-' • ' THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS GIFT OF W. HARRY LANGE LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. EDITED BY R. BOWDLER SHARPE, LL.D., F.L.S., &c. A HAND-BOOK TO THE ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. BY W. F. /KIRBY, F.L.S., F.ENT.S. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, BRITISH MUSEUM. At'.thor of "A Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera" " European Butterflies and Motlis," (f A Text-book of Entomology " etc.t etc* PART I. BUTTERFLIES.— VOL. I. LONDON : EDWARD LLOYD, LIMITED, 12, SALISBURY SQUARE, FLEET STREET, 1896. LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS PRINTED BY WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED. PREFACE. THE plan of the original "Naturalist's Library" has not been followed in the present volume, as it seemed to me better, in the case of the Lepidoptera, not to separate the British species from the exotic forms. Although numerous works on British Insects have been published, there is none, I believe, exactly on the plan of the present volume, where our native species of Butterflies are described and figured, and at the same time a review of their exotic relatives is attempted. No one more fitted for the task of writing such a review could have been found than Mr. Kirby, whose "Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera" is recognised as a stan- dard book of reference; and the pains he has taken in the preparation of the present Hand-book of the Lepidoptera will, I trust, be the means of presenting to the public one more of those useful essays on Entomology, with which his name has been associated for the last thirty years. Some new plates have been added to the series published in the former issue of the "Naturalist's Library," in order to render the explanation of the different exotic genera more complete. The woodcuts in the text are taken from Newman's well- known work on British Butterflies. R. BOWDLER SHARPS. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. WHEN my friend Dr. Bowdler Sharpe invited me to write the Entomological part of the new " Naturalist's Library," the question of the best arrangement to adopt, exercised me con- siderably, in view of the large number of books on the more popular orders of insects which are continually issuing from the press. I had to try and invent a new scheme which was likely to be useful both to beginners and to more advanced Entomologists. In the old "Naturalist's Library" there was a volume of British and a volume of foreign Butterflies, but I at once aban- doned the idea of adding another to the host of books on British Butterflies alone, while at the same time it was desir- able to use the plates of the old " Jardine " series. I therefore determined to combine these two volumes in such a manner as to make the British Butterflies illustrate and lead up to a study of the Butterflies of the World. I have also added as much popular information, not always to be found in professedly popular books, as I could reasonably introduce. To illustrate the foreign Butterflies, a few new plates have been added, chiefly representing recently described and hitherto unfigured species. In the synonymy I have referred to the original description, and at least one good old, or typical, figure of each species ; and to the works of Stephens, Curtis, and Barrett for British species, Kirby and Lang for European species, and Buckler viii AUTHOR'S PREFACE, for British larvae and pupae. Of course this part of the work might have been enlarged to any extent, but probably most of my readers will think that I have devoted quite enough space to synonymy. The Introduction deals with the general external structure of Lepidopterous insects and especially Butterflies in their various stages ; special attention being given to neuration, collecting and preserving, and geographical distribution. I have also re- printed from the "Entomologist" a very interesting paper on the habits of insects, especially Lepidoptera^ in the Dutch East Indies. The present volume is devoted to the great family Nympha- lidce, which, with its sub-divisions, includes about half the known Butterflies ; the next volume will contain the remaining families, and will thus complete the subject, so far as the Butterflies are concerned. It is perhaps as well to state that the volumes on Entomo- logy in the old issue of the " Naturalist's Library " were all written by James Duncan, of Edinburgh. Prof. Westwood contributed figures and information to some of the other volumes (see " Entomologist's Monthly Magazine," vol. xxi., pp. 181-186), but not to those on British and Exotic Butter- flies. W. F. KIRBY. SYSTEMATIC INDEX. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA i A. LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA i FAMILY NYMPHALID^: 10 SUB-FAMILY I. DANAIN^ n Genus HESTIA, Hubn 13 H. lyncea (Drury) ... ... ... 13 H. idea (Clerck) 15 Genus IDEOPSIS, Horsf. and Moore 15 I. daos, Boisd ... ... ... ... ... 15 Genus LIMNAS, Hubn. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16 L. chrysippus (L.) ... ... ... ... ... 16 Genus DANAUS, Latr 18 D. plexippus (L.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 Genus TIRUMALA, Moore ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 T. limniace (Cram.) ... ... ... 20 Genus AMAURIS, Hubn 21 A. niavius (L.) ... ... ... ... ... 21 Genus NEBRODA, Moore 22 N. lobengula, E. M. Sharpe 22 Genus EUPLCEA, Fabr 23 E. corus, Fabr ... ... ... 23 Genus HIRDAPA, Moore ... 24 H. rezia, Kirby ... . 25 X SYSTEMATIC INDEX. PAGE Genus TELLERVO, Kirby 28 T. zoilus (Fabr.) 28 T. misoriensis (Stand.) ... ... ... ... 28 SUB-FAMILY II. ITHOMII1SLE 29 Genus ITHOMIA, Hiibn 30 I. doto, Hubn 31 I. drymo, Hiibn. ... ... ... ... ... 31 I. diaphana (Drury) ... ... ... ... ... ... 32 I. flora (Cram.) 32 SUB-FAMILY III. ACR^IN^E 32 Genus ACR^A, Fabr. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34 A. horta(L.) 34 A. oenone, Kirby ... ... ... ... 36 Genus GNESIA, Doubl 37 G. circeis (Drury) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37 G. medea (Cram.) ... ... ... ... 38 Genus ACTINOTE, Iliibn 38 A. thalia (L.) 39 A. sodalis, Butler ... ... ... ... 40 SUB-FAMILY HELICONIIN^E 40 Genus HELICONIUS, Latr. 41 II. melpomene (L.) ... ... .. 42 SUB-FAMILY NYMPH ALIN^E 43 Genus METAMORPHA, Hiibn. ... ... ... 46 M. dido (Johanss.) 47 Genus CETHOSIA, Fabr. ... ... 48 C. mahratta, Moore ... ... 49 Genus CYNTHIA, Fabr 50 C. arsinoe (Cram.) ... 50 C. Juliana (Cram.) 51 Genus ARGYNNIS, Fabr. ... ... 52 A. paphia (L.) ... 55 o. A. valesina (Esper) 55 A. aglaia(L.) 57 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XI PAGE Genus ARGYNNIS (continued). A. adippe (L.) 5^ a. A. cleodoxa (Ochsenh. ) ... ... 60 0. A. chlorodippe, II. S 60 A. niobe (L.) 61 a. A. eris, Meigen ... ... ... ... 62 A. lathonia (L.) 63 Genus BRENTHIS, Hubn 64 B. euphrosyne (L.) ... ... ... ... 65 B. selene (Denis and Schiff ) 66 B. dia(L.) 68 Genus Melitaea, Fabr 73 M. aurinia (Rott.) 75 M. cinxia (L.) ... ... ... ... ... /6 M. athalia (Rott.) 78 M. pyronia (Hubn.) ... 80 Genus ARASCHNIA, Hubn. 82 A. levana(L.) 83 Genus POLYGONI A, Hubn. 86 P. c. -album (L.) 87 Genus VANESSA, Fabr • ... 88 V. polychlorus (L.) 89 V. urticae (L.) 9° V. antiopa (L.) 92 V. io(L.) 95 Genus PYRAMEIS, Hubn ... 96 P. atalanta (L.) 97 P. cardui(L.) 98 Genus JUNONIA, Hlibn 101 J. orthosia (Godart) 102 Genus KALLIMA, Westw 105 K. huttoni, Moore 106 Genus AN ARTI A, Hubn 108 A. amalthea (L.) 109 Genus ERGOLIS , ... 109 Xll SYSTEMATIC INDEX- PAGE Genus CATAGRAMMA, Boisd 115 C. pygas (Godart) ... ... ... ... ... 116 C. astarte (Cram.) 117 Genus H/EMATERA, Doubl 120 H. pyramus (Fabr.) 120 Genus GYN^ECIA, Doubl 122 Genus HYPOLIMNAS, Hiibn 123 Genus AGERONIA, Hiibn 130 A. arethusa (Cram.) ... ... ... ... 132 A. amphinome (L.) ... ... ... ... 134 Genus MARPESIA, Hubn 137 M. peleus (Sulz.) 138 Genus LIMENITIS, Fabr. ... ... ... ... ... 141 L. Camilla (Linn.) ... 142 L. drusilla (Bergstr.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 146 Genus NEPTIS, Fabr 146 N. aceris (Lep.) 146 N. nicomedes, Hewits. ... ... ... ... 147 SUB-FAMILY VI. APATURIN^ 159 Genus APATURA, Fabr. ... ... ... ... ... 160 A. iris (Linn.) ... 163 a. A. iole (Denis and Schiff.) 164 Genus THALEROPIS, Staud 166 T. ionia (Eversm.) ... ... 167 Genus PROTOGONIUS, Iliibn 170 P. fabius (Cram.) ... ... ... ... ... 171 Genus AGANISTHUS 175 Genus CHARAXES, Ochsenh 177 C. jasius (L.) 179 C. xiphares (Cram. ) ... ... ... ... 182 C. tiridates (Cram.) 184 C. etheocles (Cram.) ... 185 SUB-FAMILY VII. MORPHINE 193 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Xlll PAGE Genus MORPHO, Fabr 194 M. adonis (Cram.) ... . . ... ... ... ... ... 195 M. achilles(L.) 195 SUB-FAMILY VIII. BRASSOLIN/E 199 Genus CALICO, Hubn 200 C. eurylochus (Cram.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 200 C. ilioneus (Cram.)... ... ... ... ... ... ... 201 SUB-FAMILY SATYRIN.E 201 I. HET^RA Group... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 205 Genus PIERELLA, Westw 205 P. ceryce, Hewits. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 206 II. LETHE Group 206 Genus PARARGE, Hubn 207 P. egerides, Staud 208 a. P. egerides, Staud. ... ... ... ... ... ... 208 0. P. egeria (L.) 208 Genus SATYRUS, Latr. ... ... ... . . ... ... ... 209 S. megsera (L.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 210 III. MYCALESIS Group ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 212 Genus MYCALESIS, Hiibn. ... ... ... ... ... ... 212 M. simonsii, Butler ... ... ... ... .. ... 213 IV. MELANITIS Group 214 Genus CEROIS, Hiibn. ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 214 C. chorinceus (Fabr.) ... ... ... ... .. ... 214 V. HIPPARCHIA Group ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 215 I. Euptychia section ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 216 Genus EUPTYCHIA, Hiibn. 216 E. brixius (Godart) ... ... ... ... ... 217 II. Ypthima section 218 Genus YPTHIMA, Hiibn 218 Y. bera, Hewits. ..^ ... ... ... ... 219 xiv SYSTEMATIC INDEX. FACE Genus CCENONYMPHA, Iliibn. ... ... ... ... 219 C. tiphon (Rott.) 220 C. polydama (Haworth) ... ... ... ... ... ••• 223 C. arcania(L.) 224 C. pamphilus (L.) ... ... ... ... ••• 225 III. Erebia section 226 Genus EREBIA, Dalm 226 E. ligea(L.) ... ... 227 E. cethiops (Esper) 228 E. epiphron (Knoch) ... ... ... 229 o. E. cassiope (Fabr.) ... ... ... ... 230 IV. Hipparchia section ... ... ... ... 230 Genus HIPPARCHIA, Fabr. 231 II. semele (L.) ... 232 H. hyperanthus (L.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 233 a. II. arete (Mull.) 233 Genus EPINEHELE, Httbn. 236 E. janira (L.) 236 E. tithonus(L.) 239 Genus MELANARGIA, Meigen 240 M. galatea (L.) 240 Genus ARGYROPHORUS, Blanch 242 A. argenteus, Blanch. ... ... ... ... 242 VI. PRONOPHILA Group ... ... ... 242 SUB-FAMILY X. ELYMNIIN/E 243 Genus ELYMNI AS, Htibn 245 E. cottonis (Hewits.) 245 LIST OF PLATES, I.— Scales, Eggs, Probosces, &c. II. — Pupce, Details of Larvae, &c. III.— Larvae. IV.— Fig. i. Hestia idea (p. 15). Fig. 2. Ideopsis daos (p. 15). V. — Fig. i. Danaus plexippus (p. 19). Fig. 2. Tirumala limniace (p. 20). VI. — Fig. i. Nebroda lobengula (p. 22). Fig. 2. Hirdapa rezia (p. 25). Fig. 3. Tellervo misoriensis (p. 28). VII. — Fig. i. Ithomia diaphana (p. 32). Figs. 2, 3. Ithomia flora (p. 32). Fig. 4. Gnesia medea (p. 38). VIII. — Fig. i. Heliconius erato (p. 42). Fig. 2. Heliconius vesta (p. 42). Fig. 3. Heliconius sylvanus (p. 43). IX. — Metamorpha dido (p. 46). X. — Cethosia mahratta (p. 49). XI. — Figs. I, 2. Argynnis paphia (p. 55). Figs. 3, 4. Melitoea cinxia (p. 76). XII. — Figs, i, 2. Argynnis aglaia (p. 57). Figs. 3, 4. Brenthis euphrosyne (p. 65] XIII. — Figs. I, 2. Argynnis adippe (p. 58). Figs. 3, 4. Argynnis lathonia (p. 63], XIV. — Figs. I, 2. Argynnis niobe (p. 61). Figs. 3, 4. Melitoea athalia (p. 78). Figs. 5, 6. Brenthis dia (p. 68). XV.— Figs. I, 2. Brenthis selene (p. 66) Figs. 3, 4. Melitoea aurinia (p. 75). Figs. 5, 6. Melitcea pyronia (p. 80).. XVI. — Figs. I, 2. Polygonia c.-album (p. 87). Fig. 3. Vanessa polychlorus (p. 89). XVII. — Fig. i. Vanessa antiopa (p. 92). Fig. 2. Vanessa io (p. 95). XVIII. — Fig. i. Vanessa urticoe (p. 90). Figs. 2, •}. Pyrameh canlu' 'p. 9V). XIX. — Fig. i. Cynthia Juliana (p 51). Fig. 2. Anartia amalthea (p. 109). Fig. 3. Junonia orthosia (p. 102). XVI LIST OF PLATES. XX. — Figs, i, 2. Kallima huttoni (p. 106). Fig. 3. Neptis nicomedes (p. 147). Fig. 4. Thaleropis ionia (p. 167). XXI. — Figs, i, 2. Catagramma astarte (p. 117). Figs. 3, 4. Hsematera pyramus (p. 120). XXII. — Fig. i. Ageronia arethusa (p. 132). Fig. 2. Ageronia amphinome (p. 134). XXIII. — Figs. I, 2. Pyrameis atalanta (p. 97). Fig. 3. Limenitis Camilla (p 142). XXIV. — Apatura iris (p. 163). XXV. — Fig. i. Marpesia peleus (p. 138). Fig. 2. Protogonius fabius (p. 171). XXVI. — Charaxes jasius (p. 179). XXVII.— Figs. I, 2. Charaxes tiridates (p. 184). Fig. 3. Charaxes etheocles (p. 185). XXVIII. — Fig. i. Morpho adonis (p. 195). Fig. 2. Caligo ilioneus (p. 201). XXIX.— Morpho achillos (p. 105). XXX. — Figs, i, 2. Erebia ligea (p. 227). Figs, 3, 4. Erebia rethiops (p. 228). XXXI. — Figs. I, 2. Melanargia galatea (p. 240). Fig. 3. Pararge egerides (p. 208). Figs. 4, 5. Epinephele tithonus (p. 239). XXXII. — Figs. I, 2, 3. Hipparchia semele (p. 232) Figs- 4> 5- Satyrus megsera (p. 210). XXXIII. — Figs, i, 2. Epinephele janira (p. 236). Fig. 3. Erebia cassiope (p. 229). VVVT_. £-gS> 4. 5- Hipparchia hyperanthus (p. 233). XXXIV.— Figs. I, 2. Coenonympha polydama (C. tiphon on plate) p 223. Figs. 3, 4. Coenonympha tiphon (C. polydama on plate) p. 220. Figs. 5, 6. Coenonympha pamphilus (p. 22 O. XXXV.-Fig. i. Pierellaceryce(p. 206). Fig. 2. Argyrophorus argenteus (p. 242^. Fig. 3. Yphthima bera (p. 219). Fig. 4. Euptychia brixius (p. 217). Fig. 5. Mycalesis simonsii (p. 213). XXXVI. — Cserois chorinaeus (p. 214). XXXVII.— Figs, i, 2. Elymnias cottonis (p. 245). Fig. 3. Acrsea cenone (p. 36). Fig. 4. Actinote sodalis (p. 40). PLATE J. Scale* , Eqqs, Proboscis, etc. INTRODUCTION. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. THE Butterflies and Moths, or Scale-winged Insects, derive their scientific name from two Greek words— Ws, a scale, and vrcpov, a wing. They pass through four stages of exist- ence : egg; larva or caterpillar; pupa, or chrysalis; and imago, or perfect insect. In their perfect state they are dis- tinguished from other insects by having four wings, always more or less clothed with scales, and a proboscis, with which they imbibe their food. More species of Lepidoptera are known than of any other order of insects, except the Cole- optera, or Beetles ; but it is probable that they will not be found to exceed the Hymenoptera and Diptera in numbers, when these orders have been exhaustively collected. We will first discuss the general characteristics of Lepidop- terous Insects in their various stages, commencing with the EGG. The eggs of Butterflies and Moths vary very much in size, shape, colour, and sculpture, as well as in the number de- posited. Many of them are very elegant objects under the microscope, though they are always, except in the case of the Micro-Lepidoptera, quite large enough to be visible to the naked eye, and those of some of the large foreign species are not much less than a small pea. The insect deposits 4 xviii LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY them, singly or otherwise, according to the habit of the species, in such a situation that the larvae, when hatched, will find a plentiful supply of appropriate food. The eggs are covered by a coating of varnish as a protection from the weather ; and though many species pass the winter in other stages, perhaps the majority hibernate in the egg-state. The eggs may be round, oval, cylindrical, or conical. Some are smooth, but many are beautifully ribbed. The form of the eggs of several of our common Butterflies, as they appear when highly magnified, are represented in Plate I. as follows : Fig. 3. Egg of Vanessa urticce, with several longitudinal ridges. Fig. 4. Egg of Pieris Irassicce, yellow, sub-conical, with granulated longitudinal ribs, connected by elevated cross- lines. Fig. 5. Egg of Epinephek tithonus, much more com- pressed, but striated very much like the last. Fig. 6. Egg of Epinephek janiro> covered with a series of imbricated scales. Fig. 7. Egg of Hipparchia hyperanthus^ with rows of raised points, not unlike a sea-urchin denuded of the spines. Fig-. 8. Egg of Pararge egerides, covered with imbricated scales. Butterflies rarely long survive the deposition of their eggs, and are consequently unable to pay any further attention to their offspring. Most eggs of Lepidoptera are semi-transparent, and, as they approach maturity, the young larva can often be seen coiled up inside. Some eggs are provided with a kind of lid, which the larva pushes off when about to emerge. Those which are either not fertilised, or are otherwise unproductive, generally assume a shrunken appearance. Eggs are probably not much exposed to the attacks of enemies, except from certain small INTRODUCTION. XIX Hymenopterous parasites, chiefly belonging to the group Proc- totrypida, which deposit their eggs on or in those of other insects, the contents of which serve as food for their own larvae. Some of these parasites, especially those belonging to the family Mymarid&i or Fairy Flies, are among the smallest insects known, and are extremely elegant microscopic objects, with battledore-shaped wings, set round with a fringe of long hairs. They are sometimes just visible as specks on a window-pane. It is even possible to classify Butterflies by the structure of their eggs, without reference to other characters. This has been attempted by Mr. W. Doherty in respect to Indian Butterflies ; and he published his preliminary results in the "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. 55, pt. 2, pp. 107-111 (1887). From this paper most of the characters given for the eggs of the families of Butterflies in the present work have been taken. We will presently make some ex- tracts from his tentative notes on the classification of Butter- flies according to the eggs. It must be noted that he employs Apatura not for A. iris but for A. bolina, for which most authors use the generic name of Hypolimnas or Diadema ; also that for practical purposes he himself employs a classifi- cation in which other characters besides the eggs are taken note of. This enlarged system we shall not further notice here. " I am not sure that the eggs form a good guide to a primary division of Butterflies. Even if I were sure," Mr. Doherty writes, "I should hardly have the courage to alter the received classification to the required extent Judged purely by the egg, the classification of Butterflies would be something like this : " i. Danaiform Group, including the Danaida, Acrceidcz, and Heliconiidft) connected with the Apaturida by Cynthia and Cethosia. (Egg radiate, much higher than wide, leathery. ) B 2 xx LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. " 2. Satyriform Group, including the Satyridce, Efymniada, Morphidce, and Brassolidcz, connected with the Apaturidce by Kallima. (Egg usually smooth, globular, translucent, hard.) " 3. Nymphaliform Group, including the N mphalidcz, con- nected with the Apaluridtz by Char axes. (Egg reticulate, spiny, soft, with translucent ribs enclosing pentagonal or hexagonal spaces.) " 4. Apaturiform Group, including the Apaturidce and Eurytelidce. (Egg varying greatly, radiate, opaque, rarely much higher or lower than wide, hard.) " 5. Lycceniform Group, including only the Lyc&nida. (Egg reticulate, generally not spiny, hard, with opaque white ribs, with tetragons.) " 6. Pieriform Group, including the Pieridce and Libytheida. (Egg radiate, ampulliform, twice as high as wide.) "7. Hesperiform Group, including the Papilionida, the Hesperidce, and probably the Rrydnidce. (Egg smooth, prickly or radiate, with minute flattened ribs, not as high as wide, opaque, dome-shaped.'' It was considered a great step in advance when Denis and Schiffermiiller, in 1776, first laid down the maxim, "One eye to the Butterfly, and the other to the caterpillar." But even here we are met with great difficulties, for some larvae differ very much in different stages, and a classification based merely on adult larvae, as is generally the case, often seems to separate widely groups otherwise closely allied; and though little has been done towards comparing larvae in their early stages, enough is known to indicate that it is these which may be expected to manifest their real affinities. Nor have we a sufficient series of even full-grown larvae to make our classification complete ; for comparatively few are known, and our deductions might easily be upset by further discoveries. Still more is this the INTRODUCTION. xxj case with the egg-classification, which brings into juxtaposition groups with so little apparent affinity as the Pierida and the LibytheidcB. But this is only an instance of the difficulties we encounter at every step in entomology, both on account of the vast number of species with which we have to deal, and the various forms of each species, to say nothing of the enormous number of petty details, which prevents any man from attempting to study more than a very small branch of the subject thoroughly. When the enclosed larva is ready to emerge, it pushes off the lid of the egg, or eats its way out, and appears as the LARVA OR CATERPILLAR. The term " larva " means "a mask" in Latin, and is technically applied to the second stage of all insects. " Caterpillar " is a popular term applied to the same stage of Lepidoptera only. True Caterpillars never have more than sixteen legs (except, possibly, in one or two little-known exotic species), though those of a whole family of Moths (the Gcometrida) have only ten ; and some of the Micro-Lepidoptera have hardly any. The larvae of some of the Saw-flies ( TenthredinidcB) are often called " False Caterpillars." They frequently much resemble true caterpillars, but have from eighteen to twenty-two legs, or else no legs at all. In certain genera of Saw-flies, too, the antennae of the perfect insect are clubbed, a character which, though met with occasionally in all orders of insects, is compara- tively infrequent, except in the case of Butterflies and Ant- Lions, and other allied Neuroptera. "The body of caterpillars is long and nearly cylindrical, and is divided by deep incisions into twelve segments, exclusive of the head. The outer integument, or skin, is usually mem- branous and soft, but in some instances it approaches more to a coriaceous texture. The general softness of the body is of great utility, as it thereby acquires great flexibility, and easily xxii LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. accommodates itself to the various curves and inflections which the insect is continually giving to it, and which are rendered necessary from the manner in which it obtains its food. Most of the caterpillars that produce day-flying Lepidoptera have sixteen legs, which are of two distinct kinds. Six of them are placed on the three anterior segments — that portion of the body which corresponds to the thorax of the winged insect — and the others are attached to the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and anal segments. The form of the anterior, or thoracic, legs is wholly unlike that of the others, and they seem to be the prin- cipal instruments of locomotion. They are of a horny sub- stance, wide at the body and gradually growing narrower to the lower extremity, where they terminate in a strong claw. Each of them is divided into several segments, which correspond to the different parts that compose the leg of the Butterfly (Plate II., fig. i, represents a pair of these legs). The other legs, at- tached to the hinder or abdominal portion of the body, are soft and fleshy, and therefore have been called the membranous legs or pro-legs. Their principal use is to support the body by adhering to the slender twigs and shoots which the animals fre- quent to procure their food. For this purpose they can be lengthened and shortened at pleasure, and can even be drawn almost within the body, like the horns of a snail. Their general figure approaches to that of a truncated cone, which is termi- nated by a fleshy foot, of a construction peculiarly fitted to cling to a smooth surface or embrace a slender twig. What may be called the sole of the foot expands into a somewhat triangular plate, which is furnished on its inner edge with a row of small horny peaks or claws, consisting of a short and long one alter- nately, forming, as Reaumur remarks, a kind of palisade round part of the circumference. When the disc or ventral plate of the foot is dilated, these claws are turned outwards, and their small curved points find inequalities to which they can adhere, INTRODUCTION. XX111 even on a surface which might appear to the naked eye almost smooth. Several modifications of this curious prehensile foot occur among the larvae of various kinds of Moths, but of these it forms no part of our present purpose to give an account (Plate II., fig. 2, represents the pro-leg of the caterpillar of a Butterfly, after Reaumur ; fig. 3, a pair of pro-legs, showing the manner in which they cling to a branch). "The head of caterpillars is of a harder consistence than the rest of the body, and in most cases seems to be composed of two oval lobes united. In that of the Purple Highflyer these lobes are produced behind into two long occipital horns (Plate III., fig. 6). The conformation of the mouth of Lepidopterons larvae in general bears considerable resemblance to that of several masticating insects in their perfect state (see Plate II., fig. 4, which represents the under side of the head of a cater pillar). It consists of an upper lip, with a deep notch in the centre (£) ; two strong mandibles, divided at the tip into numerous sharp teeth, which cut the leaves which serve as food (c, c] ; two small and indistinct organs of a soft consistence lying under the mandibles, which may be regarded as the max- illae ; and an under lip (d} . Near the summit of the latter, which is usually of a pyramidal shape, is placed, according to Reaumur, a small conical protuberance, perforated by a smal) hole, through which issues the silken thread which serves so many important purposes in the remarkable changes these creatures undergo. This organ has been named the spinneret. On each side of the under lip, and connected with it at the base, are two minute palpiform bodies (e, e) which may be re- garded as the labial palpi. "The efficiency of the organs just described is well evinced by the address and rapidity with which these creatures con- sume the leaves which they select for their food. They in- variably begin to gnaw the margin of the leaf, placing the body xxiv LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. in such a position that a portion of the edge passes between the anterior legs, which support and keep it steady. Before applying its mouth, the caterpillar stretches its body and ad- vances its head as far as possible, that it may command a larger extent of the leaf. The mandibles are moved with great rapidity, and every time they meet cut off a small piece, which is instantly swallowed. At every motion of the jaws the head is drawn nearer the legs, and after it has been brought as far as possible, the body being contracted for the purpose, it is again extended to the point where it commenced to gnaw, and the same process repeated. In this manner the mandibles describe a succession of arcs, and the leaf is cut in the segment of a circle, somewhat resembling the circular incision made by the Leaf-cutting Bees. It seems, also, that the notch in the middle of the upper lip, formerly alluded to, is of great service, as it is placed on a line with the place where the jaws arise, and serves as a groove, both to give steadiness to the margin of the leaf, and to guide it in the direction most favourable for the jaws to act upon it. "The only remaining organs to which it is necessary to allude are the eyes and antennae. The former appear as small dark-coloured points, arranged in two circles, containing six each, on the anterior part of the head. These points vary in size, and seem to be of the same nature as the simple eyes of spiders, and the stemmata of various kinds of insects. The antennae, often the most conspicuous appendages of the head in perfect insects, are very minute in Lepidopterous larvae, usually consisting of two or three short joints. They are almost always of a conical form, and many species have the power of drawing the joints within each other, like the tubes of a telescope, till they are wholly concealed. " Many caterpillars of the day-flying Lepidoptera are smooth oa the surface, or covered only with a very short matted INTRODUCTION. XXV pubescence ; but in some cases they are furnished with rigid hairs and numerous long spines. These hairs are sometimes simple, but more commonly they have a series of small pointed pieces springing from each side, like leaves from a stem. They are seldom placed irregularly over the surface of the skin, but usually issue from a tubercle, and diverge in all directions. These tubercular elevations vary greatly in number, and are placed in a row across the middle of the segments. The spinous caterpillars indigenous to Britain are but little remarkable when compared with many exotic species ; but we have several which afford good examples of this description of defensive armour, such, for instance, as the common kinds that feed on the nettle. In these, and most other instances, the spines are sufficiently strong and sharp as readily to pierce the skin of the hand. They are very often beset with hairs, and frequently divide towards the tip into several small branches. Even when so numerous as entirely to cover the body, they are not placed promiscuously, but arranged like the tubercles formerly mentioned, in a certain order. Each seg- ment, with the frequent exception of that next the head, is armed with a transverse series, varying in number from four to eight. The accompanying figure represents a magnified section of the caterpillar of [Pyranteis] cardui^ exhibiting the number, mode of arrangement, and structure of the spines (Plate II., fig. 5). These appendages in many foreign cater- pillars are said to sting like a nettle, and there can be no doubt that in all cases they are a powerful means of defence, not only against the smaller birds,* but even against more for- midable enemies." (Duncan.) The sole business of insects during the larval stage of their * Few birds prey upon hairy caterpillars, although the Cuckoo, which is extremely fond of the larvse of the Tiger Moth, Hypercompa caia, Linn. (called, par excellence ', the hairy-worm, or more frequently, the Woolly Bear), forms an exception to the rule, xx vi LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. lives is to eat and grow. The leaves of plants and trees form their chief source of nourishment, but a few species will feed on dried animal or vegetable substances (hair, feathers, &c., like the Clothes Moths), and a single instance is known of a Lepidopterous larva being parasitic on an Homopterous insect. This is Epipyrops anomala^ Westwood, a Moth belonging to the Arctiidcz, the larva of which is parasitic on the common Chinese Lantern-fly, Hotinus candelarius^ Linn. As we have said be- fore, the eggs are laid by the parent Butterfly or Moth on or near the appropriate food of the future larva, and in most cases the parent insect does not long survive. But undoubtedly there is a great difference in the length of life of different species, and instances are on record in which Lepidoptera have been observed to pair more than once, though this is believed to be quite unusual in insects, the general rule being that male insects generally die very soon after pairing, and female insects soon after they have laid their eggs. This is un- doubtedly the case with many insects; but further detailed observations on the habits of a large number are greatly needed. When the larvae emerge from the eggs, they at once begin to feed, often making their first meal off the empty eggshell, An explanation of this curious habit has lately been offered by Dr. Scudder, who thinks that it is designed to prevent the empty eggshell from acting as an indication of the presence of the newly-hatched larva to insectivorous birds, &c. ; for, while one function of larvae is to prevent the inordinate increase of vegetation, especially in the Tropics, another is to furnish a supply of food to birds and other insect-eating animals. The excessive multiplication of insects is also kept in check by the numerous parasites, by which they are liable to be infested in all their stages. These are chiefly Hymenopterous parasites, called collectively Ichneumons, but really belonging to five or six very different families. There are also Dipterous para- INTRODUCTION. XXV11 sites, chiefly of the family Tachinidce, which are similar in their habits to the Ichneumons ; and the maggots produce flies like blue-bottles or house-flies, but with very bristly bodies. These parasites consume the bodies of their victim, so that it dies either in the larva state or as a pupa, the parasites either undergoing their transformations within the empty skin, or emerging from it, and forming their own cocoons round it. Occasionally, if the larva has only been attacked by one or two of the smaller parasites, it attains maturity, but is more or less crippled. Generally speaking, these parasites are more or less restricted to certain species of "hosts," as they are technically called, and attack no others ; but many parasites will attack a variety of different species almost indiscriminately. On Plate II., fig. 8, we have figured one of the parasites which attack the common Cabbage Butterfly ; it is Microgaster glomeratus. Linn., greatly magnified. " The size is very diminutive, the largest specimen seldom exceeding two lines in length. The general colour of the body is deep black, and the legs reddish-yellow. The wings are somewhat longer than the body and pubescent, each of the upper pair having a tri- angular black spot near the middle of the anterior margin (the pterostigma), three discoidal cells, and a triangular areolet, rather imperfectly formed. The abdomen is furnished with an ovipositor, consisting of two flat valves, and a curved horny sheath, terminating in a point. The use of this instrument is to pierce the skin of the caterpillar, and to form a conduit for conveying the eggs into the hole thus prepared for their reception. When the fly has selected a caterpillar fitted for her purpose, she alights upon its back, and plunges her weapon into its body, chiefly at the incisions of the segments, deposit- ing an egg at every insertion. This operation is repeated till no fewer than thirty or forty eggs are sometimes laid in the body of a single caterpillar. These are soon hatched in their xxvin LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. singular nidus, and the grubs which they produce immediately begin to feed on the substance of the living animal. They do not, however, devour every part indiscriminately, but are taught by a wonderful instinct to abstain from injuring any vital organ, as if aware that their own existence depended on that of their unwilling foster-parent. In consequence of this the caterpillars survive for a considerable time, and sometimes retain sufficient strength to assume the pupa state, in which, however, they invariably perish. But most frequently the grubs arrive at maturity before that change takes place, and in that case they escape from the body of the caterpillar by gnaw- ing a passage through its sides. Having in this way effected their liberation, they arrange themselves round the sides of the caterpillar, which is now so exhausted that it soon dies, and spin cocoons of a fine yellow colour, in which they are transformed into pupae. When the perfect fly is ready to emerge, it pushes open a small lid at one end of the cocoon, and after it has been for a short time exposed to the air it is ready for flight. "Other minute Ichneumons deposit their offspring in the eggs or in the pupae of Butterflies, and such numbers are de- stroyed in this way that it is evidently one of the means employed by Providence to keep within due limits a tribe of creatures which, if left to propagate without restriction, would occasion incalculable mischief by destroying almost every kind of vegetable produce." (Duncan?) Not only are most Lepidopterous larvae subject to the attacks of perhaps ten or a dozen different species of insect parasites at least, but to those of thread- worms (Gordius\ fungoid parasites of various kinds, and occasionally external parasites, such as acari and even fleas, besides such enemies as birds, earwigs, woodlice, &c. They are comparatively little affected by cold, but very much, as a rule, by damp, though some live in very damp situations, and a few even in the water. INTRODUCTION. XXIX Caterpillars are very voracious, and increase in size very rapidly ; but as their skin does not expand in proportion, it soon becomes too tight. Then the caterpillar moults, casting off not only the skin, but the horny covering of the head and jaws, and even the lining of the principal internal organs. When a caterpillar is about to moult, its colour begins to fade, and it ceases to eat, and grows sluggish ; and after the moult is over it remains sluggish for a short time, before beginning to eat with renewed voracity. Many caterpillars do not alter very much in appearance or habits or structure from moult to moult ; but some differ considerably. Thus, the young cater- pillars which will have the usual complement of sixteen legs when full grown, sometimes have only ten when they first leave the egg ; and others change their colour, or acquire additional spines, &c., in the course of successive moults. As regards habits, several species of caterpillars live in colonies when they are young, and sometimes under a web ; but when they grow older they separate, and scatter themselves over the plants on which they feed. The caterpillars of some of the smaller Moths are " miners," living in mines or galleries in the sub- stance of leaves ; and the caterpillars of the Green Forester Moths have a similar habit when young, but when older feed exposed on their food-plants. Many caterpillars are protected by their close resemblance to the plants on which they feed, and the brown caterpillars of some of the Geometrid®, or Loopers, as they are termed, fix themselves on a branch with their hind-legs, and then stretch their bodies stifHy out, in which attitude they are not to be distinguished from bits of dry stick. Bates once met with a caterpillar, during his travels on the Amazons, which startled him from its exact resemblance to a small venomous snake. Some few brightly-coloured cater- pillars, such as those of the Spurge Hawk Moth, feed in very exposed situations ; but in such cases their bright colours pro- xxx LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. bably point them out to insectivorous animals as inedible.* The caterpillar just mentioned feeds openly on the spurge in the most exposed situations. Other caterpillars are provided with retractile tentacles on the neck or at the extremity of the body, which appear to be useful for driving away Ichneumon flies or other small enemies. As a general rule the lives of caterpillars only last a few months, and in some species only a few weeks or days before they arrive at their full growth ; but many caterpillars pass the winter in that state. Sometimes they emerge from the egg in the autumn, go into winter quarters immediately, and eat nothing till spring ; but in other cases they hibernate when partly grown. In the case of double-brooded insects, the broods necessarily occupy much less time to pass through all their stages in sum- mer than in winter, when the rapidity of their development is checked by the cold. And in warm countries many species are double-brooded which are only single-brooded in colder regions. It is believed that the caterpillars of Arctic Lepidop- tera may require several seasons to attain their full growth. These may be frozen hard enough to chink when thrown into a glass, and yet recover when gradually thawed. But nearer home the longest-lived caterpillar known is that of the Goat Moth, which feeds inside the trunks of trees, and takes three years to arrive at maturity. When a caterpillar has reached its full size, and is ready to moult for the last time, it prepares to become a PUPA OR CHRYSALIS. The term "pupa," which means" a doll (puppet) in Latin, is generally applied by entomologists to the intermediate stage * This, of course, is no protection against the attacks of parasites, but rather the reverse. I once bred some 'lachinidce (parasitic Diptera) from the above-mentioned larvae. INTRODUCTION. XXXI which insects pass through before assuming the perfect state. In insects with perfect metamorphoses, including Butterflies and Moths, this state is always inactive. Many pupae of But- terflies have a gilded appearance, and such a pupa has been styled a " chrysalis "or " aurelia," terms derived from the Greek and Latin, which express this peculiarity, and which have since been applied to all Lepidopterous pupae, whether gilded or not. But the term "Aurelia" is no longer used, and will not be found in recent works on entomology, though eighty or a hundred years ago collectors of Butterflies and Moths were generally called " Aurelians." The caterpillars of Butterflies generally fix their pupae on or near their food-plants, and a large number suspend them- selves by the minute hooks with which the narrow end of the body is provided, to a little button of silk, and thus hang freely by the tail. These are the Nymphalida ; but in most of the other families the pupa is attached by the tail, but fixed in an upright position, being supported by a belt of silk round the body. Some of the Satyrincz occasionally place their pupoe close to, or perhaps even on, the surface of the ground, and the Skippers, and the species of Parnassius, a genus of Alpine Butterflies which includes the well known Apollo Butter- fly, form slight cocoons. Moths are much more varied in their mode of forming their pupae. Many are formed under the surface of the ground, some being naked, and others enclosed in a cell of aggluti- nated earth. Tree -feeding caterpillars often form their cocoons in the chinks of the bark, or in the earth close to the root of the tree on which they have fed. The conspicuous tough boat-shaped cocoons of yellow silk, formed by the Burnet Moths, are very common in meadows, attached to stalks of grass. Many of the large ocellated Silkworm Moths allied to our Emneror Moth form their cocoons between leaves on the xxxii LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. trees they have fed upon, but attach them firmly by a strong strand of silk to the branches, so that there is no danger of the leaves falling from the tree. Some species belonging to the same family form their pupae underground, but it is not known whether the same species exhibit this difference of habit, or whether the species are different. Internal feeders, such as the Goat Moth, form their cocoons in galleries in the wood in which they have fed, and many of these have sufficient power of locomotion to push the fore part of their bodies from the gallery into the open air before emerging from the pupa. Other pupae may be found in reeds ; attached to the bark of trees ; among dead leaves ; or in various other situations. Pupae enclosed in cocoons are generally smooth, but those which are naked, and especially those of Butterflies, are fre- quently angular, and others are provided with spines or pro- jecting appendages. The outlines of the principal parts of the future Butterfly or Moth are indicated in the sutures of the pupa ; but the legs, &c., are not enclosed in separate sheaths, as is the case with the pupae of beetles. However, the long proboscis of the Hawk Moths forms an exception, for this is generally enclosed in a separate sheath, sometimes of great length, and curiously twisted. The general colour of pupse which are enclosed in cocoons, or are formed beneath the ground or in other places of concealment, is of a lighter or darker reddish-brown ; but those which are exposed to the light are of brighter colours — generally green or yellow — with black spots ; and green pupae are not unfrequently brilliantly metallic. The cocoons in which many pupae are enclosed differ con- siderably. Some of them are very slight and flimsy, others very thick. Some form a network, and others are solid. They are generally white, brown, or yellow in colour, but occasion- ally green. That of the Silkworm is a short oval yellow or PLATE U Pupae; Detail* of Larva; r etc,. INTRODUCTION. XXXlll white cocoon of solid silk, formed of a double strand measur- ing several hundred feet in length. Others are bottle-shaped, with an opening at one end. On emerging from the pupa state, Butterflies and Moths usually discharge a fluid from their mouths ; and when they have been unusually abundant, the phenomenon has sometimes been imagined by the ignorant to be due to a rain of blood, for this fluid is frequently of a red colour. When a Moth emerges from the pupa, this fluid serves to soften the threads of the cocoon, and some Moths are also furnished with a strong spine under the wings, which they employ to saw through the silk. When a Butterfly or Moth emerges from the pupa it is limp and moist, and the wings are small and rudimentary ; but the body of the insect rapidly dries in the air, and as first fluid and then air is forced through the nervures of the wings, they may be seen to expand and assume their full size and colour, when the insect is at last mature, and capable of reproducing its kind. We have now to consider the insect in its final development as an IMAGO, OR PERFECT INSECT. Butterflies and Moths, like bugs and two-winged flies, be- long to the Haustellata^ or insects with a sucking apparatus in the perfect state, in contradistinction to the Mandibulata, or insects provided with jaws, like beetles, bees, grasshoppers, dragonflies, &c. As in all other true insects, their body is divided into three principal parts, called respectively the head, thorax, and abdomen, each of which is connected with the next by a narrow pedicel. The Anglo-Saxon word, " Buttor-fleoze," has been supposed to have been suggested by the insects being abundant during the butter-season. It may be so ; but we should be more in- 4 c xxxiv LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. clmed to think that it may have been first suggested by the colour of the Brimstone Butterfly, even now a very conspicuous and abundant insect during most of the year, at least in the South of England, and doubtless, in former times, far more abundant than at present. The German word, "Falter," evi- dently alludes to the folding of the wings ; and " Schmetter- ling," probably to the erratic flight of the insect. We have no equivalents for these words in English ; but the German word " Motte " is generally applied to a Clothes-Moth. The head is provided with the principal organs of sense, the thorax with those of locomotion, and the abdomen with those of respiration and nutrition. The head is usually of harder consistency than the rest of :he body, and is often more or less clothed with hair or scales. The most conspicuous organs are the eyes, ocelli, antennae, palpi, and proboscis. The top of the head is called the vertex, the back the occiput, the front the face, and the space round the eyes the orbits. The large compound eyes are placed on each side of the head, and are composed of a great number of facets, varying in number in different species. As many as 17,32 5 have beencounted in the eye of a Butterfly. They are sometimes studded with hairs, and are sometimes naked, and this is of some importance as a subsidiary character in the classification of genera. The number of facets has not yet been sufficiently investigated in vari- ous species to be used in classification, nor do we know how far it is constant in the same species. Between the eyes are placed the ocelli, or simple eyes, on the summit of the head. These eyes consist of a single facet, and vary in number from one to three in various insects. In Moths there are always two, when they are present at all, but in Butterflies and many genera of Moths they are entirely absent. Their presence or absence forms a generic character of importance among the Moths. INTRODUCTION. XXXV Further observations on the senses of insects are much needed. There is no doubt that the two classes of eyes function in different ways, and some insects have a much more powerful sight than others. That most insects are capable of recognising colours is certain ; and considering the complicated character of their visual organs, it is, to say the least of it, premature to argue, as some entomologists have recently done, that the sight of Butterflies is so imperfect that Nature can only appear to them as through a thick veil. All considerations of probability, and even practical observa- tions, seem to be quite opposed to such an idea. Attempts have been made, with more or less success, to discover homo- logies between the eyes of insects and those of vertebrate animals ; but we have not space to enter upon these questions in detail. The antennae, often called horns or feelers, are two long jointed organs, situated in front of the head, between the eyes, and before the ocelli, when the latter are present. We will defer discussing their structure in Moths to another volume ; in Butterflies they are generally about half as long as the body, or a little more, and are nearly always conspicuously thickened towards the end. Sometimes this thickening is more or less gradual, in which case (especially in the Skippers), the antenna often terminates in a slight hook, and sometimes the antenna is suddenly thickened into a knob at the end. This character is so universal throughout Butterflies, and so exceptional in Moths, that it has always been considered as one of primary importance, Butterflies being called Rhopalocera (Club-Horns), and Moths Heterocera (Different Horns). This distinction may be conveniently applied to separate the first few families of Lepidoptera from the others, especially as we have two such different popular names for them as "Butterflies" and " Moths." In most Continental languages they have only one principal word for both, and simply prefix " day " and c 2 xxxvi LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. "night." Thus "Papillon" in French, from the Latin "Papilio," may mean either a Butterfly or a Moth ; and they distinguish them as " Papillons de jour r and " Papillons de nuit." In front of the face project the palpi, which are three- jointed organs, generally hairy or scaly, and differing consider- ably in length and structure. In Butterflies they are generally nearly straight, or slightly curved upwards. When straight they are called " porrected " ; when raised, " ascending " ; and when depressed, " drooping." The terminal joint is usually long, slender, and pointed. The palpi of Butterflies represent the labial palpi, the maxillary palpi being absent or rudimentary. In Butterflies, the palpi are generally more or less conspicuous, and in one or two genera (Libythina in the Nymphalince, and Libythea, an aberrant genus somewhat intermediate between the Nymphalidce. and the Lemoniida), they are several times as long as the head. Between the palpi we observe the proboscis, or " the long flexible tube projecting from the mouth, which forms a canal through which the alimentary juices are absorbed. This instru- ment, which is sometimes of great length,* is spirally convo- luted when unemployed, but it can be unrolled with great rapidity, and is admirably fitted to explore the tubular corollae and deep-seated nectaries of flowers, for the purpose of extract- ing their sweet secretions. It is of a cartilaginous substance, and owes its great flexibility to its being composed of numerous rings or transverse fibres, bearing some resemblance to the annulose structure of earthworms and some other animals. It is formed of two distinct pieces, which admit of being sepa- * Especially in the Sphingida. In Sfhinx convolvuli\\. attains the length of four or five inches, and in some of the largest foreign Sphinges (Am- phonyx] it may be almost double that length. In Butterflies it is usually well developed, though not approaching to such great length as in the Sphingida, but in many Bombyces and other Moths, including even some Sphingida allied to Smerinthus, it is quite rudimentary, or even altogether absent. INTRODUCTION. XXXV11 rated throughout their whole length.