summer plumage] , LESS. Ornith.
PL 101, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 212, 213; the black-tailed godwit, la barge, der
Sumpflaufer, de marel ; the largest species ; tail black, at the base white ;
it lives in marshy districts and at the mouth of rivers in many parts of
Europe and Asia (also in Japan) ; lays four dark olive-coloured eggs with

large brown spots, which are as much prized as those of the plover

Limosa rufa BRISS., Scolopax lapponica L., BRISS. Ornith. v. PI. 25, fig. i,
BUFF. PI. enl. 900, &c.

Here belongs also a species with quite straight bill, which lives in North
America, and is occasionally found in England, and which is generally
referred to Scolopax, Limosa scolopacea SAY, Scolopax grisea (and novebora-
censis) LATH., GMEL., WILSON Amer. Ornith. PI. 58, fig. i, (ed. JARDINE,
VoL n. p. 337), GOULD Birds of Europe, PI. 323; MacrorampTius LEACH,
GRAY.

With LINN.EUS properly rusticola, probably from a mistake of the pen.

398 CLASS xvi.

Tetanus BECHST., Cuv., TEMM. (spec, of Scolopax L., spec, of
Tringa BRISS.). Bill moderate or elongate, straight or ascending,
compressed, acuminate, harder at the tip. Feet elongate, with tarsi
slender, scutellate anteriorly. Middle toe conjoined at the base
with outer by membrane; hallux scarcely resting on the ground.
Wings moderate, with first quill longest.

Sp. Totanus fuscus LEISL., Scolopax fusca L., BUFF. PI. evil. 875, NAUM.
Taf. 200; the dusky sandpiper; feeds on small fresh- water con chifers and
insects; — Totanus calidris BECHST., Scolopax calidris L., BUFF. PL enl.
827, 845, NAUM. Taf. 199; the red-shank sandpiper; base of the bill red,
legs yellow-red ; this bird broods in large quantities on the meadows in
Holland.

The species with the bill curved upwards form the genus Glottis of
NILSSON and BKEHM, Totanus glottis BECHST., Scolopax glottis L., NAUM.
Taf. 201, the green-shank; this bird, besides water-insects, feeds on small
fishes.

Sub-genus: Actitis BREHM, KEIJSERL. and BLAS., Tringoides
BONAP., GRAY. Groove of bill extending to the tip. Tail pro-
duced beyond the points of the wings.

Sp. Totanus hypoleucus TEMM., Tringa hypoleucos L., BUFF. PL enl. 850,
NAUM. Taf. 194 ; common sandpiper.

Himantopus BRTSS., Hypsibates NITZSCH. Bill elongate, straight,
slender, acuminate, with groove extending on each side to the
middle. Nostrils linear, lateral. Feet very long, very thin, with
tarsi reticulate. Toes moderate, conjoined at the base; expanded
membrane between the outer toes. Wings very long, pointed, with
first quill much surpassing the rest. Tail subeven, short.

Sp. Himantopus melanopterus MEYER, Charadrius Himantopus L., BUFF
PL enl. 878, LESSON Ornith. PI. 104, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 203; white, the
back and wings greenish black and shining ; the long legs red. This bird,
closely allied to Totanus, has at first sight some resemblance to a stork in
miniature; it lives in the South and particularly the South- East of Europe,
and in some parts of Asia and Africa. Hiinantopus, under which name
this bird occurs in PLINIUS, Lib. IX. cap. 47, denotes that the legs are as
thin as string, loripes. — A very similar species occurs in North America :
Himantopus Wilsonii TEMM., Avocetta Himantopus WILSON, American
Ornith. PI. 58, fig. 2 ; another at New Holland, New Guinea, Timor, &c.,
Himantopus leucocephalus GOULD.

CladorhyncJius GRAY, Leptorhynchus DUBUS.

Note. — Characters nearly of the preceding genus, but feet palmate, tarsi
more robust ; this form is intermediate between the preceding genus and

:

AYES. 399

that which follows next, as though three genera met and were confluent. —
Sp. Cladorhynchus pectoralis GRAY, Himantopus palmatus GOULD, DUBDS
in GUEBIN Magasin de ZooL 1835, Ofo. PL 45 ; hab. in New Holland.

Recurvirostra L. Bill elongate, slender, ascending. Nostrils
narrow, linear, placed in a groove of bill. Feet elongate, slender,
palmate, tetradactylous, with hallux raised, very short. Tarsi reti-
culate. Wings somewhat long, with first quill longest. Tail short,
rounded.

Sp. Recurvirostra Avocetta L., BUFF. PL enl. 353, LESS. Ornith. PI. 104, fig.
i ; the scooping avocet; white, the head and neck black, the wings black
and white, the legs bluish or lead-coloured ; this species lives on the sea-
coast and on lands flooded by sea- water ; the female lays 2 or 3 dirty-yellow
eggs spotted black or brown. Of this genus also some exotic species occur
which differ little in size and often also in colour from the European
species. Recurvirostra americana LATH., WILS., Tab. 63, fig. 2, from
North America, has the head and neck, as also the upper part of the back,
reddish or dun-yellow.

Tringa L. (excl. of species). Bill moderate or a little longer
than head, soft, flexile, straight or inflected at the tip, with tip
depressed, obtuse. Groove extending from the base of bill almost
to the tip. Feet moderate, slender, with tarsi scutellate anteriorly,
with toes cloven or outer and middle toes joined at the base by
membrane. Hallux resting on its point, or none. Wings long,
with first quill longest. Tail even or cuneate, with two middle
feathers subproduced.

A. Toes cloven.

t Feet tridactylous, hallux none.

Sub-genus: Calidris ILLIG., TEMM. (Arenaria BECHST.). Bill
moderate, straight.

Sp. Tringa arenaria L. (and Charadrius catidris), BBISS. Ornith. v. PI. 20,
fig. 2, NOZEM. en SEPP Nederl. Vogels, m. p. 283, fig. i, (the winter
plumage), fig. 2, the summer plumage (Charadrius rubidus GM.), NAUM.
Taf. 182; the sanderling, la petite maubeche grise ; except that the hallux is
absent, in all respects a true Tringa species.

t Hallux short, raised.

Sub-genus : Tringa BRISS., TEMM. Bill moderate (Calidvis Guv.,
Canutus BRISS., BREHM) or longer than head (Pelidna Cuv.).

Sp. Tringa canutus L., Tringa islandica GM., NAUM., T. grisea GM., Tringa
cinerea GM., TEMM., BUFF. PL enl. 365, 366, NAUM. Taf. 183; the knot,

400 CLASS XVI.

ash-coloured sandpiper, la maubeche; compare for the syuonomy TEMMINCK,
Manuel, n. pp. 628 — 630; — Tringa maritima BRUNNICH, NAUM. Taf. 188;
the purple sandpiper; — Tringa cinclus L. (and Tringa alpina ejusd., NAUM.),
Tringa variabilis MEYER, BUFF. PI. enl. 852, NAUM. Taf. 187, &c. ; the
dunlin. A small species Tringa minuta LEISLER, NOZEMANN en SEPP
Nederl. Vog. m. 271, the stint or sea-lark, is scattered far over the eastern
hemisphere, through Europe, Africa, the Sunda Isles, New Guinea and
New Holland, from all of which localities there are specimens in the RijTcs-
Museum at Leyden.

A species with a long bill, curved downwards, Tringa wbarquata TEMM.,
Scolopax subarquata GM. (and africana ejusd.), BUFF. PL enl. 851, NAUM.
Taf. 185, which occurs in Europe, Asia and India, has given occasion, from
a pair of specimens in which the bill had been distorted and the thumb cut
off, for forming the nominal genus Falcinellus Cuv. ; a figure is to be seen
in TEMM. PL color. 510. See SCHLEGEL Kritische Uebersicht der Eur&pdi-
schen Vogel, Leyden, 1844, s. 97, 98.

In one species the bill is long and pressed flat, Tringa platyrhyncha
TEMM., Numenius pygmceus LATH., NAUM. Taf. 207. On this is founded
the genus Limicola KOCH, KEYSERL. BLAS. This species has some resem-
blance, especially in the plumage, to Scolopax gallinula.

B. Membrane between the outer and middle toes.
Sub-genus : Machetes Cuv., PTiilomachus MOEHR., GRAY.

Sp. Tringa pugnax L., BUFF. PL enl. 305 male, 306 fern., LESSON Ornith.
PL 103, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 190 — 193; the rw/male, le combattant, paon de
mer, fern, reeve. This bird broods in numbers with us, lives on moist pas-
tures, and migrates in autumn. The males, larger than the female, are at
pairing time ornamented with a ruff of feathers and very variously marked.
In May they pass a great part of the day on some battle-field, and attack
each other furiously with their bills. The female lays 4 or 5 pointed eggs
coloured green with brown speckles.

C. Anterior toes conjoined at the base by membrane.
Sub-genus: Hemipalama BONAP., GRAY.

Sp. Tringa himantopus BONAP., SWAINSON and RICHARDSON, Fauna boreali-
Amer., Birds, PL 66.

Heteropoda NATALL.

Eurynorhynchus NlLSSON.

Note. — Genus related to the Tringce, with bill depressed, dilated
at the tip. Sp. Eurynorhynchus griseus NILSS., Platalea pygmcea
L. Mus. Ad. Frid., Tomi sec. Prodrom. Holmise, 1764, p. 26. See
figure in GRAY Gen. of Birds, PL CLII. This very rare bird is not
an inhabitant of Surinam, as stated by LINNAEUS, but of the East
Indies.

AVES. 401

Phalaropus BRISS. Bill moderate or slightly longer than head,
soft, straight, with tip inflected. Tarsi moderate, covered in front
with scutella; feet tetradactylous, with anterior toes connected at
the base by membrane, winged or lobate. Wings pointed, with
first and second quills subequal, longest of all.

a) With bill slender, subulate. Subgen. Lobipes Cuv.

Sp. Pkalaropus Wihonii SABINE, Phalaropus fimbriatus TEMM. PL col. 370,
Fauna boreali-Americana, Birds, PL 69, p. 405. In this species, which
occurs in North and South America, the toes have only a narrow border ;
the legs are longer and more slender than in the other species ; — Phalaropus
cinereus BRISS., Tringa hypcrborea L. (and lobata ejusd.), Phalaropus an-
ffustirostris NAUM., BUFF. PL enl. 766, STURM Deutschl. Fauna, Vbgel,
Heft 2, NAUM. Taf. 205 ; Lapland, Iceland, Greenland, the Orkney Islands ;
the male broods as well as the female, and is said to have exclusively a
brooding spot on each side of the belly, a part denuded of feathers. This
small species has, as also the following, a lobed membrane along the toes,
like Fulica.

b) With bill broad, depressed.

Sp. Phalaropus fulicarius BONAP., Phalaropus platyrhynchus TEMM., Tringa
fulwaria L., LESS. Omith. PL 107, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 206, Cuv. R. Ani.,
ed. ill., Ois. PL 8 1, fig. 2; this species resides, like the preceding, in the
high north of both hemispheres, and descends only seldom towards tem-
perate regions ; has however been repeatedly shot both on the Dutch and
English coasts. It is larger than the preceding, about the size of Tringa
cinclus.

fihynchcea Cuv. Bill elongate, sub-arched. Lateral groove
extending to the tip of upper mandible. Nostrils pervious,
basal. Feet moderate, with tarsi scutellate in front, toes cloven,
hallux raised, resting only by the tip. Wings moderate, ample,
with first three quills longer, subequal, second longest of all.

Sp. Rhynchcea rariegata VIEILL., Rhynchcea varidbilis (Cuv. ?) TEMM., Scolo-
pax capensis L. and Rallus bengalenxis ejusd., BUFF. PL enl. 922 adult,
270, 88 1 (younger), LESS. Ornith. PL 102, fig. i ; Africa, India (Sumatra,
Java), Japan. — In South America, Brasil, Peru, a smaller species occurs :
Rhynchcea semicoUaris (Totanus semicollari* VIEILL. Nouv. Diet. d'Hist.
not.), Rhynchcea Hilairea VALENC., LESSON Illustr. de Zool. PL 18, GUER.
Iconogr., Ois. PL 55, fig. 2.

Numenius MOEHR., BRISS. (in part), Cuv. Bill long, slender,

| curved, with tip of upper mandible hard, obtuse, produced beyond

the tip of lower. Nostrils basal, lateral, linear, pervious, placed in

groove obliterated towards the tip of bill. Face plumed. Feet

slender, elongate ; tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse scutella,

VOL. ii. 26

402 CLASS XVI.

in the upper part mostly with hexagonal scales. Toes short; three
anterior bordered by a narrow membrane and connected at the base ;
hallux resting on its point. Wings with first quill longest.

Sp. Numenius Arquata LATH., TEMM., Scolopax Arquata L., BUFF. PL enl.
818, LESS. Ornith. PI. 100, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 216; the common curlew;
broods on the dunes in Holland, inland in England on elevated spots ; this
species occurs in Europe, Asia and North Africa. Another smaller, with
short bill, is also very common in Holland, less common than the last in
England; does not breed in Holland; Numenius phceopus LATH., Scolopax
pkceopus L., NAUM. Taf. 217. These birds are almost all similarly marked,
grey-brown above ; the tail is white with transverse black bars. The bill of
the young bird is much shorter ; a species occurs in North America of which
the bill is longer than that of the common curlew, Numenius longirostris
WILS. Amer. Ornith. PI. 64, fig. 4.

Ibidorhynchus VIGORS, GRAY, Glorhynchus HODGSON. (Cha-
racters nearly of Numenius, but feet cursorial, tridactylous. Wings
with second and third quills equal, longest.)

Sp. Ibidorhynchus Struthersii, VIGORS Proceed. Zool. Soc., Part I. 1830, 1831,
p. 174; a species unknown to me, from the Himalayan mountains.

Family VII. Cultrirostres Cuv. (Herodii ILLIG., Ardeidce
GRAY). Bill longer than head, thick, strong, mostly compressed,
more rarely depressed, broad. Feet tetradactylous, with toes con-
joined at the base or semipalmate.

Ibis Cuv. (spec, from genus Tantalus L., Numenius BRISS.).
Bill very long, thickened at the base, tetragono-cylindric, arched.
Lateral groove produced to the tip of upper mandible. Nostril f
basal, placed at the sides of the flattened upper part of bill. Feet
elongate, with toes mostly somewhat long, hallux resting. Neck
elongate. Wings long, with second quill mostly longest.

This is a numerous genus of which species occur in all the warm countries
of the world; they have great resemblance to the preceding genus, but,
on the other hand, form the transition to the storks and herons.

Sub-genus: Falcinellus BECHST. (Eudocimus, Tantalides WAGL.,
Ibis GRAY). Tarsi elongate, covered anteriorly with transverse
scutella. Toes long, slender.

Sp. Ibis viridis Cuv., Tantalus Falcinellus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 819, NAUM.
Taf. 219; head dark brown, body chestnut -brown below, back and wings
dark green with violet reflections ; this bird breeds in Asia, North Africa,
and in Eastern Europe, migrates also to other parts of Europe, and has been

AVES. 403

occasionally observed in Holland and England. A very similar but larger
species occurs in Chili and Mexico ; Ibis ckalcoptera TEMM., PL color. 511.
— Ibis rubra, Tantalus ruber L., BUFF. PL enl. So, 81, Cov. R. Ani., ed.
iU., Ois. PL 78, fig. 3 ; in South America.

Geronticus WAGL. (add Cercibis, Phimosus, Tlieristicus and Har-
piprion ejusd.), GRAY. Tarsi robust, covered anteriorly with hex-
agonal scales. Toes often somewhat short, thick. (Wings with
third and fourth quills mostly subequal, longest. Face often un-
plumed, with a naked space between bill and eyes).

Sp. Ibis cristata VIEILL., BUFF. PL enl. 841, Dictlonn. univ. d'ffist. not.,
Ois. PI. 9, fig. i\— Ibis albicollis, Tantalus albicollis GM., BUFF. PL enl.
916, from Chili, &c.; in this species especially the toes are short and at the
same time thicker than in the rest of the species.

The most celebrated species is Ibis religiosa Cuv., SAV., Geronticus
ceikiopicus GBAT, Ann. du Mus. TV. 1804, pp. no — 135, PL 53, (PL 52,
the skeleton), BLUMENB. Abb. naturh. Gegenst., No. 86, under the improper
name of Tantalus ibis, GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PL 55, fig. i ; white, the
head and neck naked, bill, feet and ends of primaries and secondaries
black; see the accurate description of HEBODOTUS, lib. n. c. 76. This is
the species, as CUVIEB has shewn from his investigation of the mummies
of the Ibis, to which the Egyptians paid divine honours and which they
embalmed, and which is so often figured on their monuments ; see also J.
C. SAVIGNT, Hist. not. et mythologique de ribis. Paris, 1805, 8vo. Pre-
viously another species, more resembling the stork, Tantalus ibis L., had
been mistaken for it. The opinion of BELON, that the Ibis of the Egyptians
was a stork, has had no adherents1.

Platalea L. (excl. Platalea pygmcea), Pelecanus MoEHRiXG et
vetemm. Bill elongate, depressed, with tip orbiculate, broad.
Nostrils oblong, approximate, placed near the base of bill in a
groove on each side, produced alongside the margin. Orbital region
denuded. Tarsi reticulate; feet tetradactylous, with toes long, the
anterior connected at the base by membrane, the hallux inserted
somewhat high, resting. Wings with first three quills subequal,
second longest of all. Tail short, even.

Sp. Platalea leucorodia L., BUFF. PL enl. 405, NAUM. Taf. 230; the white
spoonbill, la spatuk, der Ldffler; white, with a tuft of elongated feathers at
the back of the head; this bird, which, with the exception of the bill,

" Excepte les apothicaires qui ont pris la cicogne pour embleme, parce qu'Hs I'ont
^onfondue avec I'ibis auquel on attribue Vinvention des clysteres." CUVIEB Ann. du, Mus.
iv. p. 129; compare the citations there from ancient authors.

26—2

404 CLASS XVI.

much resembles Ibis religiosa1, lives on small fishes, crustaceans, insects,
&c., keeps on the shores of rivers, makes its nest usually in trees or thickets,
and lays 2 or 3 dull-white eggs. The spoonbill migrates with the stork,
and is met with in Holland, especially in the canals of the Biesbosch, about
Dordrecht, in numbers. — Platalea Ajaja L., BUFF. PI. enl. 165, LESS.
Ornith. PI. 99, fig. i, GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 54, fig. 3 ; in South America
and the south of >Torth America. In Japan also a couple of species of
this genus are found, one of which is larger than the European. Another
species, Platalea tenuirostris TEMM., SONNERAT Voy. a la Nouv. Guinge,
PI. 51, 52, from the Philippine Islands, is distinguished by red legs.

Balceniceps GOULD. Bill much longer than head, robust,
broad; culmen terminating in a powerful hook; tip of lower man-
dible truncated. Nostrils placed in a narrow slit at the base of bill
close to the culmen, scarcely perceptible. Orbits denuded. Skin
of throat loose, expansile. Tibiae and tarsi reticulated. Toes
without interdigital membrane, very long; hallux directed inwards.
Wings very powerful, the third, fourth, and fifth quills the longest.

Sp. Balceniceps rex GOULD, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1851, pp. i, i, Aves, PL xxxv.
JARDINE Contrib. to Ornith. 1851, pp. n — 13 (figure of the head). Hab.
the upper part of the White Nile in Eastern Africa. This remarkable bird
is allied to Cancroma and Platalea, but Cancroma has, like the herons, the
claw of middle toe strongly pectinated, which is not the case with Balceniceps
or Platalea.

Tantalus L. (in part), Cuv. Bill elongate, rounded at the
culmen, subcurved, emarginate towards the tip, without nasal
groove, with margins drawn in. Nostrils placed near the base,
dorsal, longitudinal. Part of head and sometimes throat without
feathers. Tarsi reticulate; toes long, anterior conjoined at the base
by membrane; hallux resting.. Wings with first quill shorter,
second and third subequal, third longest of all.

Sp. Tantalus Ibis L., BUFF. PL enl. 389, LESS. Ornith. PL 99, fig. i, GUERIN
Iconogr., Ois. PL 54, fig. 2 ; white, wings somewhat rose-red, bill yellow ;
round the eyes and at the base of the bill the head is bald and red-coloured.
This bird is regarded incorrectly by LINN^US, BUFFON and others as the
Ibis of the Egyptians (see above, p. 403) ; it is met with principally in
Senegal. — Tantalus loculator L., BUFF. PI. enl. 868, le couricaca de Cay-
enne ; Surinam, Brasil, the South of North America, &c.

1 That there is a near affinity between Ibis and Platalea I thought to illustrate
also by comparison of the skeleton, but afterwards I found that the celebrated
physiologist R. WAGNER, so experienced in the comparative anatomy of birds, had
anticipated me ; NAUMANN 1. 1. ix. s. 307.

AVES. 405

Anastomus BONNAT., lLL!G.,#wzwsLACEP. Bill elongate, porrect,
fibrous, rough, emarginate at the tip, compressed, with margins
rubbed down, gaping in the middle. Nostrils basal, superior,
pervious. Feet elongate, with tibiae for the greater part naked.
Tarsi reticulate. Toes long, anterior joined at the base by mem-
brane; hallux insistent. Wings with second and third quills or
third and fourth longest, subequal.

Sp. Anastomus coromandelicus, Ardea coromandelica GM. (and Ardea pondi-
ceriana GM.), BUFF. PL enl. 932, SONNERAT Voy. aux Ind. Or. PI. 122;
Bengal. — Anastomus lamettigerus TEMM. PI. color. 236, GUEB. Iconogr., Ois.
PI. 54, fig. i ; in Senegal and South Africa ; black, with glossy, red-brown
and violet coverts on the back and wings ; the feathers of the neck, breast
and belly have the shaft running into smooth, horny lamellae (plumce folii-
ferce), such as present themselves in Gallus Sonneratii, in a species of Ibis
(Ibis lamellicottis LAFREX.), and some also on the wings of Bombicilla,
gamdus.

Ciconia ILLIG. (species of Ardea and Mycteria L.). Bill elongate,
thick, straight, with lower mandible subrecurved. Nostrils linear,
placed near the base at the culmen of bill. Region round the orbits
destitute of feathers; sometimes the whole face and throat naked.
Feet elongate. Tarsi reticulate with hexagonal scales. Anterior
toes conjoined at the base by membrane; hallux insistent from the
point to beyond the middle. Wings with second and third, or
third and fourth quills longest.

Sp. Ciconia alba BRISS., Ardea Ciconia~L., BDFF. PL enl. 866, LESS. Ornith.
PL 98, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 228; the stork, la ckogne, der Storch; white,
with flag-feathers black, a bald, blackish circle round the eyes; bill and legs
red ; this bird commonly known in Holland and other parts of the continent,
but a rare visitant in England, frequents the banks of rivers, lakes, canals,
&c., makes its nest in dead trees, on roofs of houses, especially on towers,
and lays 3, 4 or 5 white eggs ; it feeds on frogs, grasshoppers, beetles, and
even on mice ; on account of its destroying injurious animals the stork has
been regarded, both in modern and in ancient times (compare PLINIUS
Hist. nat. Lib. XC. 23) as a sacred bird by the farmer. — Ciconia nigra
BECHST., Ardea nigra L., BUFF. PL enl. 399, NAUM. Taf. 229; the black
stork, la cicogne noire, der schwarze Storch; black, with green and purple
gloss, bill and legs like the preceding species ; this bird makes its nest in
trees and lives more on fish, like the heron ; it is found in many countries
of Europe, but is very rare and accidental in Holland, for it does not appear
to make its nest there. — Ciconia maguari, Ardea maguari GM., GUERIN
Iconogr., Ois. PI. 53, fig. r, in America, especially in Brasil, &c.

Argcda LEACH, LeptoptUus LESS., GRAY. Bill very large, thick,
trigonal. Head and neck unplumed.

406 CLASS XVI.

Sp. Ciconia marabu TEMM., PI. col. 300; from the continent of India, also
in Java and Sumatra; — Ciconia argala TEMM. PL col. 301 ; from Senegal
and South Africa. Large species of storks with naked neck, which forms
a dependent, elongated sac below ; according to TEMMINCK the two species
were confounded formerly under the name of Ardea dubia or Ciconia
argala, which names however GRAY adduces as synonyms of the first
species. The loose white tail-coverts, maraftow-feathers, are sold at a high
price.

Mycteria L. Bill subasceiiding. Head and neck destitute of
feathers.

Sp. Ciconia mycteria TEMM., Mycteria americana L., BUFF. PL enl. 817,
LESS. Ornith. PI. 98, fig. 2 ; — Ciconia ephippiorhyncha TEMM., Mycteria
senegalensiz LATH., Cuv. R. Ani., e"d. ill., Oi*. PI. 75, fig. 3.

Scopus BRISS., ILLIG. Bill elongate, high at the base, com-
pressed, curved at the tip, excavated by a narrow, deep groove on
each side near the culmen. Nostrils placed near the base of bill
below the groove, narrow, linear. Face plumed. Tarsi reticulate
in front. Anterior toes joined at the base by membrane; hallux
insistent. Wings with first quill short, second, third, and fourth
subequal, third longest of all. Tail short.

Sp. Scopus umbretta GM., BUFF. PL enl. 798, LESS. Ornith. PI. 69, fig. i,
GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 53, fig. 3, hab. in Africa.

Cancroma L. Bill long, depressed, broad, carinate above,
with tip narrowed, curved. Nostrils basal, approximate; groove
extending on each side of culmen from the nostrils to the tip.
Tarsi covered anteriorly with large, broad, hexagonal scales. Claw
of middle toe incised pectinately on the inside. Anterior toes united
at the base; hallux insistent, inserted on the internal side of lower
part of tarsus. Wings with first quill shorter, the next increasing
up to the fourth, fourth and fifth subequal, longest.

Sp. Cancroma cocklearia (and Cancroma cancrophaga) L., BUFF. PL enl. 38,
896, LESS. Ornith. PI. 97, fig. 2, GUER. Iconogr. , Ois. PI. 52. fig. i ; the
boat-bill, le savacou; in Surinam and other parts of South America; this bird
lives on fish, like the herons, from which it differs by the flat bill, which,
according to the comparison of BUFFON, has the form of two spoons lying
one upon the other with the convex surface upwards. It is generally sup-
posed that there is only one species known, and that the red-brown specimens
are young birds; not long ago, however, it was asserted on the contrary
by a French voyager, E. DEVILLE, that there exist different species of
Cancroma, GUBRIN Revue et Magasin de Zool. 1852, p. 225.

AVES. 407

Ardea L. (in part), Cuv., ILLIG., TEMM. Bill elongate, straight,
thick, compressed, acuminate, furnished with a groove from the
nostrils evanescent towards the tip. Nostrils placed near the base
of bill, covered by membrane posteriorly. Tarsi mostly scutellate
in front, elongate. Outer toes connected by membrane. Hallux
insistent, inserted internally at the lower part of tarsus. Claw of
middle toe with inner margin produced, incised pectinately. Wings
moderate, with first quill mostly shorter, the three following sub-
equal, second and third, or third and fourth, longest of all.

The species of the genus of the Herons are very numerous in both
hemispheres of the world. They live in marshy regions, or on the
banks of rivers and lakes, and feed chiefly on fish, also on frogs and their
larvae, and on water-insects ; they watch long for their prey and then shoot
out their long neck as swift as a dart to seize it. They build their nest
partly in trees, partly amongst reeds, lay light blue, sea-green or greenish
eggs (3 or 4, some species occasionally 5), and moult once a year. There
is little difference between the two sexes. Some species are scattered
over a large part of the world.

Nycticorax STEPH., GRAY. Feet moderate. Tarsi reticulate
anteriorly with large, hexagonal scales. Occiput crested or feathered
with pendent plumes. Bill moderate or scarcely longer than head,
with culmen curved. Wings with third quill longest.

Sp. Ardea Nycticorax L., BUFF. PL enl. 758, NAUM. Taf. 225; the night-
heron, le Bihoreau, der Nachtreiher ; very common in many countries of
Europe, in Africa, also in Asia and in Japan. — In America a closely allied
species or local variety occurs, Ardea Gardeni GM., of which a young
specimen is figured in BUFF. PI. enl. 939. — Ardea caledonica GM., Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 74, fig. i, Australia, Celebes, Timor, &c.

Tigrisoma SWAINS., GRAY. Feet elongate; tarsi reticulate ante-
riorly with hexagonal scales. Bill subulate, elongate. Wings with
first quill short, third and fourth subequal, longest of all.

Sp. Ardea lineata GMEL., BUFF. PI. enl. 860, South America, Cayenne, &c.

Ardea of modern authors (fferodias, Ardeola, Buphus BOIE).
Feet elongate; tarsi scutellate anteriorly. Bill elongate, subulate.
Wings with first four quills subequal, second and third longest of
all. Neck elongate, slender.

Sp. Ardea cinerea (and major] L., BUFF. PI. enl. 755 (adult), 787 (younger),
LESS. Ornith. PI. 97, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 220; the common heron, le heron
commun, der graue Reiher; the largest European species, bluish-grey
above, white below ; black spots along the neck. These herons build their
nests in large societies. The same species is found at Java, in Japan, and
at the Cape of Good Hope. — Ardea purpurea L., BUFF. PL enl. 788,

408 CLASS XVI.

NAUM. Taf. 221 ; smaller than the preceding, with grey wings, red-brown
neck, with a longitudinal black band and very long toes ; this species also
occurs in Java, a very rare visitant in England; — Ardea agami GM., GU£R.
Iconogr., Ois. PI. 52, fig. 2, in South America, &c. This group of the
herons is richest in species. — Some entirely white species are remarkable ;
they have long waving feathers, light but stiff, on the back above the tail,
which are used as ornaments for the head, especially in Hungary, where
they form part of the national costume. Sp. Ardea egretta GM., BUFF. PI.
enl. 925, NAUM. Taf. 222, with yellow bill, sometimes black at the tip, —
and a much smaller species, Ardea garzetta L., NAUM. Taf. 223, with black
bill. Exotic species also are known of this group, which, on account of
their resemblance to the species here noted, have been confounded with
them; comp. TEMMINCK Manuel, n. p. 572 — 576, iv. p. 372—380.
Botaurus STEPH., GRAY. Feet moderate, thick, with tibiae
plumed throughout the greater part. Tarsi scutellate anteriorly.
Toes very long. Bill moderate or scarcely longer than head, subu-
late. Neck densely feathered. Wings with first three quills sub-
equal, the second longest of all.

Sp. Ardea stellaris L., BUFF. PL enl. 789, NAUM. Taf. 226; the common
bittern, le butor, der Eohrdommel; colour of feathers as in the woodcock
and some owls ; is, like these, a night-bird ; it builds an inartistic nest in
the sedge, and emits a loud sound that resembles the bellowing of an ox.

Aramus VIEILL., TEMM., Notherodius WAGL. Bill long, com-
pressed, with tip curved, protracted beyond the lower mandible.
Nostrils lateral, placed in groove, pervious. Feet elongate, slender;
tarsi covered anteriorly with large transverse scutella. Toes long,
scarcely united at the base. Hallux raised, resting on its point.
Neck elongate. Wings with first quill short, third and fourth sub- j.
equal, longest of all. Tail moderate, rounded.

Sp. Aramus scolopaceus, Ardea scolopacea GM., Rallus gigas LICHTENST.,
BUFF. PI. enl. 848 ; South America, Cayenne ; brown, with round, white
spots on the neck; legs black. This genus is very nearly allied to the
following.

Eurypyga ILLIG., Helicis VIEILL. Bill elongate, compressed, j
subulate, emarginate at the tip. Nostrils placed in a deep, lateral j
groove, linear. Tarsi covered anteriorly with scutella; outer toes \
conjoined at the base; hallux insistent; claws compressed, curved,
moderate. Neck long, slender. Wings with first quill shorter, |
third, fourth, and fifth subequal, longest of all. Tail long, broad.

Sp. Eurypyga helias, Ardea helias GM., Helias phalcenoides VIEILL., BUFF.
PI. enl. 782, LESS. Ornith. PI. 102, fig. 2, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI.
72, fig. 2 ; in South America; regarded incorrectly by LATHAM as a species
of snipe, closely allied, on the contrary, to Ardea. Within the last few
years a very similar species from Columbia has become known.

AVES. 409

Grm PALL., (excl. Psophia ILLIG., species of Ardea L.). Bill
moderate or elongate, somewhat thick, straight, compressed, with
tip subulate, mandibles subequal. Nostrils pervious, closed pos-
teriorly by membrane, placed nearly at the middle of bill in a
groove broad, deep, not produced to the tip of bill. Kegion about
the base of bill and orbits often unplumed or warty. Feet elongate ;
tibiae in great part denuded ; tarsi scutellate anteriorly. Toes short,
strong; outer joined at the base by membrane; hallux short, raised,
or resting on the point only. Wings moderate, with quills in-
creasing from first to third, third longest of all.

Sp. Grus cinerea BECHST., Ardea grus L., BUFF. PL enl. 769, NAUM. Taf.
231, the crane, la grue, der Kranich; dwells during the summer in the
high north and in the east of Europe; migrates in large troops, formed
into a triangle ; their passage over the Mediterranean sea attracted the
notice of the ancients, whose writings often make mention of it; — Grus
numidica BRISS., Ardea virgo L., BUFF. PL enl. 241, NAUM. Taf. 232; —
Grus carunculata, Ardea carunculaia LATH., GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 51,
fig. 3, GRAY Gen. of Birds, PL CXLVHI. ; Africa. — The crowned bird of
Africa, Grus pavonina, Ardea pavonina L., EDWARDS Birds, Tab. 192,
Dictionn. univ. d'Hist. not., Ois. PL 9, fig. 2, has a much shorter bill than
the other species, as also distinguished from this in later times but very
similar, Grus regulorum LiCHTENST.1 from South Africa, BUFF. PL enl. 265.
These crested cranes form the genus Balearica of BRISSON and GRAY.

Psophia L. Bill shorter than head, curved, vaulted. Nostrils
placed in the middle of bill in a broad groove, pervious. Feet
elongate, with tarsi long, scutellate anteriorly. Hallux resting on
point; toes moderate, strong, outer conjoined at the base by mem-
brane. Wings short, with first quill short, fourth and fifth subequal,
longest of all. Tail very short.

Sp. Psophia crepitans L., Grus psophia PALL., BUFF. PL enl. 169, PALLAS
Spic. ZooL IV. Tab. I ; A. VOSMAER Besckrijving van den AmeriJcaanschen
trompetter, Amsterdam, 1768, with a coloured figure, LESS. Ornith. PL 91,
fig. i, Cuv., R. Ani., ed. ML, Ois. PL 71, fig. 2 ; the Agami or caracara,
from Surinam and other countries of tropical South America. This bird
is very tame; it emits a peculiar dull sound, somewhat resembling the
cooing of doves, which seems to proceed from an air-sac. They bear some
resemblance to the gallinaceous birds, with which BUFFON united them,
in the short arched bill and the external appearance. Within the last few
years two very similar species, also from S. America, have been made known.

1 See on both species Proceed, of the ZooL Society, Part I. 1833, p. 118, the report
of the secretary (E. T. BENNETT).

410 CLASS XVI.

Dicliolophus ILLIG., Cariama BRISS., GRAY, Microdactylus
GEOFFR. Bill moderate, parted as far as below the eyes, with
upper mandible longer, convex and curved, subvaulted. Nostrils
nearer to the base of bill, covered by membrane, opening by
aperture anterior, oblong. Feet elongate ; tarsi covered with large
transverse scutella; toes very short, anterior conjoined at the base;
hallux raised. Wings moderate, with first quill short, fifth and
sixth subequal, longest of all. Tail long, broad.

Sp. Dicliolophus cristatus, Palamedea cristata L., TEMMINCK PI. col. 237,
GUE"R. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 51, fig. i, MAXIM. Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras.,
Aves, Tab. IV. ; the Sariama or Seriema; this bird is met with over a large
extent of South America, from the 8th to the 3ist degree of S. L. ; it has
a double row of erect, thin feathers on the head. Compare on this bird
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, Ann. du Mus. xm. pp. 362 — 370, PI. 26, and
Prim MAXIMILIAN zu WIED NEU- WIED, Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Carol.
Tom. XI. pp. 341 — 350. (Where there is a figure of the head, natural
size.)

Genus anomalous, swan-like. Phcenicopterus.

Phcenicopterus L. Bill high at the base, broken and curved,
with margins lamellate and dentate. Nostrils longitudinal, pervious,
covered above by membrane. Neck very long. Feet very long,
palmate; tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse scutella, Hallux
short, raised. Wings moderate, with first and second quills sub-
equal, longest of all.

Sp. Phoenicopterus antiquorum TEMM., (Phcenicopterus ruber L. in part),
BUFF. PL eril. 63, NAUM. Taf. 233 ; the flamingo, le flammant; in Asia,
Africa and the South of Europe, especially in Sicily and Sardinia ; rose-
coloured, with red wings and black flag-feathers ; 3 or 4 feet high. This
bird builds a pyramidal nest and sits on it as on a saddle, with the legs
hanging down by the sides. The fleshy tongue of the flamingo was amongst
the exquisite delicacies of the extragavant Romans. Formerly this
species was not distinguished from the American, to which TEMMINCK
would appropriate exclusively the name of Phoenicopterus ruber. There is
in South America also Phoenicopterus ignipalliatus Is. GEOFFROY and
D'C-RBIGNY, GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1832, Ois. PI. 2, GUER. Iconogr., Ois.
PI. 59, fig. 2, with shorter legs, and the bill, from the tip to more than
half, black, and in Africa a species much smaller than the preceding three,
occurring also at the Cape of Good Hope and elsewhere : Phoenicopterus
mmorTEMM. PI. col. 419.

Family VIII. Pressirostres ((7Aara<7™Woe VIGORS, GRAY). Bill
moderate, seldom longer than head, with tip protracted, hard, com-

AYES. 411

pressed, somewhat tumid behind the nostrils. Feet elongate ; toes
somewhat short, almost always connected at the base by membrane;
hallux in some resting on the point only, in many none.

Dromas PATKULL. Bill elongate, strong, compressed, with
culmen curved towards the tip. Nostrils oval, lateral, pervious.
Neck short. Feet tetradactylous, semipalmate; with hallux resting
on the point. Tarsi covered anteriorly with large, transverse
scutella. Wings pointed, with first quill longest of all.

Sp. Dromas ardeola PAYK., Erodia amphilensis STANLEY in SALT Voyage to
Abyssinia, London, 1814, Appendix rv. p. Ixii. PL opposite to it, DUPONT
Ann. des Sc. not. ix. pp. 184—187, PI. 45 ^male), TEMM. PI. col. 362
(fern.), Cuv. R. AnL, ed. ill., Ois. PI. 77, fig. 2 ; of the size of the Avocet,
white, back, flag-feathers and bill black; this bird lives in Arabia and
Bengal. This genus, which we place here provisionally, is usually arranged,
incorrectly as it seems to us, close by Ciconia.

Hcematopus L. Bill elongate, straight, compressed, with tip
cuneate, obtuse. Nostrils linear, placed in lateral groove near the
base of bill. Feet moderate, cursorial, with toes conjoined at the
base by membrane, that of the inner toe very short. Tarsi reticu-
late. Wings long, with first quill longest of all.

Sp. Hcematopiis ostralegus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 929, LESSON OrnitJi. PL 95,
fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 181 ; the pied oyster-catcher ; black, with a white bar
on the wings, belly and base of the tail white, bill and legs red. Numerous
in the summer on our coasts, where it makes its nest on the bare ground
above high-water mark. — Hcematopus palliatus TEMM., GUER. Iconogr.,
Ois. PL 50, fig. 2, from America, &c.

Chionis FoRST.1, Voginalis LATH. Bill shorter than head,
somewhat thick, subconical, compressed, surrounded at the base by
a horny sheath. Nostrils placed in middle of bill, at the margin of
the horny sheath. Feet moderate, with tibice feathered nearly to
the joint, with tarsi reticulately scaly. Outer toes conjoined at the
base by membrane ; hallux raised, insistent at the point. Wings
moderate, tuberculate, with first and second quills subequal, longest
of all.

Sp. Chionis alba FORST., LATHAM Synops. in. PL 80, FRETCINET Voy. awt.
du monde, Zool. vi. PL 35, TEMM. PL col. 509, LESS. Ornith. PL 109,
fig. 2, in New Holland; — Chionis minor HARTL., GRAY Gen. of Birds, PL
cxxxvi. This genus is by some writers placed amongst the gallinaceous
birds.

1 J. K. FORSTER, Enchiridion historic naturali inservien*. Halae, 1788, 8vo, p. 37.

412 CLASS XVI.

Glareola BRTSS. Bill short, curved, compressed at the tip, with
gape produced behind the base under the eyes. Nostrils placed at
the base of bill. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse scutella.
Toes short, anterior conjoined at the base by membrane, middle toe
much larger than the subequal lateral toes, with claw elongate,
acute. Hallux raised. Wings long, pointed, with first quill longest
of all. Tail in some forked, in some emarginate.

Sp. Glareola pratincola LEACH, Hirundo pratincola L., Glareola auslriaca
GM., Glareola torquata MEYER, TEMM., BRISS. Ornith. v. PI. 12, fig. i,
BUFF. PL enl. 882, NAUM. Taf. 234, the collared pratincole, perdrix de
mer, Sandhuhn; this bird lives in Asia, Africa, and the south, especially
the south-east, of Europe, on the banks of rivers and great lakes ; the bill
fissured as far as below the eyes, recalls the swallows, with which, as also
with Sterna, this genus corresponds in the long, pointed wings. This bird
feeds on beetles, grasshoppers, &c. — Glareola lactea TEMM., PI. color. 399,
GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PL 59, fig. i ; on the banks of the Ganges, smaller
than the preceding; — Glareola grallaria TEMM., from Australia, New
Guinea and Borneo, has the bill stronger and longer, and much higher
legs than the preceding species, and approaches the following nearly allied
genus.

Cursorius LATH., (Tachydromus ILLIG., a name already given to
a genus of reptiles by DAUDIN.) Bill shorter than head, cloven
to below the eyes, curved. Nostrils placed in an excavation at the
base of bill, lateral, pervious. Feet elongate, cursorial; outer toes
joined at the base; tarsi covered anteriorly and posteriorly with
transverse scutella. Wings moderate, with first two quills mostly
subequal, first quill longest of all. Tail rounded.

a) With first two quills of icings longest of all.

Sp. Cursorius isabellinus MEYER, Cursorius europceus LATH., Charadrius
gallicus GM., BUFF. PL enl. 795 ; North Africa, sometimes, but rarely,
seen in Europe; — Cursorius coromandelicus, Cursorius asiaticus LATH.,
Charadrius coromandelicus GM., BUFF. PL enl. 892, GUER. Iconogr., Ois.
PI. 50, fig. 3, &c.

b) With first quill of wings short, second and third longest of all.

Sp. Cursorius chalcopterus TEMM. PL color. 298, GRAY Genera, PI. CXLIII.
Senegal. This entire genus is peculiar to the continent of the eastern
hemisphere.

Oreophilus JARDINE and SELBY.

Note. — Genus unknown to me, related to the preceding. Sp. Oreophilus
totanirostris from the Falkland Islands.

AVES. 413

Pluvianus VIEILL., GRAY, Ammoptila SWAINS. Bill shorter
than head, strong, curved from the culmen towards the tip. (Feet
as in CursoriuSj but tarsi longer.) Wings with second quill
longest.

Sp. Cursorius charadroldes WAGL., Pluvianus agyptius GRAY, Charadrius
melanocephalus LATH., BUFF. PL enl. 918, Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat., Ois.
PI. 22, fig. i; Egypt. It is related that this bird seeks for insects, espe-
cially gnats, in the mouth of crocodiles, which is always open when these
animals bask in the sun ; it is perhaps the r/>6xt\os of HERODOTUS, n. 68,
which keeps the crocodile's mouth clear of leeches ?

(Edicnemus TEMM. (spec, of Charadrius L., ILLIG.). Bill
moderate (or longer than head), strong; lower mandible ascending
to the tip from the rather prominent angle. Nostrils placed in a
depression of bill, longitudinal, opening anteriorly, pervious. Feet
elongate, cursorial, with tarsi reticulate. Toes conjoined at the base
by membrane, the lateral toes short, the middle somewhat long.
"Wings with first quills subequal, the first longest of all. Tail long,
cuneate.

Sp. (Edicnemus crepitans TEMM., Charadrius (Edicnemus L., BUFF. PI. enl.
919, NAUM. Taf. 172; the common thick-knee; principally in Southern
Europe, North Africa and Western Asia ; rare with us. The young birds
have the tarsi much enlarged at the bend of the feet. — (Edicnemus gratia-
rius, (Edicnemus longipes GEOFFR., PL color. 386, LESS. Ornith. PL 94,
fig. 2 ; New Holland. — In some species the bill is longer than the head :
(Edicnemus maynirostris GEOFFR., TEMM. PL col. 387; Celebes, New
Guinea, and (Edicnemus recurvirostris, Mus. Paris., GRAY Gen. of Birds,
PI. CXLII. ; from Bengal ; in this last species the bill is curved upwards.
It forms the genus Esacus of LESSON.

Charadrius L. (excl. of many species), TEMM. Bill shorter
than head, tumid behind the nostrils, subulate. Nostrils linear,
perforated in membrane covering the groove of mandible. Feet
moderate, cursorial; outer toes conjoined at the base by membrane.
Tarsi reticulate with scales. Wings moderate, with first two quills
subequal, the first mostly longest of all. Tail rounded or even.

Sp. Charadrius pluvialis L. (and Ch. apricarius ejusd.), BUFF. PL enl. 904,
NAUM. Taf. 173, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 69, fig. 2; the golden
plover, der Gold-Regenpfeifer; black above, with yellow spots; in the
summer plumage neck and breast deep black. This species lays in a hole
on the ground four or three, very large, yellow-green, spotted with brown,
smooth eggs. — Charadrius morinettus L., BUFF. PL enl. 832, NAUM. Taf.
174, the dotterel plover; brownish, a white band behind the eyes; in the

414 CLASS XVI.

adult bird a white band above the breast. In some small European species
the summer plumage does not differ from that of winter, or they moult
only once a year; C/iaradrius hiaticula L., BUFF. PL enl. 920, LESS.
Ornith. PI. 93, fig. i, the ringed plover, occasionally on the Dutch coast,
as also Charadrius minor, the little ringed plover ; in England the former
species is common, the last very rare.

This genus, though forming a part only of that of LINN.EUS, is very
numerous in species from all parts of the world.

Hoplopterus BONAP. Wings spurred, with second and third
quills longest.

Sp. Charadrius spinosus L., under which name two species have been con-
founded, both from Africa; the largest of the two, BUFF. PL enl. So i, is
Vanellus melasomus SWAINSON, Birds of Western Africa, n. 1837, PI. 26.

Squatarola Cuv., GRAY, (species of Tringa L., ILLIG.). Bill
moderate, thick. Feet tetradactylous ; hallux short or very short,
raised. (Other characters nearly those of the preceding genus.
Add genus Aphriza AUDUB., GRAY.)

Sp. Squatarola varia nob., Tringa squatarola, Tringa helvetica and Tringa
varia L., Charadrius squatarola NAUM., BRISS. Ornith. V. PI. 9, figs, i, 2,
BUFF. PL enl. 853, 854, 923, NAUM. Taf. 178; grey plover, grey sand-
piper; white, brown and black spots ; the summer plumage is, in the male
especially, deep black under the neck, on the breast and the belly. Some
writers refer this species to Charadrius, but most to Vanellus; it belongs,
however, to neither of these two, but stands in some degree between them,
nearest in our opinion to Charadrius. It occurs in Europe, Africa (to the
Cape of Good Hope) and Asia, and is also met with in North America.

Vanellus BRISS., BECHST., TEMM., Cuv. (Tringa ILL., excl.
Tringa varia; species of Tringa L.) Bill slender, straight, shorter
than head. Nostrils placed in lateral groove, covered by membrane,
opening by a longitudinal fissure. Feet tetradactylous, with hallux
small, raised ; tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse scutella ; outer
toes joined at base by membrane. Wings with first quill shorter,
second and third subequal, longest of all. Tail even, broad.

Sp. Vanellus cristatus MEYER and WOLF, Tringa vanellus L., BUFF. PL enL
242, LESS. Ornith. PI. 95, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 179; the peewit, le vanneau,
der Kibitz (the English and German names borrowed from the note of the
bird, which BUFFON compares with the French word dix-huit). This bird
eats worms and insects, and lays three or four olive-coloured eggs, with
black spots, and sharp pointed, on the ground, on a layer of straw or fibres
of roots; the eggs are much prized. This bird occurs in Europe, North
Africa, and a part of Asia.

AVES. 415

In some exotic species the wings are spurred and the bill has sometimes
lobed appendages. Sp. Vanellus goensis, Parra goensis GM., BUFF. PI. enl.
807 ; — Vanellus senegallus, Parra senegalla L., BUFF. PL enl. 362, Vanellus
cucuUatus, TEMM. PI. col. 505, &c. They form the genus Lobivanellus
STRICKLAND, Chettusia BONAP., GHAT.

Strepsilas ILLIG., Cinclus MOEHE., GRAY. Bill moderate,
subulate, acute, subascending. Nostrils basal, lateral, half covered
above by membrane, pervious. Feet moderate, with toes short, the
anterior cloven; hallux raised, resting on the point. Tarsi scutel-
late anteriorly. Wings long, with first quill longest of all. Tail
truncated or rounded, moderate.

Sp. Strepsilas collaris TEMM., Tringa interpres L., BUFF. PL enl. 856, LESSON
Ornith. PL 94, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 180; the common turnstone, la tourne
picrre, der Steinwalzer; so named because it turns over the stones with its
bill in search of worms and insects ; this species li ves in the northern parts
of both hemispheres and visits our coasts.

Family IX. Otides (Otidince BONAP.). Bill moderate or short,
broad at the base, curved at the tip. Feet cursorial, tridactylous,
with toes very short, joined at the base, with tarsi reticulately
scaled. Claws broad, obtuse. Wings moderate. (Large birds,
related to the gallincB, inhabitants of the old world.)

Otis L. Bill moderate or short, with upper mandible vaulted
towards the tip. Nostrils placed in lateral groove, half covered by
membrane, pervious. Wings with first quill shorter, second, third,
and fourth subequal, fourth longest of all. Tail long, broad (quill-
feathers mostly 20).

See on this genus E. RUEPPELL Monographic der Gattung Otis, Museum
Senckenbergianum, n. Frankf. a. M. 1837, pp. 205 — 248, Tab. xin. — xv. ;
compare TEMMINCK PL color, v. (texte de la 102 livraison).

The bustards are large birds of the eastern hemisphere, the greater
number of species of which are found in Africa. However much they
resemble CEdicnemus and still more Cursorius, I conceive that they ought
to be regarded as a distinct family, which forms the transition to the galli-
naceous birds. They are not migratory birds, but stragglers, and live
mostly in society on corn-fields and widely extended plains. Their food con-
sists of green parts of plants, seeds, insects, and especially of beetles and
worms.

a) With bitt compressed, short. Otis LESSON, GRAY.

Sp. Otis tarda L., BUFF. PL enl. 245, LESS. Ornith. PI. 93, fig. r, NAUM.
Taf. 167, 1 68; the bustard, Vouiarde, der Trappe; head and neck light
grey ; back red-brown with black spots ; in some parts of Europe, especially

416 CLASS XVI.

in Thuringia, in Silesia, in the south of Kussia and Siberia; with us only
rarely; in old times, as it seems, it was more common.

Otis tetrax L., BUFF. PL ml. 25 male, 10 fern., NATJM. Taf. 169; South
of Europe, Tartary, North Africa ; an instance of the occurrence of this
species in North Brabant is known.

b) With lill moderate, broad at the lose, depressed. Eupodotis LESS.
(add. Chlamydotis and Syp7i€otis ejusd.), GRAY.

Sp. Otis aurita LATH., TEMM. PL color. 533; from the continent of India;
the adult male has on each side of the head three long curved shafts of
feathers, which bear a vane at the extremity only; — Otis senegalensis
VIEILL., Otis Khaad RUEPP. 1. 1. Tab. 15 ; — Otis Jtoubara GM., Psophia
undulata JACQUIN; Beitrdge zur Gesch. der Vogel, Wien, 1784, Tab. 9,
NAUM. Tab. 170;— Otis ca/ra LICHTENST., Otis ruficollis, GUER. Iconogr.,
Ois. PI. 49, fig. i, &c.

Family X. Proceri ILLIG. (Struthionidce VIGORS). Wings
without quill-feathers, unfit for flying. Feathers of body loose.
Bill of various shape, mostly depressed, with culmen distinct;
upper mandible with tip produced beyond the lower.

The strutJiious birds are birds of large size, of warm countries,
living upon vegetable food. Since they are not able to fly they
have the breast-bone less developed than in other birds, and the
projecting keel on the forepart is wanting, to which in other birds
the pectoral muscles are attached.

Section I. Apterygince. Feet tetradactylous, with hallux short,
raised.

Apteryx SHAW. Bill long, slender, with culmen depressed*, tip
subclavate, obtuse. Nostrils placed near the tip of bill at the in-
ferior part of lateral groove. Wings very small, concealed under
the coverts. Tail inconspicuous. Tarsi thick, reticulate with
irregular, unequal scales, broader in the anterior row, transverse.
Anterior toes thick, rather long, with claws strong, curved, fos-
sorial. Internal rudiment of hallux resembling a spur.

Sp. Apteryx australis SHAW, Naturalist's Miscellany, xxiv. PI. 1057, 1058,
YARRELL in Transact, of the Zool. Soc. i. pp. 71—76, PI. TO, GRAY Gen. of
Birds, PI. CLXXIX ; from New Zealand ; lives chiefly amongst high and
close ferns and feeds on insects and worms. See on the anatomical peculi-
arities of this strange bird OWEN Zool. Transact, n. pp. 257 — 301, PI. 47
— 55' — Apteryx Oweni GOULD, ibid. Vol. in. 1848, pp. 379, 380, PI. 57.

AYES. 417

Section II. Struthiones. Feet cursorial, tridactylous, or didac-
tylous.

Casuarius BRISS., LATH., ILLIG. Wings very small, latent, or
naked quills. Feathers double, narrow, lax. Feet tridactylous.
Tail inconspicuous.

a) With lill depressed.

Dromaius YIEILLOT. Nostrils placed in a broad groove, opening
at the anterior part of bill. Wings concealed under the plumes.

Sp. Casuarius Novce ffollandice LATH., WHITE Voyage to New South Wales,
PL i. p. 129, PEBON Voyage aux terres austr. Atl. PL 36. See the
skeleton figured in P. J. DE FBEMERY Specimen Zoolog. sistens observa-
tiones de Casuario Nov. Holl. Traj. ad Rhen. 1819, 8vo.

b) With lill compressed.

Casuarius (recentiorum). Nostrils in the middle of bill. Wings
of five naked quills.

Sp. Casuarius galeatus VIEILL., Casuarius emeu LATH., Struthio casuarius
L., BUFF. PL enl. 313, Menagerie du Mus. national d'Hist. nat. Paris,
1801, folio, Livr. i. ed. 8vo, I. pp. 42 — 54 (with a very beautiful figure),
LESSON Ornith. PL 2, fig. i, GUERIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 48, fig. 2 ; the
casuary (the Malay name of the bird) ; on the head is a tubercle, covered
with a horny envelop ; the head and neck are in part naked, with warty
swellings ; the feathers are black. This bird inhabits the Moluccan islands
and New Guinea, and was first brought alive to Europe by the Dutch.

Struthio L. (excl. Struthio casuarius), CUT. Wings unfit for
flying, plumed. Bill depressed. Feet tridactylous or didactylous.
Tail moderate, with lax plumes.

a) Feet tridactylous.

Rhea MOEHK., GRAY. (Genus of the new world.)

Sp. Struthio rhea L., LATHAM Suppl. n. p. 292, PL 137, HAMMER Ann. du
Mus. xn. 1808, pp. 427—433, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 67, fig. 2;
in the south of South America. A second smaller species was discovered
in Chili a few years ago by DARWIN and D'OBBIGNY, Rhea Darwini
GOULD, Rheapennata D'ORB. Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1837, P- 35> GRAY
Gen. of Birds, PL cxxxvin.

b) Feet didactylous.
Struthio (recentiorum).

Sp. Struthio Camelus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 457, Menagerie du Mus. nat. Livr. i.
(ed. 8vo, i. pp. 69 — 82), with a good figure, LESS. Ornith. PL I. fig. r,
GUERIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 48, fig. i; the ostrich; in Africa and Arabia;

VOL. II. 27

418 CLASS XVI.

this bird surpasses all species now living in size, and was known in most
ancient times (Job xxxix. 13 — 18); it runs with great speed against the
wind, and lives together in troops, which on the heights are sometimes
very numerous, but on the plains, and especially during the breeding
season, only consist of four or five in company, namely a cock and the rest
hens. These hens living in society lay their eggs in the same nest, or
rather in a round hole on the ground. Around it they raise with their
feet a kind of mound, against which the outer circle of their eggs rests.
They continue to lay until the hole is full, which requires eighty eggs.
After this they still lay a few eggs round the nest, as food for the young
birds, when they have left the shell. The old birds themselves break the
eggs for them one after the other, and with this nutritious supply soon
bring them so forward, that they are in a condition to seek their food
abroad for themselves. By day the females relieve one another in brood-
ing, or perhaps desert the nest and leave the eggs to the sun's warmth.
By night the male broods and wards off the jackals and other beasts of
prey that are in eager search for the eggs. An ostrich-egg commonly
weighs three pounds, and is considered to equal twenty-four hen's eggs.
(LICHTENSTEIN'S Reisen im sudl. Africa, n. s. 41 — 45.)

To this family also are referred the bones of large extinct birds
from New Zealand, which belong to different species, of which
some had three toes, others four, like Apleryx. OWEN distinguishes
the following two genera of them, Dinornis and Palapteryx, to
which he has since added Aptornis, also with four toes.

Compare OWEN Transact, of the Zool. Soc. in. pp. 22 — 32, PI. 3 (1842),
PP- 235—273, PI. 18—30 (1845), PP. 307—338, PL 38—50, PP- 345—372,
PI. 52—56 (1849), IV- PP' !— 20, PI. i—4 (1850), pp. 59—68, PI. 23, 24
(1852).

Amongst the natives there are traditions of large birds, and some voyagers
think it not improbable that these birds are not entirely extinct. The boi
are certainly of very recent origin ; they are found in alluvial soil and it
the beds of rivers.

Family XI. Alectorides s. Palamedeince. Bill short, some
what thick, vaulted, compressed, with tip of upper mandible benl
produced beyond the lower. Nostrils oval, pervious. Tarsi thicl
reticulate with hexagonal scales. Feet tetradactylous, with
strong, long, the anterior conjoined at the base by membrane,
liallux insistent. Wings double-spurred.

Palamedea L. (Characters of the family those of the single
genus. Wings ample, with first two quills shorter, third and fourth
longest of all.)

Although these birds have on the one hand a conformity with
Psophia and Dicholopus, on the other with Parra and still more

AYES. 419

with Tribonyx (p. 394), yet they are distinguished by their long toes
from the two first-named genera, and from the last-named by their
tarsi beset with hexagonal horny scales. They have also the breast
by no means so compressed as in the Macrodactylij but a powerful
form of body. They are large birds of South America, feeding on
herbs and the seeds of plants, and forming the transition to the
gallinaceous birds.

a) With the region between the base of Ml and the orbits unplumed.
Chauna ILLIG., GRAY, Opistolophus YIEILL.

Sp. Palamedea chavaria TEMM., Parra Chavaria L., TEMM. PI. color, tig,
GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 57, fig. 3; this bird, called Chauna from its note,
is tamed and left to walk with troops of hens and geese, which it pro-
tects.— Parra Derbiana, Chauna Derbiana GRAY, Gen. of Birds, CLXI. ;
Columbia. Both species have a tuft of long feathers at the back of the
head.

b) With the region between the base of the bill and the orbits plumed.
Palamedea L., ILLIG., GRAY.

Sp. Palamedea cornuta L., BUFF. PL enl. 45, LESS. Ornith. PI. 92, fig. i ;
in Brasil and Guiana ; this bird has a long and thin horn on its head in
front, but no tuft of feathers.

ORDER III. Gallince (L.) s. Rasores.

Feet covered with feathers as far as the tarsal joint, tetradac-
tylous, more rarely tridactylous, with tarsi covered anteriorly mostly
by a double row of transverse scutes. Anterior toes almost always
united at the base by membrane; middle toe much longer than the
lateral (which are often subequal). Claws moderate, somewhat
blunt, grooved below. Bill moderate or short, with culmen convex
or gibbous; upper mandible with margin deflected, overlapping the
lower. Wings mostly short, rounded. Tail with mostly more than
twelve feathers.

Gallinaceous birds. — The breast-bone is truncated in front, forms
a narrow bony band on each side of the keel, and is besides, in great
part, represented by membrane, with a forked bony piece at the
outer margin. Thefurctda does not reach the sternum, but is con-
nected to it by ligament only. The bones of the arm are short,
the upper arm-bone does not reach farther than the crest of the
ilium. The spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae coalesce to
form a single lamina. The pelvis is broad and spacious. The crop
is large, and the muscular stomach very powerful.

27—2

420 CLASS XVI.

To this order belong most of the species of birds domesticated
by man, and of which none, according to the Mosaic law, were
declared to be unclean. These birds live, for the most part, in
polygamy; they make a rude nest on the ground of straw and
fibres of plants, and lay many eggs. They feed principally on the
seeds of plants, which are softened in their crop before they are tri-
turated in the stomach or gizzard. The length of the middle
toe, and some other peculiarities, give to the gallinaceous birds a
remote resemblance to the vultures.

Family XII. Megapodii. Bill short, curved at the tip; lower
mandible ascending at the tip. Wings moderate, rounded. Feet
strong, large, not spurred. Toes elongate, with hallux insistent.
Claws long, subcurved. Head and neck covered with thinly
scattered feathers. Tail with twelve feathers.

Megapodius TEMM., QUOY and GAIM. Bill depressed at the
base, with tip curved, vaulted ; margin of upper mandible contracted
in the middle. Nostrils pervious, oval, placed in a broad groove.
Occiput subcrested. Tarsi covered anteriorly with a single row of
large scutes. Middle and inner toes conjoined at the base by a
small membrane. Wings with third and fourth quills longest of
all. Tail short, in great part concealed by wings.

Sp. Megapodius Freycineti GAIM., Voyage de FVranie, Zoologie, vi. PI. 32,
TEMM. PL color. PI. 220; entirely black ; Celebes, Amboyna; — Megapodius
Duperreyi LESSON, DUPERREY Voy. de la Coqidlle, Zool. PI. 36, LESS.
OrnitJi. PI. 87, fig. i, GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 57, fig. 4; New Guinea; —
Megapodius rubripes TEMM, PL color. 411 ; New Guinea and Celebes; this
species is very similar to the preceding ; both are lead-coloured on the neck
and breast, and have dun-red brown wings. These birds lay very large,
dirty- white eggs, smaller at both ends, which they do not brood but cover
under the sand with dead leaves.

Note. — Genus Alecthelia LESS, to be abolished; it is founded upon a
young bird of Megapodius.

Leipoa GOULD. Bill depressed at the base, with tip curved,
vaulted. Nostrils lateral, placed in a groove of bill, surrounded by
membrane. Tarsi covered anteriorly with a double row of scutes.
Hallux somewhat short. Middle and inner toes connected at the
base by a small membrane. Wings with fifth quill longest of all.
Tail long, rounded, flat. Orbital region naked.

AYES. 421

Sp. Lelpoa ocellata GOULD, Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 126, Birds of
Australia, v. 78; in the western part of New Holland; with black bill and
legs. The feathers along the neck and on the throat small, narrow and
pointed; above black, with brown-yellow spots, below light reddish-yellow.

Mesites ISID. GEOFFR. Bill rather shorter than head, nearly
straight, thin, acuminate at the tip, with lower mandible ascending
towards the tip. Nostrils linear, placed in a membranous pit.
Tarsi covered anteriorly with a row of transverse scutes. Toes
nearly cloven, the outer toes connected at the base by a rudiment of
membrane. Wings with quills increasing from the first short to
the fifth longest of all, with sixth and seventh subequal to this.
Tail long, broad, deflected towards the sides.

Sp. Mesites variegata ISID., GEOFFR., GOER. Magas. de Zool. 1839, PI. 5, 6,
DESMURS PL peintes n; — Mesites unicolor DESMURS, ibid. PL 12; both
from Madagascar. This genus is known to me only from figures and
descriptions ; of the mode of life of these birds I know nothing.

Talegallus LESS., GrRAY. Bill shorter than head, strong,
compressed, curved, with tip of upper mandible produced beyond
that of lower. Tarsi covered anteriorly with a double row of
transverse scutes. Toes scarcely united at the base. Head and
neck denuded. Tail elongate, rounded.

Sp. Talegallus Cuvierii LESS. Voy. de la Coq., (tis. PI. 38, Complem. des
(Euvres de BUFFON, 1834, Ois. PI. 44, fig. 2; New Guinea; — Talegallus
Lathamii GRAY, New Holland. These birds also lay their eggs under
decaying leaves. Their presence has more resemblance than that of the
other gallinaceous birds to the Vultures, but the osteological and other
anatomical particulars do not confirm this apparent affinity. Compare
OWEN in Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 112.

Megaceplialon TEMM. Bill moderate, compressed, with culmen
acute, curved. Nostrils rounded, ample, basal. Tarsi reticulate
with scales anteriorly, scutate below only at the base of toes.
Anterior toes connected at the base by membrane. Tail broad,
deflected towards the sides. Head and neck denuded; occiput with
naked, gibbous tubercle.

Sp. Megacephalon maleo TEMM., GRAY Gen. of Birds, PI. cxxm. ; Celebes;
a bird of the size of a guinea-fowl, brown-black with violet reflections, the
belly rosy-white. This species lays its eggs on heaps of leaves, without
brooding them 1.

1 Compare TEMMINCK Coup d'ceil sur Us possessions neerlandaisses, in. 1849,
pp. 116, 117.

422 CLASS xvi.

Family XIII. Penelopince. Bill compressed, with culmen bent.
Nostrils lateral. .Wings rounded. Tarsi scutellate anteriorly, un-
armed. Anterior toes conjoined at the base by membrane. Hallux
insistent. Tail long, rounded. (Wings rounded, with 5 — 7 quills
longest of all.)

This family is nearly allied to the preceding, but contains species from
the new world only. The toes are more connected at the base than in
Megapodius, but in this respect Megacephalon forms the transition to the
present family.

Penelope LATH., GMEL. Bill moderate, with culmen substraight
at the base, curved at the tip. Nostrils semicovered by membrane
posteriorly, open forwards. Tarsus not exceeding the middle
toe in length, or shorter than it. Cheeks and throat frequently
destitute of feathers.

Sp. Penelope catraca BODD., Phasianus motmot GM., Phasianus parragua
LATH., BUFF. PI. enl. 146. Genus Ortalida MEBB., GRAY.

Penelope marail GM., BUFF. PL enl. 338 ; — Penelope pipile GM., Crax
pipUe JACQUIN, Beitrdge zur Gesch. der Vogel. Wien, 1 784, 4to, PI. 1 1 ; —
Penelope pileata LICHTENST., DESM., PL peintes 23, &c. Genus Penelope
MERR., GRAY.

These birds represent in South America the Asiatic genus Phasianus.

Oreophasis GRAY. Base of bill thickly covered with downy
plumes. Orbital region naked. Tubercle over the forehead, cylin-
dric, truncated. Wings somewhat short.

Sp. Penelope fronticornis nob., Oreophasis Derbyanus GRAY, Gen. of Birds,
PI. cxxi. ; from Guatemala.

Crax L. Bill moderate or short, compressed, high. Tarsi
strong, longer than middle toe.

Ourax Cuv., TEMM. (Pauxi TEMM. previously, GRAY). Bill short,
densely covered with flocky plumes.

Sp. Crax Pauxi L., Ourax galeata TEMM., BUFF. PL enl. 78, Cuv. R. Ani.,
3d. ill., Ois. PL 58, fig. 2, GRAY Gen. of Birds, PI. cxxii. ; Brasil,
Mexico ; the Pauxi1 has a large, oval, bony tubercle on the head behind

1 According to V. HUMBOLDT the name Pauxi in South America is not applied to
a single species, but comprises the genera Ourax and Crax. Pauxi de piedra (Crax
pauxi) and Pauxi de copete (Crax alector) are distinguished. Reise in die Aequinoctial
Gegenden, iv. s. 143.

AVES. 423

the bill ; the feathers of the entire body are black, except the under part of
the belly and the margin of the tail, which are whitish.

Crax mitu L., Ourax mitu TEMM. PL color. 153; black, the upper
mandible very high, with the culmen sharp and ridged ; bill and legs deep
red. These birds make a nest on the ground ; they protect and feed their
young diligently, as do most of the gallinaceous birds.

Crax TEMM., Guv., GRAY. Bill moderate, with upper mandible
vaulted, with base cerigerous.

Sp. Crax aleclor L., BBISS. Ornith. L PI. 29, BUFF. Ois. n. PI. 13, LESS.
Ornith. PI. 81, fig. i, Hoco mitu-poranga MARCGR. Brasil, p. 195; black
with white belly and white margin at the tail, and transverse, sinuous,
white bars on the breast; — Crax gldbicera L., BUFF. PI. enl. 86; — Crax
rubra L., BUFF. PL enl. 125, GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PL 39, fig. 2, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 58, fig. i. These birds make their nest in trees,
and lay five or six eggs. They have a tuft of curled feathers, as if
frizzled, on the head.

Family XIV. Phasianince. Bill moderate, vaulted, with tip of
upper mandible produced beyond that of lower. Wings rounded.
Tarsi covered anteriorly with scutes, in males mostly spurred. Toes
four, with hallux inserted somewhat high, insistent on the point,
and three anterior toes conjoined at the base by a short membrane.
Cheeks or lateral parts of head unplumed. Tail broad, with mostly
fourteen or eighteen feathers. Wings rounded.

Numida L. Bill shorter than head, thick, cerigerous at the
base. Nostrils placed in the cere, lateral. Head and upper part
of neck denuded. Wings short, with first three quills gradually
longer, fourth and fifth longest of all. Tail short, deflected. Tarsi
longer than middle toe, unarmed.

Sp. Numida meleagris L., BUFF., PI. enl. 108, LESS. Ornith. PI. 81, fig. -2;
the guinea- f oicl, la peintade, das PerlhuJin ; with pendulous wattles at the
base of upper mandibles ; feathers grey-blue with round white spots ; this
bird, the Meleagris of the ancients, is, like all the species of this genus,
originally from Africa ; they live together in large troops. — Numida cristata
PALL., Spic. Zool. iv. Tab. 2 ; with a tuft of black feathers on the head.
— Numida ptilorhyncha LTCHTENST., GuiiRJN Iconogr., Ois. PL 41, fig. i,
GRAY Gen. of Birds, PI. cxxvm. ; — Numida vulturina HABDWICKE,
Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 52.

Agelastus TEMM. (Characters nearly of Numida, but tarsi spurred
in males. Neck denuded. Tail longer, not deflected).

424 CLASS xvi.

Sp. Agelastus meleagrides TEMM., Mus. L. B. ; from the coast of Guinea;
a collar of white downy feathers below the bald neck ; on the rest of the
body blackish feathers, with fine, interrupted, white bars.

Meleagris L. (in part)1. Bill shorter than head, thick, ceri-
gerous at the "base, with cere elongated into a loose, pendulous,
round caruncle. Head and upper part of neck unplumed, carun-
culate. Wings with fifth and six quills longest of all. Tarsi much
longer than middle toe, strong, armed in males with a somewhat
blunt spur. Tail broad, rounded.

Sp. Meleagris gallopavo L., BUFF. PL enl. 97, LESSON Ornith. PI. 82, fig. 2,
WILSON Americ. Ornitk. ed. JARDINE, Vol. in. PI. 9, pp. 335—362 ; the
turkey, le dindon, der Truthahn; from North America; it is no longer
met with wild in the northern parts of the United States; this large
gallinaceous bird was brought to Europe in the beginning of the sixteenth
century, and in the tame state has degenerated from its original beauty.
This species makes a rude nest of dead leaves on the ground. The male
has a bunch of long, hair-like feathers on the breast. The tail can be
unfolded like a fan and erected ; it has 1 8 feathers. A somewhat smaller
species from Mexico at the Bay of Honduras, has only 14 tail-feathers;
it is very beautifully coloured with blue-green, round spots, with a red
copper-coloured margin; Meleagris ocellata Cuv., Mem. du Mus. VI. 1820,
PI. i. TEMM. PI. color. 112.

Pavo L. Bill moderate, with upper mandible deflected towards
the point. Nostrils lateral, longitudinal. Head plumed, with orbital
region naked, crested above. Tarsi longer than middle toe, covered
anteriorly with a single row of scutellac ontinued from the row of
scutella of the outer toe, spurred, or in females tuberculate. Wings
short, with sixth quill or fifth and sixth longest of all. Tail with
18 feathers, with coverts in males surpassing the tail-feathers in
length, ocellate.

Sp. Pavo cristatus L., BUFF. PL enl. 433, 434, LESSON Ornith. PI. 82, fig. i ;
the peacock, le paon, der Pfau; from Thibet and other countries of the
continent of India; this beautiful bird was first brought to Greece by
Alexander the Great ; it is now dispersed throughout the whole of Europe,
to the adorning of our parks. Pavo muticus L., Pavo spiciferus VIEILL.,
Pavo japonensis ALDROV. Ornith. Lib. 13, cap. 3, (Tom. n. p. 17, Tab. i,
figs. 4, 5). VIEILLOT Galerie des Oiseaux, PI. 202, GRAY Oener. PL 125,
fig. i (head) ; this species has a copper-coloured green neck, and a bunch
of long, thin feathers on the top of the head, which carry barbs from the
base ; it occurs at Java.

1 Meleagris cristata L. is a species of Penelope, — Meleagris satyra L. a species of
Tragopan Cuv., Ceriornis SWAINS.

AVES. 425

Polyplectron TEMM. (species of Pavo L. and Cuv.). Bill slender,
straight, curved at the tip, covered with plumes at the base.
Nostrils partly concealed by membrane, open anteriorly. Tarsi
covered in front with a single row of scutella, continued from the
row of outer toe, armed in males with two or three spurs, in females
tuberculate. Claws small. Tail broad, rounded.

Sp. Polyplectron bicalcaratum, Pavo bicalcaratus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 432, 493,
Malacca ; — Polyplectron chinguis TEMM., Pavo tibetanus BRISS. Ornith. I.
Tab. 28, fig. 2, TEMM. PL color. PL 539; China, very similar to the pre-
ceding;— Polyplectron chalcurum TEMM., PL color. 519, Sumatra.

Crossoptilon HoDGS., GRAY. Bill shorter than head, curved at
the tip, with upper mandible prominent beyond the lower. Nostrils
basal, lateral, with aperture ample, suboval, partly covered above by
membrane. Tarsi covered anteriorly with a double row of large
scutes, spurred; claws large, strong. Wings moderate, rounded,
with fourth, fifth, and sixth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail
broad, long, bent, with 18 broad feathers, the coverts elongate,
covering the base of tail. Orbital region naked, papillose; the
feathers lax, like hair.

Sp. Crossoptilon auritum GRAY, PJiasianus auritus PALLAS, Zoogr. Rosso-
Asiat. n. pp. 86, 87, GRAY Gener. PL cxxv. ; Thibet, China.

LopJiopJiorus TEMM., Monaulus YIEILL. Bill moderate, vaulted,
with hooked tip of upper mandible produced beyond lower.
Nostrils basal, lateral, partly covered by membrane. Orbital region
unplumed. Feet with tarsi long, spurred, in females tuberculate,
with hallux inserted somewhat high, insisting on point. Wings
with fourth and fifth quills longest. Tail straight, rounded.

Sp. LopJiophorus refulgens TEMM., PJiasianus impeyanus LATH. Suppl. n.
p. 208, PL 114, TEMM. PL color. PL 507 male, LESS. Ornith. PL 85, Ccv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 59, fig. 3, from Nepaul ; the cock is one of the
most resplendent birds, with an elegant tuft ; the hen is of a dull-brown
colour.

Argus TEMM. Bill moderate, straight at the base, curved at
the tip. Nostrils lateral, partly covered by membrane. Head and
neck somewhat naked. Tarsi longer than middle toe, covered in
front with a single row of large scutes, unarmed. Wings with
secondaries exceeding the primaries in length. Tail elongate, com-
pressed, with 12 feathers, the two middle longest.

426 CLASS xvi.

Sp. Argus giganteus TEMM., Phasianus Argus L., Argus pavoninus VIEILL.,
LESS. Ornith. PL 84, Diet. univ. d'ffist. Nat., Oix. PL 70; Sumatra,
Borneo.

Phasianus L. (in part). Bill shorter than head, vaulted, naked
at the base. Nostrils basal, partly covered by membrane. Tarsi
covered anteriorly with a double row of scutes, in males spurred.
Cheeks denuded. Wings short, rounded, with fourth and fifth quills
longest of all. Tail elongate, cuneate, with 18 feathers.

a) No caruncles at the sides of bill.

Sp. Phasianus colchicus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 121, 122, NAUM. Taf. 162; the
pheasant; in the cock, head and neck blue-green; breast and belly red-
brown with transverse violet bands ; wings spotted brown and red ; the
naked ring round the eyes deep red ; the hen is brown, with black and
yellow spots. Like most gallinaceous birds, this bird lives in polygamy ;
the female lays from 8 to 15 light olive-grey or dirty-white eggs. Although
now living wild in many countries of Europe, it was not originally
indigenous, but an inhabitant of Asia, and was first brought by the Greeks,
as is asserted, from Colchis to their own country. — Phasiamis pictus L.
BUFF. PI. enl. 217, LESSON Omith. PL 83, fig. 2 (Thaumalea WAGL.,
GRAY), China ; — Phasianus versicolor VIEILL., TEMM. PL color. 486 male,
494 fern., Japan, &c.

b) Naked skin below the cheeks pendent on each side as a caruncle by
the sides of the bill. Gallophasis HODGS., GRAY in part, Euplocomus
GRAY (1840).

Sp. Phasianus nychthemerus L., BUFF. PL enl. 123 male, 124 fern.; the
silver-pheasant; from China. All the species of this genus came originally
from Asia.

Gallus BRISS., ILLIG., TEMM. Bill and other characters nearly
those of the preceding genus. Head crested with elongated feathers
or with fleshy, coloured skin. Naked skin below the cheeks de-|
scending at the sides of bill. Tail compressed, ascending, with 14
feathers, the coverts in males mostly elongate, curved concealing.

Sp. Gallus gattorum LESS., Phasianus gallus L., BUFF. PI. enl. i, 49, 98,
LESSON Ornith. PL 83, fig. i ; the common cock; of this species there are
many varieties, of which FRISCH has represented some with great beauty.
The wild species from which our domestic cock descends is, according to
TEMMINCK, Gallus Bankiva, GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PL 42, fig. 2. (It seems
improbable that our poultry should be derived from any Malay breed.
The introduction of the common fowl into Europe is beyond all record.
See T. CRAWFORD Descr. Dictionary of the Indian Islands, London, 1856,
p. 113.) — Gallus Sonnerati TEMM., SONNERAT Voy. aux Ind. or. n. PL 1 17>
118, TEMM. PL color. 232, 233, Bengal; in the cock, neck-feathers with

AYES. 427

horny laminae; — Gallus ceneus Cuv., TEMM. PI. color. 374; — Gdttus
Lafayettii LESS., DESMUBS PI. peintes 18, at Ceylon, &c.

Euplocomus TEMM. Macartneija LESS., (Gallophasis HODGS., GRAY
iu part). Head ornamented with a crest of elongate plumes. Tarsi
elongate.

Sp. Gallm Cuvieri TEMM. PI. color, i, Bengal;— Glottic* ignitus, Phasianus
ignitus SHAW, Cuv. R. Ani., td. iU., Ois. P1.6i, fig. 3, &c.

Tragopan Cuv., Ceriomis SWAINSON, GRAY. Head in males
with two small horns behind the eyes, directed obliquely backwards.
Throat with a naked, expansile caruncle on each side.

Sp. Gallus satyrus nob., Meleagris Satyra L., Tragopan satyrus TEMM. PI.
color. 543 male, 544 fern., GUEKIN Iconogr., Ois. PI. 43, fig. 4 ; — Gallus
ffastingsii, Tragopan Hastingsli VIGOKS, Cuv. R. Ani., 3d. ill., Ois. PI. 62,
fig. i, (under the name of Satyrus).

Note. — Some sub-genera are here omitted, on which consult GRAY Genera
of Birds, m.

Family XV. Crypturince (Tinamidce GRAY). Bill moderate
or short, slender, mostly curved abruptly at the tip, deeply cloven
as far as below the posterior margin of eyes. Tarsi almost always
scutellate anteriorly, longer than middle toe, unarmed. Toes
:loven, the lateral toes much shorter than the middle; hallux
elevated or none. Claws blunt, broad, short. Tail short or none,
#ith coverts somewhat long, sometimes forming a false tail.

A small family of South American birds; most of them are of
the size of a partridge or woodcock, and are usually coloured red-
brown or grey-brown.

Crypturus ILLIG., Tinamus LATH. Bill shorter than head,
vdth upper mandible produced beyond lower at the tip. Nostrils
n the middle of bill. Wings with first quill short, fourth and fifth
pngest of all. Tarsi covered anteriorly with a single row of
.cutella. Hallux short, elevated.

Sp. Crypturus brasiliensis, Tinamus bras. LATH., Tetrao major GMEL., BUFF.
PL enl. 476, and Hist. nat. des Ois. iv. PL -24, LESSON Ornith. PI. 89,
fig. i ; — Crypturus variegatus, Tinamus varieg. LATH., BUFF. PI. enl. 828,
Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill, Ois. PI. 65, fig. 3.

Sub-genus Nothura WAGL., GRAY. Sp. Oryptwnt* nanus, Tinamus
nanus TEMM. PL col. 316; Paraguay.

428 CLASS xvi.

Rhynchotus SPIX, GRAY. Bill of the length of head, or a little
longer than head, curved, slender, with mandibles equal. Nostrils
basal. Wings with third and fourth quills longest of all. Tarsi
covered anteriorly with a single row of scutes, somewhat short.
Hallux short, elevated, or resting on the point of claw.

Sp. Rhynchotus rufescens, Tinamus rufescens TEMM. PL col. 412, GUEB.
Iconogr., Ois. PI. 46, fig. 3.

Eudromia ISID. GEOFFR., Tinomotis VIGORS, GRAY1. Bill
short; nostrils placed near the base. Toes short, with claws thick,
sharp. Hallux none.

a) With tarsi covered anteriorly with a single row of scutes.

Sp. Eudromia elegant D'OBBIGNY and ISID. GEOFFB., GUEB. Mayas, de Zool.
1832, Ois. PL i.

b) With tarsi reticulate anteriorly, with scales large, unequal.

Sp. Eudromia Pentlandii nob., Tinamotis Pentlandii, Proceed. Zool. Soc.
1836, p. 79.

Family XVI. Tetraonince. Bill short, broad at the base, com-
pressed at the sides, mostly thick. Nostrils often partly covered
by plumules or by a vaulted scale, basal. Head plumed, except
the region above the eyes often denuded, warty. Tarsi covered
anteriorly with scutes, sometimes shaggy with plumules; anterior
toes mostly joined at the base by membrane; hallux elevated or
resting on the point, more rarely none. Wings short, mostly
rounded, with third, fourth, or fifth quill longest of all.

Hemipodius EEINW., TEMM., Ortygis ILLIG., Turnix BONNAT.,
GRAY, Tridactylus LAC. Bill moderate, compressed, bent, with
upper mandible produced beyond the tip of lower; lower mandible
with angle somewhat prominent, ascending towards the tip.
Nostrils placed in a groove of bill, marginal, partly covered by
membrane. Tarsi covered before and behind by a single series
of transverse scutes, with a narrow, lateral squamiferous furrow

1 There is no satisfactory reason for preferring the name compounded by VIGORS,
contrary to the rules of LINNAEUS, to that of GEOFF. ST.-HILAIBE ; for Eudromius of
BOIE, proposed as a generic name for a subdivision of Charadrius (Charadrius mori-
nettus), has not been adopted.

AVES. 429

between the two rows. Toes cloven, unequal; inner shorter than
outer; hallux none. Wings short, with first three quills sub-
equal, longest of all. Tail short, with 12 feathers, concealed under
the coverts.

Sp. Hemipodius tacJiydromus TEMM., Tetrao andalusicus GMEL. and Gibral-
taricus ejusd., GOULD Birds of Europe, IV. PL 264, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not.,
Ois. PL 2 7, fig. 2 ; — Hemipodius nigricollis, Tetrao nigricollis GMEL.,
BRISS. Ornith. I. Tab. 24, fig. 2, BUFF. PL enl. 171, Madagascar;—
Hemipodius pugnax TEMM. PL col. 60, fig. 2, GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PI.
46, fig. 2 ; at Java and elsewhere in the East Indies ; the Javanese amuse
themselves with the exhibition of the combats of these little birds. There
are still other different species of this genus, which belong to the smallest
birds of this order ; they are all from the eastern hemisphere.

Ortyxelos VIEILL., GRAY. (Bill slender. Tibiae half-naked, as in
the waders. Wings with third quill longest. Other characters
those of the preceding genus, to which it has great affinity.)

Sp. Hemipodius Meiffrenii TEMM. PL color. 60, fig. i, Senegal.

Pedionomus GOULD, GRAY, Turnicigralla DfiSMURS. Bill
moderate, compressed towards the tip, nearly straight, with nos-
trils placed in an elongate groove. Tibiae naked above the heel.
Tarsi covered with scutes before and behind. Feet tetradac-
tylous, with hallux raised, small. Wings with first three quills
longest, subequal. Tail short, concealed by the feathers of the
rump.

Sp. Pedionomus torquatus GOULD; Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 114,
Ped. microurus, ibid. 1842, p. 20, Birds of Australia.

Coturnix MOEHRING, BRISS., GRAY, Ortygion KEYSERL. and
BLASIUS. Bill short, curved, vaulted, with tip of upper mandible
produced beyond the lower. Nostrils basal, surrounded by mem-
brane, placed near the culmen of bill. Tarsi covered anteriorly
with a double row of scutes, unarmed. Anterior toes joined at the
base by membrane ; hallux resting on the point. Wings short, with
first three quills, sometimes third and fourth subequal, longest of
all. Tail very short, concealed under the feathers of rump, with
12 feathers.

Sp. Coturnix vulgaris JARDINE, Coturnix dactylisonans MEYEE, Tetrao Co-
turnix L., BUFF. PL enl. 170, NAUM. Taf. 166; the quail, la caille, die
Wachtel. A bird dispersed over many countries of Europe, Northern and
Western Africa, and occurring also at the Cape of Good Hope and in

430 CLASS XVI.

Japan ; the back is rosy-yellow with black and brown, interrupted trans-
verse bars, belly whitish ; the head, which is completely feathered, has a
white streak above the eyes. The quails are migratory birds in Europe.
They live in polygamy, and the females lay many (8 — 16) eggs. The note
of the male, which is heard in summer, when the moon shines, sometimes
during the whole night, is well known. — Coturnix chinensis, Coturnix
excalfactoria TEMM., Tetrao chinensis L., BRISSON Ornifh. I. PI. 25, fig. r,
GuisRiN Iconogr., Ois. PI. 46, fig. i (male), SONNER. Voy. a la Nouv.
Cfuin. PI. 24 (fern.); the male is bluish-grey with dark black throat, under
which is a white streak; belly red-brown behind; Java and elsewhere.
This species is one of the smallest of this genus, all the species of which
occur only in the eastern hemisphere. In a species from Bengal the tarsi
of the male are furnished with a tubercle or rudiment of blunt spur:
Coturnix cambayensis, Perdix cambayensis LATH., TEMM. PI. col. 447.

Cryptonyx TEMM., Eollulus BONNAT., GRAY. Bill short, thick,
compressed. Nostrils lateral, longitudinal, covered by naked
membrane. Orbital region naked. Tarsi long, unarmed, covered
anteriorly with one row or two of large scutes. Three front toes
connected at the base by membrane; hallux raised, clawless. Wings
short, concave, with fourth and fifth quills longest of all. Tail
short, deflected, hidden in great part by the coverts.

Sp. Cryptonyx coronatus TEMM. (Columba cristata GM. male, and Tetrao viridis
LATH, fern.), le Rouloul de Malacca SONNER., Voy. aux Ind. orient. PL
113, TEMM. PI. color. 350, 351, GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 43, fig. i, LESSON
Ornith. PI. 86, fig. i ; common at Sumatra, occurs also at Borneo. — Cryp-
tonyx Dussumierii LESS., Perdix rufa HARDW., Cryptonyx ferrugineus
VIGORS ; Borneo, Malacca.

Ortyx STEPHENS, Colinus LESSON. Bill short, thick, curved,
high at the base, with tip of upper mandible produced; lower man-
dible short, with margin crenate or bidentate. Nostrils basal, partly
covered above by a vaulted membrane. Tarsi unarmed, strong, i
often longer than middle toe, covered anteriorly with a double row
of scutes. Hallux raised. Wings concave, with first quill short,
fourth mostly longest of all. Tail with 12 feathers, mostly moderate I
or somewhat long.

This genus contains small species only, which are generally not larger
than the quail, seldom of the size of the common partridge, and represent
in North and South America the genus Perdix, which is wanting there.
Compare D. DOUGLAS Observations on some species of the genera Tetrao and
Ortyx, natives of North America, LINN. Transact, xvi. pp. 133 — 149.

Sp. Orlyx virginianus, Tetrao virginianus L. (and Tetrao mexicanus and
marilandicus ejusd.), Perdix. borealis TEMM., BUFF. PI. enl. 149; — Ortyx

AVES. 431

Sonninii TEMM. PI. color. 75 ; Ortyx calif omius, Tetrao cdlifornius SHAW,
GUERIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 45, fig. 3, LESSON Cent. Zool. PL 60, &c.

Note. — Here belong genera Callipepla WAGL., Cyrtonyx GOULD and
Odontopkorus VIEILL.

Cyrtonyx. Tail very short, concealed under the coverts. Claws elon-
gate, curved. Sp. Ortyx Massena LESSON, Illustr. de Zool. PI. 52.

Perdix BRISS., ILLIG. Bill short or moderate, vaulted, with tip
of upper mandible often produced beyond lower. Nostrils basal,
partly covered above by a vaulted naked membrane. Kegion near
the eyes naked, papillose. Tarsi moderate or somewhat long,
robust, covered in front with a double row of scutes. Anterior toes
joined at the base by membrane. Tail mostly rounded, short, with
14 or 18 feathers. Wings short, with fourth quill mostly (more
rarely third, or second and third) longest of all.

A. With tarsi in males tuberculate or entirely unarmed.

Perdix BLAS. and KEYSERL. (Caccabis KAUP, GRAY, add. Starna
BONAR, BLAS. and KEYSERL., Perdix GRAY.) Wings with third or
fourth quill longest of all. Tarsi shorter than middle toe.

Sp. Perdix rubra BRISS., Tetrao ruf us L. (in part), BUFF. PL enl. 150, LESSON
Ornith. PL 90, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 165 ; in the south of France, Italy, &c.,
where lives also the very similar Perdix saxatilis METER, Perdix grceca
BRISS. Ornith. i. PL 23, fig. i, BUFF. PL enl. 231, which occur besides in
Switzerland and Austria. In these species the males have tubercles on
the tarsi, as rudiments of spurs. Such tubercles are entirely wanting in
some other species, to which our common partridge belongs, Perdix cinerea
BRISS., Tetrao Perdix L., BDFF. PI. enl. 27, NAUM. Taf. 163; the legs
bluish-grey, the bill brownish ; under parts of the body grey with chestnut-
brown spots at the sides, the wings brown, with white and black spots ;
this species resides on corn-lands and in the open field, makes its nest on
the ground, and lays from ten to twenty light brown-grey or almost grey-
white eggs, pointed at one end. This species is a permanent bird, and lives,
like the other species of this genus, in monogamy.

B. With tarsi spurred in males.

Ithagenes. (Ithaginis WAGL.) Bill short, compressed, curved.
Tarsi long, armed in males with two or three spurs. "Wings with
fourth, fifth, and sixth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail mode-
rate, rounded.

Sp. Perdix cruenta TEMM., Phasianus cruentus HARDWICKE, TEMM. PL col.
332, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 64, fig. i; East Indies, Nepaul; —
Perdix Hardwickii 3. E. GRAY, Francolinus nivosus DELESSERT, GUER.
Magas. de Zool. 1840, Ois. PL 18.

432 CLASS xvi.

Francolinus STEPHENS, Attagen BLASIUS and KEYSERLING. Bill
shorter than head or moderate; fissure of mouth large, produced
under the eyes. Tarsi elongate, armed with a single spur in males,
more rarely with two. Claws sharp, curved. Wings with fourth
or third quill longest of all. Tail short.

Sp. Perdix Francolinus LATH. Tetrao Francolinus L., BUFF. PI. eril. 147,
148 ; south of Europe, continent of India, &c. — Perdix pondkeriana LATH.,
TEMM. PL col. 213, &c.

Tetraoperdix HODGSON (Lerwa ejusd., GRAY). Tarsi short, thick,
hirsute above, covered below with a double row of scutes in front.
"Wings with second and third quills subequal, the second longest of
all. (Bill thick. Tail broad, rounded.)

Sp. Perdix, nivicola, Perdix Lerwa HODGS., Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 107,
GRAY Gen. of Birds, PL 130, fig. 7 (fig. of head and foot); Himalayan
Mountains, close to the snow-line.

Tetraogallus J. E. GRAY, Megaloperdix GEBL. Bill short, broad
at the base, with tip curved. Head plumed, except a small triangu-
lar area behind the eyes denuded. Tarsi naked, strong, shorter
than middle toe, in males armed with a thick, blunt spur. Hallux
raised, short, internal. Wings with second and third quills longest
of all. Tail broad, rounded.

Sp. Perdix caucasica, Tetrao caucasica PALL. Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. n. p. 76,
Tab. **; — Tetraogattus Nigellii J. E. GRAY, Ind. Zool., and GRAY Gen. of
Birds, PI. cxxix. ; large grey birds, with white breast, from the Caucasus,
the Altaic and Himalayan Mountains.

Tetrao L. (in part), LATH., ILLIG., Lagopus Bmss. Bill short,
curved, thick. Nostrils basal, covered with plumules. Eegion over
the eyes naked, papillose. Tarsi hirsute; hallux short, raised or
resting on the point; claws broad. Wings with first quill short,
third and fourth subequal, longest of all. Tail truncated, rounded,
more rarely forked, with 16 or 18 feathers.

The grouse live in the northern regions of both hemispheres ; they are
permanent birds, and feed principally on shoots of trees and on berries. They
live in polygamy. In the large species the males are very differently
Coloured, dark with metallic reflections. In some the lower part of the
tarsi is not feathered (the sub-genus Bonasa STEPHENS, GRAY, Tetrastes
BLASIUS and KEYSERLING); in others, on the contrary, even the toes axe
feathered as far as the claws (the genus Lagopus VIEILL., BLAS. and
KEYSERL., GRAY).

AYES. 433

Sp. Tetrao urogaUus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 73, 74, NAUM. Taf. 154, 155, the
cock of the wood, le grand coq de la bruyere, der AuerTiahn; in the forests of
fir-trees in the temperate and northern parts of Europe and in Siberia ; the
largest species, larger than a turkey; — Tetrao tetrix L., BUFF. PL enl. 17-2,
173, NAUM. Taf. r57, the black-grouse; breeds with us (Holland) on
heaths, especially in Drenthe; smaller than the preceding and with a
forked tail. In Sweden a cross between these two species occurs, which
has been described as a distinct species : Tetrao medius MEYER, NAUMANN,
Taf. 156. See NILSSON (of whose observations NAUMANN gives a transla-
tion, VI. s. 314 — 323) Skandinavisk Fauna, n. 2, pp. 88 — 100, and Illumi-
nerade Figurer, 2 Haftet, Lund, 1832, Tab. iv/a, Tetrao hybridus urogattoi-
des. A very remarkable American species is Tetrao urophasianus BONAP.,
RICHARDSON Faun. Boreali-Amer., Birds, Tab. 58.

To the species, whose tarsi are feathered at the upper part only, belongs
Tetrao bonasia L., BUFF. PI. enl. 474, 475, NAUMANN, Tab. 158; das
gemeine Haselhuhn, la gelinotte.

Some of the species, in which the toes also are feathered, have a white winter
plumage, at which time the feathering of the toes becomes very dense, so
that the claws alone appear ; they are somewhat larger than a partridge.
To these belongs Tetrao lagopus L., Tetrao alpinus NILSSON, BUFF. PI. enl.
129 (fern, in winter plumage), 494 (in summer plumage), NAUM. Taf. 160,
1 6 1, Ptarmigan; — Tetrao rupeslris SABINE, RICHARDSON Faun. Boreal.
Americ. Pt. 2, p. 354, PI. 64, Rock ptarmigan, confounded with the
preceding by TEMMINCK and others ; see JENYNS Manual of Brit. Vert.
Anim. p. 171; — Tetrao scoticus TEMM. is larger than the preceding, the
winter plumage does not differ remarkably from the summer, the general
colour is a deep chestnut-brown, with black spots on the back and undu-
lating black lines below, naked space above the eyes of a bright scarlet
colour ; the red ptarmigan, commonly called the red grouse or moor-fowl.

Family XVII. Pteroclince. Bill short, compressed at the sides,
curved. Nostrils basal, concealed by the feathers of forehead.
Head plumed. Tarsi hirsute, strong; toes short; hallux raised,
small or none. Wings pointed, long, with first two quills longest
of all. Tail elongate, cuneate.

Pterocles TEMM. Bill short, in some thick, in some slender.
Nostrils basal, linear, covered with plumules above. Quill-feathers
pointed, first three subequal, the first, more rarely the second,
longest of all. Tarsi hirsute anteriorly, posteriorly naked, reticu-
late. Hallux short, internal, raised.

Sp. Pterocles alchata, Tetrao alchata L., Pterocles setarius TEMM., BUFF. PI.
enl. 105, 106, GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 44, fig. 3 (named Pterocl. arenarius),
Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat., Ois. PL 27, fig. i; South of Europe; — Pterocles
arenarius TEMM., Tetrao arenarius PALL., TEMM. PI. color. 52, 53, NAUM.

VOL. II. 28

434 CLASS xvi.

PI. 153; West of Asia, South of Europe, especially Spain, met with also
occasionally in Germany. These two species are the largest of this genus,
of the size of a partridge ; the remaining are of the size of a turtle-dove,
and are almost all found in Africa. This genus forms in many respects
the transition from the grouse to the dove-tribe.

Syrrhaptes ILLIG., Nematura FiSGH. Bill small, conical.
Nostrils concealed by feathers. Tarsi hirsute on all sides; toes
short, concrete, hirsute above; hallux none. Two middle tail-
feathers and first two quills of wings produced into setaceous,
pointed filaments.

Sp. Syrrhaptes Pattasii TEMM., Tetrao paradoxa'P&LL., Voyages dans plusieurs
provinces de Russie, PL 39, iv. p. 21, vni. pp. 54, 55, Zoogr. Rosso- Asiat.
II. Tab. **, p. 73 (this plate is inscribed Tetrao arenaria by mistake),
TEMM. PL col. 95, GRAY Gen. of Birds, PL cxxxiv. ; lives in the Steppes
of Tartary ; compare LICHTENSTEIN in EVERSMANN'S Reise von Orenlerg
nock Buchara, Berlin, 1823, s. 13 f — 136.

Family XVIII. Thinocorince. Bill short, conical, compressed
at the sides. Nostrils lateral, placed in a pit of bill, concealed by
membrane beset with plumules. Tarsi denuded, scutellate or reticu-
late with scales. Anterior toes joined at the base by a small mem-
brane; hallux small, raised. Wings pointed, with first quill longest
of all.

Attagis ISID. GEOFFR. and LESS. Bill slender, with lower
mandible shorter, narrower. Tarsi short, strong, reticulate with
scales. Tail rounded, short, ample. (Eyes somewhat remote from
the base of bill.)

Sp. Attagis Gayi ISID. GEOFF, and LESS. Centurie Zool. PL 47; — Attagis
Latreittii LESSON, Illuslr. de Zool. PL 2; — Attagis Falcklandka, Perdix
FalcTclandica LATH., BUFF. PI. enl. 222. Birds from South America and
the Falkland Islands, somewhat smaller than partridges, which have much
affinity with CMonis, and, like the species of the following genus, form the
transition to the Grallatores. The tarsi covered with hexagonal scales
distinguish the genus Attagis from the rest of the gallinaceous birds.

Thinocorus1 EsCHSCH. (Tinocorus LESS.). Bill short, strong.
Tibiae denuded above the heel. Tarsi covered on the anterior
surface with a single row of transverse scutes. Tail short, rounded.

1 From 6iv, 6iv6s the shore, and Kbpvs a lark, and not from xopetfw, as we read in
AGASSIZ Nomenclator zoologicm; a work which, as far as relates to the etymology of
names, deserves little reliance.

AYES. 435

Sp. Thinocwus rumicivorus ESCHSCH., Tinochorus Eschsckoltzii LESSON, ESCH-
SCHOLTZ Zoologischer Atlas, Berlin, 1829, Tab. ir. LESS. Cent. ZooL PI. 50
(fern, and Thinocorus Swainsonii LESSON, III. de ZooL PI. 16 male?); —
Thinocorus orbignianus LESSON, Cent. ZooL PI. 48, 49 ; small birds from
Chili, of the size of a lark, to which also in colour and form they have some
resemblance.

Family XIX. Columbines. Bill short or moderate, straight,
compressed, bent towards the harder tip, vaulted. Nostrils opening
by a longitudinal fissure in a soft, tumid membrane covering the
base of upper mandible. Feet moderate, with tarsi strong, unarmed,
mostly scutellate anteriorly, very often short. Toes padded below,
often surrounded by membrane, the anterior cloven; hallux long,
insistent. Wings moderate. Tail with 12 feathers, mostly even
or rounded, in some graduated or cuneate.

Compare on this family Hist. not. des Pigeons avec figures peintes, par
Madame KNIP; le texte par C. J. TEMMINCK, Paris, 1808 — 1811, folio;
Tome II. le texte par FLORENT-PREVOT, Paris, 1838 — 1843; — on this
family and the entire order C. J. TEMMINCK Hist. nat. des Pigeons et des
Gattinacees, Amsterdam and Paris, 1813 — 1815, 3 Vols. 8vo.

The doves, not only by their toes entirely free and other pecu-
liarities of structure, but also by their habits of life, their dwelling
and making their nests in trees, &c., form the transition to the sing-
ing birds, with which LINN.EUS arranged them l. They form a very
natural family, of which fully 200 species from all parts of the
world are now known, which is much more than one-third of all the
species of this order. With the exception of the aberrant genus
Didus, and of the then unknown genus Didunculus, which forms
the transition to it, they composed only a single genus, Columba, in
the arrangement of LINNAEUS. He counted forty species, of which,
however, some differed only in name, or were nothing but races of
one species. Many species live together in large flocks. The very
small cosca are a remarkable anatomical peculiarity of the dove-tribe,
since these parts are long in the rest of the gallinaceous birds.

Columba L. Bill moderate or short, mostly slender. Wings
moderate, mostly with second or third quill longest of all. Claws
moderate or short, curved moderately.

1 " Columbas ad Passeres nee ad Gallinas pertinere docet monogamia, osculatio,
incubatus alternus, nutritio pulli, ovapauca, nidificalio, locus in altis." Syst. nat. ed.
12, i. p. 284.

28—2

436 CLASS xvr.

Modern writers, especially SWAINSON and GOULD, have divided
this large genus into many genera, which, however, in part pass
into one another, or sometimes are founded on insufficient charac-
ters; most of them can scarcely be regarded as sub-genera. We
present below a compressed view of these divisions, but without
recognising on that account an equal importance in all of them, or
approving the names, frequently barbarous, by which they have
been denoted.

•f Tarsi reticulate, with scales hexagonal.

Megapelia KAUP, nob., Lophyrus YIEILL., Goura FLEMING, GRAY,
Ptilophyrus SWAINS. Tarsi strong, elongate. Wings short, sub-
concave, rounded, with fourth, fifth, and sixth quills longest of all.
Head ornamented with a compressed crest, formed of decomposed
feathers. (These birds are the tallest of this family, except Didus.)

Sp. Columba coronala L., BUFF. PL enl. 118, SONNERAT Voyage a la Nouv.
Guinee, PI. 104, LESS. Ornith. PI. 80, fig. 2, Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat., Ois.
PL 6 A; the goura or crested pigeon; nearly of the size of a turkey -hen;
greyish-blue, with a white band surrounded by red-brown across the wings.
Some years ago a second species was discovered of darker colour and with
a light grey band on the wings, in which the feathers of the crest end in
a triangular expansion, like those on the head of the common peacock :
Columba Stuersii TEMM. Mus. L. B., Lophyrus Victoria ERASER, Proceed.
Zool. Soc., 1844, p. 136, GRAY Gen. of Birds, cxx. Both species are from
New Guinea; they build their nests in trees, but seek their food on the
ground.

Note. — Akctryopelia [Verrulia (quid?) FLEMING], Coloinbigalline VAILL.
Head denuded at the base of bill, with throat carunculate. Uncertain
genus. Comp. GRAY Gen. of Birds, i. Pref. p. viii.

Sp. Columba carunculata TEMM., VAILL. Ois. d'Afriqiie, PI. 278, TEMM.
Pigeons, PI. 2.

Perdicopelia, Starncenas (quid?) BONAP. Head not crested.
Tarsi longer than middle toe. Wings with fourth quill longest.
Tail short, rounded.

Sp. Columba cyanocephala L., BUFF. PI. enl. 174; Jamaica; — Columba fre-
nata, TscHUDi Faun. Peruan., Av. Tab. 27.

ft Tarsi covered on the anterior surface with a single row of scutes.
A. Lateral toes subequal, or inner somewhat longer.

Calcenas GKAY, Geophilus SELBY. Bill curved. Tarsi strong.
Toes and claws long. Tail short, even. Wings with third quill

AVES. 437

Sp. Columba nicdbarica L., Burr. PI. enl. 491 ;— Columla cruenta GM.,
SONNER. Voyage a la Nouv. Guin. PI. 20, 21, Cuv. J2. Ani., ed. til., Ois.
PL 66, fig. i.

Geophaps GOULD. Bill vaulted, with culmen obtuse, inflated at
the tip, somewhat obtuse. Tarsi strong, covered anteriorly with
large transverse scutes. Tail rounded. Wings with second and
third quills longest.

Sp. Columba scripta TEMM. PI. color. 187; — Columba plumifera GOULD;
species from Australia ; the last species is small, and differs from the com-
mon form of the doves by its large head, thick bill, and whole habitus.

Phaps GOULD. Bill slender, substraight. Tarsi shorter than
middle toe, naked. Tail long, rounded. Wings with second, third
and fourth quills subequal, third longest of all.

Sp. Columla, leucotu TEMM., PL col. 189; Lugon, &c.

Note. — Add sub-genus Chalcophaps GOULD, scarcely distinct.

Chamcepelia SWAINS. Bill slender. Tarsi shorter than middle
toe, marginate externally with a line of short plumes. Wings with
second, third and fourth quills longest of all, subequal. Tail mode-
rate, rounded.

Sp. Columba passerina L., BUFF. PL enl. 243, fig. i ; — Columba minuta L.,
BUFF. ibid. fig. 2 ; very small species from America, resembling turtle-
doves, of the size of a goldfinch.

Geopelia SWAINS. Bill slender. Tarsi equal in length to middle
toe. Wings with third and fourth quills longest. Tail elongate,
graduated.

Sp. Columba humeralis TEMM., PI. color. 191 ; — Columba lopkotes (Ocyphaps
GOULD, GRAY) PL col. 142, Australia.

Turtur SELBY (Peristera BOIE). Bill slender. Tarsi almost
equalling middle toe in length, naked up to heel. Inner toe longer.
Wings with second and third, or third and fourth quills longest of
all. Tail moderate, rounded or even.

Sp. Columba Turtur L., BUFF. PL enl. 394; NAUMANN Taf. 152; the turtle-
dove, migratory; — Columba risoria L., BUFF. PL enl. 244; originally from
Africa, but now dispersed everywhere as a house-bird; — Col. cinerea
TEMM. PL col. 260 (Peristera GRAY), Brasil, &c.

Note. — Add sub-genera Peristera (SWAINS, previously) GRAY, Zenaida
BONAP., GRAY.

438 CLASS xvi.

Columba GRAY. Bill slender. Wings pointed, with second and
third quills subequal, second longest of all. Tarsi short. Lateral
toes equal. Tail even or subrounded, somewhat short.

Sp. Columba Palumbus L., BUFF. PL enl. 316, NAUM. Taf. 150; the ring-
dove; gi'ey, the breast purple- coloured, with a transverse spot on each
side of the neck ; the tail black at the extremity ; on the wings a white
spot, feet red. The largest native species; it lives in woods, makes its
^ nest in trees, and is very shy.

Columba lima GESNEB, BRISS., BUFF. PI. enl. 510, NAUM. Taf. 150;
bluish-grey, the neck glossed with green ; two black transverse bars on the
wings, the tail black at the extremity, the legs red. This species is found
wild in many countries of Europe, especially in the south of Europe. From
it descends our domestic pigeon, of which there are so many varieties, and
which was employed by the ancients, as it is frequently at the present day,
for the transport of written messages. (See PLINIUS Hist. not. L. x. c. 37.)

Ectopistes SWAINS., GRAY. Bill slender, curved, with tip of
upper mandible produced. Wings pointed, with first and second
quills subequal, second longest of all. Heel plumed, tail elongate,
cuneiform.

Sp. Columba migratoria L., BUFF. PL enl. 176, WILSON Amer. Ornith., ed.
JARDINE, n. Tab. 44, fig. i ; this species flies with great rapidity, and is
sometimes seen in the beech-woods of North America in flocks which are
counted by millions. See WILSON 1. 1. pp. 194 — 208.

(Ena SELBY. (Sub-genus scarcely distinct from the preceding.
Bill, however, more slender, with mandibles subequal. Wings with
second quill longest of all. Tarsi with heel naked.)

Sp. Columba capensis L., BUFF. PL enl. 140.

Macropygia SWAINS. Bill short, slender. Wings with third
quill longest. Tarsi plumed below the heel. Lateral toes equal.
Tail elongate, cuneate, with feathers broad.

Sp. Columba amboinensis L., Columba phasianella TEMM. PL col. 100; — •
Columba Reinwardtii TEMM. PL col. 248. These species represent the
American sub-genus Ectopistes at the Moluccan and Philippine islands.

Lopholaimus GRAY, Lopliorhynchus SWAINS. Bill strong, short,
compressed, curved. Wings long, with third quill longest. Tail
long, subrounded.

Sp. Columba antarctica SHAW, Columba dilopka TEMM. PL col. 162; in the
south of New Holland.

B. Outer toe a little longer than inner.

Carpophaga SELBY, GRAY. Bill moderate or short, curved,
broad at the base, depressed, compressed at the tip. Tarsi strong,

AYES. 439

short, plumed below the heel. Middle toe much longer than lateral
toes; lateral toes subequal. Wings with third and fourth quills
longest of all. Tail even, broad.

Sp. Columba cenea L., BUFF. PL enl. 164; — Columba janthina TEMM. PL col.
503; — Col. magnified, TEMM. PL col. 163; — Columba myristicivora SCOP.,
Columba littoralis TEMM., SONNEB. Voy. a la Nouv. Gruin. PI. 103. A
numerous sub-genus of mostly large species, all from the islands of the
Indian and South Pacific Seas, or from New Holland.

Ptilonopus SWAINS., GRAY. Bill short, slender, with tip incras-
sate. Tarsi short, plumed. Outer toe longer. Wings with third
quill longest. Tail moderate, even or subrounded.

Sp. Columba porphyrea REINW., TEMM., Col. roseicollis WAGL., TEMM. PL
col. 1 06, Cuv. R. Ani., id. ill., Ois. PI. 66, fig. 3 ;— Columba viridis L.,
BUFF. PL enl. 142, ETDOTJX et GERVAIS, GUEB. Magas. de ZooL 1836,
Ois. PI. 76, &o.

The species of this sub-genus are from the Moluccan Archipelago, the
islands of the South Pacific and from New Holland ; they are smaller than
those of the preceding sub-genus and mostly very beautifully coloured,
green with yellow and often with purple or violet head. They resemble in
these colours the parrots rather than the rest of the pigeons, as do also
many species of the following sub-genus.

Vinago Cuv., Treron VIEILL., GRAY. Bill hard, strong, moderate,
curved, often with tip of upper mandible produced. Wings with
second and third quills subequal, third in most the longer. Tarsi
short, covered with plumes below the heel. Tail even or rounded,
in a few cuneate.

Sp. Columba vernans GM., BUFF. PL ml. 138; — Columba abys&inica LATH.,
LESS. Ornilh. PI. 80, fig. i ;— Columba Capellei TEMM. PL col. 143, (the
largest of the known species). These birds also are mostly coloured green,
but of a duller cast, like Fringilla chloris; they are found in tropical
countries of the eastern hemisphere. Of the species with elongated tail-
feathers SWAINSON forms the sub-genus SpJi&nurus.

Didunculus PEALE, GRAY, G-nathodon JARDINE. Bill moderate,
thick, depressed at the base, curved, with tip hooked, sharp; lower
mandible with tip truncate, tridentate on each side before the tip,
with angle somewhat prominent. Nostrils linear, oblique, sur-
rounded by membrane at the sides of mandible. Kegion round the
orbits denuded. Tarsi equalling middle toe; toes elongate, the
lateral equal. Wings tuberculate, concave, with quills pointed,
the second, third, and fourth longest of all. Tail somewhat shoit,
rounded.

440 CLASS XVI.

Sp. Diduncidus striyirostris GOULD, Gnathodon strigirostris JARDINE, Annals
of Nat. Hist. xvi. 1845, pp. 174—176, PL ix., GOULD Birds of Australia,
Part 11, GRAY Gen. of Birds, PL cxx*.

Didus L. Bill elongate, thick, curved, with tip hooked, acute.
Nostrils placed at the anterior margin in the membranous part of
bill. Tarsi thick, equalling the middle toe in length, reticulate
with irregular scales ; lateral toes equal. Claws short, thick, blunt.
Wings without quills. Tail short, imperfect.

Sp. Didus ineptus L., EDWARDS Gleanings, PI. 294, LATHAM Synops. in.
PL 70, BLUMENB. Abb. Naturh. Gegenst. No. 35; the dodo; an unwieldy
bird from the Island Mauritius (He de France), which was announced and
figured by our voyagers of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth
centuries, but appears to have been extinct now for more than a century
and a half. In England (Ashm. Mus. Oxford) the head and legs of this
species is preserved ; a second head (formerly in the Gottorf Museum) ia
preserved at Copenhagen. REINHARDT first asserted the affinity with the
pigeons, which was solidly supported by STRICKLAND and MELVILLE in
their extensive and accurate work on this genus. It must suffice that we
point out this work, where earlier contributions to the knowledge of the
Dodo are fully referred to. The Dodo and its kindred, by H. E. STRICK-
LAND and A. G. MELVILLE. London, 1848, 4to, with many figures.

Probably the Solitaire of LEGUAT, a bird of the Island Rodriguez,
belongs also to this family, Pezophaps solitaria STRICKL., Didus solitarius
GMEL. This bird is only imperfectly known. More imperfectly known
still is a bird with short wings from the Island of Bourbon. Compare
STRICKLAND 1. 1. pp. 57 — 60.

ORDER IV. Scansores. (Zygodactyli VlElLL.)

Bill of various shape; nostrils open. Feet for climbing; four
toes, two anterior, two posterior; in a few feet tridactylous, with
one toe posterior, hallux deficient.

Climbing-birds. — This order is readily distinguished by the cha-
racter of the feet with only two toes directed forward, whilst the
outer toe (and in some the inner toe) is directed backward. The
sternum has mostly two incisures behind on each side • the furcula,
is weak. In other respects there is no such close affinity between
the different families of this order as between those of the three
preceding orders. Climbers in the full sense of the word are in
this order the woodpeckers (the genus Picus L.) especially, but
birds that climb as well as they are to be found in the following
order.

AYES. 441

t Bill cerigervus at the base.

Family XX. Psittacince. Bill thick, strong, high, moderate or
shorter than head, with upper mandible hooked, the lower shorter,
obtuse. Nostrils placed at the base of mandible near the culmen,
rounded, mostly small. Tarsi reticulate with small scales, mostly
short, thick. Two anterior toes conjoined by membrane at the
base. Wings moderate or somewhat long, mostly with second quill
longest of all.

Compare F. LEVAILLANT Histoire natureUe des Perroquets, u Tomes.
Paris, 1801, 1805, folio; with many coloured plates. Afterwards a third
part appeared as supplement, by BoURJOT SAlNT-HiLAiEE, Paris, 1838.
H. KUHL Conspectus psittacorum, cum Tab. 3 seneis pictis, Nov. Act.
Acad. Leop. Car. Tom. x. 1821, pp. i — 104; — WAGLEB Monograpkia
Psittacorum, Abkandl. der Konigl. Bayerischen ATcademie der Wissensch. I.
1832. Mathem. physik. Klasse, a. 463 — 750, cum Tab. 22 — 27; EDW.
LEAR Illustrations of the family of the Psittacidte, London, 1832, fol. ;
PRIDEAUX J. SELBY The Natural History of Parrots, illustrated by 32 Plates.
Edinburgh, 1836 (Naturalist's Library, Vol. XV.) &c.

The Parrots. — These birds, of which nearly three hundred species
are now known (Lmx^EUS in 1766 numbered only forty-seven),
are dispersed principally in the Southern hemisphere, in America,
in the islands of the Indian Ocean, and in New Holland. They
mostly make their nest in hollow trunks of trees. In the North-
ern hemisphere Psittacus carolinensis is observed up to the 42°
N. L. Africa possesses only very few species. The parrots form a
very natural group. The cranium is large with a transverse inci-
sure behind the base of the bill where the movement of the upper
jaw occurs. The short neck has usually twelve vertebrae. The
sternum is long and narrow, and has mostly on the inferior margin,
at each side, an oval aperture. The furcula is thin (comp. above
p. 330). The tongue is commonly thick and fleshy. Many species
learn to imitate the human voice. They climb, holding fast by the
bill ; with one of their feet they seize the food in order to carry it
to the bill. Many species have very lively colours, but the colours
are often gaudy and hard, and hence afford less satisfaction to the
eye than the more harmonious colours of birds which are not so
splendid ; metallic reflections, like those in the gallinaceous birds,
are not seen here. Although many arrangements of the parrots
have been proposed, yet all the species compose such an indepen-
dent and natural group, that only few of these divisions can be
regarded as sub-genera, and scarcely any as genera. There is no

442 CLASS xvr.

reason why a genus that contains only two or three species should
be more natural than if it contained a hundred times that number ;
and if, with LINNAEUS, we say character non facit genus, we ought
also to add, in his spirit, numerus non tollit genus. Therefore we
leave most of the species under the genus Psittacus.

Psittacus L. Bill high at the base. Tongue thick, fleshy,
obtuse. Wings with second and third or first three quills sub-
equal, second mostly the longest of all.

t Tarsus longer than middle toe (i. e. anterior and exterior) without the
claw.

Pezophorus ILLIG. Bill short, not as high as the forehead; upper
mandible hooked at the tip ; lower shorter, with angle ascending,
broad. Claws slender, elongate, somewhat straight. Tail long,
cuneiform, with feathers acuminate towards the extremity.

Sp. Psittacus terrestris SHAW, Psittacus formosus LATH., LABILLARDIERE
Voyage a la Recherche de LA PEROUSE, PL 10, LESS. Ornith. PI. 19, fig.
i, GUERIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 37, fig. 2, SELBY Nat. Hist, of Parr. PL 29,
New Holland and Van Diemen's Land ; this species lives on the ground
and seeks its food there amongst the bushes.

ft Tarsus shorter than middle toe.

Nasiterna WAGL., Micropsitta LESS. Bill short, high. Wings
pointed, long, with first quill longest. Tail-feathers with points
acuminate, naked. Toes slender, somewhat long.

Sp. Psittacus pygmceus QUOY and GAIMARD, Voyage de VAstrolole, PL 27,
figs. T — 4; New Guinea; the smallest species of this whole family; not
larger than the smallest native songster, ex. gr. Sylvia regulus.

Psittacula BRISS., GRAY (and Agapornis SELBY). Bill subcom-
pressed, high, with upper mandible produced, sinuate behind the
acute tip. Wings with first two quills subequal, longest of all.
Tail very short.

Sp. Psittacus passerinus L., BUFF. PL enl. 455, fig. i ; green, the male
cobalt-blue on the back behind and on the wings; the female single
coloured, except the head, which is yellowish. This species occurs, like
some others, in South America. Other species are from tropical countries
of the Eastern hemisphere, as Psittacus pullarius L., BUFF. PI. enl. 60.
They are all small, mostly green -coloured parrots.

Psittacus nob. Bill moderate, curved. Wings produced beyond
the middle or nearly to the extremity of tail, with second and third
quills subequal, longest of all. Outer posterior toe subequal to
anterior. Tail short, even or rounded.

AYES. 443

Sp. Psittacus erithacus L., BUFF. PL enl. 311, VAILL. Perr. PI. 99—103,
SELBY Parr. PI. 10; grey, the tail red; this species is one of the few
African Parrots, and is found on the coast of Guinea; it is particularly
disposed to learn to talk.

Note, — Sub-genera Chrysotis WAGL., Poicephalus SWAINSON, CTirysotis
SWAINS., Pionus WAGL. and Eclectus WAGL. ; the last subdivision is in
some sense intermediate between Psittacus and the following genus Lorius.

Lorius BRISS., GRAY, Domicella WAGL. Bill with lower mandi-
ble longer than high. Wings with second and third quills or the
first three quills subequal, longest of all. Tail moderate, with
feathers broad, rounded at the extremity.

Sp. Psittacus lory L., Lorius tricolor STEPH., GRAY, BUFF. PL enl. 168,
Cuv. E. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 56, fig. i ; — Psittacus domicetta L., BUFF.
PL enl. 119, &c. ; from the Moluccan Islands. The general colour of the
Lories is a deep crimson-red; in the two species just cited the wings are
green.

Tanygnathus WAGL. Bill of the length of head, high; lower
mandible higher than long. Wings with second and third quills
subequal, longest of all. Anterior outer toe longer than posterior
outer. Tail somewhat long, graduated.

Sp. Psittacus macrorhynchus GMEL., BUFF. PL enl. 712; a very large species
from the Moluccan Islands; green, the wings spotted with black and
yellow ; the large bill is of a lively red colour.

Prioniturus WAGL. Bill shorter than head, with culmen rounded.
Tail moderate, even, broad, with the two middle feathers elongate,
the shaft naked, vaned at the extremity, discoidal.

Sp. Psittacus setarius TEMM. PL color. 15 ; Moluccan Islands.

Platycercus YIGORS. Bill shorter than head, with culmen
rounded. Wings with second and third quills subequal, longest of
all. Tail elongate, broad, mostly graduated.

Sp. Psittacus eximius SHAW, VAILL. Perr. PI. 28, 29, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not.,
Ois. PI. 5 A, fig. i ; — Psittacus palliceps VIGORS, LEAR Parr. PI. 19,
GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 36 bis, fig. i ; — Psitt. scapulatus BECHST., PHILLIP
Botany Bay, PI. 19, p. 153, WHITE Journal, PI. n, p. 168; — Psittacus
amboinensis L., BUFF. PL enl. 240, &c. Most of the species are from New
Holland and have very lively colours strongly contrasted ; some occur in
New Guinea, as also a black species, Psittacus Novae Guinece GM., Psittacus
ater SCOPOLI, SONNERAT Voy. PI. 1 10.

Note.— Add sub-genera of WAGLER: Euphema, Coracopsis, Ckarmosyna
and Eos.

Palcewnis VIGORS. Bill shorter than head, curved, with tip
hooked, acute. Wings with second and third quills subequal,

444 CLASS xvi.

longest of all. Tail long, graduated, with two middle feathers
elongate.

Sub-genus Trichoglossus VIGORS (add Brotogeris ejusd.). With the tip
of tongue covered with setaceous papillae. Sp. Psittacus multicolor GM.,
Trichoglossus Swainsoni JARDINE and SELBY, BUFF. PL enl. 743, SELBY
Parr. PI. 20.

Sub-genus Palceornis VIGORS. Sp. Psittacus Alexandri L., BUFF. PI.
enl. 642, SELBY Parr. PI. i ; green, head greyish-green ; a red -purple spot
on the shoulder- top of the wings ; neck flesh-red, a black transverse band
on the throat, bill red ; Hindostan.

Sub-genus Nanodes VIGORS, Melopsittacus GOULD, GRAY. Sp. Psittacus
undulatus SHAW, LEAR Parr. PI. 13, SELBY 1. 1. PI. 28; a small, green
species, with yellow head and brownish back, and many black transverse
stripes across the neck ; from the interior of Australia.

Sub-genus Nymphicus WAGL., Calopsitta LESS. Sp. Psittacus novce
Hollandice GMEL., LEAR Parr. PI. 27, LESSON Illustr. de Zool. PI. 49, 50,
SELBY 1. 1. PL 30 ; grey, with an orange-coloured spot under the eyes, and
a thin long crest like that of the peewit.

Conurus KUHL (in part), GRAY, Psittacara VIGORS. Bill mo-
derate, curved, with tip of upper mandible produced, acute. Orbits
denuded. Wings with second and third quills subequal, longest
of all. Tail elongated, graduated, with feathers acuminate.

Sp. Psittacus carolinensis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 499, WILSON Am. Ornitk., ed.
JARD. I. p. 376, PL 26, fig. i ; green, head yellow, near the bill orange,
shoulder-tops of wings orange, bill and legs pale yellow ; the only species
of parrot which occurs in the United States. — Psittacus guyanensis GMEL.
PI. enl. 167, 407, &c.

Macrocercus VIEILL., Ara BRISS., GRAY. Bill strong, with cul-
men flat, compressed at the sides, curved, high. Cheeks denuded.
(Tail of Conurus).

Sp. Psittacus Ararauna L., BUFF. PL enl. 36, LEAR Parr. PL 8, SELBY 1. 1.
PL 6 ; a very large species ; back, wings and tail blue, breast and belly yellow,
bill black;— Psittacus hyacinfhinus LATH., LEAR Parr. PL 9, Cuv. R. Ani.,
ed. ill., Ois. PL 55, fig. ij — Psittacus Aracanga GM., BUFF. PL enl. 12,
GUERIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 36, fig. i, SELBY 1. 1. PL 7 ; — Psittacus Macao
L. (in part), GM., Ara brasiliensis BRISS. Ornitk. iv. PL 19, fig. i, VAILL.
Perr. PL i ; the two last-named species, united apparently by LINN.EUS
under Psittacus Macao, are deep red, with blue wings and the tail blue
above; the bill is whitish-yellow, with lower mandible black; but the first
has, besides other characters, some yellow on the wings, by which it may
be most readily distinguished. Both species occur in Brasil, the first in
Guyana also and in Jamaica.

WAGLER unites this and the preceding sub-genus, Conurus, in a single
genus Sittace. All the species are from America.

AVES. 445

Cacatua BRISS. l, GRAY, Plyctolophus VAILL. Bill short, strong,
curved, with tip acute, end of the lower mandible truncate, emar-
ginate. Head crested. Wings long, with second, third and fourth
quills subequal, longest of all. Tail short, even.

The cockatoos are large crested, white parrots from the Moluccan and
Philippine Islands and from New Holland. Sp. Psittacus cristatus L., BRISS.
Ornith. rv. PI. 21, BUFF. PL enl. 263; white, the tail yellowish below,
bill and legs black. — The crest is yellow and the wings are long in Psittacus
galeritus LATH., Psittacus cristatus, WHITE Journal, PI. 26, p. 237, LEAB
Parr. PL 3, GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 36, fig. 2. — Psittacus rosaceus LATH.,
Psittacus moluccensis GMEL., BUFF. PL enl. 498, LEAB Parr. PL 2, is rosy-
white, the crest red within. These species, especially the last-named, are
larger than the rest. To the smaller species belong: Psittacus sulphu-
reus GMEL., BUFF. PL enl. 14, Cuv. R. Ani., 3d. ill, Ois. PL 55, fig. 5,
with yellow crest and a yellow spot under the eyes. — Psittacus philippina-
rum GMEL., BUFF. PL enl. 191, with a white bill, &c. On account of its
beautiful crest-feathers the following deserves notice, Psittacus Leadbeateri
VIGOBS, LEAB Parr. PL 5, SELBT 1. L PL 13, from New Holland.