* Each of these pieces is traversed longitudinally by a cylindrical tube, and being grooved on their inner side> they form, when united, another canal in the centre, of a somewhat square form, and wider than either of the two lateral ones. The junction of the two pieces is so close that the enclosed tube is perfectly air-tight, and this union is effected by means of an infinite number of filets, resembling the laminae of a feather, which interlace and adhere to each other. Of these three tubes, the central one alone serves for the influx of the alimentary fluids, the two lateral ones being probably employed in transmitting air in aid of respiration,! which, however, is mainly carried on by means of stigmata or lateral pores. The outer extremity of the pro- boscis is frequently beset with many membranous papillae, resembling leaflets, which have been regarded by some authors as absorbents. From having observed them chiefly in long and slender trunks, Reaumur was led to conceive that their only use is to render that organ more steady, by affording numerous points of support, and adhering in some degree to the substance into which it is inserted — an explanation rendered highly probable by the fact that the long and slender ovipositors of Ichneumons, and many other insects, are generally provided with some pointed projections near the tip, evidently intended for this purpose. Several of the figures on Plate I. are designed to illustrate the structure of the organ just described. Fig. 9 is a magnified view of the trunk, showing its general form, and the projecting points near the tip (a) Fig. 10, is a highly-mag- nified section, exhibiting the two portions (a, b), of which it is composed, each of them tubular (c, d\ and forming by their junction a central canal (e). Fig. 1 1 is another section, repre- senting the under side. In fresh specimens of some of the larger Lepidoptera this may easily be done with a fine needle. f More probably, to facilitate the pumping up of fluids into the mouth. xxxviii LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. " The two portions of which the proboscis is composed, seem to be analogous to the maxillae or under-jaws of the mandibu lated tribes,* and to receive their great development at the expense of the other oral appendages, most of which are small and inconspicuous. This is not the case, however, with the labial palpi, which are generally of considerable size, and curved upwards in such a manner as to form two projecting points in front of the head. These organs are covered with hair-like scales, are usually of a somewhat conical shape, and consist for the most part of three articulations (see Plate I., fig. 1 2a). They are attached to a triangular plate, which must be regarded as the labium, or under lip, as it closes the cavity of the mouth, immediately below the insertion of the trunk. On each side of the latter, not far from the base, there is a minute tuber- culiform projection, formed of two or three indistinct joints, which together seem to represent the maxillary palpi. The representation of the labrum, or upper lip, is a minute membran- ous piece, usually approaching to a triangular shape, and two other small projections, more or less dilated internally, and placed one on each side of the proboscis at the base, are analogous to the mandibles of gnawing insects. Most of these parts, however, exist in a very rudimentary condition, and afford another example, in addition to many already familiar to us, of Nature adhering to a particular form of structure after it has ceased to be subservient to any essential function, f for if some of these parts are designed for the same purpose which they serve so effectively when fully developed, it is not easy to see how they could be employed by the insect, or in any way prove serviceable to its economy." (Duncan.) * Bees, Beetles, &c. i Before the advent of Darwin, and his demonstration of the unity of all living beings, rudimentary structures were a great puzzle to philosophic naturalists, who found it very difficult to account for them in any rational or satisfactory manner. INTRODUCTION. XXXIX The head is generally of a uniform colour, but is frequently spotted with white, in which case the antennae are often ringed with white, and the orbits are white. The second division of the body is the thorax, which is com- posed of three segments, called respectively the pro-thorax, meso-thorax, and meta-thorax. The lower surface is called the "pectus," and the sides, below the wings, are called the " pleura." The thoracic segments are closely united in Lepidopteray and bear the organs of locomotion, each segment bearing a pair of legs, and the two hinder pairs the wings also. The scutellum, which is so largely developed in many beetles and bugs, is inconspicuous in Lepidoptera, and has its point directed forwards. The pro-thorax is narrow in Butterflies, and in many species it is hardly visible above ; on the under surface it bears the first pair of legs. On the upper surface, when much developed, it is sometimes of a different colour ; thus, in many East Indian species of Papilio and Ornithoptera, it is of a bright scarlet. In such a case it is called the collar. The meso-thorax and meta- thorax are closely united in Butterflies, resembling one solid piece ; the former bears the second pair of legs and the front pair of wings ; and the latter bears the third pair of legs and the hind pair of wings. In front of the fore-wings are two hairy tufts, resting on horny scales, which are called the lappets, patagia, or tegulae. Many Butterflies are spotted with red or white on the head and thorax, and in this case the pleura is likewise spotted, and the antennae and legs are ringed with darker and paler, the under surface of the antennae and especially the tip of the club, and also the orbits, being likewise paler. In some Moths which spin cocoons, a strong spine may be seen at the base of the wings beneath, which the insects use in making their way out. The legs, as in other insects, are composed of the usual five Xl LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. parts, — the coxae ; the trochanters ; the femora, or thighs ; the tibiae, or shanks ; and the tarsi, or feet. The last three are the most important to notice in Lepidoptera. The tarsi are normally five-jointed, but in many Nymphalidce, &c., the front-legs are rudimentary in one, or both, sexes, but especially in the males, and in such cases the tarsi may be reduced to a single joint, or are occasionally even absent. The tibiae are generally provided with a pair of spines at the ex- tremity, and frequently in the middle also. The tarsi, when fully developed, terminate in a pair of claws, which are bifid (Plate I., fig. 13) in many Butterflies, as, for instance, in the Pieridcz. In the groups which have the front legs more or less aborted in one or both sexes, the first stage is the disappearance of one or both of the tarsal claws. In some Moths (Hepialidce, &c.), the hind pair of legs are imperfectly developed in the males. The legs are sometimes naked, and sometimes covered with short or long hairs, occasionally almost spinose. In some Moths there is a large fan-like tuft of hair on the legs of the males. The legs are usually concolorous with the body, whether hairy or not. Sometimes they are of a different colour ; in Lar- inopoda, a white African genus of Lycccnidce^ the legs are always reddish or tawny. When the antennae are ringed with black and white, the legs are generally ringed or spotted with white too, especially at the knees and at the joints of the tarsi. The legs in Butterflies are weak, and are generally only used to step circumspectly over a flower, though some Moths will shuffle along a plane surface in a manner that has gained for one of them the soubriquet of "The Mouse." The substance of the wings consists of a double membrane, permeated by branching air-tubes, generally called nervures. Their arrangement is so important for classification that it will INTRODUCTION. xli be described in a separate section. The wing-membrane itself is colourless and transparent, but is clothed with fine scales, which are easily rubbed off, if the insect is handled roughly. "The mode of painting employed to produce these rich tints may not improperly be called a kind of natural mosaic, for the colours invariably reside in the scales, which form a dense covering over the whole surface. These scales are usually of an oval or elongated form, and truncated at the tip, where they are occasionally divided into teeth ; but sometimes they are conical, linear, or triangular. A considerable number of the forms which they exhibit are represented at the top of Plate I. Fig. 2 shows the form which they sometimes assume in the fringe which surrounds the wing. They are fixed in the wing by means of a narrow pedicel, and are most commonly dis- posed in transverse rows, placed close together, and overlapping each other like the tiles of a roof. In some instances they are placed without any regular order, and in certain cases there appear to be two layers of scales on both sides of the wings. When they are rubbed off, the wing is found to consist of an elastic membrane, thin and transparent, and marked with slightly indented lines, forming a kind of groove for the in- sertion of the scales. The latter are so minute that they appear to the naked eye like particles of dust, and as they are closely placed, their numbers in a single insect are astonishingly great. Leesewentock counted upwards of 400,000 on the wings of the Silk-Moth, an insect not above one-fourth of the size of some of our native Butterflies. But how much inferior must this number be to that necessary to form a covering to some foreign Butterflies, the wings of which expand upwards of half a foot ; or certain species of Moths, some of which, such as the Atlas-Moth of the East, or the Great Owl-Moth of Brazil, some- times measure nearly a foot across the wings ? A modern mo- xlii .LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. saic pattern may contain 870 tesserulae, in separate pieces, in one square inch of surface; but the same extent of a Butterfly's wing sometimes consists of no fewer than 100,736 !" (Duncan.) In addition to the ordinary scales, the males of many Butter- flies possess special additional scales, smaller than the others, which have been called plumules, battledore-scales, or andro- conia. Sometimes they are scattered among, and hidden under, the ordinary scales, but they are frequently placed in masses on a particular part of the wing, and covered by large overlapping scales. They are generally colourless, but some- times black or brown. Not unfrequently they are concealed in a pocket or fold of the wing. They are generally longer and softer than the ordinary scales, and evidently serve as out- lets for scent-glands in the tissue of the wing.* The scales are considered to be modified hairs, and consist of double-walled closed sacs, which afterwards flatten out, and are striated. The colour of the wings of the insect is partly due to pigment contained in these sacs, and partly, especially in the case of shot or iridescent tints, to the refraction of light from the striated scales of the wing. In many Butterflies and Moths, more or less of the wing, from a few small spots, to the whole surface except the borders, is colourless. This is the case in our Bee Hawk-Moths, and Clear-wing Moths ; but though only one genus of European Butterflies (Carcharodus) exhibits even as much as a few trans- parent spots on the wings, many South American genera of different groups (Ithomia, Hetara, Zeonia, &c.) have the wings as colourless as in our Clear-wing Moths. But in the case of the Bee Hawk-Moths, and probably of many other transparent- winged Lepidoptera, the insect, on emerging from the pupa, is slightly clothed with loose scales over the transparent part of the wings, which soon rub off. * See Thomas, "American Naturalist," vol. 27, p. 1018 (Novem- ber, 1893). INTRODUCTION. xlili Scales are not the only covering of the wings of Lepidoptera. The edges of the wings in most cases are bordered with 3. row of short hairs, sometimes of a different colour to the rest of the wing, especially between the nervures. These are called the fringes or cilia of the wings, and in many of the smaller Moths, especially those allied to the Clothes Moths, they are very long. More or less of the base of the wings of Butterflies is often covered with long hair ; and in many of the larger foreign Butterflies the inner margin of the hind-wings forms a long deep fold, filled with fluffy hair. But apart from this, the inner-margin of the wings in Butterflies is often fringed with much longer hair than the hind-margin. The abdomen in the Lepidoptera is composed of nine seg- ments. It is frequently crested on the back, and tufted at the extremity in Moths. In Butterflies, the males are sometimes furnished with large clasping organs at the extremity, or have the power of protruding scent-tufts from the abdomen ; in the females of Moths an ovipositor is occasionally present. ON THE WINGS AND NEURATION OF BUTTERFLIES. The wings of insects are traversed by hollow tubes, which are technically called nervures, and which serve first as circulatory organs for the fluid which is forced through the wings on the emergence of the insect from the pupa, and thus causes their expansion and development ; and afterwards as air-tubes, and as ribs to strengthen the wings and to keep them expanded. In many insects, including some Moths, but not in Butterflies, these ribs fold together like a fan, and in beetles, &c., the ends are folded back again. These nervures, differ much in their number and arrangement, not only in different orders, but even in allied groups of the same order ; and form a valuable aid to classification. We will now proceed to give a short account of their usual arrangement in Butterflies, with the aid xliv LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. of the accompanying woodcut, which represents the neuration of 4geronia. To begin with, then, all Butterflies have four wings, two on each side. The first pair is called the fore-wings, the front wings, the anterior wings, or in Latin, as it is useful to remember, " alae anticse." The second pair are called hind- wings, or posterior wings, in Latin "alae posticse." Many authors write " primaries " and " secondaries " as equivalent to fore- and hind-wings ; but the use of these terms ought to be abandoned, because they are in universal employment in a totally different sense in Birds. The fore-wings are generally roughly triangular in shape. The narrow end which joins on to the body is called the base; the fore-wings being attached to the sides of the meso-thorax, and the hind-wings to the side of the meta-thorax. The front edge of the wings is called the costa ; it is generally more or less strongly arched, and in Butterflies is very rare1}- slightly concave. In a few genera, e.g., Charaxes and Prioneris, it is serrated INTRODUCTION. xv and ridged like a saw. At its extremity is the tip, the apex, or the anterior angle of the wing. This is often more or less angulated, sometimes being pointed, or running out into a projecting angle, or it may even be hooked ; but in many species it is rounded off. The longest portion of the wing is generally at or a little below the tip. The edge of the wing furthest from the body is called the hind-margin. Sometimes it is regularly rounded, in which case the wings are said to be entire, or it may be more or less toothed (dentated, or denticu- lated), or obliquely hollowed between the ends of each two of the nervures (sinuated). The concave spaces between the nervures are then called "incisions." On the fore-wings, the hind-margin is generally slightly curved towards the hinder angle (the anal angle as it is sometimes called, though this term is properly applied only to that of the hind-wings), but it is frequently nearly straight, or more or less convex or concave, or with angular projections ; in fact, its outline varies more in different species than that of any other part of the wing. On the hind- wings, the hind-margin is generally rounded, but is sometimes angulated once or twice, or furnished with a more or less long projection, called a tail, most frequently at the end of the upper median nervule (see below), though tails may be thrown off at any of the lower nervules, either independently or con- jointly with one at the point just mentioned. When the hind- wing is simply angulated we have called this point the " outer angle." The anal angle of the hind-wings is often rounded off, or even concave, but sometimes projects into a point, or even a tail. The inner-margin is opposite to the costa on the fore- wings and is generally nearly straight, or very slightly concave, but in some genera, especially in some of those allied to Euplcea, it is strongly concave. On the hind-wings the inner-margin lies parallel to the sides of the abdomen, and sometimes forms a kind of gutter to receive it, or is concave. xlvi LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. In many species of Papilla it fcrms a large fold, filled with fluffy hair, frequently concealing androconia. As regards the wing-outlines, A in our figure represents the base of the wings, B the tip, or apex, and C the hinder or anal angle. The costa would run from A to B, the hind- margin from B to C, and the inner-margin from A to C. The tail on the hind-wings might be at any of the points marked d and e, but most frequently at the point marked dd, where also would be placed the outer angle in a species with angulated hind-wings. We must now give some account of the veining of the wings. In the first place, it was probably much more complicated formerly than at present in Butterflies, as it is still in some Moths. The veins which run from the base are called nervures, and all the others nervules. Sometimes they are thickened or inflated at the base, especially in the SatyrincR, but more often they are apparently thickened through density of scaling along their course, as in the male of the Silver-washed Fritillary, to take the most familiar example. In many Butterflies faint lines may be noticed between the ordinary nervures, including two in the cell, and in some cases these lines, which doubtless indicate the situation of lost nervures, now atrophied, are marked by scales in such a way as to give them the appearance of being actually nervures. This is especially the case in some Pieridce with radiating markings along the nervures, chiefly on the under surface of the wings, as in our Green-veined White Butterfly. Certain Moths have a much more complicated system of neuration than Butterflies, which attains its maximum of development in the families Castniidce, Hepiahdce, and Zeuzerida, while some of the smaller Tineidce, &c., have a much simpler arrangement. But in Butterflies the neuration, though varying infinitely in details, is generally arranged on a very uniform plan. INTRODUCTION. Commencing with the costa, we first find a single nervure (a) running from the base, and entering the costa. It is called the costal nervure, and differs much in length in different Butterflies. It is never branched at the extremity, but some- times, as in the genus Archonias, in the Pieridce, the first sub- costal nervule unites with it. The costal nervure is much more strongly developed on the hind- wings than on the fore-wings; and at the base of the hind-wings it throws up a short branch in many of the larger Butterflies (not shown in our figure) which, v hen present, often encloses a space at the base of the wing. This nervure is called the " pre-costal nervure." Next to the costal nervure comes the sub-costal nervure, which is generally five-branched on the fore-wings (^. i, 2, 3, 4, 5). These are sometimes called branches of the sub-costal ner- vure, and sometimes sub-costal nervules. As already mentioned, the first sub-costal nervule sometimes unites with the costal nervure towards its extremity. There are generally five sub- costal nervules on the fore-wings, but in many genera of Butter- flies there are only fcur, and sometimes only three. The position where these nervules branch off, their curvature, and the points at which they enter the costa, or the neighbourhood of the apex of the wing, are of great importance in the classifi, cation of genera. The first two, or the first three, are often sub-parallel ; in Synchloe^ the first two approximate so much that they are sometimes united in the middle. On the hind- wings the sub-costal nervure divides into two branches only. Under the sub-costal nervure is a wide open space usually extending from the base to the middle of the wing, or even further. This is called the discoidal cell (AD), and from it two nervules run to the hind-margin on the fore-wings, and one on the hind-wings. These are called radial or discoidal nervules (cc\ and are distinguished as the first and second, or the upper and lower. The upper radial nervule is sometimes united to the xlviii LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. sub-costal nervure at its base, so as to give it the appearance of being an additional branch of the sub-costal. In several dark- coloured species of Papilio^ &c., there is an appearance of lines radiating from the base in the cell ; but this is delusive, and only one Butterfly is known to me with the radial nervules continued as nervures through the cell to the base of the wings. This is Davidina armandi, Oberthiir, a rare and little known Pieride from China and Thibet. On the hind-wings there is only one radial nervule ; but some authors consider the sub-costal nervure of the hind-wings to be unbranched, and call the second branch (b. 2. of our figure) the upper radial instead of the second sub-costal nervule. In most Butterflies the cell is closed by small cross-nervures called disco cellular nervules (g. i,g. 2), but in the Nymphalina and Morphince, the lower disco-cellular nervule is either slender and rudimentary, as in our figure, or entirely wanting. In the latter case the cell is said to be open. The cell is more fre- quently open in the hind-wings, but very commonly in the fore-wings a^so. The space between the cell and the hind- margi.i is called the disc of the wing. In the Brassolince there is a small additional cell above the base of the discoidal cell of the hind-wings, called the pre-costal cell. Below the discoidal cell runs the median nervure, which is always three-branched (d, d, d). In England the median nervules (or branches of the median nervure) are generally counted from above downwards ; but as they are thrown off in succession from below, it would appear more correct to count them from below upwards, as is generally done by the German lepidopterists. In order to avoid any ambiguity, it is perhaps better to call them the upper, lower and middle median nervules. In many Nymphalina, there is a short branch thrown off down- wards from the median nervure near its base, which Schatz and Rober call the " spur." When it is continued downwards to INTRODUCTION. xlX the sub-median nervure, so as to enclose a space, it is called the interno-median nervule. Below the median nervure runs the sub-median nervure (e) which is never branched. Below this again, is the internal nervure (/), which is generally very short, or wanting on the fore-wings. When present, it may either run to the inner maigin near the base, or may unite almost immediately with the sub- median, giving the sub median the appearance of being forked at the base. On the hind-wings it is generally fairly well developed ; and although it is absent in the Papilionidce, in the Pieridce it is generally almost as long as the sub-median nervure ; and indeed, in many species, marked like our Green- veined Whites, a line of colour runs down between these nervures, giving the insects the appearance of possessing three sub-median nervures instead of two. If the term "internal nervure " was not in general use, it would perhaps be better to call these nervures the upper and lower sub-median nervures. The presence of the internal nervure on the hind-wings of the Pierida, contrasted with its total absence in \h.zPapilionidce, and combined with other equally constant and important characters which will be mentioned in their place, seems to indicate that these two groups are sufficiently distinct to be treated as families, instead of as sub-families, as is usually the case. ON COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. The most useful implement for collecting Butterflies and Moths on the wing is the ring-net. It is a ring of iron, jointed so that it can be folded up, and put into the pocket when not in use. It is made to screw on to the end of an ordinary walking- stick. Neither the ring nor the net should be heavier than needful to give a proper balance in the hand. The ring should be about a foot broad, and the net should be made of green gauze, or some similar material. It should be somewhat tapering, but rounded at the end, not square or pointed, for it 4 D 1 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. should contain no corners ; and it should be long enough to be lapped round the stick with a jerk, when used, to prevent the Butterfly from escaping. Of course, a much simpler instru- ment may be made to answer the purpose, and even a ring of willow-twigs tied between a forked stick might serve as the framework of a net, when nothing else is available. Although a Butterfly-net much resembles a fisherman's landing-net, yet nothing could be more unsuited to the purpose than the latter, even if the string net should be replaced with one of green gauze. It would be found far too clumsy and inconvenient in practice ; the ring would be too small, and the weight would be all at one end. Some collectors prefer what it called the umbrella-net — a net of green gauze made to slide up and down a stick, and fitting into an umbrella-case when not in use. But this, though use- ful for many purposes, such as sweeping grass or bushes, or for beating caterpillars into, is rather too short for ordinary collect- ing, and the stick through the middle is another objection. The long net used by the old collectors for catching the Purple Emperor (a net on a pole twenty or thirty feet long) is now rarely used. If necessary, one can be improvised from a sapling ; but it is now found more advantageous to lure high- flying insects to the ground with carrion, or some similar bait. It is hard work to run down a Butterfly, and, in general, it is unnecessary. Some have a slow flight and settle frequently on flowers, and many of those which fly rapidly have a habit of constantly returning to the same spot. If the ground is suffi- ciently open to allow of following up a Butterfly, it is almost sure to settle sooner or later. Many Moths may be caught on flowers, especially at dusk ; but a few, such as the Humming- Bird Hawk-Moth, feed on the wing, and are capable of very rapid flight, especially if alarmed. Almost the only means of catching it is to bring the net up very gently as near the insect INTRODUCTION. li as possible without scaring it, and then to strike suddenly. Even this Moth, however, will sometimes settle on a wall, a stump on a bank under a hedge, or in some other situation where its colour protects it ; but it is rare to meet with it, except on the wing. Many Moths fly in the daytime in meadows, &c., like Butterflies, or may be dislodged from their resting-places by beating hedges and bushes on the side opposite to the wind. On dull days, or at dusk, Butterflies may occasionally be started in a similar manner, or they may be found asleep on grass-stems, &c. Butterflies will settle on leaves as well as on flowers, or on the ground, or on tree-trunks. In the last case they are very difficult to catch, as it is not easy to strike at them in such a manner that they cannot readily elude the net. Many Butterflies will settle in damp places to imbibe the moisture, or on fruit, and others will settle on dung or carrion. A great many of the night-flying Moths, even including the largest species, may be found sitting on tree-trunks in the early part of the day ; later on, they generally seek a more retired resting-place. Others may be captured by painting tree-trunks, &c., with a sweet mixture, and visiting the trees with a lantern after dark. This mode of collecting is called " sugaring," and the substance commonly used is a mixture of coarse brown sugar boiled in beer to a sufficient consistency to adhere to the trees, and flavoured with a few drops of rum. Apple-flavouring has also been found very attractive. Butterflies, and slender-bodied Moths, may be killed by a pinch under the thorax ; but unless very carefully done, this is liable to injure the specimens, especially if they are required to show the under surface and legs ; and many collectors use a bottle partly filled with chopped laurel-leaves, or charged with cyanide of potassium, or carry a small bottle of chloroform with them. Full particulars on all these points may be found in Knaggs' " Lepidopterist's Guide," a useful little manual D 2 Hi LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. which goes thoroughly into all the minutiae of collecting, pre- serving, breeding, £c. Poisons, however, are not always easily obtained ; and cyanide sometimes discolours the insects. When the insect is killed, it is taken carefully between the finger and thumb, and a pin is passed through the centre of the thorax. The pins used for insects are long, slender, and elastic, with small heads ; and " entomological pins " can be purchased of any dealer in objects of natural history. The pin used should always be proportionate to the size of the insect, and in the case of very small Moths, the fine pins with which they are transfixed are frequently mounted on small oblong stages of pith, through the other end of which a larger pin is passed. Insects pinned in the field are put into small wooden boxes, lined with cork, and carried in the pocket ; but many collec- tors prefer to use chip boxes, in which Moths and the smaller Butterflies can be carried home alive. Only one specimen must be put into each box, and the larger and more active species must be killed at once, as they would knock themselves to pieces, if thus imprisoned. Moths asleep on the trunks of irees may very often be pushed into a chip box with the help Of the lid, and secured at once. It is necessary to be very particular to keep full boxes in one pocket, and empty ones in another. Collectors abroad generally put their captures into papers folded so as to resemble a triangular envelope, by doubling the lower end of an oblong piece of paper across one side, after which the end can be turned down to close it. Most of the insects received from tropical countries are sent home in this way ; but the legs and antennae are liable to be damaged. Whenever possible, it is better to set insects before they become stiff; but if they are stiff, or are received unset, they can easily be relaxed by putting them into a closed vessel INTRODUCTION. llii with a layer of damp sand at the bottom, for a few hours or days. They must, however, be watched, and set as soon as they are sufficiently limp. If not quite relaxed, the wings will be liable to break, or to slip out of position afterwards ; but if left too long in the relaxing jar, the insects will become rotten or mouldy. Setting-boards are made of wood, with a groove down the middle, lined with cork, and proportioned in depth to the height at which it is proposed to set the insect. The sides are also covered with cork, but this is unnecessary when insects are set with threads. According to the old English fashion of setting, the groove was very shallow, and the sides of the setting-board were sloping, so that the insect was close to the paper of the cabinet, and the wings sloped over, and nearly touched it, on each side. But many collectors now prefer the Continental method, in which the insect is raised half an inch or more from the surface of the drawer, and the wings are spread out quite flat on each side. In setting an insect, the pin is fixed in the centre of the groove, and the wings, antennce, and legs are placed in as natural a position as possible, with the aid of a needle, great care being taken not to pierce or tear the wings, or to break the antennre. They are then secured in their places by " braces," or long tapering strips of paper or cardboard, with pins thrust through the broader end ; or a thread may be wound over the wings, from end to end of the setting-board. This, however, requires both neatness and practice to do it well, or it is liable to rub off the scales in lines. Insects are generally kept in store-boxes or cabinets. Store boxes may be of any convenient size, and are made like back- gammon boards, and corked within on both sides. Cabinets are made to contain any required number of drawers, arranged in a single or double tier, and it is of great inportance that all liv LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. the drawers, at least in the same cabinet, should be "made interchangeable. The drawers are made with a side partition to contain camphor, and are provided with tight-fitting glass lids, to exclude air and dust. The drawers are lined with cork, and are covered with white or neutral tinted paper. The specimens are then arranged in the cabinet in rows, separated by pencil lines, black threads, or narrow slips of coloured paper. The name of the genus is placed above them, and that of the species, written or printed smaller, below. At least four specimens of each species are required, to show the upper and under surfaces of both sexes ; but it is better to have more, as a row gives a much better idea of a species than a single specimen of each sex, and as many varieties should be added as can be obtained. Light bleaches insects ; and if no camphor is kept with them, they are liable to be destroyed by mites, &c. ; if, how- ever, mites should get into the collection, which is generally first shown by a little heap of dust under an infected specimen, benzole should be applied freely to the specimens attacked. It will not injure them, and will soon evaporate. Sometimes an oily substance exudes from the bodies of Moths, especially of those the larvae of which feed within the trunks of trees, such as the dLgcriida and Zeuzeridce. In this case, too, benzole should be poured over the specimen, or it may even be soaked in the liquid. In order to diminish the risk of grease, some collectors open the bodies of large Moths while still soft, and remove the contents of the abdomen, stuffing it afterwards with cotton-wool. Twenty years ago the formation of a collection of foreign Butterflies and Moths was a matter of great difficulty and ex- pense. Of late years, however, they have been brought over in such quantities that the market has been completly glutted with them ; and though fine and rare Butterflies from little- INTRODUCTION. lv visited localities will always fetch good prices (one of the rarer species of Ornithopterawa sold for ^15 at an auction a short time since), yet many Butterflies can now be bought for fewer shillings than they would have fetched pounds a few years ago. Consequently, a collector in London could easily bring together a very fair collection, if he set about it judiciously, at a comparatively small cost, even if he made it a rule not to pay a higher price than, say, a shilling a specimen. Undoubtedly the cheapest way of buying Butterflies is to buy miscellaneous lots at an auction, especially lots in papers. They are easily relaxed afterwards, and though some of the specimens will be bad, there will probably be enough good ones among them to be worth the money paid for them, at any rate by a beginner. But specimens without antennae, or with the wings torn, should be avoided as far as possible, both on the ground of appear- ance and of value. If, however, they are needed for anatomical or microscopic purposes, such as the study of the legs or scales, it is different. And it is well to denude a specimen of each species which can be spared, of scales on one side of the wings, to illustrate the neuration, preserving the other half intact, in order to ensure the absolutely current indentification of the species. Insects which are most eagerly sought after, and which are most difficult to obtain, at least at a reasonable price, are rare British (or so-called British) specimens, especially the extinct fen insects, varieties of indigenous species, and insects from Central Asia, the less visited islands of the Pacific (especially the fine Ornithopterce^ many of which are confined to a single small island), and the finer and rarer Butterflies of the west of Tropical America, such as various species of MorJliO) Agrias, &c., from Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. There are some countries and islands rarely visited by collectors, because they do not produce enough species to make it worth Ivi LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. while, as the insects found there are not handsome enough to command a correspondingly high price. Yet they furnish many interesting species, which are ordinarily difficult to obtain. Such countries are Chili, the Canaries, Madeira, and New Zealand. But in the case of some of these localities, as also in others, the help of friends abroad may sometimes be use- ful. ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES. Butterflies are distributed over the surface of the earth in very unequal proportions, and are most numerous where the vegetation is most varied. As a general rule, in Europe and Asia they are most numerous along the great ranges of moun- tains in the warmer countries, thinning rapidly both north and south, and towards the west. The regions of Geographical Distribution in use by most recent Zoologists are those proposed by Dr. P. L. Sclater in his paper on the Geographical Distribution of the Class Aves.* I subsequently published a paper on the Geographical Dis- tribution of Diurnal Lepidoptera,f following the same system ; and it was also adopted by Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace in his important work on the Zoological Distribution of Animals, though he suggested a division of each of the large regions into four sub-regions. The provinces adopted by Dr. Sclater are, roughly, as follows : /. Paltzarctic Region. Includes Europe, the Mediterranean Region, North Africa to the Sahara, and Asia, except India south of the Himalayas, South China, and islands south of Japan. * Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Zoology, vol. ii., pp. 130- 145. •*• Ibid., vol. xi. pp. 431-439. INTRODUCTION. Ivii II. Ethiopian Region. Africa, south of the Sahara, and the adjacent islands. ///. Indian, or Indo-Malayan Region. India, south of the Himalayas, South China, the Malay Penin- sula, and the Philippines, Formosa, Ceylon, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, &c. JV. Australian, or Austro- Malay an Region. Celebes (?), the Moluccas, Papua and the Papuan Islands, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. V. Nearctic Region. Greenland and North America to centre of Mexico. VI. Neotropical Region. Southern Mexico, Central and South America, West Indies, &c. I. PAL^EARCTIC REGION AND V. NEARCTIC REGION. The Nearctic Region is only artificially separated from the Pal?earctic Region and presents no feature of importance beyond the presence of a few stragglers from the Neotropical Fauna, and it should be united to the Pakearctic Region. Our British genera of Butterflies, with the exception of Limenitis, Apatnra, Picris, Papilio, and some genera of Hes- periidce extend little, if at all, beyond the limits of this united region. Among other characteristic genera which are not British, but are likewise almost exclusively confined within its limits, are (Eneis and Parnassius (alpine or circumpolar), Triphysa (Central Europe and Asia), Thestor, Laosopis, Zegn's, Hypermnestra, Doritis, and Thais (South Europe or Western Asia), Mesapia (Himalayas), and Sericinus (North China). In Europe the Alpine ranges from the Balkans to the Pyrenees are richest in species, about 200 of the 300 European IVlll LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. Butterflies being found in their neighbourhood. But north and south the species thin out very rapidly, especially to the north-west. The mountains of Great Britain, South Spain, and South Italy produce hardly any truly alpine species; and many of our familiar Central European species become moun- tain insects in the Sierra Nevada. Scandinavia is almost as rich in species of Butterflies as Southern Spain ; and both countries produce nearly twice as many species as Great Britain, which has not only the disadvantage of being a north- western country, but is also an island. Great Britain produces less than seventy species of Butterflies, and there are many localities, even in North France and Germany, which would produce nearly as many species within the radius of a few miles. On the south coast of the Mediterranean the number of species is still further reduced, for many species do not cross the sea. The extreme North is not without Butterflies, many species being met with in Labrador, Lapland, &c. ; and even in Greenland species of CEneis, Brenlhis, Polyonunatus, and Colias have been met with almost as far north as our explorers have yet penetrated. But so far as is known, no in- digenous Butterfly is found in Iceland. In Europe and the Mediterranean District three sub-regions can be identified : the Central European, the Alpine and Arctic, and the Central Steppe- Faunae. The last extends from the Himalayas through Western and Central Asia, and alone; the southern coast of the Mediterranean to the Canaries; and here it may be mentioned that islands, though often very poor in species, are generally very rich in peculiar species or well- marked local varieties. This is well exemplified by Corsica, Sardinia, Madeira, the Canaries, and New Zealand, and to a lesser extent, even by the British Islands. Very few species of typical Indian or African genera, such as DanauSi Neptis^ and Charaxes extend into Europe, but in INTRODUCTION. tix Eastern Asia a great many characteristic Indian forms extend as far as Japan, and, to a lesser extent, to the Amoor Region. The mountainous regions of Central Asia are remarkable for the number and beauty of the species of Parnassius and Colias which they produce. Ercbia is equally well represented in Europe and Asia. A few Palsearctic forms invade the adjacent provinces ; thus Colias electro.^ the African representative of our common C. hyale, Linn.(= C. edusa, Fabr.), is met with through- out Eastern Africa to as far as the Cape ; and the Butterflies of the South American countries between the Andes and the sea have a strong resemblance to European species, even as far south as Chili and Patagonia. North America is remarkable for the number and variety of the species of Argynnis which it pro- duces ; and the finest species of the circumpolar genus (Ends, which otherwise is rather more of an Arctic than an Alpine genus, are found in California and the Rocky Mountains. The genera Colias and Polygonia are also specially well repre- sented in North America. The greatest variety of species in the United States are found in the Western and Southern States. II. ETHIOPIAN REGION. There are two well-marked divisions in Continental Africa, south of the Sahara : the West Coast Fauna and the East Coast Fauna. The West Coast fauna is by far the richest, and extends eastwards, to the head-waters of the Nile, collec- tions from the Bahr-el-Ghazal showing but little difference from collections made at Sierra Leone, or the Cameroons. On the other hand, there is much general sameness between Butter- flies from Abyssinia, the Lake Region, Zanzibar, and Natal ; while many species occurring near the east coast are closely allied to, though generally distinct from, those of Madagascar. There is considerable resemblance, too, between the Butter- flies of Airica and India ; but the number of genera peculiar, Ix LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. or almost peculiar, to Africa is very large. Among these, we may mention Amauris, Acraa (a very few representatives of which occur from India to Australia), Lachnoptcra, Salamis, Pseudacrcea, Crenis^ Euxanthe, Euryphene, Euphczdra, Cymo- thoe, CharaxeS) Palla, a cluster of genera of Lyccznidce allied to Pentila, Liptena^ Epitola, &c., Drurya, Leucochitonea, Caprona, &c. Many fine groups of Charaxes and Papilio, and the bulk of the Orange-tips of the genus Teracolus, are also African. In East Africa and Madagascar we meet with the most beautiful of all Moths, the genus Chrysiridia. III. INDIAN REGION. This region also, though possessing some African, Palaearctic, and especially Australian affinities, is very rich in peculiar or characteristic forms. Among these are Thaumantias, and other genera of Old World Morphine, Cethosia, Kallima, Limenitis, A thy ma, Neptis, EuthaHa, Ilerda, Deudorix, Liphyra, Prioneris^ Dercas, Leptocircus, &c. Some of these genera, as well as the Danaince and Elymniincz generally, are almost equally well represented in the Australian Region. In Ornithoptera, the yellow species, including O. magellanus, the most wonderful of all, which is confined to the Philippines, are found within the Indian Region, but the only green species belonging to it is O. brookeana, which is found in Malacca, Borneo, and Sumatra, and is the typical representative of an aberrant group. But, as in Europe, the mountainous regions of India are far richer in species than the plains. IV. AUSTRALIAN REGION. This region presents us with a large number of small genera of restricted range, and with many remarkable forms oiPapilio and other genera found also in the Indian region. We may mention as characteristic forms : Ideopsis, Tellervo, Xenica (Australia), Tenaris^ Hypolimnas (also represented in other INTRODUCTION. L\i regions), Apaturina (Amboina), Mynes, Prothoe, Hypochrysops, Ogyris, Trapezites (Australia), and Hesperilla (Australia). The great Priamus group of Ornithoptera, with its green, blue, and golden-yellow species, is entirely confined to this region, which, nevertheless, is rather poor in Butterflies, especially South Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, though these countries are very rich in remarkable genera of Moths. V. NEARCTIC REGION. See Palccarctic Region (suprd). VI. NEOTROPICAL REGION. It is no exaggeration to say that more than half the known Butterflies come from the Neotropical Region. The whole of Mexico should probably be included in this region, but hardly Cuba, which has very strong affinities with Florida. Many of the species of the remaining larger West Indian islands, except those generally met with throughout Tropical America, have a peculiar character of their own, ex- cept Trinidad, which is zoologically part of Venezuela. Whole sub-families or even families of Butterflies are almost peculiar to Tropical America, such as the Ithotniince, Brassolincz^ Heli- coniina, Lcmoniidce (except the Libytheincz and a very few Nemeobiina?h and a very large proportion of the Ifesperiidce, &c. Among a few of the more characteristic genera not in- cluded in the groups already mentioned we may notice, Lymanopoda, Pronophila^ Corades^ Morpho, Cethosia, Dione, Clothilda, Gybdelis, Catonephele^ Dynamine, Catagramma> Ageronia, Prepona, Megalura^ Adelpha, Agrias, Anaa, Pereute, Archonias^ Hesperocharis^ Dismorphia, Perrhybtis, Daptoneura^ Euryades, and whole sections of Apatura, Papilw, and other wide-ranging genera. The Equatorial Regions, and especially Tropical America, 1X11 LLOYD S NATURAL HISTORY. furnish an exception to the rule that mountainous regions are the richest in Butterflies. The marvellous exuberance and variety of the vegetation is such as to counterbalance the influence of mountains in stimulating variety ; and the great river-valleys of South America are probably richer in species of Butterflies than any other part of the globe. But in the south, towards Buenos Aires and Chili, the number of species diminishes very rapidly, till it falls below the average Euro- pean standard; and as we approach the extreme south of the Continent it is probable that the number of Butterflies dwindles even below the productiveness of Greenland. It is a mistake. to suppose that the Tropics are always rich in Butterflies, or that all tropical Butterflies are beautiful. In proportion to the productiveness of a country in a state of nature, is often its unproductiveness when cleared and cul- tivated. Not only are thousands of tropical Butterflies as small and dull-coloured as the most inconspicuous of our own, but the Indian representatives of European or Japanese species are often much inferior to the latter in both size and beauty. ON THE HABITS OF EAST INDIAN INSECTS, ESPECIALLY LEPIDOPTERA. The following interesting paper, by the well-known Dutch collector, M. C. Piepers, was published in the " Proceedings of the Dutch Entomological Society," vol. 19. It is of so much interest that, by the kind permission of Mr. T. P. New man, I am glad to place it on record in a more permanent form, by reprinting here my English translation, which appeared in the "Entomologist" for November, 1875. — • The footnotes are my own. — (W. F. K.) " When I collected our indigenous Butterflies in the neigh- bourhood of Arnhem many years ago, I observed that several INTRODUCTION. Ixiii of the largest and finest species frequented the neighbour- hood of clear running water. I considered the brooks on the estate of Mariendaal a good hunting ground, for I had already found so many fine specimens there that I always directed my steps thither again, sure that sooner or later I should again make some good capture. " When, ten years later, I again took to the Butterfly-net in the East Indian islands, the same*thing happened to me there also, only, as one who is accustomed to tropical climates would expect to find, on a much larger scale than in tem- perate regions. In these islands, where the clear mountain streams rush foaming over masses of rock, especially where the rivers flow swiftest and purest, down waterfalls, or near water broken by irregularities of the bed, the haunts of the great Butterflies are to be found, and there can one feel sure, when there is no want of sunshine, of seeing oneself sur- rounded by many forms of these children of the sun, whose number and beautiful colours would amaze the Northern collector. I say amaze, but his eye and mind would alike be ravished with the possession of the beauties of Nature, for nowhere does tropical nature show itself more dazzling than here, where in the twilight formed by the over-arching of the incredibly luxuriant tropical vegetation, due to the heat and damp, the mountain stream, in the fierce glare of the sun, rushes swiftly down like a broad shining silver streak, breaking through the darker hues of the bank, foaming and dashing spray over every rock in its path, which is covered at every turn with drops of water illumined by the sun into glittering jewels ; while above and between, in perfect harmony with that life, splendour, and beauty of colour, the richly orna- mented flying flowers, which we call Butterflies, flit to and fro. " Why do we find Butterflies prefer such places ? It is, per- haps, because they are, if I may so express it, of a thirsty Ixiv LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. nature, and this although they prefer the very hottest sunshine, and even seem to find it so necessary that, if the sun is only clouded over for a minute, they settle as soon as possible ; and if the sun should not shine — in the case of some individuals even if it should not shine very strongly — they never leave their hiding-place the whole day. I have seen some striking examples of this, one of which has, I think, never been recorded, and seems at first sight altogether to conflict with the idea that one is accustomed to form of the habits of Butterflies. Even in the Netherlands we may occasionally see Butterflies alight on damp sand, on which the sun is shining, to suck up moisture from the ground ; but if, in the East Indian Islands, we walk along the sandy or gravelly bank of a mountain stream, or along the bed of a nearly dry stream, composed of similar materials, dur- ing the hottest part of the day, we shall disturb Butterflies at almost every step, especially Papilionida and Pierida, which sit there on the damp ground to refresh themselves with visible pleasure, but with wings closed so that they are scarcely dis- cernible ; and you suddenly see swarms of such Butterflies flut- tering up into the air from before your feet. I was once travelling in South-west Celebes, when my companion suddenly exclaimed as we were crossing a nearly dry brook, * Oh, look, what a oeautiful flower !' And on looking where he pointed, I saw m the bed of the stream amongst the damp gravel, a beautiful orange-coloured flower with a white centre, about ten centi- metres in diameter. The strangeness of the occurrence led me to step nearer in order to observe it more closely, when what did I see ? The flower consisted of two concentric rings of Butterflies (Callidryas scyllat Linn.) which had closed their wings, which are yellow and orange beneath, and were busily sucking up the moisture from the damp sand, and thus repre- sented in the most closely deceptive manner the petals of a flower. They surrounded five of another white species of INTRODUCTION. IxV Pieris similarly occupied, which thus seemed to form the white centre of the flower. I still remember the amazement of my travelling companion when, on my nearer approach, the whole flower dissolved into a swarm of Butterflies. " I afterwards saw another beautiful flower of the same kind, in which the petals were composed of a number of the red Pieris zarinda, Boisd., along with some yellow and white Pieridce, in another part of South-west Celebes, in one of the above-mentioned places where Butterflies, especially Papilio- nidcE and Pieridce, love to resort, just above the beautiful waterfall of Maros, which Wallace has described ; and I saw there at the same time something which I never saw before or afterwards, and had never heard or read of before, for there I saw a Butterfly bathing. " While I stood on the bank of the river, which forms at this spot an apparently still 'and very clear pool before enter- ing the cleft in the rock from which it reappears as a foaming and thundering waterfall, a specimen of Papilio hclenus, Linn., came flying over the water. Flying low, as is the habit of this species, it came within a short distance of me, when I saw it suddenly half close its wings, and dive down close beside me, so that the whole body and about a third of the wings, which slanted upwards, were immersed ; it then raised itself again out of the water, and flew away. We cannot require stronger proof of the necessity of moisture to an insect which seems so little fitted for contact with water. " Just as some plants in the East Indies choose the dryest localities parched up by the burning sun, so do some Butter- flies select similar spots, such, for instance, as Junonia orithya, Linn., and without needing rest, enjoy settling on the scorch- ing hot sand. And like other plants which choose very damp and deeply-shaded localities in the forest, where no ray of sun- light can penetrate, some Satyrina and other Butterflies, 4 E Ixvi LLOYD'S NATURAI HISTORY. usually of dark colour, love to haunt these dark and dripping nooks. Again, as the most beautiful and vigorous tropical vegetation is developed where the fiery heat of the sun is com- bined with great dampness, so do the largest and most brilliant Butterflies delight to frequent such places, where they rejoice in the sunshine, and also find the dampness which they so much need. It is worth mentioning that among these last Butterflies this is not due, as in other insects, to the peculiarity of their habits and surroundings, but the explanation is to be found either in the food of the perfect insect, or in its care foi its offspring ; so that it seems as if the nature of the larvae which live on plants growing in warm and damp places, and in which the peculiarity of the nourishment does not seem to be without influence, also remains with the perfect insect, although it is no longer useful to it. " At the same waterfall of Maros I witnessed another pro- ceeding among Butterflies, which I think worth mentioning. It is known that male Butterflies, like most other animals, fight with each other from jealousy ; but in other respects these in- sects are to be considered, as far as I know, very peaceable, and by no means quarrelsome creatures. I was, therefore, much astonished to observe the following incident : Around and over the blossoms of a flowering shrub flew several Butter- flies, Precis iphita, Linn., and some Pieridce, when a Butter- fly of gigantic size in comparison with them (Ornithoptera remus> Cramer) came flying apparently with the object of sharing their repast. Whether the others were undesirous of the company of a guest among them whose appetite would be enormous, or not, it is certain that I saw them attack the O. remus, drive it away, and pursue it for a short distance, till it was evident that it had really taken to flight, when they returned to their flowers. I have often seen Swallows and Other small birds drive away and pursue birds of prey which showed themselves INTRODUCTION. Ixvii in the neighbourhood of their nests, in a precisely similar manner : they fly above the great enemy and suddenly drop down upon him, or peck him till he tires of the rapid and re- peated attacks (against which his size and consequent lesser rapidity of flight hinder him from defending himself), and is force.d to seek safety in flight, when his little enemies do not neglect to pursue him for a short distance. This reminds me that I have also read of similar attacks of Humming-birds upon American Sphinges, arising from jealousy about their food ; but in the present instance, the assailants and victors were not birds provided with sharp-pointed beaks, but were apparently defenceless Butterflies.* " Is it then, perhaps, throughout the insect world, " everyone for himself" ; and are so many of the lovely winged beautifully clothed creatures, apparently so mild and defenceless, really vicious ? It cannot be denied that this very rational behaviour leads us to think that Butterflies have more understanding than is generally supposed. I think the following incident will show that they are not deficient in memory. One even- ing I saw, in the open verandah of the Harmonic Society, at Manghasar, a specimen of a Butterfly which is very common there, Precis iphita, Linn. Notwithstanding the very strong illumination, this little creature remained sitting quietly in the snme place on the ceiling during the whole evening. When I came to the Society next day I did not see it, but in the even- ing it was again sitting quietly in the same place. And as civilisation has not advanced so far in Manghasar that it is there considered necessary mercilessly to destroy or drive away every harmless creature which ventures into or near a human dwelling, I had the pleasure of admiring the memory of this P. iphita for six days. It was not to be found in the * Some of the small European Lyc&nida will drive away larger Butter- flies, which approach their favourite resting-places, in a similar manner. E 2 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. daytime, and was then probably absent on business ; but every evening for six consecutive evenings, I found it return faithfully to the same sleeping-place. Then some accident probably befel it, for I never saw any trace of it again. " I do not know whether all Butterflies return to the same sleeping-place so regularly, but I have the following observa- tions to record on the sleeping-places of the Lycanida and of the Micro-Lepidoptera. When you go into an Indian forest at daybreak, while the grass and low-growing plants are still quite wet with the night's dew, you see Micro-Lepidoptera sitting everywhere on the tops of the plants. As soon as the rays of the sun begin to make themselves felt, which quickly happens, and dry up the plants, the little animals creep slowly down the stalks and hide themselves in the moss and among the roots of the plants to pass their day's sleep in stillness and darkness. An hour after sunrise there is not a trace of them to be seen. The Lycanidce, however, which are day-fliers, do just the oppo- site at this time. As soon as the sun begins to make itself well felt, they creep slowly up along the stalks of the low plants ; and when they have basked for a long time on the top in the warm sunlight, they fly away. The influence of the warmth of the sun on the flight of Butterflies may also be noticed from the circumstance that in the Netherlands very few Butterflies are seen on the wing before eight o'clock in the morning, even during the longest summer days ; and those which love great heat, such for instance as the Lyccenida, do not ap- pear in daylight till some time later; whereas in the East Indies the Butterfly world is already in full movement by a good hour after sunrise.