Calyptorhynchus VIGORS and HoRSF., (Banksianus LESS, and
Callocephalon ejusd., Cory don WAGL.). Bill high, with culmen
declivous, arched, with tip curved; lower mandible short, some-
times broader than upper, with tip excised, covered at the base by
recumbent feathers. Tongue fleshy, smooth. Tail somewhat long,
"broad, rounded. Wings with third, fourth and fifth quills sub-
equal, longest of all. Tarsi very short, covered with small scales.
Feathers of the crown very often produced with a kind of crest.

Sp. Calyptorhynchus Banksii, Psittacus Banksii LATH., PHILLIP Voy. to Bot.
Bay, PL 40, p. 267, LESS. Ornith. PL 18, fig. 2, &c. Compare LAFBES-
NAYE in GUEBIN Magas. de ZooL 1834, Ois. PL 24 — 26. Large, black
birds of New Holland, with red on the outermost tail-feathers. They feed
not only on fruits and seeds, but also on bulbous roots.

Nestor WAGL., Centrourus SWAINS. Bill longer than high,
compressed, curved, gaping at the sides. Claws strong, curved.
Wings long, with third and fourth quills longest of all. Tail
moderate, almost even, with the points of the feathers naked, acute.

Sp. Nestor Novce Zeelandlce LESS., Psittacus australis SHAW, SELBT Parr.
PL 12 ;— Nestor productus GOULD.

1 This name is derived from the note of the bird, as the word Cuculus with the
ancients.

446 CLASS xvi.

Dasyptilus WAGL., Psittrichas LESS. Bill curved. Lower man-
dible short, einarginate before the tip. Tail moderate, rounded,
broad. Wings with fourth quill longest. Head covered with rare,
piliform feathers.

Sp. Psittrichas Pecquetii LESS., III. de Zool. PL i, SELBY 1. 1. PI. 17. (This
bird (from New Guinea?) I have not seen).

Microglossus GEOFFR., Prdbosciger KUHL. Bill strong, com-
pressed, high, gaping; upper mandible hooked, furnished on each
side with a large tooth, produced with acuminate tip far beyond
the lower; lower mandible very short. Tongue round, extensile,
with apex obtuse, transverse, horny. Head crested; cheeks naked.
Tail somewhat long, rounded, broad. Tarsi very short, flattened.

Sp. Microglossus gigas, Psittacus gigas LATH., Psittacus alerrimus GMEL.,
LESS. Ornith. PL 19, fig. i ; GU^RIN Icon., Oia. PL 37, fig. i ; — Another
species, which might also be called Psittacus aterrimus, is smaller and has a
smaller bald spot on the head : Psittacus aleclo, TEMM. Mus. L. B. Both
species belong to New Guinea. On the tongue compare GEOFFROY SAINT-
HILAIRE Mem. du Mus. x. 1823, pp. 186 — 198; the tubercle at the end,
according to this writer, alone forms the tongue, the extensile cylinder the
covering of the tongue-bone ; I have not been able to examine the tongue.

Strigops GRAY, (Stringopsis)1. Bill short, covered at the base
by setaceous, recumbent plumes. Upper mandible curved, with

culmen gibbous, vaulted. (Tongue ) Wings with fifth quill

longest. Tail moderate, rounded, with feathers loose. Tarsi short,
strong. Claws curved, large.

Sp. Stringopsis habroptila, Strigops habroptilus, GRAY Genera PL cv. ; of the
size of the larger species of cockatoo; the semblance of an owl; dirty-
green, spotted with yellow and brown; the bill yellowish white. This
singular bird is found on one of the islands of the South Pacific.

j-f Bill without cere. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse
scutes.

Family XXI. Ehamphastince. Bill cellular internally, large,
much longer than head, with culmen convex, curved at the tip, with
margins serrate. Tongue horny, feathery. Tail with ten feathers.

Rhamphastos L. (exclusive ofRhampk. Momota). Characters of
the family those also of the single genus. Wings with quills
almost concealed under the large coverts, with first quill short,

1 From ffTpiyZ, a nocturnal bird (gtrix), and 6-^:, the face; as Loligopsis, &c.

AYES. 447

fourth and fifth subequal, longest of all. Tarsi covered anteriorly
by large scutes. Claws curved, acute. Orbital region unplumed.

The Toucans. — These birds live in the warm countries of America. They
feed on fruits and insects, but also eat eggs and young birds. The bill is
of enormous size, but very light, and occupied internally by a trellis-work
of bony laminae, which is very vascular. (Compare TRAIL, Linn. Transact.
XI. pp. 288, 289.) There is a monograph by GOULD on this genus (Mono-
graph of the Family of the Rhamphastidce, London, 1834, folio), of which a
German edition, with additions, has been published by J. H. C. F. and
J. W. STURM. The furcula consists of two bony pieces terminating below,
thin, and not united. The sternum has two deep incisions on each side
behind. The same applies to the skeletons which I have examined in the
following family (species of Capito).

Rhamphastos ILLIG. Bill higher and broader than forehead.
Nostrils concealed behind the prominent base of bill, surrounded
by membrane. Tail even or rounded.

Sp. Rhamphastus Tucanus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 307; — Rhamphastus toco Gar.,
BUFF. PI. enl. 82, LESS. Ornith. PL 25, fig. 2 ; in this species the bill is
longer than the half of the body with the tail, of a yellow colour, with a
black spot at the extremity of the upper mandible ; — Rh. discolorus GM.,
BUFF. PL enl. 269, &c.

Pteroglossus ILLIG., (Aracari BUFF.). Bill of the height of
forehead. Nostrils conspicuous in the base of bill. Tail long,
graduated.

Sp. Rhamphastus Aracari L., BUFF. PL enl. 166, LESS. Ornith. PI. 25,
fig. i ; — Rhamph. piperivorus L., Pteroglossus culik WAGL., BUFF. PL enl.
577, 729; — Rhamphastus sulcatus, Pteroglossus sulcatus SWAINS., TEMM.
PL col. 356, &c. These species are generally smaller than the preceding,
and have the bill less large.

Family XXII. Pogonophorce. Bill moderate or shorter than
head, thick, furnished with bristles at the base. Anterior toes
connate at the first joint. (Tail with only ten feathers in many.
Wings with first quill short, fourth and fifth mostly longest of all.)

Pogonorliynchus nob., Pogonias ILLIG. *, TEMM., Pogonius LEACH.
Bill moderate, thick, with culmen arched, tip compressed, acute.

1 This name, already given by LACEP&DE and CUVIER to a genus of fishes (see
above, p. 1 79), cannot be kept. In the first edition, therefore, of this Handbook (n.
p. 446), in 1833, we proposed the name of Pogonorhynchus; this must have escaped the
notice of G. R. GRAY, generally so strict as to priority, when he adopted in his work
on the genera of birds the name Laimodon, proposed by him in 1841.

448 CLASS xvi.

Upper mandible with one or two teeth on each side. Nostrils
basal, covered by bristles; long bristles below the bill, turned
forwards. Tail moderate or short, even.

Sp. Pogonorhynchus dubius nob., Bucco dubius GM., Pogonias sulcirostris
LEACH, BUFF. PL enl. 602, GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PL 34, fig. 2 (fig. of bill) ;
— PogonorJiynchus niger, Bucco niger GMEL., BUFF. PI. enl. 688, fig. i,
LESSON Orniih. PL 24, fig. i ; — PogonorhyncJius personate TEMM., PL col.
20 1, &c. Birds of Africa, which live on fruits and insects. The females
lay their eggs in hollow trunks of trees.

Capita VIEILL., Bucco Cuv., TEMM. (and Micropogon ejusd.),
Capita and Megalaima GRAY. Bill moderate or shorter than head,
broad at the base, compressed at the sides; two mandibles sub-
equal. Nostrils basal, lateral, covered by bristles. Wings moderate,
with first quill very short, fourth mostly longest of all, fourth, fifth,
and six subequal. Tail rounded.

Megalaima GRAY, Bucco TEMM. (add Barbatula LESS., Pogoniolus
LAFRESN.). Bristles widely divergent at the base of upper man-
dible, often elongated beyond the tip. Tarsus shorter than anterior
outer toe. Tail short.

Sp. Capita trimaculata, Bucco frontalis TEMM. PL color. 536, fig. i, GUJERIN
Icon., Ois. PL 34, fig. i ; — Capito grandis, Bucco grandis GM., Megalaima
wrens GRAY, BUFF. PL enl. 871 ; green, the head greyish blue, below at
the base of the tail red ; from the continent of India ; — Bucco philippensis
BRISS., BUFF. PL enl. 331, of which Buteo luteus LESS., DESM. PL peintes
•21, is an albino- variety. These birds also feed chiefly on wild berries and
other fruits.

Psilopogon SAL, MUELLER. Bristles few. Tail somewhat long,
graduated.

Sp. Capito pyrolophus, Psilopogon pyrolophus S. MUELLER in TijdscTir. voor

not. Gesch. en Physiol. n. p. 339, PL iv. fig. 3 (fig. of head), TEMM. PL

col. 597, Sumatra. (The skeleton is figured in JARDINE Contrib. to Ornith.

1850, PL 54.)

Add sub-genera Megalorhynchus EYTON and Psilopus TEMM.

Capito GRAY, Micropogon TEMM. Bill higher than broad at the
base, with culmen produced upon the forehead, bent ; lower man-
dible straight, acuminate. Small short bristles at the sides of bill,
mental none. Tail long, rounded. Tarsus equalling the anterior
outer toe, or a little longer than it.

Sp. Capito cayennensis, Bucco cayennensis GMEL., Capito erytkrocephalus
GRAY, BUFF. PL enl. 206; — Capito elegans, Bucco elegans GM., Bucco
maynanensis BRISS., BUFF. PL enl. 330 ; — Capito peruvianus GRAY, Bucco

AYES. 449

peruvianw Cuv., Bucco punctatus LESS., DESMURS PL peintes 20, &c. —
Besides these species from South America, there are some also from Africa,
as Capito Vaillantii GBAY, Picus cafer GM., Micropogon sulfuratus DE LA
FBESNAYE, GUEB. Mag. de Zool. 1836, Ois. PL 60; — Capito margariticus
GBAT, Micropogon margaritatus TEMM., PL col. 490, &c. These last
species form the genus Trachyphonus RANZANI, BONAP.

Bucco L., Tamatia Cuv., Capito TEMM. (not VIEILL.). Bill
moderate or long, strong, compressed towards the tip; upper man-
dible hooked, produced beyond the lower. Inferior margin of lower
mandible long, convex, ascending. Gape ample. Nostrils placed
in the base of bill, covered with recumbent plumes and setae. Tarsi
short. Tail rounded or even, moderate, or somewhat long. Wings
with fourth quill longest.

Sp. Bucco Tamatia GM., BUFF. PL enl. 746, fig. i, Guv. R. Ani., id. itt.,
Ois. PI. 52, fig. 3; — Bucco collaris LATH., Bucco capensis L., BUFF. PL
&d" 395 GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 34, fig. 4 (LiNN^us' name cannot be
preserved, since this species, like all the others of this genus, belongs to
South America) ; — Bucco macrorJiyncJius GM., BUFF. PL enl. 689, LESSON
Ornith. PI. 24, fig. 2 (under the incorrect name of Tamatia mdanoleuca),
&c. These species ought, with systematic zoologists, to retain the name
Bucco, since B. capensis is the only species which, in the system of LIN-
N.EUS, is brought forward under this generic name. They have not always
ten tail-feathers; some have twelve, as B. macrorhynchus. The brown
species in particular have some resemblance to Dacelo LEACH, a genus of
the Halcyons living in the woods of the eastern hemisphere.

Chelidoptera GOULD, Brachypetes SWAINS. Bill short, curved,
compressed, with tip acute. Tail short. Wings long, with second
quill longest.

Sp. Chelidoptera lenebrosa GBAY, Mona&a tenebrio TEMM., PL col. 323, fig. i ;
Guiana. Cuculus tenebrosus GM., BUFF. PL enl. 505, is referred to this
species, which in that case is drawn with too long a tail, and incorrectly
with yellow legs (in place of black).

Monasa VIEILL., LESS., GRAY, Lypornix WAGL. Bill some-
what long, with tip of both mandibles bent. Wings with fourth
and fifth quills longest of all. Tail elongate, broad, with 12

feathers.

Sp. Monasa tranqu'Ma VIEILL., Cuculus tranquillus GM., BUFF. PL enl. 512,
LESS. Ornith. PL 22, fig. 2; black, with orange-coloured bill; Guiana. —
Monasa (Lypornix) ruficapiUa TSCHUDI Faun, peruan. Tab. 24, fig. i, &c.
As in the two preceding genera all the known species of this genus occur
in South America only.

VOL. ii. , 29

450 CLASS XVI.

Family XXIII. Trogonince. Bill short, curved, broad at the
base, with margins mostly serrate or denticulate. Gape of mouth
ample. Feet short. Inner toe turned backwards, outer forwards;
hence the two outer toes shorter than the two inner.

Trogon L. (Characters of the family those also of the single
genus. Nostrils basal, lateral, covered more or less with plumules.
Recumbent bristles at the base of bill. Wings moderate, with first
quill short, fourth longest of all. Tarsi slender, short, very often
hirsute. Tail broad, long, sometimes with very long coverts.)

The trogons (couroucous) are tropical birds of the western and eastern
hemispheres, which live in woods and feed on insects. They have some
affinity with the genus CaprimuLgus. Their plumage is soft and thick and
mostly glossy, with a green metallic lustre. Their furcula is closed in
front.

J. GOULD, A Monograph of the Trogonidce, with 36 coloured plates.
London, 1835 — 1838, folio.

a) From America :

Sp. Trogon curucui L., BUFF. PI. enl. 452, 737; — Trogon resplendent GOULD,
Trogon pavoninus TEMM. (not SPIX) PI. col. 372, GU£R. Icon., Ois. PI. 35,
fig. i; — Trogon pulckellus GOULD, Trogon id. PI. 22, Trogon antisianus
D'ORBIGNY, GUER. Magas. de Zool. 1837, Ois. PI. 85, &c.

6) From the East Indies: Trogon Reinwardtii TEMM., PI. col. 124, &c.

Sub-genera: Trogon SWAINS., Priotelus GRAY (Temnurus SWAINS.),
Apaloderma SWAINS., Harpactes SWAINS., and Calurus ejusdem. Comp.
SWAINSON Birds, LARDNER'S Cabinet Cyclopcedia, n. pp. 337, 338, and
GRAY Gen. of Birds, I. pp. 69 — 71.

Family XXIV. Cuculince nob., Amphiboli ILL. (add Cory-
thaix and Musophagd). Bill with culmen deflected in a curve into
the tip. Bristles at the lower mandible none. Tongue not jacu-
latorial. Tarsi covered in front with a row of broad scutes; pos-
terior outer toe versatile.

In the skeletons of this family, which I have investigated, I find
the sternum with only one incisure on each side behind. The
furcula is perfect and attached to the sternum.

Section I. Musophagides. Bill hard, high at the base, with
culmen mostly keeled, deflected in an arc towards the tip. Margin
of upper mandible crenate. Tarsi strong, elongate. Middle toe
much longer than lateral toes, external versatile, often directed

AYES. 451

forwards. Claws compressed, curved. Tail long, broad, with ten
feathers. (All the species Africans.)

Corythaix ILLIG., Turacus Cuv., GRAY. (Musophaga VIEILL. in
part.) Bill short, high, compressed; upper mandible produced at
the tip beyond the lower. Orbital region naked. Head armed
with a mobile crest. Wings with first quill short, fourth and fifth
subequal, fifth longest of all.

a) With base of bill covered with recumbent plumes.

Sp. Corythaix oJhocristatus STRICKL., Cuculus Persa GMEL. in part, BUFF. PI.
enl. 60 1, LESS. Ornith. PI. 79, fig. i; Cape of Good Hope, Mosambique;
— Corythaix persa, Cuculus Persa L., EDWARDS Birds, PI. 7, Coast of
Guinea; — Corythaix leucotis RUEPPELL, Neue Wirbelthiere zu der Fauna,
von Abyssinien, Tab. 3, &c.

b) With lose of bill naked. (Nostrils in middle of bill.)

Sp. Corythaix gigas STEPH., Turacus giganteus VIEILL., LEVAILL. Promer. el
Cruep. PI. 19, GUER., Iconogr., Ois. PI. 38, fig. i; Coast of Guinea; —
Corythaix Rossce, Musophaga Rossce GOULD, JARDINE Contrib. to Ornith.
1851, PI. 81.

Musophaga ISERT. Bill high, moderate, naked at the base,
with culmen declivous, produced above the forehead into a convex
disc. Orbital region naked. Nostrils towards the anterior part of
bill, near the margin. Wings with fourth quill longest. Tarsi
long. Claws curved, strong. Three toes turned forward, with outer
imperfectly versatile.

Sp. Musophaga wolacea ISERT \ LATH., LESSON Ornith. PI. 79, fig. 2,
SWAINS. Birds of Western Africa, i. PL 19; Senegal. This genus is
scarcely distinct from the preceding, at least the last species referred to in
it (under the division b) make the transition between the two.

Schizorhis WAGL., GRAY, Chizcerhis WAGL. previously, RUEP-
PELL. Bill short, with culmen gibbous, not carinate, thick ; nostrils
open, lunate, narrow, placed at the base of bill. Wings long, with
fourth, fifth, and sixth quills subequal, fourth mostly longest of all.
Feathers of the occiput or the nape often elongate, forming a crest.

Sp. Schizorhis variegata WAGL., Phasianus africanus LATH., LEVAILL. Pro-
mer. PI. 20, SWAINS. 1. 1. PI. 20; — Schizorhis zonura RUEPPELL, Neue

1 Schriften dtr Gesellschaft naturforsch. Freunde zu Berlin, ix. Bd. s. 16 — 20,
Tab. i.

29—2

452 CLASS xvi.

Wirbelthiere, Taf. 4; — Schizorhis personata EUEPPELL, Transact. Zool.
Soc. in. PI. 16; — Schizorhis leucogaster Id. ib. PI. 17.— These birds are
mostly dull- coloured, grey or brown, whilst the species of the two pre-
ceding genera display beautiful and lively colours.

Section II. Coccygince. Bill of various length, often slender,
moderately curved, naked at the base, sometimes emarginate towards
the tip, with margins elsewhere entire. Gape of mouth large, often
produced under the eyes. Tail with a various number of feathers,
elongate, often graduated.

A. Tail with not more than ten feathers.

Crotophaga L. Bill moderate, cultrate, greatly compressed,
with culmen acute. Nostrils lateral, placed near the base of bill.
Tarsi long, covered with an anterior and posterior row of scutes.
Tail elongate, graduated, with eight feathers rounded. Wings
with first three feathers gradually longer, fourth and fifth longest
of all.

Sp. Crotophaga Ani L., BUFF. PI. enl. 102, fig. i, LESS. Ornith. PI. 26,
fig. i; — Crotophaga sulcirostra SWAINS., Crotophaga Cassasii LESS. Cent.
Zool. PI. ii. These two species are nearly of the same size, but the last
named differs by grooves on the bill. A larger species has the bill longer
and less high, with the superior margin erect at the base: Crotophaga
major GM., BUFF. PL enl. 102, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., 3d. ill., Ois. PI. 53,
fig. 2. These birds are one-coloured black with blue reflections, and have
a black bill and black legs ; they live together in company, especially in
the neighbourhood of meadows, and make large nests in trees and shrubs
of sticks and twigs, in which several females brood together. They feed
on grasshoppers and other insects and often settle on the back of cattle
and horses to seek for parasites.

Scythrops LATH. Bill long, large, higher than broad, with tip
of upper mandible curved, acute, produced beyond the lower.
Nostrils placed at the base and towards the margin of bill, half-
covered by naked membrane. Tarsi strong, shorter than anterior
outer toe. Tail graduated, long. Wings long, with third and
fourth quills subequal, the third longest of all.

Sp. Scythrops novce Hollandice LATH., Scythrops Australiasice SHAW, WHITI
Journal of a Voy. to New South Wales, PI. 5, anomalous hornbill, TEMM
PI. col. 290, LESS. Ornith. PI. 23, fig. i, GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 33
fig. 2 ; at New Holland and Celebes ; this bird feeds on insects, and
according to the natives, predicts bad weather by its cry. In the adul
bird the ground-colour is grey, on the back and wings blackish, the bell;
white; the bill is grooved in the length. The young bird has a shor
and smooth bill and is marked with yellow-brown spots on the wings

AVES. 453

LAFBESNAYE baa given a figure of it in GuisBiN Magas. de Zool. 1835,
Ois. PI. 37.

Phcenicophaus VIEILL., Helios GLOGER, LESS., Makoha VAILL.
Bill moderate, broad at the base, rounded, curved at the tip.
Nostrils mostly placed at the base of bill, lateral. Orbital region
naked. Tarsus longer than anterior outer toe. Wings short, with
fourth and fifth quills, sometimes sixth also, longest of all. Tail
rounded or graduated, very long.

Sp. Phcenicophaus viridis VIEILL., Cuculus curvirostris SHAW, LESS. Ornith.
PI. 23, fig. i ; — Phcenicophaus callirhynchus TEMM., PL col. 349, Cov. R.
Ani., €d. ill., Ois. PI. 51, fig. i, &c. All the species are from the East
Indies.

Zanclostomus SWAINS. Bill much compressed, with tip of both
mandibles curved.

Sp. Phcenicophaus flavirostris, Zanclostomus flavirostris SWAINS., Birds of
Western Afr. I. PI. 19 ; from Senegal ; some other species are from the
East Indies.

Dasylophus SWAINS. Nostrils covered by recumbent feathers
of forehead. Feathers in front of the eyes erected into a crest.

Sp. Phcenicophaus superciliosus Cuv., GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 33, fig. i.

Ehinorthra VIGORS, Bubutus LESS., Anadcenus SWAINS. Bill
substraight, with tip abruptly curved, produced. Wings with sixth
and seventh quills subequal, longest of all

Sp. Phcenicophaus caniceps VIG. and HOBSP., Cuculus sumatranus Cuv.,
Anadcenus rufescens SWAINS.

Carpococcyx GRAY, Caldbates TEMM. Nostrils somewhat remote
from the base of bill, lateral, nearly covered with a corneous
lamella. Wings moderate, with sixth quill longest of all. Tarsi
elongate, far surpassing the anterior outer toe.

Sp. Phcenicophaus coruscans, Calolates radiatus TEMM., PI. col. 538, Borneo.

Centropus ILLIG., Corydonix VIEILL. Bill shorter than head,
curved, high at the base, entire at the tip. Nostrils lateral, placed
at the base of bill, half covered with a scale. Tarsi longer than
anterior outer toe, covered anteriorly with a row of large scutes.
Claw of hallux elongate, somewhat straight, acute. Wings with
fourth, fifth, and sixth quills longest of all. Tail elongate,
graduate.

454 CLASS xvi.

Sp. Centropus senegalensis, Cuculus senegalensis L., BUFF. PL enl. 332,
SWAINS. Birds of W. Afr. n. PL 20; — Centropus phUippensis Cuv., BUFF.
PI. enl. 824, Cuv. JZ. Ani., 6d. ill., Ois. PL 50, fig. i ; — Centropus nigro-
rufus Cuv., LESS. Ornith. PL -20, fig. 2, &o. The species named and some
others are from Africa ; others live on the islands of the Indian Archipelago
and in Australia.

Coccyzus VIEILL., TEMM., Macropus SPIX. Bill shorter than
head, compressed, with culmen convex, curved at the tip. Nostrils
lateral, placed in the base of bill, half covered by naked membrane.
Tarsus equalling anterior outer toe, covered anteriorly with a single
row of scutes. Claws short. Wings with fourth or fifth quill
longest of all. Tail long, graduate.

Sp. Coccyzus americanus, Cuculus americanus L., Burr. PI. enl. 816; —
Coccyzus dominicus, Cuculus dominicus L., BEISS. Ornith. rv. PL 9, fig. i ;
— Coccyzus cayanus, Cuculus cayanus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 211 (Piaya LESS.,
GEAY) &c.

Add sub-genera Coua VAILL., GRAY (Sp. Coccyzus madagascariensis,
Cuculus madagascariensis GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 815; — Coccyzus cristatus,
Cuculus cristatus L., BUFF. PL enl. 589, LESS. Ornith. PL 21, fig. i, &c.),
Cultrides PERCHERON, GRAY— (Sp. Coccyzus Geoffroyi TEMM., PI. col. 7,
GU£R. Icon., Ois. PL 31, fig. 2) and Diplopterus BOIE, GRAY. (Sp. Coc-
cyzus guira, Cuculus guira GM., GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PL 31, fig. i ; —
Coccyzus navius, Cuculus ncevius L., BUFF. PL enl. 812, &c.)

Saurothera YiEiLL., LESS, (add Geococcyx WAGL., GRAY, Lep-
tostoma SWAINS.) Bill long, substraight, abruptly curved at the
tip. Nostrils lateral, covered partly by membrane. Tarsi covered
anteriorly with a single row of scutes, equalling or surpassing the
anterior outer toe. Wings with fourth, fifth, and sixth quills sub-
equal, longest of all. Tail long, graduate.

Sp. Saurothera dominicensis LAFRESN., BUFF. PI. enl. 772 (distinct from
Saurothera jamaicensis which is Cuculus vetula L. ; on the synonymy con-
sult LAFRESN. Revue Zoolog. 1847, PP- 353 — 360); — Saurothera viatica,
Cuculus viaticus LICHTENST., Saurothera calif orniana BOTTA, Nouv. Ann.
duMus. iv. 1835, p. 121, PL 9 (Geococcyx); — Saurothera affinis, Geococcyx
affinis HARTL., GRAY Gen. of Birds PL cxiv. &c. All the species
American.

Cuculus L. (exclusive of many species).. Bill moderate, broad
at the base, depressed, compressed at the side, moderately curved.
Nostrils placed at the base of bill, marginate with naked membrane.
Tarsus shorter than anterior outer toe, covered anteriorly with a
single row of transverse scutes, plumed below the heel. Tail

AYES. 455

elongate, rounded or graduated. Wings moderate, with third and
fourth or fourth and fifth quills longest of all.

All the species of this genus belong to the eastern hemisphere, many to
Africa. Many species make for themselves no nest, but lay their eggs in
the nests of other birds.

Sp. Cuculus canorus L., BUFF. PL enl. 811, LESS. Ornitk. PI. 21, fig. i,
NAUM. Taf. 127 — 129; the cuccoo, le coucou, der Kuckuclc. The general
colour of the adult bird is ash-grey; the belly white, with brown-black
transverse streaks ; the base of the bill and the legs yellow. The cuccoo
feeds in the middle of summer principally upon hairy caterpillars, of which
the hairs often adhere to the inner surface of the stomach in such a degree
that it has been regarded as actually haired. The female lays yearly four
or at most six eggs, but at such long intervals that the first has been
found as early as May, the last as late as July. The slow development of
the eggs in the ovary may be the cause on which the absence of inclination
to brooding depends in the cuccoo1; whence she is contented to lay her eggs
in the nest of other birds which feed their young with insects ; she selects for
this chiefly small species of singing birds. — Cuculus capensis GM., Cuculus
solitarius VIEILL., BUFF. PI. enl. 390, &c. — Some small species from warm
countries have green feathers with metallic reflections. They form the
sub-genus Chrysococcyx BOIE. Sp. Cuculus Klaasi Cuv., VAILL. Ois. d'Afr.
PI. 212, SWAINS. Birds of West. Afr. n. PI. i\ ; — Cuculus chalcites ILLIG.,
TEMM. PI. col. 102, fig. 2, &c.

In some the head is crested (Oxylopkus SWAINS.). — Sp. Cuculus glanda-
rius L., Cuculus macrourus BREHM, Handb. Taf. xi. fig. 3, NAUM. Taf.
130, TEMM. PL col. 314; South of Europe, North Africa, &c. This bird
is said to build its own nest.

Sub-genus Eydynamis VIGORS and HOKSF. Sp. Cuculus orientalis L.
(and maculatus GM.), BUFF. PL enl. 274, fig. i, PI. 764, &c.

B. Tail with twelve feathers.

Indicator, VAILL., VIEILL., TEMM., Prodotes NITZSCH. Bill
short, conic, moderately curved. Nostrils placed in a fossa near
the base of bill, surrounded by membrane, opening near the culmen.
Tarsi short. Wings with third quill longest of all, second sub-
equal. Tail with feathers unequal.

Sp. Indicator Sparmanni STEPH., Cuculus indicator GM. ; — Indicator minor
Cuv., LESS. Ornitk. PI. 22, fig. i.; — Indicator maculatus GRAY, Gen. of
Birds, PI. cxin. Indicator variegatus LESS.? GUER. Icon., Ois. PI. 32,

1 Compare H. SCHLEGEL Natuurlc. Verhand. van de MaatscJiappij der Weten-
schappen te Haarlem, xix Deel. 1. 1. -237 — 268. Amongst the earlier writers on the
habits of the cuccoo we name E. JENNER in Philos. Transact. 1788, pp. 219—237, the
discoverer of the cowpox- inoculation ; according to his observations, confirmed by
GLOGER, the young cuccoo throws out of the nest the young ones of its foster-mother.

456 CLASS xvi.

fig. 2; — Indicator albirostris TEMM., PI. col. 367, &c. Small African
cuccoo-species, which feed principally on honey, and from their constant
cry are easy to follow, so that they guide the natives to the resorts of the
wild bees.

Leptosomus VIEILL. Bill moderate, depressed at the base, com-
pressed at the tip, deflected; nostrils oblique, placed in the middle
of bill. Tarsus thick, equalling the outer toe, covered with a double
row of scutes in front. Wings with third and fourth quills longest
of all. Tail even, broad.

Sp. Leptosomus viridis VIEILL., Cuculus afer GM., BUFF. PL enl. 587, 588,
LESS. Ornith. PI. 20, fig. i, ODER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 32, fig. i ; at Mada-
gascar; this bird lives on fruits and makes its nest in old trees. It differs
from the rest of the cuccoo-tribe by its habitus and the straight truncated
tail.

Family XXV. SagittiUngu&s (Picidce GRAY, exclus. of Capi-
tonince). Bill straight, elongate and conical, with margins very
entire. Tongue jaculatorial. Tarsi covered anteriorly with a single
row of transverse scutes. Feet for climbing, with posterior outer
toe often longer than anterior outer. Claws curved, compressed.
Tail with twelve feathers, the first minute. (Cubital coverts short,
not covering the secondary quill-feathers beyond the middle.)

The arrow-tongued birds. Their tongue can be extended far
from the bill and serves to catch insects, on which they chiefly
feed. The cornua of the hyoi'd bone are so long, that when the
tongue is not extended they mount over the cranium as far as
the bill, and often even pass forward into a cavity (mostly on the
right side) of the upper mandible. The two cceca at the commence-
ment of the large intestine are wanting, or are quite rudimentary,
and so closely attached to the intestinal canal that they may easily
escape observation. These birds keep principally in woods.

Yunx L. Bill short, conical, somewhat round, acuminate.
Nostrils basal, approximate, narrow, surrounded by membrane.
Tongue round, vermiform, with extremity simple, acute. Feet
short. Tail moderate, rounded, with feathers flexile. Wings
short, with first quill very small, second and third subequal, third
longest of all.

Sp. Yunx torquilla L., BUFF. PL enl. 698, LESSON Ornith. PI. 28, fig. 2,
GUEBIN Iconogr., Ois. PI. 30, fig. 5, NAUM. Taf. 138; the wryneck, le
tourcol, der Wendehals; in Europe migratory; feeds on insects, especially

AYES. 457

on ants and their pupse (so-named ants' eggs) ; it turns about its head
often very far backward (hence its name). The female lays 7 — u white
eggs, without building a nest, in hollows of trees, often low near the
ground. — Yunx pectoralis VIGORS, DE LAFRESNAYE, GUER. Magas. de
Zool. 1835, Ois. PL 33; from the south of Africa.

Picumnus TEMM. Bill short, with culmen substraight. Nostrils
basal, covered by setaceous recumbent plumes. Tail very short,
with feathers flexile, rounded at the point. Wings with first quill
very short, second and third gradually longer, fourth and fifth
longest of all.

a) With kallux distinct. Piculus IBID. GEOPFB. ST.-HiL.

Sp. Picumnus minutissimus, Yunx minutissima GM., Pipra minuta L.,
Picumnus cirratus TEMM., PL col. 371, fig. i ; — Picumnus Buffoni LA-
FRESN., BUFF. PI. enl. 786, fig. i, &c. (All the species from the tropical
regions of America, except one from India at the Himalayan mountains
Picumnus innominatus BURTON, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 154, Vivia
nepalensis HODGSON.)

b) With feet tridactylous, hallux none. Sasia HODGS., Picumnus ISID.
GEOFFR.

vSp. Picumnus abnormis TEMM., PI. col. 371, fig. 3; Java, Sumatra, Borneo.

Picus L. Bill moderate, straight, polyhedral, with tip cuneate,
compressed. Nostrils basal, oval, patulous, covered with recum-
bent feathers. Tongue with point subulate, horny, barbed back-
ward. Tail cuneate, with ten feathers somewhat long, acuminate,
rigid, with the two least, one on each side, incumbent on the first
longer. Wings moderate, with first quill short, fourth mostly or
fifth longest of all.

The woodpeckers live in forests, make their nest in the hollows of trees,
which they chisel out with their bill, and lay their pure white eggs (3 — 8)
on shreds of wood. They feed on insects, especially such as live under the
bark of trees in decayed wood, and peck deep holes in trees in order to
find them. Since, however, they spare the sound stems, they are rather
useful than injurious. They climb from the root of the trees often along
the stem to the top, springing with the back upwards, in which motion
their rigid elastic tail is serviceable. Some species, as Picus viridis, seek
their food on the ground also, like the wryneck. The colours are usually
strongly contrasted, black and white, or green and yellow with a red spot
on the top of the head.

In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae, twelve in number, are remarkable
for their great development. The tail has mostly seven vertebrae, of which
the last is unusually large, with strong ridge-like spinous processes and a
pentangular disc on the inferior surface, and seems, from the double trans-
verse processes, to be formed from the coalition of two vertebrae. The

458 CLASS xvi.

sternum has two excisions at the posterior margin on each side; ihefurcula
is perfectly closed, but not joined to the sternum. The quadrate bone is
particularly short, and the lower jaw seems to be joined immediately to the
cranium. Compare for further osteological peculiarities: E. KESSLER
JBeitrdge zur Naturgesch. der Spechte, Bulkt. de la Soc. imp. des Naiur. de
Moscou, xvii. 1844, pp. 285 — 362.

LINN.EUS was acquainted with only some twenty species of this genus ;
now it counts more than 150. Modern writers, especially SWAINSON, have
attempted to form different genera of this genus ; divisions, however, which
can make no pretence to that rank, and in the arrangement can only be
regarded as subdivisions for reviewing the species. The European species
may be distinguished as black, variegated, and green or ground wood-
peckers. Amongst the variegated woodpeckers is Picus tridactylus L.,
(NAUM. Taf. 137, black and white, with yellow crown) without hallux. Of
this three-toed species LACEP^DE has formed his genus Picoides, to which
two North American species may also be referred; but there are Indian
species, which belong to another group, which also have no hallux or only
a very short one, or only a claw in place of it. The variegated wood-
peckers form the sub-genus Dendrocopus KOCH, SWAINS., Picus GRAY.
Sp. Picus major L., BUFF. PI. enl. 196, 595, NAUM. Taf. 134 ; — Picus
medius L., BUFF. PI. enl. 6n, NAUM. Taf. 136, Cuv. £. Ani., ed.ill., Ois.
PI. 48, fig. 4 ;— Picus minor L., BUFF. PI. enl. 598, NAUM. 1. 1. figs. 3, 4 ;
— these three species, occurring in Germany and other parts of Europe,
also in Holland, where, however, the first species only is common, are
black on the back and have the wings black and white.

To the woodpeckers which are quite black or nearly so, in which the
males have the head red (Dryocopus BOIE, Dryotomus SWAINS.), belong
large species from America, as Picus principalis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 690,
and an European species, Picus martins L., BUFF. PL enl. 596, NAUM.
Taf. 131, which lives in pine forests, principally in the North of Europe.

Green species, with a crest on the back of the head and the upper
margin of the bill somewhat curved towards the head, form the genus
Malacolophus Sw., Gecinus BOIE, GRAY. Sp. Picus viridis L., BUFF. PL
enl. 879 male, 371 fern., LESS. Ornith. PL 28, fig. I male, NAUM. Taf.
132; the green woodpecker, &c. Compare on the sub-genera, not recorded
here, SWAINSON Nat. Hist, and Classif. of Birds (Cabinet Cyclopced.}, u.
PP- 3°5 — 311; a^d GRAY Genera of Birds.

Family XXVI. Angulirostres. (Syndactyli ILLIG., Galbulidce
SELYS.) Bill elongate, straight or somewhat straight, tetragonal,
acuminate. Feet very short, with two anterior toes united almost
to the point, with hallux short or none.

Galbula MOEHKING, Bftiss. Bill straight, carinate. A few
bristles at the angle of mouth. Nostrils placed near the base of bill,
oval. Feet with tarsi feathered in part, covered anteriorly with

AVES. 459

transverse scutes, sometimes tridactylous. Wings moderate, with
fourth quill longest. Tail cuneate or graduate.

Sp. Galbula viridis LATH., Alcedo Galbula L., BUFF. PL enl. 238; — Galbula
ruficauda Cuv., LESS. OrnitJi. PI. 27, fig. i, Guv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois.
PI. 48, fig. i ; — Galbula albirostris VAILL., GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 30,
fig. i ; — Galbula tridactyla VIEILL., Jacamaralcyon brasUiensis LESS.,
Nouv. Diet, tfffist. nat. PL E 32, fig. 2 (Tome 13, p. 401); species from
the forests of tropical America; they feed on insects.

Lamproptila SWAINS., (Jacamerops LEVAILL.). Bill broad at the
base, with culmen curved, scarcely keeled. (Head subcrested. Tail
broad.)

Sp. Galbula grandis, Alcedo grandis GM., LEVAILL. Ois. de Parad. &c. PI.
54; — Galbula Boersii RANZANI, LEVAILL. ibid. PI. 53; from South Amer.

Jacamaralcyonides DESMURS. (Galbalcyrhynchus ejusd. previ-
ously.) Bill high at the base, with culmen subcurved, compressed
towards the tip, acuminate.

Sp. Galbula leucotis, Jacamaralcyonides leucotis DESMURS, PI. peintes 19;
Columbia.

OEDER Y. Passerim. (Ambulatores ILLIG., Anisodactyli VIEILL.)

Bill of various shape, never cerigerous at the base, acute at thfc
tip. Tibiae feathered as far as heel. Toes mostly four, in a few
only three, the inner toe being deficient; hallux in all. Tarsi
scutellate anteriorly. Claws curved, acute. Tail almost always
with twelve feathers.

These birds are named passerine or songsters, because amougst
them the singing birds are found which have a complex muscular
arrangement at the lower larynx (pp. 344, 345). Yet all do not
possess this arrangement, and those birds in which it is wanting
are accordingly united by NITZSCH under the name of Picarice, by
BLASIUS and KEYSERLING under that of Scansores, with the climb-
ing birds. But amongst the birds of the new world the number
is much greater of species which have no special vocal muscles,
as we learn from the investigation of MUELLER. Hence these
birds without muscles for song, which yet, without violence to
the word, cannot be named Scansores or Picarice, have been named
Clamatores (AsrDR. WAGNER), and separated as a distinct order
from the rest of the passerines, to which BLASIUS and KEYSERLING
had already previously given the name of Oscines. The two divi-
sions are also distinguished, according to these writers, by the

460 CLASS XVI.

tarsi, which in the Oscines have at the sides and behind a covering
which is simple and not divided into transverse scutes1. To this
there are only few exceptions, in which the posterior surface of the
tarsi is covered with transverse horny plates which in number
correspond with those on the anterior surface. In the Clamatores,
on the contrary, the tarsi are covered behind with small scales in
a network, or also with transverse horny plates, which in that case
are more numerous than the horny plates on the anterior surface.
SUNDEVALL had already given as a character, that the coverts of
the wings are short, and cover less than half the length of the
secondaiy quill-feathers9, a character however which is present in
the woodpeckers (see above p. 456).. Further he adds, that the first
quill-feather is shorter than the second, and often remains rudi-
mentary or is entirely wanting, so that there are only nine primary
quill-feathers3. Notwithstanding all these interesting characters,
still great difficulties are connected with the division of the Oscines
and Clamatores into two orders or even into two groups of the
same order. Cypselus and Hirundo, for instance, would then have
to be separated from each other, which are not merely analogous
forms like Glareola and Hirundo*. Nevertheless we shall as far
as possible have regard to these groups, and in the first place
notice the so-named Clamatores.

Family XXVII. Opisthocomidce CABANIS (in part). Wing-
coverts large. Tarsi reticulate posteriorly. Claws compressed,
curved. Wings with ten primaries. Tail elongate, with ten
feathers. Bill short, convex, curved at the tip. Occiput crested.

Colius BRISS., GM. Bill short, thick; upper mandible convex,
sub-vaulted, produced at the tip beyond the lower. Nostrils placed
in a pit at the base of bill. Orbital region naked. Tarsus covered
almost entirely with a single row of large scutes, with the posterior
margin alone reticulate. Hallux short, internal, versatile. Tail

1 Archiv fur Natitrgesch. 1839, s. 332, u. f. f. ; H. BDEMEISTEE Einige Bemer-
kungen, u. s. w., ibid. 1840, s. 220 — 226; BLASIUS u. KEYSERLING Erwiederung, ibid.
s. 362 — 368; see also by these writers Die Wirbelihiere Europa's, I. 1840, 8vo. s. 80.

2 Ornithologiskt System, Vetensk. Alcademiens Handlingar for 1835, pp. 43 — 130.

3 Om Foglames Vingar, Vetensk. ATcad. Handl. 1843, pp. 303 — 384. Also the
normal number of secondary quill-feathers is nine, p. 377. Compare CABANIS Ornith.
Notizen, Arch.f. Naturgesch. 1847. s. 186 — 256, s. 303—352.

4 It is not, I trust, to be ascribed only to custom and to prejudice in favour of a
division generally adopted previously, if I cannot divest myself of this opinion.

AYES. 461

longer than "body, with feathers narrow, the outer on each side
rather small, the two middle very long. Wings short, with third,
fourth, and fifth quills subequal, third mostly longest of all.

Sp. Colius senegalensis GM., Lanius macrourus L. (Syst. not. ed. 12, i. p. 134).
BRISS. Ornith. m. PL 16, fig. 3, BUFF. PI. enl. 282, fig. 2, GEAY Gener.
PL xcvi.; grey-brown, a cobalt-blue spot on the neck; — Colius capensis
GM. (and erythropus ejusd.), Loxia Colius L., Colius leuconotus LATH.,
Colius erythropygius VIEILL., BBISS. 1. 1. fig. 2, BUFF. PI. enl. 282, fig. i,
LESS. Ornith. PL 57, fig. i ; GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PL 19, fig. 7, &c.
They are all African birds, feeding on fruits (berries, &c.), they climb on
trees and fly little and only to short distances. Compare RUEPPELL Mus.
Senkenb. m. pp. 39 — 44.

Opisthocomus HOFFMANSEGG, ILLIG. Bill thick, short; lower
mandible with angle somewhat prominent, ascending to the tip.
Nostrils lateral, placed in the middle of bill, covered above by
membrane. Tarsi strong, covered on every side by long hexagonal
scales. Toes long, with strong claws; hallux not versatile. Tail
elongated, rounded. Wings with sixth quill longest.

Sp. Opisthocomus cristatus, Phasianus cristatus GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 337,
LATH. Synops. n. PL LXIV, GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PL 39, fig. i, GRAY
Gener. PL XCVin. ; from the North of South America. Formerly this
genus was usually referred to the gallinaceous birds, from which, however,
it differs by the toes completely cloven. Compare on the affinity of this
bird DEVILLE in GUEBIN Magas. de Zool. 1852, pp. 217 — 224, PL 9.

Family XXVIII. Bucerotince. Wing-coverts large. Tarsi
covered anteriorly with transverse scutes, reticulate posteriorly.
Wings with ten primaries. Tail long, with ten feathers. Bill
large, long. Anterior outer toes connected together, separate at
the apex only. (Pedes gressorii L.)

Buceros L. Bill large, hollow, in adults obsoletely serrate or
denticulate at the margins and often furnished with a hollow
appendage above the culmen. Nostrils placed at the base of bill
near the culmen, small. Orbital region (or whole face) and part of
the throat destitute of feathers. Wings moderate, with first three
quills gradually longer, fourth or fifth longest of all.

a) Tarsi short, strong. Buceros GRAY. (Buceros and Toclcwl LESS.,
Ehynchaceros GLOGEB.)

Sp. Buceros rhinoceros L., LESSON Ornith. PL 31, BLUMENB. Abb. Naturh.
Gegenst. No. 24 ; on the islands Sumatra and Borneo. A local variety of
Java is Buceros hvnatus TEMM. PL col. 546; — Buceros hydrocorax L., BUFF.

462 CLASS xvi.

PI. ml. 283 (young bird), GU£RIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 29, fig. 2 ; Philippine
Islands ; — Buceros ruficollis VIEILL., LABILLARDII-IRE Voyage a la Rech. de
LA PEYKOUSE, PL n, TEMM. PI. col. 557; New Guinea, Ceram, Am-
boyna, &c.
b) Tarsi elongate. Tmetoceros CABANIS, (Bucorvus LESS., G»RAY).

Sp. Buceros dbyssinicus GM., BUFF. PL enl. 779; here the horny excrescence
on the bill is as though excised in front and open.

All these birds live in warm countries of the eastern hemisphere. They
are the largest of this order; their food consists principally of fruits.
They are shy, have a loud one-noted cry, and make their nests in holes
of trees. Many species are figured in TEMMINCK'S PI. col. which work
may be principally consulted on this genus.

Family XXIX. Coraciance. Wing-coverts large. Tarsi covered
anteriorly with transverse scutes, reticulate posteriorly. Outer toes
united at the base only or free. Wings with ten primaries. Bill
moderate or long cultrate, with tip of upper mandible curved, pro-
duced beyond the lower. Nostrils basal, lateral, longitudinal,
oblique. Tail with twelve feathers, mostly moderate. Claws
compressed, curved, acute.

Etiryceros LESS. Bill long, with culmen high, curved; greatly
compressed towards the tip ; upper mandible emarginate before the
tip. Outer toes united at the base. Hallux large. Wings with fourth
and fifth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail moderate, rounded.

Sp. Euryceros Prevostii LESS., Centurie Zool. PL 74, Illustr. de Zool. PL 13;
Madagascar. This bird, of the size of a thrush, is black, with back and
wing-coverts cinnamon-brown. It seems probable to me that it ought to
be placed here ; to the preceding family at least, in which LESSON and
GRAY have arranged it, it does not appear to belong.

Colaris Cuv., Eurytomus VIEILL., GRAY. Bill shorter than
head, curved abruptly at the tip, broad at the base, compressed
towards the tip, with gape ample. Recumbent bristles at the angle
of mouth. Outer toes united at the base, nearly equal. Hallux
large. Tarsus shorter than middle toe. The long wings produced
almost as far as the posterior margin of tail, with second quill
longest of all. Tail moderate even.

Sp. Colaris orientalis, Coracias orientalis L., BUFF. PL enl. 619; East
Indies and China; — Colaris madagascariensis, Coracias madagascariensis
GM., BUFF. PL enl. 501, LESS. Ornith. PL 49, fig. 2.

Chloropygia S WAINS., Brachypteracias LAFRESN. Bill mode-
rate, compressed, with culmen curved. Outer toes free. Hallux

AYES. 463

short. Tarsus longer than middle toe. Wings short, with fourth
and fifth quills longest of all.

Sp. Chloropygia leptosoma SWAINS., Colurus leptosomus LESS. Cent. Zool.
PL 20, LAFRESNAYE, GUER. Magas. de Zool. 1824, Ois. PL 31; — Ckloro-
pygia pittoides LAFRESN. ibid. PL 32 ; — Chloropygia squamigera, Brachypt.
squamigera LAFRESN., DESMUBS PL peint. 39; all from Madagascar.
PUCHERAN forms of the two last species, whose tarsi are longer than those of
the first species, a distinct genus, Atelornis; Revue Zool. 1846, pp. 193 — 200.

Coracias L. (in part). Bill moderate, compressed towards the
tip, with tip curved abruptly. Outer toes free. Tarsus shorter
than anterior middle toe. Wings elongate, with second quill long-
est of all. Tail even, rounded, with outer feather on each side often
longer than the rest, sometimes elongate, acuminate.

Sp. Coracias garrula L., BUFF. PL enl. 486, NAUM. Taf. 60, LESSON
Ornith. PI, 49, fig. i ; the garrulous roller, le collier, die Racke; the
general colour is blue-green, the back cinnamon-brown, bill black, the legs
yellow. This bird lives in woods, feeds chiefly on large insects, and lays
from four to six white eggs in hollow trees. In its internal structure it
corresponds in some respects with the kingfishers and the bee-eaters, (Alcedo
and Merops). — Coracias caudafa L., Galgulus angolensis BRISS. Ornith. n.
PL 7, fig. i, BUFF. PI. enl. 88, DESMUBS PL peintes 28 ;— distinct from
Coracias abyssinica GM., BUFF. PL enl. 626; see DESMUBS op. tit.

Family XXX. Meropince. Wing-coverts large. Primaries
ten. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse scutes. Two outer
toes united, separate only at the apex. Bill subcurved. Nostrils
basal, lateral, partly covered by feathers of forehead. Tail long or
somewhat long, with twelve feathers.

Prionites ILLIG., Momotus BRISS. (species of Rhamphastus L.).
Bill moderate, cloven as far as under the eyes, with margins serrate.
Tongue narrow, horny, feathery. Tarsus covered anteriorly and
posteriorly with a row of transverse scutes, reticulate at the sides,
equalling or surpassing the anterior middle toe. Tail cuneate, with
two middle feathers with stem sometimes produced beyond the rest
and denuded before the vaned termination. Wings with fourth
and fifth quills subequal, fourth longest of all.

This genus contains South American birds which, as CUVIEB has
correctly observed, represent the genus Merops of the eastern hemisphere.
They live in forests and feed chiefly on insects. They are coloured sea-
green and blue, and in form also most of them have much resemblance
to each other.

464 CLASS xvi.

Sp. Prionites brasiliensis, Rhamphastus Momota L., BUFF. PL enl. 370,
LESS. Ornith. PI. 30, fig. i, &c. ; — Prionites Lessonii, Momotus Lessonii
DESMUES PL peintes, 62, &c. Species, whose bill is broad and flat at the
base, form with SWAINSON the genus Oryftiem, (Sp. Prionites platy-
rhynchus, Momotus platyrhynchus JAEDINE and SELBY III. of Ornith.
PI. 1 06 ; — Prionites superciliosus, Crypticus superciliosus SWAINS.) In the
last species noted the notches at the margin of the bill are fine and scarcely
to be observed by the naked eye. The same is the case with a small
Mexican species (not much larger than a common kingfisher), Prionites
momotula, Hylomanes momotula LICHTENST, AbhandL der Akad. der Wiss.
zu Berlin, Physik-math. Klasse, 1838, p. 449, PI. iv., GRAY Gen. of Birds, i.
PI. XXIV. ; it has a shorter tail and somewhat longer tarsi than the rest.

Merops L. Bill moderate or long, arched, acuminate, with
margins very entire. Tongue narrow, with apex horny, laciniate.
Tail long, subeven. Tarsi short, reticulate posteriorly. Tibiae
denuded above the heel. Wings with first quill mostly very small,
second, more rarely third or fourth, longest of all.

a) Wings long. Tail with two middle feathers elongate.

Sp. Merops apiaster L., BUFF. PL enl. 938, LESSON Ornith. PI. 30, fig. i,
NAUMANN Taf. 143; the bee-eater, le gugpier, der Bienenfresser ; the back
red-brown, the throat yellow with a black margin, breast and belly
greenish-blue ; this bird lives in the south of Europe and in Africa, and
feeds on insects, especially wasps and bees, which it captures on the wing,
like swallows; has been seen, though very rarely, in England; — Merops
nubicus GM., BUFF. PL enl. 649, &c.

b) Wings short, rounded. Tail forked or emarginate. Sub-genera
Melittophagus BOIE and Nyctiornis SWAINS., Alcemerops IBID. GEOFFR.*

Sp. Merops amictus TEMM., PL col. 310, GUEEIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 27, fig. i ;
green, head violet-red on the top, throat bright blood-red ; a large species
from Borneo and Sumatra; — Merops gularis LATH., SHAW, Melittophagus
gularis GRAY, Gener. of Birds, PI. xxx. &c.

Family XXXI. Halcyonince. Wing-coverts large. Primaries
ten. Tarsi short, covered anteriorly with transverse, distinct or
obsolete scutes, sometimes reticulate. Two outer toes united, dis-
tinct only at the apex. Bill long, straight, with culmen keeled.
Nostrils basal, lateral, small. Tibiae denuded below towards the
heel. Tail with twelve feathers.

The kingfishers form a natural family, of which about eighty
species are now known. Only very few occur in the new world ;

1 Nouv. Ann. du Mus. i. 183-2, p. 395.

AYES. 465

most of the species inhabit the islands of the Indian Archipelago or
of the South Sea. This group corresponds to the genus Alcedo
of LINNAEUS, with the exception of his last two species, which
belong to the genus Galbula, (see above p. 458).

Alcedo L. (Alcedo SWAINS., GRAY, Alcyone SWAINS., GRAY.)
Bill slender, compressed, acute at the tip. Wings with second and
third quills subequal, third longest of all, first little shorter than
these. Tail very short, even. Feet weak; anterior inner toe very
short or none.

Sp. Alcedo ispida L., BUFF. PI. enl. 77, NAUM. Taf. 144, Cuv. R. Ani., ed.
iU., Ois. PL 46, fig. i ; the kingfisher, le martin-pe'cheur, der Eis-vogel; the
middle of the back azure-blue, the wings blue-green, abdomen ferruginous,
the throat white, the legs red, the bill brown-black ; a shy, solitary bird of
passage, commoner in the south than in the north of Europe; occurs
also in Asia Minor and the North of Africa ; it feeds on fish, and watches
for its prey on the banks of rivers often for hours together. The nest is a
narrow hole dug by its bill in the bank near the water's edge and covered
with fine fish-bones. The female lays from 6 to 8 glossy white eggs. The
young, at first entirely naked, are fed with Libellulce. — A very similar,
somewhat smaller species of Asia, is Alcedo bengalensis GM., which occurs
not only in Bengal, but also at Timor, the Philippine Islands and Japan,
Faun. Jap. Av. Tab. 38; — Alcedo cristata~L., BUFF. PL enl. 756, fig. t,
LESSON Ornith. PI. 29, fig. i. GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 28, fig. i ; a small
species, blue above, ruddy below, with crest-feathers blue with black spots ;
from the Cape of Good Hope."

The species without inner toe (pedibus tridactylis) form the sub-genus
Alcyone SWAINS., GRAY. To it belong Alcedo solitaria,Ceyx solitaria TEMM.
PL col. 595, fig. i] — Alcedo pusilla, Ceyx pusilla TEMM. ib. fig. 3, a very
small species ; head, back, wings and tail azure-blue, breast and belly pure
white ; both from New Guinea, &c.

Ceryle BOIE, GRAY, Ispida SWAINS. Bill thick, compressed,
acute at the tip. Tail somewhat long, rounded. Anterior inner
toe longer than hallux. (Other characters of the preceding genus.)

Sp. Ceryle rudis, Alcyon rudis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 716 (and 62, young bird);
Western Asia and Europe; — Ceryle maxima, Alcedo maxima PALL., Ispida
gigantea SWAINS. Birds of West. Africa, n. PI. 1 1, BUFF. PL enl. 679,
Senegal; — Ceryle lugubris, Alcedo lugubris TEMM. PL col. 548, Faun. Jap.
Av. Tab. 38 B, from Japan, £e. They are all large birds, black and white
variegated, or bluish-grey plumage. To this genus alone the few American
species of this family belong, as Ceryle Alcyon, Alcedo Alcyon L., BUFF.
PL enl. 715, WILSON Am. Orniih., ed. JARD. i. PI. 23, fig. i, p. 348; in
North America from Hudson's Bay to Mexico ; the only species of king-
fisher of the United States.

VOL. ii. 30

466 CLASS xvi.

Halcyon SWAINS. Bill long, sometimes very long, broad at the
base, somewhat depressed. Lower mandible angulate at the in-
ferior margin, ascending towards the tip. Wings with first quill
short, third longest of all. Tail short or moderate, rounded.

Sp. Halcyon concrete, Dacelo concreta TEMM. PI. col. 346, Diet. univ. d'Hist.
Nat., Ois. PI. 4, fig. i ; Sumatra; — Halcyon Smyrnensis, Alcedo Smyrnensis
L., ALBIN Av. in. PL 27, 28, BUFF. PL enl. 894; Asia Minor, Bengal,
Ceylon, Philippine Islands. (Comp. on this species STRICKLAND Ann. and
Mag. of Nat. Hist. IX. 1842, p. 441); — Halcyon leucocephala, Alcedo
capensis L. PI. enl. 590; a large species with very large pale orange-
coloured bill, from the East Indies and not from the Cape, &c.

Ceyx LACEP. (not TEMM.). Bill of Halcyon, but habitus of Al-
cedo. Tail very short. Feet tridactylous, with inner toe none.

Sp. Halcyon purpurea, Alcedo tridactyla PALL. Spic. Zool. vi. Tab. n. fig. i ;
VOSMAEB Boschrijving van twee kortstaartige Oost-Indische ijsvogeltjes met twee
vow-en, eenen achteninger. Amsterd. 1 768, 4to.

Paralcyon GLOGER, Dacelo LEACH*. Bill depressed at the base,
broad, inflated; lower mandible gibbous beneath, ascending towards
the tip; upper longer, with tip curved. Wings with first quill
short, second and third gradually longer, fourth mostly longest of
all. Tarsi reticulate. Tail moderate, broad, or somewhat long,
cuneate.

Sp. Paralcyon gigantea, Alcedo gigantea LATH., BUFF. PI. enl. 663, WHITE
Voy. PI. 53, p. 237, New Holland, &c. These birds feed on insects, small
reptiles and even on snakes.

Note. — On some other subdivisions cons. GRAY Gen. of Birds, Vol. i.

Family XXXII. Upupince. Wing-coverts short. Primaries
ten. Tarsi with transverse scutes anteriorly. Tail with ten or
twelve feathers. Bill slender, arched, long or moderate; nostrils
basal, lateral. Two outer toes united at the base only.

Upupa L. (in part). Bill elongate, moderately curved. Head
crested. Tarsi reticulate posteriorly. Claws short; claw of hallux
longer than the rest, somewhat straight. Wings with first quill
short, fourth longest of all. Tail even, broad, with ten feathers.

• Sp. Upupa Epops, L., BUFF. PL enl. 52; LESSON OrnitJi. PL 79, fig. 2,
NAUM. Taf. 142 ; the hoopoe, la huppe, der Wiedekopf; this bird has a crest
on the head of two rows of long feathers brownish or ruddy, spotted black,

1 A word without signification, anagram of Alcedo.

AYES. 467

which it can erect. The tail is black with a white transverse bar in the
middle ; the wings also are black with white transverse bars ; the head, neck
and breast ruddy. The hoopoe is a bird of passage which feeds on larvae of
insects, which it mostly picks from the ground ; its nest is made in hollow
stems of trees, and contains from four to six dirty greenish-white eggs.
The oily matter secreted by the sebaceous gland on the tail- bone, assumes in
the female at brooding-time and in the young in the nest an intolerable
stench (NiTZSCH Pterylographie, s. 58, 149), whence arose the unfounded
opinion that the hoopoe makes its nest of cow- dung. The bird is more
common in the South than in the North of Europe, rare in Holland as also
in England ; it occurs also in North Africa ; in Senegal and at the Cape of
Good Hope a very similar species is found, Upupa minor GM., Upupa
crisiatdla VIEILL., Gakrie des Ois. PI. 184, GUEB. /cow., Ois. PI. 26, fig.i *.

Falculia GEOFFR. SAiNT-HiL. Bill long, compressed, arched.
Lateral nostrils patulous. Wings with fourth quill longest of all,
third and fifth subequal. Tail with 12 feathers, even. Claws curved,
compressed; claw of hallux very large.

Sp. Falcidia palliata, ISID. GEOFFR. SAINT-HILAIBE in GUEBIN Mag. de
Zool. 1 836, Ois. PL 49 ; from Madagascar.

Irrisor LESS, (add Rhinopomastes SMITH.) Bill long or
moderate, arched, compressed, acute. Nostrils basal, partly covered
by plumules. Gape of mouth produced under the eye. Tarsi short,
covered anteriorly and posteriorly with a row of transverse scutes.
Claws compressed, curved. Wings with fourth, fifth, and sixth
quills subequal, longest of all. Tail elongate, cuneate.

To this genus belong African birds which were formerly classed with
Promerops, but which CUVIER placed with Merops. Sp. Irrisor erythro-
rhynchus, Upupa erythrorhyncha LATH. ; — Irrisor melanorhynchus, Upupa
melanorhyncha LICHTENST., GBAT Gen. of Birds, PI. xxxi. &c. The bill
in the male is (at least in some species) longer and more curved, in the
female shorter and higher.

Family XXXIII. Trochilidce. Wing-coverts covering almost
entirely the secondary quill-feathers which are very short. Prima-
ries ten. Tarsi weak, plumed, or covered anteriorly with transverse,
obsolete scutes. Two outer toes united at the base only. Bill
slender, tubular, with upper mandible ensheathing the lower.

The humming-birds or colibris are small birds richly ornamented
which are found in the western hemisphere only, especially in
South America; they feed on insects. The conma of the hyoid

1 Upupa capensis GMEL., BUFF. PI. enl. 697, does not belong to this genus nor to
this family. GBAY, who judges differently of it, seems not to have examined the bird.

30—2

468 CLASS xvi.

bone extend over the cranium, as in the woodpeckers. The
skeleton is distinguished by a very short humerus ; the bones of
the fore arm also are short, and are exceeded in length by those
of the hand. The keel of the sternum is large and high ; the
furcula is thin. The neck is very long, although the vertebrae are
only thirteen in number. With the tongue, bifid at the extremity,
they catch insects at the bottom of flowers.

The peculiar smallness of most of the humming-birds deserves remark ;
SLOANE speaks of a little bird which during life weighed only 20 grains,
Trochilus minimus, LINN. Syst. Nat. I. p. 193, ed. 12; when, however,
BEIREIS makes mention of a specimen which weighed only 6 grains (Syst.
Nat. ed. 1 3, cura GMELIN, i. p. 500), it may be surmised with K.UDOLPHI,
that it was imperfect and dried, or half destroyed by worms, Bemerkunyen
auf einer Reise, 1804, 8vo. I. s. 65.

Compare on this family the three splendid works of LESSON, entitled,
Histoire naturelle des Oiseaux-mouches, Paris, 1828—1830; Hist. nat. des
Colibris, Paris, 1830, 1831 ; Les Trockilidees ou les Colibris et les Oiseaux-
mouches, Paris, 1832, 1833, an<^ GOULD'S valuable Monograph of the
Trochttidce or Humming- Birds. London, 1850, and foil, (up to Oct. 1852,
4 parts, fol. The plates present an imitation of the original play of
colours of the plumage hitherto unknown.)

Trochilus L. (Characters of the family. Wings long, narrow,
with first quill longest of all, the posterior suddenly decreasing.
Tail with ten feathers.)

is the name of a bird mentioned by HERODOTUS, and
other ancient writers ; whatever that bird may have been (comp.
above, p. 413), so much is certain, that it was not the TrocMlus
of Zoologists, and that this name was given quite incorrectly to this
genus of small American birds. They are in all respects formed for
flying, and are almost always in motion, like the swallows, which
have much analogy with the humming-birds. They lay two eggs in
a nest which is composed principally of the woolly tissue of plants.
LINNAEUS counted in 1766 two and twenty species of his genus
Trochilus; between two and three hundred are now known.
Within the last few years, therefore, different genera have been
proposed to distinguish the species, especially by SWAINSON and
GOULD. They are founded chiefly upon the form and relative
length of the bill and of the tail.

t With bill curved.

Phaethornis SWAINS. Bill elongate, curved, compressed at the
sides, acute. Tail long, cuneate, with two middle feathers pro-
duced. Tarsi feathered.

AVES. 469

Sp. Trochilus superciliosus L., BUFF. PL enl. 600, fig. 3, LESSON Cdibr.
PL 6, 7 ; Brasil, &c.

Oreotrochilus GOULD. Bill scarcely longer than head, moderately
curved. Tail rounded, with feathers attenuated Tarsi feathered

Sp. Trochilus Estella D'ORBIGNY, GOULD Trochilid. PL 2;— Trochilus
Jamesonii JABDINE, Trochilus Pichincha BOUBBIEB, GOULD 1. L PL 19,
JABDINE Contrib. to Ornith. 1850, PL 43, Peru &c. These species live on
high mountains close to the line of permanent snow.

Polytmus BRISS., GRAY. Bill elongate. Tail broad, rounded.
Tarsi partly feathered.

Sp. Trochilus mango L., BUFF. PL enl. 680, figs, 2, 3, LESS. Colibr. PL 13—
15 ; from the West Indies, &c.

Trochilus GRAY, GOULD, (add Topaza GRAY). Bill moderately
curved, elongate. Tail emarginate, with two lateral feathers some-
times very long. Tarsi short, partly feathered.

Sp. Trochilus Polytmus L., Ornismya cephalatra (sic) LESSON Ois. mouch.
PL 17, GOULD L 1. PL i; Jamaica; — Trochilus Pella L., BUFF. PL enl.
599, fig. i, LESS. Ornith. PL 73, fig. i, Colibr. PL 2—5 ; Guyana, &c.

ft With lill straight.

Mellisuga BRISS., GRAY, Orthorhynchus LAGER, LESS. (excL of

some species.)

Sp. Trochilus minimus L., Eylocharis nigra GBAT, BBISS. Ornith. m. PL 35,
figs, i, 8, BUFF. PL enl. 276, fig. i, LESS. Ois. mouch. PL 79, GOULD 1. 1.
PL 30 ; at St Domingo ; this extremely small bird is only 2 inches 3 lines
long from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail.

To the straight-billed humming-birds, which the French Zoologists name
Oiseaux mouches, belong a still greater number of species than to the
preceding division. The bill is of very various lengths in some even
shorter than the head, and awl-shaped, as Ornismya Lindenii PABZUDAKI,
GUEB. Revue et Mag. de Zool. 1849, ?1- 8> Oxypogon Lindenii GOULD 1. L
PL 13; — Ornismya microrhyncha BOISSONNEAU, GUEB. Magas. de Zool.
1840, Ois. PL 16; in most longer than the head, as, Trochilus sparganurus
SHAW, Omismya Sappho LESS. Ois. mouch. PL 27, 28, Cometes sparganu-
rus GOULD 1. 1. PL 47 ; in some as long even as the whole body, Trochilus
ensiferus, Ornismya ensifera BOISSONN., GUEB. Magas. de Zool. 1840,
Ois. PL 15, Docimastes ensiferus GOULD L 1. PL 7. Here the bill is
in some degree bent upwards; such is more decidedly the case in other
species, of which the bill is less elongated, as Trochilus recurvirostris,
Campylopterus recurvirostris SWAINS., LESS. Ois. mouch. PL 37, Colibr.,
Ois. m., Suppl. PL 34. and Trochilus avocetta LESS. Colibr., Ois. m., Suppl.
PL 24, TrochU. PL 23.

Note. — Here also are to be referred sub-genera ffylocharis and Heliothrix
BOIE, and several genera of GOULD, here omitted.

470 CLASS XVI.

Ehamphodon LESS., Grypus SPIX, GRAY. Bill elongate, with
tip of upper mandible produced, curved. Margins of bill serrate
anteriorly with denticles recurved. Tail graduated, rounded.

Sp. Trockilus ncevius DUMONT, TEMM. PL col. 120, fig. 3, Rhamphodon
maculatum LESS. Colibr. PI. i ; Brasil.

Family XXXIV. Anabatidce CABANIS. Primaries ten, with first
short. Wings moderate or short. Wing-coverts mostly covering
less than half of the secondaries. Two outer toes conjoined at the
base. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse scutes, often produced
on the sides and posteriorly so as to leave only a narrow reticulate
line. Bill of various form and size, acuminate at the tip, compressed.

Dendrocolaptes HERMANN1. Bill elongate or moderate, de-
pressed at the base, acuminate at the tip, compressed, mostly
curved. Gape of mouth large. Nostrils lateral, placed in a pit at
the base of bill. Two outer toes subequal, longer than inner.
Claws compressed, curved. Wings with first quill short, third,
fourth and fifth subequal, fourth mostly longest of all. Tail with
feathers pointed, the stem being naked and acute at the extremity.

To this genus different species belong, all from South America, which
form a small group presenting many differences especially in the bill. Com-
pare on this, published in different numbers of GU^RIN'S Revue et Magas.
de Zool. 1850, 1851, Monographic du genre Picicide, par DE LAFRESN AYE.

t With bill compressed.

Xiphorhynchus SWAINS. Bill slender, very much elongated,
curved.

Sp. Dendrocolaptes trochilirostris LICHTENST., Dendrocopus falcularius
VIEILL., Gal. des Ois. PL i^^^—Dendrocol.procurvus TEMM. PL col. 28; —
Dendr. Pucheranii LAFBESN., DESMURS PL peint. 68.

Dendrocolaptes SWAINS, (and Picolaptes LESS., LAFRESN.) Bill
elongate, moderately curved.

Sp. Dendrocolaptes major LAFRESN. (Dendr. rubiginosus previously), GUEB.
Mag. de Zool. 1833, Ois. PL 10; — Dendrocolaptes tenuirostris LIGHT.,
Picolaptes gultatus LESS. Cent. Zool. PL 32, &c.

Nasica LESS., LAFRESN. Bill elongate, almost straight, with tip
alone curved or hooked.

Sp. Dendrocolaptes longirostris ILLIG., LEVAILL. Promer. PL 24; Dendroco-
laptes xantJioga&ter, Dryocopus jlavigaster DESMUKS, PL peint. PL 52.

1 Observat. Zoolog. Argentorati, 4to. p. 135.

AVES. 471

Dendroplex SWAINS. Bill moderate, straight, much compressed,
conical.

Sp. Dendrocolaptes picus, Oriolus picus GM., BUFF. PL enl. 605 ; — Dendroco-
laptes picirostris DESM. PL peint. 51 (incorrectly 53).

Sittasomus SWAINS. Bill short, straight. Posterior claw longer
than hallux, slender, somewhat straight.

Sp. Dendrocolaptes erythacus LICHTENST., Dendroc. sylviellus TEMM. PL col.
72, fig. i.

ft With bill depressed, at the base broader than high.
Premnocopus CABANIS, Dendrocops SWAINS.

Sp. Dendrocolaptes cayennensis, Gracula cayennensis GM., BUFF. PL enl. 621,
LESS. Ornith. PI. 62, fig. 2; Dendrocolaptes platyrostris (sic!) SPIX Av.
Bras. Tab. 89.

D&ndrocincla GRAY, CAB., Dryocopus MAX. NEOVID.

Sp. Dendrocolaptes Perrotii LAFRESN., Mag. de ZooL, 1844, Ois.
PL 54, &c.

Note. — On some other sub-genera, omitted here, consult GRAY Gen. of
Birds, Vol. i. and LAFRESNAYE 1. 1.

Furnarius ViEiLL., Opetiorhynchus TEMM., Figulus SPIX. Bill
moderate or longer than head, slender, compressed, moderately
curved or somewhat straight. Nostrils basal, lateral, partly covered
by membrane. Tarsi long. Outer toe much shorter than middle.
Wings with third and fourth quills subequal, fourth longest of all.
Tail graduated, rounded.

Sp. Furnarius figulus, Turdus figulus, ILLIG., BUFF. PL enl. 739 ; — Furna-
rius rufus, Merops rufus GM., Figulus albogularis SPIX Av. Bras. Tab. 70,
&c. Birds of Brasil, placed formerly in the neighbourhood of Nectarinia;
they construct a nest of clay, of which the form has been compared to a
baker's oven, and which is divided into two cavities ; in the lower cavity
the female lays four white, red-spotted eggs upon some grass.

Cilluriis CABANIS, Cinclodes GRAY.

Sp. Furnarius chilensis LESS., MotaciUa patagonica GM., Opetiorhynchus
rupestris KITTL., LESSON Ornith. PI. 75, fig. i, KITTL. Vogel von Chili,
Mem. des Sav. etrang. pres. a VAc. de St Petersbourg, i. 1831, Tab. vm.

Lochmias SWAINS., Picerthia ISID. GEOFFR. ST.-HiL. Bill mode-
rate, slender. Nostrils lateral, linear. Wings short, with third,
fourth and fifth quills subequal, fifth longest of all.

Sp. Furnarius sancti Hilarii LESS., Ornith. p. 307, ISID. GEOFFR. NOU.V.
Ann. du Mm. I. 183^, p. 392.

472 CLASS xvi.

Genus Sclerurus SWAINSON, is this its place1?

Add genera Geositta SWAINS., Henicornis GRAY and Ochetorhyn-
chus MEYEN, on which cons. GRAY Gen. of Birds, i.

Xenops HOFFMANNSEGG1, Neops VIEILL. Bill moderate or
short, compressed, with culmen straight; lower mandible ascending
towards the tip. Middle toe longer than the laterals; claw of hallux
larger than the anterior toes. Wings with fourth quill longest.
Tail moderate, with feathers lax.

Sp. Xenops genibarbis TEMM., PI. col. 150, fig. ij— Xenops rutilansTEMX., PI.
color. 72, fig. 2 ; — Xenops rufosuperciliaris (!) LAFRESN., GUER. Magas. de
Zool. 1832, Ois. PL 7, &c. All these species are Brasilian.

Anabates TEMM. (Synallaxis VIEILL., TEMM.) Bill shorter
than head, compressed, acuminate, with culmen moderately bent
towards the tip; lower jaw straight. Nostrils basal, lateral, oblong,
narrow. Tarsi covered with a row of large scutes produced to the
sides. Claw of hallux larger than the anterior middle claw. Tail
elongate, graduated, with feathers flexile. Wings short, with third,
fourth and fifth quills subequal, longest.

Sp. Anabates amaurotis TEMM., PL col. 238, fig. 2 ; — Anabates macrourus
MAXIM., Anabates striolatus TEMM. 1. 1. fig. x, &c.

Sub-genus : Synallaxis VIEILL. Bill short, slender. Tarsi slender,
elongate.

Sp. Synallaxis phryganophila VIEILL., Synallaxis tessellata TEMM., PL col.
311, fig. i, GUERIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 23, fig. 2; — Synallaxis ruficapilla
VIEILL. Galer. PI. 174, Synall. albescens TEMM. PL col. 227, fig. 2, Cuv.
R. Ani., €d. ill., Ois. PI. 40, fig. 4; Synallaxis Tupinierii LESS., Motacilla
spinicauda GM., LESS. Ornith. PI. 74,, fig. 2, &c.

Oxyrhamphus STRICKL., Oxyrhynchus TEMM.

Note. — To this family also are to be referred genera Sphenopyga
CABAN. (Anuribius LAFRESN.), Thripophaga CABAN. and Schizura
ejusd. (Sylviorthorhynchus DESMURS.)

Sp. Schizura maluroides, Sylviorthorynchus Desmurii, DESM. PL peintes 45.

Family XXXV. Eriodoridce CABANIS. Wings short, with
ten primaries. Cubital coverts short. Tarsi covered anteriorly
with a row of large scutes, posteriorly with a double row of scutes

1 ILLIG. Prodrom. p. 213.

AVES. 473

or with reticulate scales. Feathers of back between the wings and
at the base of tail mostly elongate, lax, soft, as though of silk.
Tail with feathers various in number. (Bill straight, with tip bent.)

In this and in the preceding family, as we learn from the inves-
tigations of MUELLER, the lower larynx is not formed by the bronchi
but only by the lowest part of the trachea. To this division of
birds he gave in consequence the name of TracheopJiones. Abhandl.
der Akad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1845, s. 357 — 365.

Section I. Menurince.

Menura DAVIES, LATH. Bill moderate, keeled, broad at the
base. Nostrils placed in a lateral fossa, covered by membrane,
elongate. Orbital region naked. Tarsi long, covered behind at
the upper part with smaller scutes, below reticulate. Claws strong,
curved, elongate; claw of hallux longer than the rest. Wings short,
with first five quills gradually longer, sixth, seventh, eighth and
ninth subequal, longest of all. Tail elongate, in male erect, with
16 feathers, most of them lax, in female cuneate, with 12 feathers.

Sp. Menura superba DAVIES, Menura Lyra SHAW, DAVIES Linn. Trans, vi.
1801, pp. 207 — 210, Tab. 12, GUEBIN. Iconogr., Ois. PL 13, fig. i, LESS.
Ornith. PI. 88 ; the outer tail-feathers are curled outwards and ornamented
with ruddy spots; — Menura Alberti GOULD, JABDINE Contrib. to Ornith.
1850, PL 50; a species discovered not long ago, with shorter tail; the
outer tail-feathers are shorter than those that succeed to them internally.
Both species are large, shy birds of New Holland, which feed on insects,
particularly beetles, and on land-slugs. Comp. JULES VERBEAUX Notes sur
les moeurs, &c. du Menura superba GUEB. Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1849,
pp. 113 — 1 1 6.

Section II. Myiotherince.

Pteroptochus KITTLITZ. Bill moderate, straight, with culmen
obtuse, curved. Nostrils basal, lateral, covered by a horny oper-
culum. Bristles at the base of bill and around the eyes. Feet
strong; tarsus equalling middle toe or exceeding it a little; lateral
»i£es equal; hallux elongate. Claws curved, strong. Wings short,
rouncted, with third and fourth quills and on to the seventh sub-
equal, longest of all. Tail moderate, graduated.

Sp. Pteroptochus rubecula KITTL., Mem. presentes a I'Acad. des Sc. de St
Petersbourg, I. 1830, p. 179, Tab. u ; — Pteroptochus aJbicoUis KITTL. ib. p.
1 80, Tab. in. Megalonyx medius LESSON, Illustr. de Zool. PL 60.

474 CLASS XVI.

Chamcea GAMBEL.

Sp. Chamcea fasciata, GAMBEL Journal of Acad. of tiat. Sc. of Philadelphia,
Sec. Ser. Vol. i. PL 8, fig. 3.

Hylactes KING, Megalonyx LESS, in part. Bill short, with
culmen curved, compressed towards the tip, emarginate. Nostrils
basal, covered by a vaulted membrane, narrow. Tarsi longer than
anterior toes. Claws long. Wings short, with fourth and fifth
quills subequal, longest of all. Tail rounded, with 14 feathers.

Sp. Hylactes Tamil KING, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 15; — Hylactes rufus,
Megalonyx rufus LESSON Centur. Zool. PL 66; both from Chili.

Cololatris GLOGER, CABANIS, Grallaria VIEILL. Bill short or
moderate, strong. Wings concave, with first quill short, fourth and
fifth subequal, longest of all. Tarsi elongate, covered posteriorly
with lesser scutes, sometimes externally with scute continuous.
Tibiae denuded above the heel. Outer toes united. Tail very short.

Sp. Cololatris rex, Turdus rex GM., Orallaria varia GRAY, BUFF. PL enl.
702, Orallaria fusca VIEILL., Oaler. PL 154; Brasil; — Colobatris tinniens,
Turdus tinniens GM., Orallaria, brevicauda GRAY, BUFF. PI. enl. 706,
fig. i, &c.

Sub-genera Hypsibenon CABANIS and Chamceza VIGORS (Chamce-
zosa CABAN.)

Pitta VIEILL., GRAY, Brachyurus THUNB. Bill moderate,
strong, broad at the base, compressed towards the tip, emarginate,
with culmen keeled, curved. Nostrils lateral placed in a pit, half
covered by membrane. Tarsi elongate, slender, obscurely scutel-
late posteriorly. Lateral toes short. Wings with third and fourth
quills longest of all. Tail very short, even.

Sp. Pitta brachyura TEMM., Corvus brachyums L., BUFF. PL enl. 258, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 25, fig. i ; — Pitta cyanoptera TEMM. PL color.
218; — Pitta Baudii S. MUELLER, Verh. over de natuurlijke Gesch. &c.,
Aves, Tab. n. The last named species is from Borneo, the one preceding
from Sumatra, the first from the continent of India. This genus of the
old world comprises other species, amongst which is one from the west
coast of Africa, Pitta angolensis VIEILL., DESM. PL peint. 46. These birds
make a rude nest of roots, leaves and straw, in which they lay four or five
white or light-yellow eggs. See Verhandelingen, &c. 1. 1. Tab. in.

Myiothera ILLIG. (in part), Myrmothera VIEILL. (and spec, of
Myoturdus MAXIM,, Formicarius BODD., GRAY). Bill moderate,
compressed, emarginate, with culmen curved. Tarsi long, scutel-
late posteriorly. Wings with fourth and fifth quills subequal,
longest of all. Tail short, rounded.

. AVES. 475

Compare on this genus and this entire family MENETRIES Monographic
de la famille des Myiotherince, M6m. de I' A cad. de St Petersb. vie Se'rie,
Tome vi. Sc. mathem. et not., 1835, pp. 443 — 543.

a) With outer toes concrete at the base only.
Myiothera auctor.

Sp. Myiothera colma, Turdus colma GM., BUFF. PL enl. 703, fig. i ; — Myiothera
tetema, Turdus cayennensis? and Turdus colma var. /3 GM., &c.

b) With outer toes united together.

Conopophaga YIEILL. Bill short, depressed at the base.

Sp. Myiothera lineata MAXIM., Conopophaga vulgaris MENETR. 1. 1. PI. 14; —
Myiothera aurita, Turdus auritus L., BUFF. PL enl. 822.

Pithy s YIETLL. Outer toes free at the apex only. Tarsi covered
on the outside with a horny scute, on the inside with naked
skin.

Sp. Myiothera albifrons LICHTENST., Pipra albifrons GMEL., Pithys leucops
VIEILL., Dasycephala albifrons SWAINS., GRAY, BUFF. PL enl. 701, fig. i,
VIEILL. Qaler. des Ois. PI. 129, &c.

Formicivora S WAINS., GRAY. Bill moderate, acuminate. Wings
"omewhat short, rounded, with fifth and sixth quills subequal,
mgest of all. Outer toes conjoined at the base only. Tail some-
what long, graduated.

Sp. Formicivora grisea STRICKL., Motacilla grisea GM., Formicivora leucophrys
GRAY, BUFF. PL enl. 643, fig. i, &c.

Thamnophilus VIEILL. (exclus. of some species; — species of
Lanius auctor.) Bill strong, compressed, with tip of upper man-
dible hooked, emarginate before the hook. Tarsi moderate, covered
posteriorly and on both sides with small scutes. Outer toes con-
joined at the base only. Wings with fourth, fifth and sixth quills
subequal, fifth mostly longest of all. Tail long, graduated, with
feathers rounded.

Sp. Thamnophilus doliatus VIEILL., Lanius doliatus L., BUFF. PL enl. 297,
fig. 2, &c. ; South American species, mostly of the size of a starling, some
larger, as Thamnophilus striatus QUOY and GAIM., Thamnophilus gigas
SWAINS., Voyage de I'Uranie, Ois. PL 18, 19.

Family XXXYI. Colopteridce CABANIS, Cotingidce BONAP.
Wings moderate, with ten primaries; some of the first quill-feathers
mostly narrowed towards the point, or the second in males im-
perfect, abbreviate. Cubital coverts short. Tarsi covered anteriorly

476 CLASS xvi.

with scutes, posteriorly with naked skin or scales. Bill mostly
short, depressed at the base, often emarginate at the tip; gape of
mouth ample.

Tityra VIEILL., GRAY, Psaris Cuv.1 Bill shorter than head,
strong, with culmen rounded, curved. Nostrils lateral, rounded,
half-covered with short bristles. Wings with third and fourth
quills subequal, longest of all ; second quill in adult males short,
imperfect. Outer toes conjoined at the base. Claws compressed,
curved. Tail moderate, even or rounded.

Sp. Tityra cayana GRAY, Lanius cayanus L., Tityra cinerea VIEILL., BUFF.
PL enl. 304, 377, LESSON Ornith. PI. 47, fig. 2, VIEILL. Gal. PI. 134;
whitish-grey, head, wings and tail black, Guiana; — Tityra valida, Tityra
atricapilla VIEILL., Lanius validus LICHTENST., Tityra leuconota GRAY
Gener. PI. LXIII. Brasil ; of this last and some other species CABANIS forms
the genus Pachyrhamphus (GRAY), a name regarded by GRAY as synonymous
with Tityra.

Bathmidurus CAB.
Sp. Tityra atricapilla, Lanius atricapittus GM.

Tyrannus Cuv. (Sp. of Lanius and Musicapa L.) Bill of
various length, with tip hooked. Nostrils basal, lateral. Long-
bristles at the angle of mouth. Wings of males with the first
(three) quills narrowed towards the extremity, the third or fourth
mostly longest of all. Tarsi covered with transverse scutes, large,
produced beyond the outside posteriorly, with naked skin on the
inner surface. Outer toes conjoined at the base. Claws compressed,
curved. Tail in some even, broad towards the apex, forked in some.

ScapJiorhynchus MAXIM. Bill a little longer than head, broad at
the base, inflated at the margin. Wings with second quill longest.
Tail even.

Sp. Tyrannus pitangua Cuv., Lanius pitangua L., ScapJiorhynchus sulfuratus
MAXIM., BUFF. PI. enl. 212, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 17, fig. i,
Brasil.

Saurophagus SWAINS., Apolites SUNDEV. Bill of the length of
head, straight, with culmen rounded, acute, with sides straight.
Wings with third, fourth and fifth quills subequal, fourth longest
of all.

1 Psaris, a Greek name of a bird, according to CUVIER ; perhaps he meant \jsap6s,
and it ought then to be Psarus; but LATREILLE had already a genus Psarus amongst
the Diptera (i. p. 326). Of Tityra the etymology is unknown to me, but the name,
as more commonly received, it seems necessary now to retain.

AVES. 477

Sp. Tyrannus sulpkuratus Cuv., Lanius sulphuratus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 296,
LESSON Omith. PI. 42, fig. 2. — Tyrannus lictor, Lanius lictor LICHTENST.,
GRAY Gener. Tab. LXII.

Milvulus SWAINS., Muscipipra LESS. Bill shorter than head,
compressed at the tip. Wings with second or third quill longest
of all. Tail forked, with outer feather on both sides very long.

Sp. Tyrannus savana VIEILL., Musicapa tyrannic L., BUFF. PI. enl. 571,
fig. 2, BONAPABTE Continuation of WILSON'S Americ. OrnitJi. PI. i, fig. i
(JARDINE'S edit. in. pp. 261 — 266); in North and South America, &c.

Tyrannus GRAY, Drymonax GLOGER. Bill in some longer than
head, in some shorter, with culmen rounded, the margins turned
obliquely outwards. Wings with second and third quills subequal,
third longest of all. Tail emarginate, broad at the apex. (First
two feathers sinuate at the extremity.)

Sp. Tyrannus intrepidus'ViEHL., Lanius tyrannus L., (in part) BUFF. PI. enl.
676, WILSON Amer. OrnitJi. PI. 13, fig. i; grey, white below, tail greyish-
black with white posterior margin ; on the top of the head a yellow or
reddish spot. This courageous bird, of the greatest service by killing
insects, is named in North America King-bird; compare on its economy
WILSON (JARDINE'S edit.) i. pp. 216 — 225; — Tyrannus malutinus VIEILL.
(Lan. tyrannus L., in part), BUFF. PL enl. 537, &c.

Myriarchus CAB AN. (Tyrannula SWAINS, in part, MyiMus GRAY
in part, add Pyrocephalus GOULD, GRAY). Bill depressed, with
culmen keeled. (First quill-feathers scarcely or not at all sinuate.
Tail subeven. Other characters of sub-genus Tyrwnnus.)

Sp. Tyrannus ferox, Muscicapa feroxGtt., BUFF. PI. enl. 571, fig. i ; — Tyran-
nus virens, Muscicapa virens L., Muscicapa rapax WILSON 1. 1. PI. 13,
fig. 5 ; — Tyrannus virgatus, Muscicapa virgata GM., Muscicapa flammiceps
TEMM. PL col. 144, fig. 3, &c.

Muscwora Cuv. (Muscipeta ejusd. previously) in part, GRAY.
Bill moderate, broad at the base, depressed, narrowed towards the
hooked tip, with culmen depressed. Nostrils basal, lateral. Long,
rigid bristles at the angle of mouth. Wings with third and fourth
quills subequal, longest of all. Tail long, subeven. Tarsi short,
covered anteriorly with scutes obsoletely distinct.

Sp. Muscivora regia, Todus regius GM., Megalophus regius SWAINS., BUFF.
PL enl. 289, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Ois., PI. 2; — (Muscivora cristata
GRAY, Todus cristatus BODD., Naturforscher xvn. PI. i.?) — Muscivora fer-
ruginea CABAN., Muscivora rupestris GRAY (and Platyrhynchus ferrugineus
ejusd.) &c.

478 CLASS xvi.

Note. — On some other sub-genera to be referred to Tyrannus or
Muscivora, omitted here, cons. GRAY Gener. (Muscicapince and Ty-
rannince) and CABANIS Archivfur Naturgesch. 1847, pp. 247 — 251.

Platyrhynchus DESMAR., VIEILL. Bill short, depressed, equal-
ling the forehead in breadth, emarginate at the tip. Gape of mouth
produced below the eyes. Nostrils basal, superior. Long bristles
at the angle of mouth. Tarsi longer than middle toe ; outer toes
conjoined at the base. Wings with third, fourth and fifth quills
subequal, fourth and fifth longest of all. Tail short, even.

Sp. Platyrhynchus fuscus VIEILL., Todus platyrhynchusGtt., PALL. Spic. Zool.
vi. Tab. 3, fig. c (fig. of bill), VIEILL. Gal. PL '126, LESS. Ornith. PI. 32,
fig. 2 •_ Platyrhynchus cancromus TEMM. PL col. 12, fig. 2; Brasil, &c.

Todus L. Bill moderate, subulate, depressed, with culmen dis-
tinct, with tip rounded and obtuse, surrounded at the base by large
bristles. Nostrils placed in back of bill before the base. Wings
short, with first two quills short, narrowed, fourth longest of all.
Outer toes united, free at the extremity only. Tail short, rounded.

Sp. Todus vvridis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 585, figs, i, 2, VIEILL. Galer. PI. 124;
under this name, according to LAFKESNATE, two species are included ; one
of Jamaica, to which he would appropriate the name Todus viridis exclu-
sively, the other of St Domingo, Todus Dominicensis LAFRESN., to which
the figures referred to belong (Revue Zoologique par GUERIN, 1847, pp. 326
— 333)- Perhaps Todus subulatus GOULD (GRAY Gen. Tab. xxii.) is not
specifically different from this last.

Triccus CABANIS, Todirostrum LESS. Bill somewhat short,
with tip hooked, emarginate. Tail cuneiform. (Other characters
nearly of the preceding genus, but outer toes less concrete.)

Sp. Triccus cinereus, Todus cinereus L., BUFF. PL enl. 525, fig. 3; — Triccus
diops, Muscicapa diops TEMMINCK, PL col. 144, fig. i, &c.

Add: EuscartJimus MAXIM., Hapalura CAB AN., Orchilus CAB.,
Hapalocerus (Lepturus SWAINS.), Colopterus CABAN.

On these genera conjoined with Todus, cons. CABANIS in TSCHUDI Fauna
Peruan., Ornith. pp. 163 — 166, and Archivf. Naturgesch. 1847, pp. 251 —
254. Colopterus is distinguished by the tail even, the tarsi somewhat
long and especially by the first three quill-feathers short and narrow. Sp.
Colopterus cristatus CABAN., Archivf. Naturg. 1. 1. Tab. v. fig. 2, &c.

Fluvicola SWAINS., GRAY, Entomophagus MAXIM. (Add Xolmis
BOIE, CABAN., Tanioptera BONAP.) Bill moderate or shorter than
head, with culmen rounded, tip emarginate. Nostrils basal, lateral.
Tarsi longer than middle toe. Outer toes conjoined at the base.

AVES. 479

Wings long, with third and fourth quills (sometimes second also)

subequal, third longest of all.

Sp. Fluvicola pica GBAY, Musdcapa bicolor GM., BUFF. PL enl. 566, fig. 3,
675, fig. i, Cayenne; white, except the neck, wings and tail, which are
black. — Fluvicola cursoria SWAINS., Musdcapa climacura VIEILL., &c.

Xenurus BOIE, Alectrurus VIEILL. Bill short, conical, with
the culmen rounded. Long bristles at the angle of mouth. Tarsi
long. Wings long, with first or first two quills sinuate at the
point in males, third longest of all. Tail in some erect, supported
by setaceous feathers, in some with two feathers elongate, the stem
naked, vaned at the apex. Claw of middle toe and of hallux long,
curved, acute.

Sp. Xenurus alector, Alectrurus tricolor VIEILL., Musdcapa alector MAXIM.,
TEMM. PL color. 155; — Xenurus psalis nob., Musdcapa psalura TEMM.,
Musdcapa risora (sic) VIEILL., Galer. PL 131, TEMM. PI. col. 286, 296;
both species from Brasil.

Add genera of modern writers allied to the Fluvicolce : Copurus
STRICKL., Ochihoeca CABAN., Centrites ejusd, Ptyonwra GOULD,
Agriomis GOULD and some others, on which consult GRAY Gener.
of Birds and CABANIS Arch. f. Naturgesch. 1847, pp. 254 — 256
and p. 340.

Calyptura S WAINS., GRAY. Bill short, emarginate, with culmen
arched towards the tip. Nostrils basal, lateral, rounded. Wings
rounded, with third, fourth and fifth quills longest of all. Tarsi
slender, elongate. Outer toes conjoined at the base. Tail very
short, almost concealed.

Sp. Calyptura cristata SWAINS., Pardalotus cristatus VIEILL, GUEB. Iconogr.,
Ois. PI, 7, fig. i : Brasil.

Pipra L. Bill short, subtrigonal, broad at the base, curved at
the tip, compressed, emarginate. Nostrils basal, lateral, partly
covered by the feathers of forehead. Tarsi longer than middle toe;
toes short ; two outer concrete at the base, free at the point only.
Wings with third and fourth quills longest of all. Tail short.

Sp. Pipra pareola L., BUFF. PL enl. 687, fig. 2 (adult male), PI. 303, fig. 2
(young male), LESSON Omith. PL 51, fig. i; — Pipra erythrocephala L.,
BUFF. PL enl. 34, fig. i ; GUERIN Icon., Ois. PL 16, fig. 2, &c. Small
South American birds, of which the males have lively and gaudy colours,
mostly the head red, whilst the females have a greyish-green, single coloured
plumage. In some species the two middle tail-feathers, especially in adult
males, are elongated; they have the first four or five flag-feathers narrow
and bent. Of these species CABANIS forms the genus Chiroxiphia. In others

480 CLASS XVI.

the narrow flag-feathers are present, but not the elongated feathers of the
tail (Chiromachceris CABAN.). CABANIS restricts the genus Pipra to those
species of which the first flag-feathers are not narrowed and none of the
tail-feathers elongated. To this division belongs Pipra erythrocepkala L.
(see above), Pipra aureola L., BUFF. PL enl. 34, fig. 3, &c.

Piprites CABAN., (and ffemipipo ejusd.). In the outer toes less
concrete, the tail somewhat long, and in habit receding from the
type of genus Pipra.

Sp. Pipra pileata NATTEBEB, TEMM. PI. col. 172, fig. i;— Pipra chloris
NATT., TEMM. 1. 1. fig. 2.

Add sub-genera : Jodoplewra LESS., Calyptura SWAINS., Metopia
SWAINS, and Phcenicocercus SWAINS.

Rupicola BRISS., Orinus NITZSCH. (Sp. of Pipra L.) Bill
moderate, compressed, curved, with gape large, covered at the base
by decomposed plumes; upper mandible emarginate at the tip,
produced beyond the tip of lower. Nostrils lateral, basal, concealed
under feathers. Orbicular crest, erect, compressed, composed of
lax feathers, extending from the base of bill over the head. Tarsi
strong, covered anteriorly with large scutes. Outer toes conjoined.
Wings long, with fourth and fifth quills subequal, longest of all,
first quill in males abruptly narrowed. Tail broad, moderate.

Sp. Rupicola cayana SWAINS., Pipra rupicola L., BUFF. PL col. 39 male,
747 fein., LESS. Ornith. PL 51, fig. 2, GU£B. Icon., Ois. PL 16, fig. i,
VOSMAEB Beschrijving van den AmeriJcaanschen JRotshaan, Amsterdam 1769,
4to. ; — Rupicola perumana, Pipra peruviana LATH., BUFF. PL enl. 745.

Calyptomena RAFFL. Bill short, broad at the base. Feathers
incumbent on the bill, continued in a short, compressed crest over
the head. Wings broad. Tail short, even or somewhat rounded.
Sp. Rupicola viridis, Calyptomena viridis KAFFLES, HOBSF., TEMM. PL col.
216, Cuv. R. ani., e~d. ill., Ois PL 60, fig. 2; Sumatra. All the other
species of Rupicola hitherto known are American.

Ampelis L. (exclus. of some species.) Cotinga BRISS., GRAY.
Bill short, broad at the base, with culmen subarcuate; upper
mandible emarginate towards the tip, longer than lower. Nostrils
lateral, partly closed posteriorly by membrane, with the plumules
of the forehead continued up to the apertures of nostrils. Tarsi
moderate, covered anteriorly with transverse scutes, posteriorly with
small scales. Outer toes conjoined at the base only. Wings with
first three or four quills subequal, second mostly (or in females
fourth) longest of all. Tail moderate, even or subemarginate.

AVES. 481

Sp. Ampelis cotinga L., Cotinga ccendea GRAY, BUFF. PI. enl. 186; Brasil;
male azure-blue, purple below, with black flag-feathers and black tail;
female brown, greyish below. — Cotinga cincta GRAY, BUFF. PI. 188, re-
garded by many writers as a variety, differs by a blue transverse streak on
the breast; — Ampelis cayana L., BUFF. PI. enl. 624, &c. In this species
the first two flag-feathers are narrow.

Ampelis pompadora L., BUFF. PL enl. 279 male and 699 (fern. Ampelis
cinerea auctor.) ; Cayenne, Guiana ; the two mandibles more equal, the
tail shorter, the first flag-feathers not narrowed. The male is purple
coloured with white wings and stiff glossy coverts on the shoulders. This
species is the type of the genus Xipholena GLOGEB.

Pyrrhorhynchus LAFRESNAYE.

Comp. HARTLAUB, Note Monographique sur le sous-genre Pyrrhorhynchus,
Ampelis formosa HARTL., GUER. Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1849, pp. 493,
494, PI. 14, fig. t.

Add Ampelion CABAN. (Carpomis GRAY), Lipaugus BOTE (Lathria
SWAINS.).

Note. — The species of this genus differ from the allied species in their
simple, unadorned plumage, whence the name Lipaugus. Bill moderate,
deeply emarginate. Wings with first quill short, third and fourth subequal,
longest of all. Sp. Lipaugus simplex, Muscicapa simplex LICHTENST.,
Lipaugus lateralis GRAY, Gener. PI. LX. &c.

Ptilochloris SWAINS., Collurampelis LESS.

Sp. Ptilochloris lunatus SWAINS., Lanius arcuatus GEOFFR. SAINT-HIL.,
LAFRESN., GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1833, Ois. PI. 12.

Phibalura ViElLL.,1 Amphibolura CABAN. Bill short, with
culmen rounded, arched. Tarsi strong, covered anteriorly with
transverse scutes. Outer toes scarcely conjoined at the base. Wing
with first four quills longer than the rest, second and third sub-
equal, longest of all. Tail forked, with outer feather on each side
acute, produced.

Sp. Phibalura flavirostris VIEILL., Oaler. PI. 74, TEMM. PL col. 118, GUER.
Iconogr., Ois. PI. 9, fig. 2 ; Brasil. With the exception of the long forked
tail, this bird has much resemblance to some species of Ampelis which form
the sub-genus Ampelion CABAN. or Carpomis GRAY.

1 The etymology is uncertain ; phibalis is the Greek name of a species of fig. It
seems to me that Psalidura or Schizura would be better if these names were not
already used in entomology. Dicranura appears, if there must be change, preferable
to A mpkibohwa.

VOL. II. 31

482 CLASS xvi.

Threnoedus GLOGER, CABAN., Querula VIEILL. Bill moderate,
or a little longer than head, strong, "broad, inflated at the sides,
narrowed at the tip, emarginate. Nostrils covered with recumbent
plumes and bristles. Tarsi not longer than middle toe, covered
anteriorly with scutes, reticulate posteriorly. Outer toes scarcely
conjoined. Wings long, with second and third or third and fourth
quills longest of all. Tail moderate, even, broad.

Sp. Threnoedus militaris, Muscicapa militaris GM., a large bird, carmine-red,
with black wings and tail; — Threnoedus rubricollis, Muscicapa rubricollis
GM., BUFF. PL eril. 381 ; both species from the tropical regions of the new
world.

Chasmorhynchus TEMM. (Procnias of some writers). Head
flat above, broad. Bill moderate, broad at the base, narrowed
towards the tip, emarginate, with culmen distinct. Nostrils placed
in a large fossa towards the middle of bill. Gape of mouth
produced under the eyes. Tarsi covered anteriorly with scutes,
reticulate posteriorly. Outer toes conjoined at the base. Wings
long, mostly with third and fourth quills subequal, longest of all.
Tail moderate, subeven.

Sp. Chasmorhynchus variegatus, Ampelis variegata GM., Cuv. Regne Ani. 1817,
PI. 4, fig. 4, TEMM. PI. col. 51, LESS. Ornith. PI. 52, fig. i ; the male has
the neck naked, with many pendant, vermiform lobes of skin ; the head is
light brown, the rest of the plumage white, with the exception of the
wings, which are black; — Chasmorhynchus carunculatus, Ampelis caruncu-
lata GM., Procnias nivea GRAY, BUFF. PI. enl. 793, 794, Cuv. R. Ani., ed.
itt., Ois. PI. 20, fig. 2 ; — both species from Brasil.

Gymnoderus GEOFFR. Bill shorter than head, with culmen
convex, acuminate at the tip, emarginate. Plumes of forehead
short, silky, extending over the bill towards the nasal fossa.
Orbital region and sides of neck destitute of feathers. Wings with
third and fourth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail long, even,
broad.

Sp. Gymnoderus fcetidus, Gracula fostida L., Corvus nudus GM., BUFF. PL
enl. 609, GUEBIN Icon., Ois. PL 8, fig. 4 ; in Surinam and Guyana.

Coracina VIEILL. (except Gymnoderus}. Bill strong, moderate
or a little longer than head, somewhat depressed at the base,
curved at the tip, compressed, emarginate. Nostrils large, oval,
lateral, placed in a fossa. Rigid bristles at the base of bill. Gape
of mouth large. Tarsi strong, covered anteriorly with scutes,

AVES. 483

posteriorly reticulate. Wings long, with third and fourth or fourth
and fifth quills longest of all. Tail broad.

a) With bill moderate; tail somewhat long, rounded. Pyroderus GRAY,
Coronis GLOGEB. Sp. Coracina scutata TEMM. PI. col. 40, &c.

b) With bill somewhat long; tail short, rounded; head shaded by erect
plumes, deflected at the point. Cephalopterus GEOFFB. Sp. Coracina cepha-
loptera VIEILL., Cephalopterus ornatus GEOFFB. SAINT-HILAIBE, Ann.
du Mus. XHI. PL 15, LESSON Ornith. PL 41, fig. 2, GUEB. Iconogr., Ois.
PL 7, fig. 7 ; Brasil.

c) With bill somewhat long. Tail short, even; head bald. Gymnocephalus
GEOFFB. Sp. Coracina calva, Corvus calvus GMV Gymnocephalus capucinus
GEOFFB., BUFF. PL enl. 521, LESS. Ornith. PL 41, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani.,
ed. ill., Ois. PL 18, fig. 2, Cayenne.

Phytotoma MOLINA, GM. Bill short, conical, with culmen
rounded, margins serrate. Nostrils basal, small. Wings with
third and fourth quills subequal, longest of all. Tarsi scutellate
anteriorly. Tail somewhat long, even. (Genus of uncertain
position.)

Sp. Phytotoma rara MOLINA, Phytotoma silens V. KITL., Phytotoma Bloxami
CHILDBEN, GBAY Gener., PL 95; — Phytotoma rutila VIEILL.; — Phytot.
angustirostris D'ORBIGNY.

Compare on this genus MOLINA Essai sur Fffist. natur. du Chili, Paris,
1789, 8vo, p. 234. — LEADBEATEB Linn. Transact, xvr. 1829, pp. 85 — 87,
— LAFRESNAYE in GUEBIN Magas. de Zool. 1832, Ois. PL 2. — EYDOUX et
GEBVAIS, sur quelques particularites anatomiques du Phytotoma, ibid. 1838,
Ois. PL 86, &c. This genus was placed formerly in the neighbourhood of
Fringilla.

Family XXXVII. Corvince. Wings with ten primaries.
Wing-coverts short. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse
scutes, at the sides with integument continuous. Lateral toes
equal, outer conjoined at the base alone. Bill strong, subconical,
compressed at the tip, entire or emarginate obsoletely.

Corvus L. (exclus. of some species). Bill thick, cultrate,
moderate or long. Nostrils basal placed in a fossa, concealed by
recumbent bristles. Tarsi longer than middle toe, covered ante-
riorly with large transverse scutes. Wings with first quill mode-
rate, third and fourth subequal, fourth, more rarely third, longest
of all. Tail moderate, even or rounded. (Feathers strict, glossy.
Bill and feet black.)

The ravens. These birds eat all sorts of food ; they carefully hide the
remains of their repast, in order to bring it to light again when they are

31—2

484 CLASS xvi.

hungry ; they pilfer also and hide any attractive objects, as pieces of money,
children's toys, &c. They are social, cunning, and have a fine sense of
smell. Most of the species lay four or five green, brown-spotted eggs in
a nest consisting of dry twigs, filled in with earth and covered internally
with hair, moss and straw.

Sp. Corvus corax L., LESS. Ornith. PI. 35, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 53, fig. i ; the
raven, le corbeau, der Robe; the largest European species of this genus;
it lives also in the North of Asia, and is rare with us (Holland) ; it lives
principally in forests. In North America a similar species occurs (Corvus
corax WILSON), another at Java (Corvus corax RAFFLES, Corvus macrorhyn-
chus TEMM.),

Corvus corone L., BUFF. PL enl. 495, NAUM. Taf. 53, fig. 2 ; the carrion-
crow, der Krahen-Rabe, die Rabenkrahe; this species also has a representa-
tive in North America in Corvus americanus AUDUBON, Corvus corone WILS. ;
— Corvus cornix L., BUFF. PL enl. 76, NAUM. Taf. 54, the hooded-crow;
this species is grey with black head and tail and black wings, whilst the
two first-named species are quite black with bluish-violet reflections.

Corvus monedula L., BUFF. PL enl. 522, 523, NAUM. Taf. 56, the jack-
daw, is distinguished by a short bill. It builds its nest in our towns on
towers, high roofs and chimneys. Here the third -quill-feather is the
longest. The same character is presented by an Asiatic species (occurring
also in Japan), Corvus dauricus PALL., GRAY Gen. of Birds PI. LXXVI.
These species form the genus Lycos BOIE, Monedula BREHM.

In Africa a couple of species are found with very thick and high bill, in
which the fourth quill of the wing is the longest. They have a white neck,
but are otherwise quite black ; Corvus albicollis LATH., and Corvus crassi-
rostris RUEPPELL. Of these LESSON forms the genus Corvultur.

Pica BRISS. Bill moderate, curved. Wings with, first quill short,
often narrow, fourth, fifth and sixth subequal, longest of all. Tail
elongate, cuneate.

Sp. Corvus Pica L., Pica varia, Pica caudata (WiLLUGB., RAY), BUFF. PI.
enl. 488, LESS. Ornith. PI. 35, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 56, fig. 2 ; the magpie,
la pie, die Ulster; a well-known bird, with snow-white shoulders and
breast ; the black feathers, especially of the tail, reflecting rich copper and
steel-coloured tints ; it likes to make its nest in fruit-trees, and lays 7 or 8
eggs. — Corvus cyaneus PALL., in Spain, also in Tartary and Japan, &c.

Caryocatactes Cuv., Nucifraga BRISS. Bill subulate, a little
longer than head, with tip obtuse, somewhat depressed. Incumbent
bristles at the base of bill. Tarsi covered anteriorly with large
transverse scutes. Wings with fourth and fifth quills subequal,
longest of all. Tail rounded.

Sp. Caryocatactes nucifraga, Corvus caryocatactes L., BUFF. PL enl. 50,
LESSON Ornith. PI. 36, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 58, fig. 2 ; the nut-cracker, le
casse-noix, der Tannenheher, Nussheher; very rare in England; BREHM and

AVES. 485

DE SELYS-LONGCHAMPS here distinguish two species, of which the one is
characterised by a thicker and shorter bill ; similar varieties however in
the bill occur in other species; compare BERTHOLD, OKEN'S Isis, 1846,

Psilorhinus RuEPPELL. Bill moderate or a little longer than
head, somewhat straight. Nostrils basal, lateral, open. Wings
with fifth and sixth quills subequal, fifth longest of all. Tail long,
graduated.

Sp. Psiloi'hinus morio, Corvus morio LICHTENST., Pica fuliginosa LESS.,
Psilorhinus mexicanus KUEPP. Mus. SencTc. n. 1837, Taf. XI. fig. 2;— Pstto-
rhinus gubemator, Garrula gubernatrix TEMM., Cyanurus formosus SWAINS.,
TEMM. PI. col. 436, &c.

Add sub-genera Cyanocorax BOIE and Cyanurus SWAINS.

Calocitta (GRAY previously, in part) BONAP.

Sp. Calocitta sinensis, Cuculus sinensis L., Corvus erythrorhynchus GM.,
BUFF. PL enl. 621 ; from central Asia.

Garrulus BRISS. Bill shorter than head, thick, compressed,
emarginate ; lower mandible ascending to the tip, curved. Nostrils
oval, basal, covered with recumbent plumes. Tarsi longer than
middle toe. Wings with first quill short, fourth, fifth and sixth
subequal, fifth longest of all. Tail somewhat long, even or
rounded. (Head sub-crested. Coverts of back lax. Feathers
variegated.)

Sp. Garrulus glandarius, Corvus glandarius L., BUFF. PL enl. 481, LESS.
Ornith. PI. 36, fig. r, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 38, fig. 3, NAUM.
Taf. 38, fig. i ; the jay, le Geai, der Heher, Eichelheher; a prettily coloured
bird, grey-ruddy, with a black spot under the eyes, and a blue patch with
black transverse bars on the wings ; the head is white above, with black
stripes running longitudinally.

Perisoreus BONAP., GRAY, Dysornithia SWAINS. Bill short. Tail
graduated.

Sp. Garrulus infaustus, Lanius infaustus L , BUFF. PL enl. 608, SUSEMIHL'S
Vogel Europ. II. Tab. 6 a, fig. 2 ; grey-brown, the outer tail-feathers ruddy ;
in the North of Europe and in Asia; — Garrulus canadensis, Corvus cana-
densis L., BUFF. PL enl. 530, RICHARDSON Faun. bor. Amer., Birds, PI.
55 (y°ung> Garrulus brackyrhynchus SWAINS.)

Lophocitta GRAY, Platylophus SWAINS. Bill short, with tip
curved, emarginate. Gape of mouth ample ; long bristles at the

486 CLASS xvi.

angle of mouth, Head crested. Wings with fourth and fifth
quills subequal, longest of all. Tail graduated.

Sp. Lopkocitta galericulata GRAY, Lanius galericulatus Cuv., Oeai longup
LEVAILL., Parad. Tab. 42 ; Java. Another very similar species occurs at
Borneo and Sumatra, Lophocitta rufula TEMM. Mus. L. B.

Dendrocitta GOULD. Bill moderate, curved, broad at the base,
compressed at the sides towards the tip. Nostrils basal, lateral,
concealed by short, crowded plumes. Claws curved, acute. Wings
with fifth and sixth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail elongate,
cuneate, with the two middle feathers produced.

Sp. Dendrocitta leucogaster GOULD, Trans. Zool. Soc. i. PL 12, p. 89, Pro-
ceed. Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 57 ; — Dendrocitta occipitalis, Glaucopis occipitalis
S. MUELLER, Tijdschr. voor not. Gesch. n. 1835, PI. ix. fig. i; — Dendrocitta
vagabunda, Coracias vagabunda LATH. &c. These species live in the East
of Asia in mountainous districts on trees.

Crypsirhina VIEILL., Temia VAILL. (Temia LESS, add Tem-
nurus ejusd. not SwAiNS.1, Sp. of Glaucopis TEMM.)

Sp. Crypsirhina varians VIEILL., Corwis varians LATH., VIEILL. Galer. PL
1 06, GU£B. Iconogr., Ois. PL 51, fig. 3, &c.

Callceas FORSTER, GRAY, Glaucopis GMEL. Bill shorter than
head, curved, thick, inflated at the sides. Tarsi exceedingly long.
(Other characters almost of Den drocitta ; wings short.)

Sp. Callceas cinerea, Glaucopis cinerea GM., LESS. Ornith. PL 48, fig. 2,
VIEILL. Galer. PL 93; greyish black, the female greenish grey; two lobes
of skin under the bill ; tail-feathers broad at the extremity, with a narrow
pointed elongation of the shaft, which also occurs in Dendrocitta vagabunda.
This species lives in New Zealand.

Note. — Add genera Struthidea GOULD, Brachystoma SWAINS.,
Conostoma HODGS., and Ptilostomus SWAINS. The last genus, allied
to Dendrocitta, but African, is distinguished by the quill-feathers
narrowed at the point and by the third, fourth and fifth subequal,
longest of all.

Onychognathus HARTLAUB. Bill longer than head, with culmen
arched, tip produced, hooked, acute. Wings moderate, the first
bastard quill, the third, fourth and fifth subequal, longest of all.

1 See above, p. 449.

AVES. 487

The greater wing-coverts with external barb duplicated, the inferior
branches lax, decomposed. Tail elongate, graduate.

Sp. Onychognathus fidgidus HABTL., GUER. Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1849,
PI. 14, figs, i, 3 ; habitat in the Island of St. Thomas on the coast of
Guinea. I have not seen the bird.

Chlamydera GOULD. (Callodera previously.) Bill short,
curved. Nostrils oval, basal, open. Wings with third, fourth and
fifth quills §ubequal, fourth longest of all. Tail long, even, sub-
divaricate at the apex.

Sp. Chlamydera maculata GOULD, &c. Shy birds of New Holland; the
species here noted is brown above with ferruginous spots, grey below with
black wavy bands, whilst the male is ornamented with some red-violet,
glossy, truncated feathers in the neck.

Ptilorhynchus KUHL. (Species of Kitta TEMM.) Bill short,
high, curved, emarginate. Nostrils basal, covered entirely by
curved feathers in males (in females partly covered). Wings with
third, fourth and fifth quills subequal, fourth longest of all. Tail
somewhat short, even.

Sp. Ptilorhynchus holosericeus KUHL, Pyrrhocorax violaceus VIEILL., TEMM.
PI. col. 395 male, 422 fern., LESS. Ornith. PL 46, fig. i, male, &c. Birds
of the size of Corvus monedula, which KUHL first characterised as a dis-
tinct genus, Beitrdge zur Zoologie, Frankf. a. M. 1820, s. 150, 151. These
are two species belonging to Australia, to which may be added another
species of New Guinea, which is smaller, Kitta buccoides TEMM. PI.
col 575.

Barita Cuv. (Cracticus VIEILL.) Bill long, moderately curved,
with culmen flat, the semicircular base produced amongst the
feathers of the forehead, tip emarginate. Nostrils basal, open,
narrow, linear, parallel to the margin of mandibles. Tarsi long,
covered anteriorly with large elongated scutes, sometimes obsolete.
Wings with third, fourth and fifth quills subequal, fourth mostly
longest of all. Tail somewhat long, rounded, or subeven.

a) Strepera LESS., Coronica GOULD (add Gymnorhina GRAY).

Sp. Baiita strepera, Corous strepera LATH., Corvus graculinus WHITE, Bot.
Bay, PI. 36, p. 251, GUER. Icon., Ois. PI. 6, fig. 3— Barita tfiricen QUOY
et GAIM., GymnorUna leucota, GRAY Gen. of Birds, PI. LXXIII. ; — Barita
anaphonensis TEMM., Gymnorhina anaphonensis GRAY, LESS. Ornith. PI.
47, fig. i, &c. ; species from New Holland.

488 CLASS xvi.

b) Cracticus VIEILL., GBAY. (Bill curved, somewhat straight at the
base, with tip hooked. Tail rounded.)

Sp. Barita varia, Coracias varia GM., Cracticus cassicus GRAY, BUFF. PL enl.
628; New Guinea;— Barita destructor TEMM., Cracticus torquatus GRAY,
TEMM. PL col. 273; New Holland.

Pityriasis LESS. Bill strong, with tip hooked. Orbital region
naked. Head covered above with horny shafts, denuded, lamellose.

Sp. Barita gymnocephala TEMM., Cracticus gymnocephalus GRAY, TEMM. PI.
col. 570; Borneo.

Chalylceus Cuv., Phonigama LESS. (Phoniachema?) Bill mo-
derate, moderately curved, emarginate at the tip. Nostrils placed
in a fossa, surrounded by membrane, partly covered by plumes.
Wings with fourth, fifth and sixth quills subequal, fifth longest
of all. Tail long, rounded.

Sp. Chalybceus paradisceus Cuv., Paradiscea viridis GM., BUFF, PL enl. 634 ;
New Guinea, &c.

Pyrrhocorax Cuv., (add Fregilus ejusd.), TEMM. Bill moderate
or a little longer than head, slender, arched, compressed. Nostrils
basal, lateral, covered with setaceous, recumbent plumes. Tarsi
covered anteriorly with scutes often obsolete above, with three or
four distinct below. Wings with fourth and fifth quills subequal,
fourth longest of all.

Fregilus Cuv., Coracia BRISS., GBAY, (add Corcorax LESS., Cerco-
ronus CABAN.). Bill long, with tip entire.

Sp. Pyrrhocorax graculus, Corvus graculus L., BUFF., PI. enl. 255, NAUM.
Taf. 57, fig. 2 ; violet-black, bill and legs red; the wings reach to the end
of the tail, which is straightly truncated. This bird lives on the lofty
mountains of Europe, and in winter descends into the plains. In Australia
is a species with black bill and black legs, and longer tail, Pyrrhocorax
leucopterus TEMM. (Corcorax) GRAY Gen. of Birds, PI. LXXVIII.

Pyrrhocorax Cuv. Bill moderate, with tip emarginate. (Tail
broad, subeven, produced beyond the apex of wings.)

Sp. Pyrrhocorax alpinus VIEILL., Corvus pyrrhocorax L., BUFF. PL enl. 531,
NAUM. 1. 1. fig. i, GUER. Icon., Ois. PL 12, fig. 3, on the Alps, the
mountains of the south of Europe, &c. CUVIER placed these birds close by
Turdus, and Pyrrhocorax, on the contrary, as a sub-genus with Upupa.

Podoces FISCHER. (Is this its place ?)

Sp. Podoces Panderi. Cons, on this bird C. L. BONAPARTE Conspectus
generum Avium (L. B. 1850), p. 388.

AVES. 489

Family XXXVIII. Paradiseince. Wings with ten primaries.
Wing-coverts short, first quill-feather moderate. Tarsi mostly
long, covered anteriorly with transverse, sometimes obsolete scutes.
Bill moderate, conical, moderately curved, compressed towards
the tip.

Paradisea L*. (except Paradisea tristis). Bill longer than head,
with culmen rounded, the tip slightly deflected, emarginate.
Nostrils basal, lateral, concealed by the flocky plumes that cover
the base of bill. Tarsus longer than middle fore toe, outer toe
longer than inner. Claws large, compressed, curved. Wings with
first quill short, fifth and sixth subequal, longest of all. Tail even,
broad or rounded. Plumes of hypochondria often longer.

Birds of Paradise. Birds beautifully ornamented, of which all the
species belong to New Guinea and the neighbouring islands. They feed
on the fruit of fig-trees and also on insects. The Papuas, who sell these
birds as an ornament of dress, usually cut off their legs and wings.

Compare LE VAILLANT Hist. nat. des Oiseaux de Paradis et des Rolliers.
Paris, 1806, 2 vol. fol. — K. P. LESSON, Hist. nat. des Oiseaux de Paradis
et des Epimagues, Paris, 1835, i vol. 8vo.

In the males of most of the species the two middle tail-feathers are
lengthened into filaments which exhibit rudiments only of a vane.
(Paradisea VIEILL., add DiphyUodes LESS., Cicinnurus YIEILL.)

Sp. Paradisea apoda L. (in part), Paradisea major SHAW, BUFF. PI. enl,
256, LESS. Ois. de Par. PI. 6, Arou-islands ; — Paradisea minor FORSTER,
LESS., Paradisea papuana BECHST., GRAY, LESS. 1. 1. PI. 2 — 5, New
Guinea ; — Paradisea rubra VIEILL., LESS. Ornith. PI. 37, fig. i, Ois. de
Parad. PI. 7, 8 ; — Paradisea regia L., Cicinnurus spinturnix LESS., BUFF.
PL enl. 496, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 39, fig. 3 ; — Paradisea magni-
fiea SCOP., LATH., SONNER. Voyage a la Nouv. Guin. PL 98, BUFF. PI.
enl. 631.

In others those filaments are wanting.

Sp. Paradisea aurea GM., Paradisea sexsetacea LATH., SONNER. 1. 1. PI. 97,
BUFF. PI. enl. 633 (Parotia sexsetacea VIEILL.) ; — Paradisea superba SCOP.,
Parad. nigra FORST., Lophorina superba VIEILL., SONNER. 1. 1. p. 96, BUFF.
PI. enl. 632, LESS. Ois. de Par. PL 13, 14.

Epimachus Cuv. Bill long, slender, cloven as far as under
the eyes. Nostrils basal, covered by silken plumes. Wings with
fourth quill longest (or in males sixth and seventh subequal,
longest of all). Hallux strong, long. (Plumes of hypochondria
very long in males.)

490 CLASS XVT.

t With bill arched.

a) Tail very long, graduated. Cinnamolegus LESSON.

Sp. Epimachus speciosus GRAY, Upupa magna GM. (and U. fuxca ejusd. fern.),
SONNEB. Voy. PL 100, 101, BUFF. PL enl. 639, LESS. Ois. de Par. PL
39, 40, New Guinea.

b) Tail somewhat short, even. Ptiloris SWAINS.

Sp. Epimachus magnificus Cuv. R. Ani. PL iv. fig. 2, LESS. Ornith. PL 74,
fig. i, Cent. Zool. PL 4, 5, GUER. /cow., Cfo. PL 26, fig. 3, New Guinea; —
Epimachus regius LESS., Ptiloris paradisceus SWAINS., LESS. Ois. de
Parad. PL 29, 30, Australia.

ft With bill almost straight, subincurved. Sekucides LESS.

Sp. Epimachus albus, Paradisea alba BLUMENB., Abbild. Naturh. Gegenst.
No. 96. Cuv. R. Ani., €d. ill., Ois. PL 44, fig. 4, New Guinea.

Astrapia VIEILL. Bill moderate, slender, subarcuate, emar-
ginate at the tip. Lower mandible shorter. Wings with fifth and
sixth quills subequal, longest of all. Tarsi elongate. Tail very
long, cuneate, with feathers broad.

Sp. Astrapia gularis VIEILL., Paradisea nigra GMEL., VIEILL. Oaler. PL 107;
New Guinea.

Oriolus L. (exclus. of many species), TEMM., Cuv. Bill
moderate, subincurved, with culrnen keeled, emarginate towards
the tip. Nostrils basal, lateral, surrounded by membrane. Tarsi
short, strong. Wings with first quill short, third and fourth
subequal, longest of all. Tail subeven, with outer coverts a little
shorter.

Sp. Oriolus galbula L., BUFF, PL enl. 26, LESSON Ornith. PI. 38, fig. 2,
NAUMANN, Taf. 61 ; the golden oriole, le loriot, der Pirol; the male bright
yellow, with Triack wings and a black spot near the eyes ; the female and
the young bird greenish. This bird remains here (Holland) only a short
time (from May to August). It lays from three to five eggs in a nest
artistically built between branches of trees. Cherries are the favourite
food of this bird, which, however, lives principally on beetles and cater-
pillars. In some species (Oriolus melanocephalus L., BUFF. PL enl. 79,
Ori.olus brachyrhynchus SWAINS. &c.) the whole head is black, the plumage,
in other respects, very similar. All the species are from the Eastern
hemisphere.

Analcipus SWAINS., Artamia GEOFFR., PsaropJwlus SELBY. Bill
scarcely arched. Wings with fourth and fifth quills subequal,
longest of all.

Sp. Oriolus Traylii VIGORS ; Himalaya ; red-brown with black wings.
Note. — Some other sub-genera are here omitted.

AVES. 491

Sphecotkeres VIEILL. Bill short, keeled, curved, emarginate.
Nostrils placed in a fossa. Orbital region naked. Tarsi short.
Hallux large. Wings with first quill short, fourth longest of all.
Tail moderate, broad, even.

Sp. Sphecotheres viridis VIEILL., Gal. des Ois. PI. 147, Australia; — Spheco-
theres minor MUELLEB, Verhand. &c., Timor, &c.

Sericulus SwAlNS.

Note. — Habitus and characters almost of Oriolus; but tarsi longer.
Tail even, subemarginate. Wings with third, fourth and fifth quills
longest of all, nearly equal. Sp. Oriolus regens TEMM., PI. col. 320.

Family XXXIX. Sturnince. Primaries in some nine, in
others ten, with the first very small. Wing-coverts short. Tarsi
covered anteriorly with transverse scutes, posteriorly and on each
side with a continuous, horny scute. Outer toes conjoined at the
base only. Bill subulate, mostly straight or moderately curved,
in many emarginate before the tip.

Buphaga L. (Buphagus BRISS.). Bill short, curved, broad at
the base. Lower mandible high, with angle somewhat prominent
before the tip. Nostrils basal, placed in a fossa near the culmen
of bill. Tarsi longer than middle toe. Claws large, curved,
compressed. Wings with first quill very small, second, third and
fourth subequal, third longest of all. Tail moderate, cuneate.

Sp. Buphaga Levaillanti nob., Buphaga africana L., BUFF. PI. enl. 293,
LESSON Ornith. PI. 48, fig. i ; Senegal, Cape of Good Hope ; — Buphaga
erythrorhyncha TEMM., Tanagra erythrorhyncha STANLEY, SALT Voyage to
Abyssinia, Appendix rv. p. Lix. ; in Nubia, Abyssinia, Madagascar; the
'beef-eaters eat all kinds of insects and especially the larvae that live under
the skin of cattle, on which account they collect together in large flights
on pastures.

Gracula L. (in part), TEMM., Eulabes Cuv. Bill moderate,
subcurved, compressed, mostly emarginate before the tip. Nostrils
lateral, placed in a plumed fossa. Feet strong; tarsus equalling
middle toe. Claws curved, strong. Wings with first quill short,
third and fourth subequal, fourth longest of all.

a) With tail even.