* "When Linnaeus made his classification of animals, he estab- lished among Lepidoptera a class of twilight-fliers, or Crepuscu- * On dull days, or in the evening, I have often seen Polyommatus agon sitting asleep in numbers on grass and rushes. INTRODUCTION. Ixix laria. Independently of the fact that other and better princi- ples of classification have subsequently been employed, it was soon observed that the so-called twilight-flyers are really true Night-Moths, which fly during the whole night, and not at morning and evening twilight only. But in the East Indies we meet with true twilight-fliers, which do not belong to the genus Sphinx^ which Linnaeus considered such, but to the great group of Rhopalocera.* The sun has scarcely set, before we see everywhere, both in Java and Celebes, numbers of the common Melanitis leda. Linn., Amathusia phidippus^ Linn., and Casyupa thrax, Linn., and in Celebes, Debts europa, Fabricius; but I never saw these species wandering about at night in the moonlight, or entering lighted rooms like the true Night-Moths, which are very numerous, although like the latter, they sit still and repose all day, and if disturbed only fly a little way and settle again directly. I have also seen the commonest of these Butterflies, M. leda, flying in abundance in the evening twilight ; and I once observed the same with D. europa. Moreover, I suspect from the exactly similar be- haviour of different species of Mycalesis, and of Elymnias lais Cramer, in the daytime, that these should also be classed among the twilight-fliers in Java. " In every country with which I am acquainted, it is well known that many Lepidoptera are very injurious in the larva state, but the perfect insect is considered everywhere to be harmless. I must tell the truth about this, as I have already about their gentleness, and attack their reputation on this point also. In South-west Celebes, a small white Moth, an un- described species of Scirpophaga, is one of the pests of the country. These Moths fly into lighted rooms in the evening in incredible swarms, settle upon everything, including the in- * The South American Brassolina (a sub-family of Nymphalida} are also twilight -fliers. Ixx LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. mates, and where they touch the naked skin they leave an in- tolerable itching behind.* Besides, they dirty the white walls of the rooms everywhere by firmly attaching to them quanti- ties of eggs covered with yellow down.f " I now turn to caterpillars. I have often been surprised that in the East Indies, where there is so great a variety of Butter- flies, so few caterpillars should be met with. My observations lead me to think that this is to be ascribed to the circumstance that probably a large portion of the Indian larvae, as is the case with some in the Temperate Zones, avoid the light and heat of the day in the ground, and only visit the plants on which they feed at night ; besides, as is also the case with tropical as com- pared with temperate plants, very few seem to be gregarious, at least I never found a great number of larvae together, ex- cept those of Bombya waring^ Teysm., a number of whose larvae I once met with on a young Ficus benjaminia^ Linn.J " Among the larvae which I had an opportunity of observing I noticed the important fact, long known in Europe, that some species seem to desert the plants on which their species origi- nally fed, for imported plants, just as in the Netherlands the larvae of Acherontia atropos, Linn., now seem to live by pre- ference on the potato-plant, which was introduced from America, and cannot be excluded from it, so we find the very common larva of the equally common Butterfly, Papilio aga- memnont Linn., both in Batavia and South-west Celebes, * In the case of the European Processionary Caterpillars, which possess the worst urticating properties of any in this quarter of the globe, it is also said that the hairs of the Moths, which they produce, are irritating. It would be interesting to know if the larva of M. Pieper's Scirpo- phaga are also urticating. t This looks as if the Moth was not a Scirpophaga, but one of the smaller Liparida.y a family which includes many highly urticating species. J The caterpillars of several of the large Saturniidce live gregariously on trees in Asia and Africa ; and those of an African genus, Anaphet of somewhat oubtful position, and its allies are also gregarious. INTRODUCTION. Ixxi always feeding on the leaves of Anana muricata, Linn., a plant introduced from the West Indies. I also met with the larvae of Euplcea midamus, Linn., feeding both on an indi- genous plant and on the oleander, which was imported from Europe as an ornamental plant ; and at Manghasar the larvae of Cyllo leda. Linn., were not uncommon on the South Ameri- can pampas grass, which I grew in my garden for horse fodder. " Among East Indian larvae I also observed the peculiar varia- tions and resemblances, perhaps partly explicable by mimicry, but always remarkable, which occur among larvae themselves. Some, apparently without any rule, which produce allied Butterflies, are very similar, while at other times those of species which resemble each other very closely (such as the European Acror.ycta tridens^ Esp., and A. psi. Linn.), always exhibit great differences in their larvae ; and again other species which are very distantly related, are produced from larvae which resemble each other very closely. The larvae; of the closely- allied Papilla memnon and P. polytes. Linn., differ only in size and in their food plant. The little arrow-head shaped larvae of Bombya waringi, Teysm., which we have just mentioned, is exactly like a diminutive Sphinx larva, and the larvae of the widely-separated Amathusia phidippus. Linn., and Lasio- campa vishnou, Guerin, though of very similar form, differ only in colour and food. Among the larvae of L. vishnou 1 once saw something which never occurred to me at any other time ; on the whole length of the back some specimens (for this larva varies extremely in colour and markings) showed a beautiful mark which appeared like a stripe embroidered with white and yellow floss-silk, while there was an abundance of white and yellow hairs along both sides of the larva. Shortly before they changed into pupae, the white and yellow colour both of the stripes and of the long hair on the sides, changed to violet, without this being due to moulting. Ixxii LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. " The hairs of the larva of Miresa m'tens, Walker, figured by Herrich-Schaffer as Setora nitens^ presented a still stranger ap- pearance. When I met with this very beautiful larva it was completely covered with so-called spines. I counted eight large and twenty-four small ones. After a few days it moulted, without seeming to undergo any alteration in its external ap- pearance. A few days later it moulted again, and now I saw the spines changed into tufts of hairs, some of which resembled stiff bristles, and others were more like pencils of hair. Three days later the hairs of these bristles united again, so that they seemed to form stiff spines as before the moulting ; but three days later the hairs again divided, and the previous shape of bristles and pencils came back. After this the spiny shape did not return, but the same tufts of hair altered their shape daily, so that on one day they resembled bristles, and on another pencils ; and this continued until the larva became a pupa. " During my residence in the East Indies I busied myself chiefly with Lepidoptera, and I cannot, therefore, say much about insects of other Orders. But I cannot refrain from ob- serving, though it is nothing new, how much stronger and more conspicuous insect life appears in the tropics than in temperate climates. The annoying pertinacity of the flies, which always return, however often driven away, is known to every inhabitant of the East Indies ; and every housekeeper knows that no place of security is inaccessible to the innumer- able ants. My watch stopped one night, and when I took it to the watchmaker he took a small ant from among the wheels, which had availed itself of the narrow opening left for the spring to work in, to squeeze itself into the watch, and taste the fine oil with which the works were lubricated. Almost every evening hundreds of small insects of all Orders find their death in every lamp ; innumerable Coleoptera fly into lighted dwellings, whose nearest relations in the Temperate Zone also INTRODUCTION. Ixxiii possess wings, but very rarely use them, as well as a harmless but very troublesome Gryllotalpa, much dreaded by ladies, which much resembles Sphinx convolvuli in its reckless flight. Who has not been disturbed at supper-time in the East Indies by swarms of termites suddenly flying in and out, or still worse, by ill-smelling Orthoptera ? or the intolerable itching caused by the species of Lepidoptera mentioned above ? Who has not been compelled, by the ravages of termites in linen chest or library, to utter the socialistic wish that he had no private property ? And above all, among those who cannot always remain in the better arranged dwellings of large towns, who does not remember those never-to-be-forgotten Indian nights, in which poets and lovers might have revelled, but when wearied men who wanted sleep were plagued by blood-sucking mosquitoes, crawling ants, and other insects, as if by actual demon tormentors ? " Let me relate a single night's experience, which may serve as a small contribution to the still unknown life-history of an East-Indian insect. One night I was asleep at Batavia, think- ing myself well protected by my mosquito-curtain, when I was awakened by a noise. On waking up, I heard a buzzing as if my room was turned into a great beehive. My night-light was extinguished, probably by the insects which I heard in my room having flown into it, but a little light from a gas-lamp coming through the window showed me the outside of my white mosquito-curtain covered with insects which seemed to be some sort of wasps. Of course I had no wish to leave my place of protection, but I soon saw that my mosquito-curtain was not so well closed as I had thought, and that some of the dreaded animals had already discovered the opening left by my carelessness. The only safety now lay in a determined resolution. I suddenly tore open the curtain, and threw my pillows so that I could jump upon them and reach the door Ixxiv LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. of the room without the danger of stepping with my bare feet Dn the wasps, which probably covered the floor of the room, and so I got out of it. I then called to my servants to bring a lighted candle. As soon as they saw the animals they de- clared that they did not sting, and handled them without fear. Thus reassured I went back to my room, and saw that it was rilled with insects which appeared to have come up as full- grown winged ants from a hole between the stones of the floor. It is clearly the habit of these ants to live in the ground in their imperfect condition, and when perfect the winged specimens fly away. They thought little of the fitness of time and place when they ruthlessly disturbed my rest. It was nearly an hour and a half before they had all flown out to a light set outside the room to attract them. About a year afterwards the same thing happened in the same room. I sent the insect to the Netherlands, to tho Leyden Museum, and it has since been determined by Ritsema to be Dorylus hlugii^ Hagen." THE BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS-ORDER LEPI- DOPTERA. THESE are also known as the Scale-winged Insects, and may bt briefly diagnosed as follows : — Haustellate insects, imbibing their food through a haustellum or proboscis ; wings four, clothed with scales ; transformations complete ; pupa inactive, without detached cases for the sepa- rate organs (except occasionally for the proboscis). Plant feeders in all their stages. THE BUTTERFLIES-LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA. Flight diurnal, rarely, in certain tropical genera, crepuscular ; antennae long, more or less thickened at the extremity, and often knobbed, sometimes hooked beyond the knob ; front legs often imperfectly developed, especially in the males; wings without a connecting bristle, or frenulum; pupa rarely enclosed in a cocoon. Before proceeding to consider the various families and genera of Butterflies, we will briefly outline some of the more important of the various systems of classification which have been proposed, referring to the Introduction for all other necessary general information respecting Lepidoptera. Although many writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth 2 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. centuries, and even earlier, published important observations on Butterflies and Moths, the real foundation of our present classification was laid down by Linnaeus in 1758, in the tenth edition of his " Systema Naturae " (vol. i., p. 458). It is as follows : — LEPIDOPTERA, Alae IV. imbricatae squamis. Os. Linguae involuta spiral!. Corpus, pilosum. Papilio. Antennae apicem versus crassiores, saepius clavato-capi- tatae. Alae (sedentis) erectae, sursumque conniventes (volatu diurno). Papiliones dividuntur in VI. phalanges. a. Equites. Alis primoribus ab angulo postico ad apicem longioribus, quam ad basin, his saepe. Antennae filiformes. — Trojani. ad Pectus maculis sanguineis (saepius nigri). — Achivi. Pectore incruento, ocello ad angulum ani. — Alis absque fasciis. — Alis fasciatis. b. Heliconii. Alis angustis integerrimis striatis ; primoribus ob- longis ; posticis brevissimis. c. Danai. Alis integerrimis. Candidi. Alis albidis. Festivi. Alis variegatis. d. Nymphales. Alis denticulatis. Gemmati. Alis ocellatis. Ocellis in alis omnibus. — primoribus. — posticis. Phalerati. Alis caecis absque oceliis. THE BUTTERFLIES. 3 e, Plebeii parvi. Larva saepius contracta. Rurales. Alis maculis obscurioribus. Urbicolae. Alis saepius maculis pellucidis. / Barbari. Corollarii in loco adjecti, ad ordinem non relati. Many writers argue that our nomenclature should commence from the twelfth edition of Linnaeus' "Systema Naturae" (1767)* and not the tenth; but the Linnean system was fully es- tablished in the tenth edition, and was adopted by most authors of repute between 1758 and 1767. No alterations of much im- portance were made in the twelfth, nor can even Linnaeus' own species be satisfactorily identified without reference to works published by himself and others in the interim. Hence the tenth edition is now regarded by most entomologists as their starting- point. With respect to Butterflies, the only alterations of im- portance in the twelfth edition are the suppression of the section Papiliones Barbari^ the species which it contained being dis- tributed among the other sections ; and the substitution of the words " saepe denudatis " for " integerrimis striatis " in the definition of the Heliconii. Fabricius afterwards gave the name Parnassii to the section indicated by the words " saepe denudatis." The Linnean genus Papilio, applied by him in his earlier works to the whole of the Lepidoptera, and in 1758 and subse- quently to the whole of the Butterflies, was soon subdivided by later authors into smaller genera, and the systems in vogue in France and Germany differed somewhat. Thus we find Ochsenheimer in 1816 arranging the European genera of * This is the rule laid down by the British Association, but as excep- tions were admitted, it is not always considered absolutely binding. The year 1766 is the date of the first volume of the " Systema" ; but the part relating to insects is dated 1767. The eleventh edition (1760) is merely & re-print of the tenth. 4 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Butterflies as follows (" Schmetterlinge von Europa," Band ify:- Melitgea. Lycsena. Argynnis. Papilio. Euploea. Zerynthia. Vanessa. Doritis. Limenitis. Pontia. Charaxes. Colias. Apatura. Hecaerge, Hipparchia. Hesperia. It will be noted that, while Linnaeus in 1758 placed the Butterflies with imperfect front legs in the middle of his ar- rangement, Ochsenheimer and many other German authors put them at the commencement of their systems. This arrange- ment had actually been employed by Linnaeus himself in some of his earlier works. The arrangement of genera adopted by Latreille and Godart in 1819-1823 in the ninth volume of the "Encyclopedic Methodique," is as follows : — DlURNA. Fapilionides. Biblis. Papilio. Nymphalis. Parnassius Morpho. Thais. Brassolis. Colias. Eurybia. Pieris. Satyrus. Libythea. Erycina. Danais. Myrina. Idea. Polyommatus. Cethosia. Barbicornis. Heliconia. Hesperides. Acraea. Urania. Argynnis. Hesperia, Vanessa. THE BUTTERFLIES. 5 Many authors divide the Lcpidoptcra into three sections, Diurna, Crepuscularia, and Nocturna, according to the times of flight of the majority of the species which they include. The Diurna correspond to the Rhopalocera, or Butterflies. We may here remark that Urania is now regarded by all entomologists as belonging to the Moths. Boisduval's system ("Species General des Lepidopteres," tome i., 1836) is more extended, and is based primarily on the mode of attachment of the pupa. RHOPALOCERA. Suspensi. Danaides. SucdnctL Heliconides. Papilionides. Nymphalides. Pierides. Brassolides. Eumenides. Morphides. Lyccenides. Satyrides. Erycinides. Biblides. Peridromides. Libytheides. Involuti. Hesperides. The arrangement of families employed by Doubleday and VVestwood (1846-1852) in their "Genera of Diurnal Lepidop- tera " is a modification and amplification of Boisduval's scheme. Papilionidae. Brassolidae. Pieridae. Eurytelidse. Ageronidae. Satyridae. Danaidae, Libytheidae. Heliconidae. Erycinidae. Acraeidae. Lycaenidae. Nymphalidse. Hesperidas. Morphidae. LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. The Ageronida were raised to the rank of a distinct family through an error regarding their metamorphoses, and are now included in the Nymphalidce. The Eurytelidce (except the genus ElymniaS) which is either referred to the Satyrid or regarded as a distinct family or sub-family), and even the Morphidce, are also merged in the Nymphalidce by some authors, but all the other groups are still generally recognised, either as families or sub-families. Bates, in a series of papers published from 1862 to 1866, argued that the Butterflies with imperfect front legs should be placed first in the arrangement, as being furthest removed from the Moths ; and his views have been adopted by most recent English and American Lepidopterists, Except that I re- tained the Elymniina and Morphine, which Bates was inclined to unite with the Nymphalina, as separate sub-families, and that one or two names arc changed, the arrangement which I employed in my " Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidop- tera" (1871), is nearly the same as that of Bates : — I. Nymphalidae. II. Lemoniidae. Sub-fam. i. Danainae. Sub-fam. i. Libythaeinae. ,, 2. Satyrinae. „ 2. Nemeobiinos. „ 3. Elymniinae. ,, 3. Euselasiince. „ 4. Morphinae. „ 4. Lemoniinae. „ 5. Brassolinae. III. Lycaenidae. ,, 6. Acraeinae. IV. Papilionidae. 7. Heliconinae. Sub-fam. i. Pierinae. „ 8. Nymphalinae. „ 2. Papilioninae. V. Hesperidae. The following summary shows the gradual increase in our knowledge of the species of Butterflies : — Species. 1758. Linnaeus ... ... ... ... 192 1767- » 273 BtrfTERFLlES. t Species. 1775. Fabricius 4°6 1793- » - IJ47 1823. Latreille and Godart 1802 1852. Doubleday and Westwood 3451* 1871. Kirby 769S Since the appearance of my "Synonymic Catalogue of Diur- nal Lepidoptera " in 1871, enormous progress has been made in the study of Butterflies, which I think I may fairly claim to be in a great measure due to the publication of the above-men- tioned work. But authors differ much in their views as to varieties and species, and a considerable number of absolute synonyms doubtless remain to be eliminated. Hence I cannot attempt to estimate the actual number of species now known to entomologists. It should, however, be remembered that while in some genera the number of known species has been far more than doubled since 1871, in others the number has remained almost stationary. In 1884-1888 Dr. Staudinger published his "Exotische Tagfalter," an important work in small folio, with 100 coloured plates of Butterflies. His arrangement is that of Doubleday and Westwood, omitting the families Ageronidce, Eurytelida, and Libythceidcz. A companion volume, commenced by Dr. Schatz, and com- pleted, after his death, by Dr. Rober, appeared from 1885 to 1892, and included a most careful revision of all the genera of Butterflies, except the Hesperidce. This is illustrated by diagrams of the neuration of every genus, and generally of the legs, palpi, and antennae also. It is much to be wished that some enterprising publisher would venture to issue these valu- * This estimate is too high, including many species named but not de- scribed, and various duplicate entries of sexes, &c. * able works in English for the benefit of the numerous ento- mologists in England and other English-speaking countries, who may not read the German language. The system of families adopted by Schatz is as follows : — A. Six perfect legs in both sexes; pupae attached by the tail, and a cross-band. FAM. I. PAPILIONID^E. a. Front legs with a spine on. the tibiae ; claws simple ; inner margin of the hind-wings concave, not embracing the body ; sub-median nervure of the fore-wings with a short branch at the base of the wings. FAM. II. PIERIDJE. b. front tibiae with no spine \ claws bifid ; inner margin of the hind-wings not concave, but embracing the body when at rest ; sub-median nervure not branched, but often forked at the base. B. Four perfect legs in both sexes ; front legs aborted, the tarsi in the male with but one joint, in the female generally with five ; claws absent in both sexes ; pupa suspended by the tail. FAM. III. DANAIDJE. c. Larvae smooth, provided with long fleshy appendages ; submedian nervure of the fore-wings forked at the base ; front legs of female with the tarsi thickened ; wing-cells closed. FAM. IV. NEOTROPIDiE. d. Larvae covered with small elevations ; sub-median ner- vure of the fore-wings forked at the base ; front legs of female with long and slender tarsi ; wing-cells closed. THE BUTTERFLIES. 9 FAM. V. ACR^EID/E. f. Larvae furnished with branching spines ; sub-median ner- vure of fore-wings not forked ; median nervure not hooked at base; palpi thick, surrounded by separate hairs; wing-cells closed. FAM. VI. HELICON! ID Doubl., Gen. • Diurn. Lepid., p~ 86 (1847); Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1866, p. 268; Moore, op. «"/., 1883, p. 288 ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 80 (1886). Macroplcea, Butler, Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool., xiv., p. 292 (1878) ; Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 9 (1880). The type is EUPLCEA CORUS. Papilio corns, Fabricius, Ent. Syst., iii., pt. i, p. 41, no. 122 (1793)' Eupl&a elisa, Butler, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1866, p. 270, no. 4 ; Marsh. & De NiceVille, Butterflies Ind., i., p. 72, pi. 8, fig. 14 (1882). Macroplota elisa, Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 9, pi. 5, fig. 2 (1880). Euplcea cents, Moore, Lepid. Ind., i., p. 107, pi. 37, figs, i, la, ib. (1890; transf.). This is a large brown species from Ceylon, measuring over four inches across the wings, on which are several rows of sub-marginal white spots. The fore-wings in this genus are rather long, and the hind-margins are gradually curved on all G 24 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. the wings, so that Mr. Butler has named one of them E. semi- circulus. The species which were formerly included in Euplcea, but have lately been divided into several genera, are numerous in the Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions, but are very sparingly represented in Madagascar and the adjacent islands. They do not extend to America or Europe, nor apparently even to the mainland of Africa. Their wings are always rounded and entire, never angulated or dentated; sometimes long, but some- times so broad as to be almost round. They are generally of a brown colour, with more or less extensive white, blue, or tawny spots, and are often flushed with rich blue. The larvae much resemble those of Danaus, &c., and are similarly provided with fleshy filaments. An American writer gives an odd description of a black, white-spotted species from New Guinea (E.papuana, Reakirt). On the fore-wings there is " a submarginal row of seven chalk- white spots, .... there are three minute dots, near the margin, obliquely below the fourth, fifth, and sixth spots respect- fully /" The rows of white or bluish spots above alluded to are very frequent in this genus, and are sometimes arranged in rows parallel to the hind margin, and sometimes in an irregular circle about the middle of the wings, especially on the under surface. The species of Eupl&a are mimicked by various species of Papilio, Hypolimnas, Elymntas, &c., and by several Moths belonging to the family Chalcosiida. GENUS HIRDAPA. Hirdapa, Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1883, p. 299. Type, Euplcca usipetes^ Hewitson. The only species belonging to the old genus Euplcea for HIRDAPA. 25 which we could find room on our plates is the recently- described Hirdapa rezia, Kirby, which belongs to a genus differing much in shape from the more typical representatives of Euplcea. The genus Hirdapa is thus characterised by Mr. Moore. " Male with short, very broad, fore-wing ; costa much arched ; apex acute ; exterior margin long, slightly oblique, and curved; hind margin deeply convex towards the angle ; cell very broad ; upper discocellular slightly concave, lower outwardly oblique ; lower median and sub-median very wide apart, sub- median very recurved, with a very short broad sericeous brand. Hind- wings very broadly oval, exterior margin oblique ; cell broad, with a large pale ochreous glandular patch." HIRDAPA REZIA. (Plate VI., Fig. 2.) ( ? .) Hirdapa rezia, Kirby, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), vol. xiii., p. 166 (Feb., 1894). Exp., $ 2f, ? 3-^ inches. Male.— Upper side. — Anterior wings dark brown, shading into blackish towards the costa, and inclining to rufous-brown towards the base and margins ; from the base a large fawn- coloured blotch spreads over the wing from above the median nearly to the sub-median nervure and above and between the two lower median nervules for half their length, the greater part of this outer portion being filled up with whitish. Below the lowest median nervule, and just before its middle, is an oval bluish-grey spot. A row of six violet-blue sub-marginal spots between the nervure to above the lowest median nervule, the middle ones smallest, the two nearest the costa marked with white. Posterior wings dark brown, shading into rufous-brown G2 26 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. below the cell to the lower part of the hind and inner margins as far as the anal angle ; apex dusted with white ; a large buff costal patch spreading over the upper half of the cell, but not reaching its base or extremity. Underside- — Anterior wings brown; only the outer part of the fawn-coloured patch well marked ; it is smaller and paler than above, and ends as a whitish blotch above the lowest median nervule. Below the median nervure, and for half the length below the lowest median nervule, the wing is pale buff, the place of the white spot above being marked by a narrow black oval outline ; on the inner margin the wing is whiter on both sides of the sub -median nervure as far as the anal angle ; sub-marginal spots smaller and whiter than above, the fifth obsolete. Posterior wings uniform rufous-brown. Body dark brown, inclining to blackish in front, with a white spot behind each antenna ; four spots at the back of the head ; a white spot on each side of the thorax in front, and diverging crests of grey hair on the front of the thorax above; sides of the head and thorax and base of the wings spotted with white beneath. Female.— Upper side. — Anterior wings nearly as in the male, but the fawn-coloured patch much longer than in the latter, and not marked with white, except at the extremity, where the white suffusion forms a pear-shaped spot, covering the place of the sixth sub-marginal spot ; the sub-marginal spots are larger and whiter than in the male, and are continued by a seventh, followed below by a short streak, above the sub-median nervure ; the fawn-coloured patch nearly extends here to the seventh spot ; the white oval spot of the male is, of course, wanting. Posterior wings rufous-brown, darkest in the centre, dusted HIRDAPA. 27 with grey along the costa, especially towards the tip, but with no buff space over the upper part of the cell. Underside. — Anterior wings rufous-brown, the pale patch very large, fawn-coloured in and just below the cell, the rest mostly whitish as far as the inner margin, and along it nearly to the anal angle ; of the sub-marginal spots, the two nearest the costa are represented as white dots, the sixth is large and connected by a neck with the outer part of the pale blotch, and there are two small white dots close together between the lowest median nervule and the sub-median nervure. Head, body, and base of wings below spotted with white nearly as in the male, two white streaks at the back of the pectus being particularly conspicuous, much more so than in the male. Hab. — Dinner Island, New Guinea. (II. O. Forbes.) In the collection of the British Museum. Allied to Hirdapa usipetes^ Hewitson (Eupl&a usipetcs^ Ex. Butt, ii., EupL, pi. i., fig. 4), but may be distinguished at once by the sub-marginal spots. Hewitson's type of E. usipctes is from New Guinea, and appears to be the same species as a series from Aru in the British Museum. All these are males, and the insect which Hewitson describes as the female is evidently Sarobia grayi (Felder), Since the above was written, the British Museum has re- ceived specimens from various countries apparently interme- diate between H. usipetes and H. rezia. Kirsch has figured a species of Elymnias (E. thryallis\ from New Guinea, closely resembling Hirdapa ; but it can be dis- tinguished at once by its dentated wings, apart from any other characters. 23 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORV. GENUS TELLERVO. HamadryaS) nee. Hiibner, Boisduval, Voy. Astrolabe, Lep., p. 91 (1832); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 134 (1848); Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1883, p. 253 ; SchaLz, Exot. Schmctt., ii., p. 91 (1886). We have been obliged to rename Boisduval's genus Haina- dryas, because that name had already been used by Hiibner for our common Peacock-Butterfly (Pjpilio / Hiibner, Samml. Exot. Schmett., i., pi. i (1806). Ithomia dotoy Hiibn., I.e. text (1822 ?). A yellowish-hyaline species, with narrower wings than /. flora (Cramer). It has narrow black borders, and black nervures ; there is an orange-tawny stripe on the fore-wings below the narrow costal border, and another above the inner- marginal border ; and a sub-marginal orange-tawny band on the hind-wings, narrowly edged on both sides with black. It is a native of the Lower Amazons. Dr. Scudder rightly, as we think, regards this species as the type of the genus, being the only one described by Hiibner as an Ithomia in the fragmentary text to his " Sammlung." Other authors, however, select the following species, the first of four (of which /. doto is the third) included under Ithomia by Hiibner in his " Verzeichniss." ITHOMIA DRYMO. Ithomia drymo^ Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 9, no. 3 (1816). Papilio diaphana, Cramer (nee. Drury), Pap. Exot., iv., pi. 315 figs. D. E. (1780). A Brazilian species, much resembling I .flora (Cramer), but 3* LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. with no reddish tawny markings, and with a black mark to- wards the end of the cell on the hind-wings. We add figures of two other species of Ithomia. ITHOMIA DIAPHANA. (Plate VII. , Fig. i.) Papilio diaphanus, Dairy, 111. Exot. Ent, ii., pi. 7, fig. 3 (1773). This species, which inhabits Jamaica, belongs to an extremely transparent group with long narrow wings, which is sometimes regarded as generically distinct under the name of Hymenitis (Hiibner). The tuft of hair on the wings is very conspicuous in Drury's figure, from which ours is copied. ITHOMIA FLORA. (Plate VI L, Figs. 2,3) Papilio floret^ Cramer, Pap. Exot., iii., pi. 257, figs. B., C. This insect is probably a variety of I. astrea, Cramer (Pap. Ex., i., pi. 22, fig. D., 1775), but as it is often represented in col- lections by specimens differing from that figured by Cramer under the name of /. flora^ we have been careful to copy his figure exactly. Both /. astrea and I. flora are natives of Surinam. SUB-FAMILY III. Egg. — Resembling that of the Danaina. Larva. — Cylindrical, gregarious, with branching spines. Pupa. — Long, slender, the thorax angulated, the abdomen sometimes with spines or filaments. Imago. — Of moderate size, the antennae strongly clubbed ; /. 2.3. do. 4: 33 palpi long, divergent, rather thick, and scantily clothed with hair, except in Actinote. Wings rounded, rather long, never dentated or tailed ; wing-cells closed, sub-median nervure of the fore-wings not forked at the base ; median nervure simple ; abdomen long, sometimes with a horny appendage in the female. Range. — The Acraina are unknown in the Patearctic and Nearctic Regions, but are very abundant in Africa, south of the Sahara, and in Madagascar. Two species only are found in the Indian Region, but several inhabit Australia, New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands. One genus (Acti- note) is peculiar to Tropical America, and is rathe*: numerous in species. Habits. — The Acrczina are generally weak flyers, frequenting gardens and weedy places, and flying low ; but some of the woodland species have a higher and stronger flight. In Africa they replace our smaller Fritillaries, to which many of the species have a general resemblance. They are gregarious insects, and often very abundant NOTE. — The Acrceina are a protected group of Butterflies, though less so than the Danaince^ and are mimicked by various species of Nymphalina and Papilionina. It is even thought that the great West African Drurya antimachus (Drury), the largest of all African Butterflies, which often measures 8 or 9 inches across its long and narrow wings, has been modified in the direction of Acrcea, if it is not an actual mimic of some gigantic extinct, or at present undiscovered, Acrcea. Most of the Old World species are red or tawny, spotted with black ; a large number are more or less transparent, especially on the fore-wings; others are black, with white, yellow, or reddish transverse bands or spots ; the American 34 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. species are more varied in their markings, though rarely spotted, and are never transparent. The possession of a horny pouch in the females of many species is remarkable, for it is a character which attains its maximum of development in Parnassius, and other genera of Papilionincz. The common Australian Acrcca andromache (Fabricius) is mimicked by the female of Eurycus cressida (Fabricius), a species belonging to a genus allied to Parnassius^ and which, curiously enough, likewise possesses a pouch. The genus Acrcza was divided by Doubleday into six sec- tions, which later entomologists have treated as genera or sections according to their various views ; and one or two other genera have been proposed since. But the genus Alczna pro- posed by Boisduval for a small South African species, has lately been removed from the Acrczincz^ as it proves to belong to the Lyccznidcz* GENUS ACR^A. Acrcea, Fabr. in Illiger, Magazin fur Insektenkunde, vi., p. 284 (1807); Latr., Enc. Meth., ix., pp. 10, 227 (1819); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 140 (1848); Trimen, Rhop. Afr. Austr., p. 92 (1862); id., S. Afr. Butt., i., p. 131 (1887); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 101 (1887). Type, Acrcza horta (Linn.), from South and West Africa. ACR.EA HORTA. Papilio horta> Linn., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 234 (1764); Drury, 111. Ex. Ent., iii., pi. 28, figs, i, 2 (1782); Cram., Pap. Exot., iv., pi. 298, figs. F. G. (1780). Acrcza horta, Godart, Enc. Me'th., ix., p. 231 (1819); Trimen, Rhop. Afr. Austr., i., p. 92 (1862) ; id., S. Afr. Butterflies, i., p. 134 (1887); Staud. Exot. Schmett, i., p. 82, pi. 33 (1885). This is a brick-red insect, with the outer portion of the ACR.EA. 35 fore-wings transparent ; there is a black bar closing the cell on the fore- wings, and sometimes one or two small adjacent spots; the hind-wings are spotted with black at the base and in the cell, and have an irregular row of spots beyond and below the cell ; the hind-margin is black, with a row of red spots, hardly separated from the red part of the wing on the inner side. The female is more transparent, and the reddish colour is re- placed by ochreous. It expands from 2 to 2^ inches. The larva feeds on passion-flowers in gardens as well as on native African trees. It is a very common Butterfly in South Africa, and birds will not eat its spiny, strongly-smelling larvae. (THmen.) The typical section of Acr&a includes most of the species with more or less transparent wings, Doubleday called it Hyalites, in allusion to this feature ; and therefore Dr. Scudder is wrong in proposing to restrict the latter name to A. encedon (Linn.), an opaque species, which Doubleday considered to form a separate sub-section. If, however, any hyaline species in- cluded by Doubleday under Hyalites should be considered generically distinct from A. horta, then the name Hyalites must be revived for it; but not otherwise. Mr. Trimen unites the following sections under Acr&a : Hyalites, Doubl., Gnesia, Doubl., Telchinia, Hiibn., and Pareba, Doubl. In this he may be correct, except in respect to Pareba, which has much longer and narrower wing-cells than the other groups, with the disco-cellular nervules straight and oblique. The typical species viPareba \sP.vesta (Fabr.), a light ochreous insect, often intersected with light brown stripes. It is about 2^ inches across the wings, and is common in many parts of the Indian Region. Most of the species belonging to the other sections named are African. Tclchinia violcz (Fabr.), a common East Indian species of this Sub-family, is smaller than P. vesta, and is of a warm fulvous colour, with black borders, spotted on the 36 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. hind-wings with fulvous. There are several black spots on the fore-wings, of which the largest are near the costa. It is very similar to many African species of the genus or sub-genus Telchinia. As an illustration of typical Acrcza> we have figured a newly- described species from the Louisiade Archipelago, near New Guinea, ACR^EA OZNONE, (Plate XXXVII., Fig. 3.) Acrcea oenone, Kirby, Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist., ser. 6, vol. 4, p. 163 (1889). Expanse, about an inch and three-quarters. Male and Female. — Fore-wings semi-transparent grey, darker along the margins and especially at the tip, with a black spot at the base of the cell and transverse black spots in its middle and at its extremity. Beyond the cell is a row of three smaller more or less confluent spots, and there are two more between the branches of the median nervure near their origin; there are also two larger spots between the median and sub- median nervures, one near the base and the other above the middle of the inner margin, and a row of indistinct sagittate spots between the nervures on the hind-margin. Hind-wings black, with a sub-marginal series of eight oblong buff spots, divided by the nervures, those nearest the anal angle emargi- nate on the inside. The spot nearest the costa is linear and considerably produced inwards ; below its inner edge descends a row of three smaller spots, divided by the nervures, and within this is another large irregular spot ; in the black border is a row of obsolete tawny spots, more distinct as they approach the anal angle. Under side similar, but on the hind-wings the sub-marginal tawny spots are much more distinct, and there are several cream-coloured spots in the dark basal portion of the wings, which are only indistinctly indicated on the upper surface. GNESIA. 37 Body black ; the palpi, two round spots on the pro-thorax above, a double row of spots on the sides of the abdomen, and transverse stripes beneath, buff. Pouch of the female reddish. Allied to the Australian A. andromache^ Fabr. ; but the latter species is larger, and the buff colour extends over the whole hind-wing except. at the extreme base and hind-margin, being divided in the middle by a single or Y-shaped row of confluent black spots. The typical specimens are in the British Museum. They were collected by Mr. Basil Thomson. GENUS GNESIA. Acraa, section iii., Gnesia, Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 141 (1848). In this genus or sub genus the palpi are less swollen and more scaly than in typical Acraa, and the fore-wings are longer and narrower, rarely transparent, and the cell of the hind-wings is much shorter. The species are generally rather large, brown and red, insects, with black spots and borders ; but Dr. Scudder has selected G. circeis (Drury) from Sierra Leone as the type. It has more resemblance to typical Acrcea than the group of G. zetes, and the latter group will, perhaps, be ultimately separated from Gnesia. GNESIA CIRCEIS. Papilio circeis ; Drury, 111. Ex. Ent, iii., pi. 18, figs. 5, 6 (1782). A comparatively small species from Sierra Leone, measur- ing two inches in expanse. The fore-wings are rather long, and are transparent, with the borders and nervures rather broadly brown ; the hind-wings are brown, with black spots at the base, and a yellow band across the centre ; the body is spotted with white. 38 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. The larger species of Gnesia measure from three to four inches in expanse. G. zetes (Linn.) is dark brown, spotted with black, with a wide red band on the hind-wings, and some yellow spots on the fore-wings. G. egina (Cramer) is also dark brown, spotted with black, with a broad red band on the hind- wings, which is continued on the lower part of the fore-wings ; the females are grey or tawny, instead of red. They are natives of Africa, and are mimicked by Papilio ridleyanus. White, Pseudacraa trimeni> Butler, and P. boisduvalii (Doubled.). GNESIA MEDEA. (Plate VIL, Fig. 4.) Papilio medea, Cram., Pap. Exot., i., pi. 81, figs. C. D. (1775). Papilio medoa, Beauv., Ins. Afr. Am^r., p. 220, pi. vi., figs. 2, 2a, 2b (1805). Papilio pasiphae^ Fabr., Spec. Ins., ii., p. 33, no. 140 (1781). Acrcea pasiphde^ Godart, Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 235, no. 18 (1819). A grey insect, with black borders and spots, and white markings. It is a native of Guinea, and is not represented in the collection of the British Museum, but Dr. A. G. Butler regards it as a variety of the female of G. egina (Cram.), GENUS ACTINOTE. Actinote, Hiibn., Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 27 (1816) ; Godem. & Salv., Biol. Centr. Amer., Lep. Rhop., i., p. 140 (1881). Acrcza, section Actinote^ Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 142 (1848). This name is now generally employed for the American species of Acrceina. The palpi are only slightly inflated, but ACTINOTE. 39 densely clothed with hair and scales, and the front legs in the males are very small. The wing-cells are no narrower than in typical Acraa ; but those of the fore-wings are much shorter than in Planema^ and the disco-cellular nervules run much more irregularly. They are small Butterflies, generally ex- panding about i y2 or 2 inches ; and they do not reach the Nearctic Region. They vary very much in pattern from the African species of the Sub-family, but have generally either black fore-wings, banded and spotted with tawny or yellowish, and tawny or yellowish hind-wings, bordered with black ; or else they are black, with red or yellowish markings. The type is ACTINOTE THALIA. Papilio thalia, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.) i., p. 467, no. 63 (1758) ; id., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 230 (1764) ; Clerck Iconcs, pi. 43, fig. 2 (1764); Cramer, Pap. Exot, hi., pi 246, fig. A. (1781) ; Stoll. Suppl. Cram.., v., pi. i., figs. 6a, 6b(i787). Acraa thalia, Godart, Enc. Meth., ix., p. 240, no. 33 (1819). This insect, which measures rather more than two inches in expanse, is common throughout Tropical America. The fore- wings are rather long, brown in colour, with yellowish basal streaks and an oblique row of long spots, separated by the nervures, towards the apex. The hind-wings are rust-coloured, with brown veins, intermediate streaks, and borders. In the female the pale portions of the wings are grey or whitish. " Stoll represents the larva of Acrcza thalia as thickly covered with blackish spines fringed with brown hairs. It is brown, with a black dorsal stripe, and is said to feed on the shrubby cotton. The pupa is represented as stouter than that of H 4o LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Acraa viola, white, with some black lines, and a dorsal scries of five black spines." (Doubled ay) The following species represents another section of the genus : — ACTINOTE SODALIS. (Plate XXXVIL, Fig. 4.) Actinote sodalis, Butler, Ann. & Mag. N. H. (4), xx., p. 119 " Allied to A. amtda, but the basal half (almost to external angle) of primaries rose-red ; the sub-apical band shorter, more oblique, and considerably narrower ; secondaries jet-black to the base ; abdomen spotted with orange ; primaries below with the red area precisely as above, the band being coloured like the basal area, the ground-colour yellowish instead of reddish, and the veins black. Expanse of wings, 2*2 inches." (A. G. Butler) Hab. — River Ucayali. " A. sodalis is a very distinct species, allied to A. amida (Hew.), A. griseata (Butl.), A. callianira (Hiibn.), and one or two other named forms ; but it differs considerably from all of them. Mr. Davis obtained eight examples." (A. G. JB.) The types which are in the British Museum were collected by Mr. Walter Davis on the Peruvian Amazons. As mentioned by Dr. Butler, there are several other species which resemble this ; but the shape and extent of the red markings will be sufficient to distinguish the insect figured. SUB-FAMILY HELICONIIN^E. Egg.- -Cylindrical, higher than broad, a little flattened at top. HELICONIUS. 41 larva. — Clothed with branching spines ; feeding chiefly on Passiflora. Pupa. — Furnished with spines and bristles. Imago. — Of medium size, usually expanding three or four inches across the wings. Palpi clothed with fine hair, and hairy in front ; wings rounded, long, never dentated or tailed ; sub-median nervure of the fore-wing not forked at the base ; median nervure forked at base. Range. — A characteristic Neotropical group. One species, the black, yellow-striped, H. charithonia (Linn.), extends to the more southern parts of the United States. Habits. — The HeliconiincB are woodland insects, gregarious in all their stages. In the evening the Butterflies are said to dance in the air like midges, dropping out as they are tired, when their places are taken by others. GENUS HELICONIUS. Papilio HeUconius, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 466 (1758). Heliconius^ Latr., Hist. Nat. Crust, et Ins., xiv., p. 108 (1805); Godman and Salvin, Biol. Centrali- Americana, Lep. Rhop., i., p. 143 (1881); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 104 (1887). Heliconia, Latr., Enc. Meth., ix., pp. 10, 196 (1819); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 101 (1847). Latreille and Schatz respectively specify H. antiochus (Linn.) and H. eucrate (Hiibner) as the type of Heliconius, but both are inadmissible, as the former was not described by Linnaeus till 1767, and the latter is not a Linnean species at all. But several species congeneric with H. antiochtis were described by Linnseus in 1758, such as H. melpomene, H. erato, and H. ricini; and H. melpomene may perhaps be taken as the type. H 2 42 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. HELICONIUS MELPOMENE. Papilio melpomene^ Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), p. 467, no. 55 (1758); id., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 232 (1764); Cramer, Pap. Exot, ii., pi. 191, fig. C. (1777). Heliconia melpomene^ Godart, Encycl. Me"th., ix., p. 208, no. 15 Heliconius melpomene, Bates, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., xxiii., p. 557, no. 12 (1862); Godman and Salvin, Biol. Centrali- Amer., Lepid. Rhop., i., p. 154 (1881); Staud., Exot. Schmett., i., p. 78, pi. 32 (1885). A black Butterfly, with a broad red bar across the fore- wings. It is common in South and Central America as far north as Nicaragua ; and there are a number of closely-allied species. Heliconius is a rather large genus of handsome Butterflies, which may easily be known by the characters of the Sub-family given above, and by their comparatively large size, and long slender antennae. The species of Eueides^ Hiibn., the only other genus, are much smaller, and have shorter antennae, more distinctly clubbed. These Butterflies are always black or blue-black, with yellow, white, red, and tawny markings. Some are very simply coloured, as, for instance, H. melpomene (Linn.), and its allies, which are black, with a broad red band or blotch 0:1 the fore- wings. In other species there may be a white or yellow band, or even two or three on the fore-wings, perhaps with red or yellow markings at the base, at least underneath ; and the hind- wings may be banded with white, red, or yellow, or radiated with red, blue, or green. We have figured two species, H. erato (Linn.; pi. viii., fig. i), and H. vesta (Cram.; pi. viii., fig. 2), which exhibit these radiated markings. There is an in- 2. ^r v, syl NYMPHALIN.E. 43 sect which is considered to be a dimorphic form of H. erato^ as it usually occurs with it, and appears to be actually the same species, called H. <&nY(Linn.), in which the red markings are replaced by blue or green. Many of these species are very abundant, and have a very wide range throughout Tropical America. We have figured a third species of the genus, H. sylvanus, (Cram. ; pi. viii., fig. 3), which may serve to represent the black, tawny, and yellow species. They are more restricted in their range, J?. sylvanus being a native of Surinam. These tawny species are often so closely mimicked by Ithomiince of the genera Mechanitis, Fabr., and Mellncea^ Hiibn., as to be almost undistinguishable in a cursory examination. SUB-FAMILY V. NYMPHALIN^E. Egg. — Very variable in form. Larva. — Spiny, or with fleshy prominences; feeds on low plants, or shrubs. Pupa. — Generally more or less angular, rather long. Imago. — Generally of moderate size, rarely small ; antennae usually with a distinct club ; wings ample, sometimes angu- lated, or with a short tail ; the cells, at least of the hind-wings, open, or closed by a rudimentary nervure ; sub-median nervure of fore-wings generally forked at the base; inner margin of hind-wings more or less concave. The Nymphalina are a very large group of Butterflies, in- cluding, with the ApaturintZ) a quarter of the whole of the Nymphalidcz, and divided into about 150 genera. Some authors include the Morphines, with them, but these are now usually treated as a distinct Sub-family. The Nymphalina and Apaturincz may easily be distinguished from every other 44 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Sub-family, except the Morphin^ by the rudimentary front legs, and more or less completely open wing-cells. The smaller species flutter from flower to flower, but the larger species are strong on the wing, and have a robust and sus- tained, and, in some cases, a very lofty flight. They have a habit, however, of returning constantly to a favourite spot, or of settling on the ground in muddy places to drink, or else on trees to suck the exuding sap. They are also fond of settling on dung, carrion, or other strongly-smelling substances. The Nymphalina and Apaturince. may be divided into a number of fairly distinct groups, four of which are represented in Britain by the Fritillaries, the Vanessas, the White Admiral, and the Purple Emperor ; in short, by all our largest and most conspicuous species, except those of a white or yellow colour. It will be best to treat of the various groups of these extensive Sub-families separately, under the different representative gen- era which we have selected for illustration. Most recent authors do not recognise the two Sub-families ; but the larvae of Charaxes and Apatura differ so much from those of the earlier genera, that I have finally decided to treat them as a distinct Sub-family, as was done by Boisduval and others. It is only right to say that this course was strongly urged upon me by the late Mr. Jenner Weir, whose recent death is regretted by so many as the loss of a friend, as well as of a good naturalist. Though he was a wonderfully well-informed man, he wrote little himself, and usually left it to others to publish his observations. Schatz and Rober, in their great work on the genera of Butterflies, divide the Nymphalina (including with them the Apaturince) into twelve groups of somewhat unequal im- portance. They have also made several trenchant alterations in the position of many of the genera ; and their arrangement will, in the main, be followed here. It is as follows : — NYMPHALINjE. 45 GROUPS OF GENERA OF NYMPHALIN/E AS ARRANGED BY SCHATZ. A. Larva clothed with more or less developed spines. a. Front tarsi in the female with spines on joints 1-4. t Median spur present. I. Argynnis group : Colaenis, Dione, Cethosia, Cynthia, Argynnis. I Median spur absent. II. Melitaea group : Melitaea, Phyciodes, Coatlantora. III. Vanessa group : Hypanartia, Vanessa, Precis, Salamis, Kallima, Eurytela. IV. Diadema group : Hypolimnas, Victorina, Hestina, Euripus, Euxanthe. V. Ageronia group : Ageronia, Panacea, Ectima ; and sub-section : Biblis group, Didonis, Cystineura, Vila. b. Front tarsi in the female with spines on joints 2-4 only. \ Median spur absent. VI. Eunica group. a. Eunica group (restricted). Myscelia, Catonephele, Eunica, Temenis. b. Catagramma group : Perisama, Callicore, Catagramma, Callithea : and sub-section : Gynxcia group : Gynaecia, Smyrna, Callizona. VII. Neptis group : Neptis (and Dynamine ?). I 1 Median spur present. 4G VIII. Limenitis group : Limenitis, Adelpha, Athyma, Pseudacrsea, Parthenos, Euryphene, Romaleosoma [Euphoedra], and allies (with Megalura and Cyrestis ?). IX. Euthalia group : Euthalia, Symphoedra. B. Larva smooth, only the head provided with horns or short prickles ; tail forked. f Median spur absent. X. Apatura group : Apatura and allies, Thaleropis, Dichorragia, Apaturina. XI. Anaea group : Aneea, Hypna, Protogonius. Sub-section : Group of Pseudo-Nymphalinoe, Aganisthos, Coca, Megistanis. 1 1 Median spur prese7it. XII. Nymphalis group. Siderone, Prepona, Charaxes, Prothoe. This arrangement is, however, tentative and artificial, and will require considerable modification and improvement before it can be accepted as final. Thus, while the long-winged Colcenis and Metamorpha seem quite out of place in the " Argynnis " group, Argynnis and Melitcea, and Neptis and Limenitis^ appear to be too closely allied to be worth separating as distinct sections. What Schatz calls the " median spur " is a short spur-like branch from the base of the median nervure of the fore-wings, not a spine, nor a frenulum. GENUS METAMORPHA. Metamorpha^ Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 43 (i8i6)j Godman & Salvin, Biol. Centrali-Amer., Lepid. Rhop.,i., p. 166 (1881); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 113 (1887). ' METAMOKPHA. 47 The type is METAMORPHA DIDO. (Plate IX.) PapiJio dido, Johanssen, Amoen. Acad. vi., p. 408, no. 74 (1764), Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. xii.), i. (2), p. 782, no. 192 (1767) ; Clerck, Icones, pi. 30, fig 2 (1764) ; Cram. Pap. Exot, iii., pi. 196, figs. E. F. (1779). Cethosia dido, Godart, Enc. Me'th., ix., p. 246, no. 9 (1819). Mctamorpha dido, Godman & Salvin, Biol. Centrali-Amer., Lep. Rhop., i., p. 166 (1881). Cohcnis dido, Staud., Exot. Schmett, i., p. 86, pi. 34 (1885.) Metamorpha dido resembles a Heliconius in its very long fore-wings, which are slightly dentated ; the hind-wings are much more so. It expands about four inches, and is a very common Tropical American insect, frequenting cultivated ground. It is velvety-black above, with green markings. The fore-wings have a green band in the cell, beyond which is a broad green band interrupted about the middle of the wing, but continued by oblique bands below the lower end of the extremity of the cell ; and there are also several other green spots. The hind-wings are green at the base, and are marked with a row of rather large sub-marginal spots. The under surface is green and black, varied with reddish ochreous and silvery- white. The hrva has several rows of short spines, radiating from tubercles, and two very long caudal appendages. It is green, with a red and white stripe on each side, and feeds on Passiflorcz. The allied Tropical American genera Colcenis and Dione, Hiibner, likewise much resemble the Hcliconiina in their habits, long wings and larvae ; and Fritz Miiller proposed to include them in the same group, notwithstanding their open wing-cells. The species of Colcenis and Dione are mostly fulvous Butterflies, bordered and varied with brown or blackish ; but one or two are reddish. The species of Colanis are of nearly the same shape as 48 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Ji^/«;;w^/z^,whichmostentomologistshave,until lately, included in the same genus ; but those of Diom have shorter fore-wings, with the hind-margin more excavated, and sub-triangular hind- wings. In Colanis the under surface generally resembles the upper, but is paler; while in Dione the hind-wings beneath and the apical half of the fore-wings are still more richly spotted with bright silver than in our Queen of Spain Fritillary. Respecting the habits of Colcenis and Dione^ Bates writes that " they are seen only in open sunny places, such as waste grounds, gardens, and the borders of woods, where flowering bushes grow. They are never found in the great forest, but seem to be attendants on man, making their appearance wherever a clearing is commenced in the woods. They have not a very rapid flight, nor much of the floating mode of pro- gression when on the wing, but move about somewhat irregularly, and settle frequently, their attraction being always flowers, and never moisture, or filth on the ground, as is the case with the more typical genera of Nymphalidce." He also remarks on their close relationship with the HeliconiincR. GENUS CETHOSIA. Cethosia,) Fabr. in Illiger, Mag. Insekt, vi., p. 280 (1807) ; Latr. and Godart, Encycl. Me'th., ix., p. 242 (1819); Doubl, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 150 (1848) ; Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, L, p. 81 (1880); Distant, Rhop. Malay., p. 170 (1883) ; De NiceV., Butterflies Ind., ii., p. 31 (i886);Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 115 (1887). The types are Cethosia biblis (— P. penthesilea^ Fabr., nee. Cram.), from North India ; and C. cydippe (Linn.), from the Moluccas. The genus Cethosia is characteristic of the Indo- and Austro- Malayan Regions, to which it is exclusively confined, and where PLATE X CETHOSIA. 49 it seems to represent Argynnist two species only of which range beyond Northern India over the countries occupied by Cethosia. The Cethosice are very handsome Butterflies, measur- ing about three inches in expanse, with broad dentated wings, and generally with elegant festooned markings, at least on the under surface, giving them very much the same character of coloration as a Turkey carpet, patterns for which might easily be taken from these Butterflies. The upper surface is generally tawny or fulvous, often spotted with black ; the borders, and the apical portion of the fore-wings are more or less broadly black or brown, with a white band, or whitish markings. The tawny colouring is sometimes replaced by white or bluish-white, especially in the females, and one species, C. leschenaultii (Godart) from Timor, much resembles our Camberwell Beauty, being of a reddish-brown colour above, with a broad pale yellow border, divided by the nervures. The larvae are spiny, black, banded with red and yel- low, and with two protuberances on the head. Like the larvae of Metamorpha and its allies, they are stated to feed on PassiflorcR) and are even said to possess stinging properties, no doubt resident in the spines, though the larvse of Butterflies do not possess the terribly urticating arrangements (described, in some cases, as amounting to fascicles of actual stings) which render the caterpillars of some Moths so formidable. As a representative of this genus we have figured CETHOSIA MAHRATTA. (Plate X.) Cethosia mahratta^ Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1872, p. 556; De Nicev., Butterflies Ind., ii., p. 34, pi. 22, fig. 98 (1886). Papilio cyane, Cramer (nee. Drury), Pap. Exot., iv., pi. 295, figs. C, D. (1780) 5° This is a very handsome South Indian species, measuring nearly four inches across the wings. It has fulvous fore-wings, bordered behind with yellowish-tawny, which colour extends over the greater part of the hind-wings. The hind-margins are black, with the fringes white, and a festooned white line within. The apical portion of the fore-wings is black, and both wings are crossed by a row of large oval black spots, mostly with white borders ; besides which there is an oblique white band, cut by the nervures, running from the costa towards the middle of the border of the fore-wings. The fulvous portion of the latter is marked with two rows of spots, diverging hindwards, and continued more regularly on the hind-wings ; nearer the base are a few more black spots. On the under surface the black portion of the wing is reduced, the white markings are rather more extended, and the rows of black spots are more regular. Until recently this species was confounded with C. cyane (Drury), a commoner and more uniformly tawny Indian species. GENUS CYNTHIA. Cynthia^ Fabr., Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 281 (1807) ; Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 212 (1849); Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 52 (1880); Distant, Rhop. Malay., p. 183 (1883); De NiceY, Butterflies Ind., ii., p. 40 (1886); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 116 (1887). The type is CYNTHIA ARSINOE. Papilio arsinoe^ Cramer, Pap. Exot, ii., pi. 160, f. B. C. (1777). It is said by Cramer to be found in the islands of Amboina and Sumatra. This genus was formerly included with Vanessa^ on account of the shape of the wings, which have the hind-margins scalloped, those of the fore-wings slightly concave, and those /. Cynthia. J 2. \ n ^ .m^.v- /. ^ — J ^ CYNTHIA. 51 of the hind-wings angulated below, and with a strong project- ing tooth at the outer angle. Now, however, they are con- sidered to be nearly allied to Argynnis, but their shape, com- bined with the two large eyes on the hind-wings, will be amply sufficient to distinguish them from any other genus of this group. They are large insects, four or five inches in expanse, and are peculiar to India and the Indian and Austro-Malayan islands as far as New Guinea. The sexes are very dissimilar, the males being orange-tawny or fulvous, and the females brown, with blue and white markings. They still require careful study in order to determine the number and range of the species, and to assign the sexes correctly. As in many other Butterflies, the females are much larger than the males. CYNTHIA JULIANA. (Plate XIX., Fig. I.) Papilio Juliana, Cramer, Pap. Exot, iii., pi. 280, figs. A. B. (1780). This fine Butterfly is a native of the Island of Amboina, and measures nearly five inches across the wings. It is generally regarded as the female of C. arsinoe (Cramer), a fulvous Butter- fly, with two large eyes on the hind-wings ; but as this is un- certain, it is better to employ the name given by Cramer to the present insect, though there is little doubt that the true male will ultimately prove to much resemble C. arsinoe. In C. Juliana the wings are brown above, and the fore-wings are bordered with pale blue, followed by two black lines, one marginal, and the other sub-marginal. Within these are three irregular rows of white spots and crescents, generally bordered with black. In the cell are two blackish transverse streaks. The hind-wings are marked with a very broad sub-marginal bluish band, with an irregular border on the inner side, and are bordered on the outside with large black and bluish-white 52 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. lunules. On the band appear two very large black eyes with blue pupils in yellow and black rings. The under side is much paler than the upper, and the white spots of the fore- wings are united into an almost continuous band, as on the hind-wings. THE LARGE SILVER-MARKED FRITILLARIES. GENUS ARGYNNIS. Argynnis, Fabr., Illiger, Mag. Insekt, vi., p. 283(1807); Latr., Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 10 (1819); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 171 (1848); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 118 Various authors have selected A. aglaia and A. paphia as types of this genus, but the former seems to have the better claim. At present, however, these species are usually regarded as congeneric, so that the point is of no immediate conse- quence. This genus includes the larger silver-spotted and silver- streaked Fritillaries, and our British species may easily be dis- tinguished by their comparatively large size (they usually measure from two to three inches across the wings), their fulvous hue above, spotted with black, and the conspicuous silver streaks or spots of the under surface. The antennae have a short broad club, the fore-wings are more or less pointed, with the hind-margin slightly oblique, and sometimes a little pointed, while the hind-wings are rounded and dentated. The palpi are prominent, and much thickened, though the terminal joint is small and pointed ; two sub-costal nervules are thrown off before the end of the cell on the fore-wings, and there is a short median spur. The larvae are covered with branching spines, and generally feed on violets. The genus Argynnis is peculiar to the Northern Hemisphere, and is almost confined to the temperate regions. It is only ARGYNNIS. 53 found in Africa along the north coast, which really belongs to the European fauna ; and though several very handsome species are found in Northern India, the only species properly belong- ing to the Indian Peninsular fauna is A. niphe (Linn.), a some- what aberrant form, the female of which mimics Limnas. chrysippus. It is found in India, Ceylon, and Sumatra; and an allied species, in which, however, the female resembles the male, A. inconstans, Butler, is found in Australia. Several species exhibit a tendency to dark green instead of fulvous colouring, especially in the female, as in the dark variety of our own A. paphia (Linn.), and in both sexes of the South European A. maia (Cramer). Another remarkable species with a green female is A. sagana, Doubleday, a Butterfly found in China and Japan, in which the male is very similar to A. paphia^ but the female is dark green, with large white blotches and spots, giving it much the appearance of the genus Athyma^ which is allied to Limenitis. It is not surprising that when this female was first brought from Eastern Siberia it should have been described as belonging to a new genus and species, under the name of Dainora paulina^ Nordmann. Among the Himalayan species is the splendid A. childreni, Gray, a very large insect measuring four inches or more in expanse, and marked with broad silver interlacing bands on the under surface. Argynnis is one of the few genera which are as well repre- sented in the Nearctic as in the Palsearctic Region. Many very handsome species are common in most parts of the United States, such as A. idalia (Drury), which measures nearly four inches across the wings. The fore-wings are fulvous, spotted with black, and the hind-wings are brown above, with a trans- verse row of white spots, and a sub-marginal row, orange in the male, and white in the female ; beneath there are four rows of slightly silvery spots. But the greatest variety is found in the 54 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Silver-washed Fritillary {Argynnis paphia\ Upper side of the Female. Upper side of the variety of the Female called A. vaksina. Under side of the Female PLATE XT. L /C. Mryyrtnte paphicv. 3. 4. MeLiJbcea. ci ARGYNNIS. 55 South-western United States. One of the most remarkable species of the Southern States is A. diana (Cramer), the male of which is black, with a very broad orange border, while the female, which measures five inches in expanse, is dark green, with several rows of white spots towards the margins of the fore-wings, and with broad blue bands towards the margins of the hind-wings. THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY. ARGYNNIS PAPHIA. (Plate XL, Figs. I, 2 ; Male.} Papilio paphia, Linn., Syst, Nat. (ed.jx.), i., p. 481, no. 138 (1758) ; id., Faun. Suec. (ed. ii.), p. 281, no. 1064 (1761) ; Esper, Schmett., i. (i), p. 223, pi. 17, figs, i, 2; i. (2), p. 58, pi. 60, fig. 4(i777)- Argynnis paphia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 40 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 21, pi. 9, figs. 6a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 214, pi. 3, fig. i (1883); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 58, pi. 10, fig. i (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 156, pi. 22 (1892). Var. a. Argynnis vaksina. Papilio valcsina, Esper, I.e., i. (2), p. 73, pi. 107, figs, i, 2 (1790?). Argynnis paphia, var. valezina, Lang., I.e., p. 214, pi. 52, fig. 2 (1883). This is one of the largest and handsomest of our British Butterflies, sometimes measuring nearly three inches in ex- panse. The male is of a rich fulvous, with two rows of black spots on the outer half of the wings, in addition to a marginal row. There are also several black spots towards the centre of the fore-wings, and a thick black interrupted zig-zag line across all the wings ; and the fore-wings are streaked with black along i 5 6 LLdVb's NATURAL HISTORY. the longitudinal nervures. The female is very similar, but is of a more yellowish fulvous; and in the variety A. valesina (Esper) it is greenish-brown, with black spots, and some white spots near the tip of the fore-wings. There are no black streaks on the nervures in the female. On the under surface, the fore- wings are marked nearly as above, but the tip is greenish. The hind-wings are green, with a silvery streak across the centre, and two shorter ones nearer the base ; the hind-margin c Suspended Chrysalid of Argynnis paphia. has a more or less distinct silvery streak. It is found in woods in July and August. The larva is light brown, yellowish on the back, with two dark lines along the sides ; the spines are long and hairy, and two, placed on the first segment just behind the head, are con- siderably longer than the rest. (See plate iii., fig. 5.) It feeds on dog-violet and raspberry in May and June. This fine Butterfly is very common in woods in many parts of England, frequenting the open glades and edges, where sometimes several may be seen together, chasing each other, or settling on brambles and other flowers. It is a powerful insect on the wing, and by no means easy to catch, if frightened ; and when it is settled on a bramble-flower, it is of course diffi- PLATE 4. /. 2. Argynnis 3. ARGYNNIS. 57 cult to try to capture it without the risk of tearing or entangling the net. THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY. ARGYNNIS AGLAIA. (Plate XII., Figs. I, 2.) Papilio aglaia, Linn., Syst. Nat (ed. x.), i., p. 481, no. 140 (1758); id., Faun. Suec. (ed. ii.), p. 281 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i. (i), p. 229, pi. 17, fig. 3 ; i. (2), p. 57, pi. 60, fig- 2 (1777). Argynnis aglaia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 39 (1827); Curtis, Brit. Ent, vii., pi. 290 (1830) ; Kirby, Eur. Butter- flies and Moths, p. 21, pi. 9, figs. 4a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 209, pi. 50, fig. i (1883); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 71, pi. 10, fig. 3 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit Isl., i., p. 167, pi. 24 (1892). Var. Papilio chariot fa^ Haworth, Lepid. Brit., i., p. 32, no. 37 (1803); Sowerby, Brit. Miscell., i., pi. n (1806). The Dark Green Fritillary is the commonest and most widely- distributed of our larger Fritillaries, and is found in meadows and on heaths, frequently settling on flowers, though capable of a strong and sustained flight It is met with in June and July. It generally measures from 2^ to 2^ inches across the wings, which are fulvous on the upper surface, and darker, with a slight greenish shade, in the female. The base is more or less black, and the hind-margins are black, with a festooned black line running round them, enclosing fulvous spots. Within . this is a transverse series of larger round spots ; and nearer the base are more black spots and short streaks in the cell and be- tween the nervures. The fore-wings are fulvous beneath, with the tip and hind-margin greenish, more or less spotted with silver. The hind-wings are greenish, with a band of silvery i 2 58 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. • spots across the centre, a row of silvery spots on the hind -margin, and several more towards the base. The larva feeds on dog-violet in May and June. It is brownish-black, yellowish on the back, with a row of quad- rate lateral red spots, one on each side of each segment, except Under side of the variety of the Female called A. chariot t a. the two near the base. The pupa is reddish, with waved streaks of brown. This species is not only one of the commonest, but one of the most widely-distributed throughout Europe and Asia ; and some of the Himalayan, and even Californian, forms resemble it so closely that many entomologists have regarded them as identical. The variety called A. charlotta has very large silvery spots towards the base ; it is purely accidental, and not common. THE HIGH BROWN FRITILLARY. ARGYNNIS ADIPPE. (Plate XIII. t Figs. I, 2.) Papilio adippe, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. xii.), i. (2), p. 786, no. 212 (1767); Esper, Schmett., i. (i), p. 232, pi. 18, fig. 1.^.369, pi. 43, fig. 2 ; i. (2), p. 58, pi. 60, fig. 3, p. 120, pis. 74, 75, figs, i, 2 (1777). PLATE X1IL /. 2 Arqywiis adippe .7 da lathf>rrva ARGYNNIS, 59 II ijrh Brown Fritillary (Argynnis adippe]. Upper side of the Male. Upper side of the Female. \ Under side of the Male. 60 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Argynnis adippe, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 38 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 20, pi. 9, fig. 3 (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 212, pi. 50, fig. i (1883): Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 65, pi. 10, fig. 2 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 161, pi. 23 (1892). Var. a. Argynnis cleodoxa. Argynnis cleodoxa> Ochsenh., Schmett. Eur., iv., p. 118 (1816) ; Lang, I.e., pi. 51, fig. 2 (1883). Papilio adippe^ Esper, Schmett, i. (i), p. 317, pi. 26, fig. 4 ; i. (2) p. 120, pi. 74, fig. 3, p. 127, pi. 76, fig. 2b (1777)- Var. b. Argynnis chlorodippe. Argynnis chlorodippe^ Herr.-Schaff., Schmett. Eur., vi., p. 5 ( 1852). Argynnis adippe, var. chlorodippe^ Lang, t.c.^ pi. 51, fig. 3 (1883). This species is generally rather smaller than A. ag/aia, measuring two inches or a little more across the wings, and although not uncommon in many localities, is much less generally abundant than A. aglaia. It is more of a woodland insect, though it also frequents heaths, appearing like the other large Fritillaries, about July. The upper surface of the wings is very similar to that of A. aglaict) and the transverse row of black spots consists of five on the fore-wings (there being a break between the second and third) and three on the hind-wings. In the male, two of the nervuies of the fore- wings are thickened. On the under surface, the tip of the fore-wings is yellowish, not spotted with silver, or with only two or three spots, and the hind-wings are also yellowish, with silvery spots, which are rather dull towards the hind margins. A row of red spots with silvery pupils runs across the hind-wings between the marginal silvery spots and the inner row. This shows a certain relationship to A. lathonia (Linn.). PI ATE, X M" I /. /?. Argynnia niobe 3. 4, Meliteti (dhaJtid. J. 6. Br Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. (ed. xii.), i., pt. 2, p. 785, no. 277 (1767); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 221, pi. 14, fig. 4; i., pt. 2, p. 66, pi. 61, fig. 2 (i777). Melitaadia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 34 (1827). Argynnis did, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 18, pi. 9, fig. i (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 203, pi. 48, fig. i ("1883) ; Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 183 (1892). The present species derives its English name from Richard Weaver, a celebrated collector and dealer in English insects, who flourished fifty or sixty years ago. He had a specimen which he believed to have been taken by himself in Sutton BRENTHIS. 69 Park, near Birmingham. Other examples have been taken in England from time to time, but so rarely that very few entomo- logists are disposed to admit the claims of this Fritillary to be considered a British species. On the Continent, however, it is not an uncommon Butterfly in woods, and is double-brooded like its congeners, appearing both in spring and autumn. It is a somewhat smaller insect than the other species, measuring about an inch and a quarter across the wings, which are fulvous, with the base black, and the margins likewise black, with a festooned line, inclosing rather large fulvous spots ; within this is a row of rather large black spots, and the re- mainder of the wings is likewise rather more heavily spotted with black than in the allied species. The under side of the hind-wings is black at the base, followed by a band of three silvery and three yellow spots ; between these and the silvery marginal spots is a purple band ; and a row of black spots with white pupils runs parallel to the marginal spots. The larva is dark brown or black, the back paler, inter- sected by a black dorsal line, the spines alternately black and reddish ; legs black. It feeds on different species of violet. During the last fifty years, several species of Butterflies have become actually or very nearly extinct in England, and others, formerly not uncommon, have become much restricted in their range. It is probable that this process has been going on for a long time, and that some of the species included by the older authors, but now removed from our lists, were species already disappearing when the study of entomology first com- menced. It is possible that B. dia is one of those Butterflies which may have been formerly common, but are now on the verge of extinction in England ; for it is not a species likely to be accidentally introduced into this country. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO ARGYNNIS. There are several genera closely allied to Argynnis (as 7° LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. regards the colour of the upper surface of the wings) in Asia, Africa, and America, but none possess the characteristic silvery markings on the under surface. Several of these are adorned with transverse rows of spots, which are sometimes ocellated on the under surface. Ethiopian Region. There are only two genera of this group found in Africa, if we except Argynnis itself, the South European species of which extend to the African coast of the Mediterranean. One of these, Lachnoptera^ Doubleday, contains a few species confined to Africa. The best known of these is the West African L. iole (Fabricius), in which the sexes are very dis- similar, an unusual character in the present group. The male is tawny above, with a marginal black line, a festooned sub- marginal line, and within it a row of black spots. The hind- wings are slightly angulated, and have two festooned sub- marginal lines, and no marginal line ; the apical half of the hind-wing has a large dark patch, by which this Butterfly can be at once distinguished from any other, and there are two black spots towards the anal angle. On the under surface the colour is yellowish-tawny, and on the hind-wings the dark patch has disappeared, but there is an interrupted row of black spots across the wings, more or less distinctly pupillated with white, and edged within with a pearly-grey band. The female, which was originally described by Hewitson, under the name of Harma hecatcea^ is brown, with the outer half of the wings white nearly to the hind-margin, the white space being bordered and intersected with brown lines. There are four brown spots on the hind-wings, on the white band, two towards the costa, and two towards the anal angle. The under side is pearly-grey, with a slight pinkish lustre, and marked with brown and tawny lines on the hind-wings ; there are three eyes towards the costa, and two near the anal angle, CIRRHOCHROA. 7 1 pupilled with white. A closely allied species, L. ayresii Trimen, is found at Natal, but in this case both sexes are reddish- fulvous, with a black blotch on the middle of the costa of the fore-wings. It is described as a very pugnacious insect, flying up and down at the edges of woods at a height of from six to ten feet from the ground, and attacking and driving away other Butterflies. The only other African genus allied to Argynnis, which we need notice, is Atella of Doubleday. The few species much resemble the East Indian forms to be noticed in the next section. One of them, Atella phalanta^ Drury, is found in both the Ethiopian and Indian Regions. Indian and Austro- Malay an Regions. These Regions, which it is often most convenient to treat as one, as in the present case, possess several remarkable genera of the Argynnis group, in addition to Argynnis, Cethosia and Cynthia, which we have already discussed. They all extend to India or South China (except, perhaps, Terinos\ and are represented by numerous species in the different islands between India and Australia. Among these genera, Terinos of Boisduval is one of the most remarkable, as it departs altogether from the usual style of coloration in the group. It consists of handsome Butter- flies, usually measuring above three inches across the wings, which are dark brown or black, often adorned with masses of rich purple above, and paler below, with a row of large black spots on the disc, bordered within by a festooned grey or purplish-grey line. Many species are adorned with grey or reddish blotches towards the tips of the fore-wings, and the anal angle of the hind-wings. The fore-wings are longer than the hind-wings, and the latter are somewhat angulated and dentated. The genus Cirrochroa, Doubleday, brings us back to the K 72 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. familiar tawny colouring of Argvnnis, and the species are of about the same size as our English ones, measuring three inches across, or rather less, but the fore-wings are shorter, and the hind-wings are rather long and less rounded. These Butter- flies are tawny above, with brown borders, and with festooned sub-marginal lines, followed by an inner row of spots. On the under surface they are paler, and generally ornamented with one or two straight brown lines, often edged with white. The genus Messaras, Doubleday, includes species measuring rather less than three inches in expanse. The fore-wings are longer than the hind-wings, and the latter are rounded and scalloped. The wings are tawny, and the hind-margin of the fore-wings is generally brown, edged within by a broad yellowish band ; the hind-wings are marked with several fes- tooned lines, and an inner row of spots, and on the under side usually with a row of large sub-marginal black spots, more or less bordered with pearly- white lines ; sometimes these markings are reproduced above. Other species are uniform brown, with a broad orange-yellow band across both wings. The last genera of this group belonging to these regions which we shall notice are Atella^ Doubleday, and Cupha, Billberg. In these genera the fore-wings are longer and more pointed than in Messaras, but the hind-wings are rounded and scalloped. As in so many of the Eastern Argyn- nideSj the wings are tawny, often with narrow brown borders, festooned sub-marginal lines, and at least one inner row of black spots. On the under surface the markings are somewhat irregular, purplish-brown and pearly-grey. The largest species measure nearly three inches in expanse, but many of those in- habiting the islands are much smaller. This genus has similar habits to Argynnis, to which it is allied, and the larvae feed on various trees, especially willow. Cupha may be dis- tinguished from Atella by the slightly angulated hind- wings. MELITYEA. 73 Nearctic and Neotropical Regions. As already mentioned, Argynnis is better represented in temperate America than almost any other genus of the larger Butterflies ; while Brenthis, though not numerous in American species, extends down to Chili and the extreme south-west of South America. There are, however, two interesting genera of the Argynnis group which are peculiar to America, Clothilda, Blanchard, and Euptoieta, Doubleday. Clothilda is a very handsome genus, consisting of large Butterflies measuring four inches across the wings, and greatly resembling Argynnis. There are several species inhabiting the larger West Indian Islands which are brownish-tawny, with transverse rows of large brown spots, the under surface of the hind-wings marked with irregularly undulated yellowish and whitish lines and spaces on a darker ground. On the main- land of Mexico and Central America we find still handsomer brown and yellowish-grey species, which become black towards the base of the fore-wings, with the middle third of the wing on both sides filled up with alternate black and rosy markings. Euptoieta is found in all parts of America, frequenting open grassy country. There are, however, only two or three species measuring from two to nearly three inches across the wings. They much resemble the non-caudate group of Atella in shape, size, and markings, but the fore-wings are longer at the apex, and the under surface is much more uniform in colour, without whitish lines, or distinctly-formed eyes ; though a row of small sub-marginal white spots, corresponding to larger black ones above, is sometimes visible. GENUS MELITYEA. Melitcea, Fabr. in Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 284 (1807); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 177 (1848); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 120 (1887). Type M. tinxia (Linn.). K. 2 74 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. The genus Melitcea includes all the smaller European Fritil- laries which are not marked with silver or purplish on the under surface, except the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary (Nemeo- bius lurind). This is the only British, and indeed almost the only European, representative of the family Lemoniidce, and consequently a species which will find its proper place in our second volume. N. lucina, apart from its structural differ- ences and much smaller size, may be at once distinguished by the prevailing colour being blackish, with tawny spots, all isolated, and those towards the margins of the hind-wings enclosing black dots. The generic characters of Melitcea are similar to those of Brenthis ; the club of the antennae is moderately long, very large and flattened, and the fore-wings are rather longer than in Brenthis, with no median spur, and the hind-margins of all the wings are rounded and slightly denticulated. The tibiae and tarsi of the four hinder legs are furnished with two or three rows of bristles on the under side only. The palpi are hairy, but not thickened. The larvae are provided with short hairy warts, but are not set with branding spines, as in Argynnis and Brenthis. The genus Melitcea is widely spread throughout the Palae- arctic Region, and is likewise found in North America, where it is especially numerous in California. Most of the North American species belong to a peculiar group, generally exceed- ing the European species in size, and of a black colour, more or less spotted with white and red. But in South America the genus is replaced by the allied genera Phyciodes, Htibner, and Eresia, Boisduval, the former of which is likewise numerous in North America. Our three British species biMditaa are representative of the three European groups of the genus. The larvae feed on plantain, scabious, and other plants growing on waste ground, MELITVEA. 75 and as over-cultivation rapidly exterminates such plants, and as insects as a rule are far less generally distributed, and much more easily destroyed than the plants on which they feed, it is not surprising that the species of Melitcea are among those Butterflies which are rapidly becoming more and more scarce and local in England, and are within measurable distance of extinction as British species. They are gregarious, and are therefore still common in those localities where they are permitted to exist at all. A century ago they were probably as generally distributed in England as they are at present in most places on the Continent. Their absence in Corsica and Sardinia is somewhat remarkable. These Butterflies have a slow flight, flitting from flower to flower on heaths, meadows, open places in woods, and similar localities where their food-plants are to be met with. THE GREASY FRITILLARY. MELITVEA AURINIA. (Plate XV., Figs. 3, 4.) Papilio aurinia, Rott, Naturforscher, vi., p. 5 (1775). Papilio artemis, Denis and Schiffermiiller, Syst. Verz. Schmett. Wien, p. 322, no. 10 (1776); Hiibner, Europ. Schmett, i., figs. 4-6, 653(1803?). Papilio maturna (nee Linn.), Esper, Schmett., i. (i), p. 209, pi. 1 6, fig. 2 (1777). Melitcea artemis, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 32 (1827) Buckler, Larvse Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 84, pi. 12, fig. 2 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 196, pi. 27, figs. 2, 2a-f (1893). Melitcea aurinia, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 15, pi. 8, figs. 3~a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 183, pi 43, fig. 2 (1883). The Greasy Fritillary, though very local, is widely distributed in all parts of the kingdom, and is rather variable. It is by 76 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. far the commonest of the three British species of Melihea. It appears in May and June, generally frequenting damp meadows, though it may be found in dry places also. It represents the section of Melitcea in which the upper side of the wings is marked with white or yellow spots, paler than the ground colour. This species measures about one and a half inches across the wings, or a little more, though some of the large South European forms, which are considered to be conspecific, some- times exceed two inches in expanse. The fore-wings are of a deep fulvous, marked with several rows of pale yellow spots, separated by black lines ; the hind-wings are fulvous, with some yellowish spots near the base, and there is a row of yellow spots across the centre, and a row of black dots near the hind-margin. The hind-margins of all the wings are narrowly black, and there are a few yellow dots within the border of the hind-wings. The under side is similar, but paler, and the markings are most distinct on the hind-wings. The whole of the under surface of the wings has a peculiar glossy appearance, which has suggested the name of the Butterfly. The larva is black above, with several rows of small white dots ; it is yellow beneath, and the legs are reddish. It feeds on plantain, scabious, and other low plants, in April. THE GLANVILLE FRITILLARY. MELIT7EA CINXIA (Plate XL, Figs. 3, 4.) Papilio cinxia. Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 480, no. 137 (1758) ; id. Faun. Suec. (ed. ii.), p. 280, no. 1063 (1761). Papilio delia, Denis and Schiff., Syst. Nat. Lepid.Wien, p. 179, no. 6 (1776) ; Hiibn., Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 7, 8 (1790). Papilio cinxia major^ Esper, Schmett., i., p. 312, pi. 25, fig. 2 (1778). MELITVEA. 77 Melitcea cinxia, Steph., 111. Brit. Enc. Haust., i., p. 33 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 15, pi. 8, figs. 5, a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 185, pi. 44, fig. i (1883); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., pi. xi., figs. 3, 3a (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i,, p. 190, pi. 27, figs, i, i, a-d (1892). The Glanville Fritillary is the most local species of the genus, and is at present almost confined, in England, to a few localities in the Isle of Wight. It represents a section of the genus Melitcea in which the under surface of the hind-wings is marked with rows of conspicuous black spots, and not simply with lines. It derives its name from a certain lady Glanville who lived in the reign of Charles II. After her death, it was attemped to set aside her will on the ground of insanity, the principal evidence relied upon by the disputants being her fondness for collecting Butterflies. The species appears in May and June, like the other smaller Fritillaries, but, as a rule, prefers drier localities. The Butterfly expands about three-quarters of an inch, and is fulvous, with numerous black dashes and interrupted lines ; the base and hind-margins are black. The fore-wings are pale fulvous beneath, with a few black dots ; the tip is yellow. The hind-wings are fulvous, with some yellow spots near the base; a broad yellow band extends across the middle, and there is a row of yellow marginal spots. The yellow markings are more or less bordered with black, and there is a row of black spots intersecting the central band, another row on the marginal series, and several others near the base. The larvae are black, with transverse rows of white dots, and the head and pro-legs are tawny. They feed on the narrow-leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata\ mouse-ear, hawk- weed (Hieracium pilosella\ and the common germander speed- well (Veronica chamadrys}. They generally issue from thq 7 8 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. egg towards the end of autumn, and pass the winter before they undergo their final metamorphosis. To protect themselves against the weather, they assemble in little colonies, and form a kind of tent by drawing together some of the leaves of the plant on which they feed, and covering the whole with a web of silk. THE PEARL-BORDERED LIKENESS FRITILLARY. MELIT/EA ATHALIA. (Plate XIV., Figs. 3, 4.) Papilio athalia, Rott, Naturf., vi., p. 5 (1775) ; Esper, Schmett, i- W> P- 377, Pl- 47 (i777). Melitcea athalia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust.,i., p. 30 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 16, pl. 8, figs. 7, a-c (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 121, pl. 45, fig. 3 (1883); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i , p. 81, pl. 12, fig. i (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 185, pl. 2, 2a-e (1892). Var., Melitcea tessellata. Melitcea tessellata^ Stephens, I.e. i., p. 31, pl. 5, figs, i, 2 (1827). This Butterfly is the commonest of the whole genus on the Continent, being abundant everywhere in woods and meadows ; but it is a very local insect in the south of England, though widely distributed ; it is met with in May and June, like the other small Fritillaries. It represents the group of Melitcea^ wherein the species are characterised by being fulvous and black above, in varying proportions (but with no paler spots), and in having the hind-wings below yellow, with black lines and markings, but with no distinct black spots. It was for- merly a much more abundant insect in England than at present, and was common even on Hampstead Heath, MELITVEA. 79 It measures from one inch and a half to an inch and three-quarters across the wings, which are tessellated in about equal proportions with black and fulvous. The under side of the fore-wings is pale fulvous, with the black bands of the upper surface only visible towards the costa; the hind-mar- The Heath Fritillary (Metttea atkalia). Upper and under side of Varieties from the collection of the late Mr. F. Bond. gin is straw-coloured. The hind-wings are yellowish-brown below, with yellow spots near the base, edged with black, and a row of large yellow spots, separated by the nervures, across the centre, bordered and partly intersected with black. The fringe is yellowish-white, spotted with black. The larva is black, with two rows of small white dots on 8o LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. each segment, and with tubercles of the same colour on the sides. It feeds on different species of plantain in May. This is a Butterfly which is liable to many varieties, and the central figure on the previous page nearly corresponds to the form called M. tessellata (Steph.). THE STRAW MAY FRITILLARY. MELIT^EA PYRONIA. (Plate XV., Figs. $,6.) Papilio pyronia, Hiibner, Eur. Schmett, i., figs. 585, 586 (c. 1800). Papilio eos, Haworth, Lepid. Brit, p. 35, no. 43 (1803). Mcliteapyronia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 31, pi. iv., figS. I, 2 (1827). Very dark varieties, or rather aberrations, of several genera of Nymphalina are not uncommon, and that represented on our plate is a sport of M. athalia. A specimen like the one figured is said to have been taken at Peckham in 1803; and similar examples have also been met with occasionally both in England and on the Continent. This insect, which measures a little more than an inch and a half across the wings, has tawny fore-wings, with the nervures, as well as some confluent markings towards the base, and a sub-marginal line, black ; the fringes of all the wings are spotted with black and white. The hind-wings are black, with a tawny spot near the base, and a sub-marginal row of tawny spots. On the under side the fore-wings are tawny with the tip and hind- margin yellow, and showing numerous large black spots towards the base ; the fringes have a black line at the base, and are spotted with black, and there is also a sub-marginal row of nearly connected black spots. The hind-wings are reddish below, towards the base, with black blotches ; the basal area is bordered by a black line, beyond which is a very broad whitish band, followed by a row of reddish lunules bordered on both sides AtfEMECA. 8 1 with black ; outside this, the marginal area is yellow, and similarly marked to the corresponding portion of the fore- wings. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO MELUVEA. Nearctic and Neotropical Regions. The genus Melitaa is well represented in most parts of North America ; but in Tropical America, as before stated, it is replaced by several closely-allied genera, of which the most important are Phytiodes^ Hiibner, and Eresia, Doubleday. PhyciodeS) indeed, extends over the greater part of North America as well. These Butterflies much resem1 le the small species of Melitaa, measuring from an inch to an inch and a half across the wings, which are generally brown, with red, yellow, tawny, and white spots and markings. The fore-wings are broad, and not much longer than the hind-wings, which are rounded, slightly denticulated, and frequently covered like the fore-wings. The species inhabit open or bush-covered land. Eresia includes species somewhat similarly coloured, but larger, measuring from an inch and a half or two inches across the wings. They are forest insects, with longer and narrower fore-wings than Phyciodes ; and many of the species greatly resemble small species of Heliconius^ or some of the black and tawny species of the Sub-family Ithomiincz, from which, however, they may be at once distinguished by their open hind wing-cells. Anemeca ehrenbergii (Hiibner) is a curious Mexican species, measuring about two inches across the wings, which are black, with long whitish radiating lines on the outer half. The hind- wings are very pale yellowish-white beneath, with broad black nervures. The wings are rather long, the fore-wings being rather longer than the hind wings, and the hind-margins are rounded. 82 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. The genus, Chlosyne, Butler, includes several species found in Mexico, Central America, and the northern parts of South America, which form a transition from the genera allied to Melitcea to the genera allied to Vanessa. They measure from an inch and a half to two inches across the wings, which are usually of a brown or black colour, more or less varied or spotted with yellow, white, or tawny above, and often with red spots on the under side of the hind-wings. The fore- wings are usually more or less produced at the tip, and the hind-wings are rounded and dentated. GENUS ARASCHNIA. Araschnia, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmetterl., p. 37 (1816). Type, A. levana (Linn.). We have not been able to find space for figures of this genus, but it is so well known, and of so interesting a type, that we must not pass it over unnoticed. It contains a very few species of small size, which are confined to Europe and Northern Asia. The antennae have an oval club, the palpi are very hairy, and the eyes are also hairy. The wings are denticulated, the fore- wings triangular, slightly projecting at a third of their length from the tip, and slightly concave from below this point to a smaller projection, situated a little above the hinder angle; the hind-wings are nearly square, with a slight projection at the outer angle. There are two very distinct seasonal forms in each species of this genus, viz., the spring brood, which is tawny with black spots; and the summer brood, which is black with white spots, which form an irregular band across the wings. Weis- mann and other philosophical writers have written much on the European species, as its seasonal dimorphism is con- sidered to throw some light on problems connected with the origin of species. ARASCHNIA. 83 THE MAP BUTTERFLY. ARASCHNIA LEVANA. Spring brood. Papilio levana, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.),i., p. 480, no. 133 (i758); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 201, pi. 15, fig. 2 (1777); i., P^ 2, p. 55, pi. 59, fig- 5 (1780); Ochsenh., Schmett. Eur., i., p. 132 (1807). Cynthia levana, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 49 (1827). Vanessa levana, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 14 (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 167, pi. 38, fig. 4 (1882). Summer brood. Papilio prorsa, Linn., Syst. Nat (x.), i., p. 480, no. 134 (1758) ; Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 205, pi. 15, fig. 3 (i777); i., pt. 2, p. 52, pi. 59, fig. 4 (c. 1780); Ochsenh., Schmett Eur., i., p. 129(1807). Vanessa prorsa^ Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 74, pi. 7, figs. 4a, 6 (1878). Vanessa levana, var., prorsat Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 168, pi. 39, fig. 2 (1882). Intermediate Form. Papilio porima, Ochsenh., Schmett Eur., i., p. 124 (1807). Vanessa porima^ Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 14 (1878). Vanessa levana, var. porima, Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 168, pi. 39, fig- i (1882). As already mentioned, this Butterfly presents two ap- parently very dissimilar forms, which Linnaeus called Papilio levana and P. prorsa, and by these names they have been known ever since. They are found more or less commonly in Central Europe, but do not reach either to the extreme northern or the extreme southern countries, though they are 84 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. met with in Western Asia and Siberia. A. levana has been said to have been taken in Great Britain, but apparently only through the error of Dr. Turton, who translated the " Systema Naturae " of Linnaeus into English many years ago, and marked various species as British, almost at random, e.g., A. levana. The summer brood (A. prorsa) measures rather less than an inch and a half across the wings, which are black, with a red marginal line. There is also a rather broad white band, in- terrupted on the fore-wings, and rather irregular, but broadest in the middle on the hind-wings. The fore-wings are also marked with a few white dots outside the upper part of the white band. The under side is brownish-red, with the white band reproduced ; the hind-margins are dull white, and . there are some whitish dashes near the base. The spring brood (A . levana) is fulvous, with scattered black spots. There are also three white spots near the tip of the fore- wings, and a row of black spots across all the wings. On the under side the Butterflies resemble each other more than on the upper, but the under side of the A. levana form is more yellow, and the white band is narrower and less conspicuous. The larva is spiny, and of a black or greyish colour, dotted with white ; the spines are black or yellow, and the fore-legs are black, with the extremities yellow. It feeds on nettle in June and September. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO ARASCHNIA. The genus Symbrenthia, Hiibner, includes some East Indian species, measuring about an inch and a half across the fore- wings. They are brown, with fulvous markings, consisting of a band in the cell of the fore-wings, an interrupted one HYPANARTIA. 85 beyond, and two or three on the hind-wings ; in some species the females are marked with white, instead of fulvous. In colour and markings, though not in shape, they greatly resemble Neptis, also an East Indian genus. The wings are very short and broad, the fore-wings being scarcely longer than the hind- wings, and the latter are obtusely angulated in the middle of the hind-margin, where there is a projecting angle ; the ex- tremity of the inner-margin is slightly sloped outwards, so as to form almost a right angle at the anal angle of the wing. S. hyppoda (Cramer), the commonest Indian species, flies very swiftly, but often settles ; its larva feeds on nettle. Hypanartia^ Hiibner, is a Tropical American genus, resem- bling Symbrtnthia, but larger (measuring two or three inches in expanse), and with longer fore-wings, which are generally strongly concave in the middle ; the hind-wings are more rect- angular, with a strong tooth or short tail at the outer angle. They are usually tawny, with the apical region of the fore-wings brown, and spotted with white or tawny. In H. lethe (Fabr.), a tawny species, the fore-wings are not concave; while H. dione (Latr.) is a brown insect with darker transverse bands, and a rather longer tail, which might easily be mistaken for a species of Megalura at first sight, but for the concavity on the fore-wings. There are one or two species found in Africa, Mauritius, &c., which have a shorter interval and an additional tooth or tail, between the principal tail and the anal angle of the hind-wings. One of these, H. delius (Drury), which in- habits West Africa, is brown and tawny, having considerable resemblance to the South American H. lethe; while other species, f jund in Africa and in the island of Nossi-Be, near Madagascar, Mauritius, Bourbon, &c., much resemble a rather small pale-tailed Pyrameis atalanta. Mr. Trimen states that their habits are very similar to those of Pyrameis. The larvae feed on nettle. 86 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. GENUS POLYGONIA. Polygoma, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 36 (1816). Grapta, Kirby, Faun. Bor. Amer., iv., p. 292 (1837); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., i., p. 195 (1848) ; Stainton, Man. Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i.? p. 40 (1857); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 124 (1887). Type, Polygoma c.-album (L.). Antennae with the club oval, gradually formed, truncated at the end; palpi thickly scaled above, less so on the back and sides, and the scales small and conical, interspersed only with a few hairs ; eyes hairy. Wings with the hind margins much dentated, the fore-wings deeply concave below the tip, and the inner margin concave ; hind-wings with a short tail in the middle of the hind margin, and the inner margin grooved to receive the abdomen. A white letter-like mark on the under side of the hind-wings. This genus is peculiar to the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions. In the Old World it does not extend to the Himalayas, though one of the Chinese species, P. c.-aureum (Linn.), has been, rightly or wrongly, reputed to occur as far south as Penang. There are only two recognised European species, one, P. c.-album (Linn.), generally distributed, while the other, P. egea (Cramer), a lighter-coloured species, with a triangular, instead of a semicircular, white mark on the hind- wings beneath, belongs to the Mediterranean Sub-region, being found in South Europe, Asia Minor, and Syria. Polygonia, however, is one of the very few genera of Butterflies that are better represented in the Nearctic than in the Palaearctic Region ; and, in addition to species allied to ours, several very large forms, measuring nearly three inches across the wings, are found in the United States ; and one species extends as far south as Mexico. PL/ /. 2. Polyqonia C. album POLYGONIA. 87 THE COMMA BUTTERFLY. POLYGONIA C.-ALBUM. (Plate XVI., Figs, i, 2.) Papolio c.-album, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 477, no. 115 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 279, no. 1059 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. i., p. 175, pi. 13, fig. 3 (i777); *•> pt. 2, p. 53, pi. 59, fig. 3 (1780?). Vanessa c.-album, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 42 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 13, pi. 7, figs. 2, a-d (1878); Lang, Eur. Butterflies, p. 170, pi. 39, fig. 4 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. IsL, i., p. 121, pi. 18, figs. i, i, a-e (1892). Grapta c.