Sp. Gracula religiosa L. (in part), Eulabes indicus Cuv., BUFF. PI. enl. 268,
LESSON Ornith. PI. 37, fig. 2, and some other very similar species from the

492 CLASS XVT.

Sunda islands and Ceylon, together with one from New Guinea, Gracula
Dumonti WAGL., Mino Dumontii LESS., with head bald. The other
species have naked, yellow, lobes of skin at the back of the head. These
birds are blue-black, with yellow legs and bill. They learn to speak very
intelligibly.

b) Tail cuneate. Gymnops Cuv. (Head destitute of plumes, except a
narrow plumed streak, extending above the forehead.)

Sp. Gracula calva L., BUFF. PL enl. 200, Cuv. R. AnL, 6d. ill., Ois.
PL 27, fig. 3 ; from the Island Lugon.

Pastor TEMM., Gracula Cuv. Bill moderate, compressed,
lengthened and conical, subincurved, emarginate before the tip.
Nostrils basal, lateral, oval, partly covered by plumed membrane.
Feet strong; tarsus longer than middle toe. Wings with first
quill very short, mostly second, more rarely third or fourth,
longest of all. Tail even or rounded.

Sp. Pastor roseus TEMM., Turdus roseus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 251, NAUM. Taf.
63, Cuv. ft. AnL, td. itt., Ois. PL 26, fig. 2 ; head, wings and tail black,
elsewhere rose-red ; bill and legs yellow ; in Africa and the South of
Europe ; — Pastor pagodarum, Turdus pagodarum, GM., LESSON Ornith.
PL 40, fig. 2 ; India, Bengal ; in this and some other species the fourth
flag-feather is the longest (Hceterornis GRAY, Sturnia LESS.).

Note. — Add sub-genus Acridotheres VIEILL., GRAY.

Sp. Pastor tristis, Paradiscea tristis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 219.

Basilornis TEMM. Bill shorter than head, curved. Head crested,
with plumbs covering the basal part of bill and the nostrils. Tail
rounded. Wings with third, fourth and fifth quills unequal, fourth
longest of all.

Sp. Pastor corythaix WAGL. (Basilornis celebensis TEMM.), H. C. VAN DER
BOON MESCH Nieuwe Verh. van de eerste Klasse van het Koninkl. Instit. n.
bl. 245, with a coloured figure ; black with blue-green reflections ; a white
spot behind the eyes and along the neck, flag-feathers brown-black ; bill
and legs yellow ; at Celebes.

Dilophus VIEILL., GRAY.

Sp. Dilophus carunculatus, Gracula carunculata GM., Sturnus gallinaceus
LATH.

Creadion VIEILL., GRAY, Philesternus ISID. GEOFFR. SAINT-
HiLAiRE1. Bill moderate, high at the base, compressed, with tip

1 Nouv. Annal. du Mus. I. 1832, pp. 390—392.

AVES. 493

obtuse, rounded. Wings concave, with fourth and fifth quills
longest of all. Tail long, rounded (with tail-feathers pointed in
males).

Sp. Creadion carunculatutn, Stumus carunculatus LATH., Icterus Novce
Zeelandice QUOY and GAIM., Voyage de I'Astr. PI. \i, fig. 4.

Sturnus L. (in part). Bill moderate, straight, subulate, with
culmen flat, with tip obtuse, depressed, rounded, entire. Nostrils
basal, partly closed by vaulted membrane. Feet moderate, strong ;
tarsus longer than middle toe. Tail even, somewhat short. Wings
with first quill very short, second longest of all.

Sp. Sturnus vulgaris L., BUFF. PL enl. 75, LESSON Ornith. PI. 65, fig. i ;
the common starling, Fetourneau, der Staar; a well-known bird, which
returns to us in March and migrates in October, remains however in each
year in greater or lesser number ; in the south of Europe the starling is
a permanent bird. Its food differs according to the season of the year,
but consists in great part of insects. Older starlings breed mostly twice
in the year ; they lay from 4 to 7 light sea-green eggs. — Sturnus cineraceus
TEMM., PI. col. 556, India, Japan, &c.

Amblyrhamphus LEACH. Bill subulate, with culmen rounded,
produced between the plumes of forehead, with tip depressed.
Nostrils basal, open, small. Wings with nine primaries, third,
fourth and fifth subequal, fourth longest of all. Tail somewhat
long, broad, rounded.

Sp. Amblyrkampkus bicolor LEACH, Oriolus ruber GMEL., Sturnus ruber Cw.,
SONNEB. Voyage a la Nouv. Guin. PI. 68, GUEB. Icon., Ois. PI. 20, fig. 3,
Buenos Ayres.

Stumella YIEILL. Tarsi long. Tail moderate, narrow, with
feathers pointed.

Sp. SturneUa collaris VIEILL., Sturnus ludovicianus L. (and Alauda magna
L.), BUFF. PL enl. 256, WILSON Amer. Ornith. PI. 19, fig. 2.

Note. — Here are to be inserted some genera of modern writers :
Agelceus YIEILL., Chrysomus SWAINS., Holothrus ejusd., Dolichonyx
ejusd., Leistes VIGORS, on which cons. GRAY Gener. of Birds, n.
pp. 346 and foil.

Cassicus Cuv., ILLTG. Bill moderate or longer than head,
strong, straight, elongate and conical, acuminate, produced like a
semicircular shield above the forehead. Nostrils narrow fissures,
naked, lateral, basal. Wings with nine primaries, third and fourth
subequal, longest of all. Tail somewhat long, graduated.

494 CLASS xvi.

Sp. Cassicus cristatus Cuv., Oriolus cristatus GMEL., BUFF. PL enl. 344,
LESS. Ornith. PI. 63, fig. I ; — Cassicus bifasciatus SPIX, Cassicus monte-
zuma LESS., Cent. Zool. PI. 7 ; — Cassicus icteronotus VIEILL., Oriolus
persicus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 184. In all these species the general colour is
black, contrasted with bright yellow, especially towards the tail. Black,
with the back deep red posteriorly, is Cassicus hcemorrhous, Oriolus hcemor-
rhous L., BUFF. PI. enl. 482, Cuv., R. Ani., fd. ill., Ois. PL 37, fig. i.
LINNAEUS referred the species known to him to the genns Oriolus. They
are all from South America.

Icterus Cuv. (Oriolus ILLIG., add Xanthornus Cuv.) Bill
of various length, acuminate, with culmen produced into a narrow
angle above the plumes of forehead. Nostrils basal, oval, covered
by membrane. Wings with second, third and fourth quills sub-
equal, third mostly longest of all. Tail rounded or graduated,
somewhat long.

a) With bill straight. Icterus Cuv. (add Yphantes VIEILL.)

Sp. Icterus vulgaris DAUD., Oriolus Icterus L., BUFF, PI. enl. 532; le
troupiale; back and belly yellow, head, neck, breast and tail black, with
white spots on the wings; in South America, and occasionally in the
southern countries of North America.

b) With bill curved. Xanthornus Cuv. (and Pendulinus VIEILL.)

Sp. Icterus bonana DAUD., Oriolus bonana L., BUFF, PI. enl. 535, fig. r,
&c.

Chalcophanes WAGL., (Quiscalus VIEILL.). Bill moderate,
curved, acute at the tip, with culmen rounded and produced some-
what amongst the plumes of the forehead. Nostrils basal, placed
in a fossa. Wings with nine primaries, second quill or second
and third longest of all. Tail long, cuneate, concave.

Sp. Chalcophanes quiscula, Gracula quiscula L., Quiscalus versicolor VIEILL.,
Gal. PI. 1 08, WILSON Amer. Ornith. PI. 21, fig. 4 (BUFF. PI. enl. 646
var.) ; — Chalcophanes major, Quiscalus major BONAP. Continual, of WILSON
PI. 4, &c. Most of the species of this genus are North American.

Scaphidurus SWAINS., Cassidix LESS.
Sp. Quiscalus ater VIEILL., GRAY Gen. of Birds, PL LXXXIV. &c.
Scolecophagus SWAINS.

Lamprotorms TEMM. Bill mostly moderate (more rarely a
little longer than head), with culmen convex, keeled, produced
between the plumes of forehead, with tip compressed, emarginate.

AVES. 495

Nostrils basal, lateral, placed in a fossa, partly covered by mem-
brane. Wings with ten primaries, the first very small, third or
fourth, more rarely fifth, longest of all.

t African species.

a) Tail very long, cuneate. Wings with fifth quill longest of all. luida
LESS, (in part), BONAP., Lamprocolius SUNDEV. in part.

Sp. Lamprotornis ceneus TEMM., Turdus emeus L., BUFF. PL enl. 220,
Lamprotornis longicauda SWAINS., Birds of Western Africa, I. Tab. 7.

b) Tail rounded. Wings with third and fourth quills sub-equal, longest
of all (second, third and fourth in some sinuate internally before the point).
Spreo LESS., Lamprocolius SUNDEV. in part.

Sp. Lamprotornis bicolor, Turdus bicolor GM.

ft Species from the East Indies and the Indian Archipelago. Lamprotornis
SUNDEV., Calornis GRAY. (Tail mostly moderate, rounded. Wings with
third quill longest.)

Sp. Lamprotornis cantor TEMM., Turdus cantor GM., Calornis panayensis
GBAT, TEMM. PI. col. 149, SONNER. Voyage a la Nouv. Guin. PI. 73, &c.

Enodes TEMM. Bill shorter than head, curved, emarginate.
Supra-orbital region beset with small rigid plumes, with shaft
naked, lamellose. Tail moderate, cuneate. Wings with third and
fourth quills subequal, longest of all.

Sp. Enodes erythrophrys, Lamprotornis erythrophrys (previously) TEMM. PI.
color. 267 ; Celebes.

Scissirostrum LAFRESN.

Sp. Scissirostrum Pagei GUER., Magasin. de Zool. 1845, Ois., PL 59. Hab.
in the island Celebes. I have not seen this bird.

Family XL. Fringillince (Fringillidce GRAY, excl. of some
genera). Primaries in some nine, in some ten (with first very
short). Wing-coverts short. Tarsi covered anteriorly with trans-
verse scutes, posteriorly and on each side with scute continuous.
Outer toes conjoined at the base only. Bill short, more seldom
moderate, conical, with tip almost always entire (in a few finely
emarginate), thick at the base.

Ploceus Guv. Bill moderate or shorter than head, produced
above the forehead, conical, strong, with culmen broad, rounded.
Nostrils placed at the base of bill, oval, open or partly covered
by recumbent plumes of the forehead. Wings with ten primaries,

496 CLASS xvi.

the first very short, fourth mostly longest in almost all. Tail short
or moderate, subeven or rounded. Tarsus equalling or surpassing
in length the middle toe.

Birds of warm countries of the eastern hemisphere, which build an
artistic nest of grass, stems and fibres of leaves. LiNNjEUS arranged the
species known to him under his genus Loxia. Sp. Ploceus philippinus,
Loxia philippina L., BUFF. PL enl. 135, fig. i ; Bengal, Java, the
Philippine Islands ; the bag-like nest with lateral entrance is suspended
on branches of trees; see a figure in BRISSON Ornilh. in. PL 18 ; — Ploceus
pensilis, Loxia pensilis GM. ; SONNERAT Voy. aux Ind. Or. PI. 109, from
Madagascar, &c. Comp. DE LAFEESNATE Sur la nidiftcation de quelques
especes d'oiseaux de la famille des Tesserins, GUERIN Revue et Magas. de
Zool. 1850, pp. 315 — 326, PI. 5, 6. The species referred to belong to the
sub-genus JSuplcctes of SWAINSON, who comprises the species with a longer
bill (viz. which almost equals the length of the head) under the genus
Ploceus proper (Hyphantornis GRAY). On other sub-divisions and names
consult GRAY Gen. of Birds, u. pp. 350 and foil.

Pyrenestes SWAINS.

Sp. Loxia ostrina VIEILL., Pyrenestes sanguineus SWAINS. Birds of W.
Africa, I. PI. 9.

Vidua Cuv. Bill short, conical, with culmen produced amongst
the plumes of forehead. Nostrils basal, covered by plumes. Wings
with ten primaries, the first very small, third, fourth and fifth
subequal, longest of all. Tarsus equalling or surpassing middle
toe. Tail in males elongate or very long.

a) With tail-coverts elongate. Vidua RUEPPELL, CABAN., Chera GRAY.

Sp. Vidua longicauda, Chera progne GRAY, Embcriza longicauda GM., BUFF.
PL enl. 635, LESS. Ornith. PL 59, fig. i, GUERIN Iconogr., Ois. PL 19,
fig. i.

b) With middle tail-feathers very long. Coliuspasser RUEPPELL, Penilie-
tria CABAN.

Sp. Vidua principalis Cuv., Eniberiza serena L. (and Smb. vidua and Emb.
principalis ejusd.), Vidua erythrorhyncha SWAINS., BUFF. PL enl. 8, fig. 2,
SWAINS. Birds of W. Africa, I. PL 12 ; — Vidua paradiscea, Eniberiza
paradiscea L., BUFF. PI. enl, 194; — Vidua macroura, Loxia macroura
GMEL., BUFF. PI. enl. 183, fig. i, Coliuspasser flavoscapulatus RUEPPELL,
&c. All the species are African.

Amadina SWAINSON, Sporothlastes CABAN. Bill short, conical,
with culmen rounded, curved, produced into an acute angle amongst
the feathers of forehead. Nostrils at the posterior margin of bill,
covered by plumes of forehead. Wings with ten primaries, the

AYES. 497

second, third and fourth quills subequal, longest of all. Tarsus
not surpassing the middle toe in length or shorter than it. Hallux
long, with claw larger, curved.

We here take the genus Amadina in the compass in which SWAINSON
has established it (Natural Hist, and Classificat. of Birds, II. p. 279), to
which he referred Estrdda, Amadina, Spermestes, Erythura and Pytelia as
sub-genera. Here also the number of genera is too much multiplied by
modern writers. All the species are from warm countries of the eastern
hemisphere, some from Australia, many from Africa. They are small birds
mostly elegantly marked ; whence many are brought to Europe and kept
alive in cages as chamber-birds. To the larger species belongs the rice-bird,
Amadina oryzivora, Loxia oryzivora L. BUFF. PI. enl. 152, fig. i, Diet,
univ. d'Hist. nat., Ois. PI. 3 A, fig. 2, from the East Indies ; from Africa
the Bengali, Amadina Bengala, Fringilla bengalus, Estrelda phcenicotis
SWAINS., BUFF. PL enl. 115, fig. i, Diet. univ. 1.1. fig. i, SWAINS. Birds
of W. Afr. I. PI. 14. More than seventy species of this genus are
known.

Loxia BRISSON, ILLIG., TEMM. (add Corythus Cuv. in part,
spec, from gen. Loxia L.). Bill shorter than head, strong, keeled,
compressed towards the tip, with tip of upper mandible hooked,
produced beyond lower. Nostrils basal, lateral, rounded, covered
by recumbent plumules at the base of bill. Wings moderate, with
nine primaries (the first wanting), first two or second and third
subequal, longest of all. Tarsus short, thick, of the length of
middle toe. Tail short, forked.

Compare on this genus and some others of this family C. L. BONAPARTE
et H. SCHLEGEL, Monographic des Loxiens. Avec 54 PI. col. Leide et
Dusseldorff, 1850, 4to.

Loxia BRISS., ILLIG. TEMM. Tips of mandibles crossing.

Sp. Loxia curvirostra L., BUFF. PL enl. 218, LESS. Ornith. PI. 61, fig. 2,
NAUM. Taf. no, BONAP. et SCHLEGEL Lox. PI. i, 3; the cross-bill, le bee
croise, der Kreuzschnabel ; the tip of the lower mandible projects above
the margin of the upper mandible ; the male is red, with black wing- and
tail-feathers ; the female and the young birds are grey-brown, with yellowish-
green tints ; this species li ves on pine-trees in the north, and visits temperate
countries in the winter. In this species the breeding is not confined to any
definite time of year, but occurs sometimes even in winter ; see HANOW'S
Sellenkeiten der Natur u. OeJconom. i. Leipzig, 1753; s. 277 u. S. — Loxia
pytiopsittacus BECHST., NAUM. Taf. 109; rarer and larger than the pre-
ceding • the tip of the lower mandible does not project above the margin of
upper; it lives in the north of Europe. All the species of this genus,
not numerous, are from the Northern hemisphere.

VOL. II. 32

498 CLASS XVT.

Corythus Guv. (in part), Strobilophayus VIEILL. Lower mandible
gibbous beneath, with tip concealed under the upper mandible.
Wings with second and third quills longest of all.

Sp. Loxia enucleator L., BUFF. PL enl. 135, fig. i (scarcely worth to quote
fig.), NAUM. Taf. 112, BONAP. et SOHL. Monogr. PI. n, 12 (very good
figs.); the pine bull-finch, le durbec, der Hak&nyimpd, Fichtengimpel ; in the
forests of the high North in Europe and America ("victitans strobilis; dis-
seminator Pini." LINNAEUS).

Psittacosis NITZSCH, CABAN., Psittacirostra TEMM. Bill short,
curved; upper mandible produced beyond the much shorter
lower, with tip bent downwards. Nostrils placed in the base of
bill, partly covered by plumed membrane. Tarsus longer than
middle toe. Wings with nine primaries, the second and third
subequal, third longest of all. Tail moderate, emarginate.

Sp. Psittacopis icterocephala, Loxia psittacea LATH., TEMM. PL enl. 457;
from the Sandwich Islands.

Paradoxornis GOULD.

Sp. Paradoxornis fiavirostris GOULD; — Parad. ruficeps; — Parad. gularis
HORSF. See GRAY Gen. of Birds, PI. xciv. Birds from the East Indies,
with bill high, compressed, short.

Pyrrhula BRISS., Cuv., TEMM. Bill short, broad at the base,
thick, with culmen rounded. Nostrils basal, small, covered by
bristles. Wings long, with nine primaries, the second and third
subequal, longest of all. Tail somewhat long, mostly even,
sometimes forked. Tarsi short.

Sp. Pyrrhula vulgaris BRISS., Loxia pyrrhula L., PI. enl. 145, LESSON
Ornith. PI. 61, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 114; the common bull-finch, le bouvreuil;
Europe, Siberia. In the north of Europe a larger species or variety also
occurs, Pyrrhula major BREHM, Pyrrhula coccinea SELYS-LONGCHAMPS,
which according to BR. is the proper Loxia pyrrhula L. In some species
the tail is forked. They belong to the sub-genus Carpodacus. Sp. Pyr-
rhula rosea TEMM., Fringilla rosea PALL. ; — Pyrrh. erythrina TEMM., Loxia
erythrina PALL., both of which species are figured in NAUM. Taf. 113.

Fringilla L. (excl. of some species). Bill conical or subulate,
with culmen substraight or little curved, mostly short, acuminate,
with tips of mandibles subequal, with margins straight. Wings
with nine primaries, the first four subequal, second or third longest
of all. Tarsus equalling or scarcely surpassing middle toe. Tail
even or subforficate.

AVES. 499

The finches. Social birds, living mostly in woods, some also in rocky
places, and some in the neighbourhood of human dwellings. The genus
F ring ilia of LINN.EUS is more natural than his genus Loxia, and therefore
has undergone fewer modifications. Some indeed of the species of his
genus Loxia required to be added to it, and others to be referred to
Amadina (see above, p. 497). Still, however, in the genus Fringilla thus
limited, many subdivisions have been offered, since the bill especially is
subject to many changes in size and form.

a) With bitt short, broad at the base, with culmen obtuse, declivous, sub-
straight. Fringilla Cuv.

Sp. Fringilla ccelebs L., BUFF. PI. enl. 54, fig. r, LESSON Ornith., PI. 60,
fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 118; the chaffinch, le pincon, der Such-Fink, gemeine
Fink; a very well known bird, breast in the male ruddy, in the female
grey ; back, above the base of the tail, green, a white and a yellow transverse
stripe on the wings; — Fringilla montifringitta L., NAUM. Taf. 119, the
mountain-finch; — Fringilla chloris, Loxia chloris L., BUFF. PL enl. 267,
fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 120; the green grosbeak.

Amongst the exotic species to this division may be referred Fringilla
canarina L., Crithagra canaria SWAINS., BUFF. PL enl. 202, i, of which
the yellow variety, the canary, is dispersed everywhere as a chamber-bird.

b) With bill short, acute, subcompressed. Linaria BECHST., Linota
BONAP.

Sp. Fringilla canabina L., BUFF. PL enl. 485, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 121; the
common linnet, &c.

c) With bill very short, broad at the base, with culmen flat, compressed
at the tip, acute. Tail forked. Serinus of some, Spinus KOCH, BREHM,
Chrysomitris BOIE.

Sp. Fringilla spinus L., BUFF. PL enl. 485, fig. 3, NAUM. Taf. 125 ; the
siskin, &c.

d) With bill moderate, subulate, with tip much compressed. Carduelis
Cuv. (Tail short, subemarginate ; wings with first and second quills longest
of all.)

Sp. Fringilla carduelis L., BUFF. PL enl. 4, LESSON Ornith. PI. 60, fig. 2,
NAUM. Taf. 124, figs, i, 2; the goldfinch, la chardonneret, der Distelfink;
wings black, with a bright yellow spot, throat and head around the bill
blood-red, especially in the male ; tail black with white margin. The name
carduelis is borrowed from the food which it willingly seeks, the seeds of
thistles and of many other plants from the natural family of the composites.

e) With bitt conical, culmen subarcuate, tip emarginate, curved. (Tail
even.) Pyrgita Cuv.

Sp. Fringilla montana L., BUFF. PL enl. 267, fig. i, LESSON Ornith. PI. 62,
fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 1 16, figs, i, 2 ; the mountain-linnet, le friquet; — Frin-
gilla domestica L., BUFF. PL enl. 6, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 115; the house-
sparrmv, le moineau.

32—2

500 CLASS XVI.

Coccothraustes Cuv. Bill of the length of head, very broad at
the base, conical, with culmen rounded, flat. Head large. Tail
short, emarginate. (Tarsus short, strong. First four primaries
acuminate, the succeeding truncated, sinuate internally at the
point.)

Sp. Fringilla coccothraustes, Loxia coccothraustes L., BUFF. PL enl. 145,
LESSON Ornith. PL 61, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. in; the common grosbeak, le
gros-bec, der Kerribeisser ; remarkable on account of its large bill, pointed
like a top.

Pitylus Cuv. Bill shorter than head, high at the base, with
culmen curved, tip distinct, curved. Margin of upper mandible
waved. Nostrils placed in a fossa at the base of bill. Primaries
nine; the third, fourth and fifth subequal, third or fourth longest
of all. Tail somewhat long, rounded or even.

Sp. Pitylus grossus Cuv., Loxia grossa L., BUFF. PI. enl. 154; Pitylus
cayenensis, Loxia canadensis L. (by misprint; read cayenensis), BRISS.
Ornith. m. PI. n, fig. 3, BUFF. PI. enl. 152, fig. 2, &c. All the species
of this division are from America. Here belongs also Loxia cardinalis L.,
BUFF. PI. enl. 37, which with some other species forms the genus Cardi-
nalis BONAP.

Note. — Several genera of modern writers are to be added here. Saltator
VIEILL., Sporophila CABAN. &c. of which the species were formerly in
part assigned to the Tanagrce, on which cons. BONAPARTE Conspect. Gen.
Avium, 1850, pp. 488 and foil.

Emberiza L. (exclusive of some species). Bill short, conical,
with culmen rounded. Nostrils basal, rounded, partly covered by
recumbent frontal plumes. Margins of mandibles sinuate, drawn
inwards, descending posteriorly; upper mandible mostly furnished
with a tubercle internally. Tarsus equalling or surpassing the
middle toe in length. Wings with nine primaries, first three or
four subequal, second and third mostly longest of all. Tail some-
what long, even or emarginate.

a) With posterior claw shorter than hallux. ( Wings with first four quills
subequal; a compressed tubercle in the middle of palate.)

Emberiza BREHM (and Miliaria ejusd.), Cynchramus BOIE.

Sp. Emberiza citrinella L., BUFF. PL enl. 30, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 102, figs.
i, 2 ; LESSON Ornith. PI. 59, fig. i ; the yellow bunting; on the upper part
of the back the wings and the tail red-brown with black ; the two outer
tail-feathers at the end of the inside white ; head, breast and belly greenish-
yellow; — Emberiza Schoeniclus L., BUFF. PL enl. 747, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf.

AVES. 501

105, the reed-bunting; on the back and wings brown, belly white; the
adult male has the head and the throat dark-black. — Emberiza Jiortulana L.,
BUFF. PL enl. 247, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 103; the ortolan bunting, &c.

b) With posterior claw surpassing haUux in length, somewhat straight. (Wings
with first three quitts subequal, fourth shorter.)

PlectropJianes MEYER, BREHM.

Sp. Emberiza nivalis L., BUFF. PL enL 497, fig. r, 511, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf.

1 06, 107 ; the snoio-bunting ; — Emberiza calcarata TEMM., Fringilla laponica
L., NAUM. Taf. 108, SELBY Linn. Trans. 1827, Tab. I. pp. 156 — 160,
GKABA in OKEN'S Isis, 1832, s. 18 (description of the nest and the eggs).

.These birds make their nests in the north in fissures of rocks; in winter,
especially in severe frosts, they visit temperate countries, and feed on seeds
of plants and insects. Their plumage is very different at different periods
of their life, and, when adult, in their winter- and summer-dress ; hence the
first species appears under two different names in GMELIN.

Note. — Here are to be placed some genera of modern writers :
FringUlaria SWAINS., Gubematrix LESS. (Lophocorythus GRAY), <fcc.

Cissopis YIEILL., Bethylus Cuv. Bill short, thick, with culmen
convex, tip hooked, inflected, compressed, emarginate ; lower
mandible rounded, inflated, with tip ascending. Nostrils basal,
lateral, oval. Wings short, with third, fourth and fifth quills
subequal, third longest of all. Tail graduated, elongate. (Is this
its place ?)

Sp. Cissopis bicolor VIEILL., Lanius piscatorius LATH., VIEILL. Gal. des Ois.
PL 140, LESS. Ornith. PI. 46, fig. 2; South America. CUVIEB placed
this bird as a sub-genus with Lanius; according to GBAT and others it
ought to be arranged in the neighbourhood of Tanagra.

Procnias HOFFMANSEGG, ILLIG., TEMM., Tersa VIEILL., GRAY.
Bill short, keeled, depressed at the base, broad, compressed at the
tip, subhooked, emarginate, with gape ample. Nostrils basal,
placed at the culmen of bill, margin ate. Tarsus equalling middle
toe. Wings with first three quills subequal, second and third
longest of all. Tail subemarginate, short.

Sp. Procnias ventralis ILLIG., Ampelis tersa L., TEMM. PL col. PL 5, GUEB.
Iconogr., Ois. PL 8, fig. 6 (fig. of the bill) ; Brasil.

Tanagra L.1, Thraupis BoiE. Bill short, subtrigonal at the
base, with culmen declivous towards the tip; upper mandible

1 Tangara is a Brazilian name for some species of this genus.

502 CLASS XVI.

emarginate behind the tip, produced beyond lower. Nostrils basal,
rounded, partly covered by plumes of forehead. Tarsi of the
length of middle toe or longer than it. Wings with nine primaries,
first four subequal, second and third mostly longest of all. Tail
even.

A numerous genus of mostly small American birds, often with shining
coloured plumage, in great part from the southern hemisphere. From the
form of the bill and other characters different sub-genera have been dis-
tinguished.

Rhamphopis VIEILL. Lower mandible dilated at the base, with horny
covering produced beyond the upper.

Sp. Tanagra jacapa L., BRISS. Ornith. n. Tab. 38, fig. 3; BUFF. PL enl.
128, LESS. Ornith. PI. 54, fig. 2; Cayenne, Caraccas; dark red-brown,
the breast in the male red ; bill red.

Tanagra GRAY. Bill compressed towards the tip, emarginate. Wings
with second and third quills longest of all. (Add Calliste BOIE, GRAY.)

Sp. Tanagra epixcopus L., BRISS. Ornith. HI. Tab. 3, fig. 2, BUFF. PI. enl.
178, fig. i ;— Tanagra tatao L., BRTSS. Ornith. in. Tab. i, fig. i, BUFF. PL
enl. 7, fig. i, 127, fig. 2, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Ois. PL II. C, fig. i, &c.
See fig. in SCLATEE'S beautiful publication, PL i. A Monograph of the
Birds forming the Tanagrine genus Calliste, illustrated by coloured plates.
By PHILIP LUTLEY SCLATER, London, 8vo, Part i.

Euphone DESMAR. Bill with culmen keeled, curved, with margin of
upper mandible often dentate. Wings with second quill longest. Tail
short, subemarginate.

Sp. Tanagra chlorolica L., BRISS. Ornith. in. Tab. 2, fig. 3, BUFF. PL enl.
114, fig. i, &c.

Tachyphonus VIEILL. Bill strong, shorter than head, or mode-
rate, with margins sinuate. Lateral nostrils placed in a fossa.

Sp. Tanagra cristata L., BUFF. PL enl. 301, fig. i ; Tachyphonus sanguino-
lentus LESS. Cent. Zool. PL 39, &C.1 (For some other sub-genera,
omitted here, proposed by VIEILLOT and SWAINSON, see GRAY Gener. of
Birds, II.)

Family XLI. Alaudince. Primaries ten or nine. Secondaries
elongate. Wing-coverts short. Tarsi covered anteriorly and
posteriorly with transverse scutes, longer than middle toe. Outer
toes conjoined at the base only. Bill conical, mostly short, with
tip entire.

1 Various other species of Tanagra are figured and described in this work.

AVES. 503

A small family, on which the former closes by some species of
IZmberiza, but which differs from them in a remarkable manner in
the covering of the tarsi

Alauda L. (in part)1. Bill shorter than head, conical or
subulate. Nostrils basal, lateral. Wings with first quill spurious
or none, third and fourth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail even
or emarginate. Toes short. Posterior claw longer than hallux,
acute, somewhat straight.

The larks. These birds make their nests upon the ground ; the female
lays 4 or 5 grey or reddish eggs, commonly with brown spots. They
live mostly in society, and sing whilst on wing, mounting perpendicularly
upwards. They feed on insects and seeds, and, with the exception of a
few species of North America (of the sub-genus Phileremos}, all belong to
the Eastern hemisphere.

a) With bill thick. (Tarsi somewhat short. Tail short.)
Melanocorypha BOIE.

Sp. Alauda calandra L., BUFF. PI. enl. 363, fig. 2; Southern Europe and
North Africa; — Alauda tatarica PALL. — Alauda, dot-bey TEMM. Mus.
L. B., lerapterhina Cavaignacii LAFBESNAYE Magas. et Revue de Zool.
1851, PI. i ; North Africa.

Phileremos BREHM, Otocoris BONAP.

Sp. Alauda alpestris L., BUFF. PI. enl. 650, fig. i, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not.,
Ox. PI. 29, fig. 2.

b) With bill slender.
Alauda auct.

Sp. Alauda arvensis L., BDFF. PI. enl. 363, fig. i, NAUMANN, Taf.ioo, fig. i ;
the sky-lark, I'alouette, die Feldlerche; — Alauda cristata L., BUFF. PI. enl.
503, fig. i, LESSON Ornith. PI. 66, fig. 2 ; NAUM. Taf. 99, fig. i, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 32, fig. i, &c.

Alcemon BLAS. and KEYSERL., (Gerthilauda SWAINS.). Bill
long, slender, curved. Wings with first quill short, third, fourth
and fifth subequal, longest of all. (Claw of hallux elongate, but
less than in Alauda. Tarsi elongate.)

Sp. Alcemon desertorum, Alauda desertorum STANLEY, Alauda bifasciata
LICHTENST., TEMM. PL col. 393 ; Arabia, North Africa, and sometimes

1 Some species of the genus Alauda of LINNAEUS belong to Anthus BECHST. ;
Alauda magna L. is Sturnus ludovicianus. See above p. 493.

504 CLASS XVI.

in Spain; — Alauda africana GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 712, Cape of Good
Hope, &c.

Macronyx SWAINS. Bill moderate, slender, subcurved, keeled,
obscurely emarginate at the tip. Nostrils basal, lateral, placed
in fossa, elongate. Tarsi long, exceeding the middle toe. Toes
elongate; hallux long, furnished with a long, acute claw.

Sp. Macronyx flavicollis SWAINS., Alauda capensis L., BUFF. PL enl. 504,
fig. it RUEPPELL neue Wirbelth. PI. 38, fig. 2 ; Africa. — (The covering of
the tarsi appears to justify the position of this genus near Alauda rather
than near Anthus.)

Family XLII. Parince. Primaries ten, with first short.
Wing-coverts short. Tarsi covered anteriorly with long scutes,
or above with a continuous scute, below with transverse scutes,
posteriorly within and without with a continuous scute. Toes
shorter than tarsus, the outer concrete at the base only. Claws
curved, compressed, acute. Bill short, conical.

Parus L. Bill very entire, covered at the base by setae,
short, sometimes very short. Nostrils basal, lateral, concealed by
recumbent plumules of forehead. Wings with third and fourth or
fourth and fifth quills longest of all. Tail moderate or elongate.
(Tongue truncated, terminated by setsB.)

The titmice. Small birds of the Eastern hemisphere, some also from
North America. Their food consists of insects and seeds. Most of the
European species breed twice a year, and lay many eggs ; on the second
occasion, however, fewer than on the first. The young ones are fed chiefly
with caterpillars.

a) With first quill short.

Sp. Parus major L., BUFF. PI. enl. 3, fig. 6, NAUM. Taf. 94, fig. i, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 32, fig, 4; the great titmouse, la charbonnidre, la
grosse mesange, die Kohl-meise ; back olive-coloured, wings and tail greyish,
outer tail-feather white and a large spot under the eye white also, belly
yellow-green, head, throat and middle of the breast, steel- coloured black; —
Parus cceruleus L., BUFF. PL enl. 3, fig. 2, LESS. Ornith. PI. 66, fig. i ;
the Hue titmouse, &c. In these species the tail is even and shorter than
the body. The following is distinguished by a tail longer than the body,
the tail-feathers from without inwards lengthening gradually, Parus cau-
datiAS L., the long-tailed titmouse, BUFF. PL enl. 502, fig. 3, NAUM. Taf.
95, figs. 4, 5, 6 ; in this species the bill is very short with culmen strongly
curved (the sub-genus Mecistura LEACH).

From this the genus Psaltria TEMM. is not sufficiently distinguished.

AVES. 505

Sp. Parus exilis GRAY, Psaltriaexilis TEMM. PI. color. 603, fig. 4 ; a species
from Java, which is not larger than the common species of humming-
birds.

b) With first quill spurious, very short.

Calamophilus LEACH. Tail long, graduated. Sp. Parus biarmicus L.,
BUFF. PL enl. 618, figs, i, 2, GUEB. Icon., Ois. PL 18, fig. i; the bearded
titmouse; makes its nest in reeds, fixed to the stem of coarse grasses.

jEgithalusViGOEa, Paroides KOCH. Tail short, emarginate. Sp. Parus
pendulinus L., NAUM. Taf. 97 ; a very small species from the East and
North of Europe, whose nest interwoven very artistically of fibres of bark,
and the cotton of the seeds of willows, and fastened to a reed or a thin
willow-branch and surrounded by closely tangled bushes or bulrushes, is
protected from the wind and withdrawn from sight.

Sphenostoma GOULD. Bill short, compressed, curved. Nostrils
basal, placed in a fossa. Wings with first quill short, fourth and
fifth longest of all. Tail long, graduated.

Sp. Sphenostoma cristatum GOULD, Birds of Australia.

Regulus Cuv. Bill short, slender, subulate, subemarginate
before the tip. Nostrils covered by a rigid, decumbent plumule.
Wings with first quill short, fourth and fifth longest of all. Tail
moderate, even or subemarginate, with feathers pointed. Tarsi
long, covered anteriorly and above with a continuous scute.

Sp. Regulus flavkapillus NAUM., Motacilla regulus L., LESS. Ornith,. PI. 70,
fig. 2, NAUM., Taf. 93, figs, i, 2, 3; the gold-crested wren; — Regulus
ignicapillus BEEHM, Regulus pyrrJiocepTialus ejusd., BUFF. PI. enl. 651,
fig. 3, NAUM. Taf. 93, figs. 4, 5, 6, GUERIN Icon., Ois. PI. 14, fig. 3.
These species are the smallest European birds. They live in society, breed
twice a year, and in their mode of life much resemble the titmice.

Family XLIII. Cerihiance. Primaries ten, with first short.
Wing-coverts short. Tarsi long, covered anteriorly with transverse
scutes, at the sides with a continuous scute. Outer toes conjoined
at the base only. Claws compressed, curved; posterior larger than
anterior middle. Bill moderate or longer than head, slender,
mostly subincurved, more rarely straight.

Sitta L. Bill moderate, straight, subulate, somewhat round,
compressed at the tip. Nostrils basal, rounded, covered by bristles.
Wings moderate, with first quill short, fourth and fifth mostly
longest of all. Tail short, even. Hallux long.

Sp. Sitta europcea L., Sitta ccesia MEYEB and WOLF, BUFF. PI. enl. 623,
fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 139, LESS. Ornith. PI. 65, fig. 2; the nuthatch, la

506 CLASS XVI.

sitelle, le torchepot, der Kleiber, der Blauspecht; back, tail and wings
bluish-grey, rosy-yellow below, a black streak across the eye. A restless
little bird, which climbs upon the branches of trees not only upward
but downwards also, with its head below, which the woodpeckers canno
do. It lives on insects, seeds and nuts.

Note. — Add genus Dendrophila SWAINS.

Sittella SWAINS. Wings long, with second, third and fourth quills
subequal, longest of all, fifth a little shorter than these.

Sp. Sitta pileata GOULD, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 151, Sitta melanocephala
ejusd. Birds of Austr. &c.

Certhia ILLIG. (species from gen. Certhia it.) . Bill moderate,
slender, subincurved. Nostrils basal, partly covered above by a
vaulted membrane. Wings with first quill short, second and third
gradually longer, fourth and fifth longest of all. Tail graduated,
with feathers pointed. Toes long; claws curved, the posterior
longest of all.

Sp. Certhia familiaris L., BUFF. PI. enl. 68 r, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 140, LESS.
Omiih. PI. 72> fig1- J j the common creeper, le grimpereau, der Baumlaufer;
breast and belly white, a white streak above and behind the eyes, tail red-
brown, wings brown, spotted yellowish white and red ; a small, lively bird,
that seeks for small insects, especially beetles and spiders, on the branches
of trees, and does not leave us even in winter.

Salpornis GRAY. (Tail even, short, with feathers rounded. Other
characters almost of Certhia.)

Sp. Certhia spilonota FRANKLIN, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1830, 1831, p. 121,
GRAY Gen. of Birds, PL XLIV. fig. i, India.

Cuulodromus GRAY.
Climacteris TEMM.

Sp. Climacteris picumnus TEMM., Certhia leucophcea LATH., TEMM. PI. col.
281, fig. i; — Climacteric scandens TEMM. 1.1. fig. 2, &c. (Species from
Australia.)

Tichodroma ILLIG. Bill long, subcurved, slender, trigonal at
the base. Nostrils basal, partly covered by vaulted membrane.
Toes slender, long, with claws curved, the posterior longest.
Wings ample, with first quill short, fourth and fifth longest of all.
Tail rounded.

Sp. Tichodroma muraria, Certhia muraria L., BUFF. PL enl. 372, NAUM.
Taf. 141, LESS. Ornith. PI. 77, fig. 2, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. HI., Ois. PI. 41,
fig. i; der Mauerlaufer; grey with a crimson spot on the wings; this

AVES. 507

bird lives on the highest mountains of central Europe, and feeds on
insects, especially on larvse and spiders. It is a bird of passage which
in the winter descends into lower districts, and then even visits towns
situated in the neighbourhood of high mountains, living in old buildings
and towers.

Family XLIV. Nectarinice. Primaries in some nine, in some
ten, the first short. Wing-coverts short. Tarsi longer than middle
toe, covered anteriorly with transverse scutes, at the sides with a
continuous scute. Outer toes conjoined at the base only. Claw of
hallux curved, scarcely or not longer than anterior middle. Tongue
long, mostly terminated by setae or bifid.

Nectarinia ILLIG. (in part), TEMM., GRAY, Cinnyris Cuv. Bill
moderate or long, subcurved or arched, with margins serrate and
toothed (the incisures not distinguishable by the naked eye).
Nostrils placed in a fossa, lateral, basal. Wings with ten primaries,
the first short, the fourth (more rarely the third) longest of all.
Tarsi equalling or surpassing the middle toe in length.

Arachnothera KUHL, TEMM. Bill long, trigonal at the base, sub-
curved. Wings with quills from the third to the fifth subequal,
fourth or third longest of all. Tail broad, even, short.

Sp. Nectarinia longirostris, Certhia longirostris LATH., TEMM. PL col. 84,
fig. i ; — Nectarinia inornata, Cinnyris affinis HORSF. TEMM. PL col. 84,
fig. 2, &c. ; species from the East Indies, especially from the island
Sumatra. Compare S. MUELLEB Verh. over de not. Gesch. der Nederl.
Overzeescke Bezittingen, Aves, pp. 67 — 70. They are larger than the species
of the following sub-genus and very uniformly coloured, above brownish-
green, below grey or yellow.

Nectarinia TEMM. Bill moderate or a little longer than head,
slender. Tail moderate, even, more rarely graduated (and in males
with two middle feathers elongate). Tarsi longer than middle toe,
slender. (Males adorned with splendid metallic plumage and shining
colours.)

Sp. Nectarinia senegalensis, Cerihia senegalensis L., BRISS. Ornith. in. PL 34,
fig. 2, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 42, fig. 4, LESS. Ornith. PI. 76,
fig. 2. — Nectarinia chalybcea L., BUFF. PL enl. 246, fig. 3, &c. To those
species in which the two middle tail-feathers are very long, belongs
Nectarinia pulchella, Certhia pulchella ~L., BUFF. PL enl. 670, fig. i, SWAINS.
Birds of W. Africa, II. Tab. 14, &c. All the species of this numerous
genus are from the warm countries of the eastern hemisphere, and rival
the Humming-birds of America in brilliancy of colours.

508 CLASS XVI.

Drepanis TEMM. (Melithreptus VIEILL. in part). Bill moderate
or long, arched, compressed, with margins entire; upper mandible
longer than lower. Wings with nine primaries, the second and
third longest of all. Tail short, even or subemarginate. Tarsi
long.

Sp. Drepanis pacifica, Certhia pacifica GM., Vestiaria hoho LESS. ; — Drepanis
coccinea, Certhia coccinea FORSTER, BLUMENB. Abb. naturh. Gegenst. No.i6,
LESS. Ornith. PL 76, fig. i, GU£R. Icon., Ois. PL 24, fig. 2 ; male scarlet-
red, with wing- and tail-feathers black ; a small bird, found at the Sandwich
Islands, with the feathers of which the inhabitants were used formerly to
adorn the head-dress and mantles of their chiefs. In another species,
also from the Sandwich Islands, the lower mandible attains only half the
length of the upper, Hemignathus LICHTENSTEIN, Abhandl. der Akad. zu
Berlin, Physik. KL, 1838, pp. 34, 35 ; Sp. Drepanis lucida GRAY, ffemi-
gnathus lucidus LICHTENST., 1. 1., Tab.v. figs. 2, 3, ffeterorhynchus olivaceus
LAFRESN., Magas de Zool. 1839, #**• P1- IO-

Dicceum Cuv., TEMM. Bill moderate or short, acuminate, with
culmen curved, margins very entire. Wings with nine primaries,
the first three subequal, second longest of all. Tail short, even.
(Outer toes rather more concrete than in the other genera of this
family.)

Sp. Dicceum cruentatum, Certhia cruentata L., SONN. Voyage aux Ind. Or.
PL 117, fig. T, GUER. Iconogr. Ois. PL 24, fig. i ; — Dicceum sanguinolentum,
TEMM. PI. color. 478, fig. 2 ; — Dicceum hirundinaceum, Dicceum pardalodus
Cuv., LAFRESN., GUER. Mag. de Zool. 1833, O^8- PI- T4- (This last species
forms the genus Myzanthe HODGS.)

Ccereba VIEILL. (Nectarinia Cuv., Arbelorhina CABAN.) Bill
moderate or a little longer than head, arched or moderately curved,
slender, emarginate at the tip, with culmen keeled. Wings with
nine primaries, the first three subequal, the second longest of all.
Tail short, even.

Sp. Ccereba cyanea, Certhia cyanea L., BUFF. PL enl. 83, fig. 2, LESSON
Ornith. PL 77, fig. i ; Cayenne, Guyana, &c.

Dacnis Cuv. Bill moderate or short, conical, acuminate, with
culmen keeled. Wings with nine primaries, third and fourth long-
est of all. Tail moderate or somewhat short, subemarginate.

Sp. Dacnis cayana, Motacilla cayana L., BRISS. Ornith. in. PL 28, figs, i, 4,
BUFF. PI. enl. 669, fig. i, from which STRICKLAND (JARDINE Contrib.
to Ornith. 1851) distinguishes Dacnis melanotis as a species, BUFF. PL enl.
669, fig. 2, LESS. Ornith. PL 64, fig. 2 ; which, according to SCLATER,
appears to be the same as Dacnis angelica DE FILIPPI ; — Dacnis atricapilhi

AVES. 509

GRAY, Certhia spiza L.?, Certhia spiza GM. var. p., BUFF. PI. enl. 578,
fig. 2, &c. Compare SCLATER in JARDINE, Contrib. to Ornith. 1851,
Part iv. These little birds of South America appear, like the Certhice,
to creep on trees.

Conirostrum ORBIGNY, LAFRESN.

See Synops. Avium America, Revue Zool. 1842.

Diglossa WAGL., Campylops LIGHT., Uncirostrum LAFRESN.
Bill moderate, compressed, straight, with tip hooked; lower man-
dible gibbous, ascending. Wings with fourth quill longest. Tail
rounded.

Comp. WAGLER, Isis, 1832. Sp. Diglossa baritula WAGL., GRAY, Gen.
of Birds, PL XLII. ; — Diglossa bruneiventris DESMURS, PL peint. 43, &c.

Zosterops VIGORS, HORSF. Bill shorter than head, acuminate,
with culmen subcurved, finely emarginate at the tip. Nostrils
placed in a lateral fossa, covered by membrane, linear. Wings
with ten primaries, third and fourth subequal, longest of all. Tarsi
long. Tail moderate, even.

Sp. Zosterops madegascariensis, Motacilla madegascariensis L., BRISS. Ornith.
in. PI. 28, fig. 2 ; — Zosterops flava, SWAINS. Birds of W. Africa, n. PL 3 ;
— Zosterops palpebrosa, Sylvia palpebrosa, TEMM. PI. col. 293, fig. 3. Small
birds mostly of a yellow-green colour, greyish beneath ; they occur in the
East Indies, Africa and Australia.

Melithreptus VIEILL. (in part), GRAY. Bill shorter than head,
subulate, with culmen rounded. Nostrils placed in a fossa. Wings
with ten primaries, third, fourth and fifth longest of all, subequal.
Tail moderate, even.

Sp. Melithreptus lunulatus, Certhia lunulata SHAW, Meliphaga atricapttla
TEMM. PL col. 335, fig. i, &c. Species from Australia and Van Diemen's
Land.

Myzomela VIGORS and HORSF. Bill moderate or longer than
head, slender, curved, compressed towards the tip, acuminate.
Nostrils basal, covered by membrane, with aperture linear. Wings
with ten primaries, third, fourth and fifth subequal, third and fourth
mostly longest of all. Tail subemarginate or even, moderate.

Sp. Myzomela sanguinolenta, Certhia sanguinolenta LATH.; — M. chermezina
GRAY, Gen. of Birds, PL xxxvm. ;— Myzomela Boiei MUELLER, Verh.
over de not. Gesch. &c. Aves, Tab. 10, figs, i, 2, &c.

510 CLASS XVI.

From this genus Acanthorhynchus GOULD, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1827,
p. 24, does not appear to be sufficiently distinct. Sp. Acanthorh. tenui-
rostris, Certhia cucuUata SHAW, &c. The species of this genus are small,
and live mostly in New Holland, some on the islands of the Indian
Archipelago.

Promerops BniSS., Philoturus S WAINS. Bill long, subcurved;
nostrils linear, placed in a fossa. Tongue feathery. Wings with
ten primaries, the first short, the fourth longest of all. Tail long,
cuneate.

Sp. Promerops cafer, Merops cafer L. (and Upupa promerops ejusd.), BUFF.
PL enl. 637, GU£R. Iconogr., Ois. PL 26, fig. 2 ; South Africa.

Meliphaga LEWIN, TEMM., Philedon Cuv. Bill moderate or
longer than head, keeled, with culmen curved, compressed at the
tip, emarginate. Nostrils lateral, covered by membrane, placed in
a fossa (sometimes pervious). Wings with ten primaries, the first
short, fourth and fifth subequal, longest of all. Tail moderate or
long. Tarsi long.

Acrulocercus CABAN., Moho LESS. Bill moderate. Tail long,
graduated, with middle feathers curved.

Sp. Meliphaga fasciculata, Merops niger GM., Merops fasciculatus LATH.,
DIXON Voy. round the World, London, 1789, 4to, p. 357 and PI., MERR.
Avium rar. Icon. Tab. n. ; TEMM. PL col. 471 j black, with a bunch of
long yellow feathers at the sides ; from the Sandwich Islands.

Anthochcera VIGORS, HORSF. Bill moderate. Tail elongate, gra-
duated. In many a pendulous caruncle on each side of the throat,
destitute of feathers.

Sp. Meliphaga carunculata, Merops carunculatus LATH., Anthochcera Lewini
VIGORS and HORSF., PHILIP Voy. to Bot. Bay, 1789, PI. 28, p. 164; —
Meliphaga inauris, Anthochwa inauris GRAY, Creadion carunculatus
VIEILL. Gal. PI. 94.

Acanthogenys GOULD. Tail moderate, broad, even. A naked place below
the eyes, with cheeks spinose.

Sp. Meliphaga rufogularis, Acanthogenys rufogularis, Proceed, of the ZooL
Soc. 1837, p. 153.

Tropidorhynchus VIGORS and HORSF., Philedon SWAINS. Bill strong,
with culmen acute. Nostrils nearly in the middle of bill. Tail long,
even, with point broad. Head with scattered hairs.

Sp. Meliphaga corniculata, Merops corniculatus LATH., WHITE Voy. to New
South Wales, p. 190, PI: 16.

Prosthemadera GRAY. Bill moderate, curved, broad at the base. Tail
long, even.

AYES. 511

»

Sp. Mdiphaga circinnata, Merops circinnatus LATH., Merops novce Hottandice
GMEL., Philemon cincinnatus VIEILL. Gal. PI. 183, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ML,
Ois. PI. 26, fig. i . Black, with green and violet reflections ; with white,
loose plumules on each side of the neck, elegantly rolled in spirals. New
Zealand.

Note. — On some other sub-genera, omitted here, cons. GRAY, Genera of
Birds, i.

Phyllornis BOIE. Bill moderate, in some a little longer than
head, with culmen keeled, subcurved, with tip curved, emarginate.
Nostrils basal, placed in a fossa. Wings with ten primaries, fourth
and fifth subequal, fourth longest of all. TaiJ moderate, even.
Feet short; tarsi somewhat thick, shorter than middle toe, covered
above anteriorly with a continuous scute.

To the genus Phyllornis belong light-green bright-coloured birds of the
East Indies and the Sunda Islands ; GMELIN and LATHAM referred the
species known to them to the genus Turdus. Sp. Phyllornis aurifrons
TEMM. PL col. 484, fig. i ; — Phyllornis cochinchinensis, Turdus cochinchi-
nensis GM., BUFF. PL enl. 643, fig. 3, TEMM. PI. col. 484, fig. 2 ; — Ph.
. PL col. 512, fig. i, &c.

Hypsipetes VIGORS. (Is this its place?) Bill moderate, keeled,
emarginate. Wings with fourth and fifth quills subequal, longest
of all. Tail long, with point broad, emarginate. Tarsi short.

Sp. Hypsipetes psaroides VIGOBS ; Himalaya.

Note. — Here also, according to CABANIS, should be referred genera Sibia
HODGSON and Yuhina HODGS. (sub-genera Myzornis, Polyodon and Ixulus) ;
GRAY has placed Yuhina amongst the Luscinidce.

Family XLV. Liotrichince (Liotrichidce CABAN.). Primaries
ten. Wing-coverts short. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse
scutes, posteriorly and on each side with a continuous scute. Bill
compressed, mostly short, almost always emarginate.

Cissa BOIE, GRAY. (Species of Kitta TEMM.). Bill shorter
than head, strong, emarginate, with culmen curved. Nostrils basal,
covered by plumes of forehead. Bristles at the angle of mouth.
Wings with fourth, fifth and sixth quills subequal, the fifth longest
of all. Tail somewhat long, gradiiated. (Feathers of back decom-
posed, long.)

Sp. Cissa sinensis, Coracias sinensis GM., Corvus speciosus SHAW, BUFF. PL
enl. 620; — Cissa tJialasnna TEMM., PI. enl. p. 401.

512 CLASS XVI.

G-arrulax LESS. Bill shorter than head, acuminate, keeled.
Nostrils placed in a fossa at the base of bill. Wings with fifth
and sixth quills longest of all. Tail somewhat long, rounded.
Tarsi long. Posterior claw longer than the rest.

Sp. Garrulax perspicillatus, Turdus perspicillatus GM., BUFF., PL enl. 604 ; —
Garrulax mitratus GRAY, Timalia mitrata SAL., MUELLER, Tijdschr. voor
not. Gesch. en Physiol. n. 1835, PI. ix. fig. 3; — Garrulax lugubris GRAY,
Timalia lugubris S. MUELLER, 1. 1. fig. 2 ; the last two species are both
from Sumatra, &c.

Trochaloptera HODGS.

Pterocydus GRAY. Bill short, subulate. Bristles at the cheeks
long. Wings with fifth, sixth and seventh feathers longest of all.
Tail long, rounded.

Sp. Garrulax lineatus BLYTH, Pterocyclus setifer GRAY; — Garrulax erythroce-
phalus BLYTH, &c. ; species from the central parts of Asia.

Actinodura GOULD, Leiocincla BLYTH, Ixops HODGS.

Cindosoma VIGORS, HORSF. Bill short, with culmen nearly
straight, subulate. Wings short, with fourth and fifth quills long-
est of all. Tail elongate, graduated.

Sp. Cindosoma punctatum, Turdus punctatus LATH. &c. Species from Aus-
tralia and Van Diemen's Land.

Pomatorhinus HORSF. Bill moderate, curved, keeled, com-
pressed, with margins entire. Nostrils basal, lateral, covered by
a scale. Gape of mouth produced under the eyes. Tarsi long.
Wings concave, with quills gradually longer up to the fourth,
the fourth, fifth and sixth subequal, longest of all. Tail long,
graduated.

Sp. Pomatorhinus montanus HORSF.; Java, Sumatra; — Pomatorhinus tempo-
rails Via. and HORSF., Pomatorhinus trivirgatus TEMM. PL col. 443 ; At
tralia, &c.

Timalia HORSF. Bill shorter than head, broad at the
curved, compressed, finely emarginate at the tip. Nostrils basal,
placed in a fossa, covered by a scale. Short bristles at the angle of
bill. Tarsi long. Wings short, concave, with fifth and sixth quills
subequal, longest of all. Tail moderate, rounded or graduated.
(Feathers of back, and often also of throat, decomposed.)

Sp. Timalia thoracica TEMM. PI. col. 76 ; Java, Sumatra ; — Timalia nigricolli
TEMM. PI. col. 594, fig. 2, &c.

AVES. 513

Sub-genera Myzcrnis HODGS. Sp. Timalia gularis HOBSF., Myiotkera
ffularis TEMM. PL color. 442, fig. i, &c.

Sub-gen. CJirysomma HODGS. Sp. Timalia hypoleuca FBANKL., DE LA-
FRESN., GUEB. Mag. de Zool. 1835, Ois. PI. 39, &c.

Macronus JAKD.
Sp. Timalia trickorrhos TEMM. PL col. 594, fig. i.

Jora HORSF. Bill moderate or shorter than head, compressed,
emarginate. Wings with first quill short, fourth, fifth and sixth
subequal, longest of all. Secondaries long. Tail even.

Sp. Jora tiphia, Motacilla tiphia L., EDWABDS Birds, Tab. 79;— «7oraZa/m-
nayi HARTL. Mayas, de Zool. 1845, Oif. PL 60, &c. Species from the
East Indies, Ceylon and the Sunda Islands; comp. HABTLAUB, 1. cit.

LiotJirix SWAINS. *, Furcuria LESS. Bill shorter than head,
strong, compressed, emarginate, with culmen curved. Nostrils
basal, lateral. Bristles at the angles of mouth. Wings somewhat
short, rounded, with fifth and sixth quills subequal, longest of all.
Tarsi slender, long. Tail moderate or somewhat long.

Sp. LiotJirix sinensis, Tanagra sincnsis GM., Parus furcatus TEMM. PI. color.
237, fig. i; China, Himalaya. This species, with forked tail, formed
originally the genus of SWAINSON, which LESSON, simultaneously with
him, distinguished (as a sub-genus of Parus); Traite d'Omith. p. 457.
Other species from central Asia, which may be added to it, have an even
tail, some a wedge-shaped tail, as Lioihryx chrysocephala, Musdcapa varie-
gata DELESSEBT, GUEB. Magas. de Zool. 1840, Ois. PI. 19.

Mimus BOIE, Orpheus S WAINS, (add Toxostoma WAGL. and
Harpes GAMBEL). Bill moderate, compressed, emarginate at the
tip. Nostrils basal, oval, placed in a small fossa. Bristles at the
angle of mouth. Wings rounded, with fourth and fifth quills,
sometimes also sixth, subequal, longest of all. Tail elongate,
graduated or rounded, ample.

Sp. Mimus polyglottus, Turdus polyglottus L., WILSON Amer. Ornith. PI. x.
fig. i ; the mocking-bird; back grey, whitish below; wings and tail greyish-
black with white on the outside. This North American bird has, with a
pleasing and powerful song, the ability also to learn the note of other
birds, and even to imitate all kinds of sound ; — compare WILSON (JABDINE'S
edit.) I. pp. 164 — 176. The same ability also belongs to Mimus orpheus,
Turdus orpJieus L., EDWABDS Birds, PI. 78, from the West Indies, and in

1 Leiothrix, Fauna Boreali-Amer., Birds, p. 490.
VOL. II. 33

514 CLASS XVI.

a greater or less degree to various other South American species. — Toxo-
stoma WAGL. Sp. Mimus rufus, Turdus rufus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 645 ;
Carolina, &c.

Donacobius SWAINS.
Sp. Mimus Irasiliensis MAXIM., Turdus airicapillus L., BUFF. PL enl. 392.

CampylorhyncJius SPIX. (Picolaptes LAFRESN. in part.)

Sp. CampylorhyncJius zonatits, Picolaptes zonatus LESS. Cent. Zool. PL 70 ; —
Campylorh. megalopterus DESMURS, PI. peint. 54, &c.

Troglodytes VIEILL., KOCH, Cuv. Bill moderate (in some
shorter than head, in others longer), slender, with culmen sub-
curved. Nostrils basal, lateral. Gape of mouth produced under
the eyes. Wings short, with third, fourth and fifth quills subequal,
longest of all. Tail short, rounded or even, often erect.

Sp. Troglodytes europceus Cuv., Motacilla troglodytes L., BUFF. PL enl. 651,
fig. 2, LESS. Ornith. PI. 70, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 83, fig. i ; the common
vyren, le roitelet, der Zaun-Schlupfer ; dispersed throughout Europe ; a small
bird, red-brown, dirty white on the breast ; it builds an artistic nest with
various materials, especially moss from the trunks of trees, and lays from
6 to 8 white eggs with red spots.

Thryothorus VIEILL. Sp. Troglodytes longirostris Cuv., VIEILL. Gal.
PI. 1 68, GU£B. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 15, fig. i j from Brasil and the Antilles,
&c.

Note. — On some other genera, amongst which Tatare (!) LESS.
ought especially to be noted, cons. GRAY Gen. of Birds, L, and
BONAP. Consp. gen. Av. pp. 220 — 224.

Family XL VI. Turdince. Primaries ten, the first very short.
Wing-coverts short. Tarsus longer than middle toe, covered on
the anterior surface above with a continuous horny coat, below with
transverse scutes. Bill emarginate at the tip, compressed, wi
culmen curved, in most moderate, in a few longer than head.

.

Copsychus WAGL., Gryllivora S WAINS. Bill shorter than
head, strong, compressed, with culmen curved. Nostrils lateral,
basal, partly covered by the plumules of forehead. Wings with
first quill moderate, fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth subequal,
longest of all. Tail elongate, cuneate.

Sp. CopsycTius mindanensis, Turdus mindanensis GM., BUFF. PL enl. 627;
East Indies, the Sunda Islands ; — Copsychus macrourus, Turdus macrourus
GM., Turdus tricolor VIEILL. &c.

AVES. 515

Bessonornis SMITH. (Cossyplia VIGORS). Bill short Wings with
fourth, fifth and sixth quills subequal, the fifth longest of all. Tarsi
elongate. Tail somewhat long, ample, graduated or rounded. (A
genus scarcely distinct from the preceding.)

Sp. Bessonornis Swainsoni BONAP., Petrocincla albicapilla SWAINSON, Birds
of W. Afr. i. PI. 32 ; — Bessonornis vociferans, Turdus reclamator VIEILL.
— Bessonornis semirufa, RUEPPELL Syst. Uebers. der Vo'gel Nord-0. Afr.
1845, PL «» &c-

Note. — Add genus ThamnoUa SWAINS, in part, Thamnolcea CABAN.
They who would unite these three genera will scarcely, in my
opinion, violate the natural method.

Sp. Copsychus albiscapulatus, Saxicola albiscapulata RUEPPELL, Neue Wirbel-
thiere, Tab. 26, fig. i. (Comp. Turdus cinnamomeiventris LAFRESN., GUEB.
Magas. de Zool. 1836, Ois. PL 55, 56.)

Turdus L. (exclusive of some species). Bill moderate or
shorter than head. Nostrils basal, lateral, oval. A few bristles at
che angle of mouth. Wings with third and fourth quills, sometimes
ivitli fifth also, subequal, the third and fourth longest of all. Tail
noderate, even.

The thrushes. These birds feed on insects and worms, in autumn on
berries also. They live mostly in woods, and lay from 4 to 7 light-green
eggs, commonly spotted with brown or red. The species of Holland and
the North of Germany are for the most part birds of passage, but these
same species live over the winter in the South of Europe.

Sp. Turdus musicus L., BUFF. PL enl. 406, NAUM. Taf. 66, fig. 2 ; the song-
thrush or throstle, la grive, die Sing-drossel ; — Turdus pilaris L., BUFF. PI.
enl. 490, NAUM. Taf. 67, fig. 2 ; the fieldfare, &c. These two species are
greyish, ruddy-brown above, whitish with black spots below. — Turdus me-
rula L., BUFF. PL enl. 2 male, 555 fern., NAUM. Taf. 71, LESS. Ornith.
PI. 38, fig. i male; the blackbird, la merle, die Amsel; the male black with
a yellow bill, the female brownish.

Oreocincla GOULD. Bill moderate, strong, with culmen curved.
Tail moderate, rounded, with 14 feathers.

Sp. Turdus varius PALL. Zoogr. Russo-Asiat. I. 499; central Asia, Japan,
occasional in Europe ; in this species the third flag-feather is the longest ;
in a very similar species from Java, Turdus lunulatus LATH., SUNDEV., on
the contrary, the fourth and fifth flag-feathers are the longest.

Hanticola BOIE, Petrocinda, VIGOES. Bill moderate, with tip
curved. Points of wings produced beyond the half of taiL

Sp. Turdus saxatilis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 562, NAUM. Taf. 73, Diet. univ. tfffist.
nat., Ois. PI. 18, fig. 2.

33—2

516 CLASS XVI.

Geocichla KUHL.

Sp. Turdus citrinus LATH., TEMM. PL col. 445 ; from the East Indies, as are
also the other species of this sub-genus. Comp. BONAP. Consp. Gen. Av.
p. 268 1.

ZootJiera VIGORS, BONAP. (MyiopJiaga LESS.). Bill longer than
head, compressed; upper mandible with hooked tip produced be-
yond the lower. Wings somewhat short, with first quill very short,
fourth and fifth subequal, longest of all. Tail short, even, broad.
Tarsus not surpassing middle toe.

Sp. Zoothera monticola VIGORS, Himalaya; — Zooikera andromcda HARTL.,
Myiotkera andromeda TEMM. PI. col. 392 ; from Timor and the high regions
of Java.

Cinclus BECHST., ILLIG., TEMM. (not MOEHR.; see p. 415),
Hydrobata VIEILL., GRAY. Bill moderate or scarcely shorter than
head, cultrate, subascending. Bristles at the angle of mouth none.
Nostrils marginal, longitudinal. Tarsus longer than middle toe.'
Wings short, concave, with first quill very short, third and fourth
subequal, longest of all, second scarcely shorter than these. Tail
short, even.

Sp. Cinclus aquaticus BECHST., Sturnus cinclus L., BUFF. PL enl. 940, LESSON
Ornith. PL 39, fig. 2 ; the water-ouzel, der Wasser-Schwatzcr ; the back
black, the neck and upper part of the breast white, the belly brown. These
birds breed twice a year, keep by rivers and brooks, and build artistic
nests in holes on the banks ; they feed on water-insects. Some species of
this genus occur also in Asia and America.

Eupetes TEMM. (Is this its place?) Bill a little longer than
head, straight, depressed at the base, broad, with tip curved.
Plumes of forehead produced over the lateral fossae of bill ; nostrils
basal, oval. Tarsi long, obsoletely scutellate in front. Wings
short, rounded, with fifth and sixth quills subequal, longest of all.
Tail long, ample, rounded.

Sp. Eupetes macrocercus TEMM. PL col. 516, LESS. Compl. d BUFF. viu. PL
39, fig. 2; Sumatra; — Eupetes Ajax TEMM. PL col. 573; New-Guinea, &c.
This genus has affinity with Tanypus or Grallina; see the next page.

—

1 In Turdus rubiginosus, a species of this division, the covering of the anterior
siirface of the tarsi consists of transverse scutes more or less conspicuously distinct.

I

AVES. 517

Family XL VII. Motacillince. (Luscinidce GRAY, Sylviadce
previously.) Primaries in some nine, in others ten (with first very
short). Wing-coverts short. Tarsi slender, mostly long, covered
anteriorly with distinct transverse scutes, coalesced in some, or
; with a continuous horny scute. Outer toes conjoined at the base
alone. Bill short, more rarely moderate, mostly slender, somewhat
straight or subcurved, compressed towards the tip, emarginate.

Grrallina VIEILL., Tanypus1 OPPEL. Bill moderate, sub-
straight, with culmen rounded, obscurely emarginate at the tip.
Bristles at the angle of mouth. Tarsi long, obscurely scutellate.
Toes short. Wings long, with ten primaries, the third and three
following subequal, fourth longest of all. Tail long, even, ample
; at the extremity.

Sp. Grallina melanoleuca VIEILL., Tanypus australis OPPEL, Denkschr. der
Ale. der Wissensch. zu MuncTien, 1811, 1812, s. 150 — 166, Tab. vin,
VIEILL. Gal. PL 150, LESS. Ornith. PL 39, fig. i.

Allocoturus mihi, Enicurus TEMM. (Henicurus). Bill moderate,
somewhat straight, dilated at the base, with culmen keeled, tip
bent. Nostrils lateral, placed in a fossa, surrounded by membrane.
Rigid bristles at the angle of mouth. Wings with ten primaries,
first veiy small, fourth and fifth subequal, longest of all. Tarsi
covered anteriorly by a continuous horny scute. Tail elongate,
forked, or moderate, deeply emarginate.

Sp. Allocoturus coronatus, Enic. cor. TEMM., Turdus LeschenauUii VIEILL.
Gal. PL 145, TEMM. PL col. 113; — Allocoturus velatus, TEMM. PL col. 160;
both from Java; — Allocoturus ruficapittus, TEMM. PL col. 534, Sumatra.
From the continent of India also, and from central Asia species of this
genus are known.

Motacilla L. (exclusive of many species), LATH., BECHST. Bill
^hort, in a few almost as long as head, straight, slender, acuminate,
compressed at the tip, emarginate. Nostrils open, basal, lateral,
yval, partly covered above by naked membrane. Short bristles at
:he angle of mouth. Tarsus much longer than middle toe, slender,
)bsoletely scutellate in front. Front claws small, hind claw longer.
VTings with nine primaries, the first two subequal, longest of all,

Such also is the name given by MEIGEN to a genus of the Diplera, I. p. 345.

518 CLASS XVI.

with the sixth and seventh of secondaries long. Tail elongate,
even.

Sp. Motacilla alba L., BUFF. PL enl. 652, LESS. Ornith. PI. 71, fig. i; the
pied wagtail, la hoche queue, la lavandiere, die weisse Bachstelze ; grey, white
below, the two outer tail-feathers white, the throat in the summer-plumage,
especially in the adult male, pitch-black. A somewhat different species,
occurring chiefly in England, is Motacilla Yarrellii GOULD, which was con-
founded by previous writers with Motac. lugubrisPALL. ; it is figured under
this name in GUERIN Iconogr., Ois. PI. 15, fig. 3. — In some of the species
the toe of the hallux is long and very acute. Of these CUVIER forms the
sub-genus £udytes.—Sp. Motacilla flava L., BUFF. PL enl. 674, fig. 2,
Cuv. R. Ani., id. ill., Ois. PI. 29, fig. 2 ; the yellow wagtail, &c. They
make the transition to the following genus.

Anthus BECHST., TEMM. (species of gen. Alauda L.). Bill
short, with culmen declivous at the base, then somewhat straight,
subcurved, subemarginate, acuminate, mostly slender. Nostrils
placed before the base of bill, oval, marginal. Tarsus longer than
middle toe, scutellate anteriorly. Front toes moderate, posterior toe
elongate, surpassing hallux, acute. Wings with nine primaries,
second and third longest of all ; with the sixth and seventh of the
secondaries long. Tail moderate, emarginate.

These birds have the closest affinity with the preceding; in the colour and]
marking of the feathers they, however, have more resemblance to the larks
and many thrushes, grey-brown above, and the breast spotted black. They
feed on insects alone. Sp. Anthus pratensis BECHST., Alauda pratensis L.J
BUFF. PI. enl. 660, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 84, figs. 3, 85, fig. i ; the tit-lark,
meadow-pipit. — Anthus arboreus BECHST., Alauda trivialis L., BUFF. PL
enl. 660, fig. i, LESS. Ornith. PI. 71, fig. 2, GUER. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 15,
fig. 5, NAUM. Taf. 84, fig. 2 ; the tree-pipit, &c. Species of this genus from
all parts of the world are known. To it belong also the sub-genera Agro-
doma SWAINS, and Corydalla Vie.

Exochocichla nob., Henicocichla GRAY, Sejurus S WAINS. (Spe-
cies of Motacilla L., GMEL.)

Sp. Exochocichla auricapilla, Motacilla auricapilla L., Turdus auricapiUua
WILS. Am. Ornith. PI. 14, fig. 2;— Exochocichla noveboracensis, MotaciUa.
noveboracensis GM., Turdus aguaticus WILS. 1. 1. PI. 23, fig. 5, &c.

Accentor BECHST., ILLIG., TEMM. Bill short, broad at the base,
with culmen declivous at the base, then somewhat straight, subu-
late, compressed at the tip, emarginate. Bristles at the angle oi
mouth. Nostrils at the base of bill, linear, narrow, surrounded by
membrane. Tarsi scutellate anteriorly, with scutella sometimes

AVES. 519

obsolete. Wings with ten primaries, the third, fourth and fifth
subequal, the fourth longest of all. Tail moderate, subemarginate.

Sp. Accentor modularis, Motacilla modularis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 615, fig. i,
NAUM. Taf. 92, figs. 3, 4, the hedge Accentor, hedge warbler; — Accentor
olpinus BECHST., Motacilla alpina GM., BUFF. PL enl. 668, fig. 2, NAUM.
Taf. 92, fig. i, LESSON Ornith. PL 69, fig. 2, &c. These birds feed in
winter principally on seeds of plants, in summer on insects also.

Sialia SWAINS. Bill short, with tip curved. Tarsus covered
anteriorly with a continuous horny scute. Wings long, with ten
primaries, the first very small, the second, third and fourth sub-
equal, the third longest of all. Tail somewhat short, subeven.

Sp. Sialia WUsonii SWAINS., Motacilla sialis L., BUFF. PI. enl. 396, GU^B.
Iconogr., Ois. PI. 4, fig. i, WILSON Am. Ornith. PI. 3, fig. 5 ; — Siala
arctica SWAINS., RICHABDSON Faun. Bor. Am., Birds, PL 39, North
America.

Note. — Here are to be inserted some genera of recent writers:
Petroica SWAINS. <fec.

Saxicola BECHST., TEMM. (Species of Motacilla L.) Bill short,
broader than high at the base, almost straight, with culmen keeled,
continued above the forehead, bent at the tip, obscurely emarginate.
Bristles at the base of bill, inflected downwards. Nostrils lateral,
basal, oval, partly covered by membrane. Tarsus elongate, slender,
covered anteriorly with a continuous scute. Posterior claw arched,
shorter than hallux. Wings long, with ten primaries, the first
small, second long, third and fourth subequal, longest of all. Tail
even, short.

Sp. Saxicola omanthe BECHST., Motacilla cenanthe L., BUFF. PI. enl. 554,
figs, i, 2 ; NAUM. Taf. 89, figs. 1,2; the wheat-ear, le motteux, der Stein-
schmatzer. — Saxicola stapazina, Motac. stapazina L., Diet. univ. d'Hist.
nat., Ois, PL 35, fig. 2.

Sub-genus Pratincola KOCH. Sp. Saxicola rulicola, Motacilla rubicola
L., PI. enl. 678, fig. i, LESS. Ornith. PL 68, fig. i, (under the erroneous
name of (Enanthe}, NAUM. Taf. 90, figs, i, 2, &c. — Small, lively and shy
birds, feeding on insects ; there is often a great difference in the sexes in
respect to colour and marking. All the species belong to the Eastern
hemisphere, the most to Africa.

Luscinia BRISS., BREHM. (Lusciola BLAS. and KEYSERL., spec,
of Motacilla L., spec, of Sylvia LATH., TEMM.). Bill short, broad
at the base, with culmen curved, keeled, compressed at the tip,
emarginate. Nostrils oval, placed at the anterior margin of a

520 CLASS XVI.

membranous fossa in the base of bill. Short bristles along the
posterior margin of lower mandible. Wings with ten primaries,
second moderate, third, fourth and fifth subequal, fourth mostly
longest of all. Tarsus longer than middle toe, covered anteriorly
with a continuous horny scute. Tail moderate or somewhat long,
mostly even.

Calliope GOULD (and Cyanecula BRISS.). Bill acuminate, some-
what straight, with tip curved. Wings moderate, with first quill
reaching nearly to the middle of second, third and fourth subequal,
longest of all. Tarsi elongate. Tail moderate, even or rounded.

Sp. Luscinia cyanecula, Motacilla suecica L., BUFF. PL enl. 361, fig. 2, 610,
figs, i, 2, NAUM. Taf. 75, figs. 3 — 5 ; — Luscinia calliope, Motacilla calliope
PALL., Accentor calliope TEMM., Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat., Ois. PI. 35, fig. i.

Rubecula BRISS., BREHM, Dandalus BOIE. Bill acuminate, with
culmen subcurved, with tip acute, curved. Wings with first quill
produced to the middle of second, third quill not equalling the sixth,
fourth and fifth sub-equal, longest of all. Tail moderate, emar-
ginate.

Sp. Luscinia rubecula, Motacilla rubecula L., BUFF. PL enl. 360, fig. i,
NAUM. Taf. 75, figs, r, 2 ; the red-breast.

Ruticilla BREHM, Phcenicura SWAINS. Bill with culmen depressed
before nostrils, broad at the base at the sides of mouth. Wings
somewhat long, with first quill small, third, fourth and fifth sub-
equal, fourth longest of all. Tail longer, even.

Sp. Luscinia phosnicurus, Motacilla phosnicurus L., BUFF. PL enl. 351, figs.
i, 2, NAUM. Taf. 79, figs, i, 2 ; the red-start. — Luscinia tlihys, Motacilla
erythacus L. (and Motac. titys L., Syst. nat. ed. x?), NAUM. 1. 1. figs. 3, 4.

Luscinia GRAY, Philomela BREHM. Bill with culmen subcurved,
rounded towards the tip. Wings moderate, with first quill very
short, narrow, third and fourth subequal, fifth much shorter than
these, third longest of all. Tail moderate, with sides rounded.

Sp. Luscinia vulgaris nob., Motacilla luscinia L., BUFF. PI. enl. 615, fig. 2,
LESSON Omith. PL 69, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 74, fig. 2 ; the nightingale, le
Rossignol, &c. ; back ruddy brown, breast ash-grey, belly whitish ; plumage
the same in the two sexes. This little bird feeds on insects, small worms,
&c. ; its beautiful, rich and clear song has gained from ancient times a
well-deserved celebrity.

Sylvia LATH, (in part). Bill short, depressed at the base, with
culmen keeled, emarginate at the tip. Nostrils basal, placed in a

AYES. 521

fossa. Bristles at the angle of the mouth and the base of the bill.
Tarsi scarcely longer than middle toe, scutellate anteriorly. Wings
with ten primaries, the first very small, third and fourth longest of
all, subequal. Tail moderate, rounded, broad.

We here adopt the genus Sylvia in the same extension as GRAY, and
refer to it the genera Hippolais BREHM, Phyllopneuste MEYER and WOLF,
&c. All the species are from the Eastern hemisphere.

Ficedula KOCH, BLAS. and KEYSERL. (Phyllopneuste MEYER).
Tail subemarginate or even. Tarsus longer than middle toe. Bill
depressed at the base, broader than high.

a) With first quill very small, second, third and fourth subequal, third
longest of all.

Sp. Sylvia sibilatrix BECHST., TEMM. PL col. 245, fig. 3; NAUM. Taf. 80,
fig. 2 ; the wood-wren; light brownish-green above, yellowish below, a yellow
streak above the eyes; — Sylvia hippolais, Motadlla hippolais L., PL enl.
581, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 80, fig. i, Hippolais icterina DESMUBS, PL peint.
57, fig. i ; the chiff chaff (from the two notes of its song)1.

b) With first quill produced beyond the third part of the second, with
second shorter than the four following quills, the third, fourth and fifth
longest of att.

Sp. Sylvia rufa LATH., NAUM. Taf. 80, fig. 4; also named chiff-chaff*.

Sylvia BLAS. and KEYSERL. Tail even or rounded. Tarsus not
longer than middle toe. Bill at the base higher than broad.

a) With wings rounded, the second quitt not equalling the sixth. (Pyroph-
thalma BONAP.)

Sp. Sylvia melanocephala, Motadlla melanocephala GM. ; — Sylvia sarda MAB-
MOBA, TEMM. PL col. 24, fig. 2, &c.

b) With wings acuminate, the second quill surpassing the sixth, sometimes
scarcely shorter than the third or fourth the longest of att.

Sp. Sylvia dnerea BRISS., Motadlla sylvia L., BUFF. PL enl. 579, fig. 3>
581, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 78, figs, i, 2; the white-throat, &c. Here also be-
longs the genus Curruca BRISS., BREHM.

1 The genus Hippolais of BREHM, which, according to him, ought to be placed
in the neighbourhood of Calamoherpe.

2 Comp. JKSYNS Man. of Brit. Vert. Anim. p. 112. " Having compared our
English S. Hippolais with the S. rufa of TEMMINCK (the specimen having been named
by TEMMINCK himself, and sent by him to Mr GOULD, to whose kindness I am in-
debted for it), and found them agreeing closely in all their characters, I have no
hesitation in considering them of the same species."

522 CLASS xvi.

Calamoherpe MEYER, Salicaria, SELBY, BLAS. and KEYSERL.
Bill shorter than head, somewhat straight, emarginate obscurely at
the tip. Short bristles at the angle of mouth. Nostrils basal,
placed in a fossa, surrounded by membrane. Forehead depressed,
continuous with the base of bill. Tarsi long, scutellate. Claw of
hallux strong, curved, larger than the rest. Wings with ten. pri-
maries, the first very small, the second, third and fourth subequal,
third longest of all. Tail moderate, rounded or graduated.

Sp. Calamoherpe turdina, Turdus arundinaceus L., BUFF. PL enl. 513,
NAUM. Taf. 81, fig. i; the reed-wren, die Rohrdrossel; above ruddy-grey,
below whitish, the lower mandible yellow at the base ; — Calamoherpe arun-
dinacea, Motacilla arundinacea GM., NAUM. Taf. 81, fig. i\ the small
reed-wren, very similar to the preceding, but smaller; these birds feed on
water-insects.

Note. — Add allied genera Acrocephalus NAUM., Aedon BOIE, Gin-
clorhamphus GOULD, and some others omitted here.

Crateropus SWAINS.

Drymoica SWAINS, (add Megalurus HoRSF., Prinia ejusd. (and
Cisticola LESS.). Bill short, with culmen curved, keeled, with tip
compressed, emarginate. Short bristles at the angle of mouth.
Nostrils placed in a fossa at the base of mouth, surrounded by
membrane. Wings short, rounded, with ten primaries, the first
short or moderate, the fourth and fifth (in some the fifth and sixth)
longest of all. Tail elongate, graduated. Tarsi long, scutellate
anteriorly. Hallux with claw large, curved.

Sp. Drymoica maculosa GRAY, Sylvia macroura LATH., BUFF. PI. enl. 752,
fig. 2; — Drymoica superciliosa SWAINS. Birds of W. Afr. n. PI. 2; —
Drymoica damans, Prinia damans KUEPP. Atl. Taf. 2, fig. a, TEMM. PI.
color. 466, fig. 2, &c.

On some other genera, to be inserted here : Sphenceacus STRICK-
LAND, Sphenura LICHTENST., Dasyornis YIG., HORSF., Manorhina
YIEILL., Psophodes HORSF., cons. GRAY Gen. of Birds, i., and BONAP.
Consp. pp. 279 and 216.

OrtJionyx TEMM. Bill short, emarginate, compressed, with cul-
men curved and keeled. Nostrils lateral, placed in a pit at the base
of bill. Tarsi elongate, strong, scutellate anteriorly; outer toe
almost equalling middle; claws strong, little curved, compressed.

AYES. 523

Wings short, concave, with first quill moderate, fifth and sixth
subequal, longest of all. Tail moderate, rounded.

Sp. Orthonyx spinicaudatus TEMM. PI. color. 428, 4-29; New Zealand, South
Sea Islands ; brown, white below ; the shafts of the tail-feathers projecting,
pointed. These birds climb on trees in quest of insects. Another species
of bird from New Holland, referred to this genus, differs not only in its
colours, but also in having longer wings; Orthonyx icterocephalusIjA.FRE8K.,
Certhia heteroclita QUOT and GAIMARD, GDERIN Magas. de Zool. 1839, Ois.
PL 8.

Malurus VIEILL. Bill short, with gape ample, culmen keeled,
tip curved, often emarginate, compressed. Bristles at the angle of
mouth. Nostrils placed in a large fossa, surrounded by membrane.
Tarsi long, covered anteriorly with a continuous horny scute,
slender. Wings moderate or short, with ten primaries, the first
short, or moderate, the fourth, fifth and sixth subequal, longest of
all. Tail graduated, narrow.

Sp. Malurus cyaneus VIEILL., Motac. cyaneaViEiLL. Gal. PI. 163 ; — Malurus
Lambertii VIG. and HORSF., WHITE Journal, PL 41, PHILLIP Voy. to Bot.
Bay, PI. 23; all the species are from New Holland or Van Diemen's
Land ; the males are distinguished by lively colours.

Stipiturus LESS. Tail-feathers long, rigid, acuminate, with vane

Sp. Malurus palustris VIEILL., Musdcapa malachura SHAW, Linn. Trans.
IV. PI. 2 1 ; from the southern part of Australia.

Orthotomus HORSF., Edela LESS. Bill depressed at the base,
somewhat straight, slender, moderate (or in some long). Wings
short, rounded, with ten primaries, the fourth, fifth and sixth sub-
equal, fifth longest of all. Tail of various length, mostly moderate
or somewhat long, graduated, with feathers narrow. Tarsi long,
slender, scutellate anteriorly.

Sp. Orthotomus Bennettii SYKES, Motacilla longicauda (and sutoria) GMEL.,
LAFRESNAYE in GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1836, Ois. PL 52 ; — Orthot. edela
TEMM., Edela ruficeps LESS., TEMM. PI. color., LAFRESN. 1. 1. PL 5 i, &c.
Small birds from the East Indies, the first species noticed is known under
the name of tailor-bird (Sylvia sutoria), from its nest of two or three mango-
leaves sewed together with cotton-thread, filled internally with cotton and
down ; see MARTINET Katech. der Natuur. n. p. 194, PL 4, PENNANT
Indian Zool. London, 1790, PI. 10, p. 44, LAFRESN. 1. 1. PL 53; Ceylon,
China, &c. (It is probable, however, that this mode of nest-making is to be
ascribed to more than one species of this genus.)

524 CLASS xvi.

Sylvicola SWAINS. Bill shorter than head, conical, slender,
broad at the base, compressed at the tip, obscurely emarginate.
Nostrils placed in a broad fossa at the base of bill. Bristles at the
angle of mouth. Wings with nine primaries, the first scarcely
shorter than the two following, the longest of all. Tail moderate,
subeven. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse scutes, sometimes
scarcely distinct, longer than middle toe. Outer toe longer than
inner.

Sp. Sylvicola coronata, Motacitta coronata L. (and Motac. canadensis L. sp.
27), BUFF. PI. enl. 709, fig. i, WILSON Am. Ornith. PL 17, fig. 4, PL 45,
fig. 3-

Sylvicola canadensis, Motac. canad. L. (sp. 42), BUFF. PI. enl. 685,
fig. 2, WILS. Am. Ornith. PL 15, fig. 7, &c. All the species of this genus
are from America, the most from North America.

Mniotilta VIEILL. Bill almost of the length of head, with culmen
subarched. Hallux larger than the other toes, with claw curved.
Tail subemarginate.

Sp. Sylvicola varia, MotacUla varia L., Figuier varie BRISS. Ornith. in.
PL 27, fig. 5, EDWABDS Gleanings, PL 300, VIEILL. Gal. PL 169, WILSON
Am. Ornith. I. PL 19, fig. 3; this bird from the southern part of North
America, occurring also in the West Indies, creeps in the winter months
like Certhia, on the stem and branches of trees in quest of insects, and pecks
at the moss with its bill, a peculiarity from which VIEILLOT has derived
the name Mniotilta.

Trichas SWAINS., (not GrLOGER, G-eothlypis CABAN.). Bill
moderate, compressed, subulate, the gape armed with bristles.
Wings with first quill not equalling the fourth, third longest of all.
Tail rounded. (Other characters almost of the preceding genus.
Tarsus far surpassing the middle toe.) ^

Sp. Trichas personata, Turdus trichas L., Motacilla trichas GMEL., BUFF.
PI. enl. 709, fig. 2, WILSON Am. Ornith. PL 6, fig. i.

Setophaga S\VAINS.

On the species of this genus and on some other genera of this place, here
omitted, consult BONAP. Consp. p. 312 and foil.

Family XL VIII. Muscicapince. Primaries ten, the first short.
Wing-coverts short. Tarsi covered anteriorly with transverse
scutes, posteriorly and on both sides with a continuous scute. Bill
broad at the base, with tip curved, emarginate. Rigid bristles at
the base of bill.

AVES. 525

Muscicapa L. (in part), Cuv. Bill short, with culmen keeled.
Nostrils basal, lateral, partly covered by bristles. Feet moderate;
tarsus of the length of middle toe. Hind claw curved, larger than
middle fore claw. Wings moderate or somewhat long, with third
and fourth quills longest of all, scarcely surpassing the second.
Tail moderate, subeven.

Sp. Muscicapa grisola L. (Butalis grisola BOIE), BUFF. PL enl. 565, fig. i,
NAUM. Taf. 64, fig. i ; the spotted fly-catcher, le gobe moucTie, der Fliegen-
f anger; feeds on flying insects, generally taking them in its flight; lays
four or five light blue-green eggs with red spots ; — Muscicapa atricapilla
L., and Muscicapa albicollis TEMM., Cuv. R. AnL, ed. ill., Ois. PL 18,
fig. i, have been observed only rarely in Holland, and belong rather to the
south of Europe (especially the last-named1). From Abyssinia is Musci-
capa fumigata GUEB., Muscicapa chocolatina RUEPPELL, System. Uebers.
Tab. 20, &c. — Also in China and Japan species of this genus occur. Sp.
Muscicapa narcissina TEMM. PL col. 577, fig. i (the genus Xantkopygia
BLYTH, BONAP.).

HemicJielidon HODGS.

Comp. Annals of not. Hist. 1845, p. 203, GBAY Gen. i., Muscicapince.

Note. — On some other genera of modern writers, Chaitaris
(Niltava) HODGS., Dimorpha, &c., see GRAY, 1. 1. Add Chasiempis
CABAN., ArcLf. Naturg. 1847, pp. 207, 208.

Muscipeta Cuv. (in part), CABAN., Tchitrea LESS., GRAY. Bill
moderate, depressed at the base, broader than high. Long bristles
at the base of bill. Wings with fourth and fifth quills subequal,
longest of all. Tail long, graduated or cuneate (with two middle
feathers in males very long).

Sp. Muscipeta paradisi, Muscicapa paradisi L., BUFF. PL enl. 234, figs, i, 2;
East Indies; — Muscipeta rufa SWAINS., BUFF. PL enl. 248, fig. i, LESSON
Ornith. PI. 42, fig. i; — Muscipeta princeps TEMM. PL col. 584, Japan; —
Muscipeta cristata, Muscicapa cristata GM., BUFF. PL enl. 573, fig. 2,
South Africa ;— Muscipeta rufiventris SWAINS. Birds of W. Afr. n. PI.
4, &c.

Platystira JAED.

Drymophila TEMM. (not SWAINS.) Monarcha YlG. and HoRSF.
Bill moderate, strong, with culmen keeled. Nostrils basal, lateral,

1 They form the genus Muscicapa BOIE, named Hydomela by SUNDEVALL, because
he thinks the name Muscicapa should be kept for Butalis BOIE. Qfvers af Kongl. Vet.
Akad. Fork. 1846, pp. 223 — 225.

526 CLASS xvi.

covered with the silken plumules of the forehead. Gape of mouth
beset with long bristles. Tarsus equalling middle toe in length.
Wings with third quill subequal to the fourth the longest of all.
Tail moderate, even or subemarginate, sometimes rather long, gra-
duated.

Sp. Drymophila carinata, Muscipeta carinata SWAINS., TEMM. PI. col. 413,
fig. 2 ; — Drymophila trivirgata TEMM. 1. 1. fig. i ; — Drymophila velata
TEMM. PI. 334, &c. Species from Timor, Sumatra, New Guinea and
Australia.

Prosorinia HODGS., Oreas TEMM. (Coclwa HODGS. previously,
GRAY.) Bill moderate, depressed, broad at the base, with culmen
arched, keeled. Nostrils lateral, placed in a fossa. Wings long,
with third and fourth quills subequal, fourth longest of all. Tail
somewhat long, graduated.

Sp. Prosorinia azurea, Turdus azureus TEMM. PL col. 274; — Prosorinia
viridis, Cochoa viridis GRAY, Gen. PI. LXVIII. &c.

Pericrocotus BOIE, Ads LESSON. Bill shorter than head, broad
at the base, with culmen subcurved. Nostrils basal, placed in a
fossa, covered by plumules of forehead produced over the bill.
Wings moderate, with fourth and fifth quills subequal, longest of
all. Tail long, with three outer feathers on each side graduated,
the four middle subequal.

Sp. Pericrocotus miniatus, Muscicapa miniata TEMM. PL color. 156, Diet,
univ. d'ffist. nat., Ois. PI. 2B, fig. 2; Java; — Pericrocotus peregrinus, Parus
peregrinus L. (Syst. nat. ed. xn. i, p. 342, and Motacilla cinnamomea
ejusd.? p. 335) &c.

Ceblepyris Cuv. (and Graucalus ejusd.), Campephaga VIEILL.,
GRAY. Bill shorter than head, or short, strong, broad at the base,
with culmen curved, keeled; a few bristles at the angle of mouth.
Nostrils basal, lateral, placed in a fossa, partly covered by plumules.
Wings with third and fourth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail
somewhat long, rounded. Feathers of back and rump rigid, often
spinescent.

Compare, on this genus, TEMMINCK in the text of the PI. color. Livr. 42
(Vol. in. opposite PI. 278) and RUEPPELL Monographic der Vogelgattung,
deren Typus LEVAILLANT unter dem Namen "les Echenilleurs," lelcannt
gemacht hat. Mus. Senclcerib. in. 1845, PP- 17~39- All the species are
from warm countries of the Eastern hemisphere. They feed on caterpillars
and other insects living upon trees. The larger species with stronger bill,
and of which the two sexes do not differ in plumage, form the sub-genus

AYES. 527

Graucalus. Sp. Ceblepyris melanops, Corvus melanops LATH., GUEB.
Iconogr.y Ols. PI. 6, fig. i; Australia, New Guinea, Timor; — Cellepyris
lineata, Corvus Novce Guinea LATH., BUFF. PI. enl. 629 ; Sumatra, &c.
Smaller species, of which the males often have a plumage with metallic
lustre, belong to the sub-genus Ceblepyris. Sp. Ceblepyris phceniceus,
Turdus phceniceus LATH., TEMM. PI. col. 71, ISID. GEOFFB. in GUEB.
Mag. de Zool. 1833, Ois. PI. 9, SWAINS. Birds of W. Afr. PI. 27, 28,
Senegal. — Ceblepyris ccesia, Campephaga cana VIEILL. Galer. PI. 130, &c.

Note. — On the sub-genera Lalage BOIE (Erucivora SWAINS.) and
Volvocivora HODGS., comp. BONAP. Gonsp. gen. Av. pp. 355, 356.

Ptilogonys SWAINS., Hypothymis LlCHTENST. Bill short, de-
pressed, with culmen keeled, curved, compressed at the tip. Nostrils
placed in a fossa at the sides of bill, surrounded by membrane,
partly covered by plumules. Feet short; tarsus shorter than mid-
dle toe, plumed below the heel. Toes moderate; hallux short,
strong. Claws moderate, curved, compressed. Wings moderate,
with first quill very short, fourth, fifth and sixth subequal, fifth
longest of all. Tail even, elongate, broad at the apex.

Sp. Plilogonys dnereus SWAINS., Hypothymis cJirysorrTioea LICHTENST.,
TEMM. PI. col. 452, Mexico;— Ptilogonys leucotis TSCHUDI, Faun. Peruan.
Taf. vn. fig. i, &c-

Myiadestcs SWAINS. Sp. Ptilogonys armillatus, Muscicapa armillata
(VIEILL.), Myiadestes genibarbis SWAINS., GBAY Gen. PI. LXIX., from the
Antilles.

Bombicilla BRISS., VIEILL. Bill short, broad at the base, thick,
subcurved. Nostrils basal, oval, mostly covered by rigid, decum-
bent plumes. Feet short, with tarsi partly scutellate posteriorly.
Wings somewhat long, with first quill very short, second and third
subequal, third longest of all. Tail short, subeven. Head crested.
(An anomalous genus.)

Sp. Bombicilla Garrula. Ampelis Garrulus L., BUFF. PL enl. 261, LESS.
Ornith. PI. 56, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 59, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 20,
fig. i ; Bohemian chatterer, Bohemian wax-icing, le jaseur de Boheme, der
Seidenschwanz ; general colour reddish-grey, belly silver-grey, tail black,
tipped with yellow ; flag- feather black with white spots, throat black, and
a black streak behind the eyes. Some of the secondaries terminate in a
horny lamina of a deep red. Little is known of its habits ; the food con-
sists of insects and berries. This species is also found in North America,
in some parts of Asia and in Japan. In North America another very
similar species is also found, Bomby cilia cedrorum VIEILL. Gal. PI. 118,
WILB. Am. Ornith. Tab. 7, fig. i ; and at Japan is a third, of which
the tail is not yellow at the extremity, but crimson-red, Bombycitta

528 CLASS xvi.

phcenicoptera TEMM. PL col. 450, Faun. Japon., Av. Tab. 44. This species
has no horny plates on the wings.

Family XLIX. Laniince. (Laniadce D'ORB. and LAFKESN.,
CABAN.) Primaries mostly ten (with first short, more rarely very
short), in a few nine. Wing-coverts short. Tarsi moderate or
short, covered anteriorly with transverse scutes, at the sides with a
continuous scute. Bill short or moderate, strong, compressed,
emarginate towards the tip or furnished with a tooth on each side.

Edolius Guv., Dicrurus VIEILL., GRAY. Bill moderate, thick,
broad at the base, with culmen keeled, bent, compressed towards
the tip, emarginate. Upper mandible produced beyond the lower.
Long bristles at the base of bill. Nostrils basal, lateral, rounded,
covered by bristles and plumules. Wings somewhat long, with
first three quills gradually longer, fourth and fifth longest of all.
Tail with ten feathers, elongate, almost always forked. Feet short.

Sp. Edolius balicassius, Corvus balicassius L., BUFF. PI. enl. 603, Malacca;
— Edolius cristatus, Lanius forficatus L., BUFF. PL enl. 189, Madagascar;
— Edolius malabaricus, Lanius malabaricus LATH., SONNER. Voy. aux Ind.
Or. PI. 97; Cuv. R. Ani, ed. ill, Ois. PI. 23, fig. i ;— Edolius remifer
TEMM. Pl.^col. 178. In the two last-named Indian species the outer tail-
feather in the male is very long, and in the last is more than twice the
length of the body ; these two outermost feathers are vaned only at the
extremity. In Edolius remifer the tail, with the exception of the outer
feather, is even at the extremity. The colour of most of the species
is black with steel-blue reflections.

Irena HORSF. (Species of Graucalus Cuv.) Bill moderate,
strong, broad at the base, compressed towards the tip, emarginate,
with culmen keeled, curved. Nostrils lateral, covered by plumules
and bristles. Bristles at the base and angle of mouth. Tarsi
short, scutellate. Wings with first quill narrow, short, the third a
little shorter than fourth and fifth, which are longest of all. Tail
moderate or somewhat short, broad, even, with twelve feathers.

Sp. Irena puella HORSF., Zool. Researches in Java, I. 1821, Coracias puella
LATH., TEMM. PL col. 70 male, 225 fern., 426 young bird; from Malacca,
Sumatra, &c. ; dark black with clear cobalt-blue on the back and on the
top of the head; — Irena cyanogaster VIG., GRAY Gen. of Birds, PI. LXX.
Manilla.

Trichophorus TEMM., Trichas GLOGER (not SWAINS.). Bill
short or moderate, elongate and conical, somewhat broad at the

AVES. 529

base, with tip curved, emarginate. Nostrils placed in front of the
base of bill, open, oval. Very long bristles at the base of bill.
Feet short ; tarsus not longer than middle toe. Wings moderate,
with first three quills gradually longer, fourth, fifth and sixth
longest of all. Tail somewhat long, broad, even or rounded.

Sp. Trichophorus barbatus TEMM. PL col. 88 ; greyish-green with thick yellow
feathers under the throat, and a crest of long bristly hairs at the back of
the head ; from the coast of Guinea, as are some other species. Some also
are known from India and the Sunda Islands. Comp. BONAP. Conspect.
gen. Av. p. 262.

Phyllastrepkus SWAINS.

Comp. SWAINSON in App. to Fauna boreali-Amer. II. 1831, p. 486. All
the species are from Africa. Here belongs Turdus senegalensis GM., BUFF.
PL ml. 563, fig. 2.

Pycnonotus KUHL, Ixos TEMM., Brachypw S WAINS. Bill short,
broad at the base, with culmen curved, keeled. Nostrils placed in
a fossa, linear, lateral. Bristles at the sides of mouth. Tarsi short,
thick, booted or obscurely scutellate. Wings with fourth and fifth
quills subequal, longest of all. Tail somewhat long, rounded or
even, with the apex broad.

t With bill serrate towards the tip with four or three notches. (Tarsi
scutellate. Tail even.) Sub-gen. Andropadus SWAINS., Polyodon LAFBES-
NAYE.

Sp. Pycnonotus importunus, Turdus importunus VIEILL., LAFBESNAYE in
GUEBIN Magasin de Zoolog. 1832, Ois. PI. 4; Cape of Good Hope.

*H" With bitt emarginate towards the tip once only. (Tarsi covered in
front with confluent scutella, scarcely distinct or with a continuous scute.
Tail rounded.) Pycnonotus auct. (Brachypus, Hcematornis SWAINS.)

Sp. Pycnonotus jocosus, Lanius jocosus L., BRISS. Ornith. n. PL 21, fig. 2,
BUFF. PL enl. 508, SONNEB. Voy. aux Ind. Or. PL 98 (fig. bad), DIXON
Voy. round the World, p. 358 and PL ; China and India. (This species
seems to be Ixos pyrrhotis of HODGSON; another very similar species
is smaller and has the hinder part of the body yellowish, Pycnonotus jocosus
BLYTH, BONAP.) These two species are ruddy-brown above, white below ;
they have a red spot below the eyes, the head crested. — Pycnonotus cafer
L., BRISS. Ornith. n. PL 20, fig. 2, BUFF. PL enl. 563, fig. i; South Africa.
In these species the coverts under the base of the tail are red, in other species
yellow. Pycnonotus melanocephalus, Lanius melanocephalus GM., Ixos
atriceps TEMM. PL col. 147; yellow-green with shining blackhead; from
the Sunda Islands, &c.
VOL. II. 34

530 CLASS XVI.

Spasornis mihi1, Vanga VIEILL., GRAY. Bill moderate, straight,
compressed, higher than broad, strong, with culmen obtuse, keeled,
with tip curved ; each mandible emarginate towards the tip. Angle
of mouth armed with bristles. Nostrils lateral, basal, rounded,
partly covered by plumules. Tarsi longer than middle toe, scutel-
late anteriorly. Wings with fourth, fifth and sixth quills subequal,
longest of all. Tail somewhat long, graduated.

Sp. Spasornis ewvirottru, Lanius curvirostris L., BRISS. Ornith. n. PI. 19,
fig. i ; BUFF. PL enl. 228; Madagascar. This bird resembles in miniature
some species of Barita, as JBarita varia (Cracticus), p. 487, but differs on
the first inspection by the round form of the nostrils.

Lanius L. (excl. of some species.) Bill moderate or short,
strong, compressed, higher than broad, mostly curved, furnished
with a tooth on each side towards the tip. Nostrils placed at the
base of bill or a little in front of the base, often covered by bristles.
Tarsi longer than middle toe, scutellate anteriorly. Wings mode-
rate, with first quill short, third and fourth mostly subequal, longest
of all. Tail somewhat long or moderate.

Falcuncidus VIEILL. Bill short, curved, much compressed, with
keel produced amongst the feathers of forehead. Wings with fourth
and fifth quills longest of all. Tail even or subemarginate. Tarsi
moderate.

Sp. Lanius frontatus LATH., TEMM. PL col. 77, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois.
PI. 1 6, fig. i ; Australia; of the size of Lanius collurio, and almost simi-
larly coloured to Parus major. The feathers of the head form a crest.

Prionops VIEILL. Bill curved, moderate. Erect plumes of head
forming a compressed crest, produced beyond the base of bill.
Wings long, with fourth, fifth and sixth quills subequal, fifth
longest of all. Tail somewhat long, rounded.

Sp. Lanius plumatw SHAW, Prionops Geoffroyi, VIEILL. Gal. PI. 142, LESS.
Ornith. PL 44, fig. i, SWAINS. Birds of W. Afr. I. PL 26; Senegal;
white, the wings and tail black, with a white streak on the wings; a
naked ring round the eyes, the legs pale yellow (in the other species of this
family they are commonly black like the bill). — Lanius poliocephalus,
Prionops cristatus RUEPP. &c.

Lanius auct. Bill curved. Wings with third and fourth quills
subequal, longest of all. Tail somewhat long, rounded or cuneate.

1 From (TTrctw, to draw off, to tear.

AVES. 531

Sp. Lanius excubitor L., BUFF. PL enl. 445, LESS. Ornith. PI. 45, fig. i,
NAUM. Taf. 49; the cinereous shrike, la pie-grieche, der graue Wurger,
grey above, white below, the middle of the tail, the wings and a streak on
each side of the bill over the eyes black; — Lanius collurio L., BUFF. PI.
enl. 31, fig. i fern., 2 male, NAUM. Taf. 52; the red-backed shrike, der
rothriickige Wurger; back and wings cinnamon-brown, head of male grey,
the third flag-feather the longest, &c. Most of the species are birds of
passage in Europe. These birds are very predaceous ; they feed on beetles,
grasshoppers, &c. ; on small birds also and mice, and attach their prey to
branches or transfix it, especially the insects, on thorns. They all build
a moderately artistic nest, and lay from 5 to 7 yellow-white or light-green
eggs, which have darker spots, especially at the obtuse end.

Telephone SWAINS. Bill moderate or a little longer than head,
much compressed, curved, with culmen produced amongst the plumes
of forehead. Wings short, with fourth and fifth quills longest of
all. Tail broad, graduated, long.

Sp. Lanius erythropterus SHAW, BUFF. PI. enl. 479, fig. i, Tchagra LEVAILL.,
Senegal; — Lanius cucullatusTEMM.., SUSEMIHL Vog. Europa's, n. Tab. 17,
fig. 2, Spain, &c. (This sub-genus is in the wings, &c. more aberrant
from the type of the Lanii than the others. Upon this the following
genus closes, which has very long tarsi.)

Malaconotus SWAINS., Laniarius VIEILL., BONAP. Bill mode-
rate or shorter than head, much compressed, with culmen somewhat
curved, tip curved, produced beyond the lower mandible, which is
shorter. Tarsi long. Wings with fourth, fifth and sixth quills
longest of all. Tail mostly long, rounded.

Sp. Malaconotus barbarus, Lanius barbarus L., BUFF. PL enl. 56, SWAINS.
Birds of W. Afr. i. PI. 24, Senegal; — Malaconotus torquatus, Lanius
gutturalis BAUD., Diet. univ. tfHist. Nat., Ois., PI. 2 A, fig. 2 ; South
Africa, £c.

Sub-genus Dryoscopus BOIE, BONAP. Sp. Malaconotus mollissimus
SWAINS., Lanius gambensis LICHTENST., SWAINS. Birds of W. Afr. i. PI.
23, &c.

Note. — Lanius bicolor L., BUFF. PL enl. 298, fig. i, scarcely of this
genus, differs by the tail shorter and the third and fourth quill-feathers
subequal, longest of all.

Pachycephala SWAINS. Bill moderate or short, thick, with
culmen curved, compressed towards the tip, emarginate. Bristles
at the angle of mouth. Tarsi somewhat long, scutellate anteriorly.
Wings with fourth and fifth quills longest of all. Tail even or
subrotundate.

34—2

532 CLASS xvi.

Sp. Pachycephala pectoralis, Musckapa pectoralis LATH., Packycephala
fuscaViG. and HOBSF., Linn. Transact. XV. p. 240; from Australia, as
are most of the species, of which figures are to be found in GOULD'S
Birds of Australia. A couple of species occur also at the Moluccan
Islands.

Sub-gen. Eopsaltria SWAINS. Bill moderate, abruptly curved at the
tip.

Sp. Packycephala australis Via. and HORSF., Motacitta australis LATH.,
WHITE New South Wales, PI. 28, p. 239.

Hyloterpe CABAN., Hylocharis BOIE. Bill short, inflated at the
sides. "Wings with fifth and sixth quills longest of all.

Sp. Pachycephala philomela Mus. L. B.; Borneo, Java; — Pachycephala
orpheus JAKDINE Contributions to Ornith. 1849, PI. 37, Timor.

Ptererythrms STRICKL., Pteruthius SWAINS., Allotrius MUELL.
Bill short, with tip curved, hooked. Nostrils basal, placed in a
fossa, pervious. Bristles at the base of bill. Tarsi long, booted
or obscurely scutellate. Wings with third, fourth and fifth quills
longest of all. Tail short, graduated.

Sp. Ptererythrius flavipennis, Allotrius flaviscapis TEMM. PL col. 589,
fig. i, Java; — Ptererythrius anobarbus, Allotrius cenobarbus TEMM. ib.
fig. 2, &c.

Pardalotus ViElLL., TEMM. (Is this its place?) Bill short,
dilated at the base, compressed towards the tip, emarginate, with
culmen distinct, curved. Nostrils basal, lateral, small, surrounded
by membrane. Feet slender ; tarsus longer than middle toe, covered
anteriorly with transverse scutella. Wings with nine primaries,
the first three subequal, the second longest of all. Tail short,
broad, even.

Sp. Pardalotus punctatus, Pipra punctata LATH., TEMM. PL col. 78, Cov.
JR. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 16, fig. i ; — Pardalotus ornatus TEMM., Pipra
striata LATH., TEMM. PL col. 394, fig. i ; these species, like most of the
others, are from New Holland ; one species from Timor is also known.

Vireo VIEILL. Bill short or moderate, strong, with culmen
keeled, subcurved, emarginate at the tip, compressed. Short
bristles at the angle of mouth. Nostrils basal, placed in a fossa.
Feet somewhat short ; tarsus longer than middle toe, covered ante-
riorly with transverse scutes. Wings with either ten primaries,
the first very short, or nine (in this case the second and third, in

AYES. 533

that the third and fourth longest of all). Tail even or subemar-
ginate.

a) With nine primaries. (Vireosylvia BONAP., Phyllomanes CABAN.)
Wings with second quill (which in the others is the third) longest of all.

Sp. Vireo olivaceus VIEILL., Mmdcapa, olivacea L., WILS. Am. Ornitk. PL
12, fig. 3; common in the forests of North America. — Vireo virescens
VIEILL., GBAY Gen. of Birds, PI. LXV.; the south-west of North America,
Guyana.

b) With ten primaries. (Vireo BONAP.)

Sp. Vireo noveboracensis, Muscicapa noveboracensis GM., WILS. Am. Ornitk.
PI. 1 8, fig. 6;— Vireo solitarius VIEILL., WILS. ib. PI. 17, fig. 6, &c.

Ocypterus Cuv., Artamus VIEILL., GRAY. Bill short or scarcely
shorter than head, curved, with culmen rounded. Nostrils basal.
Tarsi strong, scarcely shorter than middle toe. Toes strong, short,
with claws curved, compressed, acute. Wings long, with first
quill very small, second longest of all. Tail even, moderate or
somewhat short.

Sp. Ocypterus albovittatus Cuv., Turdus sordidus LATH, (and tenebrosus
ejusd.) Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL 3, fig. 6, LESS. Ornith. PL 44, fig.
2; Australia; — Ocypterus leucorhynchus, Lanius leucorhynchus GM., BUFF.
PL enl. 9, fig. i, Java, Celebes, &c. Compare on this genus VALEN-
CIENNES Observ. sur le genre des Langrayens, Mem. du Mus. vi. 1820, pp.
20 — 27, PL 7 — 9. It is placed by CABANIS with Oriolus, and appears in
some sense to stand in the middle between that genus and Laniits (and
Hirundo ?).

Family L. Cheh'clones (Hirundinidce GRAY). Wings long,
acute, with nine primaries in some, in others ten. Wing-coverts
mostly short. Tarsi short, covered anteriorly with transverse
scutes, often hirsute. Hallux shorter than the inner toe. Bill
short, broad at the base, depressed, entire at the tip, compressed,
curved. Gape of mouth in the plumed part of head produced as far
as under the eyes.

The sivallows have especially long, pointed wings, and fly very
rapidly and continuously to capture insects as they fly for food.
For this purpose the bill, of which the horny part is unusually
short, can be opened very wide. They build their nests mostly in
society, and lay from four to six eggs. In our parts all the species
of this family are birds of passage. This family may be separated
into two divisions, which were united by LINNJEUS under his genus
ffirundo, yet, with much resemblance, still so greatly differ from
each other, that most modern writers have found occasion to remove

534 CLASS xvi.

them far apart. The first division alone possesses special muscles
for song, as in the rest of the singing birds.

Section I. Hirundinince. Wings with nine primaries, the first
longest of all ; secondaries moderate, hidden at the base alone by
short coverts. Tail-feathers twelve.

Hirundo L. (in part1). Characters of the section. Fore toes
three, the middle much longer than the side-toes. Claws acute,
compressed, slender. Tail mostly forked.

a) With tarsi naked.

* With Mil somewhat strong, culmen curved.
Progne BOIE, Cecropis LESS. (Species all American.)

Sp. Hirundo purpurea L. (and H. Subis ejusd.) BUFF. PL enl, 722, WILS.
Amer. Ornith. 2, PL 39, figs. 2, 3; in North and South America; — Hirundo
chalibcea GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 545, fig. 2.

** With bill weak, depressed, very broad at the base.

Cotyle BOIE, Biblis LESS, add Herse in part. Wings longer than tail.
Tail emarginate, or subeven.

Sp. Hirundo riparia L., BUFF. PL enl. 543, fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 146, figs.
3, 4; — Hirundo tapera L., BBISSON Ornith. n. PL 45, fig. 3; South
America, &c.

Hirundo. (Cecropis BOIE, Athicora BOIE, GRAY). Tail forked, with
outermost feathers sometimes very long.

Sp. Hirundo rustica L., BUFF. PL enl. 543, fig. I, NAUM. Taf. 145, fig. i;
the chimney-swallow, die Rauchschivalbe ; the largest native species;
bluish-black above, the throat ruddy, the belly white, a white spot on
each of the tail-feathers at the inner side, except the two innermost, which
are not spotted. It prefers making its nest in cow-houses. — Hirundo
senegalensis L., BUFF. PL enl. 310, SWAINS. Birds of W. Afr. I. Tab. 6;
the largest species, shining black above, ruddy on the belly and hind part
of back.

b) With tarsi and toes hirsute.

Chelidon BOIE. (Tail forked, with feathers gradually decreasing up to the
innermost, the outermost moderate.)

Sp. Hirundo urbica L., BUFF. PL enl. 542, fig. 2, LESS. Ornith. PL 34,
fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 145, fig. 2; the house-martin, I'hirondelle def entire, die
Hausschwalbe; black above, white below and also on the rump ; tarsi and
toes covered with white down ; this species builds a nest of mud on the

1 Hirundo apus, Hir. melba and Hir. esculenta L., belong to Cypselus; Hirundo
pratincola L. is Glareola, see above p. 412.

AYES. 535

outside on walls, lines it with feathers, and lays from four to six white
eggs. Another species, Hirundo dasypus TEMJI., is found at Borneo.

Section II. Cypselince. Wings with ten primaries, either with
the first two quills subequal, longest of all, or with the second
surpassing the first (more rarely the first the second). Secondaries
short, hidden by coverts nearly to the extremity. Tail with ten
feathers.

Cypselus ILLIG. (characters of the section). Bill short, with
culm en distinct, curved. Feet short. (Toes almost equal, the three
anterior composed of three phalanges.) Wings very long, with
quills narrow.

Callocalia GRAY. Three toes facing forward, hallux backward.
Wings with second quill longest of all. Tail moderate, even or
subemarginate.

Sp. Cypselus esculentus, Hirundo esculenta L., BRISS. Ornitk. n. Tab. 46,
fig. 2, Amboyna; — Cypselus nidificus, Hirundo nidifica LATH., Hirundo
fuciphaga SHAW; Ceylon, Borneo, Sumatra, &c. Species of which the
nests are glutinous and eatable. Compare V. SCHEERBBAND in Arch. f.
Naturgesch. 1840, s. 393.

Cypselus ILLIG., GRAY et recent. Tarsi hirsute. Hallux turned
forwards (pedes adhamantes) or versatile. Wings with second
quill longest of all, in some with first two subequal. Tail forked.

Sp. Cypselus murarius TEMM., Hirundo Apus L., BUFF. PL enl. 542, fig. i,
LESS. Ornith. PL 34, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 147, fig. 2 ; the common surift, le
martinet, die Thurmschwalbe; brown-black with white throat; Europe,
North Africa; — Cypselus alpinus TEMM., Hirundo melba~L., VIEILL. Gal.
PI. 121, NAUM. Taf. 147, fig. i ; South of Europe, Africa to the Cape;
larger, grey-brown, with throat and hind part of body white.

Cypselus cayennensis, Himndo cayennensis GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 725, fig.
2 ; in this South American species not only the tarsi, but also the toes are
entirely feathered ; CABANIS forms from it his genus Panyptila.

Acanthyllis BOIE, Pallene LESS., Hemiprocne NiTZSCH. Three
toes anterior; hallux posterior. Tarsi naked. Tail even, short,
with feathers naked at the points, pungent or acuminate.

Sp. Acanthyllis senex, Cypselus senex TEMM. PI. col. 397; Brasil; brown with
head grey, the tail-feathers terminating in points, but the shafts not pro-
jecting; the second flag-feather is the longest, the first shorter than the
third. In the other species the shafts of the tail-feathers terminate in
sharp points ; the first flag-feather is the longest or at least longer than the

536 CLASS xvi.

third. Sp. Acanthyllis pelasgia, Hirundo pelasgla L., WlLS. Am. On.
1*1. 39, fig. i ; — Acanthyllis collaris, Hirundo albicoltis VIEILL. Gal. PI.
120, PI. col. 195; — Acanthyllis spinicauda, Cyp&elus spinicaudatus TEMM.,
BUFF. PL enl 736, fig. i.

Dendrochelidon BoiE (Macropterus s. Macropteryx SWAINS.,
Pallestre LESS.). Three toes anterior ; hallux posterior. Tarsi in
some naked, in others hirsute. Wings very long, with first two
feathers subequal. Tail forked.

Sp. a) Outer tail-feathers longer than wings. Bill depressed, flat, verj
broad at the base. Wings with first quill longest of all. Dendrochelidon
mystacina, Oypselus mystaceus LESS. Voy. Coquilk, Ois. PI. 22, Diet. univ.
ist. not., Ois. PI. 3, fig. i ; New Guinea.

b) Point of wing produced beyond the outer tail-feathers. Bill with
culmen curved.

s

t Wings with first quill longest of all.

Sp. Dendrochelidon comata, Cypselus comatus TEMM. PL col. 286 ; Sumatra,
Borneo.

*H* Wings with second quill longest of all.

Sp. Dendrochelidon longipennis, Hirundo Klecho HOBSF., TEMM., PI. col. 83 ;
Java, Sumatra, &c.

Family LI. Nyctichelidones (Caprimulgidce BONAP., G-RAY).
Wings long, with ten primaries. Wing-coverts long. Plumage
lax, soft. Head broad, flat above. Bill curved, short; gape of
mouth large, descending below the eyes. Tarsi mostly short, strong,
scutellate anteriorly, often hirsute. Tail with ten feathers.

A) With outer toe short (only four phalanges) ; with claw of middle toe
dilated internally, incised pectinately.

Caprimulgus L. Bill very short, flexile, depressed at the base,
broad, compressed at the tip and bent into a round hook. Rigid
bristles, thick at the base, placed in a row along the upper margin
of gape, directed forwards. Nostrils basal, approximate, subtubu-
lar. Anterior toes conjoined at the base by membrane, outer toe
short, middle long, with claw pectinately incised. Hallux short,
versatile. Wings elongate, with second quill mostly the longest of
all.' Tail various in form, in several elongate.

The goat-suckers. These nocturnal birds bear, according to the remark
of LINNAEUS, the same relation to the swallows that the owls do to the

AYES. 537

falcons1. They form in some respects the transition to the nocturnal birds
of prey (to the genus Strix L.), and feed upon beetles and moths.

* With tail long, even or rounded.

Sp. Caprimulgus europceus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 193, LESS. Ornith. PL 33,
fig. 2, NAUM. Taf. 148; the European goat-sucker, night-jar, I'engoulevent,
die Nachtschwalbe, der Ziegenmelker ; the colours of the loose feathers pre-
sent in this and in the other species of this genus a mixture of black, brown,
yellow and white streaks and spots ; this native species lays two dirty- white
eggs with grey-brown spots on the ground, making no nest. — Caprimulgus
ruficollis TEMM., SUSEMIHL, vi. Taf. 3 ; South of Europe, Africa.

Note. — Add sub-genera Eurostopodus GOULD and Lyncornis ejusd.

** Tail long, very broad, rounded or even. (Wings with second and
third quills longest of all. Sub-genus Anthrostomus GOULD.)

Sp. Caprimulgus cayanensis GM., BUFF. PL enl. 760 ; — Caprimulgus guianensis
GM., BUFF. PL enl. 733 ; from South America ; — Caprimulgus carolinensis
BKISS., WILS. Am. Orn. n. PI. 54, fig. 2; from North America.

*** Tail long, graduated, with two middle feathers very long. (Scortornis
SWAINS, or Scotomis ?)

Comp. on this group CASSIN Monograph of the Birds composing the
genera Hydropsalis WAGLEB and Anthrostomus N ATT ALL; Journal of the
Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Philad., Second Ser.il. 1850, 1854, pp. 113—124,
PLxm.

Sp. Caprimulgus climacurus VIEILL. Gal. PI. 122; Senegal, coast of Guinea.

**** Tail forked, with outermost feathers often very long. (Psalurus
SWAINS., Hydropsalis WAGL.)

Sp. Caprimulgus psalurus TEMM., Capr. furcifer GBAT, not VIEILL., TEMM.
PI. col. 157, 158; Brasil.

Chordeiles SWAINS. Bill very smalL Wings longer than tail,
acute, with first two quills longest of alL Tarsi short. Tail long,
forked or emarginate, more rarely subeven.

Sp. Caprimulgus americanus L., Caprimulgus acutus GM., BUFF. PI. enl.
722; — Caprimulgus virginianus BRISS., Caprimulgus americanus WILS.
Am. Ornith. PI. 40, &c. All the species are from the Western hemisphere.

Eleothreptus GRAY, Amblypterus GOULD. Wings with first quill
somewhat short, second and following up to the sixth nearly equal,
falcate, seventh and eighth longest of all. Tail short, even.

1 Caprimulgus genere differt ab Hirundine, uti Strix a Falcone, Phalcena a Papi»
Hone. Syst. not. ed. XH. Tom. I. p. 346.

538 CLASS XVI.

Sp. Caprimulgus anomalus GOULD, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 105, Icon. av.
Tab. i. (I have not seen this species) ; South Amer.

Macrodipteryx SWAINS. Wings long, with second quill surpassing
all, except the last primary in males, which is very long, and with
the middle of the stem naked, the tip vaned.

Sp. Caprimulgus longipennis SHAW, Macrodipteryx africanus SWAINS. Birds
of W. Afr. n. PL 5.

Podager WAGL., Pro'ithera SWAINS. Wings long, with first quill
longest of all, extended beyond the extremity of tail. Tail moderate
or somewhat short, even, broad.

Sp. Caprimulgus Nattereri TEMM. PL col. 107 ; — Caprimulgus diurnus MAXIM.,
Caprimulgus nacunda VIEILL., TEMM. PI. col. 182; — Caprimulgus Gouldi,
Podager Gouldi GRAY Oener. PI. xvra. ; species from South America.

B) With outer toe longer than inner; with claw of middle toe entire.
(Base of bill covered by setaceous, decomposed plumules.)

Nyctibius VIEILL. Bill broad, narrowed at the tip, with lower
mandible much curved and bent down towards the tip. Nostrils
lateral. Wings with second and third quills longest of all. Tail
long, rounded or even. Tarsi very short, strong. Toes conjoined
at the base by membrane. Claws curved, compressed.

Sp. Nyctibius grandis, Caprimulgus grandis GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 335, GRAY
Gen. PI. xvi. — Nyctibius leucopterus MAXIM., DESM. PI. peint. 49, &c. ;
all species from South America.

^Egotheles VIGORS. Bill small, broad at the base, with the tip
of both mandibles bent down. Decomposed, divergent, erect plumes
at the base of bill. Toes free. Wings with third and fourth quills
longest of all. Tail long, graduated.

Sp. jEgotheles novce Hollandice VIG., Caprimulgus novce Hollandice LATH.,
WHITE New S. Wales, PL 29* p. 241, PHILLIP Bot. Bay, PI. 42, p. 270,
LAFRESNAYE in GUERIN Magas. de Zool. 1837, Ois. PI. 82. This species,
and another also later discovered (JEgotheles leucogaster GOULD), is found
in New Holland. This genus is more closely allied to Podargus than to
Caprimulgus.

Podargus Guv.1 Bill broader at the base than forehead, with
culmen convex, tip hooked ; upper mandible by its margin over-

1 R. Ani. 1817, Tom. iv. Corrections ct Additions, p. 172.

AVES. 539

lapping lower. Nostrils lateral, remote from the base, partly closed
by a horny scale, covered by plumes of forehead. Wings with
fourth and fifth quills (or even sixth) subequal, longest of all.
Tail long, mostly graduated, sometimes rounded. Toes free, padded
beneath.

Sp. Podargus cinereus Cuv., R. Ani. PL 4, fig. i, LESS.OmzVA. PL 33, fig. i,
GUEB. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 17, fig. 4, &c. Species from New Holland and
New Guinea. Small species are found at the Sunda Islands, in which
the sixth quill-feather is as long or even longer than the fifth. They form
the genus Batrachostomus GOULD. Sp. Podargus comutus TEMM. PL col.
159-

Steatornis HUMBOLDT. Bill moderate, curved, dentate before
the tip, with tip produced, uncinate. Nostrils lateral, placed nearly
in the middle of bill, oblique. Wings long, with third and fourth
quills longest of all. Tail long, graduated, broad. Tarsi strong,
short, hirsute. Toes free, with claws compressed, curved.

Sp. Steatornis caripensis HUMBOLDT, Observ. de Zool. et d'Anat. comp. n. pp.
139 — 144, Tab. 44 (fig. of head and of foot), L'HEBMIIHEB in Nouv. Ann.
du Mus. d'Hist. not. m. 1834, pp. 321 — 331, PL 15 (fig. of bird col.),
J. MUELLEB Anat. Bemerkungen, Arch.f. Anat. Physiol. &c. 1842, s. i —
1 1, Taf. i ; the GuacJiaro, a large, red- brown, nocturnal bird, living in
caverns of Cumana, which is said to feed exclusively on fruits; its oily
fat is used by the natives in dressing their food. The double vocal organ
is noticed above, p. 344.

(Genus of uncertain position.) Eurylaimus HORSF. Bill shorter
than head or moderate, depressed, broader at the base than fore-
head, with culmen rounded, tip curved ; margin of upper mandible
waved. Bristles or decomposed feathers at the sides of upper
mandible. Feet moderate ; tarsi scutellate anteriorly. Outer toes
concrete as far as the second phalanx. Wings moderate, with
third and fourth quills longest of all. Tail with twelve feathers,
graduated.

a) Nostrils longitudinal, lateral, median, placed in a groove. Cymbi-
rhynchus VIG., Erolla LESS. Sp. Eurylaimus nasutus TEMM., Todus
macrorhynchus GM., TEMM. PI. col. 154, GUEBIN Iconogr.j Ois. PL 16,
fig. 3, Sumatra, Borneo.

b) Nostrils basal, rounded. Eurylaimus HOBSF., GBAT. (Corydon
LESS., Platyrhynchus VIEILL., add Parisomus SWAINS, and SerUophus
ejusd.) Sp. Eurylaimus corydon TEMM., Eurylaimus sumatranus VIG.,
PI. col. 297, LESS. Ornith. PL 50, fig. i ; Eurylaimus Horsfieldi TEMM.,
Eurylaimus javanicus HOBSF., PI. col. 130, 131, &c.

540 CLASS XVI.

Add genus Peltops WAGL., which differs by the bill being less
broad, the toes less concrete, the tail forked.

Sp. EurylaimuB Blainvillii GABNOT, Vay. Coq., Ois. PI. 19, fig. 2 ; from New
Guinea.

ORDER VI. Raptatores.

Bill hooked, compressed, cerigerous at the base, with nostrils
open. Feet strong, with toes padded beneath, scabrous, with the
three anterior connected at the base only or entirely cloven, with
hallux large, posterior. Claws elongate, strong, curved. Primaries
ten. Wing-coverts large. Tail with twelve or fourteen feathers.

Section I. Aves rapaces nocturnce.

Bill short, covered at the base by recumbent setae. Nostrils
placed at the anterior margin of cere. Head large, densely plumed,
with eyes large, turned forward. Tarsi reticulate with scales,
covered with dense plumes (often the toes also woolly) ; outer toe
shorter than inner (yet with five phalanges), versatile. (First quill-
feathers ciliated externally, with barbs separate at the point,
recurved.)

Family LIT. Strigidce. (Characters of the section those also
of the single family.)

The nocturnal birds of prey or owls form a very natural family,
with LINNAEUS a single genus, Strix, in which he recognised only
12 species, which, however, are now multiplied more than tenfold.
The owls seek their prey mostly by twilight, and also by night in
moon-light; it consists of small mammals, of birds, which they
mostly surprise sleeping, and also of large insects; some species eat
frogs also. The principal food, however, of the owls consists of the
various species of the mouse genus. The females are commonly
somewhat larger than the males; in other respects there is little
difference between the two sexes. They lay only few eggs (from
2 to 5), of a white colour.

The feathers of the owls are very soft, whence these birds fly
without noise. The anterior part of the head is covered with
plumules with loose branches (they are sometimes even hairy) ; they
surround the eyes radiately, and thus form on the head a kind of
veil (discus) more or less complete; round this disc lies a wreath

AVES. 541

consisting of some rows of sliort curved plumules, which descend
behind the auditory apertures and meet below the lower mandible.
The auditory apertures are usually large, and in some are covered
by a fold of skin found at their anterior margin.

The cranial bones are highly pneumatic and have a large circumference.
The furcula becomes thin below and sometimes even membranous, as in
some climbing birds. The sternum has below on each side two incisures in
most species, in some a single one. Two large coeca are present. Compare
J. J. KAUP, Uebersickt der Eulen, OKEN'S Isis, 1848, s. 753 — 772; Mono-
graph of the Owls — Strigidce, in JAEDINE'S Contrib. to Ornith. 1851, pp.
119—130, 1852, pp. 103 — 122; T. CASSIN, Descriptions of Owls, presumed
to be new species, in the collection of the Academy of Nat. Sciences of Phila-
delphia; Journal of the A cad. of Nat. Sc. of Philad.; sec. Series, n. 1850 —
1854, pp. 51 and foil. 95 foil. PL m — v. and PL xn.

Strix SAVIGNY, GRAY, KAUP, Hybris NITZSCH*. Bill sub-
curved at the base, curved at the tip. Facial disc complete.
Bunches of plumes at the sides of forehead none. Wings long,
extended beyond the extremity of tail, with second quill longest
of all. Tail short, subeven or rounded. Tarsi longer than middle
toe, slender, plumed. Toes scutellate anteriorly.

Sp. Strix Jlammea L., BUFF. PI. enl. 440, GUEE. Iconogr., Ois. PI. 4, fig. 2,
NAUM. Taf. 47, fig. 2, SDSEMIHL Vogel Europa's, Taf. 46; the white owl,
Veffraye, der SchleierJcautz, die Thurmeile; the bill in this and other species
of this genus is somewhat larger than in the rest of the owls, slightly
curved at the base and more strongly only near the tip. The feathers of
the face, or the disc, are pure white ; the belly light rust-colour or dirty
white ; the back and wings brown and ruddy with white and black spots.
This species is dispersed throughout nearly the whole of Europe, the north
of Africa and western Asia. Jt makes its nest in the roofs of old build-
ings, churches, towers, &c. A very similar species lives in North America
(Strix pratincola BONAP., Strix Jlammea WILS.), and another, larger, in
Cuba, Strix perlata LICHTENST., Strix furcata TEMM., PL col. 432. From
South Africa also, from India and especially from Australia, some species
of this genus are known.

Ulula KEYSERL. and BLAS. (Ulula Guv. and Syrnium SA-
VIGNY, Cuv.) Bundles of feathers at forehead none. Auditory
apertures large, lunate, furnished at the interior margin with a
cover. Wings moderate, with third and fourth, or fourth and fifth
quills longest of all. Tail rounded or subeven, produced beyond
the points of wings. Tarsi and toes plumed.

i, a nocturnal bird of prey ; ABISTOT. Hut. an. ix. 12.

542 CLASS xvi.

Sp. Ulula aluco, Strix aluco L., (and Strix stridula ejusd.), BUFF. PL enl.
437, 441, NAUM. Taf. 46, 47, fig. I, SUSEM. Vog. Ear. Taf. 45; the tavmy
owl, le chat huant, la hulotte, der WaldJcautz; — Ulula cinerea, Strix cinerea
GM., Strix barbata PALL. Zoogr. Rosso- Asi.at. Fasc. 3, Tab. i; — Ulula hylo-
phila, Strix Jiylophila TEMM., PL col. 373, DESMURS, PL peint. 37 (Strix
fasciata); Brasil, Chili, &c.

A large species from the North and East of Europe and North-western
Asia, with tail longer than in the other species, forms the genus Ptynx
BLYTH: Ulula uralensis PALL., Strix liturata RETZ., TEMM. PL col. 27,
NAUM. Taf. 42, fig. i, SUSEM. Tog. Eur. Taf. 42.

Nyctale BREHM, Scotophilus SWAINS. (Characters almost of the
preceding genus, but the opening of nostrils is smaller, and furnished
with only a rudiment of operculum. Wings with third and fourth
quills longest of all.)

Sp. Ulula funerea, Strix funerea L., Strix Tengmalmi GM., VIEILL. Gal. PL
23, NAUM. Taf. 48, figs. 2, 3; SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 48; from the North
of Europe and Asia, rare in England (named by BEWICK the little owl).
Some species resembling it are found in America.

Otus Guv. (excl. of some spec.), GRAY, JEgolius KEYSERL. and
BLAS. Two tufts of feathers at the sides of forehead, standing
out like ears. Auricular aperture large, lunate. Wings long,
with second and third quills longest of all. Tail moderate, even.
Tarsi short, plumed, as are the toes.

Sp. Otus vulgaris FLEM., Strix Otus L., BUFF. PL enl. 29, NAUM. Taf. 45,
fig. i ; the long-eared owl, le hibou commun, le moyen due, die Ohreule;
Siberia, Europe, Egypt; — Otus brachyotus, Strix brachyotos FoRSTER1,
GMEL., BUFF. PL enl. 438, NAUM. Taf. 45, fig. 2, SUSEM. Voy. Eur. Taf.
51 ; the short-eared owl, la chouette; Europe, N. Africa, some parts of Asia
(and North America?); the ear-tufts, consisting only of two or three
plumules, are small and, since they are not always erect, readily escape
notice ; they are placed close together on the top of the head ; it is an
incorrect statement that they occur only in males.

ft Facial disc incomplete, deficient above the eyes.

Bubo Guv., Asia SWAINS. Aperture of ears moderate, lunate.
Two tufts of longer plumes standing out at the sides of forehead.
Wings with third and fourth quills longest of all.

Ketupa LESS., GRAY. Wings produced at the extremity scarcely
beyond the middle of tail. Tarsi naked, reticulate. Toes naked,

1 Philos. Transact. LXII. p. 284, No. 2 ; Strix cegolius, ulula and accipitrina PALL.
Perhaps, however, the North American species (that of FORSTER) is different; it is
figured in WILSON Am. Ornith. PI. 53, fig. 3.

AYES. 543

furnished above the base of claws with a few transverse scutella,
elsewhere reticulate.

Sp. Bubo ceylonensis, Strix ceylonensis GM., Strix Leschenaultii TEMM. PL col.
20; — Bubo Ketupa, Strix Ketupa HOBSF., Strix ceylonensis TEMM. PI.
col. 74.

JBubo Cuv. (in stricter sense). Upper mandible with margin
sinuate. Wings not produced as far as the end of tail. Tarsi and
toes clothed with dense plumes.

Sp. Bubo europceus LESS., Strix Bubo L., BUFF. PL enl. 435, LESS. Ornith.
PL 17, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 44; the eagle owl, le grand due; the largest
species of this family ; it lives in the extensive forests of Germany, Italy,
Hungary and Russia ; rare in France, extremely rare in England ; — Bubo
lacteus, Strix lactea TEMM. PI. col. 4, from N. Africa, &c.

Ephialtes KEYSERL. and BLAS., Scops SAVIGNY. "Wings produced
beyond the end of tail. Tarsi clothed with short plumes, toes
naked. (Species small)

Sp. Bubo scops, Strix scops L., BUFF. PL enl. 486, NAUM. Taf. 43, fig. 3 ;
the scops-eared owl, le petit due, die Zwerg-ohreule ; South of Europe,
North of Africa ; rare in England, has not been observed in Holland ; in
the colour and marking of the feathers this bird is not unlike the wry-
neck ( Yunx torquilla) ; it is not larger than a thrush. — Bubo atricapillus,
Strix atricapilla NATTEBEB, TEMM. PL col. 145, South America, &c.

Phodilus ISID. GEOFFR.1 Bill somewhat straight at the base,
curved at the tip. Tufts of feathers above the forehead none.
Wings with fourth, fifth and sixth quills subequal, longest of all.
Tail very short, rounded. Tarsi feathered. Toes long, reticulate
at the upper part, at the lower above the base of claws scutellate
anteriorly, with scattered hairs.

Sp. Phodilus badius, Strix badia HORSF., TEMM. PL col. 318; Java, Suma-
tra; this species has much external resemblance to Strix flammea.

Surnia DUMERIL, KEYSERL. and BLAS. Facial disc incom-
plete, sometimes almost obsolete. Aperture of ears oval, moderate
or small, without cutaneous fold. Tufts of plumes above the fore-
head none. Wings with second, third and fourth quills sinuately
narrowed externally, the third quill longest of all. Tarsi and often
toes also densely plumed.

1 Ann. des Sc. nat. xxi. 1830, pp. 194 — 203.

544 CLASS xvi.

Nyctea STEPHENS. Wings with second and fourth quill subequal,
scarcely shorter than third, produced beyond the middle of tail.
Tail somewhat short, subrounded. Toes densely plumed.

Sp. Sumia nivea, Strix nyctea L., BUFF. PL enl. 458, NAUM. Taf. 41, SDSEM.
Vog. Eur. Taf. 41 ; the snowy owl, le Harfang ; a large species, white with
some grey-brown spots and streaks, from the North of Europe and America
(found in the Orkney Islands, very rare in Holland and England). The
sternum has only a single incision behind on each side.

Athene BOIE (add Glauddium ejusd.), GRAY. Wings with second
quill short. Tail moderate or somewhat short, subeven.

* Toes with setaceous, scattered plumes.

Sp. Surnia noctua, Strix noctua RETZ., Strix passerina Cuv., BUFF. PL enl.
439, NAUM. Taf. 48, fig. i, SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 46 ; the little owl, little
night-owl, la chevZche commune, der Steinkautz; a small species from the
middle and South of Europe, North America, and Western Asia ; — Surnia
brama, Strix brama TEMMINCK, PL col. 68, &c.

** Toes densely plumed. (Glauddium BOIE.)

Sp. Surnia passerina, Strix passerina L., Strix acadica TEMM., NAUM. Taf.
43, figs, i, 2, SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 43, fig. 2; Sweden, Switzerland,
Russia ; the smallest species of this family.

Surnia DUMERIL (in stricter sense). Tail long, graduated. Toes
densely plumed.

Sp. Surnia ulula, Strix ulula L., Strix funerea LATH., Strix nisoria METER,
BUFF. PL enl. 63, WILSON Am. Orn. PL 50, fig. 6, 42, fig. i, SUSEM.
Vogel Eur. Taf. 43, fig. i ; the hawk-owl, little hawk-owl, Canada owl,
Chouette e"pervier, Chouette a longue queue, die Sperbereule. This species,
from the North and East of Europe, Siberia and North America, approaches
in its mode of life, and also in form, to the diurnal birds of prey, espe-
cially to the Kites ; it does not fly by night, but morning and evening,
sometimes even during the day.

Section II. Aves rapaces diurnce. Base of bill covered by
cere. Eyes lateral. Outer toe not shorter than inner, mostly
longer.

Family LIII. Accipitrmce. Bill moderate or shorter than
head, hooked, mostly bent in an arch from the base downwards,
with margin of upper mandible often dentigerous. Nostrils lateral,
rounded or oval, placed in the cere, open. Eyes with upper margin
covered by crowded plumes. Head almost always densely plumed.

The genus Falco of LINNAEUS. On these birds may be consulted J. J.
KAUP Monographien der Falconidce, in OKEN'S Isis, 1847 (8- 39 — 8o/

AVES. 545

s. 83 — 121, s. 161 — 212, s. 241 — 283, 325 — 386, and, with some altera-
tions, translated as a short extract in JABDINE'S Contrib. to Ornith. 1849,
1850; and on this family as well as on the whole order: J. F. BRANDT
Die Gruppen und Gattungen der Raubvogel Russlands, in the Journal fur
Ornith. edited by J. CABANIS, 1853, s. 178 — 195, s. 225 — 240.

The falcons are very numerous. Their skeleton differs from that
of the nocturnal birds of prey in many characters; the form of the
skull is quite different, and it is only slightly pneumatic, ihefurcida
is strong, broad and expanded, the sternum is larger (an elongated
rectangle), it is not incised behind, but presents an oval aperture on
each side, which, however, is often entirely absent, as in the eagles,
&c. Their coeca are very short.

The plumage presents great differences of colour at different
periods of life. The females are constantly larger than the males;
they lay rarely more than five, the larger species only two eggs,
which are almost always white, with red-brown spots. Most of the
species feed on live animals, yet some will seize an carrion also.

Falco L. (in part), BECHST. Bill curved, short; upper mandible
furnished on each side towards the tip with one or two teeth, lower
shorter, truncate and emarginate to receive the tooth of upper.
"Wings elongate, with first and third quills mostly subequal, the
second longest of all. Tail subeven, broad. Tarsi below the heel
clothed with the lengthened plumes of tibiae, reticulate or covered
with hexagonal scutes, short, strong.

Sp. Falco peregrinus GM., (Falco commivnis BEISS., GM., Cuv.), BUFF. PL
enl. 430, 421, 469, NAUM. Taf. 24, 25, SUSEM. Tog. Eur. Tab. 8, Cuv. R.
Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 9, fig. 2; the peregrine falcon, lefaucon, der Tauben-
falke; this species is dispersed over a great part of the old world, and in
North America also a species occurs which differs from it little or perhaps
not at all (Falco anatum BON.AP.) ; WILS. Amer. Om. PI. 76. — Falco pere-
grinoides TEMM. PL col. 479, Nubia.

The falcons used in falconry are characterised by a longer tail and
shorter toes. Falco candicans GM., Falco groenlandicus BREHM, BUFF.
PL enl. 446, NAUM. Taf. 21, fig. i, SUSEM. Vogel Eur. Tab. 6 a, from the
northern parts of the new and the old world, and (the Iceland variety?)
Falco islandus BRUNN., NAUM. Taf. 21, fig. 2, SUSEM. Taf. 7. Compare
HANCOCK in Annals of Nat. Hist. 1838. From both of these SCHLEGEL
distinguishes the Norwegian species Falco gyrfalco (Falco lanarius L.
Faun. Suec.?), BUFF. Hist. not. XVI. PI. 13, which also occurs occasionally
in the North of Germany and in Holland ; rare in England. (SUNDEVALL
refers all the three to one species, Aorsber. 1844.) See on these species and
on falconry the splendid work Traite de Fauconneric, par H. SCHLEGEL

VOL. ii. 35

546 CLASS xvi.

et A. H. VEBSTEB DE WULVEBHORST, Leiden et Dusseldorf, 1844—1853,
Avec 17 pi. color., par SONDERLAND et WOLF, folio.

Sub-gen. jEsalon KAUP, Hypotriorchis BOIE. (Tarsi longer. Species small.)

Sp. Falco subbuteo L., BUFF. PL enl. 432, NAUM. Taf. 26, SUSEM. Tog.
Eur. Taf. 10, fig. i ; the hobby, der LerchenfalTce, &c.

Tinnunculus YIEILL., Cerchneis BOIE. Tarsi somewhat long,
covered anteriorly with a double row of scutes. (Toes shorter than
in the preceding.)

Sp. Falco tinnunculuB L., BUFF. PI. enl. 401, 411, NAUM. Taf. 30, the
Icestril, la cresserelle; — Falco cenchris NAUM. Taf. 29, etc.; species which
are of a red-brown colour above; the tail-feathers increasing in length
from without inwards, with darker transverse bands. Very similar is
Falco punctatus Cuv., TEMM. PI. col. 45, from Madagascar.

leracidea GOULD (Hieraddea).
Sp. Falco berigora VIG. and HOBSF.

H'ierax VIGORS. Upper mandible bidentate. Wings with second
and third quills subequal, longest of all. Tarsi scutellate anteriorly.
Toe long, strong.

Sp. Falco cm*ukscens L., Falco mayalensis STBICKL., EDWARDS 2?i'refo,Tab. 108,
VIEILL. Gal., PL 18, TEMM. PL col. 97; Java, and a couple of species
from Asia; the smallest diurnal birds of prey.

Harpagus VIGORS. (Bidens SPIX, Diodon LESS., Diplodon
NITZSCH.) Bill short, curved, thick, high; upper mandible biden-
tate. Wings somewhat short, with first quill short, second, third
and fourth gradually longer, fifth longest of all. Tail rounded,
elongate. Tarsi scutellate anteriorly.

Sp. ffarpagus bidentatus, Falco bidentatus LATH., TEMM. PL col. 28, 288 ; —
Harpogus diodon, Falco diodon TEMM. PL col. 198; both from Brasil.

Circus LACEP., BECHST. Bill shorter than head, curved. Upper
mandible furnished with a tooth obtuse, obsolete. Cere covered by
setaceous, curved plumes. Dense feathers surrounding the lower
part of the face with a disc. Wings long, with third and fourth
quills longest of all. Tail long. Tarsi elongate, covered anteriorly
with transverse scutella.

Sp. Circus rufus, Falco ceruginosus L., BUFF. PL enl. 460, 424, NAUM. Taf.
37, 38, fig. i, SUSEM. Vb'g. Eur. Tab. 36; the marsh-harrier, moor-buzzard,
la harpaye, le busard de marais, die Weihe, JRohr-oder Sumpf-weihe;
Europe, North Africa, some parts of Asia, &c. These species hunt on the

AYES. 547

approach of darkness, and build their nest amongst rushes or brushwood on
the ground. (The genus Cry poger anus, see below p. 552, has affinity with
Circus.)

Milvus BECHST., Cuv. Bill short, somewhat straight at the
base, with tip curved. Upper mandible furnished with a rounded,
obsolete tooth. Nostrils oval, oblique. Plumes of head and neck
narrow, lanceolate. Wings long, with third and fourth quills
longest of all. Tail long, frequently emarginate or forked. Tarsi
moderate, above plumed in front, below covered with a row of scutes,
naked posteriorly, reticulate.

Sp. Milvus regalis BRISS., Falco Milvus L., BUFF. PL enl. 422, NAUM.
Taf. 31, fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PL n, fig. 3; the kite, le milan,
der Milan ; a species dispersed over a great part of Europe ; reddish brown,
the legs yellow. — Milvus niger, Falco ater GM., BUFF. PL enl. 472, &c.

Elanus SAVIGNY. Tarsi very short, reticulate with scales. Tail
very long. (Wings with second quill longest of alL)

Sp. Milvus melanopterus, Falco melanopterus DAUD., &c.

CUVIEB placed also in this sub-genus Falco furcatus L., Milvus caroli-
nensis BRISS., BUFF. PL enl. 72, WILSON Amer. Ornith. PL 51, fig. 3, with
tail very deeply forked, which species forms the type of the sub-genus
Nauclerus VIGORS. Here also belongs a species from Africa, Falco Rio-
couri VIEILL., TEMM. PL col. 85.

Ictinia VIEILL., GRAY.

Sp. Milvus cenchris VIEILL., Falco plumbeus GM., TEMM. PI. col. 180; —
Falco mississippiensis WILS., Ictinia ophiophaga VIEILL., Gal. des Ois. PL
17, WILS. Am. Ornith. PL 25, fig. i.

Pernis Cuv. Bill short, curved, with tip hooked, the margin
of upper mandible sinuate, without tooth. Nostrils narrow, oblique.
Region in front of eyes at the base of bill beset with short, rigid,
imbricate plumes. Wings with second and following quills up to
the sixth sinuate internally before the extremity, the fourth longest
of all. Tail long, subrounded. Tarsi feathered in front above,
reticulate below.

Sp. Pernis apivora Cuv., Falco apivonts L., BUFF. PL enl. 420, NAUM. Taf.
35> 36, SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 35; the honey-buzzard, la bondree, der
Wespenbussard : this bird hunts for wasps and bees; the colour presents
many individual differences ; it is found in the east and south parts of
Europe and in Eastern Asia ; in Germany it is a bird of passage, which
arrives late in the spring. It represents the Cuccoo amongst the falcons.
— Pernis cristata Cuv., Regne Ani. PL 3, fig. 4, Falco ptilorhynchus TEMM.

35—2

548 CLASS xvi.

PI. col 44, DESMUBS PI. peint. PI. 13, 14 (Pernis torquata and ruficollis
LESS.) ; Java, Sumatra. (In the stomach of this species also hymenopterous
insects have been found.)

Note. — Here are to be inserted sub-genera Hyptiopus HODGS.
(Baza ejusd. [previously), Lophotes LESSON, Avicida SWAINS., on
which cons. GRAY Gener. of Birds, I. 23. Upper mandible with
two small teeth before the tip.

Sp. Pernis lophotes, Falco lophotes Cuv., TEMM. PI. col. 10; the East Indies.

Cymindis Cuv. (and Rosihramus LESS.!) Bill compressed,
arched ; upper mandible with tip hooked, produced. Nostrils small,
narrow, basal. Wings long, with third and fourth quills longest
of all. Tarsi plumed above on the anterior surface. Toes long.

t Tail long, rounded. Tarsi short.

Sp. Cymindis cayennensis, Falco cayennensis GM., BUFF. PI. enl. 473, TEMM.
PI. col. 204, 270; — Cymindis uncinatus, Falco uncinatus ILLIG., Cymin-
dis cuculoides SWAINS., TEMM. PL col. 103, 104, 105.

*M* Tail even, moderate. Tarsi elongate, scutellate anteriorly below the .
plumes.

Sp. Cymindis hamatus, Falco hamatus ILLIG., Rosthramus niger LESS.,
TEMM. PL col. 61, 231, LAFBESN., GUEB. Magas. de Zool. 1834, PI. 20.
(Species all from South America.)

Buteo BECHST. Bill short, curved, with tip hooked, margin of
upper mandible sinuate. Nostrils oval, transverse. Wings long,
with third and fourth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail mode-
rate, even or subrounded. Tarsi long; toes short.

Archibuteo BREHM. Tarsi hirsutely feathered in front to the
base of toes.

Sp. Buteo lagopus, Falco lagopus BBUNNICH (Ornithologia borealis, Hafnise,
1764, 8vo, p. 4), NAUM. Taf. 34, SUSEM. Vb'g. Eur. Taf. 34; from the
North of Europe and Siberia; the rough-legged buzzard; an occasional
visitant in England, visits the Netherlands in the autumn and often
remains over the winter. — Buteo Sancti Johannis, Falco Sancti Johannis
GM., WILS. Am. Ornith. n. Tab. 53, fig. i, 2, 83, (p. 54) fig. i, Faun,
bor. Am., Birds, PI. 28 ; from North America, often confounded with the
preceding species. BONAPABTE refers also to this species Falco fewugineus
LICHTENST., GBAY Gen. PI. vi.

Buteo BREHM. Tarsi covered anteriorly with a row of transverse
scutella.

AVES. 549

Sp. Buteo vulgaris BECHST., Falco luteo L., BUFF. PL enl. 519, NAUM.
Taf. 32, 33, SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 33 ; the common buzzard, la buse com-
mune, der Mausebussard ; legs and cere yellow, tail with about twelve
transverse dark bars, the general colour mostly brown yet with very many
individual differences; this falcon feeds on moles, mice, rats, frogs, &c.,
and is dispersed over a large part of Western Europe. In North America
different species of this sub-genus are found.

Astur BECHST. Bill short, curved, compressed; upper mandible
with obsolete, rounded tooth. Nostrils placed near the culmen of
bill, oval, oblique or horizontal. Wings with first quill short,
fourth, or fourth and fifth longest of all. Tail elongate, far sur-
passing the points of wings, mostly even. Tarsi long, scutellate
anteriorly.

Nisus Guv., Accipiter BRTSS., GRAY. Tarsi slender, plumed below
the heel only, with scutes often obsolete or confluent.

Sp. Astur Nisus, Falco Nisus L., BUFF. PI. enl. 412, 467, NAUM. Taf. 19,
SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 29; the sparrow-hawk, I'epervier, der Finlcen-
Habicht, der Sperber; iris and legs yellow; breast and belly white, with
red-brown, sinuous, transverse streaks; the adult bird bluish-gray above.
A generally dispersed species of Europe, North Africa, and a part of
Africa. In Russia SEVEROW has found a bird which, by its longer wings,
shorter feet, and some other slight differences, is separated as a distinct
species from Falco Nisus, under the name of Astur brempes. Bullet, de la
Soc. imp. desNatur. de Moscou, 1850, II. pp. 234 — 239, PI. I. — ill. Some
species of this form are found in all parts of the world.

Geranospiza KAUP., Ischnoscelis STRICKL.

Astur BECHST. (et recentior.). Tarsi stronger, plumed nearly in
the upper third.

Sp. Astur palumbarius BECHST., Falco palumbarius (and gentilis) L.,
PI. enl. 413 (461 and 423 younger), NAUM. Taf. 17, 18, SUSEM. Vog. Eur.
Taf. 28; the gos-hawJc, Vautour, der Ifabicht. Of this form also species
are met with in all parts of the world, especially in Australia, where
amongst others an entirely white species has been observed, which SAL.
MUELLER met also at New Guinea : Falco novae Hollandice GM., WHITE
New South Wales, PI. 35, p. 250.

Note. — Here are to be inserted some genera of modern writers :
Melierax GRAY, Asturina VIEILL., KAUP, &c., on which cons. GRAY
Gen. of Birds, i.

Morphnus Guv.

Thrasaetus GRAY, Harpyia Cuv.

550 CLASS XVI.

Sp. Astur harpyia, Vulturharpyia'L., Falco destructor DAUD., Cuv. R. Ani.
PL in. fig. 3, TEMM., PI. col. 14, LESS. Ornith. PL 10, u, fig. j ; more
than three feet in size ; bill black, legs yellow, a crest of black feathers at
the back of the head, back and wings black, belly and breast white, a
narrow black ring round the neck; in South America.

Circaetus VIEILL. Bill shorter than head, curved; upper man-
dible with margin sinuate, tip hooked. Nostrils oblique or longi-
tudinal, oval. Wings with second and third quills subequal, longest
of all. Tail long, even. Tarsi long, plumed below the heel, else-
where reticulate with hexagonal scales. Toes reticulate, scutellate
above the base of claws, outer toes conjoined by membrane. Claws
curved, grooved beneath.

Sp. Circaetus gatticus, Falco gatticus GM., Aquila brachydactylaWoLF, BUFF.
PL enl. 413, NAUMANN, Taf. 15, SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 35 a., South of
Europe, Egypt, Arabia ; — Circaetus cinereus VIEILL., funereus RUEPPELL,
VIEILL. Gal. PL 12, KUEPPELL Faun. Abyss. Tab. 14; — Circaetus holo-
spilus (Buteo Iwlospilus VIGORS), GRAY Gener. PL vn. These birds are
placed by some writers with the genus Buteo, with which they have some
analogy.

Spilornis GRAY, KAUP. Sp. Falco bacha DAUD., Falco albidus Cuv.,
TEMM. PL col. 19.

Herpetotheres YIEILL.

Sp. Circaetus cachinnans, Falco cachinnans L., VIEILL. Gal. PL 19; —
Circaetus brachypterus (Micrastur GRAY), TEMM. PI. col. 141, 116.

Gymnogenys LESSON, Polyboro'ides (!) SMITH, GRAY.

Poliomis KAUP, GRAY. Tarsi covered anteriorly with a row of
larger scales or small scutes. Tail rounded. Wings reaching
nearly to the end of tail.

Sp. Circaetus liventer, Fako liventer TEMM. PL col. 438, Timor;— Circaetus
poliogenys, Falco poliogenys TEMM. PI. col. 325 ; from the eastern parts
of Asia, also at Japan.

Aquila BRISS., Cuv. Bill shorter than head or moderate, curved
(straight at the base, arched downwards toward the tip). Upper
mandible with margin sinuate. Nostrils oblique, oblong. Wings
with fourth and fifth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail mode-
rate or long, graduated or rounded. Tarsi long, hirsute to the
toes. Toes reticulate with scales, scutellate above the base of
claws; outer toes connected at the base by membrane.

Sp. Aquila chrysaetos Cuv., Falco fulvus and Falco ckrysaetos L., BUFF. PL
enl. 409, 410, NAUM. Taf. 8, 9, SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 16, 17, Cuv. R. Ani.,

AVES. 551

ed. ill., Ois. PI. 10, fig. 2 ; the golden eagle, Vaigle commun, Taigle royal t
der Stein-Adler; length to three feet, breadth seven feet; bill bluish-
black, cere and toes yellow, feathers brown, at the back of neck ruddy,
tail longer than the points of the wings. This species occurs in Europe,
North Asia and North America.

Aquila impericdis, Falco imperialis BECHST., Aquila heliaca SAVIGNY,
TEMM. PL col. 151, 152, NAUM. Taf. 6, 7, SUSEM. Tog. Eur. 44, 45; in
this species the points of the wings extend beyond the tail ; it is found on
wooded mountains of Germany, but chiefly in Hungary and Dalmatia, and
also in Egypt.

Sub-gen. Onychaetus KAUP. Outer toe abbreviate ; inner equal to middle,
with claw long, somewhat straight. Sp. Aquila malayensis TEMM. PI. col.
117, Java, Sumatra.

Haliaetus SAVIGNY. Tarsi plumed below the 'heel, with the
lower part covered in front with transverse scutella, as are the toes
also. Toes reticulate at the base alone, the outer not conjoined by
membrane. (Other characters almost of the preceding genus.)

Sp. Haliaetus ossifragus, Falco ossifragus L., and Vultur albiciUa L., BUFF.
PI. enl. 112, 415, NAUM. Taf. 12, 13, LESSON Ornith. PL 8, fig. 2; the
osprey, Vorfraye, le pygargue, der See-Adler; bill in the young bird
black, in the adult light yellow, toes yellow; adult brownish grey, head
and neck with a lighter tint, tail white ; the young spotted brown ; length
i\ feet, breadth from tip to tip of wings 7 feet; in the whole North of
Europe, visits our coasts especially in winter, and in hard weather goes
deeper inland, feeds on fish, also on small mammals, hares, &c. — Haliaetus
vocifer, Falco vocifer DAUD., DESMUBS PL peint. 8, South Africa, &c.

Thalassaetus KAUP. Nostrils narrow. Tarsi strong, thick, reticulate,
scutellate above the toes.

Sp. Haliaetus pelagicus, Aquila pelagica PALL., Zoogr. Rosso- asiat. Fasc. 3,
PL col. 489.

Helotarsus SMITH, Theratopius LESS.

Sp. Helotarsus ecaudatus, Falco ecaudatus VIEILL. (Only a single species is
known hitherto, from Africa. Tail very short. Tarsi reticulate, with
oval, irregular, protuberant scales. Genus intermediate between Circaetus
and Haliaetus.)

Pandwn SAVIGNY. Bill shorter than head, curved, with tip
produced, hooked, with margin sinuate. Nostrils inclined, nearly
transverse. Wings long, produced nearly to the end of tail, with
second and third quills longest of all. Tail moderate, subeven.
Tarsi reticulate. Outer toe versatile. Claws curved, large, nearly
semicircular, rounded below, not grooved.

Sp. Pandion haliaetus, Falco haliaetus L., BBISS. Ornith. I. PI. 34, BUFF.
PI. enl. 414, NAUM. Taf. 16, SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. 24; the laid buzzard,

552 4 CLASS xvr.

le balbusard, der Fluss-Adler. This species feeds on fresh- water fish, and
is found in Europe, Arabia, Egypt, &c. Whether the North American
Fish-Eagle (Falco carolinensis GM., WILS. Am. Orn. n., i. 103, Tab. 37,
fig. i, VJEILL. Gal. PI. n.) be specifically different, requires further
investigation. SCHLEGEL unites them both with Patidion leucocephalus
GOULD, from New Holland, as one species. — Pandion humilis J. MUELLER
and SCHLEG., Verhand. over de not. Gesch. der Nederl. Overzeesche bezittinyen,
Aves, Tab. 6 ; Sumatra, Malacca. This species, as also another from the
East Indies, which according to MUELLER occurs chiefly at Borneo, Falco
ichthyaetus HORSF., is distinguished from Pandion haliaetua by some cha-
racters of structure. Comp. MUELLER and SCHLEGEL loc. cit.

Polylorus VIEILL. ( Caracara AZARA, Cuv.) Bill shorter than
head, compressed, curved; upper mandible with margin sinuate or
furnished with an obtuse, rounded tooth. Cere large; nostrils placed
at the anterior margin of cere near the culmen. Wings long,
with third, or third and fourth quills longest of all. Tail long
or moderate, rounded, broad. Tarsi long, reticulate, covered ante-
riorly with scutella in pairs, lower down above the bases of toes
with a single row of scutella. Toes covered in front with trans-
verse scutes; claws moderate, moderately curved. Kegion round
the base of bill and eyes somewhat naked, covered with scattered
setaceous plumes.

Sp. Polyborus vidgaris, VIEILL., Falco brasiliensis GM., VIEILL. Gal. PI. 7 ;
very numerous in South America.

Sub-gen. Ibycter VIEILL. (and Milvago SPIX).

Sp. Polyborus aquilinus, Ibycter leucogaster VIEILL., Falco aquilinus GM.,
BUFF. PI. enl. 417, &c. All the species from South America, except one
from New Holland and other islands of the South Sea ; Polyborus leucurus,
Falco leucurus LATH., GM. ; Falco Zeelandice TEMM. PL col. 19?., 224, —
These birds form the transition from Circaetus to the following family.

Gypogeranus iLLiGr., Serpentarius Cuv. Bill shorter than head,
curved, compressed towards the tip, hooked. Nostrils lateral, oblique,
almost vertical, placed at the anterior margin of cere. Orbital
region naked ; head closely covered with plumes. Tarsi elongate,
slender, more than double the length of middle toe, covered in front
and behind with a row of transverse scutes. Toes short, the outer
conjoined at the base by membrane; hallux small, resting on the
point only. Wings elongate, with third, fourth and fifth quills
subequal, longest of all. Tail graduated, with two middle feathers
very long.

Sp. Gypogeranus serpentarius ILLIG., Falco serpentarius GM., Serpentarius
reptilivorus DAUD., GRAY, BUFF. PL enl. 721, A. VOSMAER Beschrijv. van

AYES. * 553

eenen AfriJcaanschen roofvogel, Sagittarius genaamd ; Amsterd. 1 769 (with
a col. fig.), LATH. Synopsis i. PI. n., LESS. Ornith. PI. 3, fig. i, GUEBIN
Iconogr., Ois. PI. 3, fig. 4 ; the cere and the naked region round the eyes
yellow, back bluish-grey, thighs black, a crest of long, black feathers
behind the head ; length 3 feet. This South African bird feeds chiefly on
snakes, like Circaetus gallicus (see above p. 550) in Europe.

Family LIV. Vulturince. Bill moderate, with culmen straight
at the base, constricted in front of cere, curved towards the tip;
upper mandible with margin sinuate, never dentigerous. Tarsi re-
ticulate with scales, sometimes hirsute or semi-hirsute. Middle toe
much longer than lateral toes; outer toes conjoined at the base by
membrane. Claws slightly curved, obtuse. (In most the head and
upper part of neck are naked or beset with scattered plumules.
Eyes surrounded by the flattened face, not placed in a depression
under exsert plumes.)

Ghjpaetus STORE, Phene SAVIGNY. Bill moderate, compressed ;
upper mandible ascending in front of cere, then curved, with tip
hooked. Nostrils vertical, oval, beset with recumbent, rigid, dense
bristles. Head closely plumed, bearded with rigid setae under the
bill. Feet short, with tarsi hirsute to the toes. Wings long, with
first quill somewhat short, second and third subequal, longest of all.
Tail cuneate, somewhat long.

Sp. Gypaetiis barbatus Cuv., Vultur barbalus L., Falco barbatus GM., and
Vultur barbatus ejusd., TEMM. PL col. 431, NAUM. Taf. 4, 5, GUEB.
Iconogr., Ois. PL i, fig. 4, LESS. Ornith., PI. 6, fig. 2. GBAY Gener. PI. i ;
der Lammergeier, der Geieradler; this bird lives on lofty mountains,
especially of the South of Europe and West of Asia. It feeds chiefly on
goats, lambs and chamois, which it kills by casting them down from the
precipice ; the feet are not very strong, and less adapted for the seizing and
retaining of prey. It attains a length of nearly 4 feet, whilst it is 9 or 10
feet from tip to tip of wings. On the Pyrenees and in Sardinia a variety^
constantly smaller, is met with (KUESTEB Isis, 1835, s. 209, SCHLEG. in
SUSEM. Vog. Eur. s. 19). More interesting appears to be the difference
which the African Lammergeier presents; in which the tarsi are not
destitute of feathers below. (Gypaetus meridionalis BLAS. and KEYSEBL.,
EUEPPELL Syst. Uebers. der Vogel. N. 0. Afr. Taf. i.)

Gypohierax EUEPPELL, Racama GRAY. Bill shorter than head,
compressed, with culmen curved towards the tip, which is acute.
Nostrils vertical placed in the naked cere. Kegion at the base of
bill and around the eyes naked. Wings with third and fourth quills

554 CLASS xvi.

subequal, longest of all. Tail moderate, rounded. Tarsi moderate,
strong, plumed below the heel, elsewhere reticulate, with scales
large, hexagonal.

Sp. GrypoJiierax angolensis RUEPPELL, Falco angolensis GM., GRAY Gen.
PI. IV. ; white, base of the tail and a large portion of the wings black. This
bird, rare and still little known, is a native of the western part of tropical
Africa, and has been brought alive to Europe within the last few years.

Vultur L. (in part), ILLIG., TEMM. Bill moderate, thick, higher
than broad, hooked at the tip; lower mandible shorter, obtuse at
the tip. Nostrils placed in the cere, naked, vertical. Head and
upper part of neck naked or covered with down. Wings long,
with third and fourth quills subequal, fourth longest of all. Tail
moderate, rounded. Tarsi strong, reticulate with small scales.

The vultures live principally on carrion ; they diffuse a disgusting smell.
The species of this genus all belong to the warm countries of the old world.

Sub-genera. Gryps SAV., GRAY, Otogyps GRAY and ^Egypius SAV. (Vultur
GRAY).

*t* Tail with twelve feathers.

Sp. Vultur monachus L., Vultur cinereus GM.,JPultur arrianus TEMM., BUFF.
PI. enl. 425, NAUM. Taf. i, SUSEM. Vog. Eur. Taf. i ; Southern Europe,
Egypt.

ft Tail with fourteen feathers.

Sp. Vultur fulvus BRISS., GMEL., Vultur leucocepJialus MEYER, BUFF. PI.
enl. 426, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Ois. PI. 7, fig. 4, NAUM. Taf. 2, SUSEM.
PI. 2, 3, 3 a; from the South East of Europe, Asia Minor, &c.

Percnopterus Cuv., Neophron SAVIGNY. (Species of Vultur L.)
Bill a little longer than head, slender, with culmen gibbous at the
base, with tip hooked. Cere produced beyond half of the bill.
Face naked. Nostrils horizontal (parallel to the margin of mandi-
ble). Wings with third quill longest of all. Tail moderate, cuneate.
Tarsi reticulate.

Sp. Percnopterus veterum, Vultur percnopterus, L., BUFF. PI. enl. 427, 429,
LESS. Ornith. PL 6, fig. i, NAUM. Taf. 3, SUSEM. Taf. 4 ; white, the flag-
feathers black; young bird coloured brown. This bird lives in Africa,
Asia and the South of Europe. Since it consumes carrion it is of great
benefit in warm countries, and was honoured by the Egyptians ; it is often
seen figured on their monuments; — Percnopterus niger LESS., Cathartes
monachus TEMM. PL col. 222 ; from West and South Africa.

Cathartes ILLIG. Bill moderate, with tip arched, strong. Cere
large; nostrils pervious, horizontal, naked, placed in cere. Wings

i

AYES. 555

long, with third and fourth quills subequal, longest of all. Tail
moderate, subeven or rounded. Tarsi short, reticulate with small
scales. Head and neck naked.

All the species of vultures with perforate nostrils are from the new world.
To these belongs Cathartes fcetens ILLIG., BUFF. PI. enl. 187 (Cath. aura
SPIX). It is this very common species of which TSCHUDI relates that
black vultures in incredible numbers sit on the walls of the streets and on
the roofs of the houses in Peru, in midday heat, and sleep with their head
under their wings. — Vultur aura L., VIEILL. Gal. PL 4, WILS. Am. Orn.
PI. 75, fig. i ; both in North and South America ; the Prince MAXIMILIAN
zu WIED, however, distinguishes specifically Vultur septentrionalis from
Vultur aura.

A couple of species have large fleshy lobes at the base of the bill (the
sub-genus Sarcorhamphus DUMEK.). To it belongs a bird very common in
the plains of the whole of South America, Cathartes papa, Vultur papa L.,
BUFF. PL enl. 428, LESS. Ois. PI. 5, fig. i, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not. PL 13,
GUEBIN Iconogr., Ois., PL i, fig. 3; the king of the kites. Another species,
on the contrary, inhabits the lofty mountain-range of the Andes, and has
in its manners a striking resemblance to the Lammergeier. It is the
Condor, a bird of 14 feet in the flight : Cathartes gryphus, Vultur gryphus
L., HUMBOLDT Observ. de Zool. PL 8, TEMM. PI. col. 133, 408 (and 494,
head of a male bird, natural size), LESS. Ornith. PL 7, GU£R. Icon., Ois.
PL i, fig. 2, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Ois. PL i, fig. i. On the anatomy
see HARLAN Transact, of the American Philos. Soc. Vol. in. p. 2 (new
series), Philadelphia, 1830, p. 466.

CLASS XVII.
MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)1.

THE mammals are vertebrate, warm-blooded animals, breathing
by means of lungs; they differ from birds in having a muscular
midriff or diaphragm (with ARISTOTELES Siaf«/m) between the cavity
of the thorax and that of the abdomen, and in having glands

1 A chief work for this class is the natural history of BUFFON, in which DAUBENTON
has communicated his numerous anatomical observations. The figures that are to be
found there will be generally referred to by us. (Histoire naturelle. Paris, Imprimerie
royale, Tom. n — xiv. 1749 — 1767, Supple'm. Tomes in. 1776, vi. 1782, vn. 1789).

J. C. D. VON SCHREBEB Die Sdugthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur. Erlangen,
!775 — 1846, vii. Thle. 4to. (And Supplementband von J. A. WAGNER, iv. Thle.
1840 — 1845.) A work, of which the publication was carried on for 71 years, and
which has been continued since 1835 with great diligence and care by WAGNER, and
finally is completed. A fifth part of the Supplemental Band (as a distinct work) was
commenced by W. in 1853 and finished in 1855 (Leipzig, T. 0. WEIGEL).

GEOFFROY ST.-HILAIRE et F. CUVIER Histoire naturelle des Mammiferes, folio,
Paris, 1820 — 1835 (60 Livraisons ou 3 vol.); with coloured lithograph plates. In
1826 a new and less costly edition in 4to was commenced, estimated to consist also of
60 Livr., of which, however, only 22 (132 plates) have been published, and which
appears to remain incomplete.

G. R. WATERHOUSE Natural History of the Mammalia. With engravings. London.
8vo. Vol. I. 1846, Marsupiata, Vol. II. 1848, Rodentia. (It is to be regretted for the
science that this work, as is almost to be feared, will not be completed.)

C. J. TEMMINCK Monographies de Mammalogie, Tome i. Paris, 1827, Tome II.
Leiden, 1835 — 1841. (With many figures, especially of crania.)

F. CUVIER Des Dents des Mammiferes consideres comme caractdres zoologiques.
Paris et'Strasbourg, 1825, 8vo.

For the anatomy of the Mammals may be consulted : the first part of the Zoologie
of F. TIEDEMANN (already cited under the birds), Landshut, 1808, 8vo, and the com-
pressed article Mammalia of OWEN in TODD'S Cyclopaedia, in. 1847, PP- 234— 245-
Beautiful figures of skeletons are to be found in the distinguished work of PANDER
and D'ALTON Vergleickende Osteologie, Bonn, 1821 — 1831, in 12 Nos.

Systematic works are: Synops-is methodica animalium quadrupedum et serpentini
generis, auctore JOANNE EAIO. Londini, 1693, 8vo ; — J. C. P. ERXLEBEN Sy sterna regni
animalis. Classic I. Mammalia, 1777, 8vo; — Prodromus methodi Mammalium, Inaug.
Disput. Prceside G. C. STORR, respondente J. WOLLFER, Tubingse, 1780, 4to; — P.
BODDAERT Elenckus Animalium, Vol. I., sistens quadrupedia. Roterodami, 1784, 8vo;
C. ILLIGERI Prodromus systematic Mammalium, et Avium. Berolini, i8n,8vo; — A. G.
DESMAREST Mammalogie (Encycl. method.) Paris, 1820, 4to; — J. B. FISCHER Synop-
sis Mammalium, Stuttgardise, 1829, 8vo. (A ddenda, Emendenda et Index, ibid. 1830.)

MAMMALS. 557

which secrete the milk, with which the mother feeds her young,
and in being viviparous. Their skin, moreover, is not covered
with feathers, but commonly with hair; only some have horny
scales or shields, which cover the back or also the feet and the
upper part of the head.

The skeleton of mammals deserves, in the first place, our con-
sideration. The vertebral column is, with the exception of the
cetaceous animals, divided into the same regions as in man, viz.
the cervical, the dorsal, the lumbar, the sacral and the caudal. In
the cetacea, numerous vertebrae (in the porpess four or five and
forty) succeed to the dorsal vertebrae, and compose the tail, in
which the lumbar region cannot be distinguished from the sacrum.
Although the neck in the various species differs greatly in length,
still it is found to consist in this class, with two or three excep-
tions, constantly of seven cervical vertebrae. The three-toed sloth
(Bradypus tridactylus) has nine cervical vertebrae1; in Manatus
australis there are commonly six. Consequently the length of the
neck does not depend upon the number of its vertebrae2. In the
ungulate animals the length of the neck corresponds to that of the
fore-legs3. There are generally thirteen dorsal vertebrae present, as
in most of the ruminants, and many rodents, in most species of the
genus Felis, in the dog, the fox, &c.; seldom only are there fewer
than twelve (eleven in some bats and in species of Dasypus; in one
species of this genus, according to CUVIER, there are only ten,
which appears to be a solitary exception). Just as rare is it
almost that there should be more than fifteen; the horse has

1 This remarkable exception was first noticed by WIEDEHAITN, and by EOUSSEAU,
rosector of the Museum of the Garden of plants at Paris; see Ann. du Mus. V.

[804, p. 20 1. Bradypus torquatus has 8 cervical vertebrae; Bradypus didactylus has
usual number (7). Although on the two lowest cervical vertebrae in Bradypm
tylus traces of ribs are found (see TH. BELL Transact, of the Zool. Soc. I. p. 113),
it these vertebrae are not on this account to be considered as dorsal. (The transverse
processes of all the cervical vertebrae in the mammals and also in man have a rudimentary
ib on the anterior root.)

2 The neck in man forms about one-seventh of the length of the whole verbetral
>lumn ; in the giraffe three-sevenths.

3 The elephant forms a remarkable exception to this rule, and the proboscis, which
performs the office of a hand (ARISTOTELES Historia anim. Lib. 11. cap. i), com-
pensates the absence of a long neck, which would be ill able to support the heavy

of the head. Comp. CICERO De natura Deor. Lib. n. cap. 50.

558 CLASS xvu.

eighteen, the rhinoceroses have nineteen or twenty, the elephants
from nineteen to one and twenty, and the three-fingered sloths twenty-
three or twenty-four, which number is the largest that has been
observed in this class. The most common number of the lumbar
vertebrae appears to be six or seven; in a few only (the genus
Stenops) eight or nine; in many there are five, as in man; only
very rarely are there less than four; in the two-toed anteater, the
two-toed sloth, and the ornithorhynchus, there are only two. The
number of vertebrae of the sacrum is commonly four, but varies
from one to nine. In no division of the vertebral column is the
number of the component vertebrae subject to greater difference
than in the tail, where it varies from four to forty-six. This last
number occurs in the long-tailed Manis, in which the tail has
nearly three times the length of the rest of the vertebral column.

The first vertebra has in mammals constantly two articular
cavities, for the reception of the two condyles which are found at
the sides of the occipital foramen of the skull. This articulation
of the skull serves for depressing and raising the head; for rotating
it to the right side or the left, there is the articulation of the ring-
like first cervical vertebra with the vertical process on the body of
the second (epistropheus, dens epistrophei] , which has a smooth
articular surface on its anterior side. In this motion the first ver-
tebra with the head rolls round the second. In the true whales
this tooth-like process is wanting. With them the short neck is
immoveable, like the anterior part of the vertebral column in fishes.
In many of them also the cervical vertebras are anchylosed; in the
dolphins the first two only have coalesced, and the arches of the
five remaining cervical vertebrae are as thin as paper. In the
ungulate animals, the carnivora, nay in almost all mammals, with
the exception of man and the quadrumana, the first two cervical
vertebrae are much larger than the rest; the first has broad, flat
transverse processes, which sometimes surpass the breadth of the
skull; the second vertebra is long, and its spinous process forms a
lengthened ridge-like plate, which extends over the arch of the first
cervical vertebra. In many mammals the spinous processes of the
cervical vertebrae are conspicuously developed on the second and
seventh alone. The spinous processes, on the contrary, of the
dorsal vertebras are commonly long, especially in the ungulate ani-
mals. To these processes the cervical ligament (ligamentum nuchce

MAMMALS. 559

s. cervicale) is attached, which in man is represented by merely a
condensed band of the fascia nuchalis. This ligament is in the
horse and the ruminants powerfully developed, and arises even
from the spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae. In the car-
nivorous animals it arises from the posterior cervical vertebras, and
the first dorsal alone. Forwards it is attached to the spinous pro-
cess of the second cervical vertebra, and often to the crest also of
the occipital bone, above the large occipital foramen1. The sacrum
in man retreats backwards, and makes an angle with the lumbar
vertebrae; in the rest of the mammals, on the contrary, it lies
nearly in the same plane with the lumbar vertebrae, and is also
narrower than in the human skeleton. In the ox (and in most of
the rest of the ruminants) the spinous processes of the sacral ver-
tebrae coalesce to form a ridge, by which amongst other characters
the sacrum of the ox is markedly distinguished from that of the
horse.

The last vertebras of the tail cease to have an arch ; their form
is that of the phalanges of the fingers or of a double cone, of which
the points are turned towards each other, as in an hour-glass. In
many, especially in long-tailed mammals (as Halmaturus, Dasypus,
Mam's, Myrmecophaga, also in the Cetacea), most of the caudal
vertebrae are furnished with inferior spinous processes, which pre-
sent the form of a V, and arise between two bodies of vertebrae. In
the beaver (Castor), in which the transverse processes in the tail
are very large, those lower spinous processes exceed the upper in
size.

Each rib usually is connected in mammals by its head, with an
articular cavity formed by the bodies of two vertebrae2, and in
addition backward by a tubercle with the transverse process of the
posterior of those two vertebrae. In the monotremes, the ribs are
connected with the body of the vertebras alone. In the cetaceous

1 In the elephant there is at this part a cavity with many projecting bony plates,
by which this ligament is attached more firmly; compare P. CAMPER Description
anat. (Tun Elephant, (Euvres, II. p. 177, PI. xx. fig. i, A, B, c, D; PI. xxiv. B, G.

20, 3, H. 5.

3 According to the observation of RETZIUS, these fovece costales belong originally to
the arches of the vertebrae, as may be seen in skeletons of children and young mam-
mals, where the bodies of the vertebrae are still separated from the arches by intervening
synchondroses.

560 CLASS XVII.

animals, on the contrary, the posterior, or sometimes all the ribs
are attached to the transverse processes alone of the dorsal vertebrae.
The parts of the ribs which are united to the sternum remain in
most of the mammals cartilaginous during the whole life; in some
only are these pieces, as in birds (see above, p. 330) early ossified,
as in Bradypus, Dasypus, Myrmecophaga, the Cetacea, the Mono-
tremata. The anterior ribs always extend as far as the sternum,
and are thus true ribs, in which respect again the mammals differ
from the birds (see above, p. 330). In the mammals the number
of. true ribs (of which there are mostly seven, eight or nine) com-
monly exceeds that of the false, that is, of those which are not
connected with the sternum.

The sternum in mammals consists mostly of many bony pieces
lying behind each other in a row ; their form sometimes corresponds
with that of the caudal vertebras, but also is often flat. In most
mammals this bone is narrow and lengthened, in the cetacea it is
broad. A projecting ridge, as in the sternum of birds, occurs only
in some burrowing mammals (as in the mole) and in the bats as
exceptions.

The anterior limbs are never absent in mammals. They are
not always provided with a clavicle and by it connected with the
sternum. The cetacea, namely, the ungulata and some of the
edentata, have no clavicle. An imperfect clavicle, that does not
extend from the top of the scapula to the sternum, is present in
some rodents and in the greater number of carnivorous animals,
amongst which it appears to be wanting in some few only. The
insectivorous mammals, many rodents, all quadrumanous animals
and bats, have constantly a perfect clavicle. Usually this bone is
long and then not unlike a rib; in the mole it is very short and
more thick than long, and provided in front with a process ; it has
a large articular surface for the humerus, and is on the contrary
united to the top (acromion) of the shoulder by ligament only. In
the genus Bradypus the clavicle is not united to the acromion but
to the coracoid process of the scapula. The clavicle of mammals
is the os furculare of birds (see above, p. 330). A second or cora-
coid clavicle is found in the monotremes only (the Ornitliorhynchus
and the Echidna}.

The scapula is always present. It is a flat, triangular or elon-
gated bone, of which the inner surface, which lies upon the ribs, is

MAMMALS. 561

somewhat concave, whilst the outer surface, on the contrary, is usu-
ally more or less convex. A projecting crest, named spine (spina
scapulae], generally divides this outer surface into two parts, and
extends upwards over the articular surface of the scapula. In the
cetaceous animals the spine lies close to the anterior margin of the
scapula, so that the anterior cavity (fossa supraspinata) is particu-
larly small. In the bats the scapula has some resemblance to that
of birds in its narrow and lengthened form.

The upper-arm bone or humerus in man is nearly straight. In
the carnivorous animals, on the contrary, it is much bent, and its
articular head lies out of the axis. It is short in the ruminants
and the horse, where the extent of the forehand is great. Very
short is it especially in the cetaceans, long, on the other hand, in
the quadramanous mammals and the sloths.

The humerus in many quadrumanous animals, in the genus
Felis, Mustela, in the squirrels, perhaps in all the edentates, with
the exception tf Bradypus tridactylus1, and in some other mammals,
is perforated above the elbow or provided with an oblique canal.
Through this canal or this aperture (foramen supracondyloideum)
there runs by no means, as was formerly asserted, the tendon of the
bicipital musele, but the median nerve of the arm and the brachial
artery or the ulnar artery, and often also the ulnar vein2. This
canal or passage is absent in all cetaceous and ungulate animals.
It must not be confounded with another aperture at the inferior
extremity of the humerus between the two condyles which is some-
times observed even in man, where the bone at this part is a thin
lamina. This aperture is particularly large in the daman and in
some rodents.

With the inferior extremity of the humerus the two succeeding
bones of the fore-arm are connected by hinge-articulation. The
ulna is the longest of the two in man ; it lies on the inside of the
fore-arm and backwards. Its upper extremity has a deep articu-
lar surface (cavitas sigmoidea], and terminates behind in a hook

1 See A. BRAXTS Diss. zool. inaug. de Tardigradis. L. B. 1828, 4to, pp. 42, 43.

2 Thus it was observed first in the lion by WOLFF, and afterwards in the apes by
TIEDEMANN : see the paper of the last named in MECKEL'S Archiv fur die PTiysioL rv.
1818, s. 544 — 549. Comp. also V. BAER ibid. v. s. 312 — 314, and OTTO Comments-
tiv.ncula de rariorib. quibusd. sceleti humani cum animalium sceleto analoffiis. Vratis-
laviae, ^39, 4to, pp. 25 -27.

VOL. ii. 36

562 CLASS xvn.

(olecranori), which is received in the posterior cavity of the inferior
extremity of the humerus. The radius is shorter, connected more
with the carpus or root of the hand, and can roll round the ulna, so
that either the back or the palm of the hand can be turned upwards
(pronatio et supinatio). From this perfection most of the mammals
recede, especially such as make use of their limbs for standing and
running only, and not for seizing also. In some the two bones
of the fore-arm have even coalesced; in others they remain dis-
tinct indeed, but still their relative motion is little or none. The
cetaceans have the bones of the fore-arm short, flat, and immove-
ably connected. In most of the ungulates the two bones of the
fore-arm have coalesced downwards. In the horse the ulna is
very imperfect and consists only of the olecranon process and a
thin bony stile, which unites with the radius and does not extend
to the carpus. A rotation of the hand does not occur in ungulate
animals, but the dorsal surface is constantly turned upwards (manus
prona). In the carnivores and rodents radius and ulna remain
indeed distinct, but in many the rotation is nevertheless very im-
perfect. A greater relative mobility of the two bones of the
fore-arm occurs in the quadrumanous mammals, which in this, as in
the rest of their structure, make an approach to man. In the wing-
handed mammals (the bats) the ulna is sometimes entirely absent
or is merely a thin spine-like bone, that is situated under the
radius1.

The root of the hand (carpus) consists of various small bones
(from 5 to 11), that of man of eight, arranged in two rows; the
bones of the second row in most ruminants are only two. — The
pisiform bone forms in the apes, and especially in the carnivores, a
species of heel at the back part of the carpus. In the mole a sickle-
shaped little bone, which lies at the inner margin of the hand and
extends from the radius to the thumb, deserves special notice.

The fore-hand (metacarpus} consists commonly of five small,
elongated, cylindrical bones placed side by side. Sometimes there
are fewer, and on the whole their number corresponds to that of
the fingers. In the ruminants there are originally (in the embryo)

1 The name of additamentum ulnce, which ALBINUS with so much reason gave to
the radius in man, thus has no propriety in Zootomy. Rather is the radius the chief
bone of the fore-arm in animals.

MAMMALS. 563

two metacarpal bones, but they quickly coalesce to form a single
bone (cannon-bone). In the horse on each side of the metacarpal
bone, which articulates with the single finger, there is a little bony
stile which descends from the carpus, but does not extend as far as
the finger; these two lateral bony stiles (splint-bones) are, according
to CUVIER, imperfect fingers, whilst MECKEL regards them as meta-
carpal bones. The stags also have similar bones; in sheep and
oxen a single bone only of the kind is seen on the outside. In the
pachydermatous mammals (with the exception of the fossil genus
Anoplotherium, which has only two) there are at least three bones
in the metacarpus; the elephant has five such.

The number of fingers varies from one to five. Of the five (the
largest and also the normal number) the third or middle finger is
the*most constant and commonly also the longest; this is the only
finger in the horse. First of all the thumb appears to be absent;
in many the fifth (the little) finger also disappears, and after these
the fourth finger. In the ruminants two fingers (the second and
the middle finger) are constantly present, and in these two other
imperfect fingers are added, which, however, are absent in the
camel. For other particulars respecting the number of fingers we
refer to the Systematic Arrangement, where it will be found recorded
amongst the characters of the genera. Perfect fingers have three
joints (phalanges], except the thumb which has only two. In the
whales and dolphins the number of joints of the fingers is larger,
especially of the second finger1. The last joint of the fingers in
the ungulate animals is flat beneath; its anterior margin has the
form of a semicircle, and the upper surface descends obliquely from
behind forward. In the feline genus the last joint of the fingers has
a sigmo'id form ; in front it is excavated like a cap, and in the middle
of this cavity there rises a compressed conical point. To this cone
the claw is adapted, of which the posterior margin is received in
the cap and thus firmly fixed. In walking this joint is turned
directly upwards, and thus the point of the claw does not touch the
ground. At some distance from the inferior extremity of this joint

1 This is a conformity to reptiles, especially to the fossil genera Ichthyosaurus
and Plesiosaurus. In the genus Eradypus the first joint of the finger is very short
and soon coalesces with the ossicle of the carpus ; see CUVIER Ann. du Mus. v.
pp. 195, 196.

36—*

564 CLASS xvn.

is found the articulation for the preceding second joint. This second
joint has almost the form of a triangular prism, is flat below and
excised on the outer side, so that the last joint of the finger when
at rest lies in it1. Whenever the flexo* muscles on the inferior
surface of the foot, attached by their tendons to the last joint of
the finger, move that joint, the erect claw is drawn forward and
downward. When at rest the last joint is supported by two elastic
ligaments, which at the back of the hand proceed from the first
and second phalanges to the upper margin of the last.

Only in man and in most of the quadrumanous mammals can
the thumb be moved separately and placed at a distance from and
opposite to the other fingers; but even in the apes the hand is
imperfect, for the thumb is shorter. In some the thumb is even
wanting, or there is only a small ossicle on the inside by which it
is represented2.

The hind limbs are connected with the trunk more firmly than
the anterior. Here in place of the scapulae are the ossa innominata,
which are attached immoveably to the sacrum. The three bones
which make up the os innominatum (the ilium, ischium and pubis)
are present in the embryo, and also in young animals as distinct
bones. The pubic bones are united with each other below; yet in
some, as the mole and many bats, they remain separate. In different
mammals the ischia also become united with each other and with
the pubic bones. In the marsupiate and monotrematous animals
a triangular, flat, moveable bone is attached to the anterior margin
of the pubic symphysis on each side, and has its point directed
forward. In the cetaceous animals traces alone of innominate bones
are found, which are remote from the vertebral column, and are
connected with the rest of the skeleton by muscles only ; the other
bones of the posterior extremities are wanting.

A deep articular cup at the outside of the innominate bone
receives the head of the thigh-bone. This bone in most mammals

1 This excavation is erroneously stated by CUVIEB to be on the inside of the second
joint. Ley. d'Anat. comp. i. pp. 311, 312, and ed. i, I. p. 434.

2 Compare on the fingers in mammals CUVIEB Lep. d'Anat. comp. I. 309 — 314, ed.
sec. i. 432 — 437 ; MECKEL Syst. der vergl. Anat. n. i, s. 408 — 421; DUMERIL Ueber
die verschiedenen Formen der aussersten PJialangen bei den Sdugethieren in EEIL'S
Archiv, vn.iSo;, s. 301 — 316, with figures (translated from the Magas. encycl., Annte
vi. Tome i. No. 3).

MAMMALS. 565

is relatively shorter than in man, where it is the longest bone of the
skeleton. The head of the thigh-bone is seated upon a short neck
which leaves the bone at a right angle; from this part also the
external or great trochanter ascends above the head of the thigh-
bone. This bone is remarkably short in the seals (Phocce), where
the shaft almost disappears and the two articular extremities form
nearly the whole mass. Whilst in man the axis of the thigh-bone
in the erect position deviates little from that of the vertebral column,
the thigh-bones even of the apes are bent more forward and form an
obtuse angle with the pelvis; hence these animals always stand
with the knees bent. In the carnivorous animals the thigh-bone
makes nearly a right angle with the pelvis. In other mammals, as
in the horse and the ruminants, the angle becomes even acute.

"With the thigh-bone (femur) two other bones of the leg are
connected below, the tibia and the fibula. The knee-joint is strength-
ened by many ligaments, by the capsular ligament, by the crucial
ligaments, the lateral ligaments and the fibrous expansions of the
muscles. At its anterior surface is situated the patella, which
appears to be wanting in different marsupial animals only, is small
in the carnivores, broad in the horse and the pachyderms. It is
a round, flat, bony disc, which is attached by a ligament arising
from its inferior extremity to the projecting anterior surface of the
tibia. This ligament is of a tendinous nature and arises from the
tendinous tissue of the extensor muscles1. The tibia corresponds
to the radius of the fore-arm, and is situated forward; the fibula
corresponds to the ulna, and is situated backward and outward. The
tibia, however, can rotate round the fibula in some marsupiates only,
like the radius round the ulna in man and many mammals. In
various mammals the tibia and fibula have coalesced, mostly at the
lower part. In the horse the fibula is a long stile, which becomes
thin downwards and extends from the upper extremity of the tibia
to about one Ijalf of it only. In the ruminants, on the contrary, the
inferior extremity alone of the fibula is present. The tibia termi-
nates below with a smooth articular surface before the first tarsal
bone, and has on the inside a process which extends downwards
(the inner ankle, malleoliis internus). The fibula forms with its

1 Hence the patella is a large sesamo'id bone, as BICHAT and, before him, BERTIN
had justly observed.

566 CLASS XVIT.

lower extremity the outer ankle (malleolus externus]. The first
tarsal bone (talus s. astragalus] is connected by a hinge-joint
with the tibia and is placed between the inner and outer ankles.
Below, the astragalus is connected with the heel-bone (calcaneus),
to the projecting posterior extremity of which the tendon of Achilles
is affixed. These two are the principal bones of the root of the
foot (tarsus), besides which in the human skeleton there are five
other bones, so that the tarsus consists of seven bones in all, whilst
in the other mammals the number of bones in this part of the foot
varies from four to nine. In the pachyderms, the carnivorous and
the quadrumanous animals, there are on the whole seven bones in
the root of the foot as in man. On the other hand, the tarsal bones
are more numerous in the edentate mammals and in many rodents.
In the horse there are two cuneiform bones instead of three; the other
bones are the same as in man, and the entire number is thus six.
So also is it in the camel, but the rest of the ruminants have only
five tarsal bones, since in them the navicular bone has coalesced with
the cubiform bone ; and the giraffe has only four, for with a similar
coalescence of these two bones, only one cuneiform bone is present.
In Otolicnus and Tarsius, long-footed Lemurids, the navicular bone
is very long and lies by the side of the heel-bone, also lengthened,
in the same manner as in the fore-arm the radius lies by the side
of the ulna. Two such long tarsal bones, placed side by side,
occur also amongst the reptiles in the frogs.

The fore-foot (metatarsus] usually counts as many bones as there
are toes present. The metatarsus in the ruminant and solidungu-
late animals is conformable to the metacarpus (comp. above, p. 562).
In the genus Dipus amongst the rodents the three middle meta-
tarsal bones coalesce to form a single bone, which terminates below
in three processes, to which the three large toes are connected, and
which thus resembles the principal bone of the root of the foot in
birds (see above, p. 332). fc

The digits of the foot in the ruminants, the solidungulates, and
commonly also in the pachyderms, correspond in number and form
to those of the hand. Such also is the case in most of the carnivo-
rous animals ; although in the genus Felis and Cam's the thumb
(hallux) of the hind-foot is not developed, of which a trace only is
observed in the fore-foot. In the monkeys the thumb is shorter,
but the other digits are longer than in the human foot.

MAMMALS. 567

The cranial bones are, as in man, connected by suture. The
names of the sutures are borrowed from human anatomy. The two
parietal bones coalesce in some carnivorous animals, in the bats,
in the horse, in the ruminants and rodents, to form a single bone,
so that in these there is no sagittal suture. On the other hand, the
frontal bone in most mammals is formed of two bones that meet in
the mid plane. The number of separate cranial bones is in most
mammals less than in reptiles and fishes. As in the rest of the
vertebrate animals, four cranial vertebrae may be distinguished.
The first or posterior vertebra is formed by the occipital bone.
The basilar portion of the occipital bone (the basioccipital OWEN)
is the body or centrum (OwEN) of this posterior vertebra; the arti-
cular portions (exoccipitals) are the neural arches (neurapophyses),
and the occipital part (supra-occipital OWEN) or neural spine is the
covering lamina by which the ring is closed above and which often
develops a crest. These four parts coalesce in many mammals
more slowly than in man to form a single bone. The occipital bone
in this class differs from that in the class of birds in there being
two articular condyles for connexion with the first cervical vertebra,
which lie at the sides of the occipital foramen ; in the birds, on the
contrary, and in the Eepitilia haplopnoa, this bone has a single
articular tubercle which lies in the middle under the occipital fora-
men. The occipital foramen is usually, with the exception of man
and the monkeys, situated more at the posterior extremity than on
the inferior surface, whence the cranium lies more in the same
direction with the cervical vertebrae. In most mammals there is
seen on the occipital bone a pyramidal process which is often con-
founded with the processus masto'ideus ; it is the descending part of
the coalesced par-occipital ; and serves, amongst other uses, for the
attachment of the digastric muscle which depresses the lower jaw;
it is very long in the hog and the kangaroo, also (though in a less
degree) in the horse and the ruminants1.

The second cranial vertebra has for its centrum the posterior
part of the body of the sphenoid (basisphenoid OWEN), for its

1 Processes jugularis or paramastoideus, see HALLMAN Die vergleickende Osteologie
des Schlaferibeins, B. 7, 8 ; DUVERNOT names this part apopkysis pyroldea. [It is the
parapophysis of the occipital vertebra — it is a distinct bone in fishes, but in the rest of
the vertebrates is only a process from the ex-occipital, in man the rectus lateralis muscle
is attached to it. — OWEN Homol. p. 30.]

568 CLASS xvn.

neural arches the great alse of the sphenoid (alispheno'ids OWEN),
and for its neural spine the parietal or the two parietals. The
separation of the sphenoid bone into two parts is seen in the human
embryo (see PL XVI. fig. 3), and it persists in most mammals, and
even in many monkeys, for the whole life. The posterior part
consists of the body of the sphenoid as far as the anterior clinoid
processes and the greater alee; the anterior part consists of the
anterior clinoid processes and the rostrum (prespheno'id OWEN)
with the lesser alae (orbitospheno'ids OWEN). The third vertebra
consists of this anterior part of the sphenoid as its centrum and
neural arches, whilst the frontal bone, single or in two lateral
halves, is its neural spine. We may remark that the posterior
wings of the sphenoid are with propriety termed the great wings
(alee magnce) in the human cranium, but in many mammals, as the
ruminants and pachyderms, they are smaller than the anterior.
The fourth cranial vertebra has for its centrum the vomer, for its
neural arches the middle portion of the ethmoid (corresponding
to the prefrontals of fishes, which in the superior classes are com-
pressed and coalescent), and for its neural spine the nasal bones.

Between the occipital bone and the second cranial vertebra the
temporal bone is placed; it is composed of five parts originally
distinct, the petrous bone (petrosal OwEN1), the masto'id bone, the
squamous portion (sguamosal OWEN), that part which belongs
to the tympanum (the tympanic bone) and the styloid process
(stylo-hyal).

The internal surface of the cranium presents a cavity which, as
in birds, is entirely occupied by the brain, and is thus the cast of
its surface. The upper walls, formed by the frontal bone and the
parietal bones, are pretty smooth, with the exception of the impres-
sions of the convolutions of the brain and the more conspicuous
grooves caused by the vessels and the longitudinal sinus. The

1 [The petrosal is the interpolated auditory capsule and belongs to the splanchnic
skeleton, it coalesces very early with the masto'id, the parapophysis of the parietal ver-
tebra ; the squamosal is part of the diverging appendage of the inverted arch of the
nasal vertebra; this last is much expanded and affords in mammals an articular sur-
face for the lower jaw (the frontal haemapophysis), which in the other classes is articu-
lated with the pleurapophysis of its own vertebra, the tympanic ; the styloid process
(stylo-hyal OWEN) is the pleurapophysis of the parietal vertebra. See OWEN The Arche-
type and ffomologies, &c. pp. 25 — 45.]

MAMMALS. 569

basal surface, on the contrary, is very uneven, and in man may be
divided into three regions. The posterior cavity is occupied by
the cerebellum and is bounded forward by the sides of the petrous
portion of the temporal bone. The middle cavity extends from
hence to the lesser alae of the sphenoid; the anterior region is
situated on the ethmoid and above the orbits, and is depressed
in the middle; from this depression there arises a process named
crista galli. These three regions do not lie in the same plane in
man; the posterior is the lowest; in mammals they lie more at the
same height and are less obviously distinct from each other. In
most carnivores, in the horse and some other mammals, there is
a bony tentorium cerebelli. In many mammals there is above the
internal auditory passage (porus acusticus internus) a deep blind
cavity in which an appendage of the cerebellum (flocculus) is
received.

There are many outlets in the cranium, especially in the sphe-
noid and temporal bones. Most of them transmit blood-vessels
and nerves ; a few only are the remains of an imperfect ossification.
The names of these outlets, as far as they are borrowed from human
anatomy, are not very applicable. Also some of the outlets, which
in man are distinct, coalesce in animals; thus in the rodents and in
the hippopotamus there is no canal for the carotid artery (canalis
caroticus), but the artery runs through the foramen lacerum ante-
rius1.

The second part of the osseous head consists of the bones of
the face, amongst which the ethmoid is included, which also of right
belongs to the cranial bones2. The vomer is a triangular or quad-
rangular, elongated bony plate which is placed in front of the
rostrum of the sphenoid and above the palate. The ethmoid is
more largely developed in this than in the other classes of verte-
brates, and here alone deserves the name which it has received in
human anatomy from its perforated upper surface (the cribriform
plate). It is larger when the orbits lie further apart, as in many

1 CUVIEE Lemons d'Anat. comp. n. p. 53.

2 [The interpolated olfactory capsule is the upper turbinate bone and cells of the
ethmoid of its side. The perpendicular lamina and cribriform plate are the coalesced
neural arches of the rhinencephalic vertebra, as already stated. OWEN Homol. pp. 132,
I35-]

570 CLASS XVII.

mammals, considerably smaller than in man when the eyes are
near together, as in the monkeys. The smooth lateral plate, which
in man and the monkeys contributes to form the inner wall of the
orbit (lamina papyracea] , is wanting in almost all the rest of the
mammals. The nasal bones are large in the carnivores, in the horse,
the swine, and especially in the rhinoceros and the rodents. In
the rhinoceros they support the horn by which this genus of animals
is distinguished; in the two-horned species the posterior horn is set
upon the frontal bone. The nasal bones are very narrow in the
quadrumanous mammals and unite in many species to form a single
bone; this, however, is often the case in other mammals where they
are larger. The inferior turbinate bones (conchce inferiores, ossa
turbinata mferiora) seem to be present in all mammals1. In the
ruminants they appear as two laminae proceeding from a horizontal
basal piece, of which one is rolled upwards, the other downwards,
and which are perforated by many apertures. In the carnivores (as
may be seen particularly in Phoca, Lutra, &c.), as well as in many
rodents (Lepus, Sciurus, Castor, &c.) these turbinate bones consist
of numerous hollow tubes which divide into fine branches2. The
lachrymal bones lie on the outer margin of the nasal process of ^the
superior maxillary bone. They are usually more powerfully deve-
loped than in man, and contribute more to form the inner wall of
the orbit, where they occupy the place of the ethmoid. In the
ruminants and in some edentates (Dasypus, Myrmecophaga) they
are much developed on the surface of the face, since the nasal pro-
cess of the superior maxillary bones does not mount to the orbit;
this facial portion has in many ruminants (as in the stags) a deep
groove in which sebaceous glands are lodged. The upper jaw is
formed principally by the two superior maxillary bones and the
two intermaxillaries. These intermaxillary bones differ from the
single intermaxillary of birds (see above, p. 334) by the absence of

1 That the whales form no exception to this, as MECKEL supposed (System der
vergl.Anat. IT. 2, s. 553), has been manifested by later investigations ; in the dolphins two
small ossicles are found at the anterior margin of the nasal apertures behind the inter-
maxillary bone (STANNIUS Lehrb. der vergl. Anat. s. 364) ; in Balcence also ESCHRICHT
has found parts corresponding to the conchce; Untersuchungen ueber die nordischen
Wallthiere, Leipzig, 1849, s- I25-

2 Comp. HABWOOD System of Comp. Anat. and Physiol. Cambridge, 1796, 4to.
pp. 20—24.

MAMMALS. 571

a nasal process dividing the external nasal aperture into two lateral
openings ; the spina nasalis is a vestige of this. By their lowest
portions, which form the anterior margin of the palate, the two
intermaxillaries join each other; to this many of the Chiroptera
present an exception, where instead of the junction a mere space is
left. The anterior margin of the intermaxillary bones is very thin,
when the incisor teeth are wanting at this part, as in Lemur; on
the other hand, the intermaxillaries are massive and strong in the
rodents and the elephant. In many species of mammals these
bones coalesce in old individuals, especially at the anterior surface
with the superior maxillary bones; in the human foetus they are
present as distinct ossific points until the fourth month only, whilst
after birth there is but a trace remaining in the palate of their
original distinctness. To these bones belongs the anterior palatine
foramen (or foramen incisivum), which in the carnivorous, the rumi-
nating and the solidungulate animals is double. The superior
maxillary bones are more elongated than in man and have a broader
nasal process. In the ant-eaters, the scaled quadrupeds (Manis) and
the true cetaceans these bones approximate to the extraordinary length
which we formerly remarked in the crocodiles. The malar bones
run from the superior maxillary bones to the zygomatic process of
the temporal bone; in the sloth (Bradypus) these bones do not
meet the last-named, and are moreover distinguished by a long, flat
process descending on the outside of the lower jaw and terminating
below in a point. In the other mammals, on the contrary, the malar
bone is usually connected with both bones; in the hippopotamus,
the solidungulate, ruminant and quadrumanous animals it is also
connected to the frontal bone by an ascending process; but in the
monkeys and in man alone is it also united with the great ala of the
sphenoid and forms with it a wall by which the cavity of the orbit
is separated from the temporal fossa, so that a fissure only is left
(Jissura spheno-maxillaris s. orbitalis inferior] , which consequently
does not exist in other mammals1. The malar bones in Manis and
some other insectivorous mammals (Sorex, Centetes) appear to be
absent, and although in the Monotremes the zygomatic arch is per-
fect, yet OWEN is of opinion, that here it is formed exclusively by

1 HALLER was thus justified in saying " Homini major quam ulli Bestiarum orbita
pars ossea est" (Elem. Phy&iol. v. p. 343), which BLUMENBACH has misconceived, as
though HALLER meant that the orbit in man is comparatively the largest. Jfandb. der
vergl. Anat. 1824, s. 32.

572 CLASS xvii.

the zygomatic process of the temporal bone which is united to the
superior maxillary. The palate-bones, which are placed between
the superior maxillary bones and the pterygoid processes of the
sphenoid, have in most mammals a longer horizontal piece, by
which the posterior part of the hard palate is formed. That this is
imperfectly ossified in the marsupial animals and that thus the bony
palate in their heads presents larger or smaller apertures, is one of
the osteological characters by which OWEN distinguishes this divi-
sion of mammals. The pterygoid bones (pterygo'ide interne of
reptiles Cuv., the outer plate of the pterygoid process of the sphe-
noid in man) continue long distinct from the sphenoid, and in some
mammals permanently so1.

The lower jaw differs by two characters from that of the other
vertebrate animals; first by its condyle being received by an arti-
cular cavity of the temporal bone; next, by its articular portion

1 [Having given the formation of the bodies and neural arches of the cranial
vertebrae from OWEN'S great work, we subjoin that of the inverted haemal arches in the
mammals :

In the occipital vertebra: the haemal arch is represented in many mammals by the
pleura- pophysial element only, the scapula; in many there is a haemapophysis, the
coraco'id, which coalesces with the pleurapophysis, and which completes the arch in
the monotremes alone by joining the episternal. In many mammals again the arch is
completed by bones which appear to be haemapophyses of the atlas, the clavicles. The
diverging appendage of the occipital inverted arch is the anterior limb.

In the parietal vertebra : the arch consists of pleurapophysis, the styloid, united to
haemapophysis, the lesser cornu of hyoid, by ligament and haemal spine, the body of the
hyo'id. The diverging appendage is the posterior cornu of the hyoid, the thyrohyal.

In the frontal vertebra : the pleurapophysis is the tympanic bone, the haemapophy-
sis the lower jaw or mandible, the haemal spine the symphysis. There is no diverging
appendage of this vertebra in any vertebrate class above that of fishes, in which it is
formed by the opercular bones. Note that in this inverted arch the pleurapophysis is
separated from its hsemapophysis by the intrusion of the diverging appendage of the
next vertebra, which thus in mammals receives the condyle of the lower jaw, assuming
here the office performed by the tympanic in the other vertebrate classes.

In the nasal vertebra the pleurapophysis is the palate-bone, the hsemapophysis the
superior maxillary, the haemal spine the two praemaxillaries. Here the diverging
appendage consists of a bone which connects this vertebra with the descending process
of the sphenoid, and with which process it usually coalesces, forming the outer lamina
of the pterygoid process : and further of two other elements, succeeding each other, of
which the proximal piece is the malar, the distal the squamosal which expands as it
diverges. OWEN Homol. p. 132.

Hence, exclusive of the olfactory capsule and the muco- dermal bones, the lachrymal
and turbinate, the bones of the face in mammals all belong to the inverted arches of
the nasal and frontal vertebrae.]

MAMMALS. 573

being never separate from its dental portion as a distinct bony
piece. The bone consists of two lateral parts, which meet in front
at the chin, but only in some mammals, as in man, entirely coalesce.

Since the face includes the organs of sense, and by means of the
jaws is connected with the lower functions and necessities of life,
whilst the cranium on the contrary contains the brain, the noblest
part of the central nervous system, it becomes a matter of interest
to compare the relative size of these two divisions of the head : a
comparison which ought to give the same result as the investiga-
tion of the relation between the mass of the brain and that of the
cerebral nerves. To that end CAMPER devised the so-named
facial angle, which is determined by an oblique line (linea facialis)
drawn from the most prominent part of the forehead to the anterior
margin of the incisor teeth, or to the anterior extremity of the
intermaxillary bone, and by a horizontal line running from the
external auditory passage to the inferior margin of the nasal cavity.
Whilst the facial angle in man ranges from 70 to 85 degrees, it is
much more acute in the other mammals, and in monkeys reaches
only 40 degrees or more, whilst in other mammals it descends to
25 degrees, or even less. But since the facial angle can afford no
sure results unless the outer surface of the frontal bone be nearly
parallel to the inner, and this, from the great development of the
frontal sinuses, in many mammals is not the case, CuviER preferred
to compare the area of the cranial cavity with that of the facial bones,
as determined by sawing through the bony head longitudinally in
the mid plane. The ratio between these two areas, and so also the
facial angle, is modified by age; in the monkeys especially the
development of the posterior molar teeth presses the jaws forwards,
by which the head assumes a more animal character than in
younger individuals. The orang affords a striking example of this;
formerly the figures and the dimensions of the orang's skull were all
taken from young specimens ; from these were derived the values
of the facial angle given in elementary works ; but the facial angle
becomes much more acute, and all that is human in the character
almost entirely disappears in the Pongo of WURMB, which is now
known as the adult orang.

Most mammals have teeth; the genera Manis and Myrmeco-
pliaga are however entirely destitute of them. In the duck-mole
(Ornithorhynchus) horny teeth are present; of the same kind are the
teeth of Eytina ILLIGER; they consist of tubules placed vertically,

574 CLASS xvn.

and contain a very small quantity only of bone-earth. In the
whales (Balcence) there are horny laminae (the so-named baleen)
in the upper jaw which stand transversely behind one another; the
lower jaw has neither baleen nor teeth, but, when the mouth is
closed, surrounds the outside of the baleen. The largest laminae
lie at the outer margin ; their form is that of a trapezium of
which the outside is much longer than the inside. Next to these
large laminae, on their inside, lie many smaller, which are also whiter
and softer. In every lamina an external and an internal substance
may be distinguished; the external or cortical substance consists of
horny plates lying close upon each other; the included medullary
substance is formed of parallel descending tubes which, at the inferior
margin of the horny lamina, pass into bristly fibres. These tubes
do not extend so high towards the superior maxillary bone as the
plates of cortical substance. Thus a space or cavity is left at this
part, which receives the germ-membrane, a fold of thick vascular
skin on which the balleens rest. This fold forms filamentous
elongations which proceed in the tubular, internal substance of the
baleen, and are accompanied by vessels in the same direction.
Between the laminae of baleen is a white substance, which seems to
require only a slight change to be transformed into horny matter1.
In the dolphins the teeth are not formed in sockets but in the gum,
and the margins of the jaw are elevated to enclose the teeth2. All
these teeth are conical and nearly similar; the middle teeth only
seem to be somewhat larger than the anterior and the posterior. In
this respect therefore the dolphins resemble many fishes and lacer-
tine animals. In the rest of the mammals the teeth are formed in
the alveoli.

The tooth has a germ or matrix (pulpa dentis), by which the
bony substance (dentine OWEN) is secreted, or which is changed
into that substance by ossification, and of which the residue
occupies a cavity in the tooth when formed. The crown is
formed first and afterwards the root. The crown is covered with
enamel, a very hard substance which consists of fibres directed
towards the axis of the tooth. In the covered teeth (denies db-
ducti), as those of man, the quadrumanous and carnivorous animals,

1 Compare F. C. ROSENTHAL AWiandlungen der Konigl. Alcad. der Wissenschaften
Berlin, aus dem Jahre 1829, Berlin, 1832, s. 127 — 132, Tab. I, in.

2 HUNTER Phil. Transact. 1787, p. 398 ; see also OWEN Odontograpliy, pp. 358, 359.

MAMMALS. 575

the crown is covered entirely and uniformly by a layer of enamel.
In other mammals the enamel penetrates into the dentine, and thus
forms folds (dens complicatus s. semicompositus) , and in some again
these folds extend so far towards the root of the teeth as to divide
them into different laminae (denies compositi s. lamellosi}. The
molars of the elephant afford an example of the last kind. Since,
now, the act of mastication wears away the less hard dentine more
quickly than the enamel, projecting lines arise on the crowns of
the semi-complex and complex teeth, with furrows between them,
as may be readily seen in such teeth as the molars of the ox. The
plates of the complex teeth are held together by an intermediate
substance named cement (cementum s. crusta petrosa] ; it is formed
by ossification of the capsule, within which the germ of the tooth
exists, and which is here folded. This cement or bony substance
covers also the roots of the teeth in mammals. Enamel is not pre-
sent in the teeth of all mammals; dentine on the contrary and
cement exist in every tooth. The division of the teeth into incisors,
canines and molars is derived from human anatomy. These three
kinds do not always co-exist where teeth in general are present,
thus the rodents have no canine teeth ; the number also of the teeth
is very different in different mammals ; but on this subject we refer
to the characters of the genera in the Systematic Arrangement of
this class. The first teeth (deciduous or milk-teeth) are shed
by mammals1, as they are by man, after a certain time, to make
room for other permanent teeth2.

1 That the hog forms no exception in this respect, as may be found stated by
ARISTOTELES, needs scarcely to be insisted on, although BUFFON repeats the mistake
(Hist. not. v. p. no). Compare on the teeth amongst others F. CUVIEB Des dents des
mammiferes, Paris, 1825, 8vo, E. OvfExOdontography, London, 1840 — 1845, sVols. 8vo,
and by the same the copious article Teeth in TODD'S Cyclopedia of Anat. and Phys-lol.
IV. 1852, pp. 864 — 935. On the microscopic structure of the teeth much is due to the
investigations of LEEUWENHOECK especially, which within the last few years have been
confirmed by modern observers, as PuRKiNJE (see FR^ENKEL de penitiori dentium,
humanorum structura observationes, Wratislaviae, 1835), RETZIUS (MiTcroskopisTca under-
solcningar b'fver Tandernes Structur; Kongel. Vet. ATcad. Handlingar, 1836, Stock-
holm), OWEN 1. 1. and others.

z [The Incisors are those implanted in the intermaxillary (premaxittary OWEN) bone
and the corresponding teeth of the lower jaw, whatever their shape and size. "The
tooth in the maxillary bone which is situated at, or near to, the suture with the
premaxillary is the canine, as also is that tooth in the lower jaw which, in opposing it,
passes in front of its crown when the mouth is closed. The other teeth of the first set
are the deciduous molars; the teeth which displace and succeed them vertically are the
premolars ; the more posterior teeth, which are not displaced by vertical successors,

576 CLASS xvn.

We have already said that the mammals have two jaws; but
the under-jaw alone is moveable. In man this motion is threefold;
first the jaw can be depressed and again raised, next can be
extended forward and again retracted, and lastly can be moved
obliquely to the left side and the right, whilst one of the condyles
rotates in the articular cavity of the temporal bone as round its
axis, and the other slides somewhat out of its cavity forward and
inward. These three motions are rendered possible by the round-
ness of the condyle and the slight depth of the articular cavity.
In the mammals the motions are usually more limited. In the
carnivores the articular condyle is broad, and is received in a deep,
transverse groove placed between projecting lines, in such a way
that motion forward and backward is prevented, whilst the under-
jaw in dilacerating animal food is principally capable of powerful
elevation and depression. In the rodents the condyle is longitudi-
nal, in the same direction as the long dimension of the lower-jaw,
and is received in a spacious, shallow cavity below the malar pro-
cess of the temporal bone; hence the under-jaw can glide forward
and backward with facility, which in gnawing their food constitutes
its principal motion. In the ruminants, finally, the articular
groove is very shallow, the condyle transverse and flat, and the

are the molars properly so called." OWEN in TODD'S Cyclop, iv. p. 903. The typical
dentition of diphyodonts as determined by OWEN from the forms of mammalia first
introduced into this planet, whether carnivorous or graminivorous, was 3 incisors,
i canine, and 7 succeeding teeth above and below. Three of the seven may be pre-
molars and four may be true molars, or four may be premolars and three true molars ;
the first being a character of the placental diphyodonts, the second of the marsupial.
True molars are a continuation of the first set of teeth backward, and these are all
developed in the same primary groove of the foetal gum. The successional teeth, or
the premolars, are formed from tooth-germs developed on the side of the deciduous
teeth, and therefore grow in a secondary groove. These secondary tooth-germs are
three in number, in one group only. When the premolars and molars are below the
typical number the absent teeth are missing from the fore part of the premolar series,
and from the back part of the molar series, the most constant teeth being the fourth
premolar and the first true molar. These having been determined in any case by
observation of the development, the rest of the premolars are counted from the last
forward (4, 3, 2, i), of the molars from the first backward (i, 2, 3). The typical den-
tition is expressed by the following formula, j.-lHl, c. I — I, jP.— -, m.^~^ = 42,

3~3 J— J 4~4 3—3

for placental diphyodonts. OWEN 1. 1. and also On the Characters of the class Mammalia,
in Proceedings of the Linn. Soc. n. No. 5, 1857, pp. 7 — 9.]

1 [The order Monotremata, Edentata and Cetacea generate a single set only of teeth
(Monophyodonts OWEN); all the rest generate two sets (Diphyodonts OWEN).]

MAMMALS. 577

lower jaw narrower than the upper; by all these peculiarities the
lateral motion of the lower jaw is facilitated. To these different
modifications of the articulation the arrangement also of the muscles
corresponds. Thus, for instance, the carnivorous animals have a
very powerful temporal muscle, which in most of the rodents is
feebly developed; in the ruminants the external pterygo'id muscle
is of peculiar strength l.

With the exception of the true or carnivorous cetacea, all mam-
mals have salivary glands ; they are more highly developed in pro-
portion as the food is masticated for a longer period, more in the
vegetable feeders than in the carnivorous animals. In man three
salivary glands are present on each side. The parotid gland lies
behind the ascending branch of the lower jaw ; its excretory duct
(ductus stenonianus) runs across the masseter muscle, perforates the
buccinator muscle, and opens into the cavity of the mouth in the
neighbourhood of the molars of the upper jaw. This gland is large
in the horse, in the ruminants, in the pachyderms, in the beaver
and the kangaroos ; small, on the contrary, in the dog, and particu-
larly small (rudimentary) in the seal (Phoca). The submaxillary
gland lies on the inside of the angle of the lower jaw, near the
frenum of the tongue. In most carnivores and in the edentates it
superposes the parotid in size ; in Dasypus, where it extends to the
great pectoral muscle, its efferent ducts meet in a muscular oval
vesicle which terminates forward in the excretory duct2. Lastly,
under the anterior part of the tongue, lies the sublingual gland, which
is always provided with several excretory ducts (ductus Riviniani),
and which in some mammals is wanting. The saliva has not in all
mammals the same composition ; in the mean the fluid consists in
great part of water, and contains only a very small proportion (Tfoy or
at least less than -^) of solid matter; namely, salts, mucus, osmazom,
and a peculiar matter (saUvin), soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol.

Besides the proper salivary glands there are many small glands
on the inside of the mouth and on the palate (mucous crypts), by
the secretions of which the food is moistened.

1 Compare CDVIER Lemons d'Anat. comp. in. pp. 29 — 60; TIEDEMANN Zoologie, i.
s. 251, 252.

2 RAPP Anat. Unters. uber die Edentaten (le Aufl.) Tubingen, 1843, 4to, s. 54,
PI. vn. A similar extraordinary development of this gland exists in the Ant-eater.
See OWEN Trans. Zool. Society, iv.

VOL. II. 37

578 CLASS xvn.

The cavity, which forms the commencement of the alimentary
canal, the gullet (pharynx), is wider above and passes below into
the narrower oesophagus; it is formed by a continuation of the in-
teguments of the nasal cavity and of the mouth, and is surrounded
by many muscles which are inserted into different parts of the
tongue-bone, into the cartilages of the larynx, and into the sphenoid
and temporal bones. In the true cetaceans the larynx ascends high
up in the pharynx to the nasal cavity, so that the food descends in
deglutition on each side of the larynx, and water is thus prevented
from entering the windpipe1.

The oesophagus is a nearly cylindrical tube, which runs through
the cavity of the thorax, and lies towards the vertebral column ;
usually it is long, and forms the narrowest part of the intestinal
canal. The muscular coat consists of two layers of fibres; the
external layer is in man composed of longitudinal, the internal of
transverse circular fibres. In most mammals the fibres of the two
layers are turned spirally and run in two opposite directions. The
mucous membrane and the innermost covering of epithelium form
longitudinal folds which become more conspicuous on contraction
of the muscular coat. The oesophagus of some mammals has in
addition at the inferior extremity transverse, circular folds ; they may
be observed in the tiger, the lion, and other carnivorous animals2.

The oesophagus when it has perforated the diaphragm passes,
sometimes after continuing its course for a space in the abdominal
cavity but in most mammals almost immediately below the dia-
phragm, into the stomach. In most mammals the stomach is sim-
ple, as in man. Often the cardiac portion is divided by a constric-
tion from the pyloric portion. In many rodents this constriction is
very conspicuous ; there is an accumulation of glands at the cardia
of the stomach, and in some species of the genus Myoxus this
glandular part forms essentially a peculiar dilatation of the stomach3,
a disposition which corresponds with the structure of the stomach
in birds (see above, p. 336).

1 See a figure in CAMPER Cetac. PL L; and another in CAEUS Tabula Anat. comp.
illustr. Pars IV. 1835, Tab- vn- %• IV-

2 See HOME Lect. on Comp. Anat. Tab. XI. In the horse is a spiral valve which
makes a turn and a half. See a figure by GURLT in MECKEL'S Archivf. d. Physiol. vi.
Taf. 4, fig. 8.

3 HOME 1. 1. Tab. xm.

MAMMALS. 579

In the kangaroos the stomach is elongate, provided with cellular
or sacciform dilatations, and resembles a part of the large intestine1.
Also in Pteropus amongst the bats, and Semnopithecus amongst the
monkeys, the stomach is intestine-like in form; in the last genus
the cardiac portion has a smooth surface internally, and is divided
by a remarkable dilatation from the second division formed of a
double row of sacs ; the third or pyloric portion is elongate and has
also some dilatations less perfectly distinct, but at the extremity be-
comes of a more simple structure2. In the sloth and the carnivorous
cetaceans also the stomach is composed of different divisions. But
in the ruminants especially does the compound stomach deserve a
particular notice. The first stomach, which is named the paunch
(rumen, magnus venter, Vherbier, der Panzeri), lies on the left side,
terminates in two blind sacs, is very large, and on the inner surface
is beset with a quantity of hard, sometimes almost horny papillae.
The second stomach, the hood or honey-comb bag (reticulum, le bonnet^
die Haube, der Netzmagen), is much smaller, lies on the right side
of the preceding, has a round form and is covered reticulately on
the' inner surface with four, five, and six-sided deep cells, and on
the entire surface furnished with small papillae which on the margins
of the cells present the appearance of small teeth. Between these two
stomachs the opening of the oesophagus is situated. On the right
side of the second stomach lies the third which communicates with
it by a narrow aperture, and which is named the manyplies or
psalterium (echinus, omasum, lefeuillet, der Blatter-magen, Psalter}.
It is elongate and beset on the inside by many broad, longitudinal
folds, which arise from the interior like the leaves of a book, whilst
, others less prominent alternate with the larger folds3. This third
i stomach communicates by a very wide opening with the fourth
(the red, abomasum, la caillette, der Labmagen), which is of consi-
derable size, and becomes narrower towards the duodenum; its
form has some resemblance to that of the human stomach; it is

1 HOME 1. 1. Tab. XiX; CAETJS 1. 1. Tab. vm. fig. x.

2 This arrangement of the stomach was first described by OTTO in Semnopithecug

ns, afterwards by OWEN in S. entellus and S. fascicularis, Transact, of the
Zool. Soc. l. pp. 65—70, PI. 8, 9.

3 See this figured by BERTHOLD in his £eitrage ziir Anatomic, Zootomie u. Physio-
loffie, Gbttingen, 1831, 8vo, Tab. IX. fig. 6. VINE found 96 folds in the ox, of which
?4 were larger, 24 of middle size, and 48 small; Lessen over de Veepeet, bl. 18, 19.

37—2

580 CLASS XVII.

furnished on the inside with longitudinal folds, but these are far
less deep and much fewer in number, and consequently more remote
from each other than the laminae of the manyplies. The first three
stomachs are apparently divisions of the blind sac which is found on
the left side of the stomach in man (fundus ventriculi), and which
in the carnivores is very small. The fourth stomach also is at
first, whilst the animal still sucks, the largest, and the paunch
increases in capacity only at a later period, the dilatation depend-
ing upon the food, as DAUBENTON demonstrated by feeding one
lamb with bread and another with grass. The first two stomachs,
therefore, are reservoirs, in which the large quantity of food, which
ruminants are used to appropriate in a short time, is macerated, and
in a physiological point of view correspond in some degree with the
buccal pouches of certain monkeys. From these first two stomachs
the food thus macerated is returned in small portions along the
oesophagus upwards to the mouth, is chewed a second time, or rather
is now for the first time finely comminuted by the molar teeth, and is
then conveyed downwards again by the oesophagus. The oesophagus
conveys the food thus swallowed a second time in a canal or chan-
nel which, as a continuation of itself, passes along the inside of the
hood to the manyplies !. In the camel, the lama, and the Moschus
javanicus, the third stomach or manyplies is wanting; in the last-
named animal the red is smooth and without folds2. In the camels
and lamas the paunch is destitute of papillae internally, but has
large cells below and at the side in which water is preserved or
separated. In the hood the cells are smaller and more numerous3.

The gastric juice, which is secreted during digestion when the
food stimulates4 the walls of the stomach, is acid. In ruminants

1 Compare DAUBENTON Memoire sur le mecanisme de la rumination, &c., Mem. de
VAcad. des Sc. de Paris, 1 768, pp. 389 et suiv., P. CAMPER Lessen over de thans zweevende
veesterfte,- Leeuwarden, 1 769, 8vo (included also in the (Euvres de P. CAMPER, Paris,
1803, Tome HI. pp. i — 157, PI. 28); H. VINK Lessen over de herkaauwing der Run-
deren, Rotterdam, 1770, 8vo, with 2 plates, &c.

8 Compare W. V. RAPP, ERICHSON'S Archiv f. Naturgesch. ix. 1843, s- 43 — 54>
Tab. ii. and F. S. LEUCKART, MUELLER'S Archiv, 1843, s- 24 — 27> Tab- n- fig- 3-

3 See the beautiful figures in HOME'S Lectures on Comp. Anat. n. Tab. 23 — 25 ;
compare RAPP Ueber die Wassercellen im Magen der Kameele in HEUSINGER'S Zeitschr.
fur die organ. Physik, I. 4, s. 449 u. ff.

4 The mucous membrane of the stomach in man and most mammals consists of
tubular gland-sacs which are placed parallel to each other and perpendicular to the
surface ; by their blind extremity, simple or branched, they terminate in the cellular

MAMMALS. 581

the food in the first and second stomach is penetrated by alkaline
fluids, and only after having been ruminated does it imbibe in the
manyplies and the red an acid gastric juice. Thus it is here alone
that a true digestion, similar to that in the simple stomach of other
animals, is effected.

The chyme, the product of stomachal digestion, passes into the
duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. The small intes-
tines are mostly longer than the large intestines, and on the inside
are beset with mill or elongated folds. Villi are commonly present,
in few instances only (as in the mole, the genus Chrysochloris, the
Ornithorliynchus, &c.) are they absent. At the union of the large
and small intestines there is usually found a ccecum; in one species
of ant-eater (Myrmecophaga didactyla) there are, as in birds, two
coeca at the entrance of the small intestine into the large ; in
Myrmecophaga jubata the coecum is absent. In Hyrax there is a
short and wide coecum in the usual position, whilst lower down
in the large intestine (colon) there are two other blind and conical
appendages placed side by side. It has been supposed that a second
digestion, a final separation of the nutritious matter of the chyme,
is effected in the ccecum, and in support of the opinion the resem-
blance between this part in some animals and the stomach in other
mammals has been adduced. The excrements, consisting of the
unaltered residue of the chyme, of bile, and mucus, are now formed
and gradually assume a greater consistence in the course of the
large intestines. The termination of the intestinal canal is usually
distinct from the sexual aperture, but in the duck-mole and in
Tachyglossus there is a cloaca as in birds. At the end of the
rectum glands are frequently situated which secrete a fatty and
strongly odorous fluid, as in the badger (Meles), the hyena, &c.

The relative length of the intestinal canal is usually greater in
mammals than in the other classes of vertebrate animals, but differs,
however, in the different genera. In general the intestinal canal is
longest in the vegetable feeders; thus in the ox it is more than two
and twenty times the distance from the mouth to the anus, and in
a full-grown animal is one hundred and fifty feet long; in the

coat, whilst their openings are on the inner surface of the stomach. Compare Bis-
CHOFP Ueber den Ban der MagenscJdeimhaut, MUELLER'S Archiv, 1838, s. 503—525.
These folliculi secrete the gastric juice.

582 CLASS xvn,

carnivores on the contrary it is usually short; in the lion the pro-
portion stated above is as 3 : 1 ; the intestinal canal seems to be still
shorter in some insectivorous mammals. In the hyena the propor-
tion is as 8 : 1, and in the Phocce the intestinal canal is still longer.
In man the above proportion is usually stated as 6 : 1 l. But dif-
ferent individuals of the same species vary in this respect. At dif-
ferent periods of life also the proportion differs. In the foetus at the
earliest period the relative length is very small; at the last period
of foetal life and in early childhood on the contrary it is larger than
in the adult period of life2. But not the length solely of the intes-
tinal canal, but the circumference also, the valves, the folds, the
villi more or less numerous are to be estimated; these all multiply
the absorbent surface, and thus a shorter canal may be equal in this
respect to a longer. In the seals and the hyena the intestinal canal
is narrow, and thus the relative length which is so remarkable is
reduced to correspondence with the animal food of which they
make use3.

The liver is situated below the diaphragm, chiefly on the right
side, as in man; but the greater the number of its divisions the
more does it extend to the left side. On the whole the liver is
more divided into lobes in the carnivorous animals than in the
vegetable feeders ; it is small on the contrary and little divided,
especially in mammals with divided or compound stomach4. The
gall-bladder is wanting in a greater number of species of this
class than in any of the other classes of vertebrate animals; it
is not present in the carnivorous Cetacea, in the rhinoceros, ele-
phant, tapir, the horse, the sloth, the hamster and some other
rodents, and, amongst the ruminants, in the camels, lamas and

1 The second edition of CUVIEB .Lep. d'Anat. comp. iv. 2, 1835, pp. 182 — 195, edited
by DUVEBNOY, contains copious tables. In Phoca wtulina, where this proportion is
differently stated, I found it as 1 : 18 or 1 : 19.

8 Compare MECKEL in his Archivf. die PJiysiol. 1817, in. s. 61 — 65.

8 On the digestive organs, besides the general works of CUVIER, HOME, MECKEL,
&c., the work of J. W. NEEEGAABD, Commentatio anatomico-physiologica sistens disqui-
sitionem an verum organorum digestioni inservientium discrimen inter animalia he
vora, carnivora et omnivora reperiatur, Gottingae, 1804, 4to, may be consulted, in
which these parts are described in the horse, ox, hog and dog.

4 The distinguishing of the different parts occurring in the liver by special names,
as was proposed by DUVEBNOY, we cannot detail here. See his Etudes sur le Foie ;
Ann. des Sc. nat. rv. 1835, Zool. pp. 257 — 269.

MAMMALS. 583

deer1. In the carnivorous animals, on the other hand, it is always
present, as also in the monkeys. In most mammals the bile is car-
ried to the gall-bladder by the same route as that by which it is
again conducted from it (the cystic duct] ; in some, however, as in
the ox, there are hepatico-cystic ducts, which were formerly attri-
buted incorrectly to man2; they are branches of the hepatic duct
which run to different parts of the gall-bladder, and pour the bile
into it. In most cases the bile-duct of the liver joins with that of
the gall-bladder to form a common canal (ductus choledochus) ,
which conveys the bile into the duodenum. Usually also the
excretory duct of the pancreas terminates in this common canal,
close to its opening into the intestine. It is thus in man, although
in the foetus these ducts have distinct openings into the intestine,
and that of the pancreas lies in front of the bile-duct. The bile-
duct before it opens into the intestines runs for a space between its
muscular and mucous coats, and sometimes forms a dilatation here3.

The pancreas is placed behind the stomach between the spleen
and the duodenum ; commonly it is divided into two lobes. The
smaller excretory ducts unite to form one, sometimes two larger
ducts. The spleen lies near the stomach, in the ruminants near
the first stomach or paunch ; it is ordinarily elongate and simple.
In the dolphin it is divided into several small distinct masses, of
which however the anterior mass much surpasses the rest in size,
whilst these, of variable number, are suspended to branches of the
splenic artery4.

The cavity of the abdomen is lined by a serous membrane, the
peritoneum. A duplicature of the peritoneum called the amentum
or epiploon is suspended from the under and fore part of the sto-
mach. To other duplicatures of the peritoneum the intestinal
canal is attached. Of these the chief is named the mesentery; the

1 It is remarkable, that in the giraffe, according to OWEN, it is sometimes wanting,
sometimes double. The statement of ARISTOTELES, that in the sheep in JSulcea it is
absent (in which animal it occurs elsewhere), obtains from this fact some credibility.
Hist. Animal. I. c. 14.

2 Compare HALLEB Ehm. Physiol. v. pp. 537 — 541.

3 As in the elephant where the dilatation is divided by transverse partitions. See
CAMPER CEuvres, n. pp. 124, 125, PL xiv.

4 TYSON counted 12 spleens (HALLER Elem. Pkysiol. vi. p. 388), STANNITJS 18; in
Monodon also he found three or four subsidiary spleens. Vergl. Anat. s. 433.

584 CLASS xvir.

lymphatics run between its laminse, and the glands belonging to the
lymphatic system are situated there. The mammals are the only
vertebrate animals in which conglomerate or lymphatic glands are
met with in the mesentery. Commonly they are larger and less
numerous than in man, and often unite (in many carnivores) to form
a single mass, to which the name of Pancreas Asellii has been
given1, in which case only a few small distinct glands occur in
addition. The chyle, conducted to the conglomerate glands by the
chyle vessels, is usually received by a single thoracic duct, which
opens into the left subclavian vein2. Besides the glands in the
mesentery, conglomerate glands occur in other parts of the body in
greater number than in birds, and the lymphatics differ from those
of other vertebrate animals in having valves more numerous and
more perfect3.

The heart consists as in the birds of two ventricles and two auri-
cles, and is invested by the pericardium. The form of the heart is
various ; in the cetaceans it is broad, as also in the elephant, elon-
gate in the dog, but round in most monkeys, obtusely conical in
the horse, the ox, the orang outan and man. In man the heart is
placed obliquely, and rests by one of its surfaces on the diaphragm ;
such also is the case in the orang and the chimpansee. In the
rest of the mammals it is almost always placed more in a straight
line, and either does not reach the diaphragm at all, or, as in most
of the monkeys, with its apex alone4. In the septum of the auri-
cles is seen the oval fossa, the remains of the aperture which in the
foetus is found at this part and is named the foramen ovale. This
oval aperture is closed after birth, yet in the seals and other ani-
mals that live in water sometimes remains open. In the interior of
the right auricle under the oval fossa and near the mouth of the
inferior vena cava is seen the valve of Eustachius, which is wanting

1 After the discoverer of the lymphatic system, ASELLIUS, who first observed these
vessels in 162-2 in the intestinal canal of the dog. De lactibus sive lacteis venis quarto
vasorum meseraicorum genere novo invento GASPARI ASELLII Dissertatio. Mediolani,
1627, 4to.

2 If there be a left and a right thoracic duct, the last unites with the first before the
passage into the venous system.

3 Here also compare the Osservazioni of PANIZZA referred to above (p. 339).

4 The deep external separation of the venous and arterial halves of the heart in the
herbivorous Cetacea, especially in Halicore, the Dugong, is remarkable. See figures in
HOME, Lectures, iv. PI. L; RAPP Die Cetaceen, 1837, Taf. vm. (in s, foetus) &c.

MAMMALS. 585

in many mammals at the adult period. According to the investi-
gations of RUDOLPHI on the other hand, the projecting superior
margin of the fossa ovalis exists in many mammals in a highly
developed state, which is commonly named tuberculum Loweri1.
The right ventricle of the heart lies more forward in man than in
the rest of the mammals. In this chamber is seen the tricuspid
valve in place of the single, strong muscular valve of the birds ; in
the duck-mole, however, MECKEL found an arrangement similar in
form to that of birds. At the origin of the great artery there is
found in the deer and some other ruminants, as also in the hog,
one or two small bones in the septum of the ventricles, which are
cartilaginous in young animals.

The mode is various in which the principal stems arise from
the arch of the great artery (aorta). This arch is always situated
on the left side, in order to pass into the descending aorta. But
before forming this arch, it gives off, close to its origin, two arteries
(or, according to CAMPER, in the elephant a single artery) for the
heart (arteria coronaria). From the arch itself there arise in man,
in many monkeys, in the mice and some other rodents, the seal,
the hedgehog, &c., three stems, on the right an arteria anonyma,
as a short common trunk of the right carotid and right subclavian
arteries, whilst on the left side each of these arteries arises by a
distinct stem. A more usual arrangement appears to be that where
there are only two stems; on the right side a short innominate
artery, which then divides into the two carotids and the right
subclavian, whilst the left subclavian, as the second stem, arises
separately from the arch. This is what is found in the Lemurids
and many monkeys, in most of the carnivores, many marsupiates
and rodents. In the ruminants and the horse, the aorta imme-
diately at its origin divides into an ascending branch, from which
the two subclavians and the two carotids arise, and a branch which
bends to the left downwards, the descending aorta. Other arrange-
ments, so that, for instance, there are two distinct subclavians and
a common stem for the two carotids, or two arterice anonymm, each
of which divides into a subclavian and a carotid, exist only in

1 Grundriss der Physiol. 11. i, s. 331 — 333. Compare on the true nature of this
part and on the septum of the auricles, the remarks of RETZIUS, illustrated by beautiful
figures, in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1835, s. 161 — 170.

586 CLASS xvu.

particular species of animals1. In some mammals the carotid arteiy
forms within the cranium around the hypophysis cerebri a wonder-
net, from which the carotis cerebrah's arises; it is observed in the
hog and the ruminants. In these animals the vertebral artery
does not run to the brain, and does not penetrate the dura mater2.
For other peculiarities in the course of the arteries we cannot
afford to delay; as, for example, that the crural arteries in the
cetacea, which have no hind limbs, are wanting; that the caudal
artery (in man the small arteria sacralis media] is very wide and
conspicuous in those species which have a strongly developed
tail, &c. As to the veins, in some there are, as in the birds, two
anterior or descending vence cavce, ex. gr. in the elephant, the duck-
mole, many rodents ; in the most, however, there is only one
superior cava as in man. The external jugular veins are often
very wide, where they convey the blood from the brain also, which
in man and the monkeys is performed exclusively by the internal
jugular veins. In the seals, the posterior cava, close to the liver,
has a sacciform expansion, which receives five hepatic veins, and
extends to the diaphragm; above the diaphragm the vein is again
of the common width.

Wonder-nets occur in the vascular system of mammals at dif-
ferent parts of the body; commonly they have only been investi-
gated on the arteries. They have been noticed on the blood-vessels
of the limbs in Bradypus, Myrmecophaga didactyla, Stenops, Tarsius,
Dasypus (sexcinctus3). In the Monotremes, especially in Tachy-
glossus, such vascular networks occur, but not so finely divided for
the limbs4. The network of the cerebral carotid we have already

1 All these different arrangements have been observed in the human body also as
animal modifications of form. See J. F. MECKEL Tabulae anatomico-pathologicce,
Lipsise, 1820, folio, Fasc. II.

3 See EAPP in MECKEL'S Archiv fur Anat. u. Pkysiol. 1827, s. 1—13, Tab. i. n.

3 CARLISLE was the first who observed this in the arteries of Bradypus and Stenops,
PJiUos. Transact, for 1800, Part I. p. 98. Compare on this subject amongst others
W. VROLIK Disquisitio de peculiari arteriarum extremitatum in nonnullis animalibus
dispositione, Cum in. Tabulis sen. Amstelodami, 1826, 4to; OTTO in CARUS Tab. anat.
comp. illustr. Fasc. VI. Tab. vin. fig. 4 (veins of the lower limbs in Bradypus tridacty-
lus), and SCHRODER, VAN DER KOLK and W. VROLIK Nasporingen omtrent vaatvlechten
~bij onderscheidene diervormen, in the Bijdragen tot de DierTcunde uitgegeven door het
Genootschap, Natura Artis Magistra, le Aflev. Amsterdam, 1848 (veins and arteries).
In Tarsius these plexuses, according to BURMEISTER, occur in the hind limbs only.

4 HYRTL Das Arterielle Gef ass- System der Monotremen, Wien, 1853, 4to.

MAMMALS. 587

noticed, but a branch of the external carotid also, the ophthalmic
artery, forms in the ruminants and the cat a vascular plexus in the
orbit1, and a few years ago HYRTL discovered in the hog and the
ruminants, wonder-nets in the nasal cavities, formed by the sphe-
nopalatine artery2. Conspicuous vascular plexures occur also in the
dolphins on the intercostal arteries and the iliac veins3.

The respiratory organs are distinguished by the minute division
of the bronchial tubes. The pulmonary vesicles are in immediate
connexion with the delicate terminal branches of these tubes, and
may, in contradistinction to the air-cells of reptiles, be named
terminal cells, although the idea can no longer be maintained that
every terminal branch of the bronchi forms by its blind extremity
a single pulmonary vesicle. Air-sacs in connexion with the lungs,
as they are observed in birds, are not present in the class of mam-
mals. In most mammals the cartilaginous rings of the trachea
do not form a complete circle, but leave an interspace on the pos-
terior surface. In the dolphins, however, and some other mammals
the rings are more perfect; in the whales the rings, according to
the investigations of Gr. SANDIFORT*, are interrupted by a mem-
branous portion on the anterior surface ; a peculiarity by which
the wind-pipe of these animals is distinguished from that of all
other mammals. Curvatures in the trachea have been observed
in the three-fingered sloth alone, where the wind-pipe descends
nearly to the diaphragm, and then curves upwards again before it
divides into the two bronchi. As a rule there are two bronchi, one
for each lung, although in the ruminants, the dolphins, and some
other mammals, a third smaller bronchial tube occurs, which arises

1 KAPP, MEOKEL'S Archiv, 1827, s. 8, 9; in the cat, figured by OTTO, in CABUS
1. 1. Tab. vii. fig. 4.

2 Beitrdge zur vergleichenden Angiologie. Wien, 1849.

3 VON BAEB Nov. Act, Acad. Cos. Leop. Car. Vol. xvn. P. i. pp. 393 — 408 ;
BRESCHET Histoire anatomique et pJiy&iol, d?un organe de natu/re vasculaire cJiez les
cttaces, Paris, 1836, 4to, avec pi. Comp. on the arterial system in general of mam-
mals BABKOW Disquisitiones circa originem et decursum arteriarum Mammalium,
Accedunt Tab. sen. rv. Lipsi0e, 1829, 4to, and by the same, Disquisitiones recentiores,
&c. in Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. Vol. xx. P. 2, 1843, PP- 607 seq.

4 Bijdragen tot de ontlecdkundige fcennis der Walvisschen, Niemoe Verhandelingen
der Eerste Klasse van het Konirikl. Nederl. Instituut, in. Deel, 1831. — Besides the
general works on comparative anatomy (particularly the new edition of CUVIEB, by
DUVEBNOY and MECKEL, System der vergl. Anat. vi. s. 364 — 474) on the respiratory
organs of mammals may be consulted with advantage : A. LEBEBOULLET Anat. comp.
de rapparett respiratoire des animaux vert€bres, Strasbourg, 1838, 4to, pp. 24 — 42.

588 CLASS XVIT.

above the ordinary one on the right side. The right lung is larger
than the left, and has often one or two lobes more than it ; some-
times the left is even altogether undivided. Both lungs are un-
divided in. the Cetacea, the horse, and some few other mammals.
Inspiration and expiration are effected by the same muscles as in
man. We ought here to direct attention to the diaphragm, a
muscular partition between the cavities of the thorax and abdo-
men, peculiar to mammals (p. 556), which is attached to the ver-
tebrae, the ribs and the sternum, and is tendinous in the middle.
When the diaphragm contracts, it descends; hence it is a muscle
of inspiration, for when the capacity of the thorax is increased the
air rushes into the lungs and the abdominal viscera are compressed.
In some mammals a small bone is found in its tissue. The dia-
phragm is perforated by the oesophagus, the large artery, the
posterior vena cava, different nerves and the thoracic duct.

Here we may conveniently turn our attention to the vocal
apparatus of mammals. The trachea in mammals differs from that
of birds in its relation to the production of voice. In mammals it
merely conducts the air which is subservient to the formation of the
voice; in birds, on the contrary, the sound itself, for in them the
vocal organs are placed at its inferior extremity. Hence in mam-
mals the voice cannot be produced if the air should find an outlet
through a wound in the trachea. The larynx, in which the voice is
formed, consists of different cartilages, and is situated at the top of the
trachea. The cartilages are on the whole the same as in man. The
crico'id cartilage fonns foundation of the entire larynx, and is broader
behind, narrower in front ; above it is placed the thyroid cartilage,
which consists of two laminae, which meet at the fore part under an
obtuse, or sometimes an acute angle. By two descending branches
the thyroid is connected with the crico'id cartilage ; it is connected
to the tongue-bone by ligaments, which usually arise from its two
superior processes or horns. The thyroid cartilage thus forms the
anterior part of the larynx. Two arytceno'id cartilages are fixed on
the opposite side to the upper margin of the crico'id cartilage. (In
many mammals two roundish cartilages are placed upon the points
of these, the cartilagines Santoriance. Between the arytsenoid car-
tilages and the epiglottis there are often small cartilages named the
Wrisbergian}. The epiglottis is a tongue-shaped cartilaginous
lamina, which is attached to the inside of the upper margin of
the thyroid cartilage. The larynx communicates with the cavity

MAMMALS. 589

of the mouth by a fissure (glottis, rima glottidis}. It is situated
between the inner margins of the ligamenta thyreo-arytamoidea ;
commonly there lie on each side two folds above each other; the
inferior (which include the so-named glottis vera) are named vocal
ligaments (chordce vocales of FERREIN). In the true Cetacea these
inferior ligaments are absent. In most of the ruminants, on the
other hand, the superior are absent {ligamenta thyreo-arytcenoidea
superior a, ligamenta glottidis spurice). In the dolphins the arytae-
noid cartilages in connexion with the epiglottis form a long pyra-
midal tube. In some cetaceans, a few ruminants, and many
species of monkeys, air-sacs are found in different situations, mostly
between the thyroid cartilage and the tongue-bone, which commu-
nicate with the larynx. On the thyroid cartilage is placed in
mammals a vascular organ, a gland without an efferent duct, the
tnyreoid gland1.

The kidneys in mammals are situated in the lumbar region near
the vertebrae, and on the outside of the sac of the peritoneum. In
many mammals the right kidney is placed higher than the left;
in man the reverse is observed nearly always. They are sur-
rounded by a loose areolar tissue, in which much fat is accumu-
lated ; under this is the smooth proper membrane which covers the
tissue of the kidneys. In the mammals (distinguished in this
respect from all the other vertebrates,) that tissue presents itself in
two forms, a cortical and a medullary substance. The proper
secreting tissue of the kidneys consists of many tubules (tubuli
uriniferi s. Belliniani}, which pass from the papillae in the pelvis
of the kidney to its circumference. In the medullary substance
their course is straight, and they divide a few times successively
into two branches; afterwards their course in the cortical substance
is tortuous, until they terminate in blind extremities near the
surface of the kidney. The numerous arteries, which in the corti-
cal substance divide pencil-wise into small clusters (glomeruli s.
corporaMalpigliiana}, forming many pendulous rings or loops, have
no immediate communication with these secreting tubes, but are

1 On the vocal organs of the mammals may be compared amongst others CASSERII
De vocis organis Historia anatomica, Ferrariae, 1601, folio ; L. WOLFF Diss. anat.
(prces. B. A. RUDOLPHI) de Organis vocis Mammalium, Berolini, 1812, 4to; J. F.
BRAJTDT Observationes anatomicce de Mammalium quorund., proesertim quadrumanorum,
roci-s instrumeato, Berolini, 1826, 4to, and especially WILLIS On the mechanism of the
Larynx, Transact, of Cambridge Philos. Soc. 1832.

590 CLASS XVII.

suspended, according to the discovery of BOWMAN, in dilatations,
which are the blind extremities of the secreting tubes1. In the
human embryo the kidneys consist of several masses or lobes ; in
some animals they continue in this form during the whole life, as
in the carnivorous Cetacea, the seals, the bears. A urinary bladder
always exists in this class, and the two ureters open into it. It
appears to be smaller in the carnivorous than in the herbivorous
animals. The so-named accessory kidneys (capsulce renales, renes
succenturiati] lie at the upper part of the kidneys; in the foetus
they are proportionally larger than in the adult. The function of
these organs is unknown, but does not appear to have any relation
to that of the kidneys.

There are two ovaries in mammals. In the duck-mole the
right ovary is small and imperfect, which indicates a conformity
with birds (see above, p. 347). In its tissue Graafian vesicles
are found, on the structure of which we have already spoken above
(p. 5). The size of the ovaries appears to have no direct rela-
tion to the fertility of the animal species. The oviducts are usually
very narrow in mammals, and here bear the name of Fallopian
tubes. The uterus and the oviducts are organs of the same kind
and of the same texture; originally, therefore, the uterus is entirely
double; it has two horns, and at the points of the so-named horns
the oviducts are implanted. This condition which is transitory in
the human foetus persists in some mammals for the whole life;
thus in the Monotremes, the Marsupiates, the Rodents, the uterus
is double, and has two openings into the vagina, or in the most the
uterus is two-horned, and the mouth and neck only are single; in
the apes alone the uterus has an undivided fundus as in the human
body. The muscular tissue of the uterus resembles the muscular
tunic of the intestinal tube and of the urinary bladder. The abdo-
minal aperture of the Fallopian tubes is usually widened like a

1 Compare on the internal structure of the kidney A. SCHUMLANSKY Diss. inauy.
anat. de structura Renum, Argentorati, 1782, 4to; ^EM. HUSCHKE Ueber die Textur
dcr Niere in OKEN'S Isis, 1828, s. 560 ; MUELLER De glandularum etructura penitiori,
Lipsise, 1830, fol. pp. 94 — 102; W. BOWMAN Phil. Trans. 1842, Pt. I. pp. 57—80.

See also the interesting explanation of HYRTL (a proof of pure love of truth) LeJir-
6wcA der Anatomie des Menschen, 3te Auflage, 1853, s. 538. GERLACH adopts a latei-al
insertion also of these capsules (as though they were eversions of the secreting tubes) ;
see his researches in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1845, 1848, and Handbuch der Gewebelehre,
Mainz, 1850, s. 297, 306.

MAMMALS. 591

funnel, and in man and the apes is incised and curled at its margin,
which can be applied to the ovary in order to receive the ovum
from the Graafian vesicle when burst. In some mammals extra-
uterine conception is prevented by a production of the peritoneum
surrounding the ovary like a sac, and then uniting itself with the
widened extremity of the tube, so that the sac can be inflated from
the uterus; this is the case in Lutra, Mustela, Phoca, &C.1

The vagina in mammals is of various length; in the larger
species, longitudinal and transverse muscular fibres may be de-
tected in it; its inner surface is sometimes smooth in ruminants,
sometimes furnished with longitudinal (as in the mare, the sow,) or
transverse folds. Some mammals have a hymen or some folds that
correspond to it2. In all mammals a clitoris appears to be present,
and in those species of which the penis is supported by a small
bone, such a bone is often found in this organ also of the female3.

In the male mammals there are always two testes present. In
some they are situated in the cavity of the abdomen, as in the
human foetus, close to the kidneys; such is the case in the Mono-
tremes, the elephant, the daman, many edentate and all cetaceous
animals. They are then retained in their place by a fold of the
peritoneum. In other mammals they are situated near the inte-
gument of the inferior surface of the abdomen, and in many, as in
most of the carnivores, the apes, &c. lie in a sac (scrotum] which
hangs under the pelvis, or, in the marsupiates, in front of the
pelvis. The tissue of the testes consists of numerous, long, narrow
and tortuous tubes, of the same width throughout; they do not
divide into branches and terminate in blind extremities. These
tubes afterwards unite at that side which is towards the epididymis
into fewer tubes, which by their communications form a network
from which the efferent vessels of the seminal fluid pass into the
epididymis, and unite to form a single tortuous tube of which the

1 See on this last peculiarity G. R. TREVIRANOS in the Zeitickrift fur Physiol.
1824, i, 2, s. 180 — 188, and E. H. WEBER in MECKEL'S Archiv, 1826, s. 105 — 109.
Compare also on the Uterus, CUVIER Lep. d'Anat. comp. v. pp. 144 — 148 (new edit,
vin. pp. 30 — 41) ; see also BURDACH die Physiologic als Erfahrungsimssen^chaft,
2 Aufl. 1835, s. 154—157, Tab. IV.

2 CUVIER Lep. v. pp. 131, 132.

3 CUVIER 1. 1. p. 127. The urethra perforates the clitoris in the Lemurids ; CUVIER
ibid, p, 130.

592 CLASS xvir.

vas deferens is the continuation. The two deferent vessels open
above the root of the penis into the urethra almost always by two
distinct apertures. In the Monotremes, the penis, according to the
investigations of HOME, MECKEL, and more recently of DUVERNOY,
is also perforated; but this canal, since the urine is poured into the
cloaca, is not properly an urethra, but merely the seminal duct,
and has in consequence received the name of urethra seminalis1.
In most mammals the so-named vesiculce seminales are met with;
they are formed by eversions of the deferent vessels, and also
contain seminal fluid in some mammals; they are, however, at the
same time principally secreting organs and not mere reservoirs for
the secreted sperma*. Their development and function are very
various ; they are particularly large and composite in the insecti-
vorous ferce3. In most mammals there is one or more prostatic
glands, which are placed around the commencement of the urethra,
and mingle their fluid with that of the deferent vessels. In many
mammals Cowpers glands also are present, which lie below the
prostate on the bulb of the urethra ; their tissue consists of vesicles
connected in clusters, and, constantly surrounded by muscles, they
sometimes have also a proper investment of muscular tissue with
striped primitive bundles. These glands are wanting in the dog.
A blind sac, already known to MORGAGNI, which in man opens
into the urethra between the apertures of the vasa deferentia, has
been observed in later times in many mammals, and from the
investigations of WEBER and HUSCHKE has assumed an important
morphological character as the remains of an uterus masculinus
which is present in the foetus4. The penis is always undivided,

1 Memoires de la Societe d'Hist. nat. de Strasbourg, Tom. I. Livr. 2, 1833, pp. i — 10,
PL n. Compare OWEN in TODD'S Cyclop, m. p. 392.

2 J. HUNTER Observations on certain parts of the animal (Economy, London, 1837,
8vo (ed. E. OWEN), pp. 20—33 J— S. R. PITTARD Vesiculce seminales in TODD'S Cyclop.
iv. pp. 1429—1436.

3 See for example the figures given by many writers of the male organs of propa-
gation of the hedgehog, as : CARUS Tab. Anat. comp. HI. Fasc. v. Tab. 9, fig. 5 ; Cata-
logue of the comp. Anat. in the Museum of the Coll. of Surg. iv. PI. 54, 55 ; TREVIRANUS
Beobacht. aus der Zoot. u. Physiol. 1839, Tab. J7> J8> those of the mole by MUELLER
De Glandular, secern, struct, penit. Tab. in. fig. 3, &c.

4 See E. H. WEBER in the Bericht der Versamml. der Naturforscher zu Braun-
schweig, 1842, s. 64; HUSCHKE in his edition of S. T. SCEMMERRING'S Lehre von den
Eingeweide, Leipzig, 1844; J. VAN BEEN in Nieuw Archief voor binnen-en buitenl.

MAMMALS. 593

and consists of two spongy bodies containing many blood-vessels
and a single spongy body which surrounds the urethra1. In many
marsupials a double gland is present2. In the feline genus the
glans is beset with horny spines ; in other mammals also, particu-
larly rodents, horny parts occur as plates or scales on this part. In
many mammals, the carnivores especially, there is found a small
bone in the gland, which is continued more or less into the tissue
of the penis.

Milk-glands (mammce) exist in all mammals; they vary in
number and position ; in some, as the whales, they are placed in
the neighbourhood of the external sexual organs, but in all on the
inferior surface of the body. In the male sex they remain unde-
veloped, but in the female they secrete, especially for a longer or
shorter time after parturition, the milk which is the food of the
young. In the female of the duck-mole there is a large mammary
gland on each side consisting of long blind sacs, cellular internally;
the efferent ducts open on a small, flat, oval space without any
nipple3.

Impregnation is always effected in mammals by a real copula-
tion. One or more Graafian vesicles burst and the ovum, very
small in this class, escapes from them ; this discharge of the ovum

Geneeskunde, 1847, (and in V. SIEBOLD u. KOELLIKER Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zoologie, i.
1849, s- 295 — 34^> Tab. 20, 21), and especially R. LEUCKAKT in article Vesicula pro-
statica, TODD'S Cyclop, iv. pp. 1415 — 1429, who unites the opinion of H. MECKEL (he
recognised in it a male vagina, Zur Morphologic der Ham- und Geschlechts-werkzeuge
der Wirbelthiere, Halle, 1848, s. 48) with that of WEBER, and considers the Weberian
organ to be a sinus genitalis, which in the female animal is developed into uterus and
vagina. To me the opinion of MECKEL seems the most probable ; if the corpus uteri
and the vagina be derived from the Weberian organ, the cornua uteri still remain, and
the hypothesis, according to which the uterus arises from two different elements (a
vaginal portion and that, of the horns proceeding from the two Fallopian tubes), is not
recommended by its simplicity.

1 In dogs the spongy body of the urethra forms a tubercle at its anterior part
which swells on copulation ; see a figure in PANIZZA Osservazioni, Tab. i, copied by
CARUS in his Tab. Anat. comp. ill. Fasc. v. Tab. 9, fig. 9.

2 See a figure in CARUS 1. 1. fig. 6. Compare on the male sexual organs of mam-
mals, besides the general works on comparative anatomy, F. LEYDIG in V. SIEBOLD
u. KOLLIKER Zeitschr f. Wissensch. Zool. n. 1850, s. i — 57. On the penis especially
CUVIER Lecons d'Anat. comp., sec. ed. Tome vin. pp. 197 — 246.

3 J. F. MECKEL Omithorhynchi paradoxi descriptio anatomica, Lipsias, 1826, fol.
PP- 53) 54> Tab. vm. fig. 5; OWEN Phil. Trans. 1832, and in TODD'S Cyclop, in.
pp. 402 — 405. Tachyglossus presents a similar arrangement; see a small figure in
BARKOW Zootomische Beimrkungen, Breslau, 1851, 4to, fig. 14.

VOL. II. 38

594 CLASS xvii.

is an independent act of the female genital organs unconnected
with copulation. The ovum is now received by the mouth of the
Fallopian tubes and conveyed into the cavity of the uterus. The
time required for this transit is very different in different mammals,
from three to ten or twelve days or even more. The membrane
which encloses the ovum (zona pellucida] during the passage through
the tube is fortified by a layer of albumen, and at a later period is,
in connexion with the peripheric part of the animal layer of the
germinal vesicle, developed into the chorion by which the embryo in
the uterus is invested as an external covering. Further, this chorion
in man and the apes is surrounded on the outside by investments
which do not properly belong to the ovum, but are products of the
uterus (membrana decidua vera and reflexa). By these or by the epi-
thelium of the mucous membrane immediately the ovum is brought
in connexion with the uterus. Afterwards a closer union is effected
by means of the blood-vessels which with the allantois penetrate
to the chorion; in this way the placenta is formed, a rooting or
implanting of the ovum in the uterus by means of the umbilical
vessels ; it occurs in the mammals alone, but is however wanting
in the Marsupiates and Monotremes, in which the allantois conti-
nues small and does not extend as far as the chorion. When the
allantois grows round the entire ovum, the placenta may extend
over the whole chorion (pachyderms, solidungulates), or may be
collected into small groups as eminences on the chorion (ruminants),
or form a ring round the ovum (carnivores). In the rodents, the
apes and man the allantois is connected with a limited part only of
the chorion, and to this part alone the formation of the placenta is
restricted. But notwithstanding this connexion, neither in man,
nor in the mammals is there any immediate passage of the blood
from the vessels of the mother into those of the foetus, nor, con-
versely, from those of the fcetus into those of the parent animal1.

1 The development of the embryo in mammals proceeds in a mode similar to that in
birds (see above, pp. 352 — 357). In addition to the second part of VON BAER, Ueber
EntwkTcelungsgeschichte der Thiere, Kb'nigsberg, 1837, s. 164 — 279, four excellent works
of TH. L. W. BISCHOFF may here be studied : Entwiclcelungsgescliichte des Kaninclien-
Eies, Braunschweig, 1842, 4to, Entwickelungsgesch. des Hunde-Eles, ibid. 1845, 4to,
Entwickelungsgesch. des Meerschweinchens, Giessen, 1852, 4to, and EntwicJcelungsgesch.
des Rehes, ibid. 1854, 4to. (Here, in Cavia cobaya, the singular anomaly occurs, that
the mucous layer lies on the outside of the germinal membrane, and that thus the
embryo has its back turned to the inside of the germinal vesicle.) Amongst the

MAMMALS. 595

The duration of pregnancy, as well as the number of young that
commonly come into the world at each litter, is very different in
different genera of mammals. The diminutive size and the slight
development which the young of Marsupials present on leaving the
uterus is remarkable. They are then received in a bag or between
two folds of skin at the abdomen. The small bones attached to
the fore part of the pelvis (p. 564) serve to support this sac. To
the nipples placed at the inside of the sac, which are very long,
but which except at the time of suckling are drawn in by reversion
like the finger of a glove1, the young are now fixed and continue
to hang for some weeks. Afterwards, when they are more deve-
loped, they quit the nipple, but the sac remains a hiding-place for
some time, and to it the young animals resort when danger or pur-
suit threatens. Amongst the marsupiates which have no sac, but
of which the teats are placed between two folds of skin, some bear
their young on their back during the period of more advanced
development, whilst the tails of the progeny are convoluted round
that of the parent (DidelpMs murina, dorsigera, &c.) .

The central nervous system of mammals corresponds to that of
birds in this respect, that the mass of the spinal marrow is much
less than that of the brain. In mammals also, as in the rest of the
vertebrates, a narrow canal often runs longitudinally in the middle
of the spinal marrow2; in others, however, as in man it is present
in the embryonic state alone. The number of pairs of spinal
nerves differs in different species, as might be inferred from the
different number of vertebrae. Since the dura mater which covers
the spinal marrow or cord extends further back in the vertebral
canal than the cord itself, the last pairs of nerves before perforating
this membrane have an oblique course, and the cauda equina is
formed which is scarcely ever met with in the cord of the other
vertebrates. This arrangement is more conspicuous in proportion
as the cord is shorter ; the bats arid the hedgehog are distinguished
by an unusually short spinal marrow, in them it ends before the
last dorsal vertebra. The inferior cervical nerves form with the first

earlier works compare OKEN und KIESER Beitrage zur vergl. ZooL, Anat. und Physiol.
des Darmkanals aus der Vesicula umbilicalis dargestelt im menschlichen Enib-yo, Mit i
Kupfert. Gb'ttingen, 1810, 4to.

1 Compare J. MORGAN Linncean Transact, xvi. pp. 455 — 463, PL 26.

2 See W. SEWEL Philos. Transact. 1809.

38—2

596 CLASS xvn.

pair of dorsal nerves a plexus for the anterior limbs ; at the origin
of these nerves the cord exhibits a swelling ; a second occurs lower
down where the lumbar and sacral nerves arise which form the
plexus for the hind limbs. The phrenic nerves, peculiar to mammals,
have their .origin principally from the fourth pair of cervical nerves.
The brain is distinguished at its base from that of other verte-
brates by a commissure of the hemispheres of the cerebellum pass-
ing across the medulla oblongata,' it is named pans Varolii, and is
found in all mammals. The great transverse commissure of the
hemispheres of the cerebrum is with the exception of the Mono-
tremes and Marsupiates1 present in all mammals. The corpora
quadrigemina form a much smaller mass of the brain than in the
lower vertebrates, are not hollow internally, and in many are covered
by the hemispheres of the brain. Also the cerebrum forms many
convolutions (gyri) on its surface; although there are many mammals
in which the surface is smooth, as it is in the brain of the oviparous
vertebrates. The weight of the brain is to that of the whole body
in the ox as 1 : 750 or 1 : 850, in the elephant as 1 : 500, in the
sheep as 1 : 350, in the fox as 1 : 205 ; the relative weight of the
brain is greater in small animal species ; in the mouse, for instance,
it is stated to be ^ of the weight of the whole body2. In man the
proportion is as 1 : 40 3. Of more interest is the relation of the
cerebral mass to the size of the cerebral nerves, and the comparison
between the greatest breadth of the brain and the breadth of the
spinal cord, behind the bridge of Varolius. The breadth of the spi-
nal marrow thus estimated is to that of the brain in man, for ex-
ample, as 1 : 7, in the dog as 1 : 2, &c.4

1 R. OWEN On ike structure of the Brain in Marsupial Animals; Philos. Transact.
1837, Part I. pp. 87—96, PI. 5—7.

2 Compare on these relations HALLER Elem. PJiysiol. iv. pp. 6, 7 ; CUVIER Leg.
d'Anat. comp. II. pp. 149 — 151.

3 The weight of the human brain amounts to between three and four pounds ; see
TIEDEMANN Das Him des Negers, u. s. w. Heidelberg, 1837, 4to, s. 6, 7.

4 CUVIER Lee. d'Anat. comp. u. p. 154 ; J. Gr. EBEL Observationes neural, ex
Anat. comp. Traj. ad Viadr. 1788, 8vo. The proportion between the breadth of the
medulla oblongata and that of the pons Varolii has also been investigated ; in most
mammals this last is not broader, or scarcely broader than the medulla oblongata.
Compare F. TIEDEMANN Icones cerebri simiarum et quorundam Mammalium, Heidel-
bergae, 1821, folio, p. 53, which work (with TREVIRANUS Verm. Schr. in. s. 4 — 20,
and GRATIOLET in GUERIN Revue et Magasin de Zool. 1852, pp. 97 — 113, PI. 4 — 7>

MAMMALS. 597

The cerebral nerves correspond to those of man. The first
pair, however, forms in some degree an exception, for though not
indeed absent in all true Cetacea, it is wanting in the dolphins1. In
most mammals (the apes alone with the seals and those cetaceans
which possess olfactory nerves make an exception here) the olfac-
tory nerves are thick and have a cavity internally, which is a
prolongation of the lateral ventricles, just as the nerves also
(processm mamillares) exhibit themselves as prolongations of the
cerebrum. The fifth pair of nerves, forming principally the nerves
of sensation for the head, and sending branches to all the organs of
sense, is in many mammals of peculiar strength and thickness when
compared with that pair in man2.

The nervous system of organic life, the great sympathetic, is
formed, as far as investigations indicate, essentially as in man.
This system is situated in great part in the cavities of the thorax
and abdomen, and follows the course of the vessels. The largest
plexus (plexus cceliacus s. Solaris) lies behind the stomach, princi-
pally round the cceliac artery. The great sympathetic is connected
by many branches and in various situations with the nervous sys-
tem of animal life, in part supplying and in part receiving the
nervous filaments3. The spinal nerves are connected both by
their anterior (inferior or motor) roots, and by their posterior

on the convolutions of the cerebrum) may be consulted with advantage on the brain of
mammals. The mammals have in general behind the pons on each side a small
transverse band of fibres at the origin of the seventh and eighth pair ; this part, which
TREVIRANUS names trapezium, is absent in man (but not in the apes). The lateral
ventricals of the brain have, with the exception of the apes and some others, no pos-
terior horn, and thus also no pes Hippocampi minor. TBEVIE. Verm. Schr. in. s. 4, 5.

1 STANNIUS Ueber den Bau des DelpJiin-Gehirns; Abhandlungen Tierausgegeb. von
dem natwrwissenschaftlichen Verein in Hamburg, I. 1846 ; see especially s. 4, and Tab.
H. base of the brain. In Hyperoodon, on the other hand, ESCHRICHT has described
and figured the first pair of nerves. Kongel. DansTce Videnskabernes Selskabs Naturvi-
densk. Afhandlinger, xi. 1845, P- 3^o, Tab. vin. In Balcena OWEN describes these
nerves as not dissimilar to those of man ; HUNTER Animal (Economy, pp. 367, 368.

2 Compare W.RAPpDieVerrichtungendesfunftenHirnnerven-Paares, Leipzig, 1832,
4to. For the comparative anatomy of the cerebral nerves in mammals there are several
important contributions by and under the guidance of Prof. BONSDORFF of Helsingfors,
and amongst them, in the dog, the first six pairs of nerves by V. HABTMANN (1846),
and the last six pairs by PIPPING (1847), described in two (Swedish) dissertations
defended at the University.

3 See amongst others F. ARNOLD Der KopftJieil des vegetativen Nerven-Systems beim
Menschen, Heidelberg u. Leipzig, 1831, 4to.

II

598 CLASS XVIT.

(superior or sensitive) roots with the sympathetic nerve, as the
investigations of WUTZER, MUELLER, EETZIUS, and MAYER have
demonstrated1.

The skin of mammals is covered with hair as the rule ; some
have horny scales as Manis, or bony plates as the armadillos (the
genus Dasypus2), or spines (Erinaceus, Hystrix, Tachyglossus, cfcc.3).
The sense of touch is variously developed in the extremities of the
limbs in the different species, according as the feet serve only for
progression and standing, or for seizing also. In the apes, which
in this respect are the most privileged, the hand is indeed much
less adapted for feeling than in man, who in his erect posture and
gait can move and apply his fore limbs for the sense of touch more
commodiously. The whiskers which are attached to the lips, serve,
like the fleshy appendages at the jaws of some fishes (see above,
p. 46), to give warning of external obstacles. Branches of the
fifth pair of nerves are distributed to their roots. Cats are rendered
unable to catch mice when these whiskers are removed, and various
experiments have shewn, that rabbits without the assistance of their
eyes can by means of these hairs find an outlet in narrow passages4.
Similarly, the membrane, richly supplied with nerves, which is
extended between the fingers of the hand in the bats, serves for the
avoidance of external obstacles during flight, whilst the experiments
of SPALLANZANI have shewn that neither smell, nor sight, nor
hearing are necessary for this.

Taste is more highly developed in mammals than in the rest of
the vertebrate animals. The tongue is fleshy, consists of many
muscles which mutually decussate, and thus are able to effect a
great variety of motion. We may here conveniently describe the
bony apparatus to which the tongue with its various muscles is

1 See RETZIUS, MECKEL'S Archiv, 1832, s. 260, 261, with a figure of the con-
nexion of the tenth spinal nerve with the sympathetic in the horse, Tab. i, fig. 10 ;
WUTZER in MUELLER'S Arckiv, 1834, s. 305 — 310.

3 Compare H. METER Ueber den Bau der Haut des Gurtetihiers, MUELLER'S
ArcJiiv, 1848, s. 226 — 232. True bony plates are situated in the corium, which forms
under them a very thin layer only ; horny scales are situated in the epidermis.

3 See F. CUVIER Beckerches sur les epines du pore-epic, Nouv. Annales du Mus. I.
l832, pp. 409 — 439; C. J. A. B(ECKH. De spinis Hystricum, Dissertatio, Berolini,
1834, 4to.

4 G. VROLIK Over ket nut der Icnevels bij viervoetige dieren, Amsterdam, 1800,
8vo.

MAMMALS. 599

attached. This apparatus consists of a transverse middle piece
(basis), uneven and convex in front, mostly excavated behind, and
usually of two pairs of lateral pieces, the so-named horns, of which
the posterior pair in the rats and some other rodents, and in the
graminivorous cetaceans is absent. The anterior horns (in man the
smallest, cornua minora) are always connected with the temporal
bone by cartilages or ligaments1. Here are situated in most mam-
mals two or three long, sometimes round, sometimes flat bones
(ossa styloidea), whilst in man a stylo'id process in connexion
with the temporal bone forms the upper part of the junction. The
posterior horns (cornua majora) extend backwards and from each
other, and are united by ligaments with the thyroid cartilage of the
larynx. In Mycetes (Simia seniculus) the basis expands to form a
bony vesicle. In the horse, from the anterior part of the arch
formed by the middle piece a stiliform process extends, which
penetrates the root of the tongue. Different muscles, which run
from the sternum, the scapula, the temporal bone, and the lower
jaw to the tongue-bone, move it and the tongue with it. Three
nerves are distributed to the tongue. The hypoglossal nerve is a
motor nerve, and supplies principally the muscles of the tongue ;
the glossopharyngeal nerve, common to the tongue and pharynx,
goes partly to the posterior portion of the tongue, and sends
branches to the papillae seated there, where chiefly the peculiar im-
pression of taste seems to be produced; the nerve of feeling of the
tongue is the lingual nerve, which arises from the third branch of
the fifth pair2. The lingual papillae are divided into filiform,
conical, obtuse (papilla fang if ormes) and stemmed (papillce vallat&),
the last of which are surrounded by a circular groovfc, and"are_larger
than the others ; they occur upon the posterior part of the tongue
alone ; their number is always small, and their arrangement dif-
fers in different genera of mammals. In some, as for example the
genus Felis, the conical papillae are covered by a horny investment.
The olfactory organ differs from that of other vertebrates both
in the cribriform lamina of the ethmoid, of which the apertures

1 See note, p. 572.

3 According to PANIZZA the nervus glossopharyngeus is a nerve of taste, the
nervus lingualis exclusively a nerve of feeling; see also STANNIUS in MUELLER'S
Archiv, 1848, s. 132 — 138. MUELLER and others, on the contrary, are of opinion
that the last-named nerve, although chiefly serving for feeling and touch, includes also
nervous filaments for taste.

600 CLASS XVII.

transmit the branches of the first pair of nerves to the nasal cavity1,
and in the sinuses, subsidiary cavities, usually divided into mutually
communicating cells, which exist in the frontal and sphenoid
bones and the superior maxillary bones. The mucous membrane
that covers these cavities is thinner than that of the nasal cavities,
and receives no branches from the first pair of nerves2. Although
they cannot themselves be the seat of smell, still they have the
greatest extent in those mammals whose sense of smell is most
acute. All mammals do not, like man, possess these three differ-
ent cavities simultaneously. In the edentates, for instance, the
frontal sinuses are wanting ; those in the sphenoid bone are com-
monly much smaller than in man. The largest frontal sinuses
occur in the elephant, in which they not only extend to the parietal
and temporal bones, but even to the articular condyles of the occi-
pital bone. The bony parts of the nasal cavities are further com-
pleted by cartilages, which in some mammals form a case, or are pro-
longed into a moveable snout as, for example, in the hog, the mole,
&c. Above all, the proboscis or trunk of the elephant is remark-
able, which contains two such tubes in the interior, that extend
throughout the whole length of the organ. Thick nervous branches
are distributed to the proboscis which arise from the suborbital
nerve of the second branch of the fifth pair. Many muscular bun-
dles, of which the innermost run transversely and pass by their
tendons between the exterior longitudinal fibres to the skin, give
motion to the trunk3. In the true cetaceans there are no accessory
cavities in the cranial bones in connexion with the nasal cavity.
The nasal cavity ascends nearly in a straight direction to the upper
part of the cranhim, where the external double or single nasal aper-
ture (the so-named blow-holes) are situated. Near these apertures
on the upper part of the cranium are two sacs covered by mucous
membrane, folded longitudinally and of a black colour, which is
regarded as the olfactory organ of these animals, but which receives
its nerves from the ophthalmic branch of the fifth pair only4.

1 Compare above, p. 570, as also on the concha.

2 Compare BLUMENBACH Prolusio acad. de sinibus frontalibus, G-ottingae, 1778, 4to.

3 CUVIER Le$. d'Anat. comp. n. pp. 665 — 667, and especially v. pp. 283 — -289 ;
comp. ibid PI. xxix.

4 CAMPEE Cetaces, pp. 148 — 150, PI. 48, fig. i; G. SANDIFORT Bijdragen tot de
onllcedkundige Icennis der walvisschen, cited above, see p. 587.

MAMMALS. 601

With the nasal cavity is connected in different mammals, espe-
cially the ruminants and rodents, an organ discovered by the
Danish anatomist JACOBSON, and through which a closer connec-
tion perhaps is established between taste and smell. It consists of
two longitudinal sacs, of -which one is placed on each side of the
cartilaginous septum of the nose, lying upon an excavation of that
portion of the premaxillary by which the fore part of the palate is
formed. These sacs, covered internally by a glandular mucous
membrane, are surrounded by a cartilaginous sheath and usually
communicate with a duct (formerly discovered by STENO), which
runs through the foramina incisiva to the palate1.

Eyes are always present in this class. In some, however, the
sight is deficient, for the skin, without being fissured to form
eyelids, passes in front of the eyeball, which in such instances is
always very small (as in Spalax, MILS typhlus, PALL.2). The rela-
tive size of the eyes is on the whole less than in birds. The true
whales have relatively (i.e. in proportion to their extraordinarily
large body) very small eyes, although their eyes, regarded by
themselves, are the largest in the whole animal kingdom. The
eyeball 'commonly is almost spherical ; the sclerotic coat is desti-
tute of the support of a bony ring, which we remarked formerly
in birds and different reptiles. In the true cetaceans the sclerotic
is of remarkable thickness, from whence the cavity of this sense-
organ is of still less size than that inferred from the small relative
size of the eyeball. In man and the apes there is at the entrance
of the optic nerve at the inside a yellow spot on the retina, which
was first noticed by SCEMMERRING. In the dolphins, the greater
number of carnivores and the ungulates, the choroid coat is for a
space at the back part of the eyeball destitute of the black colour-
ing-matter which is elsewhere dispersed over it, and its place is

1 Compare CUVIER Rapport fait a TInstitwt, Ann. du Museum, xvm. 1811, pp.
412 — 424; EOSENTHAL in TlEDEMANN u. TEEVIRANUS ZeitscJir. fur Physiol. ii. i,
1827, s. 289 — 300, with a figure of this part in the sheep. In the horse also it is
present, but there is no duct running to the palate. In man this organ is absent, but
the duct (at least often) is present. The duct itself, according to a remark of HTJSCHKE,
is of no physiological significance, but is merely a vestige of a foetal state, in which the
cavities of the mouth and nose were in connexion through the entirely fissured palate.
Lehre von den Eingeweiden, a. 612.

2 Compare on the eyes of this animal KDDOLPHI Physiol. II. i, s. 157, Anm. i.

602 CLASS XVII.

occupied by a fibrous or cellular membrane, named tapetum, which
often presents lively colours with metallic reflections1. The lens
is commonly flat and is bounded posteriorly by a more convex
surface than in front. In the mammals that live in water, espe-
cially in the seals (Phocce), it is nearly spherical. As a rule there
are three eyelids present; but in man and the apes there is only a
vestige of the innermost perpendicular eyelid (the membrana nic-
titans), the so-named semilunar fold at the inner angle of the
eye2.

The auditory organ of mammals differs from that of birds by
the labyrinth being more strictly included in the petrous portion of
the temporal bone, by a greater development of the cochlea (usually
forming two and a half or three spiral turns) , and by three auditory
ossicles, the malleus, the incus, and the stapes, which conduct the
vibrations of the tympanic membrane to the vestibule, on the
fenestra ovalis of which the plate of the stapes rests. This stapes
is in the Monotremes a long stile with a flattened base, like the
columella in birds; the transition to this is formed by the mar-
supiate and some edentate animals, where the two branches of the
stapes do not diverge, or diverge only when close to the terminal
plate, and in addition the ossicle terminates in a long stile. The
Monotremes also have only one ossicle in place of the malleus and
incus, and a very imperfect cochlea, which, as a conical appendage
of the vestibule somewhat swollen at the extremity, resembles that
of the birds and lacertians3. Generally an external ear also is

1 Compare BRUEOKE in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1845, s. 387 — 405.

2 Compare BLUMENTHAL Dissert, de exlernis oculor. integumentis, Berolini, 1812,
4to; TRAPP Symbolce ad anat. et pkysiol. Organorum bulbum adjuvantium, Turici, 1836,
4to (pp. 26 — 31, especially for the membrana nictitans and the included cartilage).
In most mammals with the membrana nictitans there occurs also a peculiar gland (Glan-
dula Harden, see above, pp. 232, 367), which we have already noticed in the reptiles
and birds. The lachrymal glands are often small ; in the cetaceans they seem to be
wanting, but in the dolphins a ring-shaped gland behind the eye-lids is present (K.APP
Cetaceen, s. 93). Besides the four straight and the two oblique muscles of the eye
there is in many mammals another running from the margin of the optic foramen to
the bulb of the eye, and forming that conical muscle which grasps it (musculus sus-
pensorius oculi); in the JBalcence (according to MATER Anat. Untersuchungen uber das
Auge der Cetaceen, Bonn, 1852, 8vo, s. 2) in the absence of the other muscles of the
eye it only is present.

3 Tachyglossus, according to the investigations of HYRTL, is even destitute of
fenestra rotunda.

MAMMALS. 603

present. This organ is however wanting in the Monotremes, the
Cetaceans, many seals, the mole, &c. In the true whales the
external auditory aperture is a capillary passage1.

The motions of mammals consist principally in progressing ;
some are able to spring very well, others are formed for swimming.
In the true cetaceans, swimming is the sole motion: some mam-
mals are able to fly by the assistance of a membrane extended
between the much elongated fingers of the fore limbs (the bats) ;
others flutter, or avail themselves in springing of a parachute,
formed by a prolongation of the skin along the sides of the body
between the fore and hind limbs ( Galeopithecus, Pteromys, Petau-
rista) .

The regenerative power in mammals is small. Their intellectual
power is more developed than that of any other animals; many
domestic animals are exceedingly docile, and thus are able to
perform important services for man. Hence the mammals stand
in close relation to the history of mankind; the exercise on the
part of man of his mastery over those animals which could be of
service to him, was one of the first efforts he was obliged to make
in order to lay a foundation for the further development of civiliza-
tion. The dog at an early period had been his companion ; different
hoofed animals formed in his pastoral life his principal possession,
or his beasts of burden, which alleviated his necessary labour in
cultivating the land.

Various is the abode (the physical distribution) of mammals.
Some reside entirely in the sea, as the cetaceans and most of the
seals (Phocce), although some species, especially of the animals last
named, live in fresh water. Many species of the genus Sorex, the
otters, beavers, the duck-mole, reside, in lakes and rivers. Other
mammals live under ground (Talpa, Bathyergus, &c.). The most
however live on land, some on high mountain tops (as Antilope
rupicapra, Copra Ibex), others on trees (most of the apes and
squirrels, the sloths), and some resort, by flying or flapping, in

1 Compare on the auditory apparatus of mammals, besides the general works of
comparative anatomy, E. HAGENBACH Disquisitiones anat. circa, musculos auris internes
Hominis et Mammcdium, Basiliae, 1834, 4to; by the same, Die PaukenhoJile der Sauge-
thiere, Leipzig, 1835, 4to, and the eminent monography of J. HTRTL Vergleichend-
anatomiscJie Untersuchungen uber das innere Gehor- Oi'gan des Menschen und der Sduge-
thiere. Mit 9 Kupfertafeln. Prag, 1845, 4to.

604 CLASS XVII.

part even to the air (Galeopithecus, the Ghiroptera}. This differ-
ence of resort is naturally in relation with the general bodily form
and the constitution of its different parts, especially of the organs
of motion and of sense. Thus, for example, the limbs are changed
into fins in the whales, or are provided with a membrane for swim-
ming in most of the other water-animals; the eyes are small in
those animals that burrow under ground; the external ear is small,
or is absent in these last, as well as in those mammals that live
constantly in water.

In the geographic distribution of the mammals in the first place
the general law again receives confirmation, that the number
as well of genera as of species increases from the poles to the
equator. Still, however, the true cetaceans and the seals must be
excepted from it, for to them the same rule applies as to the
swimming-birds, of which the species are more numerous in the
polar regions. There are species in the north polar regions com-
mon to the old and the new world, as Canis Lagopus, Ursus mari-
timus and Cervus Tarandus; without the polar circle also some
species are found in the northern countries of both hemispheres, as
Mustela Maries and Mustela erminea and Castor Fiber. (Some
writers indeed maintain that the beaver of America is specifically
different from that of the old world.) In the temperate parts of
North America almost all the species are such as do not occur in the
eastern hemisphere; in South America no single species is found
which also lives in the old world, nay, even the genera differ for
the most part from those of the old world. South American genera,
of which no species in the old world are hitherto known, are the
following: Dicotyles, Auchenia, Dasypus, Myrmecophaga, Brady-
pus, Gavia (or the genera, of more modern writers Gcelogenys,
Dasyprocta, Hydrochosrus), Loncheres, Nasua, the genera of the
bat-tribe: GlossopJiaga, Phyllostoma, Molossus, Noctilio, and many
genera of quadrumanes, namely Callithrix, Ateles, Mycetes, Pithecia,
Hapale. Procyon is peculiar to the new world in the northern and
southern hemispheres. Fiber is an animal form of North America.
Other genera are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, as Sus, Eguus,
Camelus, Rhinoceros, Manis, Myoxus, Spalax, Cricetus, Viverra,
Herpestes, Erinaceus, the genera of bats: Megaderma, Nycteris,
Rhinolophus, Pteropus, the family of the Lemurids, the genera of
the apes : Gercopithecus, Semnopithecus, Inuus, Cynocephalus, Hylo-

MAMMALS. 605

bates, Simla. To Africa in particular are peculiar the genera
Camelopardalis, Hippopotamus, Orycteropus, Cercopithecus, and to
the Island Madagascar Centetes, Lemur, Lichanotus, and the
genus ChiromyS) a sciurean rodent, which approaches the Lemurids
in form. Most of the species of Antilopes are also exclusively
African. The greatest number of species of Marsupials is found in
New Holland ; the genus Didelphys alone is American ; Africa, as
well as Europe, does not possess a single species of this division.
The Monotremes (the genera Ornithorhynchus and Tachyglossus)
are peculiar to New Holland. In New Holland, on the other hand,
as to genera that are dispersed nearly over the whole of the rest
of the world (as Cervus, Sciurus, Lepus, Felis, Ursus, Lutra, Canis,
Vespertilio) of a few only a single species occurs, of the most abso-
lutely none. The Marsupials, of which all the species scarcely
form one-fifteenth of all the land-mammals in the world, form three-
fourths of the mammalian fauna of New Holland. On the whole,
the statistics, so to speak, of the mammalian families in different
countries and climates present great differences. If we take into
consideration the entire class of mammals, exclusive of the Ceta-
ceans and Phocce, then the rodents form one-third of the entire
number of species, the cheiropters and carnivores together about
one-third also, whilst the remaining third is formed, for the greater
part, of the Quadrumanes and Ruminants, and especially of the
Marsupials and insectivorous ferae1. But in Europe, for instance,
this proportion is greatly modified, since the marsupiates and
quadrumanous animals are absent ; the proportion of rodents re-
mains nearly the same ; the cheiropters also form about one-sixth
of the entire number; but the insectivorous ferae are in Europe
nearly twice more numerous than when the whole are taken into
account, and form one-thirteenth of the entire number of the mam-
mals ; the species also of carnivora and ruminant animals are pro-
portionally much more numerous. In North America the species
of rodents form perhaps half the entire number of the species of
land-mammals. How different again is the proportion which pre-
vails within the tropics may be readily inferred. For to these
countries, or at least to the warmer districts, nearly all the genera

1 Want of space precludes a detail of the grounds of these estimates. The remain-
ing orders, however, contain very few species as compared with the whole number.

606 CLASS XVII.

of the pachyderms, the edentates, and the apes belong. The apes
indeed, with respect to their distribution, have been compared to
the parrots amongst birds; but here this great difference is observ-
able, that of the species of apes occurring in the old world, the
largest half belongs to Africa, whilst Africa possesses very few
species of parrots as compared with Asia. In New Holland also
there are no apes, where various species of Psittacus occur. Insecti-
vorous mammals, with the exception of the genus Chrysodiloris,
are a form almost peculiar to the northern hemisphere ; the Le-
murids more to the southern hemisphere. From a more careful
comparison a greater number still of such contrasts would be de-
duced. The connexion also should not be forgotten which prevails
between the distribution of plants and animals; and as in the
vegetable kingdom, so also in the animal, of those genera which in
cold districts have numerous species, the species occurring in warm
countries are found more on mountains than on plains1.

With the exception of some species of bats and of the true whales,
mammals are not tied, like birds of passage, to make strictly limited
migrations, but inhabit the same districts in winter and summer
alike2. On the other hand, different species hibernate, and pass a
greater or less portion of the year without food in caves and hiding-
places. Amongst such in Europe are, for example, the bats, the
hedgehog, the hamster, the marmot, and various other species of
rodents forming the genus Myoxus, and in the north, the bears.
(Just as the same species of birds in cold countries migrate, and in
warm countries remain for the whole year, so also the phenomenon

1 On this subject may be compared J. A. G. ZIMMEBMANN Specimen' Geographice
Quadrupedum, L. B. 1777, 4to (antiquated); TREVIRANUS Biologic, 11. s. 174 — 263,
in different places; ILLIGER UeberblicTc der Sdugefkiere nach ihrer Vertheilung uber
die Welttheile. Abh. der Konigl. ATcad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, I. 1815, s. 39 — 159;
WILBRAND und KITGEN Gemdlde der organ. Natur, s. 69—88 ; L. K. SCHMARDA Die
geograpkiscke Verbreituny der Thiere, Wien, 1853, 8vo (compiled with great literary
knowledge).

3 It would seem, however, from some observations, that certain species of bats
migrate; see GLOGER in OKEN'S Isis, Bd. 21, 1828, s. 1113 — 1124, BLASIUS Amtlicher
Bericht uber die Versammlung zu Braunschweig, 1841, s. 63. The whales, which pass
the summer in the polar regions, voyage southwards in winter into the Atlantic Ocean ;
some species follow probably the numerous shoals of fishes, for greater abundance of
food. Compare ESCHRICHT Untersuchungen uber die nordischen Wallthiere, s. 6 — 10,
and in other places.

MAMMALS. 607

of hibernation varies in some degree according to climate in the
same species of mammals.) These animals before beginning their
winter's sleep are particularly fat ; when in the spring they again
emerge from their secret places they are much emaciated. The
respiration is interrupted by long intervals and is nearly suspended;
the quantity of oxygen consumed during this state is very small.
Animal warmth is much diminished, and the temperature of the
internal parts falls to 7°, 6°, or even 3° of the centigrade scale;
it appears to depend upon that of the surrounding air. The beats
of the heart are much less numerous ; the circulation, however, of
the blood, though much retarded, proceeds uninterruptedly in the
capillaries. During the complete hybernation the feeling is almost
entirely suspended; particular portions of the body retain their
irritability long after death. Hence it would seem that they are
not altogether in the wrong who maintain that the life of mam-
mals during hybernation sinks down into that of reptiles. On
the cause of this phenomenon various opinions have been offered,
of which some rest upon incorrect observations, others upon un-
demonstrated assumptions, and others again upon no foundation at
all. That, for example, the bile of these animals is less acrid, and
that on this account they can support hunger for a longer time, as
SAISSY maintains, is an assumption without proof; that the thymus
gland during hybernation increases in bulk and compresses the
lungs, as PRUNELLE believes, is a contested point, whilst (accord-
ing to JACOBSON) it is not that gland but a mass remarkable for
the quantity of fat which penetrates it and oppresses the thorax ;
as little can the course of an artery through the stapes (which OTTO
discovered and held to be the cerebral carotid1) elucidate the phe-
nomenon, for the same distribution occurs also in species not subject
to winter-sleep. Whether the pulmonary cells be larger and the
capillaries of the lungs less fine, than in other mammals (B ARROW),
seems to require confirmation. Thus do we abstain from farther
record, comparison, or refutation of different opinions. The essence
of hybernation consists in temporary depression of the powers of
life from almost entire suspension of respiration. This is almost all
that can be said upon the subject. That the tanrec, the hedgehog
of Madagascar (Centetes ILLIG.), sleeps at the hottest time of the

1 According to HYRTL this artery is rather an arteria orlito-maxiUaris.

608 CLASS XVII.

year (summer-sleep) as BRUGUIERE asserted, was afterwards con-
tradicted by DESJARDINS, according to whom, on the contrary, this
animal, when it is summer with us, and thus during the winter
.season of that island, falls into its periodic sleep1.

The arrangement of mammals, derived by KAY and KLEIN
chiefly from the digits and nails, by LINNAEUS from the teeth, was
improved by STORR, CUVIER and others, and advanced to greater
perfection especially by the physiological and embryological views
of OWEN.

1 At the island Mauritius from June to November, Ann. des Sc. nat. xx. p. 180,
according to TALFAIB from April to November, Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. I. 1830,
p. 89 ; the temperature, however, does not need to fall to 20° centigr. ; they sometimes
sleep even at 26°. Ann. des Sc. nat., Seconde Se"rie, n. p. 316.

On hybernatiou may be compared G. MANGILI, J. A. SAISSY, PRUNELLE, J. F.
BERGER, PASTRE and others cited in the first edition of my handbook, to which I now
add: OTTO De Animalium per hyemem dormientium vasis cephalitis, Nov. Act. Acad.
Ccesar. Leopold. Carol. Tom. u. MARSHALL HALL on Hylernation, Phil. Trans. 1832,
Part 2, pp. 335 — 360, the same in TODD'S Cydopced. u. pp. 764—776, and H. C. L.
BARKOW Der Winterschlaf nach seinen Erscheinungen im Thierreich, Berlin, 1846, 8vo,
in which last work may be found the fullest account of the entire literature on this
subject.

SYSTEMATIC
ARRANGEMENT OF MAMMALS,

CLASS XVII,
MAMMALIA.

VERTEBRATE animals, breathing atmospheric air by lungs; with
red, warm blood, heart with two auricles and two ventricles, vivi-
parous, lactating, furnished with a muscular diaphragm, covered by
skin mostly hairy, armed more rarely with spines, sometimes partly
mailed by scutes.

SECTION I. Mammalia acotyledona s. implacentalia : Lyence-
phala OWEN. Uterus double. Placental conjunction between
mother and embryo none.

Corpus callosum of brain indistinct. Two marsupial bones in
front of symphysis of pubic bones. Four feet in all.

ORDER I. Monotremata.

Cloaca, receiving the outlets of the rectum and the urethro-
genital canal. Two clavicles, a coraco'id and a furcular. Exter-
nal ears none. 'Teeth corneous or none. Hind feet in males
furnished with a perforate spur.

Family I. Monotremata. (Characters of the order those of the
single family also.) Feet short, pentadactylous. Snout produced,
covered with naked, coriaceous skin.

Mornotremata, from fj.6vos sole, single, and rprj^a opening, in allusion to
the single cloaca! aperture for the urinary and intestinal excretions, and
for the outlets of the sexual passages. Compare on this order DDCROTAY
DE BLAINVILLE Dissertation mr la place des Omitkorhynqws et des Echidnes
dans Us series naturelles, Paris, 1812, 4to, and especially OWEN in TODD'S
Oydopced. HI. pp. 366 — 407.

VOL. II. 39

610 CLASS XVII.

SECTION I. Dermatopoda. Feet palmate.

Ornithorhynchus BLUMENB., Platypus SHAW, Dermipus WIE-

/2 — 2\
DEM. Eight horny teeth ( fc- ^ ) flat, destitute of fangs, composed of

\J — LJ

perpendicular horny tubules, the anterior narrow, long, the posterior
oval. Snout depressed, flat, broad; lower jaw narrower, shorter,
marked at the margin posteriorly by several transverse striae. Body
hairy. Tail broad, depressed, beset with rigid hairs.

The duck-billed animal, the water-mole of the English colonists. On the
structure of the organs of propagation we have already spoken. The ster-
num consists of four flat bony pieces placed one behind another, to which
the ribs are attached, and of a larger piece lying in front of these, which
has in some degree the form of an hour-glass, but in front terminates in
two transverse branches, on the anterior margin of which the furcular
clavicles are situated, and soon coalesce with them. The scapula forms,
with the other clavicle, the coracoiid clavicle, the articular cavity for the
humerus. The coraco'id clavicle descends obliquely from the articular
cavity to the lowest part of the lateral margin of the first and the anterior
part of the second sternal piece ; in front of it, and along the sides of the
first sternal piece is another bony plate, to which MECKEL gave the name
of Clavicula coracoidea anterior, the os epicoracoideum. These two anterior
bony plates meet in the mid-plane and are covered below by the sternum.
Such also is the structure in the following genus Tachyglossus. The pelvis
is formed after the mammalian type.

The spur of the male consists of a conical and perforate bony piece,
covered by a horny investment, through which runs the excretory duct of
a gland situated on the thigh ; some observations, from which it had been
concluded, that the fluid secreted by this gland was possessed of venomous
properties, and that the spur was used by the animal as an offensive weapon,
have not been subsequently confirmed ; perhaps it has relation to copula-
tion. MECKEL found in the female water-mole a small cavity in the same
situation which appeared to be adapted for the reception of the spur.

The water-moles live in the rivers and lakes of New Holland and of
Van Dieinen's Land. They dive and swim like water-birds and secure
their prey, whilst swimming, with their bill, as ducks do. They feed on
worms and insects ; fragments of shell and parts of water-insects have been
found in their cheek-pouches and in their stomach. They dig holes of
twenty or more feet long, which have a double entrance, one close above
the water and another below the water, and ending in a larger space
covered with rushes and other dry plants. The young animal is naked,
and has a short beak with flexible jaws. The adults attain a length of
from seventeen to twenty two inches, from the anterior margin of the
upper jaw to the point of the tail, which is about five inches long.

Sp. OrnithorJiynchus paradoxus BLUMENB., Abb.naturh. Gegenst. 41, SCHREB.
Tab. 63 B, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 36, fig. 2, Cuv. R. Ani., 3d. ill.,

MAMMALIA. 611

Mammif. PI. 75, fig. 2. PEBON admits two species: Ornithorhynchus rufus
and Ornith. fuscus, Voyage de decouv., Ail. PL xxxiv. (these figures are
badly coloured). In my youth I undertook the defence of this opinion and
gave figures from stuffed specimens, Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Carol, xi.
2, 1823, pp. 351 — 372, Tab. 47; I now attach no importance to them,
since the unanimous opinion of travellers is against it. Some individuals
are more ruddy-brown ; others, especially the larger, are dark-brown on
the back ; the under surface is grey.

Compare on the anatomy HOME Philos. Trans., 1802, pp. 67—84, PI.
2 — 4, 1819, pp. 234 — 241 (also in his Lectures on comp. Anal.), the class-
ical work of J. F. MECKEL Ornithorhynchi paradoxi descriptio anatomica,
Lipsiae, 1826 fol., OWEN Phil. Trans. 1822, P. 2, pp. 517 — 538, 1834, P.
2, pp. 555 — 566, &c. and in TODD'S Cyclop. Article Monotremata, in. pp.
366 — 407. The young animal is described and figured by him in Trans, of
the Zool. Soc. Vol. i. 3, 1835, pp. -221 — 228. On the mode of life and the
economy BENNETT has given an interesting paper, ibid. pp. 229 — 258. See
also the observations of VERBEAUX, Revue Zoolog. 1848, pp. 127 — 134,
which for the most part correspond with those of BENNETT.

SECTION II. Orygopoda s. Tachyglossa.
Feet fossorial, not palmate.

Tachyglossus ILLIG., Echidna Cuv.1 (Spec, of Ornithorhynchus
HOME.) Teeth none. Snout subulate, somewhat depressed, with
gape of mouth at the apex small. Tongue round, long, exsertile.
Body covered with hairs and spines. Claws large, the second and
third of hind feet very long, falciform. Tail very short, truncate at
the apex.

Sp. Tachyglossus aculeatus ILLIG., SCHBEB. n. Tab. 63 B., Myrmecophaga
aculeata SHAW Natur. Miscellany, Vol. in. PL 109, Ornithorhynchus Hys-
trix HOME Philos. Trans. 1802, PL 10, WATEBHOUSE Mamm. i. p. 41;
New Holland. — Tachyglossus setosus, Echidna, setosa Cuv., Echidna brevia-
culeata TiEDEM., HOME 1. 1. Tab. 63 c; Van Diemen's Land. (This species
or local variety has longer hairs and shorter spines on the back.) These
animals burrow under ground, live on ants and other insects, and are, even
more than the Ornithorhynchus, nocturnal animals. They attain a length of
fourteen to seventeen inches. Compare HOME 1. 1. A figure of the skeleton
is to be found in MECKEL'S Beitr. zur vergl. A not. i. 2, Tab. 9, in CDVIEB
Rech. s. les Ossem. foss. v. i, PL 13, and in PANDEB und D'ALTON Skelele
der zahnl. Thiere, Tab. 3. The brain is figured and described by LAUBENT
in GUEBIN Magas. deZool. 1838, 01. i, pp. 141 — 152, PL 30. The cerebrum

1 Tableau element, 1798, p. 143; ZXJLOVO., the same as ?xtj> is a species of snake or
adder. I cannot suppose that CUVIEB had this in his mind, but rather e^os, hedge-
hog, as indeed his addition fourmilier epineux indicates. The name, therefore, to have
any meaning, must be modified. Hence Tachyglossus is to be preferred.

39—2

612 CLASS XVII.

has convolutions, which in the Ornithorhynchus are absent. The olfactory
nerves are unusually developed.

ORDEE II. Marsupialia.

Mammas ventral, contained in the pouch or placed between two
oblong, cutaneous folds. Clavicle single (furcular) perfect in
almost all, coracoid clavicle none. Incisor and molar teeth in all.
External ears in all.

Marsupial animals. LINNAEUS united in a single genus the
species known to him, under the name Didelphis (didelphis from
8e\<f>v<s, uterus), because the pouch in which the young are received,
forms, as it were, a second womb,

Compare on the propagation of these remarkable animals HOME Phil.
Trans. 1808, pp. 307 — 312, OWEN Phil. Trans. 1834, P. 2, pp. 333 — 364,
on the osteology and the classification by the same, Transact, of the Zool.
Soc. Vol. II. &c. See especially also his article Marsupialia in TODD'S
Cyclopcedia, ill. pp. 257 — 330. Many osteological peculiarities, especially
in the cranium, are observable. The occipital bone in many species (Opos-
sum virginianum, Dasyurus ursinus &c.) for the whole of life consists of
four distinct pieces; the temporal bone commonly remains divided into
three pieces. The great ala of the sphenoid forms an expansion (bulla)
similar to that formed in other mammals by the temporal bone. The bony
palate has, in addition to the foramina incisiva, apertures of greater or
less size closed by membrane. The inferior margin of the lower jaw is
convex and broad, as if bent inwards, especially at the angle ; this last is
also observed in Ornithorhynchus. Also the cavity of the cranium is very
small, and the cranium, however various in different genera, is on the whole
flatter above than in other mammals.

For the special knowledge of the mammals belonging to this order we
possess, besides the first part of WATERHOUSE's./Va£. Hist, of the Mammalia,
a smaller work by the same writer, forming the eighth vol. of J ARDINE'S
Naturalist 's library, Edinburgh, 1841. See also The Mammalia of Aus-
tralia, by J. GOULD, London, 1845—1852, 4 parts, folio.

Family II. Glirina WIEGM., Rhizophaga OWEN. Incisors

2

•^ ; a large interval between the incisors and molars, canines

none. Feet pentadactylous, with pollex of hind feet short, un-
armed.

Phascolomys GEOFFR.1 Teeth with roots indistinct, molars with

1 Ann. du Museum, n. (1803) pp. 364 — 367. The animal described by COLLINS
(Account of the English Colony of New South Wales, London 1802, quoted by WATER-
HOUSE) does not differ from this ; the number of teeth had been given incorrectly,
which caused ILLIGER to form the genus Amblotis (Prodromus, p. 77), a genus to be
discarded from the class of Mammals.

MAMMALIA. 613

1 — 1 1 — 1 4 — 4

flat crowns. Dental formula i. - — - , p. - — ^ , m. -7 — j = 24.

X — i J. — J- 4: -~ 4

Claws strong, fossorial. Tail very short.

Sp. PJiascolomys fossor WAGNER, PJiascolomys Wombat PERON, DESM., PERON
et LESUEUR, Voyage de decouv., PL 28, GUERIN Icon., Mammif. PL 22,
fig. 4, WATERH. Nat. Lib. PL 32 ; the cranium figured in CUVIER R. Ani.,
PL 2, figs. 4 — 6, OWEN Transact, of the Zool. Soc. Vol. 11. PL 71, fig. 6,
the skeleton ibid. PL 68, the teeth in F. Cuv. Dents des Mammif. PL 44.
The wombat is from two to three feet long, the tail only half an inch. The
animal is of a brown colour and in its air somewhat resembles a small bear ;
it lives in holes underground and is found in the south of New Holland
and in Van Diemen's Land. A skull from the south of New Holland,
investigated by OWEN, seemed to him to belong to another species, which
he names Phascolomys latifrons, of which, as far as I know, no further
accounts exist ; see Transact. Zool. Soc. Vol. in. pp. 303 — 306, PL 37.
Whilst the rest of the marsupiates have only thirteen or twelve ribs, the
wombat possesses fifteen or (in the skeleton at Leyden) sixteen. Although
the tail beyond the pelvis is short, there are nine or ten caudal vertebrae (or
rather, if the three vertebrae between the two iliac bones be alone regarded
as sacral vertebrae, even thirteen or fourteen). Remains also of a fossil
species have been met with in caves in New Holland. lu the neighbour-
hood of this fossil genus ought also to be placed the fossil genus Diprolodon
OWEN, of which remains have been found in the same caves and in alluvial
deposits. This animal almost attained the size of Hippopotamus. OWEN
Appendix to MITCHELL'S Three Expeditions into the interior of Australia,
1830, 8vo, Vol. n. p. 362, Report of the British Association for 1844,
p. 223.

Family III. Macropoda s. Salientia1. Six superior incisors,
two large inferior, procumbent ; canines either none or only in the

(K K\
- — -) remote
P — o/

from the anterior teeth by a large interval ; anterior molar with a
compressed narrow crown ; four remaining molars furnished with
two transverse tubercles. Posterior feet longer than anterior, tetra-
dactylous, with two inner toes slender, small, conjoined as far as
the small claws. Tail long, haired, not voluble.

The kangaroos are animals from the eastern part of the southern hemi-
sphere, of which as early as the beginning of the last century a species from
the Aroe Islands, under the name of Filander, was described by DE BRUYN
and VALENTIN (DE BRUYN Reizen over MosJcovien door Perzie en Indie,
Amsterdam, 1/14, PL 213), but of which since the end of that century,

Poephaga (grass-eating) OWEN.

614 CLASS XVII.

and especially in the last twenty years, many species have been discovered
in New Holland and Van Diemen's Land. They live on grass and plants
(some on leaves), and in some degree correspond to the ruminants and the
hares amongst the placental mammals. In many species the males are
disparately large in comparison to the females.

Compare J. GOULD A Monograph of the Macropodidce or family of Kan-
garoos; 2 Parts, London, 1841, 1842 fol. Various genera have been adopted
in this family. After an attentive investigation of the species known to
me I am only able to adopt four, regarding the rest as subdivisions of
inferior importance.

t Upper canines none or small, deciduous. First molar tooth
not grooved externally.

q O

Macropus SHAW, Halmaturus ILLIG. Dental formula =• ,

0-0 1 — 1 4-4

c. J? — ~, p. •= — -r , m. -j — j=28; the two middle incisors not
U — U J. — JL 4 — 4

longer than the rest, the outermost on each side broad. Ears long,
oval. Claws of fore feet curved, compressed. Tail strong, haired,
shorter than body. Hind feet far surpassing the fore feet.

Sp. Macropus giganteus, Didelphis gigantea SCHREB., Macropus major SHAW,
SCHREB. Saugeth. Tab. 154, Kangaroo PHILLIP Botany Bay, PI. 10, p. 106;
WHITE New South Wales, PI. 54, p. 272; Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Mammif.
PI. 52, fig. i ; GOULD, PI. i ; the skeleton figured in PANDER u. D'ALTON
Die Slcelete der Beutelthiere, Tab. i ; the large kangaroo; the length amounts
to four feet, without the tail, which is full three feet long ; this kangaroo is
the largest mammal of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land ; — Macropus
laniger QUOY et GAIM. Diet. cl. d'Hist. not., Ail. PI. 153, Diet. univ.
d'Hist. nat., Mammif. PI. 19, GOULD, PI. 2, &c. Some species are about
the size of a hare, and resemble this also in their fur (Lagorchestes GOULD,
Sp. Macropus fasciatus P^RON Voy. PI. 27 ; GOULD Mamm. of Austr.
Part n. PL 6, Macropod. n. PL 15).

Whilst grazing the kangaroos move on their fore feet, and as they pro-
ceed push forward the hind feet at intervals ; they then appear as if they
had a difficult and obstructed gait, but that impression vanishes as soon as
they are pursued; then they move by wide leaps on their powerful hind
legs; when they sit they rest on these and their muscular tail only.

ft Upper canine teeth distinct. Anterior molar (late in place)
in length nearly equalling the two following teeth, sculptured at the

Hypsiprymnus ILLIG., WATERH., Potorous DESMAR1. Two

1 Nouv. Dictionn. d'Hist. nat. Tome 24, 1804, Tableau meth. des Mammif. p. 20,
Bettongia (!) GRAY.

MAMMALIA. 615

upper middle incisors long, produced beyond the small lateral inci-
sors. Ears oblong, rounded, small. Claws of fore feet compressed,
curved, with the three middle ones longer, the outer and inner very
small. Posterior feet far surpassing the anterior. Tail shorter
than body, slender. (Nasal bones acuminate at the extremity, pro-
duced beyond the upper jaw.)

Sp. Hypsiprymnus murinus ILLIG., Macropus minor SHAW, WHITE New
South Wales, PI. 60, p. 286, WATEBH. Natur. Library, T. 16; Potoroo or
Kangaroo Rat; New South Wales (the skeleton figured in PANDER u.
D'ALTON 1. 1. Tab. 3). The species of this genus are small. Some have
long hairs at the end of the tail with which they can grasp grass and plants
and drag them to their nest, as Hypsiprymnus cuniculus OaiLBY, GOULD
Macr. ii. PI. 14.

Dorcopsis SAL. MUELL. and SCHL. Two upper middle incisors
longer than lateral. Ears oval, narrow, moderate. Head long,
protracted, produced beyond the mouth. Claws of fore toes strong,
somewhat flat. Hind feet far surpassing the fore feet. Tail
shorter than body, rather thick, ringed with scales towards the
apex, naked.

Sp. Dorcopsis Brunii (Hypsiprymnus previously) SAL. MUELLER and SCHLEQ.
Natuurk. Verh. over Nederl. Overz. Bezittingen, Mamm. PI. ai; New
Guinea and perhaps the Aroe Islands, if this species be the same as the
Filander of DE BRUYN, Didelphis Brunii GM. This animal is much larger
than the Potoroos and resembles the smaller species of Kangaroos, with
which, however, they are improperly united by WATERHOUSE. A figure of
the skull has been published already by PALLAS, after a drawing of
P. CAMPER. Act. Acad. Petropol. 1777, Tab. ix. fig. iv.

Dendrologus SAL, MUELL. Two upper middle incisors scarcely
longer than the lateral. Ears oblong and rounded, moderate,
hairy. Claws of fore feet curved, compressed, strong. Hind feet
scarcely surpassing in size the fore feet, which are larger than com-
mon. Tail longer than body, thick, hairy.

Tree-kangaroos, animals of New Guinea having a much darker fur than
most of the species of this family ; they climb on trees. Two species are
known: Dendrologus ursinus SAL. MUELLER 1. 1. Tab. 19; — Dendrologus
inustus SAL. MUELLER ibid. Tab. 20.

r>

Family IV. Phalangistce s. Carpophaga OWEN. Incisors ~ ;
the two upper middle somewhat large, the lower large, procum-
bent ; canines ^ — ^ or - — r- , molars mostly small, anterior false

616 CLASS XVII.

molars various in number, true molars tuberculate, covered with
enamel. Hind feet pentadactylous, with pollex apart and clawless,
the two succeeding toes conjoined as far as the claws.

Phascolarctos BLAINV., I/ipurus GoLDFUSS.1 Dental formula

. 3_3 i_i i_i 4-4 QA

i. - — ^ , c. TT— -77 , p. ^ , m. j— - = 30 ; premolars and molars

quadrituberculate. Toes of fore feet separated unto two sets, the
one composed of the two inner, the other of the three outer toes.
Tail none.

Sp. Phascolarctos cinereus, Phascolarctos fuscus. DESMAB., Lipurus cinereus
SCHBEB. Sdugeth. Tab. 155 A, (Ab, the skull and feet), Cuv. R. Ani. PL i,
fig. 5; GU£B. Iconogr., Mamm. PI. 22, fig. 3, WATEBH. Nat. Libr. PI. 31,
Mamm. I. PI. 9, fig. i ; the koala, an inert animal from the east of New
Holland, which climbs on trees and lives on the young shoots and leaves ;
it attains a length of nearly 2'. ' ,.

Phalangista Cuv. Small molars, variable in number, decidu-
ous, not permanent, occupying the space between the canines and

^ £ 1 — 1

larger molars ; mostly the larger molars •= — =• . Canines -

o — o i — i ,

the inferior canines very small, contiguous to the incisors. Claws
compressed, curved. Tail long.

Compare on this genus TEMMINCK, Monogr. de Mammal, i. pp. i — 20.
All the species are met with on the islands of the Indian Archipelago, at
New Guinea and New Holland. They are dull animals that sleep by day
and hide amongst the leaves of trees. They eat all kinds of food, but
principally fruits. A secretion from glands in the neighbourhood of the
anus gives an unpleasant odour to the animals; yet the flesh of some
species is eatable. In many species of this genus the canine tooth of the
upper jaw, as in Hypsiprymnus, is inserted partly in the inter-maxillary
bone. The small teeth in front of the large molars are very various in

number, so that in different species, on the whole, ^-^, — - or ~? molars

o— o 7~7 o— 8

are present.

a) With tail prehensile, naked in great part towards the end; with ears
short, rounded.

Sub-genus Ceyonyx TEMM., Ouscus LACBP.

Sp. Phalangista maculata GEOFFB., DESMAB., BUFF. Hist. nat. xm. PI. u
(Phalanger male), QUOY et GAIM. Voy. de VUranie, Zool. Atlas, PL 6,

GOLDFUSS proposed also the name Morodactylus ; Grundriss der Zoologie, s. 629.

MAMMALIA. 617

WATERHOUSE Mammal, i. p. 274; Moluccan Islands, New Guinea; — Pha-
langista cavifrons TEMM., Didelphis orientalis GM., Phalangista rufa
GEOFFB., Phalangista orientalis WATEBH., GUEBIN Icon., Mamm. PL 21,
fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PL 51, fig. i; Timor, Ceram, &c.
These species have some analogy with Lemurids ; they do not occur in
New South Wales, nor in Van Diemen's Land ; yet here probably ought
to be placed a species from Cape York, the most northerly point of New
Holland: Phalangista nudicaudata GOULD, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1849, p.
no (according to GOULD, a species of Pseudochirus, see below).

b) With tail prehensile, hairy, having a naked streak below at the extre-
mity; with ears elongate and triangular.

Sub-genus Trichurus (Trichosurus LESSON1), Phalangista. (in stricter
sense).

Sp. Phalangista vulpina DESMAB., Didelphis vulpina and lemurina SHAW,
Phalangista Cookii F. Cuv., WATEBHOUSE Mamm. i. PL 9, fig. i ; ruddy
grey, end of the tail black, New Holland j — Phalangista felina WAGN.,
Phalangista fuliginosa OGILBY, GOULD Mamm. of Austr. n. PL 10; larger
than the preceding, usually brown with throat ruddy ; the tail is black ;
Van Diemen's Land. Of this division no species from the Moluccan
Islands are known.

Sub-gen. Pseudochirus OGILBY. (With ears somewhat short ; with two
inner toes of fore feet separate from the rest.)

Sp. Phalangista Cookii Cuv. (not F. Cuv.), DESMAB., WAGN., Phalangista
Banksii GBAY, Phal. viverrina OGILBT, COOK'S Voyages, vn. PL 75"*,
LESSON Ann. des Sc. not. xvi. pp. 282 — 285, PL 12, WAGN., SCHBEB.
Sdugeth. Suppl. in. s. 78, Tab. 155 B; grey-brown, point of the tail white j
New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land.

Sub-genus Dromicia GBAY. (With true molars ^H? ; tail, except the

hirsute base, covered with very short, close hair, naked below at the point ;
ears moderate, almost naked.)

Sp. Phalangista nana GEOFFB., DESMAB., Phalang. gliriformis BELL, Trans,
of the Linn. Soc. xvi. PL 13, GOULD Mamm. of Austr. i. PL 8, WATEB-
HOUSE Nat. Lib. PL 26 ; 4" long, exclusive of the tail, which is 3" 10'"
long and thick at the base ; Van Diemen's Land.

Petaurus SHAW, Phalangista ILLIG. Skin expanded at the sides
of the body between the arms and thighs. Tail hairy, not pre-
hensile, long, sometimes longer than body.

Sp. Phalangista taguanoides, Petaurus taguanoides DESM., WATEBHOUSE
Natur. Library, PL 27; brown, whitish grey below; ears entirely haired,
moderate ; the largest species, 3.3' long, of which the tail forms the largest
half, New South Wales -,— Phalangista petaivrus, Petaurus flaviventer

Ann. des Sc. nat. xvi. 1829. p. 285.

618 CLASS XVII.

DESMAB., Petaurus australis SHAW, Hepoona Roo WHITE New South Wales,
PL 6 1, p. 288, GOULD Mamm. of Austr. I. PI. 3; smaller than the pre-
ceding, a dark streak along the back; the ears longer and naked, the
under surface yellowish, &c.

In a very small species the tail is shorter than the body and furnished
along the two sides with long transverse hairs. Sp. Phalangista pygmcea,
Petaurus pygmceus DESMAB., Didelpkis pygmcea SHAW, SCHBEB. Saugeih.
Tab. 144 A, GUEBIN Icon., Mamm. PL 21, fig. 3; it keeps in hollow stems
of trees. From this species the genus Acrobata DESM. (or Acrobates) is
formed. With the exception of the parachute, it closely corresponds with
Phalangista nana or Dromicia.

Family V. Peramelina. Incisors, canines and molars ; upper
middle incisors not larger than the rest. Snout porrect, acumi-
nate. Hind feet with second and third toes conjoined as far as
the claws, with first (or pollex) mostly imperfect or indistinct.

/>

Tarsipes GERVAIS. Teeth very small, separate; incisors ~,

1 — 1

the lower larger, procumbent, canines -: — =• , molars inconstant, deci-

3 — 3

duous, mostly ^ — ~ » remote. Snout very long, attenuate. Ears
o — o

rounded, moderate. Feet pentadactylous, posterior somewhat longer,
with pollex apart, clawless ; claws flat, except those of the second
and third toes of the hind feet acute, suberect. Tail long, with
short fur, prehensile.

Sp. Tarsipes rostratus GEBVAIS in GUEBIN Magas. de Zool. 1842, Mamm.
PL 35 — 37, WATEBH. Mamm. I. Tab. n, fig. i, PL 19, fig. 6 (cranium),
GOULD Mamm. of Austr. i. PL i ; in Western Australia; a small insecti-
vorous animal living in trees, agreeing in some respects with Phascologale
and Myrmecobius, but having the posterior thumb of the Phalangistce.
The teeth are quite abnormal, as they are in the genus Proleles amongst
the camivora; a ccecum is absent.

g K

Perameles GEOFFR., Thylacis ILLIG. Incisors 5 — ^ , the upper

1-1
and outer on each side separate from the rest; canines - — -,

, 7-7 . , 3-3 4-4

molars - — - , spurious molars K — 5 > true j — T > Wltn crown quad-
rate, tuberculate. Snout porrect, acuminate. Ears elongate. Fore
feet pentadactylous, with outer toe apart, very short; hind feet
elongate, with pollex very short, clawless, apart or none. Tail
moderate or somewhat short.

MAMMALIA. 619

Comp. GEOFFBOY SAINT-HILAIBE, Memoire sur un nouveau genre de
Mammif. a bourse, &c., Ann. du Mus. iv. pp. 56 — 65, PI. 44, 45.

Sp. Perameles nasuta GEOFFB. 1. 1. PI. 45, GUEB. Icon., Mamm. PI. 20, fig. 3,
WATEBH. Nat. Libr. PL 13, the bandicost; New South Wales, &c. In a
species, larger than the others and nearly of the size of a rabbit, the ears
are particularly long and the tail, furnished with long hairs, is black and at
the point white ; the thumb on the hind feet is wholly wanting : sub-genus
Macrotis REID, Peragalea GBAY, Perameles lagotis WATEBH. Natur. Libr.
PI. 12, Mamm. i. PI. 13, fig. i, GOULD Mamm. of Austr. i. PI. 12; this
species lives in Western Australia. For other species compare WATEB-
HOUSE 1. 1.

Chceropus OGILBY. (Teeth of the preceding genus.) Feet
slender, anterior didactylous, posterior with pollex none, fourth toe
alone insistent, the rest small, apart, all unguiculate. Tail short
slender. Ears elongate.

Sp. Chceropus castanotis GBAY, GOULD Mamm. of Austr. i. PI. 13, WATEBH.
Mamm. I. PI. 13, fig. 2; Southern Australia; a small animal 9^ inches
long exclusive of the tail, which is 4 inches long. It is the only species
of marsupial of which the fore feet have fewer than 5 toes.

Family VI. Dasyurina. Incisors, canines, and molars in both

Q

jaws; incisors £, canines longer than incisors. Anterior feet pen-

tadactylous ; posterior in some pentadactylous, with pollex very
short and clawless, in others tetradactylous ; second toe separate
from third. Tail not prehensile, hairy.

o o A A

Phascologale TEMM. Spurious molars » _o > frue j ^ > crown

with conical, acute tubercles, the last upper small, transverse.
Tail with hair short or penicillate towards the point.

Small mammals of which some species have no pouch, the young being
protected by the hair alone of the body. Sp. Phascologale peniciUata
TEMM., Didelphis peniciUata SHAW, Dasyurus penicillaius GEOFFB., WHITE
New South Wales, PI. 58, p. 281, SCHEEB. Sdugeth. Tab. 152 B&, GOULD
Mamm. of Austr. i. PI. 6; the skull and teeth figured by TEMM. Monogr.
I. PI. vii. figs. 9—12; length about from 15" to 17", of which the tail
makes 7" or 8"; a tuft of hair at the end of the tail; this species is
spread over a great part of Australia, with exception of the north, and
lives in trees. The two middle upper incisors are longer than the rest.
Such however is not the case in all the species, for example, not in Phasco-
logale minima TEMM., Dasyurus minimus GEOFFB., SCHBEB. Sdugeth. Tab.
152 Be, from Van Diemen's Land, in Phascologale minutissima WAGN.

620 CLASS XVII.

Antechinus minutissimus GOULD Mamm. of Austr. iv. PL 4, from the East
of Australia (4$" long, of which the tail makes one half; the smallest
species of the order) &c. These species, with a tail covered sparingly by
short hairs, form the genus Antechinus MAC LEAT. In some the tail is
very thick at the base, especially in the males ; they form the genus Poda-
brus GOULD.

Dasyurus G-EOFFR. (excl. of some species). Spurious molars

2 — 2 4 — 4

5 — » , true -: — -r , tuberculate, the last upper small, transverse.

2i — & 4 — • 4

Posterior feet with clawless hallucar wart, or pollex none. Tail
lax, villous throughout.

Compare GEOFPBOT SAINT-HILAIRE Ann. du Mus. in. pp. 353 — 363,
and TEMMINOK Monogr. de Mammal. I. pp. 51 — 72, sur Us Mammif. du
genre Dasyure et sur deux genres voisins, les Thylacines et les Phascogales.

Sp. Dasyurus maculatus GRAY, Viverra maculata SHAW, Dasyurus macrurus
GEOFFR., PHILLIP Botany Bay, PL 46, p. 276, PERON et LESUEUR, Voy. aux
Terr, austr. PL 33 ; in this species the hind feet have a rudiment of a thumb ;
the fur is brown with white spots, which occur also on the tail ; from Van
Diemen's Land. In other species the thumb of the hind feet is entirely
absent, as in Dasyurus viverrinus (and Das. Maugei GEOFFR. and F. Cuv.
Mamm. PL 100), Didelphis viverrina SHAW, PHILLIP 1.1. PL 15, p. 147,
WHITE New South Wai. PL 59, p. 285, SCHREB. Sdugeth. Tab. 162 Be,
GU£R. Icon., Mamm. PL 20, fig. 2 ; New South Wales, Van Diemen's
Land; smaller than the preceding, tail unspotted. A larger species with
short, large head and short tail has given occasion for the sub-genus
Sarcophilus F. Cuv. ; it is the Dasyurus ursinus, Didelphis ursina HARRIS,
Linn. Trans. IX. PL 19, fig. 2, named by the English colonists native
Devil; it is black with a white patch on the breast between the fore legs,
and has a bunch of very long hairs behind the eyes and another above
them.

Thylacinus TEMM., Peracyon GRAY. Incisors even, or the exter-

g Q

nal slightly larger ; molars compressed, tricuspidate, spurious ^ — « »

o — o

4 — 4
true molars - — j > the upper with an accessory tubercle internal,

anterior. Ears short, hairy. Hind feet tetradactylous, with
pollex none. Tail moderate, short-furred, thick at the base, some-
what compressed at the point.

Sp. Thylacinus Harrisii TEMM., Didelphis cynocephala HARRIS Transact.
Linn. Soc. ix. PL 19, LESSON Centur. Zool. PL 2, Cuv. JR. Ani., id. ill.,
Mamm. PI. 49, fig. r ; GOULD Mamm. of Austr. in. PI. i, 2, Van Diemen's
Land; the tiger or zebra-wolf of the colonists, of the size and form of
a wolf, but lower on the legs ; black transverse stripes on the back behind.

MAMMALIA. 621

According to the observation of OWEN the ossa marsupialia are wanting
here, or rather they are represented by fibro-cartilages in the external
oblique muscles of the abdomen.

g g Q Q

Myrmecobius WATERH. Molar teeth ^ — ^ or — — , the three

o —~ o y — y

anterior spurious, compressed, tricuspid, the posterior with crown
having many conical, acute tubercles. Head acuminate. Hind
feet tetradactylous, pollex absent. Claws compressed, curved,
acute. Tail somewhat long, villous with long hairs.

Sp Myrmecobius fasciatus WATEBHOUSE Trans, of the Zool. Soc. u. 2, 1838,
p. 149, PI. 27, 28, Mammal, i. PI. 14, fig. i, GOULD Mammal, of Austr.
I. PI. 10 ; a little animal of the size of a squirrel, grey-brown, with almost
red feet, on the back dark-brown with white transverse bands. It is found
in Western Australia and is supposed to live on insects, especially on ants.

Family VII. Pedimana WAGN. Incisors, canines and molars
in both jaws; incisors-^-. Feet pentadactylous, the posterior a

hand, with pollex apart, opposable to the other fingers, clawless,
broad.

Didelphis L. Canine teeth long, curved, acuminate. Molars

7 — 7 4 — 4

- — =• , true j — -7 » cuspidate. Head produced, with gape of mouth

large, produced as far as under the outer angle of eye. Bristles
few, very long at the nostrils and lips. Tail furred at the base,
elsewhere somewhat naked, scaly.

The proper pouch-animal, opossum, le sarigue. This numerous genus is
peculiar to America, and, indeed (with the exception of two or three
species) to South America, and represents there the Coescoes of India and
the Dasyures of New Holland. These animals eat all kinds of food,
principally insects, small birds and their eggs, reptiles, &c. and also fruits.
Animals of this genus lived in the tertiary period ; a nearly perfect skele-
ton of an opossum has been found in the gypsum of Paris ; see CUVIEB
Ann. du Mus. v. pp. 277 — 292, PI. 19.

Didelphis (in stricter sense). All the toes free.

f With, mamm<e situated between two cutaneous folds of the abdomen, in
place of a pouch.

a) With tail short, ears short (Habitus nearly of Sorex).

Sp. Didelphis tristriata KUHL, WATERHOUSE Nat. Libr. PL 3 ; — Didelphis
tricolor GEOFFB. DESM., Didelphis orachyura PALLAS A ct. Petrop. 1780,
u. p. 235, Tab. 5, BUFF. Hist, not., Suppl. vn. p. 252, Tab. 61; Guyana;

622 CLASS xvu.

grey, mixed with black above, red-brown along the sides, yellowish-white
on the belly ; 9 inches long, of which the tail forms 3, &c.

b) With tail long, equalling or slightly surpassing the body, with ears

Sp. Didelphis dorsigera L., SCHREBER Sdugeth. Tab. 150; Surinam; — Didel-
phis murina L. SCHREBER Sdugeth. Tab. 149, Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat.,
Mamm. PI. 17, fig. 2; Brasil, Peru, &c. These species carry their young
on the back when they are sufficiently developed to leave the teat, to which
at first they were attached, whilst these throw their tails like tendrils round
the tail of the mother.

*M* With mamma contained in a pouch. (Tail long, but in many shorter
than body.)

Sp. Didelphis virginiana SHAW, BUFF. Suppl. vi. PI. 33, 34, pp. 240 — 243,
Sarigue et Sarigue a longs polls, SCHREB. Sdugeth. Tab. 145*, GEOFFR. et
F. Cuv. Mamm. PI. 96 — 98 ; — Didelphis cancrivora GMEL., SCHREB. Sdugelh.
Tab. 145, GEOFFR. et F. Cuv. Mamm. PI 99, GUER. Iconogr., Mamm.
PI. 20, fig. i (the skeleton figured by TEMM. Monogr. i. PI. 5) ; from South
America, brown-grey, with black feet, &c. Perhaps in some species the
pouch is only temporally developed. T. T. REINHARDT saw a Didelphis
albiventris without pouch, notwithstanding this species is otherwise
instructed with it. VidensJcabel. Meddelelfer fra den naturh. Forming i
Kjobenhavn for 1854.

Chironectes ILLIG. Hind feet palmate. (Mammae contained in
a pouch ; tail longer than body.)

Sp. Didelphis palmata GEOFFR., Lutra minima ZIMMERM., BODD., Chiro-
nectes variegatus ILLIG., BUFF. Suppl. m. PI. 22, WATERH. Nat. Libr. PI.
4, Mamm. I. PI. 17, fig. i; Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PI. 48, fig. 4;
Yapock, a species occurring in and near the rivers of Guiana and Brasil ;
it is about 2 feet in length, of which the tail forms one half. (The teeth,
which were described by OGILBY in a young specimen, do not differ in the
adult from those of the other species of Didelphis.)

SECTION II. Mammalia placentalia.
A) Posterior extremities none.

ORDER III. Cetacea.

Anterior feet changed into fins, posterior none1. Tail horizontal,
flat, continuous with trunk. External ears none.

wrote "Caudseloco pedes compedes in pinnam planam." Syst. nat.
ed. XII. i. p. 25. This mistake of LINN^US that the posterior extremities coalesce to
form the tail was not without its influence, even after the skeleton had become known,
in respect of the Cetacea herbivora (Sirenia ILLIG.) ; see ILLIGER Prodrom. p. 140 and
FISCHER Synopsis, p. 501, the last of whom copied the first-named.

MAMMALIA. 623

Family VIII. Cetacea (in stricter sense) s. Cetacea camivora.
Spiracles (external apertures of nostrils) on the top of head. Mam-
mae inguinal. Teeth different in different genera, conical, never
molars with flat crowns, in some the teeth in an embryonic state
only. Body destitute of hair.

Compare LACEP^DE Hist. not. des Cetaces, Paris, xii. (1804) avec
fig. 4to.

J. HUNTER Observations on the Structure and (Economy of Whales, Philos.
Transact. Vol. 77, 1787 (also in the separate edit. Animal (Economy, by
B. OWEN, 1837, pp. 331— 392).

P. CAMPER Observations anatomiques sur la structure interieure et le
squelette de plu$ieurs especes de Cetaces, publ. par A. G. CAMPEB avec des
notes de G. CUVIER et un Atlas de 53 pi. Paris, 1820, 4to.

F. CUVIER De THistoire natureUe des Cetaces. Paris, 1836, 8vo.

W. KAPP Die Cetaceen zoologisch-anatomisch dargestelU. Mit Abbild.
Stuttgardt und Tuebingen. 1837, 8vo.

D. F. ESCHRICHT Zoologisch-anatomisch-physiologische Untersuchungen
uber die nordischen Wallthiere, I. Bd. Leipzig, 1849, folio. Mit Tafeln
u. Holzschuitten.

The true cetaceans live almost all in the sea exclusively. Amongst
them the largest animal species are met with. A thick layer of
fat under the cuticle protects these animals from the cold, and
diminishes their specific gravity. This layer of fat passes without
any definite distinction into a firmer and more fibrous layer be-
neath the cuticle, so that the blubber forms a whole with the
corium. The skin is without hair; but in the foetal state in
Dolphins, and even also in the whales in the adult state, some
bristles are set upon the upper and sometimes also upon the lower
jaw *. That water can be ejected from the blow-holes like a fountain,
experienced observers are disposed to doubt; the animals breathe
(blow) through the apertures, and the vapour mingled with the air
may be seen as a condensed column, especially in cold regions,
since the animal heat of these creatures is greater than in most
mammals*.

1 Compare ESCHRICHT Untersuch. uber d. nord. Wattthiere, s. 71 — 75.

2 W. SCORESBT Account of the Arctic Regions, Edinburgh, 1820, 8vo, i. p. 456;
compare V. BAER, OKEN'S Isis, 1826, s. 811, 1828, s. 927 — 932, KUESTER ibid. 1835,
s. 85, HOLBOELL in ESCHRICHT'S Untersuchungen, 193, 194, &c.

624 CLASS xvn.

t With head enormous, equalling in Tnagnitude the third or fourth
part of the trunk.

Balcena L. Transverse horny laminae adhering to the upper
jaw in place of teeth. Two spiracles distinct.

The whales. The head is very large, making in some one-third of the
whole length. These animals may be named toothless cetaceans, although
in the state of embryo (as GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE observed in Balcena
Mysticetus at the beginning of this century) teeth are present, which, from
the early ossification and coalescence of the groove in which they lie, do
not come to view, Ann. du Mus. x. pp. 364, 365. ESCHRICHT afterwards
confirmed this observation in various species, so that it may be regarded as
a generally prevalent embryonal state. Untersuchungen, B. 85—91.

Compare on this genus J. A. BENNETT Natuurl. Historic en Natuurk.
Beschrijving der Walvisschen in the Natuurk. Verhandelirtgen van de Maat-
schappijder Wetensch. te Haarlem, 1809, v. i, with PI.

Sp. a) With back finless ; Balcena Mysticetus L., SCHREBER Saugeth.
Tab. 332, LAC£P. Cetac. PL I. fig. i, both from MARTEN'S Spitzbergische
oder Groenldndische Meise-Beschreibung, Hamburg, 1675, 4to, Taf. Q, fig. A,
SCORESBY 1. 1. PL is, fig. i, copied in SCHREBER Saugeth. 366, and Cuv. It.
Ani., ed. Hi., Mammif. PL 100, fig. i ; the Greenland whale, common
whale, la Baleine franche. This species attains a length of 60', and has the
longest baleen, on each side more than 300 pieces. Its food consists of
medusae, conchifers and molluscs, amongst which last especially of Clio
lorealis (see above, I. p. 775) and SpirateUa arctica (i. p. 774). The whale
fishery attained the greatest extension since the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, after the discovery of the island Spitzbergen1. On this
subject may be consulted ZORGDRAGER'S bloeijende opkomst der Groenlandsche
visscherij, 2e druk. 's Gravenhage, 1727, 4to, SCORESBY Account, &c. 2nd
Pt. and by the same Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-fishery,
Edinb. 1823, 8vo. Another species without dorsal fin occurs on the south
coast of Africa and in the South Pacific and also at Japan, Balcena australis
DESMOULINS, Balcena capensis Cuv. ; see Heck, sur les ossem. foss. v. i, p.
374, PL 25, fig. i, 2, 5, 6, (cranium}, SCHLEGEL Faun. Japon., Mamm.
Taf. 28, 29. (Probably here also belongs BLUMENB. Abb. Naturh. Gegenst.
8vo, 91, from HESSEL GERARD Descriptio geograph. transitus supra terras
Americanos in Chinam), Diet, class. d'Hist. not. PL 140, fig. 3 (comp.
DESM. ibid. ii. 1822, p. 161). This species has a head of relatively
smaller size. On it affix themselves Balani (Tubicinella balcenarum, see
above I. p. 637), Coronula oalosnaris and species of Cyamus, of which
animals no one has ever been observed on the Greenland whale.

b) Adipose Jin on the lack. Sub-genus Balcenoptera LAC. Belly marked
by longitudinal grooves.

The fin-fishes (rorquals) are not on the whole objects of the regular

1 In the memorable voyage of JACOB HEEMSKERK in 1596, when a part of the
company passed the winter in Nova Zembla.

MAMMALIA. 625

fishery, since their baleen is worthless and they afford less blubber. Here
belongs Balcena Boops L. (not FABB.), Bal. Physalus FABB., Balcenoptera
arctica SCHLEG., LACEP. Cetac. PL rv. fig. i, BLUMENB. Abb. Naturh.
Gegtnst. No. 74, ROSENTHAI. Einige naturhist. Bemerkungen uber die
Walle, H. SCHLEGEL Nieuwe Verhandelingen van de Eerste Klasse van
het KoninJcl. NederL Instituut, m. PI. i, 2, Abhandlungen aits dem
GeUete der Zoologie, Leiden, i. 1841, Tab. VI. n. 1843, Tab. IX. This
species appears to be the largest of all; there are several examples of
animals more than 80 feet long (some even of 100) ; from time to tune
these whales are stranded on the coasts of the North Sea; these have
afforded to Dr SCHLEGEL opportunity for accurate descriptions and figures J.
A small species from the North is Balcena rostrata FABB., Pterobalcena
minor ESCHR. Distinguished by long pectoral fins is Balcena longimana
RUD., Balcena Boops FABB. (see RUDOLPHI Abhandl. der konigl. ATcad. der
Wissensch. zu Berlin a. d. Jahre 1829, Physikal. Kl. s. 133 — 144, mit Abb.),
the sharp-lipped Whale, the KeporTcak of the Greenlanders ; the same species
also occurs south of the line at the Cape of Good Hope and elsewhere.

Physeter L., Catodon LAC. (Physalus and Physeter ejusd.).
Spiracle single towards the apex of the truncated head or superior
extremity of the snout. Lower jaw narrow, furnished with a row
of large conical teeth having an internal cavity, upper jaw edentu-
lous, or with a few teeth concealed under the gums.

Sp. Physeter macrocephalus SHAW et auctor. not L., LAG. Citac. PL 10,
BLUMENB. ,466. No. 84; blunt-headed cachalot, spermaceti whale; attains
nearly the size of the Greenland whale, and is met with in various seas.
Formerly several species of this genus were adopted, but it is not suffi-
ciently demonstrated that they really consist of more than one; in one the
blow-hole would appear to be not at the fore part of the head, but further
back ; this is the Physeter macrocephalus L., from which LACEPEDE formed
his genus Physalus. For the specimens that have a dorsal fin LACEPEDE
reserved the name of Physeter. But in all well-preserved specimens the
so-named blow-hole opens at the fore part of the head, and there is a
tubercle or false fin on the hind part of the back.

In special cavities of the head at the upper part of the skull a fatty sub-
stance is contained which hardens and then forms the spermaceti. The oil
also (spermaceti oil or sperm oil of the English) is collected. In the intes-
tines is found the grey amber (ambra grisea), a substance resembling
cholesterine, which is used as a perfume, since when burnt it emits an
agreeable smell ; this substance is sometimes found drifting on the sea in
warm countries or thrown up on the coasts. Comp. BBANDT u. RATZEB.
Mediz. Zool. I. s. 108 — in. The Cachalots feed chiefly upon cephalopoda,
and live together in large troops, especially in the great ocean between the
west coast of America and the Eastern hemisphere, in which seas many
Englishmen and North Americans are engaged in their pursuit.

1 For the viscera compare W. VBOLIK Ontleedkundige aanmerUngen over den
Noordschen vinvisch. Tijdschr. voor not. Gesch. en Physiol. iv. bl. i — 24.

VOL. n. 40

626 CLASS xvii.

•ft With head congruous, not surpassing the seventh part of trunk.
(Blow-hole single.)

Monodon L., Ceratodon BRISS., ILLIG. Two horizontal canine
teeth in the upper jaw, in females mostly latent, enclosed, in males
that of the left side exsert, very long, straight, subulate, porrect,
grooved spirally, that of the right side concealed, solid ; two other
small teeth (spurious molars?) contained in the gum of upper jaw.
Lower jaw edentulous. Cutaneous fold scarcely distinct, in place
of dorsal fin. Transverse caudal fin, bilobed.

Sp. Monodon Monoceros L., LACEP. Cetac. PI. 4, fig. 3, PI. 5, fig. 2, BLU-
MENB. Abb. naturh. Gegenst. No. 44, SCORESBY Account, n. PI. 15, figs, i,
2, CAMPER Cetac. PI. 29 — 31 (cranium); the Narwhal; this species lives in
the icy sea and feeds principally on cephalopods or sepiae. It attains a
length of thirteen feet, besides the long tusk of the male, which may be
from eight to ten feet long. The tooth of the right side, which lies con-
cealed in the jaw, is externally smooth and not hollow within. Comp.
HOME Lect. on comp. Anat. n. PI. 42. The two small teeth noticed amongst
the generic characters were discovered by Prof. CL. MULDER ; compare his
valuable paper in the Tijdschr. voor nat. Geschied. en Physiol. n. 1835, bl.
65 — 109, PL 2. In the females both teeth usually remain latent. Occa-
sionally Narwhals have been met with having two projecting tusks, but all
the instances are not examples of it which were cited as such by ALBERS
on the occasion of his describing one from the cabinet of FRORIEP : Icones ad
ill. Anat. comp. Lipsiae, 1818, Tab. II. Ill ; compare G. VROLIK in Bijdragen
tot de DierTcunde, published by the Society of Amsterdam, 30 Aflev. 1851,
bl. 2 1 — 28, with large figures.

DelpTiinus L. Teeth conical, vertical, mostly numerous in both
jaws. Caudal fin emarginate.

Hyperoodon LAC., Uranodon ILLIG., Chcenodelphinus ESCHR.,
WAGN. Head rounded, with forehead declivous, produced abruptly
into a short snout. Gape of mouth small. Teeth covered by
gum. Blow-hole transverse, lunate, concave anteriorly. Adipose
fin remote, small ; pectoral fins small.

Sp. Ddphinus edentulus SCHREB., Hyperodon butskopf LACEP. (and Delphinus
diodon ejusd.), LAC. Cetac. PI. 13, fig. 3, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 346, 347,
348, fig. i, HUNTER Philos. Transact, for 1787, PI. 19, (great Bottle-nose
Whale), WESMAEL Notice sur un Hyperoodon, PI. i. Mem. de VAcad. royale
de Brunettes, xni., W. VROLIK Natuur- en OntleedJcundige Beschouwing van
den Hyperoodon, PI. i . Nat. Verhandel. v. d. Maatschappij der Wetensch. te
Haarlem, V. i. 1848, &c. (Figures of the skull in CAMPER Cetac. PI. 13
— 1 6, W. VROLIK 1. 1. PI. v — vn. ; of the brain by ESCHRICHT in his paper,
cited at p. 597, n. i, PI. vin.). The adult animal appears to attain a length
of from twenty -two to twenty- eight feet. In the skull the two erect ridges
are especially observable, which the upper jaws present near the forehead.

MAMMALIA. 627

Mostly there are two teeth, but sometimes also (M. A. HENDEIKSZ .and C.
MULDER Alg. Konst- en Letterbode voor 1831, i Deel, bl. 305, 306, 338 —
341, W. THOMPSON Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. xvn. 1846, p. 152)
four teeth at the fore part of the lower jaw, concealed in the gum;
besides these some smaller teeth in addition lie also concealed in both jaws
(EscHRiCHT Untersuck. iib. die Wallthiere, a. 37). This cetacean has occa-
sionally been cast ashore on the coasts of Great Britain and Holland,
otherwise it resides in high Northern latitudes, and usually keeps far from
the shore ; it is captured at the Faroe Islands, where it is named Dogling.
The food of Hyperoodon consists chiefly of Cephalopods (Loligines), of
which the horny beaks heaped up by thousands or sometimes within each
other were found by VROLIK in the specimen dissected by him.

As SCHLEGEL has remarked, to this sub-genus ought also to be referred
Delphinus mtcropteriis Cuv. (F. Cuv. Cetac. PL 8, fig. i, DUMORTIEB,
Mem,, de VAcod. royole de Brux. xn. 1839, avec 3 P^)> from which Del-
phinus Sowerbyi DESMAR., Physeter bidens SOWERBY does not seem to differ,
in the opinion of ESCHRICHT also, according to whom this last species is the
male of Delph. micropterus. DUVERNOY forms from these species, which
he contends are distinct, his genus Mesodiodon; see Ann. des Sc. not.,
3ieme Se"rie, Tome xv. 1851, Zool. pp. 5, 71; compare also GERVAIS,
ibid. XIV. pp. 5 — 17. Here belong fossil species from the tertiary beds
named Crag, which were united by CUVIER in one genus under the name
of Zupkius.

Platanista F. Cuv. Teeth conical, projecting from the gums,
numerous in both jaws. Blow- hole a longitudinal fissure. Snout
produced, compressed. Dorsal fin depressed, remote. Pectoral
fins subtriangular, broad at the posterior margin.

Sp. Delphinus gangeticus LEBECK, Der Geselhchaft naturforsck. Freunde zu
Berlin new Schriften, in. 1801, s. 280 — 282, Taf. II., Delphinus rostratus
SHAW, F. Cuv. Cetac. pp. 251 — 257, PL 8, fig. 2 (PI. 18, figure of the
skull), ESCHRICHT Om Gangesdelphinen, in Kongel. DansTce Videnslc. Selsk.
Skr., 5te Raeklce, Natur. og matkem. Af deling, 11. Bd. 1851, pp. 347 — 387,
with 3 pi. This dolphin, which lives in the mouths of the Ganges, becomes
7' long, and is distinguished not only by its long sword-shaped snout com-
pressed laterally, but also by its eyes being so small that, on a superficial
view, it might be supposed to be entirely blind. The blow-hole has a form
quite unusual amongst cetaceans. In the rising ridges of the superior
maxillary bones the skull resembles in some degree that of Eyperoodon.

Delphinus auctor. Several conical teeth projecting from the
gums in both jaws. Blow-hole transverse, lunate, concave forwards.

The Dolphins. Amongst these the smallest cetaceans are found, of which
only a few species attain more than ten feet. It is the only division of this
family that is numerous in species ; some are found in all seas, a few also
in rivers. They are very voracious, and swim with great velocity. In
some species the head extends forwards into a narrow snout (sub-gen.
Delphinus Cuv., Rhinodelphis WAGN.). Here belongs Delphinus Delphis
L., LACEP. Cetac. PL 13, fig. i, BLUMENB. Abb. naturhist. Gegenst. No. 95,

40—2

628 CLASS XVII.

GUER., Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 47, fig. I ; the common dolphin, dorsal fin
behind the middle of back ; from forty to forty-five teeth on each side in
both jaws. This species becomes 8' long, and occurs in the North Sea and
the Mediterranean Sea. It is the Delphinus of the ancients, of which they
have given many wonderful accounts, amongst which the myth of ARION
claims a distinguished place, HEROD. 1.241 . — Delphinus Tursio FABR., Cuv.,
HUNTER Phil. Trans. (1787), Vol. 77, PI. 18, SCHLEGEL Abhandl. aus dem
Oebiete der Zool. I. PI. 5, figs, i, 2, the 'bottle-nosed dolphin, about twenty-
four teeth on each side above and below ; the dorsal fin almost in the middle
of the back ; this species is usually from eight to eleven feet long, some-
times more.

In other species the head is not prolonged into a snout, but is blunt
(sub-genus Phoccena Cuv.). Here belongs Delphinus Phoccena L., SCHREBER
Saugth. Tab. 342, CUVIER Menag. du Mus. national d'Hist. nat. Livraison
7, with a figure of MARECHAL, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PI. 97,
fig. 3, GUE"R. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 47, fig. 2 ; the common porpes&e, le
marsouin; this species is rarely more than 4' long, and is the smallest and
most common of this family. It frequents the North Sea and also occurs
in the Zuider-Zee; usually it keeps near the shore, and swims in company
in large or small packs. There are from twenty to twenty-four small teeth
on each side in both jaws ; the dorsal fin stands on almost the middle of the
back, nearer however to the tail than to the head. Compare on the anatomy
of this species PAULSON Skrivter of naturh. Selskabet, n. 2, 1 793, pp. 1 1 1 —
121, ALBERS Icones ad ill. Anat. comp. fasc. n. Tab. v — vn., V. BAER in
OKEN'S Isis 1826, s. 807 u. ff., STANNIUS in MUELLER'S Archiv, 1849, s.
i — 41 (description of the muscles), £c. — Delphinus globiceps Cuv. Ann. du
Mus. Tome 19, PI. I. figs. 2, 3 ; this species with a blunt head belongs to
those to which the name of Bidzkopf has been assigned; it is called by
English writers the round-headed grampus; it has a fin standing on the
anterior part of the back, and only few teeth (nine or ten on each side of
both jaws). This dolphin may attain a considerable length, more than
20'. In some species there is no dorsal fin. Of such LACEPEDE forms
the unnecessary sub-genus Delphinapterus. — Sp. Delphinus leucas PALLAS
Zoogr. Rosso- Asiat. Tab. i. SCHREB. Saugth. 349, SCORESBY Arctic Reg. 11.
PI. 4 ; the Beluga; a large species from the high North ; a very rare visitant
of the British seas, JENYNS Brit. Vert. Ani. p. 43.

Family IX. Sirenia ILLIO. s. Cetacea herbtvora. Nostrils
opening in the upper lip at the anterior part of head. Molar teeth
with flat crowns, or a horny lamina in place of teeth in both jaws.
Two pectoral mammas. Setae in the lips ; body furnished with
scattered hairs, especially in younger individuals.

The herbivorous cetaceans were formerly placed in the neighbour-
hood of the seals ; the lamantin was united with the walrus in the
same genus (Trichechus). They are distinguished, however, like the
true cetaceans, by the absence of hind limbs. CAMPER had shewn
the resemblance of these animals to the whales ((Euvres, n. pp.

MAMMALIA. 629

477 — 491, du Dugon de BUFFON; see also OZERETZKOVSKY in Nov.
Act. Acad. Sclent. Petropol. ad annos 1795, 1796, Tom. xin.), and
the great CUVIER also improved the systematic arrangement as
regards these animals, inasmuch as the resemblance which this
family bears to the walrus is merely superficial and external. On
the other hand, it cannot be overlooked that there are many
important peculiarities in the whole organisation which distinguish
the herbivorous from the true cetaceans, and that therefore the
union of these two families in one order is exposed to objections1.
There are however difficulties of no less weight which oppose the
union of the lamantins with the pachyderms.

The intestinal canal is long in these animals, and surpasses the
length of the body eleven, fourteen, in the animal of STELLER
twenty times. The stomach has two blind appendages at the
pyloric portion, at least in the lamantin and the dugong; the
pyloric portion is separated from the cardiac by a constriction ; the
cardiac portion is a blind appendage beset with many follicles.
The heart is divided at the apex by a deep fissure (see various
figs, in HOME Lectures, Yol. iv.). The ribs are numerous (15 — 19
pairs) j in all, the Manatus included, there are traces of bones of
the pelvis. These animals feed on marine plants (Ftcci), and keep
near the shores of the sea and the mouths of rivers.

Rhytina ILLIG., Stellera Cuv.2 Teeth none; a lamella with
undulating surface, scarcely containing any calcareous matter, com-
posed of horny tubules, covering both jaws internally. Head small.
Body covered with thick, fibrous, fissured epidermis. Caudal fin
lunate.

Sp. Bhytina Stelleri DESM.,WAGN , Trichechus M anatm borealis GM., PALLAS
Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. I. p. 272, Icon. Fas. 2. This animal, which attains a
length of twenty-four feet, formerly lived in the neighbourhood of the coast
of Kamschatka at Behring's Island, and was discovered and described by
STELLER in BEHRING'S second voyage ; see Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Petrop.
Tom. ii. ad annum 1749, pp. 294 — 330 (and in a separate publication in
German, Ausfiihrliche Beschreibung von sonderbaren Meerthieren, Halle,
1753, 8vo). Since 1768 this animal has not been seen; on the discovery
of BEHRING'S Island, which was uninhabited, its distribution had already
become exceedingly limited. See VON BAER'S masterly Untersuchungen
iiber die ehemalige Verbreitung u. die gandiche Vertilgung der von STELLER
beobachteten Nordischen Seekuh, St. Petersburg, 1838, 4to (Mem. de FAcad.
imp. des Sc. de St Petersb. vi. Se'rie, Tome v.). Of the dental laminse
BRANDT has given extensive details with figures, Mem. de I' Acad. imp. des

1 Compare OWEN, Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. 1838, pp. 28 — 45.
3 Or Stellerus? DESMAR. Encycl. method.

630 CLASS XVII.

Sc. de St. Petersb. vi. Se"rie, Tome n. 1833, s. 103 — 118, Tab. I. et Symbolce
sirenologicce, ib. Tome v. 1846, pp. i — 160, Tab. I — v. A remarkable
anomaly, but upon which no light can now be thrown, is the absence noticed
by STELLEB of fingers in the pectoral fins.

Halicore ILLIG. Two large upper incisors in adults, lower none ;

5 — 5

canine teeth none, molars -= — — or fewer, with flat crown. Pectoral

o — o

fins destitute of claws. Caudal fin lunate.

Sp. Halicore cetacea ILLIG., WAGN., Halicore indica DESMAB., Halicore
Dugong QUOY et GAIM., HOME Lect. on comp. Anat. iv. PI. 52, F. Cuv.
Cetac. PL 4, SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 382, GU£B. Iconogr., Mammif.,
PL 46, fig. 2. This animal, named Dugong or Dujong by the Malays,
occurs in the Indian Ocean and also in the Red Sea, from whence
RUEPPELL has given a careful description of it, Mus. Senckerib. I. 1834, PP-
95 — 114, Tab. VI. This species becomes from 8' to 10' long (it has been
stated at even 20'). The long upper incisors are for the most part (in the
female entirely) concealed in the jaw. From these teeth the intermaxillary
bones are uncommonly large, and the head has the appearance of being
swollen forwards. Other smaller incisors in both upper and lower jaws
may be observed in young individuals, but afterwards disappear. The
surface of the mouth is covered in front with a hard integument, which
corresponds to the horny plates of Rkytina. Compare on this animal and
its anatomy, besides the memoir of RUEPPELL, BUFF. Hist, natur. xin.
PL 56 (skull), P. CAMPEB (Euvres, n. pp. 477 — 491, PL vn. figs. 2, 3,
QUOY et GAIMABD Voy. de I' Astrolabe, Zool. pp. 143 — 148, PL 27, OWEN
Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1838, pp. 28 — 45, BISCHOFF in MUELLEB'S Archiv,
1847, s. i — 6, Tab. I. (tongue-bone and larynx).

Manatus Cuv. (Manati BoDD.). Two small upper incisors,

D O

acute, in young age, in adults none ; canines none ; molars 7 — ^ ;

o — o

with crown square, divided by a transverse groove. Pectoral fins
furnished sometimes with flat, marginal nails, with thumb always
unarmed. Caudal fin oblong and rounded.

The lamantin or sea-cow. The intermaxillary bones, with their much
smaller incisors, which disappear in old individuals, are less developed than
in the preceding genus. In the under jaw also of young individuals traces
of small incisors are seen, of which however the number is not fixed. Here
also the anterior part of the cavity of the mouth is covered in both jaws
with a hard and grooved integument.

It is now generally supposed that three species of this genus may be
adopted, of which two are from the coasts of America, Manatus australis
WIEGM. from Brasil, and Manatus latirostris HABLAN, from the coast of
Florida, the West Indies and Surinam. LINNAEUS comprised both these
species under the name of Trickechus Manatus. To Manatus latirostris
belongs the figure of HOME Phil. Trans. 1822, Tab. 26, 27, Lectures, iv.
PL 52, and the interesting anatomical description of W. VKOLIK Bij-
dragen tot de DierTcunde, published by the genootschap- te Amsterdam, 4<te

MAMMALIA. 631

Aflev. 1852. (Besides other characters this species is distinguished by
17 ribs, whilst the Brazilian has only 15 or 16.) Manatus australis is
figured by HOMBOLDT, WIEGMANN'S Archiv f. Naturgesch. 1838, Taf. i.
ii ; to this also belong STANNIUS Beitrdge zur Kenntniss des Amerilca-
nischen Afanati. Mit 2 lith. Taf. Rostock, 1845, 4to.

The third species Manatus senegalensis DESMAR., occurs on the west
coast of Africa under the tropics; see ADANSON Hist. not. du Senegal,
p. 143; the skull is figured by CUVIEB RecJi. sur les Oss. foss. v. i, PL
19, figs. 4, 5.

These animals attain a length of from 12' to 15' or more; their flesh,
like that of the dugong, is eatable, and is famed as b%ing palatable.

B) Four distinct extremities*

ORDER IV. Pachydermata,

Feet ungulate or furnished with nails which axe flat and ungu-
lar, monodactylous, tridactylous, tetradaetylous or pentadactylous.
Molar teeth in both jaws, tuberculate, complex or lamellose, with
crown broad, suitable for triturating; incisors and canines some-
times none. Stomach simple. (Ungulate animals, not ruminating
vegetable food ; with skin mostly thick, often thinly haired.)

The Pachyderms. Although a fossil genus (Anoplot/ierium) is
furnished with two hoofs only, and in the hog not more than two
hoofs rest on the ground, whilst two others, smaller and accessory,
are raised above the ground (ungulce succenturiatce s. accessories), as
in many ruminant animals, yet these last, the ruminants, are not to
be- confounded with the former order. Of these the carpal and
tarsal bones correspond in number to the number of the fingers, and
do not coalesce to form a single bone. They have not a compound
stomach, and never ruminate. All these animals are exclusively or
principally herbivorous. We admit, however, that this order
scarcely deserves the name of a natural division ; and there is, for
example, between Hyrax and Elephas in all the characters a differ-
ence almost as great as that between the bodily sizes of the two.

The ungulates are distinguished by the odd or even number of
their toes ; an arrangement first proposed by CUVIEB Reck. s. I.
Ossem. foss. sec. ed. 4to, in. p. 72, but afterwards abandoned. It
was again advanced and strongly defended by OWEN in works cited
below (p. 634). The elephants, from their peculiarities of structure,
form an aberrant group. The remaining ungulates (with the
exception of the ruminants which we regard as a distinct order)
are grouped according to the odd or even number of their toes.

632 CLASS XVIT.

Phalanx I. Proboscidea.

Family X. ElepJiantina. Incisor teeth in upper jaw two,
exsert, large; canine teeth none; molars large, with crown elon-
gate. Feet pentadactylous. Nose elongated into a long, prehensile
proboscis. Two pectoral mammas.

To this division belongs only a single genus now living, that of
the elephants, of which also there are fossil remains from the
diluvial period. To it belongs in addition the extinct genus
Mastodon Cuv., in which the crowns of the molars have nipple-
shaped tubercles placed in pairs, and of which the species lived
in the tertiary and diluvial periods.

Mastodon giganteus Cuv., PANDER u. D'ALTON Die Skelete der Pocky-
dermata, Tab. in. The fossil remains of this animal are found in North
America. (The name of Mammoth has been given incorrectly to this
animal; it belongs to Elephas primigenius.) A skeleton of this species is
known that weighs 1000 pounds; it was of the height of the elephant but
longer. In younger individuals two incisor teeth occur in the under jaw
also; they are short and lie horizontally; these have introduced the genus
Tetracaulodon ; GODMAN Transact, of the American Phil. Soc., new Series,
Vol. in. P. 2, Philadelphia, 1830, pp. 478 — 485 (transferred to the Ann.
des Sc. nat. xx. 1830, pp. 292 — 301). Sometimes one or two incisors are
persistent on the right side, in the male according to the surmise of OWEN,
which would seem to be analogous to the tusk of the male Narwhal
(Annals and Magaz. of nat. Hist. xi. 1843, pp. 147 — 151 ; see also OWEN,
History of British fossil Mammals and Birds, London, 1846, pp. 292, 293,
and LAURILLARD in the fourth edition of CUVIER Rech. sur les Oss. foss.
1834, ii. pp. 372, 373. Remains of Mastodon are found in various coun-
tries of Europe which belong to another species (Mastodon angustidens
Cuv.); see CUVIER Rech. sur les Oss. foss. I. 3ieme e*d. p. 250 et suiv.
But the distinction between Mastodon and the elephants is not so sharply
defined, or else there exist transitions in some molars which have been dug
up. OWEN Hist, of Brit. foss. Mamm. p. 273, Odontography, p. 614.

2 — 2
Elephas L. Molar teeth mostly ^— - , lamellose.

The large tusks, which supply the ivory, are the incisors of the upper
jaw. The molars, consisting of several plates united together by cement
(see p. 575), succeed each other from behind forward, by slow advancement.
Commonly two such are visible, sometimes three or even one only. Although
there are five fingers, yet these are not distinguishable on the heavy feet,
which appear as though truncated, except by the nails or hoofs, which on
the fore feet are five or four in number, on the hind feet four or three. The
most remarkable part of the elephant is its proboscis or trunk, of which
we have already spoken above. The elephants live in forests in the tropical
regions of the old world, mostly in troops. The size of these animals is

MAMMALIA. 633

generally exaggerated ; only very rarely have any been seen which exceeded

10 feet in height. They live to a great age (100 years and more) ; ges-
tation lasts 20 or 21 months; the young one sucks with the mouth, not
with the trunk. It is generally known that elephants are very docile ; the
ancients appear to have advanced much further in the education and
instruction of these animals than people of the present day ; see PLINIUS
Hist. nat. Lib. vm. cap. 3, ^ELIANUS de Natura animal. Lib. II. cap. n.

Compare on the elephant amongst others P. CAMPER Description ana-
tomique d'un elephant male, publiee par A. G. CAMPER, (Euvres de P.
CAMPER, 11. pp. i — 282 ; CORSE Observations on the manners, habits and
nat. Hist, of the Elephant, Phil. Trans, for 1799, -p. 31 sqq. ; CDVIER

11 Elephant des Indes, Menag. du Mus. 2e et 8e Livraisons (e"d. i2mo, I. pp.
83 — 125, ii. pp. 45 — 65); MATER Beitrage zur Anat. des Elephanten und
der ubrigen Pachydermen. Nov. Act. nat. curios. Tom. xxn. 1847.

LINNJEUS adopted only one species of elephants, under the name of
Elephas maximus. — BLUMENBACH, who was indebted for the observation to
CAMPER ((Eumes de P. CAMPER, n. p. 69), was the first who distinguished
two species by their molar teeth.

Elephas africanus BLUMENBACH, Cuv., GEOFFR. ST.-HILAIRE andF. Cuv.
Mamm. Livr. 51 (copied in SCHREBER Saugth. Tab. 317 D), Cuv. R. Ani.,
ed. ill., Mamm. PI. 76, fig. i. ; (a molar figured in BLUMENB. Abb. natur-
hist. Gegenst. No. 19 c); the molars present rhomboidal bands of enamel on
the crown, so that the plates of which they consist are thicker in the
middle than on the in- and outside ; the forehead is convex ; the ears are
uncommonly large, semicircular flaps. This species occurs in tropical and
South Africa.

Elephas asiaticus BLUMENB., Elephas indicus Cuv. Menag. du Mus. n.,
GEOFFR. ST.-HILAIRE et F. Cuv. 1. 1., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 317 c, GUER.
Iconogr., Mamm. PI. 37, fig. i, Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat., Mamm. PI. 96;
a molar figured by BLUMENB. 1. 1. fig. B ; the bands of enamel on the worn
crowns of the molars are narrow, parallel and sinuous ; the ears are smaller
and narrower; the head longer; the forehead is somewhat concave. (Both
species are figured in the Diet, des Sc. natur., Mammif. PI. 82, cahier 43,
and their skulls in GOETHE und D'ALTON Zur vergleichenden Osteologie,
Nov. Act. Acad. Leop. Carol. Nat. Cur. xn. i, 1824, Tab. 33 — 35.) This
Asiatic elephant occurs on the continent of India and in Ceylon; at
Java no elephants are found. At Sumatra, on the contrary, a species of
elephant is indigenous, which, according to the remark of TEMMINCK,
forms a third species, Elephas sumatranus TEMM., of which the dental
laminae are thicker and less numerous than in the common Indian species ;
it has 20 pairs of ribs, whilst the Indian species has only 19. Coup d'ceil
general sur les Possessions Neerl. dans Vlnde, n. 1847, PP- 9r> 92- (Since
the elephant, as some testify, occurs also in certain parts of Borneo, it
may be surmised that it is probably this Sumatran species.)

There are also remains of elephants belonging to a former animal world
(from the diluvial period), amongst which the Eltphas primigenius BLU-
MENB., the Mammoth1, is best known. In Holland, too, bones and molars

1 Properly Mammont; see Bulletin de la Soc. imp. de Moscou, I. 1829, pp. 267 — 271.

634 CLASS xvn.

of it are found from time to time. (See M. VAN MARUM Natuurk. Ver~
handel. van de Maatsch. der Wetensch. te Haarlem, xin. 182-4, bl. 213 — 304
with figure.) Throughout Asiatic Russia, especially in the most northern
parts of Siberia, such remains are so abundant that the number of elephants
now living has been estimated, not without apparent probability, as less
than that of those whose remains are dispersed throughout the regions
mentioned. Near the mouth of the Lena the frozen body of an elephant
was found in 1805, covered with hairy skin, whose two tusks weighed
together 300 pounds. (A more recent example of an entire skeleton with
the soft parts preserved in part, found in Siberia, even permitted a micro-
scopic examination of the tissues ; see GLEBOFF BuUet. de la Soc. imp. de
Moscou, xix. 2, 1846, pp. 108 — 134.)

Compare on this subject especially CDVIEB Mem. BUT les Elephants vivans
et fossiles, Ann. du Mus. vin. pp. I — 58, pp. 93 — 155, pp. 149 — 269, and
Rech. sur les Ossem. fossil. I. sieme e'dit. pp. i — 204 ; and, for many species
more recently discovered in the sub-Himalayan hills, CAUTLEY and FAL-
CONER Fauna antiqua Sivalensis, with fig.

Phalanx II. Perissodactyla OWEN. Ungulates with odd num-
ber of toes on the hind feet at least.

In this group the dorso-lumbar vertebrae are never fewer than
twenty-two. The femur has a third trochanter. The fore part of
the astragalus is divided into two very unequal fagettes. The
middle toe is large and symmetrical. If the species be horned, the
horn (one or two) is placed in the mid line of the head. The
crown of from one to three of the hinder premolars is generally as
complex as those of the molars. The stomach is simple, the coecum
large and sacculated. See OWEN On the Hippopotamus \ with an
attempt to develope CUTIER'S idea of the Classification of Pachyderms
by the number of the toes, Journal of the Geol. Soc. of London, iv.
1848, pp. 103 — 294, and the same On the characters, principles of
division, and primary groups of the class Mammalia in Proceed, of
Linn. Soc. Yol. IL No. 5, 1857, pp. 27, 28.

Family XI. Nasicornia ILLIG., Pachydermata BLAINV. Incisors
persistent in both jaws in some, in some disappearing from age ;
canines none; molars tuberculate, the crown marked by exsert

7 — 7

eminences, mostly - — - . Feet tridactylous, with all the toes in-
sistent, ungulate. Single horn or two horns placed one behind the
other in the midle of muzzle and of forehead. Skin thick, thinly
haired, marked by deep folds.

Rhinoceros L. (Characters of the family those also of the
single genus. Crown of the upper molars subquadrate, with two

MAMMALIA. 635

transverse eminences, joined by a crest to the outer margin ; crown
of the lower elongate, narrower, with two lunate lines convex out-
wards. Horn or horns without any "bone, composed of longitudinal
fibres closely compacted, as of concrete hairs.) Two mammae
inguinal.

The rhinoceroses are heavy animals with a long head and a short tail ;
they live, like the elephants, in the warmest countries of the old world.
At the feet is a gland, which appears to have been first discovered by
OWEN ; it opens on the posterior surface, just as a similar gland opens on
the anterior surface in sheep (see below). The villi of the small intestine
are very large. The intestinal canal is eight times as long as the body.
The large intestine is very wide and forms several saccules at its commence-
ment. See OWEN On the Anatomy of the Indian Rhinoceros, Transactions
of the Zoolog. Soc. TV. pp. 31—58, PL 9 — 22.

The names of Rhinoceros unicornis and bicornis (LlNN. Syst. not. ed. x.
et xn.) can be no longer retained, since more than one species is known
both of those with one and of those with two horns.

a) With incisor teeth in both jaws.

Sp. Rhinoceros indicus Cuv., Rhinoceros unicornis L., Menag. du Mus. e"d.
i^mo, n. pp. in — 145, BUFF. Hist. not. xi. PL 7, GUEBIN Iconogr.,
Mamm. PL 37, fig. 3. The skeleton in CUVIER Ann. du Mus. in. pp.
32 — 52 with figures, PANDER u. D'ALTON die Skelete der Pachyderm.,
Tab. vm. — Rhinoceros sondaicus HORSFIELD, DESMAR., Rhinoceros javanus
Cuv. (R. Ani. sec. ed.), WAGN., HORSFIELD Zool. Researches in Java, No.
vi. (with fig., copied in SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 317 E), SAL. MUELLER
Natuurk. Verh. over de Overzeesche Bezittingen, Mamm. PL 33 ; at Java,
perhaps also at Borneo. — These two species have only one horn. Twc-
homed is RJiinoceros sumatrensis Cuv., Rhinoceros sumatranus RAFFL.,
WAGN., W. BELL Phil. Trans, for the year 1793 (with figures of the
animal and of the skull), GEOFFR. Sx.-HiL. et F. CUVIER Mammif. Livr.
47 (copied in SCHREBER'S Sdugthiere, Tab. 317 G), SAL. MUELLER L 1. PL
34 ; the smallest of the known species. In all these species there are four
incisors in both jaws, at least when young, of which in older individuals
usually two alone persist, especially in the upper jaw. The two small in-
cisors are placed in the upper jaw on the outside, in the lower on the inside
of the large ones. The small teeth, as it seems, are permanently concealed
in the gum.

b) With incisor teeth in lower jaw latent, small, in upper jaw none or dis-
appearing early. (Head obtuse, with molar teeth advancing nearly to the
extremity of both jaws. Two horns.)

Sp. Rhinoceros africanus CAMPER, Cuv., Rhinoceros bicornis L., P. CAMPEB
De cranio Rhinocerotis africani, cornu gemino, Act. Acad. Petropol. 1777,
P. 2, pp. 193 — 210, Natuurk. Verhandelingen over den Orang outang, over
den Rhinoceros met dubbelen horen en over het readier . Amsterdam, 1 782,
4to • (Euvres, I. pp. 197 — 290 (with figures of the head and skull; see also

636 CLASS xvii.

a figure of the skull after CAMPER in BLUMENB. Abb. naturhist. Gegenst.
No. 7 A), BUFF. Hist, not., Supplem. vi. PI. 6 (with description by ALLA-
MAND). This species is very dangerous by night for travellers, and has an
acute sense of hearing and still more acute of smelling; LIECHTENSTEIN'S
Reisen, I. s. 583. Prof. G. VROLIK was the first who shewed that in this
African species also there are four small incisors in the lower jaw, which
however do not come into view from the gum, and in older individuals
commonly fall away either wholly or in part. Bijdragen tot de natuurlc.
Wetensch. V. bl. 377 — 385, with a figure. In recent times other two-horned
African rhinoceroses have been announced as distinct species. Rhinoceros
simus BURCHELL, A. SMITH Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa,
London, 1849, 4to, PI. XIX. &c.

There are various fossil species of Rhinoceros. To these belongs Rhino-
ceros tichorhinus Cuv., Rhinoceros Pallasii DESM. from the diluvial period,
of which remains are found here and there in Europe, but especially in
Siberia, where in 1751 a nearly entire specimen of this species covered
with its skin was dug out from the ice. See also BRANDT De Rhinocerotis
antiquitatis structura externa et osteologica, Mem. de I'Acad. imp. de St.
Petersb. viieme Serie, Sc. math. phys. et not. Tome vn. 1849, PP- l^1 — 4X^>
c. 25 tab. lithogr. This species had two horns and, like the African species,
no persistent incisors. In the tertiary formations also, of various anti-
quity, remains of the rhinoceros have been found, ex. gr. Rhinoceros
incisivus Cuv. Compare CUVIER Ann. du Mus. vn. Rech. sur les Ossem.
fossiles, ii. pp. i — 93, DUVERNOY Archives du Mus. vn. 1853, pp. i — 144,
PL i— vm. &c.

It would seem that in the neighbourhood of Rhinoceros ought to be
placed the fossil animal, to which FISCHER has given the name of Elasmo-
therium, and of which only a portion of the lower jaw is known.

2
Family XII. Lamnungia ILLIG. Incisor teeth j , canines none,

H H f* f*

molars or - — pj . Fore feet tetradactylous, hind feet tridac-

7 — 7 b — 6

tylous. Hoofs small, flat, with the exception of the claw, which
adheres to the inner toe of the hind feet, and is curved, oblique.

Hyrax HERMANN, ILLIG., Cuv., Cavia L., species of Cavia
PALLAS. Characters of the family those also of the single genus.
Body hairy. Bristles on the face around the nostrils and above the
orbits. Some long setae, scattered amongst the shorter hair of the
body. Tubercle in place of tail. A single small false molar on
each side (or canine) deciduous. Crown of upper molars with two
eminences joined by a crest to the outer margin ; crown of lower
molars with two lunate lines, convex outwards.

Sp. Hyrax capensis SCHREB., Sdugth. Tab. 240, Cavia capensis PALL. Misc.
Zool. pp. 30 — 47, Tab. 3, 4, Spictt. Zool. Fasc. n. pp. 16 — 32; VOSMAER

MAMMALIA. 637

Beschr. van eene soort van AfrikaanscJi Basierd-mormeldier, Amsterd.i76i,
with col. fig., SCHINZ Monographien der Sdugih. 6tes Heft, 1845, Tab. i,
upper fig. ; the daman, Klipdachs; a little animal of the size of a rabbit,
eatable, according to KOLBE very tasty. It lives in mountainous districts
in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope (as on Table-mount) and
also in Abyssinia, Hyrax habessinicus EHRENB. (See such a specimen
figured in GEOFFR. ST.-HILAIRE et F. CUVIEB Mammif. Livrais. 54.) In
Syria also a species has been found on the mountains near the Red Sea,
Hyrax Syriacus SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 140 c. (and Hyr. nificeps EHRENB.
Symb.), perhaps the Saphan of the Old Testament. Another species from
South Africa lives in woods, Hyrax arboreus SMITH, Linn. Trans, xv. 2,
pp. 468 — 470; it has longer hair and a white spot on the back; PETERS
found this in Mosambique also to the 15° S. L. A fourth species, which lives
in hollow trees, and is said to climb to the tops of the trees to seek their
fruits, is Hyrax sylvestris TEMM., from the coast of Guinea. It has only six
molars on each side in both jaws. L INN.EU s (Syst. nat. e"d. 12, Tom. in.
Append, p. 223) named this genus Cavia, a name however which was
afterwards given to American rodents. HERMANN distinguished this genus
by the name of Hyrax (Tab. Affinit. Animal. Argentorati, 1783, 4to,
p. 115), which is commonly adopted. These animals were placed at first
amongst the rodents, with which they have undoubtedly some agreement.
Afterwards WIEDEMANN (Arch. f. Zool. u Zoot. in. 1802, s. 42—51), and
especially CUVIER, asserted, on good grounds, that this genus belongs to
the Pachyderms ; the molar teeth have entirely the same form as those of
Rhinoceros (Ann. du Mus. m. pp. 171, 182). The malar bone forms behind
the orbit a more perfect ring than in any other genus of this order ; in the
New Guinea species the ring is even perfectly closed by its joining the
frontal bone. Compare on this genus also H. KAULLA Monographia
Hyracis, Stuttgardiae, 1830, 4to.

Family XIII. Tapirina. Incisors, canines, and molars in
"both jaws. Anterior feet tridactylous or tetradactylous, posterior
tridactylous.

Tapirus BR1SS., ILLIG., Cuv. (Tapir GMEL. Hydrochcerus

n

BODD. l) Incisors ^ , the two upper and outer conical, resembling

^ £ r» rr rj

canines ; molar teeth ~ — ^ or 7^ — -~ , separate by a void interval
6 — 6 6 — 6

from the canines, crown with two exsert, transverse lines. Anterior
feet tetradactylous, posterior tridactylous. Nose produced into a

1 BODDAERT Elench. animal, p. i6r. In the twelfth edition of the Syst. naturae
the Tapir is not noticed ; in the tenth LINNAEUS placed this animal under the name of
Hippopotamus terrestris. ERXLEBEN had already named it (Syst. regni anim. 1777)
before BODDAERT Hydrockcerus, but united with it under the same name the Capibara,
a large rodent ; see below.

638 CLASS xvu.

small mobile proboscis. Tail very short. (Dental formula OWEN,
. 3-3 1-1 4-4 3-3
L5^|!' C'l-l' P'3^3' ri<3^3~

Sp. Tapirus americanus auctor., Tapirus suillus BLUMENBACH, WAGN.,
BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL I. SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 319, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Mammif. PI. 82, fig. 3; the tapir, Anta, Mborebi (AZARA Essais, I. pp.
I — 17); this animal lives in South America, principally in the neighbour-
hood of the east coast, in woods and moist places on the banks of rivers ;
it attains a length of from five to six feet. Another American species that
lives on mountains was found some years ago by ROULIN, Ann. des Sc. not.
xvm. 1829, pp. 26 — 56, PI. i. 2, Tapirus viUosusVfAGL., SCHREB. Sdugth.
Tab. 319 B. — Tapirus malayanus HORSF., Tapirus indicus F. Cuv., Tapi-
rus bicolor WAGN., HORSFIELD Zool. Res. in Java, No. i. SCHREB. Sdugth.
Tab. 319 A, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 39, fig. 2; larger than the two
preceding species, the back white backwards ; at Sumatra and the peninsula
Malacca.

Fossil species of Tapir occur in tertiary formations. Tapirus giganteus
of COVIER belongs to the genus Dinotherium KAUP, which with the molars
of the tapir has also two very large tusks in the lower jaw directed down-
wards. It belongs to the tertiary period. By OWEN it is classed with the
Proboscidea.

Note. — Palceotherium Cuv. (A fossil genus of the tertiary
strata, related to tapir, with all the feet tridactylous.)

Sp. Palceotherium magnum, Pal. medium, &c. Comp. Cuv. Ann. du Mus.
Tome in. iv. vi. ix. xn., Rech. s. les Oss. foss. in. 3ieme e"dit. pp. i — 258.
On other fossil genera of this division omitted here consult PICTET.

Family XIV. Solidungula. Feet with a single perfect toe,
covered by a broad hoof, without supplementary hoofs. Incisors
in a continuous series in both jaws ; molar teeth complex. Two
inguinal mammae.

Equus L. Incisors ~ , canines T^JT or none, molars in adults

(\ — fi

-£ , in younger individuals with a small anterior molar, deciduous1.

Mane at the neck.

All the species of the genus horse belong to the old world, and are at
home on the wide mountain-plains of Asia and Africa. They live together
in troops, are very swift, and feed chiefly on species of grass. The intes-
tinal canal is wide and long ; they have a simple stomach, a large ccecum,
and no gall-bladder.

1 In young horses there is in both jaws a small anterior molar (wolf-tooth of Dutch
writers); see L. BOJANI Adversaria ad dentitionem Eqidni generis et ovis domestics
spectantia; Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. XII. 1825, pp. 697 sqq.

MAMMALIA. 639

Sp. a) With tail hairy throughout, Equus Cdballus L.; the horse; this
animal is no longer met with in its original wild state, but has returned to
that state in the steppes of Asia and the extensive plains of South America.
The wild horses differ from the tame by their larger head and smaller size ;
see SCHREBER Saugth. Tab. 309. There is no domestic animal more
highly prized by man that the horse. The horse li ves about thirty years ;
there are, however, examples of horses that have been forty or more years
old. They go with young eleven months. In the fifth year all the milk
teeth are replaced by permanent teeth. Of this animal the beautiful de-
scription of BUFFON, Hist. nat. rv. pp. 174 — 257, may be referred to as
well as the finished memoir of J. A. WAGNER in SCHREBER'S Sdugthiere,
VI. s. 15 — 169. For the different races may be consulted D'ALTON Natur-
geschichte des Pferdes, iter Thl. folio trans v. Weimar, 1812 (2ter Theil,
Anatomie des Pferdes, 1816), KUNZ Abbildungen sdmmtlicher Pferde-
Racen, mit BemerTcungen von D'ALTON, Karlsruhe, 1827, fol. On the true
proportions of the exterior of the horse BOJANUS has treated in the Isis of
OKEN, 1823, i. s. 106 — 112, Taf. i. On the anatomy of the horse there
are many works, as J. D. SAUNIER Parfaite connaissance des Chevaux, La
Haye, 1734 fol., G-. STUBBS The Anatomy of the Horse, BOURGELAT
Precis anat. du corps de Cheval, &c. Also LETH'S Handbuch der Anatomic
der Hausthiere (Stuttgart, 1850, 8vo), as treating especially of the horse,
and illustrated by many excellent wood-cuts, must not be forgotten by us.

b) With tail hairy at the extremity, Sp. Equus Asinus L., the ass; a
black cross over the shoulders; long ears. The wild ass (Equus onager f
the Kulan of the Kirgisses, see SCHBEBER Saugth. 312 after PALLAS;
compare EVERSMANN Bulletin de la Soc. de Moscou, 1840, pp. 56, 58), lives
in large troops in Tartary, and moves in the winter to more southern
' regions 1. The ass as a domestic animal is commonly as much neglected
as the horse is cherished and cared for. The horse and the ass copulate
together and produce a spurious breed of two sorts; the mule, mulus, le
mulet, from an ass with a mare, and the mule-ass, hinnus, le bardeau, from
a stallion with a she-ass. These spurious breeds are only rarely prolific a.

Equus hemionus PALL., Nov. Comm. Acad. Petrop. Tom. xix. Tab. 7;
Dziggetai or Dsikkelai of the Mongols, light-brown or ruddy yellow, with a
black stripe on the middle of the back ; lives in the sandy plains of central
Asia. Very similar seems the Kiang (Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1848, pp. 62, 63,
1849, pp. 29, 30), if this be really a peculiar species.

South Africa has three striped species of this division: Equus zebra L.,
Equus montanus BURCHELL, het wilde paard, BUFF. xn. PL i, SCHREBER
Saugth. Tab. 316, Menag. du Hus. £d. 8vo, II. pp. 194 — 206, with fig. ;
striped black and white, the legs ringed black and white ; — Equus quagga
GM., BUFF. Suppl. vi. PI. 7, SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 317, 317 A, Menag.
duMus. i. pp. 311 — 318, with fig., GUEB. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 41, fig.i;

1 Here also belongs the Hemionus of ISID. GEOFFROY SATNT-HILAIRE, Nouv. Ann.
du J/itf. iv. 1835, p. 97, PI. 8.

2 The she-mule-ass, for example of ZOPYBUS, see HERODOTUS, in. 153, comp. 151.

640 CLASS XVII.

brown with black stripes, belly and legs white ; very shy, lives in troops
of 80 to 100 together; the Khoua Khoua of the Hottentots; — Equus
Burchellii FISCH., Equus zebra BURCHELL, Equus festivus WAGN., Equus mon-
tanus F. Cuv., GRIFFITH, GEOFFR. SAINT-HILAIRE et F. CUVIER Mammif.
Livr. 55, 56, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 317 B, Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat., Mam-
mif. PI. 10, fig. 2; striped white and black like the zebra, but with white
legs ; BURCHELL has described this new species as the zebra, Travels in the
interior of Southern Africa, London, 1822, i. p. 139. The prolific copula-
tion of the zebra with the ass (Ann. du Mus. vn. p. 245, ix. p. 223) and
with the horse (ibid. XI. pp. 237 — 240) has been observed. On fossil horses
(Equus fossilis and Equus primigenius), compare MEYER, Nov. Act. Acad.
Cces. Leop. Car. XVI. p. 423 sqq.

Phalanx III. Artiodactyla OWEN. Ungulates with number
of toes even.

In the even-toed ungulates the number of the dorso-lumbar
vertebrae is constant (19) in all the species. The femur has not a
third trochanter. The fore part of the astragalus is divided into
two equal or subequal fagettes. The digit answering to the third
in the pentadactylous foot is not symmetrical, but forms with that
answering to the fourth a symmetrical pair. When there are horns,
they are never developed singly, but are placed on each side of the
median line in one pair or two. The crowns of the premolars are
smaller and less complex than those of the true molars. The
stomach is complex, the ccecum small, the colon spirally folded.
From OWEN On tJie characters, &c., Proceed, of Linn. Soc. 11. No. 5.

pp. 28, 29.

/» /• -i -i

Anoplotherium Cuv. Fossil genus. Incisors — — , canines - — -

7—7 (
included, not longer than incisors, molars = — = , all contiguous.

All the species are found in the older tertiary strata. The AnoplotJierina
were divided by CUVIER into three genera, viz. Dichdbune. Xiphodon and
Anoplotherium, in stricter sense. Comp. Ann. du Mus. ill. et ix., Rech. s.
les Ossem. foss. in. Through the labours of later observers allied genera
have be ^n added to these, on which consult PICTET.

Family XV. Suina.

Sus L. Incisors various in number, in the lower jaw mostly
six, the upper sometimes none, in a few the lower deciduous also ;

O o n rr

canines in both jaws distinct, large ; molars ~ — =• — - — - . Feet

o — o 7 — 7

with hoofs insistent, tetradactylous, posterior sometimes tridacty-
lous. Nose with snout truncate, mobile, prominent. Tail short or
a tubercle in place of tail.

MAMMALIA. 641

Dicotyles Cuv. Hind feet tridactylous, the outer accessory hoof

4.
being deficient. Tubercle in the place of tail. Incisors ^ , canines

/» /» o

not exsert, the upper directed downwards, molars ^ — , tuberculate.

Sp. Sus torquatus WAGN., Dicotyles torquatus Cuv., DEBIT., BUFF. Hist. nat.
x. 3, 4, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 325 (figure copied from BUFFON'S work),
Tab. 325 A, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Mamtn. PL 10 B, fig. i ; South
America and the most southern parts of the United States ; — Sus labiatus,
Dicotyles labiatus Cuv., Dicotyles albirostrip ILLIG., SCHREB. Sdugik. Tab.
325 B, MAXIM. Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras. Lief. 15, GUERIN Iconogr.,
Mammif. PL 38, fig. i ; South America. Both of these small species of
hog live in the forests of the New World, and are, equally with the common
hog introduced by Europeans, called by the Guaranis, Tayazou; hence the
name of Sus Tajacu, by which LINN.&US named, principally indeed, the
first species, but also confounded the two. See on the anatomy TYSON
Phil. Trans. 1683, p. 359, DAUBENTON in BUFFON; on the dorsal gland in
particular SEIFERT (under the presidence of EUDOLPHI) Spicilegia ode-
nologica, Berolini, 1823, p. 10, Tab. n., and J. MUELLER De glandular,
secern, structura, p. 41, Tab. n. fig. 2.

Pliacochcerus F. Cuv. All the feet tetradactylous. Tail short.
A fleshy wart under each eye. Molar teeth various in number

according to age, = — Q~^ — r;> tne ^as* verv *on& composed of
cylindrical tubes surrounded by enamel, closely conjoined; canines

o

large, exsert, directed upwards and outwards. Incisors either ^ ,
or the lower only four, deciduous.

Sp. Sus cethiopicus L. (Syst. nat. ed. 12, in. p. 223), Phacochcerus Pattasii
V. D. HOEV., OWEN ;— VOSMAER Beschr. van het AfrikaanscJi breedsnuitig
varken, Amsterd. 1766, 4to (with a col. fig.), PALL. Misc. Zool. Tab. n.
Spic. Zool. n. Tab. i ; without persistent incisors ; at the Cape of Good
Hope; the ^Ethiopian Wart-hog. — SusJBliani, Sus Africanus GM., Phacho-
ch&rus jfcliani, RUEPPELL Ail. zu der Seise im nordl. Africa, 1826, Tab.
25, 26, GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif. PL 38, fig. i ; with persistent incisors ;
in Abyssinia, at the coast of Guinea and in Mosambique; the African
Wart-hog. — It was incorrectly supposed that the molars succeed each other
here as in the elephant. There are originally three milk-molars and three
permanent molars; of the first two molars that replace the milk-teeth
(prcemolars) the last persists, and of the unchangeable hind molars the
hindmost alone remains. OWEN has convincingly explained the dentition
of these animals with his usual profundity l.

1 According to CuviER (Rech. s. les Ossem. foss, n. i, p. 124, R. Ani. i. p. 245)
the two middle metacarpal and metatarsal bones in Dicotyles coalesce as in ruminants ;
VOL. II. 41

642 CLASS xvn.

Comp. F. CUVIEB Mem. du Mua. vin. 1822, pp. 447 — 455, PI. 32,
J. VAN DER HOEVEN Annot. de quibusd. Mammalium gcneribus, Nov. Act.
Acad. Cces. Leop. Carol, xix. i, 1839, PP- T7J — *77> Tab- l8> R- OWEN
On the development of the molar teeth of the Wart-hogs, Philos. Trans. 1850,
Part 2, pp. 481—498, PI. 33, 34.

/> j

Su8 (recentiorum). Incisors ^ or ^ , lower procumbent, canines

exsert, directed upwards ; molars - — - or - — - , tuberculate. Feet
all tetradactylous. Tail shock

Sp. Sus larvatw F. Cuv., Mem. du Mus. 1. 1. PI. 22, SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab.
327 A; Southern and South-eastern Africa, Madagascar; boschvarken at
the Cape of Good Hope; — Sus scropha L., SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 320,
Cuv. R. Ani., 3d. ill., Mammif. PL 79, fig. i ; the wild hog lives in the
forests of Asia and Europe (not in Great Britain, Sweden, or Denmark) ;
from this species descends our tame hog1, an exceedingly voracious and
prolific animal, bringing from ten to fourteen young ones at a litter. Near
TJpsal a single-hoofed variety occurs, which is said to be also met with in
Hungary. Comp. on this animal LINDH in LINN. Amcen. Academ. v. pp.
461 — 483. In the Moluccan Archipelago different species of this genus
occur : Sus verrucosus BOIE at Java, Sus vittatus BOIE at Java and Sumatra,
Sus barbatus MUELLER at Borneo. Comp. Verh. over de Overzeesche Bezit-
tingen, Zool., Mamm. — Sus barbatus and verrucosus have a skull of great
length and narrow forwards3. Some distinguish as a separate sub-genus
Babirussa F. Cuv. (Porcus WAGL.), with four incisors in the upper jaw and

— molars. To it belongs a species, Sus Babyrussa L., BUFF. Suppl. in.
5~5

Tab. 12, SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 328, GEOFFB. Sx.-HiL. et F. Cuv. Mammif.,
Livr. 64, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PI. 79, fig. 2; het hertzwijn, the
stag-hog; on some easterly islands of the Indian Archipelago, Boeroe,
Celebes, not in Borneo. In the male the canines of the upper jaw are
very large and curved backwards. Comp. on the anatomy of this species
W. VBOLIK Nieuwe Verh. der Eerste Kl. van het Koninkl. Nederl. Instituut, x.
1844, bl. 207 — 248, with plates. (The large parotid gland which extends
over the neck is remarkable.)

in the three skeletons which I have examined I have not found this statement con-
firmed ; these bones have coalesced at their superior extremity alone.

1 "In nullo genere ceque facilis mixtura cum fero" PLINIUS Hist. not. Lib. vni.
c. 53. So also EICHWALD relates that the wild hogs in Lithuania often get into the
sties to copulate with the tame ones ; the young pigs, which are the produce, are wild
and intractable. Naturhist. Skizze von Litthauen, Volhynien und Podolien, Wilna, 1830,
4to, s. 244.

2 A small species from Nepaul, described by HODGSON under the name of Porcula
Salvania (Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 115), has incisors which do not project outside
the jaw, but in other respects all the characters of the genus Sus.

MAMMALIA. 643

Family XVI. Hippopotamina.

4

Hippopotamus L. Incisors j , the lower procumbent, horizontal,

with the middle longer; canines large, worn obliquely into a very

rj rj ft A

smooth surface at the back part: molars = — = or in adults ^ — ^:

i — I b — b

tuberculate, complex, posterior four large. Feet short, tetradacty-
lous, with short hoofs. Body obese, covered with skin nearly
naked. Tail short.

Sp. Hippopotamus amphibius L., BUFF. Hist, not., Suppl. Tome vi. PI. 4
(copied in SCHREBER, Tab. 318), PL 5, SMITH Illustr. of the Zool. of South
Africa, Mamm. PI. 6, Cuv. R. Ani.y ed. HI., Mammif. PL 78, fig. i ; the
river-horse, das Flusspferd, known also amongst the colonists of the Cape
of Good Hope by the name of Zeekoe; a very heavy and sluggish animal,
attaining a length of more than eleven feet ; it resides by preference in rivers,
sometimes also in the sea, and lives solely on plants, especially grass. This
animal, which was formerly met with in Egypt, now lives nowhere more
northward than Abyssinia, but further south throughout the whole of
Africa. There seems to be no distinct difference observable between the
Abyssinian Hippopotamus and that of South Africa. On the Osteology
see CUVIEB Ann. du Mus. v. pp. -299 — 328. Some notices upon the sto-
mach and its three divisions, on the intestinal canal of nearly twelve times
the length of the body, without coecum, and on some other viscera, were
given not long ago by PETERS Rise nach Mozambique, Saugth. s. 180, 181.
A smaller species from West Africa has been described by MORTON as
Hippopotamus minor, and afterwards as Hipp, liberiensis, Journal of the
Acad. of not. Sc. of Philadelphia, Sec. Ser. I. 1850, pp. 231 — 239, PL
32 — 34. On the Osteology of this species comp. JOSEPH LEIDY, ibid. n.
1854, pp. 217 — 224, PL 2T. Amongst other osteological peculiarities
there are only two incisors in the lower jaw. It was proposed to make a
new genus of it under the name of Chceropsis, which seems unnecessary.

Different fossil species of this genus are known from the tertiary strata
and the diluvial period; amongst these last is Hippopotamus major Cuv.,
of which many remains have been found in France, Italy and elsewhere.
Compare CUVIEB Rech. s. Us Oss. foss. i. pp. 304 — 334, and PICTET Pa-
keontol. i. p. 320 — 322.

ORDER V. Euminantia.

Feet bisulcate, with two toes insistent, ungulate; two supple-
mentary hoofs in many. Molar teeth complex, upper incisors
mostly none, lower eight, more rarely six; canines mostly none.
Four stomachs, or in some three. Metacarpal and metatarsal bone
single, bipartite below. Other characters of the Artiodactyles.

41-2

644 CLASS xvn.

Ruminant or bisulcate animals. Of rumination and the com-
pound stomach we have already treated above (p. 579). In this
order we find the animals of greatest utility to man, and of which
the possession forms the principal riches of many races of people.

Compare on this order: C. J. SUNDEVALL Methodisk ofversigt af idis-
lande djuren, LINNE'S Pecora; K. VetensJc. Akad. Handl. 1844, pp. 121
— 210, PI. 13, 14, 1845, pp. 265 — 280. (Translated into German by
HOBNSCHUCH in his Archiv skandinavischer Beitrdge zur Naturgesch. 2ter
Theil, Greifswald, 1847, s. 78 — 160, s. 261 — 320; also published separately,
Methodische Uebersickt der wederkauenden Thiere.)

Family XVII. Tylopoda ILLIG. Feet callous beneath, with
sole not divided, didactylous, with supplementary hoofs none.

Hoofs imperfect, covering the upper surface of digits only. Horns

2
none. Incisors ^; canines in both jaws.

The camels of the Old, and the lamas of the New World form a
small group very distinctly separate from the rest of the ruminanlia
as well by their hoofs as by the possession of incisor teeth in the
upper jaw. These teeth are placed at the side of the intermaxillary
bone close to the canines, and agree with them in form. In the
presence of six incisors only in the lower jaw, in the lower jaw
being undivided, and in other peculiarities, chiefly osteological, the
camels form, in some sense, the transition from the ruminants to
the solidungulates; see CUVIER Menag. du Mus. ed. 8vo, I. p. 31,
MECKEL Archiv fur die Physiol. vin. s. 1 — 20. In this circum-
stance also is the camel similar to the horse and not to the rest of
the ruminants that no cotyledones are present, but the vascular
villi are dispersed over the whole of the chorion.

Camelus L. (Characters of the family. Upper lip cloven;
neck very long.)

C* C*

Camelus Guv., ILLIG. Molar teeth - — - , with first remote from

o — o

the rest, resembling a canine in form. Toes conjoined underneath
nearly to the apex. Back with a single adipose hump, or with
two. Ears short, obtuse.

Sp. Camelus dromedarius L., BUFF. xi. PI. 9; Menag. du Mus. e*d. 8vo, I.
pp. 126 — 139, with figure; GOER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 41, fig. 2, Diet,
univ. d'ffist. nat., Mammif. PL 1 2 ; the skeleton in PANDER u. D'Ai/roN
STcelete der Wiederkduer, Tab. 3 ; the camel or dromedary (Camelus ardbicus
ARISTOT. de Hist. Anim. Lib. n. cap. 2); one hump on the back. In
front of the soft palate is situated a duplicature of the mucous membrane,

MAMMALIA. 645

which in males becomes highly vascular during the rutting season, and
often comes to view from the mouth between the canine and the molars.
(RuDOLHi's PhysioL n. 2, s. 84, MAYER'S Analecten zur vergl. Anat. ste
Sammlung, Bonn, 1839, s. 42 — 44). Compare on the anatomy G. H.
RICHTEB Analecta ad anatomen Cameli dromedarii spectantia, Regiomonti,
1824, 8vo.

Camelus bactrianus L., BUPP. xi. PI. 22, M6nag. du Mus. I. pp. 31 —
41 (with fig. copied in Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill, Mammif. PI. 85, fig. i); the
two-humped camel, already named by ABISTOTELES Camelus bactrianus
(1. 1.). Compare FR. MUELLEB and C. WEDL Beitrage zur Anatomic des
zweibuckeligen Kameeles, Mit 5 lith. Tafeln, Wien, 1852 (printed separately
from the 3rd Vol. of the Denkschr. der math.- naturw. Cl. der Kaiserl. Akad.
der Wissenschaften).

Camel (in Greek ij (and 6) <d^Xos) is a name borrowed from the lan-
guages of the East, Gamal Hebr., Gimal or Jemal Arabic. These animals
feed on dry and prickly plants, are moderate, and drink seldom. They are
rapid in their course and bear large burdens (from 600 to 1000 pounds).
Hence they are of inestimable service in the great deserts which extend
from Arabia, through Africa to the Atlantic Ocean, where no fresh plant
cools, no fountain gives fertility, and the wind acting on the dry whirl-
pools produces the effect of an interminable ocean of sand. The ship of the
desert is with great propriety the name which the Arabians have given this
useful animal.

These animals endure a pretty moderate climate, especially the two-
humped camel, which is dispersed over Asia up to high latitudes. That
with a single hump lives chiefly in Arabia and Egypt in the country of the
date-palms. There is at Pisa a stud of single-humped camels, which has
been maintained since the middle of the seventeenth century. No longer
are they found anywhere in a wild state. The two species breed together,
producing a spurious offspring, which again is sometimes prolific like the
mule.

Auchenia ILUG., Lama Cuv., Lacma, TIEDEM. Molar teeth .

4 — 4

Back without hump. Sole cloven as far as the middle of fore-part.
Ears somewhat long, acuminate.

The lamas, which represent the camels in the New World, live together in
troops on the mountains of Chili and Peru. They are much smaller than
camels. Compare on the anatomy especially C. CHRISTEN Diss. inaug.
sietens de Lama observationes nonnullas anat., Tubingse, 1827, 8vo, and
J. F. BRANDT Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Banes der innem Weichtheile des
Lama, Mem. de VAcad. imper. desSc. de St-Petersbourg, vi. Sdrie, Tome IV.
Mit 17 Steintafeln, St. Petersburg, 1841, 4to.

Sp. Camelus glama L., Auchenia lama BRANDT, WAGN. (and Auchenia
huanaco auct.1) BUFF. Suppl. vi. PI. 27 (cop. in SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab.

1 Here also is usually referred as a race or variety the Alpaca, Camelus Pacos L.;
VON TSCHUDI, on the other hand, adopts four species : Auchenia lama, A. Huanaco,
A. Alpaco and A. Vicunia.

646 CLASS xvn.

306), MEYER Nov. Act. Acad. Goes. Leop. Carol, xvi. p. 552 sqq. Tab. 40
(cop. in Cuv. R. Ani., id. itt., Mammif. PI. 85, fig. 1} ; — Camelus mcwjna
GM., Burr. Suppl vi. PI. 28, TSCHUDI Faun. Peruan. Taf. 17.

Family XVIII. Elaphii. Feet with the sole of each toe dis-
tinct, included entirely within the margins of the hoof. Incisor

Al r* r»

teeth ^ , canines none or only the upper, molars ^ — . Horns in
some none, in some osseous, without a horny covering.
A. Feet furnished with supplementary hoofs.

Moschus L. (Tragulus BRISS.) Canine teeth in upper jaw,
exsert in males, long. Lachrymal sinuses none. Horns none.
Tail short or very short.

Sp. Moschus moschiferus L., PALLAS Spic. Zool. Ease. xm. 17790. Tab.
(fig. of animal copied in SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 242), BBANDT u. KAT-
ZEBURG Mediz. Zool. I. s. 41 — 51, Tab. 7, 8, n. s. 347, 348 (with another
fig. of animal) ; the music-deer. The size is that of a young roe ; colour
brown with white throat and a white streak on each side of the neck, and,
often inconspicuous, whitish-grey spots along the sides at the back part of
the body ; the hairs are stiff, flat, and with the edges sinuous. The male
has a glandular sac in the neighbourhood of the navel, in which the musk
is secreted at the adult period of life. The musk-deer lives on the high
plains of central Asia, and is dispersed as far as the East of China.

Smaller species with shorter ears and smooth hair, of which the legs are
slim, with the supplementary hoofs at a greater distance from the ground,
are also distinguished by the absence of the musk-sac. They occur in the
South of Asia, at Ceylon and in the Sunda Islands. Sub-gen. Tragulus
(BRiss.) SUNDEV. (Tragulus and Meminna GRAY). Sp. Moschus javanicus
GMEL. (from PALLAS), Moschus Kanchill, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 245 o, &c.
(The genus Moschus scarcely differs from that of the Deers ; less at least
than the giraffe, which LINN.EUS united with them.)

Cervus L. (excl. of Camelopardalis) . Upper canine teeth in
many. Horns cast annually, peculiar to males (in females none, !
one species excepted). Sebaceous gland (sinus lachrymalis] in
front of eye. A tuft of longer hair at the hind feet in most. Tail
short, sometimes very short.

1 In the embryo of the Cervidce (fallow-deer) OWEN, Odont. p. 540, discovered six
deciduous incisors in the upper jaw, as J. GOODSIR, Report of Brit. Assoc.i%$g, had
previously in the cavicornia (cow and sheep). Thus the deciduous series of teeth in

ruminantia is, incisors -> , canines , molars .

6' i— i' 4 — 4

MAMMALIA. 647

The Deers live principally in forests, as well in the Old as the New World,
and in very different climates ; from Africa, however, only one species is
known ; from Australia not one. Some species run with speed, and so
lightly that the beat of their foot upon the ground is scarcely heard, but,
especially when many are in company, an incessant rattle of the joints of
their thin legs or a peculiar cracking, as in the reindeer.

The horns of the deer are bony excrescences which are developed on a
cylindrical process of the frontal bones (the so-named Rosenstocke) . This
process is covered with skin and hair ; it appears, shortly after birth, as an
epiphysis upon the skull, with which it speedily coalesces. With this rose-
stock (the non -deciduous part of the horn) the horns of the giraffe beyond
doubt correspond. At the point of the rose-stock is developed, after the
second year, the horn which is shed annually. The growth of the horns
proceeds rapidly, so that in a few weeks they attain their full size. At
first they are covered by a woolly investment, a prolongation of the skin ;
afterwards the skin dies and falls from the horns in shreds ; many refer
this death of the skin to the development of a knotted ring (the Rosenkranz),
which, as the growth of the horn proceeds, is forming at its base above the
rose-stock, and which knots compress the vessels of the skin and so inter-
rupt the course of the blood. Afterwards a separation begins above the
rose-stock; the horns become loose and at last fall off. — The females, with
the exception of the reindeer, have no horns ; but in old females they are
observed sometimes, just as we stated above (p. 362) that hen-birds at a
very advanced age occasionally assume the plumage of the male. When
stags are castrated the horns are not developed, or if they had been deve-
loped before the operation they are not cast any more1. Finally the cast-
ing of the horns in cold and temperate countries occurs at determinate
periods, which differ for different species ; in tropical countries (South
America, East Indies) the casting of the horns is less regular.

Compare GL SANDIFORT Over de vorming en ontwilckeling der horens van
zogende dieren, in het bijzonder van die der hertenbeesten ; Nieuwe Verhand.
van de Eerste Klasse ran het Koninkl. Nederl. Instituut, n. 1827, with many
figures.

On the genus of the deers compare CUVIEB Rech. s. les Oss. foss. IV. 3ieme
e"dit. pp. 23 — 69 ; des cerfs vivans; DUCBOTAY DE BLAINVILLE Journal de
Physique, Tome 94, pp. 254 — -284, 1823; HAMILTON SMITH in GRIFFITH
Animal Kingdom, Tom. v. 1827, PUCHEBAN Monographic des especes du
genre Cerf, avec 8 pi., Archives du Mus. vi. 1852, pp. 265 — 492. Most
of the species are when young ruddy-brown with white spots, a colour
which in Cervus Axis EBXL. from Bengal (BuFF. xi. PI. 28, 29, Menag.
du Mus. II. e"d. 8vo, pp. 99 — 100, fig. of female) persists for the whole
life.

Sp. Cervus Alces L., SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 246 A, B, c, D, Diet. univ. tfHist.
nat., Mammif. PI. 1 1 bis, fig. 2, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Mammif. PI. 87,

1 LINN^US indeed says of the reindeer, " castratus quotannis cornua deponit" Syst.
nat. i. ed. 12, p. 93. This is maintained by SUNDEVALL also, in opposition to the
denial of later writers.

648 CLASS xvn.

fig; i ; the elk, the largest species of this genus, equalling almost the
horse ; the tail is short; legs high, flat broad horns, large and palmated.
This species is found in the north of both hemispheres, in Russia, Poland,
Sweden and Norway, but not in Lapland in the high North ; (the reindeer
begins to appear where the residence of the elk ceases). — Cervus Tarandus
L., BUFF. Suppl. HI. PL 18 bis, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 258 c, D, Cuv. R.
ani., 6d. ill., Mammif. PI. 87, fig. 2; the reindeer; the horns, which form
many branches terminating broad at the extremity, occur in both sexes ; they
are smaller in the female; the hoofs are broad and flat; the throat has
long, dependent hairs. The reindeer lives on dried leaves, and espe-
cially on the reindeer-moss (Lichen rangiferinus L.); it forms the chief
wealth of the Laplanders, who by means of it supply all their wants of
food; clothing and furniture ; every well-appointed family of Laplanders
possesses at least 300 head of reindeer. The skulls of this species often
present remarkable differences1. Compare on the reindeer C. F. HOFF-
BERG in LINN. Amcen. Acad. iv. pp. 144 — 168, and P. CAMPER NatuurTc.
Verhandelingen, Amsterdam, 1782 ((Enures de P. CAMPER I. pp. 291 — 353),
SCHREBER Sdugth. v. s. 1028 — 1074. — Cervus Dama L., BUFF. vi. PL 27,
28, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 249, BONAP. Faun. Ital. i., Mammif. PL 6,
Dama platyceros ; the fallow-deer ; the male with branched horns, flattened
and palmate above; the winter-coat brown one-coloured, the summer-coat
ruddy with white spots, the tail longer than in most of the deer, black
above, white below ; in the South of Italy, Sardinia, Spain, North Africa,
at Tunis, &c. ; now dispersed over many countries, especially of the South
of Europe. —Numerous are the species with cylindrical horns: Cervus
Elaphus L., BUFF. vi. PL 9, 10, 12, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 247, BRANDT
u. RATZEBURG Media. Zool. i. Tab. vi. Cuv, R,. AnL, ed. ill., Mammif.
PL 88, fig. 2 ; the stag, le cerf commun, der Edelhirsch; in the forests of
Europe and Asia ;— Cervus capreolus L., BUFF. vi. PL 32, 33, SCHREB.
Sdugth. Tab. 252, Cuv. 1. L fig. i ; the roe, roe-deer, le Chevreuil, das
Reh; — Cerv. virginianus GM., SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 247 H, GUER. Iconogr.,
Mammif. PL 42, fig. 3. — On the Sunda Islands a small species is found
with large rose-stocks and small horns, which has canines in the upper jaw
projecting from the mouth in the male ; there are no tufts of hair (scopce)
at the hind feet : Cervus Muntjac ZIMMERM., GMEL., HORSF., Zool. Research.
No* VI. The same or a nearly allied species also occurs in Bengal (Che-
vreuil des Indes ALLAMAND, BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL 26, Cervus stylocerus
WAGN. in SCHREB. Sdugth.). On these species rests the sub-genus Cervulus
BLAINV.

In the newer tertiary and diluvial deposits different species of deer have
been discovered ; amongst these is Cervus giganteus BLUMENBACH, Mega-
ceros hibernicus OWEN; the distance between the points of the horns in
this deer is eight feet or more. See Cuv. Rech. s. les Oss. foss. iv. pp. 70
— 88, OWEN Brit. foss. Mamm. pp. 444 — 468. (Certain skulls which have
been since found shew that the horns were absent in the female.)

1 Compare W. VROLIK Over eene vermoedelijk twcede soort van Rendier, met afbeel-
dingen; Nieuwe Verh. van de Eerste Klasse van het Koninkl. Nederl. Instituut, II.
Deel.

MAMMALIA. 649

B. Feet without supplementary hoofs.

Camelopardalis BODD., SCHREB., GMEL. (spec, of Cervus L.,
Giraffa BRISS.) . Canines none. Two frontal horns in both sexes,
conical and truncated, short, covered with hairy skin, persistent.
Neck very long. Forefeet longer than hind feet. Tail moderate,
with extremity setose.

Sp. Camelopardalis giraffa GMEL., Cervus Camelopardalis L., VOSMAEB
Be&chrijmng van het Kameelpaard, 1787, with fig., GEOFFK. SAINT-HILAIBE
et F. CUVIEB, Mammif., Livr. 61, Ann. des Sc. not. Tome xi. 1827, PL 22,
GUEBIN Iconoyr., Mammif. PL 45, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Mammif. PL
89 ; the skeleton in PANDEB u. D' ALTON L 1. Tab. I. n. ; the giraffe is the
tallest of the mammals ; when standing up the height from the vertex to
the hoof of the forefoot is from 16 to 18 feet. The colour is light yellow,
with large, red-brown spots. The horns continue for a long time as distinct
epiphyses; a broad swelling at the fore part of the frontal bones, which
increases with age, has been incorrectly described as a third horn. The
tongue is long and possessed of great mobility ; it is used by the annual
to strip from trees the leaves on which the giraffe feeds ; these are princi-
pally of the MimoscB. Besides this it grazes, without kneeling, with the
fore feet widely straddling. In its flight it gallops with the fore legs stiff
in rising and falling ; at other times it has an ambling gait. The period
of gestation is 14 months, and the young is very large at the time of birth.
The giraffe is found in Nubia and Abyssinia, also in South Africa. This
animal was known to the ancients and had been brought sometimes to
Home, PLINTUS, Lib. vm. c. 18.

See on the anatomical peculiarities OWEN Notes on the Anatomy of the
Nubian Giraffe, Transact, of the Zool. Soc. II. 3, 1839, pp. 217—248, PL
4° — 45 ; the same On the birth of the Giraffe at the Zool. Gardens, ibid,
in. i, 1842, pp. 2i — 28, PL i, 2; SEBASTIAN Aanteekeningen by het ontle-
den van eene Nubische Giraffe, Tijdschr. voor natuurl. Gesch. en Physiol.
xii. 1845, bl. 185 — 224, PL n.; JOLT et LAVOCAT Recherches hist., zool.,
anat. et paleontologiques sur la Giraffe, Mem. de la Soc. tfHist. nat. de
Strasbourg, in. 3 Livr. (1846), pp-. i — 124 av. 17 PL The giraffe has, as
LINN^IUS indicated by his arrangement, the closest affinity with the deers,
although in some respects it approaches the antelopes.

In the neighbourhood of this genus is usually placed the Sivatherium,
CAUTLEY and FALCONEB, of which the remains were discovered in Sevalik,
a branch of the Himalayan mountains.

Ql

Family XIX. Cavicornia. Incisor teeth ^ , canines none,

n r* O

molars ^— -^ . Horns in "both sexes or only in males, composed

1 [See note p. 646. The outer incisors in the lower jaw are representatives of
canines, as shewn by the analogy of the camels, by the lateness of their development,
and by their frequent peculiarity of form. OWEN Odontogr. p. 540.]

650 CLASS XVII.

of an osseous nucleus and a horny sheath, persistent. Accessory
hoofs in several.

The hollow -horned Ruminants. In this family the horns consist of a
bony core and a horny case which covers the bone. The horny in-
vestment is produced by a papillary layer (as matrix) on the core (which
under this layer is covered by corium and periosteum). Here grow
the hairs, which concreting into horny substance, form annually a new
ring. In various species of Antelope the bony nucleus has no internal
cavity ; in others, in the ox and goat genera the nucleus is hollow inter-
nally and the cavities are in connexion with the frontal sinuses. The
first horny case, which is hairy, shreds off in the second year; after this
the horns become smoother. Compare on these horns SANDIFORT in his
work cited above, pp. 14 — 19, and especially A. NUMAN Bijdrage tot de
ontleedlcundige en physiologische Tcennis der horens van het Rundvee, Nieuwe
Verhandelingen der Eerste Klasse van het Koninkl. Nederl. Instituut, xin.
Dl. 36 Stuk, 1847; see also G. VROLIK Over het verschil van de inwendige
gesteldheid der horenfritten bij Antilopen, Verhandelingen der KoninkUjke
Alcademie, I. 1853.

All the animals of this family form, as appears from their teeth and
their whole structure, only a single large natural group, of which LINNAEUS
distributed the species known to him amongst the genera Bos, Capra and
Ovis. Afterwards PALLAS separated the antelopes from the genus Capra,
Miscell. ZooL pp. i, 2. The antelopes now form the most numerous division
of the entire order. In this family of ruminants the gall-bladder is present,
which is wanting in the deers.

On the arrangement OGILBT (Transact, of the Zool. Soc. Vol. in. Pt. I.
1842, pp. 33 — 36), J. E. GRAY (Ann. and Mag. of not. Hist. Vol. 18,
1846, pp. 227 — 233) and TURNER (ib. Sec. Ser. Vol. 8, 1851, pp. 409 — 425)
have treated; comp. also SUNDEVALL op. laud.

Dicranocerus HAMILTON SMITH, Dicranoceras WIEGM., Anti-
locapra ORD. Horns in males compressed at the base, curved at
the point, with accessory branch porrect, subulate above the base ;
in females tubercles instead of horns. Lachrymal sinuses none.
Accessory hoofs none. Tail short.

Pp. Dicranocerus furcifer, Antilocapra americana ORD, Cervus hamatus
BLAINV., HAMILTON SMITH Transact, of the Linn. Soc. xin. 1822, p. 28,
Tab. ii., RICHARDSON Faun, loreali Amer. i. pp. 261 — 268; of the size of
a goat, colour grey-yellow ; the hair is dry and stiff, like that of a deer,
with which this animal in the tail also and even in the horns shews some
correspondence; it lives in large plains of North America up to 53° N. L;
the prong-horned antelope.

Antilope PALL, (in part). Horns in both sexes or in males
only, variously bent, annulate or folded at the base, towards the
point round, smooth. The osseous nucleus sometimes solid.

MAMMALIA. 65l

Lachrymal sinuses in many. Supplementary hoofs in most.
Eyes at the upper margin of forehead, remote from the nasal
apertures, with head protracted forwards. Ears near the nape,
mostly long.

The species of Antelopes are peculiarly numerous in Africa. Comp. on
this genus PALLAS Spic. Zool. I. pp. i — 16, and Fasc. xii., LICHTENSTEIN
Ueber die Antilopen des nordlichen Africa, besonders in Beziehung auf die
Kenntniss icelche die AUen davon gehabt haben. Abhandl. der ATcad. der
Wissensch. zu Berlin a. d. Jahre 1824, Berlin, 1826, s. 194 — 240, with
fig.; LAURILLARD Dictionn. univ. d'Hist. not. i. (1841) pp. 6t2 — 626,
J. E. GBAT Synopsis of the species of Antelopes, Annals of not. Hist., Sec.
Ser. Vol. 8, 1851, pp. 129 — 146, 211 — 228.

Various attempts have been made to separate this numerous genus into
subordinate divisions, or even to resolve it into different genera. The last
would be to be preferred, but it appears to me, after a comparative review
of the species, to be scarcely practicable, since although there be great
difference in habitus, still intermediate forms constantly present themselves,
and the characters moreover are of very inferior interest and importance1.
Many species present external resemblance to the deers, others to the goats,
some to the oxen, some even to the asses. — In all instances the eyes are
placed much higher and more backwards in the antelopes than in the
deers, and the base of the horns is mostly placed forwards almost over the
margin of the orbit. The nasal bones are in most species much elongated.

t With upper Up sulcate, hairy.

Bvhalus vetemin, Acronotus HAM. SMITH. Head narrow, pro-
tracted. Horns nearly contiguous at the base, soon divergent,
then converging, with the subulate apex bent backward, common
to both sexes. Ears acuminate, long. Back convex, with shoulders
high. Tail moderate, setose. (Lachrymal sinuses small. Two
mammae. )

Sp. Antilope Bubalis PALL, (in part), Cuv., A. mauritania OGILBT, BUFF.
Suppl. vi. p. 14, Menag. du Mus. Livr. 5 (e*d. 8vo, I. pp. 346 — 355) ; of
the size of an ass, one-coloured purplish-russet; from the North of Africa;
known to the ancients, (PLiNius Vin. c. 15, &c.,) the cervine antelope —
Antilope Caama Cuv., BUFF. Suppl. vi. PI. 15, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Mammif. PI. 92, fig. i (figure moderate, body too long), SMITH Ittustr.
of the Zool. of S. Afr., Mamm. PI. 30; very similar to the preceding,
but chestnut-brown with black forehead and black tail ; the hartebeest of

1 This is chiefly true of the presence or absence of horns in the female ; a character
it appears to have no value, and, even if it had, could not well be employed in
the arrangement.

652 CLASS xvii.

the Cape colonists; — Antilope lunata HAM. SMITH, SMITH Illustr. PL 31 ;
— Antilope pygargus PALL., HOUTTUYN Nat. Hist. i. 3, PL 24, fig. 2,
SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 273; the white-faced Antelope; these three species
are from South Africa.

Gazella HAM. SMITH. Body narrower forwards, scarcely pro-
tracted. Horns lyrate, approximate at the base, annulate, almost
always common to both sexes. Ears acuminate, long. Back even.
Tail short or moderate. Lachrymal sinuses distinct. Two mammae.

Sp. Antilope euchore FORST., BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL 21, VOSMAER Beschrijving
van eene nieuwe soort van hartebok, Amsterd. 1784; the pronkbok of the
colonists at the Cape of Good Hope, the springer; — Antilope dorcas PALL.,
Capra Dorcas L., BUFF. xii. PL 23; the gazelle; lives in large troops in
North Africa, and is the chief prey which is hunted by the lions in those
countries; — Antilope Dama LICHTENST., 1. 1. Tab. 3, 4; cream-coloured,
neck and fore part of the back ruddy ; a white spot on the throat. This
species lives in Nubia and Kordefan; closely resembling it is the Ant.
Dama of PALL., BUFF. xui. PL 32, from Senegal, from which the Ant.
MJiorr BENNETT, Transact, of the Zool. Soc. I. pp. i— 8, PL i, from
Morocco, scarcely differs.

(Add sub-genus Lepticeros WAGN. with horns substraight, long.)

Antilope HAM. SMITH. Horns annulate, with rings exsert, the tip
smooth, turned in a spiral, approximate at the base in males only.
(A sub-genus scarcely distinct from the preceding ; aberrant forms.)

Sp. Antilope cervicapra PALL., Capra cervicapra L., PALL. Spic. Zool. I.
Tab. i, BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL 18, 19, BENNETT Gardens and Menag. of the
Zool. Soc. I. p. 117, the Indian antelope; the male has elegant horns twice
bent, with the points standing far apart ; this species is found in countries
to the west of India up to the Indus; — Antilope w^Zawpcs LICHTENST.,
SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 274; a beautiful species from South Africa, of a
ruddy colour, distinguished by the absence of subsidiary hoofs.

Note. — Aberrant forms with small ears. Tail short or very short.
Sp. Antilope gutturosa PALL., Spic. Zool. xn. Tab. 2. In the Caucasus.

Sub-genus Pantholops HODGS. Sp. Antilope Hodgsonii ABEL, from the
mountains of Thibet, with woolly fleece, and slender legs ; lachrymal sinuses
none. Horns very long, with point acute, smooth. Tail very short.

Sub-genus Colus WAGN. Sp. Antilope Saiga PALL., Capra tartarica L.,
PALL., Spic. Zool. xn. Tab. i ; with head deformed, nose tumid, convex,
very large. Lives in Siberia and even in Russia as far as Poland.

Tragelaphus BLAINV., WAGN. Horns contorted, carinate, di-
rected backwards in males only. Lachrymal sinuses none. Ears
acuminate, long. Supplementary hoofs small. Tail moderate.
Mammae four.

MAMMALIA. 653

Sp. Antilope strepsiceros PALL., BUFF. Suppl. vi. Tab. 13, VOSMAEB Beschr.
van de Condou, Amst. 1783, SMITH Illustr. of the Zool. of S. Afr., Mamm.
PL 42, 43 ; the Koodoo or striped antelope; — Antilope scripta PALL., BUFF.
xii. PI. 40, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Mammif. PI. 1 1, fig. i ; the harnessed
antelope; coast of Guinea, Senegal;— Antilope sylvatica SPABM., BUFF.
Suppl. vi. PL 25 ; boschboJc of the colonists at the Cape of Good Hope, &c.

Cervicapra BLAINV., SUNDEV., Eedunca HAM. SMITH. Horns
annulate in males only, erect, towards the tip bent forwards,
round. Mammae four.

a) With lachrymal sinuses none.

Sp. Antilope redunca PALL., BUFF. xn. PL 46, Senegal; — Antilope ellipsi-
prymmos, Kobus ellipsiprymnus SMITH Illustr. , Mamm. PL 28, 29, the
waterbok; a beautiful species from South Africa, &c.

b) With lachrymal sinuses arched, transverse.

Calotragus SUNDEV., TEMM. (Horns subulate, scarcely bent forwards,
short. Tail very short.)

Sp. Antilope tragulus FOBST.; — Antilope scoparta, &c.

Note. — Here also, as it seems, ought to be placed a Bengal species of
which the male is furnished with four horns, the anterior very short,
conical, the posterior longer, subulate, erect: Antilope guadricornis BLAINV.,
Antilope Chiharra HABDWICKE, Linn. Trans, xiv. PL 15 A, B. HILL ibid,
xv. pp. 501 — 505, PL 19 (20) ; GEOFFB. SAINT-HIL. et F. Cuv. Mammif.
Livr. 44.

Sylvicapra OGILBY, SUNDEV. Horns subulate, conical, short,
reclined, distant at the base, either in both sexes, or in males only.
Tail very short. Mammae four.

a) With vertex furnished with long hair. Oblique striae or a round pit
in place of lachrymal sinus, in front of eyes.

Cephalolophus WAGN., Cephalophus HAM. SMITH, Sylvicapra SUNDEV.

Sp. Antilope mergens BLAINV., — Antilope natalensis HAM. SMITH; — Antilope
Maxwelli HAM. SMITH, &c. — (On the synonymy of Ant. Grimmia PALL.,
cons. TEMMINCK Esguisses zool. sur la cote de GuinS, pp. 224 sqq.)

Antilope Hemprichiana EHBENB., Antilope saltiana CBETSCHMAB, SCHREB.
Saugth. Tab. 260 c. (Sub-genus Neotragus HAM. SM., WAGN.) ; Abyssinia.

6) With vertex without long hair. Lachrymal einuses and supplementary
hoofs none. (Nanotragus SUNDEV., sp. of Neotragus HAM. SM., WAGN.)

Sp. Antilope spinigera TEMM. ; from the coast of Guinea; the young animal
was described by LINN.EUS under the name of Moschus pygmceus, as stated
by TEMMINCK ; see a fig. of this in GUEBIN Iconogr., Mammif. PL 42,
fig. i ; com p. SUNDEV ALL Ofvers. af Kongel. Alcad. Forh. 1846, pp.
83-87.

654 CLASS xvn.

Hippotragus SUNDEV., JEgocerus HAM. SM. Horns annulate,
large, inserted over the eyes, recurved. Lacrymal sinuses none.
(Large species, with neck maned. Tail moderate, setose; nose sub-
concave.) Horns of females less. (Sometimes none?)

Sp. Antilope leucophcea PALL., BUFF. Suppl. vi. PI. 20, SCHREB. Sduyth.
Tab. 278; the blaauwe bole of KOLBE; a very rare species, extinct in some
districts of South Africa; the individual figured by ALLAMAND, in the
Dutch edition of BUFFON and copied in the French loc. cit., has now been
transferred from the collection of the Haarlem Maatichappij van Weten-
schappen to the Museum at Leyden; — Antilope equina GEOFFR., SMITH
Illustr., Mamm. PI. 27 ; — Antilope Harrisii, Aigocerus niyer HARRIS Trans,
of the Zool. Soc. II. 3; 1839, PI. 39, pp. 213 — 215. Species from South
Africa to the north of the Colony at the Cape.

*M* With upper lip ample, Iroad, not silicate. (In all four mammae.)

Hippelaphus (from ARISTOT.), Portax HAM. SMITH. Horns short,
recurved. Lachrymal sinuses. Neck short. Tail long, tufted.
Back short, declivous, with shoulders higher.

Sp. Antilope picta (and Tragocamelus) PALL., HUNTER Philos. Trans, for the
year 1771, PI. 5, BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL 10, u, BENNETT Gardens and
Menag. of the Zool. Soc. I. p. 125 ; the Nylghau, of a dark colour especially
under the belly, from the continent of India, with a bunch of long, black
hair under the neck. (SUNDEVALL states that the female also is horned,
perhaps exceptionally only or when of a great age.)

Oreas DESM. (Damalis HAM. SM., SUNDEV., Boselaphus HAM. SM.).
Horns reclined in both sexes, marked by a spiral keel in males.
Lachrymal sinuses none. Tail moderate, tufted at the tip.

Sp. Antilope oreas PALL., VOSMAER Beschrijving van het Afrilcaansche dier,
bekend onder de benaaming van Eland, Amsterd. 1783; BUFF. Suppl. vi.
PI. 12, SMITH Illustr., Mamm. PL 40, 41. This largest species of Antelope
(it attains a length of 9 and a height of 5 feet) lives in herds of 10 or more
together on the mountainous northern boundaries of the Cape Colony. The
male has a dewlap deeply hanging down ; colour yellowish-grey.

Oryx BLAINV., HAM. SM. Horns in both sexes very long, reclined,
towards the tip smooth, acuminate. Lachrymal sinuses none. Tail
moderate or long, at the tip setose. (Legs strong; trunk elongate;
habitus of A sinus.)

Sp. Antilope addax LICHTENST. 1.1. Tab. n. RUEPPELL Ail. zu der Reise im
nordl. Afr., Zool. Tab. 7 ; milk-white, head and upper part of the neck
reddish grey; a bunch of dark brown hair on the forehead, the horns bent
three times sinuously with numerous rings; — Antilope leucoryx PALL., (and
AntiL gazella PALL.) LICHTENST. 1. 1. Tab. i. GUER. Iconogr., Mammif.
PL 44, fig. 3 ; white with neck reddish ; the horns, which are gently curved,

MAMMALIA. 655

terminate in a point and sometimes reach as far as the croup of the animal.
The white tail has long, black hairs at its extremity. — Antilope oryx PALL.
(Capra Gazella L., partly excl. of synon.), BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL 17, copied
in SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 257; this South-African species has very long
and straight horns, pointed at the tip, which may be compared with the
long tusk of the narwhal ; colour light grey with brown legs ; the knee of
the fore legs is white ; the long black hair of the tail sometimes hangs down
nearly to the hoofs.

Catoblepas GKAY, HAM. SJL, Boselaphus BLAINV. Horns in both
sexes, broad at the base, at first diverging and slightly descending,
then recurved, ascending. Muzzle broad, naked between the nostrils.
Tail long, setose. Neck maned.

Sp. Antilope Gnu ZIMMERM., BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL 8, 9, VOSMAER Beschr. van
den boschbuffel, Amsterd. 1784 ; ket wilde beest of the colonists of the Cape; —
Antilope taurina, Catoblepas taurina and Gorgon HAM. SM., SMITH Illustr.
1. 1. PL 38, Cuv. R. Ani., fa. ill., Mamm. PL 92, fig. 2 ; the blaauwe wilde
beest. Both are very remarkable animals of South Africa, which in some
parts of the body present the form of a horse, in others that of the ante-
lope, with the head and horns of a buffalo. They live in the high, grassy
mountain- plains to the north of the Colony at the Cape, and perform
annually a journey towards the South, when the last-named species does
not pass further than the Orange river, whilst the Gnu penetrates into the
territory of the colony.

Rupicapra BLAINV., Capella KEYSEKL. and BLAS. Horns in
both sexes near the middle of the forehead, round, small, erect,
with the tip hooked backwards. Lachrymal sinuses none. Two
glandular foramina behind the horns. False hoofs. Mammae four.

Sp. Rupicapra cemas nob., Capra Rupicapra L., Antilope rupicapra PALL.,
BUFF. xn. PL 16, SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 279; the chamois, die Gemse; of
the size of a goat, li ves on the Alps of Switzerland and the TyroL A local
(smaller) variety, or, according to some, a different species (Antilope pyre-
naica) lives on the Pyrenees.

Oreotragus SlJNDEV. Horns in males only, short, subulate,
acute, erect, distant at the base. Head small. Lachrymal sinuses
small. Hoofs high, compressed; spurious hoofs subrotund, approxi-
mate. Tail very short.

Sp. Oreotragus saltator, Antilope saltatrix BODD., Antilope oreotragus FORST.,
GM., BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL 22, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 259; the Klipspringer
of the Cape colonists ; on the mountains of South Africa ; in Abyssinia is
found a smaller variety of a lighter colour.

Hemitragus nob., Nemorhedus HAM. SM. Horns in both sexes,
annulate at the base, smooth towards the point, directed backwards.

656 CLASS xvii.

Lachrymal sinuses small or none. A large black naked region
produced from the septum of the nose (RMnarium}. Tail short.
Mammae four. (Habit hircine.)

Sp. Hemitragus sumatrensis, Antilope sumatrensis SHAW, F. Cuv. Mammif.
PI. 27, Antilope gored HAEDW. ; Nepaul, &c.

Note. — Hemitragus HODG. to be inserted here, is scarcely a distinct
genus. Nostrils distant. Horns approximate, deflected, sub-incurved,
thick at the base, undulately ringed, smooth at the tip. — Sp. Hemitragus
iharal, Capra iharal HODGSON Asiat. Researches, xvm. 2, p. 129 (cited by
WAGNER), SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab, 281 D; — Hemitragus hylocrius, Kemas
hylocrius OGILBY, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 81.

Capra L. (in part). Horns in both sexes, flat on the inside,
curved, annulate, often knotted. Lachrymal sinuses none. Hoofs
compressed, spurious hoofs small, rounded. Tail very short.
Mammae two. Throat bearded mostly in both sexes, sometimes
in males only. (Region between the eyes and nostrils flat or
concave.)

Sp. Capra Ibex L., BUFF. xn. Tab. 13 (Tab. 14 Horns), SCHREB. Saugth.
Tab. 281 C; der Steinbock, le JBouquetin ; with large, prominently knotted
horns, colour greyish-red, no beard, but only somewhat longer hair under
the chin; on the Swiss Alps;— Capra siberica EHRENB., ^Eyoceros ibex
PALL., Spic. Zool. xi. Tab. 3; — Capra beden FORSK., Capra sinaitica
EHRENB., Symb. physicce, Tab. 18, Cuv. JR. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PI. 93,
fig. i, SCHREB. 281 cc, &c. Upper Egypt, &c.

The goats live in troops on the mountains. Their senses are very acute.
The domestic goat, Capra Hircus L., has a sharp edge at the inside of the
horns, which is irregularly incised and sometimes very broad. Of this species
there are many varieties. To this goat is similar Capra JEgagrus GMEL.,
the Paseng of the Caucasian mountains and Persia, Menag. du Mus. n.
pp. 177 — 193, GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 44 bis, fig. 2, Diet. univ.
d'Hist. nat., Mammif. PI. 13 (PALL. Spic. Zool. xi. pp. 43 — 46, Tab. 5,
figs. 2, 3, horns).

To the genus Capra and not to the Antilopes, as I think (with SUNDE-
VALL), ought to be referred Capra montana HARLAN, Antilope lanigera
HAM. SMITH, Linn. Trans, xm. i, pp. 38 — 40, Tab. iv., Capra americana
RICHARDSON, Faun. bor. Am. i. Tab. 22, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 287 D.
This species has small horns, turned backwards and slightly curved, and
a white fleece. It forms the genus Haplocerus of HAM. SMITH.

Ovis L. Horns in both sexes or in males only, striated wavily,
transverse at the base, turned backward, with the tip mostly again
bent forward. Hoofs compressed. Mammae two. Chin beardless.
Region between the eyes and nostrils convex.

MAMMALIA. 657

a) With lachrymal sinuses notie.

Sp. Ovis tragelaphus Cuv., SCHBEB. Sduyth. Tab. 288 B ; ruddy, the horns
thick at the base, bent outwards with the point in some degree curved
downwards ; long hair at the neck and fore legs, in North Africa.

b) With lachrymal sinuses distinct.

Sp. Ovis Aries L., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 289 — 294 c ; the sheep, with the
tail usually longer than in any of the wild species. This annual is one of
the most useful which man has subjected to himself1. Since it was origi-
nally an inhabitant of mountains, it thrives better in high and dry regions.
It is subject to many diseases, amongst which the so-named foot-rot may be
mentioned ; under which appellation, however, very different maladies have
been confounded. Frequently there arises a lameness of the feet 2, that to
which we allude, from the suppression of a secretion formed by the seba-
ceous glands of a sacculated inversion of the skin, which opens in front
between and above the hoofs of the fore and hind feet, and the consequent
swelling of the apparatus. This dermal sac is found in some other rumi-
nants, but in the hind feet alone. See A. BONN Verhandel. der Eerste
Klasse der Koninkl. Nederl. Instituut, Amsterdam, 1820, v. bL 125 — 155,
F. KLEIN Diss. inaug. de sinu cutaneo ungularum Ovis et Caprece, cum
tab. Berolini, 1830, 8vo; E. ROUSSEAU, GUEB. Revue et Magasin de
Zoologie, 1852, pp. 510 — 516, PL 21.

Sheep begin to change their teeth in their first year ; when three years
old they have got all their permanent teeth, except the two outer incisors,
which appear in the fourth year. The ram is fit for procreation when
eighteen months old ; the ewe can copulate when one year old ; the period
of gestation is about five months, the produce one or two lambs. The
rams are mostly horned ; sometimes the ewe also has horns, which however
are smaller and less twisted. There are many varieties of the sheep,
amongst which the merino- sheep (varietas hispanica) deserves mention on
account of its fine wool, the Astracan sheep for the curly fleece of the
lambs, and the Iceland sheep (varietas polycerata} for its four or six horns.
In some the tail is peculiarly broad and fat; others are distinguished by
large deposits of fat on the croup (car. steotopyga PALL.).

In the wild species the tail is very short. To these belongs Ovis Ammon
(L., in part) Cuv., Ovis argali PALL. Spic. Zool. xi. Tab. i ; the Argali
sheep. Of this species both sexes have horns, which in the female are
smaller and at their base are set longitudinally on the skull (not with the
broader surface transverse, as is usual in the sheep), in the male particu-
larly thick and large. That our domestic sheep is derived from this species
is scarcely probable ; compare TILESIDS, who defends this derivation, and
BOJANUS, who advances objections to it from difference in the skull,
in Act. Acad. Leop. Carol, xii. i, p. 279, pp. 291 — 300. Other writers

1 Although " Pecus" is applied by the ancients to denote all kinds of cattle,
it refers especially, when no other name is added, to sheep. See PLINIUS Lib. vm.
cap. 47.

2 " Turpis podagra," VIRGIL. Georg. m. 299.

VOL. ii. 42

658 CLASS xvii.

suppose, without satisfactory grounds, that Oms muscimon PALL. (Burr. xi.
PI. 29, SCHEEB. Sdugth. Tab. 288 A, BRANDT u. RATZEB. Mediz. ZooL i.
Tab. IX. fig. i, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PL 93, fig. 2), a species
from Sardinia and Corsica, which also occurs in Cyprus and in Persia, and
which is much smaller, is to be regarded as our originally wild sheep.

Anoa HAM. SMITH, WAGN. Horns remote at the base, thick,
flat upwards, striated transversely, subulate at the point, smooth,
directed backwards, ascending but little. Ehinarium continued as
far as the margin of upper lip. Ears short (scarcely equalling the
third part of the length of head). Lachrymal sinuses none. Tail
moderate, setose. Neck short. Legs low. Mammae four.

Sp. Anoa depressicornis, Antilope depressicornis HAM. SM., QUOY et GAIMARD
Ann. des Sc. not. xvii. PI. 20, pp. 423 — 426; Celebes; an intermediate
form, between the antelopes and oxen ; brown or blackish ; the thighs on
the inside and the fore legs at the lower part whitish.

Bos L. Horns round either throughout or towards the tip,
turned outwards, incurved at the tip, ascending, with osseous nucleus
cavernous. Lachrymal sinuses none. Rhinarium almost always
below the nostrils large, broad. Tail moderate, tufted at the point
or with long hair throughout. Mammae four.

The genus of the oxen has a very wide geographical distribution, like the
family of the grasses on which they feed ; in South America, however, no
originally wild species are met with.

Sp. Bos Taurus Ij., BUFF. iv. PI. 14, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 297; common
cattle are included under this name. The forehead is flat and the horns are
set upon the edge which separates this flat forehead from the part of the
head which descends downwards. Oxen may attain an age of 20 or 25
years, but rarely live so long, since they are mostly slaughtered at an
earlier period. Period of gestation of the cow is about 280 days. The
calf is born with four incisors and with three molars in each jaw on both
sides; after the first year the change of the teeth begins, and after the
third all the milk-teeth are replaced by permanent teeth.

Every one is acquainted with the manifold usefulness of this animal, of
which the breed forms one of the chief sources of our national riches. Com-
pare on the ox WAGNER in SCHREBER'S Sdugth. v. s. 1566 — 1680, H. W.
VON PABST Anleitung zur RindvieJizucht, Mit 24 Bildern in lithogr. Far-
bendruck, 'Stuttgart und Tubingen, 1851, 8vo, and (with special reference
to the cattle of Holland) J. LE FRANCQ VAN BERKHEY NatuurlijTce Historic
van het rundvee in Holland, met platen, Leiden, 1805 — 1811, 8vo, vi.
Deelen.

There are fewer varieties in cattle than in sheep. To the varieties
belongs £os indicus L., the zebu, distinguished by a hump on the back
which, like that of the camel, consists of fat; sometimes this race is

MAMMALIA. 659

destitute of horns (see Menag. du Mus. I. pp. -235 — 255, 11. pp. 218 — 223,
Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PL 94, fig. i, V. PABST, PI. 2, s. 21).
This variety is met with in Arabia, Persia, the continent of India and
some parts of Africa. The cattle of the Dutch East-Indian colonists are
for the most part of this race, partly from crosses of this with the Sunda
ox, Bos sondaicm S. MUELLER Verh. over de not. Geschiedenis der Nederl.
Overzeescke Bezittingen, Mamm. PL 35 — 39 ; with the Javanese Bantang. —
On the continent of India (and, in former times at least, also in Ceylon) is a
different species, BGS frontalis LAMBERT, Bos gavaus, Bos gaurus, SMITH.

To the same division of this genus belongs also a species occurring in
diluvial deposits, from which, according to the opinion of CUVIER, our ox
has descended. See Ann. du Mus. xn. p. 333 et suiv. This, however, is
not beyond doubt ; but that those remains belong to a species (Bos primi-
genius BOJAN.), which lived contemporaneously with man, has been asserted
by NiLSON, and there is all probability that this was not different from
Bos urus, which was formerly dispersed through the forests of Germany
and which was recorded by CjESAR.

In the Bisons the horns are situated in front of the sharp line which
divides the forehead from the descending part of the skull ; the forehead is
convex and broad, there are fourteen pairs of ribs, whilst Bos taurus has
only thirteen. — Bos bison L., NILSON, Bos urus BOJAN. Compare BOJA-
NUS De uro nostrate ejmque sceleto commentatio, 1825, in Nov. Act. Acad,
Cces. Leop. Carol, xm. 2, pp. 414 — 478, Tab. 20, EICHWALD Natur-
histoi~ische Skizze von Lithauen, Volhynien und Podolien, Wilna, 1830, 4to,
pp. 241 — 253 (with figure opposite the title-page). This animal, formerly
dispersed throughout Germany, nay even in the South of Sweden, now
lives only in the marshy forest Bialowesha in Lithuania, and in the Cau-
casus. (EICHWALD Fauna Caspio- Caucasia, 1841, pp. 40, 41). That Bos
americanus GMEL., (Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PL 94, fig. 2) differs
from it only slightly, is generally admitted, and whether there be sufficient
ground for the adoption of a specific difference is doubted by some; G.
JJEGER Wurteml. naturwissenschaftlic/ie Jakreshefte, in. 1847, p. 176, X.
1854, pp. 204—209.

Bos lubalis L., BUFF. xi. PL 25, SCHREB. Saugih. Taf. 300 A, GUERIN
Iconogr., Mammif. PL 45, fig. 3, BRANDT u. RATZEB. Mediz. Zool. i. Tab.
X. the buffalo ; the horns are directed outwards and with a longitudinal
projecting line. This species is originally from India, and was brought
into Italy in the seventh century. The buffalo is peculiarly adapted for
draught ; its skin is highly valued, but its flesh is much inferior to that of
the ox. In India there lives a variety of this species with very large horns,
known by the name of Bos ami; see the head figured in BLUMENBACH
Abbildungen naturhist. Gegenst. No. 63. At Java and others of the Sunda
Islands the buffalo does not occur wild, but has returned to the wild state,
and was perhaps introduced there with the cultivation of rice. It is the
Karbau of the Malays ; see S. MUELLER Verhandel. &c. op. cit. PL 40.

Bos coffer SPARRM., GM., SCHREB. Saugih. Tab. 301 ; the horns, placed
close together at the base, are very broad, rough and sinuously ringed ; the
tip curved upwards and in wards is smooth; this species lives to the east of
the Cape colony and in Mosambique.

42—2

660 CLASS XVII.

Bos grunniens L., Bos poephagus PALL., the Yack, a species from Thibet,
which occurs in the wild and the tame state, with long hair and a long-
haired tail, like that of a horse.

Of all the species, that which deviates most from our cattle is a species
from the most northerly parts of North America, Bos moschatus ZIMMERM.,
GMEL., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 302 A (after PENNANT Arctic Zool.), 302 B.
Compare HERMANN Zur GescJiichte des Bisamockses, Naturforscher xix.
1783, s. 91, Tab. v. This has a hairy muzzle (no rhinarium), and short
tail concealed under the long hair ; the horns approach each other at the
base, and then proceed outwards and downwards, the point turning up
again, nearly as in the gnu. This species forms the genus Ovibos BLAIN
VILLE, DESMAR., and the transition to the genus Ovis.

ORDER VI. Edentata. (Bruta L., exclusive of the genera
Elephas and Trichechus.}

Teeth in the fore part of both jaws none, sometimes both jaws
entirely edentulous. Toes with claws large, curved, often com-
pressed.

The edentate mammals sometimes are altogether destitute o
teeth, as the name indicates, but sometimes, on the contrary, hav<
numerous teeth, which is in contradiction with that name; in the
fore part, however, of the mouth the teeth are always absent
Dasypus sexcinctus L., (and Das. villosus) alone has, at the back
part of the intermaxillary bone, on each side a tooth, which must
consequently be named an incisor, and opposite to these two upper
teeth are situated four in the lower jaw 1. The rest have no incisor
teeth, and also no true canine teeth. All the teeth are simpl
without roots, with an undivided hollow base; thus they never
cease to grow as they are worn down above ; they consist of dentine
and cement, without enamel.

All the species of the edentate mammals live in the warmest
countries of the earth ; in Europe no one animal is found which
belongs to this order.

Compare W. VON RAPP Anatomische Untersuchungen uler die Edentaten
(Mit Steindrucktafeln, Tubingen, 1843, 4to; 2te vermehrte Auflage, 1852.)

Family XX. Effodientia ILLIG. Head produced to form
an elongate, narrow snout. Feet short, hind feet longer. Claws
curved, fossorial. Teeth either none or all similar in form.

1 See F. CUVIER Des dents des Mammif. pp. 195, 196, PI. 96.

MAMMALIA. 661

The burrowing edentate mammals are distinguished by a pointed
and elongated head. They feed upon insects, some exclusively,
whilst others add other food to this and feed principally upon offal,
as Dasypus duodedmcinctus and Das. septemdnctus. Some climb
trees (Myrmecophaga didactyla and Myrinec. tetradactyla, or ta-
mandua), in which they are assisted by a prehensile tail. Manis
javanica also climbs trees and hides in their hollows. Most, how-
ever, live on the ground, or some few under ground in holes which
they have dug.

Manis L. Teeth none. Ears small, mostly indistinct or
scarcely any. Tongue round, exsertile. Body and tail covered
with horny imbricate scales. Tail long.

The scaled animals live in warm countries of Asia and Africa. Their
skeleton has no clavicles. They can, when danger impends, roll themselfes
into a ball, and are then protected by their scales, as the hedgehog is by
his spines. Compare on the species of this genus SUNDEVALL Ofversigt af
Slagtet Manis, Stockh. Vetensk. ATcad. Handl. 1842, pp. 245 — 282, and Fo-
CILLON Du genre Pangolin, GDERIN Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1850, pp. 465
—474, PP- 513—534, PL 10, ii.

Sp. Manis longicaudata SHAW, Manis tetradactyla L., Manis macroura EBXL.
Burr. x. PL 35 (SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 70), GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI.
35, fig. 4, from the coast of Guinea ; the tail is nearly twice as long as
the head and trunk ; the scales are large, black with yellow margin, and
are set upon the trunk in eleven rows. — Another species from the coast of
Guinea has 19 or 21 rows of scales; these are small, yellow-grey, with
three points behind; Manis tricuspis BA.FINESQUE, Manis multiscutata
GRAY.

In other species the tail has about the length of the trunk with the head,
or is something shorter. Here belongs that which lives on the continent
of India and at Ceylon, Manis laticauda ILLIG., Manis pentadactyla L.
(in part), Manis Irachyura ERXL., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. itt., Mammif. PI. 74,
the largest known species of this genus ; Manis Temmincki SMUTS, SUN-
DEV. 1. 1. Tab. iv. fig. 2, SMITH Illustr. of the Zool. of S. Afr., Mamm.
PI. 7 ; to the north of the Cape Colony, in Mozambique, also in Sennaar ;
— Manis javanica DESMAR., EAPP, 1. 1. Tab. n. fig. 2 ; Java, Borneo, &c.

Myrmecophaga L. Teeth none. Ears small, rounded and oval.
Body covered with hair. Tail long.

The ant-eaters represent in the New World the scaled animals of
Africa and Asia. They all live in South America, in the forests,
and feed on ants and white ants, whose nests they tear up with
their large nails, and on other insects, caterpillars, &c. Their
extensile tongue is constantly covered with an adhesive mucus.

662 CLASS xvii.

Sp. a. With fore feet tetradactylous, hind feet pentadactylous. Myrmecophaga
jubata L., BUFF. x. Tab. 29 (fig. deformed), Suppl. in. PI. 55 (scarcely
better), BLUMENB. Abbild. naturh. Gegenst. No. 82, Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat.,
Mammif. PL 16, fig. 2; this is the largest species, and attains nearly four
feet, besides the tail, which is more than i\ feet long. The hair is long,
especially on the back forwards and on the tail, and bristly; the colour is
grey with black throat and a triangular black spot ascending from this
obliquely over the shoulders; Brasil, Surinam. — Myrmecophaga tetradac-
tyla L. (and tridaciyla ejusd., a species to be suppressed), Myrmecophaga
tamandua Cuv., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 68 (fig. of MARCGRAFF), RAPP 1. 1.
Tab. 1 1, fig. i (2d edit. Tab. 1 1, 6) ; smaller, the tail scaly at the extre-
. mity ; variously coloured. (TEMMINCK distinguishes this Brazilian species

as Myrmecophaga bivittata from the species from Surinam which he names
Myrmecophaga tamandua, yellowish-grey, one-coloured, with longer tail
and somewhat larger ears.)

(3) With fore feet didactylous, hind feet tetradactylous. (Snout shorter.
CoOjt thick, woolly). Sp. Myrmecophaga didactyla L., SCHREB. Saugth.
Tab. 66, BLUMENBACH Abbild. No. 22, GUE"R. Icon., Mammif. PI. 35, fig.
2 ; this small species lives in Guiana and Surinam ; the ribs are very broad
and flat, and their posterior margin overlaps the anterior margin of the
succeeding rib. In this species the vessels of the fore limbs form plexuses ;
compare on their anatomical structure DAUBENTON, BUFF. x. pp. 165 —
175, J. F. MECKEL Archivf. d. Physiol. v. 1819, s. i — 67.

Orycteropus GEOFFR. Sx.-HiL. Incisors and canines none,
molars various according to age ^ — ^ , in the aged ^ — •= , cylin-

O — D O — O

drical, composed of vertical tubes, with flat crown. Body hairy.
Feet short, anterior tetradactylous, posterior pentadactylous, with
claws strong, fossorial, ungular. Ears elongate, acuminate. Tail
moderate, thick, hairy.

Sp. Orycteropus capensis GEOFFR., Myrmecophaga afra PALL., Myrmecophaga
capensis GM., GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 35, fig. i, PALLAS Observa-
tiones circa Myrmecophagam africanam e litteris Cel1. P. CAMPER, excerptce
et illustrates. Act. Acad. Scientiar. Petropolit., pro anno 1777, p. 223,
Tab. IX. B ; comp. H. F. J.EGER A nat. Untersuchungen des Orycteropus
capensis, Stuttgart, 1837, 4to (with a fig. copied in RAPP 1. 1. Tab. i).
This species, het aardvarken of South Africa, lives in subterraneous cavities
and attains a length of 4 feet and more. In the skeleton itself there are
only four toes on the fore feet, whilst that of Myrmecophaga jubata has
five; the cervical vertebrae are particularly strong. (In Abyssinia also and
in Senegal similar animals occur which have been regarded as different
species. See SUNDEVALL Vetensk. ATcad. Handl. 1842, pp. 236 — 242, Du-
VERNOY in GUER. Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1852, pp. 581, 582, and Mem.
sur I'Oryct. duNil, &c. Ann. des Sc. nat. 3ieme SeY. xix. pp.iSr — 202, PI.
9, 10.) Compare on the structure of the teeth in Orycteropus F. CUVIER
Des dents des Mamni. PL 82, and OWEN Odontogr. pp. 317 — 320, PL 77, 78.

MAMMALIA. 663

Dasypus L. Teeth small, distant, cylindric, in various number,
in both jaws. Body covered by very hard mail formed of regular
scutes, mostly hexagonal, the back intersected by zones. Ears
somewhat large. Hairs scattered between the scutes and the zones.
Tail of various length, covered by scutella, tuberculate or naked.
Feet either all pentadactylous or anterior tetradactylous.

The Armadillos. All these animals live in South America. The skeleton
is distinguished by the peculiar breadth of the first rib, by well-developed
clavicles, and by a second projecting line under the spine of the scapula
(also more or less present in the ant-eaters), and also by an elongation of
the acromion over the humerus. They bury themselves under ground
when pursued. By some the flesh is considered well-tasted. According to
AZARA the dorsal shield is used for making guitars by the Brazilians.

a) With fore feet tetradactylous, hind feet pentadactylous.

Sp. Dasypus novemcinctus L., Das. longicaudus MAX. NEUW., SCHEEB.
Sdugth. Tab. 74, BLUMENB. Abb. naturh. Gegenst. No. 83; the tail ringed

and at every ring regularly attenuated, of the length of the body ; 1—jL

8 — 8

molars or thereabouts. This species is one of the commonest and is found
in Brasil, Guiana and Surinam. — Dasypus conurus IsiD. GEOFFB.1, Ma-
toco of AZABA ; with short tail.

b) With all the feet pentadactylous.

Sp. Dasypus tricinctus L., SCHEEB. Sdugth. 71. This species has a short
tail, the body very convex backwards, like a tortoise ; it can roll itself up.
(The genus Tolypeutes ILLIG.) Dasypus sexcinctus L. (and octodecimdnctus
GM.), Dasypus setosus NEUW., SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 71 B, GUEBIN Iconogr.,
Mammif. PI. 34, fig. i, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Mammif. PI. 15, fig. i ;
Fatusia F. Cuv.

The largest species is Dasypus gigas Cuv., BUFF. x. PI. 45, KEAUSS
Thierreich in Bildern, Sdugth. Tab. 24, fig. 5 (the genus Priodon F. Cuv.).
The small molars are very numerous, 16, 18 or more on each side

( — F. Cuv. J. This species is found in Surinam and Brasil, and attains

a length of 3 feet. The Botucodos make speaking trumpets from the tail,
which they use in the forests. NEUWIED Reise nach Brasil. i. s. 363, 364.

Q o

CJilamydophorus (Chlamyphorus HARLAN). Molar teeth ^ — ~ .

o — o

Ears almost none, concealed under hair. Back covered with a
coriaceous test, truncated posteriorly, composed of transverse rows
of scutella ; leg, abdomen, and sides hairy. Feet pentadactylous ;
claws of fore feet very long, acute. Tail rigid, bent under the body.

1 Dasypus tricinctus auctor., in part; see ISIDOEE GEOFFEOY SAINT-HILAIBE,
GUEEIN Revue Zool. 1847.

664 CLASS xvu.

Sp. Chlamydophorus truncatus HABL. Ann. of the Lye. of New York, i. p.
-235, Tab. si, copied in the Ann. des Sc. nat. v. 1825, pp. 5 — 17, PI. i,
GU£R. Iconogr., Mamm. PL 34, fig. 3 ; an animal of the size of the com-
mon mole, found in Chili, and which mostly keeps under ground. See the
skeleton described by YABRELL Zool. Journ. m. No. 12, 1828, p. 544, Tab.
16, 17, OKEN'S Isis, 1830, p. 926, Tab. ix. and especially a monograph by
HYRTL Chlamydophori truncati cum Dasypode gymnuro comparati Examen
anatom., in Denkschr. der Kais. Acad. d. Wissensch. IX. Wien, 1855,
s. i — 66, with figures.

Family XXI. Tardigrada ILLIG. Head truncated anteriorly,
flat. Legs, especially the anterior, very long. Claws incurved,
compressed.

The sloths live in South America, principally in the large forests ;
they feed on the leaves of trees; the females bear only a single
young one, and carry it, as long as it continues to suck, on their
back1.

Compare CUVIER sur VOsteologie des Paresseux, Ann. du Mus. v. pp.
189 — 215, PL 14 — 17; A. BRANTS Dissert, zool. inaug. de Tardigradis,
cum ii. Tab. L. B. 1828, 4to.

Bradypus L. Body hairy. Molar teeth separate, cylindric.
Ears very short, concealed under hair. Fore feet tridactylous or
didactylous, hind feet tridactylous, with toes conjoined as far as
the claws. Two pectoral mammas. Tail very short, or none.

Bradypus ILLIG., Adieus F. Guv. Molars — — (or in younger
Q £\ 4 — 4 \

individuals - — -) with the first small. Fore feet tridactylous,
o — o/

longer than hind feet. Tail very short.

Sp. Bradypus cuculliger WAGL., Bradypus gularis EUEPPELL Mm. Senclc.
m. s. 138, 139, Taf. XL, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PL 70; Ai d dos
brule DAUBENTON in BUFF. xm. PL 32; Surinam, Guiana; — Bradypus
pallidus WAGN., Bradypus tridactylus MAXIM. Abb. zur Naturgesch. Brasil.
2te Lief. (The name of Brad, tridactylus L. is merely given arbitrarily
to one of these two species, since it rests upon the opinion that there is
only one species with 3 toes on the fore feet.) — Bradypus torquatus ILLIG.,
MAXIM. Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras. 6te Lief., GUER. Iconogr., Mammif.
PL -23, fig. i; both species from the North and East of Brasil; the last
also, though rare, in Peru; — Bradypus infuscatus WAGL. North western

1 Interesting particulars on the mode of life and properties of the sloths have
been given by HUMBOLDT and TSCHUDI. See TSCHUDI Fauna Peruana, i. pp.

202 — 205.

MAMMALIA. 665

part of Brasil, Peru. Compare on these four species and some others of
which the distinction is not yet sufficiently established, WAGNER in
Archivfiir Naturgesch. 1850, s. 367 — 387, and in SCHBEB. Sdugth. Sup-
plementband, 5 Abth. 1853, s. 162—173.

Choloepus ILLIG., Bradypus F. Cuv. First molar tooth very long,
acuminate, resembling a canine, with the inferior placed behind the

4 4.

upper; remaining molars ^ — ^ , with crown cuneate, worn obliquely

in front and behind. Fore feet didactylous. Tail none.

Of this sub-genus one species only is known, which therefore provision-
ally may retain the name of Bradypus didactylus L. The head is more
protracted and the fore legs are less elongate than in the three-toed species.
A figure may be seen in SCHREBER'S Sdugth. Tab. 65, copied from BUFFON
XII. PL i, and a better in GUER. Iconogr., Marnmif. PL 33, fig. 2 ; the
skeleton is figured in PANDER u. D'ALTON Das Riesenfaulthier, Bonn, 1821,
Tab. vn.

Different fossil species belong to the order of the edentates; most of
them are found in diluvial deposits and in caves. Some appear to belong
to the genus Dasypus. Others form a transition between the two families
of edentates, and present in the malar bone, which terminates in a process
descending obliquely over the lower jaw, a resemblance to the genus Brady-
pus, whilst the bones of the limbs are massive and large. Here belongs
the genus Megalonyx JEFFERSON, Cuv. and Megatherium Cuv. (comp. Cuv.
Ann. du Mus. v. pp. 358 — 400, PL 23 — 25, Recherches sur les ossem. fossiles
vi. pp. 159 — 195). The genus Megatherium is best known of the two.
Megatherium Cuvierii was an animal which must have been about 1 2 feet
long and 5 feet high, and of which a skeleton was found not far from
Buenos- Ayres at the end of the last century, which is now preserved at
Madrid. This skeleton is beautifully figured by PANDER und D'ALTON
Das Riesenfaulthier, Tab. I. n. Afterwards was discovered the genus
Mylodon OWEN (Description of the Skeleton of an extinct gigantic Sloth,
London, 1843, 4*°* Ann. des Sc. not. 2e SeYie, xix. pp. 221 — 263), of which
a skeleton found to the north of Buenos-Ayres is preserved in the collec-
tion of the College of Surgeons at London, the genus Glyptodon OWEN
which more closely follows Dasypus and others. The investigations of
LUND in Brasil in the last few years have contributed greatly to extend
and multiply our knowledge of these fossil animals. Compare PICTET
Tralte de Palceontologie, 2 e'd. I. pp. 263 — 278. See LEIDY On the extinct
Sloth tribe of North America ; Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1855,
Vol. vii.

ORDER VII. Olires s. Eodentia.

Incisor teeth in both jaws two, large, incurved, destitute of roots.
Canines none. Molars remote from incisors by an interval, mostly
few, rarely more than four in each side of both jaws. Feet ungui-
culate, in most pentadactylous.

666 CLASS xvu.

The Rodents. The incisors are covered by a plate of enamel on
the anterior surface only, which in many species is coloured yellow or
ruddy-brown (by a very thin layer of cement) \ Not only the enamel,
but also the anterior dentine is harder than the posterior of the
incisors ; hence a greater wearing down of these teeth is effected
at the back part by use, and their crowns acquire a chisel-shape
with a surface declining from the sharp anterior margin backward.
The condyle of the lower jaw is longitudinal, and slides forward
and backward.

The rodents live principally, or exclusively, on vegetable food,
often on hard parts of plants, as bark of trees, roots, &c. They are
commonly small, and exceedingly prolific. The species are very
numerous (compare p. 605); about one-fifth of these are found in
North America, where especially many species of the genus Arc-
tomys, Sciurus and Lepus occur.

Compare on this order PALLAS Novce species Quadrupedum e Glirium
ordine, Erlangse, 1778, 4-to; of the anatomical peculiarities RYMER JONES
has given a compendious account in his article JRodentia, TODD'S Cyclo-
paedia, IV. pp. 368 — 396.

Family XXII. Duplicidentata. Upper incisors four, duplicate,
with two thin teeth placed behind the anteror and normal. Molars
destitute of roots, formed of two coalesced laminae, upper six or five
on each side, lower six. Fore feet pentadactylous, hind feet tetra-
dactylous with hairy soles. Claws elongate, compressed. Teats
several (4 — 10). Tail short or none.

Lepus L. Ears elongate. Tail recurved, short. Hind legs

£» />

much longer than fore legs. (Molar teeth ^. Dental formula

2 2 3 3 3 3

OWEN, i. r T , p. ~ — ~ , m. ^ — ~ = 28, the last upper molar

1 — 1 ' £ — zj O — O

small, simple. Clavicles imperfect.)

The hares are distinguished from all the other rodents by the two small
upper incisors placed behind the usual ones. When the mouth is closed
the inferior molars are situated within the margin of the superior molars,
as in the ruminantia. Hence for the due production of chewing a large
lateral motion is required, which is therefore facilitated by the free articu-
lation of the hemispherical articular condyle of the lower jaw and the
shallow articular cavity. By this motion the surface of the molars is un-
equally worn down, and presents projecting lines of enamel with intervening

1 OWEN'S Odontography, p. 399.

MAMMALIA. 667

depressions of dentine. (BENNETT Zool. Soc. I. 1833, P- 6°)- — The two
orbits are perforated by a single and common foramen opticum. The bony
palate is very imperfect, and forms merely a transverse strip between the
anterior molars. (These peculiarities also apply to the following genus
Lagomys.)

Sp. Lepus timidus L., SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 233 A; GUERIN Iconogr.,
Mammif. PI. 3 r, fig. i ; the hare, le lievre, der Hase ; dispersed nearly
throughout the whole of Europe ; is not met with in Sweden and Norway ;
the ears are longer than the head; the tail white, black above; — Lepus
variabilis PALL., SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 235 A, B; the mountain-hare, ears
nearly of the length of the head ; tail grey above ; in the summer brown ;
in winter white, except the borders of the ears, which remain black; in
Sweden, the Swiss Alps1, Scotland and Ireland; — Lepus cuniculus L.,
SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 2 36 A; the rabbit, le lapin, das Kaninchen. The
wild rabbits are grey with a ruddy spot on the neck ; the ears are some-
what shorter than the head. Lepus brachyitrus TEMM. from Japan, and
Lepus hispidus PEARSON, from Assam, are distinguished by the ears shorter
than the head and the tail very short; of this last species BLTTH has
formed the sub-genus Capro]ogus^. Ann. and Mag. of not. Hist. XVII.
1846, p. 163. On the other species see WATERHOUSE Mamm. n. pp. 33 —
147-

Lagomys Cuv. Ears short, rounded. Tail none. (Molar teeth
P — - . Clavicles perfect.)

To this genus belong some small species, mostly from the North- West of
Asia. The skull is more elongate and less high in front. Sp. Lagomys
alpinus, Lepus alpinus PALL. Nov. Spec. Glir. Tab. u., SCHREB. Sdugth.
Tab. 238 ; — Lagomys Ogotona, Lepus Ogotona PALL. ib. Tab. in. ; the
Ogotona of the Mongols, to the South of the lake Baikal, &c. — Lagomys
princeps RICHARDS. Faun. bor. Amer. PI. 19, in North America, Rocky
Mountains.

Many fossil remains belonging to this genus are found in the fissures of
the limestone rocks on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, especially in
Corsica and Sardinia.

4 — 4
Family XXIII. Subungulata ILLIG. Molar teeth j — ^,

complex or lamellose. Fore feet tetradactylous or pentadacty-
lous, hind feet mostly tridactylous, or pentadactylous, with lateral
digits small, remote. Claws large, ungular, or compressed, keeled
above.

1 "In alpibus candidi ,- rutilescunt annis omnibus." PLINIUS Lib. vin. c. 55.

* WATERHOUSE writes Carpologus, but the name appears to be derived from the
stiff bristles (Kawpos, a hog).

668 CLASS xvn.

Body hairy. Tail short or none. Ears rounded or oval,
moderate.

These rodents, which have much affinity with Hystrix, were by
LINNAEUS referred to the genus Mus, by KLEIN, PALLAS, GMELIN
united in a distinct genus, Cavia. They all live in South America.

Cavia Cuv., ILLIG. (Spec, of the genus Cavia PALL., GM.).
Incisors smooth anteriorly, white or pale yellow ; molars destitute
of roots, lamellose, in rows converging anteriorly, formed of two
triangular parts with cement filling the fissure between them. Feet
cloven, anterior tetradactylous, posterior tridactylous. (Dental for-

. i_i i_i 3_3
mula OWEN, i. — - , p. ^— -, m. ^— 5 =20.)

Dolichotis WAGN. Ears broad at the base, somewhat large, more
than half the length of head. Feet high. Tail very short.

Sp. Cavia patagonica PENN., SHAW, Mara magellanica LESSON Centurw
Zool. PI. 42, WATERH. Mamm. n. PI. 3, fig. i, Lievre pampa D'AzARA;
this species has some resemblance to a hare, but differs (especially in the
high legs) from the other species of this genus, which it surpasses in size,
more in external aspect than in essential characters.

Cavia (in the stricter sense). Ears rounded, much shorter than
half the head. Feet short. Tail none.

Sp. Cavia rupestris MAXIM. Abb*, zur Naturgesch. Brazil. Lief. iv. Tab. 3;
Moco of the Brazilians. The sub-genus Kerodon of F. Cuv. Dents des
Mammif. PI. 48 ; greyish, below pale-coloured ; the hind legs ruddy ; lives
in the higher rocky regions of Brasil; — Cavia aperea ERXL., MAXIM. 1. 1.,
ODER. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 32, fig. i, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 173 A, fig.
3; with hair brown, at the point reddish-yellow; throat pale; lives in
grassy districts, at the edges of woods, throughout the greater part of
South America. It has been supposed that Cavia cobaya SCHREB., DESM.,
Mus porcellus L. (the guinea-pig, le Cochon d'lnde, das Meerschweinchen),
BUFF. vin. PI. i, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 173, is derived from this species.
This little animal, black with white and orange- coloured spots, procreates
very readily in Europe, and has often been submitted to physiological
experiments. See, respecting it, J. J. NAUMAN in LINN. Amcen. Acad.
iv. pp. 190 — 209 ; J. J. FREULER Monographia Cavice Porcelli zoologica,
Gottingse, 1820, 4to.

HydrocJuzrus BRISS. (not BoDD.), ILLIG., Cuv. Upper incisor
teeth indented anteriorly by a superficial longitudinal groove. Molar
teeth destitute of roots, lamellose, the posterior tooth of both jaws
large, composed of many lamellae. Head thick, protracted in front

MAMMALIA. 669

of eyes, with lip entire. Feet semi-palmate, the anterior tetradacty-
lous, the posterior tridactylous. Claws broad, ungular. Body
covered with hair thinly disposed, setaceous, long. Tail none.

Sp. Hydrochcerus capybara DESM., Su$ ffydrochceris L., BUFF. xn. PI. 49,
GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 31, fig. 3. This animal is the largest of
the order, and attains a length of 3 to 4 feet. The capybara lives on the
banks of rivers in Brasil, Surinam and throughout nearly the whole of
South America.

Ccelogenys F. Cuv., ILLIG. Molar teeth complex or semi-com-
plex. Lip cloven. Fore feet with four toes and unguiculate
hallucar wart ; hind feet tridactylous. Tail very short. (A fold of
skin under the zygoma large and tumid. Internal buccal pouches.)

Coinp. F. CDVIEE Du genre Paca, Ccdogenys, Ann. du Mus. x. 1807,
pp. 203—209, PI. ix. A, figs. i—6.

Sp. Ccelogenys siibnigra and Coil, fulva, probably only varieties of the same
species, Mus Paca L. (Cavia Paca auctor.) BUFF. x. PI. 43, Suppl. in.
PI. 33, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 32, fig. 3. This animal attains a
length of nearly two feet ; colour dark brown or reddish with white spots,
placed on the sides of the body in four or five longitudinal rows. The
flesh, which is very fat, is eaten. The buccal pouches were first described
by GEOFFROT ST.-HILAIRE Ann. du Mus. iv. 1804, pp. 99—101.

Dasypr octet, ILLIG., Chloromys F. Cuv. Molar teeth complex.
Lip cloven. Fore feet with four toes and hallucar wart; hinder
tridactylous. Tail a short, naked tubercle. Hair towards the
hind part of back and over the hips elongate.

Sp. Dasyprocta Aguti DESM., Mus Aguti L., BUFF. vin. PI. 50, Cuv. Menag.
du Mus. i. pp. 271—284; — Dasypr. Acuschy DESM., Cavia AcuscJiy BUFF.
Suppl. in. PI. 36, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 32, fig. 2 (with tail longer
than in the preceding). Both species from the North of Brasil, from
Guiana and Surinam ; commonly pursued as game in Brasil ; whilst feed-
ing they sit on the hind feet, holding the food with their fore feet.

4 — 4
Family XXIV. Aculeata. Molars in adults - -^ , complex,

with undulate striae of enamel in the crown. Incisors large, mostly
coloured anteriorly, not grooved. Body covered with rigid, acumi-
nate spines. Fore feet tetradactylous, with pollex very small,
resembling a wart, hind feet pentadactylous or tetradactylous.

This family consists of the porcupines, the genus Hystrix L.
Species belonging to it are found both in the Old and the New

670 CLASS XVII.

World, but all, with the exception of a single species, in warm
countries. These animals possess clavicles, which, however, are not
quite perfect, being attached to the sternum only and not to the
scapula; they have commonly fourteen ribs; the length of the tail
and the number of its component vertebrae is very various. The
skeleton presents, in all instances, five digits on the fore and hind
limbs, of which however the innermost is short or imperfect. They
feed on young shoots of trees, bark and fruits.

Comp. F. CUVIER Examen des especes du genre Porc-tpic, &c., Mem. du
Mm. ix. 1822, pp. 413 — 437, with fig.; — J. F. BRANDT Mammalium
exoticorum novorum vel minus rede coynitorum Descriptiones et Icones,
Petropoli, 1835, pp. 21—89.

Tribe I. Philodendrce BRANDT. Head short, truncate anteriorly.
Molar teeth with roots distinctly divided, somewhat short, sinking
into the jaws not very deeply. Orbital process situated over the
first molar tooth. Soles of feet warty. (Species American.)

Cercolabes BRANDT (Bphiggurus and Synctheres F. Guv.). Tail
long, prehensile, thinly haired towards the tip, annulate. Hind feet
with only four unguiculate toes.

Sp. Cercolabes prehensilis, Hystrix prehensilis ~L., BUFF. Suppl. vii. PL 78,
Cuv. jR. Ani., 3d. itt., Mammif. PI. 65, fig. i ; Brasil, Surinam, with
strong spines, black at the base, white at the point ; — Cercolabes insidiosus
BRANDT, Hystrix insidiosa LICHTENST., Sphiggurus villosus F. Cov., MAX.
AW. zur Naturgesch. Lief, n., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab.i68 A, GUER. Iconogr.,
Mammif. PI. 30, fig. 2 ; smaller ; the spines concealed under the long hair
of the back. These species live in trees in South America, feed on fruits,
and are very slow in their movements ; they mostly rest by day. (See also
BURMEISTER Syst. UebersicJit der Thiere Brasiliens, I. Berlin, 1854, s. 216
-225.)

Note. — Sub-genus Ckcetomys GRAY 1, Plectrochcerus PICTET (is it a distinct
genus?). Spines flexile on the head and fore part of the back, passing into
setae on the rest of the back. Skull differs from that of the rest of the
Aculeata by the orbit nearly closed posteriorly and the broad zygoma. Sp.
Cercol. subspinosus WAGN., Hystrix subspinosa LICHTENST., KUHL. Hab.
in the North of Brasil.

Erethizon F. Cuv. Tail short. Hind feet with five unguicu-
late toes. Spines concealed amongst the long hair.

Sp. EretkizondorsatumCvv., Hystrix dorsata L., BUFF. xn. PI. 55, RICHARDS.
Faun. bor. Am. I. pp. 214 — 216; in North America from 37° to 67° N.L. ;
the individuals of this species are very variously coloured ; some yellow-
brown, others black.

1 Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1843, PP- 2r

MAMMALIA. 671

Tribe II. Philogcecc. Molars with root formed at a late period
only, long undivided, received in somewhat deep sockets. Orbital
process (anterior margin of orbit) placed over third molar tooth.
Soles of feet grooved, in other respects smooth. (Species from the
Eastern hemisphere.)

Hystrix L. (in part), Hystrix (and Acanthwn) F. Cuv. (add
genus Atherura F. Cuv.). Hind feet with five unguiculate toes.
Tail not prehensile.

Sp. Hyslrix cristata L., BUFF. xn. PL 51, 52, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 167,
fig. i, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 30, fig. i; the porcupine, le pore-epic,
das Stochelschwein ; long bristly hair on the back of the head and neck ;
the spines on the back long, with black and white rings ; tail short, pro-
vided as in some other species with hollow, horny tubes fastened on thin
stems, which at first are closed at the end, but afterwards become open by
use, and when moved make a rattling sound. This species is found iu
Italy, Spain and the North of Africa. A very similar species occurs in
South-Africa, but presents some difference in the cranium, Hystrix Africce
Australia PETERS Seise nock Mossambique, I. Saugth. s. 170, Tab. 32, figs.
6, 7. A third allied species occurs on the continent of India, Hystrix
hirsutirostris BRANDT, Hystrix leucurus STELES. — Hystrix javanica, Acan-
thion javanicum F. Cuv., with awl-shaped, brown spines yellow at the base
and tip, &c.

In other species the tail is long, covered with rings of scales, and fur-
nished at the extremity with a bunch of flat, sinuous and tortuous bristles :
Hystrix mceroura~L., Hystrix fascicvlata SHAW (WATERHOUSE distinguishes
three species here.)

Family XXV. Palmipedia s. Castarma. Incisors smooth in

4 — 4
front, coloured. Molars . complex, with four folds of enamel,

the upper with three external, one internal; the lower with one
external, three internal. Feet pentadactylous, hinder palmate.
Ears small, rounded. (Clavicles distinct.)

Castor L. All the toes of hind feet connected by membrane.

Second toe with two oblique claws. Tail depressed, oval, scaly.

i i -j i g 3

Dent. form. OWEN, i. ^ -j , p. j j , m. ^— ^ = 20.

Sp. Castor Fiber L., BUFF. Tome VIIL PI. 36, SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 175,
Diet. univ. cTHist. nat., Mammif. PI. 9 A bis, fig. i ; the skeleton figured
in PANDER and D'ALTON Vergl. Osteol. v. Tab. n. ; the beaver, le castor,
der Biber; attains a length of 2§ to 3 feet, without the tail; reddish or
yellow-brown. These beavers, now repelled within narrower limits, live

672 CLASS xvii.

solitary in Europe and the North of Asia, and in society now only in some
districts of North America. These social beavers fell large trunks of trees
by means of their sharp teeth for constructing domed habitations in water,
which they surround with a mound of trunks of trees, branches, earth, &C.1
These animals are hunted for their fur and for the castoreum. This last is
found in both sexes in two sacs, which in the male open into a canal
formed in and by the prepuce, in the female into the vagina. Below these
two sacs lie a pair of smaller sacs, of a more elongate form, which contain
an unctuous matter. Compare A. C. BONN Anatome Castoris, L. B. 1806,
4to, c. tab. and especially BRANDT u. RATZEBURG Medizln. Zooloyie, I. s.
12 — 30, Tab. in. iv. where a succinct account may be found of all that is
known of the economy and the anatomy of the beaver from works of the
best authors. BRANDT has recently distinguished the American beaver
(Castor americanus) from Castor fiber chiefly by osteological characters of
the skull. See his Beitrage zur naheren Kenntniss der Gattung Castor,
Mem. de I'Acad. de St.-Petersbourg, vii. 1855, pp. 43 — 76.

Myopotamus CoMMERSON. Fifth toe of hind feet situated
beyond the membrane conjoining the rest of the toes. Tail round,
elongate, pilose. (Four teats on each side, nearer the back than
the belly, covered by hair. Dental formula as in Castor.)

Sp. Myopotamus coypus Cuv., Myopotamus bonariensis COMM., GEOFFR.
SAINT-HILAIRE Ann. du Mus. vi. PI. 35, pp. 8r, 86 — 88 ; GUER. Iconogr.,
Mammif. PL 29, fig. 3 ; three feet long, of which the tail forms nearly
one-third; lives in Chili in holes on the banks of rivers. Compare LERE-
BOTJLLET Notes pour servir a V Anatomic du Coipou, avec 2 pi. ; Mem. de la
Soc. d'Hist. not. de Strasbourg, Tome in. 1846. The skins, which are used
for making hats, bear in the trade the name of American Otter, and are
annually brought to Europe by hundreds of thousands.

Family XXVI. Murina. Inferior incisors compressed, acumi-

q O

nate. Molars uniformly covered by enamel, mostly - — - . Fore

6-6

feet almost always furnished with four wide-spread toes, and a
wart for a thumb often unguiculate; hind feet pentadactylous.
Tail most frequently long, thinly haired. Clavicles distinct.

Compare on this family and on other genera formed from the genus
Mus L., A. BRANTS ket geslacht der muizen, Berljn, 1827, 8vo.

Hydromys GEOFFR. (excl. of Hydr. coypus). Incisors smooth

2 — 2
in front ; molars — > uniformly enamelled, crown with transverse

1 A beaver even in solitude built in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris a wall of
&c. to protect itself from the cold; GEOFFR. SAINT-HILAIRE Mem. du Mus.
p. 232.

MAMMALIA. 673

tubercles, little distinct; anterior molar larger. Feet pentadacty-
lous, posterior semi-palmate. Tail thick at the base, thinly haired,

round. Dental formula OWEN, c. - -j , p. j -j , m. - ^ = 12.

Sp. Hydromys chrysogaster GEOFFR., GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 25, fig.
i ; — Hydromys leucogaster GEOFFR. On this genus from New Holland
and Van Diemen's Land, compare GEOFFROT SAINT-HIL., Ann. du Mus.
vi. pp. 88—90, PL 36.

Mus L. (excl. of several species). Incisors almost always

q _ O

smooth in front. Molars -~ , enamelled uniformly, obtusely

o — o

tuberculate, the premolar the largest of all. Ears rounded, some-
what naked, exsert. Fore feet tetradactylous, with hallucar wart

unguiculate, hind feet pentadactylous. Dental formula, i. — -^ ,
1-1 2-2

A. Tail thinly haired, ringed with scales in whorls, mostly long.
•h With internal buccal pouches.

Cricetomys WATERHOUSE. Head protracted. Tail long.

Sp. Mus goliath K.UEPPELL, Cricetomys gambianus WATERHOUSE, Proceed, of
the Zool. Soc. 1840, pp. i, 2. RUEPP. Mus. Senclcerib. in. s. 114, Tab. 9,
Tab. 10, fig. i (cranium). A very large rat from West Africa ; greyish- red ;
belly, toes, and tip of tail white.

Saccostomus PETERS. Tail somewhat short, obscurely annulate,
thinly haired.

Sp. Saccoslomus lapidarius PETERS, Reise nach Mossambique, Zool. I. Taf. 34,
fig. 3, &c.

*H* With buccal pouches none.
Mus (in stricter sense). Incisors smooth in front.

Sp. Mus Rattus L., BUFF. vn. PI. 36, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 179; the rat,
house-rat, black rat; black-grey on the back; fur glossy; tail of the length
of the body. The ancients were not acquainted with this animal ; accord-
ing to some this species was imported from America ; others suppose it to
have come from the East — Mus decumanus PALL., BUFF. vm. PL 27,
SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 1 78 ; the brown rat, le surmulot (BUFF.), die Wander-
ratte; brownish-grey; tail shorter than the body. This species, which first
penetrated into Western Europe from the East in the middle of the last
century (compare BUFFON, vni. p. 206), is now in many countries more
common than the preceding, which has been expelled by it; it surpasses
VOL. II. 43

674 CLASS xvn.

this somewhat in size. — Mm musculus L., BUFF. vii. PL 39, Suppl. in.
PL 30, p. 182, SCHBEB. Sciugth. Tab. 181, Cov. *R. Ani., €d. ill., Mammif.
PL 58, fig. i ; the mouse, la souris, die Hausmaus. These three species
have been dispersed with man over nearly the whole world. — Mm minutus
PALL., Mus pendulinus HEBM. (and M. soricinus and parvulus ejusd.1),
PALL. Glir. Tab. 248; still smaller than the house-mouse and with shorter
tail ; light ruddy- coloured, white below. This species builds in corn-fields
a nest of straw and leaves, which it suspends, and in which the female
suckles and nurses her young. See a figure of GLOGEB Nov. Act. A cad.
Goes. Leop. Car. xiv. Tab. 23. — Mus sylvaticus L., BUFF. vn. PL 41,
SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 180, the field-mouse, le mulot; reddish-grey, white
below; somewhat smaller than the house-mouse; this species sometimes
multiplies so greatly as to cause much damage to the crops. It has the
legs, and especially the hind legs, longer, and moves by jumps. It makes
the transition to Meriones ILLIG.

The largest known species of this genus is Mus giganteus RAFFLES,
Linn. Transact, vii. PL 18, from Bengal and Coromandel, which attains a
length of fully two feet. Some species have (especially on the hind part of
the back) spines dispersed under the hair. Here belong Mus cahirinus
GEOFFR., LICHTENSTEIN Darstell. neuer od. wenig bek. Sdugth. Tab. 37,
fig. i, Mus dimidiatus CBETSCHM., RUEPP. &c. They form the sub-genus
Acomys of ISID. GEOFFR. SAINT-HILAIRE. In a new species from Mosam-
bique the spines commence even on the head (Mus spinosissimus PETERS,
Mossamb., Zool. i. p. 160, PL 34, fig. i).

Steatomys PETERS. Upper incisors furnished in front with a
longitudinal groove. Tail somewhat short.

Pelomys PETERS. Upper incisors grooved. Tail elongate. Outer
toe both before and behind short.

On these African sub-genera consult PETEBS L 1. pp. 157 — 159 and pp.
162 — 1 66.

Dendromys SMITH. Upper incisors grooved. Fore feet with
three toes and hallucar wart. Tail long, thinly haired, ringed.

Sp. Mus mesomelas LICHTENST., Dendromys lypicus SMITH, &c. Comp.
SMITH Zool.Journ. xvi. 1829, Bulletin des Sciences not., Aoutt 1829, p. 275,
BBANTS Muizen, bl. 122 — 124.

Note. — On other sub-genera, here omitted (Pseudomys GRAY, Proceed.
Zool. Soc. 1832, p. 39, Akodon METEN, &c.), comp. WAGNEB in SCHREB.
Sdugth., Supplemeniband, 3tte Abth.

B. Tail densely haired.

1 DE SELYS-LONGCHAMPS Etudes de Micromammalogie, Paris, 1839, 8vo>
68, 69.

MAMMALIA, 675

Phlceomys WATERH. Ears moderate, haiiy. Bristles very long.
Fore feet tetradactylous with hallucar wart, with nail flat ; hind feet
pentadactylous. Claws compressed, incurved, large. Tail shorter
than body.

Sp. Phlceomys Cumingi WATERHOUSE, Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. vn. 1839,
pp. 107, 108; from the Philippine Islands; a large species, blackish-brown,
with a red tint on the back; tail black; length 19", tail 13" or 14". Its
external air withdraws this species from the genus M us, with which, how-
ever, it agrees in the teeth (which I have not been able myself to examine).

4 — 4

Sminthus NATHUSius, BLAS. and KEYSERL. Molar teeth ^- -5 »

o — o

tuberculate. Upper lip not cloven. Tail long, hairy. (Feet and
habit of the mice.)

Sp. Sminthus loriger NATH., Sminthus Nordmanni BLAS. and KETSERL. ; —
Sminthus betulinus NILSSON, Mus betulinus PALL. Glir. Tab. 22, fig. i;
comp. NILSSON Skandinavisk Fauna, I. Lund. 1847, pp. 332 — 335.

BRANDT (Bemwkungen ueber die Wirbelthiere des nordl. Russland, B. 35)
unites all these species under the name Sminthus subtilis; BLASIUS, believ-
ing them likewise to form only one species, calls it Sminthus vagus. Fauna
Deutsckl. 1857, I. s. 304.

4 — 4
PerognatJius NEUW. Molar teeth j — -p tuberculate; upper

incisors grooved. Buccal pouches external, ample. Tail long,
thin, verticillate with scales, and haired. (Feet and habit of
mice.)

Sp. PerognatJius fasciatus MAXIM. PRINZ zu WIED, Nov. Act. Acad. Cces.
Leop. Carol, xix. i, pp. 368 — 374, Tab. 34; North America.

Cricetus Cuv. Incisor teeth smooth in front, lower compressed,
molars ~ — o > uniformly enamelled, tuberculate. Ears exsert,

O ""*"" O

rounded. Buccal pouches internal. Fore feet with four toes and
hallucar wart, hinder pentadactylous. Tail very short, hairy.

Sp. Cricetus vulgaris DESMAR., Cricetus frumentarius PALL., Mus cricetus L.,
BUFF. xin. PI. 14, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 198, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif.
PI. 26, fig. 2; the hamster; greyish-yellow or ruddy above, black below; the
nose, under jaw and legs white ; three large, whitish-yellow spots on each
side, at the fore part of the body; sometimes almost quite black. This
animal lives in Siberia, Kussia, Germany, especially in Thuringia, in holes
under ground, and hoards there large stores of corn ; it sleeps through the
winter, but less deeply than the marmots. Compare F. G. SULZER Versuch

43—2

676 CLASS xvn.

einer Naturgesch. des Hamsters. Mit Kupf. Gottingen u. Gotha, 1774,
8vo. PALLAS discovered various other small species of this genus in Siberia,
as Cricetus sonyarus PALL. Glir. Tab. r6s, Cricetus arenarius PALL. Glir.
Tab. 1 6 A, &c.

Hapalotis LICHTENST., Conilurus OGILBY. Incisor teetli smooth,

Q 0

coloured, molars *5 — ^ , tuberculate. Ears long, oval, with short
o — o

hair. Bristles very long. Feet pentadactylous, anterior with
pollex very short, resembling a wart, with claw small ; posterior
long, saltatory, with three middle toes long, subequal; claws
incurved, compressed. Tail long, tufted at the extremity with
longer hair.

Sp. Hapalotis albipes LICHTENSTEIN, Darstellung der Saugtk. Tab. 29;
Conilurus constructor OGILBY, Transact, of the Linn. Soc. xvm. p. 1-25,
Hapalotis constructor GOULD, Mamm. of Austr. II. PI. 8; grey, brown on
the back, whitish below; tail brown, white below. This species builds
a conical nest of twigs, resembling a beehive ; — Hapalotis MitcJtellii, Dipus
Mitchellii OGILBY, GOULD 1. 1. i. PI. 15, KRAUSS 1. 1. Tab. 20, fig. n;
much smaller than the preceding. Compare on this singular genus, which
recalls the similarly formed genus Dipus of Australia, GRAY in Ann. of
not. Hist. n. 1839, pp. 307 — 309.

Meriones ILLIG., G-erbillus DESMAR. Upper incisors indented

3 — 3

almost always by a longitudinal groove. Molars (~ — =• equably

o — o

enamelled), furnished with transverse hills forming, when worn,
oval figures, like lamellce, surrounded by enamel. Ears exsert,
oval. Head protracted, acuminate in front. Fore feet with four toes
and hallucar wart, hinder pentadactylous, with tarsus and toes
elongate. Tail long, hairy, often pencilled towards the tip.

Sp. Meriones pyramidum'W AGN., Dipus pyramidum GEOFFB., GUER. Iconogr.,
Mammif. PI. 26, fig. i, North Africa; — Meriones tamaricinus KUHL,
Dipus tamaricinus PALL. Glir. Tab. 19 (copied in SCHREB. Tab. 232), at
the Caspian Sea, &c. A tail with short hair and without a tuft at the tip,
occurs in Meriones Scklegelii from the Cape of Good Hope, SMUTS Enum.
mamin. capens. Tab. i.

(Here belong the genera Khombomys WAGNER and Psammomys CRETSCH-
MAR, RUEPPELL, the last with upper incisors not grooved.)

Compare on this genus F. CUVIER Me"moire sur les Gerloises et les Ger-
bttles, Transact, of the Zool. Soc. n. 2, 1838, pp. 135 — 148, PI. 22 — 26;
SUNDEVALL in k. vetensh Ac. Handl. 184-2, pp. 226 — 235, Tab. II. These
animals do not spring on their hind feet, like all the species of Dipus (see
below), with which they were formerly incorrectly associated.

MAMMALIA. 677

Saccomys F. Cuv. Incisor teeth smooth in front, molars

4 — 4

-j, complex. Buccal pouches external. Ears exsert, some-
what large. Feet pentadactylous ; pollex of fore feet short, with
nail small, flat. Tail elongate, annulate, thinly haired.

Sp. Saccomys anthopkilus F. CUVIER, Mem. du Mus. x. pp. 419 — 428, PI. 26.
This animal, probably of American descent, is, apparently, known from
the description of a single specimen only. It differs entirely from Mus
bursarius with which FISCHER (Addenda,, Emendanda at Index ad Synops.
Mamm. p. 592) wished to unite it.

Hesperomys WATERH., WAGN. Incisors smooth in front,

3 — 3

coloured ; molars ^ — ~ , complex, with tubercles in two rows, the

crown being entire, with folds of enamel more or less alternating
when worn. Ears moderate or somewhat large, exsert. Feet pen-
tadactylous, with pollex short, or the fore feet with hallucar wart
unguiculate. Tail moderate or long, with short hair or somewhat
naked.

Until within a few years some species only of Mice from the New World
were known ; these have been since increased by many species, especially
from South America, which almost agreeing externally with the species of
the genus Mus, differ however from them altogether in the structure of the
molar teeth ; as has been shewn by WATERHOUSE Proceedings of the ZooL
Soc. v. 1837, pp. 15 — 21, and The Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle,
Mamm. 1839.

Sp. Hesperomys nasutus WATERH. Voyage of the Beagle, Mamm. PI. 17, fig.
2 ; — Hesperomys hispidus, Oxymycterus hispidus PICTET, Notice sur les
animaux nouv. du Musee de Geneve, 2e Livrais. 1843, PI. 10 ; — Hesperomys
elegans WATERH., Eligmodontia typus F. Cuv. Ann. des Sc. not., Sec. Se'r.
Tom. vii. 1837, p. 1 68, PI. 5; — Hesperomys Darwinii WATERH. Voy. of
the Beagle, Mamm. PL 23; — Hesperomys anguya, Mus anguya DESM.,
PICTET 1. 1. 3ieme et 4ieme Livr. PL 15.

Holochilus BRANDT. Upper lip not fully cloven, a fold of skin uniting
the fissure below. Sp. Hesperomys leucogaster, Mus (Holochilus) leucogaster
BRANDT, Mamm. exot. Musei Acad. Petropoli, 1835 (Mem. de I'Acad. de St.
Petersbourg, vi. Serie, Sc. math, et phys. Tome in. 2, Tab. 12).

Rithrodon (Rheithrodori) WATERH. Upper incisors indented by
a longitudinal groove.

Sp. Hesperomys cuniculoides, Reithrodon cuniculoides WATERHOUSE, The
Zoology of the Voy. of the Beagle, Mamm. PL 26 ; with two other species
in the most southern part of South America.

678 CLASS XVIT.

Neotoma SAY and ORD. Incisors smooth, yellow in front;

Q _ g

molars _ — _ y complex. Ears exsert, somewhat large, oval. Feet
pentadactylous. Tail long, clothed with long hair.

Sp. Neotoma Drummondii, RICHARDSON Fauna lor. Amer., Mainm. p. 137,
PI. vn. (vni.), North America ; the habitus resembles that of Myoxus or
Chinchilla, more than that of Mus; — Neotoma floridanum SAY.

Sigmodon SAY and ORD.

Sp. Sigmodon hispidum SAY and ORD, Arvicola hortensis HARLAN Faun. Am.
(a species unknown to me).

Hypudceus ILLIG. (in part), Arvicola LAC., Cuv. Incisor teeth

/3 _ 3\
smooth, molars fa — s) complex, with folds of enamel describing

triangles, alternating in a double row on the surface of the crown.
Ears moderate or small, rounded, almost concealed under the hair
of head. Fore feet tetradactylous with hallucar wart, hinder pen-

tadactylous; claws small; soles naked. Tail moderate or some-

•i _ i -^ _ -^ 2 _ 2
what short, hairy. Dent. form. OWEN, i. y - , p. — , m. —

16.

Sp. Hypudceus amphibius ILLIG., Mus terrestris et amphibius L., BUFF. vn.
PI. 43, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 186, Cuv. R. Ani., 6d. ill., Mamm. PI. 58,
fig. 3; the water-rat, le rat d'eau; 7" long besides the tail, which is 3" or
more long ; brownish, grey below ; as varieties of this species are regarded
Mus terrestris (L?) HERMANN, which is smaller, Arvicola destructor SAVI
and. Arvicola monticola DE SELYS-LONGCH. — Hypudceus arvalis, Musarvalis
PALL., BUFF. vn. PI. 47, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 191; the field- campagnol,
meadow-mouse, of the size of a mouse ; tail only one-third the length of
the body ; colour yellowish-grey, below whitish-grey. This species is, like
Mus sylvaticus, very numerous in some years, so as almost to destroy the
harvest ; such was the case in 1 8 1 8 and 1819 in Holland and elsewhere ;
see C. NICATI Commentatio de Mure domestico, sylvatico atque arvali in
Annal. Acad. Kheno-Traject. 1823.

Hypudceus ceconomus ILLIG., Mus ceconomus PALL., SCHREB. Saugth.
Tab. 190; GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 26, fig. 3; this species, at home
in Siberia, lays up a great quantity of roots, &c. against winter, and
travels away at indeterminate times in numerous troops.

Compare on this genus DE SELYS-LONGCHAMPS Etudes de Micromam-
malogie, 1839, pp. 81 — 132; the same in Revue zoolog. 1847, pp. 305 — 312,
and GERBE Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1852, pp. 257 — 270, 305 — 312,
449—46o, PL ii, 13, 14, 1 8, 19.

MAMMALIA. 679

Myodes PALL, (in part), BLAS. and KEYSERL., Lemmus LINK,
DESMAR., BRANTS. Ears hidden beneath the fur. Soles hairy.
Fore feet with fossorial claws. Tail very short, hairy.

Sp. Hypudceus lemmus ILLIG., Mus lemmus L., Museum Wonnianum, 1655,
foL p. 325 (fig. of animal and skeleton), PALL. Glir. Tab. xn. A, SCHREB.
Sdugth. Tab. 195 A, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill, Mammif. PI. 59, fig. i ; the
lemming or Northern mouse of passage; 5" to 6" long, above ruddy-yellow,
on the top of the head and neck black, below pale ash-coloured. This
animal lives on the mountains of Norway and Sweden, and travels to
other regions in multitudes, which eat every thing bare on their road, like
locusts. This usually forbodes a hard winter. The number of these animals,
thus suddenly appearing in situations where they were previously unknown,
gave occasion in former times to the strange opinion that they descended
from the clouds. Mus. Worm. p. 321; — Hypudceus migratori us ILLIG.,
Lemmus olensis BRANTS, PALL. Glir. Tab. xn. B, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab.
195 B, &c. Here is to be placed Georychus luteus EVERSMANN, Bullet, de
laSoc. imp. des natural istes de Moscou, 1840, p. 25, Tab. 2, a species nearly

allied to Lammus obensis, but distinct according to MIDDENDOBFF.

0

Fiber Cuv., ILLIG. Ears hairy, short. Claws compressed,
incurved. Toes of hind feet long, bordered at the sides by long,
thick, shining hair. Tail longer than half the body, compressed,
two-edged toward the extremity, scaly, covered with short, thin
hair. (Other characters nearly of Hypudceus.) Dent. form. OWEN,
. i_i i_i 2-2

Sp. Fiber zibethicus Cuv., Castor zibethicus L., BUFF. x. PI. i, SCHREB.
Sdugth. Tab. 176, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PI. 58, fig. 2; the
ondatra (name with the Hurons) ; length of the body fully i foot, without
the tail, which is from 8 to 9 inches long ; the colour usually ruddy-brown,
on the top of the head and back darker, in some specimens dark brown.
This animal is found from 30° to 69° in North America, lives in grassy
marshes and lakes, and on the banks of sluggish rivers. Four or five
hundred thousands of skins are annually imported into England, and used
in making hats.

Euryotis BRANTS, WAGN., Otomys F. Cuv. Upper incisors
(and mostly lower also) indented by a longitudinal groove. Molar
teeth composed of transverse lamellae. Ears somewhat large,
rounded, ample. Tail moderate, thinly haired. (Feet and habit
of mice.)

Sp. Euryotis irrorata BRANTS Muizen, p. 94 (and plate at the end of the
work), SMITH HI. of the Zool. of S. Afr., Mamm. PI. 22, Otomys bisul-
catus F. Cuv., Mammif. Livr. 6 1;— Euryotis unisukata SMITH, F. Cuv.
1.1. Livr. 60, &c. Mice of South Africa; of the teeth F. CUVIER gave
a description and figure, Des Dents des Mammif. PI. 60, pp. 168, 169.

680 CLASS XVII.

Note. — Allied to this genus are Otomys SMITH (not Cuv., Malacotkrix
WAGN.) and Mystromys WAGN. Comp. SCHKEBER'S Saugth., Supple-
meniband, 3te Abth. s. 496 — 501.

Family XXVII. Cunicularia (Georhychi WiEGM.). Incisors

4 — 4

exsert, cuneate, with apex truncated, straight; molars mostly 4—3 >

Q _ Q

more seldom ~ — -5 . Feet pentadactylous, cloven. Ears none, or
o — o

in a few very short. Eyes small, sometimes concealed by skin.
(Body thick, head obtuse, tail short or none.)

Rhizomys GRAY, Nyctocleptes TEMM. Incisors broad, smooth in

O _ Q

front, with red enamel, molars ~ — o » small, complex. Head broad,

o — o

short, truncated anteriorly. Ears very small, rounded. Eyes
small, placed towards the upper surface of head. Fore feet tetra-
dactylous, with hallucar wart unguiculate; claws short. Tail
short.

Sp. RUzomys decan nob., Nyctocleptes decan TEMM., TEMMINCK in Bijdragen
tot de NatuurTc. Wetenschappen, vn. 1832, bl. I — 8, PL i, Monogr. de
Mammal, u. pp. 40 — 45, PL 33, Mus Sumatrensis KAFFL., LINN. Trans.
Xin. 258? Rhizomys Sumatrensis and Rh. Sinensis GRAY, Proceed. Zool.
Soc. I. 1830 — 1831, p. 95; an animal of the size of a rabbit that feeds on
the roots of the bamboo-cane ; it has not been observed at Sumatra, but in
Malacca and China. — WAGNER refers to this genus also Bathyergus splen-
dens KUEPPELL, a small species from Abyssinia, with ears more developed
and in some degree a different habitus; RUEPPELL Neue Wirbelthiere,
Tab. 12, KRAUSS 1. 1. Tab. 20, fig. 2. The skull and the teeth appear to
support this opinion.

Ctenomys BLAINV. Incisor teeth smooth, orange-coloured,

4—4
molars - — j, destitute of roots, simple, decreasing in size from

the first to the last, which is small, with crown of the upper
obliquely lunate, concave outwards, of the lower oval. Ears small.
Tail somewhat short, clothed with appressed hair. Rigid, in-

curved hairs at the base of claws. (Dent. form. OWEN, i« « -< >

Sp. Ctenomys Irasiliensis BLAINV., KRAUSS 1. 1. Tab. 20, fig. 5 (from the
figure in D'ORBiGNY's Voyage) ; — Ctenomys magellanicus BENNETT, Trans.
of the Zool. Soc. n. Tab. 17, WATERHOUSE Mamm. n. PL 9, fig. 2.

MAMMALIA. 681

Spalacopus WAGL., Poephagomys F. Cuv., Psammoryctes POEP-

4 — 4
PIG, WAGN. Incisor teeth smooth; molars J^JT, destitute of

roots, simple, narrowed in the middle on each side, hence bipartite.
Ears small. Tail short. Claws compressed, incurved.

Spalacopus noctivagus, Psammoryctes noctivagus POEPP., Poephagomys
ater F. Cuv. Ann. des Sc. not. 2e Se'rie, Zool. i. 1835, p. 321, PI. 13,
WATEBH. Mamm. n. PL 9, fig. i, GUEE. Magas. de Zool. 1836, Mamm.
PL 20.

Schizodon WATERH. (Scarcely different, except in the ears a
little larger.)

Sp. Schizodon fuscus WATEBH. Mamm. n. PL u, fig. 2 ; a species which, like
theGeorychi of the Cape, burrows under ground ; it is found in the southern
part of the Andes-range.

Georychus ILLIG. (in part), mihi, WlEGM., Eaihyergus F. Cuv.

4 — 4
(spec, of Bathyergus G. Cuv.). Incisors short, molars simple j

3 — 3

or often ^ — ~ , with the last developed late, the first least of all.
o — o

Eyes small. Ears none. Claws of fore feet small. Tail short.

Sp. Georychus capensis ILLIG., Mus capensis PALL. Glir. Tab. 7 (fig. copied
in SCHBEB. Saufftk. Tab. 204), BUFF. Suppl. in. PL 33, p. 194, vi. PL
36, p. 252, la petite taupe du Cap. This animal, of the size of a rat, is
greyish, with head black and often white on the nose, near the auditory
passages, above the eyes and on the middle of the occiput. This burrowing
mouse lives at the Cape of Good Hope, in the gardens of Cape Town and
in the fields further in the interior. (" F. CUVIEB and ILLIGEB ascribe to
this animal 3 molars ; in one skull, however, I counted 4. The first, the
largest in Bathyergus, is here the smallest." Handb. der Dierk. first edit.
II. p. 611). — The eyes are very small in Georychus holosericeus WAGN.,
according to PETERS it does not differ from Bathyergus ccecutiens LICH-
TENST., BBANTS Muizen bl. 37.

Heliophobius PETERS. (A genus scarcely distinct from Georychus

(\ f\
except in the molar teeth — — ^ ?)

Sp. Heliophobius argenteo-cinereus, PETEBS Reise nach Moss., Saugth. pp.
J39— H5, Tab. 31, fig. 2.

Note. — Whether this be the place for Elldbius FISCHER, Chtono-
ergus NORDMASTN, I scarcely venture to determine.

682 CLASS xvii.

Sp. Mia tcdpinus PALL. Glir. Tab. xi. A. Comp. WAGNER in SCHREB.
Saugth., Supplementband, 3te Abth. pp. 362, 364, and the authors there
cited.

Spalax GuLDENSTAEDT1, ILLIG., Cuv. Incisors very large,

3 — 3

exsert, molars - —$ , complex, small, the first larger than the rest,
o — o

Head broad, flat above, truncate anteriorly. Eyes very small, hid-
den under the hairy skin. Ears none. Feet short, with claws
small. Fur soft. Tail none.

Sp. Spalax typhlus, Mus typhlus PALL. Glir. Tab. vni. (copied in SCHREB.
Saugth. Tab. 206); GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. -27, fig. 2; the zemni
(slepez is the Russian name); 8" big, lives underground like a mole, and
bites round about powerfully : one who has pressed this animal in his hand
till it dies, and has been bitten by it, has acquired (according to popular
belief in the Ukraine) the wonderful power of curing the goitre by laying
on his hands 3. This animal is found in Southern Russia from the Wolga
to the borders of Poland and in Hungary.

According to the investigations of KESSLER the supposed larger species,
noticed by PALLAS, of 10 to n inches, and which has no lateral folds
on the crowns of the molars (OmmatostergusPallasii NORDMANN, KEYSERL.
u. BLASIUS Wirbelthiere Europa's, s. vn. ir, 31, figured in the work of
DEMIDOFF and copied by KRAUSS, op. cit. PI. 20, fig. i) is merely a variety
depending on age. Bullet, de la Soc. imp. de Moscow, xxiv. 1851, p. 127.

Siphneus BRANTS (spec, of Georychus ILLIG. and Cuv.). Eyes
very small, conspicuous. Fore feet with claws of three middle toes
compressed, incurved, large, that of the third toe particularly long.
Tail short. (Other characters of the preceding genus.)

Sp. Siphneus Aspalax, Mus Aspalax PALL. Glir. Tab. x. copied in SCHRKB.
Saugth. Tab. 205), KRAUSS 1. 1. Tab. 20, fig. 6 ; the ZoTcor, Siberia.

Batliyergus ILLIG., Orycterus F. Cuv. Incisors very large,

4 — 4
exsert, upper indented by a longitudinal groove ; molars -. -^ ,

complex, bipartite from a transverse streak of enamel ; crown of
worn teeth flat, surrounded by a single circle of enamel. Eyes
small. Ears none. Fore feet with large, fossorial claws, the claw

1 Novi comment. Acad. Petrop. xiv. P. i, p. 409.

2 " Itaque decantata virtus Regum Gallic apud UTcranos admodum obvia et vilis est
nee spero minus cfficax, si quid imaginationis vires in istos morbos valent." PALL. Glir.
p. 158.

MAMMALIA. 683

of second toe largest of all. Tail short. (Dent. form. OWEN,
. i_i i_i 3-3

Sp. Bathyergus maritimus ILLIG., Mus maritimus GMEL., Mus suillus SCHREB.,
BUFF. Suppl. vi. fig. 38 (fig. of ALLEMAND from the Dutch edit, of BUF-
FON), SCHREB. Tab. 204 B, GUER. Iconogr., Mamm. PI. 38, fig. 3, the
skeleton figured in PANDER und D'ALTON Vergl. Osteolog., Heft vi. Tab.
3 ; the sand-mole; this animal lives in sandy countries and on the sand-
hills at the Cape of Good Hope ; it feeds on roots, like the other species of
this family.

Ascomys LICHTENST., Saccostomus KUHL, Pseudostoma SAY,

4 — 4
Orycteromys or Oryctomys BLAINV. Molar teeth -. — j , destitute

of roots, subcylindrical. Ears very short, rounded. Eyes small.
Bnccal pouches large, deep (when empty received in a cutaneous
fold, opening downwards by a long fissure at the inferior margin of
jaw). Fore feet fossorial, with middle three claws long, incurved,
the third longest of all. Tail short.

a) With upper incisors deeply indented in the middle by a longitudinal
groove.

Sp. Ascomys canadensis LICHTENST., Mus bursarius SHAW, Geomys bursarius
RICHARDSON, SHAW Transact, of the Linn. Soc. v. p. 227, Tab. vm.
(copied in DESMAREST Encycl. meth., Mamm. PL Suppl. x. fig. 4); LICH-
TENSTEIN Ueber die dmsere Backentasche der Nagethiere, Abhandl. der
Alcad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, vn. 1825, s. 13 — 20, Tab. 2; red-brown;
trunk full 8", tail 3" long; this animal lives in Canada. (In SHAW'S
figure the buccal pouches are inverted, hanging down on each side of the
head). — Ascomys mexicanus LICHTENST.; shining dark-brown.

b) With upper incisors marked by a very thin lateral groove or quite
smooth. Thomomys MAXIM.

Sp. Ascomys bulbivorus, Diplostoma bulbivorum RICHARDS. Faun. bor. Arner.,
Mamm. PI. 18 B, copied in KRAUSS 1.1. Tab. 20, fig. 7; Ascomys rufescens
WAGN., Thomomys rufescens MAXIM. NEUW., Oryctomys Bottte ETDOUX et
GERVAIS (GUERIN Mag. de Zool. 1836, Mamm. PI. 21, fig. 4, fig. of teeth),
in WAGNER'S opinion.

Haplodori WAGL., WAGX., Aplodontia BICHARDSON.

M * ' jc

Sp. Haplodon leporinus, Aplodontia leporina RICHARDS. Zool. Journ. 1829,
P- 335> Faun, bor Amer. i. p. 211, Tab. 18 c, figs. 7 — 14, Arctomys rufa
HARLAN, Fauna Americana, Philadelphia, 1825, p. 208; hab. the west of
North America near the river Columbia. The animal unknown to me,

684 CLASS xvu.

with molars * ~ , the first upper small, with buccal pouches none, accord-
ing to DOUGLAS, with claws of fore feet very long, tail very short.

Family XXVIII. Muriformia (Psammoryctina WAGN. in part,
Orycterina WiEGM.) Incisors with apex truncated, straight.

4-4
Molars almost always *__* • Feet pentadactylous or tetradacty-

lous, congruous. Ears moderate, sometimes large.

This family contains some rodents, principally from South
America, which cannot well be referred to any of the other families,
but is not sharply defined. Under a future improved arrangement
of the GlireSj for which the time appears not yet to have arrived,
and which may be much more simple than is now supposed, this
family will doubtless be dropped.

3 — 3

Ctenodactylus GEAY. Incisors white, smooth ; molars 5 — ~ ,

o — o

the upper with crown oblong, emarginate externally, the lower
with crown narrowed on each side, oblique. Ears small. Whiskers
long. Feet tetradactylous ; inner toe of hind feet furnished with a
horny comb ; rigid, curved hairs concealing the small compressed
claws. Tail very short.

Ctenodactylus Massonii GRAY, Spic. Zool. Tab. 10; Tripoli; yellowish-
grey, resembling a lemming externally. Comp. YAKRELL'S elaborate de-
scription, Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. 1830 — 1831, pp. 48 — 50.

4 — 4
Petromys SMITH. Incisors smooth, pale yellow ; molars j — 7 >

with crown divided into two transverse, oval lamellae, the upper
folded internally, the lower externally. Ears small, rounded.
Whiskers long, numerous. Feet pentadactylous, with pollex short;
claws incurved, small, compressed. Tail elongate, clothed with
rigid hair, longer towards the extremity.

Sp. Petromys typicus SMITH Zool. of S. Afr., Mamm. PI. 20, WATERH.
Mamm. 2, PI. 1 7, fig. i ; of the size of a rat, red-brown, tail blackish.

Cercomys F. Cuv. Molar teeth - -j , complex. Head pro-
tracted in front of mouth. Ears ample, somewhat naked. Whis-
kers long. Fore feet tetradactylous, with thumb-wart unguiculate,

MAMMALIA. 685

hinder pentadactylous ; outer toe short both before and behind.
Tail long, annulate, thinly haired.

Sp. Cercomys cunicularius F. Cuv. Mammif., Livr. 60, Nouv. Ann. du Mus.
I. 1832, pp. 449—452, PL 18, fig. i (molar teeth), PI. 19, figs, i, * (cra-
nium), Hab. in Brasil.

Loncheres ILLIG., Echimys GEOFFR. (Echinomys more correctly

4 — 4

WAGN.). Incisor teeth smooth ; molar -r -j, complex. Whiskers

long, numerous. Spines almost always intermixed with hairs on
the back, lanceolate, flat, or concave above. Fore feet tetradacty-
lous, with thumb-wart unguiculate, hinder pentadactylous. Claws
short, compressed, incurved. Tail long, annulate, more or less
hairy.

Compare on this genus of South American rodents ISID. GEOFFB.
SAINT-HILAIBE Notice sur les Rongeurs epineux in GUEBIN Magas. de ZooL
1840, Mammif. pp. i — 57, PI. 20 — 29.

Dactylomys ISID. GEOFFR. Fore feet tetradactylous. Two middle
toes of fore feet and three middle toes of hind feet much longer than
the lateral toes. Tail long, annulate, thinly haired except the base.
Spines none. (Each molar tooth composed of two parts divided
by a transverse groove; crown of upper molars divided into two
triangles, with the acute apex internal, emarginate externally,
crown of lower with first part triangular, incised internally, the
other part oval.)

Sp. Echimys dactylinus DESMAB., Dactylomys typus ISID. GEOFFB. 1. 1. PL
20, DEVILLE in GUEBIN Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1852, pp. 354 — 357; —
Dactylomys embtyonyx NATTEBEB, WAGN.

Echinomys (IsiD. GEOFFR.), WAGN. Characters of the genus.
Ears elongate, acuminate. Tarsi elongate, narrow. Molar teeth
small, with crown rounded. Spines in adults, mostly mixed with
hair.

Sp. Loncheres cayennensis (Fiscn.), Echimys cayennensis GEOFFB., DESMAB.,
Loncheres myosurus (and leptosoma) LICHTENST., GUEB. Iconogr., Mammif.
PI. 24, fig. 3, WATEBH. Mamm. n. PI. 19, fig. 2. (Younger individuals,
that had not got spines, occasioned the adoption of a distinct species,
Echimys setosus GEOFFB., DESM., IBID. GEOFFB. 1. 1. PI. 25. Compare
PICTET Notice sur les Ani. nouv. du Mus. de Geneve, ire Livr. PI. i — 3); —
Loncheres antricola, Nelomys antricola LUND, Kongel. DansTce Vidensk.
SelsJcabs Afhandl. vin. 1841, PI. 23, &c. Individuals destitute of tail which
occur not unfrequently in South America amongst these rodents, the loss

686 CLASS xvn.

being caused probably by the sand-fleas (Pulex penetrans), have occasioned
the genus Mesomys WAGN. See J. REINHARDT VidensL Meddelelser fra
den naturh. Forening iKjobenhavn, 1849, l%5°> PP- IIQ — IJ5> BDRMEISTEB
Syst. Uebers. der Thiere Erasiliens, 1854, s. 208, 209.

Nelomys JOUKDAN, ISID. GEOFFK., Loncher -es WAGN. Characters
of the genus. Ears moderate, rounded. Tarsi somewhat short,
broad. Molar teeth with crown oblong.

Sp. Loncheres cristatus ILLIG., BURM., Echimys cristatus GEOFFR., DESMAR.,
Loncheres chrysurw LICHTENST., BUFF. Suppl. vn. PI. 72, (fig. and
descr. of ALLEMAND), ISID. GEOFFR. 1.1. PL 21, WATERH. Mamm. n. PL
1 7, fig. 2 ; in this large species the tail is hairy ; other species have the tail
nearly naked, like mice, as Loncheres armatus WAGN., Mus hispidus LICH-
TENST., &c.

Some species have no spines. Such a species with a hairy tail is Lasiu-
romys villosus DEVILLE, GU^RIN Revue et Magas. de Zool. 1852, PL 15, pp.
360, 361.

Carterodon WATERH. Incisors broad, upper indented on the

4 — 4
outer part by a longitudinal groove. Molars j— -: , complex,

crown quadrate and rounded, the upper with one internal and two
external folds of enamel, the lower with one external fold and two
internal. Ears small, rounded. Thumb-wart of fore feet with nail
flat ; the other claws incurved, concealed by rigid hair. Narrow
spines, terminating in a very fine point, intermixed with hair.
Tail hairy, moderate.

Many years ago skulls of a rodent with grooved incisors were found by
LUND in caves of Brasil, which he referred to a species of Echinomys, and
first named Echinomys sulcidens, but afterwards Aulacodus Temminckii.
Kongel. Danske Vidensk. Selskdbs Afhandl. ix. 1842, p. 136; WATERHOUSE
formed from this a distinct genus Carterodon (Mamm. 11. p. 351), but left
it undetermined whether or no the animal was fossil only. At length
J. REINHARDT obtained two living specimens of this animal, which he
described in 1851 under the name of Carterodon sulcidens, Vidensk. Med-
delelser, &c. 1851, pp. 23 — 26. See also BURMEISTER Syst. Uebers. der
Thiere Bras. s. 209 — 211.

Aulacodus V. SWINDEREN, TEMM. Incisors broad, short, trun-
cated, straight, brown in front, the upper trisulcate. Molar teel

4 — 4

j — 2 , complex, upper with three external folds and one internal.

Ears somewhat short, rounded. Fore feet with thumb and out

MAMMALIA. 687

digit very short ; hind feet tetradactylous ; claws obtuse, rounded
above, large. Body covered with hair flat and grooved above, or
with flexile spines. Tail moderate or somewhat short, thinly
haired.

Sp. Aulacodus Swinderianus, TEMMINCK Monogr. de Mammal, i. pp. 245 —
248, PL 25, Esq. Zool. sur la c6te de Gu.ine} pp. 170, 171; WATERH.
Mamm. H. PL 16; PETERS Reise, i. p. 138; in a great part of South
Africa and on the coast of Guinea. This animal has an affinity with
Hyslrix, and in its size deviates from the spined rats (Loncheres).

Capromys DESMAR., Isodon SAY. Incisors smooth. Molars

4 — 4

•j , destitute of roots, complex, with two folds external in the

upper, internal in the lower, and one fold on the opposite side. Ears
moderate. Fore feet with a very short rudiment of thumb, the
claw truncated, and with four toes, hind feet pentadactylous.
Claws large, incurved. Tail moderate or long, covered thinly with
hair.

Sp. Capromys Foumieri DESM., Isodon pilorides SAT Journal of the Acad. of
Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia, n. p. 330, Zool. Journ. I. London, 1825, pp.227
— 229, DESMAREST Mem. de la Soc. d'Hist. not. de Paris, i. 1823, pp. 43 —
60, Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat. PL 150 — 152 (Livrais. ill. No. i, Livrais. xv.
Nos. 5, 6, figure of the animal, its skeleton and skull) ; on the island of
Cuba. This genus has unmistakeable affinity with Myopotamus (see above),
and, like that genus, with Cavia also. On the anatomy OWEN gave a
detailed notice, Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. 1832, pp. 68 — 76, pp. 100
— 103. — A smaller species with a longer tail is Capromys Poeyi GUERIN
Magas. de Zool. 1834, Mammif. PL 15, Iconogr., Mammif. PL 25, fig.
12, which does not appear to be different from Capromys prehensilis
POEPPIG. (I have not had an opportunity to consult the work of RAMON
DE LA SAGRA on Cuba.) On the island of St Domingo an allied species
occurs: Plagiodonta cedium, F. CUVIER Ann. des Sc. not., 2e Serie, VI.
Zool. 1836, PL 17, pp. 347 — 353. The folds of the molars are here placed
more obliquely ; the tail is short, scaly and naked.

4 — 4
Habrocoma WATERH. Incisors narrow, smooth. Molars j — j >

destitute of roots, with crown of upper on each side sinuate inter-
nally with a fold of enamel, of lower with oblique folds describing
triangles with the apex forward. Whiskers very long. Ears large,
oval, somewhat naked. Fore feet tetradactylous, hinder pentadac-
tylous. Tail moderate, fusiform, covered with close hair. Body
covered by a dense fur of very soft hair.

688 CLASS xvn.

This genus has some conformity with Chinchilla, even in the skull; the
bailee tympanicce are particularly large ; the skeleton has T 7 pairs of ribs,
the greatest number occurring in this order. Two species are known, both
from Chili: Habrocoma Bennettii WATERH. Voy. of H. M. S. Beagle,
Mammal. PI. 28, and Habrocoma Cuvieri, PI. 29.

Octodon BENNETT, Dendrolius ME YEN. Incisors smooth,

4 — 4
molars j -i > destitute of roots, with crown oblique, with a fold

of enamel on each side, sinuate internally. Whiskers numerous.
Ears somewhat large, rounded, somewhat naked. Feet pentadacty-
lous, the fore feet with pollex very small, resembling an unguiculate
wart. Claws small, compressed, incurved, hidden by long hair,
especially in the hind toes. Tail moderate or somewhat long, with
tip mostly pencilled with long hairs.

Sp. Octodon degus WATERH., Sciurus degus MOLINA, GMEL., Octodon Cumingii
BENNETT, Dendrolius degus MEYEN, Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Leop. Car. xvr.
•2, pp. 600 — 602, Tab. 44, BENNETT Transact, of the Zool. Soc. n. i, 1836,
PI. 16; — Octodon Bridgesii WATERH. This genus is nearly allied to the
preceding, and also lives in Chili.

Family XXIX. Eriomyina ( Chinchillidce BENNETT.) Incisors

4 — 4

smooth. Molars -. — ^, destitute of roots, composed of narrow

transverse parallel lamellae. Hind feet longer than fore feet. Tail
furnished with long hair. (Clavicles perfect.)

This small group of South American mammals has been more accurately
known and even for the most part discovered only within the last twenty
years.

Eriomys CRETSCHMAR, LICHTENST., mihi. Molar teeth com-
posed each of three lamellae. Ears large, somewhat naked. Whis-
kers very long. Hind feet tetradactylous. Claws incurved, small,
nearly hidden under the hair of toes. Body covered with very soft
hair.

a) Fore feet pentadactylous. Ears large, rounded {Eriomys in stricter
sense, Chinchilla BENNETT, WATERH.).

Sp. Eriomys pellionum mihi, Mm laniger MOLINA, GM., Chinchilla F. Cuv.
and GEOFFR. SAINT-HILAIRE, Mammif. Livr. 64, BENNETT Gardens and
Menag. of the Zool. Soc. I. (October, 1829,) pp. i — 12; in Chili and Peru.
The fur of the Chinchilla had been prized for some years for its fineness,
before any thing determinate was known with regard to the animal and its
position in the arrangement of mammals. Compare my paper in JBijdragen

MAMMALIA. 689

tot de natuurk. Wetenschappen, vi. 1831, bl. 105 — 118, PI. 2. (The opinion
now prevails very generally that there are two species ; one larger with
shorter tail, Chinchilla brevicaudala WATERH., Eriomys chinchilla LICH-
TENST., WAGN., LICHTENST. Darstellung, Tab. 28, and Chinchilla lanigera
WATERH., Eriomys laniger WAGN., Eriom. pellionum mihi, to which the
figures of F. CUVIER and BENNETT refer.)

6) Fore feet tetradactylous. Ears elongate. Lagidium MEYEN, Lagotis
BENNETT.

Sp. Eriomys Cuvierti, Lagotis Cwvierii BENNETT, On the Chinchillidce and a
new Genus, Trans, of theZool. Soc. I. 1833, pp. 35 — 64; — Eriomys peruanus,
Lagidium peruanum MEYEN, Lagotis pallipes BENNETT 1. 1. i. 4, 1834, pp.
331—334, PL 42.

Lagostomus BROOKES. Molar teeth formed of two transverse
lamellae, except the last upper formed of three lamellae. Whiskers
long, strong, numerous. Fore feet tetradactylous, hind feet tridac-
tylous, with middle toe long, with claws long, compressed. Tail
shorter than half the body, covered with longish hair.

Sp. Lagostomm trichodactylus BROOKES, Linn. Transact. XVI. r, pp. 95 — 104,
Tab. ix., LESSON III. de Zool. PI. 8, WATERHOUSE Mamm. n. PI. 5, fig. i ;
the Viscacha (Dipus maximus BLAINV., DESMAR.) ; grey-brown, white be-
low, a dark black spot along the cheeks ; some longer black hair on the
back and along the sides. This large rodent lives in South America, east-
wards from the chain of the Andes to 41° S.L., in the plains (Pampas).

* Family XXX. Dipoda WAGN. Molar teeth , -

3-3 4-4' 3-3

or -^ , complex, mostly supplied with roots. Fore feet short,
o — o

hind feet elongate, saltatory. Tail long, furnished with long hair.
Eyes large. Clavicles perfect. Infra-orbital foramen very large,
placed in front of the orbit and resembling a second orbit.

Pedetes ILLIG., Helamys F. Cuv. Incisors smooth, broad,

4-4
the inferior with apex broad, truncated ; molars — — ^ > without

, roots, with crown divided into two transverse, oval portions by a
fold, external in the upper, internal in the lower. Ears elongate.
Fore feet pentadactylous, with claws elongate, acuminate ; hind feet
tetradactylous, very long, with claws ungulseform. Tail long,

jL _ ^ i _ ^ 3—3

: tufted. (Dent. form. OWEN, i. ^ — =- , p. ^ — =• , m. = 20.)

1 — 1 '1 — 1 o — o

VOL. ii. 44

690 CLASS XVII.

Sp. Pedetes cafer ILLIG., Mus cafer PALL., Dipus Cafer SCHREB., GMEL.,
Helamys capensis F. Cuv., BUFF. Suppl. vi. PI. 41, pp. 269, 270 (fig. and
descrip. of ALLEMAND), SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 230, GUERIN Iconogr.,
Mammif. PI. 28, fig. i ; jumping hare, in South Africa. This animal
moves by wide leaps ; it sleeps by day.

DipUS (ZlMMERMANN, SCHREB., GMEL. in part), ILLIG. (excl. of

some spec.). Incisor teeth slender, acuminate, the upper grooved.

q Q

Molars \ — ~ > furnished with roots, complex, with a fold of
o — o

enamel sinuate inwards at the surface of crown. Ears not longer
than half the head. Fore feet pentadactylous, hind feet tridacty-
lous. Tail long, hairy, with tip mostly tufted, and hair set in two

1 — 1 1—1 2 — 2

rows (distichous). (Dent. form. OWEN, i. -=- — =- , p. ^ — - , m. ^ — ~

1 — 1 1 — 1 ^2 — ^

= 16.)

Sp. Dipus sagitta GM., SCHREB., Mus sagitta PALL. Glir. Tab. 21 (copied in
SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 229) ; between the Don and the Wolga, in the South-
ern Steppes at the Irtitsch. A very similar species lives in North Africa,
Dipus cegyptius LICHTENST., Mus cegyptius HASSELQUIST, which species
occurs in Egypt and Barbary, BUFF. Suppl. vi. PL 39, 40, Cuv. R. Ani.t
€d. ill., Mammif. PI. 60, fig. i. See on the metatarsus, which consists of
one bone only, above p. 566. The vertebrae of the short neck have, with
the exception of the first, mutually coalesced. See DUVERNOY and LERE-
BOULLET M6m. de la Soc. de Strasbourg, in. 1842, PI. m. (skeleton of
Dipus mauritanicus, which DUVERNOY distinguishes from D. cegyptius; I
observe the same coalescence in the skeleton of a specimen from Egypt).
LINN.EUS united the North American and Asiatic species under the name
of Musjaculus (Syst. not. ed. 12, I. p. 85).

Scirtetes WAGN., Alactaga F. Cuv. Incisor teeth smooth;

4 — 4

molars 5 — ~ , furnished with roots ; first upper small, cylindric, j
o — o

the rest semi-complex with folds of enamel contorted. Feet pen-
tadactylous, or hind feet tetradactylous, with three larger toes,
insistent, one or two lateral toes raised, small. Ears long, nearly of
the length of head, or longer than head.

Sp. Scirtetes jaculus WAGN., Dipus jaculus PALL., Musjaculus PALL, (not L.)
Glir. Tab. 20 (copied in SCHREB. Tab. 228) ; in the steppes between the
Donau and the Don and in the Crimea, the Alak-daagha of the Mongols.
Here also belong various other species from the steppes on the East coast
of the Caspian Sea and at the Sea of Aral, as also a species from North
America, Alactaga arundinis F. Cuv. (The molars of this genus, more

MAMMALIA. 691

complex than those of Dipus, are figured by F. CDVIEE Des dents des
Mammif. No. 76, p. 189.)

Jaculus WAGLER, WAGX., Meriones F. Cuv. (not ILLIG.).
Upper incisors indented by a longitudinal groove. Molar teeth

4 — 4

2 — 2 , furnished with roots, the first upper small, the rest with
o — o

crown figured by undulant folds of enamel. Ears rounded, with
short hair. Fore feet with four toes and hallucar wart with flat
nail ; hind feet pentadactylous, with three middle toes long, strong.
Tail very long, somewhat naked.

Sp. Jaculus labradorius WAGN., Gerbittus labradorius HARLAN (Faun. Americ.
p. 157), Meriones labradorius RICHARDSON, Fauna bor. Am. PI. 7, p. 144;
in the Northern regions of North America ; a small animal of the length
of about i o inches, of which the tail forms more than one-half ; red-brown,
darker brown on the back, on the sides and below white.

Note. — Genus Dipodomys GRAY, furnished with buccal pouches, is un-
known to me. Sp. D. Philippii from Mexico. See Ann. of nat. Hist.
vii. 1841, pp. 521, 522; — Dipodomys agilis GAMBEL from California, ib.
Sec. Series, Vol. in. 1849, p. 318.

Family XXXI. Sciurina. Incisor teeth smooth, com-

5-5 / 4-4 4-4\

pressed, molars mostly -: -. sometimes -A -A or - — - , enamelled

•/4 — 4\ 4 — 4 3 — 3/

continuously or complex, furnished with roots. Feet either all
pentadactylous, or fore feet with four toes and thumb- wart. Tail
hairy. Clavicles perfect.

Phalanx I. Myoxina.

4 — 4
Myoxus ZlMMERMANN, BoDD., GM. Molar teeth j- ^ , with

rows in each jaw parallel, remote, the crown with transverse striae
narrow, approximate. Ears moderate, rounded and oval, with short
hair. Whiskers long. Fore feet with four toes and hallucar wart,
clawless, hind feet pentadactylous ; claws small, compressed, in-
curved, sub-erect. Tail long, densely clothed with lon<* hair, in
some sub-distichous.

Sp. Myoxus glis SCHREB., Sciurus Glis L., BUFF. vm. PI. 24, SCHREB.
Saugih. Tab. 225, Gu^R. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 14, fig. 2 ; le loir, der
Siebenschlafer ; pale ash-coloured, white below, a dark brown ring round
the eyes, size of a rat ; this species is the glis of the ancients, which they

44—2

692 CLASS xvii.

highly prized as a dainty, and used to fatten in separate hutches ; it lives
in the South of Europe up to the Wolga, also in Georgia, — Myoxits nitela
SCHREB., Mus quercinus L., BUFF. vm. PL 25, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 226.

Myoxus avellanarius, Mus avellanarius L., Myoxus muscardinus BUFF.

VIII. PI. 26 ; the smallest European species, ruddy yellow. A still smaller,
with short ears, and dark brown longitudinal streak on the back, occurs
in Japan, Myoxus elegans TEMM.

These animals live in trees and feed chiefly on nuts, small birds, eggs
and beetles1; they sleep during the winter. In external form they have
some resemblance to the squirrel (especially the species first named). The
skull, however, between the orbits is much narrower. They have no
coecum, in which respect they deviate from all other rodents. From a
species from the Cape of Good Hope, which (probably only in aged in-
dividuals with worn teeth) has simple molars without transverse bands,
F. CUVIER formed the genus Graphiurus. The crowns of the molars
present indeed in the other species of this genus very great variety;
see CUVIER Reck, sur les Ossem. foss. in. p. 299, PI. 68, figs. 8 — u, where
they are described and figured in the three European species cited by us.

Phalanx II. Arctomyina.

Arctomys SCHREB., GM. Incisor teeth smooth in front, rounded,

g ^

molars -r — -: , enamelled continuously, marked by transverse tuber-
cles on the crown, the first upper tooth less than the rest. Ears
short, rounded, scarcely emergent from the fur of head. Fore feet
with four toes and hallucar wart unguiculate, hind feet pentadacty-
lous ; claws incurved, strong. Tail short, in a few moderate,
equalling or slightly surpassing half the length of body. (Dent.

form. OWEN, i. - ^ , p. - ^ , m. ^^ = 22.)

Compare F. CUVIER Considerations sur les caracte'res gener. de certaine*
families de Mammif., appliques aux Marmottes et formation du genre Sper-
mophile, Mem. du Mus. ix. 1822, pp. 293 — 305, PI. 15, 16; on the North
American species, J. SABINE Transact, of the Linn. Soc. xin. 1822, pp.
579— 59 r-

Arctomys F. Cuv. Buccal pouches none. Tail short, furnished
with long hair from its origin.

1 Sometimes they attack small animals also. Thus F. S. LEUCKART states that a
Myoxus nitela eat up some bats, with which it had been shut up for the winter
(HEUSINGER Zeitschr. f. die organ. PJiysiTc, m. Heft 4, s. 480) ; the Count TYZENHAUZ
states, that a Myoxus dry as in confinement eat up its two newly-born young ones
(GuERiN Revue et Magas. de Zoologie, 1850, p. 363).

MAMMALIA. 693

Sp. Arctomys marmota SCHBEB., Mus marmota L., BUFF. vin. PI. 28,
SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 207, Ccv. R. Ani., ed. til., Mammif. PI. 55, fig.
i ; the skeleton figured in PANDEB u. D'ALTON Vergl. OsteoL Heft v.
Tab. 6: the marmot; i£ feet long, tail 6"; greyish-yellow, top of the head
dark grey, tail at the base russet, at the tip brown, incisors yellow; lives
near the snow-line on high mountains of Europe ; they pass the winter in
their holes asleep. Compare on this animal GESNEB Quadrup. p. 743,
SCOPOLI Ann. hist. not. n. 1769, pp. 37, 38. — Arctomys bobac, Mus bobac
PALL. Glir. Tab. 5 ; in Poland, Eussia and the North of Asia. The re-
maining sp'ecies are from North America, as Arctomys monax GM. (from
which Arct. empetra and pruinosus, according to the Prince of NEUWIED,
do not differ), SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 210, GDEB. Iconogr., Mammif. PI.
24, fig. r.

Spermophilus F. Cuv. Buccal pouches. Tail short or moderate,
with hair at the base and upper part of the sides close, short, at the
point and sides longer. (Species smaller and more slender.)

Sp. Arctomys citdlus GM., Mus Citellus L., PALL. Glir. Tab. 6, SCHBEB.
Saugth. Tab. 211 A; in Bohemia, Austria, Hungary and Siberia; — Arc-
tomys Hoodii SABINE, Sciurus tredecimlineatus MITCHILL, RICHABDSON
Faun. bor. Am. I. PI. 14; a prettily marked species from North America,
brown above with yellow longitudinal stripes, alternating with rows of
round yellow spots ; grey below, &c.

This sub-genus, more numerous in species than the preceding, forms the
transition from the marmots to the squirrels. The marmots and squirrels
have much resemblance in their skull; the frontal bone is furnished with a
process descending behind the orbits. The skull of the marmots is, how-
ever, flatter and less broad between the orbits than in the squirrels.

Phalanx III. Sciurina (in stricter sense).

4 — 4
Anomalurus WATERH. Molar teeth - -^, complex, with

crown quadrate, the lower grooved on the inside. Ears triangular
and oval, somewhat naked. Fore feet with four toes and hallucar
wart, hind feet pentadact ylous. Claws compressed, incurved. Hairy
skin expanded between the humerus and the hind feet, produced
from the soles to the thighs, and joining the tail at its base with
the thighs. Tail longer than half the body, clothed with rigid
hair, longer at the extremity, and covered below at the base with
a double row of horny scales alternate, imbricate.

Sp. Anomalurus Fraseri WATEBHOUSE, Proceed, of the Zool. Soe. 1842,
pp. 125 — 127; — Anomalurus Pelii TEMM. Esq. Zool. sur la c6te de Guine,
p. 146; black, grey below, head above the nose and the posterior margin
of the parachute pure white, tail long and pale russet; — Anomal. laniger

694 G'LASS XVII.

TEMM. Tliese species from the West coast of tropical Africa deviate from
all the Sciurina in the absence of the post-orbital process of the frontal
bone, in the large infra-orbital foramen and in the large number of ribs
(15 pairs, whilst the rest of the Sciurina have only 12, except very few
which have 13). The skull has a convex surface above the orbits, as in
Arctomys. A cartilaginous, falciform ligament for the support of the
parachute passes off from the ulnar process. P. GEBVAIS Description
osteol. de VAnomalurus et remarques sur la classification naturelle des
Rongeurs, Ann. des Sc. nat., 3tne Se'rie, xx. 1853, PP- 23^ — 246, PL 13,
fig. i-7-

PJ _ ^

Pteromys Cuv., GEOFFR., ILLIG. Molar teeth ^ -: , the first

4 — 4

upper very small, placed at the inside of the second. Feet as in
the preceding genus. Hairy skin at the sides of body produced
between the fore and hind feet, rising from the carpus ; fibre-carti-
laginous falciform support inserted in the carpus at the outside.
Tail covered with hair below and above. (Dent. form. OWEN,
. 1-1 2-2 3-3 .

Pteromys (in stricter sense). Molar teeth complex. Tail rounded,
densely haired, of the length of body or longer than body.

Sp. Pteromys petaurista, Sciurus petaurista PALL. Misc. Zool. Tab. vi. Vos-
MAEB Beschrijving van den grooten Oost- Indischen vliegenden eekhoom,
Amsterdam, 1767, 4to (with col. fig.); — Pteromys nitidus, &c. (In this
and the following sub-genus the infra-orbital foramen is very small.)

Sciuroptei-us F. Cuv. Molar teeth tuberculate. Tail shorter
than body, flat, distichous.

Sp. Pteromys vulyaris WAGN., Sciurus volans~L. (excl. syn. CATESB.), SCHREB.
Sdugth. Tab. 223, BLUMENB. Abbild. nat. Gegenst. No. 71; in the North-
east of Europe and Siberia ; — Pteromys volucella, Sciurus volucella GM.,
BUFF. x. PI. 21, GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 23, fig. 3, I>ict. univ.
d'Hist. not., Mammif. PI. 9 A ; North America, &c.

Sciurus L. (excl. some spec.). Incisor teeth smooth in front,
brown or orange-coloured, the lower compressed, acute; molars

5 — 5

A_A 5 tuberculate, marked by exsert transverse striae, enamelled

continuously, with first small and placed at the inside of second.
Fore feet tetradactylous with hallucar wart unguiculate. Claws
compressed, incurved. Skin not expanded at the sides of body.

MAMMALIA. 695

Tail of various length, always longer than half the "body. (Dental
formula as in the preceding genus.)

Compare on the subdivisions of this genus F. CUVIER Mem. du
Mus. x. pp. 116 — 128, PL x.

Tamias ILLIG., F. CUVIEK. Buccal pouches.

Sp. Sciurus striatus L. (in part), PALL. GUr. p. 378, Siberia, also Japan; —
Sciurus Lysieri RICHARDS. Faun. bor. Am. i. PL 15, p. 181 (fig. cop. in
Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PL 53, fig. 2); North America (LiNN^EUS
included both species under the name of Sc. striatus). The mode of life of
this species agrees, according to RICHARDSON, with that of the Siberian.
These animals live in holes under ground and do not make their nest in
trees, like the common squiiTels, which have no buccal pouches. They have
the tail shorter than the body, shorter feet than the rest of the squirrels,
and in some degree the habitus of Spermophilus.

Sciums (in stricter sense). Buccal pouches none.

a) With hair rigid, setose, and ears short (Xerus EHBENB.). Sp. Sciurus
setosus FORSTER, Sciurus Levaillantii KUHL. (A large species from South
Africa, above pale ruddy-brown, below grey, tail variegated, brown and
white, feet pale coloured, a white longitudinal streak on each side. All
the species of this subdivision hitherto known are from Africa.)

/8) With hair soft. Sp. Sciurus vulgaris L., BUFF. vii. PL 32, SCHREB.
Sdugth. Tab. 212; the squirrel, Vecureuil, das Eichhornchen ; commonly
reddish, chestnut-brown on the back, belly white, a tuft of hair on the
ears, the hair on the long tail directed to the two sides. This species lives
in trees in Europe and the North of Asia ; in the North it becomes grey
in winter (see a fig. in Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PL 53, fig. i); it
supplies in this state a fur known by the name of petit gris. Many species
are found of this genus (the most numerous of the whole order) in Africa,
Asia and America. Amongst the Eastern species we notice Sciurus maxi-
mum SCHREB., (Sciurus macrourus ERXL.), SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 217,
Diet. univ. tfHist. not., Mammif. PL 9, fig. i, and Sciurus exilis S.
MUELLER, NatuurJcundige Verhandelingen over de Nederlandsche Bezittingen,
Mammalia, PL 15, fig. 4, as the two extremes as to size (the last from
Borneo not larger than a mouse). — Sciurus laticaudatus S. MUELLER, ib.
fig. i, a species from the same island, differs remarkably from the rest
of the squirrel-species by its long and very narrow skull ; the sub-genus
Tamias (see above) resembles it to a certain degree in its skull.

The sub-genus Macroxus F. Cuv. is distinguished by a narrow and more
cylindrical tail and a large scrotum. Sp. Sciurus cestuans L., BUFF. vn.
PL 65, MAXIM. Abb. zur Naiurgesch. Brasiliens. Liefer, in.

Chiromys Cuv., GEOFFR., ILLIG. Incisor teeth compressed,

4 — 4

acuminate ; molars o _o > enamelled continuously, tuberculate, flat,

696 CLASS xvii.

the crown being worn. Feet pentadactylous, the anterior with
toes long, the middle toe very long, slender ; hind feet with hallux
raised, nail flat, broad. Tail elongate, villous.

Sp. Chiromys madagascariensis DESM., Sciurus madagascarknsis GM., SON-
NER. Voy. aux Ind. Or. (20 eU Paris, 1806, PI. 92, Tom. IV. p. 121),
SCHREB. Sduffth. Tab. 38 D (fig. SONNER.), GUER. Iconogr., Mamrtiif. PL
26, fig. 4; the skull fig. in CDVIER R. Ani. 1817, PL 2, figs, i — 3. This
remarkable animal (Vaye-aye of the French zoologists) discovered by SON-
NERAT on the island of Madagascar, has the external form of Galago, a
genus of the Leinurids, and forms (by its arched skull also) in some degree
the transition from the rodents to the quadrumanes. It has large, naked
ears, is sluggish and lives in holes, concealing itself there during the day-
time. The few specimens which have been brought to Europe hitherto,
are to be found, as far as I know, in the Museum of the Jardin des
Plantes at Paris exclusively. LIE"NARD has given a note on a living spe-
cimen of four months, Comptes rendus de I'Acad. des Sciences, 1855, XLI.,
GuisRiN Revue de Zool. vn. p. 436. An adult animal was described by
VINSON, GUER. Revue, L 1. p. 478.

ORDER VIII. Ferce.

Incisor, canine and molar teeth, or in place of canines false
molars, conical; molar teeth equably enamelled, tuberculate or cus-
pidate. Feet unguiculate, with claws compressed, acute, uncinate;
pollex not separate from the other toes.

Carnivorous animals. The most live on animal food, some ex-
clusively; a few eat fruits also, and other vegetable matters. Their
motions are rapid; their irritability great; many have uncommon
muscular power. Their organs of sight and smell are peculiarly
developed. On the movements of the lower jaw and the dispositio
of its articulation, see above, p. 576.

;

SECTION I. Pinnipedia.

Family XXXII. Pinm'pedia ILLIG. Upper incisors four or
six, lower four, two, or having served for a short time all, deciduous ;
molars with crown either flat, somewhat depressed or cuspidate,
acute. Feet short, palmate, pentadactylous, the posterior turned
backwards, approximate to each other. Toes of fore feet often de-
creasing in size from the pollex, lateral toes of hind feet longer than

MAMMALIA. 697

the three middle toes. Body elongate, clothed with appressed hair,
smooth, attenuate backwards, terminated by a very short, conical
tail.

Phalanx I. Upper canine teeth large, exsert, destitute of root.

Trichechus L. (excl. of Trichechus Manatus). Incisor teeth
deciduous, except an upper one on each side, resembling a molar;
molars with crown flat, depressed, oblique. Muzzle covered, tumid
forwards. Ears none. Four ventral mammae.

Sp. Trichechus Rosmarus L., F. MARTENS Spitzbergische Reisebeschr. Ham-
burg, 1675, 4to; pp. 78—83, Tab. P, fig. b, COOK'S Voyages, &c. Atlas
fol. PI. 52, BLUMENB. Abb. naturh. Gegenst. No. is1, Cuv. JR. Ani., ed.
ill., Mammif. PL 45 ; the skeleton is figured in PANDER und D'Ai/roN
Die SMete der Robben u. Lamentine (Vergl. Osteologie, Liefer, ix.) Tab. I.
Comp. K. E. VON BAER Anatomische u. zoologische Untersuchungen uber
das Walross (Trichechus rosmartis) und Vergleichung dieses Thiers mit
andern See-Sdugthiere, Mem. de VAcad. Imper. des Sc. de St Petersbourg,
viieme Serie, Sc. math, physiques et naturelles, Tom. IV. 1838, pp. 95 — 235.
The Walrus (k morse, — mors or morsz is a Russian word for this animal).
It is from 10 to 12 feet long ; it is said that it sometimes attains a length
of 20 feet. The walruses live together in troops in the sea towards the
North Pole, especially at Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla and in Behring's
Straits ; they sleep on the drifts of ice, whilst some keep guard, and when
danger threatens awake the others by bellowing. The mothers defend
their young and carry them oft when wounded.

We have not given the number of teeth on account of the great
difference to which it is subject from the period of life. Comp. H.
KERSTEN Capitis Trichechi Rosmari descriptio osteologica. Cum Tab. 2,
Berolini, 1821, (from the investigations of RUDOLPHI), WIEGMANN Ueber
das Gebiss des Walrosses, Archiv f. Naturgesch. 1838, s. 390 — 413.
G. JAEGER ibid. 1844, s. 70 — 75. According to RAPP and WIEGMANN

there are originally 7 incisors, canines, - — ? molars, but the posterior

molar and all the incisors soon fall out ; the tooth which is usually
regarded as the first molar is, according to RAPP, the lower canine. The
large superior canines, which are 15 or more inches long, and of which each
weighs sometimes 10 pounds, are in some individuals with the points bent

1 This figure of BLUMENBACH is a copy after the same original from which that of
DE LAET Novus Orbis, L. B. 1663, p. 38, was also taken, viz. a specimen brought alive
to Holland in 1612, and which was described by A. E. VORSTIUS, Professor at
Ley den.

698 CLASS xvii.

towards each other, in others turned outwards. Profc N. C. DE FREMERY
was of opinion, that on this and other accounts two species should be
adopted. SUNDEVALL, however, justly observes that scarcely two skulls
can be examined in which no minute differences in the direction and size of
the tusks can be observed; Aorsbercettelser for 1837 — 1840, p. in. See also
STANNIUS Ueber Gebiss und Schddeldes Walross u. s. w. MUELLER'S Archiv
f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1842, s. 390—413.

Phalanx II. (Phocina). Incisor teeth persistent, upper canines

included, molars -= — = or - — •=• ^ars none or small. Two or
o — o o — o

four mammae, ventral, placed near the umbilicus.

The seals (the genus Phoca L.) live in various seas, and also occur,
at least in part, at the mouths of rivers ; they are especially nume-
rous in the polar regions, and are wanting in the tropical parts of
the ocean. The structure of the body is adapted exclusively for
rapid and sustained swimming. The seals creep upon the shore,
and then bend their spine in direct curves up and down, which
motions have been compared with those of the surveyor caterpillars.
They delight in lying on the shore and on rocks in the sea to sun
themselves. They live upon molluscs, crustaceans, &c., but princi-
pally upon fish. Their note is a bark, not so strong as that of dogs,
and which they make heard at evening time especially, and on
approaching change of weather. Their body is covered with harsh
hair that lies close to the body ; the skin secretes a fatty matter by
which the hair is rendered more glossy, and the body more effec-
tually protected from the water; below the skin a thick layer of
fat is disposed over the whole body, whilst on the other hand fat
is almost entirely absent in the inward parts. We have already
remarked above upon some peculiarities of their internal structure;
amongst which is the length of the intestinal canal (p. 582), the
large sinus of the vena cava (p. 586), &c. They have no clavicles,
a very small humerus and femur, fifteen ribs, five lumbar vertebrae.
The brain is very large. The organ of smell appears to be pecu- •
liarly developed, whilst the inferior turbinated bones have many
plates, and afford a large surface for the mucous membrane. The
tongue is rough and bifid at the extremity. Long whiskers,
attached to the lips, conduct the impressions of touch to branches
of the fifth pair. These hairs are thick and flat, and have in most
of the species sinuous margins, which give them the appearance of
being knotted or jointed. (See ALBINI Annot. Acad. in. Tab. vi.

MAMMALIA. 699

fig. 6'.) The intellectual faculties of the seals appear to be very
considerable, and they possess much docility 2. What has been said
refers principally to the common species, Phoca vitulina, which has
been most observed and investigated.

Compare BLAINVILLE Sur quelques crdnes de Phoques, Journal de Physique,
1820, Octobre, Tome xc. pp. 286 et suiv.; W. VKOLIK Specimen anatomico-
zoologicum de Phocis, speciatim de Phoca vitulina, Traj. ad Rhen, 1822,
8vo, c. Tab. ; DDVERNOY Rech. anat. sur les organes du mouvement du
Phoque commun, Mem. du Mus. IX. 1822, pp. 49 — 79, pp. 165 — 169 ;
F. CUVIER De quelques especes de Phoques et des groupes generiques entre
lesquels elles se partagent, Mem. du Mus. XI. 1824, pp. 174 — 214, PL 12,
15 ; ROSENTHAL Ueber die Sinnesorgane der Seehunde, Nov. Act. Acad.
Leop. Car. xn. 2, 1825, s. 673 — 694, ejusd. Zur Anatomie der Seehunde,
ibid. xv. 2, 1831, s. 313—348, Tab. 75—77, E. H. WEBER Einige Bemer-
kungen ub. d. Bau des Seehundes, Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der Ron.
Sachs. Gesettsch. d. Wiss., Math. Phys. Kl. 1850, s. 108 — 129, &c.

For a description of the northern species may be consulted : G. FA-
BRICIUS Udforlig Beskrivelse over de Grdnlandske Skcele; Skrivter of
naturh. SelsTcdbet. Kjobenhavn, I. 1790, pp. 79 — 157, I. 2, 1791, pp. 73 —
170; THIENEMANN u. GUENTHER Reise im Norden Europa's, vorzuglich in
Island, le Abth. Leipzig, 18-23, 8vo, (with col. figures); and especially
S.NiLSSON Skandinavisk Fauna, I. sUppl. Lund, 1847, 8vo, pp. 274 — 317.
The same savant also gave in the Transactions of the Academy of
Stockholm for 1837 a review of the whole family, of which a German
translation may be found in Arch, fur Naturgesch. 1841, p. 301.

The genus Phoca of LINNAEUS has by modern zoologists been divided
into various genera. For this end PERON employed the absence or the
presence of external ears ; BLAINVILLE borrowed his characters from the
number of the incisor teeth ; F. CUVIER from the form of the skull and
from the disposition of the molars.

t External ears none.

Cystophora NiLSS. (Macrorhinus F. Guv.), Stemmatops F. Cuv.3

4 *5_ 5

Incisor teeth ^, conic; canines thick, large, molars •? — ^, with
- o — o

1 In no individual, however, of the Otarice investigated by me have the whiskers,
which are very thick and horny in that genus, these sinuous margins.

2 PLINII Hist. Nat. Lib. ix. c. 13. Compare F. CUVIER Observations zoologiques
sur les facultes physiques et intelkctuelles du Phoque commun, Ann. du Mus. xvil.

PP- 377—397-

3 " Qui signifie front couronne," Mem. du Mus. xi. p. 200, Diet, des Sc. Nat.
xxxix. p. 550. Consequently the author wrote incorrectly Stemmatopus, from which
again the unmeaning etymology of AGASSIZ was derived ; Nomenclator Mammal.
p. 32. The name is an imitation of that of Phoca mitrata.

700 CLASS XVII.

simple root, distinct, small, conic or compressed at the apex, rugose
or striate. Nose of males furnished with expansile appendage.

9 9 -j -i o o 9 9

(Dent. form. OWEN, i. ^— -j , c. j— j , p. '^— ^ , m. ^— ^ = 30.)

Sp. Cystophora proboscidea NILSS., Phoca leonina L. (not 0. FABR.), Phoca
proboscidea P£RON, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 83, (fig. from ANSON'S Voyage),
PERON Voyage, Ail. PL 32 ; F. Cov. Mem. du Mm. xi. PL 14, (figures
of cranium1), Des Dents des Mammif. pp. 123, 124, PL 39 A, OWEN Odont.
p. 510, PL 132, 137 ; the largest species, it attains a length of 20 to 25
feet ; it lives in the southern hemisphere, is much hunted for the oil, and
great numbers are killed annually. — Cystophora borealis NILSSON, Phoca
cristata ERXL., FABR., Phoca leonina 0. FABB. previously, H. EGEDE
Gronlands nye Perlustraiion, Kjobenhavn, 1741, Tab. at p. 46, Klapmuts
(Dutch Trans., Delft, 1746, p. 69), FABR. Skr. of not. SehTcab. i. 2,
pp. 120 — 139, Tab. 12, fig. 2 (cranium), F. Cuv. Mem. du Mus. \. L PL 13,
figs, g, h, i, Dents des Mammif. PL 388; (the two lower canines have
fallen out in some skulls). This species occurs chiefly in Greenland, and
becomes 7 or 8 feet long. The space between the external nostrils and the
apertures in the bony head is occupied in adult males by a membranous
and muscular sac divided into two lateral chambers by a prolongation
of the septum of the nose ; when the nostrils are closed the seal can
inflate these spaces in a remarkable manner : see W. RAPP in MECKEL'S
Archivf. Anat. u. Physiol. 1829, s. 236 — 241, Tab. 7.

4

Leptonyx GRAY, WAGN. Incisor teeth ^ , cuspidate, the lower

5 — 5

small, molars = — =-, the hinder furnished with a double root,
o — o

Claws, especially of hind feet, small.

Stenorhynchus F. Cuv. Molars compressed, with the edge of
crown divided by three or four lobes. Cranium narrow, elongate.

Sp. Leptonyx leopardinus WAGN., Phoca leptonyx BLAINV., Stenorhynchus
leptonyx F. Cuv. Diet, des Sc. nat., Mammif. PL 47, fig. i, Mem. du Mus.
L L PL 13, figs, a, b, c, des Dents des Mammif. PL 38 A ; — Stenorh. serridens
OWEN, Ann. and Mag. of nat. Hist. xn. 1843, P- 332> Phoca carcinophaga,
D'URVILLE Voy. au pdle sud, &c. The known species of this division are
all from the southern hemisphere. Comp. GRAY Voy. of the Erebus.

Pelagius F. Cuv. Molars with base oblique, somewhat broad,
oblong, compressed towards the crown, with middle cusp conical.

Sp. Leptonyx monachus WAGN., Phoca monachus (HERMANN Beschdftigungen
der Berliner Gesellschaft naturf. Freunde, iv. s. 456, Tab. 12, 13), Phoca

1 Fig. 2 (d, e, /), there named Phoque des Patagons, belongs to a younger
individual of the same species.

MAMMALIA. 701

dibit-enter BODD., BUFF. Suppl. TV. PL 44, Encycl. method., Mamm. PL 1 10,
fig. i, Diet, des Sc. natur., Mamm. PI. 47, fig. 2 ; this species occurs in the
Mediterranean Sea, and seems to have been that most known to the
ancients. It may attain a length of more than 10 feet. Compare on
this species the observations of F. CUVIEB Ann. du Mus. xx. pp. 387 —

392-

r*
PJioca L. (in part), Callocephalus F. Cuv. Incisor teeth j>

5 — 5

molars -= — =, with crown compressed, the cutting edge usually
o — o

with three or four triangular cusps; (three premolars).

Comp. F. Cuv. Me"m. du Mus. 1. 1. PI. 12 ; des Dents des Mamm. pp. 118,
119, PI. 38.

a) With three or four anterior molars with simple root (the crown scarcely
tricuspidate or undivided). Halichcerus NILSSON.

Sp. Phoca gryphus FABR. 1. 1. i. 2, s. 167, Tab. 13, fig. 4; NILSS. Ilium.
Fig. till Skand. Fauna, xx Haft, PL 34, figs, i, 2 ; de Icromneuzige
zeehond, the grey seal; a large greyish species, which occurs chiefly in the
Baltic and also in the North Sea to the coast of Iceland, the Utselur of the
Icelanders, (comp. HALLGRIMSON in KROEJER'S Tijdskrift, n. pp. 91 — 99) ;
there is often a sixth smaller molar in the upper jaw; REINHARDT ibid.
iv. pp. 313* 3H-

b) With all the molar teeth, except the first, furnished with double roots.

Sp. Phoca vitulina L., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 84, Diet, des Sc. not., Mamm.
PI. 46, Cuv. JR. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PL 44, fig. i ; the common seal,
le phoque commun, veau-marin, der Seehund ; from 4 to 6 feet long. In
this and other species of this division the space between the large orbits at
the upper part of the skull is very small. By the bony head arched in
front like that of a sheep and the greater distance between the orbits is
distinguished Phoca barbata MUELL., which sometimes in extreme old age
loses all its teeth or retains only a pair of molars in the upper jaw. The
skull of this large Norwegian species is figured in FABRICIUS lib. cit. PI. 13,
fig. 3, F. Cuv. Mem. du Mus. 1. 1. PL 12, figs. Ic, I, m. (In this species the
second and third toes of the fore feet are the longest.)

•f"t* External ears short.
Otaria PERON. (Arctocephalus, Platyrhynchus F. Cuv.). In-

/>

cisor teeth ^ , the four upper and middle with crown broad, divided

by a transverse groove, the two outer conic; molar teeth with root

6-6 , 5-5 3-3

simple -= — =• , more rarely -= — = , premolars ^ — - . Fore feet
o — o o — o o — o

702 CLASS XVII.

remote, with first toe longest of all. Membrane of hind feet pro-
duced into strips beyond the toes. Three middle and hinder toes
sub-equal, little shorter than the lateral toes.

Sp. Otaria ursina DESMAR., Phoca ursina L., BUFF. Suppl. vi. PI. 47,
SCHREB. Sdugth. PI. 82 ; with brown, woolly hair ; the young animal is
black, (Phoca pusilla SCHREB., BUFF. xin. PI. 53) ;— Otaria julataT)E8M.,
Phoca jubata SCHREB., GM. (in part), BUFF. Suppl. vi. PI. 48, SCHREB.
Sdugth. Tab. 83 B ; — Otaria Stelleri LESS., SCHLEG. Fauna Jap., Mamm.
PI. 21 — 23, &c.

Compare the figures of the skull in F. CUVIER Mem. du Mus. xi. PI. 15,
of the teeth in the work Des Dents des Mamm. PI. 39, and OWEN Odont.
PI. 132, fig. 6.

SECTION II. Carnivora.

Incisor teeth ~, canines large, acuminate; molars uniformly

enamelled, with acute crown uneven, one or more of the hinder
teeth tuberculate. Toes mostly cloven.

To this division belong the species which, more than the rest
of the ferce, deserve the name of carnivores or beasts of prey.
Although some (Lutra) have swimming membrane between the
toes, all are formed for running, a kind of movement for which the
animals of the preceding division are not adapted.

One of the molar teeth, which exceeds the rest in size, is fur-
nished with a sharp cutting edge (dens lacerans, dens sectorius, la
camassiere F. CUVIER) ; the smaller molars placed in front of these
are named false molars (fausses molaires), whilst the hindmost
molars that have flat crowns are named tuberculate molar teeth;
see F. CUVIEK in the Ann. du Mus. x. pp. 104 — 129, and in his
work, so frequently referred to, on the teeth of mammals. OWEN
has given a different division of the teeth, which is more physiolo-
gical. He, as has already been stated, distinguishes the molar teeth
as premolars and true molars; the first are successional, the last not.
The typical number of the premolars is 4 in both jaws on each
side, that of the true molars 3. In the genus Felis the premolars
are 3 above and 2 below, with only one true molar above and
below : namely the small tuberculate molar of the upper jaw, and
the laniary or carnassial molar of the lower jaw. See Ann. des Sc.
nat., 3e Serie, in. 1845, Zool. p. 116 — 128, and TODD'S Cyclop, iv.
pp. 898 — 935.

MAMMALIA. 703

4 — 4

Family XXXIII. Felina. Molar teeth ^ — Q > tw° Wse molars

o — o

on each side in both jaws ; a single tuberculate tooth on each side
in upper jaw only, small, transverse. Digitigrade, with soles hairy.

(Dental formula OWEN, i. ^_^ , c. — —r , p. j^-— ^ , m. j- -^ = 30.)

The digitigrades are those carnivores which run, like the dog, the
cat, &c., on the digits only and not on the hand and the foot (carpus
and tarsus), in contradistinction to the plantigrades, as the hears.
Of the digitigrades the feline genus forms a distinct family. No
genus of carnivores has a smaller number of molar teeth; hence
they have short jaws also. The head has a round contracted form.
With the exception of New Holland, they are met with in almost
every part of the world. The largest species live in warmer coun-
tries.

Felis L. (Characters of the family. Fore feet pentadactylous,
hind feet tetradactylous. Claws retractile, in a few semi-retractile.)

Compare on this genus G. CUVIER Especes vivantes de grands
chats, Ann. du Mus. xiv. pp. 136 — 164, (with figures of the skulls;
also multiplied in his Rech. sur les Ossem. foss. iv. pp. 408 — 448) ;
TEHMINCK Monogr. des Mamm. i. pp. 73 — 156. LINNAEUS (in the
twelfth edition of his Syst. nat.) counted only 7 species of this
genus, the number of those now known is almost seven times
greater.

Sp. Felis Leo L., BUFF. ix. PL i, i, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 97 A, B., LACEP.
Menag. du Mus. i. pp. 150 — 176 (fern.), Cuv. ibid. pp. 298 — 310 (male),
the skeleton in PANDER und D'ALTON Die Skelete der Raubihiere, Tab. i.
the lion ; single colour, yellowish-ruddy ; the tail with a bundle of longer
hair at the tip ; in the male a mane along the neck, which begins to be
formed in the third year, and in an Indian variety continues small, (SMEE
Account of the manel ess Lion of Guzerat, Zool. Transact, i. 2, pp. 165 — 174,
PI. -24).1 The lioness bears her young about 3 months ; the young come
into the world with darker stripes on the back and round spots. To what
age the lion may attain is unknown ; it is said that some have lived for 60
or 70 years in confinement in England. In the time of Xerxes lions were
still existing in Greece and attacked the camels of his army. (HERODOT.

1 On a horny point at the end of the tail compare G. JAEGER in MECKEL'S Archiv
fur Anat. u. PJiysiol. vi. 1832, s. 55, and E. BEKKER Der Stachel des Lowen an
dessen Schweif-ende, Darmstadt, 1855, 8vo.

704 CLASS XVII.

VII. 125, 126) ; at present this species is met with only in some parts of
Western Asia and in most countries of nearly the whole of Africa. (In the
diluvial period a feline species was living which had much resemblance
to the lion, but was larger ; its remains are met with in various caverns,
Felis spelcea GOLDFUSS, Nov. Act. Acad. Nat. Our. ix. p. 476, Cuv. Ossem.
foss. iv. p. 450, PI. 36.)

Felis concolor L. (and discolor SCHREB.), GM., BUFF. ix. PI. 19, SCHREB.
Saugth. Tab. 104 B ; the Puma or Couguar, ruddy-yellow, with incon-
spicuous, darker, round spots ; the tail has not a tuft of hair at the
extremity. This species, smaller than the lion or the tiger, is dispersed
over a great part of America.

Felis Tigris L., BUFF. TX. PI. 9, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 98, Menag. du
Mus. II. pp. 30 — 44, GUERIN Iconogr., Mamm. PI. 18, fig. 2 ; the tiger ;
in Southern and Eastern middle Asia, even in temperate regions between
45° and 55° N.L. (see EHRENBERG Ann. des Sc. not. xxi. p. 387), from
Java and Sumatra to the peninsular of Corea. (Hybrids between lions and
tigers have been observed in menageries.)

Amongst the large spotted species the first to be recorded is the Jaguar
of South America and the southern part of North America, Felis onca L.,
BUFF. ix. Tab. 12, AZARA Voyages, PI. 9, F. Cuv. Mammif. Livr. 17, 29.
— In Africa is found the panther (Felis pardus L., GM., and Felis leopardus
GM.), Felis leopardus TEMM., Menag. duMus. I. p. 212, and on the Sunda
islands a somewhat smaller species, with very long tail, Felis variegata
WAGN., Felis pardus TEMM.

Amongst these spotted species we record also, on account of the claws
only partially retractile1, Felis jubata SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 105, and
Felis guttata HERMANN, SCHREB. Tab. 105 B., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill.,
Mamm., PI. 42, fig. 2 ; two species, formerly confounded, of which the
first occurs in India, the last in Senegal and Kordofan (see DUVERNOY
Mem. de la Soc. d'Hist. nat. de Strasbourg, n. 1835). They form the sub-
genus Cynailurus WAGLER.

To the smaller species belongs our domestic cat, of which there are many
varieties. The anatomy of this species (osteology and myology) has been
treated circumstantially by STRAUS-DURCKHEIM Anatomie descriptive et com-
parative du Chat, 2 Tomes, Paris, 1845, 4to, and Atlas in fol. It is sup-
posed that this species is derived from a wild feline species of North
Africa, Felis maniculata KUEPPELL, Zool. Atl. Tab. i., SCHREB. Suppl.
Tab. 100 B, whilst that which occiirs in the forests of Europe (chiefly in
mountain regions in the Hartz, in the Carpathian mountains) and in some
parts of Asia, Felis catus L., BUFF. vi. PL i, SCHREB. Tab. 107 A, is
larger and has a shorter tail ; there are also some differences in the skull.
See BLASIUS Fauna Deutschl. i. s. 162.

In some species the tail is very short and the ears with a pencil of hairs.
To these belongs the lynx of the ancients, which, according to CUVIER, Felis

1 OWEN On the Anatomy of the Cheetah, Felis jubata. Transact, of the Zool. Soc.

I. 2, 1834, pp. 129—138, PI. 20.

MAMMALIA. 705

caracal SCHREB., BUFF. xx. Tab. 24, is native of Africa and Persia. In
the North of Europe occurs Felis lynx L., BUFF. ix. Tab. 21, of which Felis
cervaria TEMM. and NILSS. and Felis virgata NILSS. are only varieties;
NILSSON Skandinavisk Fauna, 2 Uppl. Lund, 1847, pp. 128, 129.

/> s*

Family XXXIV. Viverrina. Molar teeth mostly -^ — ^ , three

b — b

false on each side in upper jaw, three or four in lower. Only a
single tuberculate tooth on each side in lower jaw or none, almost
always two tuberculate teeth on each side in upper jaw. Feet
mostly digitigrade, either pentadactylous or tetradactylous, with
claws often semi-retractile. Glandular follicles between the anus
and genitals, secreting a sebaceous matter of disagreeable odour.
Tongue rough with rigid papillae directed backward.

The Civets. The limits of this family cannot be sharply drawn,
if we unite the genus HycBna with it, and not with the preceding,
which agrees indeed with Felis in the molar teeth, in the absence
of a tuberculate molar in the lower jaw, but in other respects has
little affinity with it. "We are disposed however to prefer natural
affinity to a strict and severe adherence to a single character, and
with WATERHOUSE regard the Hyaenas as a small divergent group
of civet cats.

Hycena BiHSS., PENNANT, STORE. Molar teeth -r^-r, thick,

3—3 4—4

false molars K- -$ , a single tuberculate tooth on each side in upper

jaw, in lower jaw none. Feet all tetradactylous. Trunk short,
declining backwarks from the shoulders. Tail short. (Dent.

o o -1-1 A A 11

form. OWEN, *• 3- 3 > c- 7 T > P- o 5]* » m. 7^77 = 34).

Sp. Hycena striata ZIMMERM., BODE., Canis Hycena L., BUFF. SuppL in.
PL 46, SCHREB. Tab. 96, Menag. du Mm. i. pp. 256 — 270; the hycena;
in North Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia and Persia. Compare on the
anatomy DAUBENTON, BUFF. rx. pp. 280 — 298 and G. E. KEIMANN
Spicttegium observationum anat. de hycena, Berolini, 1817 ; — Hycena crocuta
BODD., Canis crocuta ERXL., GM., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 96 B, Cuv.
R. Ani,, ed. itt., Mammif. PI. 40, fig. i ; in South Africa, at the coast of
Guinea and in Senegal ; this species in the neighbourhood of the Cape
Colony is usually named wolf; — Hycena brunea THUNB. (Act.Holmiens. 1820),
Hycena vittosa SMITH, Trans, of the Linn. Soc. xv. 2, 1827, pp. 461 — 468,
PL 19, GUEB. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 18, fig. i; the strand-wolf of the
colonists in South Africa. This whole genus is peculiar to the eastern
hemisphere. There are 15 or 1 6 dorsal vertebrae (15 or 16 pairs of ribs)
and 4 or 5 lumbar vertebrae. The tibia and fibula are much shorter than

VOL. ii. 45

706 CLASS XVII.

the bones of the fore-arm. The hycenas eat all kinds of offal and exhume
corpses ; ABISTOT. Hist. Anim. Lib. vi. c. 32, vm. c. 5.

In caverns in the Hartz mountains, in Westphalia, in England (especi-
ally in the cave of Kirkdale in Yorkshire) fossil bones of a large species
have been found, which has the most resemblance in the teeth to Hycsna
crocuta: Hyaena spelcea GOLDFUSS ; see CUVIEE Ann. du Mus. xi. pp. 127
_ I44> pi. 43, and Reck, sur les Ossem. foss., GOLDFUSS Nov. Act. Acad.
Cces. Nat. Curios. XI. pp. 456—462, Tab. 56, OWEN Brit. foss. Mamm.
pp. 138 — 1 60.

/5_ 5
Proteles ISID. GEOFFR. Molar teeth small, distant (g-^Tg °r

frequently only \ ^ J • Fore feet pentadactylous, with pollex

raised, posterior tetradactylous, shorter. Back declining from the

shoulders backwards. Tail very short, villous.

Sp. Proteles Lalandii IBID. GEOFFR., Viverra hycenoides DESMAB., GU^RIN
Iconogr., Mamm. PI. 17, fig. 4, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PI. 40,
fig. 3 ; an animal from South Africa, of the bearing of a small striped
hyaena ; it lives in holes, which it digs, like the fox. The molar teeth
differ much from those of the other carnivores ; this difference was formerly
ascribed incorrectly to the supposed fact, that the skull under observation
belonged to a specimen not full grown. Compare on this remarkable
animal ISID. GEOFFR. SAINT-HILAIRE Mem. du Mus. xi. 1824, pp. 354 —
371, PI. 20, Ann. des Sc. nat., Seconde Serie, vm. 1837, pp. 252 — 255 ;
GD£R. Magas. de Zool. 1841, Mammif. PI. 31 ; SUNDEVALL in Fdrhand-
lingar vid de SkandinavisJce Naturforslcarnes tredje Mote, Stockholm, 1842,
pp. 643, 644, (translated in OKEN'S his, 1845, s. 436). There are 15 ribs
and 5 lumbar vertebrae ; the bony palate is very broad and the underjaw low.

f* f^

Viverra L. (excl. of some species). Molar teeth p ^, false

3—3 2 — 2

molars -r -. , tuberculate j— ^ . Feet pentadactylous, with claws

small, incurved, pollex small, raised. (Dental formula OWEN,
. 3-3 1-1 4-4 2-2

Comp. F. CUVIEB Des Dents des Mamm. pp. 99 — 102, PI. 34. — There are
commonly 13 dorsal vertebrae and 7 lumbar vertebrae, the ordinary
number in many carnivores, in the cat- tribe for instance, and the dogs.
The trunk is elongated.

Sp. Viverra Zibetha L., BUFF. ix. PI. 31, SCHREBER'S Saugih. Tab. 112,
BRANDT und KATZEB. Mediz. Zool. Tab. I. fig. i ; light brownish-grey with
brown spots ; the throat whitish, with oblique dark stripes ; tail shorter
than body, short-haired, with black and light-brown rings ; in the East
Indies. — Viverra dvetta SCHREB., BUFF. 1. 1. PI. 34, Menag. du Mus. i.
pp. 218 — 234, BRANDT u. KATZEB. 1. 1. fig. 2, GUERIN Iconogr., Mamm.

MAMMALIA. 707

PL 16, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PL 38, fig. I ; the skeleton is
figured in PANDER u. D'ALTON die Skelete der Raubth. Tab. IV. ; larger
than the preceding, light brownish-grey, with larger black spots ; the tail
short, long-haired, with some whitish spots, at the tip all black ; on the
back long hairs (mane) ; in Africa, at the coast of Guinea and in Mosam-
bique. Both species bear the name of civet cat, and from both is ob-
tained the fat substance known in perfumery and medicine under the
name of civet (zibetha, zibethium, civetta) • it is semi-fluid, smelling strongly
of musk. The negroes seek this substance in trees on which the civet cats
have voided it by rubbing. It is contained in two sacs, with an elongate,
common opening, which are formed by a continuation of the integument,
and are surrounded by many small glands. Besides these there are two
other blind sacs, each of which has a separate small aperture on each side
of the anus. These animals climb on trees, hunt for birds, and also feed
on roots and fruits. — Viverra Genetta L., BUFF. ix. PI. 36, GUEE. Iconogr.,
Mammif. PI. 16, fig. 3, Menag. du Mus. II. pp. 207 — 217; smaller than
the Viverra zibetha, which in other respects it resembles ; the tail is longer
(little shorter than the body), with long hair, with black and white rings ;
in Africa and Spain. Viverra indica GEOFFB., Viverra rasse HOESF. Zool.
Researches, No. 6, GUEBIN Magas. de Zool. 1836, Mammif. PL 19; in the
East Indies, &c.

By the body very slim and elongated, high legs, and long whiskers, is
distinguished Viverra gracilis DESM., Viverra linsang HABDWICKE, Felis
(Prionodon) gracilis HOBSF. 1. 1. No. r.

A single species of Viveira is known from the new world (Mexico). It
has longer hair, a small pointed head and large ears: Viverra astuta,
Ba&saris astuta LICHTENST. Darstell. neuer Saugth. Tab. 43, copied in
KBAUSS Thierreich, i. Tab. u. fig. 3.

Herpestes ILLIG. Teeth as in the preceding genus. Ears small,
short, rounded. Feet pentadactylous or tetradactylous, with claws
compressed, incurved, large. Hair long, rigid, often ringed with
distinct colours.

a) With all the feet pentadactylous.

Herpestes Ichneumon, Viverra Ichneumon L., Herpestes Pharaonis DESM.,
BUFF. Suppl. in. PI. 26, SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 115 B, GEOFFB. Si.-HiL.
Menag. du Mi^s. I. pp. 319 — 333; the Ichneumon, called Nems or Nims by
the natives of Egypt ; with the tail about 3' long, hair yellowish-grey
with darker rings, the tail with a tuft of black hair at the tip, legs
blackish. This animal eats, besides eggs, especially of the crocodile, also
snakes and other small animals, and is very shy. — Herpestes pattidug
WAGN., Viverra Ichneumon /3 L., SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 116 g, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PL 39, fig. I, &c. A very numerous genus.

b) With hind feet tetradactylous.

Sub-genus. Oymcti* OGILBY. (Legs talL Ears rather larger than
in Herpestes.)

Comp. OGILBY On the characters and description of a new genus of Car-
nivora, Transact, of the Zool. Soc. i. 1838, pp. 29—34, PI. 3.

45—2

708 CLASS XVII.

Sp. Herpestea Steedmanni, Cynictis Steedtnanni OGILBT 1. 1. ; — fferpestes
penicillatus, Cynictis Ogttbyi, SMITH Zool. of South Afr., Mamm. PL 16,
both from South Africa ; according to TEMMINCK only one and the same
species, in dress of different seasons. (Cynictis melanura is a species of
fferpestes, fferp. badius.)

c) With both fore and hind feet tetradactylous.
Sub-gen. Bdeogale PETERS.

Sp. Viverra crassicaudata, Bdeogale crassic. PETEBS Mossamb., Mamm.
PL -27; — Viverra puisa, Bdeogale puisa PETERS, ibid. PL 28, both from
South Africa.

Note. — In fferpestes the orbit, from the junction of the processes of the
superior maxillary and frontal bones, is often closed by a ring posteriorly,
which, however, is not perpetual and in some depends upon advanced age.

Galidia ISID. GEOFFR.

Comp. ISID. GEOFFB. SAINT-HILAIBE, GUEBIN Magas. de Zool. 1839,
Mamm. PL 14 — 17.

Sp. Galidia elegans ISID. GEOFFB. PL 14, &c. Small species from Mada-
gascar, which appear to stand half-way as it were between Herpestes and
Viverra, and are regarded by WAGNEB as a sub-genus of Herpestes. The
first false molar of the upper jaw is very small and sometimes falls out ; in
the lower jaw there were constantly, in the skulls examined by GEOF-
FBOT, only 5 molars. (Such was also the case in the two skulls examined
by me. This difference is however, in my opinion, less interesting than
that of the entire form of the skull, which in the elongation and flattened
curvature of the upper surface has a greater resemblance to that of the
Mustelce than of the Ichneumons.)

g _ ^ 2 — 2

Rhyzcena ILLIG. Molar teeth -= — p , false -= — q > tuberculate

2-2 . 3-3 1-1 3-3 2-2

the feet tetradactylous, with claws, especially of the fore feet, long,
compressed, incurved. Two glandular, anal follicles. Tail longer
than half the body. (Orbit closed by a perfect osseous ring.)

Sp. Kkyzcena suricatta, Viverra tetradactyla PALL., BUFF. xin. PL 8,
SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 117, 117 B, Cov. R. Ani., ed. itt., Mamm. PL 39,
fig. 2, GUEB. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 17, fig. 3, (fig. of cranium and
of feet) ; the zenik or suricate of Africa, especially South Africa, a small
Ichneumon, grey with darker transverse bands ; the tail is ruddy, with
a black tuft at the tip.

Crossarchus F. Cuv. Molar teeth -= — =. , false ^ — c , laniary

5—5 2—2

tooth with conical, acute tubercles. Nose produced, proboscidian.
Ears small. Feet pentadactylous, plantigrade. Tail moderate,

MAMMALIA. 709

shorter than body. Anal glandular follicle. (Orbit not circum-
scribed posteriorly.)

Sp. Crossarchus dbscurus GEOFFB. SAINT-HIL. and F. Cuv. Mamm. Livr. 47,
Cuv. R. Ani., id. ill., Mamm. PL 39, fig. 3 ; le mangue; on the west
coast of Africa ; feeds on small mammals, insects and fruits.

Cryptoprocta BENNETT.

Sp. Cryptoprocta ferox BENNETT, Trans. Zool. Soc. i. pp. 137 — 140, PL 21 ;
Madagascar. (A young specimen of this animal, from which the dental
formula could not be determined. The feet are pentadactylous, planti-
grade; the claws retractile. It is not known to me from personal
inspection.)

r* /*

Paradoxurus F. Cuv., Platyschista OTTO. Molar teeth - — -

D — D

(as in the Viverrce). Laniary tooth, especially the lower, thick,
with conical tubercles. Feet plantigrade, pentadactylous, with toes
conjoined by skin, the poll ex not raised. Tail long, cylindrical,
sometimes voluble, never prehensile. Naked area or glandular fold
between the anus and the genitals. (Orbit not circumscribed pos-
teriorly.)

Sp. Paradoxurus typus F. Cuv. Mammif. Livr. 24, (1821), GUEB. Iconogr.,
Mamm,. PI. 17, fig. i ; brown with darker spots; the specimen observed
by F. CUVIEB carried its tail turned spirally ; from this he borrowed the less
correct name of the genus, which, however, has been generally adopted.
This species is from the continent of India, Madras, &c. (BuFFON had
previously caused this species to be figured, from a specimen exhibited in
a fair, under the name of Genette de France, Suppl. in. PI. 47, p. 238.)
Other species occur in the East Indies, of which in Java the most common
is Paradoxurus Musanga GBAT, Viverra Musanga BAFFLES, HOBSF. Zool.
Research, in Java, No. i ; found also in Borneo, Sumatra and Timor.—
Paradoxurus binotatus TEMM. (Par. HamiUoni GBAT), is a species from the
west coast of Africa; see TEMMINCK Esquisses Zool. p. 119. These animals
live more on fruits than on animal food, and sleep by night on trees.

Compare on this genus TEMMINCK Monogr. de Mammal, n. 1841,
pp. 312 — 344, with figures of the skull and the skeleton of Paradoxurus
trivirgatus GBAT, TEMM.

Note. — Amblyodon JOUBDAN (Comptes rendus, 1837), is a species of
Paradoxurus, namely Parod. PhUipensis OGILBT (TEMM. Monogr. 11.
p. 339), Parad. Jourdanii GBAT.

Potamophilus SAL. MUELLER, Cynogale GRAY, Lamictis BLAINV.

r* />

Molar teeth - — - (as in the Viverrce) ; laniary tooth tuberculate.
Ears small. Snout produced, obtuse, depressed. Bristles at the

710 CLASS XVII.

lips and behind the eyes very long. Feet short, pentadactylous,
plantigrade. Tail short. (Orbit open behind. Habit, especially of
the head, of Lutra.)

Sp. Potamophilus barlatus SAL. MUELLER, Tijdsckrift voor. nat. Gesck. v. 1838,
pp. 140 — 145 ; Verhand. over de Overzeesche Bezittingen, Mamm. pp. 115
— 1 20, PI. 17, Borneo; keeps in the neighbourhood of rivers; length
i' n", tail 7".

/> />

Family XXXV. Canina. Molar teeth mostly - — - (more

rr 7ft 8

rarely -= — •=. or 5 — 5), two, more rarely three, tuberculate on each
7 — 7 o — o

side in both jaws. Tongue smooth. Feet digitigrade, anterior almost
always pentadactylous, with pollex raised, small, posterior tetra-
dactylous1. No anal follicle, but in many a dermal gland above
the base of the tail.

A small and very natural group, which corresponds to the genus Canis
of LINN.EUS, with which, however, he united incorrectly the Hycenas.

o o

Otocyon LICHTENST., WAGN. Molar teeth n_n , spurious

3 — 3 4 — 4

2 — 2 , tuberculate ^ — ~ ; laniary tooth less than the tuberculate ;

lower tuberculate teeth with oblong crown and four conical, acute
tubercles. Ears large, nearly of the length of head, erect. Tail
moderate, hairy.

Sp. Otocyon ca/er LICHTENST., Canis niegcdotis DESM., Canis Lalandii HAM.
SMITH Diet, class, d'ffist. not., Ail., Livr. 4, PI. 147, fig. 2, GRIFFITH
Anim. Kingd. II. p. 372, (fig. cop. in KRAUSS 1. 1. Tab. 1 1, fig. 3); greyish;
tail black above and at the extremity ; smaller than a fox ; South Africa.

ft /> q O

Canis L. (except Hycena). Molar teeth _ , spurious . _ .,

2 2

tuberculate = — ^. Upper laniary tooth bilobed, acute, with a

2 — Z

small additional tubercle forwards on the inside, the lower tripar-
tite, the two anterior portions conical, acute, the posterior depressed,

1 Sometimes in the common dog (Canis familiaris L.) the hind feet are provided
with five toes ; in some the phalanges of this supernumerary toe are not connected with
the tarsus, but only with the skin, in others the toe is fully developed. F. CUVIER
Ann. du Mus. xvm. pp. 342, 343, PI. 19, fig. 10.

3 In a skull of an American species (Canis Azarce or Canis cancriwrwf) I found
7 molars in the upper jaw also.

MAMMALIA. 711

tuberculate. (Dent. form. OWEN, i. ~ ^, c. , p.- -,

a) FuZpes. Pupil oblong. Tail moderate, brushed with hair.

Sp. Canis Zerda ZIMMEBM., Canis Cerdo GM., Megalotis Zerdo ILLIQ., Fen-
necus Brucei DESMAK., Encycl. meth., Mammif. PL 108, fig. 4, KUEPPELL
Zool. Atlas, Tab. II. ; light Isabel- coloured ; white below ; very long ears ;
the tail above at the base and at tip blackish ; lives in the sandy plains of
Nubia. This small species was formerly regarded by some as a Viverra,
by GEOFFBOY, on account of its long ears, as a species of Otolicnus, but
has now found its true place in the canine genus. Compare also F. S. LEUO
KABT in OKEN'S Ms, 1825, pp. 211 foil. (With Otocyon this animal agrees
in the long ears only ; it does not differ in the teeth from the other
species of dog.) Allied to it is Canis famelicus, KUEPPELL Zool. Atlas,
Tab. 5, from the same district.

Canis viverrinusTEHS.u., Nyctereutes viverrinus TEMMINCK, Fauna Japan.,
Mamm. p. 40, Tab. 8 ; a small species with shorter very thickly-haired
tail, short ears ; grey-brown ; on the top of the head pale yellow ; the tail
and the legs blackish. (In the teeth I can find no difference that indicates
a distinct genus ; the skeleton has 14 pairs of ribs and 6 lumbar vertebrae,
whilst the rest of the species of dog have 13 pairs of ribs and 5 lumbar
vertebrae.)

Canis Lagopus L. (and Canis Isatis GMEL., THIENEM.), SCHBEB. Sdugth.
Tab. 93, TILESIUS Nov. Act. Acad. Cces. Nat. Curios, xi. 1823, Tab. 47,
pp. 375 — 388; the isatis, pool- or ijsvos; very short, round ears; the feet
much haired below, in summer grey or dirty brown, in winter white;
length of the head and trunk 2 , tail i' ; this species lives in Lapland,
Iceland, Siberia, Kamschatka and North America. The skin is sought
for as a fur, especially that of a lead-coloured or bluish-brown variety.

Canis Vulpes L., BUFF. vn. PL 4, SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 90, Gu^B.
Iconogr., Mammif. PL 16, fig. i, the fox; a little larger than the preceding
species ; triangular pointed ears ; colour ruddy brown ; commonly the tip
of the tail is white, sometimes black (Canis alopex L.). This species is
with some varieties met with throughout the whole of Europe, North
Africa, North Asia and North America (Canis fulvus DESMAB.). It is
a circumspect animal, digging holes ; from its cunning a chief personage in
the fabulous tales of ancient and modern times.

The strong-smelling secretion above the base of the tail (in a gland
which the huntsmen of Germany name Viole1) cannot any longer be con-
sidered as an important characteristic of foxes, now that RETZIUS has
discovered dermal glands in the same situation in the wolf also. See
MUELLEB'S Archiv, 1849, s- 429-

1 G. F. D. Aus DEM WINCKELL Handbuch fur Jager, ste Auflage. Leipzig, 1822,
in. s. 65, 66, 70.

712 CLASS XVII.

b) Lupus. Pupil rounded. Tail somewhat short, clothed with short hair.
Sp. Canis Lupus L., BUFF. vn. PI. i, SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 88, Cuv.
R. Ani., e"d. ill., Mammif. PI. 36, fig. 3 ; the wolf; commonly yellowish
grey, below dirty yellowish-white ; attains a length of 4 feet to the base of
the tail, whilst the tail, which is carried nearly straight and hanging
downwards, is i' 4" long. This species lives especially in forests, and
occurs in nearly the whole of Europe, and is numerous, particularly
in Norway and Sweden, in the north of Africa, in North Asia and
North America. A black variety is described as Canis Lycaon SCHREB.,
ERXLEB. ; fig. in BUFF. ix. PI. 41.

Canis aureus L., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 94, TILESIUS 1. 1. Tab. 48 ; the
jackal, chakal, goudwolf; ruddy grey, on the back darker or blackish, the
throat whitish ; smaller than the wolf. This species lives in Asia, in the
Caucasus and in Tartary, in Europe, in Dalmatia and the Morea, in North
Africa. PALLAS regards this species as the ancestor of the domestic dog1.

Canis familiaris L.a; the dog; the tail curled upwards (cauda recurvata).
This well-known domestic animal, of which there are many varieties, has
followed man throughout the world. The dog grows for 2 years, lives 15,
at most 20 years ; the period of gestation is 9 weeks ; the young are born
blind. To which species the original ancestors of the dog belonged is
unknown, and on a subject, as to which so little can be determined with
certainty, the opinions are very divergent. The most original races of
dogs resemble the wolf and have straight ears. It is possible that wolves
and jackals may have contributed to produce the numerous canine races
now in being. It is probable, nevertheless, that one or more original races
existed which attached themselves to man and remained with him as faith-
ful followers, and that from these the very different races derived their
origin. NILSSON Skand. Fauna, I. p. 242.

There is a species of dog with fore feet having only 4 toes, which is
yellow with black and white spots, and which in the long, wide ears has
some resemblance to a ffycena, for which it was at first taken. The teeth,
however, plainly indicate that this animal belongs to the canine genus.
Canis pictus DESMAR., RUEPPELL Zool. Ail. Tab. 12, Cov. R. Ani., ed. itt.t
Mammif. PI. 37, fig. 2 ; it is met with in S. Africa and Kordofan.

Icticyon LUND, Cynalicus GRAY. Molar teeth ^ — , with a
single tuberculate tooth on each side above and below.

Sp. Icticyon venaticus LUND, DansTce vidensk. Selsk. Afhandl. xi. 1845,
pp. 6 1 — 72, Tab. 41. On the genus Icticyon of LUND see Natuur-en
Wiskund. Verh. der koninkl. Akad. van Wetenschappen, in. 1855, with fig.
of the skull.

Family XXXVI. Mustelina. Molar teeth four or five on
each side in upper jaw, five, or more rarely six, in lower jaw.

1 HUNTER even supposed that the wolf, jackal and dog, form only one species,
Phil. Transact. 1787, p. 253, 1789, p. 160.

3 See the enumeration of the races of this in ERXLEBEN and GMELIN Syst. not. ed.
xiii. i. pp. 66 — 69.

MAMMALIA. 713

Single tuberculate tooth on each side in both jaws. Feet pentadac-
tylous, often plantigrade; claws not retractile. Snout abbreviate,
rounded ; cranium elongate, protracted behind the jaws. (Condyle
of lower jaw cylindric, transverse, strictly inclosed in the gleno'id
cavity by exsert lines. Coecum absent.)

The head of these animals is round forwards like that of the cats,
but the distance from between the orbits to the great occipital fora-
men is remarkable, so that the skull has a much elongated form at
the back part.

Lutra BAY, STORR, ILLIG. (Spec, of Mustela L.) Molar teeth

K £

-= — - , upper laniary tooth very large, with large accessory tubercle
o — o

internally, the lower tuberculate posteriorly. Ears small, remote.
Feet palmate, short. Body elongate. Tail short, round, somewhat
depressed towards the tip, flat beneath. (Dent. form. OWEN,
; 3-3 1-1 4-4 1-1

fca^a' c- r=P p> 3^3' m- 2^2 =

Enhydra FLEMING1, Enhydris LICHTENST. Lower incisor teeth
(in adults) four. Ears very small, placed at the sides of head below
the eyes. Fore feet short, with toes connate, densely haired, the
hair covering the claws ; posterior feet remote from anterior, large,
with outer toe longest of all. Tail short.

Sp. Lutra marina ERXL., DESM., Mustela lutris L., COOK Third Voyage,
Adas, PI. 97, SCHBEB. Sauyth. Tab. 128, LICHTENST. Darstettung, Tab.
43, 50, KRAUSS 1. 1. Tab. 10, fig. 6. The sea-otter attains a length of
more than 3 feet ; the tail is 7§ inches long ; the colour of the fur is dark
brown or black and shining. This species lives on the islands of the west
coast of North America, and was formerly also found upon the islands
of the opposite coast of Asia and at Kamschatka. (See on the chase of
these animals, amongst others, O. YON KOTZEBUE Reise urn die Welt, in d.
J. 1823 — 1826, IT. s. 24—26.)

In Lutra, as in many other Mustelina, the second incisor of the under
jaw, counting on each side from the canine, is placed almost behind the
third or middle one. The first two or middlemost in Lutra marina fall out
early, and hence those behind them take their place, so that there are then
only four incisors in the lower jaw.

Anatomical particulars of the sea- otter have been also given by HOME
Philos. Transact, for 1796, pp. 385 — 394, PL 8— 10.

Pteronura GRAY, Pterura WIEGM. Tail moderate, surrounded
by a lobed cutaneous border. Characters of Lutra. Feet large,
palmate, with toes apart.

Philosophy of Zoology, Edinburgh, 1822, II. p. 187.

714 CLASS XVII.

Sp. Pterura Sambachii, Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. n. 1839, ^- J4>
Demerara.

Lutra (auctor., in stricter sense). Incisor teeth above and below
six. Tail moderate. Middle toes longer than outer. Ears placed
higher than eyes.

Sp. Lutra vulgaris ERXL., Mustela Lutra L., BUFF. 1. 1. vii. PI. n, SCHREB.
Sdugth. PL 126; Cuv. R. Ani., e"d. ill, Mammif. PL 35, fig. 3; the otter
lives in Europe, the northern and temperate parts of Asia1, in Japan, on
the banks of rivers, and feeds on fish and frogs. In North America a very
similar species occurs, which is distinguished as Lutra canadensis SCHREB.
— All the species of this genus much resemble each other, are usually simi-
larly coloured also, red-brown with white throat.

DE LA LANDE discovered at the Cape of Good Hope a species which has
no claws on the fore feet (and at the adult period loses those of the hind
feet, except some vestiges of them) : Lutra in/unguix F. Cuv. — LESSON has
formed from it the genus Aonyx.

5—5 4—4

Mustela L. (excl. of some species). Molar teeth -^ — ^ or - — - .

6 — 6 5—5

with three or two false teeth on each side above, four or three
below ; upper tuberculate tooth with crown broader than long.
Ears short, rounded. Toes separate. Tail of various length in
various species, mostly moderate.

On the whole these animals are small and, with the exception of the
insectivorous animals (mole, shrew, &c.), the smallest of this order. Some
species are much sought for on account of their fur, and form a principal
article of the fur-trade. The skeleton has usually 14 pairs of ribs and 6
lumbar vertebrae.

2 — 2

a) With false molars . (Sub-genus Putorius Cuv. Dent. form.

3 3

Ow», i. J=| o.I=I, p. g m.I=! = 34.) ,

Sp. Mustela putorius L. BUFF. vn. PL 23, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 131, Cuv.
R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PL 34, fig. i ; the pole-cat, le putois, der Iltiss,
de bonsem, i' 4" or i'5" long, tail 7"; brown, head whitish, legs and
tail black ; dispersed over a great part of Europe and temperate countries
of Asia. — Mustela erminia L., BUFF. vn. PL 29, fig. 2, PL 31, fig. i,
SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 137 A, B; the ermine-weasel, smaller than the pre-
ceding species (female larger than male), in the summer red-brown, in
winter white, except the tip of the tail, which is black ; a much-prized fur.
— Mustela vulgaris L., BUFF. vn. PL 29, fig. i ; the weasel, la belette; small-

1 The species of Otter of Pondicherry appears not to differ; F. CUVIER has recorded
it under the name of Lutra nair, Diet, des Sc. not. XXVII. p. 247 ; fig. in GUERIN
Iconogr., Mammif. PL 15, fig. 3.

MAMMALIA. 715

est species, only 7 or 8" long, tail very short, 2"; red-brown above, or light
ruddy, tail of the colour of back, the under side white ; only in the far north
has this species also a white winter-coat as the rule. — Mustela Barbara L.,
Gulo canescens ILLIG., BUFF. Suppl. vn. PL 60, SCHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 143 B ;
Surinam, Brasil (WiEGMANN refers this species to the sub-genus Gcdictis
BELL). — In a species from the East and North of Europe the toes are
connected at the base by a hairy fold of skin, especially the two middle,
longer toes : Mustela, lutreola L., PALL. Spic. Zool. XI. I ; red-brown, the
tail dark brown, the chin white.

/S) With false molars -—. (Sub-genus Mustela Cuv.) p. — .

Sp. Mustela canadensis ERXL., GM., BUFF. xni. PI. 42, GUEBIN Iconogr.,
Mamm. PI. 15, fig. i ; the pekan, a large brown species, with long black
tail; dispersed over a great part of North America. — Mustela Maries L.,
Mustela abietum RAT, BUFF. vn. PI. 11 • dark red or brown, feet black,
the throat yellow ; in many countries of Europe and temperate Asia, &c.

Galictis BELL. Molar teeth - — - , false ^ — ^ (as in the Polecats).

0 — O O — o

Feet subplantigrade, with palms and soles naked. Body depressed,
elongate. Tail moderate, villous, subdistichous.

Sp. Mustela vittata, Viverra vittata SCHBEB., GM., Gulo mttatus DESM., BUFF.
Suppl. in. PI. 23, Galictis vittata BELL, Trans, of the Zool. Soc. n. Part 3,
1839, pp. 201 — 208, PI. 35; yellowish-grey above, under side and legs
black; Guiana, Brasil. — Mustela Allemandi, Galictis Allemandi BELL 1. 1.
PL 37 (BUFF. Suppl. in. PL 25, cop. in SCHREBEB Sdugth. Tab. 124?
Description and figure of ALLEMAND from a specimen not adult) ; larger,
brown, black below, a greyish- white strip from the eyes over the ears;
Chili.

4—4

Mephitis Cuv. (Spec, of Viverra L., GM.). Molar teeth ^— ^ ,

more rarely three above on each side; laniary tooth very large;
upper tuberculate large, with crown square or transverse. Ears
short, rounded. Snout somewhat prominent or proboscidean. Feet
pentadactylous, short, almost plantigrade, with claws of fore feet
large, fossorial. Body elongate. Tail moderate or somewhat long,
with long hair. (Dental formula as in Putorius.}

Compare H. LICHTENSTEIN Ueber die Gattung Mephitis, Eine aTcade-
mische Abhandlung (Ale. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, Physik. Kl. 1836),
1838, 4to.

Rhdbdogale WIEGM., WAGN. Molar teeth ^— - . Upper laniary
tooth with accessory tubercle internal, anterior.

Sp. Mephitis mustelina, Rhabdogale mustelina WAGN., Mustela zorilla DESM.,
Mephitis africana LICHTENSTEIN, SOHBEB. Sdugth. Tab. 133 A, GU£B.

716 CLASS XVII.

Iconogr., Mamm. PI. 14, fig. 3 ; the muishond of the Cape colonists, black,
with white spot on the head and four white stripes running from the neck
along the back and diverging from one another. Dispersed over a large
part of Africa, also in Abyssinia and Nubia (Mephitis lybica EHRENB.).
The skeleton has 15 pairs of ribs and 5 lumbar vertebrae.

4 4

Mephitis LICHTENST. (in stricter sense). Molar teeth - — .

Upper laniary tooth with internal middle accessory tubercle.

Sp. Mephitis zorrilla LICHTENST., Viverra putorius L., BUFF. xin. PI. 41,
ScHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 123; black, or dark brown, with four yellowish-
white stripes along the back and one on each side, that bends from behind
upwards ; Mexico, &c. (We are inclined to regard as a variety of this
species Mephitis interrupta RAFINESQUE, LICHTENST. 1. 1. Tab. n. fig. i,
from the Missouri. Here probably belongs a figure of CATESBY, which
occurs in BUFFON, with some alteration, under the name of Conepate,
xin. PI. 40). — Mephitis mesomelas LICHTENST., Darstell. Tab. 45, fig. 2,
Cuv. JR. Ani., id. ill., Mamm. PI. 35, fig. i, under the name of Mephitis
putorius; — Mephitis Westermanni, J. REINHARDT Kongel. Danske VidensTca-
bernes Selskabs Schrifter, 5te Raekke. Naturvid. og math. Afdeling, ivte
Bd. 1857.

3—3

Thiosmus LICHTENST. Molar teeth

5—5'

Sp. Mephitis mapurito, Viverra mapurito GMEL. &c. Comp. LICHTENSTEIN
1. 1.

4 — 4

Mydaus F. Cuv. Molar teeth = — -, (as in Mephitis). Snout

o — o

produced, proboscidean. Ears very small, immersed in fur. Fee
plantigrade. Claws of fore feet large, compressed, somewhat

O o -| -J O O

straight. (Dent. form. OWEN, i. ^-^ , c. -j , p. -^ ,

Sp. Mydaus meliceps F. Cuv., Mephitis javanensis DESM., F. Cuv. Mammif.
Livr. 27, HORSFIELD Zool. Res. in Java, No. n. (with figure of skull),
Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mamm. PI. 35, fig. 2 ; a small animal of the length
of full i', brown or black, with a narrow longitudinal white stripe in the
middle of the back ; the tail is very short ; Java, on the high mountain-
ranges only. By a very thin but longer tail is distinguished Mydaus
collaris GRAY, Arctonyx collaris F. Cuv. Mammif. Livr. 51, the Bali-saur,
of Hindostan.

Helictis GRAY, Melogale ISID. GEOFFE. (Spec, of Mydaus TEMM.).
Molar teeth — — - , with upper tuberculate tooth transverse. (A

genus allied to the preceding, but with larger ears, and smaller
claws, more incurved.)

MAMMALIA. 717

Sp. Gulo orientalis HOBSF., Zool. Res. No. n, Mdogale fusca ISID. GEOFFR.,
GUE*R. Magas. 1835, CL I. PI. 16; Java, &c.

5 — 5

Meks STORE (Spec, of genus Meles BOUD.). Molar teeth ^ — ^ ,

3-3

i false j — ^ > with first uPPer very small, deciduous. Lower laniary

tooth with tubercles and internal process. Upper tuberculate tooth
very large, lower often wanting through age. Glandular follicle
under tail. Feet plantigrade ; claws of fore feet large, fossorial.
Tail short. Body depressed, covered with long, setose hair. (Dent.

. 3-3 1-1 4-4 1-1 Q_ -
form. i. 3— 3, c. j— j, p. j— ^, m. j^- = 36, OWEN.)

Sp. 3fgfes vulgaris DESM., Meles taxus BODD., Ursus Meles L., BUFF. vn.
PI. 7, SCHKEB. Sduglh. Tab. 142, GU£R. Iconogr., Mamm. PI. 14, fig. I ;
the badger, le blaireau, der Docks; grey above, the belly and legs black;
a black stripe obliquely from the eyes along the whitish head ; in Europe
and Northern Asia. — Meles labradoria SAY, WAGN., Meles hudsonius Cuv.,
BUFF. Suppl. in. PL 49, KICHARDSON Faun. bor. Am. i. PL 2 ; very like
the preceding, but somewhat smaller, ruddy grey, with white under sur-
face; claws longer. Compare on the skull of this species WATEBHOUSE
Zool. Transact, n. 5, 1841, pp. 343 — 348, PL 59. — Meles amakuma TEMM.
Faun. Japon., Mammal. PL 6. — The badgers are nocturnal animals, which
dig holes and live principally on vegetable food.

Mellivora STORK, F. Cuv., Eatelus SWAINSON, WAGN. Molar
teeth j -7 5 false » _ o ; tuberculate tooth in upper jaw only

one on each side, transverse. Lower laniary tooth with margin
acute, tricuspidate, upper with conical anterior and inner tubercle.
Cutaneous border around the external auditory meatus, rudiment of
ear. Short plantigrade feet, the anterior with large claws. Head

q _ O -I _ -I

short. Hair long, rigid. (Dent. form. OWEN, i. ^ ^ , c. ^ — - ,

3 ~~rf 1—1

Sp. Mellivora capensis, Viverra capensis (and Viv. mellivora) GM., SCHREB.
Saugth. Tab. 125, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PL 33, fig. 4; above
grey, below black, a white stripe where the two colours separate. This
species lives at the Cape of Good Hope, in Mosambique, &c. It digs out
the nests of wild bees, which it finds by observing and following these
insects at evening time; feeds also on birds, rats and snakes (PETERS).
The absence of the tuberculate tooth in the lower jaw is a remarkable
anomaly of this family, but in other respects the molars almost correspond
with those of Galictis (see above, p. 715). — Mellivora indica, Ursus indicus
SHAW, HARDWICKE, LINN. Trans, ix. p. 115, BENNETT Gard. and Menag.
of the Zool. Soc. I. pp. 13 — 20; much resembling the preceding, but without

718 CLASS XVIT.

the white lateral stripe and with shorter tail ; lives in the northern part of
India.

Gulo STORE. Molar teeth ^ — ~ , false -4 — T . Upper tuber-

6 — 6 4 — 4 rr

culate tooth transverse, lower small, with crown oblong and rounded.
(Laniary tooth as in the preceding genus). Ears short, rounded.

q _ O

Feet subplantigrade. Tail short. (Dent. form. OWEN, i. ~ — o >
1_1 4-4 1-1 .

Sp. Gulo arcticus DESMAB., Mustela Gulo L., Ursus Gulo PALL., GM., SCHREB.
Sdugth. Tab. 144, 144*, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 14, fig. 2; the
glutton, le glouton, der Vielfrass; red-brown, on the back dark brown,
3' in size ; in Lapland, Finland and the North of Asia and Canada ; preys
by night, and attacks reindeers and other large animals by leaping from
trees on their neck; compare PALLAS Spic. Zool. xiv. pp. 25 — 41.

(The North American glutton, which does not appear to be a different
species, occurs in LINN.&US under the name of Ursus luscus.)

Family XXXVII. Ursina. Two tuberculate teeth on each
side in upper jaw, one or two in lower. Laniary molar nearly
resembling the tuberculate tooth, with crown flat, thicker. Feet
plantigrade, covered below with hairless skin, pentadactylous.

f* _ f* O _ q

Ursus L. (excl. of some species). Molar teeth - — - , false j -. ,

2 — 2 7—7 4—4

often deciduous, tuberculate ^ — ^> w^n ^as* upper and penulti-

mate lower, very large. Laniary tooth with flat, tuberculate crown.

Nose produced, mobile, truncate anteriorly. Ears small, erect,

g _ g -j _ -j

rounded. Tail very short. (Dent. form. OWEN, i. ^ ^ , c.
4-4 2-2

The Sears. Species of this genus are found in almost all regions of the
earth. They are in part animals that live on vegetable as well as animal
food. They dilacerate flesh, not with their molars, which are little suited
to that use, but with the incisors only. When excited they raise them-
selves upright on their hind feet and strike with their fore feet.

Sp. Ursus Arctos L., BUFF. vm. PI. 31, SCHREBER'S Sdugth. Tab. 139, 140,
Menag. du Mus. I. pp. 177 — 198; figures of the skull may be found in
Ann. du Mus. vii. PL 21, figs, r — 4; the common or brown bear; hair
brown, close, woolly; head forwards between the eyes convex; snout
pointed. This species lives in forests and mountainous districts of many
countries of Europe and Asia ; it feeds on fruits, roots, honey, ants, and,
in case of need, on mammals also. The bear attains a great age ; when

MAMMALIA. 719

young there is often a white band round the neck. — Ursus americanus PALL.,
SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 141 B, Menag. du Mus. n. pp. 144 — 155 (figures of
the skull in Ann. du Mus. 1. 1. fig. 5, 6) ; hair black and shining, the fore-
head flat ; this species lives in North America. Another somewhat larger
species, chiefly distinguished by its long claws, lives in the interior of
North-western America: Ursus ferox LEWIS and CLARKE, Ursus cinereus
DESMAR., EICHARDBON Fauna boreali-Americana, i. p. 24, PI. i. The
Prince MAX. VON WIED has given recently a beautiful coloured figure of
this bear, and a careful drawing of its skull, Verhandl. der Kaiserl. Leopold.
Carol. Alcad. der Naturforsch. Vol. xxvi. i. 1857. — Ursus maritimus L.,
Ursus marinus PALL., Spic. Zool. xiv. pp. i — 24, Tab. i. SCHREB. Stiugth.
Tab. 141, BLUMENB. AbUld. No. 33, Menag. du Mus. i. pp. 55 — 68; the
ice-bear. This species lives in the polar regions, more on the ice and in the
sea than on the land, and feeds on fish, seals, &c. The ice-bear is white
with nose black, not hairy; it has an elongate head, shorter ears, and the
soles of the feet longer than in the brown bear; it is the largest of this
genus, and attains a length of 7 feet. — Ursus labiatus BLAINV., Ursus longi-
rostris TIEDEM., Bradypus ursinus SHAW, Naturalists' Miscellany, xix.
(London, 1792), TIEDEMANN Abhandlung uber das vermeintliche bdrenartige
Fautihier, mit ewer Abbild. Heidelberg, 1820, 4to ; KEICHENBACH in Nov.
Act. Acad. Cces. Nat. Cur. xm. i, p. 325 (with a col. fig.); H. DE POM-
MERESCHE Commentotio de Ursi longirostris sceleto, Berolini, 1829, 4to; in
Bengal ; this animal was formerly referred incorrectly to the genus
Bradypus (or to a distinct genus of edentates, Prochilus ILLIGER), because
the specimen first observed had accidentally lost the incisor teeth.

Different species of bears belonged to an earlier creation, to the diluvial
period chiefly, of which the remains have been found in caverns of lime-
stone-mountains that are filled with stalactites. These bones are but
slightly changed and only somewhat lighter and more brittle than the
recent. The species occurring most frequently is Ursus spelceus BLUMENB.,
of which the size surpassed that of the largest ice-bear. Compare CUVIER
Ann. du Mus. vn. pp. 301 — 372, PI. 18 — 24, and JRech. s. les Ossem. foss.t
3ieme eM, rv. pp. 340 — 380.

ft f» q q

Procyon STOKR. Molar teeth - -^ , false -. -^ , tuberculate
< 2 — 2 o — b 4 — 4

-^ ; upper laniary tooth with internal central conic tubercle ;

lower laniary tooth oblong, thick, almost similar to the tuberculate
tooth. Snout acute. Toes cloven. Tail moderate. (Dent. form.

OWEN, i.|^|, c. \=±, p. iri, m. |^| = 40.)

Sp. Procyon lotor DESMAR., Ursus lotor L., BUFF. vin. PI. 43, SCHREBER
Stiugth. Tab. 143, BLUMENB. Abbild. No. 62, GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif.
PI. 12, fig. 2, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Mammif. PI. 7 B; the racoon, le
raton, der Waschbar; greyish-brown, the head above the eyes white, an
oblique black streak on each side below the eyes ; the tail with black rings ;
this species lives in North America. The racoon dips its food in water
before using it. — Procyon cancrivorus ILLIG., DESM., Ursus cancrivoru*

720 CLASS XVII.

Cuv., Burr. Suppl. VI. PL 32 ; ruddy brown ; in Brasil. I have given
figures of the skull and the teeth in Nov. A ct. A cad. Cces. Leop. Carol, xix.
i, 1838, Tab. xx. figs. 2, 3, 5.

f* />

Nasua STORE. Molar teeth ^ g » (as m *^e Preceding genus,

but smaller, the inferior narrower ; canine teeth compressed, with
apex acuminate). Nose produced into a mobile proboscis, with
upper margin acute, somewhat prominent. Toes conjoined by skin.
Claws compressed, incurved, large. Tail long. (Dental formula as
in the preceding genus.)

A genus very closely allied to the preceding, so that the two might
perhaps be united without violence, as I did formerly (first edition of
this Handbook, II. p. 642, Nov. Act. Cces. Leop. Carol, xix. i, pp. 183,
184). These animals, with the racoons, represent in the new world
the Lemurids of the Eastern hemisphere. They climb trees, living partly,
and even by preference, on fruits, hunt small birds, and eat eggs with
avidity. Compare MAXIM. Beitrdge zur Naturgesch. von Bras. II. s. 283
— 292, BURMEISTER Uebersichl der Thiere Bras. s. 117 — 121. — Sp. Nasua,
socialis PRINC. MAXIM., Viverra nasua L., Nasua rufa DESMAR., BUFF.
Till. PL 47 (cop. in SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 118), GUER. Iconogr., Mammif.
PL 13, fig. 3 (and Viverra narica L., BUFF. vni. PL 48, SCHREB. Saugth.
Tab. 119). The Coati; Brasil, Surinam. According to the Prince of
NEUWIED the colours cannot determine any difference of species; these
animals are brown or ruddy, with a long tail which shews black rings
more or less conspicuously. Of the skull and the teeth I have given a
figure loc. tit. figs, i, 4, 6. — The Prince of NEUWIED adopts a second (larger)
species under the name of Nasua solitaria, which has also been recognised
as distinct by RENGGER and LUND. — (Nasua montana TSCHUDI, Fauna
peruana Tab. v. : is it distinct from Nasua solitaria ?)

jElurus (Ailurus) F. Cuv. Molar teeth — ^ , a single uni-

o — o

cuspidate false molar above on each side, the other four tuberculate,
two tuberculate teeth on each side below. Ears rounded, small.
Claws incurved, compressed, semi-retractile. Tail lax, moderate, at
the base thick, villose.

Sp. jElurus fulgens F. Cuv., Mammif. Livrais. 50, GUERIN Iconogr., Mam-
mif. PL 12, fig. 3, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PL 31, fig. 2; HARD-
WICKE, who equally with DUVAUCEL (or perhaps before), discovered this
animal, has given a description and figure of the teeth, which I have not
be,en able myself to investigate, Linncean Transact, xv. i, pp. 161 — 165,
PL II. (I should almost suppose that there is a small molar tooth behind
the incisors which has fallen out, and that the normal number is six, as in
Nasua.) The animal lives in Nepaul, attains the size of a large domestic
cat, is chestnut-brown above, has breast, belly and legs black; the head is
whitish with a red-brown spot under the eyes ; the tail is red-brown with
some darker rings.

MAMMALIA. 721

Arctictis TEMM., let ides VALENC., Cuv. Canine teeth conical,

6-6 . 3-3 . ,

compressed, acute ; molars ^ — ^ , spurious . _ . , conical ; upper

laniary tooth with crown broad, transverse, with external tubercle
conical, separated by a deep longitudinal groove from internal flat
tubercle ; lower laniary tooth with crown oblong, depressed in the
middle ; last upper tuberculate tooth very small, with crown orbi-
cular. Whiskers very long. Ears pencilled. Tail long, nearly
equal to body, villous, thick at the base, prehensile. (Dent. form.

OWEN, i. |=», , ^ , p. *=*, „, |Z|-40.) "

Sp. Arctictis pen i cillata TEMM., Paradoxurus albifrons F. CUVIER, Mem,, du
Mus. ix. 1822, PL 44,Ictides albifrons VALENCIENNES, Ann. des Sc. nat. iv.
PI. i ; the benturong or binturong (musang or palm-civet) lives in Malacca,
Sumatra, Borneo and the western part of Java. The skull almost agrees
in form with that of Procyon; I found in the two skulls examined by me
only five molars on each side in the lower jaw.

K 5

Cercoleptes ILLIG., Potto Cuv. Molar teeth = — ^ , small, the

o — o

two anterior on each side in both jaws conical, remaining three
tuberculate, with crown somewhat flat, the lower oblong, the upper
transverse, hollowed in the middle. Face short, rounded. Tongue
slender, exsertile. Tail elongate, voluble. (Dent. form. OWEN,
. 3_3 i_i 3_3 2-2 .

Sp. Cercoleptes caudivolvulus ILLIG., Viverra caudivolvula PALL., VOSMAER
Beschrijving van eenAmerikaanscfiewezel, Potto genaamd. Amsterdam, 1 771,
4to (with col. fig.), SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 1258, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif.
PL 13, fig. 2; the teeth figured in F. CUVIER Dents des Mammif. PL 12,
PP« 3r> 32 > yellowish-brown ; this animal feeds on fruits, honey, insects,
eggs, small birds, &c. ; it lives in Guiana, New Granada, also in Peru,
(V. TSCHUDI Fauna, pp. 105, 106) ; the IcinJcajou. The skull has some
resemblance with that of the apes. On the anatomy compare OWEN
Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1835, pp. 119 — 124.

SECTION III. Insectivora.

Incisor teeth various in number, which is almost always differ-
ent in the two jaws ; no true canines in many, false molars with
double root occupying their place ; molar teeth with conical, acu-
; minate tubercles. Feet plantigrade, often pentadactylous.

VOL. n. 46

722 CLASS XVII.

The insectivorous mammals are almost all small, and often pre-
sent in their form much resemblance to the rodents. Many live
under ground. All have a clavicle. In some the number of ribs
is unusually large. The deciduous teeth of the moles and shrews
are (OwEN Odont. p. 423) developed and disappear before birth.

Family XXXVIII. Talpina. Body hairy. Feet short, fore
feet fossorial, with claws large. Ears none. Eyes very small or

indistinct.

/>
Chrysochloris LACEP. Incisor teeth ^, the middle inferior

J 7_7 6-6 . ,
small, narrow, true canines none, molars = — =• , or ~ — ~ , with a

vacant space between them, false molars ~ — ~ , small, the true

with crown transverse, triangular in the upper, broader externally,
in the lower compressed, linear, divided by a transverse groove.
Eyes covered by skin. Nose naked, coriaceous, produced. Fore
feet tetradactylous, with fourth toe very small, claw of third toe
strong, broad, falciform ; hind feet pentadactylous. Tail none. (The
development of the teeth is unknown.)

Sp. Ch'rysocldoi'is capensis DESMAR., Talpa asiatica L., Sorex auratus Cuv.,
SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 157, VOSMAER Beschrijving van den groenglanziyen
mol, &c., Amsterdam, 1787, 4to (with col. fig.), GUERIN Iconoyr., Mammif.
PI. XT. fig. 3 ; brown, the hair with a green and purple reflection, of the
size of the mole. This species lives at the Cape of Good Hope, and not in
Siberia, as stated by LINNAEUS on the assertion of SEBA. This genus
reminds us of Spalax amongst the glires. Some other species also have
been discovered in later times, all South African, as Chrysockloris dbtu-
siroslris PETERS, from Mosambique. The skeleton has 19 (in one species
even 20) pairs of ribs. The first rib is thick and broad ; the clavicle
is long and thin. (In the distinction of the teeth we have, on the authority
of PETERS, followed the view of BLAINVILLE ; as also, in the number
of toes of the fore feet, MECKEL JBeitr. I. 2, p. 99, and PETERS.)

/-»

Condylura ILLIG., Rhinaster WAGLER, WAGN. Incisors -? ,

two upper middle broad, triangular, rounded in front, lower pro-

7-7 . 3-3

cumbent, true canines none, molars ^ — Q? spurious = — =, conical,

o — o O — O

distant. Muzzle produced into a slender proboscis, furnished at
the apex with caruncles arranged radiately. Eyes very small.
Feet pentadactylous. Tail moderate, thinly haired.

MAMMALIA. 723

Sp. Condylura cristata DESM., Sorex cristatus L., GUER. Iconoyr., Mammif.
PI. XI. bis, fig. i ; tail shorter than half the body, from North America, as
is also Condylura longicaudata DESM.; these animals resemble the mole
in mode of life and in form. Compare on this genus DESMAREST in
OKEN'S Isis, 1823, s. 658 — 663, Taf. 8. (The name Condylura is founded
on the fortuitous character, that the tail in dried specimens assumes a
knotted form occasioned by the vertebrae.)

f» . />>

Talpa L. (excl. Talpa asiatica). Incisors ~ for ~], true ca-
nines none, molars . , the first representing the canine (with the

3 — 3

upper placed in front of the lower) , tuberculate ~ — o • Nose pro-
duced, truncate at the point. Eyes very small. Feet pentadac-
tylous ; the sole of fore feet turned backwards, with toes connected,
claws strong. Tail short or very short.

Sp. Talpa europcea L., SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 156, GUERIN Iconogr., Mam-
mif. PI. XI. lis. fig. i ; the mole; 5 to 6" long, tail i" ; a well-known animal
that lives underground, feeds on insects and earth-worms, and has a very
fine sense of hearing. Compare on this animal amongst others the descrip-
tion of DAUBENTON in BUFFON Jlist. not. Tome vni. pp. 87 — 100, with
many figures; BLASIUS Fauna der Wirbeltk., i. B. 109 — 114; J. F.
MECKEL Vergleichung der Ostcologie des Europ. Maulwurfs und des Maul-
wurfs vom Kap, &c. in Beitrage zur vergl. Anatomic, I. 2, 1809, s. 91 — 101
(on Chrysochloris, see above) ; F. G. J. JAKOBS Talpce europcece A natonie,
Jense, 1816, 8vo, cum Tab.; C. KOCH De Talpce europcece oculo, Kegio-
monti, 1827, 8vo. — In Italy a species occurs in which the middle incisors
are larger than the lateral, and the eyes are not furnished with any visible
ocular fissure : Talpa coeca SAVI, BONAP. Fauna Ital. Fasc. n. — In Japan
a species is found with only 6 inferior incisors ; Talpa wogura TEMJI.
Fauna Jap., Mamm. PI. iv. figs. 2, 3, 4, 5.

2

Vrotrichm TEMM. Incisor teeth -^ , large, conical, true canines

5-5

; none, spurious molars j — ^ > tne ^rst upper conical larger, the

other upper molars, especially the second, minute. Feet pentadac-
tylous, with claws small, slender. Tail short, furnished with long
hair.

Sp. Urotrichus talpoides TEMM. Faun. Jap., Mamm. PI. iv. figs. 6 — u ;
GUEB. Mag. de Zool. 1842, Mammif. PI. 55 ; smaller than the mole, very
common in Japan ; an intermediate form between Talpa and Sorex.

n

Scalops Cuv. Incisor teeth j , the two middle upper large,

rounded in front, the two lateral on both sides small, linear.

46-2

724 CLASS xvii.

7 — 7 4 — 4

deciduous ; two middle lower small ; molars = — ~ , spurious ^ — ^

b — b o — o

distant, in place of canines, cylindric, acuminate at the apex1.
Muzzle produced, with nose proboscidean. Eyes very small. Feet
pentadactylous, (anterior resembling the feet of moles,) posterior
palmate. Tail short, annulate, thinly haired.

Sp. Scalops canadensis DESM., Sorex aquations L., SCHREB. Stiugth. Tab. 158,
GUEB. Jconogr., Mamm. PI. XI. bis, fig. 3 ; on the banks of rivers in North
America ; somewhat larger than the mole, with which in form and mode of
life it corresponds.

Family XXXIX. Soricina. Body covered by hair. Eyes
distinct ; ears in most. Feet not fossorial.

Myogalea FISCHER (Synopsis Mamm. p. 250), Mygale Cuv. (Anat.
comp. I. in the first synoptic table at the end of the volume ; a

name given by WALCKENAER to a genus of the Aranece, and gene-

2
rally received). Incisors j, the upper large, broad, triangular, the

two middle inferior small ; true canines none ; molars -^ — — , false

6-6 4-4 .. XT ^~y .,

molars a „ , true 5 — 5 ? with crown quadrate. JNose proboscidean,
b — b o — o

depressed, mobile. Ears none. Feet pentadactylous, palmate.
Tail long, thinly haired, compressed at the tip. Glandular follicles
at the tail, arranged in a double row.

Sp. Myogalea muscovitica DESMAR., Sorex moschatus PALL., GMEL., Castor
moschatus L., BUFF. x. PI. i, PALLAS Act. Acad. Petropolit. 1781, Part II.
(1785), P- 315, Tab. 3 et 5 (Anat.), SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 159, GU£R.
Iconogr., Mammif. PI. xi. fig. 2 ; tail compressed through the entire length,
shorter than the body ; in the south-eastern part of Russia ; com]

1 Commonly only two incisors are allowed to this animal in the upper jaw. I
of opinion, however, that the two which follow them on each side, so named fa
molars, ought also to be referred to the incisors, since, according to the figure
F. CuviER (Des dents des Mammif. No. 22, p. 54), they are planted in the int
maxillary bone ; in the skull examined by me they were wanting. RICHARI
observed more false molars than F. CUVIER, and makes the total number of teeth ii
this genus 44 instead of 36 as above, Fauna bor. Ainer. I. pp. 9, 10. It seems that Li
N2EUS drew his character of the genus Sorex (denies primores inferiores 4, inter)
brevioribus) from his Sorex aquaticus, i. e. from Scalops. According to OWEN the dent

formula is i. , c. , p. , m. = 44, Odont. pp. 4m, 416.

3 — 3 ! — i 4 — 4 3—3

MAMMALIA. 725

BRANDT Bemerkungen uber den innern Bau des Wuychochol, WIEGMAKS'B
Archiv fur Naturgesch. 1836, 1. s. 176 — 182. — Myogalea pyrenaica GEOFFB.
SAIXT-HILAIKE, Ann. du Mus. xvii. PI. iv. figs, i, 3, 4, 5, Mim. du Mus.
I. PI. xv. figs. 10 — 12 (the skull and the teeth) ; smaller than the pre-
ceding, tail as long as the body, compressed at the tip only ; this species
lives at the foot of the Pyrenees. They are aquatic animals, living in
holes of which the entrance is in the water.

Macroscelides SMITH, (Macroscelts FISCHER, Ehinomys LICH-
/>

TENST.). Incisor teeth ^ » small, with upper middle larger ; true

7 y n n g g

canines none; molars ~ — » or ^ — - , spurious = — =-, not longer
o ~~ o y ~~ y o —~ o

than incisors. Nose extended into a long slender proboscis, with
nostrils in the extremity, perforated a little obliquely. Eyes mode-
rate or somewhat large. Ears large, thinly haired. Fore feet pen-
tadactylous, with pollex and outer toe short, raised, the hind feet
much longer, with four toes equal and pollex short, raised or none.
Claws short, slender, compressed, incurved, acute. Tail long (tumid
below behind the base, with glandular follicles in some, or in
males alone).

a) With hind feet pentadactyloits.

Sp. Macroscelides typicus SMITH, Zocl. Journal, No. xvi. Bullet, des Sc. nat.
xvm. 1829, Aout, p. 273, Illustr. of the Zool. of South Afr. Mamm. PI.
10 ; — Macroscelides rupestris SMITH, Illustr. 1. 1. PI. n, Macroscelides typus
ISID. GEOFFB. ST.-HILAIBE, Ann. des Sc. nat. xvm. 1829, pp. 165 — 173,
LESSON Cent. Zool, PI. 12. This and some other species live in the south
of Africa. In North Africa near Oran lives another species Macroscelides
Rozeti DUVEBNOY, Me"m. de la Soc. d'Hist. nat. de Strasbourg, I. 2, 1833,
pp. 1—23, PI. i. n.

This genus of animals recalls Parameles amongst the Marsupialia. It
agrees with the marsupials in the imperfect ossification of the palate, which
is perforated by many holes.

b) With hind feet tetradactylous. (Sub-genus Petrodromus PETEBS.)

Sp. Macroscelides tetradactylus, Petrodromus tetradactylus PETEBS, Reise nach
Mossamb., Sdugth. Tab. xx.

Sorex L. (excl. Sorex cristatus and aquaticus). Incisor teeth

/i

- , the two middle large, the upper incurved, having at the base

posteriorly a tubercle, the lower procumbent, acuminate; true

6-6 5-5 7-7

; canines none : molars -. T , more seldom = — -= or -= — •= , con-
4 — 4 5 — 5 5 — 5

726 CLASS xvii.

4 — 4
tiguous, the spurious shorter than incisors ; the true ~ — ^ , upper

with crown transverse, quadrate, last very small, lower with crown
tricuspidate externally, arranged obliquely inwards and forwards.
Head with nose produced, acuminate, mobile. Eyes small. Ears
broad. Feet pentadactylous, cloven. Tail moderate.

The shrews (mures aranei, les musaraignes] are small animals, living in
subterranean holes and in general form resembling the mice. The anterior
teeth above and below are very large, and are usually the only ones
regarded as incisors. GEOFFROY ST.-HILAIRE announced that the anterior
small teeth, regarded as molars, are also implanted in the intermaxillary
bone1. They have no malar bone. On each side of the body a gland is
situated under the skin between the fore and hind legs, which is surrounded
by a circlet of short hairs, and secretes a fluid of the odour of musk.
This gland consists of tubes closely conglomerated and placed under the
skin; as they approach the surface of the skin they take a straighter
direction at the base of the hair-follicles and finally perforate it. See VON
HASSLING Ueber die Seitendrusen der Spttzmause, Zeitschr. f. icissensch.
Zool. v. 1854, s. 29 — 39. In those species that live in water the ears are
folded together in the water, the antitragus closing the external auditory
passage, which is in addition guarded by the bended conch of the ear as by
a second cover ; the external ear is unfolded when the shrews come out of
the water, just as the crown of a flower unfolds itself. See GEOFFROY
SAINT-HILAIRE Mem. sur les glandes odoriferantes des Musaraigncs, Mem.
du Mus. I. 1815, pp. 299 — 311, PI. 15.

Compare on this genus amongst others GEOFFR. ST.-HiL. Ann. du Mus.
1811, pp. 169 — 187, PI. 2—4, ISID. GEOFFR. ST.-HIL., Mem sur quelques
especes du genre Musaraigne (also on Egyptian mummies of this genus),
Mem. du Mus. xv. pp. 117 — 144, PL 4; DUVERNOY Fragmens d'Htst.
natur. sur les Musaraignes, Mem. de laSoc. de Strasbourg, II. 1835, pp. i —
36, PL i — 3; the same, Notices pour servir a la Monographic du genre
Musaraigne, GU^RIN Magas. de Zool. 1842, pp. 38 — 54; NATHUSIUS Bei-
trdge zur Kenntniss der europ. Spitzmduse, WIEGMANN'S Arch. f. Nalur-
gesch. 1838, pp. 19 — 47; DE SELYS-LONGCHAMPS Etudes de Micromam-
malogie, 1839, PP- IJ — 49 J SUNDEVALL in Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. ffandl.
1842, pp. 163 — 188. (The first teeth resemble those that succeed them, and
in this sense the shrews have no milk-teeth ; although they change these
and their other teeth simultaneously (possibly more than once?) according
to DOVERNOY. See Mem. de I' Acad. des Sciences de Paris, Savants Stran-
gers, Tome ix , sur les Dents des Musaraignes, 1844. According to OWEN
Odontogr. p. 423, the shrews change their deciduous teeth before birth.)

a) Four small teeth in upper jaw on each side between the large incisor
and the true molars, lower incisors not serrate, increased by an angle;

1 Mem. du Mus. i. p. 307 ; see also PETERS Ueber die Gebissformel der Spitz)
Zeitschr. fiir Naturgesch. 1852, s. 220 — 227.

MAMMALIA. 727

apices of teeth coloured. Feet and toes protected by rigid hair. (Crossopus
\VAGLEB1, Hydrosorex DUVERN.)

Sp. Sorex fodiens PALL., GMEL., Sorex Daubentoni ERXL., GEOFFB., Sorex
carinatus HERMANN, BUFF. vin. PI. 1 1, DUVERNOY, GUER. Mag. de Zool.
1842, PI. 51 ; the water-shrew.

6) Five intermediate teeth in upper jaw on each side; lower incisors
serrate ; apices of teeth coloured. (Sorex WAGL. in stricter sense.)
Sp. Sorex vulgaris (L. previously) BLASIUS and KEYSERL., Sorex tetragonurus
HERM., Sorex araneus L. (not SCHREB.), SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 159 B;
brownish grey, below ashy white, length with tail about 4^ inches, of
which the tail makes i\ or i^ inches, the points of the teeth blood-coloured
brown. This little animal is very common with us. It is said that cats
will bite it to death, but are careful not to eat it (on account of its strong
smell?).

e) Three intermediate teeth on each side (or more rarely four) in upper
jaw; inferior incisors quite entire; apices of teeth white (Crocidura WAGL.).

Sp. Sorex araneus SCHREB., BLAS. and KEYSERL., SCHREB. Saugth, Tab. 160,
BUFF. vin. Tab. 10, DUYERN. 1. 1. PL 38 ; varies in size, but is usually
somewhat larger than Sorex vulgaris; — Sorex etruscus SAVI, Nuovo Giornale
del Letterati, Pisa, 1822, No. I. c. icone, DUVERNOY, GUER. 1. L PI. 54;
in Italy and afterwards found in Algiers also. The smallest mammal
known, scarcely more than 2i inches long, of which the tail makes about
i inch.

/>

Soleiwdon BRANDT. Incisors ^, two middle upper very large,

triangular, remote by a void space from the small laterals; two
middle lower small, narrow, placed between two long conical, hol-
lowed on the inner surface by a deep groove ; true canines none ;

, 7-7 . 3-3 . , 4-4 ..

molars - — ^ , spurious ~ — Q , conical, true -. — -r , with transverse
( — / o — o 4 — 4

crown. Lower jaw shorter than upper. Nose elongate, forming a
proboscis. Eyes minute. Ears rounded, moderate, almost naked.
Feet pentadactylous, with claws curved, compressed. Tail elon-
gate, round, somewhat naked, for the greater part scaly.

Sp. Solenodon paradoxus BRANDT, Mammal, exoticor. Descriptiones et Icoties,
Petropol. 1835, pp. i — 20, Tab. I. II. (This singular animal from St.
Domingo is known to me only from the figure and description just cited.
It is co| inches long, of which the tail forms 9 inches. The teeth have
some resemblance to those of the Desman, but the second grooved incisor
of the lower jaw distinguishes this genus from all the others of which the
dental system is known hitherto.)

1 OKEN'S /«*, 1832, s. 275—282.

728 CLASS xvii.

n

Gymnura HoRSF., VIGORS. Incisor teeth g , two upper middle
distant, somewhat large, with the two following on each side small;

o o

true canines none ; molars 5 — 5 , spurious on each side four above

o — o

and below, the first representing a canine. Muzzle produced, ob-
tuse. Eyes small. Ears rounded, naked. Feet pentadactylous,
with three middle toes longer. Long bristles, especially in the
back, scattered amongst the hair. Tail somewhat long, thinly

3_3 1 — 1 4 — 4

haired, scaly. (Dent. form. OWEN, i. q— ^ , c. z — ^ , p. -. —r,

3-3
m. 3—2=44.)

Sp. Gymnura Rafflesii VIGORS, Zool. Journal, No. 10, HI. pp. 246 — 249, PI. 8
(copied in Cuv. R. Ani., id. ill., Mammif. PI. 28, fig. 3), Viverra gymnura
RAFFL., Linn. Trans. Xin. i, p. 272; Malacca and Sumatra. This animal
resembles in external form the marsupials of America. The skeleton has
15 pairs of ribs and 5 lumbar vertebrae.

Rhynchocyon PETERS. Upper incisors two, very small, remote,

7 — 7
deciduous, lower 6 ; molars - — ^ , the first upper long, resembling

4-4

a canine, the true ^ — ~ . Nose porrect, forming a very long pro-
boscis. Ears moderate. Eyes large. Feet tetradactylous, witli
claws strong, the outer toe in fore feet remote, the hind feet longer.
Tail long, ringed, thinly haired.

Sp. Rhynchocyon Cirnei PETERS, Reise nach Mossambique, Sdugth. Tab. 2 r ;
this hitherto very rare animal has the nearest affinity with Gymnura, at
the same time some resemblance also to Macroscdides.

Cladobates F. Cuv., Hylogale TEMM., Tapaia RAFFL. Incisors

A

^, the upper remote, the lower procumbent, with four middle

7 — 7 4—4

longer ; true canines none ; molars = — - , true ^ — o > tne lower

i — i fj — o

divided by a transverse groove, cuspidate. Muzzle attenuate, pro-
duced. Ears oval, somewhat large. Feet pentadactylous. Tail
long, densely clothed with hair, subdistichous.

The Tupaias are small lively animals, found chiefly on the Sunda Islands,
and in part also in the peninsula of India, and live like squirrels (which
are also called Tupaias by the Malays). They feed principally on coleo-
pterous insects, but also on fruits. The orbit is closed behind by a bony

MAMMALIA. 729

ring. — Compare HUSCHKE Ueber die Zdhne von Cladobates, OKEN'S Isis,
1827, s. 758, 760, and for the species from the Indian Archipelago SCHLEGEL
and SAL. MUELLEB in Verh. over de not. Gesch. enz., Manim. pp. 159 —
1 68, PI. 26, 27.

Sp. Cladobates ferruginous, Tupaia ferruginea RAFFL., GulsR. Iconogr.,
Mammif. PI. 10, fig. 4; Borneo, Java, Sumatra; — Cladobates murinus,
Hylogale murina SCHL. and MUEL. 1. 1. Tab. 26, fig. 5 ; Borneo, &c.

A>

Hylomys SAL. MUELL. Incisors ^ , two middle upper larger,

no A. A

remote by a space from the lateral, molars 5-^-5 , true ^—^ , with

o — o o — o

several cusps. Xose produced into a mobile proboscis, subrecurved
at the point, with nostrils lateral. Eyes moderate. Ears large,
subnude. Hind feet longer, all pentadactylous, with three middle
toes longer, with claws compressed, incurved, acute. Tail very
short, thinly covered with short hair.

Sp. Hylomys sv.iUus SAL. MUEL., Verhand. over de not. Gesch. enz., Mamm.
Tab. 26, fig. i; (the skull and teeth Tab. 25, fig. 4 — 7), pp. 153, 157; a
small animal, less than 6" long from the point of the snout to the end of
the tail, which is only i^" long; nothing is known of its mode of life,
except that it feeds on insects ; it was observed in Java and Sumatra at a
height of 1200 to 2000 feet, and seems to be rare. The skull, with some
conformity to that of the preceding genus, has, however, no bony ring at
the back of the orbit.

Family XL. Erinaceina. Back protected by spines or rigid
seta? with setae intermixed. Feet pentadactylous, not fossorial.
Tail very short, or none.

Centetes ILLIG. Teeth (38 or 40) incisors ^ for ~] , canines
1 _ 1 b \ b/ 7

- , conical, large, incurved, separated above and below from the

incisors and molars by a void space, molars -^ — ^ of which — ~^—

b — b 4 — 4

resemble true molars. Snout elongate, nose proboscidean. Ears short,
rounded. Tail none. Back covered with spines and setae inter-

. , , 2-2 3-3 1-1 3-3

mixed. (Dent. form. i. ^— ^, or g^>, c. — j , p. 3^,

m. !^| = 38, or40.)

Sp. Centetes setosus DESM., Erinaceus ecaudatus GM., BUFF. xn. PI. 56; le
tanrec (the young animal is figured in GUEB. Mag. de Zool. 1839, Mammif.
PI. i);— Centetes semispinoms Cuv., BUFF. Suppl. m. PI. 37, GU£B.

730 CLASS xvi r.

Iconogr., Mammif. PI. X. fig. 2 (known in early age only). These ani-
mals resemble the hedgehog, but are not able to contract themselves into a
ball.

n

Erinaceus L. Teeth (36), incisors ~, upper middle distant,

7 — 7
lower procumbent, true canines none, molars _ _„ , true in appear-

4 — 4

ance ~ — o , with crown square, tuberculate. Snout produced.
o — o

Ears short, or moderate. Tail short. Body densely covered above
with spines, at the sides and below with bristles and hair, con-
tractile into a ball. (Dent. form, by development i. ^ -^ , p. - - - ,

Q_Q 6~6 *~l

m.|— 1 = 36, OWEN.)

Sp. Erinaceus europceus L., BUFF. vm. PI. 6, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI.
10, fig. i ; the Jiedgehog, le herisson, der I gel; a nocturnal animal, living
on mice and insects, torpid in winter. Compare J. J. WETTER Erinacei
europcei Anatome, c. 4 tab. sen. Gottingae, 1818, Svo; M. SEUBERT Sym-
bolce ad Erinacei europcei Anatomen; accedunt Tab. 2 lith. Bonnae, 1841,
4to. The rolling up is effected by a strong cuticular muscle with thick
margins, which is able to enclose the body like a sac. — Compare F. HIMLY
Ueber das Zusammenkugeln des Igels, Braunschweig, 1801, 4to.

Erinaceus auritus PALL., S. G. GMELIN Nov. Comm. Petrop. xiv. i, p.
519, PALLAS, ibid. p. 573, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 163; in Southern "Russia,
Siberia and Tartary, at the Baikal sea, &c. A species occurring in Egypt
and formerly confounded with the preceding is Erinaceus brachydactylus
WAGN., Erinaceus libycus EHRENB.

Compare on the rest of the species, besides WAGNER, SUNDEVALL Ofver-
sigt of sldgtet Erinaceus, Kongl. Akad. Vetensk. Handl. 1841, pp. 215 — 239.
— Erinaceus heterodaciylus SUNDEV. from Sennaar, differs by a small rudi-
ment of thumb on the hind feet, without claw.

With Erinaceus ought to be placed, though commonly referred to Cen-
tetes, the Tendrac of BUFFON, xn. PI. 57, Centetes spinosus DESMAR.,
named improperly by ScHREBER and GMELIN Erinaceus setosus. ISID.
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE forms from it his genus Ericulus, which in that
case should be placed between Centetes and Erinaceus. With the same

entire number of teeth there are — incisors present. See ISID. GEOFFR. in

GUER. Magas. de Zool. 1839, Mammif. PI. i — 4. — W. C. L. MARTIN
afterwards distinguished another genus, which he named Echinops, and
which, if it be sufficiently distinct from Ericulus, would seem to have one
molar less on each side in the upper and lower jaw. Sp. Echinops Telfairi
MARTIN, Trans, of the Zool. Soc. n. pp. 249 — 256, PI. 46. I have not
myself investigated these animals.

MAMMALIA. 731

I

ORDER IX. Chiroptwa.

Incisor teeth various in number ; canines distinct ; molars uni-
formly enamelled, multicuspidate or furnished with crown de-
pressed, flat. Feet pentadactylous. Bones of anterior extremities
and especially of fingers (except the pollex, always unguiculate)
elongate, sustaining a very large membrane, serving for flight;
posterior toes short, all unguiculate. Two pectoral mamma3.

To the cliiropterous or wing-Jianded mammals the genus Galeopi-
tJiecus is also usually referred, and thus this order becomes an
artificial union of two natural families presenting great differences.
Hence we consider it more expedient to receive into this order no
other animals than those which are commonly named bats, and which
alone are, in reality, wing-handed animals (Chiroptera), from the
elongation of four fingers of the anterior limbs; for they fly by
means of the membrane attached between the expanded palm of
the hands. But however well adapted for flight with the hands,
these animals are still capable in some degree of seizing, in which
respect they differ from birds, whose anterior limbs serve exclusively
for flying. The bats are nocturnal animals *. Their eyes are small ;
their ears large. They commonly produce one or two young ones
at a birth, which are of very large size in comparison with the
parent. In all clavicles are present; the fore-arm does not admit
of rotation. These animals have no ccecum.

On this order compare above all GEOFFB. ST.-HILAIRE (pere) and TEJI-
MINCK, whom we shall cite below. T. BELL has given a concise account
of the anatomy in TODD'S Cyclop. I. pp. 594 — 600, 1836.

SECTION I. Insectivorous Bats.

3 — 3

True molar teeth ~ — « > cuspidate, crown with two triangles,
o — fj

the apices in the upper being internal, in the lower external.
Fore feet with pollex unguiculate, the rest of the digits unarmed.

1 Whence the appellation Vespertilio ;

" Inicemque perosce
Node volant, seroque trahunt a vespere nomen."

OVID. MetamorpTi. IV. 414, 415.

732 CLASS xvii.

Gape of mouth very large. Index with a single osseous phalanx
only, or with two.

Family XLI. Nycterina. (Characters of the section those of
the single family also.)

t Bats with nose simple. (Gymnorhina WAGNER.)

Vespertilio GEOFFR. (and Plecotus ejusd., spec, of Vespertilio

4 1 — 1

L.). Incisor teeth ^, the upper middle remote, canines - — -, simple,

4_4 5-5 5-5 6-6 „
strong ; molars g— -g , g— ^ , g— g, or ^— g . Tragus of ear

elongate, erect, resembling an opercle. Tail connate with inter-
femoral membrane. (Three true molars above and below, the rest
of the molar teeth premolars.)

LINNAEUS, in the last edition of the Systema natures, enumerated only six
species in his genus Vespertilio, of which the last two, V. auritus and muri-
nus, alone find a place in this genus as limited by later writers. These two
were the only European species of chiropters recorded by him. DAUBEN-
TON, however, had already discovered various new European species (Mem.
deVAcad. des Sc. 1759, BUFF. Hist. nat. vm. pp. 126 — 132). Subsequent
writers have added several, and the number of exotic species, to be here
arranged, is very remarkable, so that now scarcely fewer than 100 species
are counted in the genus. Compare on this genus : H. KUHL Die deutschen
Fledermause, Hanau, 1817, 4to (printed separately from the Annalen der
Wetterau-Gesettsch. iv.), GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE Mem. sur le genre et
les espdces de Vespertiiion, Ann. du Mus. viu. pp. 187 — 205, F. CUVIER
Nouv. Ann. du Mus. I. pp. i — 21, PL i, 2, TEMMINCK Monogr. de Mam-
mat. n. pp. 161 — 262, KOLENATI Beitrdge zur Naturgesch. der Europaischen
Chiroptera; Mit 6 lithogr. Tafeln, 8vo, Dresden, 1857. For the distin-
guishing of the European species the accurate descriptions and the sub-
genera given by KEYSERLING and BLASIUS are of service.

Vesperugo BLAS. and KEYSERL. (External margin of ears produced
forwards under the tragus.) Sp. Vespertilio serotinus DAUBENT., BUFF.
vm. PL 1 8, fig. 2, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 53; one of the most common
species ; the tip of the tail extends free from the membrane at the posterior
extremity of the body. — Vespertilio pipistrellus DAUBENT., BUFF. 1. 1. PI.
19, fig. i, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 54; the smallest indigenous species ; see a
figure of the head in GUER. Iconogr., Mamm. PL 9, fig. 2 ; — Vespertilio
noctula DAUBENT., Vesp. lasiopterus SCHREB., Vespertilio proterus KUHL,
SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 44, 58; the under surface of the wing-membrane
along the arms much haired ; one of the commonest species in towns and
in the country; of European species this has the longest and narrowest
wings, it flies very high and with great celerity, sometimes even before
sunset.

MAMMALIA. 733

Vespertilio BLAS. and KEYSERL. (External margin of ears terminating

6—6
tinder the tragus. Molars z^2 •)

Sp. Vespertilio murinus auctor. (notL.), Vespertilio myotis~BECK&T., BUFF. 1. 1.
PI. 1 6, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 51 ; the largest bat of Europe; it occurs also
in the North of Africa and is entirely nocturnal. (Vespertilio murinus L.
is, according to NILLSON, Vesp. discolor NATTERER, a species belonging to
Vesperugo.)

Plecotus GEOFFR., BLAS. and KEYSERL. Ears connate above the fore-
head, longer than head, with external margin terminating under the tragus.

Molars £=|.

Sp. Vespertilio auritus L., BUFF. 1. L, PL 17, fig. i, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab.
50, Ann. du Mus. Vin. PL 45 (fig. of head), PL 48 (fig. of skull) ; the long-
eared lot; the ears i.± inches long; common in Holland and in England.

On the other genera of BLASIUS and KEYSERLING, Synotus, Miniopterus,
see their work Die Wirbelthiere Europa's, s. 17, 18, 44, 45.

Amongst the exotic species we record, on account of the red stripes in
the wings along the fingers (which become pale yellow in dried specimens),
Vespertilio pictus PALL., SEBA Thes. I. Tab. 56, figs. 2, 3, BUFF. x. PL so,
fig. 3, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 49, TEMM. Monogr. n. PL 56, figs, i — 3 ;
from India and the Sunda Islands.

Thyroptera SPIX. (Thyreoptera, CANTRAINE'S correction.) Ears

/> /» K K

separate, with tragus small. Molar teeth ^ — - , or ^ — . Coria-

ceous orbicular disc set upon the pollex, larger in the fore feet,
smaller in the hind feet. Tail with tip free, emerging beyond the
intercrural membrane.

Comp. H. RASCH Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskab. iv. Christiania,
1843, PP- * — r°j Tao- l > — F- CANTRAINE, Bullet, de TAcad. roy. de Brux.
xn. No. 5, 1845 (with col. fig. of Thyreopttra licolor CANTR.). Hyonycteris
LICHTENST. and PETERS is not distinct from this genus. Neue merlcwilrdigc
Sdugtkiere des Konigl. Zool. Museums, Berlin, 1855, 4(0.

Furia F. Cuv. Upper canine teeth tricuspidate, lower cylindric,
with anterior and posterior basal cusp j lower incisors tridentate.

Sp. Furia horrens F. Cuv. Mfm. du, Mus. xvi. pp. 149 — 155, PL 9; from
South America.

o

Nycticejus RAFINESQUE. Incisor teeth in adults - , (in younger

4\ 4-4

^ j, upper conic, resembling canines; molars ^ — - . (Cranium nar-

rowed between the orbits, gibbous behind, furnished with exsert
crest.)

734 CLASS xvii.

Sp. Vesperlilio borbonicus GEOFFR. Ann. du Mus. vm. PI. 46 (fig. of head),
&c.

Dysopes ILLIG., Molossus GEOFFR., Dinops SAVI. Incisor teeth

• A u 2 2 * 2 /• 4\ 4-4

in adults j or ^ , sometimes ~ in younger •= , molars = — =• or
~ ^ 4 ^ U \ b/ o — o

•= — £• Ears broad, short, approximate or connate, with outer
o — o

margin terminating in an erect lobe beyond the concha, the tragus
concealed within, small. Wings narrow. Intercrural membrane
truncate, short ; tail free at the tip. Feet short, thick, with strong
toes furnished with rigid cilia ; claws incurved, compressed.

Compare GEOFFROT ST.-HILAIRE Ann. du Mm. vi. pp. 150 — 156, and
TEMMINCK Monogr. de Mammal, i. pp. 205 — 240, PI. 17 — 23.

Species of this genus are found in both hemispheres. To those of the
Western hemisphere belong two bats, figured in BUFFON, x. PI. 19, figs. 2,
3, which SCHREBER and GMELIN united under the name of Vespertilio
molossus, but which are imperfectly known. Also Molossus obscunis
GEOFFR., Dysopes obscurus TEMM. 1. 1. PL 22, fig. i, GUERIN Iconogr.,
Mamm. PL 7, fig. 4 (fig. of the head, the skull and the teeth), from Brasil
and Surinam, &c. and many others. — In Africa is found Dysopes Geoffroyi
TEMM. &c. (see also the new species made known by PETERS from Mosarn-
bique) ; on the coast of Guinea this genus has not hitherto been observed.
— In Asia Dysopes tenuis TEMM. 1. 1. PL 19 bis, &c. ; in Europe Dysopes
Cestonii, Dinops Cestonii SAVI, BONAP. Fauna Italica, xiv. (also in Africa,
if it does not differ from Dysopes Ruppellii).

In one or two species from India the pollex of the hind feet is remote
from the other toes and provided with an obtuse round nail and many
bent, stiff, long hairs. On such is founded the genus Cheiromeles of HORS-
FIELD. Sp. Cheiromeles torquatus HORSF. Zool. Researches, No. vui., Dy-
sopes chiropm TEMM. 1. 1. PL 17. — Cheiromeles caudatus TEMM. Monogr. n.
PL 66, 67 ; from the Sunda Islands. In these animals there is found in
the axilla and on the front of the breast a glandular sac, of which the fat,
brown secretion diffuses a penetrating odour. With the exception of the
strong hair of the toes, these animals are covered by a nearly hairless
skin.

Stenoderma GEOFFR.

A genus unknown to me; tail none, ears separate, small. Comp.
DESMAR. Diet, des Sc. nat., Tom. 50 (1827), pp. 489, 490, PL Mammif.
16, fig. 2.

Note. — Genera Aello and Celceno LEACH as doubtful are more
safely omitted.

See Trans, of the Linn. Soc. xm. pp. 70— 72.

MAMMALIA. 735

2

6

2

Diclidurus PR. MAX. Incisor teeth ^ , upper canines furnished

5—5

behind with a tubercle at the base, molars -= — = . In place of tail

o — o

two horny capsules situated above the intercrural membrane, the
anterior orbicular, the posterior subtriangular, acuminate.

Sp. Diclidurus albus, Diclidurus Freyreissii MAX., All. zur Naturg. Bras.
(Lief, i.) Tab. xvi. Beitrdge zur Naturgesch. Bras. n. s. 239—260 (with fig.
of cranium).

0 5 — 5

Urocryptus TEMM. Incisors ^ , molars ^ — F . Ears oblong,

moderate, acuminate. Tail very short, emergent at the tip above
the intercrural membrane.

Sp. Urocryptus bilineatus TEMM., in VAN DEB HOE^EN Tijdschr. v. 1838,
p. 33, Tab. n. figs. 3, 4, Monogr. n. pp. 301, PL 6, figs. 3, 4; Surinam.

4

Emballonura TEMM. Incisor teeth g , upper minute, distant,
upper canines with a process at the base before and behind, molars

~ r . Ears moderate, oblong, with tragus small, obtuse. Nose
o — o

acuminate, somewhat prominent. Tail short, connate at the base,
free at the tip.

Sp. EmbaUonura monticola TEMM. in V. D. HOEVEN Tijdschr. V. p. 25, Tab.
2, figs, i, 2, Monogr. n. PI. 61, figs, i, 2, Java; — EmbaUonura afra
PETERS Reise, Saugthiere, Tab. xn. ; — EmbaUonura saxatilis TEMM., Pro-
boscidea saxatilis SPIX, Vespertilio naso PR. MAX., Brasil.

In a species from Brasil there is situated in male individuals, in the
anterior margin of the wing, above the humerus, a glandular sac, which
secretes a reddish, fat, odorous matter, EmbaUonura canina TEMM.; see
REINHARDT Annals ofnat. Hist., Sec. Ser. m. p. 386. — In another species
a similar larger sac, furnished internally with folds, is situated (perhaps in
males only) on the under surface of the wing near the ulna, which opens
by a fissure on the dorsal surface. On this species is founded the genus
Saccopteryx ILLIG. (Vespertilio lepturus SCHREB. Saugtk. Tab. 57; see F.
KRAUSS Archiv f. Naturgesch. 1846, s. 178 — 182, Taf. vi., and by the
same Das Thierreich, Saugth. Tab. 6, fig. 4.)

Taphozous GrEOFFK. Two small incisor teeth above in younger
individuals, in the cartilage occupying the place of the intermaxil-

5 — 5

larv bone, in adults none; molars ^ — >. Snout conical, with nostrils
^ o — o

736 CLASS xvii.

approximate. Forehead with a rounded cavity. Ears moderate,
separate. Tail short, emerging by its free tip above the inter-
crural membrane.

Sp. Taphozous mauritianus GEOFFR., GU£RIN Iconogr., Mammif. PL 9, fig.
i (fig. of head) ;— Taphozous leucopterus TEMM. in V. D. HOEVEN Tijdschr.
v. p. 12, Tab. i, fig. 7, Monogr. n. PL 60, fig. 7 (see cranium in PETERS
1. 1. Tab. 13, figs. 20, 21); both from Africa. Other species are from
Asia, as Taph. longimanus HARDWICKE, Trans, of the Linn. Soc. ~s.iv. 1825,
p. 525, PL 17 ; — Taphoz. saccolaimus TEMM. 1. 1. &c.

Noctilio L. (Syst. nat. ed. xil, sp. of Vespertilio GM.) Inci-

4
sor teeth ~ ; two middle upper elongate, acuminate, the lateral

small, obtuse, deciduous, lower minute, bilobed; canines large;

4 — 4

molars = — = . Snout short, with • upper lip cloven. Ears mode-
o — o

rate, separate, lateral. Tail short, emergent by its apex above
the intercrural membrane.

Sp. Noctilio leporinus, Vespertilio leporinus L. previously, Noctilio americanus
ejusd., Noctilio dorsatus GEOFFR., SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 60, PR. MAXIM.
Abbild. Lief. IX, Beitr. zur Naturgesch. Brasil. II. s. 218 — 223, GUER.
Iconogr., Mammif. PL 7, fig. 5 (fig. of head, mouth, skull, teeth). — Noctilio
unicolor PR. MAXIM, belongs, according to BURMEISTER, to the same,
species. — These South American bats would seem, according to some, to
feed on fruits, which is not probable; the Prince of NEUWIED, too, has
found insects in the stomach of Noct. dorsatus.

^ K K

Chilonycteris GRAY. Incisor teeth -r > molars -= — ^ . Snout

4 O ~— O

truncate. Lower lip marginate. Ears narrow, erect, remote, with
tragus distinct. Tail placed above the ample intercrural membrane,
free at the apex.

A genus unknown to me. Comp. GRAY in Annals of nat. Hist. iv. 1840,
p. 4, Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1843, P« 2O> WAGNER Milnchn. A cad.
Abkandl. v. I.

4 5 — 5

Mormops LEACH. Incisor teeth -r , molars — — ^ . Ears large,

4 O — D

connate, with tragus lunate. Lower lip expanded, sinuous, furnished
anteriorly with a quadrangular, warty lamella.

Genus from the West Indies unknown to me ; according to PETERS it
belongs to the following division (naso foliato). See PETEKS Ueb. die
Gattung Mormops, ArcUv filr Naturgesch. 1856, 22te Jahrgang, Bd. i.

MAMMALIA. 737

s. 305 — 310. Comp. LEACH Trans, of the Linn. Soc. xin. p. 77, PL 7,
GRAY Ann. of not. Hist. iv. pp. 3 — 5.

ft Bats with nose furnished with crest or foliaceous lamellae.

(Histiorhina.)

2
Rhinopoma GEOFFE. Incisor teeth j, upper small, separate;

4-4

molars •= — •=. Forehead excavated. Nostrils operculate by a
o — o

small lamina. Tail connate by its base with the intercniral mem-
brane, produced beyond the membrane.

Sp. Rhinopoma microphyttum GEOFFR. ; habitat in Egypt. I have not
seen this species.

2 4 — 4

Nyctophilus LEACH. Incisor teeth j, molars T^-J- Nose with

two transverse leaves, the posterior larger. Ears very large, elon-
gate, coalesced above the forehead. Tail of length of trunk.

Sp. Nyctophilw Geojfroyi LEACH1, TEMMINCK in Bijdragen tot de natuur-
Jcundige Wetenschappen, vn. 1832, pp. 143 — 145 (with fig.), Monogr. II.
pp. 4^—48, PI. 34-

4 4 — 4

Nycteris GEOFFR. Incisor teeth ^ , molars •= — •= . Forehead

b o — o

deeply indented by a longitudinal groove, surrounded by cutaneous
folds. Ears large, not coalesced, almost always conjoined at the
base by a cutaneous fold extending over the forehead. Intercniral
membrane large, containing the tail terminating by a forked car-
tilage.

Compare GEOFFR. ST.-HILAIRE Ann. du Mus. xx. pp. u — 20, PETERS
Reise nach Mossamb., Saugth. B. 44 — 50. — Sp. Nycteris javanica GEOFFR.
1. 1. PL i ; — Nycteris Daubentonii GEOFFR., BUFF. x. PL 20, figs, i, 2
(Vespertilio hispidus SCHREB. Tab. 46, fig. BUFF.); — Nycteris fuliffinoea
PETERS 1. 1. Tab. x. &c. These animals are found in Asia and Africa.
According to GEOFFR. the skin is loose, as in frogs, which, however, is by no
means confirmed by PETERS ; that these bats are able to innate their skin,
as G. has certified, has been contradicted by this meritorious traveller.

2 0

Rhinolophus GEOFFR. Incisor teeth ^ , or j , upper small,

distant, in the cartilaginous intermaxillary bone. Molar teeth

1 The characters of seven genera of Bats mth foliaceous appendages to the nose;
Travs. of the Linn&an Soc. xni. p. 23 sqq.

VOL. ii. 47

738 CLASS XVIT.

TJ — 7; (or •= — ? or •= — y] . Nose furnished with a complex
6 — 6 V 5 — 5 5 — 5y

membranous apparatus, a cordate or semiorbicular leaf, bilobed in
front of the aperture of nostrils, a longitudinal crest along the
nasal region, and a transverse, erect leaf at the posterior part, over
the forehead. Ears large, separate, destitute of tragus, often oper-
culate by a lobe at the base of external margin. Tail long,
connate with intercrural membrane.

Compare GEOFFR. ST.-HILAIRE Ann. du Mus. xx. 1813, pp. 251 — 260;
TEMMINCK Monogr. n. pp. T — 39. — This genus is altogether peculiar to
the Eastern hemisphere and does not extend far towards the North, most
of the species being found in warm countries. The females of the European
species and also of most (though not all) of the exotic have at the posterior
part of the abdomen, close to the region of the pubic bones, two short,
flat, nipple- shaped appendages, of which the use is unknown. By day
these animals hang clinging by their hind feet with the body rolled in the
wings as in a mantle.

Two sub-genera have been distinguished.

Rhinolophus (in stricter sense). With frontal leaf erect, lanceolate. Sp.
Rhinolophus Ferruin equinum, Rhinolophus unihastatus GEOFFR., BUFF.
vin. PI. 20 (cop. in SCHREB. Tab. 62, upper fig.), figures of the head in
DAUBENTON, BLUMENB. All. Naturh. Gegenst. No. 42, GEOFFR. 1. 1. PI. v.
&c. ; in Southern Europe, Southern Germany, France, Italy, the Crimea ; —
Rhinolophus hippocrepis, Rhinolophus bihastatus GEOFFR., BUFF. vin. PI. 17,
fig. 2 (SCHREB. Tab. 62, lower fig.), GEOFFR. 1. c. (fig. of head); Germany,
England, France, Switzerland, &c. ; — Rfiinolophus capensis LICHTENST.,
KRAUSS Das Thierreich, i. Tab. 5, fig. 8 (head) ; — Rhinol. lobatus PETERS,
Reise, Sdugth. Tab. ix. &c.

Phyllorhina BONAP., PETERS. With frontal leaf broad, depressed. (Only
two phalanges in toes of hind feet, PETERS.)

Sp. Rhinolophhus nobilis HORSF. Zool. Research. Nos. 6, 7, TEMM. Monogr.
n. PI. 28; — Rhinolophus (Vespertilio) speoris SCHNEID., SCHREB. Sdugth.
Tab. 59 B, P^RON Voy. aux terr. Amtr. PI. 35 ; — Rhinolophus vittatus,
Phyllorhina vittata, PETERS, Reise Sdugth. Tab. vi. &c.

Megaderma GEOFFR. Incisor teeth -r , molars = — •= . Small

4 O — O

cartilage in place of intermaxillary bone. Nose with complex
membranous apparatus. Ears very ample, coalesced, furnished
with tragus. Tail none.

Compare GEOFFR. ST.-HILAIRE Ann. du Mus. xv. pp. 187 — 198, PI. 12.
This genus, like the preceding, is proper to the Eastern hemisphere.

Sp. Megaderma frons GEOFFR., Diet, class. d'Hist. natur. Livrais. xiv. No. 4,
Diet, ^^n^v. d'Hist. not., Atlas, Mammif. PI. 7 A, fig. 2; the head figured

MAMMALIA. 739

A tin. du Mus. XX. PI. i ; in Senegal, on the coast of Guinea. — Megaderma
spasma, Vespertilio Spasma L., Megaderma trifolium, GEOFFB. ST-HILAIRB,
SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 48; the head figured Ann. du Mus. xv. PI. 12;
Java.

4
PJiyllostoma Cuv., GEOFFR. Incisor teeth j , small, lower very

small, placed in front of canines, nearly contiguous at the base ;

, 5-5 / 5-5 4-4\

canines large ; molars •= — -=• [ more seldom ~ — ~ , or -= — =• ) .

O — O \ U — O O — O/

Xose with double membrane, one erect, the other subhorizontal.
Ears moderate, distant, furnished with tragus small, elongate. Tail
mostly short, in some none.

Compare GEOFFB. SAINT-HILAIBE Ann. du Mus. xv. pp. 163 — 187.

Sp. Phyllostoma crenulatum GEOFFB. 1. 1. PI. 10, GUEBIN Iconogr., Mam-
mif. PL 8, fig. i ; with tail of which the extremity extends somewhat
beyond the membrane between the hind legs. — Phyllostoma spectrum, Ves-
pertilio spectrum L., SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 45 (fig. from SEBA Thes.) with-
out tail ( Vampirus GEOFFB.) — The sub-genus Arctibceus LEACH, Nyctiplanus
GEOFFB., is distinguished by the absence of a membrane between the hind
legs.

These large bats live in South America. Their tongue is flat and elon-
gate. They live on insects, but suck also the blood of sleeping animals,
and, according to some, even of man. See PB. MAXIM. Beitr. z. Natur-
gesch. Bras. n. s. 175, 176, V. TSCHUDI Peru, Reiseslcizzen, n. s. 244, 245.

4- fi — fi

Glossophaga GEOFFR. Incisor teeth ^ , molars ^ — ^ . Snout

elongate, thin. Ears moderate, distant, furnished with small
tragus. Nasal appendage double. Intercrural membrane mostly
small or none ; tail short or none. Tongue very long, extensile,
rough with reversed papillae.

Compare GEOFFB. SAINT-HILAIBE Mem. du Mus. iv. pp. 411 — 418,
PL 17, 18; the species are from South America, like those of the preceding
very similar genus, but smaller. Sp. Glossophaga soricina, Vespertilio sori-
cinus PALL. Spic. Zool. in. Tab. 3, 4 (ScHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 47) ; — Glos-
sophaga amplexicaudu GEOFFB. 1. 1. Tab. 18, fig. A, &c.

Erachyphylla GRAY.

Sp. Brachyphytta badia GBAT, Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 123, Annals
of Nat. Hist. IV. p. 2, PI. i, fig. i; from the West Indies; a species un-
known to me.

2
Desinodiis PR. MAXIM. Incisor teeth ^ , upper large, incurved

(in younger 6 small), lower small, bifid; upper canines compressed;

47—2

740 CLASS XVII.

2 — 2

molarg : — _ f small, with crown compressed, acute. Nose with
o — o

crested membranous folds. Ears moderate, acuminate, furnished
with tragus. Pollex long, extended in front of alar membrane.
Tail none. Intercrural membrane small. (Dent. form. OWEN,
1-1 1-1 2-2 .

A genus very distinct from all the rest of the bats by its small molars
terminating in a cutting edge, from tropical America. Sp. Desmodus rufua
MAXIM., Abbild. z. Naturgesch. Bras. Liefer x. ; ejusd. Beitrage, II. s. 231
— 238, &c. Compare BUBMEISTER Syst. Uebers. s. 55 — 57.

. — Genus Diphylla SPIX, imperfectly known, allied to Des-
modus, is distinguished by the inferior incisors pectinate, somewhat
long, the ears lunate, pollex somewhat short, and by the absence of
intercrural membrane. Comp. WAGNER in SCHREBER'S Saugth.
Supplementband, i. s. 381 — 383.

SECTION II. Frugivorous Bats.

Molar teeth with crown flat, with middle longitudinal groove.
Ears small, destitute of tragus. Index with three phalanges,
almost always unguiculate. Tail very short or none. Interfemoral
membrane small, deeply excised posteriorly. (Head with face
protracted, gape of mouth less than in the preceding.)

Family XLII. Pterotocyna. (Characters of the section.)

The frugivorous bats are.on the whole, the largest species of this
order, and are found in the warm regions of the eastern hemi-
sphere only.

Compare on this division GEOFPB. SAINT-HILAIBE, Ann. du Mus. xv.
pp. 86 — 108, PI. 4—8; — ISID. GEOFFB. SAINT-HILAIBE, article Roussette,
Diet, class. d'Hist. not. xiv. pp. 695 — 708; — TEMMINCK, Monogr. i. pp. 157
—204, n. pp. 49—112.

Hypoderma ISID. GEOFFR., (Cephalotes GEOFFR. in part,

Cephalotes TEMM.) Incisor teeth in younger j , in adults ~ , in

24 — 4

aged ^ ; molars ^ — -^ . Index unarmed. Tail distinct. Membrane
vJ o — o

of wings produced above the skin of back, continuous.

MAMMALIA. 741

Sp. ffypoderma Peronii, Cephalotes Peronii, GEOFFB. Ann. du Mus. XV.
PI. 7 ; TEMM. Monogr. n. p. 106, PL 35, fig. 7 (fig. of head) ; Banda,
Timor, Amboyna.

4
Pier opus GEOFFR., TEMM. Incisor teeth ^- Index always

2 — 2 1—1 2—2

imguiculate. (Dent. fcrm. OWEN, i. \ ^ , c. ^ — T, p. 7 ?,

3Q A — & 1—1 O — O

— o 0 . .
m. 3^3 = c4.)

Mavroglossus F. Cuv. Molar teeth - -= . Snout elongate,

o — o

thin. Tongue very long, vermiform. Rudiment of tail emerging
above intercrural membrane.

Sp. Pteropus minimus GEOFFB., Pteropus rostratus HOBSF., ZooL Research.
No. 3, TEMM. Monogr. i. PL 15, figs. 25—28, PL 16, figs, i, 2 (skeleton);
Java, Sumatra, Celebes, &c.

4 — 4

Pachysoma GEOFFK. Molar teeth — — = . Snout short. Tail

o — o

very short or none.

Sp. Pteropus brevicaudatus GEOFFB., TEMM. Monogr. n. PL 35, fig. 9 (fig. of
head); — Pteropus melanocephalus TEMM. Monogr. I. PL 12, &c.

Pteropus (in stricter sense). Molar teeth ^ — - . Snout elongate.

a) With, tail short. Cynonycteris PETEBS. (Pollex involved in alar
membrane.)

Sp. Pleropus amplexicaudatus GEOFFB., Ann. du Mus. xv. PI. 7, &c.

b) Tail none. Pteropus PETEBS. (Pollex free.)

Sp. Pteropus edulis GEOFFB., TEMM., Vespertilio vampyrus L. (in part), SEBA
Thes. i. Tab. 57, figs, i, 2, Pteropus javanicus DESM., HOBSF. ZooL Res.
in Java, No. IV. TEMM. Monogr. i. PL 15, figs, i — 6 (cranium), II. PL 35,
fig. i (head) ; the Kalong, the largest of the known species ; in some indi-
viduals the flight is 4' 8", or even 4' 10"; the colour is brown-black with
red neck, which last colour is sharply defined; this species lives in the
Indian Archipelago and is common in Java ; by day it hides in fig-trees
especially. — Pteropus Edwardsii GEOFFB., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif.
PL 23, fig. i, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Mamm. PL 7 A bis; brown-red,
with brown-black back, Madagascar; — Pteropus Dussumierii ISID. GEOFFB.,
GUEB. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 7, fig. i ; from the continent of India, &c.

Harpyia ILLIG., TEMM. (Cephalotes GEOFFK. ST.-HlL., in
part.) Incisor teeth in adults ^ Tin younger ^ ?) , molars -= — j, .
Index unguiculate. Tail distinct. Nostrils tubular.

742 CLASS xvu.

Sp. Harpy ia Pattasii TEMM., VespertUio cephalotes PALL., Spic. ZooL in.
Tab. i. ii., BUFF. SuppL in. PI. 52, TEMM. Monogr. n. PL 40; Amboyna;
a rare species, of which a few specimens alone have been brought to
Europe. The intermaxillary bones are perfect, whilst ffypoderma, with
which this genus was formerly united, presents traces of them only, con-
nected by cartilage. The wings, when expanded, are full 14 inches broad.

ORDER X. Ptenopleura s. Dermoptera.

Incisor teeth and molars ; true canines none, their place being
occupied by false molars, with root double, crown elongate, com-
pressed. Feet pentadactylous, with fore toes not elongate, all
unguiculate. Body surrounded by a hairy lateral membrane, ex-
panded from the nape to the hands, and from the hands to the
soles, connecting the hind feet, and produced behind the feet in
form of a triangle as far as to the tip of the tail.

This small order contains a single genus only. From the preceding
order it is very distinct, but more nearly connected with some insectivores,
and most nearly of all with the first family of the succeeding order, with
which it might be united, in case it should not be regarded as a distinct
order. These animals have a large ccecum.

Family XLIII. Galeopiiheci. (Characters of the order.)

4

Galeopithecus PALL. Incisor teeth j > two upper on both sides

placed at the sides of the intermaxillary bone, compressed, with
crown acute, separate by a wide vacant space in front, lower

procumbent, with crown incised like a comb. Canines ^ — =- , molars
^ , true -j , with crown cuspidate. (Dent. form. OWEN,

2-2 1-1 2-2 3-3

19 3^3"15 '' r=T' P< 2-2' ri*3-3~

Sp. Galeopithecus variegatus GEOFFE., Lemur volans L., Galeopithecus volans
PALLAS, A ct. Acad. Petrop. 1 780, i. p. 208, Tab. 8, GUEKIN Iconogr., Mamm.
PI. 9, fig. 4 (4 a the skull, 4 b the lower incisors) ; the skeleton is figured
in D'ALTON Die STcelete der Chiropteren u. Insectivoren, Tab. i. In Java,

1 "The third incisor, viewed through the analogy of the Lemurs, seems to be a
canine, but in nature its crown is in advance of the last intermaxillary tooth above,"
&c. OWEN Odont. p. 431.

MAMMALIA. 743

Borneo and Sumatra ; in the last-named island the animal is named Koobeen
in Java Tando. It keeps in the depths of the lofty forests, is of a wild
disposition, and seeks its food by night. The females cany about their
young for a long period hanging at their belly. There is a great variety of
colour in different individuals, some are light grey, or brownish grey, some
are russet, some marbled with black stripes and large light-coloured round
spots. (In Sumatra there lives, according to TEMMINCK, a distinct species
of the last-named colour, Galeopithecus marmoratus, of which Galeopitkecus
rufus would seem to be the male. This naturalist adopts three species ;
Coup d'ceil sur les Possessions Neerlandaises, u. p. 87. SAL. MUELLEB is
disposed to recognise only one species in the individuals observed by him
in the Sunda Islands, Verh. over de nat. Gesch. der Nederlandsche Bezittingen
Zooloyie, p. 19. — WATEBHOUSE is of opinion that the specimens from the
Philippine Islands are specifically distinct. They are smaller and have
larger molars. He names this species Galeopithecus Philippinensis, whilst
he refers all the others to a single species, to which he gives the new name
of Galeopithecus Temminckii. Trans, of the Zool. Soc. II. 1841, pp. 335 — 342,
PL 58, with figures of the skulls.)

ORDER XI. Quadrumana.

Incisor teeth, canines and molars ; molars equably enamelled.
Feet unguiculate, either all pentadactylous or only the posterior,
with anterior tetradactylous, pollex none. Pollex in the pentadac-
tylous feet remote from the other fingers, with nail flat. Mammae
pectoral.

Four-handed Mammals; so named on account of the disposition
of the digits in the anterior and posterior limbs.

Compare J. B. AUDEBEBT Hist. not. des Singes et des Mdkis, Paris, an.
vin. (1800) fol. with beautifully coloured figures. — GEOFFB. SAINT-HILAIBE
Tableau des Quadrumanes, Ann. du Mus. xix. pp. 85 — 122, pp. 156 — 170.
The copious article Quadrumana by W. VBOLIK in TODD'S Cyclopaedia, IV.
pp. 191 — 221, maybe consulted with advantage, in which also the literature
up to 1845 is noticed.

Family XLIV. Lemurina s. Prosimii. Upper incisor teeth
four, mostly in pairs, approximate to the canines, separate by an
intermediate edentulous space, lower four or two, very often pro-
cumbent. Both fore and hind feet pentadactylous, with fourth
finger longest of all, the hind feet longer than the fore feet, with
nail of second finger incurved, narrow, subulate, suberect; the other
nails flat.

Compare on this family G. FISCHEB Anatomic der Maki, i. Bd. with 24
Plates, Frankf. a. M. 1804, 4to, and my Bijdragen tot de kennis van de

744 CLASS xvu.

Lemuridce of Prosimii, Tijdschr. voor not. Gesch. XI. 1844, pp. i — 48, PI.
i — 3 (also printed separately, fol.)

The lemurs or spectre-animals, makis (a small family of which
more than 30 species are now known), belong chiefly to Madagascar
as their home ; a few species live on the continent of Africa, others
in the warm regions of Asia and in the Indian Archipelago. These
animals are distinguished from the monkeys and further removed
from man by the two-horned uterus, by the lower jaw remaining
permanently divided in the middle, and by the orbits open behind
and not separated from the temporal fossae by the great alas of the
sphenoid bone. There is, however, a bony ring separating the orbits
from the temporal fossae, and formed by the junction of a process
of the frontal with the malar bone, a disposition not present in
Galeopithecus. LINNAEUS united the species known to him with
Galeopithecus in his genus Lemwr.

Phalanx I. Nail of the index alone of the soles incurved, subu-
late. Upper incisor teeth four, in pairs.

A. With tarsus not elongate.

4
Lichanotus ILLIG., Indris GEOFFR. Incisor teeth ~ > canines

~ , molars ^—K • Ears small, rounded. Hind feet elongate.

2 9 1 1 2 2 3 3

Dent. form. OWEN, i. ^—± > c- J77J ' P' 2^2 ' m* 3^3 = 3°'^

Sp. Lichanotus brevicaudatus, Lemur Indri GM., Indri SONNERAT, Voy. aux
Ind. Or. PI. 36, AUDEB. Maids, pp. 7 — 9, PI. i, GU^R. Iconogr., Mammif.
PI. 5, fig. 3, V. D. HOEVEN Tijdschr. xi. PI. i. fig. 5 (skull) ; a very short
tail ; chief colour black, throat, buttocks and heels, white. Madagascar.

Lichanotus Avahi mihi, Indris longicaudatus GEOFFR., Lemur laniger
GMEL., Maquis a bourres SONNER. 1. 1. PL 67, BUFF. Suppl. vn. PI. 35,
V. D. HOEVEN Tijdsch. xi. PL in. (the skull, PL i, fig. 6); a long tail, the
fur woolly, chief colour brown, with a more ruddy tint over the legs and
on the tail, the belly grey ; in the eastern parts of Madagascar. By its
long tail it is distinguished from the preceding, which is very different in
habitus; on it is founded the genus Habrocebus WAGN.

Propithecus BENNETT.

Note. — Genus unknown to me, with upper incisors expanded towards
the crown, approximate. See Proceed, of the Zool. Soc. 1832, pp. 20—22.
Sp. Propithecus diadema BENN., Habrocebus diadema WAGN. Habit, in
the island of Madagascar. See the skull of a younger specimen figured in
BLAINVILLE Osteographie, m. PL 8 ; fig. of teeth, ibid. PL n. BLAINVILLE

MAMMALIA. 745

asserts that the skull scarcely differs from that of Lichanotus Indris of the
same age.

Stenops ILLIG. (genera Loris and Nycticebus GEOFFE.) Incisor

A "I "I ££ G.

teeth j , canines z =- , molars /» f» . Ears short, rounded. Eyes

large, approximate. Index of hand short, not longer than pollex.
Tail short or none.

The teeth of this genus are 36 in number, and agree as well in this
respect as in their arrangement with those of the genera Lemur and Oto*
licnus. — Formerly the six anterior teeth placed horizontally in the lower
jaw were regarded as incisors, and LINNJSUS gave as a character of his genus
Lemur, " denies primores inferiores sex." Of these six teeth the four middle
ones are very thin ; the most external on each side is conspicuously thicker.
This is now regarded as the inferior canine, since the canine of the upper
jaw (about which there can be no doubt, since the intermaxillary suture is
seen in front of it), when the mouth is closed, is placed behind this outer-
most, just as in monkeys and carnivores. Consequently the tooth, which
was commonly regarded as the canine of the lower jaw, is now indicated as
the first false molar.

a) Tail short. Index of hand very short, resembling an unarmed
tubercle. (Perodicticus BENNETT.)

Sp. Stenops potto, Lemur potto GM., Nycticebus potto GEOFFB. Ann. du Mug.
xix. p. 165, Perodicticus Geoffroyi BENN., Potto BOSMAN, Beschrijving van
de Guinese Goudkust, 1737, 4to, pp. 30, 31, fig. 4 (opposite p. 29), BENNETT
Proceed of the Zool. Soc. 1830, 1831, Part i. pp. 109 — in ; V. D. HOEVEN
Tijdschr. xi. bl. 20 — 27, PL n. (figure of a young individual ; its skull is
figured ib. PL I. fig. 3) ; Verhand. der eerste Klasse van het Kon. Ned.
Instit. 30 Reeks, iv. 1851, (with 2 plates, figure of the adult animal, of the
skeleton, the teeth, "&c.). The Aposo or Aposou of the negroes on the Gold
coast of Guinea is a nocturnal animal which keeps on trees and lives
on fruits. The spinous processes of the last five cervical and of the first
two dorsal vertebrae are long and pierce through the hairy integument of
the back, with a weak, horny covering. Prof. HALBEBTSMA first drew my
attention to this peculiarity, which I have observed in two specimens.

b) Tail very short (Nycticebus GEOFFB.).

Sp. Stenops tardigradus auct., Lemur tardigradus L. (in part), VOSMAEB
Beschr. van eene tot nu toe onbekende vijfvingerige luijaardsoort, Amsterdam,
1770 (with fig.), BUFF. Suppl. vn. PL 36, AUDEB. Loris, PL i, GUEB.
Iconogr., Mammif. PL 6, fig. 3 ; yellowish-grey, with black stripe along
the middle of back, a narrow whitish stripe between the eyes, 4 incisors
above ; Bengal, Siam, Sumatra, Borneo ; — Stenops javanicus nob., Nyctice-
bus javanicus GEOFFB.; very similar to the preceding, but with only
2 incisors in the upper jaw and more white between and above the
eyes.

746 CLASS xvn.

Compare on these two species my remarks in Tijdschr. voor nat. Gesch.
Till. 1841, bl. 337 — 348, with figures.

See for the anatomy SCHROEDER VAN DER KOLK, Hid. bl. 277 and foil.,
and W. VROLIK Nieuwe Verhand. der eerste Klasse van het Koninkl.
Nederl. Instit. x. 1843.

c) Tail none (Loris GEOFFR. Body slender ; eyes very large, almost
contiguous. Nose acute, sub-ascending).

Sp. Stenops gracilis, Loris gradlis GEOFFR., Lemur tardigradus L. (Mus. Ad.
Frid. 1754, Lemur <f cauda omnino nulla" p. 4), BUFF. xni. PI. 30,
ADDEB. Loris, PL 2 ; in the island of Ceylon, smaller than the preceding
species. On the vascular plexuses of the limbs in this genus see above,
p. 586. Under the tongue in this genus and the following is situated an
aponeurotic lamina, which is divided at its anterior, thinner end, into
filaments or slips. This arrangement (a development of the frenum of
the tongue) has been described, incorrectly in my judgment, as though the
tongue were double, or even as if a bird's tongue were present under the
mammalian tongue.

Lemur L. (excl. of Lemur tardigradus and Lemur volans).
Teeth as in the preceding genus. Snout produced. Eyes lateral.
Ears short. Index of hand longer than thumb. Tail very long,
hairy throughout.

Sp. Lemur Catta L., BUFF. xin. PI. 22, AUDEB. Makis, PI. 4, Mem. du
Mus. II. pp. 15 seq. (with an excellent figure), Diet. univ. d'Hist. nat.,
Mammif. PI. 6 B, fig. 2 ; grey, ruddy on the back, white below ; the tail
ringed white and black. — Lemur Macaco L., Lemur niger GEOFFR.,
EDWARDS'S Gleanings, Tab. 217 (fig. copied in SCHREB. Tab. 40 A),
variegated : Lemur Macaco auctor., BUFF. xni. PI. 27, AUDEB. Makis,
PI. 5, 6; — Lemur Mongoz L., BUFF. xni. PI. 27, (cop. in SCHREB. 39 A);
— To these species, known to LINNJEUS, various others have been since
added : Lemur albifrons GEOFFR., AUDEB. Makis, PI. 3, GUER. Traite elem.
tfHist. nat., Zool. PI. 2, fig. 3, &c. All the species are from the island
of Madagascar.

Chirogaleus GEOFFR. (A scarcely distinct genus, with head
shorter, the inter/orbital space and ridge of nose convex.)

Sp. Lemur griseus GEOFFR., BUFF. Suppl. viz. PI. 34, AUDEB. Makis, PI. 7 ;
— Chirog. Milii GEOFFR., Myspithecus typus Cuv. Mammif. ed. 4to,
PI. 83. The figures of COMMERSON (Ann. du Mus. xix. PI. 10), on which
GEOFFR. (ibid. pp. 171 — 175) originally founded this genus, cannot be
referred to these species, which were discovered later.

B. With tarsus elongate.

Otolicnus ILLIG., Galago GEOFFR. (Teeth 36, as in Lemur).
Eyes large. Ears large, naked. Tail long (mostly longer than
body), villous.

MAMMALIA. 747

Sp Otolicnus galago WAGN., Galago senegalensis GEOFFB. SAINT-HILAIRE,
Magasin encyclopedique, I. 1796, p. 20, PL i (fig. cop. in SCHKEB. Sdugth.
Tab. 38 B), AUDEB. Galago, PL I. GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif. PL 6,
fig. i, CUVEEK R. Ani., 3d. ill., Mammif. PL 21, fig. 2, (under the
wrong name of Lemur potto GM.) ; chief colour grey, passing into pale
yellow on the legs, tail brown. Dispersed through great part of Africa,
Senegal, Sennaar (RUEPPELL), Mosambique (PETERS), Kafferland (SMITH
Otolicnus Moholi). — Otolicnus crassicaudatus WAGN., Galago crassicau-
datus GEOFFR. SAINT-HILAIRE, Grand Galago Cuv. It. Ani. I. 1817, PL i,
fig. i, PETERS Mossamb., Sdugth. Tab. n. ; of the size of a rabbit ; in the
south-eastern part of Africa. These animals feed on fruits and insects ; in
a small species from the coast of Guinea, Otolicnus Peli TEMM. (Esquisses
Zool. p. 45), nothing was found in the stomach but remains of insects. On
the anatomy of this little Galago compare the Academical Essay of Dr
P. HOECKEMA KINGMA Eenigc ontleedkundige AanteeTdningen over den Oto-
licnus Peli. Leiden, 1855, 8vo, with a plate.

Microcebus GEOFFR, WAGN., PETERS. (Small species differing
from Otolicnus in having the ears more hairy, facial whiskers, and
upper incisors broader.)

Sp. Otolicnus pusillus, Galago Madagascariensis GEOFF., Microcebus murinus
WAGN., Rat de Madagascar, BUFF. Suppl. m. PL 20, AUDEB. Malcis, PL 8 ;
— Microcebus myoxinus PET. L 1. Tab. in. ; both species from Madagascar.

Phalanx II. Nails of second and third fingers of soles incurved,
subulate, sub-erect. Upper incisor teeth contiguous.

Tarsius STOKE. Incisor teeth _ , subulate, middle upper longer

£ -\ -\ (* r*

than external, lower oblique ; canines ^ — =- , molars ^ , false

-^ , conic, the true molars with several acute conical tubercles,
o — o

Eyes very large. Ears ample, somewhat naked. Hind feet very
long, with tarsus elongate. Tail much longer than body, tufted at
the tip.

Sp. Tarsius spectrum GEOFFR., Lemur spectrum PALL. (Glir.); le tarsier
BUFFON, xin. PL 9; B. S. NAU, NaturforscJier, xxv.i79i, Tab. i., AUDEB.
Makis, le Tarsier, fig. i, GUERIN Iconogr., Mammif. PL 6, fig. 4 ; grey-
brown ; this remarkable little animal lives in forests, leaps like a frog, and
is found at Celebes, Borneo, Banca, &c. and also at the Philippine Islands.
The various species which have been proposed for adoption are not suffi-
ciently distinct. On the anatomy BURMEISTER has made important con-
tributions in his interesting Monograph : Beitrage zur ndhern Kenntniss der
Gattung Tarsius. Mit 7 Tafeln. Berlin, 1846, 4to.

Family XLY. &imim. Incisor teeth four in both jaws, ap-
proximate; canines distinct, conic, longer than incisors, upper

748 CLASS xvii.

remote from incisors ; molars equably enamelled, triturators, ~ — =

6 — 6
or /» /» • Face denuded. Fore feet often longer than hind feet.

Third (or middle) finger both of fore and hind fe?t lon.orst of all.

The monkeys form with LlNN^US a single genus only, Simla (in the
1 2th edition of the Syst. nat. with 33 species). Modern writers have here
adopted many genera, whilst the number of species has increased to about
1 80. Three large genera may be distinguished, which many now regard
as separate families.

t Spurious molars ' .

o o

Phalanx I. Hemipitheci. Feet pentad actylous, with thumb of
palms not remote from the other fingers. Nails incurved, com-
pressed, acute, except that of thumb of soles, which is flat, broad.
^ g

Molar teeth -= — > .
o — o

Hapale ILLIG. (Jacchus, Midas GEOFFR.). False molars with
outer margin unicuspidate, true with outer margin bicuspidate, the
upper with crown broader than long, the last in both jaws smaller.
Face obtuse; nostrils severed by a broad septum, opening laterally;
Tail long, villous.

* With lower incisors long, narrow, convex outwards. (Jacchus GEOFFR.)

Sp. Hapale Jacchus, Simia Jacchus L., BUFF. xv. PI. 14 (cop. in SCHBEB.

Tab. 33), AUDEB. Singes, Fam. 6, Sect. 2, PI. 4, ouistiti; grey with black

ringed tail and white tufts at the ears ; — Hapale penicillata, Jacchus peni-

cillatus GEOFFR., Cuv. R. Ani., ed. HI., Mammif. PI. 19, fig. i, &c.

** With lower incisors short, broad. (Midas GEOFFR.)
Sp. Hapale cedipus, Simia (Edipus L., BUFF. xv. PI. 17, Pinche, SCHREB.
Saugth. Tab. 34 (fig. of EDWARDS), AUDEB. 1. 1. PL T ; grey-brown, white
below, tail ruddy ; long white hair on the head and neck ; — Hapale rosalia,
Simia Rosalia L., BUFF. xv. PI. 16, AUDEB. 1. 1. PI. 3; light russet-
coloured, the tail often browner ; — Hapale midas, Simia Midas L., Midas
rufimanus GEOFFR., BUFF. xv. PI. 13, AUDEB. 1.1. PI. 5; dark brown,
with yellow-russet hands ; in Guiana and Surinam. The rest of the received
species are from Brasil ; some occur also in Peru.

These small monkeys live together in the great forests of South America
in numerous troops ; they feed on insects and fruits, and jump about on the
trees like squirrels. — The skeleton, in most of the species, presents twelve
dorsal and seven lumbar vertebrae; the caudal vertebras are from 26 to 31.
The frontal bone in many extends between the orbits above the nasal
bones and is convex at that part.

Phalanx II. Hesperopitheci. Nails rounded, truncate or ob-
tuse anteriorly. Fore feet in some tetradactylous, in some penta-

MAMMALIA. 749

dactylous, with pollex distinct, somewhat short, little separate from

/> />

the other fingers. Molar teeth ^ — ^ , with four obtuse tubercles.

b — b

Nostrils severed by a broad septum, patulous laterally.

These monkeys (the genus Cebus ERXL.) are, like the preceding,
exclusively proper to America. From the form and position of
their nostrils, GEOFFROY gave them the name of Platyrhini. The
anterior limbs have a thumb only slightly distinct from the other
fingers, whence OGILBY proposes to name these monkeys pedimana1.
All of them have a tail, but, like the preceding division, have no
buccal pouches, which occur in the monkeys of the old world
alone. They are on the whole small in comparison with the
monkeys of the old world, and have small molars2.

t Tail lax, vittous, not prehensile.

Pithecia DESM., ILLIG. Incisor teeth somewhat prominent
obliquely, the lower long, canines large, thick, conic, molars
small. Tail very villous.

a) Tail long, equalling body. Sp. Pithecia leucocephala AUDEB., Simia
pithecia L., Pithecia chrysocephala Ism. GEOFFR., BUFF. xv. PI. 12 (cop.
in SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 32), Archives du Mus. v. PI. 29; the young
animal has the points of the hair yellow; it is the Pithecia ruftventer
GEOFFR., BUFF. Suppl. vn. PL 30, 31, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 4,
fig. 3, Guiana; — Pithecia hirsuta SPIX (and P. inusta ejusd ) Brasil; —
Pithecia satanas HOFFMANN SEGG, Cuv. R. Ani., e<L. ill, Mammif. PL 18,
fig. i.

b) Tail much shorter than body (Brachyurus SPIX in part). Sp. Pithecia
melanocephala, Simia melanocephala, HUMB. Recueil d'Observ. de Zool. I.
PL 29.

Nyctipithecus SPIX, (Nocthora F. Cuv., Aotus ILLIG.). Two
middle upper incisors broad, lower obliquely procumbent ; canines
moderate. Eyes large. Ears partly hidden amongst the hair of
head. Hind feet longer than fore feet. Tail longer than body.
(Orbits very large. Zygomatic bones inflated behind the orbits.)

1 Observations on the opposable power of the thumb, considered as a zoological charac-
ter, LOUDON'S Magazine of Nat. Hist. i. 1837, p. 49 seq.

2 Figures of the skulls of Lagothrix, Pithecia, Chrysothrix and Callithrix have
been given by WAGNEB in Abh, der Munchn. Akadem., mathem. physik. Klasse n.
Tab. ii. s. 516.

750 CLASS XVII.

Sp. Nyctipiihecus trivirgatus, Aotus trivirgatus HUMB. 1. 1. PI. 28, Cuv. R.
Ani., 3d. ill., Mammif. PI. 18, fig. 2; — Nyctipithecus felinus SPIX, GEOFFR.
et Cuv. Mammif. Livrais. 43, GU£R. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 5, fig. I ;
douroucouli; grey-brown, ruddy below; white above the eyes and a large
black spot on the forehead. These animals sleep by day, live in pairs, and
eat not fruits only, but hunt also for insects and small birds. They repre-
sent the Lemurs in South Africa. Very similar is Nyctipithecus lemurinus
IBID. GEOFFR., Archives du Mus. IV. PI. 2, the same species, according to
WAGNER, as Nyctip. vociferans Spa1.

Callithrix GEOFFR. Incisor teeth straight. Eyes moderate.
Tail slender, round.

Callithrix (in stricter sense). Two middle upper incisors broad.
Canines short, scarcely longer than incisors. (Lower jaw high.)

Sp. Callithrix personata GEOFFR., Simia personata HUMB., PRINC. MAX.
Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras. Lief. 2, SCHREB. Saugth. Tab. 30 A; — Callithrix
mdanochir PR. MAX. Lief. 4, &c.

Chrysoihrix KAUP. Canine teeth large; first molar tooth larger
than rest, conic, with accessory internal basal tubercle.

Sp. Callithrix sciurea, Simia sciurea L., BUFF. xv. PI. 10, SCHREB. Saugth.
Tab. 30, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PI. 17, fig. 3; the Saimiri,
greyish-ruddy ; legs yellowish, tip of tail black.

ft Tail prehensile. (Last caudal vertebrae dilated.)

Cebus GEOFFR. Head rounded. Feet congruous. Tail long,
hairy throughout.

Sp. Cebus fatuellus ERXL., Simia Fatuellus L. and Simia ApeUa ejusd. (the
young animal), BUFF. Suppl. vn. PL 29, AUDEB. Singes, v. 2, PI. i ; the
young animal figured by LINN^DS, Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. i, BUFF. xv.
PL 4, AUDEB. 1. 1. PL 2, GU£R. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 4, fig. 2 ; brown,
the legs and tail black ; the old animal with the hair in two distant tufts
on each side at the top of the head ; five lumbar vertebrae ; — Cebus capu-
cinus ERXL., Simia capucina L., Mus. Ad. Frid. Tab. n. BUFF. xv. PL 8,
AUDEB. 1. L PL 4; smaller, brown; face and throat greyish-yellow ; head
black above ; six lumbar vertebrae, &c.

Compare on this genus BURMEISTER Abhandl. d. Nat. Oesellsch. zu
Halle, n. 1854, s. 8 1 — 124.

Ateles GEOFFR., ILLIG. (more correctly Atelochirus). Head
rounded. Extremities slender, very long; fore feet with thumb
none or very short. Tail towards the tip naked below.

1 The skeleton of one of these species (Nyctip. felinus) is figured in J. GISTL
Beschreibung des Sketes des dreistreifigen Nachtaffers, Leipzig, 1836, 8vo, and by WAG-
NER Abhand. der Milnchn. Akadem., math. i. physilc. Klasse n. s. 420—432, Tab. I.

MAMMALIA. 751

Compare GEOFFR. SAINT-HILAIRE Mem. sur les singes a main impar-
faite, Ann. du Mus. vii. pp. 260 — 273. (The last species noticed there,
Ateles polycomos, is from the Eastern hemisphere, and belongs to Colobus
ILLIG.)

Sub-genus Eriodes ISID. GEOFFB. (With fur woolly.)

Sp. Ateles hypoxanthus PK. MAXIM., Abb. zur Naturgesch. Bras. Lief. I.
GUEB. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 4, fig. I (Brachyteles I SPIX), with a very
short thumb on the anterior limbs, without nail. (Eriodes hemidactylus
ISID. GEOFFR., Mem. du Mus. xvii. PI. 22, differs by having a nail on this
thumb, but is, according to WAGNER, of the same species.) — The fore feet
have, on the contrary, only four fingers in Aides arachnoides GEOFFB.,
Ann. du Mus. xin. PI. 9, although in the skeleton one phalanx is attached
to the metacarpal bone of the thumb (WAGNER Supplementband, 5te Abth.
s. 81).

Sub- genus Ateles (in stricter sense, with long, rigid hair).

Sp. Ateles paniscus, Simla Paniscus L., BUFF. xv. PI. i, AUDEB. Singes, v. i,
PI. 2 ; VOSMAER Beschrijving van eene Amerikaansche langstaartige aapsoort,
Amsterdam, 1768, 4 to; the coaita, dark black, the face red; fore feet
without thumb; the skeleton is figured in PANDER und D'ALTON Die
STcelete der Vierhander, Tab. II. ; Surinam, Brasil. In a very similar spe-
cies a short thumb occurs: Ateles pentadactylus GEOFFR., Ateles belzebut
GEOFFR., Cercopithecus belzebut BRISS., GEOFFR. Ann. du Mu*. vn.
PL 16, &c.

Lagothrix GEOFFR., Gastrimargus SPIX. Head rounded,
beardless. Feet very long, fore feet pentadactylous. Fur soft.
Tail with tip naked below.

Sp. Lagothrix cana GEOFFR., Gastrimargus olivaceus SPIX, SCHREB. Sdugth.
Tab. 26 F ; — Lagothrix infumata, Gastrimargus infumatus SPIX, Cuv. H.
Ani., ed. ill., Mammif. PL 16, fig. 4. (This genus differs little from the
preceding.)

Mycetes ILLIG., Stentor GEOFFR. Head pyramidal, bearded.
Fore feet pentadactylous. Tail naked below at the apical part.
(Lower jaw very high ; hyoid bone expanded into an ample, reso-
nant bulla.)

Sp. Mycetes seniculus, Simia Seniculus L., BUFF. vn. PL 25, AUDEB. Singes,
v. i, PL 7, GUEB. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 3, fig. 3; the howling monkey,
VAlouatte, le hurleur roux, der BruUaffe; South America, Surinam, Brasil.
(WAGNER is of opinion that Mycetes ursinus HUMB. Recueil, I. PL 30, and
Stentor chrysurus GEOFFR. may be referred to this same species.) — Mycetes
Beelzebut, Mycetes rufonanus KUHL, &c. Compare on this genus ISID.
GEOFFR., GUEBIN Magas. de Zool. 1831; GRAY Ann. of nat. Hist. xvi.
pp. 217 — 221.

752 CLASS xvn.

2 — 2

•ft Spurious molars — — .

Phalanx III. Heopitheci. Nails flat or subrotund, obtuse at the
apex. Fore feet pentadactylous, with thumb remote, very rarely

5 — 5

tetradactylous without thumb. Molar teeth •= — p , false molars

tuberculate. Nostrils severed by a small, narrow septum, opening
obliquely under the nose. (Tail never prehensile, sometimes
none. Eegion at the tubers of ischium almost always destitute of
hair, callous.)

A. Buccal pouches. Nates callous.

Cynocephalus Guv. Last molar tooth of lower jaw with one or
two accessory tubercles; the two other true molars quadritubercu-
late. Face produced into a truncate snout. Eyes small, approxi-
mate, placed beneath the transverse ridge of the exsert margin of
frontal bone. Trunk declining backwards. Tail very short or
moderate, inserted high, with tip often tufted.

a) With tail very short (Papio BRISS., ERXL., Mormon).

Sp. Cynocephalus maimon, Simla Maimon L. (and Simla mormon ALLSTRO-
MER, GM.) BUFF. Suppl. vn. PI. 9, AUDEB. Singes, n. 2, PI. i, Cuv.
Mtnag. du Mus. i. pp. 334— 345> ODER. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 3, fig. 2;
the mandril; a large, brownish-black monkey, the belly dirty-white, a
yellow beard, the nose in the adult red and the face on each side purple-
blue, with deep, longitudinal folds; in Africa at the Gold Coast. — Cynoce-
phalus leucophceus DESM., Simla leucophcea Cuv., Ann. du Mus. ix. p. 477,
PI. 37, Mammif. (ed. 4to), PL 48—52.

6) With tail moderate, tufted at the tip (Cynocephalus in stricter sense).

Sp. Cynocephalus sphinx, Simla Sphinx L., BUFF. xiv. PI. 13, 14 (with tail
truncated), AUDEB. Singes, in. PI. i, 2, Cynocephalus papio Cuv. Mammif.
(ed. 4to), PL 44, 45 ; coast of Guinea, Senegal. A similarly formed, but
more darkly coloured monkey represents this species in South Africa:
Cynocephalus porcarius, Simla porcarla BODDAERT, Naturforscher xxu.
Tab. i, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PL 3, fig. i ; it is the black ape of the
colonists. — Cynocephalus papio (Cynocephalus babuln DESM.) Cuv. Mem. du
Mus. IV. PL 19; — Cynocephalus hamadryas, Simla hamadryas L., BUFF.
Suppl. vii. PL 10, SCHREB. Sdugth. Tab. 10, 10*, Cuv. Mammif. (ed. 4to),
PL 46; these two last-named species live in Abyssinia; the last is the
monkey, sacred to the god Thoth, of the Egyptians, so often represented
on their monuments ; see EHRENBERG Ueber den Cynocephalus, £c. Berlin,
1834, 4to.

In Asia also some species of this genus occur, Cynocephalus nlger DESM.
and Papio nlgrescens TEMM., both from Celebes, and the (formerly referred
to Macacus) Cynocephalus silenus, Simla Sllenus L., BUFF. xiv. PL 18,
Zool. Gardens, I. p. 21, Cuv. Mammif. ed. 4to, PL 38 ; this monkey has been

MAMMALIA. 753

incorrectly named Wanderoe, a name which belongs to a species of monkey
in Ceylon, whilst this species lives only on the continent of India, although
often imported into Ceylon from the coast of Malabar ; KEELAAKT Prodro-
mus Faunce Zeylaniccs, Ceylon, 1851, 8vo, p. 8.

Inuus Cuv., WAGN. (and Macacus Cuv.). Last molar tooth of
lower jaw quinquetuberculate, the two other true molars quadri-
tuberculate. Face produced, rounded. Eyes placed under the
shade of the exsert margin of frontal bone. Tail of different
length in different species, with tip not tufted.

This genus is not sharply distinguished from the following, except by
the last molar of the lower jaw. Hence all the long-tailed species in which
this character is present ought to be removed from Cercopithecus and
placed here, if it be the object to form an exact representation of this
genus1. In the most the tail is moderate. Inuus nemestrinus, Simia
Nemestrina L., BUFF. xiv. PI. 19; AUDEB. Singes, n. i, PL 2, GUEB.
Iconogr., Mammif. PL 2, fig. 2, Sumatra; this species is trained by
the aborigines to pluck cocoa-nuts. — In one species there is only a little
short tubercle prev^ent as indication of tail: Inuus ecaudatus GEOFFB.,
Simia Inuus L. (and Simia Sylvanus ejusd.), BUFF. xiv. PL 8, 9, Suppl.
vii. PL 2, 3, GUEB. Iconogr.f Mamm. PL 2, fig. 3; the face dirty flesh-
coloured, the hair yellowish-grey. This monkey lives in North Africa and
also wild upon the rock of Gibraltar. It was this species (and by no
means the orang) which GALENUS dissected. Compare on this species
F. W. THEILE Ueber das Arterien-System von Simia Inuus, MUELLEB'S
Archiv, 1852, s. 419 — 449, Tab. xi.

Cercopithecus EKXL. Last molar tooth of lower jaw with four
tubercles. Face produced, rounded. Eyes somewhat prominent.
Tail equalling body or longer than body.

A numerous genus of monkeys, proper to Africa. Sp. Cercopithecus
sabceus F. Cuv., Cercopithecus callitrichus IBID. GEOFFB., BUFF. xiv.
PL 37, AUDEB. Singes, iv. 2, PL 4, Cuv. Menag. du Mus. n. pp. 9 — 14;
back greyish-yellow, belly whitish; the face black, the tip of the tail
russety; on the coast of Guinea, in Senegal; — Cercopiihecus grisew F.
Cuv., Cercopiihecus sab&us ISID. GEOFFB., F. Cuv. Mamm. (ed. 4to),
PL 20, Diet. univ. d'Hist. not., Mammif. PL 6; Nubia, Abyssinia ; much
resembling the preceding, with grey tail; according to ISID. GEOFFBOY
this species is indicated by LINN^US in his Simia sabcea; — Cercopiihe-
cus Diana DESM. (in part), Simia Diana L., SCHBEB. Saugth. Tab. 14,
AUDEB. Singeb, TV. i, PL 6; from the coast of Guinea; the fur is used for
many purposes by the negroes, and is often also brought to Europe. —

1 The Cercopiihecus cethiops and Cercop. fuliginosw, which LiNN.fiUS confounded
with his Simia cethiops.

VOL. II. 48

754 CLASS xvii.

Cercopithecus leucampyx FISCH., Cercopithecus Pluto GRAY, Zool. Pro-
reed. 1848, Mamm. PL 3, Cercopithecus Diana, F. Cuv., Mammif. (ed. 4to),
PL 14, &c.

B. Buccal pouches none.
t Buttocks callous.

Semnopithecus F. Cuv. (and Colobus ILLIG.). Buccal folds,
rudiments of pouches. Face little produced. Last molar tooth of
lower jaw mostly with a fifth accessory tubercle behind. Feet
long, fore feet with thumb very short, in some none, with third
and fourth fingers long, subequal. Tail long, equalling body or
mostly far surpassing it.

Colobus ILLIG. Fore feet tetradactylous, with a tubercle in place
of thumb, or thumb none.

Sp. Semnopithecus polycomos, Simla polycomos ZIMMERM., Colobus polycomos
WAGN., PENNANT Quadr. PI. 46 (fig. cop. in BUFF. Suppl. vn. PI. 17,
SOHREBER Stiugth. Tab. 10 D), Coldb. ursinus OGILBY, FRASER Zool. typ.
Tab. i, Colobus vellerosus ISID. GEOFFR., Colobus leucomeros OGILBY; the
baardmannetje (bearded manikin) of BOSMAN ; this monkey becomes 2 feet
long, the tail 2 feet 8 inches; black, the tail white; the adult animal,
especially the male, has long white hair on the head, the neck and the
chin. Compare TEMMINOK Esquisses Zool. sur la cdte de Guinet pp. 21 — 24.
— Colobus Temminchii KUHL, Colobus fuliginosus OGILBY, Simia ferruginea
SHAW, also from the coast of Guinea. — Semnopithecus Guereza, Colobus
Guereza KUEPPELL, Abyssinische Wirbelth. Tab. I., P. GERVAIS in GUERIN,
Magas. de Zool. 1836, Mammif. PL 18; Abyssinia; black, with long
white hair along the sides and a white tail with a large brush of hair at
the end. — Colob. verus V. BENEDEN, Bullet, de I'Acad. de Brux. v. 6.

Semnopithecus F. Cuv. Fore feet pentadactylous, with thumb
short. (The species known hitherto are all from Asia.)

Sp. Semnopithecus nemceus, Simia Nemceus L . (Mantiss. plant. 2, p. 521), BUFF.
xiv. PL 41, AUDEB. Singes, iv. r, PL i, Cuv. Mamm. (ed. 4to), PL 12;
le douc BUFF. ; a beautifully variegated monkey from Cochin-china, grey
fore legs and tail white, hind legs black at the upper part, below the knees
red-brown ;— Semnopithecus nasicus, Simia nasica SCHREB., Simia rostrata
BLUMENB., Abb. Naturh. Gegenst. No. 13, BUFF. Suppl. vn. PL n, 12,
AUDEB. Singes, iv. 2, PL i, Verhandel. over de Nederl. Bezittingen, Mamm.
PL 12, fig. 3 (the young animal), Borneo; — Semnopithecus entettus Cuv.,
Mammif. (ed. 4to), PL 8, 9, Cuv. R. Ani., ed. ill* Mammif. PL 13, fig. i,
Bengal, Assam; — Semnopithecus cephalopterus, Cercopithecus cephalopterus
ZIMMERM., Cercopithecus leucoprymnus OTTO, Nov. Act. Acad. Goes. Leop.
Carol. XII. pp. 503 — 518 (with 2 PL); at Ceylon, where this species is
named Wander oe (see above Cynocephahts Silenus); — Semnopithecus me-
lanolophus, Simia melalophos RAFFL., Linn. Trans. XIIT. p. 40, GUER.

MAMMALIA. 755

Iconogr., Mammif. PI. 2, fig. i (and Semnopith. flavimanns ISID. GEOFFB.,
LESSON Centurie Zool. PI. 40), Sumatra, &c.

See on the stomach in this genus above, p. 579.

Hylobates ILLIG. Head small. Feet very long, the anterior,
when the body is erect, touching the ground. Tail none.

The long-armed apes have been named Gibbons. They have a flat skull,
large orbits and very large canine teeth, especially those of the upper jaw.
To these belongs from further India Hylobates albimanus, Simla lar GM.
(Homo lar L. Mantiss. plant. 2, p. 521), BUFF. xiv. PI. 2 (and Hylobates
entelloides ISID. GEOFFB., Arch, du Mus. n. PI. i); — Hylobates syndactylus,
Simla syndactyla HAFFL., F. Cuv. Mammif. ed. 4to, PI. 2, GUEBIN
Iconogr., Mammif. PI. i, fig. 3; the Siamang at Sumatra, where also
Hylob. variegatus GEOFFB. (agilis F. Cuv.) occurs ; at Borneo lives Hylo-
bates concolor; at Java Hylobates leuciscus KUHL, Simla leucisca SCHB.,
AUDEB. Singes, i. 2, PI. 2 ; (comp. on this species BOIE, Isis, 1828, s. 1027).
These animals live in troops on the tops of trees in the mountains, and
raise, especially towards morning, a loud, single-noted cry.

ft Buttocks covered with hair.

Simia ILLIG. Head large. Teeth, especially the canines,
strong. Fore feet longer than hind feet, reaching "beyond the knee
when the body is erect.

Sp. Simla satyrus L. (exclus. of synonymes under £), the orang-outan; figures
of the young animal are to be found in VOSMAEB Heschrijving ran den
orang-outang, Amsterdam, 1778, 4to (copied in BLUMENB. Abb. Naturh.
Gegenst. No. 12), and in AUDEB. Singes, i. i, PI. 2 ; — the best figure of
adult animal in Verhandel. over de Nederl. Overzeesche JBezittingen, Mamm.
PI. i. This ape occurs at Borneo and the eastern part of Sumatra. The
hair is ruddy brown ; the adult male has a projecting ridge behind the eyes
along the jaws ; the arms, when the animal is erect, reach nearly to the
heels ; often the thumb of the hind feet has no nail (which would seem,
according to SWIJTTON, to be peculiar to the female). On the upper arm
the hair is, as usual, directed downwards, but on the fore-arm, from below
upwards, which is also the case in the Chimpanzee, and, in the preceding
genus, in Hylobates syndactylus. The resemblance of the orang to man has
been exaggerated, and in this the skulls of younger individuals, which
with less strongly developed face necessarily present a larger facial angle,
have been compared with the human skull. At present it is known that
the adult orang (Simla Wurmbii) possesses a skull of a peculiarly animal
form. This ape lives in low marshy regions. In the wild state the orang
eats chiefly fruits, especially figs, also fruit-buds and the young leaves of
various shrubs. It forms for itself a kind of nest in trees, though not on the
summit where it spends the day, but lower, about four feet from the
ground. In its nest it covers itself with leaves of trees, and, being very
sensible of cold, leaves its resting-place late in the* morning, when the dew
and vapours have been dispersed by the sun. The organs of sense, with

48—2

756 CLASS xvn.

the exception of that of hearing, are not acute ; the eye seems to be short-
sighted. Except in the pairing season the old males live mostly alone;
of the adult orangs on the contrary, and of the females, often two or three
are found in company. The orang climbs rapidly, extending his hind legs
far apart to grasp the branches ; his progress on the ground is effected on
the fore legs, the animal trailing his hind legs after him.

Compare on the orang, amongst others, P. CAMPER NatuurJcundige
Verhandelingen, Amsterdam, 1782, 4to, bl. i — 120, PI. i — 4; F. CUVIER
Description d"un orang-outang et observ. sur sesfacultSs intellectuelles, Ann.
du Mm. xvi. pp. 46 — 65 ; RUDOLPHI Ueber den Orang-outang und Beweis
doss derselbe ein junger Pongo sei; Abhandl. der Akad. der Wissensch. zu
Berlin, a. d. J. 1824, s. 131 — 136; TIEDEMANN Him des Orang-outangs
init dem des Menschen verglichen, Zeitschr. f. Physiol. n. i, 17 — 28, Tab. iv. ;
J. C. G. LUCLE Der Pongo- und Orang Schddel in Bezugauf Species und Alter,
Abhandl. Jierausgegeb. von der SencJcenb. Gesellsch. Frankf. a. Main, 1854,
s. 154 — 167; and especially S. MUELLER and H. SCHLEGEL in Verhandel.
over de nat. Gesch. der Nederl. Bezittingen, Zoogdieren, bl. i — 28, and G.
SANDIFORT Ontleedk. Beschrijving. ibid. bl. 29 — 56 (1840), and OWEN'S
writings, referred to under the Chimpanzee.

Simia troglodytes BLUMENB., GMEL., BLUMENB. Abbild. NaturJi. Gegcnst.
No. n, GUER. Iconogr., Mammif. PI. i, fig. 2, CUVIER R. Ani., 3d. ill.,
Mammif. PI. 1 1 ; Chimpanzee, dark-brown hair, the arms reach to the
knees only, the ears are very large ; in the west of tropical Africa, at
present driven further from the coast. Compare TYSON Orang-outang
sive Homo sylvestris, or the Anatomy of a Pigmie, London, 1699, 4to. —
W.VROLIK Recherches d' Anatomic comparge sur le Chimpanse", Amsterdam,
1841, folio (a capital work on the anatomy of monkeys in general),
R. OWEN On the Osteology of the Chimpanzee and Orang-utan, Transact, of
the Zool. Soc. i. 1855, pp. 343—379, P1- 48—56.

Simia gorilla, Troglodytes gorilla SAVAGE and WYMAN, ISID. GEOFFR.
SAINT-HILAIRE Ann. des Sc. nat., 3ieme SeYie, xvi. 1851, Zool. pp. 154 —
158, PI. 7. This species (the largest of the apes) attains a length of full 5
feet, has short posterior limbs, smaller ears than the preceding species. The
gorilla is found in the interior of Lower Guinea, near the line ; this species,
known to the Carthaginian voyager HANNO centuries before our era, was
discovered not long ago by the missionary SAVAGE (Boston Journal of
Nat. Hist. v. 1847, Description of the characters and habits of Troglodytes
Gorilla, and of the Osteology of the same, with 4 plates; translated in Ann.
des Sc. nat. 1. 1. p. 176 et suiv.). Compare OWEN Osteol. Contributions to the
Nat. Hist, of the Chimpanzee, including the Description of the skull of a
large species, Troglodytes gorilla SAVAGE, Transact, of the Zool. Soc. in.
1849, pp. 381 — 422, PI. 58 — 63, Description of the cranium of an adult
male Gorilla, &c. ibid. Vol. iv. Part 3, 1853, pp. 75—88; by the same,
Comparison of the skull of Troglodytes Gorilla with that of the Troglo-
dytes niger, Catalogue of the osteol. series in the Coll. of Surgeons, London,
II. 1853, pp. 782 — 784, and with that of a male Negro, ibid. pp. 785 — 802 ;
DUVERNOY Des caract&res anatomiques des grands Singes pseudo-anthropo-
morplies, Archives du Musetim d'Hist. natur. Tome vin. 1855, PP- * — 24>
PI. 1—16.

MAMMALIA. 757

OKDER XII. Bimana.

Incisor, canine, and molar teeth even, contiguous; molars equa-
bly enamelled ; incisors four on each side. Feet pentadactylous,
anterior limbs furnished with hands ; nails all flat, broad. Gait
erect.

Family XL VI. Erecta. (Characters of the order.)

4 1—1 5—5

Homo L. (Incisor teeth ^ , canines ^ , molars ^— — ; Dental

. 2-2 1-1 2-2 3-3
formula OWEN, i. ^—^ , c. ^— ^ , p. ^— ^ , m. 377-3 = 32).

Sp. Homo sapiens L. (Nosce te ipsum).

Although man as a moral and reasoning creature is raised far
above the animals, yet when his bodily structure is contemplated,
no characters can be indicated which remove him from the class to
which he is here referred. Man is distinguished from animals by
an erect gait, for which even the monkeys that correspond to him
most nearly in corporeal structure are unfitted, and which with
him is the only natural one, since by it he preserves the free use
of his hands. His hand is more unrestricted in the motion of the
fingers, and is for him an instrument of instruments, as it was named
by AmsTOTELES1. The brain has a great preponderance over the
nerves and the spinal cord, of which the large amplitude of the
human cranium as compared with the face is a consequence; man
has the largest facial angle.

Man is further distinguished from animals by speech. All, even
the least civilized peoples, have a language; it is the embodiment
of the reason of man ; words are forms of human thoughts ; lan-
guage is thus as much a property of man as is his understanding,
although it may, no less than his understanding, be developed,
enlarged and cultivated. Through it man possesses a history, a
tradition of experience; a progressive education, which is imparted
by this tradition to succeeding generations.

1 "h te X*ip toiKev elvai oi/x & 6pyoa>ov d\\d iroXXd* fori 7^/3 uffvepcl 6pyavov irpo
6pyavuv. De partibw Animal, iv. 108. Compare on the hand, as evincing design,
the elegant Bridgewater treatise of the eminent physiologist Sir CHARLES BELL.

758 CLASS XVIT.

As man, in a greater degree than any other creature, is dispersed
over the whole globe, there are numerous varieties also of the human genus
which, at least in part, may be explained as the effect of climate and mode
of life. The difference in different races of people has chiefly reference to
the form of the skull, to the colour and the kind of hair. The five races
of BLUMENBACH (Varietas caucasia, mongolica, cethiopica, americana, et
malaica) do not include all these modifications. Natural history affords, in
our judgment, no foundation for the adoption of different human species;
another question of an historical nature, whether all men have spread over
the earth from a single point and from a single ancestral pair, is beyond
its province, and it can only offer a judgment as to the greater or less
probability of such an origin.

Man appeared upon the surface of the earth at a later period than
the animal species of which the remains are met with in the tertiary
deposits.

Compare on the natural history of man, amongst others, J. F. BLUMEN-
BACH De generis humani varietate nativa, ed. 3 (ultima), Gottingae, 1795,
8vo; — Ejusd. Decades craniorum diversarum gentium VI. Gottingae, 1790 —
1820; Nova Pentas Collectionis suce craniorum f ibid. 1828. — STANHOPE
SMITH Essay on the causes of the variety of complexion and figure in the
Human Species, Philadelphia, reprinted Edinburgh, 1788, 8vo ; — G. F. LUD-
WIG Grundriss der Naturgeschichte der Menschenspecies, Leipzig, 1 796, 8vo ;
— PEICHAKD Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 4 Vola. with
engravings, London, 1841, 8vo (ad. ed.); J. C. NOTT and G. K. GLIDDON
Types of Mankind, or Ethnological Researches, illustrated by selections from
the inedited papers o/S. G. MORTON, London, 1854, 4to.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE. I. VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. FISHES.

Fig. 1. Plan of the circulation of the blood, after YON BAER, Vorlesun-
gen iiber Anthropologie, Tab. iv. fig. 4. The heart is repre-
sented as divided into two portions at a distance from each
other; I. n. the venous heart — i. the right auricle; n. the right
ventricle; in. iv. the arterial heart — TIL the left auricle; iv.
the left ventricle. The course of the blood is indicated by
the arrows. The upper half of the figure shews the motion
of the blood through the respiratory organs; the lower half
the course through the body, in which the arterial blood be-
comes venous. Compare p. 3.

Fig. 2. Brain of Lophius piscatorius, natural size, seen from above,
i. Anterior cerebral lobes or hemispheres of the cerebrum, n.
Middle cerebral mass, corpora quadrigemina,. in. Posterior
mass, cerebellum. A, Hypophysis, attached by a long pedicle.
1 First pair of cerebral nerves, &c. Compare pp. 43, 44. This
as well as the following figures of this Plate are from nature.

Fig. 3. Perpendicular section of the basis of the skull of a new-born
child, to shew the bodies of the three cranial vertebrae. In
front of in. is the vomer or body of the fourth; see p. 8, nat.
size.

Fig. 4. Skull of the pike, Esox lucius, half the natural size and seen
from the side, to illustrate the osteology of fishes : compare
pp. 18 — 23. For more convenient comparison, the bones are
marked with the same cyphers as those used by CUVIER in the
skeleton of the perch in his Hist. nat. des Poissons, but the small
size of the figure does not allow all the cyphers to be given.
Those noted are 1 the frontal bone, the frontale posterius of

760 EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

CUVIER, 6 the sphenoid bone, 1 1 the great ala of the sphenoid,
12 the os mastoideum ; of the suspensory bones of the lower
jaw, the epi-tympanicum 23, the os-tympanicum 27, the malar
bone 26 (hypotympanic OWEN). Behind these is placed the
gill-cover, namely: 30 prceoperculum, 28 operculum, 32 sub-
operculum, 33 interoperculum. Of the bones of the face, 19 is
the first of the sub- orbital bones, 17 the intermaxillary bone,
18 the superior maxillary bone, 18' accessory bony plate, 22
(omitted in fig. it is the bone seen in shadow behind the upper
part of the superior maxillary) the palate bone, 34 the dental
portion of lower jaw. — 37, 38 The two flat bony pieces (cornua,
of the hyoi'd bone), to which the rays of the branchiostegous
membrane 43 (here fourteen in number) are attached; 40
bone connecting the cornua with the body of the hyoi'd bone ;
41 glosso hyale; 42 the unpaired bony plate which runs back-
wards from the tongue-bone.

Fig. 5. Scale of a pike, magnified about 7 diameters, compare p. 46.
The posterior margin a of the free edge of the scale is smooth.
Consequently the scale belongs to the cycloidea of AGASSIZ;
compare p. 81.

Fig. 6. Scale of a perch, similarly magnified, the posterior margin a
is provided with numerous spines. This figure illustrates the
ctenoides of AGASSIZ, compare p. 1 30.

PLATE II. FISHES, continued.

Fig. 1. Gills and heart of a perch in the natural position, seen from
the left side and somewhat from below.

The gill-cover and gill-rays have been removed; a, the
heart; 6, the four branchial arches of the left side, from
without; c, the inferior margins of the gills of the right side
seen from within. Compare p. 33.

Fig. 2. Stomach and pyloric appendages of the cod, Gadus morrhua.
The duodenum and posterior extremity of the stomach are
laid open. In the former are seen four openings of the ccecal
appendages. Compare pp. 25 — 27.

Fig. 3. Head of Petromyzonfluviatilis seen from above; a, the unpaired
nostril on the middle of the head. See pp. 57, 60.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 761

Fig. 4. Amphioxus lanceolatus, after JOHN MUELLER Ueber den Bauu.
die Lebenserscheinungen des Branchiostoma lubricum, Tab. I.
fig. 1 ; twice the natural size.

Fig. 5. Heart of Squatina vulgaris, pp. 65, 66. B, ventricle ; c, mus-
cular appendage of the heart with three rows of valvular
projections; a, valves at the upper margin of the appendage.
See p. 60.

Fig. 6. Head of Sphyra or Zygoma Blochii Cuv., p. 68, from Java;
one-fourth the natural size, seen obliquely from below; a, a,
the five branchial apertures on the right side ; b, b, the eyes ;
c, c, the nostrils.

Fig. 7. Heart of Orthragoriscus mola, p. 78, half the natural size.

A, auricle; B, ventricle laid open ; at the deep part of it is seen
the transverse opening of the auricle, provided with valves;
a, a, semilunar valves at the upper part of the heart (a, one of
the two small accessory valves) ; c, bulb of the aorta, formed of
elastic tissue. Compare p. 75.

PLATE III. FISHES, continued and concluded.

Fig. 1. Skeleton of the Perch, Perca fluviatilis, p. 200, reduced, after
CUVIEB et VALENCIENNES Hist. not. des Poiss. PI. i., as an ex-
ample of an Acantliopterygian. The anterior rays of the dorsal
fin P d, are spinous ; PC, is the caudal fin ; P a, the anal fin ;
pp, the pectoral fin; P v, the ventral fin. Compare pp. 16, 17.

Figs. 2 and 3. Gills of the Lophobranchii, pp. 75, 76.

Fig. 2. A. Head of Syngnathus acus, p. 77, seen from the left side ;
a, the small branchial aperture. Fig. 2, B, the same head from
below; on the right side the gill-cover has been Removed, and
there the clustered gills a are seen ; below them is a partition
which closes the branchial cavity behind ; behind this in the
middle is situated the heart b. Fig. 3 (copied from H. RATHKE
Untersuchungen iiber den Kiemenapparat, Taf. iv. fig. 2). A, a
gill magnified ; on it two rows of short gill-leaves may be seen ;

B, one of these gill-leaves apart, more highly magnified.

Fig. 4. Upper jaw of Diodon bicolor, n. p. 79, from a preparation
in the collection of comparative anatomy at Paris, to illus-
trate the characters of the Pectognathi, comp. p. 77 ; a, supe-
rior maxillary bone ; 6, intermaxillary bone ; c, rough surface

762 EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

corresponding to another on the superior maxillary bone a',
which has been removed to the side and figured apart.

Fig. 5. Head of Anableps tetrophthalmus, p. 95.
Fig. 6. Chironectes pictus, p. 141.

Fig. 7. Head of Osphromenus olfax, after CUVIER et VALENCIENNES, 1. 1.
PL 205, to shew the convoluted appendages above the gills,
which are here exposed, pp. 201, 202.

PLATE IV. REPTILES.

Fig. 1. Heart with the origin of the arteries of a Crocodile or Caiman,
Crocodilus sclerops, p. 315. R, o, right auricle which on the
anterior or ventral surface covers a large part of the right ven-
tricle. L, o, left auricle, smaller and placed more on the
dorsal surface. In front of the ventricles is placed a large
arterial sac; from this 5 stems arise; 1, pulmonary artery;
2, descending aorta, which curves behind the trachea or the
left bronchus; 3, left branch of the ascending aorta; 4, right
branch of the ascending aorta; 5, most to the right side, a
second descending aorta which curves over the trachea or over
the right bronchus. Thus the two stems, 2 and 5, forming an
arterial ring round the oesophagus, descend and unite to form
the aorta abdominalis. The right stem 4 of the ascending
aorta forms the subclavian artery in this species only ; from the
left stem, on the contrary, of the ascending aorta the arteria
carotis a, c, arises, which, only when it has reached the base of
the cranium, divides into a right and left carotid. Compare
pp.^17, 218.

Fig. 2. Posterior surface of the skull of Rana cutipora DUM. et BIBR.
p. 250, the left side omitted, natural size, to shew the two
occipital condyles ft, one of the characters of the Reptilia di-
plopnoa. * The auditory ossicle of the right side, which extends
from ihefenestra ovalis to the tympanic membrane.

Fig. 3. Skull of a young Crocodilus Uporcatus, also seen from behind,
t Unpaired occipital condyle, one of the characters of the
Reptilia Jiaplopnoa, p. 255.

Fig. 4. Skull of Trigonocephalus rliodostoma, p. 261, as an example
of the venomous serpents; k, the quadrate bone; I external,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 763

m internal pterygoid bone; r, superior maxillary bone with a
poison-tooth in use, and another in the living animal con-
cealed in the gum and turned backwards, which, when the first
falls out, is destined to take its place.

Fig. 5. Bight superior maxillary bone of Najcu tripudians, p. 263;
b and r, as in the preceding figure.

Fig. 6. Anterior part of the bony head of Python molurus, p. 277;
b, anterior frontal or lateral ethmoid bone; t, nasal bone; q,
intermaxillary bone; r, superior maxillary bone; £, attached
to it, the anterior extremity of the external pterygoid bone.

Fig. 7. Skull of Dipsas dendrophila, p. 266, seen from above; a, a,
frontal bones; b, b, anterior frontal bones or lateral ethmoid
bones; f, parietal bone; g, g, ossa mask/idea; k, &, quadrate
bones ; t, t, nasal bones ; w, lower jaw.

Fig. 8. Right upper jaw-bone of the same species, the posterior tooth
is grooved. See this last magnified, Fig. 8 a.

Fig. 9. Left upper jaw of Python molurus (see fig. 6) seen from below;
m, r, as in fig. 4 ; n, palate-bone.

Fig. 10. Skull of Amphisbcena alba, p. 281 ; k, as in figs. 4 and 7.

Fig. 11. The anterior extremity of the skull of a Caiman, Crocodilus
sclerops (p. 315) after Cuv. Ann. du Mus. x. PL i. fig. 16; *,
fourth tooth of the lower jaw, of which the apex is received
in a cavity of the upper jaw.

Fig. 12. Skull of the Gavial, Crocodilus gangeticus, p. 316, after Cuv.
Ann. du Mus. xii. PI. i. Fig. 6; a} a, intermaxillary bones;
b} b} superior maxillary bones; c, c, malar bones; i, i, lachry-
mal bones ; h, h, anterior frontal bones ; h', h', posterior frontal
bones; H, proper frontal bone; m, parietal bone; between it
and the frontal bone are seen the large round apertures which
distinguish the skull of the crocodiles, and especially of the
gavials from that of the caimans; through these apertures
are seen the internal pterygoid bones f, f; n, n, squamous
bones (ossa squamosa), mastoi'ds OWEN. Figs. 11 and 12 are
reduced.

Fig. 13. Skull of a young Crocodilus bipoi'catus (p. 31o), *, fourth tooth
of the lower jaw which is received in a notch on the outer
margin of the upper jaw. In the lower jaw is seen y, the
articular portion; x, the coronoid bone, surangular Ow. ; v,

764 EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

angular bone; u, dental bone, dentary Ow. The other letters
correspond with the same in fig. 12.

Fig. 14. Right half of the lower jaw of Iguana delicatissima (Iguana
nudicollis), p. 305. The attachment of the teeth to the inside
of the margin of the jaw is seen, p. 298 ; z, os complementarium,
and 05 operculare; the other letters correspond to those of
fig. 13.

PLATE Y. REPTILES. Continuation and conclusion.

Fig. 1. Head of Ccecilia hypocyanea from a young individual. Behind
the eye the branchial aperture * is seen, p. 238.

Fig. 2. Anterior portion of Hypochthon xanthostictus FITZ., p. 241 ;
in front of the three-toed fore leg the large branchial tufts are

seen.

Fig. 3. Anterior portion of Amphiuma tridactylum, p. 241.

Fig. 4. Full grown embryos of Salamandra atra, p. 242. A, such

an embryo stretched out; B, an embryo folded, as it lies in

the oviduct of the parent.

Figs. 5, 6, 7. Head of Homalopsis angulata, p. 268. Fig. 5 from the
side; fig. 6 from above; fig. 7 head of another specimen of the
same species from below : to explain the nomenclature of the
scutes in the heads of serpents (see the note, p. 262), used by
MERREM (Sy sterna Amphibiorum Prsefat. xn, xm) :

a, Scutum vertebrale (scuta vertebralia).

b, b. Scuta occipitalia.

c, c. Scuta super ciliaria.

d, Scuta temporalia.

e, e. Scuta frontalia posterior a.

f. Scuta frontalia anteriora (only a single scutum in the
figure drawn by us).

g. Scutum rostrale.

h. Scuta ocularia posteriora.

i. Scuta ocularia anteriora (scutum oculare anterius).

k. Scuta lorea.

m. Scuta marginalia labii superioris.

n. Scutum labiale medium (Fig. 7 N).

o. Scuta labialia accessoria (Fig. 7 o, o).

q. Scuta mentalia (Fig. 7 Q, Q).

r, r, r, r. Scuta marginalia labii inferioris (Fig. 7 R, R).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 765

Fig. 8. Head of Vipera palpebrosa, p. 261.

Fig. 9. Tail of the same species seen from below (Scuta subcaudalia
integra).

Fig. 10. Portion of the tail of Homcdopsis angulata, p. 268, also seen
from below (Scuta subcaudalia divisa).

Fig. 11. Head of Amphisbcena alba, p. 281.

Fig. 12. Head of Chamcesaura anguina, p. 290; a, eye with small ocu-
lar fissure between the eyelids; * external auditory aperture
in front of the membrane of the tympanum; b, fore foot, not
divided into toes.

Fig. 13. Right hind foot of Platydactylus guttatus, p. 311, seen from
below; the thumb is destitute of nail.

Fig. 14. Hind legs and base of the tail of Hemidactylus, Cuv. IL p. 538,
Stellio platyurus of SCHNEIDER, after a figure by him. Here
the pori femorales may be seen, often noticed in the systematic
arrangement of the saurii.

Fig. 15. Head and left fore leg of Platydactylus vittatus, p. 311.
Fig. 16. Tongue of Varanus bivittatus, p. 298.

Fig. 17. Tongue of Tejus monitor, p. 297; of nearly similar form to our
lizards.

Fig. 18. Tongue of Calotes gutturosus, p. 308.

Fig. 19. Chdonia imbricata, p. 321, after BELL, British Reptiles. Except
this figure, which is much smaller than the specimen, all the
others are of the same size as the specimens, and drawn from
them.

PLATE VI. BIRDS.

Fig. 1. The skeleton of Falco ccerulescens of Java (p. 546), of natural
size. A, the skull ; B, the lower jaw; t the quadra tebone; c, the
clavicle, Jurcula ; o, coracold bone, or second clavicle ; E, the
cervical vertebrae; F, the dorsal vertebrae ; H, the caudal verte-
brae; L, the sternum; N, the scapula; P, the humerus; Q, the
radius; B, the ulna; i, the hand (the letter is placed on the
thumb) ; w, the thigh-bone (femur) ; x, the tibia'; yy the fibula ;
n, single bone representing the root of the foot (tarsus) and fore
foot (metatarsus) ; 1 thumb, 2 internal, 3 middle and 4 exter-

766 EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

nal finger (pp. 329 — 333). The bones of the limbs of the right
side are omitted in this figure.

Fig. 2. Sternum and clavicles of the same bird seen from before ; c, c,

0, o, L, as in the preceding figure.

Fig. 3. Skull of the ostrich, Struthio camelus, p. 417, from the side and
reduced; a, frontal bone; b} nasal bones; c, superior maxillary
bone; d, malar bone (d', quadrato-jugale, squamosal Ow.); e,
quadrate bone (tympanic Ow.); e, temporal bone (mastoi'd
Ow.); f, parietal; g, g'} occipital bone; g't unpaired upper
piece (pars occipitalis), g, lateral occipital (ex-occipital Ow.);

1, intermaxillary bone; kt lower jaw composed of different
bones (u, v, x, y, compare the skull of crocodile, PL iv) ; I, sphe-
noid bone; t foramen opticum; m, anterior ala (orbit o-sphe-
noi'd Ow.).

Fig. 4. Connexion of the quadrate bone with the os omdideum on the
inferior surface of the skull, in Crax globicera. Compare
pp. 333, 334; I, sphenoid bone; o, os omcftdeum; p, palate-
bone; q, q, quadrate bone.

Fig. 5. A hen's egg that has been brooded about 24 hours, seen from
above, but so that the section only of the shell and its mem-
brane is represented ; from Y. BAER Ueber Entwickelungsgesch.
der Thiere, i. Taf. in. fig. 3; a, the shell; b, the shell-mem-
brane ; c, boundary between the external and middle albumen ;
c, ligamentum albuminis of TREDERN ; d, boundary between the
middle and internal albumen; e, e, chalazce; g, boundary of
the germ-membrane (blastodermd) ; g, h, the vitelline circle;
h, boundary of the foetal area; h, i, the vascular area; i, the
space in which the embryo lies; this last is seen as a transverse
streak in the middle of the space, pp. 351, 352.

Fig. 6. Eye of the swan, horizontal section, after D. W. SOEMMERRING,
a, optic nerve; b, sclerotic; c, cornea; d, crystalline lens; e,
pecten, pp. 365 — 367.

Fig. 7. Tongue of RJiamphastos (lingua pennacea) with the tongue-
bone reduced, p. 446.

Fig. 8. Tongue-bone of Pavo cristatus, reduced, compare p. 364.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 767

PLATE VII. BIRDS. Feet and heads as characters of certain families ;
almost all reduced, according to very different scales.

Fig. 1. Eight foot of Carlo, p. 388.

Fig. 2. Left foot of Larus, p. 390.

Fig. 3. Right foot of Ibis, p. 402.

Fig. 4. Middle claw of the right foot of Ardea, p. 407.

Fig. 5. Right foot of Gattus, p. 426.

Fig. 6. Left foot of Picus, p. 457.

Fig. 7. Left foot of Paralcyon, p. 466.

Fig. 8. Right foot of Cypselus, p. 535.

Fig. 9. Right foot of Caprimulgus, p. 536.

Fig. 10. Right foot of Haliaetus, p. 551.

Fig. 11. Bill of Scythrops, p. 452.

Fig. 12. Head of Phcenicopterus, p. 410.

Fig. 13. Head of Paw (muticus), p. 424.

Fig. 14. Head of CertMa, p. 506.

Fig. 15. Head of Anthus, p. 518.

Fig. 16. Head of Hirundo, p. 534.

PLATES VIII. AND IX. MAMMALS.

The figures are drawn from specimens in the Rijks-Museum. Figs. 3,
5, 6 and 7 of PI. IX. are of the natural size; the rest are reduced in the
proportion indicated for each figure.

In all these figures a is the frontal bone ; b, the nasal bone ; c, the
upper jaw-bone; d, the malar bone; e, the temporal bone; f, the parietal
bone; g, the occipital bone; i, the intermaxillary bone; k, the lower
jaw.

PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1. Skull of Thylacinus Harriott J, p. 620.

Fig. 2. Skull of Manis javanica f, p. 661. Here no malar bone is

seen, p. 571.
Fig. 3. Skull of Ddphinus tnrsio ±, p. 628.

768 EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Fig. 4. Skull of Hyrax capensis |, p. 636.

Fig. 5. Skull of Arctomys monax A, p. 692.

Fig. 6. Skull of the horse, Equus Caballus f p. 639.

PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Skull of the Lama, Camelus glama i, p. 645.

Fig. 2. Skull of Eradypus cuculliger f , p. 664.

Fig. 3. Skull of the Hedgehog, Erinaceus europceus, p. 730.

Fig. 4. Skull of Felis caracal £, p. 704.

Fig. 5. Extremity of the lower jaw of Galeopithecus variegatus, p. 742,
seen from above to shew the singularly notched incisor teeth.

Fig. 6. a, b, Stenops javanicus, p. 745.

a, lower jaw seen from above; six incisor teeth with two
canines placed close at the sides of them; b, upper jaw, seen
from before, two incisors and two canine teeth.

Fig. 7. Skull of Stenops potto, p. 745.

Fig. 8. Skull of Hylobates leuciscus ^, p. 755.

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ALPHABETICAL INDEX

OF THE

LATIN GENERIC NAMES.

Anarrhichas. 143.

..

Anas. 384.

Acanthyllis. 535.

Anastomus. 405.

Acanthurus. 139.

Anguilla. 122.

Accentor. 518.

Anguis. 284.

Acerina. 197.

Anoa. 658.

Acipenser. 71.

Anolius. 302.

Acontias. 283.

Anomalurus. 693.

Acrochordus. 274.
Actinodura. 512.

Anoplotherium. 640.
Anser. 385.

^Egotheles. 538.

Anthus. 518.

yElurus. 720.

Antilope. 650.

Agama. 299.

Ajphritis. 193.

Agriopus. 184.

Apistus. 184.

Alabes. 121.

Apogon. 199.

Alaemon. 503.

Aptenodytea. 378.

Alauda. 503.

Apteryx. 416.

Alca. 379.

Apsilus. 198.

Alcedo. 465.

Aquila. 550.

Alepocephalus. 113.

Aramus. 408.

Allocoturus. 517.

Arctictis. 721.

Alytes. 247.

Arctomys. 692.

Amadina. 496.

Ardea. 407.

Ambassis. 199.

Argentina. 105.

Amblyopsis. 1 1 8 .

Argus. 425.

Amblyopus. 149.
Amblyrhamphus. 493.

Argyropelecus. 102.
Arpephorua. 308.

Amia. 74.
Ammocoetes. 59.

Ascoinys. 683.
Aspredo. 83.

Ammodytes. 123.

Aspro. 199.

Ampelis. 480.

Astrapia. 490.

Amphacanthus. 140.

Astroderraus. 157.

Amphioxus. 56.

Astur. 548.

Amphipnous. 1 20.

Ateleopus. 125.

Amphiprion. 132.

Ateles. 750.

Amphisbaena. 281.

Atherina. 182.

Amphiuma. 241.

Attagis. 434.

Anabas. 203.

Aulacodus. 686.

Anabates. 472.

Aulopus. 104.

Anableps. 95.

Aulopyge. 90,

Anampaes. 136.

Anlostomus. 137.

VOL. II.

B.

Bagrus. 86.
Balaena. 624.
Balaeniceps. 404.
Balistes. 80.
Barita. 487.
Basiliscus. 306.
Bathyergus. 682.
Batrachus. 142.
BdeUostoma. 59.
Belone. 108.
Bembras. 186.
Beryx. 193.
Betta. 202.
Bipes. 285.
Blennius. 145.
Blepsias. 185.
Boa. 276.
Bombicilla. 527,
Bombinator. 247.
Boridia. 179.
Bos. 658.
Bovichthys. 192.
Box. 174.

Brachycephalus. 254.
Brachylophus. 304.
Brachymeles. 286.
Brachyphylla. 739.
Brachystacus. 84.
Bradypus. 664.
Brama. 166.
Breviceps. 254.
Bubo. 542.
Bucephalus. 268.
Buceros. 461.
Bucco. 449.
Bufo. 253.
Bungarus. 265.
Buphaga. 491.
Buteo. 548.
Butyrinus. 113.

49

770

ALPHABETICAL INDEX

c.

Chamsesaura. 290.

Corvus. 483.

Csecilia. 238.

Chamaeleon. 309.

Coryphaena. 157.

Csereba. 508.

Characinus. 98.

Corythaix. 451.

Galamaria. 274.

Charadrius. 413.

Corytophanes. 305.

Calamoherpe. 522.

Chasmorhynchus. 482.

Coturnix. 429.

Callseas. 486.

Chauliodus. 103.

Cottus. 186.

Callichthys. 84.

Cheilinus. 134.

Crateropus. 522.

Callionymus. 146.

Cheilodactylus. 177.

Crax. 422.

Callisaurus. 304.

Chelidoptera. 449.

Creadion. 492.

Callithrix. 750.

Chelonia. 320.

Crenidens. 174.

Callopistes. 297.
Calocitta. 485.
Calotes. 307.

Chelys. 318.
Chilodipterus. 199.
Chilonycteris. 736.

Cricetus. 675.
Crocodilurus. 296.
Crocodilus. 314.

Calyptorhynchus. 445,

Chimsera. 70.

Crossarchus. 708.

Calyptura. 479.

Chionis. 411.

Crossoptilon. 425.

Camelopardalis. 649.

Chirocolus. 291.

Crotalus. 259.

Camelus. 644.
Campylorhynchus. 514.

Cbiromys. 695.
Chirocentrus. 113.

Crotophaga. 452.
Crypsirhina. 486.

Cancroma. 406.

Chiron ectes. 140.

Cryptoblepharus. 285.

Canis. 710.

Chirotes. 282.

Cryptobranchus. 241.

Canthanis. 174.

Chirus. 1 86.

Cryptonyx. 430.

Capito. 448.

Chlamydera. 487.

Cryptoprocta. 709.

Capra. 656.
Caprimulgus. 536.

Chlamydophorus. 663.
Chlamydosaurus. 306.

Crypturus. 427.
Ctenodactylus. 684.

Capromys. 687.

Chloropygia. 462.

Ctenomys. 680.

Capros. 165.

Chceropus. 619.

Cuculus. 454.

Caranx. 163.

Chorinemus. 160.

Cursorius. 412.

Carapus. 119.

Choristopus. 385.

Cybium. 161.

Carbo. 388.

Chromis. 130.

Cyclodus. 288.

Carterodon. 686.

Chrysochloris. 722.

Cyclopterus. 149.

Caryocatactes. 484.

Cichla. 131.

^Cyclura. 304.

Cassicus. 493.

Ciconia. 405.

'Cygnus. 385.

Castor. 671.

Cinclosoma. 512.

Cymindis. 548.

Casuaxius. 417.

Cinclus. 516.

Cynocephalus. 752.

Catarrhactes. 379.

Cathartes. 554.

Circaetus. 550.
Circus. 546.

Cynopotamus. 101.
Cyprinodon. 96.

Causus. 263.

Cirrites. 194.

Cyprinus. 91.

Cavia. 668.

Cissa. 511.

Cypselus. 535.

Ceblepyris. 526.

Cissopis. 501.

Cystignathus. 249.

Cebus. 750.

Cladobates. 728.

Cystophora. 699.

Centetes. 729.

Cladorhynchus. 398.

Centriscus. 137.

Clarias. 88.

Centropomus. 200.

Climacteris. 506.

D.

Centropristis. 198.

Clinus. 145.

Centropus. 453.

Clupea. 115.

Dacnis. 508.

Cephaloptera. 62.

Cobitis. 90.

Dactylopterus. 188.

Cepola. 154.

Coccyzus. 454.

Dascyllus. 132.

Ceratophora. 308.

Coelogenys. 669.

Dasyprocta. 669.

Ceratophrys. 248.

Coilia. 238.

Dasypus. 663.

Ceratorhyncha. 380.

Colaris. 462.

Dasyurus. 620.

Cercolabes. 670.

Colius. 460.

Delphinus. 626.

Cercoleptes. 721.

Colobatris. 474.

Dendroaspis. 263.

Cercomys. 684.

Coluber. 273.

Dendrobates. 253.

Cercopithecus. 753.

Columba. 435.

Dendrochelidon. 536.

Certhia. 506.

Colymbus. 381.

Dendrocitta. 486.

Cervus. 646.

Comephorus. 147.

Dendrocolaptes. 470.

Ceryle. 465.

Condylura. 722.

Dendroechis. 264.

Chsetodon. 169.

Conirostrum. 509.

Dendrolagus. 615.

Chalceus. 99.

Cophosaurus. 304.

Dendrophis. 273.

Chalcides. 291.

Copsychus. 514.

Dentex. 173.

Chalcophanes. 494.

Coracias. 463.

Desraodus. 739.

Chalybseus. 488.

Coracina. 482.

Dicseum. 508.

OF THE LATIN GENERIC NAMES.

771

Dicholophus. 410.

Eudromia. 428.

Gymnotus. 119.

Diclidurus. 735.

Eupetes. 516.

Gymnura. 728.

Dicranocerus. 650.

Euryceros. 462.

Gypaetus. 553.

Dictyosoma. 143.

Eurylaimus. 539.

Gypogeranus. 552.

Didelphys. 621.

Eurynorhynchus. 400.

Gypohierax. 553.

Didunculus. 439.

Euryotis. 679.

Didus. 440.

Eurypyga. 408.

TT

Diglossa. 509.

Exochocichla. 518.

XI.

Dilophus. 492.

Exoccetus. 109.

Habrocotna. 687.

Diodon. 79.

Haematopus. 411.

Diomedea. 392.

Haladroma. 391.

Diploprion. 200.

.

Halcyon. 466.

Dipterodon. 168.

Falco. 545.

Haliaetus. 551.

Dipsas. 266.

Falculia. 467.

Halicore. 630.

Dipus. 690.

Felis. 703.

Hapale. 748.

Discoglossus. 249.

Fiber. 679.

Hapalotis. 676.

Doras. 84.

Fistularia. 138.

Haploactis. 184.

Dorcopsis. 615.

Fluvicola. 478.

Haplodactylus. 191.

Draco. 307.

Fonnicivora. 475.

Haplodon. 683.

Drepanis. 508.

Fringilla. 498.

Harpagus. 546.

Dromas. 411.

Fulica. 393.

Harpyia. 741.

Drymoica. 522.

Fulix. 383.

Heliases. 131.

Drymophila. 525.

•••••• owo
Furnarius. 471.

Helicops. 271.

Dryophis. 267.

Helodenna. 295.

Dysopes. 734.

Helostoma. 203.

G.

Helotarsus. 551.

Hemeroccetes. 147.

E.

Gadus. 125.

Hemichelidon. 525.

Galaxias. 107.

Hemilepidotus. 185.

Echeneis. 150.

Galbula. 458.

Hemipodius. 428.

Ecpleopus. 291.

Galeopithecus. 74^«

Hemiramphus . 1 09 .

Edolius. 528.

Galictis. 715.

Hemitragus. 655.

Elacate. 161.
Elaps. 264.

Gallinula. 394.
Gallus. 426.

Hemitripterus. 187.
Henicocichla. 518.

Eleginus. 179.

Garrulax. 512.

Herpestes. 707.

Eleotris. 147.

Garrulus. 485.

Herpetodryas. 272.

Elephas. 632.

Gasteropelecus. 99.

Hesperomys. 677.

Elapomorphus. 269.

Gasterosteus. 182.

Heterodon. 270.

Elops. 114.

Gempylus. 161 .

Heterognathodon. 178.

Emballonura. 735.

Georychus. 68 1.

Heterotis. 1 1 2.

Emberiza. 500.

Gerres. 172.

Himantopus. 398.

Emys. 318.

Gerrhonotus. 291.

Hippopotamus. 643.

Enchelyophis. 124.

Gerrhosaurus. 292.

Hirundo. 534.

Engraulis. 117.

Glareola. 412.

Histiurus. 306.

Enicurus. 5r7-

Glaucosoma. 176.

Holocentrum. 194.

Enodes. 495.
Enoplosus. 200.

Glossophaga. 739.
Glyphisodon. 132.

Homalocranium. 269.
Homalopsis. 268.

Epibulus. 134.

Gobius. 148.

Homaloptera. 91.

Epicyrtus. 99.

Gomphosus. 1 36.

Homo. 757.

Epimachus. 489.

Gonorhynchus. ill.

Hoplichthys. 147.

Eques. 179.

Gonostoma. 103.

Hoplostethus. 193.

Equula. 166.

Gracula. 491.

Huro. 200.

Equus. 638.

Grallina. 517.

Hyaena. 705.

Erethizon. 670.

Grammistes. 199.

Hydrochrerus. 668.

Erinaceus. 730.

Grus. 409.

Hydrocyon. 101.

Eriomys. 688.
Erythrinus. 97.

Grystes. 198.
Gulo. 718.

Hydromys. 672.
HydropMs. 266.

Erythrolampus. 269.

GunneUus. 144.

Hyla. 250.

Eryx. 275.

Gymnarchus. 118.

Hylactes. 474.

Esox. 107.

Gymnetms. 154.

Hylaedactylus. 253.

Etelis. 198.

Gymnoderus. 487.

Hylobates. 755.

Etroplus. 130.

Gymnophthalmus. 285.

Hylomys. 729.

772

ALPHABETICAL INDEX

Hynnis. . 164.

Lethrinus. 1 73.

Monocentris. 182.

Hyodon. 114.

Lichanotus. 744.

Monodon. 626.

Hypochthon. 240.

Limosa. 397.

Monopterus. 120.

Hypoderma. 740.

Liothrix. 513.

Mormon. 380.

Hypsibatus. 304.

Lobotes. 1 76.

Mormops. 736.

Hypsipetes. 511.
Hypsiprymnus. 614.

Lomatodactylus. 311.
Loncheres. 685.

Mormyrus. no.
Moschus. 646.

Hypudseus. 678.

Lophius. 141.

Motacilla. 517.

Hyrax. 636.

Lophocitta. 485.

Mugil. 1 8 1.

Hysteropus. 284.

Lophophorus. 425.

Mulius. 189.

Hystrix. 671.

Lophotes. 154.

Muraena. 122.

Loricaria. 82.

Mus. 673.

I.

Loxia. 497.

Muscicapa. 525.

Ibidorhynchus. 402.

Lucioperca. 198.
Lucoscombrus. 161.

Muscipeta. 525.
Muscivora. 477.

Ibis. 402.
Ichthelis. 195.

Luscinia. 519.
Lutodeira. 113.

Musophaga. 451.
Mustela. 714.

Icterus. 494.

Lutra. 713.

Mycetes. 751.

Iguana. 305.
Ilysia. 278.

Luvarus. 159.
Lycodon. 272.

Mydaus. 716.
Myiothera. 474.

Indicator. 455.

Lycognathus. 268.

Myletes. 99.

Inuus. 753.

Lyriocephalus. 308.

Myliobatis. 62.

Irena. 528.
Irrisor. 467.

Myobatrachus. 247.
Myogalea. 724.

•

Myopotamus. 672.

J.

Macquaria. 176.

Myoxus. 691.

Jaculus. 691.

Macronus. 513.

Myripristis. 193.

Jora. 513.

Macronyx. 504.

Myrmecobius. 621.

Julis. 136.

Macropus. 614.
Macroscelide.s. 725.

Myrmecophaga. 66 1.
Myxine. 59.

Macrurus. 124.

Myxodes. 145.

.

Malaconotus. 531.

Myzomela. 509.

Keris. 138.

Malapterurus. 88.

Kurtus. 158.

Malthe. 142.

N.

Malurus. 523.

Manatus. 630.

Naja. 263.

L.

Manis. 66 1.

Nandus. 195.

Labrus. 135.
Lacerta. 293.
Lactarius. 159.
Laemanctus. 303.
Lagomys. 667.
Lagostoraus. 689.
Lagothrix. 751.
Lampris. 165.
Lamprotonris. 494.
Lanius. 530.
Larus. 390.

Mastacembelus. 152.
Mastodon. 632.
Megacephalon . 421.
Megadenna. 738.
Megapodius. 420.
Meleagris. 424.
Meles. 717.
Meliphaga. 510.
Melithreptus." 509.
Mellivora. 717.
Mene. 166.

Naseus. 139.
Nasua. 720.
Nauclerus. 160.
Naucrates. 160.
Nebris. 1 79.
Nectarinia. 507.
Nemorhedus. 655.
Neotoma. 678.
Nestor. 445.
Niphon. 198.
Noctilio. 736.

Latilus. 177.
Lavarus. 159.
Leiolepis. 300.
Leipoa. 420.
Lemur. 746.
Lepadogaster. 150.
Lepidopus. 155.
Lepidosiren. 204.
Lepidosoma. 291.

Menobranchus. 241.
Menura. 473.
Mephitis. 715.
Mergulus. 380.
Mergus. 383.
Meriones. 676.
Merops. 464 .
Mesites. 421.
Microglossus. 446.

Nomeus. 159.
Notacanthus. 152.
Notopterus. 112.
Numenius. 401.
Numida. 423.
Nycteris. 737.
Nyctibius. 538.
Nyctipithecus. 749.
Nyctophilus. 737.

Lepidosteus. 73.

Microps. 254.

Leptocephalus. 123.

Milvus. 547.

O.

Leptonyx. 700.

Mimus. 513.

Oblata. 174.

Leptosomus. 456.

Molacanthus. 79.

Octodon. 688.

Lepus. 666.

Monasa. 449.

Ocydromus. 394.

OF THE LATIN GENERIC NAMES.

773

Ocypterua. 533.
Odax. 134.
Odontognathus. 117.
CEdicnemus. 413.
Onychognathus. 486.
Ophicephalus. 203.
Ophidium. 1 24.
Ophiops. "293.
Ophiopsis. 285.
Ophisaurus. 290.
Ophisurus. 123.
Ophryoessa. 304.
Opisthocomus. 461.
Opisthognatus. 146.
Oreosoma. 189.
Oreotragus. 655.
Orestias. 96.
Oriolus. 490.
Ornithorhynchus. 6 JO.
Orthonyx. 522.
Orthotomus. 523.
Orthragoriscus. 78.
Ortyx. 430.
Orycteropus. 662.
Osphromenus. 202.
Osteoglossum. in.
Ostracion. 81.
Otaria. 701.
Otis. 415.
Otocryptis. 308.
Otocyon. 710.
Otolicnus. 746.
Otus. 542.
Ovis. 656.
Oxyrhamphus. 472.

P.

Pachycephala. 531.
Pachyptila. 391.
Pagellus. 174.
Pagrus. 175.
Palamedea. 418.
Pandion. 551.
Paradisea. 489.
Paradoxornis. 498.
Paradoxurus. 709.
Paralcyon. 466.
Paralepis. 104.
Pardalotus. 532.
Parra. 395.
Parus. 504.
Pastor. 492.
Pavo. 424.
Pedetes. 689.
Pedionomus. 429.
Pegasus. 76.
Pelamys. 266.
Pelecanus. 386.
Pelor. 184.
Pempheris. 167.
Penelope. 422.

Pentaceros. 198.
Pentapus. 173.
Perameles. 618.
Perca. 200.
Percnopterus. 554.
Percophis. 193.
Perdix. 431.
Pericrocotus. 526.
Periophthalmus . 1 48 .
Pemis. 547.
Perognathus. 675.
Petromys. 684.
Petromyzon. 59.
Phaeton. 388.
Phalangista. 616.
Phalaropus. 401.
Phaleris. 380.
Phascolarctos. 616.
Phascologale. 619.
Phascolomys. 612.
Phasianus. 426.
Phibalura. 481.
Phoca. 701.
Phodilus. 543.
Phoanicophaus. 453.
Phoenicopterus. 410.
Phryniscus. 254.
Phrynocephalus. 300.
Phrynosoma. 301.
Phyllastrephus. 529.
Phyllornis. 511.
Phyllostoma. 739.
Physeter. 625.
Pbytotoma. 483.
Picumnus. 457.
Picus. 457.
Pimelepterus. 167.
Pimelodus. 85.
Pinguipes. 192.
Pipa. 246.
Pipra. 479.
Pithecia. 749.
Pitta. 474.
Pitylus. 500.
Platalea. 403.
Platax. 1 68.
Platurus. 265.
Platycephalus. 186.
Platycercus. 302.
Platydactylus. 311.
Platypterus. 1 46.
Platyrhynchus. 478.
Platystira. 525.
Pleuronectes. 128.
Ploceus. 495.
Plotosus. 88.
Plotus. 387.
Podargus. 538.
Podiceps. 382.
Podoa. 393.
Podoces. 488.
Pogonorhynchus. 447.

Polyacanthua. 202.
Polyborus. 552.
Polychrus. 303.
Polynemus. 191.
Polyplectron. 425.
Polyprion. 197.
Polypterus. 74.
Pomacentrus. 132.
Pomatomus. 199.
Pomatorhinus. 517.
Porphyrio. 393.
Porthmeus. 160.
Potamophilus. 709.
Premnas. 132.
Priacanthus. 195.
Priodon. 139.
Prionites. 463.
Pristiophorus. 66.
Pristipoma. 178.
Pristis. 65.
Procellaria. 391.
Prochilodus. 98.
Procnias. 501.
Procyon. 719.
Promerops. 510.
Prosorinia. 526.
Proteles. 706.
Psammophis. 267.
Psenes. 160.
Psettus. 1 68.
Pseudis. 249.
Pseudopus. 290.
Psilorhinus. 485.
Psittacopis. 498.
Psittacus. 442.
Psophia. 409.
Pteraclis. 158.
Ptererhythrius. 532.
Pterocles. 433.
Pterois. 185.
Pteromys. 694.
Pteronemus. 177.
Pteroptochus. 473.
Pteropus. 741.
Ptilochloris. 481.
Ptilogonys. 527.
Ptilorhynehus. 487.
Puffinus. 391.
Pungitius. 187.
Pycnonotus. 529.
Pyrenestes. 496.
Pyrrhocorax. 488.
Pyrrhula. 498.
Python. 276.
Pyxicephalus. 249.

E.

Bachiodon. 271.
Kaja. 63.
Rallus. 394.
Rana. 250.

774

ALPHABETICAL INDEX

Recurvlrostra. 399.
Regulus. 505.
Rhamphastos. 446.
Rhinobatus. 64.
Rhinoceros. 634.
Rhinolophus. 737.
Rhinopoma. 737.
Rhizomys. 680.
Rhynchaea. 401.
Rhynchocyon. 728.
Rhyncliops. 389.
Rhynchotus. 428.
Rhytina. 629.
Rhyzaena. 708.
Rupicapra. 655.
Rupicola. 480.
Ruvettus. 161.
Rypticus. 198.

S.

Saccobranchus. 87.
Saccomys. 677.
Saccopharynx. 121.
Salamandra. 242.
Salanx. 101.
Salarias. 145.
Salminus. 101.
Salmo. 105.
Sargus. 175.
Saurothera. 454.
Saurus. 104.
Saxicola. 519.
Scalops. 723.
Scarus. 133.
Scatharus. 174.
Sceloporus. 301.
Schedopbilus. 157.
Schizorhis. 451.
Sciaena. 179.
Scincus. 287.
Scirtetes. 690.
Sciurus. 694.
Scolopax. 396.
Scolopsides. 177.
Scomber. 162.
Scomberesox. 109.
Scopelus. 103.
Scopus. 406.
Scorpaena. 185.
Scorpis. 1 66.
Scyllium. 68.
Scythrops. 452.
Sebastes. 185.
Semiophorus. 307.
Semnopitbecus. 754.
Sepedon. 262.
Seps. 286.
Sericulus. 491.
Seriola. 159.
Serranus. 196.
Serrasalmus. TOO.

Setophaga. 524.
Sialia. 519.
Sicydiura. 148.
Sigmodon. 678.
Sillago. 196.
Silurus. 87.
Simla. 755.
Siphneus. 682.
Siredon. 242.
Siren. 238.
Sisor. 83.
Sitta. 505.
Smaris. 171.
Sminthus. 675.
Solea. 129.
Solenodon. 727.
Solenostomus. 76.
Sorex. 725.
Spalacopus. 68 1.
Spalax. 682.
Sparus. 175.
Spasornis. 530.
Spatularia. 72.
Sphaeriodactylus. 313.
Sphagebranchus. 121.
Sphecotheres. 491.
Spheniscus. 379.
Sphenostoma. 505.
Sphyra. 68.
Sphyrsena. 190.
Spirobranchus. 2OI,
Squalus. 66.
Squatarola. 414.
Squatina. 65.
Steatornis. 539.
Steirolepis. 302.
Stellio. 300.
Stenodactylus. 313.
Stenoderma. 734.
Stenops. 745.
Stenorbina. 269.
Sterna. 389.
Sternarchus. 119.
Sternoptyx. 102.
Stomias. 108.
Strepsilas. 415.
Stringopsis. 446.
Strix. 541.
Strobilurus. 302.
Stromateus. 158.
Struthio. 417.
Sturnus. 493.
Stylephorus. 153.
Sudis. 112.
Sula. 387.
Surnia. 543.
Sus. 640.
Sylvia. 520.
Sylvicola. 524.
Symbran chus. 1 2 1 .
Synanceia. 182.
Syngnathus. 76.

Synodontis. 84.
Syrrhaptes. 434.

T.

Tachydromus. 295.
Tachyglossus. 6 1 1 .
Tachypetes. 388.
Talegallus. 421.
Talpa. 723.
Tanagra. 501.
Tantalus. 404.
Taphozous. 735.
Tapirus. 637.
Tarbophis. 268.
Tarsipes. 618.
Tarsius. 747.
Tejus. 296.
Temnodon. 159.
Testudo. 320.
Tetragonurus. 181.
Tetrao. 432.
Tetrodon. 79.
Thamnophilus. 475.
Therapon. 194.
Thinocorus. 434.
Threnoedus. 482.
Thylacinus. 620.
Tbynnus. 162.
Thyrsites. 161.
Tichodroma. 506.
Tilapia. 202.
Timalia. 512.
Tityra. 476.
Todus. 478.
Torpedo. 63.
Totanus. 398.
Toxotes. 167.
Trachinotus. 160.
Trachinus. 192.
Tracby pterus. 153.
Tribolonotus. 292.
Tribonyx. 394.
Tribrancbus. 123.
Triccus. 478.
Trichas. 524.
Trichechus. 697.
Trichiurus. 155.
Trichomycterus. 89.
Tricbonotus. 147.
Trichopborus. 528.
Trigla. 188.
Trigonocephalus. 260.
Tringa. 399.
Triodon. 79.
Trionyx. 317.
Trochilus. 468.
Troglodytes. 514.
Trogon. 450.
Tropidonotus. 271.
Tropidophorus. 289.
Tropidurus. 301.

OF THE LATIN GENERIC NAMES.

775

Trygon. 62.
Trypauchen. 149.
Turdus. 515.
Typhlops. 280.
Tyrannus. 476.

U.

Ulula. 541.
Uperodon. 254.
TJpupa. 466.
Urauoscopus. 191,
Uria. 381.
Urocentron. 302.
Urocryptus. 735.
Uromastix. 300.
Uropelta. 279.
Urotrichus. 723.
Ursus. 718.

V.

Vanellua. 414.
Vanga. 530.
Varanus. -297.
Vespertilio. 732,
Vidua. 496.
Vipera. 261.
Vireo. 532.
Viverra. 706.
Vomer. 163.
Vultur. 554.

X.

Xenodermus. 275.
Xenodon. 270.
Xenopeltis. 278.

Xenops. 472.
Xenopua. 246.
Xenurus. 479.
Xiphias. 156.
Xiphostoma. 102.
Xirichthys. 135.

Y.

Yunx. 456.

Z.

Zeus. 164.
Zoarces. 144.
Zonurus. 292.
Zoothera. 516.
Zoaterops. 509.

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