-album, Buckler, Larvae Brit. Lepid., i., pp. 57, 182 pi. ix., fig. 3 (1886). The Comma Butterfly was formerly much more abundant in England than at present, and has almost entirely disappeared from the south of England, where it was once abundant, within the last fifty or sixty years, though there are many localities in the midland and northern counties of England, as well as in Wales, where it may still be met with. It is a hedgerow insect, and is fond of settling on the ground and on the tree-trunks, and is frequently found in company with Vanessa polychlorus. It appears in June and July, and hibernated specimens are sometimes seen in spring. The Comma Butterfly usually measures nearly two inches across the wings, which are deep fulvous, with the hind- margins brown. The fore-wings have three black spots on the costa, three in the centre, and one on the inner margin. The hind- wings are ornamented with black and brown. The under surface is sometimes dark brown, but is often varied with greenish or yellowish, and there is always a white mark like the letter C on the under side of the hind-wings. The larva is reddish in front and white behind. The head L 83 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. is nearly heart-shaped, and bears two large hairy tubercles, one on each side, resembling ears. It is found in June and July, and consumes the foliage of various trees, shrubs, and herba- ceous plants, such as the elm, willow, currant, hazel, honey- suckle, and common nettle. GENUS VANESSA. Vanessa, Fabr. in Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 281 (18-7); Latr., Enc. Me'th., ix., pp. 10, 291 (1819); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 195 (1848); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 124 (1887). Type, V. polychlorus (L.). Antennae, with the club gradually thickened and rather long, the last joint short and obtuse. Palpi thickly clothed with broad scales in front, and set with long stiff bristles all round ; eyes hairy. Wings dentated, the fore- wings with a slight projec- tion below the tip and with a slight concavity below, the inner margin nearly straight ; hind-wings with a short projection in the middle of the hind margin. Larvae gregarious, spiny, except on the first segment behind the head ; pupa frequently metallic. This genus is peculiar to the northern hemisphere, and though not very numerous in species, contains some of our commonest and handsomest Butterflies, such as the Peacock and the Tortoise-shells. Most of the species inhabit the tem- perate climates of Europe, Asia, and America, but one or two extend as far south as India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula ; as well as to Mexico in the New World. Most of the species appear in summer, and hibernate, reap- pearing in spring, often in fairly good condition. VANESSA. 89 THE LARGE TORTOISE-SHELL. VANESSA POLYCHLORUS. (Plate XVI., Fig. 3.) Papillo polyckloros, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 477, no. 113 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 278, no. 1057 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 166, pi. 13, fig. i (1777). Vanessa polychloros, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 42 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 22, pi. 6, fig. 5 (1878), Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 171, pi. 39, fig. 5 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 127, pi. 18, figs. 2, 2a, b (1892); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 54, pi. 9> fig- J (1886). The Large Tortoise-shell Butterfly is not uncommon in many parts of the south of England, in and near woods, or flying about detached trees, on the trunks of which it frequently settles. It may sometimes be seen in gardens, settling on flowers, but less frequently. It appears in summer and autumn, and hibernated specimens, much duller in colour than the newly-emerged individuals, may be found in early spring. The Butterfly measures two and a half inches, or more, across the wings, which are of a deep fulvous with rather broad black margins. The fore-wings are marked with three rather large black costal blotches, separated by pale yellow spots ; there are also three black spots in the centre of the wings, and a fourth near the hinder angle. The hind-wings have a large black blotch in the centre of the costa, bounded externally by a pale yellow blotch, and only the border of the hind-wings is marked with blue lunules. The under side is dull brown, with a yellowish mark in the middle of the hind-wings. The larva is blackish or brownish, with a yellow stripe on the sides, and the spines are likewise yellow. When young, the larvae live under a silken web, which they spin for their protection, but they disperse after the first moult. They feed L 2 po LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. trees, a habit which on the Continent causes the insect to be sometimes regarded as injurious, but in England it is not sufficiently plentiful to cause any material damage. The pupa is flesh-coloured, with golden spots. Two other species closely aWied to this are found in Eastern Europe. One, V. xanthomelana, Denis, extends to Northern India, and the other, V. v.-album, Denis, is hardly distinguish- able from the North American V.j. -album of Boisduval. THE SMALL TORTOISE-SHELL. VANESSA URTICVE. (Plate XVIII., Fig. i.) Papilio urtica, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 477, no. 114 (1758), id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 218, no. 1058 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 170, pi. 13, fig- 2 (1777). Vanessa urtic Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 43 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 12, pi. 6, fig. 4 (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 173, pi. 40, fig. 3 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. IsL, i., p. 131, pi. 19, figs. i, i, a-c (1892); Buckler, Larvas Brit. Butterflies and Moths, pp. 55, 181, pi. ix., fig. 2 (1886). Although this Butterfly is gregarious, and feeds on nettles, yet even nettles are by no means so abundant as formerly, and the species is thus much less common than it used to be. Still it is to be met with in all parts of the country, in gardens, weedy places, lanes, open places in woods, &c., and as it hiber- nates, and has a succession of broods, there is not a month in the year when it may not be found, for an unusually fine day or artificial warmth will sometimes tempt it from its hiding- place, even in mid-winter. The Butterfly generally measures about two inches across the wings, which are reddish-orange, with black hind-margins, spotted with blue on all the wings. The fore-wings have three black costal spots separated by yellowish ones3 and the outer- PLATE XVin /. Vanessa^ urtuxx* curdui VANESSA. \ Small Tortoise-shell. Variety i. Small Tortoise-shell. Variety 2. Small Tortoise-shell. Variety 3. 92 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. most separated from the hind-margin by a white costal spot. There is also a large black spot near the inner-margin, with a yellowish one outside it, and two small black ones in the centre of the fore-wings. The hind-wings have a broad basal area of black, with a wide reddish-orange band between this and the hind- margin. Theunderside is varied with light brown and yellowish. The larvae feed on nettle, and when first hatched live together in small colonies, but disperse as they grow larger and require more food. They are blackish and spiny, with yellowish stripes on the back and sides. The pupa is beautifully gilded. In Corsica and Sardinia this species is replaced by V. ichnusa (Bonelli), an insect of a more pronounced red colour, in which the two small spots on the disc of the fore-wings are wanting. Other species resembling V. urticce^ but more remotely, are found in North America and Northern India. We add woodcuts of three varieties which have been taken in England, one of which much resembles V. ichnusa. THE CAMBERWELL BEAUTY. VANESSA ANTIOPA. (Plate XVII., Fig. i.) Papilio antiopa. Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 476, no. 112 (1758) . id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 277, no. 1056 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, pp. 163, 324, pi. 12, fig. 2, pi. 29, fig. 2 (1777)- Vanessa antiopa, Curtis, Brit. Ent, ii., pi. 96 (1825) ; Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 45 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butter- flies and Moths, p. 12, pi. 6, figs. 2, a-c (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., pp. 176, 363, pi. 41, fig. 2 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 140, pi. 20, figs, i, la, b (1892) ; Buckler,* Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 52, pi. 8, fig. 4 (1886). * Buckler received larvoe from Leipzig, and the yellow-bordered specimen now in his collection in the British Museum was almost certainly bred from one of these. It is accompanied by a preserved larva. PLATE XVII. /. Vanessa, antiopa VANESSA, 93 This has always been a very scarce Butterfly in England, and very uncertain in appearance. In some years a good many specimens are met with, and then, again, several years may elapse without more than one or two being seen. The old authors sometimes called it the "Grand Surprise," because about the year 1789 it appeared suddenly in unusual abun- dance. It was also called the Camberwell Beauty from having been first observed in England at that place in 1748. Curi- ously enough, it was unusually common in England exactly a century later, in 1848. All the English specimens are remark- able for their white borders,* whereas in the European speci- mens the border is almost always decidedly yellow. The Butterfly is also common in North America, but the American specimens are generally considerably larger, with the border ot a more brownish-yellow than in the European ones. It fre- quents woods, avenues, gardens, and detached trees, and is an insect of powerful flight, but is very fond of settling on fallen fruit. Once, on the Continent, I was walking along a road which was bordered with bird-cherry trees, and strewn with the ripe fallen cherries. The fruit was very attractive to these Butterflies, which were flying backwards and forwards in numbers between the road and a small river, which ran nearly parallel to it at no great distance. It used to be said that no British specimens were ever taken with yellow borders; but a few yellow-bordered ones have occasionally been met with of late years. In these cases it is reasonable to suppose that they were specimens which had either been introduced from the Continent, or reared from Continental larvae and then set at liberty, in which case they would almost certainly fall a prey to the first prowling ento- mologist who happened to notice them. * This form also occurs, though much more rarely, on the Continent ; and Lang specially notes its occurrence, with specimens of other Butter- flies closely resembling British examples, in Albania. 94 LLOYD S NATURAL HISTORY. The Butterfly, which measures three inches across the wings, is of a deep purplish-chocolate colour, with the hind margins broadly white (or yellow in Continental anJ American speci- mens). Within this pale border runs a broad black band con- taining a row of large blue spots ; and within the band there are two short white (or yellow) streaks on the costa of the fore- wings. The under surface is of a deep dead black, relieved only by the white border and the white marks on the costa of the fore-wings. The Butterfly appears in July and August, and hibernates, so that it may be found again in spring. The larva, like the other species of the genus, is gregarious, feeding on willow, birch, and poplar in summer. It is black and very spiny, with a row of large red spots on the back, intersected by a black line, and the legs are red. No other species is known which closely resembles V. antiopa^ though its black under surface recalls that of V. io. In Germany it is called " Trauermantel," and hence some of the American entomologists give it the name of the " Mourn- ing Cloak." Haworth in his " Lepidoptera Britannica," p. 28, remarks re- specting the irregular appearance of V. antiopa, and of other Butterflies : " There is something very extraordinary in the periodical but irregular appearance of this species, as well as of Papilio edusa and P. cardui. They are plentiful all over the kingdom in some years ; after which P. antiopa in par- ticular will not be seen by anyone for eight or ten or more years, and then appear again as plentiful as before. To sup- pose they come from the Continent is an idle conjecture ; because the English specimens are easily distinguished from all others by the superior whiteness of their borders. Perhaps their eggs, in this climate, like the seeds of some vegetables, may occasionally lie dormant for several seasons, and not hatch until some extraordinary but unforeseen circumstance awakes them into active life." VANESSA. . 95 Though very common in most parts of the Continent, there are many places in which the species is more or less uncertain in appearance, as it is in Britain. THE PEACOCK BUTTERFLY. VANESSA IO. (Plate X VII. , Fig. 2.) Papilio io. Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 472, no. 112 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 274, no. 1048 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i.} pt. i, p. 87, pi. 5, fig. 2 (1777). Vanessa w, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 44 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 12, pi. 6, figs. 3 a-c (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 175, pi. 41, fig. i (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 136, pi. 19, figs. 2, 2, a-d (1892); Buckler, Larvse Brit. Butterflies, i., p. 179, pi. 8, fig. 3 (1886). The Peacock is one of the most beautiful of our British Butterflies, and as it feeds on nettles, is fairly common in lanes and open places in woods in most parts of the country, though much less abundant than the Small Tortoise-shell. It is found throughout Europe and Northern Asia as far as Japan ; but does not extend very far south, as it is a much-prized rarity in Sicily, and is unknown in Southern Spain and on the north coast of Africa. The Butterfly measures from two to three inches in expanse, and is of a dark red on the upper surface, with brown hind- margins. The fore-wings are marked with two central black costal blotches, separated by a small yellow spot, and the rest of the costal portion of the wing, between the outermost black blotch and the border, is varied with yellow, black, blue, red, and white, and below these markings are two white spots. The hind-wings have a large black crescent-shaped mark on the middle of the costa, and between this and the hind-margin is a yellowish-white ring, enclosing a very large black spot, in which 96 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. are several blue markings. The under surface of all the wings is of a deep dead black, as in V. antiopa. The Butterfly appears in summer and autumn, and hibernates, reappearing in spring. The caterpillar, which feeds on the two common species of stinging nettle in summer, is black and very spiny. It is dotted with white, and the fore-legs are red. This Butterfly has no resemblance to any other known species on the upper surface, but in the black under side it shows a certain affinity to V. antiopa. GENUS PYRAMEIS. Pyrameis, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 33 (1816); Uoubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 202 (1849); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 125 (1887). Type, P. atalanta (Linn.). Antennae with the club short, and pointed at the end ; palpi long, gradually narrowed to a point, and clothed with soft and short hair ; wings regularly denticulated ; fore-wings some- times with a slight projection below the tip, the hind-margin below very slightly concave ; inner margin nearly straight ; hind-wings with the hind-margin rounded, and without projec- tions. Larva spiny. This genus is not numerous in species, but they have all a strong family likeness, and belong to two groups represented by our common British Butterflies, the Red Admiral and the Painted Lady. Both of these are insects of very wide distri- bution, but the other species of Pyrameis are found isolated in widely separated parts of the world, the largest and hand- somest being from the Sandwich Islands and New Zealand. Our species hibernate occasionally, but not habitually, and therefore are much less frequently met with in spring than in summer and autumn. PLATE XX1U PYRAMEIS. 97 THE RED ADMIRAL. PYRAMEIS ATALANTA. (Plate XXIIL, Figs. I, 2.) Papilio atalanta. Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 478, no. 119 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 279, no. 1060 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i. (i.), p. 182, pi. 14, fig. i (1777). Vanessa atalanta, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 46 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. n, pi. 6, fig. i (1878); Lang, Eur. Butterflies, p. 177, pi. 41, fig. 3 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Is!., i., p. 145, pi. 20, figs. 2, 2, a-d (1892); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Lepid., i., pp. 49, 174, pi. 8, fig. i (1886). The Red Admiral is a very common and conspicuous Butterfly, which appears rather late in the summer, or at the beginning of autumn, and may then be seen wherever there are flowers or fruit, of which it is very fond. It is found in gardens, or flying about trees in orchards, just as frequently as in lanes or clearings in woods, and it particularly affects ivy- blossom. It often flies in company with its congener, the Painted Lady, over waste ground, and both species are very fond of the slopes or summits of hills. It has a wide range over Europe, North Africa, Northern and Western Asia, and North and Central America ; but in the Canaries another closely-allied species is met with, resembling P. atalanta, but with a broader and more irregular red band on the fore-wings. This is P. vulcania (Godart), an insect hardly distinguishable, except by its more intense red band, from P. indica, of Herbst, which inhabits North India, China, and Japan. How two forms, barely distinguishable as species, should have come to inhabit such widely-separated countries, between which they are scarcely likely to have been carried by accident, or even by design, remains one of the most perplexing of all the many difficult proverbs connected with the geographical distribution of Butterflies. 98 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. The Red Admiral measures from two to nearly three inches across the wings, which are of a velvety-black. The fore-wings have a slight projection on the hind-margin, below the tip, thus showing a closer affinity to the genus Vanessa than is presented by P. cardui; and this has led several authors to retain P. atalanta in the genus Vanessa, even when treating P. cardui as belonging to a distinct genus. The fore-wings have a broad red band running obliquely from the middle of the costa to the hinder angle, and between this and the tip are several white spots and a blue line. The hind-wings have a broad red border, containing a row of black spots, and a blue spot at the anal angle; the fringes of the wings are white, spotted with black. The under surface of the fore-wings is similar to the upper, but paler, shading into grey at the tip, and there are several additional blue markings ; the hind-wings are varied beneath with delicate shades of grey. The larva is dull greenish-yellow, or blackish, with yellow spines, and an interrupted yellow line on the sides ; the pro- tegs are reddish. It is solitary, and feeds on nettle in early summer. It prefers the seed to the leaves, and usually pro- tects itself from the weather by drawing a few leaves round it, which it secures by silken threads. The pupa is brown, with golden spots. THE PAINTED LADY. PYRAMEIS CARDUI. Plate XVIIL, Figs. 2, 3.) Papilio cardui) Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 475, no. 107 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 276, no. 1054 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. i, p. 133, pi. 10, fig. 3 (1777). Cynthia cardui, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 47 (1827); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., pp. 49, 174, pi. 8, fig. i (1886). PYRAMEIS. 99 Vanessa cardui, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 13, pi 7, figs. 3, a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 158, pi. 42, fig. 2 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 149- P*- 2I (1892). The Painted Lady was formerly considered to be an insect of rather irregular appearance in England, but it has apparently become more abundant of late years, for although it is com- moner in some seasons than in others, it is now nearly always to be found in suitable localities, when looked for. It is, how- ever, less frequently to be seen in gardens, &c., than./5, atalanta, preferring waste ground, where it likes to settle on thistles, and Variety of the Painted Lcidy (Pyrameis cardui)* other tall flowering plants. It is one of the most interesting Butterflies known, for it is literally almost cosmopolitan ; and, with the exception of the Arctic Regions and South America, there is scarcely a country in the world where it may not be found. The Australian and New Zealand specimens, however, differ a little, and are sometimes called P. kershawii (McCoy), but are hardly to be considered truly distinct. A closely-allied species, P. virginiensis (Drury), or, as it is often termed, P. huntera (Fabr.), Is found in North America ; it is easily dis- tinguished from P. cardui by the sub-marginal row of small H 3 ioo LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. black eyes with blue pupils on the hind-wings. This species is found in Madeira and the Canaries, along with P. vulcania and P. cardui ; but it scarcely admits of a doubt that it has been accidentally introduced from North America, as stray specimens of P. virginiensis have occasionally been taken in England too; and although it has hitherto only appeared in the British Islands singly, at long intervals, it is quite possible that if only a single brood happened to be reared in England, the species might become naturalised with us. The Painted Lady measures two inches, or two and a half inches across the wings, which are black at the base, and otherwise of a tawny-orange, varying in intensity in different specimens (sometimes with a slight pink shade in extremely fresh ones), and streaked and spotted with black. The tip of the fore-wings is broadly black, and marked with several white spots, and the hind-margin is also black. On the hind- wings the hind-margin is spotted with black, and within it is an interrupted black line, followed by a row of round spots. There is also a blue spot at the anal angle. On the under surface, the fore-wings are pink, with the tip yellowish-grey, but otherwise nearly the same as on the upper surface. The hind- wings are yellowish-grey, marbled with different colours, and marked with a large white triangular spot in the centre. There is a bluish line, scarcely divided into spots, on the hind-margin ; and within it are four black eyes in pale rings. The Butterfly appears in summer and autumn. The larva is very spiny, of a brownish-grey colour, with interrupted yellow lines along the sides. It is solitary, and feeds on different species of thistle, also on nettle, mallow, artichoke, and several other plants. The pupa is nearly of the same hue as the larva, but is thickly spotted with gold. Like other species of the group, P. cardui sometimes ex- JUNONIA. IOT hibits some very curious aberrations, one of which is figured on p. 99. GENUS JUNONIA. Junonia, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 34 (1816); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 206 (1849) ; Schatz, Exot. Sclimett, ii., p. 125 (1887). The genus Junonia and its allies are the tropical representa- tives of our Vanessa, from which they differ by their naked eyes. But they can hardly be said to surpass our Vanessa either in size or beauty, for though their colours are more sharply contrasted, the shading is not so soft, nor the colour so harmoniously arranged as in V. io, for example. In Junonia the wings are more or less dentated, the fore- wings broad, triangular, not much longer than the hind-wings, and the hind-margin generally more or less concave. The hind-wings are regularly rounded, rather long, and often slightly produced at the anal angle, though not to anything like the same extent as in Precis (Hiibner), in which the anal angle is often lengthened out into a short pointed tail. The typical genus Junonia occurs in all the warmer parts of the Old World (Eastern and Southern Asia as far west as Asia Minor), and is also represented in various parts of North and South America ; but the greater number of species are met with in the East Indies ; and there are several species closely allied to the Indian ones in Africa. They are generally brown, banded or spotted with buff or tawny, and often with a large blue patch, or band, on the hind-wings. Two of the Indian species, J. almana (Linn.) and J. asterie (Linn.), are tawny, with at least one very large eye-spot on each wing ; but, in many species, the eye-spots are rather small. The larvae are set with branching spines, as in Vanessa* io2 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. JUNONIA ORTHOSIA. (Plate XIX., Fig. 3.) Vanessa orthosia, Godart, Enc. Meth., ix., p. 821 (1823); Lucas, L£pid. Exot, p. 116, pi. 59, fig. 3 (1835). Papilo orithya, (nee L.) Cramer, Pap. Exot., iii., pi. 281, figs. E, F; iv., pi. 290, figs. C, D (1780). This is a brown Butterfly, about two inches in expanse, with the outer half of the wings inclining to buff or yellowish, the colour forking towards the costa of the fore-wings. There are two eyes in the sub-marginal region of each wing, which are black, with large white pupils on the fore-wings, and surrounded with tawny rings • on the hind-wings they are much larger, the pupils are varied with blue and white, and the outer rings are reddish, with a narrow black rim. Towards the hind-margin are two or three black lines ; and on the costa of the fore- wings are two tawny stripes, bordered with black. The under- surface, as usual, is paler. This Butterfly is found in Amboina. Some of the North American species dijunonia closely resemble it in the unusually large eyes. It is also allied to the East Indian and African J. orithya (Linn.), which has blue hind-wings. GENERA ALLIED TO JUNONIA. Ethiopian Region. Although several species of Junonia closely allied to, if not identical with, Indian species, are found in Africa, yet the most plentiful of African Butterflies of the Vanessa group are the species of Precis (Hiibner) ; a genus, however, which is dis- tinguished by very slight characters. The wings are generally more or less deeply concave on the hind-margin, commencing with a projection below the tip, sometimes slightly marked, and sometimes forming a strong tooth \ there is also usually a PRECIS. 103 slight projection above the hinder angle; in some species, however, as in the bright blue Precis rhadama (Boisduval), from Madagascar, the hind-margin is hardly concave. The hind wings are denticulated, and the anal angle is generally produced into a point, and sometimes into a short tail, and there is frequently a more or less strongly pronounced angular projec- tion in the middle of the hind-margin. These are Butterflies of moderate size, usually measuring about two inches or more across the wings, and are generally brown, with tawny bands, or with the tawny colour spread over most of the wing ; while P. amestris (Drury) and its allies are blue, with a sub- marginal row of red spots. Sometimes there are one or more distinctly-marked eyes towards the anal angle of the hind- wings. Their habits resemble those of Vanessa. Salamis, Boisduval, is another African genus closely allied to Precis, but considerably larger, measuring three or four inches across the fore-wings, which are always sub-falcate below the tip, and then strongly concave ; the hind-wings are strongly angulated or sub-caudate at or below the middle of the hind- margin. There are also conspicuous sub-marginal eyes on the under surface of the wings, represented above by brown spots, but the one at the anal angle is well marked on both sides of the wings. The most characteristic species of the group are those allied to S. anacardii (Linn.), several of which are common in Africa and Madagascar. They are white or pearly- white, often more or less suffused with a pinkish iridescence, and with more or less broad brown borders and brown sub-marginal spots. Other species are blue. Indian and Austro- Malay an Regions. Precis is represented by several species in these countries. They are generally brown, with darker transverse lines, and some of them are ornamented with a sub-marginal row of M 104 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. red eyes. The wings, as a rule, are, much less strongly angu- lated than in many of the African species, and only slightly, if at all, produced at the anal angle of the hind-wings. The genus Pscudergolis (Felder) differs from Precis in the very long club of the antennoe. The wings are dentated, with a slight projection on the hind-margin of the fore-wings above the middle. The commonest species, P. veda (Kollar), found in North India, measures about two inches across the wings, which are of a golden brown, with three black transverse lines, the outermost zig-zag, and between the two outer lines runs a row of black spots. Rhinopalpa (Felder) much resembles the African genus Salamis, but the costa of the fore-wings is less strongly arched. The tip of the fore-wings is produced, there being a slight pro- jection below it, under which the hind-margin is concave, but less deeply than in Salamis, nor does the hinder angle project so much. The hind-wings are rectangular or obtusely angu- lated, with a tooth or short tail at the angle. The colour, how- ever, differs very much from that of Salamis, The species of Rhinopalpa, which measure two or three inches across the wings, are reddish or tawny, with brown borders, or they may be brown, with a broad orange band across both wings. Dif- ferent species are found in Malacca, the Philippines, Java, Sumatra, New Guinea, &c. Neotropical Region. In addition to the American species of Junonia, the only other representative of- this group is Napeodesjucunda (Hiibner), a fine insect, four inches in expanse, with a very sharp projec- tion on the hind-margin below the tip, under which is a deep concavity. The hind-wings are rounded and sinuated, with the anal angle projecting inwards in a large obtuse tooth, and (he outer part of the inner margin is deeply concave. It is a PLATE XXIX. Morpho achiUes KALLIMA. 105 dark brown Butterfly, with a broad blue band running across the central part of the wings between the middle of the fore- wings and the middle of the hind-wings ; there is also a blue spot towards the tip of the fore-wings. Bates remarks that it " is found only in swampy and thinned parts of the forest that clothe the delta-lands of the Amazons. ... It prefers the humid cacao-groves on the islands, settling on fallen fruits ; its flight is low, but exceedingly swift." GENUS KALLIMA. Kallima, Westwood, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 224 (1850) Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 128 (1887). The species of Kallima are insects of considerable size. They are allied to the Vanessa, with the wings very broad in proportion to their length, the fore-wings pointed, and some- times slightly hooked, and the hind -margin first concave and then convex. The hind-wings are much produced at the anal angle, within which the inner margin is concave. The projec- tion usually takes the form of a short, broad, and rather obtuse tail. The wings are usually either brown or blue above, with a broad orange-yellow, blue, or white band running obliquely from the middle of the costa of the fore-wings to below the middle of the hind-margin. On its inner side there are generally two transparent spots, but the under side of the wings is far more remarkable, for it is always of a more or less varied brown or grey,- exactly resembling a withered leaf both in colour and markings, when the wings are closed. A darker line, corres- ponding to the mid-rib of the leaf, runs from the tip of the fore-wings to the tail on the hind-wings ; and there are some- times lateral lines as well. The species of Kallima inhabit India and the Malayan islands. One or two are found in Africa, but they differ a little from the types of the genus, as the fore-wings are less pointed, and the resemblance of the under side to a M 2 106 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. withered leaf is much less remarkable. In the African species, also, the leaf-like pattern of the under surface is not always identical, and the same species often exhibits several forms of leaf pattern below. THE INDIAN LEAF-BUTTERFLY. KALLIMA HUTTONI. (Plate XX., Fig. i.) Kattima huttoni^ Moore, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1879, p. 12 ; De NiceV., Butterflies Ind., ii., p. 263, note (1886). There are several Indian species of Kallima much resem- bling the one figured by us. K. hnttoni is a native of Northern India, and was originally described from Masuri. It measures three inches or rather more across the wings, which are of a rather dull blue at the base. The fore-wings are crossed by an oblique orange band, moderately broad, and running from the middle of the costa to above the hinder angle. On its inner side this is narrowly and not sharply bordered with black, and is rather irregular ; one of the indentations contains a small oblong transparent spot. The outer portion of the wing beyond the band is black, with a white sub-apical spot ; the apex of the wing is not very pointed ; the blue of the hind- wings shades into broad brown borders on the inner and hind margins, and there is a zig-zag blackish sub-marginal line run- ning down into the tail on the hind-wings, and slightly con- tinued on the fore-wings near the hinder angle ; the under side is brown, speckled with black, and with a blackish line edged outside with dark reddish-brown, running from the costa near the tip of the fore-wings to the end of the tail on the hind- wings. There are also three dark brown stripes running obliquely towards it from the basal half of the costa of the fore- wings, that nearest the base being the broadest, and continued across the upper part of the hind-wings. A sub-marginal zig- zag brown line runs across all the wings, turning inwards about CORYPILfcOLA. 107 the middle of the hind-wings, and running somewhat obliquely, and indented to the middle line. At about the point where the sub-marginal line is cut by the upper sub-costal nervure, another brown line runs obliquely to the central line, nearly parallel to the straight lower part of the sub-marginal line. Outside this inner line is a row of five very indistinct eyes with grey rings and small black pupils, the fifth, however, having a white pupil instead of a black one. On the fore- wings the oblique transparent spot stands just outside the cen- tral line, opposite the point where the first inner line adjoins it ; this spot is surrounded by a pale yellowish iris, like those on the hind-wings, and there is a row of black spots above it, between the nervures, running obliquely outside the central line. The sub-apical vitreous spot is also, of course, visible on the under side. This species is very similar to several others from North India, but may be known by its somewhat obtuse fore-wings, and the inconspicuous central vitreous spot. In some of the other species the tip of the fore-wings is long and pointed. The specimens in the British Museum are from Masuri and Nepal. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO KALLIMA. In addition to the African representatives of Kallima, we find the smallest species of this group, belonging to the genus Coryphceola, Butler, in Madagascar. The type of this genus, C. eurodoce, Westwood, much resembles a Precis in size and colour though not in shape; it measures about two inches across the wings, which are brown, with a fulvous band, mar- ginal on the hind-wings, but sub-marginal and curving inwards to the costa on the fore-wings. The tip of the fore-wings is strongly falcate, and the anal angle of fhe hind-wings, which are rather long and not angulated^ is produced into a tail, curving slightly outwards. io8 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORV. Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions. The species of Dokschallia, Felder, measure three or four inches across the wings, but are, on an average, smaller than Kallima. The wings are narrower, the fore-wings being slightly produced at the apex, but not pointed or falcate, and the hind-margin is slightly and regularly concave. The hind- wings are rather long, with the hind-margin gradually curved, and are produced into a short obtuse tooth at the anal angle. They are reddish or tawny at the base, with more or less of the hind-margins, and the apical region of the fore-wings, black. They have no transparent spots, but generally well-marked eyes on the under surface ; and the leaf-like colouring is not more pronounced than in many other genera of Nymphalida. There are several species, the genus ranging from India to Australia. GENUS ANARTIA. Anartia, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 33 (1816); Doubl, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 214 (1849); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 126 (1887). This is a small genus of Tropical American Butterflies, resembling Vanessa, but belonging to the sub-group with naked eyes; and differing from all the allied genera in having the first branch of the sub-costal nervure more or less united with the costal. The wings are rather short and broad, with open wing-cells, and there is a short tail at the outer lower angle of the hind-wings. Only about four species are known, but they are very common insects ; and Bates remarks : " The species have the habits and mode of flight of the Vanessa sm& Juno nice, and are found only in open, weedy, and bushy places, chiefly in the neighbourhood of towns." The larvae are clothed with long, soft, diverging hair on the ERGOLIS AND ITS ALLIES. 109 sides of each segment, and feed on Cassava, and other com- mon American plants. ANARTIA AM ALT HE A. Papilio amalthea. Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 478, no. 118 (1758); Clerck, Icones, pi. 40, fig. 3 (1764); Cramer, Pap. Exot, Hi., pi. 209, A, B (1780). Papilio amathea, Linn., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 288 (1764). Vanessa amathea^ Godt., Enc. Meth., ix., p. 298, no. 4 (1819). Anartia amalthea, Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 216, pi. 24, fig. 5 (l847)- This pretty insect measures two inches or more across the wings, which are dark brown, with a broad red band, variable in width, running from below the costa of the fore-wings, where it is bifid, nearly to the anal angle of the hind-wings ; on the latter it is intersected with a black line. Beyond this there are two rows of white spots on the fore-wings, and one on the hind-wings, and the fringes are also chequered with white. Towards the anal angle of the hind-wings are several red spots. The under side is yellowish-brown towards the base, and brown towards the margins, the white spots being distinct, but the red markings more or less obsolete. The body is dull black above, and the club of the antennae is tipped with reddish. The Butterfly is very common throughout Southern and Central America. The other species resemble A. amalthea in shape, but are brown, with white transverse bands, and tawny markings ; or white, with brown and tawny markings ; always with an ocellated spot towards the hinder angle of the wings. THE GENUS ERGOLIS AND ITS ALLIES. After Anartia we may place three genera belonging to the Vanessa group, which were formerly included with Elymnias no LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. and some few other genera in a heterogeneous family called Eurytelidce, which is now abolished. The species are of rather small size for Nymphalidce, measuring only about an inch and a half, or two inches at most, across the wings, and are confined to Africa and the East Indies. The genus Eurytela (Boisduval) has rather short, broad, denticulated wings, and the fore-wings have usually a slight projection on the hind-margin a little below the tip, and a slighter one above the hinder angle, and between these the middle of the hind-margin is slightly and regularly concave. The hind-wings are also emarginat^ in the black and white E. fiilgurata (Bd.), from Madagascar. They vary considerably in colour; the commonest African species are E. dryope (Cramer), and E. hiarbas (Drury). These are brown Butterflies, with a con- spicuous sub marginal band, orange-tawny in the former, and white in the latter species, this band being broadest towards the anal angle of the hind-wings, and tapering gradually towards the costa of the fore-wings, which it does not reach. They are described by Mr. Trimen as sporting around bushes. One of the Eastern species,^, castelnaui, Felder, from Malacca, Borneo, &c., is of a beautiful blue on the upper side of the wings. The genus Ergo/is, Boisduval, has broader and less dentated hind-wings, though the hind-margin of the fore-wings is always concave in the middle. The East Indian species are generally brown above, with dark transverse zig-zag lines, and the under side is brown or brownish-red, with dark transverse lines. The dilated costal nervure will distinguish this genus from Pseud- ergolis, which it much resembles. Except in colour, it also much resembles Eurytela, and the larvae of both are spiny, with bifid spines on the head. The species of Ergolis frequent open bushy places. The African species are brown, often more or less suffused and banded with blue. Hypanis, Boisduval, the third genus of this little group, is found, like the two preceding genera, both in Africa and India, EUNICA. Ill but differs from them in the nearly entire margins of the wings, which are fulvous, with black markings toward the base, costa, and hind-margins ; the under surface of the hind-wings is buff, with black spots or white lines. Mr. Trimen describes the South African species as frequenting grassy and bushy places on the borders of woods, flying low, and not rapidly, and often settling on the ground or on the herbage. GENERA ALLIED TO EUNICA. The Butterflies of this section stand between the Vanessa and CatagrammcE) and are of moderate size, and usually of splendid colours. With the exception of the genus Crenis^ Boisduval, which is African, they are all confined to Tropical America. Most of them are black or brown Butterflies, measuring two or three inches across the wings, and splendidly adorned with blue, green, yellow, white, or orange. Red, so usual a colour in Catagramma and its allies, is rather uncommon in the present group, and, where it does occur, it is generally confined to the base of the under side of the fore-wings. Sometimes the latter are more or less produced at the tip, with the hind margin slightly concave beneath, and the hind-wings are rounded and often slightly denticulated, but never tailed. They are insects of strong flight, the males frequenting sunny places, or the banks of streams, while the females, which are often very dissimilar, and frequently much duller in colouring, conceal themselves in the forest, and are much more rarely seen. Some are so unl-ke the males as to have been placed in different genera, before their relationship was discovered. The larvoe have long branching spines on the head, in addition to the shorter spines on the body. The genus Etmica^ Hiibner, is the most extensive of this group, and is numerously represented in all parts of Tropical America 112 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. The species are black or brown, and measure about two inches in expanse, and the males are adorned with rich blue or purple, differently arranged in various species, sometimes spreading over a great part of both wings from the base, sometimes con- fined to the fore wings, sometimes forming a sub-marginal band, and sometimes forming a sub-costal band on the fore- wings. One species, however, E. margarita (Godart), is nearly white, but some are brown in both sexes. The females are generally brown, with white markings on the fore-wings. The latter in this genus are generally not much longer than the hind-wings, and are not excavated, though sometimes slightly produced on the hind-margin below the tip. The under side of the hind-wings is generally light brown, with two transverse black lines, and a series of ocellated spots within them, con- sisting of a black pupil, sometimes centred with white, and an outer black ring, separated from the pupil by a space con- colorous with the ground-colour. Libythina,) Felder, contains only one species, Z. cuvieri (Godart), found on the Lower Amazons, and in the West Indies. It is brown, with the outer part of the fore-wings black, spotted with bluish-white, and measures an inch and a half across the wings. It may be known from any other Butterfly of this group by its very long palpi, and its long hind-wings, which are slightly pointed, the hind margin and inner margin con- verging in a somewhat unusual manner. Bates describes it as not being a forest insect, but as frequenting swampy meadows, where both sexes fly slowly about low bushes. Closely allied to Eunica is the one African, indeed, the only Old World genus of this group, Crenis, of Boisduval. The South African species are brown, with tawny markings ; the fore-wings are considerably produced at the tips, and the hind- wings have a sub-marginal row of eyes on the under surface, sometimes indicated above. The species found in Madagascar is similarly coloured. MYSCELIA. 1 1 3 Those met with on both coasts of Tropical Africa are larger and broader-winged insects, generally exceeding two inches in expanse, and with the fore-wings hardly produced at the tips. They are adorned with very delicate tints of mauve or light blue ; the fore-wings are orange beneath, and the hind-wings are banded or spotted with blue and orange in varying pro- portions. Mr. Trimen describes the South African species as flying about trees, and settling on the trunks and branches ; the pupa has a bifid head. The handsomest South American genera of this group of Nymphalina are Epiphile and My seel ia of Doubleday, and Catonephele of Hiibner. In all these the hind-margin of the fore-wings is frequently more or less concave below the tip. The species of Epiphile measure two inches or a little more in expanse, and there is usually a slight tooth on the hind- margin of the fore-wings below the tip. The wings are black, sometimes suffused with blue or purple, and broadly banded with orange across both wings. There is a second band on the fore-wings, present even when the inner band is absent, owing to the prevailing colour of the wings being blue or brown ; and this is sometimes yellowish, or even white. Towards the tip of the fore-wings is a conspicuous white spot. On the under surface the fore-wings resemble the upper side ; the hind-wings are usually of a purplish-brown, with a sub- marginal row of eyes, which, though well-defined, is nearly ob- literated by the ground-colour, and there is a whitish mark on the middle of 'the costa. The typical species of Myscelia resemble Epiphile in size and shape ; but there is a tendency to arigulation in the hind-wings of several species. The commonest of these is the Brazilian M. orsis (Drury), which is of a brilliant blue with white spots in the male. It measures about two inches across the 1 14 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. wings ; the female is larger, and is brown, with a white stripe in the cell of the fore-wings, white spots on the fore-wings and white lines on the hind-wings, arranged in a similar way to that seen in so many Eastern Butterflies of the Limenitis group, especially in the genera Neptis and Athyma. The genus Catomphele^ Hiibner, includes the largest and handsomest Tropical American species of this group, and those in which the sexes are most dissimilar. The males are black in the first section, with a broad orange band across both wings, which is sometimes interrupted near the tip of the fore-wings, or replaced by two large orange spots. The females are black, with yellow markings, arranged as in Neptis or Athyma> or are black, banded with yellow on the fore-wings, and with either a large orange blotch, with black markings, on the hind-wings, or with some bluish sub-marginal lines. The second section is black, with an oblique greenish-blue band on the fore-wings, and a sub-marginal band on the hind-wings, or the hind-wings in the male are orange at the base, or banded with orange ; the wings being green beneath in both sexes. The species of Catonephek measure three inches across the wings ; and the fore-wings, which are nearly entire in the males, are produced at the tip in the females, with the hind-margin concave. Bates writes : " They are forest Butterflies, the males being seen sporting in the gleams of sunlight which penetrate the dense shades, and the females wandering among the lower trees. I bred one species of this genus, C. acontiiis^ of Linnaeus. The larva is light green, with steel-blue head, and i-3 armed with branched spines, two of which on the head are of great length and verticillate ; the pupa is light green, varied with pink, and has the back of the thorax deeply excavated, and irregular in outline." The male of Catonephele obrina (Linn.) is a black, blue- green, and orange Butterfly, with a green under surface. It CATAGRAMMA. 11$ was one of the first insects which attracted the special atten- tion of Wallace and Bates near Para, and Dr. Wallace records his subsequent disappointment when, on laying down his col- lecting-box for a few moments in the verandah of the house where they were staying, he found it already full of ants, and several of his specimens destroyed. Some of the smaller species of this group are fulvous or yellowish-fulvous above, with black tips to the fore-wings ; one, Peria lamis (Cramer), which does not measure more than an inch and a quarter across the wings, is brown above, and dull yellow, with transverse black lines and intermediate spots, below. It is widely distributed in the north of South America. GENUS CATAGRAMMA. Catagramma^ Boisduval, Spe*c. Gdn. Ldpid., i., pi. 9, fig. 2 (1836) ; Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 243 (1850) ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 147 (1888). Type, Catagramma pygas (Godart). There are a great number of middle-sized or rather small Nymphatina in Tropical America, distinguished by the absence of spines on the first joint of the tarsi in the female, and by the spiny larvae. Many of these are adorned with the most beautiful colours and patterns, and among them the genus Catagramma and its immediate allies hold a conspicuous place. Most of these species are of a velvety-black, with blue, green, crimson, or ochreous bands and markings on the upper sur- face ; but three of the more important genera can be readily dis- tinguished by the markings of the under surface alone. Thus, Callicore, Hiibner, is black above, generally with a blue or green band across the fore-wings, and a border of the same colour to the hind-wings. The under surface of the fore-wings is red, with ii6 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY a broad black border, crossed by grey stripes, or the apex is greyish. The hind-wings are of a light grey, with more or less broad and complete black rings running all round, unless par- tially interrupted on the costa. Within these are two smaller rings, each enclosing two black dots or spots. The English in Brazil call these Butterflies " Eighty-eights," on account of the similarity of the central markings to the figures 88. They measure about an inch and a half across the wings. The species of Perisama, Doubleday, are rather larger, and are similarly marked above, but usually have brassy green or blue radiating markings at the base of the fore-wings in addition. On the under surface, the fore-wings are sometimes marked as in Callicore^ but are frequently more or less black, with blue markings, or are yellow at the base and tip. The hind-wings are grey, brown, or yellow, with two parallel lines, and a row of small black spots between. In Catagramma the upper side is usually marked with large bands or masses of red, variously arranged in different species, and also occurring in the females. The red markings are often replaced by orange, or by an inter- mediate shade. Many of the species are coloured as in C. aslarte (Cramer) which we have figured; others are marked with two very large eyes on the under surface of the hind- wings, or with yellow stripes on a black ground, which some- times cover nearly the whole of the wing, or are intersected by a row of bluish spots. In fact, the species of Catagramma are nearly always more or less adorned with blue spots beneath. They have a rather lofty flight, and are fond of settling on the trunks of trees. Callicore is described as having a rather slow, sailing flight, but it shares with some species of Catagramma the habit of settling on filth, or at the edges of pools. THE COMMON SOLDIER-BUTTERFLY. CATAGRAMMA PYGAS. Nymphalis pygas^ Godart, Enc. Meth., ix., p. 423, no. 232 PLATE XXI astcurte, pyranuis. CATAGRAMMA. 1 17 Catagramma pygas, Blanchard, Voy. Pole Sud, Ins., p. 222, no. 786, pi. 32, figs. 6, 7 (1844); II er rich S chaff., Ausser- europ. Schmett, pi. 9, figs. 15-18 (1853). Catagramma hydaspcs, Boisd (nee Drury), Spe'c. Gen. Ldp., i., pi. 9, fig. 2 (1836). A brown Butterfly, flushed with blue in the male, and with the base of the fore-wings red below the costa to the end of the cell, or beyond, and above the inner margin nearly to the hind margin. There is a short macular oblique whitish or yellowish stripe across the tip of the fore-wing, and a pale blue sub-marginal stripe towards the anal angle of the hind- wings. On the under surface of the hind-wings there is a row of long blue dashes beyond the inner rings; of the latter, the uppermost contains four bluish-white spots, and the lower, two. This species, which is the type of the genus Catagramma^ measures about two inches across the wings, and is common in Brazil. THE BANDED SOLDIER-BUTTERFLY. CATAGRAMMA ASTARTE. (Plate XXL, Figs. I, 2.) Papilio astarte, Cram., Pap. Exot, iii., pi. 256, figs. C. D. (i779)- Catagramma sinamara^ Hewitson, Exot. Butterflies, i., Cat.) pi. 3, figs. 20, 21 (1884:? ?). The male of this species measures about two inches and a quarter across the wings, which are black above, with crimson markings ; the hind-margins are marked with white between the nervures. The fore- wings are crimson from the base nearly to the middle, except narrowly along the costa; and this colour is continued from the base of the hind-wings as a broad band, rounded at the end, nearly to the hind-margin. On r 1 8 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. the fore-wings a crimson band runs somewhat obliquely from beyond the middle of the costa to above the anal angle, and before the tip is a third short crimson dash. On the hind- wings there are two small white dots near the anal angle. The under surface of the fore- wings resembles the upper, but there is a short ochreous streak at the base of the costa, the red band is slightly ochraceous at the extremities, and the sub- apical crimson spot is replaced by a short ochreous line, followed by a blue one. The hind-wings are black, with an ochreous line just beyond the base, curving round close to the inner-margin for three-fourths of its length. Beyond this is a large oval ochreous figure, starting from the costa, where it is slightly incomplete and edged by a black line, filling the greater part of the middle of the wing ; within it are three blue spots, arranged in a triangle, the uppermost being linear in shape, the lower ones rounded ; a short ochreous dash separates the upper one from the others. Beyond the oval figure is a curved row of eight blue spots, the upper ones linear, the lower ones rounded, extending from the costa to the inner margin ; and beyond these there is a sub-marginal ochreous curved line. The body appears to be black, with a red collar; the orbits are white, and the legs are spotted with black and white. We believe C. sinamara of Hewitson to be the female. It is orange-tawny over the greater part of the fore-wings, except to- wards the apical region, and has a short yellow stripe near the tip ; and the hind-wings are tinged with the same colour at the base. If C. sinamara turns out to be a distinct species, the female of C. astarte will certainly be found to resemble it. The Butterfly described and figured by Hewitson as the female of C. astarte in the "Transactions of the Entomological Society of London " (2), vol. i, p. 100, pi. u, p. 3, is the true female of CATAGRAMMA. 119 C. rynjsnra (Doubleday and Hewitson), a species quite distinct from C. astarte. The latter has frequently been mistaken for C. codomannus (Fabricius), the type of which (a male) is in the Banksian collection in the British Museum, and is from Brazil. It is flushed with rich purple, as in C. texa, Hewitson — a species differing much from it in pattern—and the red at the base of the hind-wings does not extend below the median nervure. The inner-margin is damaged; but the specimen is otherwise identical with C. miles, Bates, in which the yellow sub-marginal line ceases before the anal angle, and the penultimate blue spot throws a spur outwards. In addition, the upper blue streak is separated, not by a short yellow dash, but by a nearly continuous stripe. Of C. miles, Bates writes: "This species closely resembles C. astarte in the colours of the under surface, the inner part of the black band left between the two yellow circles touching the costa, as in C. astarte. It entirely replaces C. astarte on the Upper Amazon, and is an abundant insect, especially near St. Paulo,* where every day in the showery season numbers are seen even in the village, enlivening with their bright crimson liveries the dull, muddy streets." Cramer described this species from Surinam, and I am not quite certain that the specimens which stand in different collections from various parts of South America under the names of C. astarte and C. codomannus, and which vary con- siderably among themselves, really belong to the former species. They do not possess the two white dots on the upper side of the fore-wings, and the pattern of the under side differs a little, especially towards the anal angle, and the bands are yellow instead of ochrcous. Of course these differences may be due to incorrect drawing or colouring; but I have found that * This town, on the Upper Amazons, must not be confounded with the province of the same name in South Brazil. N 120 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. in many cases where such inaccuracies are suspected, the suspicion has only been occasioned by attempting to fit a description or figure to an allied form from a different locality, and that, when one gets the right insect from the true locality, the author and draughtsman proved to have been more accurate than was supposed. By applying this rule I have often been able to re-e ;t:blioh disputed species, the identity of which had been considered insoluble, and I am therefore inclined to believe that when an author condemns a description or figure as inaccurate, the fault is at least as likely to rest with the critic, as with the original describer or artist, though I once met with extraordinary discrepancies in figures made from the same specimen by different artists. GENUS ILEMATERA. Hfcmatera^ Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 231 (1849); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 149 (1887). This is a small genus, containing only two South American species, much resembling Catagramma, but with rather shorter fore-wings and more slender antennae. The hind-wings are mottled beneath, without the sharply-defined markings which are so conspicuous in Catagramma. H^MATERA PYRAMUS. Papilio pyramus, Fabr., Spec. Ins., ii., p. 130, no. 590 (1781) ; Drury, 111. Exot. Ent., iii., pi. 23, figs. 3, 4 (1782) ; Stoll, Suppl. Cram., pi. 32, figs. C. C. A. (1790). Hamatera pyramus^ Staud., Exot Schmett., i., p. 122, pi. 43 (1886). (Plate XXL, Figs. 3, 4.) This prettily-coloured Butterfly measures about an inch and three-quarters between the tips of the wings, or rather less. It is blue-black above, with a broad curved scarlet band, which extends to about the middle of the hind-wings. On the under CALLITHEA. 121 surface the fore-wings are red at the base, the apical half being brown, with grey markings. The hind-wings are irregularly mottled with grey and brown, and there is a row of bluish spots parallel to the hind-margins, which are yellowish, bordered with black and blue contiguous lines. This Butterfly is found in various parts of South America, as is also the type of the genus, H. thysbe (Doubleday and Hewitson), which is smaller, with the red colouring of the fore-wings extending to the base. In the neighbourhood of Catagramma and its allies is to be placed another very beautiful genus of South American Butter- flies, Callithea (Boisd.). The species are generally considerably larger than those of Catagramma, measuring two inches and upwards in expanse, but they may usually be distinguished from them at a glance by the pattern and Colouring of the wings beneath. The type of the genus is C. sapphira (Boisd.), in which the male is of the richest blue, with a broad velvety- black band running from the middle of the fore-wings to the inner-margin of the hind- wings ; the under side is bluish-green, with the inner-margin of the fore-wings black, and the hind- wings orange at the base, and with three rows of black spots parallel to the hind-margin. The female is black, with the base of the wings blue, the fore-wings with a broad oblique band of pale orange from the middle of the costa to the hinder angle, and the hind-wings with a dull green sub-marginal band on the lower half. Bates found this species abundantly in the dry woods near Santarem, sometimes even entering the town. The larva is armed with branching spines, two on the head being much longer than the rest. Other species of the genus are equally beautiful. They may be black, with or without purple at the base, and a marginal or sub-marginal band of blue or green on all the wings. Other species are blue or purple, with the basal half of at least the N 2 122 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. fore-wings generally orange or red ; in these the base of the ivings is generally broadly orange or red. Different species are found throughout the northern half of South America, where they seem to be local, but gregarious, and generally abundant in their own localities. They may always be known by the sub-marginal black spots on as much of the outer half of the under side of the hind-wings as the basal colouring leaves green. It is true that one or two species of Agrias are simi- larly coloured beneath, but these are much larger and more robust Butterflies, with dentated hind-wings, whereas the hind- margins of Callithea are entire. THE GENUS GYN^CIA AND ITS ALLIES. This is a little group of Butterflies peculiar to Tropical America, with broad, short wings ; the hind-margin of the fore- wings almost entire, and the hind-wings generally slightly den- tated, and produced at the anal angle. Callizona aceste (Linn.) is a tawny species, with more than the apical half of the fore-wings black, crossed by an oblique tawny band, and with white spots before the tip, the tip of the hind-wings being likewise black. The under side of the hind- wings is grey, with black stripes running obliquely outwards from the costa, and others running inwards to the inner mar- gin. In this genus, the hind-wings, though forming a rather long oval, are not denticulated or produced. C. aceste is a common South American insect, and is in the habit of settling on tree trunks, with its wings held perpendicularly. The larva is spiny, with short spines in the head, and the pupa has long appendages on the head, as in Ageronia, A still commoner insect throughout all Tropical America is Gynceria dirce (Linn.), which greatly resembles Callizona aceste in its habits and transformations, but has shorter appen- dages on the head of the pupa. It is a larger Butterfly, gener- HYPOUMNAS. 123 ally expanding over two inches, and the wings are brown ; the fore-wings having an oblique sulphur-yellow band running from near the base to just above the hinder angle. The hind-wings are sub-dentated, with a short truncated projection at the anal angle. On the under surface the band is white, and all the wings are more or less obliquely striped with intersecting grey and black lines, which are tinged with yellow towards the hind- margins. Next to this genus Schatz and Rober place Smyrna, Hiibner, which includes one or two Butterflies from Mexico and Brazil, which were formerly placed near Agrias, Doubl., bat the discovery of the larva proves that their true affinities are with Gynacia. They are much larger insects, measuring over three inches across the wings, which are marked above nearly as in Callizona aceste^ but are of a deeper fulvous. The hind-wings are dentated, and are slightly excavated on the lower part of the hind-margin, and then produced at the anal angle into two short obtuse prominences, with a slight depres- sion between them. The under side of the hind-wings is brown, covered with a number of bluish-grey curving and un- dulating lines ; towards the centre runs a straight broad whitish band, with irregular edges, and towards the hind- margin is a row of variously-coloured eyes in several concentric rings. THE GENUS HYPOLIMNAS AND ITS ALLIES. HypolimnaS) Hiibner, or Diadema, Boisduval, as it was formerly called, is the typical genus of one of the most remark- able sections of mimicking species in the Nymphalince. The Butterflies of this genus are large insects, generally expanding three or four inches across the wings, which are rather broad. The fore- wings are not much produced, and the hind-margin is generally slightly concave. The hind-wings are rounded, or more frequently rather long, and more or less dentated, 124 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. rarely sub caudate or concave. The species are all tropical or sub-tropical, and are most abundant in the Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions, though the first two genera we have to notice are peculiar to Tropical America, and are distin- guished from the others by the strongly dentated hind-wings, with a short tail in the middle of the hind-margin. Victorina steneks (Linn.) is remarkable for its superfi- cial resemblance in colour to Metamorpha dido of Linnaeus, though the green is more broken into blotches on the fore- wings, and the cell is not filled up with green. The shorter fore-wings, strongly dentated hind-wings, and the black and tawny markings between the green blotches on the under side will readily distinguish it. Like M. dido, it is common throughout Tropical America, and Bates writes : " It fre- quents open sunny places, such as deserted plantations and the borders of woods." The species of Amphircnc, Doubleday, differ from Victorina in their shorter and broader wings, and still more in their colour. They are brown, with a white band across the wings, which is oblique on the fore-wings and sub-marginal on the hind-wings ; in V. superba, Bates, from Guatemala, the band is edged with blue ; and in V. epaphus (Latr.), the type of the genus, the apical region of the fore-wings is tawny. The smallest species of the genus, V. sulpitia (Cramer), found in Guiana, is brown, with a broad transverse white band, inter- rupted below the costa of the fore-wings ; it resembles a species of Adelpha, Hiibner, or Pyrrhagyra^ Hiibner, in appearance, in the neighbourhood of which Victorina (which also formerly included Amphirene] has been placed by some writers. This species only measures about two inches and a half across the wings ; the other species of the group measure nearly four inches in expanse. The species of Hypolimnas, Hiibner, are most numerous in HYPOLIMNAS. 12$ the Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions. They are generally black, with blue and white markings; and the females are more or less tawny. One of the commonest species is H. misippus (Linn.), in which the male is black, with a white oblique band on the fore-wings, a smaller one at the tip, and a broader band or blotch on the centre of the hind-wings, all bordered on both sides with rich violet-blue. The under side of the fore-wings is paler brown, with a broad white transverse band, having a brown notch in the middle of the costal end. The female is, at first sight, almost indistinguishable from Limnas chrysippus (Linn.), but has a large black spot on the costa of the hind-wings, and no spots in the centre, where the discoidal cell is also quite open. It varies, moreover, in the same way as L. chrysippus. It is common in Tropical Asia and Africa, and has been introduced into the north of South America. In India and the Indian Archipelago there are a great number of closely-allied species, which used to be con- sidered local varieties of H. bolina (Linn.). The males are very similar to those of H. misippus^ but the blue and white spots are smaller, and the white band of the under surface is narrower, duller, and not indented on the costa. The females, however, vary very much ; they are larger than the males, and sometimes resemble them, except in having a sub-marginal row of white dots ; they are sometimes spotted and banded with white, with a large tawny blotch on the costa of the fore- wings, but sometimes they are entirely brown, with a sub-mar- ginal row of white dots, and a few blue spots towards the costa of the fore-wings. Among the other Eastern species are some which much re- semble Euplcea in colouring. Others belong to a group found in the Moluccas, &c., of which the largest and best known is H. pandarus (Linn.). This often measures nearly five inches across the wings, which are black, with a violet-blue 126 LLOYD'S NATUPAL HISTORY. blotch on the hind-wings in the male, and connected sub- marginal orange markings. The female has two converging rows of large white spots on the fore-wings, and a broad sub- marginal orange band on the hind-wings, containing a row of oval black eyes, ocellated with pale blue. This band is repre- sented on the under side of the hind-wing in both sexes, and the blue pupils of the eyes are much larger. H. salmaris (Drury) is a common African Butterfly, four inches in expanse, and broadly banded with blue and white on a black ground. The African genus Enralia, Westwood, has rather longer and narrower fore-wings than typical Hypolimnas. The spe- cies are black-bordered, with white hind-wings, a white sub- apical band on the fore-wings, and a broader oblique one nearer the base, or a white space on the inner-margin. They mimic various species of the genus Amauris in the Danaina. Pseudacrcea, Westwood, is another African genus, which is usually placed in the neighbourhood of Hypolimnas > though Schatz and Rober consider it more nearly allied to Limenitis in its neuration. The species are black, with red spots and markings, or black and white, and closely resemble the larger species of Gnesia and Planema in colour. Some of the smaller species, however, which are found both in Africa and Mada- gascar, measure about two inches across, have shorter wings, green or white towards the base, and have but little resemblance to Acrczintz. There are several peculiar East Indian genera of rather small extent, which are almost confined to the Asiatic conti- nent, and are most numerous in Northern India. One of these is Hestina (Moore), the type of which, H. assimilis (Linn.), is a common insect in India and China. It is about three inches in expanse, and is of a dark brown, with buff streaks and spots arranged in transverse lines op the fore- EURIPUS. 127 wings, and having streaks which radiate from the base between the nervures of the hind-wings, in the same way as in Tirumala, and other genera of green Danaintz. The lower part of the hind-margin is broadly black, and marked with a row of large red spots. The hind-margin of the fore-wings is slightly con- cave, and that of the hind-wings is dentated and very slightly angulated in the middle. Calinagci) Moore, is a genus which was formerly regarded as allied to Parnassius, but is now placed near Hypolimnas It is brown, with broad dull white stripes radiating from the base, beyond which are larger spots, and then one or two irregular rows of spots between these and the hind-margin ; the thorax is red, and the antennae unusually short. The wings are almost entire. The insect measures about three inches in expanse, and is of a very peculiar form, the costa of the fore-wings being long, but the hind-margin is so oblique that the hind-wings, which are very long, and slightly angu- lated in the middle of the hind-margin, project far beyond the hinder angle of the lore-wings. The few known species are found in Northern India at a considerable elevation. Another curious genus is Eunpus, Doubl., the type of which, E. halitherseS) Doubl. and Hew., is a common North Indian species, about two inches in expanse. It is black, with the base spotted with white on the fore-wings, and streaked with white on the hind-wings, having also two rows of white sub-marginal spots. The hind-margin of the fore- wings is slightly concave below the middle, and the hind-wings are slightly angulated, with a deep concavity between the tooth at the angle, and the rather projecting anal angle. The female, which differs so much from the male that it was origi- nally described by Mr. Moore as generically distinct, under the name of Hestina isa, is larger, and has longer and more rounded wings. It is brown, with a broad oblique white 128 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. bar on the fore-wings, and a sub-marginal row of spots ; on the hind-wings there are two rows of sub-marginal spots, and long white streaks radiating from the base between the nervures. This insect greatly resembles the female of Danisepa rhadamanthus (Fabr.), which belongs to one of the genera allied to Euplcea. Several very handsome species which are now generally referred to Euripus are met with in Japan ; but they are very unlike the small E. halitherses which we have just described. The hind-margins of the fore-wings are only slightly and regularly concave, and the hind-wings are broad, regularly curved, and dentated, but not angulated or emarginate. Among these is £. charonda of Hewitson, one of the largest and most beautiful Butterflies found in Japan, measuring from four and a half to six inches across the wings. The female, which is considerably larger than the male, is dark brown, with large ochreous spots, which become white towards the base; from the middle of the base of the fore-wings runs a slender white line. There is a sub-marginal row of ochreous spots round all the wings, largest on the hind ones. On the fore-wings there are three oblique bands of larger spots, the first consisting of a dumb-bell-shaped spot in the cell, with two larger ones below ; the second runs from before the middle of the costa to the lower sub-marginal spots, and the outermost meets the sub- marginal spots at a third of their length. The hind-wings have three .rows of spots, the second rather irregular above, the innermost composed of very large spots below, and very small ones above. The male is similar, but is rich blue on all the wings, from the base to the second row of spots ; all the spots on the blue ground are white, and there is a large red spot at the anal angle of the hind-wings. This splendid insect flies very high, and it is difficult to obtain good specimens of it. It is most easily taken when ISODEMA. 129 sucking the sap of trees, exuding from the burrows formed by the larvse of large Moths belonging to the families Zenzeridcz and Hepialidce. Herona marathus, of Doubleday and Hewitson, is another North Indian species of this group, with the hind-margins dentated, and a slight concavity in the middle of each. It is brown, with a tawny band running from the base of the fore- wings below the cell, and three, partly macular, bands from the costa. The hind-wings have two broad tawny bands, converging at the ends, running from the inner-margin, and a sub-marginal tawny line towards the anal angle. Most of the Butterflies of this group resemble those of other dominant genera, and H. marathus is very like some species of Athyma, Westw., or Abrota, Moore, genera belonging to the Limenitis group, as regards, colour and pattern. Among the largest of the North Indian species allied to Diadema is Penthema lisarda (Doubleday), which measures between five and six inches across the wings. It is black, with broad buff radiating stripes between the nervures on the disc, and with large sub-marginal spots beyond. In the cell of the fore- wings are two or three long spots and stripes; the hind-wings having broad buff stripes at the base in and below the cell. On the under surface the wings are strongly tinged with rust-colour, except on the disc of the fore-wings. The hind-wings are dentated, and rather long. Another curious species is the Chinese Isodema adelma (Felder). It is of a dull black ; on the fore-wings a row of large white spots runs from near the base to the hinder angle; another short row from the costa, just before the middle ; and there are two rows of small sub-marginal spots. On the hind- wings is a single row of white sub-marginal spots, diminishing in size from the tip to the anal angle. The wings expand about three and a half inches, the fore-wings are short and broad, 130 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. and the hind- wings form a long oval, and are regularly curved and dentated. Among other North Indian Butterflies allied to Hypottmncu^ Out with the costa of the fore-wings straighter, and the hind- wings rounded and but slightly dentated, we may mention Stibochiona^ Butler. The Butterflies of this genus measure three inches across the wings, with some rows of blue and white sub-marginal spots. Neurosigma siva, of West wood, is a pale tawny Butterfly, expanding four inches, with large black spots towards the base, and zig-zag lines beyond, while the hind-margins of the fore-wings are broadly black, with two rows of pale yellow spots. Mynes, of Boisduval, a small genus confined to Australia, New Guinea, Ceram, &c., is placed near Hypolimnas, by Schatz and Rober, though it was formerly considered to be more nearly allied to Charaxes (Ochs.). These Butterflies expand two inches or more across the wings; the fore-wings are short and broad, and the hind-wings are rounded above, but almost rectangular below, with a projecting tooth at the outer angle, the space between this and the inner angle being dentated. The upper side is of a greenish-white with black borders, varying in width, and sometimes reducing the pale basal colouring to very small dimensions. The under surface varies in a similar way, but is nearly always adorned with red spots at the base and in different parts of the wings, and there are often yellow or bluish-green markings in addition, to relieve the plain black and white. GENUS AGERONIA. Agcronia^ Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmctt., p. 41 (1816); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 81 (1847) ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett, i'., p. 136 (1887). Type, A. chloe (Stoll). AGERONIA. 131 Antennas ralher long, slender, and gradually thickened ; palpi rather short ; eyes naked. Wings rather broad, with the hind-margins rounded, and only slightly dentated; cells closed by rudimentary nervures, the fore-wings with the costa arched, and the hind-margin regularly curved. "The larvae resemble those of Epicalia [Catonephele], Cal- lithea, &c., in being armed with branching spines, and in having two longer spines projecting from the summit of the head. They differ from the larvae of allied species in having, besides the shorter spines of the body, several longer and thicker hispid lobes proceeding from the second, third, fifth, tenth, and eleventh segments. They feed on the leaves of a succulent climbing plant on the borders of woods. " The chrysalides have a deep notch on the dorsal surface of the thorax, and two long flattened appendages proceeding from the head." (Bates.) Boisduval and Doubleday treated this genus as a separate family, on account of the statement of Lacordaire that the pupa is girt with a silken thread ; but on Bates discovering that this was an error, the genus was removed to the Nymphalida. Since then, however, Schatz has pointed out that Dr. W. Miiller has made further observations in the transformations otAgcronia> from which it appears that the pupa has the habit of raising the fore part of its body into a horizontal position in daylight, but sinks back into the usual position of the pupae of the Nym- fihalida, and hangs by the tail, when in darkness. That the species of Ageronia differ considerably both in habits and structure appears certain, and if this habit is peculiar to a species which was not bred by Bates (as is very possibly the case) it will account for his not having noticed it ; for had he done so, he would certainly have recorded it. I do not remember that such a habit has been noticed in the pupa of any other Butterfly. In many respects, this genus is one of special interest. The 132 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY species are not very numerous, but they are extremely abun- dant in Southern and Central America, to which regions they are confined. They are all of a blue or dark brown colour above, with white, brown, or blue spots, and markings, and often with a white bar across the fore-wings, especially in the females. The hind-wings are sometimes marked with a row of rather large, but not very sharply defined, sub-marginal eyes. The under surface is in some species brown, with red spots ; in others, the fore-wings are marked beneath with black, white, and grey in varying proportions, and the hind-wings are white, red, or yellow, the borders being often varied with black and white. Only one species, A. chloe (Stoll),* is noticed by Bates as found in the shades of the forest ; the others frequent " orange orchards, and open sunny places in the forest, settling on trunks Of trees with wings expanded, and when sporting or quarrelling with a companion, make a sharp cracking noise with their wings." (Bates?) The peculiar stridu- lation of these Butterflies was first noticed by Darwin at Rio Janeiro, and recorded by him in the "Voyage of the Beagle." AGERONIA ARETHUSA. (Plate XXII., Fig. I. Female.'] £ Papilio arethusa, Cramer, Pap. Exot, i., pi. 77, figs. E. F. (1775). $ Papilio laodamia, Cramer, op. at., ii., pi., 130, fig. A. (1777). This species is common in many parts of Central and Southern America. Cramer received both sexes from Surinam, but they differ so much, that he naturally supposed them to be different species. His figure of the female is here copied. The * This is the type of the genus ; it is dark blue, with red spots in the cells of the wings, and numerous black ones beyond ; there is an incomplete sub-marginal row of black eyes with white pupils, and there are some whitish spots towards the tip of the fore-wings. PLATE XXII a, aretfaasa. AGERON1A. 133 female measures three inches across the wings, and the male a little less. The latter is of a velvety-black colour, with many rows of small blue spots, arranged in two or three rows along the hind- and inner-margins, and along the costa of the fore- wings, the costa of the hind-wings being light brown. The rows of blue spots in the cell of the fore-wings do not extend beyond it, and those on the inner-margin cease at about half its length, leaving the middle of both pairs of wings free from spots, within the sub-marginal rows, from below the costa of the fore-wings, to the inner-marginal spots of the hind-wings. In the female, which we have figured, the whole surface of the wings is covered with larger blue spots than in the male, ar- ranged in rows, more or less parallel to the hind-margins, or to the inner-margin of the fore-wings. A rather broad white band, with a slight yellowish shade and with parallel sides above, but sloping outwards t6 a point below, runs from the middle of the costa of the fore-wings to two-thirds of the length of the hind-margin. The costa of the hind-wings is of a light brown with some reddish markings. The body is black above, spotted with blue, and the under surface in both sexes is of a dull black (greyish-brown along the inner-margin of the fore-wings), and the pectus and base of the fore-wings are marked with several crimson spots ; the hind-wings are marked with a row of large crimson sub-marginal spots, usually obsolete towards the costa, and there is also one on the inner-margin. The insect varies a little in the number, size, and arrange- ment of the blue spots of the upper, and the red spots of the under surface, and I have seen no specimens exactly corre- sponding with Cramer's figures. Whether these variations are local, casual, or betoken closely-allied species rather than varieties, can only be ascertained either by breeding, or by the examination of large series from different localities. 134 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. AGERONIA AMPHINOME. (Plate XX II., Fig. 2.) fdpilio amphinome, Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 473, no. 95 (1758); Cramer, Pap. Exot, i., pi. 54, figs. E. F. (1775)- This Butterfly measures about three inches and a half across the wings, which are black above, covered with pale blue markings of various shapes ; one row of blue spots towards the hind-margin of the hind-wings is imperfectly enclosed by curves and angles in such a way as to form a series of incom- plete oval ocellated spots. From just beyond the middle of the costa of the fore-wings, a rather broad white band, with irregular edges, runs nearly to the hinder angle. The under sur- face is black, the basal area being occupied by crimson mark- ings divided by the nervures, and radiating outwards from the base, extending, parallel to the inner-margin, nearly to the anal angle on the hind-wings ; above the anal angle, the streaks are shorter, and partly broken into spots. The white band is well marked on the under surface, and more sharply defined than on the upper, though its edges are still irregular. There is also a row of marginal and sub-marginal white spots on all the wings, the latter being replaced on the lower part of the hind-wings by the red spots which form a continuation of the basal markings. It is a common Butterfly in Southern and Central America. GENERA ALLIED TO AGERONIA. Panacea, of Godman and Salvin, is considered to be the nearest allied genus to Ageronia, but the species are larger and more robust, and much more handsomely coloured. The species of Pa?iacea, which are found in various countries of the northern half of South America, are blue, striped with black towards the base, and are black towards the apex of the fore-wings, and sometimes on the borders of the hind-wings ; the blue portion of DIDONIS. 135 the wings is bounded outside, at least on the fore-wings, by a broad green band ; the under side of the hind-wings is brown or red, with a slightly-marked row of ocellated spots. Of the habits of one of the best known species, P. pro! a (Doubleday and Hewitson), found in New Grenada and on the Upper Amazons, Bates remarks : " It descends into sunny openings, and into open grounds on fine days, entering the houses in villages and setting on the whitewashed walls, with its wings sometimes expanded and sometimes erect. Its flight is ex- tremely rapid and bold." About half-a-dozen species of Panacea are now known. Batesia^ Felder, is another magnificent genus, of which one or two closely-allied species or varieties inhabit the north-west of South America. They measure about four inches across the wings, which are black above, with the base and centre of the hind-wings deep blue, and a broad oblique crimson band on the fore-wings. The under side shows no blue, but the hind-wings are dull yellow with a black border. Another South American genus which we may mention here, is Ectima, Doubleday, which includes rather small and incon- spicuous Butterflies, measuring about an inch and a half across the wings, which are shaped nearly as in Ageronia, but the hind- wings are a little more square. They are of a slaty-grey above, with a white oblique band on the fore-wings ; the under side is paler. There are only a few species known, but they are widely distributed in South America, and they sit with their wings expanded, after the fashion of Ageronia. Following the genera which are more distinctly allied to Ageronia^ are placed some rather isolated Tropical American forms, distinguished by the inflated costal nervure, most of which were formerly located, with others, in the Eurytelidtz. The first of these genera, Didonis, Pliibner, is one of the most easily recognised of all the American Nymphalina. The 0 136 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Butterflies measure rather more than two inches in expanse, and have rounded wings and slightly denticulated hind-wings. The wings are smoky-brown, and the hind-wings have'a bright red marginal or sub-marginal band ; on the under side, which is paler, the band is mixed with white, and there are some red spots near the base. There are only a few species or varieties, differing chiefly in the width of the red band. "The cater- pillars much resemble those of Ageronia, and the Butterflies frequent waste ground on the borders of the forest, hovering slowly over bushes." (Bafes.) Next to Didonis we may place Cystineura, Hiibner, a genus with longer and narrower wings, but much smaller (expanding about an inch and a half), and very differently coloured. The species are black and white, or light brown and white, and several are peculiar to the West Indies, while others inhabit different parts of Southern and Central America. The prettiest is C. dorcas (Fabricius), which is common in Jamaica, and is of a pale orange-yellow. Vila, Kirby, is another South American genus, closely allied to the last. These Butterflies fly low, and hover over the herbage in the forest with expanded wings. They are about two inches in expanse, and are black, with very long fore-wings, rounded at the tip, and are not unlike some of the Ithomiince. in shape, except that the wings, especially the hind ones, are broader. They are black, with a white transverse stripe near the base, and large white blotches on the fore- wings ; on the under side there is a large white blotch on the hind-wings also, and the dark portion of the wings is inter- sected by tawny stripes. The genus Pyrrhogyra includes larger insects, measuring two inches and upwards in expanse. The fore-wings are broad, hardly longer than the hind-wings, with the hind-margin slightly oblique. The Mnd-wings are long and broad, slightly MARPESIA. 137 dentated, and with a short tooth rather below the middle of the hind-margin. The wings are black, with a broad trans- verse white or pale green band running across both pairs of wings, and sometimes extending to the base and inner-margin on the hind-wings. It does not reach the costa of the fore- wings, but parallel to its upper end is an oblique stripe from the costa, and towards the tip is another small spot. On the under side the pale markings are more extended, and the dark spaces around and between them are intersected by red stripes. In shape and colouring these Butterflies resemble Victorina and Adelpha. The species of Pyrrhogyra are common and widely distri- buted in Tropical America. "They frequent narrow sunny openings in the lofty and humid forests, and have a sailing and wheeling flight, soaring rapidly to the tops of the trees, if rudely disturbed whilst hovering nearer the ground. The larvae of Pyrrhogyra tiphus and P. nearea (Linn.) resemble in shape and armature those of Epicalia (Catonephele) and CaUithea, having two long verticillate cephalic spines, and numerous shorter ab- dominal spines with radiating smaller spines at their tip." (Bates) GENUS MARPESIA. Marpesia, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 47 (1816). Type, M. eleucha, Hiibner. There is a small American group of tailed Nymphalida comprising the two genera Ti metes t Boisduval, and Marpesia, Hiibner. They agree in the following characters : the long slender antennae, with an oval club ; the long, thickly scaled palpi ; the open wing-cells ; the short spur at the base of the median nervure on the fore-wings ; and in the long tailed hind-wings. They are generally brown, with pale bands, or tawny, with brown bands ; but they differ considerably in shape. Timetes has short triangular fore-wings, rarely pointed, at 0 2 138 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. the tip, and in the hind-wings one long tail is developed at the outer angle, that at the anal angle being generally rudimentary, so that the insect much resembles a Papilio in shape. But in Marpesia the fore-wings are very long and pointed, and the hind-margins are very oblique from below the sub-apical pro- jection on the fore-wings to the base of the first tail on the hind-wings. The hind-wings are provided with two long tails, that at the anal angle being much shorter and broader than the other. There are intermediate forms between the two genera, but the figures on our plate represent that species of Marpesia which exhibits the peculiar characters of the ganus in greater perfection than even M. eleucha (Hiibner), the type of the genus, which is nearly similar in colour, though paler, but has shorter and broader wings. The latter is more re- stricted in its range, being found in the West Indies and the Southern United States, whereas M. peleus is common through- out Tropical America. The larva of Marpesia peleus is naked, with four long, fleshy, filaments on the back, and two others projecting from the hinder part of the head. The pupa is likewise furnished with several projecting filaments. Bates describes the species of Timetes as frequenting sunny places in the forest, and flying about and sitting on the trees, or resorting to the moist banks of brooks or pools. MARPESIA PELEUS. {Plate XXV., Fig. I.) Papilio peleus^ Sulz., Abgek. Gesch. der Insecten, pi. 13, fig. 4(1776). Papilio thetys, Fabr., Gen. Insect., p. 264 (1777). Papilio petreits, Cramer, Pap. Exot, i., pi. 87, figs. D. E. (1776); Stoll, Suppl. Cramer, pi. 2, figs. 2, a-c (1787). This curious Butterfly measures about three inches across PLATE X /. Marp&fict; 2. J*r0€ccornxi6 fctbius. MAKPESIA. 139 the wings, which are very long and narrow, and of a very pe- culiar shape. The costa of the fore-wings is strongly arched, and bent downwards at the extremity, just below which, on the upper part of the hind-margin, is a strong projection. Under this the wing is deeply concave, and then the outline runs obliquely to the anal angle of the hind-wings. The hind- margins are regularly dentated, and at the anal angle of the hind-wings is a broad obtuse tail, curved slightly outwards and separated by a curve of about its own length from a rather narrower and much longer tail on the hind-margin. The wings are fulvous (almost " Fritillary " colour) and are crossed by three brown lines varying in width ; between the two first is a short streak near the costa of the fore-wings ; and sometimes two shorter ones between the base and the first line. The outer portion of the costa of the fore-wings, and a sub-marginal line, as well as the hind-margin of the hind-wings, and the region of the anal angle, are likewise brown. Towards the anal angle of the hind-wings is a slightly marked brown eye, sur- rounded by one or two alternating grey and brown lines. The under side is of a purplish-brown, with some brown lines, partly bordered with whitish in the cell of the fore-wings, and traces of the three brown lines, the first and third more or less in- distinct, and edged with whitish on the outside, the middle one well marked, and edged with whitish on the inside. Stoll's account of the larva and pupa is as follows: "The head of this beautifully coloured caterpillar is dull yellow, with two short rays and small spots of black. The head is fur- nished with two long black spines, garnished with short stiff hairs. The first five segments of the body are reddish-brown, spotted with black. The belly is white, and the anterior legs black. The rest of the body is reddish-brown, but from the sixth to the eleventh segment the back is of a beautiful yellow, and bordered on the sides with short black and white rays. i4° LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. The back is armed with four long spines, the last of which placed on the eleventh segment, is curved backwards, and very similar to the horns with which most of the caterpillars of the Sphinges are provided. The intermediate and posterior legs are yellow. It feeds on the leaves of the cashew-tree (Ana- cardium occidentale), and transforms into a perpendicular chry- salis of a yellow colour, spotted with black, garnished with black spines on the head, thorax, and back. When the But- terfly is about to appear, the yellow colour changes into white." "A common insect in Tropical America, in open sunny places, gardens, plantations, and banks of streams ; settling on flowers, and on the ground in moist situations." (Bates.) OLD WORLD GENERA ALLIED TO MARPESIA. The genus Cyrestis, Boisduval, is the Old World represen- tative of Timetes ; but it includes much more delicately formed species, with shorter tails, and generally with a strongly marked lobe at the anal angle of the hind-wings. The species are generally white, with or without darker borders, and marked with slender transverse lines of black, or pale yellow; some species are brown, with a transverse white band, and others are yellow instead of white. They have a stronger flight than might be expected from their weak conformation, and are in the habit of settling on the under side of leaves. The species measure from two to three inches across the wings, and in- habit India and the Malayan islands as far as New Guinea. One or two white species are found in West Africa and Madagascar. In typical Cyrestis the first and second sub-costal nervulcs of the fore-wings are emitted before the end of the cell, but Dis- tant has separated two or three of the smaller species formerly included in the genus, in which only the first sub-costal nervule is emitted before the end of the cell under a distinct genus, Cher- LIMENITIS. 141 sonesia, Distant. The few species of Chersonesia known are found in India, Malacca, Java, &c., and hardly measure an inch and a half in expanse. They vary in colour from pale ochraceous to fulvous, with transverse brown bands, and the projecting tooth or tail of the hind-margin of the hind-wings is nearly obsolete, and the lobe at the anal angle wholly so. GENUS LIMENITIS. LimenitiS) Fabricius in Illiger, Mag. Insekt, vi., p. 281 (1807) ; Westw., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 274(1850); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 157 (1888). Type, L. Camilla (Linn). Eyes hairy ; antennae long, thickening gradually from near the middle almost to the apex, the club being slender and elongated; palpi not approximating at the tip, bristly, the basal joint shortest and nearly oval, the second very long, and the terminal joint elongate-ovate, ending suddenly in a point ; fore-wings rather longer than broad, the hind-margin slightly oblique, about as long as the inner-margin; hind-wings rounded, the hind-margins slightly denticulated ; abdominal groove well marked ; legs alike in both sexes, the front pair short and slender, the tarsus consisting of a single joint ending in a small claw, the other tarsi with two claws, and a small pulvillus between them. The larva has a bifid head, obtuse fleshy projections on the back and numerous shorter spines, fringed with hair (Plate iii., fig. 7). The pupa has also a bifid head. Limenitis is at present a very ill-defined genus, and is used to include a number of species from Europe, Asia, the Eastern Archipelago and North America, which differ greatly in structure and neuration. Of the three European species which are generally referred to it, L. Camilla is the only one which has hairy eyes, and the little group represented by L. Camilla 142 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Linn. ( = Z. sibylla}, and L. drusilla, Bergstr. ( = L. Camilla, Denis), is entirely confined to Europe and Northern and Western Asia. L. dnisilla, which is common on the Continent, is more bluish-black than L. Camilla, and the white spots are more numerous and more detached. It differs a little in its habits, although it so much resembles Z. Camilla in appearance, and feeds, like the latter, on honeysuckle ; but it appears a little later in the summer, and prefers to sport round bushes. Linnaeus, in 1767, described the sexes of L. sibylla under the names of Papilio sibylla and P. Camilla, but the latter name was subsequently adopted by continental entomologists for L. dru- silla, though our "White Admiral" was generally called L. Camilla by the older English writers on entomology. This once gave rise to a very curious error. An amateur naturalist who used to travel about in out-of-the-way parts of the country, and make all sorts of wonderful discoveries, once announced that he had caught the White Admiral in a county where it had never been seen or heard of before, and where it was most un- likely to be found. On being asked to verify his assertion, he produced a specimen of L. drusilla. If this Butterfly is ever rediscovered in the locality where he professed to have found it, it will be enough ; but until then, it is hardly uncharitable to imagine that he may have been fishing with a silver hook for L, Camilla, and captured a continental specimen of L. dnisilla instead. THE WHITE ADMIRAL. LIMENITIS CAMILLA. (Plate XXIII. , Fig. 3 ; larva.pl. Hi., Fig. 7.) Papilio Camilla, Linn., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 304 (1764); id. Syst, Nat. (xii.), i., p. 781, no. 187 (1767^; Esper, Schmett., i. (i), p. 188, pi. 14, fig. 3 (1777); Aurivillius, Recens. Crit. Lepid. Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 101 (1882). LIMENITIS. 143 Papilio prorsa, Linn., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 303 (1764, nee Linn., Syst. Nat. 1758 et 1767). Papilio sibilla, Linn., Syst. Nat. (xii.), i., pt. 2, p. 781, no. 186(1767); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 187, pi. 14, fig. 2 (1777). Limenitis Camilla, Curtis, Brit Ent, in., p. 124 (1826); Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 52 (1127). Limenitis sibylla, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 23, pi. x., figs. 2, a-e (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 162, pi. 38, fig. i (1882); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 36, pi. 7, fig. i (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 117, pi. 17 (1892). This is one of the many insects which are almost confined in England to woods in the southern counties, where it was formerly much more abundant than at present. It has an elegant sailing flight through the glades and along the edges of woods, and appears in June and July. The contrast of black and white in this Butterfly makes it a very conspicuous object on the wing. Its flight is sustained, but not very lofty. Haworth (" Lepidoptera Britannica," p. 30) remarks: "The graceful elegance displayed by this charming species when sailing on the wing, is greater perhaps than can be found in any other we have in Britain. There was an old Aurelian of London, so highly delighted at the inimitable flight of P. Camilla that long after he was unable to pursue her, he used to go to the woods, and sit down on a stile, for the sole purpose of feasting his eyes with her fascinating evolutions." The Rev. Revett Sheppard, writing in Miss Jermyn's "Butter- fly Collector's Vade Mecum " (ed. 2), p. 121, likewise says: " In its beautiful flight, when it skims aloft, it rivals the Purple Emperor, which it strongly resembles in appearance." (This appears to me to be rather an exaggerated statement.) "It seems, however, unlike the latter, to avoid the sunbeams, for it 144 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. frequents the glades of woods, where it rapidly insinuates itself by the most beautiful evolutions and placid flight through the tall underwood on each side of the glades, the insects appearing and disappearing like so many little fairies." The White Admiral measures about two inches across the wings, which are of a brownish-black colour, with the fringes spotted with white, and a row of more or less confluent white spots across all the wings, interrupted in the middle of the fore- wings, but more regular on the hind-wings. There are also some white spots near the tip of the fore-wings, and an indistinct one in the cell, which latter is much larger and better marked in the allied species, L. drusilla (Bergstr.). Towards the anal angle of the hind-wings is a rusty blotch marked with two black spots, and there are two rows of obscure dark spots between the white band and the hind-margin. The prevailing colour on the under side is brownish-yellow ; all the white spots of the upper side are visible, with the addition of a few others, and most of them have a faint pearly lustre. The base of the hind-wings and the body beneath are pale blue, and the yellowish-brown portions of the wings are streaked and spotted with black. The antennae are rust-brown at the tip and on the under side. We add woodcuts of the under surface of the usual form of this Butterfly, and of both surfaces of one of the black varie- ties which are occasionally met with. The larva is green, with rust-coloured hairy tubercles, and a white line on the sides. The belly and pro-legs are paler, and the head is red. It feeds on honeysuckle in May. The allied species, L. drusilla (Bergstr.), is not uncommon on the Continent ; it has a bluish shade, a distinct white dis- coidal spot on the fore-wings, and a broader and straighter white band on the hind-wings. Owing to the confusion in the names, I append the principal synonymy of the continental species. LIMENITIS. "White Admiral (Limenitis Camilla}, Under side. Variety of White Admiral. Upper and under sides. 146 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. LIMENITIS DRUSILLA. Papilio sibylla, var. Drury, 111. Exot. Ent, ii., pi. 16, figs, i, 2 (J773); Cramer, Pap. Exot., ii., pi. 114, figs. C. D. (1777). Papilio Camilla, Den. and Schiff. (nee Linn.), Syst. Verz. Schmett. Wien, p. 172, no. 3 (1776); Hiibner, Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 106, 107 (1794?). Papilio lucilla, Esper (nee Den. and Schiff.), Schmett., i., pt. i, p. 351, Taf. 36, fig. 2 (1777). Papilio drusilla, Bergstrasser, Nomencl., iii., pi. 67, figs. 5, 6 (i779)- Limenitis sibylla, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust. i., p. 52, note (1827). Limenitis Camilla, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 23 (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 161, pi. 33, fig. 3 (1882). GENUS NEPTIS. Neptis, Fabricius in Illiger, Mag. Insekt, vi., p. 282 (1807); Westw., Gen. Diurn.Lepid., p. 270 (1850); Moore, P. Z. S., 1858, p. 3 ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 152 (1888). The type is NEPTIS ACERIS. Papilio aceris, Lepechin, Rcise, i., p. 203, pi. 17, figs. 5, 6, (1774); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. 2, p. 142, pi. 81, figs. 3, 4(1783)- Neptis aceris, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 22 (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 165, pi. 38, fig. 3 (1882). A black species, expanding from one and a quarter to two and a quarter inches across the wings. The fore-wings have a transverse row of white spots, interrupted opposite the white triad basal streak, and the hind- wings have a white transverse band towards the base, and a row of white spots between this and the hind-margin. NEPTIS. 147 It is common throughout the East Indies, and Western and Central Asia, and is also found in some parts of Eastern Europe. The reddish-brown larva has two spiny tubercles on the third, fourth, and eleventh segments, and feeds on Orobus vernus in spring and summer. These Butterflies much resemble the species of Limenitist the best known form of which is our " White Admiral," but the fore-wings are shorter and more rounded, and have no spur at the base of the median nervure. They are most numerous in Southern Asia, but extend to the border-countries of the Indian and Palaearctic Regions, and are found in China and Japan. Several species, too, are met with in Western Asia, and two extend to Eastern Europe. The genus is also found in Africa, but the species are less numerous there than in the East Indies. Nearly all the species are black or brown, with white or tawny markings, usually consisting of a streak from the base of the fore-wings, often broken into two or three parts, a broad band reaching across the wings, and a narrow sub- marginal line, more or less interrupted. One curious species, N. raddei) Bremer, is nearly black. It is found on the Amoor river and in Japan. Mr. Trimen describes the South African species of Neptis as frequenting wooded spots, where they flit slowly about the trees, and settle on the leaves, often with their wings extended. NEPTIS NICOMEDES. (Plate XX. , Fig. 3.) Neptis mcomedes, Hewitson, Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, vol. 10, p. 205 (1874). Male.— Above dark brown. Both wings crossed at the middle by a broad band of white (oblique on the anterior wing, 148 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. transverse on the posterior), followed by a band of indistinct grey spots, and by three sub-marginal linear bands of white ; the inner band (which is most distinct on the anterior wing) broken into spots. Anterior wing with two white spots within the cell, the one near the base minute, the other broader ; a bifid white spot on the middle of the inner-margin. Under side. — As above, except that it is paler, and that the posterior wing has the base of the costal margin broadly white, and a linear white spot below it. Expanse. 1-6 inch. This species was taken in Angola by Mr. Rogers, one of Mr. Hewitson's collectors. The above description is copied from the original. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO LIMENITIS AND NEPTIS. Indo- and Austro-Malayan Sub-regions. The Eastern species referred to the genus Limenitis are large and handsome Butterflies, sometimes measuring as much as five inches across the wings. They are sometimes green or greenish-brown, frequently with a transverse white band, but many species have the greater portion of the wings reddish- tawny, with a white band across the middle, or some large white connected spots in the middle of the fore-wings. Lebadea (Felder), another East Indian genus, much resembles Limenitis •, but the species are dull tawny and brown, with rows of connected white and brown zig-zags across the wings ; the tip of the fore-wings is generally whitish. They measure rather less than three inches in expanse. Pandita (Moore) is another small genus, including a few species found in the Malay Peninsula and the neighbouring islands. They measure two inches, or a little more, across the wings, which are broad and rather short, with the hind-margins of the fore-wings not concave. The wings are fulvous, more NEPTIS, ETC. 149 or less brown at the base, and traversed by broad, slightly un- dulating brown lines. The genera Neptis, Athyma, and Abrota are all very similar in colour and markings, and are all confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, except Neptis, a few species of which extend to Africa and Eastern Europe, as we have already mentioned. They are almost all black or brown, with white or tawny markings. These generally take the form of a band, often more or less interrupted or macular, running from the middle of the costa of the fore-wings, and curving round to the inner-margin of the hind-wings. Beyond this, there is often an outer, narrower band, at least on the hind-wings, and often a row of dots or a sub-marginal line in addition. In the cell of the fore-wings is often a basal streak, either entire, or broken into two or three sections. Sometimes the male is white and the female tawny, or vice versa, and sometimes there is a white or tawny belt at the base of the abdomen. Parthenos, Hiibner, is another genus which is confined to the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, and which contains some of the largest and handsomest Butterflies allied to Li- menitis. They measure about four inches across the wings, which are more or less dentated, though the fore-wings are not concave; the hind-wings are often more or less angulated. The wings are generally dark brown, varied with green, lilac, or tawny, but there is always a row of large white spots running obliquely from within the tip of the fore-wings towards the inner-margin ; and from the base of the fore-wings, and the base of the inner-margin of the hind-wings, several short broad black bands run out into the wing. Ethiopian Region. The African species of Neptis, one of which we have figured, need not detain us; they resemble the Indian species, but are generally rather smaller. 150 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. The genus Catuna, Kirby, is peculiar to Africa, and is rather varied in colouring, though not numerous in species. These Butterflies measure about two inches across the wings ; some resemble the genera Hamanumida or Aterica, in shape and colour, being brown, with large black spots, and buff mark- ings ; while C. canobita (Fabricius) resembles a large Neptis, with markings of a slightly bluish-white ; but the sub-marginal markings of the fore-wings are in the form of white arrow-heads. Some of the remaining genera much resemble the Indian genera allied to Euthalia, Hiibner, but of these Schatz and Rober make a separate group, chiefly on account of the great dissimilarity of the larvae. Hamanumida dcedalus (Fabricius) is a very common African Butterfly, not remarkable for its size or beauty, but for the peculiarity of its coloration. It is scattered all over with white spots on a pale brown ground, very much after the fashion of a Guinea-fowl, a bird found in the same countries. .The under side is ochreous-yellow, with more or less distinct white spots. The Butterfly is said to resemble Pyrameis cardui in its habits, and often to settle on the ground. It has been stated that its colour, which varies a little, is assimilated to that of the soil in the different localities in which it is found. It measures rather more than two inches across the wings. Of the remaining African genera, four are rather numerous in species, and all are peculiarly characteristic of the Fauna of Tropical Africa. In southern Africa they are hardly repre- sented, and what is more singular, one genus only is repre- sented, by a single species, in Madagascar. The genus Aterica^ Boisduval, includes species of moderate size, measuring two inches or more across the wings. The fore-wings are short and the hind-wings rather long and some- what narrow, the hind-margin not being rounded, but some- what contracted, The type A. rabena, Boisduval, the only CYMOTHOE. 151 species of this series found in Madagascar, is of a rich tawny colour, with the apical region of the fore-wings broadly black, and crossed by two oblique rows of yellow spots, the inner one formed of larger and nearly connected ones ; the tip of the hind-wings is also black. The rest of the species all inhabit Tropical Africa, and differ considerably in colour and markings. One, A. cupavia (Cramer) is black, with two oblique rows of buff spots on the fore-wings, and a large oval spot, or short transverse band, in the middle of the hind- wings. The males of other species are brown, green, or tawny, crossed by darker bands or spots, while the females have usually an oblique white stripe across the fore-wings. Schatz has lately founded the genus Ctenandra for C. opis (Drury), a species which differs considerably from Aterica^ especially in the slightly angulated fore-wings. The male, which Drury described as a distinct species, under the name of Papilio afer, measures a little more than two inches across the wings, which are black, with transverse blue stripes, and some white spots near the tip of the fore-wings. The hind- wings are narrowed as in Aterica^ but are more distinctly den- tated, and are angulated towards the anal angle. The female is larger than the male, and is tessellated with large black spots and bands on a pale brown ground ; a pale yellow band runs obliquely from the inner-margin of the hind-wings to the middle of the fore-wings, and between this and the costa is a row of white dots; the hind-wings are broader and less strongly dentated and angulated than in the male. Cymothoe^ Hiibner, is a genus including larger and hand- somer species, measuring from two to four inches across the wings. The fore-wings are usually more or less concave, and the hind-wings are more rounded than in Aterica, and often slightly produced at the anal angle. The sexes generally differ considerably. Some of the smaller species are of a bright red 152 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. in the males, almost blood-red ; in the females, the margins and the greater part of the fore-wings are brown. In other species the males are yellow, varying in different species from a very pale straw-colour to a deep tawny ; and the females are black or tawny, with white markings, sometimes in the form of a white transverse band as in Limenitis^ sometimes as white z'g-zag lines, and sometimes as large white spots on the fore- wings, a great part of the hind-wings being occasionally white. Euryphene, Boisduval, is another genus, allied to those which we have been considering. The males of many of the smaller species resemble Aterica^ being blue, brown, or tawny, with dark bands, and the females are usually tawny or reddish, with two white bands across the black tip of the fore-wings. In one section of the genus, however, the hind-wings and the inner-margin of the fore-wings are of various shades of green, and there is a white or yellow band across the apex of the fore- wings. These species much resemble the genus Euphczdra in colouring, but the under surface is generally marked with a transverse or curved line, and the hind-wings are narrower and less strongly dentated. Euphadra, Hiibncr, is one of the most beautiful and charac- teristic of all the genera of African Butterflies. Most of the species are of considerable size, expanding three inches and over, and always of conspicuous colours, fulvous, green, red, orange, or blue. The first group is of an orange-red, with the tip of the fore-wings broadly black, and marked with a large white blotch or band, and the hind-wings have a black border marked with a row of large white spots. Many African Butter- flies and Moths, of half a dozen families and genera, are marked in this manner, so as to produce a greater or less re- semblance to the abundant and highly-protected Limnas chry- sippus. LIMENITIS. 153 Euphcedra perseis (Drury) is brown, with large yellowish- white spots on the fore-wings, and the inner-margin and the iiind-wings, except the borders, are rose-coloured. E. zampa (Westwood) is green above, with a short whitish oblique streak near the tip of the fore-wings ; it has large white sub-marginal spots on the hind-wings, and more or less of the base of the hind-wings, and the greater part of the wings beneath are dull orange. JS. harpalyce (Cramer) and its allies are brown above, with or without a transverse white or yellow stripe near the tip of the fore-wings, or they show a broad blue sub-marginal stripe on the hind-wings, tapering to the costa ; the under side is green. Other species are velvety black above, with more or less of bronzy green on the wings, and the dark apex of the fore-wings crossed by a white or yellow stripe ; the base of the wings is generally rose-red below, and sometimes above ; in E. xypete (Hewitsoi?) the greater part of the under side of the hind-wings is crimson. Neogean Species. Several species of true Limenitis are met with in the United States. They are generally larger Butterflies than their Euro- pean representatives, measuring about three inches across the wings, which are black, often with a white bar across, and with red spots on the under side, and sometimes also above. Most of the species have the wings more dentated than those of the Old World, and sometimes angulated. The prevailing colour is black or dark brown, with bluish markings ; but L. archippus (Cramer) forms an exception. It is of a rich tawny or fulvous colour, with conspicuous black nervures, and except that it is considerably smaller, it closely resembles Anosia menippe, Hiibner, belonging to the Danaintz, the commonest and best protected of all the North American Butterflies. P 2 154 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. But the principal American genus allied to Limenltis is Adelpha, Hiibner. The species are very numerous through- out Tropical America, and one or two species extend as far north as California. A special historical interest attaches to the genus, as it was these species which first turned the attention of the late Mr. Hewitson to the study of Exotic Butterflies. He was at first, in the days of Curtis and Stephens, a diligent collector and observer of British insects of all Orders, and was likewise a well-known ornithologist, giving special attention to oology. But the time came when he discovered, as he says, in one of his own works, that a Butterfly might be beautiful, even if it was not a British species; and he became thoroughly fascinated with the study, disposed of all his other collections, and devoted the rest of his life to the formation and illustra- tion of his great collection of exotic Butterflies, now in the British Museum. In its day, this collection had no rival, except the collections of Boisduval and Wilson Saunders. As Mr. Hewitson used to relate to his friends, he was one day at Stevens' auction rooms, when he was attracted by a box containing several different species of Adelpha (Hiibn.), or, as the genus used to be called, Heterochroa (Boisd.), all much alike and yet all obviously distinct. This seemed to him a remarkable fact at that time, and he bought the lot. As he turned round he saw Professor Westwood, who said to him, "What! Are you buying Butterflies?" "Yes, I am," he answered ; and this incident turned the whole current of his life. When this happened, we do not exactly know, for though Hewitson's first papers on Exotic Butterflies were on the genus Heterochroa^ they were only published in the u Annals and Magazine of Natural History" in 1847; whereas, in the pre* vious year, Edward Doubleday had commenced his great work on the " Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera," which was completed DYNAMINE. 155 after Doublcday's death oy Westwood, and was illustrated throughout by Hewitson. It is therefore probable that Hevvit- son had already commenced the formation of his collection before that time, especially as he began to publish his own "Exotic Butterflies" as early as 1851, and before the actual completion of the " Genera." But to return from this digression, into which the recollec- tion of an old friend has allured us, to the American genus Adelpha. These Butterflies are of moderate size, generally measuring about two or two and a half inches across the wings. The fore-wings are short, and the hind-wings are generally rather long, and sometimes dentated towards the anal angle, which is more or less produced. Most of the species have a transverse white or, more rarely, a green band across both wings, or on the hind-wings only ; sometimes this is reduced to a large spot on the latter. On the fore-wings there is usually a tawny band or large blotch towards the apex or surmounting the white band ; other species have brown hind-wings, and the fore-wings have an oblique red or white band, or a straight ferruginous one. Bates describes them as having a sailing flight over bushes and low trees ; like Limenitis, also, some of the species will sometimes settle on the ground in moist places. The genus Dynamine^ Hiibner, occupies rather an isolated position in the series of South American Butterflies. Bates placed it near Pyrrhogyra, and states that the flight is similar, but much weaker, and that the pupa is similar ; but Schatz and Rober refer the genus to the neighbourhood of Limeni- //>, on account of the short bristle-bearing warts, and the absence of horns on the head of the caterpillar, which is shorter and more cylindrical than is usual in the Nymphalidce. Bates describes the pupa of his D. kucothea as green, with he dorsal surface of the abdomen reddish, and with two short 156 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. curved processes on the back, one at the base of the abdomen, and one near the front border of the thorax. Miiller, as quoted by Schatz and Rober, says the pupa has two short horns on the head, and two strong beak-like projections on the second and fifth segments. Bates does not mention horns on the head. More information is much needed respecting the transforma- tions of the various species of Dynamine. They differ con- siderably, and will probably be sub-divided into two genera. The pupa described by Bates belonged to the first section ; that described by Miiller probably to the second. In those of the first section, the sexes much resemble each other. They are white, with black borders, generally with a blue mark at the base, and with some white spots towards the tip of the fore-wings. On the under surface they are coloured nearly as above, but the margins are interlined with reddish, bordered with pale blue, and there are other reddish lines and markings on other parts of the wings. The hind-wings, except the base and margins, and sometimes a reddish blotch on the costa, are usually quite white beneath. These are among the smallest Nymphalince, some of them hardly exceeding an inch in expanse, and might easily be mistaken for Lemoniid(z or Lyccenida at the first glance. The species belonging to the second section are larger insects, measuring from an inch and a half to nearly two inches across the wings. The males are most frequently bronzy-green, with the margins, and especially the tip of the fore-wings, black, with green or white, or more rarely, dull yellow spots. In the male of D. erchia (Hewitson) a great portion of the outer part of the wing is orange. The green varies much in shade, being sometimes golden-green, or bluish- green ; but there are two or three species in which the males are of various shades of bright blue, with narrow black borders, and the tip of the fore-wings broadly black, scarcely, if at EUTHALIA. 157 all, spotted with white. The females are very different, being dark brown, with the tip of the fore-wings spotted with white. From near the base of the inner-margin of the hind-wings a white stripe runs obliquely upwards to the middle of the fore-wings ; this is sometimes absent. Beyond this is a much broader white band, generally extending over more or less of the fore-wings, and outside this is generally a third and more slender sub-marginal line ; occasionally the females are tinged towards the base with the green colouring of the males. On the under surface, both sexes are marked some- what as in the female above, except that the black part of the fore-wings is varied with blue lines and tawny lines or spaces. On the hind-wings, the dark transverse bands of the wings are either entirely tawny or are narrowly edged with black ; some- times, however, the hind-wings are nearly white beneath, with narrow transverse lines. The hind-margin of the hind-wings is generally much paler than above, and often presents a very characteristic mark, which, when present, admits of no mis- take respecting the genus. It consists of two large eyes, with white or blue pupils in black and tawny rings. INDIAN AND AUSTRALIAN GENERA ALLIED TO EUTHALIA. These form a restricted group closely allied to the African genera of the Limenitis group, but they may be treated as a separate section on account of the remarkable structure of the caterpillars, which are furnished with very long plumose appendages almost like feathers. The numerous and closely allied species of Euthalia and Tanaeda are almost confined to India, the Malay Peninsula, and the adjacent islands, but species of Symph&dra are met with as far east as New Guinea and Australia. They measure from two to four inches across the wings. The genus Enthalia, Hiibner, has triangular fore-wings, 158 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. and more or less dentated hind-wings, a little longer than broad. A great number are brown above, with straight or zig-zag brown lines ; the males of several species have blue borders to the wings, which become narrower and often cease before reaching the costa of the fore-wings. Many species are broadly white towards the borders and intersected with a zig-zag black line. Some species are ornamented with red spots below, and sometimes also above, while the larger ones, which measure four inches in expanse or thereabouts, are generally brown or greenish-brown, with white or pale yellow markings. The larvae feed on the mango as well as on other less familiar plants. Tanaecia, Butler, differs from Euthalia, chiefly in the ter- minal joint of the palpi being slender and bristle-shaped instead of obtusely pointed. The species are not very nu- merous, and inhabit the Malay Peninsula, and the large adjacent islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. These Butterflies are generally under three inches in expanse, and resemble the section of Euthalia in which the males are brown with a blue border, and the females have a bluish- white band towards the margins, intersected by a zig-zag line. SymphodrO) Hiibner, has short fore-wings, with the costa very slightly oblique, and very slightly, if at all, emarginate ; the hind-wings are regularly rounded and dentated, but the species differ much from Euthalia in the arrangement of their colour and markings. One of the smallest and commonest species is the Indian S> nais (Forster) which measures a little more than two inches across the wings. It is of a rich fulvous colour, with a narrow black border, two short black stripes running from the costa of the fore-wings, and a black line or row of dots beyond ; the under side is darker, with some yellowish marks. Another, and larger, species, S. ceropa (Linn.), which is met with in the Moluccas, and is found as far as Australia, is APATURIN^E. 159 dark brown, with a broad fulvous band towards the margins ; these are narrower, and spotted with black in the females of S. dirtea (Fabricius) and its allies. These species are met with in the Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions generally, and are large and conspicuous Butterflies, measuring from three to four and a half inches across the fore-wings, which are longer and more pointed than in S. iiais, which is the type of the genus. The males are black, with a sub-marginal green band, tapering in- wards, on the fore-wings, and a broad sub-marginal purple band on the hind-wings ; the under surface is rusty-brown, with the lower and outer half of the fore-wings black, spotted with white. The females are brown, with white or pale yellowish spots in the cell of the fore-wings ; an oblique band slop- ing inwards from the costa nearly at its extremity, and angu- lated below, where it runs to the base ; and a sub-marginal row of spots more or less tinged with orange. The sub- marginal spots are continued round the hind-wings, where there are three rows of spots running outwards from the inner-margin ; at their extremity they converge slightly, and the outermost curves upwards to the costa ; the under side is often suffused with pale blue. These Butterflies are easily attracted by fruit, especially pine-apple. SUB-FAMILY VI. APATURIN^E. Eggs. — Large, few in number, globular and hard, not so high as broad, with obscure ribs and cross-lines at the base only, usually forming tetragons, with minute projecting points at their intersection. Larva. — Generally green, smooth, slug-shaped (spiny in Aganisthus\ tapering at the ends, with two or four protuber- ances on the head, and often a bifid tail. It feeds on trees. Pupa. — Short and broad, often with a bifid head, generally green, but not metallic, 160 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Imago. — Very robust, and generally of large size, the wing- cells open, or closed with a rudimentary nervule ; hind-margin of the fore-wings nearly always more or less concave ; hind- wings often tailed ; antennae long, thick, gradually produced into a well-marked club ; eyes naked. Range. — With the exception of Apatura, which is found over the greater part of Europe and North America, the Apaturina are almost entirely tropical or sub-tropical Butterflies, and the range of the gene-a is usually restricted to a single geo- graphical region, within which that of the different species is necessarily still more restricted. They are. however, insects of powerful flight, but as they are forest-loving and mostly tree-feeding species, they never seem to stray far from the neighbourhood where they lived as caterpillars. Their habits are sufficiently discussed under the genera and species, which we now proceed to notice. Entomologists have never been in accord as to whether the Apatura group should be treated as a separate section of the Nymphalincz, or not. I have already mentioned (p. 44) that the late Mr. Jenner Weir was convinced of the propriety of the former course, and I am glad to adopt his views upon the subject, as a tribute to the memory of a kind friend, on whose judgment one could always rely. GENUS APATURA. Apatura, Fabr., in Illiger, Mag. Insekt, vi., p. 280 (1807); Westw., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 302 (1850); Schatz, Exot Schmett, ii., p, 165 (1888). Type, A. iris (Linn.). Eyes naked ; antennse long, thick, straight, the club elongate- ovate ; palpi long, and projecting beyond the head, with the basal and terminal joints of nearly equal length, the latter conical and scaly, the intermediate one very long, slender. APATURA. l6l curved and bristly. Fore-wings somewhat triangular, the costal nervure very strong, the hind-margin sl;ghtly scalloped ; hind-wings with the hind-margin regularly curved and slightly scalloped ; front legs small and imperfect in both sexes, the tarsi often indistinctly jointed in the male. Larva smooth, with two horns on the head. Pupa likewise with a bifid head. The genus Apatura is the only British representative of an extensive group of Nyniphalidce with naked larva, which authors have usually included in the sub-family Nyniphalince. It is widely distributed throughout the world, except in Africa; but the tropical species are generally much inferior to our own both in size and beauty, though one or two Indian and South American species are remarkable for the brilliant white or silvery colouring of the under surface. There are only two European species, A. iris (Linn.) and A. ilia (Denis), the latter of which differs from ours in having a distinct eye-spot towards the hinder angle of the fore-wings above, and in the more regular mark- ings of the hind-wings beneath ; and it has a tawny variety known as A. dylie (Denis). The European species are insects of very lofty flight, but occasionally descend to drink at muddy places in pathways, or they may be attracted by dung or carrion. They are by no means uncommon in various parts of the Continent, and may often be seen flying together. The male of A. iris especially likes to sport about the tops of trees, and generally seeks the highest elevation. I once took a specimen at rest at the top of a high hill which happened to be covered, not with trees, but with bushes. Haworth's account of its habits has often been quoted, but it is so good, that we may be allowed to copy it once more from his " Lepidoptera Britannica" (pp. 19, 20). "The Purple Emperor of the British Oaks is not undeservedly the greatest favourite of our English Aurelians. In his manners 1 62 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. likewise, as well as in the varying lustres of his purple plumes, he possesses the strongest claims to their particular attention. In the month of July he makes his appearance in the winged state, and invariably fixes his throne upon the summit of a lofty oak, from the utmost sprigs of which, on sunny days, he per- forms his aerial excursions ; and in these, ascends to a much greater elevation than any other insect I have ever seen, some- times mounting higher than the eye can follow, especially if he happens to quarrel with another Emperor, the monarch of some neighbouring oak ; they never meet without a battle, flying up- wards all the while, and combating with each other as much as possible, after which they will frequently return again to the identical sprigs from whence they ascended. The wings of this fine species are of a stronger texture than those of any other in Britain, and more calculated for that gay and powerful flight which is so much admired by entomologists. " The Purple Emperor commences his aerial movements from ten to twelve o'clock in the morning, and does not perform his loftiest flights till noon, decreasing them after this hour, until he quite ceases to fly about four in the afternoon, thus emu- lating the motions of that source of all his strength, the sun. The females, like those of many other species, are very rarely seen on the wing Moses Harris tells us that 'the females are not met with on the wing so often as the males, some of which are very plentiful, but the females rare to be seen, of which the Purple Emperor is one capital instance. I have been informed Mr. Whitworth caught thirteen in one day, and but one female amongst them.' "I can readily credit this, for in three days I took myself twenty- three (nine of them in one day), but never took a female at all. The males usually fly very high, and are only to be taken by a bag-net fixed to the end of a rod twenty or thirty feet long. There have been instances, though very rare, of their settling on PLATE XXTV. rs . APATURA. 163 the ground near puddles of water, and being taken there. When the Purple Emperor is within reach, no fly is more easily taken than him; for he is so very bold and fearless that he will not move from his settling-place until you quite push him off; you may even tip the ends of his wings, and be suffered to strike again." In the satirical poems of " Peter Pindar " (Dr. John Wolcott) published at the end of the last century, there is an amusing story of a tulip-fancier and an entomologist, and there seems to be no doubt that the Butterfly referred to is the Purple Emperor, though it is not a very likely Butterfly to be found in a flower- garden, and still less so to lead an entomologist a wild-goose chase over the beds ; for if startled, it would probably soar away at once to the nearest high tree in the neighbourhood. I know of no Butterfly called " The Emperor of Morocco " in any entomological work. The tulip-fancier was showing the entomologist his garden, and was descanting on his treasures, "When from a heap of dung, or some such thing, An Emperor of Morocco reared his wing." The entomologist rushed after it, trampling down all the tulips, regardless of the shouts of his friend, who came up with him at last, just as he had lost sight of the Butterfly. " Did you not see him ? " asked the entomologist. " Who ? What ? " asked the distracted tulip-fancier. " The Emperor of Morocco," replied the entomologist. The tulip-fancier mourn- fully relaxed his grasp, murmuring: — *' Mad, madder than the maddest of March hares 1 " THE PURPLE EMPEROR. APATURA IRIS. (Plate XXIV. ; larva, Plate III., Fig. 6.) Papilio iris, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x,), i., p. 476, no. no (1758); Esper, Schmett., i* (i), p. 139, pi. n, fig. i (1777) ; i. (2), p. 109, pi. 71, fig. 4(*781)- 164 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Apatura ins, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 50 (1827); Curtis, Brit. Ent, viii., pi. 338 (1831) ; Kirby, Eur. Butter- flies and Moths, p. 24, pi. n, figs. 2, a-c (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 156, pi. 34, fig. 2, pi. 36, fig. 2 (1883); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 42, pi. 7, fig. 2 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 105, pi. 16 (1892). Var., Apatura iole. Papilio iole, Den. and Schiff., Syst. Verz. Schmett. Wien, p. 172, no. 3 (1776) ; Esper, Schmett, i. (i), p. 376, pi. 46, fig. 1(1778?)- Papilio iris, Esper, Schmett., i. (i), pp. 109, 114, pi. 71, fig. i ; pi. 72, fig. i (1781). Papilio btroe, Fabr., Ent. Syst., iii. (i), p. in, no. 341 (1793). The Purple Emperor appears to be almost confined in England to the south-eastern counties, and it is doubtful whether it has ever been taken as far north as Yorkshire. It is only to be found in large old woods, where these still exist. Although the caterpillar feeds on sallow, the Butterfly, which appears in July, is fond of flying about the tops of tall trees, especially oaks. It is still fairly plentiful in suitable localities, though no longer found close to London, as was the case less than a century ago. The Purple Emperor measures from two inches and a half to three inches and upwards across the wings, which are dark brown in the male, shot with brilliant purplish-blue, except on the hind-margins, which are of a light brown. There are several white spots towards the tips of the fore-wings, and also some larger ones running from the middle of the wing to the inner-margin, and continued as a slightly curved band across the hind-wings. Towards the hinder angle of the fore-wings is a rather indistinct round black spot, and towards the anal APATURA. 105 angle of the hind-wings is a conspicuous black spot in a tawny ring ; the hind-margins are also sometimes more or less inter- lined with tawny. The female is larger than the male, and of a paler brown, and the purple reflection is wholly absent. On the under side the fore-wings are rusty-brown, inclining to black in the middle, with a large ocellus towards the hinder angle, corre- Furple Emperor (Apafttra. iris). Under side of Female. sponding to the indistinct spot above. There are two black spots towards the base, in addition to the white marks corre- sponding to those on the upper side. On the hind-wings the white band is broader than on the upper side, with its outer side more irregular ; the eye towards the anal angle is smaller ; and the base and marginal portions of the wing are greyish, with something of a pearly lustre, and with a faint undulating brown line running along the hind-margin. The body is black above, and the legs and under side are greyish-white. The figures in 1 66 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. our plate represent both surfaces of the male. We add wood- cuts of the under side of the female and of the upper side of the rare variety A. iole (Denis), in which the white band on the hind-wings is absent. Upper side ot the Variety (A. iole). The larva is green, with several oblique yellow lines, and with two horns on the head tipped with red, and with a yellow stripe down the outer side. It feeds on sallow, and sometimes on aspen and poplar, and may be looked for in spring. The pupa is likewise of a pale green, with a bifid head. GENUS THALEROPIS. Thaleropis, Staudinger, Cat. Lep. Eur., p. 17 (1871); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 166 (1888). This genus was founded to receive a moderate-sized, but very handsome, Butterfly from Asia Minor, which was originally described by Eversmann as a Vanessa^ and shortly afterwards, by Herrich-Schaffer, as an Apatura. The discovery of the THALEROPIS. 167 larva, however, which is smooth and tapering at the ends, with two short horns on the head and a bifid tail, prove it to be allied to Apatura, from which the Butterfly differs by its hairy eyes and closed wing-cells. As the Butterfly is a species of considerable interest, and has only hitherto been figured in a few scarce and expensive continental works, we are glad to give it a place on one of our plates. One or two African species have lately been referred to Thaleropis, but it is not quite certain that they actually belong to that genus. THALEROPIS IONIA. (Plate XX., Fig. 4.) Vanessa iom'a, Eversm., Ent. Russ., v., p. in, pi. 13, figs, i, 2 (1851). Apatura ammonia^ Herr.-SchafT., Schmett. Eur., i., p. 6, Nachtrag, figs. 542-545 (1851). This Butterfly is found on the southern shores of the Black Sea, at Amasia, &c. It measures about an inch and three quarters across the wings, which are of a yellowish- fulvous, sometimes varied with white and yellow. The base is broadly b]ack, and there is a small eye at the hinder angles of all the w'ngs. There are also some irregular basal spots. The under side of the hind-wings is blue or yellow, with a dark central band, not reaching quite across. Although Eversmann's and Herrich-Schaffer's descriptions and figures were published in the same year, the official permit in the work of the former bears date January 10, whereas the parts of Herrich-Schaffer's work, in which the insect was in- cluded, are only the third and fifth of the eight parts pub- lished during 1851 Q i63 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO APATURA. Various species of Apatura, brown, green, or blue, with orange-tawny, or brown and orange-tawny, markings, are found throughout Central Asia, as far as Japan, where insects almost identical with the European A. ilia and its varieties occur. Most of the other Apaturce also unmistakably resemble those of Europe. Several species are found in Northern India, one of which, A. namouna, Doubleday, resembles A, iris, but is of a brilliant blue in the male, instead of being shot with purple, and has a satiny-white under side, with an oblique tawny band towards the margins of the wings. A. chevana (Moore) has a very similar under side, but is brown above (though with a purple gloss when fresh), with white markings like an A thy ma, to which genus Moore originally referred it. Most of the other Indian species are much smaller, and duller coloured ; being dull brown, or only suffused with dull purple. The genus Chlorippe, Boisduval, includes the South American species allied to Apatura. The hind-margin of the fore-wings is more concave, and the hind-wings are longer, and much narrowed to the anal angle, which is sometimes pointed, and is sometimes preceded by a slight tooth. The species are rather smaller than in Apatura, and the males are purple, with white or tawny spots towards the tips, or banded with blue, green, tawny, or white ; the females are brown, with white bands or spots, and tawny markings ; in some species the under surface of the hind-wings is of a most beautiful silvery white. The North American representatives of Apatura, which are 1 heed in the genus Doxocopa, Hiibner, are brown and tawny Butterflies, measuring two or two and a half inches across the wings, with white spots on the fore-wings, and sometimes a sub-marginal row of spots on the hind-wings. CASTALIA. 169 Returning to India, &c., we find several small but interesting genera allied to Apatura. Eulacura, Butler, is represented by E. osteria (Westwood), which is found in Malacca, Java, and Borneo. It measures two and a half inches across the wings, which are brown, with a bluish-white band in the male, not extending to the costa of the fore-wings. The female has a bluish-white sub-marginal line, and a broad and somewhat irregular band of bluish-white within it on the fore-wings. The under surface is bluish-white, varied with pale tawny lines and markings; towards the hinder angle of each wing is a well-marked white or tawny eye, with a black pupil. The fore-wings are much longer than in typical Apatura, the hind-margin being oblique as well as concave ; the hind-wings are regularly curved and dentated. The female much resembles some species of Euthalia and Tanaecia in its style of colouring, but its shape and the eyes of the under side (which in the female are slightly visible above) will distinguish it. Dichorragia, Butler, likewise somewhat resembles Euthalia. In the North Indian D. nesimachus (Boisduval) the wings are brown, with zig-zag grey and bluish-grey markings, and many large black spots The wings are broad, the fore-wings with the hind-margin only slightly oblique or concave, and the hind- wings rounded, dentated, and more strongly produced at the anal angle. It expands about three inches. Castalia, Moore, is another genus, including species with longer fore-wings, deeply concave below the middle of the hind-margin, and with the hind wings rounded and dentated. The fore-wings are black, with bands of orange-tawny and white spots ; the hind-wings are mostly orange-tawny with black veins. On the under surface this portion of the wing is divided by broader black veins and intermixed with white spaces ; towards the base are some pale blue spots. The Butterflies measure about three inches across the wings. Q 2 1 70 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Dilipa morgiana (Westwood) is another North Indian species, much resembling Apatura in shape and size, but with hairy eyes, and closed wing-cells. It is brown, with two oblique orange bands on the fore-wings, and a very broad one on the hind- wings ; as in Castalia, there are no eyes towards the hinder angles of the wings. The largest species of the Apatura group is Apaturina erminea (Cramer) from Amboina, which measures about four inches across the wings. The fore-wings are longer than the hind-wings, with the hind-margin only slightly concave, and the hind-wings have a rounded and slightly dentated hind- margin, and form a long broad oval, which is not contracted or pointed at the anal angle, as is more or less the case, at least, in the male, in most of the genera allied to Apatura. It is brownish-black above, broadly purplish-blue at the base, and with an oblique row of large pale yellow spots on the fore-wings ; towards the anal angle of the hind-wings is a large eye, most distinct beneath. This genus also has closed wing-cells. The last genus of this group which we shall notice is Helcyra, Felder, containing a group of white Butterflies found in the Himalayas and in Amboina, with broad black borders to the fore-wings and a few black spots scattered irregularly towards the margins of the wings. The wings are broad, the fore-wings short, with the hind-margin nearly straight, and the hind-wings are dentated, with an angular projection in the middle of the hind-margin. GENUS PROTOGONIUS. ProtogoniuS) Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 100 (1816); Westw., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 313 (1850); But!., P. Z. S., 1873, P- 773, 1875, i., p. 35; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 171 (1888). The long narrow wings of this genus, and the distribution of PROTOGONIUS. 1 7 1 its colours, black, tawny, yellow, and white, give it much out- ward resemblance to one of the Heliconiinal or to Lycorea, or Melincea^ among \heDanaince and Ithomiincs; but the wing-cells, closed by very slender rudimentary disco-cellular nervules, and the dentated wings, show it to be one of the true Nymphalince. The antennae are rather short, and are produced into a long club, not pointed at the end. The fore-wings have an arched costa, and the hind-margin is only slightly oblique to the middle, where it throws out a strong tooth. Below this the hind-margin curves strongly to the hinder angle, and like that of the hind-wings, is strongly dentated. In the middle of the hind-margin is a moderately long spatulate tail. There are a considerable number of forms of this genus, which were originally considered to belong to one variable species; but latterly they have been treated by Butler and others as distinct. They chiefly differ in varieties of pattern and arrangement of the various colours; but there is also some difference in the size and shape of the tooth on the hind- margin of the fore-wings, and in the length of the tooth at the anal angle of the hind-wings, which is scarcely marked in some forms, and becomes a strong sharp projection in others. They are all natives of Tropical America. " Found flying near the borders of the forest, and settling on extended branches with its wings closed perpendicularly." (Bates.) There is little doubt that the various species of Protogonius mimic those of Lycorea in their various localities. Thus P. ochraceiiS) Butler, from Trinidad, mimics L. flavescens^ Kirby, from the same locality. PROTOGONIUS FABIUS. (Plate XXV., Fig. 2.) Papilio fabius, Cramer, Pap. Exot., i., pi. 90, figs. C. D. (1776). 172 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. This curious Butterfly measures nearly four inches in expanse. The fore-wings have a rounded projection just below the apex, below which the hind-margin is concave and oblique, and at half the distance below the first prominence and the hinder angle, is a much stronger obtuse projection, below which the hind-margin is much more oblique to the hinder angle. The hind-wings are short, and much more strongly dentated than the fore wings, and have a rather long obtuse tail in the middle of the hind-margin, and a slight pointed projection at the anal angle. The inner-margin forms a gutter to receive the abdomen, and is concave beyond to the anal angle. The fore-wings are black, the costa reddish- tawny nearly to the middle, and the lower part of the cell filled up with reddish-tawny nearly to the extremity ; this forms the upper part of a large patch, which is continued obliquely towards the anal angle, near which its lower end is produced to a point. The outer side of this patch is slightly marked with yellow. Below the extremity of the reddish-tawny stripe on the costa, a broad band, divided into long spots by the nervures, irregular in outline on both sides, and with the last spot but one the longest, runs slightly obliquely nearly to the base of the tooth on the middle of the hind-margin. Above the lower end of this band is a row of four sub-marginal yellow spots running from the costa. The hind-wings are black, with a reddish-tawny band running from the base, and occupying most of the upper portion, but not extending much below the cell; the inner-margin is also tawny, shading into yellowish towards the body. There is also a sub-marginal row of four white spots, mostly linear, running from the anal angle to the root of the tail. On the under surface the prevailing colour is yellowish-grey, varied with large irregular blotches of purplish- buwn towards the base and hinder angles of the wings, and with spaces thickly speckled with lighter brown beyond. AN^EA. 173 This species much resembles a Lycorea in the general ar- rangement of its colours, and very probably occurs in company with Lycorea ceres, figured by Cramer on the same plate, both insects being from Surinam. This species differs from all the described members of the genus, except P. hippona (Fabricius ; which appears to be the insect figured by Stoll, Suppl. Cram., pi. 2, figs, i, a-d (1787); with its earlier stages), in the much less extension of the reddish colour on the hind-wings ; in most of the other species it covers the whole surface nearly to the sub-marginal spots. But P. hippona differs in having only one or two sub-apical yellow spots on the fore-wings, and the yellow band much narrower ; the wings are also much less dentated, and the tooth on the hind- margin of the fore-wings is shorter and more obtuse. StolPs insect was probably from Surinam ; there is a specimen of what appears to be the same species in the British Museum from Para. GENERA ALLIED TO PROTOGONIUS. These form the Ancea group of Schatz and Rober, and are all confined to Tropical America. They are Butterflies of c jn- siderable size, generally measuring about three inches across the wings, and are adorned with bright colours. The genus An Erebia^ and Satyrus [ = Hipparchia\). vi. Pronophila group. — Costal nervure always inflated ; median nervure generally thickened, but not inflated. Middle disco-cellular nervule of the hind-wings always longer than the lower one, waved or angulated, with or without a spur in the discoidal cell. Lower disco-cellular nervule small, straight or curved outwards, and united to the median nervure at a right or at an obtuse angle. Genera: CALISTO, ELINA, LYMANOPODA, OXEOSCHISTUS, PRONOPHILA, LASIOPHILA, D^DALMA, CORADES. It will be most convenient to follow this arrangement, in the main, mentioning the British species and the most important foreign genera, besides those figured under each group. The Elymniin(z, which Schatz and Rober regard as aberrant Satyrinct, will be treated as a distinct Sub-family. PIERELLA. 205 I. HETVERA GROUP. These are broad-winged Butterflies, peculiar to Tropical America, and measuring from two to three inches across the wings. The genera Cithcerias, Hiibner, and Hetccra, Fabricius, include the only transparent-winged species among the Saty- rince; the hind-wings are usually marked with one or two ocelli, and bordered, either with a festooned brown band, or with rose- colour or purple. The other genera, Pierella and Antirrhcea, Htibner, are opaque, and sometimes sub-caudate ; in Antirrhcea there are usually rather large sub-marginal spots or eyes. As an example of this group we have figured a species of the GENUS PIERELLA. Hcetera, sect. 2, Pierella, Westwood, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 365 (1851). Pierella, Butler, Ent. M. Mag., iv., p. 195 (1868); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 198 (1889). The type is Papilio nereis, Drury, 111. Exot. Ent., iii., pi. 35, fig- 2> 3 (T782)- It is a thinly-scaled brown Butterfly, two and a half inches in expanse, with the outer half of the hind-wings tawny, marked with two eyes, and bordered within with a white band, much expanded in the middle ; on the fore-wings is a much narrower oblique band. It is common in South America. Pierella is the most extensive genus of the exclusively Tropical- American group to which the transparent-winged genera, Cithcerias and Het&ra belong. The species of Pierella measure from two to three inches across the wings, which are broad and rounded, opaque, though sometimes rather thinly scaled, and the hind-wings are nearly as broad as long, more or less quadrate, usually .with a slight projection on the hind-margin opposite to the anal angle. The wings are brown, sometimes with a slight ?o6 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. t>ronzy iridescence, which is frequently noticeable in dark- coloured Satyrince, and are often banded with white, and varied on the hind-wings, at least, with large patches of white, red, blue, or tawny. PIERELLA CERYCE. (Plate XX XV., Fig. I.) Hcetera ceryce, Hewitson, Bolivian Butterflies, p. 10, no. 20 (1874). ' Upper side.— Female. — Fore-wings semi-transparent, rufous- brown, crossed by three indistinct short brown bands (two in the cell), and by a longer dark brown band below the middle ; three minute sub-apical white spots. Hind-wings rufous, crossed beyond the middle by a band of brown ; the outer margin broadly brown, traversed by five white spots, bordered with black. Under side. — Pale rufous-brown, undulated with dark brown. Both wings crossed by three linear common bands of brown. Fore-wings with a minute black spot near the base, and three minute sub-apical white spots as above. Hind-wings with five sub-apical white spots. Exp., 3^ inches. The above is adapted from the original description of Hewit- son, who considered the species to be probably only a variety of P. hyceta (Hew.). The last-named Butterfly, with which this species is com- pared, is found in Eastern Peru, and is smaller, with only the first of a row of round black spots which crosses the hind- wings usually within the rufous part, centred with white. P. ceryce is a native of Bolivia, and is here figured for the first time. II. LETHE GROUP. This group, as employed by Schatz and Rober, includes a considerable number of genera, mostly East Indian, though one or two have South African representatives, and two genera are 1. Pi*reR Rott. 220 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Eyes naked ; antennse short, slender, ringed with white, with a rather large club ; all the principal nervures of the fore- wings considerably dilated. These are Butterflies of rather small size, with rounded tawny or brown wings, rarely marked with eyes above, except the indication of one at the tip of the fore- wings, but generally with a conspicuous row of eyes on the hind-wings beneath. They are confined to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and are mostly heath-frequenting or woodland insects ; a few species, however, are found on damp moors. Four species are here included in the British list, one of which however, is not fairly established as really British ; and several others have been reputed British, though probably in error. One of these, C. hero (Linn.), is a brown species, with nume- rous and conspicuous black eyes with blue pupils in orange rings, bounded outside on the under side of the hind-wings by a bluish and inside by a white line. It is said to have been taken many years ago in Ashdown Forest, where C. davus (C. typhon) and C. arcania and other rare Butterflies are like- wise said to have been found. But there has been no recent confirmation of these captures. One species, C. californica^ West wood, is so pale as to be almost whitish. The Australian genus, Hypacysta^ West wood, resembles Cosno- nympha, but the hind-wings are more proJuced at the anal angle. THE MARSH RINGLET. CCENONYMPHA TIPHON, (Plate XXXIV., Figs. 3, 4.*) Papilio tiphon, Rott, Naturforscher, vi., p. 15 (1775). Papilio davus, Fabr., Gen. Ins., p. 259 (1777). * Wrongly named C. polydama in the plate. I followed the nomencla- ture of the old Naturalist's Library, and did not discover the mistake until the plate had been printed off. — W. F. K. CCENONYMPHA. 221 Papilio typJion, Haworth, Lepid. Brit, p. 16, no. 18 (1803). Hipparchia iphis, Steph. (nee Den. and Schiff.), 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 64, pi. 7, figs, i, 2 (1828). Hipparchia darus, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 67 (1828). Cccnonympha typhon, Kirby, Man. Eur. Butt. p. 70 (1862); id. Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 42 (1879). Casnonympha tiphon, Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 311, pi. 87, figs. 2, 4 (1884). C&nonympha davus, Barrett, Lep. of Brit. Isl.,i., p. 255, pi. 36, figs, i, i, a-g (1893); Buckler, Laivae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 35, pi. vi., fig. 3 (1886). Very like C.pamphilus (infra, p. 225), but larger; sometimes nearly twice as large. Wings nearly uniform in colour above and below. Fore-wings almost always sho.'.ing one or two indistinct eyes ; hind-wings with at most one or two indis- tinct eyes near the anal angle. Eyes distinct beneath ; fore- wings with one eye at the tip, and rarely one or two smaller ones. Hind-wings grey, with a white transverse band, which is much interrupted, and sometimes reduced to two white spots. Hind-wings with five or six eyes parallel to the hind- margin, the uppermost largest ; that nearest the anal angle often double, or represented by two very small eyes close together. The insect varies greatly in the size and number of the eyes. It appears in June in low-lying meadows, never in gardens, woods, or corn-fields, and is constantly on the wing, very rarely settling. Its flight, however, is slow, and it is easy to capture on the wing. It is fairly common, but not very abundant. This is Von Rottenburg's account of the occurrence of the Butterfly near Halle in 1776. This insect appears to be identical with C. davus > of which Fabricius gives the following account : — " A Butterfly of moderate size. Fore-wings above rounded, 222 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. fulvous [tawny], with two black blind eyes, and a third very small one, which is rather indistinct ; beneath with a white stripe, and with two eyes pupilled with white. Hind-wings above darker, with five or six blind eyes ; beneath grey, with an interrupted white stripe, and six black eyes with white pupils, the last double. Taken at Hamburg." We have thought it best to give a full abstract both of Von Marsh Ringlet (Ccenonympha liphon}. Rottenburg's and of Fabricius' descriptions, because the works in which they were published are not very accessible, and there has been some difference of opinion as to whether we have more than one allied species in Britain, or not. These Butterflies are very variable, and the pale form, the true C, tiphon, which is more of a mountain insect with us than C. polydama, is more frequently met with in Scotland and Ireland than in England. It appears in July. In the extreme north of Europe we meet with the variety C. isis (Thunb.), which is still paler, with the eyes almost wholly wanting. Several varie- ties are represented in our woodcuts. 2. 3. 4-. 2. GazwryrmphcL CCEXONYMPHA. 223 The following Butterfly is sometimes called C. davits in England, as distinguished from C. typhon ; but whether it is distinct or not, it is more correct to retain the name under which it was originally described by Haworth. THE SCARCE MARSH RINGLET. CCENONYMPHA POLYDAMA. (Plate XXXIV., Figs. I, 2.) Papilio polydama, Ha\vorth, Lepid. Brit, p. 16, no. 17 (1803). Scarce Marsh Ringlet ( Cocnonympha polydama). Hipparchia polydama, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 66, pi. 7, fig- 3 (1827). 224 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. Canonympha tiphon, var. rothliebi, Staud., Cat. Lepid. Eur., p. 14 (1861). This species or variety is darker than C. typhon, and is marked with much larger and more distinct eye-spots, above and below. It is found in July in low swampy places, in the North of England and Wales, and is said to have been met with here and there along the East coast, in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, &c., but has probably long been exterminated in the South by drainage and cultivation ; it may possibly linger in out-of-the-way places like Ashdown Forest, in Sussex, the most southerly locality in England where it has been stated to occur. The larva is green, with white lines, and feeds on cotton- grass near the roots in May ; the pupa is green, with dusky stripes on the wing-cases. Several varieties of the Butterfly are represented in the woodcuts. CCENONYMPHA ARCANIA. Papilio arcania, Linn. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 273, no. 1045 (I7^1)- Papilio arcamus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (xii.), i., pt. 2, p. 791, no. 242 (1767) ; Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 285, pi. 21, fig. 4(i777)- Hipparchia arcanius^ Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 69 (1828); Curtis, Brit. Ent., v., pi. 205 (1828). C&nonympka arcania, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 41, pi. 13, figs. 7, a-c (1879) ; Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 306, pi. 75, figs. 4, 5 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 262 (1893). This is a Butterfly which cannot easily be mistaken by any- one fortunate enough to meet with it. It measures about an inch and a quarter in expanse. The fore-wings are of a reddish- tawny colour, with a broad brown border, and an apical eye beneath ; the hind-wings are brown above and paler beneath, CCENONYMPHA. * 225 with a white central band, within which is an eye-spot on the costa ; the hind-margin is reddish, with a blue marginal line, and, three very small eyes. It is found in bushy places and open woods, and is very common in many parts of the Conti- nent in June and July. In England it is said to have been taken in Ashdown Forest, along with C. hero, and although this record is more than doubtful, the Butterfly has been reported to have been met with of late years in various localities in the South of England, and some of the records appear to be trustworthy. There is no reason why it should not be really a British insect, and we have therefore called special attention to it in the present woik. The larva is green, with dark green lines on the back, and yellow stripes on the sides. It feeds on grass in May. THE SMALL HEATH BUTTERFLY. CCENONYMPHA PAMPHILUS. (Plate XXXIV., Figs. 5, 6.) Papilio pamphilus. Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 472, no. 86 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 273, no. 1044 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. i, p. 282, pi. 21, fig. 3 (1777); i-, Pt- 2, p. 133, pl- 78, fig. 4(1782). Hipparchia pamphilus, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 69 (1828). Canonympha pamphilus, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 42, pl. 13, fig. 8 (1879); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 310, pl. 77, fig. 5 (1884) ; Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., p. 263, pl. 36, figs. 2, 2, a-f (1893) ) Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butter- flies and Moths, i., p. 172, pl. 6, fig. 4 (i885). This Butterfly, as its English name denotes, is the smallest of its genus, seldom expanding much more than an inch across the wings. It is tawny, with narrow brown hind-margins, and a brown dot at the tip of the fore-wings, which corresponds to a 226 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. well-marked eye with a white pupil and yellow ring on the under surface. The hind-wings beneath are greenish-grey, darkest at the base, with an irregular and interrupted whitish band, and with a few white dots nearer the margins, which, in the South European variety, C. lyllus (Esper), a larger form than ours, have a tendency to form eye-spots. The Small Heath is common throughout the greater part of the Palaearctic Region, on heaths and in meadows, and is the only species of the genus which can be called common in Britain. The larva is green, with darker dorsal and lateral stripes bordered with white. It feeds on various grasses, and as there is a succession of broods, it may be met with at almost any time between April and September. The pupa is likewise green. III. EREBIA SECTION. This section includes the mountain Butterflies of the North- ern Hemisphere (Erebia, Dalm.), the Himalayas (Callerebia, Moore), South Africa (Leptoneura, Wallengren), and New Zea- land (Argyrophenga, Doubl., &c.). The two last genera have longer wings than the others, and the last is ornamented with silvery spots beneath. The only genus which needs further notice here is the following : — • GENUS EREBIA. Erebia, Dalm., K. Vet Akad. -Handl., Stockholm, 1816, p. 58; Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 376 (1851). Maniola, Schrank, Fauna Boica, ii., pt. i, p. 152 (1801); Meig., Eur. Schmett, i., p. 194 (1829); Kirby, Cat. Diurn. Lepid., p. 57 (1871) ; Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 213 (1889). As Erebia is the name in general use for these Butterflies, and E. ligea (Linn.) is undoubtedly the type, we have pre- PLATE XXX ebuxs Ugea/. 3.4. Er*&bicu EREBJA. 227 fcrred to use this name provisionally in the present work, as the type of Maniola (Schrank), is somewhat doubtful ; and the latter name may ultimately have to be used for some other genus. Eyes naked; antennae slender, with a rather long club. Fore- wings with only the sub-costal nervure much dilated at the base Wings rounded or oval, sometimes slightly dentated, generally bro.vn, with a fulvous (and sometimes macular) sub margina. band containing black or ocellated spots. These Butterflies are known as " Mountain Browns," and are very numerous in the mountains of Europe and Asia. As Britain, however, is situated in the north-west of Europe, where Butterflies are less numerous than in any other part, and as our mountain systems are isolated, both from the Alps and the Scandinavian mountains, our highland fauna is very poor. The only truly mountain Butterfly in Britain is Erebia cassiope (Fabr.). THE ARRAN BROWN. EREBIA LIGEA. (Plate XXX., Figs. I, 2.) Papilla ligea, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 473, no. 97 (1758); id. Faun, Suec. (ii.), p. 473, no. 1050 (1764); Hiibner, Eur. Schmett, i., figs. 225-227 (1797 ?). Papilio alexis, Esper, Schmett., i. pt. i, p. 369, pi. 44, figs, i, 2 (J779) ; i-» PL 2> P- 24, pl- 52, fig. i (1780). Hipparchia tigea, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 61, pl. 6 (1829). Erebia ligea, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 36, pl. 12, fig. 8 (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 261, pl. 61, fig. 6; larva, pl. 76, fig. 3 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. of Brit. IsL, i., p. 220 (1893). This is a species frequenting wooded hill-sides rather than 228 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. mountains. It is often found in company with E. athiops on the Continent, but there is no evidence that it is truly British. There are two specimens in the British Museum which belonged to the collection of the late James Francis Stephens, and are named E. ligea. They are said to have been taken in the Isle of Arran by Sir Patrick Walker; but one of the specimens is not E. ligea at all, but belongs to an allied mountain species, E. euryale (Esper), and this throws additional doubt on the authenticity of the specimens. If the Butterfly were really a native of the Isle of Arran, it could not have been over- looked by the many collectors who have visited the island of late years. The Butterfly is of a rich brown colour, with red marginal bands, marked with four black eyes with white pupils on the fore-wings, and three on the hind-wings. The two eyes nearest the tip of the fore-wings are more or less confluent. The under surface of the hind-wings is marked with an irregular and interrupted white band, at once distinguishing it from nearly all the other known species of the genus. It measures from an inch and a half to an inch and three-quarters across the wings. It flies in July and August. The larva is green, blackish on the back, and with white longitudinal stripes on the sides. It feeds on grass in spring and autumn. THE SCOTCH ARGUS. EREBIA ^ETHIOPS. (Plate XXX., Figs. 3, 4.) Papilio athiopS) Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 312, pi. 25, fig. 3 (i777); i-i P^ 2, p. 73, pi. 63, fig. i (1778?). Papilio blandinci) Fabr., Mant. Ins., ii., p. 41, no. 412 (1787). Papilio medea^ Hiibner, Eur. Schmett, i., figs. 220-222 (179??). EREBIA. 229 Hipparchia blandina, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. llaust., i., p. 62 (1827). Erebia athiops, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 35, pi. 12, fig. 7 (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 260, pi. 63, fig. 5 (1884). Erebia blandina, Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 216, pi. 29, figs. 2, 2, a-c(i893); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 30, pi. 6, fig. i (1886). Wings dark brown above, with sub-marginal red bands, marked with from three to five eye-spots on the fore-wings, and three (rarely two) on the hind-wings. On the under surface the hind-wings have rather more than the basal half deep fuscous, obsoletely terminating in a sinuated line, and followed by a bluish-ashy fascia, posteriorly tinted with red, in which are one or more very small eye-spots. It measures an inch and a half, or an inch and three-quarters, across the wings. This Butterfly, though somewhat local, is common in many places in Scotland and the North of England in July and August, extending as far south as Lancashire. On the Con- tinent it is frequently found among wooded hills in company with E. Itgea. The larva, which feeds on grass in May, is light green, wkh brown and white longitudinal stripes; the head is reddish. The egg is ribbed, and is of a whitish colour, speckled with brown. THE MOUNTAIN RINGLET. EREBIA EPIPHRON, (Plate XXX III., Fig. 3.*) Papilio epiphron, Knoch, Beitr. Ins., iii., p. 131, pi. 6, fig. i (1783). Erebia epiphron, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 35, pi. 12. fig. 6 (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 241 (1884) * The race, E. cassiope, is here figured. 230 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Var. Erebia cassiope. Papilio cassiope, Fabr., Mant. Ins., ii., p. 42, no. 417 (1787); Hiibner, Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 626-629 (]S23?). Hipparchia cassiope^ Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 63, pi. 8 (1828). Erebia cassiope, Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Lepid., i., pp. 33, 171, pi. 6, fig. 2 (1886). Erebia epiphron, var. cassiope, Ling, loc. tit., pp. 241, 242, pi. 58, fig. 2; larva, pi. 58, fig. i (1884). Erebia epiphron^ Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., p. 210, pi. 29, figs. i, la, b (1893). This is the smallest British species of the genus, generally measuring about an inch and a quarter across the wings. It is brown, with red sub-marginal bands, more or less divided into spots by the veins, and marked with four, or fewer, blind eyes on each wing. In the allied form, JS. epiphron (Knoch), which many writers consider to be the same species, but which is very doubtfully British, the eyes are ocellated. On the under side of the hind-wings, the red round the eyes, which is often reduced to rings on the upper surface, is wanting. The Butterfly is found at a considerable elevation on some of the mountains of the Lake District, and those of Scotland and Ireland, in June, but is very local, and not usually very abundant. The larva, which feeds on grass, is pale green, with darker longitudinal lines, and a white line on the sides. IV. HIPPARCHIA SECTION. The species of this section are very numerous throughout the Palsearctic Region, and one or two groups of Hipparchia are well represented in the Nearctic Region. Schatz and Rober also refer the Australian genera Heteronympha^ Wallengren, and Xenica, Westwood, to this section, but these are somewhat aber- HIPPARCIIIA. 231 rant, being large tawny Butterflies, more resembling true Satyrus. In South America the section is very poorly repre- sented, Argyrophorus argenteus (Blanchard), from Chili, being the only remarkable species belonging to it. GENUS HIPPARCHIA. Hipparchia, Fabr. in Illiger, Mag. Insekt, vi., p. 281 (1807); Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 53 (1827). Satyrus, pt. Latr., Enc. Meth., ix., pp. n, 460 (1819-1823); Westwood, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 388 (1851); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 215 (1893). The name Hipparchia was used by the older English authors for the whole of the Satyritug, as was Satyrns by the French. Dr. Scudder argues that PI. hyperanthus (Linn.) should be re- garded as the type of this genus, to which there seems to be no valid objection. Eyes naked ; antennae gradually thickened, or with a more or less distinct club at the extremity. Wings with the sub- costal and median nervures thickened at the base ; hind-wings more or less dentated. This genus includes species of moderate size, from an inch and a half to three inches in expanse. The wings are brown or black, generally with a white or tawny sub-marginal band, extending over more or less of the disc; the fore- wings are almost always marked with a dark eye at the tip, with a white pupil, and another towards the hinder angle, while there is a third smaller eye near the anal angle of the hind-wings. In the males the second eye on the fore-wings is often obsolete on the upper surface, and the pale markings are less extended than in the females, the latter being often considerably larger than their partners. In another section of the genus the wings are dark brown U 232 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. or black, with a varying number of sub-marginal eyes, some- times of considerable size, and marked with blue or white pupils. We have but two species in England, H. semele and If. hyperanthuS) representing the two sections of the genus respectively ; but the genus is well represented in Europe and Asia by much larger and handsomer species than ours. One of the finest of the foreign species is H. parisatis (Kollar), which is common in Western Asia, as far as the frontiers of India. It is a large brown Butterfly, with a pale blue marginal band on all the wings. THE GRAYLING. HIPPARCHIA SEMELE. (Plate XXXII. , Figs, i, 2, 3.) Papilio seme/e, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 474, no. 101 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 276, no. 1051 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i., p. 114, pi- 8, fig. i (i777)- Hipparchia semele^ Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 56 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 29 (1878); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, p. 28, pi. 4, fig. 3 (1886). Satyrus semele, Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 277, pi. 67, fig. 4 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl, i., p. 222, pi. 30(1893). The Grayling measures from an inch and three quarters to two inches and three quarters across the wings, which are brown, with tawny bands on the wings, darkest on the outer side. The eyes of the fore-wings are well marked on both sides, and that of the hind-wings is likewise distinct above. The tawny markings of the fore-wings are more or less divided into spots, and, in the male, are confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the eyes. On the under surface, the tawny colouring of the fore-wings extends to the base, being only slightly interrupted by blackish markings ; the hind-wings are brown beneath, with an irregular white transverse band. PLATE XXXII. /. 2. Hipparchicu serrtde. male £ female. 3- n » underside. 4.5. Safyrus nwycera. HIPPARCHIA. 233 The Butterfly is found on heaths, especially in rocky and stony places, chiefly on the chalk and limestone. It is very common in many parts of the British Islands, though some- what local, and is met with in July and August. On the Con- tinent it is widely distributed. It frequently settles on rocks and on the trunks of trees. A very dark local form is found in Madeira. The larva is light green, with darker longitudinal lines, and brownish legs. It feeds on grass in April and May. The pupa is likewise green. THE RINGLET. HIPPARCHIA HYPERANTHUS. (Plate XXX III., Figs. 4, 5.) Papilio hyperanthuS) Linn. Syst. Nat., x., p. 471, no. 85 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 273, no. 1043 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. i, p. 78, pi. 5, fig. i (1777); i., pt. 2, p. 38, pi. 57, figs. 2-4 (1780). ffipparchia hyperanthus, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 60, (1828); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 170, pi. 5, fig. 3(1886). Epinephele hyperanthus, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 39, pi. 13, fig. 3 (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 302, pi. 74, fig. 4 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 231, pi. 35 (1893). Var. Hipparchia arete. Var. Papilio arete^ Miill., Faun. Fridr., p. 36, no. 330 (1764). Papilio polymeda, Hiibner, Eur. Schmett., i., fig. 172* (1794?). Epinephele hyperanthus, var. arete, Lang, loc. tit., p. 302, pi. 74, fig. 5 (1884). This is a smaller Butterfly than the Grayling, measuring about u 2 234 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. an inch and a half, or an inch and three quarters across the wings. It is of a smoky brown above, with more or less dis- tinct traces of sub-marginal spots in yellow rings. The female is lighter, and with more distinct eyes. The under side is paler, Hipparchia hyperanthus. Three Varieties of the under side. with a larger number of spots, which are pupilled with white, and are most numerous on the hind-wings. The number and distinctness of the spots vary very much in different specimens, and in the variety H. arete (Miiller), the spots are entirely HIPPARCHIA. 635 obsolete, nothing being left of them but the pupils, which form a row of white dots on the under surface of the wings. The Ringlet is a very common Butterfly in woods, fre- quenting glades, rides, and the outskirts rather than the thick shade ; it appears in June, July, and August. Hipparchia hyferanthus. Three Varieties of the under side. The larva is reddish-grey, with a brown line on the back, and a yellowish one on the sides ; it feeds on grass in May and June. A long series of varieties of the under surface are represented in the accompanying woodcuts of the Ringlet. 236 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. GENUS F.PINEPHELE. Epinephele, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 59 (1816); Herr.- Schaff., Schmett., Eur., i., p. 81 (1844); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 216 (1889). Type, E. janira (Linn.). Eyes naked ; antennae slender, slightly clubbed ; wings brown or tawny ; fore-wings with two nervures thickened at the base ; hind-wings more or less dentated ; middle tibiae a little shorter than the tarsi. The Butterflies of this genus much resemble Hipparchia in structure, but are smaller, weaker, and somewhat differently coloured. They may be divided into two groups, of which our British species, E. janira and E. tithonus, are typical. They are not very numerous in species, and are most abundant in the Mediterranean Region, and in Western Asia ; the group of E. tithonus is specially characteristic of South-Western Europe. THE MEADOW BROWN. EPINEPHELE JANIRA. (Plate XXXIIL, Figs. i. 2.) a. Female. Papilio jurtina, Linn., Syst Nat. (x.), p. 475, no. 104 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 276, no. 1052 (1761); Hiibner, Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 161, 162 (1794). p. Male. Papilio janira^ Linn., Syst. Nat, (x.), p. 475, no. 106 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 276, no. 1053 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 128, pi. 10, figs, i, 2 (1777); i., pt. 2, p. 150, pi. 82, fig. 5 (1783). Hipparchia janira, Steph., 111. Brit.Ent. Haust, i., p. 59 (1828); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, p. 166, pi. v., fig. i (1886). PLATE XXXIII 2. /. £. Epinepfale jardrcu. 3. Ercbia casswpe. 4.5. Bipparchia, EPINEPHELE. 237 Epinephele janira, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 40, pi. 13, figs. 4a, b (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 298, pi. 73, fig. 3 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit Isl., i., p. 240, pi. 33 (1893). The Meadow Brown is probably the very commonest of all our Butterflies, and may be seen in abundance in summer in every field, and along every hedgerow. It measures from an Meadow Brown {Epinephele janira}. Under side of Female. inch and a half to two inches across the wings, which are brown above, with a well-marked black eye with a white pupil at the tip of the fore-wings, within which is a conspicuous ful- Variety of Male. vous blotch or band in the female. The fore-wings are fulvous beneath, crossed within the eye by a darker line, continued on the hind-wings which are brown or yellowish-brown, with a 238 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. more or less distinct paler band, and two or more brown or yellowish sub-marginal dots. The South European form, E. hispulla (Hiibner), is larger and more brightly coloured, the female especially having a sub- marginal fulvous band or patch on the hind-wings above, while the markings below are more pronounced. The more brightly- coloured British specimens often exhibit a slight tendency to variation in this direction. The larva is light green, with a darker line on the back, and a whitish line on the sides. It feeds on several common grasses, particularly the smooth-stalked meadow-grass (Poa Variety of Female. pratensis). The pupa is also light green, streaked with brown. The larva, like that of most of the summer Satyrina, may be looked for in March and April, while the Butterfly begins to appear in the course of June. Not only is this Butterfly unusually abundant, but its ap- pearance seems to be but little affected by the vicissitudes of the seasons. The woodcuts represent the under surface of the Butterfly, and instance as well a curious whitish discoloration to which this and many other Satyrince are occasionally subject, and which is rare'y symmetrical on both sides of the wings. EPINEPHELE. 239 THE LARGE HEATH BUTTERFLY. EPINEPHELE TITHONUS. (Plate XXXL, Figs. 4, 5.) Papilio tithonuS) Linn., Mant. Plant, p. 537 (1771). Papilio phadra, Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, p. 120, pi. 9, fig. i, p. 323, pi. 28, fig. 3 (i777). Hipparchia tithomis, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 58 (1828); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, p. 167, pi. 5, fig. 2 (1886). Epinephek tithonus, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 40, pi. 13, fig. 5 (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 310, pi. 74, fig. 2 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 245, pi. 34 (1893). A smaller insect than the Meadow Brown Butterfly, mea- suring only an inch and a quarter or an inch and a half across The Large Heath (Epinephele tithomis}. Under side of Male. the wings, the female being usually much larger than the male. The fore-wings are fulvous, except the borders, and are marked with a conspicuous black eye with two white pupils ; the hind- wings are brown, with a large sub-marginal fulvous band or blotch. In the male the fulvous portion of the wings is darker than in the female, and the lower part is marked by a large brown blotch running up into it. On the under side the fore- wings are coloured nearly as above; the hind-wings are greyish- brown, with an irregular greyish band beyond the middle, marked with three or four white dots in reddish-brown rino-s. 240 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. The Butterfly appears in summer, a little later than E.janira, and is not uncommon in bushy places. The larva feeds on the annual meadow-grass (Poa annua), and other grasses in May and June. It is of a greenish or grey colour, with a dark dorsal line and two pale lateral lines ; the head is reddish. The woodcut represents the under surface of the male. GENUS MELANARGIA. Melanargia, Meigen, Eur. Schmett., i., p. 97 (1829); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 36 (1878); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 216 (1889). Arge, Hiibner (nee Schrank), Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 60 (1816). Type, M. galatea, Linn. Antennae long ; club slender and gradually formed ; hind- wings dentated. Front legs in both sexes almost microscopic, hidden among the hairs of the pectus. Wings varied with creamy-white and black, which often obscures the sub-marginal eyes on the upper surface. There are several species of this genus in Southern Europe, and Northern and Western Asia, but only one (the type) is met with north of the Alps. THE MARBLED WHITE. MELANARGIA GALATEA. (Plate XXXI., Figs, i, 2.) Papilio galathea^ Linn., Syst Nat. (x.), i., p. 474, no. 99 (1758); Hiibn., Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 183-185 (1794?). Hipparchia galathea, Steph., 111. Brit Ent Haust, i., p. 57 (1828). Melanargia galathea, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 37, pi. 12, fig. 9 (1878); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 204, pi. 28 (1893). PLATE XXXI 1.2. Melanargicu 3. Pararge egerides. 45. EpuwpULe ttthorws, nude & female. MELANARGIA. 241 Melanargia galatea, Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 230, pi. 55, fig. i ; larva and pupa, pi. 76, fig. i (1884). Arge galathea,) Buckler, Larva of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 1 60, pi. 3, fig. 4 (1886). This is a very pretty Butterfly, which can hardly be con- founded with any other British species on account of the peculiar character of its markings. Like all the species of its genus, it is varied with creamy-white and black above ; on the under surface of the hind-wings it is white in the male and yellow in the female, with a marginal row of black spots, and a transverse grey band across the centre, never interrupted in the middle, as the corresponding band is in some continental species of the genus. It averages about two inches in expanse, the female, as usual, being a little larger than the male. It varies somewhat in the amount of black and white on the wings; and specimens have been met with which were wholly white. It frequents damp meadows, and glades in woods, in June, July, and August ; and it is perhaps owing to drainage that it has become a very local insect in England. In many places on the Continent it is one of the most abundant species of the Satyrince. The larva is yellowish-green, with dark lines on the back and sides. The head is reddish-brown, and there are two small spines of the same colour at the hinder extremity of the body. It feeds in April and May on Timothy-grass (Phlceum pratense\ and other grasses. The only other genera of this section which need be men- tioned here, are (Eneis, Hiibner, = Chionobas, Boisd., and ArgyrophoruS) Blanch. The former contains a number of Butterflies resembling small Hipparchitz^ but with the costal nervure of the fore-wings thickened (not swollen), a very long narrow fore-wing cell, and very hairy legs and palpi. They vary from pale brown to ochreous or tawny, and are almost 242 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. peculiar to the Polar and high Alpine regions of the Northern Hemisphere, though one or two are Steppe insects. GENUS ARGYROPHORUS. Argyrophorus, Blanch, in Gay, Hist.Chilena, vii., p. 30 (1852). THE SILVER BUTTERFLY. ARGYROPHORUS ARGENTEUS. Argyrophorus argenteus, Blanch., op. cit.> p. 30, pi. 2, figs. 911 (1852). (Plate XXXV., Fig. 2.) It is hardly necessary to give any generic characters for this genus, the type of which is one of the most remarkable Butter- flies known, being entirely of a silvery lustre above, resembling silver-paper. Towards the tip of the fore-wings is a brownish spot, not ocellated. The under surface of the fore-wings is similar, but is marked with reddish-tawny towards the base ; the hind-wings are greyish-brown, with a row of imperfectly ocellated brown spots. It measures about two inches across the wings, and is found in the mountains of Chili. It is not a very common species in collections, owing to its habitat being little visited by entomologists. VI. PRONOPHILA GROUP. These are large, or more rarely, moderate-sized Butterflies, almost entirely confined to the mountainous regions of Tropical America, where they take the place of our Erebia. They are generally of a black or brown colour, sometimes suffused with red, and often spotted or banded with white, pale yellow, and red. The fore-wings are broad, hardly longer than the hind- wings, with the hind-margin nearly straight, being only slightly curved, and rarely oblique. The hind-wings are generally dentated, sometimes very strongly, and the under surface is more often obscurely marbled than distinctly banded or ELYMNIIN^. 243 spotted; there are generally traces of a sub-marginal row of eyes, but these are rarely large or distinct. The principal genera are Pronophila> Westwood, Pedaliodes, Butler, and Lymano- poda, Westwood, but there are several others, all formerly classed under Pronophila. The smallest species of the group belong to Lymanopoda, and measure about an inch and a half across the wings, which are entire, and more brightly coloured than in most of the other genera, some of the species being white or blue. Eteona tisiphone (Boisduval) is another species of this group, which is very remarkable for its resemblance to Archonias, an aberrant American genus of Pieridce. It measures about two inches across the wings, which are dark brown, short, and dentated, with an oblique row of yellow spots on the fore- wings, and the centre of the hind-wings filled up with a large yellow patch divided into spots by the nervures. It is found in Chili. SUB-FAMILY X. ELYMNIIN^E. Egg. — Nearly as wide as high, globular, translucent, hard, obscurely faceted. Larva. — Smooth, with spines on the head, and a forked tail. Pupa — With the head and thorax flattened, and tubercu- late. Imago. — Of moderate size; wings rather broad, and not long, cells closed ; base of costal nervure swollen; hind-wings with a pre-costal cell, and the hind-margins dentated or angulated, sometimes sub-caudate. Male with pencils of hair on the hind- wings. Range. — Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions, as far as New Guinea. Two species are found in West Africa. 244 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Habits. — These insects affect forest country, frequenting damp, weedy places ; their flight is slow. Characteristics. — The Elymniince almost all mimic insects of other groups — Danai-na^ Acraincz, or Pierina. They usually expand two or three inches across the wings, and may be distinguished at once from the species which they mimic, by their dentated wings. The prevailing colours are dark brown, white, tawny, yellowish, or greenish ; and the sexes are usually more or less unlike. The African species, Elymnias phegea (Fabricius) and E. bammakoo (Westwood), resemble brown and tawny, or brown and white species of Planema. One of the commonest of the East Indian species is E. undularis (Drury), in which the male is dark brown, with a curved row of large sub-marginal bluish spots on the fore-wings, and rusty- red borders to the hind-wings. The female is reddish-tawny, with broad brown borders marked with large white spots, and an oblique white band towards the tip of the fore-wings. It thus becomes one of the numerous mimics of Limnas chrysippus. Linn. We have figured E cottonis (Hew.) from the Andaman Islands. The only other genus of this Sub-family is Dyctts, Boisd. D. agendas (Boisd.) has a dark brown male, and a white, dusky-bordered female. The hind-wings are marked beneath, towards the anal angle, with two or three large oval black spots, within which are blue markings. These are slightly visible on the upper surface also. Some authors regard the Elymntina as hardly sufficiently distinct from the Satyrince. to rank as a separate sub-family ; but be this as it may, the Elymniina are almost entirely destitute of the ocellated markings which form so conspicuous a feature in nearly all the true Satyrince^ nor are the latter remarkable for mimicry. I. 2. Elymnias ?t Aers&cL den 4. Aciuwte ,?odcdi<$. ELYMNIAS. 245 GENUS ELYMNIAS. Melanitis, pt. Fabr., in Illiger's Mag. Inseckt, vi., p. 282 (1807) ; Westw., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 403 (1851). Elymnias, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p-37 (1816); Wallace, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1869, p. 321 (Monograph) Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 225 (1889). ELYMNIAS COTTONIS. (Plate XXX VI I., Figs, i, 2.) Melanitis cottonis, Hewitson, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), vol. 14, p. 358 (1874). Upper side.— Male. — Dark reddish-brown. Both wings with the outer margins rufous. Anterior wing with the costal margin lilac-blue. Under side. — As above, undulated with grey, the outer margins broadly undulated with grey and brown. Anterior wing with a large triangular grey spot, undulated with brown, near the apex. Posterior wing with a white spot near the middle of the costal margin. Female. — Like the male, except that it is much larger and paler, and that the anterior wing has on its upper side some grey spots on the costal margin. Exp., $ 2 J ; ? 3-jV inches. The above is a copy of Hewitson's description. He adds : " I prefer to consider this as a distinct species, rather than to place it as a variety of M. undularis. Both sexes are alike, are without spots, and have a broad rufous margin." The types of this species are in the Hewitson collection in the British Museum, and were received from the Andaman Islands. ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Abrota, 129, 149 aceris, Neptis, 146 Papilio, 146 aceste, Callizona, 122, 123 Acherontia atropos, Ixx achilles, Morpho, 194, 195, 196 Papilio, 195 acontius, Catonephele, 114 Acrsea, Ix, 5, 34 andromache, 34, 37 encedon, 35 horta, 34 oenone, 36 pasiphae, 38 thalia, 39 violse, 40 Acronycta tridens, Ixxi Actinote, 33, 38 amida, 40 callianira, 40 griseata, 40 sodalis, 40 thalia, 39 adelma, Isodema, 129 Adelpha, Ixi, 46, 124, 137, 154, 155 adippe, Argynnis, 58, 59, 60, 62 Papilio, 58, 60 adonis, Morpho, 195, 196 Papilio, 195 segeria, Hipparchia, 208 Lasiommata, 208 Papilio, 208 Pararge, 208 Satyrus, 208 yEgeriidos, liv zegon, Polyommatus, Ixviii senea, Papilio, 18 seropa, Symphsedra, 158 sethiops, Erebia, 228, 229 Papilio, 228 afer, Papilio, 151 agamemnon, Papilio, Ixx Aganisthus, 46, 158, 175 odius, 176 agelia, Idea, 15 Ageronia, xliv, Ixi, 45, 130, 131, 135 amphinome, 134 arethusa,, 134 chloe, 130 aglaia, Argynnis, 52, 59, 60, 62 Papilio, 57 agondas, Dyctis, 244 Agrias, Iv, Ixi, 122, 123, 190 narcissus, 191 sardanapalus, 191 Agrotis spina, 20 alcippoides, Limnas, 17 alcippus, Danaus, 18 Papilio, 17 Aletis, 18 alexis, Papilio, 227 almana, Junonia, 101 amalthea, Anartia, 109 Papilio, 109 amathea, Papilio, 109 Vanessa, 109 Amathusia, 198 phidippus, Ixix, 194 Amauris, Ix, 121, 126 dominicanus,2i echeria, 22 niavius, 21 Amecera, 209 248 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. amestris, Precis, 103 ammonia, Apatura, 167 amphinome, Ageronia, 134 Papilio, 134 Amphirene, 124 anacardii, Salamis, 103 Anacardium occidentale, 140 AiKea, Ixi, 46, 173, 174, 175 cyanea, 174 electra, 174 panariste, 174 Anartia, 107 amalthea, 109 Anchura officinalis, 64 andromache, Acroea, 31, 37 Anemeca ehrenbergii, 81 annua, Poa, 238 anomala, Epipyrops, xxvi Anosia chrysippus, 16 menippe, 12, 19, 153 antimachus, Drurya, 33 Papilio, 182 antiochus, Heliconius, 41 antiopa, Papilio, 90 Vanessa, 90, 92, 96 Antirrhrea, 203 Apatura, xix, Ivii, Ixi, 5, 44, 46, 159, 1 60, 1 68 ammonia, 167 bolina xix chevana, 168 clytie, 161 ilia, 161, 168 iole, 164, 1 66 iris, xix, 161, 163, 164, 165 namouna, 168 Apaturina erminea, Ixi, 170 Apaturime, 43, 44, 158 Araschnia, 82 levana, 82, 83, 84 porina, 84 prorsa, 84 arcania, Coenonympha, 214, 224 Hipparchia, 224 Papilio, 224 arcanius, Hipparchia, 224 Papilio, 224 archidona, Coenophlebia, 189 archippus, Danais, 12 archippuSj Limenitis, 153 Papilio, 12 Archonias, xlvii, Ixi, 243 arete, Hipparchia, 233, 234 Papilio, 233 arethusa, Ageronia, 134 Papilio, 134 Arge, 240 galatea, 241 argenteus, Argyrophorus, 231, 242 Argus, Scotch, 228 Wood, 208 Argynnis, Iviii, 5, 45, 52 adippe, 58, 59, 60, 62 aglaia, 52, 57, 60, 62 charlotta, 58 childreni, 53 chlorodippe, 60, 6 1 cleodoxa, 60, 61 eris, 62 idalia, 53 inconstans, 18, 53 lathonia, 60, 63 maia, 53 niobe, 61,62 niphe, 18, 53 paphia, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56 sagana, 53 valesina, 55 Argyrophenga, 226 Argyrophorus, 241 argenteus, 231,242 armandi, Davidina, xlviii Arran Brown, 227 arsinoe, Cynthia, 50, 51 Papilio, 50 assimilis, Hestina, 126 astarte, Catagramma, 117, 118, 119 Papilio, 117 astraea, Ithomia, 32 asterie, Junonia, 101 asterope, Ypthima, 219 atalanta, Papilio, 97 Pyrameis, 85, 96, 97, 98 Vanessa, 97 Aterica, 150, 151 cupavia, 151 rabena, 150 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 249 Athyma, Ix, 45, 53, 114, 129, 149, 1 68 atropos, Acherontia, Ixx australis, Prothoe, 188 bammakoo, Elymnias, 244 Banded Soldier-Butterfly, 117 Barbicornis, 5 Batesia, 135 Beauty, Camberwell, 90 bera, Ypthima, 219 beroe, Papilio, 164 Biblis, 5, 45 biblis, Cethosia, 48 Bicyclus, 203, 212 blandina, Erebia, 229 Hipparchia, 229 Papilio, 228 boisduvalli, Pseudacraea, 38 bolina, Apatura, xix Hypolimnas, 126 Bombyx waringi, Ixx, Ixxi brassicse, Pieris, xviii, 18 Brassolis, 5, 199 Brenthis, 64 euphrosyne, 64 hecate, 64 selene, 64 thore, 64 brixius, Euptychia, 217 Satyrus, 217 Brown, Arran, 227 Meadow, 236 Wall, 216 Butterfly, Comma, 87 Map, 83 Peacock, 95 Silver, 242 Speckled Wood, 208 cadmus, Coea, 176 oenobita, Catuna, 150 Coerois, 204, 214 chorinaeus, 214, 215 c. -album, Grapta, 87 Papilio, 87 Polygonia, 87 Vanessa, 87, 90 caja, Hypercompa, XXT californica, Ccenonympha, 220 Caligo, 200 Caligo eurylochus, 200, 201 ilioneus, 201 Calinaga, 127 Calisto, 204 Callerebia, 226 callianira, Actinote, 40 Callicore, 45, 115, 116 Callidryas scylla, Ixiv Callithea, 45, 121, 122, 131, 137 sapphira, 121 Callizona, 45 aceste, 122, 123 calydonia, Prothoe, 188 Camberwell Beauty, 90 Camilla, Limenitis, 142, 143, 145, 146 Papilio, 142, 146 candelarius, Hotinus, xxvi Caprona, Ix Carcharodus, xlii cardui, Cynthia, 98 Papilio, 94, 97 Pyrameis, 98, 99, loo, 150 Vanessa, 99 cassiope, Erebia, 229, 230 Hipparchia, 230 Papilio, 236 Castalia, 169 Castniidae, xlvi, 30 Casyapa thrax, Ixix, Ixxi Catagramma, Ixi, 45, in, 115 astarte, 117, 118, 119 codomannus, 119 cynosura, 119 hydaspes, 117 miles, 119 pygas, 1 1 6, 117 sinamara, 117, 118 texa, 119 Catonephele, Ixi, 45, 113, 114, 137 acontius, 114 obrina, 114 Catuna, 150 caenobita, 150 c.-aureum, Polygonia, 86 cenea, Papilio, 17 ceres, Lycorea, 173 X 2 250 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. ceryce, Hcetera, 206 Pierella, 206 Cethosia, xix, lx, Ixi, 5, 45, 48 biblis, 48 cyane, 50 cydippe, 48 dido, 47 leschenaulti, 48 mahratta, 49 ceylonica, Ypthima, 219 Chalcosiidse, 24 Charaxes, xx, xliv, Iviii, lx, 5, 44, 46, 130, 177 castor, 182 epijasius, 182 etesipe, 186 ethalion, 174 etheocles, 185 eupale, 178 jasius, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182 tiridates, 184 xiphares, 182, 183 charithonia, Heliconius, 41 Argynnis, 58 charlotta, Papilio, 57 charonda, Euripus, 128 chevana, Apatura, 168 Chersonesia, 140, 141 children!, Argynnis, 53 Chionobas, 241 chloe, Ageronia, 130 Chlorippe, 168 chlorodippe, Argynnis, 60, 6l Chlosyne, 82 chorinreus, Caerois, 214 Papilio, 214 Satyrus, 214 chrysippus, Anosia, 16 Danais, 16 Danaus, 16 Limnas, 12, 16, 18, 20, 53, 125, 244 Papilio, 1 6 Salatura, 16 Chrysirdia, lx circeis, Gnesia, 37 Papilio, 37 Cirrhochroa, 198 Cithcerias, 203, 205 cleodoxa, Argynnis, 60, 6 1 Papilio, 62 Clerome, 197 Clothilda, Ixi clytie, Apatura, 161 Coatlantona, 45 Ccea,46, 176, 177 cadmus, 176 codomannus, Catagramma, 119 Coalites, 207 Coenonympha, 218, 219 arcania, 214 californica, 220 davus, 221 hero, 220, 225 isis, 222 lyllus, 226 pamphilus, 225 polydama, 223 rothliebi, 224 tiphon, 220 typhon, 221, 223, 224 Coenophlebia archidona, 189 Colcenis, 45, 46, 47, 48 dido, 47 Colias, Iviii, 5 edusa, lix electra, lix hyale, lix Comma Butterfly, 87 Common Soldier-Butterfly, 116 convolvuli, Sphinx, xxxvi Corades, Ixi, 204 Corypheeola, 107 eurodoce, 107 corus, Euplaea, 23 Papilio, 23 cottonis, Elymnias, 244, 245 Melanitis, 245 Crenis, lx, in, 112 Ctenandra, 151 opis, 151 cupavia, Aterica, 151 cyane, Cethosia, 50 Papilio, 49 cyanea, Amea, 174 Paphia, 193 Cybdelis, Ixi cydippe, Cethosia, 48 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 25' Cyllo leda, Ixxi Cymothoe, Ix, 151 Cyrestis, 45 cynosura, Catagramma, 119 Cynthia, xix, 45, 50 arsinoe, 50, 51 cardui, 98 Juliana, 51 levana, 83 cypris, Morpho, 197 Cyrestis, 46, 140 Cystineura, 45, 136 dorcas, 136 Dsedalma, 204 dredalus, Hamanumida, 150 Damora paulina, 53 Danaidse, 18 Danainoe, II Danais, 5, 18 archippus, 12 chrysippus, 1 5 genutia, 19 limniace, 20 niavia, 21 plexippus, 12 Danaus, Iviii, 18 alcippus, 1 8 chrysippus, 1 6 dorippus, 1 8 plexippus, 1 6, 1 8, 19 Danisepa rhadamanthus, 128 daos, Idea, 15 Ideopsis, 15 ^ Daptoneura, Ixi Davidina armandi, xlviii davus, Coeonympha, 221 Hipparchia, 221 Debis europa, Ixix delius, Hypanartia, 85 Dercas, Ix Deudorix, Ix Diadema, xix, 123 diaphana, Ithomia, 32 Papilio, 31, 32 Dicorrhagia, 46, 169 nesimachus, 169 di'Io, Cethosia, 47 Coloenis, 47 dido, Metamorpha, 47, 124 Papilio, 47 Didonis, 45, 135, 136 Dilipa morgiana, 170 Dione, Ixi, 45, 47, 48 dione, Hypanartia, 85 Dioptidoe, 30 Dira, 209 dirce, Gyngecia, 122 dirtea, Symphoedra, 158 Discophora, 198, 199 Dismorphia, Ixi, 30 Doleschallia, 108 dominicanus, Amauris, 21 dorcas, Cystineura, 136 dorippus, Danaus, 18 Euplcea, 17 Limnas, 17 doris, Heliconius, 43 Doritis, Ivii, 5 Dorylus klugii, Ixxiv doto, Ithomia, 31 Doxocopa, 1 68 Drurya antimachus, Ix, 33 drusilla, Limenitis, 144, 146 Papilio, 146 drymo, Ithomia, 31 Dyctis agendas, 244 Dynamine, Ixi, 45, 155 erchia, 156 leucothea, 155 Dynastor napoleon, 199 echeria, Amauris, 22 Nebroda, 21, 22 Ectima, 45 , 135 edusa, Colias, lix Papilio, 94 egea, Polygonia, 86 egeria, Pararga, 208 egerides, Pararge, xviii, 208 Satyrus, 208 egina, Gnesia, 38 ehrenbergii, Anemoeca, 8l elea, Euphoedra, 18 electra, Anoea, 174 Colias, lix Sabalassa, 14 eleucha, Marpesia, 137, 138 252 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. eliasis, Mycalesis, 213 Elina, 204 elisa, Euplcea, 23 Macroplaea, 23 Elymnias, 24, 109 bammakoo, 244 cottonis, 244, 245 phegea, 244 thryallis, 27 undularis, 244 Elymniinse, 243 Emperor of Morocco, 163 Emperor, Purple, 163 encedon, Acnea, 35 Enispe, 198 epaphus, Victorina, 124 epijasius^ Charaxes, 182 Epicalia, 131, 137 Epinephele, 236 hispulla, 838 janira, xvlii, 236, 237, 240 tithonus, xviii, 239 Epiphile, 113 epiphron, Erebia, 229, 230 Papilio, 229 ^ Epipyrops, xxvi Epitola, Ix erato, Heliconius, 41, 42 erchia, Dynamine, 156 Erebia, lix,2O4, 215, 226 sethiops, 228, 229 blandina, 229 cassiope, 227, 230 epiphron, 229, 230 euryale, 228 ligea, 229, 236, 237 Eresia, 8 1 Ergolis, 108, 109, 1 10 eris, Argynnis, 62 erminea, Apaturina, 170 Erycina, 5 Eryphanis, 2QJ Eteona tisiphone, 243 etesipe, Charaxes, 186 ethalion, Charaxes, 174 etheocles, Charaxes, 185 Nymphalis, 185 Papilio, 185, 186 eucrate, Heliconius, 41 Eueides, 42 Eulacura, 169 osteria, 169 Eunica/45, ill Eunica margarita, 112 Euphsedra, Ix, 46, 152 elea, 18 harpalyce, 153 perseis, 153 xypete, 153 zampa, 153 eupale, Charaxes, 178 euphrosyne, Brenthis, 64 Euploea, xlv, 5, 23 corus, 23 dorippus, 17 elisa, 23 midamus, Ixxi papuana, 24 semicirculus, 24 usipetes, 24, 27 Euptychia, 202, 204, 215, 216 brixius, 217 Euralia, 126 Euripus, 45, 127 charonda, 128 halitherses, 127 europa, Debis, Ixix eurodoce, Coryphaeola, 107 Euryades, Ixi euryale, Erebia, 228 Eurybia, 5 eurylochus, Caligo, 200 Morpho, 200 Papilio, 200 Euryphene, Ix, 46, 152 Eurytela, 4^, no castelnaui, no dryope, no fulgurata, no hiarbas, no Euthalia, Ix, 45, 150, 157, 158, 169 Euxanthe, Ix, 45, 187 fabius, Papilio, 171 Protogonius, 171 flavescens, Lycorea, 171 flora, Ithomia, 31, 32 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 253 flora, Papilio, 32 franckii, Prothoe, 188 galatea, Melanargia, 241 galathea, Arge, 241 Hipparchia, 240 Melanargia, 240 Papilio, 240 genutia, Danais, 19 Papilio, 19 Salatura, 19 Geometridce, xxix glomeratus, Microgaster, xxvii Gnesia, 35, 37, 126 circeis, 37 egina, 38 medea, 38 zetes, 37, 38 Gnophodes, 204 Gordius, xxviii Grapta, lix, 186 c.- album, 87 grayi, Sarobia, 27 Grayling, 232 griseata, Actinote, 40 Gryllotalpa, Ixxii Gyncecia, 45, 123, 175 dirce, 122 H?ematera, 120 pyramus, 120 thisbe, 121 halitherses, Euripus, 127, 128 Hamadryas, 28 Hamanumida, 150 doedalus, 150 hamata, Tirumala, 2O harpalyce, Euphaedra, 153 Hawk-Moth, Spurge, xxxii Heath Butterfly, Small, 225 Hecaerge, 4 hecate, Brenthis, 64 hecuba, Morpho, 196 Hedysarum medicagmis, 64 Helcyra, 170 helerms, Papilio, Ixv Heliconia, 5, 41 melpomene, 42 Heliconius, 41, 8 1 Ileliconius, antiochus, 41 charithonia, 41 doris, 43 erato, 41, 42 eucrate, 41 melpomene, 42 ricini, 41 sylvanus, 43 vesta, 42 Hepialidoe, xlvi, 129 hero, Coenonympha, 220, 223 Herona marathus, 129 Hesperia, 5 Hesperilla, Ixi Hesperocharis, Ixi Ilestia, 13, 14 idea, 15 lyncea, 13, 14 malabarica, 14 Hestina, 45, 126 assimilis, 126 isa, 127 Hetaera, xlii, 202, 203 Heterochroa, 154 Heteronympha, 230 Hipparchia, 5, 204, 215, 216, 231 segeria, 208 arcania, 224 arcanius, 224 arete, 233, 234 blandina, 229 cassiope, 230 davus, 221 galathea, 240 hyperanthus, xviii, 231, 233, 231, . 2.35 iphis, 221 janira, 236 ligea, 227 megcera, 210 pamphilus, 225 parisatis, 232 polydama, 223 semele, 232 tithonus, 239 hippona, Protogonius, 173 Hirdapa, 24 rezia, 25 usipetes, 27 254 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. hispulla, EpinepheleK238 horta, Acrcea, 34 Papilio, 34 Hotinus candelarius, xxvi howqua, Stichophthalma, 197 huntera, Pyrameis, 99 huttoni, Kallima, 106 hyale, Colias, lix Hyalites, 35 hyceta, Pierella, 206 hydaspes, Catagramma, 117 Hypanartia, 45, 85 delius, 85 dione, 85 lethe, 85 Hypanis, no hyperanthus, Epinephele, 233 Hipparchia, xviii, 231, 233, 234, 235 Papilio, 233 Hypercompa caja, xxv Hypermnestra, Ivii Hypna,46, 175 Hypochrysops, Ixi Hypocysta, 22 1 Hypolimnas, xix, Ix, 24, 45, 123 bolina, 125 misippus, 1 8, 125 pandarus, 125 salmacis, 126 hyppocla, Symbrenthia, 85 ichnusa, Vanessa, 90 idalia, Argynnis, 53 Idea, 4 Hestia, 15 agelia, 15 daos, 15 lyncea, 13 Nectaria, 14 Papilio, 15 Ideopsis, Ix, 15 daos, 15 Ilerda, Ix ilia, Apatura, 161, 168 ilioneus, Caligo, 201 Morpho, 201 Papilio, 201 inconstans, Argynnis, 18, 53 Indian Leaf-Butterfly, 106 indica, Pyrameis, 97 Papilio, 28, 95 io, Vanessa, 94, 95, 101 iole, Apatura, 164, 166 Papilio, 164 ionia, Thaleropis, 167 Vanessa, 167 iphis, Hipparchia, 221 iphita, Precis, Ixv, Ixvi iris, Apatura, xx, 161, 163, 164, I(?5 Papilio, 163, 164 isa, Hestina, 127 isis, Ccenonympha, 222 Isodema adelma, 129 Ithomia, xlii, 130 astrea, 32 dido, 31 flora, 31,32 Ithomiinze, 29, 31 Ituna, 29 j. -album, Vanessa, 90 janira, Epinephele, xviii, 236, 237, 240 Hipparchia, 236 Papilio, 236 jasius, Charaxes, 177, 179, 180, 182 Papilio, 179 jason, Papilio, 179 jucunda, Napeocles, 104 Juliana, Cynthia, 51 Papilio, 51 Junonia, 101 almana, 101 asterie, 101 orthosia, 101 orithya, Ixv Kallima, xx, Ix, 45, 105 huttoni, 106 kershawi, Pyrameis, 99 klugii, Dorylus, Ixxiv Limnas, 17 Lachnoptera, Ix Laeosopis, Ivii ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 255 Irertes, Morpho, 197 lamis, Peria, 115 laodamia, Papilio, 134 Large Heath Butterfly, 239 Large Tortoise-shell, 89 Lasiocampa vishnou, Ixxi Lasiommata, 207 segeria, 208 megrera, 210 Lasiophila, 204 lathonia, Argynnis, 63 Papilio, 63 Leaf-Butterfly, Indian, 106 Lebadea, 148 leda, Cyllo, Ixxi Melanitis, Ixix, 202, 214 Leptocircus, Ix Leptoneura, 226 leschenaulti, Cethosia, 48 Lethe, 203 lethe, Hypanartia, 85 Leucochitonea, Ixi leucothea, Dynamine, 155 levana, Araschnia, 82, 83," 84 Cynthia, 83 Papilio, 83 Vanessa, 83 Libythea, xxxvi, 5 Libythina, xxxvi, 112 ligea, Erebia, 227, 229 Hipparchia, 227 Papilio, 227 Limenitis, Ivii, Ix, 5, 46, 53, 126, 141, 148, 149, 153, 154, 155 archippus, 153 Camilla, 142, 143, 145, 146 drusilla, 144, 146 sibylla, 143, 146 Limnas, 16 alcippoides, 17 alcippus, 17 chrysippus, 12, 16, iS, 2O, 53, 125, 244 dorippus, 17 klugii, 17 petilia, 17, 18, limniace, Danais, 2O Papilio, 20 Tirumala, 29 Liphyra, Ix Liptena, Ix lisarda, Penthema, 129 lobengula, Nebroda, 22 lowii, Neorina, 207 lucilla, Papilio, 146 Lycsena, 5 Lycorea, 29, 171 ceres, 173 flavescens, 171 lyllus, Coenonympha, 226 Lymanopoda, Ixi, 204, 243 lyncea, Hestia, 13 Idea, 13 lynceus, Papilio, 13 Macroploea, 23 elisa, 23 magellanus, Ornithoptera, Ix mahratta, Cethosia, 49 maera, Satyrus, 210 maia, Argynnis, 53 malabarica, Hestia, 14 Mandibulata, xxxiv Maniola, 226, 227 Map Butterfly, 83 marathus, Herona, 129 Marbled White, 240 marcus, Papilio, 195 margarita, Eunica, 112 marica, Papilio, 184 Marpesia, 137, 140 eleucha, 137, 138 peleus, 138 Marsh Ringlet, 220 Scarce, 223 Meadow Brown, 236 Mechanitis, 43 medea, Gnesia, 38 Papilio, 38, 228 medicaginis, Hedysarum, 64 medoa, Papilio, 38 megoera, Hipparchia, 210 Lasiommata, 210 Papilio, 210 Pararge, 210 Satyrus, 210 Megalura, Ixi. 46, 85 Megistanis, 46, 177 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Melanargia, 240 galatea, 240, 241 Melanitis, 30, 204 leda, Ixix, 202, 214 Melinoea, 30,43, 171 Melitaea, 5, 45, 8 1, 82 melpomene, Heliconia, 42 Heliconius, 41, 42 Papilio, 42 memnon, Papilio, Ixxi Meneris, 203 menippe, Anosia, 12, 19, 153 meone, Papilio, 208 Mesapia, Ivii Metamorpha, 46, 49 dido, 17, 47, 124 Microgaster glomeratus, xxvii midamus, Euploea, Ixxi miles, Catagramma, 119 Miresa nitens, Ixxii misippus, Hypolimnas, 18, 126 misoriensis, Hamadryas, 28 Tellervo, 28 Monura, 187 zingha, 187 morgiana, Dilipa, 170 Morphime, 43, 193 Morpho, Iv, Ixi, 5, 194 achilles, 194, 195, 196 adonis, 195, 196 cypris, 197 eurylochus, 200 hecuba, 196 ilioneus, 201 laertes, 197 rhetenor, 196 sulkowskyi, 196 Mountain Browns, 227 Mountain Ringlet, 229 Mourning Cloak, 94 Mycalesis, 203, 212 eliasis}>2i3 simonsii, 213 Mymaridse, xix Myscelia, 45, 1 13 orsis, 113 Mynes, Ixi, 130 Myrina, 5 nais, Symphsedra, 157, 158 namouna, Apatura, 168 napoleon, Dynastor, 199 Napeocles jucunda, 104 narcissus, Agrias, 191 Nebroda, 21 echeria, 21, 22 lobengula, 22 Nectaria, 14 idea, 15 Neope, 203 Neorina, 203 lowii, 207 Neotropidre, 30 Neptis, Iviii, ix, 28, 45, 85, 146, 148, 149 aceris, 146 nicomedes, 147 raddei, 147 nereis, Papilio, 205 nesimachus, Dichorragia, 169 Neurosigma sita, 130 niavia, Danais, 21 niavius, Amauris, 21 Papiiio, 21 nicomedes, Neptis, i<7 niobe, Argynnis, 61, 62 Papilio, 6 1 niphe, Argynnis, 18, 53 nitens, Miresa, Ixxii Nymphalidoe, 10 Nymphalinoe, 43, 44 Nymphalis, 5, 177 etheocles, 185 pygas, 116 tiridates, 184 obrina, Catonephele, 11.4 occidentale, Anacardium, 140 ochraceus, Protogonius, 173 odius, Aganisthus, 176 CEneis, Ivii, Iviii, lix, 24.1 cenone, Acrsea, 36 officinalis, Anchura, 64 Ogyris, Ixi opis, Ctenandra, 151 Opsiphanes, 199 orithya, Junonia, Ixv Ornithoptera, Iv, Ix ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 257 Ornithoptera magellanus, Ix remus, Ixvi orsis, Myscelia, 113 orthosia, Junonia, 101 Vanessa, 101 osteria. Eulachura, 169 ovages, Tellervo, 28 Oxeoschistus, 204 Palla, Ixi, 1 86 varanes, 187 pamphilus, Coenonympha, 225 Hipparchia, 225 Papilio, 225 Panacea, 45, 134 pro! a 135 panariste, Ancea, 174 pandarus, Hypolimnas, 126 Pandita, 148 Paphia cyanea, 193 paphia, Argynnis, 52, 53, 54, 55 Papilio, 55, 56 Papilio, Ivii, lx, Ixi, 5 aceris, 146 achilles, 195 adippe, 58, 60 adonis, 195 segeria, 208 aenea, 18 cethiops, 228 afer, 151 agamemnon, Ixx aglaia, 57 alcippus, 17 alexis, 227 amalthea, 109 antimachus, 182 antiopa, 90 arcanit*, 224 arcanius, 224 arcesilaus, 214 archippus, 12 atalanta 97 beroe, 164 c. -album, 87 Camilla, 142. l\6 cardui, 94, 98 cassiope, 230 cenea, 17 Papilio, charlotta, 57 chorinoeus, 214 chrysippus, 16 cleodoxa, 62 corus, 23 cyane, 49 dido, 47 drusilla, 146 edusa, 94 epiphron, 229 etheocles, 185, 186 fcurylochus, 230 galathea, 240 genutia, 19 helenus, Ixiv hyperanthus, 233 idea, 15 ilioneus, 201 io, 28, 95 iole, 164 janira, 236 jason, 179 laodamia, 134 lathonia, 63 levana, 83 ligea, 227 limniace, 20 lucilla, 146 lynceus, 13 marcus, 195 marica, 184 medea, 228 medoa, 38 megsera, 210 melpomene, 41 memnon, Ixxi meone, 208 nereis, 205 niavius, 21 niobe, 61 orithya, K 2 pamphilus, 225 pasiphae, 38 penthesilea, 48 petreus, 138 phsedra, 239 plexippus, 12 polytes, Ixxi polychlorus, 89 253 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Papilio polydama, 223 porima, 83 prorsa, 83, 143 ridleyanus, 38 semele, 232 sibilla, 143 sibylla, 146 thalia, 39 thetys, 138 thurius, 182 thyestes, 183 tiridates, 184 tithonus, 239 typhon, 221 urtioe, 90 valesina, 55 vulcania, 97 xiphares, 182 papuana, Euploea, 24 Pararge, 203, 207 segeria, 208 egeria, 208 egerides, xviii, 208 megaera, 21 1 Pareba, 35 vesta, 35 Pareute, Ixi parisatis, Hipparchia. 232 Parnassius, xxxi, Ivi, 5, 127 Parthenos, 46, 149 Pasha with Two Tails, 179 pasiphae, Acraea, 38 Papilio, 38 paulina, Damora, 53 Peacock Butterfly, 95 Pedaliodes, 243 peleus, Marpesia, 138 Papilio, 138 Penthema lisarda, 129 penthesilea, Papilio, 48 Pentila, Ix Peria lamis, 115 Perisama, 45, 116 Perrhybris, Ixi perseis, Euphoedra, 153 petilia, Limnas, 17, 1 8 petreus, Papilio, 138 phcedra, Papilio, 239 Phsegorista, 1 8 phegea, Elymnias, 244 phidippus, Amathusia, Ixix, Ixxi, 194 Phlseum pratense, 241 Phyciodes, 45, 81 Pierella, 203, 205 ceryce, 206 Pierella hyceta, 206 Pieris, Ivii, 5 brassicoe, 18 zarinda, Ixv Planema, 39, 126, 244 plexippus, Danais. 12, 19 Danaus, 16, 18, 19 Papilio, 12, 19 Poa annua, 240 pratensis, 238 polychlorus, Papilio, 89 Vanessa, 87, 88, 89 polydama, Ccenonympha, 223 Hipparchia, 223 Papilio, 223 Polygonia, 86 c. -album, 87 c.-aureum, 86 egea, 86 Polygrapha, 193 polymeda, Papilio, 233 Polyommatus, Iviii, 5 regon, Ixviii polytes, Papilio, Ixxi Pontia, 5 porima, Papilio, 83 Vanessa, 83 pratense, Phlaeum, 241 pratensis, Poa, 238 Precis, 45, 101, 102, 103 104 amestris, 103 iphita, Ixv, Ixvi rhadama, 103 Prepona, 46, Ixi, 191, 192 proeneste, 192 praeneste, Prepona, 192 Prioneris, xliv, Ix Pronophila, Ixi,, 204 prola, Panacea, 135 Pronophila, 215, 242, 243 prorsa, Papilio, 83, 143 Vanessa, 83 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 259 Prothoe, Ixi, 46, iSS australis, 1 88 calydonia, 1 88 franckii, 1 88 Protogonius, 46, 170, 171 fabiusi7i hippona, 173 Protogonius, ochraceus, 171 Pseudacnea. Ix, 46, 126 boisduvalii, 38 trimeni. 38 Pseudergolis, 104 veda, 104 psi, Acronycta, Ixxi Ptychandra,202 203,207 Purple Emperor, 163 Pycina, zomba, 170 pygas, Catagramma, 116. 117 Nymphalis, 116 Pyrameis, 96 atalanta, 85, 96, 97, 98 cardui, 98, 99, 150 huntera, 99 indica, 97 kershawi, 99 virginiensis, 99, IOO vulcania. 97 pyramus, Hxmatera, 120 Papilio, 120 Pyrrhogyra, 124, 136, 137, 155 nean-ea, 237 tiphus, 137 rabena, Aterica, 150 raddei, Neptis, 147 Ragadia, 212 remus, Ornithoptera, Ixvi repens. Triticum, 209 rezia, Hirdapa. 25 rhadama, Precis, 103 rhadamanthus, Danisepa, 128 rhetenor, Morpho, 196 Rhinopalpa, 104 ricini, Heliconius, 41 ridleyanus, Papilio, 38 Ringlet, 233 Marsh, 220 Mountain, 229 Scarce Marsh, 223 Romaleosoma, 46 rothliebi, Ccenonympha, 224 Sabalassa, 14 electra, 14 sagana, Argynnis, 53 Salamis, Ix, 45, 103 anacardii, 103 Salatura chrysippus, 16 genutia, 19 salmacis, Hypolimnas, 126 sapphira, Callithea, 121 sardanapalus, Agrias, 191 Sarobia grayi, 27 Satyre, Le, 210 Satyrus, 5, 204, 209, 231 chorinceus, 214 segeria, 208 egerides, 208 megoera, 209, 210 msera, 210 semele, 232 Scarce Marsh Ringret, 223 Scirpophaga, Ixix Scotch Argus, 228 scylla, Callidryas, Ixiv selene, Brenthis, 64 semele, Hipparchia, 232 Papilio, 232 Satyrus, 232 semicirculus, Euploea, 24 Sericinus, Ivii sibilla, Papilio, 143 sibylla, Limenitis, 143, 146 Papilio, 146 Siderone, 46, 189 Silver Butterfly, 242 simonsii, Mycalesis, 213 sinamara, Catagramma, 117, 118 siva, Neurosigma, 130 sodalis, Actinote, 40 Soldier-Butterfly, Banded, 117 Common, 116 Small Heath, 225 Small Tortoise-shell, 90 Smerinthus, xxxvi Smyrna, 45, 123 Speckled Wood Butterfly, 208 Sphinx convolvuli, xxxvi ALPHABETICAL INDEX. spina, Agrotis, 20 Spurge Hawk Moth, xxxvi steneles, Victorina, 124 Stibochiona, 130 Stictophthalma, 197 howqua, 197 sulkowskyi, Morpho, 196 sulpitia, Victorina, 124 superba, Victorina, 124 sylvanus, Heliconius, 43 Symbrenthia, 84 hyppocla, 85 Symphsedra, 45, 157, 158 jeropa, 158 dirtea, 158 nais, 157, 158 Tanaecia, 157, 158, 169 Taygetis, 217 Telchinia, 35 viobe, 55 Tellervo, 28, 29 misoriensis, 28 ovages, 29 zoilus, 28 Temenis, 45 Tenaris, Ix, 194 Tenthredinidoe, xxi Teracolus, Ix texa, Catagramma, 119 Thais, Ivii, 5 Thaleropis, 46, 166 ionia, 167 thalia, Acroea, 39 Actinote, 39 Papilio, 39 Thaumantias, Ix, 197 Thestor, Ivii thetys, Papilio, 138 thore, Brenthis, 64 thrax, Casyapa, Ixix thryallis, Elymnias, 27 thysbe, Haematera, 121 thurius, Papilio, 182 thyestes, Papilio, 183 Timetes, 137, 140 tiphon, Papilio, 220 Coenonympha, 221 tiridates, Charaxes, 184 tiridates, Nymphalis, 184 Papilio, 184 Tirumala, 20, 127 hamata, 20 limniacse, 20 limniace, 20 Tisiphone, 204, 214 hercyna, 214 Eteona, 243 tithonus, Epinephele, xviii, 236, 239 Hipparchia, 239 Papilio, 239 Tortoise-shell, Large, 89 Small, 90 Trapezites, Ixi. Trauermantel, 94 tricolor, Viola, 64 tridens, Acronycta Ixxi trimeni, Pseudacrcea, 38 Triphysa, Ivii, 218 Triticum repens, 209 typhon, Coenonympha, 221, 222, 224 Papilio, 222 undularis, Elymnias, 224 Melanitis, 245 Urania, 5, 6 urticae, Papilio, 90 Vanessa, xviii, 90 usipetes, Eup'cea, 24, 27 Hirdapa, 27 valesina, Argynnis, 55 Papilio, 55 Vanessa, 5, 45, 88 amalthea, 109 antiopa, 90, 92, 96 c. -album, 87, 90 carclui, 99 ichnusa, 90 io, 94, 95. ioi j. -album, 90 levana, 83 polychbrus, 87, 88, 89 porima, 83 prorsa, 83 urticae, xviii, 90 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 26[ Vanessa, xanthomeloena, 90 varanes, Palla, 187 vesta, Heliconius, 42 Pareba, 35 veda, Pseudergolis, 104 Victorina, 45, 137 epaphus, 124 steneles, 124 sulpitia, 124 superba, 124 Vila, 45, 136 violoe, Acrsea, 40 Telchinia, 35 Viola tricolor, 64 virginiensis, Pyrameis, 99, 100 vishnou, Lasiocampa, Ixxi vulcania, Pyrameis, 97 Wall Brown, 210 waringi, Bombyx, Ixx, Ixxi White, Marbled, 240 Wood Argus, 208 xanthomebena, Vanessa, 90 Xenica, Ix, 230 xiphares, Charaxes, 182, 183 Nymphalis, 183 Papilio, 182 xypete, Euphoedra, 153 Yphthima, 204, 215, 218 Ypthima, 218 asterope, 219 bera, 219 ceylonica, 219 zamba, Pycina, 176 zampa, Euphoedra, 153 Zaretes, 189 zarinda, Pieris, Ixv Zegris, Ivii Zeonia, xlii Zerynthia, 5 zetes, Gnesia, 37, 38 Zeuxidia, 198 Zeuzeridse, xlvi, liv, 129 zingha, Monura, 187 zoilus, Hamadryas, 28 Papilio, 28 Tellervo, 28 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE RECALL uw DUE AUG2019/1 AUG21REC'D UCD LIBRARY DUEJUN 3 0 1984 2 8 1984 LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS Book Slip-50m-8,'69 (N831s8)458-A-31/5 N9 683865 QL542 Kirby, W.F. A hand-book to the v.l g> order Lepidoptera. LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS