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HARDWICK E’S

Science-Gossip

1878.

8

WORKS BY THE EDITOR OF “SCIENCE GOSSIP,”

HALF-HOURS IN THE GREEN LANES: a Book for a Country Stroll

Illustrated with 300 Woodcuts. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo., cloth, 4s.

HALF-HOURS AT THE SEA-SIDE; or, Recreations with Marine Objects.

Illustrated with 150 Woodcuts. Third Edition. Crown 8vo., cloth, 4s.

GEOLOGICAL STORIES : a Series of Autobiographies in Chronological Order.

Fourth Edition. Illustrated with 175 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., cloth, 4s.

THE AQUARIUM ; its Inhabitants, Structure, and Management. Illustrated

with 239 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., cloth extra, 6s.

FLOWERS; their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours. Illustrated with

32 Coloured Figures by Sowerby, and 161 Woodcuts. Second Edition Crown 8vo. cloth, 7s. 6d.

NOTES ON COLLECTING AND PRESERVING NATURAL HISTORY OBJECTS.

Edited byj. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S. Contents: Geological Specimens by the Editor;
Bones, by E. F. Elwin ; Birds’ Eggs, by T. Southwell, F.Z.S. ; Butterflies and Moths, by Dr.
Knaggs ; Beetles, By E. C. Rye, F.Z.S. ; Hymenoptera, byj. B. Bridgman ; Fresh-water Shells, by
Professor Ralph Tate, F.G.S. ; Flowering Plants, by James Britten, F.L.S. ; Mosses, by Dr. Braith-
waite, F.L.S. ; Grasses, by Professor Buckman ; Fungi, by Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S. ; Lichens,
by Rev. James Crombie, F.L.S. ; Seaweeds, by W. H. Grattan. Illustrated with numerous Wood-
cuts. Crown 8 vo., cloth, 3s. 6d.

HARDWICKE & BOGUE, 192, PICCADILLY.

H ARDWI C K E’S

AN ILLUSTRATED MEDIUM OF INTERCHANGE AND GOSSIP

FOR STUDENTS AND

LOVERS OF NATURE.

EDITED BY

J. E. TAYLOR, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.I., &c.

VOLUME XIV.

LONDON:

HARDWICKE & BOGUE, 192, PICCADILLY.

1878.

&

WYMAN AND SONS,

ORIENTAL, CLASSICAL, AND GENERAL PRINTERS,
GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.C.

/

MAR 9

PREFACE.

O write a Preface year after year for a volume
like Science-Gossip, to mean the same thing,
and yet to say something new, would be a tax
upon the ingenuity of the most skilful writer.
Nevertheless, the Editor feels it both a duty
and a pleasure to take such an opportunity of
expressing his gratitude towards so many
cheerful helpers, his sympathies with diligent students
and inquirers with whom he has been in silent monthly
communication, and his hopeful anticipations that the time to
come may find him surrounded by as many friends as at the close
of the eventful year 1878.

The last four years have been fruitful beyond measure in Scientific
discoveries. In Physical Science, the numerous revelations have
been almost startling in their novelty, and these have culminated
in that simple and yet wonderful instrument, the Microphone. To
listen to the tramping of insects is like hearing the “ footfalls on the
boundary of another world.” Is it possible that the Microphone will
be to organic sound what the Microscope has been to vision ? Shall
we listen to the love-narratives of insects as we do unaided to those
of birds, or be possible hearers of their domestic squabbles ?

Unhappily, it would seem as if Science, like some land of
Goshen, were the only arena where Peace may find a perpetual
home ! For, although scientific men, as inheritors of a long ancestry
of the spirit of partisanship, cannot avoid taking sides in debating
the great questions which are continually raised in their unfettered
investigations of natural phenomena; they do not condemn each

PREFACE.

other to pains and penalties for daring to disagree. No sword is
here wielded, nor artillery thundered, to determine by force what
calm reason finds herself unable to settle. Rather, a greater incentive
to further inquiry is produced, to redoubled observation and verifica-
tion of facts, and to renewed diligence in the search after truth, if
haply they may find it ! Will the time ever come when Politicians
will condescend to follow the example of savans ?

It is cheering to observe the wider love of Nature and the
spread of scientific culture among all classes ; to note how the
pursuit of Science is a bright spot in the lives of toilers at the desk,
the loom, the anvil, and in the field. Our position fortunately makes
us acquainted with diligent and capable students, low in the scale
of worldly wealth and position, whose lives are sweetened by the
new interest in common things which popular Science has created
for them. Long may it continue to be so, and may the day soon
come when men and women will be rescued from their lower natures
by the calm dignity which Wisdom bestows on those who seek her !

As hitherto, our purpose is to keep pace with modern discovery
and investigation, and to throw open our columns to the recording
of new facts. Not less desirous are we of helping the young inquirer,
and of putting him in a way to gain higher and sounder knowledge.
Whilst endeavouring to keep clear of mere gossip, we do not wish
to write above the heads of our large circle of readers by essays on
abstruse subjects. Our aim is to spread and popularize Science,
and to encourage a love of it.

In conclusion, we heartily thank all who have helped us, and
who have promised to continue their aid. At the same time, we
implore the sympathies of those who are unaware of the burden of
correspondence and work entailed in editing a journal like SciENCE-
GOSSIP, and who may feel aggrieved at imagined slights. To each
and all of those with whom we have been in cheerful literary
and scientific companionship for the last year, we wish a “ Merry
Christmas and a Happy New Year !”

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Arenicolites sparsus, tracks and

BURROWS OF, l8l
Arenicolites didymus, 181

Ballan Wrasse, the, Prepared for
Taking Cast of, 109
Blow-fly, Teeth of the, 148, 149
Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Delphinus tursio),

85

Brambles about London, 204, 205, 206, 220
Brill, the, Prepared for Taking Cast of,

108

Bronze Celt (Bronze Age), Chesterfield,

109

Butterflies in the Neighbourhood of Dork-
ing, 196, 197

Butterfly, Blenny, Prepared for Taking
Cast of, 109

Cabbage Leaf, Malformation of, 201
Catocala sponsa (Dark Crimson Underwing
Moth), 32

Chair in Great Yarmouth Church formed
from Skull of Sperm Whale, 28
Collecting-box, a New, 269
Common Daisy, Median Prolification in
the, 160

Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis), 85

“Dero,” a Fresh-water Annelid,
Structure of, n
Diatom, Sections of a, 104, 105
Drosera rotundifolia (Round-leaved Sun-
dew), 4

Drosera anglica, Leaf of, 160
Drosera obovata. Leaf of, 160
Dublin, Geological Map of the Neigh-
bourhood of, 180

Epping Forest, Fungi, &c. of, 249, 252,
253, 273

Equisetaceae (Horse-tails), 224

Flint Axe (Neolithic), Denmark, ioo
Flint Dagger (Neolithic), Denmark, 100
Flint Implement from Brandon, 76
Flint Implement from Langey, 76
Flint Implement from Le Moustier, 77

Flounder, the, Prepared for Taking Cast
of, 108

Flowers, adaptive appliances in, 156
Foraminifera of the Shetland Isles, 52, 53
Fossil Polyzoa, 248

Frog’s Spawn, Modifications of, Changes,
and Structure of, 53

Glass-eating Lichen, Cellular
Structure of, 129
Glyciphagus plumiger, 132
Gnat, Larva of the, 269
Grampus griseus (Rissot’s Dolphin), 61
Grampus (Orca gladiator), the, 60
Graphiola phoenicis (Date Palm), Leaves
of, 124

Hafted Implement (Neolithic),
Schaffes, Switzerland, ioo
Harvestman Spider, the, 80
Histioderma Hibernicum, 181, 182
Hylisinus fraxini, 125

Kestrel, the (Falco tinnunculus),
ioi

Lama, the, 245

Lavatera arborea (Tree Mallow), 13
Linnet, Parasite of the, 233
Lophius piscatorius (Angler-fish), 153
Lucernaria auricula, 132
Lythrum Salicaria (Purple Loose-strife), 5

Machine for Mounting Slides, 87
Mercurialis annua (Annual Dog’s Mer-
cury), 12

Micrometer Measurements, Diagrams to
Illustrate, 176

Miniature Microscopic Lamp, 232

Nymphon gracilis, 133

Oldhamia radiata, 181
Orobanche rapum (Broom-rape), 13

Parasite of a Cod, 34
Parasite of a Gurnard, 34

Parasite of a Ling, 34
Parietaria officinalis (Pellitory of the
Wall), 12

Parnassia palustris (Grass of Parnassus), 4
Perisporiaceae, 172, 173
Physeter macrocephalus (Sperm Whale), 8
Pilot Whale (Globicephalus melas), 85
Pinnularia, Diagrams Illustrating, 28
Piper Gurnard, Prepared for Taking Cast
of, 109

Pisa tetraodon, 132

Pollack Whiting, the, Prepared for Taking
Cast of, 109

Pseudorca crassidens, 61

Quartzite Implement from Creswell,
77

Rockling, the, 109
Rotifer, Diagram Illustrating Birth of a,
200

Schizanthus papilionaceus, Raceme
of, 157

Section of Sand-dune, Lancashire, 29
Section of Sandstone Cliff, Suffolk (after
Lyell), 29

Skull of Sperm Whale, 28

Sphinga, or Sphinx Ape, 225

Spiranthes autumnalis (Ladies’ Tresses), 14

Tamarisk (Tamarix gallica), 14
“Tangle” Dredge, a, 221
Terraced Hills of the Burren, as seen from
North of Galway Bay, 229
Terraced Limestone Hills, Glen Colomb-
kill, 228

Thornback, the, Prepared for Taking Cast
of, 108

Thunbergia alata, 56
White Mites, 35

White-beaked Dolphin (Delphinus albiros-
tris), 86

Ziphius Mesoplodon, Head of, 84

/

THE POTATO BEETLE,

A LITTLE OIL ON THE WATERS.

By W. V. ANDREWS.

Corresponding Secretary of Long Island Entomologists’ Society, U.S.A.

HE occasion of the ap-
pearance of this little
article is a paper which
appeared in the Sep-
tember number of
Science-Gossip, writ-
ten by Mr. E. C. Rye.

No one will dispute
the assertion that any-
thing from the pen of
that gentleman, particu-
larly on entomology, is worthy of our serious atten-
tion, and therefore it is that I regret to see him in
the ranks of the alarmists, — already, as I should
judge, too well recruited.

I will assure your readers that to us, who have now
for some years been familiar with D. decemlineata ,
the alarm seriously felt in the Old World lest this
insect should visit your shores seems verging on the
ridiculous. I do not, of course, mean that reasonable
precautions should not be taken ; but the idea of
stopping the transmission of dead specimens through
the mails, as I know has been done, and thus pre-
venting your people from making a personal acquaint-
ance with the insect, appears to me to have a ten-
dency to defeat the object in view.

Certainly I should advise no Englishman to import
live specimens, and I should advise all farmers and
gardeners to rid themselves of the presence of the
beetle, as I should advise them to rid themselves of
a crop of thistles. But if they imagine that its
existence in their fields is likely seriously to injure
their crops, then I assure them that they are very
much mistaken. We have had this beetle on Long
Island in immense numbers for some years, and I
do not believe that any one has suffered any
appreciable loss through its depredations. Farmers
.all say this.

No. 157.

If any loss have been sustained, it has rather been
through the remedy used than through the disease.
And here let me earnestly advise my countrymen — for
I am an Englishman — if the beetle should make its
appearance in the tight little island, to use no Paris
green , or other poisons, with a view to its extermi-
nation. There are two or three sufficient reasons why
such remedies should not be used : —

1. Its application, in any form, is not without
danger. If it be dangerous to wear green silks or to
use green paper for walls, it surely must be injurious
to apply this poison in any way by which its entrance
into the human system is rendered possible, and
probable.

2. The first shower of rain or gale of wind will
remove every particle of the powder from the foliage
of the potato, and either disseminate it through the
atmosphere or imbed it in the soil, to be stirred up
by the hoers or diggers.

3. Its use is entirely unnecessary. For small plots
of land hand-picking by boys or girls is efficacious
and without danger (for I do hope that your readers
are not believers in the foolish stories told of the
beetle being poisonous). For larger lots an ordinary
butterfly bag-net, swept gently along the potato-
tops, will capture more beetles in an hour than Paris
green will kill in a week ; and, by the way, recollect
that Paris green will kill other things besides potato
beetles. An American farmer applied a pretty good
dose of this poison to the potatoes in his garden “one
dewy eve,” and on the next morning found four dead
milch-cows in his pasture. The cows had broken
into the garden, and — increased the quantity of beef
in that vicinity.

Mr. Rye tells you that Paris green is a favourite
remedy here, but he does not understand the American
mode of doing things. Some State entomologist or
other probably had a friend in the oil and colour

B

2

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

business, and gave a friendly puff to Paris green.
Then the oil-and-colourman,- advertises in some
agricultural papers that he has the “ never-failing
exterminator ” of potato-bugs — Paris green, and the
editor of that journal at once strongly recommends
it. You do not do things in that way in honest old
England, but we do here.

One word of advice. When your potatoes are
four or five inches high, just occasionally turn up
the leaves and examine the under side. If you find a
bunch of orange- coloured eggs, nip them off. They
probably were deposited by D. decemlincata. In a
week or so look again. If you find that the foliage
has been eaten from a plant pretty thoroughly, and
should find a dirty brick-red animal, like that figured
by Mr. Rye, on that plant, remove the animal the
way I have advised. It is the beetle in its larval
state ; and, recollect, that in that state it does most
of its eating. But it is a poor traveller, and does
not wander about unnecessarily. So, when you
have found one from a batch of eggs, you may be
sure the others are near at hand. One stroke from
the net will capture most of them. Work atten-
tively, now and again, and your potato crop will
not suffer. Recollect, however, that other things
besides D. decemlineata eat potato vines. Here we
frequently suffer from the attacks of the Lyttas , or
blister-beetles, which devour lots of potato foliage.

Caution ! Mind, that all striped beetles found
on potatoes are not Colorado potato beetles, but
may be useful little fellows, whose larvae devour
other larvae injurious to us.

THE PRONUNCIATION OF SCIENTIFIC
NAMES.

T N regard to the pronunciation of Latin and Greek,
i. perhaps the confusion of theory and practice is
greater at the present time than it has ever been.
The attempt to give c and g the hard (guttural) sounds
in all such words is really only a part of a much
wider scheme, which aims at restoring, as far as
possible, the actual pronunciation of the ancients
themselves. If these actual sounds can be recovered
with any certainty, there is a possibility that some
time Latin and Greek will be pronbunced in a similar
way by all who learn them, to whatever nation they
belong. This is only what is done, as a matter of
course, in the case of all other tongues, and no reason
could be assigned for adopting a different practice in
this instance. Prejudice stands in the way, but we
need not despair of overcoming it. When I began to
learn Latin, I was told that when I travelled in a
foreign country, the language of which was unknown
to me, I should be able to communicate my wants to
any well-educated man by expressing them in Latin.
In writing, of course, this could always be done, as,
in fact, it is in the correspondence of many scientific

men of the present day, especially those who belong
to the Russian, Swedish, and other nations, whose
languages are not generally known. But if two of
these savans met, they would be as entirely unable to
communicate orally with one another as if they knew
no Latin at all — a result which I have no hesitation
in calling ridiculous.

But is there any possibility of recovering the actual
sounds used by the Greeks and Romans at the time
of their greatest literary prosperity ? — the last clause
being necessary, because their pronunciation changed
with time, as ours has done. This is not the place to
discuss the question, but the attempt has been made,
and, I believe, with success ; not with absolute
certainty, perhaps, but sufficient to remove, at any
rate, most of the difficulties in the way of the adoption
of a universal standard. It is no objection to this
proposal to say that the people of each nation are in-
capable of pronouncing certain sounds. This is not
true, so far as relates to the languages with which we
have practically to do. No Englishman, for instance,
if properly instructed, can fail to learn the sound of
the German ch, or the French u or eu in a short time,
and practice will then make it easy. Moreover, the
number of sounds peculiar to each nation is much
exaggerated. The French, it is said, have a dislike
to the sound of tv. It would not be difficult, were
this the place for doing so, to make out a long list of
words which every Frenchman uses, in which this
sound occurs, though not the letter. Conversely, the
so-called peculiar -vowel-sound of the word cueillir
has its exact counterpart in English words.

Although the time is not ripe for the adoption of
the above-mentioned scheme in its entirety, there is
one feature of it which will form a good step in ad-
vance, and which may be at once accepted. This is
the absolutely certain fact that c and g should invari-
ably have a guttural sound. I am not speaking of the
attempt to make this rule apply to English words
derived from classical roots. That is quite a distinct
subject , though it is not always kept distinct. Scien-
tific names are Latin w'ords, and should be so pro-
nounced. The case of Geranium and the like will be
no obstacle, for it is easy to pronounce the g hard
when we speak of Geranium molle to a fellow-botanist,
and soft when we speak to a lady- friend of the
geraniums in her conservatory. This is no more than
is done every day by people who can speak more than
one language. They do not, for instance, give the
same sound to ball in English, and ball in German,
because they are spelled the same, and are names of
the same object : and similarly with the French and
English point.

With reference to the pronunciation of words
derived from names of persons and places, it will be
only consistent to insist that they shall be sounded
according to the rules of the language from which
they are taken. In so far as they are neither classical
words nor derived directly from classic'll sources,.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

3

there can be no reason for pronouncing them as such,
even if it were not sometimes impossible to do so. I feel
sure every botanist, meeting with one of these strange-
looking words, would rather give it the proper sound
than attempt to pronounce it according to English
rules, with a result which, he is painfully conscious,
is absurd. What is wanted, is a compendious and
handy guide to the sound of the letters in the chief
foreign tongues, such as French, German, Italian,
Swedish, etc., and even Russian. It will be found
that the sounds which do not exist in English are
very few, and plain directions can be given for the
attainment of most of those. Were such information
commonly disseminated among scientific men (and
perhaps Science-Gossip would be a good place for
it to appear in), we should cease to hear such
barbarisms as Hypnum Swartzii, with the w pro-
nounced as in English, and Veronica Buxbaumii , with
the an as in the English haul. It would be found,
too, that the trouble required would not be great.
Merely to learn how certain consonants and vowels
are sounded in a language, is a very different thing
from learning the language itself.

W. B. Grove, B.A.

A DOMINIE’S BOTANICAL HOLIDAY.

HAT a grand thing it is to have a holiday,
and how refreshing to live almost out of doors

for a whole month ; to wander hither and thither fancy
free, by the brookside, or amid the tangled mazes of
the wood, to ascend to the top of yonder hill, or to
find out a path for ourselves through the glen — to
climb the rock by the sea-side, or to lie on one’s back
on the thyme-covered bank above ! With some
such thoughts did I awake one morning in the
summer-time of last year. My holiday I intended
this year to spend in the west of Scotland, and once
on board the Marmion , with the “guid braid”
Scotch tongue all around me, I fancied myself there
at once. The weather was beautiful, and the good
ship Marmion steamed away right merrily for the
North. As we reached Flamborough Head we had
a good view of the land, and all the way from this
point the objects of interest were noted by tourist
passengers.

All this time I am on the sea, and as I cannot do
much in a botanical way on board of a steamer, I
live in a sort of poetical dream, in which the cha-
racters in “Marmion” are all chasing each other
through my brain. At length we arrive at our
destination, and saying good-bye to the steamer,
I pay a short visit to “ Auld Reekie,” my Alma
Mater, and in a short time find myself en route for
the west.

On arriving at A , my botanical rambles at

length begin, and I am soon in the full enjoyment of
the pleasures I had looked forward to. Over most

; of the ground I had already made excursions as a
] boy. Then my pursuit savoured somewhat of orni-
! thology, now in manhood’s day I was a humble
; student of the beauties of Flora’s domain.

Several of my rambles on this occasion I shall
I always remember with pleasure, and one of those in
| the foremost rank would be that visit to the Carrick
, country. Who does not admire the purple heather
of our Scottish hills ? Now I was able to make a
distinction between the commonest kind of all —
Ling or Calluna vulgaris , and the different kinds o
Erica which grow together on the hill-side, and a
new pleasure seemed to be mixed with my boyish
love for the “dark purple heather.” The Blue-bell
( Campanula rotundifolia) is to be found gracefully
nodding its head to every little breeze, and seeming
to bring up memories of “auld lang syne,” and,
although I can remember it as one of the most
delightfully common of little flowers of my boyhood,
I can also remember the words of Ellen, the “ Lady
of the Lake,” that —

“ It drinks heaven’s dew as blithe as rose

That in the king’s own garden grows.”

A wealth of hillside flowers is to be found around
me, such as the pretty little Eyebright and the
Creeping Cinquefoil, with its relative the common
Tormentil. Moving on a little on one side I come
across two of Our Lady’s flowers — the Lady’s Mantle
{Alchemilla vulgaris), and the Galium verum , or
Lady’s Bedstraw, or Beadstraw. Getting into a
part where the ground is somewhat moist and boggy,
the lovely Parnassia palustris soon rivets attention.
What a splendid view from the top'of the hill ! Right
away to the Irish coast almost, on one side, and
around me I can survey the whole extent of country
where

“ Bruce he shook his Carrick spear.”

Another very enjoyable ramble was the one paid to
Loch Doon, the birth-place of the “ bonnie Doon.”
This was accomplished by going by rail to Dal-
mellington and walking to the loch. The walk by
the side of the Doon is a magnificent one, and as the
glen gets narrower and the rocks higher I am fairly
enraptured with nature’s works. At length I emerge
from the glen with pleasant thoughts of the beauty of
the ferns and mosses which I have seen peeping out
from the crevices of the rocks and adorning every
spot of vantage. Keeping company with the Crypto-
gamia I had also observed quantities of that pretty
saxifrage the London Pride, or “ None-so-pretty,”
and the Crow Garlic, with its beautiful star-like
blossoms, and its leaves somewhat resembling those
of the Lily of the Valley. Having got safely through
the glen, I find myself on the borders of a wild high-
land lake, studded here and there with islets. Being
desirous to change the walk, I reach Dalmellington
by a different route, and as I have to pass through

many acres of bog-land, my old friend the Parnassia

B 2

4

HARD WICKEDS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

palitstris is found in great plenty. The Ericas also
look well, and I am constrained to gather some of
them. I also find the Milkwort, or Rogation
flower, in great plenty and very various in its hues.
Dalmellington is at length reached after a long
ramble, and I am glad of a little rest after my
labours.

The flowers on the Ayrshire coast are very
numerous, and an excursion for the purpose may be
made with advantage by any one who may be

Fig. i. Grass of Parnassus ( Parnassia palustris).

interested in wild flowers. The Sea Convolvulus
and the Rest Harrow, with the Scurvy Grass and the
Eryngo Maritimum , may be found here in great
plenty, besides hundreds of other well-known plants.
A great many varieties of the most beautiful of the
Algae may be gathered on the sea-shore after a
storm.

After spending about a fortnight on the mainland
I determine to make the Isle of Arran, in the Firth of

Clyde, the scene of my operations for the remaining
part of the time. Crossing one morning from
Ardrossan in a little steamer, I arrive at Brodick,
and at once start for a walk across the island.
Having got right to the other side I proceed to
arrange about a lodging, and as I am out of the way
of all bustle I make up my mind to enjoy myself.
I could soon see that I was looked at, as I thought,
with some degree of patronage by the natives. In order
to encourage me several hoary islanders used to

appear with immense bundles of weeds round the-
cottage where I lodged, about eventide. As the
evenings were fine I used to take a chair out of
doors and hold a sort of reception. It was to me
very amusing to observe the specious pretexts by
which these “ancient mariners” used to lure one
to talk when they found that I could tell them
about London ; and how desirous they were to
know all about it. Almost every evening I might

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

5

expect one or more of my friends coming to visit
me, and to hear something more about the ‘ ‘ big
ceety.” In the daytime I enjoyed my rambles
exceedingly, and I came across many specimens
here that I had not seen for some time. The
lovely Alpine Lady’s Mantle repaid a climb up one
of the hills, and in the boglands below I found the
Drosera rot undifolia , and its usual companion the
longifolia. Another carnivorous little plant which
is often a near neighbour, one of the Butterworts,

I also found in the same neighbourhood. One
part of the bog I found quite covered with the
Cotton Grass, and close by a great deal of the
Marsh Cinquefoil, which, although it has done
flowering, I am able to make out by its strawberry-
looking seeds. Another part of the bog I find
covered for a great distance by the Horsetail
( Equisetum ), and in the running stream by the side,
its representative the Hippurus. The Bog Bean is

also present with its tripartite leaf, but it is now
destitute of flowers, and in close proximity is the
Marsh Valerian. Before leaving the moist ground
I feel called upon to admire the beauty of a large patch
of the Purple Loosestrife, which has a grand effect.

It was after one of my excursions, and whilst I was
holding my usual evening “ confab ” with my friends,
that one of them confided to me that ‘ ‘ a wee drap
o’ Luckie Findlay’s whusky wad be a guid thing
to carry wi’ ane oot on tha hills.” I told him that
it might or it might not, but as I did not want it
for the purpose of quenching thirst it would be a
useless encumbrance. I saw that Donald looked
quite astonished at my te merity to venture to speak
slightingly of what was to him, no doubt, a sove-
reign remedy for everything whatever.

It was only a day or two after this that I took
my farewell ramble in Arran. It was not the best
of days, and the weather seemed to be breaking up.
As my holidays were now drawing to a close, I was
not so much concerned on the subject. In this,
my last excursion, I came upon the Osmunda regalis
in a boggy piece of ground. It was growing up in
several clumps, and looked very well indeed. After
this I also came across the Sweet Gale, or Bog
Myrtle. It was about here in great profusion, and
smelt very strongly of the myrtle-scent belonging
to it. A little farther on amongst the Sheep;s-bit
Scations and the heather, both purple and white,
I found for the first time the pretty Bog, or Lan-
cashire, Asphodel. Another plant which I found
for the first time was the pretty White Sedum,
down on the rocks by the beach. Though I have
often gathered these two plants since, this was my
first introduction to them, and I shall always re-
member them in connection with the “ Misty Isle of
Arran.” J. Mills Higgins.

TAME BEARS IN SWEDEN.

By John Wager.

*

IT is well known that the Bear, by a course ot
severe discipline, can be taught to carry a long
pole in his paws or a pert monkey upon his back, to
dance to the music of pipe and drum, and to perform
tricks which the solemn gravity of his demeanour,
his clumsy motions, and shaggy hide, render the more
amusingly grotesque. He may also be seen, in the
den of a menagerie, to leap through a comparatively
small ring encircled with flame, associated, during
the performance only, with leopards and a hyaena ;
though the uncouthness and reluctance with which he
accomplishes the feat, contrasted with the graceful
and ready spring of the leopards, is enough to make
the hyaena laugh ; while, of all the performers, he has
evidently the most intractable temper, and is least
trusted by the spangled damsel who presides with
the whip.

6

HARD WICKE 'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP,

Y et, when young, the Bear is not altogether devoid 1
of amiable qualities, as the following narrative will
prove. The account was communicated to the present
writer in 1867 by a Swedish acquaintance residing at
Mora, in Dalecarlia, the bear being then living, and
the property of a gentleman at Siknas, in Venjan, an
adjoining parish, having been taken when about three
weeks old from the adjacent forest in February, 1865.
Being fed with warm milk, young Bruin throve
satisfactorily, and when large enough to enjoy liberty |
he usually sojourned in the yard with the bear-dog j
“ Jeppe,” playing and springing about his companion ;
like a cat. He was also much attached to his master,
delighting to accompany him not only to the forest,
where he often clambered up trees, but also into the
house, where removing chairs and tables from one
room into another appeared to be his favourite oc-
cupation. Strangers who visited Siknas always
received his attentions ; but as these were somewhat
brusque, and expressed in a surly tone, they tended
rather to repel than attract.

To Swedish punch (a luscious compound of arrack
and sugar) he was extremely partial, and partook of
it, whenever invited, out of a glass, like a well-bred
gentleman, but afterwards showing his loutish and
lumpish nature in a drunken fit, concluding with '
heavy sleep and loud snores.

One day, while Bruin was yet of tender years, a 1
kitten came into the yard and immediately drew his
surprised attention upon herself ; but young Puss, not
admiring his looks, first cast upon him an angry glance,
and then sprang up and fixed her claws in his head,
exciting such alarm that he trotted off in a nervous
perspiration, and ensconced himself in an outhouse.
Subsequently he always fled at the sight of this cat,
though she was the only one of which he showed fear.

Bruin took a daily bath in the river, which flows
within a stone-throw of the house ; swimming across
and back again. He then trotted to an ice-cellar, the
roof of which was easily accessible and covered with
deal boards, one of which projected considerably
beyond the rest ; towards the end of this he used to
creep warily, to enjoy the swinging motion that
resulted. It was a mode of recreation of which he
frequently availed himself.

Whenever he could intrude into the kitchen he
bemeaned himself like an officious and meddlesome
husband, disordering affairs, greatly to the vexation
of the domestics, to whose castigations with a stout
knob stick he payed little regard. One day he laid
hold of a coffee-pan that stood on the hearth, and was
conveying it in his paws to the yard, when the hot
contents, overflowing on his bosom, provoked him to j
cast it on the ground and flatten it with a stroke of
his paw. He would also, when opportunity occurred,
smuggle himself into the larder (a detached building),
looking round first to see that he was not observed,
then bring out some article, especially a cheese, which
he found convenient to carry ; but on one occasion he

made free with a tub of clouted milk and cream,
handling it, however, so awkwardly that the ropy
tenacious contents streamed down the front of his
erected corpus, and, as in the case of the coffee-pan,
brought vengeance on the tub. After fruitless en-
deavours, with tongue and claws, to clear the viscous
mass from his best fur coat, he betook himself to the
river, and then solaced himself with a swing.

This partiality for swinging or rocking rendered
him an undesirable companion in a boat ; yet he
constantly followed his owner to the river-side, and if
not admitted as a passenger, would swim after the
boat, grunting like a hog. During one river excur-
sion which he had been allowed to share he enjoyed
as usual his rocking, till the boat, gliding down the
river, entered a stormy rapid, when he became quite
agitated with fear, trembling in every limb and hold-
ing on each side of the boat so long as it remained in
the weltering force. When indulged with a ride by
land, he would sometimes leap on the shafts of the
vehicle, and placing a hind leg on each, rest his fore
paws on the horse’s back.

As he grew older it was found necessary to impose
some check upon his movements, and for this purpose
a chain, with a log at the end of it, was attached to a
collar round his neck. Such badge of servitude and
interference with the liberty of a free-born bear was
not to be borne. At first he tried to strike off the
log with his paws ; then he dragged it to the river,
but was vastly irritated to find that after every attempt
to sink it, the audacious log came to the surface again.
Finally he dug a hole, put the log into it, and re-
placed the earth, stamping or pressing it down ; then
apparently satisfied with his work he attempted to
move off, but found himself in a worse fix than before ;
however, after sundry curvets and angry jerks the
chain broke and he regained his freedom, leaving his
encumbrance in the grave.

In concluding his ursine anecdotes my Swedish
friend remarked : “These are but a few of Bruin’s
traits and droll tricks, which must be seen to be fully
enjoyed. At present he lies quietly in his winter lair,
but imagine his humour when he leaves it in spring ;
he is then no agreeable companion, especially for the
kitchen-maids, towards whom, and the fair sex in
general, he shows the greatest disregard.”

Poor Bruin ! he must indeed have got up on the
wrong side of the bed, for he became so unbearably
troublesome and subject to such angry moods, that,
as I afterwards learned, at the early age of about
three years he was doomed to death, and executed
accordingly.

Another young bear, captured in the winter of
1869, was kept for about two years at Eksharad, in
Wermland ; but as it grew older it became danger-
ously ferocious, and, consequently, was also shot. A
tame bear, kept at Sno-an, had accidentally one
Saturday evening got locked up in the smithy, and
not liking to remain in a workshop on a Sunday,

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

7

attempted to escape through an opening in the roof.
But to reach this Bruin had to clamber upon a lever,
which, under the pressure of his weight, opened the
sluice-gate, and, turning the water upon the wheel,
set the great hammer to work. Evidently annoyed
by its persistent motion and noise, he appears to have
grasped the hammer in his paws with intent to stop
it; but the contest proved beyond his strength, for
the neighbours, hearing loud roars, hastened to the
smithy and found him lying upon the anvil, having
received a death-blow before their arrival.

THE SEALS AND WHALES OF THE
BRITISH SEAS.

Part VI.

By Thomas Southwell, F.Z.S., &c.

WE now come to the second sub- order into
which the Cetacea are divided, namely, the
Odontoceti , or Toothed Whales. In this section, baleen
is never present, but well-developed teeth are found
in one or both jaws of the adult ; in some species
they are very numerous ; sometimes, though rarely,
deciduous. The blow-hole is single, and the skull
generally asymmetrical, or not precisely alike on both
sides of the medial line. Professor Flower divides
the Odoiitoceti into three families, one of which, the
Platanistidce, as already said, is found only in
India and South America ; the other two, Physe-
deridce and Delphinidce , are represented in our Fauna
by about fifteen species.

Of the Physeteridce , four genera are represented
in the British Fauna by five species ; namely, one
Physeter , the Sperm Whale ; two Hypcroodons , the
common Beaked Whale, and a very rare species
•called the Broad-fronted Beaked Whale; one Ziphius ,
'Cuvier’s Whale ; and one Mcsoplodon , Sowerby’s
Whale.

By far the most interesting species is the Sperm
Whale, Physeter macrocephalits (Linnaeus), which
rivals the Right-whale in commercial importance and
in the value of its products. This species has a very
wide geographical range, having been found in almost
•every sea between lat. 6o° north and 6o° south. The
.attempt has been made, I think unsuccessfully, to
show that the Sperm Whale of the southern hemi-
sphere is distinct from that of the northern ; there
seems, however, no reason to doubt at present, al-
though, of course, it may eventually be found other-
wise, that the same species of Sperm Whale ranges
over the whole of this vast tract of ocean. North of
about 40° it appears to be only a straggler, and
although the Arctic seas are almost always stated by
authors to be its head-quarters, no well-authenticated
instance of its occurrence farther north than Scotland
is on record, and Lilljeborg excludes it from his
.account of the Scandinavian cetacea. Of its occur-

rence on the British coast there are numerous in-
stances; in all cases, however, they are believed by
Andrew Murray to have been stragglers, “ which
have rounded Cape Horn (they have never been
known to double the Cape of Good Hope) or un-
promising colonies, for they are becoming scarcer and
scarcer in more than their due proportion.”* Of the
numerous occurrences on the coast of the British
isles I shall confine myself to a few early records.

In the church of St. Nicholas, at Great Yarmouth,
is the basal portion of a skull of this animal, which
has been converted into a chair : it formerly stood
outside the church, and of course, as it was an object
of wonder, it was relegated to the powers of dark-
ness, and christened (?) the “ Devil’s Seat ” ; it
has, however, now been admitted into mother church,
and stands beside the north-west door under the
clock. Mr. C. J. Palmer tells me that in the church-
wardens’ accounts for 1606 there is a charge of 8s.
for painting this chair, which clearly proves its an-
tiquity. Sir Hamon L’Estrange, in a letter to Sir
Thomas Browne (Wilkins’s edit., 1852, editor’s pre-
face to “ Pseudodoxia,” vol. i. p. lxxxi.), says that
in June, 1626, a whale, afterwards referred to by
Sir T. Browne as- a sperm whale (vol. iii. p. 324),
was cast upon his shore or sea-liberty, “ sometyme
parcel of the possessions of the Abbey of Ramsey,
&c.” The same author, in his account of the “ Fishes
found in Norfolk and on the Coast,” says, “A Sper-
maceti whale of 62 feet long [came on shore] near
Wells, another of the same kind twenty years before
at Hunstanton [the one referred to by Sir H. L’Es-
trange] ; and not far off, eight or nine came ashore,
and two had young ones after they were forsaken
by the water.” The whale mentioned by Sir H.
L’Estrange came on shore in 1626 : twenty years
after would give 1646 as the date of the Wells
specimen ; and in December of that year, according
to Booth’s “ History of Norfolk,” published in 1781
(vol. ix. p. 33), “A great whale was cast on the
shore here [at Llolme-next-the-Sea], the wind blow-
ing strongly at the north-west, 57 feet long, the
breadth of the nose-end eight feet, from nose-end to
the eye 15^ feet ; the eyes about the same bigness as
those of an ox, the lower chap closed and shut about
four feet short of the upper ; this lower chap narrow
towards the end, and therein were 46 teeth like
the tusks of an elephant ; the upper one had no
teeth, but sockets of bones to receive the teeth : two
small fins only, one on each side, and a short small
fin on the back ; it was a male . . . . ; the breadth
of the tail, from one outward tip to the other, was
13! feet. The profit made of it was ^2 17. 6s. 7d.,
and the charge in cutting it up and managing it came
to ^"ioo or more.” It seems probable that a
“school” got bewildered in the shallow waters of
the Wash, and that the individual of which Booth

* “Geographical Distribution of Mammalia.” By Andrew
Murray, 1866, p. 211.

8

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

gives such an excellent description, formed one of
the same party as the eight or nine mentioned by Sir
T. Browne. In May, 1652, Mr. Arthur Bacon
writes to Sir T. Browne about the sperm whale cast
on shore at Yarmouth, but the actual date of the
occurrence is not given. This is the last record of
this species being found on the Norfolk coast, with
which I am acquainted : it has, however, occurred
many times since, singly or in small parties, on other
parts of the coast ; the last instance, I believe, being
in July, 1871, when one was stranded on the shore
of the Isle of Skye. Of the osteology of the Sperm
Whale, Professor Flower has given an exhaustive
account in a paper published in the “ Transactions

very remarkable appearance, the truncated form of
the snout looking as though it were cut off at right-
angles to the body : at the upper angle is situated the
single blow-hole. The juncture of the head with the
body is the thickest portion, and the body decreases
little in size till the ‘ ‘ hump, ” which is situated in the
place of the dorsal fin, is reached ; from this point
it rapidly diminishes to the tail. The flukes of the
tail are from twelve to fourteen feet in breadth, and
the two flippers each about six feet long. The under
jaw is pointed, and about two feet shorter than the
upper ; it is furnished with about twenty-five large
conical teeth on each side ; but the number is not
constant, nor is it always the same on each side. In

Fig. 4. Sperm Whale {Physeter macrocephalus, Linn.).

of the Zoological Society,” vol. vi., and of its habits
a very interesting account is given by Thomas Beals,
who, in the capacity of surgeon on board ships
employed in the South Sea fishery, had unusual
opportunities of observing this remarkable animal.
Pie published a book entitled “ The Natural History
of the Sperm Whale,” to which I am largely indebted
for what I shall have to say about this species.

The colour of the Sperm Whale is black above and
grey beneath, the colours gradually shading into each
other. The full-grown male is about sixty feet
long ; the females are much smaller and more slender
than the males. The head, which constitutes more
than one-third of the whole of the animal, presents a

the upper jaw are no visible teeth, but those of the
lower jaw shut into corresponding depressions in the
upper. The tongue is small, and, like the lining of
the mouth, of a white colour. The upper part of the
head, called the “case,” contains the “spermaceti,”
which upon the death of the animal granulates into
a yellowish substance. Beals says that a large whale
not unfrequently contains a ton of spermaceti. Be-
neath the “case” is situated the “junk,” which
consists of a dense cellular mass, containing oil and
spermaceti. The blubber is about fourteen inches
thick on the breast, and in most other parts of the
body from eight to eleven inches. By the whalers
this covering is called the “ blanket.” With regard

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

9

to the apparently ungainly head of the Sperm Whale,
Beals remarks as follows : — “ One of the peculiarities
of the Sperm Whale, which strikes at first sight every
beholder, is the apparently disproportionate and un-
wieldy bulk of the head ; but this peculiarity, instead
of being, as might be supposed, an impediment to the
freedom of the animal’s motion in its native element,
is, in fact, on the contrary, in some respects, very
conducive to its lightness and agility, if such a term
can with propriety be applied to such an enormous
creature ; for a great part of the bulk of the head is
made up of a thin membranous case, containing,
during life, a thin oil, of much less specific gravity
than water, below which is again the junk, which,
although heavier than the spermaceti, is still lighter
than the element in which the whale moves ; conse-
quently the head, taken as a whole, is lighter specifi-
cally than any other part of the body, and will always
have a tendency to rise at least so far above the sur-
face as to elevate the nostril or ‘ blow-hole ’ suffi-
ciently for all purposes of respiration ; and more than
this, a very slight effort on the part of the fish would
only be necessary to raise the whole of the anterior
flat surface of the nose out of the water. In case the
animal should wish to increase his speed to the ut-
most, the narrow inferior surface, which has been
before stated to bear some resemblance to the cut-
water of a ship, and which would, in fact, answer the
same purpose to the whale, would be the only part
exposed to the pressure of the water in front, enabling
him thus to pass with the greatest celerity and ease
through the boundless track of his wide domain ”
(p. 28). When swimming at ease, the Sperm Whale
keeps just below the surface of the water, and goes
at about three or four miles an hour ; but on an
emergency it is able to attain a speed of ten 01-
twelve miles an hour : it then progresses by means
of powerful lateral strokes of its tail, and alter-
nately rises and sinks at each stroke. In progress-
ing in this manner, the blunt anterior surface of
the head never presents itself directly to the water ;
the animal’s body being in an oblique position, it is
only the angle formed by the inferior surface which
first presents itself, and this, which Beals likens to the
“ cutwater ” of a ship, offers the least possible amount
of resistance. When undisturbed, the Sperm Whale
rises to the surface to breathe about once every hour.
Beals says the regularity with which every action
connected with its breathing is performed is remark-
able ; the time occupied differs slightly in each indi-
vidual, but each one is minutely regular in the per-
formance of every action connected with respiration,
so that the whalers know how long it will remain
beneath the surface before reappearing to renew its
supply of air. A full-grown “ bull,” he says, remains
at the surface ten or eleven minutes, during which he
makes sixty or seventy expirations ; after which he
disappears, to return again to the surface in one hour
and ten minutes. The blowing is not accompanied

by any sound, and notwithstanding the wonderful
accounts of its roarings and bellowings, the Sperm
Whale may be said to be an absolutely silent animal.
The females and young males are gregarious, but are
found in separate herds or “schools,” as they are
called. A “ school ” will sometimes consist of five or
six hundred individuals. The herds of females are
always accompanied by from one to three large
“bulls”; but the full-grown males are said to be
generally solitary in their habits, except on certain
occasions, when it is supposed they are migrating
from one feeding-place to another. The majority of
those which occur on our coast are these solitary
males ; when they visit us in herds, as mentioned by
Sir Thomas Browne, they are all probably females
or young males. The “ bulls ” are very fierce and
jealous, and fight fiercely. The females show great
attachment to each other and to their young, so much
so that, one being wounded, the others of the herd
remain and fall a comparatively easy prey. The
young males, on the other hand, are very wary and
difficult of approach, and should one be attacked, the
others immediately take the alarm and retreat. The
female produces one young one, rarely two, at a time,
and breeds at all seasons of the year. Their senses
of sight and hearing are very acute, and after being
once unsuccessfully attacked, they are very difficult
and dangerous to approach.

The food of the Sperm Whale consists almost en-
tirely of Cephalopode Mollusks (cuttle-fish), although
at times, when feeding near the shore, it has been
known to take fish as large as salmon. It is, how-
ever, essentially a deep-water species, but how it con-
trives to capture such active prey as fish seems difficult
to conceive. Beals is, however, of opinion that the
Whale sinks to a proper depth in the sea, where re-
maining as quiet as possible, and opening wide its
mouth, the prey are attracted by the glistening white
colour of its lining membrane, curiosity leading them
to destruction ; for no sooner have a sufficient number
entered his mouth than the Whale, rapidly closing his
under jaw, they are made prisoners and swallowed.

{To be continued .)

THE HISTORY OF SALAD PLANTS.

By H. G. Glasspoole.
CRESSES.

CRESS is a general name of a number of plants,
mostly, if not all, belonging to the Cruciferce ,
and possessing, in common with the plants of the same
order, pungent and aromatic qualities. The ancients,
we are told, ate cresses with their salads to counter-
act the cold nature of lettuces and other herbs.

The garden cress, Lepidium sativum , appears to
have been known to Theophrastus (see article in
Rees’s “ Encyclopaedia”), but the tribe of Nasturtium,
to which the Water-cress belongs, was, no doubt,

IO

HARD WICKE ’S SCIENCE - GOSSIP.

most common in use. The Greeks thought that the
warm and stimulating qualities of these plants put
life and energy into persons with a sluggish tempera-
ment, and also brightened the understanding of those
who partook of them : this circumstance gave rise to
the Greek proverb, “ Eat cress and learn more wit.”
Xenophon recommended the Persians to feed their
children with cresses, which he said would make
them grow tall, and be of more active habits. Pliny
dwells much on the medicinal virtues of these plants,
and recommends them to be eaten with vinegar as a
remedy for those minds that were deranged. The
garden cress is said to have been introduced into this
country about the middle of the sixteenth century.
Gerard mentions having received the seed of the
curled cress, which is a variety, from his loving friend
John Robins, of Paris. Thomas Cogan, in his
“Haven of Health,” tells us “that the often eating
of this herb in salettes doth give sharpnesse and
readinesse to wit.” The native country of this plant
was unknown until Dr. Sibthorp discovered it in
Greece.

, No British plant is in such popular request for
salad as the Water-cress, Nasturtium officinale , the
young leaves of which are supposed, like those of the
Scurvy-grass ( Cochlearia officinalis), to purify the
blood, and therefore largely partaken of in the
spring. Our old friend Gerard recommends young
ladies to eat them as a restorative to the natural
bloom of their faded cheeks. A decoction of its
juice with that of Scurvy-grass and Seville oranges
used to be given to children as a medicinal drink in
the spring in days gone by. In Europe the water-
cress appears to have been first cultivated at Erfurth,
about the middle of the sixteenth century, but it was
not until 1808 that it became an object of cultivation
in England. About that period a Mr. Bradbery began
to grow them for the London markets in the pretty
valley called Springhead, Northfleet, Kent, with
great success. In 1820 he removed to West Plyde,
near Rickmansworth, where he had no less than five
acres under water-cress cultivation. It is now ex-
tensively grown in the northern and eastern suburbs of
the metropolis, and also at Cookham, Farringdon, and
other places on the Great Western Railway, which line
brings no less than a ton a week of this wholesome
breakfast salad to London. Many hundred bunches
are sold every morning in Covent Garden, but the
largest share goes to Farringdon Market. The en-
tire supply to the various Metropolitan markets
cannot be less than from three to four tons per week
(see Wynter’s “Curiosities of Civilization”). The
sale of this plant forms an important though humble
branch of domestic commerce in our towns and
cities. “Fine fresh Water-cresses ! ” is the first coster
cry heard in a morning in the streets of London.

Water-cress contains chloride of potassium and
sulphur in considerable quantities, and iodine occa-
sionally.

The botanical name of the garden-cress, Lepidium ,
is derived from lepis , a scale, from the form of the
seed-pouches ; that of Nasturthim , from nasus, nose,
tortus, torment, from the effects most of this genera
have upon the muscles of the nose, — a name given to
it by Pliny. In some counties these plants used to be
called “ Nose-smart ” for the same reason. The word
“ cress,” perhaps, may be derived from cresco , being a
quick grower. In the last edition of the “ English
Botany ” we are told that the word ‘ ‘ cress ” is found in
various forms in all Teutonic languages. Some have
derived it from the cross form of the flowers.
C haucer employs the Saxon form of the word Kers,
to signify anything worthless : —

“ Of paramours ne raught he not a Kers ; ”

from which, perhaps, is derived the phrase of not
caring a curse for anything.

THE ANNELID “DERO.”

By R. Garner, F.L.S., &c.

r"I"''HE two little fresh-water Annelids, portions of
-1- which are figured at a, b , c, are very dis-
tinct from their allies, the Naids, of which, however,
several species are often found with them ; Nais
proboscidea, for instance. Nero is the generic name
appropriated to the present annelids. Though hardy,
they seem to require a warm temperature, and those
here described inhabit the slimy mud of a pool, into
which hot water is constantly pouring from an engine.
A dark green Oscillatoria also grows in the same
mud, and thrives in a higher temperature than either
the annelid or the hand can endure.

The peculiarity of Dero, and one which makes it a
pretty object for the microscopist, is the expanded
membrane or respiratory disk, situated at the posterior
part of the body, having projections or processes
upon it, and the whole strongly ciliated, thus pre-
senting some resemblance to the corona of a Bryozoon,
though the ciliated processes are fewer. This part,
the undoubted respiratory organ, it is the habit of the
little animal to protrude out of the mud in which it
lives, and wl\en the disk is expanded, the processes
fairly extended, and the cilia in strong action, few
objects are more striking. There is a difference
between a and b and c , the former having a pair of
antenna-like processes, which are not retractile.

Another interesting point, and one which from the
transparency of the animal and the bright-red colour
of the blood, is not difficult to investigate, is the
circulation. Of this, investigation has already been
made,* and all that we give here is solely what we
have ourselves noticed. An abdominal vein running
from the head, f to the respiratory disk at the
opposite extremity, a, receives the blood from the

* M. E. Perrier, “Comptes Rendus,” 1870, an extract being
given in Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., fourth sec., vol. 6.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

1 1

head, and from what may be termed a vascular rete
mirabile enveloping the stomach and intestine, and is
divided behind, g, and distributed to the branchial
processes. From these, vessels again converge into
a dorsal artery, following the undulations of the
alimentary canal, and conspicuous from an intrinsic

Fig. 5, Structure of Dero — a freshwater Annelid, a, b,

the head £

metility which the vein has not. The course of the
dorsal vessel is somewhat the same as the ventral.
When it lies above the middle part of the alimentary
canal it forms the beautiful network already men-
tioned, and is, besides, connected in each somite or
section of the body with large contractile loops,
apparently distributing the blood to the viscera and
parietes of the body, but, according to Perrier, not
immediately connecting the two vessels. The little
worm is well supplied with abdominal tufts of sigma-
shaped hooks for crawling, and also with lateral or
dorsal setae for swimming, the former are bifid at their
extremes, e.

The mouth, d and f is furnished with a bulbous
tongue, which can be protruded a little in feeding ;
both here and behind the alimentary canal is ciliated ;
there is some appearance of a stomach at about the
seventh and eighth somite of the body, and here is
the liver incorporated with the canal, and also
in the same region the ovaries, &c. ; the intestine is
dilated in each division of the body, and connected
by bands with its parietes.

We have no sufficiently matured observations to
offer as to the development of the ova in the Dero.
Perrier describes its fissiparous mode of increase, but
the following account differs somewhat from him.
Sometimes a long Dero , say of fifty joints, very
evidently divides into two, a respiratory disk for the
anterior secondary worm, and a head for the posterior
one being formed at the place of disjunction ; here
the anterior portion, containing the ovaries, probably
becomes the germ-mother, and perhaps winter-nurse.
In other cases the individual Dero presents three

portions, two as above and a third behind, and
the somites in the last portion have evidently been
most recently formed.

A double abdominal nervous cord is plain enough
all along below the longitudinal vein ; the brain is
less definitely seen ; there are also two minute bodies

c, posterior extremity ; d head ; e, setae ; f, g, vessels of
d branchiae.

at the sides of the brain, probably acoustic, a few
darker coloured spots more forward, and apparently
lateral oral ganglia. The animal is sensitive to a
very slight concussion of the vessel in which it lives.

PLANT-HUNTING AT BARMOUTH.

By J. Percival.

HAVING read with great pleasure the interest-
ing notes of your correspondent Horace
Pearce, F.L.S., of the flora of the neighbour-
hood of Cader Idris, I wish to add, by way of
supplement, a few of the plants that came under my
observation during the summer of 1876, for I find
that he has omitted a great portion of the rarer
species. Walking along the road in the direction of
Llanaber may be seen Parietaria officinalis , Echium
vulgare, Clinopodium vulgare, Origanum vulgare ,
Euonymus Europceus , and Asplenium lanceolatum.
This latter plant may be found for a mile on old walls
and rocks, and in far greater abundance than its near
ally, Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum. It may also be
found on walls overlooking Barmouth, and also for
two miles on the Dolgelly road from Barmouth ;
turning into the harbour, a little short of a mile from
Barmouth, it may be seen there very fine and abun-
dant. A little further, on rocks facing the sea, may
be gathered Rubia peregrina , or the common Mad-
der ; growing also with it is Inula conyza , or the
“ Ploughman’s Spikenard ” ; another mile further on
brings you to Carex extensa and Tamarix Gallica ;
and also Spircea salicifolia : both the latter have, no
doubt, been planted, but probably they are as wild

12

HARD WICKE ; S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

there as elsewhere in Britain. Plalf a mile further 1
on, until coming to a large stream, going up the hill
side, may be found Carex binervis, C. Icevigata, and C.
fulva , the latter in the greatest plenty. Gnaphalium
dioicum , Scutellaria minor , almost in all swampy places,
along with D rostra rotundifolia. Up this valley, I
picked up of the Drosera an immense number of
sports, varying from one to six and seven stems from
the same root ; others branched into several divisions
at the top of the stem : I picked up about twenty of
them, and scarcely two alike. Crossing over the

Fig. 6. Pellitory of the Wall {Parietaria officinalis).

hill from this point (say a mile up the valley) in the
direction of Barmouth, my friend Mr. Roger,
gathered a plant of Onobrychis sativa. On the hill-
side overlooking Barmouth may be found Geranium
sanguineum, Dianthus deltoides, and Orobanche
major ; and on an old wall nearly opposite the Corsy-
geddol Hotel may be gathered Orobanche Hedince ;
whilst on the rocks in the direction of Llanabers
near the toll-gate, may be found Veronica hybrida.
Proceeding along the high road for a mile may be
found, in the greatest abundance, Lathyrus sylvestris ;

it also grows on the railway banks, both near Bar-
mouth and at Friog. Along the coast may be
gathered Crithmum maritimum ; amongst loose
stones in several places, and also very fine, two feet
in height, on rocks exactly behind the pay-house. In
crossing the bridge, Polygonum Raii, Sclerochloa loliacea
and rigida. On the railway banks, about 400 yards
from the station, grows Mentha rotundifolia , and in
grassy flats, running parallel with the railway at this
place, there are large quantities of Juncus acutus and
maritimus. On Sept. 5th, 1876, I saw hundreds of

Spirant hus autumnalis growing in the same flat
with Spergula nodosa and a white-flowered variety
of Erythrcea Ccntaurium. Erythrcea latifolia I have
seen growing at Pensarn along with juncus acutus
and maritimus. Convolvulus Soldanella grows amongst
the sand-hills near Barmouth, and in several places
may be found Mercurialis annua , Koniga maritima
abundant (probably an escape). Malva sylvestris and
rotundifolia are both common plants. Lavatera arborca
growing in several places on the coast ; likewise
may be seen Sinapis nigra and Hordeum murinum .

HARD WICK HS S CIENCE- G O SSIP.

13

Crossing over the estuary, and getting on to the
bog at Barmouth Junction, may be found Phragmites
.. communis , varying in height from 18 inches to more
than six feet. I have a specimen not 20 inches high,
with roots and four perfect panicles ; growing along
with it is CEnanthe crocata, Scirpus maritimus , and
Typha latifolia. The last-mentioned plants grow in
the sluice by the railway-side, until one gets beyond
Penman Pool Station from Barmouth. At the Bar-
mouth side of the estuary, on the bog may also be

Fig. 8. Tree Mallow ( Lavatcra arboira).

found Radiola millegrana , Osmunda regalis, Carex
distans, C. fl ava, var. lepidocarpa , Drosera rotundifolia
and intermedia. Going on to Arthog Station, amongst
the salt marshes, may be found Statice Limonium and
S. rarifiora , also Sueda maritima and Salicornia in
the greatest abundance. CEnanthe Lachenalii and
Apium gravelens both grow near Penman Pool Sta-
tion, and, retracing my steps to the rocks, near
Friog, growing in inaccessible situations, may be
seen Asplenium marinum ; and following the

coast to the next village, Llangrwyen, near the
station, I have found Mentha viridis, M. piperata ,
and M. gentilis, and also Tanacetum vulgare.
By the road, in woods, are large quantities of Hyperi-
cum androscemum and Orobanche major. In woods,
at or near Barmouth Junction, at Arthog Falls, Tor-
rent Walk, and several other places, I have seen
Hymenophyllum Wilsoni in the greatest abundance.
At the margin of the lakes, on the ascent to Cader
Idris, from the Arthog side, I have seen Hypericum

Fig. 9. Broom-rape ( Oi-obanche rapum).

elodes. I have also seen it in swampy ground near
Barmouth. I have seen L. selaginoides in several
places near small rills near Barmouth ; and Asplenium
Ruta-muraria grows very fine on an old wall leading
from Dolgelly to Penman Pool ; but out of reach,
except by a ladder. Amongst mosses, the rarer
species I have observed are Entosthodon Templetoni
and E. cricetorum , Bartramia rigida, Bryum alpinum
and B. elongatum, Hedwigidium imberbe, Zygodon
viridissimus and Z. conideus , Campylopus longipilus

14

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

C. densus and C. paradoxus , Rhabdoweissa Jug ax, See.
Aspleniw/i viride is found in ascending Cader, and

MICROSCOPY,

An easily-made Cell. — The “ American Journal
of Microscopy” gives the following excellent recipe
for constructing cells: — “A cell which we have
found very durable, easily and quickly made, and
very neat, is constructed as follows : Having pro-
cured some good gold size and pure litharge, grind
the latter to a very fine powder. Mix the litharge
and gold size to the thickness of cream, and colour
either black or dark olive by adding lamp-black.
With this paint, as it may be called, make as many
cells as are wanted, and when made, dust finely-
powdered litharge over them until they are covered
a sixteenth of an inch deep ; allow them to stand a
few minutes, and then shake off all the loose litharge
by means of a few smart taps. The surface of the

Fig. xi. Ladies’ Tresses Orchid ( Spiranthes autumnalis).

Lastrea cemidum grows in woods near Penman Pool.
■ — J. Percival.

cell will now be quite rough. Allow it to stand a
few hours, and then press it against a plate of glass.
If this be done carefully, a smooth, solid ring will
be left on the slide. If the edges should not be as
smooth as they ought to be, it is easy to trim them
off on the turntable by means of a small chisel.
Such cells, after a few weeks, become very hard, and
may be finished so as to be very neat. For dry
objects they leave nothing to be desired, and as we
have had them in use for over five years, we can
speak as to their durability. For objects mounted
in liquids it will be necessary to coat them with
suitable varnish. Thus, for saline liquids, a coating
of gold size renders them perfectly impervious. For
glycerine use Bell’s cement, or a solution of shellac in
alcohol.”

HARD WJCKE’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

T5

The Monthly Microscopical Journal. — We
have received a copy of the November and December
number of this well-known journal, containing a
very brief account of the death of the late Editor
(Dr. Lawson), and a notice that the present number
is the last of the series, and that henceforth the
Royal Microscopical Society intend to publish their
own Transactions, after the manner of the other
learned societies.

The “Spontaneous Generation” Contro-
versy.— At a recent meeting of the Royal Society,
Professor Tyndall referred to some hermetically-
sealed flasks opened on the Alps, which, he thought,
set this controversy at rest. Professor Tyndall
stated that he took with him last summer to the
Alps sixty hermetically-sealed flasks, containing
infusions of beef, mutton, turnip, and cucumber,
which had been boiled for five minutes, and her-
metically sealed whilst boiling was going on. The
flasks were kept for six weeks and were then
opened, some in haylofts and others near precipices.
The two groups of flasks were then placed in a
kitchen, where the temperature was from 65° to
90° Fahr. The result was that twenty-one out of
the twenty-three flasks opened in the hayloft were
filled with organisms, whilst all the flasks opened
near the edges of precipices remained as clear as.
distilled water !

SpH/ERAPHIDES. — I have found the following
a very simple and efficient method for procuring
sphgeraphides from rhubarb when not required to be
viewed in situ: — I take a piece of rhubarb and
separate the fibres into several small pieces, length-
wise, then allow them to remain for a few days until
moderately dry. If rubbed together over a sheet of
note-paper, the matter thus obtained may be collected
on a slide : it will be found to consist principally of
detached splicer aphides. The few particles of fibre
may be easily removed with a camel-hair pencil.
They can then be mounted, when dry, as opaque
objects or in Canada balsam, as required. — W. H.
Harris.

Birth of Vinegar Eels. — While occupied, a
few evenings since, with the microscope, examining
an eel from some vinegar, I was the fortunate witness
of an interesting event. I had, by the cap of the
live box, caused a sufficient amount of pressure to
keep the worm still, when a segment, about the
centre one, ruptured and allowed the egress of a
twin. The pair were, in all respects but size, pre-
cisely similar to their parent. I do not find any men-
tion of the like occurrence in Dr. Carpenter’s veiy
excellent and interesting work, “ The Microscope,”
very little being written about Anguillulce aceti in the
chapter devoted to Annulosa. — W. H. S.

The late Dr. Beatty. — We are sorry to notice
the death of Dr. Beatty, of Baltimore, at the early

age of 40 years. Dr. Beatty was a valued contributor
to our pages, and microscopists are under a debt of
gratitude to him for the elaborate articles he pub-
lished in these columns on “ Decolouring and Stain-
ing Vegetable Tissues.”

Cleaning Slides. — I have seen very frequently
in different books, plans, troublesome and awkward,
for cleaning the balsam off slides. Why do not people
just wash them with rectified naphtha? The balsam
is removed instantly. The hardest and oldest, when
thick, only requires the naphtha to be warm ; but all
that can be should be scraped off first. In this way
it is the easiest thing possible. I have used it for
slides and lenses for many years. — Edward Thos.
Scott.

To Clean Old Slides. — The following has been
my plan for years, and is simple, easy, and effica-
cious : — Warm the slide over a spirit-lamp to remove
the covering glass which, place in a water-glass with
benzole. Scrape off as much as you can of the bal-
sam, or whatever it may be, from the slide, and
wash with benzole , and use an old silk pocket handker-
chief, which I dip into the benzole, a very little
of which is sufficient. — John Bramhall.

To Preserve Glass Slips ready for Use
after Cleaning. — As it is most inconvenient to
make each slip chemically clean at the time it may be
wanted for mounting a specimen, doubtless most of
your readers clean a quantity (say half a gross) at a
time ; but then probably they have often, in common
with myself, experienced the inconvenience of their
again getting dirty before they are used, through their
lyingabout in a drawer or on the table of the laboratory.
To obviate this difficulty, I have recently adopted a
method which is simple, and, at the same time, so
effectual, that the slips may remain for months
covered with dust and dirt, and yet be clean and
ready for use whenever they are required. It is
this : — After cleaning, the slips are arranged side by
side, with their flat surfaces in approximation, when a
ready-gummed piece of silver or tissue paper,* 10
inches long by a width which varies according to the
number of slips, is affixed to their edges in the same
fashion as the sheets of paper in a drawing-block are
joined together, so that, although they are firmly
attached to each other by their edges, their surfaces
are left uncovered. The block thus bound is left to
dry, when each slip may be detached by running the
thumb-nail round its edges. The surface next the
adjoining slip should be used for the preparation to
be mounted as it is, of course, quite clean, although
the other (or exposed one) may have become dirty ;
the fragments of tissue-paper being removed after the
mount is completed. — J. W. Groves , London.

* Any other paper is so thick that it is difficult to separate
the slips without the use of a knife.

i6

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

How to Clean Thin Covers. — The difficulty
of cleaning very thin covers without breaking them
is very great. It is almost impossible to handle them
in the fingers, and when they are rubbed between
two plain blocks covered with chamois leather, it is
difficult to clean more than one side, since one par-
ticular side will always stick to the leather next it,
and the other side only will be subjected to friction.
Mr. Jones has devised a very simple method of over-
coming this difficulty. Into a brass cylinder he fits
a heavy plug, the lower end of which is covered
with chamois leather. When a thin cover is placed
on a piece of stretched chamois, and the tube placed
over it, the under side only of the cover is subjected
to friction, and consequently a few rubs suffice to
clean it thoroughly. The tube is then raised, the
cover turned over by means of a delicate pair of
forceps, and the other side is cleaned. The pressure
of the plug is so even that there is no risk of fracture,
even with the most delicate covers.

ZOOLOGY,

Dublin University Biological Association.
— We have received three parts of the first volume of
the “ Proceedings ” of this well-known society, con-
taining some very valuable and well- written papers,
among which are the following : — ’“The Leaf Struc-
ture of Begonia ” and “Irish Fungi,” by Greenwood
Pim, F.L.S. ; “Some Curious Marine Forms,” by
Prof. Macalister ; and “ Papers on Anatomical
Irregularities,” by Mr. Malet and F. O. Ross, &c.

Arctic Birds. — At a recent meeting of the Zoo-
logical Society, Mr. Henry Seebohm, F.Z.S.,
exhibited and made remarks upon some of the rarer
Eggs and Birds which he had obtained during his
recent visit to the Arctic regions of the Yen-e-sey, in
Eastern Siberia, and gave a rapid sketch of his
journey. Some of the skins were interesting from the
fact that they extended our knowledge of geographical
distribution’; such as, Phylloscopits trochilns and
Acrocephahis schcenobcenus , from long. 88° E.,
Anthns Gustavi of Swinhoe [A. Seebohmi of Dresser,
A. batchianesis of Gray) from the same longitude, and
young in first plumage of this species.

The Leeds Naturalists’ Society. — We have
received a copy of the Report of this Society, and
are delighted to find it in vigorous health, and with a
good programme of work before it for the forth-
coming year. May we suggest to the secretaries of
Provincial Natural History, Microscopical, and
other societies, that they should send us the names of
officers, See., of their societies, so that our volume for
1878 may be a kind of “Science Directory,” for
provincial scientific societies ?

Rose-coloured Pastor or Thrush (Turdzts
rosens). — A specimen of this rare bird was obtained

this year in the north-west of county Donegal,
Ireland, where it was captured alive in the garden of
the Gweedore Hotel, which is situated about four
miles from the coast of the Atlantic. It unfortunately
died a few hours after its capture, whilst being
conveyed in a basket to the residence of Lord George
Hill, the owner of the hotel. This is not the first
instance of this beautiful bird being found on our
shores. Thompson, in his “ Birds of Ireland,” informs
us of one or two specimens being shot in the
neighbourhood of Hillsborough, county Down, some
thirty or forty years ago. Perhaps some reader of
Science-Gossip could furnish us with other instances
of its appearance, either in Ireland or England, which
may have come under his notice, and which would be
interesting to all lovers of birds. — Shelah.

Sagartia sphyrodeta. — A specimen of the
beautiful golden-disked variety of this anemone in
one of my tanks has twice undergone spontaneous
fission within about seven weeks. The original
specimen had been in my possession nearly twelve
months, and by care and regular feeding had in-
creased from about the size of a fourpenny-piece,
when fully expanded, to nearly that of a florin.
Previously to its first division, I had noticed for several
days that the base had been growing more oval in
outline, and, to my surprise, on the morning of
September 10th, I found it divided into two, right
across the centre. The severance was not quite
complete when I first discovered it, but became so in
course of a couple of hours ; the two portions dragging
themselves away from each other, until they were
about half an inch apart. The severed edges of each
gradually closed together, a suture was formed, and
in course of a few days I had two perfect anemones.
These have thriven well, fresh tentacles have been
produced, and both have increased in size, till last
week I noticed that the larger of the two, which I
suppose must be considered the parent anemone, was
again elongating its base, as if contemplating fission.
About noon of the 31st ult., I had the satisfaction of
seeing that the process had begun, and watched it at
intervals till completed. The base appeared to
separate into two lobes, which gradually dragged away
from each other, making a rent which extended
upwards, till only the mouth formed a connection
between the two. This eventually gave way, and the
fission was complete, the whole performance occupying
about five or six hours. A few acontia were thrown
out, but these were soon withdrawn, and the healing
process commenced. Two days later I was feeding
my stock, and offered food to the two halves, both
of which seized it greedily, but soon expelled it
through the partially healed rents in their columns.
I shall watch the further increase of my specimens
with great interest, as the species is one of the hardiest
and most beautiful tenants of the aquarium with
which I am acquainted. It feeds well, is almost
always expanded, thrives in a comparatively small

HARD WICKE'S S CIENCE - G O SS1P.

17

body of water, and the contrast between the brilliant
yellow disk and the pure white tentacles is very
pleasing. Like most other anemones, it opens best
at night, and should not be exposed to too strong a
light ; mine are kept in a north aspect, and the colour
of the disk is as brilliant as when I first had them.
The same remark applies to the highly-coloured
varieties of S. troglodytes , which are very apt to fade.
— Edward Horsnaill , Dover.

A Five-winged Butterfly. — At a recent
meeting of the Entomological Society Mr..- Meldola
exhibited a five-winged specimen of the Sulphur
Butterfly ( Gonopteryz rhamni ), which had been taken
in Norfolk by Mr. John Woodgate. At the same
meeting Mr. H. Goss, F.L. S., showed a specimen
of the Sulphur Butterfly, in which the left wings were
those of a male, and the right those of a female.

Destroying Mites. — In reply to A. F.’s query
as to destroying mites in a cabinet of Lepidoptera,
I find the best and simplest method is to saturate a
piece of blotting-paper in chloroform (methylated is
cheapest) ; place it in the drawer infected, and close
securely, repeating the operation two or three times,
at intervals of a few hours. If the drawer be tolerably
air-tight, this will effectually destroy the mites, but it
should be carefully watched for some time afterwards,
in case of fresh mites coming into existence from
eggs, upon which the chloroform would not take
effect. Camphor should be kept in the drawers of a
cabinet, and renewed as fast as it evaporates — it will
keep mites away ; but if they are introduced with new
specimens, or otherwise, they will exist in spite of the
camphor. All fresh acquisitions should therefore be
put in quarantine before being placed in the cabinet.
Instead of camphor, a very good recipe is, equal
parts of “oil of thyme, oil of anise, and spirit of
wine,” applied as I have described for chloroform
and renewed as often as the scent goes off : it must
not be allowed to touch the lining of the drawer, as
it will stain the paper. — H. Miller , Ipswich.

The Berlin Gorilla. — Poor “Pongo,” who
returned to Berlin to die, after holding his levees at
the Westminster Aquarium, has been post-mortemed
and dissected by Professor Virchow. His death was
ascertained to be due to acute inflammation of the
bowels, — the same disease which carries off young
children so rapidly. Even in his very diseases
therefore, the Gorilla claims an affinity with man !

Chameleon-like Changes in the Frog. —
The changes of colour noticed by “J. J. M.” in the
frog are truly chameleon-like, and, together with
similar changes seen in fish, are brought about by
the same mechanism. The skin of these animals
contains branched and ramified cells pervaded with
fine granules of a dark-coloured pigment. Similar
cells are found in certain parts of the human eye, and
without the pigment in all parts of the body, in the

so-called “connective tissues.” They can nowhere
be better seen than in the preparation of frog’s web
used to show the circulation. In such an object
many cells may be seen as mere black spherical
patches, whilst others cover a larger surface and show
the branches, joining similar ones from other cells.
Now under various stimuli, applied either to the
cutaneous surface or through the eye, the branched
patches of pigment may be made to contract with the
spherical form, whilst other stimuli have the reverse
effect. Inasmuch as the cell-branches join one
another, they obviously cannot contract ; it is the
contained pigment-bearing protoplasm that shrinks
out of the branches and forms the globular mass.
Obviously, when such a change occurs in the greater
number of the cells present, a change in the colour of
the animal must result. It has, moreover, been
proved that this change can only be brought about
so long as the animal’s power of sight remains.
Destruction of the eyes renders the pigment masses
immovable. Section of certain nerves has a like
effect. When any of these animals are pursued by
their enemies, they are thus enabled, by rendering
themselves pale and therefore less easily seen, to
elude their would-be captors. Emotions other than
fear may also, perhaps, be expressed by this means,
and not only can some creatures render themselves
pale, but actually approximate their colour to that of
their surroundings. Such is the permanent state of
very many animals ; this condition being brought
about by natural selection, e.g. lions, sand-colour ;
muddy water fish, mud-colour ; green, sloths, &c. See.
Pallor, as an expression of human terror, brought
about by a contraction of small blood-vessels, may
have had a similar cause, it at least seems analogous.
—D. A. If.

Holes in the PIead of Pike. — The apertures
on the head of the common pike (Esox Inches) are
the openings of follicles, or mucus-secreting glands.
Similar but smaller openings may be found along the
lateral line that separates the dorsal from the ventral
half of any fish. These openings form an uninterrupted
series, from head to tail, and constitute the opening of
muciparous ducts that may be seen as white threads
by the naked eye on dissection. The function of
these glands is obvious ; they secrete the mucus
by which the integument of the animal is lubri-
cated, and probably act also as sweat-glands to
excrete waste products from the system. — R.

New Habit of Red Grouse. — It does not matter
whether Mr. Dixon or Mr. Dealey claim the honour
of calling the attention of naturalists to the habit of
Red Grouse perching on trees. It is a habit that all
persons who reside near the moors (who take any
notice of the habits of birds) are familiar with. I
saw them perching on trees and hedges years before
the time they say they first observed them. — James
Ingleby.

1 8

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

BOTANY,

Asplenium septentrionale at Dolgelly. —

It has been known for some years amongst a few
lovers of nature that not only Asplenium septentrionale I
but also A. germanicum , Weiss, grew in the Dolgelly
district, and it has only been from a desire to preserve
the plants from extirpation that the habitat has not
been made public. Now that it is known, it may be
well to place the discoverers’ names on record.
Asplenium septentrionale was discovered in 1867
growing on an old wall not far from the river Maw-
dach, by Mrs. Chamberlain Barlow, of Edgbaston.
The plants of it (two only I think) were of course
spared, and for some months I saw them every
time I passed the locality, peering stealthily at them,
for fear they should be discovered by some ruthless
collector, and believing at that time they were the
only plants in the country. After a considerable
interval, when I revisited the spot, the wall had been
altered or repaired, and the little ferns had dis-
appeared. Some time afterwards the Rev. W. Foley
Vernon, of Shrawley, searched the crags on a hill
that rose up behind the old wall, and had the plea-
sure of finding both A. septentrionale and A. ger-
manicum in tolerable abundance, and I have a fine-
grown plant of each which I owe to his kindness.

I enclose a few fronds. May I ask your botanical
contributors if they know of any locality where
one only of these two species is indigenous without
the other occurring somewhere in the immediate
neighbourhood ? An acute observer has informed
me that they are always found together, and sus-
pects a more intimate relationship than is generally
supposed to exist between them. — T. Belt.

Gentiana acaulis (L). — Without in the least
wishing to impeach the veracity of Mr. Colebrook,
especially as he is “as certain as he is of his own
existence,” that this plant was growing upon Cader
Idris in August, 1862, I would inform him firstly
that, so far as my experience goes, the G. acaulis of
the Swiss Alps is in its full bloom towards the middle
of June, and completely and entirely over by July,
ripening its seed in that month. Its place is then
taken by G. bavarica, and others of that section, as
well as G. campestris , Germanica, and Amarella ,
which are essentially August flowerers. With regard
to the remarks, “the present plant has no stalk,
whence its name acaulis , but cultivated in gardens it
becomes [sic} one,” — does Mr. Colebrook here in-
tend to make a playful allusion to its peregrinatory
powers, as well as origin, the word stall; being a
double-entendre in the sense of a stalker. I believe
G. acaulis was found at Staffa in the month of June,
1834-5; but doubtless it had escaped from cultiva-
tion, as the plant has never been seen there since that
time. Concerning the subject of Mr. Colebrook’s
other query — Cotoneaster — I obtained it in the month

of June, 1874, from the one situation on the Great
Ormeshead, where it is still to be found ; and I must
say that had I not been guided to the spot by one
who knew it well, I might be still searching, but in
vain, for it. Associated with it, in the clefts of the
limestone rock, was abundance of the local Botentilla
verna. — J. C. M.

Gentiana acaulis. — I have been interested in
reading the remarks on this plant that have appeared
lately in the pages of Science-Gossip. Many years
ago I came across what I had no doubt was Gentiana
acaulis, growing in tolerable profusion, and, as might
be supposed, truly wild on the downs between the
Needles and Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight. It
was a small plant, without stalk, about l| inch
high, half of which comprised the large bright blue
flower. At that time I was not aware that Gentiana
acaulis was “ not a native,” so I made sure of my
prize, and gathered as much of it as the strong wind
blowing at the time would suffer me to do. On
subsequent examination and reference to Sowerby’s
“English Botany '’and other authorities, I came to
the conclusion, and I believe rightly, that it was the
veritable Gentiana acaulis. A little further down the
slopes of the hill, upon the same occasion, I came
upon Gentiana Amarella , so I had an immediate
opportunity of comparing the two flowers and
observing the wide difference between them. Some
time after this I became aware that the lovely little
Gentiana acaulis had been excluded by botanists from
its former place in the British Flora, and I have often
wondered since how it came to pass that its beautiful
blue flowers had found that accidental lodging far
away from houses and gardens, up on the wind-blown
heights of the Freshwater Downs. I have never
visited the spot since, and I should be glad to know
whether any of the readers of Science-Gossip have,
like myself, ever met with it in their wanderings in
that locality. — Isabella H. Knox.

Plant Chemistry. — Professor Church has ex-
amined the colouring matter of the well-known
bordering plant with variegated leaves, Coleus Ver-
shapfeltii, and thinks that it is identical with cenobin ,
the colouring matter of red wines, as well as with
other substances extracted from blue and purple
flowers.

Solanum Dulcamara. — Can any of your readers
give me any information as to the properties of the
berries of this plant ? “ Chambers’s Encyclopedia ”

says, “red berries of tempting appearance, which,
being poisonous, are not unfrequently the cause of
serious accidents, particularly to children.” Garrod,
in his “ Materia Medica,” says he has administered
half a pound of the ripe fruit as a conserve, and
without any definite effect. Buffonsays “ the scarlet
berries are not poisonous, five pounds weight given
in the course of ten days did not produce poisonous

HARD WICKE ' S S C1EN CE-GO SSIP.

19

effects ” ; but neither of these authors says if the
berries were swallowed by man or beast. I think
I should have a difficulty in finding any one
who would eat even two or three berries, as they
are almost universally considered poisonous. — Dr.
Morton , New Brompton , Kent.

Hybrid Primula. — The frequent tendency of the
Primrose family to hybridize often causes a difficulty
in determining a plant and its varieties. The Primula
elaiior is by some supposed to be a hybrid between
the P. veris and the common primrose ; and Sir
William Hooker “ was not satisfied that the Primula
elatior of Jocquin was really distinct from the nu-
merous hybrids between P. vulgaris and P. veris P
In one locality near Geneva I found both growing
together in abundance, producing different forms of
hybrids, some approaching one parent plant and some
the other. Many Swiss botanists call the P. vulgaris
acaulis, as it appears to be stemless, with a variety /3,
which, as having an evident, though very short, stem
or scape, they place the Primulas in two divisions,
as “ especes legitimes capsule fertile,” and “especes
hybrides capsule avortee ” : under the former they
include P. veris , P. vulgaris , and P. elatior ; under
the latter, Primula acauli- officinalis, P. acauli- elatior,
and P. elatiori-officinalis . — T. B. W.

Anomalous Parts of Plants. — I gathered
some Trifolium repens this last summer at Esholt,
near Bradford, the calyx segments of which were
transformed into leaflets; in some of the heads all
gradations betwixt leaflets and calyx segments could
be observed. I afterwards gathered some in Chee
Hale (Derbyshire), in which all the calyx segments
were converted into leaflets, some of the latter being
on petioles several times the length of themselves.
Two friends of mine have noticed this also, but I
have not seen it recorded. I gathered some speci-
mens of Claytonia perfoliata at Bakewell, in all of
which the leaves that are usually perfoliate were not
so at all. The several text-books I have been able to
consult (including Symes) do not give any habitat
for this plant : the specimens I gathered were grow-
ing amidst Chrysosplenium oppositifolium in the
middle of a wood, which appeared a very unlikely
place for its introduction as a weed of cultivation.
I collected also in the same wood a Myosotis, having
the corolla nine-partite. Near Bradford I gathered
Silene infiata with two complete flowers (except the
calyx) in one calyx ; also in this neighbourhood,
Lolium perenne, in which the spikelets were trans-
formed into spikes. Near Leeds I collected J uncus
bufonius in a viviparous state, like that which J uncus
stipimis often assumes ; but I have not seen this state
recorded. I gathered a specimen of Lychnis diurna
near Miller’s Dale, in which the stamens were trans-
formed into petals. At Eldwick, near Bradford, I
got a specimen of Orchis maculata, which agreed
with the description of that plant in every particular

save the lip, which was about twice as long as usual
and strap-shaped, with parallel sides, tridentate, the
central lobe being less than the others. I have re-
ceived from Scotland a specimen of the common
Dandelion, the peduncle of which is furcated, bear-
ing two capitula. — Wrn. West, Bradford.

Inflorescence of Gourds and Pumpkins. —
In Science-Gossip for November was an interesting
note on the above topic by John Gibbs. Pie notices
that the fruit on fertile blossoms appear first — before
the sterile blossoms on the same plant. In this
country (Michigan, U.S.A.) I have often noticed
many staminate or sterile flowers open before a single
pistillate flower had opened. This I have repeatedly
seen in case of Hubbard squashes, summer squashes >
and several varieties of cucumbers. I do not make
this assertion as doubting what Mr. Gibbs has said,
but as a curious difference. If he is correct, perhaps
our warmer and drier summers may have something
to do with it. — W. f. Beal.

Gourds and Pumpkins. — The fact to which Mr.
Gibbs calls attention is one of considerable interest.
The separation of the sexes is common enough in
flowering plants, and in the Gourd tribe is of two
degrees : on distinct flowers (monoecism), or on dis-
tinct plants (dioecism). It has also been noticed in
these delicious flowers, as well as in those structurally
“hermaphrodite” or “ monoclinous,” that the sexes
are sometimes developed simultaneously (synacmic),
sometimes successively (dichogamous); but of the two
possible cases of the latter — at least in “monoclinous”
flowers — the precedence of the male (protandry) is
far more frequent than examples similar to the one
Mr. Gibbs describes (protogyny). This might be ex-
pected in single flowers, since the stamens occupy an
older whorl than the carpels ; at least, are generally
believed so to do. But when we come to diclinous
plants, new interests arise. A most careful and as-
siduous American observer, Mr. Thomas Meehan, of
Philadelphia, has shown that there is a close relation
between sex and energy, and that female flowers are
more characteristic of strong shoots than male.
Might we not, therefore, expect a plant to produce
male flowers only after its energy has been to a cer-
tain extent exhausted in producing female ones?
Numerous cases are on record, especially of figs and
oranges, of the swelling of the “fruit” without the
fertilization of the ovule : it would be interesting to
learn if this ever is so with gourds. Of course, how-
ever the “fruit-blossoms” may “ make haste,” they
cannot set seed without pollination. In this case,
the pollen must be derived from another plant pro-
bably, perhaps from another situation where different
conditions make gourds flower earlier ; so we may
have here an illustration of Mr. Darwin’s rules that,
while pollen from another flower of the same plant is
little, if at all, better than that of the same flower,
pollen from another plant is an advantage, and if

20

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

from one grown under different conditions, even still
more so. I hope Mr. Gibbs will continue his obser-
vations. He could not have a more interesting or
practical subject. — G. S. Boulger.

Fertilization of Flowers. — Dr. Muller has
called attention to the occurrence, in some of the
Labiates, of two distinct forms, one with larger
hermaphrodite protandrous flowers, and the other
with smaller female flowers. He shows that the
latter can only be fertilized by the former, and that
they disappear when the former are not present.
We would suggest that our botanical readers should
devote their attention during the coming summer
to the analytical structures of well-known and
abundantly-represented orders of plants ; and, further,
that they should also note the kind of insects which
frequent them, and whether these insects affect any
special colours of flowers.

GEOLOGY,

Prehistoric Man in Japan. — Mr. E. S. Morse
sends a note to Nature , in which he gives an account
of the Kitchen Middensat Omori, in Japan, which con-
tained arrow-heads, bone implements, but no flint or
stone weapons. Mr. Morse believes these large
shell mounds were accumulated by a prehistoric race
of men in Japan.

The Insect Fauna of the Palaeozoic Period.
— Mr. Herbert Goss, F.L.S., has read a paper on
•the above subject before the Brighton and Sussex
Natural History Society. This makes the third
of Mr. Goss’s papers on fossil insects, and it is equal
in character to its predecessors. In these three
papers the geological student is possessed of a most
valuable generalization of all that is known on fossil
entomology.

Jointed Limbs in Trilobites. — Mr. C. D.
Walcott has just figured and described jointed limbs
in the genera Calymene and Ceraurus , from the Tren-
ton limestone. Calymene senaria showed axial ap-
pendages with three joints. In Ceraurus pleurex -
anthemus the limb was five-jointed. The legs ended
in a single blunt end, and Mr. Walcott thinks these
trilobites will be found to have five or six joints with
a terminal claw. He further thinks that the dis-
covery of these limbs more closely than ever as-
sociates the Trilobites with the King-crabs and
Eurypterids.

The Cumberland Association of Litera-
ture and Science. — A copy of the Transactions of
•this vigorous natural history and literary society has
been sent us, and it is a pleasure to find so high a
degree of culture so far removed from the centres
where culture is supposed to be especially confined.
But the development of local science is nearly always
-dependent upon the personal interest taken in it by a

few men, and there can be little doubt that the
great success of the Cumberland Association during
| the last two or three years is mainly due to their
possessing such an indefatigable secretary as Mr. J.
Clifton Ward, F. G.S., of her Majesty’s Geological
Survey, the author of a number of remarkably sug-
gestive papers on Geology and Physical Geography.

Artificial Precious Stones. — MM. Fremy
and Freil have recently been experimenting on artificial
productions of corundum, ruby, and other crystal-
lized silicates. They showed that in a crucible of
refractory earth they put a mixture of equal weights
of alumina and minium and calcined them for some
time at a red heat. After cooling, they found two
layers, one vitreous (formed chiefly of silicate of
lead) and the other crystalline, and often presenting
geodes full of beautiful crystals of alumina. To obtain
the red colour of ruby, about two or three per cent,
of bichromate of potash was added to the mixture of
aluminia and minium. A silicate of aluminia was
produced by heating for some time a mixture of equal
weights of silicon and fluoride of aluminia.

Precambrian (Dimetian and Pebidian) Rocks
in Caernarvonshire. — At a recent meeting of the
Geological Society, a paper on this subject was read
by Dr. Hicks, F.G.S. The author gave an account
of the special examination of the great ribs of so-called
intrusive felspathic and quartz porphyries which are
found associated with the Cambrian rocks in Caernar-
vonshire, made by him in company with Professor
Hughes, Mr. Hudleston, and Mr. Homfray last
summer. He described sections at and near Moel
Tryfan and across the mass from Pen-y-groes to
Talysarn, in which he showed that instead of being
of an intrusive nature, as hitherto supposed, the
whole, with the exception of a few dykes at those
parts, is made up of bedded volcanic rocks, lavas,
breccias, &c., similar to those found in the Pedibian
series at St. David’s, and that the Cambrian rocks,
instead of being intruded by this mass, rest every-
where upon it unconformably, and the pebbles in
the conglomerate of the Cambrian at the base are,
as at St. David’s, identical with, and must have been
derived from, the rocks below. Similar results were
obtained in the examination to the north and south of
Llyn Padarn, and the conclusion, therefore, at which
the author has arrived with regard to the great mass
which extends from Llanellyfine in the south to
St. Ann’s chapel in the north, is that it is entirely
Precambrian, and that it belongs to the series de-
scribed by him under the name Pebidian at St.
David’s. The other mass, extending from Caer-
narvon to Bangor, he considered also entirely
Precambrian ; and from the mineral characters ex-
hibited by a portion of this mass directly behind
Caernarvon, he thought it would prove to be, at
least at this part, of Dimetian age. The altered beds
near Bangor and their associated quartz felsites he

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

2 I

considered entirely of Pebidian age, as there is no
evidence that the Dimetian rocks are exposed there.
Afterwards, Professor Hughes read a paper on the
Precambrian rocks of Bangor, which consist of slates,
agglomerates, and porphyritic rocks; and these, he
thinks, are equivalent to Dr. Hicks’s “ Pebidian.”

Palmam qui meruit. — The Royal Society of
England have just awarded Professor James D.
Dana, the distinguished American mineralogist and
geologist, their highest honour, the “ Copley Medal.”
The “Royal Medal” went to Professor Heer, the
equally distinguished fossil botanist, of Zurich.

A Fossil Fungus. — A very interesting article in
your last number, which is headed “ A Fossil
Fungus,” refers to the discovery of a fossil fungus
in Lepidodendron, by Mr. Carruthers, and its subse-
quent study and classification by Mr. Worthington
Smith. It is there stated: “This is, perhaps, the
oldest fungus on record. ” As this is not quite correct,
I beg to inform you that in 1858, C. Wedl found
something very much like Saprolegnia ferox in a
Leptccna from the Devonian. In May, 1876, I read
a paper before the Geological Society, in which
unicellular algae were described parasitic within a
foraminifer from the Lower Silurian, a coral from
the Upper Silurian, in brachiopods, and corals from
the Devonian, and from a coral in the Miocene.
I named and figured this penetrator Palceachlya
perforans. In the Proceedings of the Royal Society,
No. 174, 1876; I explained the physiology and
morphology of Achlya penetrans , now found in
recent corals and shells, and explained the life
cycle of this saprolegnious plant, so that, from its
almost complete resemblance with the ancient form,
it could be considered its descendant. The septa,
which are said not to occur in the mycelium of
Saprolognia are really seen very rarely, but still they
do exist.—/’. Martin Dtmcan.

Erratum. — In my last paper on the Carboniferous
Polyzoa, December 1877, the reader will oblige by
correcting the following : page 272, 8th line in list,
G. fiesicannala read G. flexicarinata. Page 273,
1st col., nth line from top, for “genus” read
“family.” — G. R. V.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

The Pairing of Birds. — Is it sufficient proof of
birds pairing for life, that we find the old nests
tenanted year by year ? Some birds are known to
use the old nests of other species ; e.g. , the House
Sparrow, which is one of the species which, upon this
evidence, Mr. Dixon quotes as pairing for life,
frequently uses the old nests of the House Martin ;
and if of other species, why not of the same species?
I fail to see why Mr. Dixon supposes that polygamy
tends to prolificness : it can only do so if the number
of females born, or arriving at maturity, be in excess
of the males. Among mankind, as men and women

arrive at adult age in about equal numbers, if one
man have two wives, another must go without one,
and it is obvious that both the procreative power, and
what is probably of more importance, the power to
maintain offspring of two males, will be greater than
that of one male. Polygamy can only tend to a
more rapid increase of population where the number
of females is much in excess of that of males, either
through female immigration, as in the Mormon settle-
ments, or, as more usually happens, through the
greater mortality of males. It is hard to believe that
nature has been so considerate to mankind as to make
fowls polygamous in order that the superfluous males
may afford us food. It seems more reasonable to
suppose that the habit of polygamy is in some way
advantageous to the polygamous species itself.
Polygamous animals are usually provided with special
weapons of offence, like the cock’s spur, and are in
the habit of fighting for the females : the strongest
and best-armed male wins the largest number of fair
prizes, and the progeny of such a male are likely to
have the advantage over their competitors in the
struggle for existence. It does not seem difficult to
explain why species which are monogamous in the
wild state should be polygamous in captivity. Given
an excess of females over males, and in the absence
of social and moral restraints, polygamy follows as a
matter of course. — H. F. Parsons , M. D.

Pairing Instincts of Birds. — If birds returning
to their old nests is a sign that they pair for life,
I may add to Mr. Dixon’s list the Blackbird ( Turdus
merula), for a nest has been occupied successively for
the last three years by a pair of these birds. Now as.
there are two or three other nests in the same hedge,
I think it must be the same pair that has successfully
reared three broods in the one nest. Perhaps
Mr. Dixon — since he has been observing particularly
the pairing instincts of birds — could kindly give me
some information as to one species of bird pairing with
another (see Science-Gossip, p. 263). I have known
instances of hybrid grouse, but never of a hybrid
between a blackbird and a thrush. — G. F. B.

Mites in a Collection of Lepidoptera. — In
reply to the query in the December number of
Science-Gossip I beg to say that, having had the
misfortune to find mites in my collection of Lepido-
ptera, I was recommended to try naphthaline, and so
far as I am at present able to perceive, no further de-
struction has taken place since I used the same. I put
the naphthaline in a small pill-box with a perforated
lid, which is glued into the corner of the drawer, and
does not attract attention. Any insect specially
affected should be removed from the cabinet or store-
box and carefully painted on the thorax with corro-
sive sublimate. — A. J. R.

Destroying Mites on Lepidoptera. — In
answer to “A. F.’s ” query on this point, let me draw
his attention to the following extract from Mr.
Newman’s preface to his splendid work on British
Butterflies and Moths : — “ Directly you observe any
dust, however little, underneath an insect, ....
take out the infected individual ; as soon as he is
removed from the drawer, drop benzole on his back*
drop after drop, until he is thoroughly saturated, and
all his wings are rendered perfectly transparent. In
this state remove him to the drying-cage, and there
let him remain until all the benzole has evaporated,
and his colours have returned, bright and beautiful as
ever.” 'I have not tried this method myself, but I
have friends who have, and they find it to answer
perfectly. — W. J. B.

22

HARD WIC ICE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

The “Furniture” Beetle. — Having just been
put to much expense by repairs to furniture and
skirting-boards, &c., which have been injured more
or less by the furniture beetle, I should be glad to
elicit any remarks upon its probable cure or pre-
vention. I have generally found it in the sappy part
of the wood, and have found it in every kind of wood
used in house-building and furniture, except in ma-
hogany ; and I cannot hear of its being ever found in
pitch pine. I am not sure of the correctness of my
supposition, but I think that the beetle (it is not larger
than a middle-sized pin’s head) bores and lays its egg
or eggs, and the grub eats till its changing period,
the beetle from which then eats its way out ; the
holes not being larger in bore than a middle-sized pin.

I have just been taking out several pieces of wood in
my house, but could not detect the insect itself in any
stage of existence. I have only twice seen the beetle,
and can recollect the time was summer or autumn.
On my own premises I have also found it out of
doors, in old wood laid aside two or three years for
burning. I hope to have some remedy discovered
that may protect the new wood now replacing my
damaged furniture and shelves. — y. Hughes.

Mistletoe. — In reading the short notes on this
species in the December Science-Gossip, I remem-
bered seeing many large specimens some few years j
ago when engaged as a botanical collector in Nor-
mandy, that would with ease have been sufficiently
long in the stem to have made a “small javelin.”
At the time, I took particular notice, but I do not
believe I saw a single example on the Oak ; the
finest specimens were observed on the Lombardy
Poplar. It is very abundant in the north of France.
—R.

Mistletoe on Lime-trees. — I do not think that
this is an unusual phenomenon. Next to the Apple,
the Hawthorn, and the Black Poplar, I should say
that the Lime was the most frequent host of the
Mistletoe. I have never seen the mistletoe growing
in greater luxuriance than on two fine avenues of limes
at Cutteridge House, near Westbury, Wilts. Near
Malvern, where the mistletoe is abundant, I have
seen it growing on a variety of other trees, as the Oak,
the Maple, the Willow, and Robinia Rseudacacia. —
H. F. Parsons.

Seeds of Mistletoe. — Some twenty-two years
ago I put two seeds of Mistletoe in a cavity formed
on the stem of a young apple-tree, caused by the
partial healing over of the part where a small branch
had been cut off the previous season, tying a string of
bass over to prevent birds, &c. from picking out and
devouring them. They both took, and in three
years had grown to about three inches in length ;
since then they have grown to about two and half
feet through, but during the time have only produced
three berries : that was two years ago. Since then
one of the plants has died. It first showed symptoms of
decay by the leaves becoming yellow and dropping
off ; since then it has fallen away piecemeal by
breakage at the joints, the larger portions still remain-
ing attached. The other plant, although so close,
remains in perfect health and looks as usual, except
that it is much thinner from the loss of the inter-
mixed branches of the former plant. I cannot say
which of the plants is dead, — either that which bore
the berries or otherwise, but the remaining plant has
no berries this season. Until the berries were pro-
duced, I had a notion that the plants were of one sex,
consequently barren, but had always neglected ex-
amining them to ascertain the fact, which I now re-
gret, as I fancy the berries produced were barren ; — at

least, none of them grew when inserted in the usual
way. My plants, at first, were of very slow growth :
the first season only produced two small stumpy
leaves from each seed ; the second, four on each, and
so on ; and I rather think only one joint in length has
been produced of a season, but as the plant got
stronger, frequently four shoots were produced instead
of two, increasing thereby much faster, as well as
forming a handsomer and much stronger-looking
plant. Some years ago, I was much pleased and
interested by observing, about an inch above the
plant, several young plants which had pushed their
way through the bark, which they have since con-
tinued to do, always ascending, and about an inch
from each other, some of which are now dead and
some living ; from which I draw the conclusion that
those produced from the former plant are dead also.
These off-sets were of equally slow growth as the
young seedlings, only a pair of leaves of a season,
although more elongate, and I cannot understand H.
E. Wilkinson’s statement when he says he observed a
protuberance and very soon a leaf, — mine always
came in twos — and presently a good-sized plant of
Mistletoe. Mine always take four or five years to
come to anything like a good-sized plant, and I have
grown many since the first, both on apple and pear-
trees. The “ Dumelow Seedling ” is the apple on
which my large plant is now. It was removed once
when the Mistletoe was about five years old : it made
not the slightest difference to its growth ; but I have
lost plants by removing the tree when only of the first
year’s growth. I also lost a fine young plant of four
years’ growth by the dying off of the tree itself by can-
ker of the root, the Mistletoe living some months after
the tree died, but losing colour and becoming rigid,
and finally perishing also. My trees do not suffer in
the least from the growth of the parasite on it, either
in growth or bearing, although established on the
main stem about three feet from the gi-ound. — Wm.
Curnow.

How to Preserve Animalcule. — I have several
works on the micx*oscope, but I have never read of
any way to preserve animalculse ; that is, the best
medium to use. I have tried several, but none have
acted satisfactorily; viz., spirits, glycerine, glycerine
and camphor : the last was the best. I mounted
some Canthocamptus minutus and some Chydorus
spJuzricus in it, and found the objects looked better
than when preserved in the other mediums, but still
they were not to my satisfaction. Could you, or
some of your correspondents, tell me of some better
medium, I should be greatly obliged. — n, Foley-
street, Portland-place.

Root-Propagation of the Ipecacuanha. —
In a paper on root-propagation read by Mr. Lindsay,
of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, before the Scottish
Horticultural Association, that gentleman stated a
curious fact in connection with the propagation of the
Ipecacuanha by that operation — viz. , from a piece of
the root about a foot long or only one of the rings of
the annulated root, one plant would be the conse-
quence. Have any of the readers of Science-Gossip
had any experience of the multiplication of that
highly serviceable plant in that way ? — M. King.

Badly-blown Eggs. — If any of the able corre-
spondents to your journal could tell me of some fluid
that would dissolve the hard albumen in badly-blown
eggs without affecting the shell, I should be much
obliged. I have had some rare eggs given to me
that I wish to preserve, many of which are so badly
blown that they have broken with very careful
handling. — G. T. B.

HARD W1CKE 'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

23

Preserving Animals. — I have just seen an
article mentioning a method of preparing insects,
fish, &c., for the cabinet, said to have been practised
many years by Mr. Waterton, of Walton Hall. Jt is
stated that the specimens are perfectly life-like, and
not liable to damage by moth, mite, mould, or grease.

I should be much obliged to any reader of Science-
GossiP who would give me a few details of the pro-
cess, or refer me to some work containing the neces-
sary information. — W. G.

Stormy Petrel. — Dr. Keegan, in his article in
the September number of Science-Gossip, states
that this bird is only found in the wake of vessels
during stormy weather. He then goes on to give a
very ingenious theory to account for this, or rather to
account for their following ships at all. In the North
and South Atlantic, where the trade winds prevail
and storms seldom or never occur, Mother Cary’s
chickens are constantly seen, and frequently near the
equator, where possibly there is not a ripple on the
water at the time. I think it is hardly necessary,
when accounting for these or other birds following
vessels, to bring forward a theory of their supposed
love of the beautiful. The fact is, they know by ex-
perience that substances — to them very great delica-
cies— are continually thrown overboard, and they will
as readily follow a hideous collier as a magnificent
full-rigged ship. On the Thames, the Herring Gulls
have the good sense to prefer fishing-boats, however
old and dirty, to the smartest yacht on the river, well
aware that from the former they will obtain the larger
amount of food. — f. S. G.

The Veteran Eel. — I think that this subject will
be one of interest, not only to “ E. L.,” but also to
many aquarium-keepers, particularly so when we read
of the death of an eel at the age of twenty-two years.

I for one should be glad to know from Mr. Plant its
size when he first had it, and at its death. Two years
ago I had an eel which has grown three quarters of
an inch in my keeping, and is now nearly four inches
long. If this be the proportional rate of growth, we
shall easily see to what length it will have attained in
twenty-two years. I find that the best material to
feed eels upon is the common blood-worm, which
ought to be well washed before being put into the
aquarium ; otherwise some of the mud in which they
live will be thrown into the tank. — J. J. Newton.

Cement for Marine Aquaria. — I can fully
endorse the opinion of Mr. Worster as to the value
of pitch as an aquarium cement, especially when used
in the manner which I shall presently describe. A
year and a half ago I rendered perfectly water-tight
an eight-gallon tank which had been for years thrown
aside as useless, and it has not leaked a drop since.
This last spring I built another, holding about eighteen j
gallons, with an inch slate bottom, to which are
screwed through holes drilled in the slate, the two
ends of Spanish mahogany, well clamped to prevent
warping, and lined with stout roofing slates cut to
exact size. Into the mahogany ends the front and
back of plate glass are grooved, and the whole
finished with a strong mahogany capping rail all
round, which also serves the purpose of tying ihe
two ends well together. The glass is of course" set in
red-lead putty, and after giving the latter time to
harden, I coated all the joints, the inner faces of two
wooden rails into which the bottom of the plate glass
was set, and in fact, every part which was likely to
leak, with a mixture of pitch and gutta-percha
(about quarter part of the latter). This mixture was
laid on pretty thick with a putty-knife when just hot
enough to stick. I then cut strips of sheet glass of

I suitable widths, and from two to four inches long,
heated them over a small gas stove, and pressed them
while hot into the pitch : of course, a pair of hot pliers
j must be used to handle the glass with, or it will fly.
This plan I have found to answer admirably ; it
prevents the pitch from chipping or flaking off, and
the best of it is, a tank so treated is ready for use im-
mediately, as there is no effluvia of red-lead to be
got rid of, every particle of poisonous cement being
covered up with pitch and glass. This tank has now
been stocked about four months, and is in every
respect satisfactory. I may mention that one or two
of my friends and myself have long been in the habit
of using for rock-work a calcareous tufa found in this
( neighbourhood. It can be obtained in good-sized
pieces, forms a good nidus for conferva, and is easily
worked out into caves and hollows suitable for
aquarium animals to shelter in, whilst at same' time
hard enough for the purpose. It also has the advan-
tage from its porous nature, of holding a good deal
of water, so that the space it occupies is not all lost.
— Edward Horsnaill , Dover.

Aquariums. — Why should sticklebacks fight so
in aquariums, as “ S ” says, unless they cannot get
food properly ; for they live in shoals : at least, we
find numbers together, though at times they seem
very jealous of one another, and do not like intruders
into their peculiar domain ? — Edward Thomas Scott.

Slugs and Foxgloves. — With reference to
Mr. J. W. Slater’s observations respecting slugs and
snails feasting heartily on the leaves of the Foxglove,
I can testify to my fowls doing the same thing with
impunity — without any bad result to those who sub-
sequently eat their eggs. — G. E. Cooke.

Unusual Appearance of the Martin. — This
week (December 4) this bird is busily flying about
the summit of Overton Hill, Cheshire : it selects a
sheltered wooden shed every evening for its roosting-
place. It must have been a late-hatched bird, and
thus left behind when its friends migrated. My
little boy, who takes a deep interest in ornithology,
states he believes it has been injured, and, therefore,
not able to undertake the wearisome journey to a
warmer climate. Mr. G. White would probably
have made much of this fact in his day. — R.

White Hairbells.— On October 31st, I gathered
several beautiful albino specimens of the common
hairbell ( Campamda rot undifolia ), by the side of the
Upper Shaftesbury road, about a mile and a half
from this town. I gathered several on the same spot
in October last year. It is noticeable that although
not the slightest trace of colour was discernible in the
flowers, yet, upon being dried, they assumed a bluish
tinge. The ordinary pigment was therefore not quite
absent, but was only precipitated in the process of
pressing. Is not hairbell, as above, the correct name
for this graceful little flower, on account of its fine
hair-like stem, and not hare bell, which is quite un-
meaning ? — IV. R. rfate , j Bland ford.

Bournemouth Insects. — With reference to
Mr. Groser’s remarks (p. 256, November number)
upon the larvae of E. jacobece , I may mention that I
have seen them here regularly year after year on the
Ragwort, but have often observed that they occur in
patches ; i.e. one patch of ragwort will swarm with
them, while the next will have none. I infer that this
is due to the sluggish flight of the insect. Bourne-
mouth possesses an excellent list of local lepidoptera :
I may instance, N. viridata , E. cribrum , H.
dipsacens, B. trifolii , L. littoralis , and others. —
E. B. Kemp- Welch.

24

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS,

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip at least a week earlier than hereto-
fore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any
communications which reach us later than the 9th of the
previous month.

Science Gossip Botanical Exchange Club. — In our
last number we prematurely stated that all the parcels had been
made up and sent out in connection with the above club. The
majority of them have been delivered, but there still remain
others, which will be forwarded as soon as possible. The work
<of arrangement and exchange has been enormous, and we must
beg those members who have not yet received parcels to enter-
tain a little patience. We feel certain that the result will
satisfy all parties.

J. Bramhall. — It is not at all meditated to bring out a
second edition of Blackwall’s “ Spiders ” at present. We are
not aware whether Messrs. Douglas & Scott have yet pub-
lished their monograph on British Hcmoptcra.

S. T. — Get the “Collector’s Handy Book,” price 2s. 6d.,
published by Hardwicke & Bogue, 192, Piccadilly. You will
there find full instructions as to mounting microscopic objects.
The best way of preserving animal bones is to steep them in
gelatine, or boil them in a solution of glue.

F. H. L. — The “coral-like substance” you sent us from
Falmouth beach is not a coral but a lime-secreting sea- weed,
called by Harvey Melobesia fasciculata. It is allied to the
common Corallina officinalis.

E. Edwards. — Many thanks for your good wishes. You
had best procure Robson’s book of “ Botanical Labels ” from
Messrs. Hardwicke & Bogue, and paste each label on the
species.

W. K. (Leeds). — We know of no better way of hermetically
sealing specimens in bottles containing spirits than the old-
fashioned one of covering the outside of the cork with a layer
of melted sealing-wax.

K. A. Deakin. — The Palaeontographical Society have
published the fossils of nearly every British formation, and
these are contained in about thirty large volumes. By applying
to the secretary, Rev. T. Wiltshire, Lewisham, we have no
•doubt you could obtain a list of all the society’s publications.
You can get the implements you speak of at any large natural-
Listory dealer’s.

J. H. Morton. — There is no possible danger of being
bitten by the slowworm (A nguis fragilis).

S. T. — For stocking small aquaria see instructions con-
tained in “ The Aquarium, its Structure and Management,”
published by Hardwicke & Bogue, 192, Piccadilly.

J. D. O. — Get S. Wood’s shilling book on “The British
Bird Preserver,” published by Warne & Co.

A. Michael. — Your desmid is Closterium setaceum (in con-
jugation).

J. R. James. — Many thanks for your kindly suggestions,
they will not be unheeded.

EXCHANGES.

Dr. Morton, New Brompton, Kent, would like to have a
■botanical correspondent in Southampton or neighbourhood.

For well-mounted slides or good material the following
objects, unmounted : — Barbadoes Polycystina, sponge sand,
nfusorial earth, cleaned guano, leaves of Deutzia scabra
mounted and unmounted ; mounted slides of Polycystina,
Forambiifera, flies’ tongues (good), diatoms from Yarra Yarra,
New Nottingham, Mediterranean, Sec., Arachnoidiscus, Istli-
mia, Salicine, double sulphate magnesia and copper, selenite
films, eel’s skin, parasites various, polyzoa, and others. —
William J. Fuller, Broad Plain Soap-works, Bristol.

Herbert Wheldon, South Parade, Northallerton, Yorks,
will send post-free fifty foreign stamps, all different, on
receipt of eggs of Sparrow or Kestrel Hawk, or any of the
Raptores.

Sections of Thyroid Gland and Scirrhous Cancer, stained,
ready for mounting, in exchange for Slides (Diatoms pre-
ferred).— T. V. D., 33, Sloane-street, London.

Slides of fresh-water Algae and Fungi for others of same
class or Physiological. Send lists to Dr. Parsons, Goole.

Fifteen bottles, each containing from twelve to sixty
sections of British and Foreign Woods, in exchange for deep
sea soundings (cleaned) or other good objects. — H. L., 6, Upper
Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, London, W.

Wanted, British and American Fossil Diatomaceae, Earth
of Dolgelly, South Mourne, Loch Boa, Bermuda, Richmond,
Nottingham, Guano Ichaboe, &c., for good slides, fossils,
Swiss Diatoms, Oran, Santa Fiora, Franzcusbad, &c., or cash.
— Eug. Mauler, Travero, Switzerland.

For river mud from Lagos send some object of interest or
good material for microscope. — A. Smith, 198, Essex-road,
Islington.

Wanted, living specimens of Hydra fusca ; will exchange
for unmounted Sertularia abietina. — Henry Leipner, 47,
Hampton Park, Cotham, Bristol.

Good specimens of Moths in exchange for good microscopic
objects : Populi, Ligustri, Elpenor, Bidentaia, Roborardi ,
Papilionaria, Tamitiata, Flarago, Persicarice, Pcmbica,
Croceago, Pyramidea, and many other specimens. — J. Mighall,
2, High-street, Lindfield, Sussex.

Lardner’s “ Museum of Science and Art,” 12 vols., in
good condition, in exchange for any good works on the micro-
scope.— W. Wilson, 4, Caledonian-place, Edinburgh, N.B.

A Number of Dragon-flies, &c., from the North of Ireland
and Diptera, Lancashire, may be had by sending box and
return postage to F. Curtis, 32, Woodfield-terrace, Fernhill,
Bury, Lancashire.

For piece of Cuticle of Aloe send stamped envelope to
E. B. L. Brayley, 2, Burlington-buildings, Bristol.

For Birds’ Eggs or Lepidoptera can offer Sponges from the
White Chalk, and other fossils from the Red Chalk, small size,
suitable for a cabinet. — M. Lawson, High-street, Bridlington.

Wanted, mounted or unmounted Diatoms of every variety
in exchange for mounted micro objects. — Atkins, Chemist, 200,
Essex-road, Islington, N.

Wanted, microscopical slides in exchange for British
flowering plants and ferns (many rare). — T. Watson, Bank
Parade, Burnley.

For Fora7ninifera and Red Spicules from West Indian
Sponge please send slides or unmounted material (good) to
E. W. Burgess, 35, Langham-street, London, W.

Wanted in quantity, good typical Gneiss , A mygdaloid and
Porphyries. Good exchange given in Fossils, Shells, or
Minerals. — Thos. D. Russell, 48, Essex-street, Strand, W.C.

Would the gentleman who sent me three slides for sounding
please to let me know his address, as I lost his letter? —
A. Alletsee, 11, Foley-street, London, W.

For specimen of Sertularia abietina send stamped envelope
and object of interest to Chas. Williams, Kingmeade, Woolcott
Park, Redland, Bristol.

Foreign or British shells offered for living specimens of the
Diving Spider A rgyroneta aquatica. — Tom Workman, Belfast.

Duplicates. — Edusa, Cardui, Galathea, Cassiope, Tanira,
Patnphilus. Agestis, Adonis , Chrysorrhcea , Sambucata,
Petraria, Piniaria, Gilvaria , linpura, Chi, &c. Desiderata :
Lepidoptera. — A, H. Shepherd, 48, Roden-street, Holloway, N.

Offers in birds’ eggs for a stamp album containing 332
stamps of various countries, including Egypt, America, Spain,
Russia, Greece, &c. — J. Wheldon, care of Miss Appleton,
Market-place, Darlington.

Wanted, Science-Gossip for 1870, ’71, ’72, ’73, and ’74,
either bound or unbound; microscopic slides, &c., given in
exchange. — W. A. Hyslop, 22, Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“ Physiography.” By Prof. Huxley. London : Macmillan.

“A Lecture on Winds, Ocean-Currents, and Tides.” By
W. Leighton Jordan. London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

“ Geological and Geographical Survey of Colorado.” By
Prof. Hayden.

“Ethnography and Philology of the Hidassa Indians.” By
Washington Matthews.

“ Fur-bearing Animals, a Monograph of the North American •
Mustelidse.” By Dr. Elliott Coues. Government Printing
Office, Washington, U.S.A.

“ Industrial Art.” December.

“Journal of Applied Sciences.” December.

“ Botanische Zeitung.” November.

“ Land and Water.” December.

“ American Naturalist.” November.

“Time’s Footsteps; A Birthday Book of Bitter-sweet.”
London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

Last No. of “ Monthly Microscopical Journal.”

“ The Naturalist.’/ December.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications have been received up to the ioth
ult., from: — T. S. — W. W. S. — D. B.— W. J. S. — K. A. D.
— H. W. S.— T. B.— J. H. M.— J. M. H.— Dr. M.— T. B.
— W. H. S.— R. G.— H. G.— S. T.— W. H. S.— V. C.— T. L.—
W. P.— H. W.— G. C.— F.C. K.— W. M. G. W.— R. J. W.—
j. w. G.— W. H. M.— J. J. W. S.— W.,G.— T. V. D.-F. H. L.
— G. C. D.— H. L.— E. M.— Dr. H. F. P.— J. S. G.-A. S.—
W. H. W.— T. R. M.— H. A. B. L.— J. B.— M. J. W.— H. M.
J. M.— E. T.S.- J. H. R.— W. W.-E. E.-G. C. M.— J. B.—

S. S. B.— M. L.— W. K. — J. C. J.— F. C.-J. C.— G. C. D.—
E. B. L. B.— Prof. G. S. B.— W. E. G.— W. C.— W. A. H.—
A. J. R.— L. W. G.— T. T. R.— J. D. O.— G. P.— J. D.—
t T.— W. H. S.— M. S.— W. H. L.— A. A.— C. F. W. T. W.
— J. H.— T. W.— A. H. S.— E. F. C.— J. W.— W. J. B. —
W. T. B.— E. W. B.— W. W. — T. W.— A. M.— A. S.— D. S.
— W. S. W.— J. A., Jun.— J. H. K.— J. C. M.— A. R.—

T. R. J.— P. M. D.— D. D.— Sec. Sec.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

25

THE PRONUNCIATION OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES,

By RANDAL H. ALCOCK, F.L.S.

T is a source of satisfac-
tion, I should imagine,
to all authors, when
they find that their
works are read ; and
I feel flattered that Mr.
Newly n should quote
from my work, “Bo-
tanical Names for Eng-
lish Readers,” especially
as, in the half-dozen
pages I wrote on the pronunciation of scientific
names, I aimed only at giving a few plain, though to
the best of my knowledge correct, hints on the
subject to those who might wish for them ; but by
no means at assuming the position of a teacher of
this matter to those who, by their knowledge of
Greek and Latin, are competent to form a judgment
of their own. But Mr. Newlyn, in his article on the
pronunciation of scientific names (No. 153, p. 193), has
misunderstood my meaning. He says : “ Mr.

Randal Alcock points out, in a rule, that in words
direct from the Greek, especially modern scientific
terms , the g is pronounced hard ” ; and remarks,
“ Really, this is implying that the older terms may
go their own way as regards our dealing with this
letter in any of them, and the young student in
botany must be utterly puzzled in his attempts at
utterance of scientific language.” Perhaps these
words of mine, thus separated from their context,
may seem to imply what is stated, but not other-
wise. The sentence immediately preceding the one
quoted is : “ Those Greek words that come to us
through the Latin, and have been long in use with
us, generally follow English usage, and are pro-
nounced soft, though not always ; for instance, both
gymnastic and jymnastic may be heard.” In an
earlier part of the same chapter, I endeavoured to
show how much pronunciation must depend upon
usage, and how futile it is to lay down hard-and-fast
rules to meet every case. I have, therefore, not left
it to be inferred that any class of terms “ may eo
No. 158.

their own way,” but I have said the rules must be
modified by usage.

Mr. Newlyn disagrees with my view that the g in
scientific names from the Greek should be pronounced
uniformly hard, as in Geum and Potamogeton ; in-
deed, he asserts that it should not be in these cases,
though he allows that authorities differ. I entirely
agree with Mr. Boulger (No. 152, p. 191), when he says
that “ a scientific name is a Latin and not an English
word, and must be pronounced, if not spelt, accord-
ingly.” This being so, the only question is how to
pronounce Latin, a question which cannot at present
be answered decidedly, as both the traditional English
pronunciation and the new pronunciation are being
taught. Which will ultimately prevail remains to be
seen ; but if the new pronunciation become universal,
there will no longer be any difficulty, or ambiguity,
regarding such names as have been written about in
your journal. Mr. T. D. Hall, M.A., in “A Child’s
First Latin Book,” which aims at leading “ step by
step to the acquirement of the pronunciation of Latin,
as set forth by the professors of Latin at Cambridge
and Oxford,” says, u c has always the sound of k :
as Cicero, pronounced Kikero ; Caesar, Kaysar ;
civis, keevis ; scilicet, skeeliket ; scio, skio. g is
always sounded hard, as in go, gun: as genus, gigno,
reglna.” We do not meet here with the pronun-
ciation of c/i, but in Dr. Smith’s “Principia Latina,
Part I.,” we find, “ Latin c, ch — English k." This
would give us, or the “utterly puzzled” young
student, without any doubt, Rikardsonia as the pro-
nunciation of Richardsonia ; Rikardia of Richardia,
Lakenalia of Lachenalia; Ffiksia of Fuchsia ; Gera-
nium, Potamogeton, Geum, with g like g in gun.

I am very much in favour of the new pronunciation
1 myself for many reasons, which it is not necessary to
enter upon. I merely say that it has been arrived at
by competent authorities, and is now very extensively
taught. “ The usage of our universities ” is rather a
vague expression, as they do not all agree ; and so long
as we have English teachers who have studied
abroad, and distinguished foreign savans visiting us

c

26

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

here, there must always be a certain amount of lati-
tude allowed, if we retain the English method of
pronouncing Latin. We may say Fewschia or
Jeranium to an Englishman, but who would do so to
a German ?

I cannot see, then, that the pronunciation of many
•of the names can at present be reduced to strict rules,
which any one would feel bound by ; scirpus is pro-
nounced sirpus, according to the old style ; skirpus
according to the new, &c. ; but in the case of
quantities, I think absolute uniformity might be
arrived at, which is not the case at present. If I were
to ask, what are the correct accentuations of Conium,
Cyperus, Populus, for instance, I should not expect
to receive uniform replies.

As to the euphony of the names, those who have
to apply them are responsible, and they are supposed
to have sufficient knowledge of plants, and the
system of nomenclature, to give correct names : much
of what remains depends upon taste. “ It is certain
no one ought to name a plant, if he is not a botanist ;
nor is any one at liberty to impose a generic name
who does not understand genera ; on the other hand,
we have no doubt that any one who knows that a
plant is perfectly distinct generically from all others,
also knows how to apply a distinct name ” (Linn.
“Crit. Bot.,” § 218). It is true that names are not
always everything that might be desired, nor have
they always been correct ; but if correct, they should
not afterwards be altered. Euphony does not en-
tirely depend upon the taste of the plant-namer, for
often he has little choice. Thus, as Jacquin wished
to do honour to Patrick Browne, and named Brownea
after him ; Smith, when he wished to honour Robert
Brown in the same way, had to invent a fresh form,
and therefore named his genus Brunonia ; Linne
having already -used Brunia in honour of Lebrun.

Mr. Newlyn is scarcely correct in saying that
Brownea and Brunonia are “ etymologically identi-
cal,” for, not only are they derived from the names of
different people, but also, in the first case, the name
was spelt Browne and in the second Brown. Hence
Brownea — Theishasit Brownaea — not Browm'a, which
it would have been but for the final e. It is well
these minutiae should be noticed, else “both the
complimentary importance and the etymological form
might be sacrificed.”

I have not hitherto felt inclined to take any part in
this controversy, because, if common usage be taken
into account, no decisive answers can be given to the
questions asked. Thus “E. C.” (No. I5i,p. i64)argues
that the ch in Lachenalia should have the sound sk,
because it was “named after M. de la Chenal.”
De Theis says it was named after Werner Lachenal,
professor of botany at Bale. Whether he was a pure
Frenchman, or a pure German, or a German of
French extraction, I do not know ; but if he were the
latter, as his Christian name, and changed surname,
would seem to indicate, there is still no certainty how

he pronounced his own name, for the Germans them-
selves do not pronounce ch in a uniform manner ;
some would pronounce it h, some ch, as in the Scotch
loch, some sh ; and there are also intermediate sounds
between these to be met with. According then to
“E. C.’s” idea, he may call Lachenalia whathe chooses
without being incorrect ; but certainly Mr. Boulger’s
view that it should be pronounced as though it were
spelt with a k, because it is a Latin word, seems
more reasonable. We cannot follow the pronuncia-
tion of all languages in commemorative names, but
must take them as Latin, and pronounce them
accordingly. Magnol pronounced in French, does
not correspond with Mag-no-lia pronounced in Latin.

I repeat, in conclusion, my opinion that when we
have a uniform pronunciation of Latin, we may have
a uniform pronunciation of botanical names, but not
until then. In the mean time, as Mr. Newlyn says,
“the pronunciation of botaniqal names is but of
secondary importance,” and I have taken my pen up
now, only because Mr. Newlyn has misunderstood
what I have previously published on this subject,
and, unintentionally no doubt, misrepresented my
meaning. This is the general teaching of my book,
with regard to the pronunciation of the letter g, in
botanical names. In names direct from the Greek,
it should be pronounced hard; e.g., Geophlia,
Georchis, Geropogon. But if the student always
hears the g, in such words as Genista, Gentiana,
Geranium, in the British Flora pronounced soft, let
him pronounce it soft, though Geranium is a Greek
name of Dioscorides ; or, if he sees, judging by
analogy, that according to English usage, such names
as Gerardia, Geoffroya, Gilia, would be pronounced
soft ; let him follow that usage. I would add, that
if he should be in doubt about such names as
Gireondia, Gesnera, Genipa, Giukgo, let him pro-
nounce the g hard. I hope it may be pronounced so
before long in every case.

THE SEALS AND WHALES OF THE
BRITISH SEAS.

By Thomas Southwell, F.Z.S., &c.

The Sperm Whale {continued).

No. VII.

THE pursuit of the Sperm Whale is attended with
much greater danger than that of the Greenland
Whale, and Beale gives many instances in which, in
his own experience, boats were stove in and men lost ;
stories of fighting whales, he says, are numerous, and
probably much exaggerated ; one, known as “ Timor
Jack,” is said to have destroyed every boat sent
against him, till at last he was killed by being
attacked from several directions at the same time,
thus diverting his attention from the boat which made
the successful attack. Another fish, known as “ New
Zealand Tom,” destroyed nine boats successively

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

27

before breakfast, and when eventually captured, after
destroying many other boats, many harpoons from
the various ships which had attacked him were found
sticking in his body. There is one well-authenticated
instance of a vessel being attacked and destroyed by
a sperm whale : the American whale-ship Essex was
attacked by one, which, first passing under the vessel,
probably by accident, came in contact with her keel
and carried it away ; then turning and rushing
furiously upon the ship, the whale stove in her bow ;
so serious was the breach that the vessel speedily
filled and went down. Most of the crew were away
in their boats at the time, but those on board had
just time to launch their one remaining boat before the
vessel sank. The boats made for the coast of Peru,
the nearest land, many hundreds of miles distant ; one
of them was picked up drifting at sea, and three of
the crew, who were found in it in a state of insensi-
bility, were the only survivors of the ill-fated vessel.

In addition to the sperm and oil, this species yields
another product which is, or was, very valuable,
although it is the result of disease, and one would
imagine a very uninviting substance — I refer to
Ambe?'gris, the origin and composition of which was
so long a puzzle to the learned. This substance is
now well known to be a concretion of the indigesti-
ble portions of the Cuttle-fish, which form the food
of the Sperm Whale. The nucleus of the mass is
generally the horny beaks of these creatures, and
the substance itself is found in the intestines of the
Sperm Whale, or on the shores of the seas frequented
by this species : no other whale is known to be
subject to these bezoars. It was formerly believed
that the origin of ambergris was in some way con-
nected with the sea, and when it was afterwards
found in whales, the fact was simply attributed to
their having swallowed it. Sir Thomas Browne
writes of the .Sperm Whale which came on shore at
Wells, in 1646: — “In vain was it to rake for
ambergriese in the paunch of this leviathan, as
Greenland discoverers and attests of experience
dictate that they sometimes swallow great lumps
thereof in the sea ; insufferable foetor denying that
inquiry ; and yet if, as Paracelsus encourageth,
ordure makes the best musk, and from the most
foetid substances may be drawn the most odoriferous
essences ; all that had not Vespasian’s nose ( Cuiodor
htcri ex re qualibet ) might boldly swear here was a
subject fit for such extractions” (p. 356, vol. i.).
It was not until 1783* in a paper read before
the Royal Society by Dr. Swediaur, that a scienti-
fic account of the origin of ambergris was made
known. At the present time its medical virtues,
which were formerly considered very great, are
altogether at a discount, and the only use to which
it is applied is in the preparation of perfumery.

I have said very little about the method of pur-
suit and capture of this species and of the Right- whale,
because it is a subject in which I take no pleasure ;

those who wish to know how these peaceful and
highly-organized giants are approached, and how
they behave when terrified and smarting under the
harpoon and whale-lance, can pursue the subject
ad nauseam in the pages of Scoresby, Beale, and
others; the sickening process of “flensing” and
disposing of the blubber is described with equal
minuteness. I for one cannot appreciate the halo
of romance with which some authors seek to sur-
round the whale-fishery. Doubtless the occupation
is one of hardship and danger, but the remunera-
tion when successful is in proportion, and I can
hardly conceive of men inflicting the fearful amount
of suffering which every “full” whaleship, or in
a still greater degree every “full” sealer, repre-
sents,— under any circumstances. Science is con-
stantly adding to our resources, and it is sincerely
to be hoped that ere long substitutes may be found
for animal oil and whalebone which will supersede
their use in the few processes in which they are
still requisite : should this be long delayed, it is to
be feared that the seals and whales, at least of the
northern seas, will soon cease to exist.

Although so widely spread over the waters of the
globe, possessing, I believe, a range greater than
any Other known species of animal, it is only open
and deep waters which can be said to be the home of
the Sperm Whale ; and when found in shallow seas, its-
generally emaciated condition indicates the absence
of its proper nourishment ; and the readiness with
which whole herds precipitate themselves stupidly
upon the sands, shows how little they are acquainted
with such objects. Mr. Andrew Murray makes some
observations upon this subject, which are so interesting
and so suggestive that I must ask you to excuse my
making a long quotation.

Speaking of those specimens which have now and
then been cast ashore in the North Atlantic or in the
English seas, he says : “They seem to be un-
prepared for, or not adapted for, shallow seas.
Accustomed (perhaps not individually but by here-
ditary practice or instinct) to swim along the coral
islands of the Pacific within a stone’s throw from the
shore, they cannot understand, their instinct is not
prepared to meet, shallow coasts and projecting head-
lands. If they were habitual residents in our seas,
they must either be speedily extirpated, learn more
caution, or be developed into a new species.” ....
Mr. Murray further says: “I observe that almost
every place that has been above mentioned as a
favourite resort of the Sperm Whales, although not
out of soundings, has claims to be considered the site
of submerged land. The islands of the Polynesia,
which are its special feeding-ground, are the beacons
left by the submerged Pacific continent. In pure
deep seas animal life is usually scarce, and the
absence of breeding-ground is probably the chief
cause of it ; but this only applies to a certain kind of

animals, those which require a bottom on which to

c 2

28

HARD WI CKE ’S S C1EN CE -GO SS1P.

deposit their spawn ; but there are many which do
not require this. The spawn of some floats about
unattached ; for others a frond of weed is sufficient
attachment ; and it has occurred to me that the dis-
tribution of the Sperm Whale may in some way be
connected with the geological antecedents of the
ocean it inhabits. I think it not improbable that the

Fig. 12. Chair in Great Yarmouth Church formed of the
basal portion of the skull of a Sperm Whale (from Palmer’s
“ Perlustration of Great Yarmouth”).

site of a submerged land may swarm with life, which
originally proceeded, or was dependent on it, long
after it had been in the deep bosom of
the ocean buried. The Sargasso seas,
which swarm with Eolidcr. and Crustacea ,
are examples of this life : it is not invaria-
bly either present or absent in deep water,
and it is its presence or its absence which
is instructive. Those animals which re-
quired a bottom to spawn upon may have
died out or been developed into others
which do not ; and those which do not
require such a support may have multi-
plied correspondingly. In one of the maps
in Lieutenant Maury’s book, already cited, there
is a space of sea opposite the western coast of South

Fig. 13. Under surface of the Chair (from same work).

America, and lying between Patagonia and New Zea-
land, marked ‘ Desolate region, distinguished by the
absence of animal or vegetable life ’ ; — no sperm
whales here — nothing for them to feed upon — and no
symptoms, either by banks of Sargasso or coral islets,
of any land ever having existed there. There is no ap-
parent reason why this place, except from some special
cause peculiar to itself, should be more desolate than
any other in the same latitude — than the deep sea on
the east side of Patagonia, for example. I can
imagine that, if the bottom of the sea should subside
gradually, where animal life had once abounded,
animal life — not that animal life, but animal life due

in some way to it — might continue to linger over it
long after it had passed beyond the depth at which it
could practically have any effect upon the animal life
above it ; but if a part of the circumference of the
globe has always been under water, before and ever
since the creation of life, no life is likely to be found
on that spot, because it has never had a starting-point
of life from which to begin ; and, as already said, a
slender barrier stops the spread of species, and
species would certainly not spread to a spot where
there was nothing for them to feed upon. Again,
animal life could not begin to feed upon animal life
till vegetable life had previously prepared the way by
providing food for the animals which were to furnish
food for others ; and vegetable life could not begin to
grow without a foundation of land, accessible either
above or below water. The total and constant
absence of all life at any particular spot appears to
me, therefore, to furnish a presumption that there has
never been dry land or shallow water there. Whether
the continuance of deep water in one spot for some

interminably long time might not have the same
effect is another question, which, whatever way it
may be answered, would not affect my explanation of
the cause of the absence of the Sperm Whale from
such spots.”* I am indebted to the kindness of
Chas. J. Palmer, Esq., of Great Yarmouth, for the
woodcuts (figs. 12 and 13) representing the chair in
Yarmouth Church which is formed of part of the
skull of an individual of this species.

The sub-family Ziphiince , which follows next, is,
perhaps, the most remarkable of the whole of
this interesting order. The Ziphioid Whales, as
they are designated, are, with one exception,
very rare, and until the commencement of the
present century, with that one exception, were
known to science only from their numerous re-
mains, found chiefly in the Crag deposits. “.Since
that time, however,” says Prof. Flower, in his
memoirs of this group (Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. viii.
p. 203), “at irregular intervals, in various and most
distant parts of the world, solitary individuals have
been caught or stranded, now amounting to about
thirty, which by some naturalists are referred to
upwards of a dozen distinct species, and to very

* “Geographical Distribution of Mammalia,” pp. 211-213.

Fig. 14. Skull of Sperm Whale.

II A R D WICKETS S CIENCE - G O SSIP.

29

nearly as many genera. No case is recorded of
more than one of these animals having been observed
in one place at a time, and their habits are almost
absolutely unknown. . . . This comparative rarity
at the present epoch,” he farther says, “contrasts
greatly with what once obtained on the earth,
especially in the period of the deposition of the Crag
formations, and leads to the belief that the existing
Ziphioidsare the survivors of an ancient family which
once played a far more important part than now
among the cetacean inhabitants of the ocean, but
which have been gradually replaced by other forms,
and are themselves probably destined ere long to
share the fate of their once numerous allies or pro-
genitors.”

The members of the group may be distinguished
at once by the absence of functional teeth in the
upper jaw : those in the lower jaw are always
quite rudimentary, with the exception of one, or
occasionally, two pairs. These may be largely de-
veloped, especially in the male sex, and are placed,
generally, well forward. The blow-hole is sub-
crescentic, and a pair of remarkable furrows occur
in the skin of the throat, almost in the form of the
letter V, the point directed forward. The skull
presents a remarkable appearance in the genus
Hyperoodon , caused by the enormous maxillary
crests which produce the peculiar conformation of the
head in the living animal, originating the trivial name
“Bottle-head.” The common Beaked Whale, or
Bottle-head ( Hyperoodon rostratus , Chemnitz), is
of frequent occurrence in the North Atlantic, and
generally visits our shores in autumn, sometimes
ascending the estuaries of rivers : it has been taken
several times at the entrance to the river Ouse. It is
solitary in its habits, more than two are never met
with in the same place, and in that case it is often the
old female and her young one : the old male is said to
be very shy and rarely secured. In September, 1877,
an adult female, 24 ft. long, was taken in the Menai
Straits ; it was accompanied by another, probably
its young one. The colour is black above, the
under parts being lighter : the two teeth in the
lower jaw are generally hidden in the gum. Its
food consists of cuttle-fish, the remains of great
numbers of which have been found in its stomach.
Another species of Hyperoodon , H. latifrons, has
occurred three or four times on the British coast ;
it has also been taken in Greenland. Very little
is known about it as a species, and that only from its
bones : it is supposed to attain a greater size than
H. rostratus , probably upwards of 30 ft.

Cuvier’s Whale ( Ziphius cavirostris, Cuv.),
another of this remarkable group, has been met with
once on the coast of Shetland, and it, or its remains,
have been found about five or six times in other parts of
Europe, and also, it is believed, at the Cape of Good
Hope, and the east coast of South America. It has
two teeth, one on each side the lower jaw, close to

the extremity. Cuvier established the genus Ziphius
in 1825, from a fossil skull found on the coast of
Provence, in 1804, which he believed at the time to
belong to an extinct animal.

( To be continued. )

STRUCTURE OF SAND-HILLS.

By W. B. Grove, B.A.

LAST summer I had a very good opportunity of
examining the structure of the dunes on the
Lancashire coast. A copy (fig. 15) of a sketch, made
on the spot, may be interesting, as I can find none
in our common text-books which give an accurate
idea of it. It was taken from a natural section of a
hill about 14 feet high, half of which had been neatly
blown away by the wind. The irregularity of the
bedding, represented by the darker lines, is due to

Fig. 15. Section of Sand-dune, Lancashire.

changes in the direction of the wind, which, after
depositing a stratum, often sweeps away a part of
it ; and then, after another change, deposits fresh
material on the new surface. As the successive
laminae conform accurately to the varying outline of

Fig. 16. Sandstone Cliff, Suffolk (after Lyell).

the surface on which they are deposited, a series of
irregular beds is thus produced. This is often called
false-bedding. The same name is also applied to
diagonal stratification, in which the planes of the
laminae of sandstone are oblique to the plane of strati-
cation, as seen in fig. 16. But this latter structure
can only be formed, I believe, when a current of
water, carrying coarse sediment, meets with a sudden

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

3°

check to its velocity, and lets its burden fall ; the
particles then arrange themselves at the proper
“slope of repose,” which depends upon their size
and form. This can seldom or never happen to a
current of air on a large scale, and consequently
diagonal stratification will rarely occur in sand-
dunes.

My reason for repeating these well-known facts is
that, in J. Geikie’s small “ Geology,” I find the
following passage: — “Sometimes the layers of de-
position in a single stratum are inclined at various
angles to themselves. This structure is called false-
bedding ; the laminae not coinciding with the planes
of stratification Hillocks of drifting sand fre-

quently show a similar structure, but their false-
bedding is, as a rule, much more pronounced.” The
first two sentences of this passage contain slightly
different ideas, and must confuse the student’s mind.
According to my observation, moreover, the state-
ment in the last sentence is not true, if he takes the
latter of the two definitions apparently given of false-
bedding, as he would naturally do. It is best not to
use the term false-bedding at all, but discard it, as is
done by Lyell and Jukes, in favour of the two, irre-
gular bedding and diagonal stratification. The latter
of these cannot be called by the rejected name, as it
is not the bedding but the lamination that is ab-
normal ; we may, indeed, apply the name to the
former, but we shall have to explain that false means
irregular in this case, and we do not gain much,
except the opportunity of writing a second sentence
to explain the meaning of the previous one.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE
FORAMINIFERA.

By W. K. Marriott.

THIS was the subject of a paper recently read
before the Metropolitan Scientific Association.
The author referred to the Eozoon Canadense, and
while giving a brief recapitulation of the arguments
in favour of its organic origin, he held it up as not
only the first of all foraminiferous life, but also, in its
special capacity as a rock builder, as typical as the
very Globigerina itself. He considered as inimical
to the claims of the Eozoon that Messrs. King and
Rowney, the leaders of the opposition, had lately
received a grant from the Endowment of Research
Fund, for “Researches to determine the Structural,
Chemical, and Mineralogical Character of a certain
Group of Crystallic Rocks.” If this were aimed at
the Eozoon, he was content to leave the matter in
their hands, feeling confident that its position in the
animal world was assured. After referring to the
utility of classification in general, he showed how
the classification of the Foraminifera had been
alternately neglected and over-indulged in ; how in
the one case it was left to itself, and in others had

been filled with synonymes, and how M. D’Orbigny
had rescued it, and how he again had spoiled it.
He then showed the system of the classification of the
whole Protozoic group, and how its two great
branches, the Rhizopoda and Ciliata, develope on the
one hand, through many stages, up to the many-
chambered Foraminifera, and on the other to the
Actinophrys and Vorticella. He regretted he could
at present do no more than indicate the great question
that lay open at this point, namely, how these two
developments of Protozoic life are related to the
supplementary groups of Polycystina, Thallassacollida,
and Spongiaaa, and to the Ichthydina and Noctilu-
cida. As the classification of the Foraminifera rests,
by reason of the simplicity of its animal matter, upon
no physiological basis, it remains very clearly that it
can only be upon the structural difference of its
shell ; this, again, being due to the hardening, with
only very slight modifications, of the outside of the
creature — the calcifying of its epidermis, as it has
been somewhat curiously called ; this classification
rests on very reasonable and simple grounds. The
necessity of the first great divisions into Monothalamia
and Polythalamia immediately suggests itself. The
Monothalamia, or one-chambered Foraminifera, con-
sists of three families. The first, and largest, in point
of genera, is the Lagynida, so called from the flask-
like shape of its members. Specimens were shown
under the microscopes in the table, and were found to
exhibit every variety of form of flask that ever left the
hand of the potter. This distinctive feature was also
shown upon the black-board ; indeed, Mr. Marriott
materially assisted his audience in understanding the
principles of the classification by sketching thereon
typical genera of all the families, giving the salient
points in the structure of the shell by which the
creature earned its name and position. The second
family, Orbidinida, has but one member, but this is
the interesting Orbulina that the Challenger Expedi-
tion has brought prominently to the front ; its points
of resemblance to the Globigerina were dwelt upon,
and also its curious divergences from that genus.
The third family, Cornuspirida , was then shown, and
its great apparent resemblance to our fresh-water
mollusk, the planorbis, at once fixed it on the mind ;
this concluding the Alonothalamia. The grouping
of the Polythalamia was next shown, but here a
greater number of families are found, and conse-
quently intricacies of various kinds to be encountered.
The first group, the Helicoidea , contained every spiral-
shaped Foraminifera there was, and some, like some
of the members of the first family, that were not spiral
at all, but simply possessing more chambers than
one. These were the Miliolida, from their resem-
blance to millet seed. The second family, Turbi-
nida , possessed, with many variations, a shell like
the well-known mollusk Turbo , and specimens of
this family are found in all collections. A sub-
family of this, called, from its clustering and grape-

HARD IVICKE ’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

like form, the Uvellida , contains the world-famed
Globigerina. And another well-known sub-family,
the Textilaria, shows a curious conformation of a
spiral that produces the appearance of being woven.
Then comes the second great family of the Poly-
thalamians, the Nantiloidea, that led M. D’Orbigny
into the error of classing them with the Nautilus
and Ammonite. A reference to specimens showed
how far he was justified in this. The first sub-
family, the Cristellarida, the second Nonionida ,
third Peneroplida , and fourth Orbientina, contain
well-known genera that, either in outward form or
inward structure of cell and segment closely mimic
the form of that great class from which more recent
investigation has banished them. The remaining
two families were then enumerated, and the Orbitii-
lita , as being the most interesting belonging to them,
was detailed, after which the Rhaboidea, the second
great group, or rod-shaped Foraminifera, was ex-
plained. This possesses but one family, the Nodosa-
rida, whose knot-shaped chambers, arranged one on
another, enables everybody at once to identify
them. This brought the classification to an end.
Mr. Marriott, in conclusion, passed on to the life
history of one of the Foraminifera as typical of the
whole of the class. He chose the Globigerina, because
round it has centered the most popular and scientific
interest and research, and gave the most recent
investigations and speculations on the subject.

A VISIT TO SPONSA’S HEADQUARTERS.
By H. C. Dent.

AFTER reading the two papers on “ Lepidoptera
of the New Forest ” and “Sport in the New
Forest,” our hopes were roused, and we arranged to
go^j to that Elysium in the long vacation. As my
brother was not free till the first week in August, I
filled up some of the spare time in visiting Darenth
Wood, Box Hill, and Epping, in successful quest of
the spring species ; and at the end of June went for
three weeks to Switzerland, and visited its glaciers,
snow-peaks, and insect hunting-grounds. Here I
must wander, and give a few localities for those who
propose a trip to that glorious country next season.
The upper end of the Lauterbrunnen valley, near
Trachsellauenen (very good little inn) is a splendid
place. Here, while revelling in the sight of the
Jungfrau, Monch, and many other superb peaks, you
may take Machaon, Arion, Ilyale, Cratcegi, Globn-
laricE, Trifolii , Lonicerce , Grammica , two kinds of
large copper, and many foreign species of blues and
fritillaries ; on the Chaumont near Neuchatel, Apollo
and Podalirius abound (also the most atrocious and
pertinacious Diptcra) ; at Grindelwald I captured
four superb Machaons at one fell swoop ; the Nicolai
Thai — and in fact the Zermatt district generally —
with the vineyards above Saxon (Rhone Valley) well

31

repay a visit ; while at Gryon, near Bex, Dia and
other rare fritillaries abound ; besides Slnapis, IRro ,
the Zygenidce, &c.

To return. We arrived at Brockenhurst on August
8th, and put up at the “Rose and Crown” (pro-
prietor, James Ings), where we had, a week previously,
ordered beds. Nothing could be more cheerful than
our rooms, and during our whole stay we were most
comfortable, while the charges were reasonable. After
a good lunch, we sallied forth for a couple of hours,
and — considering that the weather was bad — obtained
a very fair “bag.” In the evening, however, we
were not so fortunate, as we only took one Promissa
and a few Py)-amidea ; although the weather was
suitable, rarities would not appear.

The next morning we went through the Forest to
Lyndhurst, on the right side of the road for about
halfway, and then on the left. We saw innumerable
Paphia — all more or less rubbed — two Sibylla, and
“buttered” a female Iris ! This splendid lady wras
sipping the nectar from a bramble blossom, when
down came the net over her, but, alas ! her imperial
majesty quietly glided downwards through the thorns,,
evading the death-dealing gauze, and soared triumph-
antly to the top of a neighbouring oak. This
damped our spirits, but they soon rose when we
captured two Argiolus and a pair of Quercus. The
latter we found very abundant at the tops of young
oaks ; so at length we devised a plan for their
capture, and having cut down a straight birch
“ stick” of about 15 ft. long, and fixed a net at the
top ; after two days’ practice we succeeded in taking
eighty specimens in less than a couple of hours ; the
abominable Forest flies tormenting us all the time
above measure. We saw daily a few Iris besporting
themselves above and around the high oaks, but they
were inaccessible.

From August 8th to 10th, the weather was unpro-
pitious ; as clouds, wind, and rain are not compatible
with fly-catching. However, as we liked the sylvan
beauties of the places we had visited, and as we feared
“to go farther and fare worse,” our daily plan was
to start from the “Rose and Crown” about nine, go
through the Forest to Lyndhurst (about three miles
direct), where we arrived about one. Then after
lunching at the “ Crown and Stirrup ” (three minutes
from forest, proprietor Charles Pack, who lets apart-
ments), we returned through the Forest, arranged our
captures, dined, and set off for sugaring.

At length we were told of a place where Sponsa
was said to abound. “Some gentlemen \iv took
fourty a noight this season,” said our informant.
Thither we determined to go, and the following
evening (August 13th) we started, equipped with
bags full of empty pilf-boxes, chloroform and cyanide
bottles, and corked boxes well stocked with No. 6 pins.
We arranged to sugar 150 trees, and keep on visiting
them till we were tired. We had sugared over 100
when an individual approached armed with a net, a

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP,

cyanide-bottle and a corked box. We tackled him.
“Any Sponsa about? Wy bless yer, ’eaps on ’em.
Thur’s one on that thur tree now.” Our blood was
up, we longed to dart at it, but it was that man’s tree,
and we refrained. He told us he had taken 120 in
three nights, and that his usual nightly haul was from
twelve to twenty. We asked him how many trees
he “painted.” “Wall,” he said, “I begun doin’
about thirty, but w’en they’re plentiful I doaint
have no time to look at more’n about six trees ; there’s
ten on a tree sometimes.” We were roused to mad
excitement ; in half an hour we had taken a dozen on
as many trees. Many flew off, and that night we
had no nets. It was now 8.30, and we met our
friend going home. “ They’re ovur for to-noight,”
said he. We stayed another half-hour, but took only
a couple on his trees.

Fig. 17.

The next night, having found that Sponsa flew
early, we sugared earlier, and before dark had taken
another dozen Sponsa, and two or three Promissa,
besides the rare Subsequa. We had intended going
to the Isle of Wight on the 15th for Hyale and
Helice ; but another Sponsa hunt was not to be
winked at. That night we captured twenty-one
Sponsa and two Promissa , while the multitudes of
Pyramidea were as usual a perfect pest.

To see whether any Sponsa are settled on sugar
needs some practice, when their wings are folded over
their backs — especially in the dusk — as the upper
wings resemble closely the bark of the trees ; when,
however, the wings are partly expanded — showing the
splendid crimson bands — I can hardly imagine a
more exciting sight ; the very thought of it makes me
thrill even now. Our mode of proceeding was to pill-

box the moths, pour in a drop of chloroform, and
when they were quiet, pin and remove them to the
corked box. When we got home they were stabbed
with oxalic acid. If they were too wary for the pill-
box or cyanide-bottle, we netted them, and then
pill-boxed. We thus found half a dozen pill-boxes
ample.

At length, on the 16th, we left Brockenhurst with
sad hearts, took the train to Lymington, and steamed
across the Solent, at the rate of four miles an hour,
under a hot sun, to Yarmouth, in company with a
flock of sheep and a fat farmer, who was much
wrapped up and enduring all the agonies of sea-sick-
ness. We were greeted by numerous Edusa, Cardui,
and Polyehloros, besides innumerable Atalanta.
Having “humped” our knapsack, we marched on
the west side of the Yar to Freshwater. Wishing to
be near the sea, we scorned the respectable Red
Lion Inn, and put up at the Albion, Freshwater
Bay, where we were duly charged next morning.
That afternoon we walked towards Alum Bay,
but a strong gusty wind prevented anything
more than a grand view from the beacon above
the Nodes, and the capture of a few Coiydon
and Edusa. As the weather continued un-
favourable the next morning, and it was incum-
bent upon us to be in London by Saturday, we
threw over our plan of walking to Shanklin,
Ventnor,and Cowes, and determined to have
another evening at Sponsa's headquarters. We
therefore went back to Yarmouth, where we
netted many Edusa, Galathea, Cardui, and a
hybernated Helice, and then returned to Brocken-
hurst. We were rewarded : over two dozen
Sponsa requited our endeavours before 7.45,
when the moon shone brilliantly, and the
underwings retreated to the tops of the oaks.

This brought our Hampshire expedition to a
close, and the next lepidoptera I saw — three
days after — were some Edusa, lo, Cardui ,
&c., in the picture-galleries of The Hague,
Haarlem, and Amsterdam, calmly flitting
round and settling on bouquets which, though
painted a couple of centuries ago by Mignou,
Ruysch, and others, still retain much of their original
freshness.

The following is a list of thirty-one diurni
we saw in the New Forest : — Rhamni, Edusa ,
Brassicce, Rapce , Napi, Galathea, Algeria, Hyper •
anthus, Megcera , Semele, Tithonus, Janira ,

Pampkilus , Sibylla, Atalanta, do, Polyehloros ,
Urticcz, Cardui, Iris, Quercus, Betulce, Adippe,
Aglaia, Paphia, Phleas, Argiolus, Alexis, Artaxerxes,
Sylvanus, and Lima. We were informed that
this year had been bad for Valezina, and especially
for Sibylla. Of the latter we only saw half
a dozen, while ten days before they were abun-
dant in Essex. Onon and Batis had been
plentiful.

Dark-crimson Underwing Moth ( Catocala sponsa).

HARD WICKEDS SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

33

A PLEA FOR THE MICROSCOPE AS
A TOY.

T 7 E are often reminded that the microscope is
V V no longer a toy, but a scientific instrument,
and those who use it for recreation only are not un-
frequently hard hit, as mere wasters of time and
desecrators of a noble power.

Now, while fully appreciating the scientific use of
the microscope, I would suggest a slight alteration in
the above dictum, and say, it is not only a toy, but
a scientific instrument. I would plead for it as a
source of amusement. The President of the Quekett
Club, in his recent address, reminds us of a remark
in the first page of the “Microscopic Journal” of
1841, where it is said of microscopic research in those
days, that it “is for the most part an amusement
rather than a profession” — it is an “intellectual
pastime, which is sure to terminate in beneficial
results. General knowledge may be acquired by
observation,” and this “ by industry and perseverance
imperceptibly produces recondite science.” This is
just the view I would take of microscopical employ-
ment. It is first an “ intellectual pastime.” Wearied
in body and mind the man of business or of litera-
ture seeks rest. Some find it in mere lounging in an
easy-chair, and joining in the family chit-chat ; others
in listening to the music which a wife or daughter
elicits from the pianoforte. There is no objection to
this ; but if the taste leads to the observation of
nature in the sky, the earth, the sea, then a special
interest is felt in whatever tends to reveal the secrets
of that existence by which we are surrounded. Some
turn to the telescope, others to the microscope, not
as a means of scientific research, but as “an intel-
lectual pastime.” Investigation requires powerful
effort, both of mind and body. Few have this to
expend now-a-days on what does not bring grist to
the mill. The mind wants recreation, as the appetite
longs sometimes for change of diet and enjoys the
dainty bit. The holiday keeper rushes into the
country, not to study, but to enjoy, its beauties. He
visits the picture gallery, not to become an artist, but
to satisfy a taste. He goes to the British Museum or
the Zoological Gardens not to become a naturalist,
but to enlarge his ideas. He cultivates a variety of
sweet and pretty flowers in his garden, not with the
remotest intention of becoming acquainted with their
orders and relationships, but purely for the enjoy-
ment to be derived from them. And why may a
man not use his microscope in the same way ? What
wonders — what beauties — does it reveal ! Well has
it been said that the microscope is a door into another
world. It is so, and the man who uses it merely as
such is amply rewarded. The door is opened and he
is almost bewildered with the variety and beauty of
what he sees. His mind is enlarged, his views are
corrected ; his taste is charmed, his wonder excited.
The whole man is elevated, refreshed, and invigo-

rated. It is not only a pastime, but “an intellectual
pastime.”

But, further, we are told it is “sure to terminate
in beneficial results.” This “ intellectual pastime,”
then, does not as a rule stop there. It is not a lovely
vision which vanishes away, but is an avenue to a
brighter and broader view. It induces the habit of
observation, and surrounds even the least things with
a halo of interest which they could never otherwise
have possessed. The smut on the ear of com — the
disease of the leaf of the potato — the mould on the
cheese — all are now full of interest. The most un-
promising object often exhibits a most unexpected
character, or reveals a long-looked-for secret. And
thus the mind is not only refreshed but stored with a
new fact, which in its turn proves to be only the
cradle of another: so, step by step, the “beneficial
results ” are evolved. And great as these are in an
educational and abstract point of view, they are by
no means wanting in a practical, as the application
of the microscope to physiological, histological, and
commercial subjects, abundantly proves.

Let us begin, then, by play. If it ends here it is
at least as innocent and pleasing as any other — let
some of us begin by using our microscopes as toys,
let others use them so sometimes, for the amusement
of the uninitiated — it is “an intellectual pastime
which is sure to terminate in beneficial results.”

This toy, moreover, is not an expensive one, either
to begin with, or to keep going. If you buy a gun
there is the annual licence, and the constant supply
of ammunition. If you buy a horse, the first outlay
is nothing compared with the keeping of it. But
when once you are provided with a microscope, there
is no tax to pay, no food required. Let this be a
plea for getting a fairly good instrument at first,
capable of being added to as required. Even the
magic-lantern soon tires unless new slides, which are
very costly, be continually added. Having, then,
this toy, we learn to find objects which cost us
nothing, but, on the contrary, contribute largely to
our pleasure and profit. It has, too, a great
advantage over the telescope. You have not to wait
f or cloudless nights, nor to run the risk of colds and
neuralgia. Every night is a microscopical night, and
the long dark evenings of winter may be not only
beguiled but improved. — T. R. J. , Codicote Vicarage.

PARASITES ON FISH.

By John Davis.

THE subject of the various parasites found on
fish has not hitherto received much popular
attention, except in Van Beneden’s “Animal Mess-
mates.” It is hoped, therefore, that the following
description of three of such parasites may induce
other naturalists to contribute further information on
this subject to the pages of SciENCE-Gossir.

34

HARD IVICKE ’S SCIENCE - G OSSIE,

Parasite of Cod ( Gad us morrhua ) taken from the
outside of the gill (there is another parasite which
infests its back). — The tail is composed of two tubes,
finely marked, which commence at the end of the
animal at each side, and gradually narrow until they
meet. These tubes are nearly as long as the body.

The Gurnard (Trivia hirundo) has parasites :
this one was taken from the eye, to which it fastens
itself by the large wheel-like sucker ; it then bends
its body until it brings the small rings at the end of
the animal on the fish, and so jerks itself along. I
have drawn one end of the large sucker, as seen under

Fig. 18. Parasite of a Ling; 3-inch object ; size, x ^ ; pale yellow and pink spots, with

a dark brownish-pink eye.

Fig. 2d. Parasite of a
Cod ; iTinch ; size, y5^ ;
opal-white, with a pink
eye-spot and dots.

The size of the specimen is of an inch, and the '
objective used in this instance was 1 2 -inch, with C
eyepiece.

Parasite of Ling ( Molva lota). — The integument
of this parasite is covered with small spots and
lines, and the body is of a dense opal-white. An
indistinct oesophagus (on account of the thickness
of the animal) can be traced from the eyespots to the
stomach. The latter is composed of a spiral arrange-
ment of tubes, and marked with cross-lines, the same
as the antenna of the Lobster. It is a pretty sight
to watch the circulation in these vessels. At the
dorsal end is a rather large cavity, which I take to
be the ovary. The size of this parasite is x y'u,
and examined through a 3-inch objective. It was
taken from the back of the fish.

a J-inch objective. The length of this parasite is.
about 5 inch, and perfectly white.

WHITE MITES.

DURING the month of June, 1877, whilst driv-
ing in the countiy, I observed a black poplar
tree evidently suffering from the ravages of insects ;
I therefore stopped the vehicle, and got out to ex-
amine. I found the tree bored in many places by the
larvae of the Goat-moth (Cossus ligniperda), three of
which I secured. A considerable portion of the bark
was loose, and the sap kept this quite wet, the
peculiar smell produced by the larvae being very
evident. On removing a portion of the bark where
it was moist with sap, I found it covered with a
moving mass, consisting of myriads of very peculiar
White Mites. On examining them under the micro-
scope, I found them to differ from any Mites I had
ever seen, nor could I find any notice of similar ones
in any work to which I could refer. The females,
which were in the greatest abundance, were egg-
shaped, the larger end being in front, and the sides
towards the posterior, somewhat bent in. On slightly
compressing them, they were seen to contain eggs.
The abdomen was of a milk-white colour, and the legs
reddish-brown. On crushing one of the Mites con-
taining eggs, one or two young ones escaped from the
almost mature ova ; these had only six legs, one of
the hind pair being missing. The males, which were
few in number compared with the females, were very
peculiar in appearance ; their bodies were less in size,
flatter, and the legs longer and stouter in proportion
than those of the females ; the posterior pair not used

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

35

for walking, but stretched out backwards, their ex- ,
treme ends bent inwards, and, as far as I could make
out, not furnished with claws. Their gait was ex-
tremely awkward. In certain Der maleic hi, found on
small birds, the males have one of the hind pairs of
legs very largely and peculiarly developed, but in
their case it is the third, the fourth pair being very
small, and used in walking.

About the middle of August I again visited this
tree, and found upon and with the White Mites a
number of Hypopi , but whether these were parasitic
on the White Mites, or merely residing with them,
I was not able to determine. I passed this tree
on several occasions during the summer, and fre-
quently saw Wasps and Red Admiral Butterflies
enjoying the sap, which kept some parts of the
tree continually moist. The figures are all drawn
from mounted specimens under a f° object-glass,

Fig. 23. Young of
White Mite.

Fig. 24. Ilypopiis found
with White Mites.

with A eyepiece, and are magnified about 72
diameters.

Kirton Lindsey. C. F. George.

THE HISTORY OF OUR SALAD HERBS.
Part III. — Mustard.

MUSTARD was, according to the belief of the
ancients, first introduced from Egypt, that
country which claims the honour of being the birth-
place of Ceres, the goddess of seeds, and Hisculapius,
the god of medicine, through whose means this plant
was made known to mankind as an agreeable and
wholesome herb in its green state ; while the seed
was used as a medicine, and occupied the first rank
among alimentary substances which exercised a
prompt influence on the brain. Mustard is mentioned
by Pythagoras, and was employed in medicine by
Hippocrates, B. C. 480. Pliny states that there were
three kinds of mustard cultivated in his day ; the first
of a thin and slender form, the second with a leaf
like that of the rape, and the third with that like the
rocket. The best seed, he says, was imported from
Egypt, but that this plant grew in Italy without
sowing. The Romans made great use of the seed in
medicine ; the oil extracted from it, mixed with olive
oil, was used by those who suffered with stiffness of
their limbs after a cold bath. Pounded with vinegar
it was employed as a liniment for the sting of serpents
and scorpions, and a dose of it effectually neutralized
the poisonous properties of fungi. The Romans, and
other nations after them, used to ferment mustard-
seed in new wine, which converted it into a kind of
inferior brandy, and was known by the name of
Mustum ardcns, burning wine.

The mustard-seed mentioned in the Scripture has
of late years been a matter of considerable controversy,
some authors supposing it to be quite a different
plant from the one we are now treating of ; but it is
generally believed by the best authorities in the
present day that the plant referred to was Sinapis
nigra , the common mustard, which is indigenous to
Palestine, as it is to Britain. Dr. Thompson, in his
“ Land and the Book,” records that he has seen
this plant as tall as the horse and his rider in the rich
plains of Acre.

36

HARDWICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

“ As small as a grain of mustard-seed,” appears to
have been a proverbial expression for any small object
among the Jews ; and this seed, which was the
smallest the husbandman was accustomed to sow,
produced the largest results by becoming the greatest
of the husbandman’s herbs.

We have no record when mustard was first used in
this country, but in the household accounts of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find that
mustard was known to our forefathers under the
name of “ Senapum,” and appears to have been used
in large quantities, for in that interesting Household
Book of the Earl of Northumberland, in the reign
of Henry VII., it is stated that 160 gallons of
mustard-seed was the allowance per annum to his
servants and retainers. In those days the seed was
not manufactured, but brought to table whole, when
it was bruised and mixed with vinegar, according to
the taste of the eater. It was not only used as a
condiment, but also, no doubt, for medicinal purposes.
Tusser, who wrote his “ Five Hundred Points of
Good Husbandry ” in the reign of Queen Mary, says,
in the direction for February, —

“Where banks be amended or newly upcast,

Sow mustard-seed after a shower be past.”

From this it appears that mustard was cultivated as
a field crop ; we also find it mentioned as an agricul-
tural produce in Rogers’s “ History of Agriculture and
Prices in England,” as far back as 1285. It must
then have been S. nigra, black 'mustard, or S. arvensis ,
the charlock, for Gerard tells us that the garden
mustard, which produces the whitest of seeds, had not
become common in the days of Queen Elizabeth, but
that he had distributed the seed into different parts
of England to make it known. He says, “Mustard
makes an excellent sauce, good to be eaten with gross
meats, either fish or flesh, because it promotes diges-
tion and sharpens the appetite.” Thomas Cogan,
M.D., of Manchester, who published his “Haven of
Plealth ” in 1605, says, “ The force of the seed is well
perceived by eating mustard, for if it is good in
making to weep we are straightway taken by the nose
and provoked to sneeze, which plainly declareth that
it soon pierceth the brain. Wherefore as it is a good
sauce and procureth appetite, so it is profitable for j
the pulse, and for such students as be heavy-headed
and drowsy, as if they would fall asleep with meat in j
their mouths. And if any be given to music, and
would fain have clear voices, let them take mustard-
seed in powder, work the same with honey into little
balls, of which they must swallow one or two down
every morning fasting, and in a short time they shall
have very clear voices.” Shakspeare mentions mustard
as a condiment in his play, “Taming the Shrew,” act
vi. , scene iii. , where Gr umio says to Katharina, ‘ ‘ What
say you to a piece of beef and mustard?” It is also
mentioned in his play “ As you like it,” in connection
with pancakes (see scene iii.). In Evelyn’s time,
Tewkesbury was famous for its mustard. The seed,

Coles tells us, in 1657, used to be ground there and
made up into balls, which were brought to London
and other remote places as being the best the world
affords. Mustard used formerly to be largely culti-
vated and manufactured in the county of Durham ;
but until the year 1720 the seed used to be pounded
in a mortar and coarsely separated from the black
integuments of the seeds, and in that rough state
prepared for use. About the year mentioned an old
woman of the name of Clements, resident at Durham,
conceived the idea of grinding the seed in a mill, and
to pass the meal through the several processes which
are resorted to in making flour from wheat. The
secret she kept for many years to herself, and in the
period of her exclusive possession of it supplied the
principal parts of the kingdom, and in particular the
metropolis with this article ; and George I. stamped
it with fashion by his approval. Mrs. Clements used
to travel twice a year to London for orders, and was
able to pick up a small fortune. F rom this woman’s
residence at Durham, it acquired the name of ‘ ‘ Durham
mustard” ( Mechanic's Magazine, vol. iv., p. 87).
The seeds of Siuapis arvensis, charlock, and Raphanus
raphanistrum , the wild radish common in our corn-
fields, are often sold and used as a substitute for
mustard-seed. The seed of the black mustard, like
that of the wild sort, and also of the wild radish, if
sown below the depth of three or four inches, will
remain in the ground for ages without germinating :
hence when once introduced it is difficult to extirpate.
Whenever they throw the earth out of their ditches
in the Isle of Ely, the banks come up thick with
mustard, and the seeds falling into the water and
sinking to the bottom will remain embalmed in the
mud for ages without vegetation (Loudon’s “Ency-
clopaedia of Agriculture ”).

Siuapis alba appears to be a native of the more
southern countries of Europe and Western Asia. It
is now cultivated not only as a garden herb, but is
grown very largely as an agricultural crop, chiefly as
food for sheep or to be ploughed in for manure in its
green state. Mustard is extensively cultivated in the
Fen lands of Lincolnshire and Cambridge, also in
Essex and Kent. Its medicinal properties are well
known ; in its action it is an irritant, stimulant, emetic,
and stomachic.

Some authors think Siuapis is derived from sino to
hurt, and opis the eyes, from the pungency of the
plant causing the eyes to water ; others from the Celtic
nup (modern Gaelic neup ) a turnip which belongs
to this tribe. Our word “mustard” is derived from the
French vioularde, but in early times it was, both here
and on the Continent, sauve or seneve. Some
authors assert that the etymology of this plant was
changed from the following circumstance. In 1382
Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, was marching
against his rebellious subjects of Ghent, and the city
of Dijon, which traded largely in seneve, supplied
him with a thousand men-at-arms, for which service

BARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-

SSIP.

37

the Duke granted that city many privileges, amongst
others that of bearing his arms, with his motto “ Moult
vie tarde" in old French (I long or wish ardently),
which was carved on the principal gate of Dijon.
By some accident the middle word was destroyed ; the
other two, moult tarde, caused many a smile at the
expense of the citizens, and in derision the senevc
in which they traded was called mourtarde, a name
it has preserved ever since.

MICROSCOPY,

Actino-cyclus Berkleyi. — I have some speci-
mens of this diatom, with reference to which I shall
be glad if one of your correspondents will give me a
little information. I should like to know, in the
first place, whose nomenclature A. Berkley is; and,
secondly, whether it is synonymous with any of the
species described in the fourth edition of Pritchard’s
“Infusoria”; if not, where are the specific cha-
racters to be found ? — C. V. S.

Researches among the Sponges. — In the last
number of the “Annals and Magazine of Natural
History” there appear several important articles on
the structure of various kinds of sponges. W. Saville
Kent commences with one on “ Professor Ernest
Haeckel’s group of the Physemaria , and on the
affinity of the Sponges.” W. J. Sollas describes
two new and remarkable species of Cliona. There
is also a paper by C. Mereschkowsky, on Wagnerella >
a new genus of sponge allied to the Physemaria of
Haeckel.

Mounting Marine Alg/e.— Mr. H. F. Atwood,
of Chicago, gives the following account of his
method of mounting algce, in the November number
of the “ American Journal of Microscopy.” Mr. At-
wood advocates the use of salicylic acid, and
says— “My process is as follows : by using sea-salt
(which can be bought for a trifle at any first-class
druggist’s) and distilled or rain water, a good sub-
stitute for sea-water is obtained ; into this I im-
merse the rough-dried specimens of algae, and in an
hour or two they have resumed their natural shape.
Now, picking out and clipping off such pieces as
are best adapted for mounting, I transfer them to a
bowl of distilled water, and wash them clean, and
from thence transfer them to a small saucer con-
taining a saturated solution of salicylic acid. The
shallow cell into which they now go is built up of
shellac cement, made by dissolving bleached shellac
in Cologne spirits. Cells made of this substance are
ready for use twelve hours after being laid on to the
slide. I pick up the specimen with forceps, put it on
the slide, and fill up the cell with the salicylic acid, j
I now breathe on the covering glass, and put it in J
its place, and by the use of blotting-paper absorb the
superfluous fluid. A thin coating of gold size com- i

pletes the work for the time being ; in a day or two
I lay on more goW size, and afterwards white zinc
cement or Brunswick black ; the finish, of course,
being a mere matter of fancy. In mounting a piece
of algce having Isthhia parasitic on it, it is almost
impossible to fill tluse diatoms if balsam is used,
whereas by the use of salicylic acid every valve will
be filled. In some ca^es the medium I have used
has robbed the algae of its colour, but this occurs
but rarely. I have a side of Ptilola hypnoides in
full fruit, the beauty of wl.ich could never be brought
out except by first immeising the specimen in the
sea-water I have referred to. P'or the study of
algae, direct light should l\e used, but using dark
field illumination is the best vay.”

The Quekett Microscopical Club. — The last
number of the Journal of this well-known and useful
club contains an address by the President, Mr. Henry
Lee, F.L. S., and a paper by Mr. W. Iv. Bridgman,
on “The Ordinary Condenser Improved, or ‘Cir-
cular’ Illumination Superseded.”

Coloured Oysters. — The oysters of the cele-
brated Arcachon beds having last summer acquired a
peculiar violet colour, the cause has been inquired
into by M. Desconst, who finds it was due to the
exceeding abundance of the highly-coloured spores of
a sea-weed ( Rhytiphleea tinctoria). The colouring
matter of these spores had been assimilated by the
oysters, and retained by them, the extreme drought
of the summer months having favoured the operation
by reducing the water until it was not sufficient to
dissolve the colouring matter.

The Spore-producing Power of Fungi. —
At a recent meeting of the Linnean Society, Mr.
Worthington Smith exhibited drawings of Boletus
subtomentosus, and stated that in a specimen five
inches in diameter, there are 17,000 pores, or tubes.
Each pore when cut across shows 2,000 cells on the
surface. The number of surface-cells on the under
side of a specimen is 36,000,000. The cells in ar.
entire plant are calculated at 615,000,000,000 ; and
the number of spores produced by the same specimen
are 5,000,000,000.

Parasitic Alg/E. — Professor Percival Wright has
described a new species of Chytridiacece under the
name of Rhizophydium Dicksonii. It was found
parasitic in the cells of a sea- weed ( Ectocarpus granu-
losus), and it is believed that the so-called “ utricular ”
fruits of Harvey, and the “spores” of Kiitzing, are,
in the Ectocarpus at least, in reality parasitic
Chrytridia.

Carnivorous Slug. — No doubt the slug which
your correspondent in the November number (p. 260)
saw feeding on a worm was Testacella Maugei , of
which a full and interesting description is given on
page 89 of Science-Gossip for April, 1867. — W. R.
Tate.

HARD VICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

S

ZOOLOGY.

The Popular Science Review commences the
new year well. Besides a capitd summary of scien-
tific progress, and many well-written and very fair
reviews, there are articles as follow: — “On some
Armour-plated Fishes,” by PI. Woodward, F. R.S. ;
“The Old and the New Chemistry,” by M. M.
Pattison Muir, F.R. S.E. ; “The Geological An-
tiquity of Flowers,” by J. E. Taylor, F.G.S. ;
4 ‘Cloud Outlines,” by Riv. S. Barber, F.M. S. ;
“The Extinct British Volf,” by J. E. Harting,
F.L.S., &c.

New Australian Marsupial. — Professor Owen
has recently described c new marsupial animal from
Australia, under the name of Pleopus nudic audatus.
It is a small creature., allied to the Kangai*oo-rats,
but distinguished by having the type number of
mammalian toes (five) on each of the hind feet.

The Furniture Beetle. — F. Hughes cannot
do better than rub the furniture affected by this pest
with carbolic acid, and let the latter soak into the
wood. He will see no more of the beetles after
this treatment. — A. Smith.

Glyciphagus palmifer. — I was staying for a few
days at Christmas in a country house at Austrey, in
Warwickshire, and one wet morning it struck me that
I would brush the wall of the beer-cellar, and have a
microscopical examination of the result. I was
rewarded by finding a considerable number of the
extraordinary mite Glyciphagus palmifer. — At the
time of the publication of Mr. Murray’s late work on
the Aptera (where this insect is figured) this remarkable
species does not appear to have been known as an
inhabitant of this country, although Mr. Murray
anticipates that it may be one. Possibly, therefore,
this may be the first instance of its capture here. —
Albert D. Michael.

The Beaked Whale. — In the last number of
the Zoologist there is a capital description by Mr.
Henry Lee, F. L. S. , of the Beaked Whale, Hyperoodon
rostratus , killed last September in the Menai
Straits, and afterwards publicly exhibited at Bangor.
This species is one of the Ziphioid Whales, an inter-
mediate group between theCachelotsand the Porpoises
and Dolphins ; and it is characterised by having its
teeth reduced to a single rudimentary pair at the tip
of the lower jaw.

Mimicry in Insects. — At a recent meeting of
the Entomological Society of London, Prof.
Westwood gave an account of a remarkable Mantis
(Gongylus gonegyloides ) which mimics a flower, the
deception being supposed to attract the insects upon
which the Mantis feeds, to their destruction.

Notes on rare Lepidoptera, &c. — Referring
to Mr. Molony’s note in October Science-Gossip,

on the occurrence of C. Celerio on Aug. 29, Mr.
Stainton, in the “ Manual,” gives October as the
month for the perfect insect to appear, and Mr.
Molony is, therefore, right in his statement of its
being early in its appearance. It is a curious fact
that though Colias Edusa has positively swarmed on
the S.E. coast this summer, very few rare Helice have
been taken, and its congener Hyalc has not been seen
there, but has occurred quite inland. Mr. S. Machin
took (last August) a very fine specimen of C. Hyaleva a
wood near Henley, Oxfordshire. Last yearl find among
my specimens of Heterocera a fine one of Acronycta
tridens , taken in Hillgrove-road, Avenue-road, N.W.
The occurrence of this species near London, I believe,
is unusual. September 13th, two specimens of Edusa
seen in a street leading to the Hampstead-road (viz.,
Frederick-street), and I last saw it in Regent’s Park,
on September 15th. Since then it seems to have
disappeared. It will be interesting to note if it ap-
pears again this year on any fine, mild day. — R. T.
Gibbons.

9

Plants for Reptile Vivaria. — Probably the
only plants which would succeed in a Reptile case
are succulents, such as Sedums and small Semper -
vivums. These, I know, will flourish ; but my slight
experience tells me that it is better to consider plants
as entirely secondary objects in a vivarium of any
kind, and in Reptile cases to do without them alto-
gether. I experience but little difficulty in the winter
with respect to food. Mealworms can be obtained
from the miller’s, and kept in barley-meal as long as
one pleases ; common earth-worms are also useful ;
while, in order to secure flies during the winter
months, I place fly-blown meat in a tightly-closed
box, having bran at the bottom two or three inches
deep. I place the box in an outhouse, and supply
fresh meat twice a week, till the worms become
chrysalides or gentles. Then I remove the box to
the coldest part of the house, till flies are required,
which I can obtain by taking a few of the gentles to
a warm room for a day or two, so as to hasten the
hatching process. Sometimes, however, the flies will
hatch out, in spite of all precautions, in which case
I keep the flies in the same box, and feed them with
fruit and sugar and water. — W. T. H. C. Trome.

Badly-blown Eggs and Preserving Animals.
— I should recommend “ G. T. B.” to try a solution
of carbonate of soda for dissolving out the hardened
contents of his egg-shells. He must take care to
wash the inside of the egg well with clean water
after using the carbonate of soda, and to prevent its
coming in contact with the outside of the shell.
“W. G. ” will find a chapter by Mr. Waterton on
preserving insects for the cabinet, in the 1839 edition
of his “Essays on Natural History,” p. 72. Mr.
Waterton also gives instructions for preserving birds’
eggs, p. 65, but I should not recommend their adop-
tion. In a chapter at the end of his celebrated

39

HARD W1CKE 'S SCIENCE ■ G OSSIP.

—

“ Wanderings in South America” (1825 edition),
Mr. Waterton fully explains his mode of preserving
birds ; the process is very tedious, but the result, as I
can testify, is very beautiful. Both this process and
that of preparing insects would be too long to give an
account of here. — T. S.

Preserving Animals. — The basis of Waterton’s
proceedings was the preservation of his specimens by
the use of bichloride of mercury dissolved in alcohol.
This hardens the skins and causes them to retain the
shape in which they are placed when wet for any
length of time : thus no wires are necessary.
“ W. G.” will find the whole process most minutely
described in “Waterton’s Essays on Natural History,”
new edition, F. Warne& Co., price 7s. 6d. — W. B. R.

Preserving Animals. — The late Mr. Waterton
had a peculiar mode of his own of preserving animals,
an account of which will be found in his life by Mr.
Hobson. It is not, however, by any means,
equal to the present mode by a skilful artist of setting
up birds. If “ W. G.” wants a ready way, let him
eviscerate a bird, place it in the position he wants, and
then fill it with cotton soaked in carbolic acid
dilute ; and the bird will be preserved for ages. This
does not do, however, and is given up for the
skinning process. — C. R. Bree , M.D.

Later Appearance of the Hirundinid^:. —
“R.” will be interested to hear that I have in my
possession the nest and one egg of Hirnndo rustice
( Chimney swallow ), which was taken while the bird
was sitting ; she having been duly watched when
building in a cart-shed at Walton-on-the-Naze, in
December, 1866. See Field , January 12th, 1867. —
C. R. Bree, M.D.

Badly-blown Eggs. — Let “ G. T. B.” get Prof.
Newton’s little Essay upon blowing and preserving
birds’ eggs, which he can buy for a shilling or so, and he
will get all the information he wants. — C. R. Bree ,
M.D.

The “Midland Naturalist.” — It is with much
pleasure we welcome this new literary labourer into
the field of popular science. Like the Scottish Natu-
ralist (which relates chiefly to the Natural History
of Scotland) and The Naturalist (the organ of the
West Riding Natural History Societies), the Alidland
Naturalist purposes to give preference to local
scientific information, and to chronicle the doings
of the numerous energetic clubs and societies which
are springing up in central England. Among these
are the following : — Various societies in Birmingham,
Burton, Caradoc, Dudley, Derbyshire, Leicester,
Northampton, Nottingham, Rugby, Oswestry,
Severn Valley, Shropshire, Stroud, Tamworth, &c.
The first number of the Midland Naturalist appeared
on January 1st, and appears with an attractively
got-up cover designed by Worthington Smith. It con-
tains well-written articles on Ferns, Meteorology,
Zoology, and Geology.

BOTANY.

Further Note^ on the Flora near Cader
Idris. — Seeing from the ‘“Botanical Notes in the
Neighbourhood of Cader Idris,” and also from
■ another correspondent in the September number, that
i there are some of your readers interested in the plants
; of that neighbourhood, I should like to mention a
| few more to be found there, in addition to those
already specified : — Saxifmga stellaris ; Melittis Me-
lissophyllum (bastard balm) ; Impatiens noli-me-
j tangere (yellow balsam) ; Ranunculus Lingua (great
spearwort) ; Sedum telephium ; Euonymus europccus
(spindle tree) ; Asperula odorata (woodruff) ; Ruscus
aculeatus (butcher’s broom) ; Narthecium ossifragum
(bog asphodel) ; Myrica Gale (bog myrtle) ; Lobelia
Dort manna, found in Llynn Creigenau, and also in
Llynn Cyri, another lovely little tarn not far off,
nestling close in under the mountain. Nearer to the
sea I found Eryngium maritimum (sea holly) ; Aster
Tripolium (Michaelmas daisy)'; Statice Limonium (sea
lavender) ; Crithum maritimum (samphire) ; Silene
maritima (sea campion) ; Rosa spinosissima (burnet-
leaved rose) ; Tanacetum vulgare (tansy), found at
Llangrwyll, a village four miles south of Arthog.
Asplenium maritimum grows on the cliffs between
these two places ; and to the list of Ferns I can also
add, having [found Asplenium viride and Hymeno-
phyllum tunbridgense on the Llynn y Gader side of
Cader Idris. These plants were found in the month
of August, during a week’s stay at Arthog, a village
on the Dolgelly side of the estuary, nearly opposite
to Barmouth ; and the district through which they
range is included in walks the farthest point of which
reaches Llynn Gader in one direction, and in another
stretching along the coast three or four miles south of
Arthog. — A. Warner.

The Watford Natural History Society. —
The eighth part of the “Transactions” of this
vigorous society contains a capital paper by the
Rev. George Henslow, F.L.S., on “The Fertiliza-
tion of Plants,” and another on “Instructions for
taking Meteorological Observations,” by William
Marriott, F. M. S.

The Influence of Trees on Rainfall. —
From observations by M. Fautrat, relative to the
comparative influence of leafy woods and resinous
woods on rain and the hygrometric state of the air,
recently communicated to the Paris Academy, it
appears that pine forests have a much greater influ-
ence on the hygrometric state than others ; so that if
the vapours dissolved in the air were apparent, like
fogs, we should see forests shrouded in a large screen
of moisture, and in the case of resinous woods the
vapoury envelope would be more distinct than in that
of leafy woods. M. Fautrat also shows that pines
retain in their branches more than half of the water
which is poured upon them, whei’eas leafy trees allow

40

HARD IV f CKE’ S SCIEN C E-G 0SS2 P.

fifty-eight per cent, of the precipitated water to reach
the surface of the ground. He suggests, therefore,
that in planting with a view to oppose inundations, it
would be advisable to choose by preference resinous
trees, as offering a better covert.

Gentiana acaulis in Wales. — As one of the
correspondents who felt doubtful as to the occurrence
of Gentiana acaulis on the Cader, may I be allowed I
to say the doubt has not been removed ? My personal
authority about the Cader is of little use, since when,
as a boy, I ascended it I was more fond of Lepidoptera
than flowers, but I have a distinct impression of
seeing a Gentiana there, but neither acaulis nor
amarella , but campestris. I see this latter is included
for Merioneth in “Topographical Botany,” though
Mr. Ley does not mention it in his list ; but as this list
is principally of such plants as are not mentioned in
“ Topographical Botany,” it does not follow that he
failed to observe it. The habitat of campestris , as
given in Hooker’s “ Student’s Flora,” is moist,
especially hilly pastures, ascending to 2,400 feet in
the Highlands. I have gathered it on Ben Lawers
at i,Soo feet, where it is not at all uncommon on
sub-Alpine slopes, and though campestris is very
unlike acaulis , yet I would respectfully suggest if this
might not be the gentian that was noticed ;* anyhow
the discussion will probably lead to a more thorough
search of the Cader shortly by some of your x'eaders.
— G. C. Dr uce.

Worms in Flower-pots. — These can always be
got rid of by watering the plants with a solution to
which a tenth part of grated horse-chestnut has been
added.

Wild Cherry-tree ( Primus avium). — As some
notice has lately been taken of the size of this tree,

I beg to report one as at present existing within a
field of my farm, which presents the following
proportions : —

2 feet from the ground, 21 feet circumference.

3 >> )> 15

^ 33 33 21 ,,

JO 33 33 J9 6 ,,

12 feet up to the bifurcation of the branches.
This grand tree was first shown me by my friend
Mr. E. Lees, when it was in fruit. Since then the
hurricane of the 14th October has swept away its
principal arm. I figured it on the 5th of November
of the present year. — f-B-, Bradford Addas.

British Marine Alg/E. — A correspondent of
mine, resident in St. Helier’s, Channel Islands,
writes me that a short time since, a considerable
number of the singular sea-weed Gigartina Teedii,
had there been washed ashore, some of the specimens
very fine, and a few of them fertile ; this plant has
not been discovered on any of the British shores for

* 1 see the authority upon which acaulis figured in Smith's
Botany is that of Mons. de St. Amans, who found it near
Haverford-west, where, without doubt, it was a garden escape.

upwards of fifty years. I have received a few of
these specimens also from the French coast, and
believe it to be tolerably abundant on the coast of
Normandy, and southwards along the west shores.
I last year visited Weymouth, and there on the sands
picked up a few very interesting specimens of Gigar-
tina pistiilata in fruit, and also found two or three
fronds in very bold form of Graceolaria compressa.
From that town I proceeded to Bournemouth, and
was there fortunate in discovering two specimens of
Dasya pumicea, which appears to have been absent
from our waters for some years. The shore of
Torpoint, Plymouth, is very celebrated for receiving
from its adjacent waters many very beautiful sea-
weeds ; amongst its number I last year found in some
abundance the very pretty weed Nitiphyllum Thy-
sanorhizans, some of the specimens in fruit. I also
found it in the same locality in the year 1873, and in
fruit, and the somewhat scarce plant Dudrisina dudn-
snagra also came before me on the same shore. —
PL G.

Asplenium Septentrionale. — I can confirm
what your correspondent, Mr. Belt, says as to Asple-
nium Septentiionale being found near Dolgelly ; my
friend Mr. Rose, of Gorton, and I saw it growing
there in the summer of 1874 (but sparingly), and
we did not even bring a frond away. — T. Brittain.

Solanum Dulcamara. — My impression, after
reading a great many articles about this plant, is
that the bulk of evidence points to the berries as
being innocuous, or nearly so. In Pereira “Materia
Medica ” (edited by Bentley and Redwood), the
following account of the properties of this plant is
given : — “ Physiological Effects, not very obvious.
It is reputed to operate as a diaphoretic, diuretic,
and demulcent, and in overdoses as an acro-nar-
cotic ; but many have given the fruit and prepara-
tions of the young branches in very large doses,
without any obvious effects.” The dried young
branches are used in medicine, and used very
seldom in comparison with other medicines. I can
practically say that it is very rarely prescribed in
this neighbourhood, and why ? Because of its un-
observed effects. The following is an extract from
Bentley’s “Botany”: — “A fatal case of poisoning
by the berries has occurred at Toulouse.” Why do
we not hear more of their toxicological effects, when
so many of our damp hedges are so profusely
adorned with their tempting berries ? — William West,
Bradford.

GEOLOGY.

Geology of Colorado and the Adjacent
Territories. — We have received a copy of the
ninth annual report of the United States Geological
and Geographical Survey of the above country, in

HARD WICKE’S S CIENCE - G OSSIP.

41

which is contained a copious report of the progress
of the exploration for the year 1875, written by
Dr. F. V. Hayden. The volume is attractive,
although bulky, and is copiously illustrated by maps
and sections. A zoological appendix furnishes us with
the new discoveries concerning the wild animals and
insects of the districts surveyed ; and this part is also
abundantly illustrated with plates. The generosity
of the United States Government in supplying foreign
men of science with numerous copies of their scientific
books is in strong contrast with the niggardliness with
which our own Geological Survey publications are
dribbled out.

The Solitaire. — In the Annals and Magazine
cf Natural History , Prof. Owen gives a lengthy de-
scription of this extinct bird, based on the remains
brought home from the island of Rodriguez during
the Venus Transit expedition. The Solitaire
(Pezophaps solitaria, Strkl.) was a huge ground-dove,
about three feet long, whose wings gradually became
aborted until it could no longer fly. The absence of
any extirpating enemies (until man appeared), and
the presence of abundant food, enabled the Solitaire
to acquire its great size.

The Geologists’ Association. — Besides some
well-written and profitable descriptions of several
visits made by the members of this association to
the Crag districts of Suffolk ; Grays, Essex ; Leices-
tershire ; to Caterham, Godstone, Tilburstow,
Nutfield, Hampstead, Guildford, and Derbyshire,
the last two parts of their Proceedings ” contain
papers by the Rev. J. F. Blake, on “The Restora-
tion of Extinct Animals”; “On the Geology of
Leicestershire,” by W. J. Harrison, F.G. S. ; “On
the Flints of the Chalk of Yorkshire,” by J. H.
Mortimer, F.G.S. ; on “ The Forms of the Genus
Micr aster p by C. Evans, F.G.S. ; the “ Geology of
the Eastern portion of the Banbury and Cheltenham
Direct Railway,” by T. Beesley, F.C.S., &c.

“ Fur-bearing Animals ” is the title of a mono-
graph by Dr. Elliott Coues on the North American
Mtistelidce, and is published as one of the United States
Geological Survey works. It gives a detailed account
of the Wolverine, the Martens or Sables, Ermine, Minx,
and various other kinds of Weasels ; of several species
of Skunks, of the Badger, Sea-otter, Land-otter,
and allies of these animals. This compact and handy
volume is illustrated with sixty figures on twenty
plates. It is published by the Government Printing
Office, Washington, U.S.

The Huge Fossil Bird from Sheppey. — At a
recent meeting of the Geological Society of London,
Prof. Owen described some remains of a large bird
obtained by Mr. W. H. Shrubsole from the London
Clay of Sheppey, consisting of parts of fractured
humeri belonging to the right and left sides of the
same species, or perhaps individual, and including the

head of the bone, with portions of the upper and
lower parts of the shaft. The texture of the shaft,
the thinness of its bony wall, and the large size of the
cavity, recall the characters of the wing-bones of the
large Cretaceous Pterodactyles. The author indicated
the characters which led him to regard the remains
under consideration as those of a volant bird, most
nearly approaching the genera Pelecanus and Dio-
medea ; and as the evidence derived from the cranium
of Dasornis would indicate a bird too large to be up-
borne by wings to which these bones might have be-
longed, whilst the skull of Odontopteryx is far too small
to have formed part of a bird with -wings as large as
those of the Albatross, — and LithorniszxA Pelargornis
are excluded by the characters of their remains, the
author concluded that the bones obtained by Mr.
Shrubsole furnished indications of a new genus and
species of flying birds, for which he proposed the
name of Argillornis longipennis. He regarded it as
probably a long-winged natatorial bird, most nearly
related to Diomedea , but considerably exceeding the
Albatross ( D . exulans ) in size.

Geological History of the Deer Family. —
At the same meeting Prof. Boyd Dawkins gave an
outline of the history of Deer during the Miocene
and Pliocene periods. He said the majority of known
antlers could be referred to two types, — an earlier or
capreolitie , and a later or axidine. In the Middle
Miocene period the cervine antler consisted of a
simply forked crown. In the Upper Miocene it had
become more complex. In the Pliocene it had become
still more complex and complicated ; and in this respect
the development of antlers in time represented that
in age of the same individual. The nearest living
analogue of the Miocene Deer is, according to the
antler, the Muntjak ( Styloceros ), now found only in
the oriental region of Asia, along with the Tapir, which
also coexisted with Ccrvus dicranoceros in the Miocene
forests of Germany. The Pliocene Deer, again, are
generally most nearly allied to the oriental Axis and
Rusa Deer, the only exception being Cervus cusanus ,
the antlers of which resemble those of the Roe, an
animal widely spread over Europe and Northern and
Central Asia. The alliance of these Pliocene Deer
with those now living in the Indian region is regarded
by the author as a further proof of the warm climate
of Europe in Miocene times, confirmatory of the
conclusions arrived at by Saporta from the study of
the vegetation.

The Fossil Fungus. — In the December number
of the Science-Gossip is a reprint of a paper on
a fossil fungus, in which Mr. G. W. Smith is repre-
sented as the discoverer. My knowledge of this
particular fungus induces me to dispute his claim to
its discovery. In the first place, the section from
which he has sketched the figures to illustrate his
paper came from my own cabinet. In the second
place, I read a short paper before the Scientific

42

BA P D WICKE ’S S C1EN CE- G OSSIP

Students’ Association, Manchester, during the session
of 1874-5, on this fungus, which was identified by one
of the members of that society as Peronosporites. No
record of this discovery was made at the time,
except in the minutes of the Society. After reading
the above paper, I put a section of this fungus
(among other sections), in the hands of my friend,
Mr. Young, for his own cabinet, and he casually
showed it to Mr. Carruthers and Mr. Smith, which
resulted in Mr. Smith’s paper. This is one instance
among many of the necessity of more permanent
record being made in some leading journal of the
work of our country societies. — John Butterworth ,
Goats Shaw, Oldham.

NOTES AND QUERIES,

British Snakes. — Is there any evidence of our
English snake feeding upon birds or field-mice, or,
indeed, anything but frogs and toads ? I have kept
many snakes ( Matrix torquata), and have only twice
seen them consent to swallow toads, and that was
during very hot weather, when their appetite was
excited by the high temperature of a melon-frame, in
which they were kept. Most snakes (I am now
referring only to our native species) will prefer
starving to death, according to my observation and
that of many of my friends, to partaking of any other
food than frogs, though it is said in many books that
they will eat mice and birds. — A. B.

Venomous Reptiles of Ireland.— Can any
reader of Science-Gossip give me information re-
specting the venomous reptiles of Ireland ? Having
explored the counties of Dublin and Wicklow, I was
much struck at never coming across any such reptile,
although in so many spots where one would expect
to find them — ruins, river-banks covered with thick
undergrowth, . and deeply-secluded dells. Can any
reader inform me if this is the case throughout the
isle, or how to account for the lack in these parts ?
Has climate or soil anything to do with it (casting
aside, of course, the popular legend of St. Kevin
having banished them to Glendalough) ? — S. E.
Bennett, St. Mildred ’s.

Pertinacity of the Hawk. — On the" 30th of
September last I was staying with the family of
Colonel C., and, while they were at church, a
hawk flew into Mrs. C.’s bedroom, attracted by her
bulfinch and her linnet, each sunning itself in a
separate cage. How long the intruder kept these
poor birds in agonizing terror no one can precisely
state ; the maid, who first entered the room, chased
the enemy away, and informed her lady of the un-
welcome visitor. Mrs. C. rushed up-stairs to the
cages of her pets, and found them both greatly dis-
turbed : they approached her, and with eloquent eyes
and various expressive gestures, made her under-
stand how terribly they had been frightened by the
appearance of a bird of prey. Nothing could prove
this to a greater certainty than the loss of their
feathers, which lay scattered in their cages. The
bulfinch dropped nine feathers from his tail, and the
linnet seven. These feathers were carefully wrapped
up in silver paper and put into a box, as a memento of
that Sunday. The wretched culprit flew to an op-
posite tree, where he was watched by the stablemen,
till they saw him fly again into the tempting room,
evidently determined to make a good Sunday’s meal

of the plump little birds, but there the villain met
with his due. Somebody disturbed him, out he flew,
and, clumsily, like a burglar who is caught in the
fact, knocked himself against the window, blooded it
all over, and disappeared, to be seen no more. The
hawk could not have got to these birds, the wires were
so close. — E. A. IV.

Query as to Watercress. — The plant referred
to by Chateaubriand is the great water-radish (Nas-
turtium amphibium), a plant which increases rapidly
by stolons. Sir James E. Smith (“English Flora,”
vol. iii. p. 195) writes : “This plant is noticed by
the celebrated M. Chateaubriand in his account of
England, for its wonderful powers of increase by the
root. He observed it in the river near Beccles, where
he long resided as an emigrant, and his rather florid
description has excited wonder and curiosity in many
who daily, perhaps, pass over, without regard, several
no less interesting works of their Creator.” I should
doubt whether the peculiar method of progression
| described by M. Chateaubriand is the usual habit
either of this or any other plant, and I have cer-
tainly never observed it myself, though I have long
been familiar with this species of cress ; nevertheless
I have no doubt that M. Chateaubriand accurately
related what he himself saw, as it is exactly what
might very easily occur if the bottom were disturbed
by an oar or punt-pole. — F. V. P.

Caves in Somersetshire. — Can any readers of
Science-Gossip give me any information as to the
caves of Somersetshire, especially those of the
Mendip range, in Barrington Combe ? On an
elevated spot, known as Dolbury Camp, there is
a curious inclosure of fallen stones and earthworks,
in the centre of which is a deep pit, of such a
depth that one cannot from the mouth see the
bottom. Can this have been a well for the garrison,
or an artificial shaft for mining, or even a natural
cave? Any information on this subject will be
gratefully received, as I have ineffectually tried to
gather explanation for some time past. — Somerscrta.

A Feline Nurse. — Calling at a farm-house the
other day, I was told I was just a day too late to
see a very wonderful sight — a cat nursing some
little chicks. It appears the cat had a family of
dead kittens a few days before, and the same
morning some five or six chicks were hatched ; as
there were others to come out, the lady of the
house took the just hatched chicks into the house till
all were hatched, and placed them before the fire
in the sitting-room, or, as we say here, the “keeping
room.” Pussy, greatly to the horror of the good
lady of the house, took a great fancy to them, and
could not be kept away from them. Wishing to
see what would take place, the owner allowed her
to come near, when she began to stroke them down
with her paw in the most affectionate and tender
manner, and, after a while, lying down, gathered
them well under her. There she lay all the day ;
in the evening they were taken from her, but next
day she did the same ; but the third day, fearful of
accidents, they were taken away from her and put
under their proper mother, who had now hatched
out her whole brood. I wonder what pussy would
have done with them. — Gobbs.

Entomological and Botanical Localities. —
Can any of your correspondents tell me exactly
where the following places in Berks and Oxon
are : — Shotover Hill, Winchwood Forest, Cowley,
Cornbury Quarry, Sunninghill Wells, and Bagley
Wood ? I have seen it mentioned that various

HARD WJ CKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

43

insects and plants are to be found in these localities,
and shall be obliged to any one who will give me the
required information. — Id. Morton.

Nesting of Missel Thrush. — Can any reader
of Science-Gossip tell me whether it is rare or
not for the Missel Thrush ( Tnrdus mscivorus) to
build its nest on the tops of walls ? I found a nest
in May, 1872, on the top of a wall, — it had four eggs
in it, and the female was sitting on it ; and another
in May, 1876. — fas. Ingleby.

Blackbird and Thrush. — About the middle of
April, hunting round the garden, I found a nest
nearly finished, which I thought belonged to a black-
bird, though I could not catch sight of the female
bird. Two days after, looking into the nest, I found
four eggs, all just like a blackbird’s, except that one
egg had the deep claret markings of a thrush : the
female being still very wary, had flown away before
I could see her. Two or three days after I again
visited the nest, and found that th.e bird sitting was a
thrush ; she was then very tame, and, showing no
signs of fear, let me watch her, standing within a
few feet of her nest. The last week in April the
eggs were hatched. I was unable to watch her again
for about ten days, when, to my regret, I found
that only one young bird remained ; the old bird was
then very restless, flying round and round her nest,
but never going more than ten yards from it, and
uttering incessantly a single low plaintive note. I
had then ample opportunity of watching her, aud can
state with certainty that it was a song-thrush ( Turdus
musicus). As soon as the young bird could fly at
all, both the mother and her offspring disappeared.
The blackbird was not nearly so assiduous in the
welfare of the young one as its mate, and I cannot
see why it should mate with a thrush when there
are plenty of blackbirds all round us. — G. T. B.

Blackbird or Thrush. — In the November num-
ber of Science-Gossip I saw a notice, by “G. T. B.,”
of Blackbird and Thrush. I have taken, at several
places, nests built like a blackbird’s, but at the top of
a high fir generally (while blackbirds build near the
ground), containing eggs like a thrush’s, but instead of
black spots, a few pale reddish ones. The nests were
lined with hay, not mud, as a thrush’s, surrounded
outside with coarse pieces of stick and bits of fir or
grass. I have never seen the old birds, but I have
named them in my cabinet as produced by the mat-
ing of a blackbird and thrush. — S. S. B., Bradford
A bbas.

Birds’ Eggs. — In your number for September last
a correspondent gives a few reasons for “ birdnesting,”
which I think are open to the following objections*
To take them in order : — 1. Is it necessary that, to
obtain a knowledge of the situation and materials of
a bird’s nest, the eggs need be taken ? Would not a
note, made on the spot, of the nest, its contents,
position, &c., without disturbing the eggs, be more
to the point ? 2. With respect to the many people

who take their only knowledge of ornithology from
the robbing of nests, I may venture to assert that, as
far as my knowledge goes, three out of four such
collectors take little or no interest in the birds them-
selves ; in some cases not even in the nest, the eggs
being all they look or care for. And of how much
value to science is the knowledge they thus acquire ?
3. There is certainly a great difference between taking
the eggs of domestic poultry and those of wild birds,
for in the former, domestication seems to have almost
eradicated their natural feelings (though even in them
there is some trace left, as is shown by their some-

times concealing their eggs as much as possible,
laying in out-of-the-way holes and corners), but that
pain is thus given to wild birds, there can be no
doubt, after one has heard the painful twitter of the
parent-bird whose nest is disturbed. 4. That the
taking of their eggs is necessary to keep the com-
moner species within bounds, I fail to see. In the
first place, if there were any fear of their becoming too
numerous, why should an Act of Parliament have
been passed to check this “practice”? On the
other hand, is there not a fear of causing the rarer
species to become extinct, for it is on them that the
brunt of this “practice ” falls ? How many are there,
even of those who call themselves collectors, or
oologists, who only take what rare eggs they really
require for their own cabinets? How many resist the
temptation to take all the very rare ones they find,
when they are so easily exchanged, or when a friend
would be so pleased to accept them ? Of course
there are some who do, but 1 am afraid they are
sadly outnumbered by those who do not, as reference
to your Exchange column any month will show. But
those of the commoner kinds are neither saleable nor
exchangeable, and therefore remain comparatively
unmolested, except by the veritable nest-robber ; and
the rarer a bird becomes, the more are its eggs sought
after. Another of your correspondents reminds Mr.
Van Dyck that there is a law which prevents the
shooting of many birds during the time of their stay
with us. May I be allowed to remind him that there
is also another, to prevent the robbing of their nests ?
As to the “fond remembrances of bygone days ” on
which he lays such stress, could not they be brought
to the mind just as vividly by looking through the
note-book, the companion of such rambles (he
accuses Mr. Van Dyck of a crib : may I ask him if he
has not read the paper on “ Birds’ Eggs” in “Notes
On Collecting and Preserving Natural History
Objects”?), and would not the pleasure of searching
out the nest be rather heightened than otherwise by
leaving the eggs; for he is hard-hearted indeed in
whom the plaintive notes of the mother-bird raise no
touch of feeling akin to remorse ? Then we are told
that after a “few years’ ” earnest collecting (it would
be interesting to know how many eggs are usually
destroyed in a few such years) most “collectors”
are able to give “not only the name of the bird,”
but an account of its habits, &c., with a “number
of interesting facts ” ; but, as before mentioned, I
fail to see that it is at all necessary to rob the nest
of its eggs to obtain a knowledge of these “interesting
facts,” and if it were, to use a French expression, is
“ the game worth the candle” ? In short, I do not
see that in ninety cases out of a hundred any object
is gained by breaking the laws of the land in this
particular, and cordially agree with the Editor in
wishing that all Natural History societies would
follow the good example set by the Woolhope Club.
—L. W. G.

Singular Affection of a Hen. — We had a
hen, of the barndoor or common fowl breed, say
about two years old, which we purchased, with
another from the same brood, from a farmer in this
neighbourhood some months ago. It was observed
that the hen’s eyesight was dim when we first had
her, but after a few weeks the sight seemed to leave
her altogether, and of course total blindness followed.
The fowl was fed by placing her food immediately
under or close to her, and she picked up sufficient to
sustain life. The other fowls seemed to take excep-
tion at the blind hen’s company, and each one, with
one exception, constantly attacked her. The curious
part of the thing was, that the sister of the blind

44

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

hen (previously mentioned) had chickens, and as soon
as she returned at night with her young brood (four), the
blind hen was called by the sister, and shared the pro-
tection with the little chicks, i.e. under the wing of
their mother. This continued for two or three weeks,
or until some ten days ago, when a carrion crow,
while making a predatory visit to the precincts of the
farm, observed the helpless condition of our blind
pet, and made an attack upon her, and before any
assistance could be rendered, killed and devoured
nearly the whole of the body. We, as you may
imagine, were full of sorrow for our loss. — P.
Donaldson , Goytrey , Monmouthshire.

“Fairy-flax.” — In the September number of
Science-Gossip, No. 153, p. 194, Mr. Robert Hol-
land speaks of the amazing undergrowth of fairy-flax.
What plant is known under this name ? — E. L. R.

Predatory Slug. — This may have been Ttstacella
haliotoidea, a species known to live on earthworms ;
but usually subterranean in its habits. It may easily
be distinguished from the common slugs by the
following characters : the body increases in size like
that of a leech, from the head to the posterior end,
which terminates abruptly ; and beai-s a small external
shell ; it is very tough, and of a yellow-grey colour,
with grooved lines along the side of the body. The
common slugs, Limax and Avion, are, however, not
only carnivorous, but cannibals. After slaughtering
one of these garden pests, I have often found in the
evening two or three more feasting on the body of
their late comrade. Slugs and snails, as Mr. Slater
remarks, seem to be unaffected by vegetable poisons ;
indeed, the poisonous Solanacecc, as Atropa Bella-
donna, seem specially attractive to them. This,
however, is less remarkable when we remember that
the rabbit, an animal much higher in the scale of life
than the snail, can eat any quantity of Belladonna
with impunity. — IP. F. Pa /‘sons.

Is the Lemming found in England ? — Is it not
very likely that the holes referred to, under this
heading in Science-Gossip, No. 152, p. 189, were
made by the common Shrew ( Sorex araneus , Bell),
which it is well known makes large superficial
burrows in the earth ? The fact of its being on such
high ground is probably accounted for by the increase
of its great enemy, man, in the valleys below. The
size of their burrows would be about an inch in
diameter. — S. T.

Fructification of Sycamore (No. 155, p. 257).
— Mr. W. E. Green has, I think, scarcely appreciated
my difficulty in accounting for the increased number
of winged seeds in so many sycamore fruits. With us
in the north, although sycamores, hollies, nuts, and
some few other trees and shrubs have produced large
quantities of fruit, it has decidedly been an unfruitful
year. We have had no apples, pears, or plums, and
very few cherries ; no acorns, very few ash-keys, and
scarcely any haws ; therefore, I do not think the
phenomenon can be accounted for by supposing that
the season has been a particularly fruitful one, which
really means that the weather was suitable, or the
insects numerous enough during flower-time for the
fertilization of existing germs, or sunny enough for
the full and perfect development of fertilized germs.
If sycamore flowers usually contained several pistils,
one only, as in the Nut, coming to maturity, or even
the rudiments of several pistils, one could readily
understand that congenial weather might cause those
already existing, though rudimentary organs, to be
developed and to reach maturity ; but this is not the
case. The flower of the sycamore does not contain,

under ordinary circumstances, even the rudiments of
several pistils. No doubt, as Mr. Green suggests, an
unusually mild winter might cause great changes in
the growth of plants, but the tendency of a mild win-
ter is to produce rather a scanty crop, partly by the
blossom opening too soon, and partly by the time of
rest for the tree not being sufficiently prolonged ; and
I suspect the cause is more remote. The weather of
the present year could hardly have caused the forma-
tion of new organs ; the mildness of last winter may
have had some peculiar effect, but it is perhaps more
probable, if weather has had anything to do with it,
that there was some specially congenial weather dur-
1 ing the summer or autumn of 1876 which induced
such a complete ripening of the wood that it caused
the sycamore-tiees to start with unusual vigour in the
spring of this year, and that organs were thereby pro-
duced which, had the trees been somewhat less
vigorous, would have been entirely suppressed. —
Robert Holland, Norton Hill, Runcorn.

The Tyrian Dye. — Your correspondent “ B.”
(see No. 155, p. 260) is evidently unaware that this
celebrated dye was of a crimson hue, or he would not
have imagined that it might have been extracted from
Leptoclinium punctatum, ‘ ‘ because when put into
water, it ( L . punctatum ) stained the water of a blue
colour.” The word purpureus, whence the English
purple, signifies “bright red,” as Digitalis pzirpurea,
the Foxglove. The present corrupt use of the word
purple to signify a shade of blue is quite recent. Has
“ B.” never read Izaak Walton’s lines on fishing, in
which he mentions the common perch, with its “ fins
of Tyrian dye ” ? — W. R. Tate, Blandford, Dorset.

A Curiosity. — I have in my possession a Hindoo
or Burmese sword-handle made from an elephant’s
tusk, on which, after the Eastern fashion, many quaint
and curious figures are carved: men with grotesque
and hideous faces disfigured with elephants’ trunks,
crocodiles’ mouths, monkeys’ heads, and the like.
Among these forms, but separated from the rest, is
carved a tiger or bear, I am not sure which, but
think the latter : in its mouth it holds a fish. Now,
I should very much like to ascertain if this has been
carved among its fellow-anomalies as a prodigy that
has been said to have existed, but which the executor,
desiring to ridicule, placed among his monstrosities.
South American travellers of good repute tell tales
of the common jaguar {Leopardus Onca) hanging over
the banks of streams, and catching the unwary fish
that chance to pass by. Is it on record that any
member of the Felidae or Isabellae of the old world
ever performed the same feat ? — Daccart Aikone.

Sudden Change in Colour of the Human
Hair. — “Is it possible for a person’s hair to turn
white in a short time ? ” There are so many instances
now on record, that there ought to be no longer any
doubt upon the subject. In the late Arctic expedition
1 nearly every man’s hair became greyer, and in some
cases white, but assumed its natural colour when the
men returned to lower latitudes. In many cases the
human hair is said to have turned grey from grief,

1 extreme care, or sudden fright. My experience is
j very small, but nevertheless may be interesting to
some of the readers of Science-Gossip. During an
i outward passage to Australia, the ship I was in
suffered greatly in the British Channel ; twice we
were nearly wrecked, having lost three anchors and
; two cables. The pilot who had charge was con-
stantly on watch, only snatching a few minutes’ sleep
' here and there, as opportunity afforded. On the
whole, he had a very anxious time indeed, and when
1 he eventually left the ship off the Isle of Wight he

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE -GOSSI P.

45

certainly looked twenty years older. I thought his
hair had decidedly turned greyer : this may, however,
have been only imagination, and therefore ought rather
to be considered as an impression than actual fact.
Within the last few months a fresh case of the possi-
bility of the colour of hair changing has come under
my notice. An old gentleman, aged eighty-nine,
residing in my immediate neighbourhood, lately died.
For many years his hair had been perfectly white,
but a few days before his death some of his hair
became black, giving the appearance of his having
dark brown or black hair. Here it is interesting to
note that in his younger days his hair was light.
After the death of this gentleman the tips of the hair
for about an inch assumed the original colour,
becoming white again. Has a similar case fallen
under the notice of any of your readers ? I have heard
of another instance, where after death the hair turned
from white to black. Dogs seem to be affected with
regard to their hair in like manner as human beings.

I lately read of a case where a black Newfoundland
dog became grey in a few weeks ; and the writer
declares that the only cause for this sudden change
was grief. — C. P. Ogilvie.

Mistletoe, Apple, and Pear. — Does not the
fact mentioned by Mr. C. H. Westley, that mistletoe
does not grow commonly, if at all, on the pear, open
up some interesting questions ? I believe I am correct
in saying that, though the apple and the pear can
each of them be grafted on a variety of stocks,
amongst others on some but remotely related to them,
neither can be grafted on the other. The growth of
the mistletoe is a kind of natural grafting, and occurs
on trees belonging to several widely different orders ;
yet it seems to be confined to one of these two allied
species. May there not be some underlying physio-
logical identity between the various possible stocks,
some physiological difference between apple and
pear? Has any one ever attempted to graft apple or
soecies ther on mistletoe? Will mistletoe grow on
all stocks used for apples, or on any used for pears ?
— G. S. Boulger.

Mistletoe. — Bentley mentions Viscwn album as
parasitic on thorns and willows ? Can your readers
tell me whether it is commonly found on these ? also
whether Primus spinosa is the plant meant by
thorns ?— J. J. IV. S.

WATERCRESSES. — The following extract may per-
haps be of interest to some of your readers. At the
meeting of the Royal Horticultural Society on
Tuesday, Mr. Shirley Hibberd, of Stoke Newington,
presented a dozen pans of watercresses, grown in the
manner he has practised for some years past. One
of the advantages of this system is, that the plants
are under complete control to be placed in the sun or
the shade, or during winter in heated plantdiouses,
and can at all times be supplied with pure water, and
thus be preserved from contamination by the pollu-
tions common to rivers, and even to watercress-beds.
The pans in which they are grown measure from
15 inches to 20 inches across, and from 6 inches to
9 inches deep. They are filled with rich loamy
soil, intermixed with lumps of chalk or old mortar,
and then very small cuttings are inserted. These
soon become strong plants, and in from fifteen to
twenty days may be gathered from, the cresses being
tender and delicate in flavour, and of the most beau-
tiful appearance. The twelve plants shown have
been regularly cut for the table for a period of six weeks,
and their fresh and robust appearance indicated that
gatherings might be had from them for another six
weeks without their being exhausted. The sorts shown

were the Erfurt sweet green cress, the Springhead
brown cress, and the Stoke Newington purple cress.
The adjudicators signified their approval of this mode
of cultivation by the award of a medal to Mr. Hibberd.
— II. Budge.

Query respecting Sea Anemones. — Will a
correspondent kindly give a little information respect-
ing Sea Anemones : should they be fed, and if so,
how often, and about in what quantity ? — W. 7". II. C.
Trome.

Swans and Rats. — Some time since I noticed
some rats had taken possession of a hollow tree grow-
ing by the side of my mill dam, and not wishing to
retain them there as tenants, I suggested to one of
my servants the propriety of serving them with
“notice to quit,” and to this end I enlisted the ser-
vices of a ferret. Very soon two or three of the family
leaped into the water. A pair of swans were close
by watching our movements, and no sooner did the
rats attempt to swim across the dam, than the swans
at once gave chase to the enemy ; more than once they
seized the rats and threw them above the water, and as
often as they raised their heads, the swans, regardless
of the presence of spectators, pursued their enemy to
their bitter end, and by frequently pecking at them
eventually succeeded in drowning them, as was proved
by the dead bodies floating down to the mill ruck a
few minutes after the battle. — R. Cooke , Glanford
Mill , Norfolk.

Spectral Phenomena. — Two curious phenomena
have lately come to my knowledge in conversation
with friends who were eye-witnesses of them.
Perhaps some of your readers may be interested
enough to endeavour to throw some light upon them.
A gentleman was parting with a friend on Hampstead
Heath, one night about eight years ago, the moon
and stars shining, when they both observed what
appeared like three bright bars stretching across the
sky about midway between the zenith and horizon
towards the west, and apparently also twenty or thirty
yards in length, and remaining so for over half an
hour. A lady walking along the Euston road when
the sun was shining brightly, saw in the air before her
a gigantic semaphore. Upon reaching one of the
stations of the Metropolitan Railway, a real sema-
phore was noticed to correspond in position with the
spectre. — R. II. A. B.

The Lunar Bow. — I observed this remarkable
phenomenon on November 22nd under very favour-
able circumstances. At about 8.25 P. m. the moon
was shining very brightly, and on looking towards
the western sky, I perceived a faintly-coloured bow
spanning the heavens and extending some distance
across the distant landscape. The colours were pale
and indistinct, but the general form of the bow was
very definitely marked. — George Clinch , West Wick-
ham., Kent.

Lapwing and Sparrow-hawk. — I am not much
surprised at the communication of J. C. Stephens,
No. 155, p. 262, in which he states that he “ observed
a lapwing or peewit pursuing a sparrow-hawk.”
I believe that, under certain circumstances, that bird
will attack, or at least chase and attempt to frighten,
any bird whatever that approaches the ground where
it has taken up its abode. As a proof of this I will
mention what came under my own observation during
the past spring. In a field of about twelve acres
in extent adjoining my residence, two lapwings took
up their abode. There are some rookeries at a short
distance from this, and on several occasions the
colonies came into this and the adjoining fields to

46

BARD WICKE *S S CIENCE - G 0 SSIP.

forage. For some time the lapwings paid little
attention to the crows, but ultimately the female
commenced to hatch her eggs, and then a real warfare
began with the male. No sooner did the crows,
generally two or three hundred, alight in the field
where the female was sitting, than the male com-
menced a most determined attack on them. It darted
towards them Avith the rapidity and vigour of a hawk,
but evidently with the sole intention of banishing
them from the field, as I could never notice that it
came actually in contact with them, but always so
near as to render them uncomfortable. Those who
have observed a lapwing under these conditions
will be aware of the peculiarly loud noise that it has
the power of producing with its Avings, and this, no
doubt, has its effect upon the birds that approach its
domain. This Avas the case in the present instance.
Not a moment’s quietude was allowed the crows until
the Avhole colony was banished from the field, and they
Avere obliged to betake themselves to the neighbouring
grounds, where they could follow their occupation in
peace. Not more than a few minutes elapsed until
the lapAving had cleared the field of the intruders.
I Avitnessed cases of this kind repeatedly, and always
with the same effect. This faithful sentinel of its
mate Avoukl alloAv no bird Avhatever to enter this field
without attempting to banish it. These attacks of
the lapAving were not confined to birds alone, but also
to human beings. If any person happened to pass
through this field, and more especially Avhen near the
nest of the female, the male immediately darted past
him on all sides, and so contiguous that it might
almost be touched, making the peculiarly loud noise
Avith its Avings. Thus it continued without inter-
mission until the intruder had left the field. On one
occasion I A\7as greatly amused Avith a croAV that it
took prisoner. The crow alighted in the field near a
tree, but the moment it did so the lapwing commenced
its usual attack by darting close past it (on no occa-
sion did I see it come fairly in contact Avith the
intruder), and the croAV to avoid it took refuge in the
tree. The lapwing then soared away for a short
distance, but never out of sight of the croAV, and the
latter, no doubt thinking that its enemy had dis-
appeared, left the tree and again began to forage in
the field. But this Avas only momentary. The lap-
Aving Avas quite aAvare of the fact, and down again it
pounced on the croAV, Avhich, as before, took shelter
in the tree. This state of things continued more than
a dozen times, until at last the crow, finding that
neither peace nor profit could be obtained there, con-
trived to steal from the tree, and took its departure to
some other locality, Avhere it might forage in peace
and quietness. The courageous and faithful guardian,
hoAvever, at last came to an untimely end. I did not
Avitness this myself, but Avas told by a game-Avatcher
who did, and therefore cannot say whether the haAvk
which killed it did so without provocation, or that the
latter had been annoyed by the usual attack of the
lapwing to banish it from the field. HoAvever, the
lapwing Avas struck to the ground by the hawk, and
the game- watcher, thinking that he might be able to
save its life, went to its rescue with all speed, but on
reaching it found that the hawk had torn its head off.
Since that time I have never seen the female, nor any
of its young — if it succeeded in hatching them, — and the
crows may iioav be seen daily foraging in the field
Avithout interruption. — Dipton Burn.

The Betularia and its Varieties. — In the
month of June, 1874, I was proceeding on the out-
side of an omnibus from Middleton to Manchester
in company with a brother entomologist, when I
thought I observed a large specimen of the Betularia

l in a plantation in the neighbourhood of Heaton
Park, on the left-hand side of the high road. The
driver of the ’bus, noting my anxiety to capture the
| specimen, very kindly promised to proceed sloAvly for
a short distance, so as to give me an opportunity of
seeing whether my impressions were right or not Avith
regard to what I had seen. I soon reached the plan-
: tation, near the entrance to Avhich, to my great joy and
surprise, I found a large female Betularia of the buff
variety on a tree, in conjunction Avith a black male.
I picked them off the tree and returned to the ’bus,
several of the passengers being astonished Avhen I
told them the value of my prize. Not being prepared
Avith a box at the time, I allowed my captures to
creep on my clothes, but after we had gone some
distance I set the black one free, to the evident sur-
prise of the passengers, Avho seemed to think that the
more valuable of the two. HoAvever, on arriving at
Cheetham Hill, my entomological friend procured a
large-sized pill-box, and into this I placed the buff
specimen. We proceeded to Belle- Vue Gardens, to
spend the afternoon, though I will confess that the
pleasure I experienced there received additional zest
from the discovery and capture I had made during
the afternoon. On arriving home I was sorry to find
[ the specimen in a somewhat sorry condition, the box
* in which I had confined it having been rather too
j small. Fortunately I succeeded in restoring it, and
I afterwards reared about 120 specimens, but,
singular to say, and to my great disappointment,
the buff variety did not make its appearance. At
; this time a friend of mine had some of the black
variety, and he Avas kind enough to give me a few ; so
I crossed them, but Avith the same result. Still I
had faith that they must have some of their parent’s
buff qualities in them, and I made another attempt
to breed them. The result, I am glad to say, Avas
I very gratifying indeed. On the 4th of December last
I placed about fifty of the pupae in a box ; for, being
A^ery eager to see the buff variety come forth, I
resolved to try what artificial means would do.
Impelled by curiosity, I, on the 4th of January this
year, took a peep into the box, Avhen, to my great
delight, I found that one of the buff variety had
emerged from the pupa. I folloAved up my success,
and have succeeded in obtaining about one buff one
out of twenty of the A\7hole brood, some of them being
all buff, and others very variable, both in their colour
and markings. The foregoing information, therefore,
makes me feel confident of having established two
distinct varieties of Betularia from a domestic point
of view, and possibly Avhat I have stated may be of
value to entomology, and to those Avho love the
science. — Thomas Lomas.

A Fight with an Eagle. — The Dagbladet, a
Danish newspaper, for July 10th, 1876, gives the
folloAving account of a rare incident which occurred
on the previous Wednesday evening upon Rovling
Heath, in the district of Aalborg, Jutland. Tavo
girls, eight and twelve years of age, having been sent
by their parents to fetch home the coavs from the
heath, Avere attacked, while returning, by a very
large eagle, which made several attempts to SAvoop
down, but Avas deterred by the elder girl swinging a
tethering mallet over her head till she could procure
some stones ; these she hurled against her powerful
antagonist, and Avas at last so fortunate as to strike it
Avith such effect that it fell dead. It measured from
tip to tip of its extended wings, six feet eight inches
(3J alen), and Aveighed about ten pounds (9 pund).
Its largest claws Avere from an inch and a half to tAVO
inches long ; its colour AA'as intermingled grey and
white. — J. [Yager.

HARDIVICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

47

Colias Edusa and its Varieties. — At the time
my few notes on this interesting butterfly were
written, which appeared in Science-Gossip, No.
156, p. 280, I considered myself fortunate in secur-
ing two of the white varieties, having collected
thirteen or fourteen years, and being obliged till this
year to put up with one tattered English and a foreign
representative. Since then, however, my brother
and I have captured forty-five Helice, forty of which
were taken in one field close to this town. I he
specimens exhibit much variety in colour, some being
a rich cream and primrose, others a greenish white ;
in the size of the marginal spots there is also great
difference ; in some they are reduced to a minimum.

— Joseph Anderson , Junior , Chichester.

Destroying Mites. — Your correspondent,
“A. F.” will, I think, find no difficulty in ridding
Ips collection of mites, if he will adopt the following j
plan, which I have never known to fail. It is simply
to dip a camel-hair brush into benzine, and let the
fluid fall upon the insect drop by drop until it is
completely saturated ; the little heaps of dust which j
usually betokens the presence of mites underneath
the specimens can be wiped up with the brush. On
account of the extremely volatile nature of benzine, it
is not of much use as a preventive for this purpose ;
it is better to employ plenty of camphor, or cotton
wool soaked with a solution of carbolic acid. With
even ordinary care mites need never be permitted to
do any serious mischief, and no better piece of advice
for their prevention can be given than that by
Dr. Knaggs, to put into quarantine every insect we
receive. — Joseph Anderson, Junior , Chichester.

Destroying Mites. — Many years since I left two
cabinets of lepidoptera in the country for some twelve
months, and on bringing them home found the bodies
of many of the specimens eaten, and the mites travel-
ling over the drawers in large numbers. I made a
saturated solution of camphor in rectified spirit of
wine, poured about a teaspoonful in one corner of
each drawer, and by tilting, caused the liquid to flow
round the angles ; I then closed the cabinets, and on
opening them a few days after found all life extinct.
If “ A. F.” has not a compartment in each drawer for
camphor, he should procure some muslin bags about two
inches by one inch and a quarter, put a lump of cam-
phor in each, and fix one in a corner of every drawer by
a pin at both ends, renewing the camphor as often as
it evaporates. By this means he may preserve his
collection from injury by mites for any period. —
D. S.

The Sun and the Earth. — I have the following
figures before me of the distance between us and the
sun. Taking Guyot’s mean diameter of the earth,
giving a radius of 3,938 miles —

Laplace gives a distance of miles = 92, 636, 990

The Quarterly Review, July, 1875,

note, p. 209 =91,000,000

The Academy, 20th October, 1877,

p. 389 =93,000,000

The Mail, 19th December, 1877,
in a letter from Mr. Proctor

( Tupman =93,321,000

\ Newcomb =92,393,000

Mr. Proctor suggests that this measure is un-
trustworthy, as long as we get warmth and light, the
actual distance of the sun is of little consequence ;
but what are the precise sciences to do? Newcomb
and Laplace are as near the mark as we can hope for ;
but how is it that the precise sciences reach their
conclusion as to the size of this world from the
Nebular hypothesis of Laplace, without adopting his

measure of distance between the earth and the sun ?

I find the figures for Laplace in his translation by
J. Pond, p. 24, 1809. Will some one kindly tell us
which distance is right ? — //. P. M.

Reasoning Power of Dogs. — Having witnessed
the following occurrence some years ago, I could not
help being struck with the great reasoning powers

displayed by a dog. I lived in the town of N ,

and the back of our terrace had small gardens, sepa-
rated from each other by a short fence. One windy
morning the clothes were drying on the line, and the
dog (a fine retriever) was sporting itself on the grass,
when a sudden gust blew the “things” on the
ground ; the dog at once ran into the house, and by
sundry barks and pulls at her dress, induced the girl
to go into the garden, where she discovered the cause
of the dog’s uneasiness. The next day being the
“week’s wash” of our neighbour, the clothes were
airing in the garden, when our dog rushed into
the house, and presently brought out the servant,
who found that the prop had given way, and the
“ wash ” was all on the ground. — J. D.

Superstitious Dislike to the Wren ( Troglo-
dytes Europccus). — This little bird, though generally
a favourite, is in some rural districts regarded by the
uneducated with the bitterest aversion, while its rela-
tive, the Redbreast, is considered sacred from all
molestation. So deeply seated is this hatred to the
Wren, that its nest is often ruthlessly torn away,
and both nest and its contents trampled under foot.
The only explanation which these good folks will
vouchsafe, is that the “ wran" is the devil's bird,
and should therefore get no quarter. This strange
superstition has, I believe, had its origin in one of
the many myths which have been handed down from
generation to generation, and received as truth be-
yond question. The legendary account of how the
Robin got her red-breast is widely spread, both in
Ireland and England, and no one in this country will
molest the “poor robin,” because his name is asso-
ciated with our Lord ; but the Wren has the mis-
fortune of being associated with the sacred history in
an unfavourable light : hence the odium which hangs
around him. In the south of Ireland it appears this
unkindly feeling does not exist, which is shown by a
curious practice which existed at no very distant date
in Cork. On St. Stephen’s day a number of young
men, in holiday dress, paraded the city, carrying a
furze-bush, in which a wren was secured. As they
stopped before the house, one of their number recited
the following lines —

“ The wren, the wren, the king of all birds,

Was caught St. Stephen’s day in the furze ;

Although he’s little, his family’s great,

Then pray, kind gentle folks, give him a trate."

It is to be hoped that this cruel and unmeaning
dislike to a little bird of which poets have so sweetly
sung, and naturalists so interestingly written, may
ere long be swept away by advancing education. —
II. Aliingham, Ballyshannon.

Harebell ( Campanularotundifolia). — The English
name, we are told, was bestowed upon it because it
grows in the dry and hilly pastures frequented by the
hare, but we would suggest, at least, an alternative
derivation — or rather the plant itself suggests it — as
to whether it may not have originally been named
hair bell from the extremely light and delicate stems
from which the blossoms hang. Another plant,
equally light and delicate, is named the maiden -hair.
I have extracted the above from p. 78, part 10, of
“ Familiar Wild Flowers,” to which I refer Mr. Tate
for an interesting article on the plant. — I

/

48

HA RD WICKE 'S S CIENCE - G 0 SSIP.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip at least a week earlier than hereto-
fore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any
communications which reach us later than the 9th of the
previous month.

Fresh Chara. — A correspondent asks our good offices to
obtain for him “a little fresh Chara." Will our botanical
friends, who can obtain it, send us a small supply?

W. Patrick. — You can purchase Anodotis of R. Damon,
F.G.S., Weymouth.

A. F. Fischer. — You cannot do better than preserve the
chrysalis in the earth of a flower-pot. Put the latter out of
doors. It will soon cease “wriggling.” Out of doors is their
natural condition of hybernation.

W. H. Legge. — The caterpillar of which you sent us a
coloured drawing, is that of the well-known Pale Tussock-moth.
The caterpillar goes by the name of the “ Hop-dog” ( Orgyia
fud/buuda).

E. M. (Saddleworth).— The specimens sent us from the turf-
pits are flint chips, and seem to us to be the result of human
handiwork. This appears all the more probable from the fact j
that Jli?it is a very rare mineral, even in the drift beds, in |
your district. Can you send us some larger specimens for
inspection ?

W. H. S. (Colchester). — We shall feel obliged if you will
send us some of the insects which demolish the “ black beetles,”
as we cannot identify them from your description.

W. S. Wakefield. — The plant sent us is Veronica Hen-
dersotiii.

F. Coleman. — We have heard of no other instance of non- I
fulfilment except your own.

J. A. Sandford (Ohio). — Accept our thanks for specimens of
A pocynum androsceinifoliutn.

C. W. H. — There is no fear whatever of the ants doing your
Deodaras any harm.

Colonel M. — You had best have Science-Gossip sent to
you direct from the publishers. The small crystals are car-
bonate of lime,

F. R. B.— We cannot, of course, tell you the name of the
species of mussel without seeing specimens. But there is no
doubt that the deposit in question is a post-glacial one, of the
same age as our raised beeches.

F. Q. — You had best consult Whitaker’s “ Geology of the
London Basin,” published by Her Majesty’s Stationery Office,
for details of and references to the various sections of the
Woolwich beds exhibited in the neighbourhood of London.

S. C. M. — Sach’s “ Botany,” translated and edited by A. W.
Bennett and Professor Dyer, and published by the Clarendon
Press, gives the best account of the laws of vegetable growth
and development.

A. M. (Wandsworth). — The crustacean, of which you sent us ,
a drawing is Idotea tricuspidata.

J. Ransom. — We have no doubt that Mr. Bartlett, the ;
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, would give you all
the necessary information respecting the management of
Marmosets.

T. C. M. — -We have referred to the MS. of your “ Exchange ”
in the January number, and find that we printed it exactly as
you wrote it !

R. T. Andrews. — The “glass-like substance” you sent us
is Selenite, or crystallized sulphate of lime ; very likely from
the London Clay formation.

J. Cunnack. — Your written description of the Hawk answers
best to that of the common Buzzard ( Buteo vulgaris).

W. K. and Others. — Your specimens have been forwarded
to competent authorities to be named, and their names will
appear in these columns as soon as we have received them.

E. R. F.- — Potton, in Bedfordshire, is situated on the Lower
Greensand formation, and the fossils you mention are, no
doubt, from that deposit.

W. B. wishes for the address of the South London Ento- :
mological Society, as it has removed from its old quarters. We
shall always be glad to chronicle such changes of removal.

C. Harris. — Many thanks for the specimens, which are very
interesting. But we cannot undertake to name zoophytes from
the Cape of Good Hope, or any other place where the fauna has
not been scientifically worked and described.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, British examples of Vertigo angustior, V. alpes-
tris, and Acine lineata. Will give a liberal exchange in
American land and freshwater shells. — G. Sherriff Tye,
62, Villa-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

Wanted, Microscopical Dictionary (old or new edition), in
exchange for foreign insects, chiefly parasites, mounted or
unmounted. — Address, M., Anglesea Lodge, Godaiming,
Surrey.

I would like to exchange U.S. Coleoptera for British or
Foreign. Eggs in exchange for Coleoptera, if desired. — Address,
Geo. J. Angell, 64, Elliott-place, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.

Wanted, Fresh specimens of any Cuttlefish or Squids.
Offered in exchange, shells, insects, microscopic slides, scien-
tific books, or money. — W. Cash, 38, Elmfield-terrace, Halifax.

A Few well-mounted micro slides to exchange — Lists to-
ff'. Shripton, The ff’errace, Chesterfield.

Many species of British marine, land, and freshwater
shells — offered in exchange for land shells from New Zealand,
South America, Madagascar, and South Australia. — F. M.
Hele, Fairlight, Elmgrove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

For unmounted or mounted diatoms will be sent some
cleaned diatom Coccones Placentula, or Foraminifera from
Spain : also, river mud from Lagos, for any object of interest
for microscope. — A. Smith, 198, Essex-road, London.

For Tripoli, composed of diatoms, send well-mounted slide
in exchange.

In exchange for any other mounted objects: Proboscis of
Blow-fly, Pleurosigma angulaturn, A mphipleura pellucida.

To French Marine Botanists. Wanted, in exchange for British
sea-weeds, those of French growth. — H. G., 15, Mulgrave-
street, Plymouth.

Exchange microscopical slides of different stages of the
Pentacrinite larva of Comatula, various species of Marine
Polyzoa, with their tentacles exerted, Australian seaweeds, &c.
(list forwarded on application), for other thoroughly well-
mounted slides. Illustrations of animal and vegetable struc-
tures preferred. — Adolph Leipner, 47, Hampton Park, Cotham,
Bristol.

Several sets of six-opaque sections of coal plants and tissues ;
wanted, recent and fossil polyzoa, graptolites from Silurian
strata, or vegetable preparations. Several sets of six recent
and fossil foraminifera ; wanted foraminiferous material,
soundings, dredgings, or unwashed Lias clay. — G. R. Vine,
Attercliffe, Sheffield.

Duplicates. — Rhamni, Edusa, Cardamines, Algeria,
Semele, Atalanta , Cardui, Io, Paphia, Galathea, Quercus ,
Xatichographa, Desiderata, IV. Album, Betulce, Pruni,
Paniscus, Atiopos, the Sesiidee ; many Noctuce and Gcometrce.
— A. Dent, 20, Thurloe Square, London, S.W.

A large number of leaves with stellate hairs in situ from all
parts of the world, in exchange for other good microscopic
objects. — H. L., 6, Upper Phillimore Gardens, Kensington, W.

Wanted, Erythroea latifolia, other plants in exchange. —
Rev. F. H. Arnold, Fishbourne, Chichester.

Send 2 good slides for x dozen patent mounting clips, brass,
new kind, and capital to work with. — W. Tylar, 165, Well-street,
Hockley, Birmingham.

Exchange or otherwise. — A Ross’s ^ in. object-glass — wet
and dry — a useful glass. — Apply to Rev. S. Bramhall,
St. John’s Vicarage, Lynn.

Lyell’s “Principles of Geology,” 4 vols., boards, 1834,
Figuier’s “ Primitive Man ” (quite new), will exchange for
British Birds’ Eggs, or well-mounted British wild plants or
mosses. — J. R. Murdoch, Horsforth, near Leeds.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“ Elementary Botany,” Part II. By W. Bland. London:
Bemrose & Sons.

“ Industrial Art.” January.

“ Popular Science Review.” January.

“ ff'he Midland Naturalist.” January.

“ Land and Water.” January.

“ ff'he Naturalist.” January.

“ American Journal of Microscopy.” December.

“Canadian Journal of Entomology.” December.

“ Potter’s American Monthly.” December.

“ Boston Journal of Chemistry.” December.

“ Journal of Applied Sciences.” January. ,

“ Ben. Brierley’s Journal.” January.

“ Chambers’s Journal.” January.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications have been received up to the 7TH
ult., from : — ff’. S. — T. B. W. — ff'. L. — G. C. — Dr. R. C. R.
— G. S. ff'.— C. F. G.— W. B.— H. P. M.— A. M.— D. A.
— W. H. P.— W. H. S.— G. S. B.— Mrs. B.— D. S.— J. A. jun.
— C. V. S.— G. C. D.— G. P.— A. R.— J. D.— C. P. O.—
W. B. G.— G. A. H.— W. W.— S. E. B.— H. C. D.— R. C.—
P. D.— H. A.— W. C.— G. J. A.— ff'. S.— J. S. L.— W. J. F.—
ff'. B.— M. K.— J. G.-A. C. C.— A. S.-C. C. H.— A. D. M.
— W. J. S.— ff'. C. M.— J. C.— A. S.— R. T. A.— F. N. H.—
j. H.— W. R. ff'.— Dr. B.— W. S. B.-J. B.— W. B.—
C. E. B. H.— M. L.-J. B.— J. W.— W. T.-W. W.— G. L.—
G. C.— G. E. B.— H. L.— H. P.— A. L — G. R. V.— A. D.-
C. H.— J. R. M.-H. E. W.— W. M.—J. B.— C. B. M.—
T. B.-A. W.-R. S.— ff’. F. U.— H. A. A.— R. G. C.—
Dr. F. C. C.— W. K.-E. R. F.— J. B.— W. B.— H. G.—
C. D.— &c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

49

THE FLORA OF NATAL

By J. M. WOOD.

S possibly some of your
readers may feel inte-
rested in a few notes
on the flora of this
part of the world, I
will, with your per-
mission, enumerate a
few of the native
plants at present grow-
ing in my garden. I
reside about twelve
miles from the sea, and though my garden is
neither extensive nor particularly well kept, still
I have taken pleasure in adding to it some of
our beautiful native plants, a number of which
were already growing in it when I came to reside
here, having been planted by a former occupant.
The first plant which attracts the eye at this season
is Grey a Sutherlandi , a shrub or small tree, now
covered with its beautiful scaxdet flowers, though
the leaves have hardly yet made their appearance;
it is a sapindaceous plant, though its true position
appears to be doubtful, and is a native of the higher
districts of the colony, in the Drakensberg, a range
of mountains on the border of the colony. I am told
that its spikes of flowers are sometimes a foot or more
in length. Here it is usually called the “Natal Bottle
Brush,” but it is rarely seen in cultivation, as, on the
coast, at least, it does not succeed well. Close beside
it is Crinum Capense , usually called in the colony the
“Natal Lily,” and everywhere found in profusion, from
the coast to far inland ; and in the spring and early
summer producing its corymb of pink and white bell-
shaped flowers. Near this plant is an Arum , of the
genus Richordia (known here as the ‘ ‘ Lily of the
Nile ”) ; it is now out of flower, but in the season
flowering freely without the slightest care or attention.
On the opposite side of the walk is another Arum of
the same genus, whose leaves are spotted with white,
like a Caladium , and which has a primrose or yellow
spathe, and which is in this district quite plentiful.
Beyond this plant, and scrambling about amongst the
No. 159.

adjacent shrubs, is a species of Mesembryanthemum ,
with small but richly-coloured deep magenta flowers ;
and near it another species with larger white flowers,
and which is in some places near here quite common.
In the middle of a small grass-plot in front of the
house are two plants of Encephalartus , a cycadaceous
plant, which sometimes has a caudex 10 feet or more
high ; one of these plants, though its stem is only
about 18 inches high, has produced three large cones
in the centre of the crown of leaves or fronds, some-
thing like overgrown pine-apples. It is, I think, a
male plant, though the scales are not yet sufficiently
separated to decide with certainty ; during the five
years that I have observed the growth of these plants,
they do not seem to have increased much in height,
but as they only put forth one crown of leaves in each
season, this is not to be wondered at. The largest
plant has upon it at the present time four sets of
leaves, the lowest whorl of which are now nearly five
yeai's old, and rapidly decaying ; but when the spring
has fairly set in it will unfold another complete
crown of leaves, and thus the trunk gradually increases
in height year by year. These plants were brought
from Noodsberg, twenty miles from here, where they
grow on the sides of precipitous rocks and under
slight shade, at an elevation of 3,000 feet or more
above the sea-level. We have a species of cycad
growing in similar situations near here, but which
does not, even in old age, develop a trunk ; its root
is napiform, and, when dug out, as much as a man
can carry with comfort ; it bears pinnate leaves
6 feet or more long. Near this latter plant is Slan-
geria paradoxa, also a cycadaceous plant, found, I
believe, only in Natal, and named in honour of the
late Dr. Stanger, Surveyor-General. It is a very
common plant in this neighbourhood, both in the
open grass and in bush, and has the fruit of a conifer
with the venation of a fern. On one side of the
grass-plot is a fence formed of an cipocynaceous plant
of the genus Carissa, called here the “ Amatungulu, ”
and which bears a fruit which is much esteemed. It
has pretty white star-like flowers, and plum-shaped

D

5°

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

scarlet fruit, but its double or forked thorns make it a
rather unpleasant plant to come violently into contact
with. The fruit, when unripe, is rather astringent,
and full of a white milky juice ; and it is a standing
joke here, that J. C. Byrne, the emigration-agent in
the earlier days of the colony, when speaking in
England of the natui-al products of the place to which
he wished to attract the emigrants, said that in Natal
the strawberries and the cream grew upon the same
plant. The fruit is extensively used for making jams
and jellies, a large quantity of which is, I believe,
exported. At each end of this fence, and also around
and near the house, are trees of Eucalyptus globulus ,
a native of Australia, some of them 70 feet high,
though I believe only twelve years old ; and twining
round one of these gum-trees is the stem of a native
plant, Testutidinaria elephantipes , the Tortoise-plant,
or Elephant’s foot, a singular-looking plant, belonging
to the family Dioscorea , or Yams. Its rhizome, which
is above ground, is hard and tesselated ; and in my
specimen the resemblance to a tortoise is sufficiently
startling. It is perennial, and sends up a slender
twining stem to the branches of the trees amongst
which it grows, while the rhizeme sends down tough
wiry rootlets, with which it takes firm hold of the
ground. The specimen under notice was the first
which I had seen, and in climbing up some rocky
ground I placed my hand upon it, but quickly with-
drew it under the impression that it was the shell of
a tortoise. There are, I believe, two species of this
plant in the colony, but I have only met with one as
yet. We have also two species of Gardenia , G. glo-
bosa, now completely covered with its creamy bell-
snaped flowers, and G. grandiflora , with larger,
salver-shaped flowers, which fill the garden with a
delightful perfume. Then there is that rare plant,
Mackaya bella, with its pale lilac pendulous flowers
and curiously-veined corolla. I have been informed
that this plant is only found wild in the valley of the
Tongaat, but whether this is correct or not I do not
know ; at any rate, it is not by any means common.
Then we have a croquet-lawn, formed of a running
grass which is commonly used for that purpose here ;
and at one end of it stands a row of trees which have
originally been stakes in a post and rail fence, but
which have now grown into trees, some of them fine
ones ; two belong to a species of Aralia, common
here, and much used for fencing, as the post will gene-
rally take root. Two others are fig-trees, of a species
plentiful about here, and which have now grown into
fine spreading trees, 20 to 30 feet high, with leaves
which are thickly covered underneath with small
peltate scales or glands, the use of which I have not
been able to discover. While the leaf is fresh, they
appeal*, under the microscope, to be closely adpressed
to the leaf ; but as the leaf dries, they curl up at the
edges, and are then easily detached, leaving a small
pit or hollow. Three more of these trees belong to
the genus Erythrina , or, as it is called here, “Kafir

Boom,” and are now covered with beautiful scarlet
blossoms, but without a single leaf. This tree is
common in the colony, and during the winter months
its magnificently-coloured flowers make it a very
conspicuous object. We have several species in the
colony, two of which are growing here ; one is usually
called the “Cork-tree,” as its bark has much the appear-
ance of rough cork ; its leaves are large and coarse,
and the wood of both species is so light, that I believe
it is sometimes used for floats in fishing. I have used
it for setting butterflies, for which purpose it answers
almost as well as cork, which is not procurable here.
And I have no doubt that it may yet be put to many
other uses, though at present it is not used, as far as
I know, for anything but fencing. I have also a
small fernery, of which I may have something to say
on another occasion, should it be acceptable to your
readers, and also about the numerous wild flowers
growing so profusely in this neighbourhood.

THE LATE ANDREW MURRAY, F.L.S.

BY the death of Mr. Andrew Murray, which
occurred on the 10th ult. at his residence in
Bedford Gardens, Kensington, entomology and
botany loses an assiduous and careful worker. Born
in Edinburgh in 1812, he paid some attention in his
youthful days to the study of medicine. He was,
however, educated with a view to following the law
as a profession, and for a short time practised as a
Writer to the Signet. Subsequently he assisted his
relative, John Murray (Lord High Advocate), in his
desire to provide some practically useful reading for
village schools by writing a little pamphlet entitled
“The Skip-jack; or, Wire-worm and the Slug,”
which, though published without his knowledge, may
be considered as his first contribution to economic
entomology. The year preceding his removal to
London, he contributed to the “Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh ” a paper relating to a
subject then under discussion, as to what extent the
unity of species in the parasite showed unity of
species in the animal preyed upon ; ‘ ‘ the pediculi
infesting the various races of man,” giving minute
descriptions and considerations as to how far the
variations might be considered to amount to specific
differences.

After his removal to London in i860, Mr. Murray
devoted himself specially to the sciences of ento-
mology and botany. About this time he became
officially connected with the Royal Horticultural
Society, being appointed assistant-secretary. After
relinquishing this post, he continued, almost to the
moment of his death, to show a great interest in the
society, being one of the strongest supporters of, and
most frequent attendants at, the meetings of the
scientific committee.

In 1869 he formed one of a party, including Sir

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

5i

Joseph (then Dr.) Hooker, of representatives of
English science at the Botanical Congress at St.
Petersburg. In acknowledgment of the service
rendered on this occasion, he was presented by the
Emperor Alexander with a splendid malachite table.
During his absence from England at this time, he
paid considerable attention to the subject of Conti-
nental forestry, and every facility was given him in
his inquiries in Belgium by the Belgian Government.
In 1871 he undertook the laborious task of superin-
tending much of the selection or arrangement of the
English exhibits at the Polytechnic Exhibition at
Moscow in the following year. In botanical science,
Mr. Murray’s work lay principally among the
Coniferae, having written a small book on the “ Pines
and Firs of Japan,” and contributed numerous papers
on the same group of plants to different scientific and
horticultural journals. He was secretary to the
Oregon Committee, who sent out a collector to Oregon
and California to collect Coniferae, and in 1873 he
undertook an expedition to Salt Lake and California,
partly with a scientific object, and partly with a view
to investigate the working of the silver-mines. In
the course of his mining investigations he was ex-
posed to considerable danger, minute inquiries mak-
ing him obnoxious to some of the parties concerned.

In his entomological career, the great point was
the devotion of the last ten years of his life to the
subject in its practical bearings. As a monument of
his skill and profound knowledge on this point, the
results stand in the Government collection of econo-
mic entomology at Bethnal Green. The charge of
receiving and arranging the contributions to this
collection was placed in his hands officially in 1868,
and from thenceforward he may be said to have
given himself up to the task unceasingly, down to his
latest hours ; for, during his American expedition,
he left behind him the threads by which the collec-
tion might be proceeded with in his absence.

Of the patient labour and scientific research he dis-
played in this collection it is impossible to speak too
highly. Under his guidance the life-histories of the j
insects (of which knowledge was required to ascertain
their remedies) Were, in some cases, worked out, I
in others verified and amplified ; remedies were
ascertained and experiments initiated ; and the whole
life -history was shown at once correctly, scientifically, |
and as clearly as possible to the popular eye by 1
illustrations of the insect in its various stages, and the
object injured, accompanied by drawings and, when
possible, facsimile models. Mr. Murray was an
accomplished draughtsman, and a large number of
the insect drawings are his own work, in all cases
clearly executed, and many, especially those of the
Coleopterae, really works of art. On this collection
he was working up to his latest days, having, we
believe, a quantity of material in progress of arrange-
ment. It is much to be regretted that his descriptive
catalogue of the collection should not have progressed

beyond the first volume devoted to' the Aptera,
which was to have been followed, as we learn from
an introductory note, by a complete series. The
compilation of such handbooks is a work requiring
great knowledge of the subject, as well as familiarity
with writings of previous observers, and the head and
hand which formed the collection could best give us
the description which utilizes it for general reference.

Mr. Murray contributed valuable papers of original
observation both to home and foreign scientific
societies and serials, and amongst his larger works, his
volume on the “ Distribution of Mammals ” is one of
very great value, with regard to the representation of
families, both prehistoric and present, and also for
its synonymic lists and tables.

It is said that Mr. Murray’s health suffered much
during his American tour, but that the immediate
cause of the unfavourable change was due to the
amount of chloroform inhaled whilst rearranging a
portion of the Doubleday collection infested with
Mites. He was not in strong health at the time, but
continued at his post from day to day, trusting that
after effects might wear away ; his general health,
however, sank from that time, and all who had the
privilege of knowing him will feel that by the death
of Andrew Murray they lost a true-hearted and loyal
friend, as well as a gifted naturalist. J. R. J.

ON SOME RECENT FORAMINIFERA FROM
THE SHETLAND ISLES.

By George Robert Vine, Jun.

SOME time ago my father gave me a small
packet of dredgings that he had received from
Mr. Lovett, Holly Mount, Croydon. The dredgings
consisted of minute particles of broken shells,
quartz, &c., but especially of Foraminifera. These I
worked out, and the following is a list of the species
obtained.

Globigerina bulldidcs , D’Orb., both in the young and
mature state, were very plentiful ; Rotalia Beccarii ,
Linne, very small, but showing the character of the
genus well ; Rotalia orbicularis , D’Orb., and varieties,
small, transparent, and perfect, common ; Planorbu-
lina ( Truncatulina ) lobatula , Walker and Jacob, very
common in Dog’s Bay, &c., but only 8 or 9 speci-
mens here represented the genus, and all these were
not very distinct in the septa and foramen, but distinct
enough to identify the species ; Operculina ammono-
ides, Gronovius. This is a species hat can hardly te
mistaken for another, being ammonite-like (as the
name implies), with the septa distinct and double
(see fig. 31); small and middle size, rare; Pulvinulina
Micheliniana, D’Orb. (see fig. 28). This is a peculiar
species : it has three different views ; the front is raised
very much, with the septa rather wide apart ; the
bottom is flat, with two convolutions showing the

primordial, and the side view is bell- shaped ; middle

D 2

52

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-G OSSIE.

size, rare. One species, resembling a Nonionina , is
rather common: it is middle size, and has all the septa,
foramen, &c., very much obliterated. Another most
beautiful form is very common : it is small, semi-
transparent, and very distinct ; the segments overlap
one another, and in the 3 or 4 segments the septa
form a fork-like arrangement ; the foramina are
clearly seen with a low magnifying power. This
one, with figs. 33 and 34, I cannot name, and I should
feel obliged if anybody could help me to name it.

Of the genus Textularia , small, transparent, and
perfect specimens were very common, but the larger
and opaque ones rare. Five species of Textularia
were found, but there is only one of them that I can
name, and that is Textularia abbreviata, D’Orb. : it
is small, transparent, and rare. Two other species

Fig. 28. Pulvinulina Fig. 29. Side- Fig. 30. Front view
Micheliniana ; nat. view of ditto. of ditto,

size, 35 in.

Of the Lagenida, some very good species here
represented this family. The first of these is the
neckless variety of Lagena sulcata, Walker and Jacob.
It is a small form, and rather rare : only one of the
j three specimens obtained show the lines that traverse
the shell distinctly. Lagena globosa , Montagu (see
fig. 26). This form is very small and rare. It is a
globular shell without any striae or foramina visible.
Lagena distoma politia , Parker and Jones. This
is an elongated species, having the neck about hall
the size of the body. All three of these species of
Lagena have been figured by Messrs. Parker and
Jones in their paper on the Arctic Foraminifera, in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1865, Part I. Cris -
tellaria rotulata (fig. 36), Lamarck ; small and middle

Fig. 31. Operculina ammo-
noides ; nat. size, -A in.

Fig. 32. Nonionina (?) ;
nat. size, -£g in.

Fig. 33. Textularia, sp.

Fig. 34. Uvigerina pyg\
vicea ; nat. size, 3V in.

were small and transparent. One of these I have
figured to show the points protruding from the side
of the shell. One of the opaque forms is about the
of an inch in length. The chambers go down
to a fine point, are rather wide at the top, and a slight
bit wider in the middle. It is very difficult to recog-
nize the species on account of the middle portion
being covered over by some arenaceous matter, there-
by hiding the characters that in some respects
determines the species.

Fig. 35. Rotalia Fig. 36. Cristellaria rotulata ,*

orbicularis. nat. size, in.

size, rather rare. A good specimen, showing the
septa well. Another peculiar species is an elongated
fonn traversed by rather deep furrows, as in
Lagena sulcata, with the septa placed in rather
irregular positions. Four good examples were ob-
tained, all showing different characters (see fig. 34).
The Miliolida family was here represented by three
very characteristic species. The first was Tnloculina

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

S3

oblonga (?). These were very minute and indistinct ;
rather rare. Biloculina ringens : this is a most
beautiful and perfect specimen ; it is of a white
colour and middle size. Rare. Spiroloculina canalicu-
late., D’Orb. (fig. 37). Two perfect examples of
this species were found, showing the character of the
genus well. Small and rare.

In this short paper I have endeavoured to give an
idea of the character of the Foraminifera found at
Shetland. I have not given all the species found
there, and only those that I possess myself. I have
drawn the figures myself, without the aid of the
camera lucida. In my research among this bit of
sand I find that nearly all of the Foraminifera are of

Fig. 37. Spiroloculina canaliculata ; nat. size, ^ in.

a brownish colour, showing that the water is impreg-
nated with oxide of iron ; also that the Globigerina
are dwarfed and thin, owing to the shallowness of the
water, 120 fathoms, whilst the same species from
the Atlantic, at a depth of 1,450 fathoms, are larger
and more bulky. And this gives the fact that the
Globigerina grow larger and more bulky in deep water,
whilst they are dwarfed and thin in shallow water.

A tier cliff e, Sheffield.

NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
FROG’S SPAWN.

By A. M. M‘Aldowie, M.B.,

Member of the North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club.

PROBABLY no animal is better known, from an
anatomical and physiological point of view,
than the Common Frog. Developmentally the frog
has been specially studied, on account of the inte-
resting metamorphoses through which it passes before
1 it arrives at maturity, and also on account of the
advantages which its egg offers for the examination
1 of the ovum, the transparent albuminous covering
| affording unrivalled facilities for observations on, and
; experimental investigation into, the subject of deve-
1 lopment. The microscopic structure and changes

Fig. 41. Frog’s Spawn ;
nat. size, March.

Fig. 42. Ditto,
April 4th.

c

Fig. 43. Ditto, April 8th ;
dorsal aspect ; lateral
aspect.

Fig. 44. Ditto, April nth;
dorsal aspect ; lateral
aspect.

which are observed during the development of the
embryo of the frog, are described and figured in
1 most text-books of comparative physiology and his-
tology, but the ordinary naked eye appearances and
modifications which it exhibits are not to be found in
these works. Nearly all zoological manuals give a
series of illustrations representing the various stages
in the development of the tadpole after its escape
from the egg, but they do not figure the alterations
which take place previously, without which the series
cannot be considered complete. St. George Mivart,
although he details the process of yolk subdivision
and cleavage, and the other microscopic changes
through which the embryo passes, yet with regard to
1 the naked eye appearances he merely states,* “Gra-
dually the embryo assumes the form of a young tad-
pole, and is provided with a pair of little ‘holders’
(or organs for adhesion), just behind the mouth, with
six openings on each side of the neck, and with a
pair of rudimentary external gills.” Huxley, in what
is undoubtedly the best work on the frog extant, in
reference to this subject says,f “While still within
the egg the embryo assumes the form of a minute
fish, devoid of limbs and with only rudiments of gills,
but provided with two adhesive discs on the ventral

* The Common Frog (Nature Series), 1874, p. 15.
t Elementary Biology, 1875, p. 155.

54

HARD WICKE ’S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

side of the head behind the mouth.” The following
notes, although very crude and imperfect, may serve
to draw the attention of some of the readers of
Science-Gossip to this interesting subject during
the season which is now approaching. I intended to
supplement them the following year, but had no
opportunity of doing so.

About the end of March, 1874 (exact date uncer-
tain), I exposed a mass of frog’s spawn to the light in
a glass tank, placing it in a window having a westerly
aspect. There was no fire in the room. The small
round ovum (fig. 41) gradually became elongated,
assuming at first an ovoid form, but afterwards one
end became attenuated, while a small groove formed
near the other extremity, and on the 4th of April
most of them presented the appearance shown in
fig. 42. As the embryo enlarged, these characters
became more marked, until, on the 8th, the form of
the head and the body could plainly be detected
(% 43)-

April 8th. Most of the embryos show signs of
animation. The movements consist of alternate
flexion and extension of the body, the animal folding
itself up laterally and then straightening itself at
intervals of about half a minute. Movements first
observed in the afternoon, and continued till sunset.

April 9th. Movements more active than yester-
day, but still as restricted as before.

April 10th. Movements not quite so quick as
yesterday, but more extensive and fish-like.

April nth. Most of the tadpoles appear to be
trying to free themselves from the albuminous mass
by quick wriggling movements. External gills very
plainly seen on all (fig. 44). They first appeared as
two small protuberances, situated one on each side of
the hinder part of the head. These gradually elon-
gated, divided and subdivided, until they presented
the appearance of small branched filaments.

April 1 2th. Tadpoles all out this morning. Ar-
range themselves in clusters with their heads all in
one direction. Most of them remain quite motion-
less, but a few swim actively about the tank.

Stoke-on- Trent .

A GOSSIP ABOUT NEW BOOKS.

THE present winter has not been remarkable for
the number of scientific books issued. When
wars and the rumours of wars prevail, and the reading
world has its taste demoralized by the vivid descrip-
tions of such rapidly-succeeding events as those which
have marked the history of the last six months, it is !
hardly to be wondered at that scientific literature 1
should retreat almost to the vanishing-point. But
there is a break in the clouds, and thoughtful people
are hoping that the storm will clear away as fast as 1
it gathered ; then we shall return to soberer literature
than war and anti-war newspaper leaders, with a sense ;

of relief and a fervent thankfulness for our narrow
escape.

Notwithstanding the paucity in the issue of first-
class scientific books, the appearance of a new volume
from the pen of Darwin is always sufficient to create
interest. And perhaps of the works which that in-
dustrious author has recently published, none is more
important than the present work, entitled, ‘ ‘ The
Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same
Species ” (London, John Murray). Herein Dr. Dar-
win has entered into the minutest and fullest investi-
gation of the inner structures of flowers. We now
find how abundant are the phenomena of tri??ior-
phism and dimorphism (only a few years ago deemed
so peculiar and exceptional), and that the number of
species bearing cleistogamic flowers is also being added
to every day ; that the latter structure of flowers,
produced by exceptional circumstances, varies from
one extreme to the other, and that these extremes
are connected by an inosculating series. Thus the
Grass Pea (Lathyras nissolia), bears cleistogamic
flowers, which can hardly be told from the ordinary
flowers just before the latter finally expand. At the
other extreme we find cleistogamic flowers which are
actually fertilized beneath the soil, and so are little
above the condition of subterranean buds. Dr. Darwin
further enters into the sizes and shapes of the pollen-
grain produced by different-sized stamens in dimor-
phic and trimorphic plants. The absolute necessity
for crossing to be produced, by the pollen from the
flower of one plant being carried to the pistil of
another plant, comes out strikingly in Dr. Darwin’s
experiments ; for it is proved that very little is gained
by the pisiil of a flower being fertilized by the pollen
of another flower borne by the same plant. The
origin of monoecious and dioecious flowers, of nectaries,
in flowers, and many other singular and striking
botanical peculiarities, are here discussed in the easy
but philosophical style for which all the author’s
books are celebrated. It is truly a rich treat to the
botanist to peruse such a book as this, and one to
which all our readers who have not yet read it will
thank us for attracting their immediate attention.

“The Antelope and Deer of America,” by John
Dean Caton, LL.D. (London, Triibner & Co.), is a
handsome treatise upon the natural history, including
the characteristics, habits, affinities, and capacity for
domestication, of the Antilocapra and Cervidce of
North America. This is a question of the deepest
importance in practical natural history, and one which
has been too much neglected. Books on wild animals
usually tell us more about their destruction under the
name of “sport” than of possibilities of their domes-
tication and utilization. Dr. Caton tells us he has
for many years kept in domestication the American
antelope, and ajl of the American deer of which his
book treats, except the moose and the two species of
reindeer. 1’his book deals with the important and
difficult subject selected by the author with a fulness.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

55

which leaves nothing to be desired. The structural
affinities and habits of the various kinds of deer, and
their comparison with each other, are most clearly set
forth. To a zoological student this book has a pecu-
liar and special value. The woodcuts are numerous,
original, and well done.

“Proteus; or, Unity in Nature,” byC. B. Radcliffe,
M.D. (London, Macmillan & Co.), is the second
edition, revised and brought up to the newer views of
science, of a book which created some attention when
it first appeared some years ago. Practically it is
quite a different volume to what it was then, when
the disturbing theory of evolution was either unknown
or ignored. Dr. Radcliffe is an opponent of evolu-
tion, and although not a prejudiced one, we cannot
help feeling he has not taken sufficient pains to fully
understand it. Apart from this we have read his
book with sincere pleasure and profit. It most
thoughtfully and reverently discusses the rnany-
changing varieties of Nature, physical, animal, and
vegetable ; and dry facts and their relations light up
with the glow of the author’s genius. The literary
style is of the most attractive character, not demonstra-
tively fervid, but chaste and yet enthusiastic.

“Physiography,” by Professor Huxley, F.R.S.
(London, Macmillan & Co.), will be hailed with
pleasure by science students. Although we do not
like the new name with which the South Kensington
authorities have replaced the older one of Physical
Geography, Professor Huxley shows us in this hand-
some and well got-up volume how natural pheno-
mena may be studied in the concrete, even in their
relation to our earth, in a wider and deeper sense,
perhaps, than was undertaken in the science of
physical geography. The author eschews the old
system of treatment in works on physical geography,
wherein the readers wer o. first taught about the shape
and motions of the earth, &c., and begins just at the
other end, leaving such astronomical facts to be dis-
cussed last. The river Thames , in fact, is employed
as a sort of scientific text, and Professor Huxley
makes its relations and associations the groundwork
of a general description which will answer almost
equally well for any other river and river-valley in
the world. The plan is admirably worked out, as
we might reasonably expect it would be at the hands
of such a master.

“The Origin of the World,” by Dr. J. W. Dawson
(London, Hodder & Stoughton). Dr. Dawson is
well-known as an ardent field geologist, and one who
has largely and successfully contributed to the vast
storehouse of geological knowledge. Unfortunately
he appears to us to be an equally ardent theologian ;
and so, when he writes books on geology in general
(and he always writes them well and attractively), he
cannot forget the theological bayonets against which
the stony science has been repeatedly impelled. The
consequence is a melange of geology and theology,
which we are afraid is not of special advantage to

either. Especially is Dr. Dawson angered with the
theory of evolution, and he loses not an opportunity
to tilt against it, frequently with as much success as
Don Quixote’s similar attempt to overthrow the
windmills. The present volume is especially satu-
rated with what Professor Huxley calls “ Mosaism”;
one almost feels as if we had gone back to the time of
Hugh Miller. But there are many readers who are
fond of discussing the many points of contact which
still exist between Genesis and geology ; and to such
we can confidently recommend Dr. Dawson’s book
as likely to please them in no ordinary degree.

“Accidents in Mines: their Causes and Preven-
tion,” by Alan Bagot, Mining Engineer (London,

C. Kegan, Paul, & Co.). In this small but attrac-
tive volume the author has collected all the informa-
tion possible, as seen by those who are engaged pro-
fessionally as mining engineers, in order to its being
brought before the public. He discusses whether the
principles of Davey’s Safety-Lamp hold good when
the atmospheric pressure is as great as we find it in
deep coal-mines. Also, what effect the vibrating
waves of sound may have on the flame within the
lamp when the latter is surrounded by an explosive
mixture of gas. Mr. Bagot thinks that in the solution
of these two problems lies the secret of explosion
after shot-firing in mines. In the eighteen chapters
which compose this book, the author enters most
fully into the economy of coal-mines, and all that
concerns their safe and effective working. The work
is therefore a most valuable one, and ought to be in ,
the hands of all those whom the subject directly or
indirectly concerns.

A REMARKABLE GARDEN PLANT.

( Thunhergia alata. )

TIPIS very pretty tropical climber, belonging to
the natural order Acanthacece , a native of India
and Madagascar, was introduced to our gardens some
fifty years ago. It presents in the structure of its flowers
numerous points of interest. The plant is a slender
twiner, with hastate leaves, whose petioles, as the
specific name alata implies, are broadly winged.
The calyx is very minute, consisting of twelve hair-
like sepals, its place being occupied by two large
membranous, almost transparent, bracts. These are
strongly keeled, and overlap each other, completely
enveloping the calyx, and about one-half of the corolla
tube. Besides the keel, there are about six well-
marked longitudinal veins, connected by numerous
smaller ones almost at right angles, forming a rect-
angular network somewhat resembling that of Ouvi-
randra feneslralis. The whole surface is beset with
scattered hairs, which are either simple, or with one
or two septa, and bent where the septum occurs.
They are hollow, except at the nodes and near the
points, the hollow portion terminating in a bulbous

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE ■ G OSSIE.

56

expansion similar to a nettle-sting. There is but little
chlorophyl, a large portion of the bract being occu-
pied by air-spaces, into which numerous long, nai*row
stomata open. The corolla is salver-shaped, slightly
oblique, and of a clear Nankeen yellow, the colour
being somewhat brighter round the throat. In some
forms the throat is a dark chocolate-brown, almost
black, while in one variety the limb is pure white
with a dark throat. The stamens are four in number,
and are situated far down in the tube of the corolla,
the interior pair being considerably shorter than the
exterior pair. The filament is inserted into the dorsal
portion of the connective, a short distance from the
base of the anther, thus giving the ventral face of the
anther a slight inclination forwards and upwards.

Fig- 45- Diagram of flower of Thunbergia alata (vertical

section).

The anthers adhere by the ventral suture, the pro-
jecting margins of the lobes being densely bearded
with hairs of a peculiar and interesting form. They
are slender and clavate, consisting of numerous joints,
d he lower are oblong, three or four times as long as
broad. Proceeding from the base upwards, the joints
become shorter, thicker, and more rounded, and with
deeper constrictions, giving a beaded appearance, the
uppermost one being frequently divided by vertical
septa into two or three. These topmost cells are
some twice or thrice the diameter of what I may term
the stem of the hair, the whole of which, from base to
summit, is finely tuberculated, the tubercles increasing
in number and size from below upwards. A trace of
this tuberculation occurs also on the hairs of the bract,
but to a very much smaller degree. The pollen,
which, like the anthers and the anther hairs, is almost
white, is spherical, and has several broad, flat, spiral
grooves winding round it in opposite directions, pro-
ducing a very curious appearance. The pistil is long
and slender, passes up between the interior and
shorter pair of stamens, and, like them, is closely

adpressed to the back of the corolla tube. The
stigma, which is situated a short distance above the
upper stamens, appears to consist of two parts. The
upper portion is the style slightly flattened and curved
round into a kind of a narrow funnel, at the base of
which, and on the front of the style, is a semicircular
cup-shaped body, which seems to be a further develop-
ment of the stigma, as I have observed numerous
pollen-grains adhering to its viscid edges. The con-
cave surface of this cup is upwards, the convex down-
wards. Thus it appears that every precaution is taken
to avoid self-fertilization. The corolla is almost erect,

Fig. 46. Anther-hair and pollen-grains of Thunbergia X 200.

Fig. 47. Hairs of bract of Thunbergia x 50.

the stamens densely bearded on the ventral or front
side, with hairs pointing downwards, which hairs, still
further to retain the pollen from any accidental dis-
turbance from wind, &c., are club-shaped, thickened
at the apex, and closely tuberculated, while the
pollen-grains themselves have spiral grooves to
increase their tenacity to the hairs. Again, the stig-
matic surface is turned directly away from the pollen,
so that it is scarcely conceivable that self-fertilization
could take place. Suppose an insect with a long pro-
boscis visits the flower, its proboscis passes down-
wards freely to the base of the corolla ; on with-
drawing it, the trunk cannot fail to brush upwards or
backwards some of the anther hairs, and in so doing
set free some of the pollen which adheres. The
horizontal and non-stigmatic portion of the pistil
being downwards, receives none of the pollen. The
insect visits another flower, and thrusts its proboscis,
laden with pollen, into the corolla. In so doing, the
stigma being in a narrow portion of the tube, is
nearly certain to intercept some of the grains, and
thus ensure fertilization. Even should this fail,
touching the base of the style causes it to bend for-
ward, and thus be ready for the next comer. The

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

57

truth of this is readily proved, for flowers which are
“set” artificially freely produce seed, while those
left to themselves, being grown under glass, and thus
out of the reach of most insects, never come to matu-
rity. The seed-vessel is somewhat curious, as well as
other parts of the plant, being in shape a flattened
sphere with a long beak, and contains two to four
hemispherical rough blackish seeds. Altogether,
whether as botanical curiosity, or a garden ornament,
this Thunbergia is well worth growing.

Greenwood Pim, M.A., F.L.S.

THE POTATO-BEETLE.

IN thanking Mr. W. V. Andrews, the Correspond-
ing Secretary of the Long Island Entomologists’
Society, U.S.A., for his kind and complimentary
allusions to myself on page I of the present volume,
I am reluctantly compelled, as he classes me “ in the
ranks of the alarmists,” to conclude either (i) that I
have, in my article on the Beetle in question, in
Science-Gossip of ist September last, acted un-
wittingly upon the principle that language is given us
to conceal our thoughts ; or, (2) that Mr. Andrews
does not thoroughly understand the English tongue.
There is some slight excuse for the first hypothesis in
my remarks upon South Kensington on p. 202 ; and
it is humiliating to have to point out, even to an out-
sider, that these were “written sarkastic,” as the
great Artemus says. For the second one, I must
refer to my express statement, on p. 203, that “ to
the writer it seems that our much damper and colder
climate, not affording opportunities for the rapid suc-
cession of broods which the insect develops in
America, must materially militate against its obtaining
a permanent hold ; and the collateral arguments, that
no American beetle has ever established itself in Eng-
land, and that we possess no near ally of this parti-
cular one, cannot fail to have some weight in the
matter.” The fact is, that to every Coleopterist of
my acquaintance, and to every one (the name is
legion) with whom I have had conversation on the
subject, it is well known that I have from the first
steadily and strenuously been opposed to any belief
in the idea that the potato-beetle could be of any
harm in this country ; and this view I have always
upheld in everything I have written. Indeed, I have
a firm conviction that, if circumstances had not pre-
vented the present Editor of Science-Gossip (long
may he reign !) from attending the Plymouth meeting
of the British Association, where there was much
talk, post-prandial and otherwise, upon this subject,
the false conclusion as to my being among the alarmists
would never have appeared — at all events, without
simultaneous correction.

Mr. Andrews says “ Mr. Rye tells you that Paris
green is a favourite remedy here, but he does not
understand the American mode of doing things.

Some State entomologist or other probably had a
friend in the oil or colour business,” &c., and, “You
do not do things in that way in honest old England,
but we do here.” Without going so far as to quote a
homely Saxon proverb, concerning a certain ill bird
and its nest, I must, remembering Riley, Le Baron,
Packard, Cyrus Thomas, and other “good men and
true,” of whose scientific help the U.S. Government
has wisely availed itself, energetically disclaim the
acceptance of such remarks as these as a sample of the
“ Science-Gossip ” of the States. It is to the first-
named of these authorities that we owe most of our
knowledge of Transatlantic economic entomology ;
and his reputation is far too securely established to be
shaken by the insinuations of even the Corresponding
Secretary of the Long Island Entomologists’ Society.
That gentleman’s concluding caution to English
readers, that all striped beetles found on potatoes are
not Colorado beetles, but may be useful little fellows,
&c., shows an ignorance of our Insect Fauna, re-
markable in one who proposes to allay our (hypo-
thetical) fears. E. C. Rye.

NOTES FROM WEST KERRY.

ONLY a few species of Cetacea are known to
frequent the Irish coast ; the common por-
poise is of every-day occurrence ; the pilot-whale
( Globiocephalus Svineval ) is often met with in large
numbers, and an immense Balcena is occasionally
cast on shore. All the smaller species of Cetacea are
termed “ Porpoises ” by the Irish peasantry, who
value them, not only as excellent food, but attribute
to their flesh and oil hygienic and medicinal proper-
ties. Consequently, whenever one or more happen
to be stranded, they rush in crowds with scythes and
sickles, hatchets, pitchforks, spades, knives, and all
manner of deadly weapons, to the scene of the occur-
rence, hew, hack, decapitate, and cut into fragments
the unwieldy stranger, and long before rumour of the
capture has reached any educated person, the coveted
flesh is stored away in tubs, or piled in a corner of
some sooty cabin ; the entrails and useless viscera
thrown into the receding tide or torn by hogs (the
dear and cherished associates in Irish cabins of scro-
fulous children and of their filthy parents), and so
far as science is concerned the unfortunate fish, seal,
or cetacean, might as well have remained in his
marine abode. On a March morning in 1864, on
the shelving sandy beach of Fermoyle, skirting the
waters of Brandon Bay, on the west coast of Kerry,
I observed two men moving a heavy object, which
on closer inspection proved to be part of the head of
a cetacean such as I had never before seen. The
head had been much larger, and divided vertically
behind the eyes ; the front portion only remained ;
the eyes, however, were left untouched, as also the
lunated spiracle, with the concavity looking forward.

58

HARD WICKE ’S SCIENCE-G OSSIP.

The measurements in the recent state of the animal
were —

From centre of fold of spiracle to each eye, io in.
From same point to extremity of upper jaw, 22 in.
From commissure of lips to extremity of upper jaw,

134 in-

From same to extremity of lower jaw, 14 in.

On the lower surface of the integuments corre-
sponding to the space between the rqnii of the lower
jaw, was a well-defined angle, formed by two de-
pressed lines, or furrows, each ten inches long.
These lines converged to an apex in front, while
their extremities behind were seven inches apart.
The acute angle thus defined corresponded, I say,
externally with an almost equal internal angle, formed
by the convergence of the lower jawbones, and giving
accommodation to the deep pouch of the pharynx, as
shown in my illustration With the kind assistance of
my friend, Mr. R. Conway Hickson, whose finely-
placed residence at Fermoyle is in the immediate
vicinity of the scene of capture, the remains of the
head were rescued from the destroyers and conveyed
to Carthgregory, a neighbouring village, where scien-
tific appliances are scarcely more numerous than
“strawberries grown in the sea.” However, under
unfavourable circumstances four or five photographic
illustrations were obtained from it — not artistic, cer-
tainly, but affording correct ideas, for the first time,
I believe, of the physiognomy of the curious creature.
Eagerly, as you may suppose, and at once, I con-
sulted the few authorities within my reach, and found
that this remarkable cetacean had not been pre-
viously recognised as a visitant of the Irish coast,
nor of Great Britain, save once before, in 1 790. In
Jardine’s “Naturalists’ Library” it is described and
figured as Diodon Sowerbii, but the Plate there
given has little resemblance to the animal, and none
as regards the beak, its most conspicuous peculiarity.
It is described, though not figured, in the “ English
Cyclopaedia, as “Ziphius Sowerbii,” and that is
now its recognised appellation.

The genus “Ziphius” is remarkable chiefly for
its elongated jaws, which extend to, at least, a length
of fourteen inches from the commissure of the lips,
and form a beak or snout of great solidity and
strength. The upper fits into the lower as a cylinder
into a semi-cylinder. Before the lower jaws con-
verge to form this semi-cylinder, and posterior to the
point where the front of the pharyngeal pouch is
attached to the bone, one stout pyramidal tooth is
inserted in a deep socket on each side of the lower
jaw ; thus the tooth is nine or ten inches from the
extremity of the beak. The soft parts on the upper
jaw are notched on each side for the reception of the
high projecting tooth ; these teeth are believed to be
characteristic of the male. Though found in the Scotch
and Irish animals, there are a few specimens in Con-
tinental museums from which they are absent ; this
absence was supposed by some to indicate difference

of species , by others to be merely a sexual distinction.
The genus Ziphius is comparatively new to Natural
History. Nothing was known of it till some fossil
remains were sent from Holland and from the south
of France to Cuvier, who, not being then aware of
any existing cetacean with similar beak, supposed
the remains to belong to an extinct genus. The dis-
covery in Scotland, in 1 790, proved that this supposi-
tion was erroneous, and a very few living specimens
met with since have shown that Ziphius does exist in
modern seas. Still they are extremely rare, and an
unmutilated specimen would be of great anatomical
interest, and its skeleton a desideratum in any museum.

In 1870, after a lapse of six years, it was my fortune,
alone of all men, I believe, to meet with a second
Ziphius, about five or six miles from the site of the
first capture. This time the animal came in near
Brandon Pier, a very interesting and well-known
fishing-station, worthy of more remark than would
be relevant here.

Before I saw it, it had been treated like its prede-
cessor ; its flesh had been cut into a thousand pieces
by the greedy peasantry, and its bones unscientific-
ally sawn and broken. I snatched a portion of its jaw
from a dog’s mouth, and disinterred parts of the split
skull from a dungheap ; and I dragged some portion
of the skeleton, as well as part of the stomach which
pigs had not torn, from the ebbing tide. The intes-
tines generally were so mangled as to be useless for
anatomical purposes ; nor could any part of the solid
viscera be obtained. An irregular hole, whose largest
diameter may have been an inch, had been made in
one compartment of the stomach, which I had taken
from the tide-covered sand, and this compartment
was completely filled with sand. I do not think it
probable, or even possible, that the sand could have
entered through the accidental aperture while for a
short time under water. I cannot offer any explana-
tion of how or why it was there ; but who will affirm,
in our total ignorance of the habits of the animal,
that he did not swallow it during life, impelled by
some unaccountable physiological necessity, or per-
haps from depraved appetite, the result of disease?
I opened what seemed to be a second compartment
of the stomach, when more than a pint of bile rushed
out. Anatomists have denied a gall-bladder to zoo-
phagous cetaceans, but what was this ? — or is ziphius
not zoophagous? Nothing but sand and bile existed
in these viscera ; I was much pressed for time, and
could not examine more closely into the matter, but
sent both stomach and bile to Dublin to competent
investigators.

Ziphius No. 2 was about seventeen or eighteen feet
long, and was first observed on the beach at high
water, in great uneasiness, floundering, and, of course,
working a cavity in the sand, in which it remained
when the tide had ebbed. When first approached
by its butchers it was seen to open its cylindrical
jaws in a portentous way, and to close them with an

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

59

angry snap, while from each tooth stood out laterally
two or three large barnacles, giving it a wild and
extraoi'dinary appearance. Of these cirripedes only
parts of the peduncles remained when I got posses-
sion, but, as the captors said, they were not common
barnacles (. Lepas Anatifera), so well known to all
dwellers on the sea-coast ; I am inclined to believe
they were another well-known species ( Conchoderma
Aurita). The presence of these barnacles seems to
discountenance an opinion which some might rashly
entertain, that the sharp strong teeth, if not confined
to the male, were, used to impale the animals’ prey,
while being crushed by the powerful beak ; but if
such were the case, the impudent and daring guests
would be rubbed off before they could become firmly
fixed to their strange abode, so close to the maw of
their monstrous host. On the other hand, the ex-
tremely sharp point of the tooth would seem to
indicate constant use. As to the colour of the
animal, the skin on the head of the F ei-moyle speci-
men was of a glossy satiny black, badly represented
in the photograph, owing to the reflection of light,
but I cannot now speak with certainty of the mouths
proper and the tongue. In the Brandon Pier speci-
men I cannot speak of the head, but the deep pha-
ryngeal pouch was of the usual reddish colour of
mucous membrane. I obtained a few square pieces
with the natural skin, not torn or gnawed, black and
glossy, but vermicularly marked with white streaks,
up and down and across, in irregular network. Many
of the streaks bore a singular resemblance to old
cicatrices — scars from greedy marine warriors, inflicted,
perhaps, by grampuses or sharks. Though I will
vouch for it that Ziphius himself, if angry or jealous,
could give a sharp nip to an enemy or rival, yet I do
not believe that these teeth were given for attack or
defence ; if fixed at the point of the beak, they would
be powerful instruments for either species of warfare.
One of the spectators asserts, that when first stranded,
the unhappy animal “roared like a bull.” Another
insists that he was perfectly silent. In this, as in
almost every case, I would be inclined to believe the
less sensational witness.

A recital of the synonyms applied to our long-
beaked friend — ungallantly assuming that the tooth-
less specimens are the females — would fail to interest
your readers. Diodon, Physeter, Delphinorynchus,
Mesodiodon, Dioplodon, Mesoplodon, are a few of
the jaw-breaking epithets, dangerous to any jaw less
mighty than its own! “Ziphius Sowerbii,” like
Aaron’s Rod, has swallowed the others.

My friend, Mr. William Andrews, the zealous and
learned naturalist who has done so much for Irish
Natural History, and especially for that of West
Kerry, has given them all, and much information
besides, in an excellent paper read to the “ Royal
Irish Academy,” descriptive of Brandon Ziphius No. I,
to which I may refer all readers for information be-
yond the scope of my “ gossip.”

I placed the few fragments of skeleton No. i at the
disposal of Lord Ventry, and of No. 2 at the disposal
of Mr. Andrews, and I believe they are now in the
museum of the “ Royal Dublin Society.”

J. W. Busteed.

THE SEALS AND WHALES OF THE
BRITISH SEAS.

No. VIII.

By Thomas Southwell, F.Z.S., &c.

ONE more Bidtish Ziphioid is known, Sowerby’s
Whale ( Mesoplodon Sowerbiensis , De Blain-
ville) ; it was first described from a specimen which
came ashore at Brodie, Elginshire, in 1800, and has
since been found three times in Ireland ; there is also
a skull in the Museum of Science and Art at Edin-
burgh which belonged to a specimen believed to have
been captui-ed somewhere on the Scotch coast ; the
remains of five others are preserved in various
Continental museums.

Of the individual which came on shore on the
coast of Kerry, in March, 1864, Mr. Andrews has
given a description in the “ Transactions of the Royal
Irish Academy,” for April, 1867. Fortunately it
came under the notice of Dr. Busteed, of Castle
Gregory, who being interested in zoology, and aware of
the great importance of the occurrence, photographed
the head in several positions while it was yet fresh :
Dr. Busteed’s photographs were reproduced in the
Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. The head
had unfortunately been removed immediately behind
the frontal portion of the skull, the base of which is
lost, as also the other parts of the skeleton. The total
length of the animal was about fifteen feet, the two
teeth largely developed and projecting like the tusks
of a boar ; these teeth are believed to be developed
only in the males. On the under part of the throat
the V -shaped furrow was very conspicuous. Sowerby’s
specimen was coloured black above, and nearly white
below. The skin smooth like satin. “ Immediately
under the cuticle the sides were completely covered
with white vermicular streaks in every direction,
which at a little distance appeared like irregular cuts
with a sharp instrument.”

The remaining family, Delphinidce , as has been
said, is a very numerous one, it has ten representatives
in the British fauna, contained in seven genera,
the first of which, according to the arrangement I
have adopted, is that of Monodon. The Narwhal
{Monodon inonoceros , Linn. ) is a native of the Polar
seas, seldom leaving the ice ; stragglers have occui'red
three times on the British coast, one in 1648 in the
Firth of Forth, another came ashore alive at Boston,
in 1800 ; the third was taken in Shetland in 1808.
This species is very numerous in the frozen seas
to the north of latitude 65°, and is remarkable

6o

BARD WICKE ’S S CIENCE - G 0 SS/R.

for the enormous development of the left canine tooth,
which is projected forward in the form of a tusk or
a spear, reaching to the length of six or eight feet.
The spear is of fine compact ivory, hollow for the
greater part of its length, grooved spirally along its
outer surface, but smooth at the end, and bluntly
pointed. The right canine is rarely developed, but
a few examples have occurred in which both tusks
were present (see Proc. Zool. Soc., 1871) ; the female
is rarely furnished with this appendage. Not long
since I saw preserved in a country mansion, the tusk
of a Narwhal measuring 7 ft. 5 in. long ; it was care-
fully kept in a long case resembling a barber’s pole,

tusk, which is frequently found in a broken condition,
is used for purposes of attack and defence. The
Narwhal is very social in its habits, great numbers
being often met with together ; its food consists of
cuttle-fish and crustaceans. The length of the full-
grown animal is about 16 feet, the upper parts gray,
the sides and belly white, and the whole animal
spotted with black and gray. The only authentic
figure of the Narwhal with which I am acquainted is
that given by Scoresby ; this is so well known from
frequent reproduction that it is not necessary to give
it here.

The White Whale, or Beluga [Delphinapterus

Fig. 48. The Grampus (Orca gladiator, Lacep.).

and bore a ticket attached, which stated that it was

“ Bequeathed in 1561 by the Countess of — , to

her daughter .” The use of this remarkable

appendage appears very doubtful ; it has been con-
jectured that it serves to stir up food from the bottom
of the sea, in which case the female would be badly
off without it ; or that it is employed to keep breathing-
holes open in the ice, and an instance is related in
support of this view, in which hundreds were seen at
an ice-hole protruding their heads to breathe, but it
is not clear whether they made the hole for them-
selves, or whether they were attracted by it,
particularly as there were numbers of White Whales
with them. It seems certain, however, that the

lucas, Pallas), like the preceding species is a native
of the Polar seas, where it is common; it is abundant
in the White and Kara Seas and in the Gulf
of Obi ; on the coast of Norway it is occasionally
met with ; and in our own seas has occurred
several times, but must be regarded only as an
accidental straggler. On the east coast of America
it is found as far south as the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
where, as in the White Sea, it delights in ascending
the mouths of large rivers. In the British Associa-
tion Report on the Fauna of Devonshire (1869, pp. 84
and 85), occurs the following passage. “ Mr. P. H.
Gosse writes : — ‘On August 5th, 1832, I was return-
ing from Newfoundland to England, and was sailing

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

61

up the British Channel close to the land, when just
off Berry Head, I saw under the ship’s bows a large
cetacean of a milky-white hue, but appearing slightly
tinged with green from the intervening stratum of
clear water. It was about 1 6 ft. long, with a round,
bluff head. It continued to swim along before the
vessel’s head, a few yards beneath the surface, for
about ten minutes, maintaining our rate of speed,
which was five knots an hour, all which time I
enjoyed from the bowsprit a very good view of it. It
could have been no other than the White Whale, the
B. borealis of Lesson.’ ” The whale lately exhibited
at the Westminster Aquarium belonged to this
species; unfortunately it did not live to equal in
docility and intelligence a specimen exhibited in

kill great numbers, extracting the oil and drying the
flesh for winter use ; in Russia, the prepared skin
is much used for reins or other parts of harness
requiring great strength and lightness. The length
of the full-grown animal is about 16 ft., and its food
consists of fishes, Crustacea, and Cephalapods.

The common Grampus or Killer ( Orca gladiator,
Lacepede), (fig. 48) is a well-known and widely dis-
persed species, being found in both the North Atlantic
and Pacific Seas. Andrew Murray says “the common
Grampus tumbles through the heavy waves all the way
from Britain to Japan, vid the North-west Passage.”
In the British seas it is frequently met with, and has
occurred in several instances on the coast of Norfolk.
This species is very fierce, its appetite insatiable, and

Fig. 49. Pscudorca crassidens (Reinhardt).

Fig. 50. Risso’s Dolphin [Grampus griseus, G. Cuv.).

America, which “learned to recognise his keeper
and would allow himself to be handled by him, and at
the proper time would come and put his head out of
the water to receive the harness ” by which he was
attached to a car in which he drew a young lady
round the tank, — or to take his food. A specimen of
Delphinus tursio which was for a time with him in
the same tank, is said to have been even more docile
than this remarkable animal. * The adult Beluga is
pure white, and a “school ” of these animals “leaping
and playing in the calm, dark sea,” is said to be a
very beautiful sight. In summer the Greenlanders

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3rd series, vol. 17, p. 312.

carnivorous in the strictest sense of the word ; to the
Greenland and White Whale, as well as to porpoises
and seals, it is an implacable enemy, and follows
them ruthlessly. Dr. Brown says, “ the White Whale
and seals often run ashore, in terror of this cetacean,
and I have seen seals spring out of the water when
pursued by it. The whalers hate to see it, for its
arrival is the signal for every whale to leave that
portion of the ice.” Eshricht took out of the
stomach of a Killer, 21 ft. long, which came ashore
in Jutland, no less than thirteen common porpoises
and fourteen seals.

The rounded, compact form of this species gives the
idea of great strength and swiftness, and the beautifully

62

HARD WICKE *S SCIENCE - GOSSIP.

polished glossy black skin of the back contrasting
with the equally pure and well defined white of the
lower parts has a very striking effect ; altogether it is
a very handsome species, but there is something in
its appearance which seems to indicate its cruel
nature. The adult Killer measures about 21 ft. in
length, the back is pure black, the under parts white
and over the eye is a well-defined white spot ; there
are thirteen or fourteen strong, slightly curved teeth
on either side of both jaws ; the flippers are broad
and oval shaped, the dorsal fin high, particularly in
the male.

As these papers are intended for the purpose of
assisting in the identification of casual visitants to our i
shores rather than of giving anything like a history of
the known British species of Cetacea, it may be
desirable to mention here a very remarkable form,
which although it has never been known to occur in
the flesh on our shores, was first made known to
science from an imperfect skeleton found in a semi-
fossil condition beneath the peat in a Lincolnshire
Fen. To this Dolphin “ come back as it were, from
the dead,” and which forms a connecting link between
the genus Orca and the genera Graznpus and Globi-
cephalus (and which Owen had named Phoccena
crassidens), Reinhardt gives the name of Pseudorca
crassidens. On the 24th November, 1861, a large
shoal of these dolphins made their appearance in the
Bay of Kiel, about thirty of which the sailors suc-
ceeded in separating from the remainder, but all, with
one exception, escaped. This was a female 1 6 feet long,
which after being exhibited at Kiel and other places,
was bought for the collection of the University of
Kiel. In the summer of 1862, three other individuals,
presumably from the same shoal, were thrown ashore
on the north-western coast of Zealand. Of the general
appearance of this creature the accompanying
figure (49), copied, by kind permission, from Pro-
fessor Flower’s translation of Reinhardt’s paper
read before the Royal Danish Society of Sciences
in 1862, and published by the Ray Society,
will give an idea ; the figure is from a photo-
graph of the Kiel specimen, and is not in the
original paper. The length is from 16 to 19 feet ;
of the colour no account is given, but judging from
the woodcut of the Kiel specimen it appears to be.
uniformly shiny black. The number of teeth differs
in individuals, but in this one it was from 9 to 10 on
either side of the lower jaw, and 8 to 10 in the upper.
From the observations made by Reinhardt, he suggests
the possibility that there may be “ a difference in the
sizes of the different sexes, and whether the females
are not larger, but at the same time, perhaps, provided
with a head comparatively smaller than that of the
males.” It is very suggestive of how little we know
of the inhabitants of the sea, that at least one vast
shoal of a species known only from its sub-fossil
remains should be roaming the seas only to be accident-
ally discovered when its members became entangled j

in shoals from which probably many never lived to
extricate themselves.

Risso’s Dolphin [Grampus grisezis, G. Cuvier) is
a rare and little known species, which has been met
with four times on the south coast of England and
about eight times in France. In the “Transactions
of the Zoological Society,” for 1871, Prof. Flower
gives an account of an adult female which was taken
in a mackarel-net, near the Eddystone Lighthouse,
on 28th February, 1870, and which eventually was
sent up to London, when it was seen and described
by that gentleman. About a month later, a second
specimen was received in London, the precise locality
of which was not known, but it was probably from
somewhere in the Channel. This was also a female,
but a very young animal, and as the adult female first
taken had recently given birth to a young one, it is
quite possible that it may have belonged to her. On
the 26th July, a male of the same species was captured
alive at Sidlesham, near Chichester, and sent to the
Brighton Aquarium, where it lived only a few hours.

Risso’s Dolphin varies very considerably in its
colouration. The Sidlesham specimen was bluish-
black above, and dirty white beneath ; in the adult
female described by Professor Flower (from whose
illustration our figure is, with his permission,
copied), “the head and the whole of the body
anterior to the dorsal fin was of a lightish grey,
variegated with patches of both darker and whiter
hue. . . . Behind the anterior edge of the dorsal
fin the general colour of the surface, including the
dorsal and caudal fins, was nearly black, though
with a large light patch on the upper part of the side
directly above the pudendal orifice. The middle of
the belly as far back as the pudendal orifice, was
greyish white.”* The most remarkable characteristic
however, was the presence, scattered over the body,
of irregular light streaks and spots, these markings
extended from the head to within about two feet from
the tail and presented a most singular appearance.
In the young one the upper parts and sides of the
body were almost black, the lower parts nearly white,
the junction between the two colours being very
abrupt and sharp. “ On either side the body were
six vertical whitish stripes nearly symmetrically ar-
ranged, and almost equidistant, being about six inches
apart. They did not extend quite to the middle line
of the body above, and were lost below in the light
colour of the abdomen. ”+ The length of the Sidle-
sham male was 8 feet, that of the adult female 10 ft.
6 in. ; in the former there were present four teeth on
each side the lower jaw, in the latter three only on
each side, and in the immature specimen there were
present seven teeth, four on the right, and three on
the left side, the teeth are always placed in the front
part of the mandible, and in every specimen exa-

* Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. viii., p. 3.
t 1. c. p. 13.

HARD WICICHS SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

63

mined there has been an entire absence of teeth in the
upper jaw. In general appearance, Risso’s Dolphin,
more particularly the dark-coloured specimens, is said 1
very much to resemble the next species ( Globicephalus
mclas). Of its habits and distribution nothing positive
is known, but from its visiting France or England in
the spring or summer. M. Fischer “concludes that
this species is migratory, visiting the shores of Europe
in the summer, and passing the winter either to the
south towards the coast of Africa, or to the west
towards the American Continent.” *

MICROSCOPY.

Volvox Globator. — It may be interesting to
Microscopists to know that Volvox Globator can be
found in considerable numbers — although so early in
the year — in the large pond near Wandsworth Com-
mon Station. On Wednesday, Jan. 23rd, the Super-
intendent of the Sunday School here gave a treat to
the children, and we arranged to make it both in-
teresting and instructive. Having undertaken the
Microscopic department, I was examining a bottle of
fishings from the pond, and was surprised to find it
contained Volvox in great plenty. To find it so early
being quite new to me, I have inquired of several
friends, but none of them had met with it at this time.
Most of them seem to have imagined that it was use-
less to expect to find it till about the end of March.
It may be that many others have not found it for the
same reason ; and a knowledge of the fact of its being
obtainable now may be an addition to the Micro-
scopist’s pleasures. While examining a portion of
the gathering, we were particularly struck with a fine
specimen, containing no less than ten small ones en-
closed. It rolled round with a motion so grand, that
all who saw it were delighted. Suddenly, while
watching it, it stopped for a moment, and then burst.
Five of the little ones escaped from the parental en-
velope. There was a distinct pause between their
liberation, and each came out with a sort of dizzy
staggering movement, and then, after a momentary
rest, would start off and commence to roll as if quite
an old hand at doing it. The other five seemed to
die, and make no sign. — W. Winsford , Upper
Tooting.

Cleansing Old Slides. — In my paragraph on
this subject, which appeared in the January number
of Science-Gossip, p. 15, at line 4, instead of “ water-
glass, read 11 watch- glass.” In line 7 put a full stop
at “Benzole,” and instead of “ and use,” read
“ I use.” — John Bramhall.

Improvement in Microscope-Stands. —Mr.
George E. Fell, of Buffalo, has recently suggested a
new addition to the microscope-stand. It consists

* 1. c. p. 18.

of a finely-engraved scale on that part of the body of
the stand which sides the limb. The latter can be
furnished with a vernier, giving readings as close as
may be desired.

Plant-crystals. — At the last meeting of the
East Kent Natural History Society, numerous draw-
ings were exhibited of Raphides, and other microscopic
plant-crystals, intended to be engraved on two plates
of more than forty figures. They were the work of
Prof. Gulliver, F.R.S., who gave explanatory ob-
servations thereon. Among these was the curious
and novel description, that some trees and other
plants, from stem to branches and leaves, are in-
vested by a most delicate network, or tesselated
pavement like mosaic work, of cells all studded with
splicer aphides, so that each cell is set and adorned
with a gem of one of these beautiful crystals. Aralia
spinosa was said to form an example, beneath its
bark or epidermis, of this external skeleton of crys-
talline tissue. And an internal crystalline skeleton
was shown in other plants, including some Legu-
minosce , as may be well seen in the common white
clover ; the crystals being arranged in chains along
the vascular bundles. Mr. Gulliver remarked that
boiling a portion of the plant, before its examination,
in the solution of caustic potass which is kept by
druggists, exposes the crystals very clearly. He
added that he had learned that Mr. Hammond, of
Milton Chapel, had found the long crystal prisms of
Iridacece, &c., admirably suited for experiments on
the polarization of light ; and that the whole subject
of plant-crystals belongs to the vast domain of the
cell-biography of plants, hitherto sadly neglected, but
which must be diligently cultivated before we can
hope for the most complete system of botanical
classification, and knowledge of the laws which
govern the vegetable kingdom.

Habirshaw’s Catalogue of the Diato-
mace/E. — Mr. Frederick Habirshaw, of 6, West Forty-
eighth Street, New York, to whom I am personally
unknown, has kindly sent me a copy of the above
work, which supplies a want long felt by diatomists.
To explain its plan and intention I cannot do better
than quote the short preface. “ The following Cata-
logue, made for private use, contains the references
to the literature of the Diatomacece, published prior
to May, 1877. At the suggestion of Prof. Hamil-
ton L. Smith, of Hobart College, fifty copies have
been reproduced by the Edison electrical pen pro-
cess, for gratuitous distribution among those specially
interested in this branch of natural history, and I
trust the errors or omissions will not be found suffi-
cient to impair the value of the Catalogue.” The
volume is a convenient quarto, 11 in. x 6 in., of
some 270 pages, the first six containing a list of
the principal writings relating to the diatomacece ,
the rest being devoted to the general catalogue. The
genera and species are arranged alphabetically, and

64

HA RD W1 CKE 'S S CIENCE - G 0 SS/R.

there must be considerably over 7,000 species enu-
merated, to each of which short but copious refer-
ences are attached, as to where it may be found
figured or described, the synonyms being also given.
As far as I have been able as yet to verify these, they
seem quite correct. Those who have been fortunate
enough to receive a copy will, of course, show it to
their friends, who will wish to obtain one also, and I
fancy Mr. Habirshaw will be induced to print off a
much larger edition, though, of course, not gratui-
tously, to supply the demand. — Fred. H. Lang,
Torquay.

Microscopic Life of the Carboniferous
Limestone. — At the last meeting of the Chester
Society of Natural History, Mr. G. W. Shrubsole,
F.G. S., read a lengthy and interesting paper on
“ The Microscopic Life of the Mountain Limestone
( foramenifera , radiolaria, entomostraca, poiyzoa,
&c.).” The various objects described had been
chiefly obtained from the mountain limestone of
North Wales and the neighbourhood.

ZOOLOGY.

Turning an Enemy to Use. — The United
States Entomological Commission, which was organ-
ized for the purpose of investigating and reporting
on the entire subject of insect ravages throughout the
western regions of the United States, have discoveredj
by means of chemical analysis, that dead locusts will
furnish a new oil, which will be christened caloptine,
and a very large percentage of pure formic acid.
Though this acid exists in the ant and some other
insects, it is with difficulty obtained in large quanti-
ties ; whereas, by the action of sulphuric acid upon
the locust juices, it passes off with great readiness and
in remarkable quantity and gravity. The uses of this
acid, as a therapeutic, are capable of great and valu- r
able extension, where it can be obtained so readily and
in such quantity.

The Red-throated Diver. — When visiting in
Shetland two years ago, I had a capital opportunity
of witnessing the nesting of the Red-throated Diver
( Colymbus septentrionalis). Having been informed by
a Shetlander that the aforesaid bird had frequented a
certain loch the previous year, I was determined to
walk over thither, a distance of about six miles.
Accordingly I set out, but, in crossing the mountains,
encountered a very heavy shower of rain, which con-
tinued for the space of about an hour ; nevertheless
I succeeded in seeing the object of my expedition.
When on the summit of a mountain near my journey’s
end, I descried the loch, and also the Diver swim-
ming leisurely about. This, however, proved to be
the male, for, on walking round the margin of the
loch, I saw the female sitting on her nest with out-

stretched neck. She permitted me to approach within
about four yards of her. When I had stood for five
or six minutes to admire her beauty, she suddenly
dived from the nest, and all my efforts to see her
afterwards were unavailing. The nest was nothing
more than a slightly hollow depression on the very
edge of the loch, and contained but one egg, of a
more elongated form than usual, of a dark brown
colour, sparingly spotted with black. — C. D. Wolsten-
holme.

Rare Birds Shot. — Lately there have been
the following rare birds shot : — A Merlin ( Falco
ZEsalon), shot near Wetherby on the 16th Decem-
ber, 1877; a Bittern ( Botaurus stel/aris), shot at
Castle Howard, on the 26th of the same month ;
and a Pied Water Rail (. Rallus aquaticus ), shot in
Ireland in January, 1878. The latter has a great
quantity of white on the back ; the top of the head and
neck have also a little white about them. There is a
little white on the tail, and the tertials are nearly pure
white. — P. Thompson.

St. Mary, Lambeth, Field Club. — This most
useful and unostentatious Natural History Society
was originated about six years ago by the Sunday
School teachers of the parish, who have been very
successful in diffusing and popularising a love of natural
history. It includes about thirty members, of whom
Arthur Eve, Esq., is president, and Mr. G. Masters
secretary.

The Birds of Costa Rica. — At a recent
meeting of the Zoological Society of London, Mr. A.
Boucard, C. M.Z.S., read a paper, in which he gave a
list of the birds he had collected during a recent ex-
pedition to Costa Rica. The number of birds col-
lected during his five months’ stay was about one
thousand in number, representing two hundred and
fifty species, amongst which were two new to science
{Zonotrichia boucardi and Sapphironia boucardi of
Mulsant) and many others of great rarity.

“ Sponsa’s Headquarters.” — I find I made two
mistakes in my article. They both occur in the list
of Diurni at the end of the article : — Aglaja should
be omitted ; and, for Artaxerxes, of course Agestis
should be put. At the time I wrote the paper I was
much occupied with Artaxerxes , and suspect that was
the reason of the mistake. — Hastings C. Dent.

BOTANY,

The Inflorescence of Gourds. — The gratifica-
tion which I feel at the interest excited by my note on
the inflorescence of gourds and pumpkins is tempered
with regret at finding that I did not express myself
with sufficient clearness to be understood by your
correspondents, who seem to think that I had said
that fertile blossoms were expanded before any
staminate flowers had appeared on the same plant ;

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

65

which indeed was not my meaning. My observations
do not at all contradict those of Mr. Beal. What I
notice as remarkable is this: — In regular indefinite
inflorescence, when a flower appears in the axil of every
leaf, the flower in the axil of the lowest leaf is the
oldest, and therefore opens first ; then, that in the axil
of the leaf next above it ; and so on, as in the pimpernel.
In gourds and pumpkins, this order of expansion is
observed only among flowers of the same sex. Sup-
pose, then, that a plant bear ten flowers, the first
nine of them may be staminate flowers, the tenth,
pistillate. If a flower open every day, as is usual in
our climate, the fertile flower would not open in the
ordinary course till the tenth day. Instead of that,
however, it will be found expanded on the fifth and
sixth ; it may be simultaneously with one of the
staminate flowers or not, but always before the
staminate flower immediately below it. Flowers of
the two sexes, though indiscriminately mixed as to
position on the stem, thus form two series as to the
order of their expansion. I think that there are
usually more staminate flowers produced early in the
season, and a tendency afterwards to the production
of pistillate flowers which are abortive for want of
vigour in the plant to perfect them. I only remember
one instance of a gourd producing a fruit blossom too
early in the season to be fertilized : it was a miniature
gourd, which produced a fruit, as the result of that
blossom, with no seed. — John Gibbs , Chelmsford.

Asplenium septentrionale and Germani-
CUM. — About ten years ago I found Asplenium septen-
trionaleva the Beddgelert district. There were a great
many plants growing within a limited area, but the
spot was very difficult of access, and it was, perhaps,
owing to this that they had escaped observation. I
brought away four or five specimens, and took fronds
from some other plants, but they were all septen-
trionale. I did not look specially for Germanicum,
certainly, but, as far as my observation went, there was
not a plant of it there. At the same time I quite
agree with the observer whose opinion Mr. T. Belt
quotes, that a very close relationship exists between
these two species. — Edward Hart Vinen, M.D.

Gentiana acaulis. — In the Autumn of 1875, I
was staying, after illness, at the Freshwater Hotel,
Isle of Wight, and, during my first ramble over the
Downs, I gathered two species of Gentiana , which I
sent to my friend Mr. Varenne, of Kelvedon, who has
a fine collection of British plants, and is a first-rate
botanist. After reading the communication in your
last, about the appearance of Gentiana acaulis in that
locality, I wrote to Mr. Varenne to let me know
what species I sent him, and I enclose his answer : —
“Dear Dr. Bree, I am much afraid the lady who wrote
in Science - Gossip made a mistake about the
Gentiana acaidis in the Isle of Wight. You collected
two specimens of gentian there, in September, 1875,

as forwarded to me. One was a stunted state of
Gentiana Amarella , and the other, equally dwarf, was
a specimen of Gentiana canipestris , probably. Both
are many-flowered, and by that character very
different from Gentiana acaulis. — E. G. Varenne .” —
Dr. Bree.

Gentiana acaulis. — I would beg to remind your
correspondent, “ J. C. M.,” with reference to some
remarks inserted in your recent issue, that the flower-
ing of plants vastly depends upon climatal influences.
There is no reason because G. acaidis blossoms on the
Swiss Alps towards the middle of June till July, that
therefore it should flower here at that time ; the con-
ditions are totally dissimilar. Many years ago I
noticed several blossoms of this lovely plant, in a
friend’s garden in East Sussex, during the month of
September. It has been stated that “ Alpine flowers
are signalized by the intensity of their colours, this
increase of brilliancy in tints being attributed to the
pure snow-water nourishing the roots, to the greater
excitement of the light, and refined purity of the air.”
Not only so, there are other forces at work which
should cause an earlier floral development. They get
a longer and more persistent rest in winter, and pro-
tection from the carpet or blanket of snow. During
my travels in Italy, in February and March of 1865,
vegetation appeared to be most backward ; but on
my return home by Florence, in early April, the vege-
table world was in full luxuriance of leaf and beauty.
Whilst journeying over the Mont Cenis pass,
numerous flowers were in full bloom, some peeping
through patches of snow, others in places where it
had melted. Nothing of the kind existed out of doors
in England. If indeed G. acaidis blossoms with us
in June and July, as it is said to do on the Alps
during those months, the remarks by Treviranus,
quoted by Dr. Lindley in his “Theory and Practice
of Horticulture,” might hold good: — “It is well
known that plants from the northern half of the
world, when they have become naturalized in the
south, have changed almost entirely the time of their
vegetating, blooming, and fruit-bearing, so as entirely
to accord with the habits of the indigenous plants of
the country. Thus we find at the Cape of Good
Hope oaks, alders, almond, peach, and apricot are
in full bloom in August.” Our best botanists, such
as Mr. Bentham, I believe, maintain that G. acaidis is
not indigenous here ; so it might obey the dictum as
laid down by Treviranus. — John Colebrook.

Gentiana acaulis (S. G. 1878, p. 18). — I hope
your fair correspondent, Isabella H. Knox, will not
be offended if I tell her in your pages that Gentiana
acaidis is not found wild in the Isle of Wight, and
that the plants she found between the Needles and
Freshwater were not Gentians at all, but dwarfed
specimens of Campanula glomerata. There can be
no doubt about it. Bromfield, in his “Flora Vic- ,

66

HARD W1 CKE ’S S CIENCE - G OSSIP.

tensis,” says of the plant, “ on Freshwater Downs in
various places, as near the Needles Hotel and Light-
house, but scarcely an inch high, being browsed
down by sheep ” ; and he further adds in a note at
p. 291, “On the bleak and lofty Downs, at the
western extremity of the island, this species scarcely
attains an inch in height, and specimens from thence
were actually described and figured by Withering
(“ Arrangement of British Plants,” 3rd ed. ii p. 282,
and pi. xi., fig. 5) as a new species of Gentian , and
named by him G. collina .” I. H. K. may therefore
console herself that others before her have been
deceived by the same plant at the same place. — Wm.
Marshall , Ely.

Side Lights on the Composit/e. — A most
suggestive paper on this subject appears in the last
number of the Journal of Botany by Dr. Masters.
It is based on a specimen of Helenenium autumnale ,
in which all the florets appeared stalked and bearing
opposite leaves on the stalks, the whole forming a
corymb of flowers instead of the ordinary capitulum
of a composite.

British Marine Aixde. — Mr. H. Goole (Ply-
mouth) desires us to correct a few mistakes which
appeared in his communication on the above subject
in our last issue, p. 40. For instance, instead of Dasya
pumicea it should be D. punicea ; for Dudrisinia
dudrisnagra there should have been Dudresnaia
dudresnagia.

GEOLOGY,

Important Paper on the Geology of West-
ern Scotland. — At a recent meeting of the
Geological Society of London, Prof. Judd, F.R.S.,
read a most important and highly interesting paper
on Scottish geology. During the seven years in which
he has been engaged in the study of these interesting
deposits, the author has been able to prove that not
only is the Jurassic system very completely repre-
sented in the Western Highlands, but that associated
with it are other deposits representing the
Carboniferous, Poikilitic (Permian and Trias) and
Cretaceous deposits, the existence of which in this
area had not hitherto been suspected ; and by piecing
together all the fragments of evidence, he is enabled
to show that they belong to a great series of forma-
tions, of which the total maximum thickness could
have been little, if anything, short of a mile. The
relations of the scattered patches of Mesozoic strata
to the older and newer formations respectively, are
of the most interesting and often startling character.
Sometimes the secondary rocks are found to have been
let down by faults, which have placed them, thousands
of feet below their original situations, in the midst of
more ancient masses of much harder character.
More usually they are found to be buried under many

hundreds, or even thousands, of feet of Tertiary lavas,
or are seen to have been caught up and enclosed
between great intrusive rock-masses belonging to the
same period as the superincumbent volcanic rocks.
Occasionally the only evidence which can be obtained
concerning them is derived from fragments originally
torn from the sides of Tertiary volcanic vents, and
now found buried in the ruined cinder-cones which
mark the sites of those vents. In some cases the
mineral characters of the strata have been greatly
altered, while their fossils have been occasionally
wholly obliterated by the action of these same igneous
forces during Tertiary times. In every case, the
; survival to the present day of the patches of Secondary
rocks can be shown to be due to a combination of
most remarkable accidents ; and a study of the dis-
tribution of the fragments shows that the formations
to which they belong originally covered an area having
a length of 120 miles from N. to S., and a breadth
of 50 miles from E. to W. But it is impossible to
doubt the former continuity of these secondary
deposits of the Hebrides with those of Sutherland to
the north-east, with those of Antrim to the south,
and with those of England to the south-east. From
the present positions of the isolated fragments of the
Mesozoic rocks, and after a careful study of the
causes to which they have owed their escape from
total removal by denudation, the author concludes
that the greater portion of the British Islands must '
have once been covered with thousands of feet of
secondary deposits. Hence it appears that an
enormous amount of denudation has gone on in the
Highlands during Tertiary times, and that the
present features of the area must have been, speaking ,
geologically, of comparatively recent production — 1
most of them, indeed, appearing to be referable to
the Pliocene epoch. The alternation of estuarine
with marine conditions, which had, on a former
occasion, been proved to constitute so marked a
feature in the Jurassic deposits of the Eastern
Highlands, is now shown to be almost equally striking
in the Western area ; and it is moreover pointed out )
that the same evidence of the proximity of an old
shore-line is exhibited by the series of Cretaceous
strata in the West. Although the comparison and
correlation of the Secondary strata of the Highlands
with those of other areas, and the discussion of the
questions of ancient Physical Geography thereby
suggested, are reserved for the fourth and concluding
part of his memoir, Prof. Judd took the opportunity
of making reference to several problems on which
the phenomena now described appear to throw im-
portant light. In opposition to a recent speculation,
which would bring into actual continuity the present
bed of the Atlantic and the old Chalk strata of our
island, he points to the estuarine strata of the Hebrides,
as demonstrating the presence of land in that area
during the Cretaceous epoch. He also remarks on
the singular agreement of the conditions of deposition

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

67

of both the Silurian and Cretaceous strata of the
Scottish Highlands and those of the North American
Continent. But he more especially insists on the
proofs, which we now have, that the Highlands of
Scotland, as well as the greater part of the remainder
of the British Islands, were once covered by great
deposits of Secondary strata, and that the area has
been subjected to enormous and oft-repeated denu-
dation. He dwells on the evidence of the vast
quantities of material which have been removed
subsequently to the Mesozoic and even to the Miocene
period, and he maintains the conclusion that many, if
not all, of the great surface-features of the Highlands
must have been produced during the very latest
division of the Tertiary epoch, namely the Pliocene.

The Fossil Fungus. — I have frequently observed
that, in being called upon to answer criticisms of my
work, I have more commonly to reply to statements
I have never made (or even thought of) than to defend
the position I have really taken. In your January
number (p. 21) P. Martin Duncan combats the idea
that Peronosporites * 1 is perhaps the oldest fungus on
record.” I have never made any such statement, so
I need not reply. Your correspondent then quotes
instances of Algae being found in older rocks than the
Palaeozoic, but as my description refers to a fungus,
and not to an alga, the instances brought forward by
P. M. Duncan, though of the greatest value and in-
terest, refer rather to true algae than fungi, i. e. , if the
distinguishing characters between the two, and now
generally received, are to hold good. The letter in
your February number (p. 41), signed “John Butter-
worth, Goats Shaw, Oldham,” is of a very different
character, and hardly demands an answer. This
gentleman writes to “ dispute ” my “ claim to its dis-
covery,” because he “ discovered ” it {i.e., the Pero-
nosporites), and read a paper upon it (at Manchester)
which was not published. Now, I have never set
myself up as the ‘ ‘ discoverer ” of the fossil fungus ; I
claim to be nothing more than the humble drudge who
pored over the fungus preparation for some weeks,
made out the structure of the mycelium and fruit, its
affinity with living plants, and then attempted a de-
scription and illustration. If J. Butterworth did all
this in 1874-5, I regret, with him, that some per-
manent record was not made of his work “ in some
leading journal.” In my paper I distinctly stated
that Mr. W. Carruthers, F.R.S., the Keeper of the
Botanical Department of the British Museum, was
the “discoverer ” of the plant, as he certainly was —
and something more. The parasite has been known
by this gentleman for many years. J. Butterworth
states that a member of his Society identified his
fungus “as Peronosporites” in 1874-5. How this
learned “member” did so, I am at a loss to know,
as no stick genus as Peronosporites existed before last
year, when the name was given by me to the parasite
in question. I have certainly had something more

than a “casual ” view of the slide, as I have had it in
my own house for six months, and have it now. —
Worthington G. Smith.

The Fossil Fishes of Sussex. — At a recent
meeting of the Eastbourne Natural History Society,
Dr. Ward read a paper on “ The Fossil Fishes of the
District.” They are met with chiefly in the Upper
and Lower Chalk strata of the Downs at Holiwell ;
others in the Greensand and Gault ; and a few in the
Wealden beds. Dr. Ward’s paper was illustrated by
specimens.

NOTES AND QUERIES,

The Importation of Humble Bees into New
Zealand. — Perhaps some of your correspondents
could give some valuable hints as to the best method
I of importing humble bees into New Zealand. The
; farmers there are anxious to introduce them, as they
! are said to be necessary for the successful cultivation
j of clover, which they aid by carrying about the
pollen. An attempt was made, I understand, to
I bring over a number of the insects, but they all died
1 an the way, and it has now been proposed to bring
• over the eggs. But if, as I believe, the larvae are
hatched in cells, and fed by the parent bees until
entering the pupa-state, this idea would not seem to
promise better success than the former. Could the
perfect insects be transported in a torpid state ? Or
would it be possible to naturalize them by introducing
the pupae? I hope some practical solution of the
question may be given by some contributor, — Charles
B. Moffat.

Crayfish in Cumberland. — Some of the small
runners into Croglin Water, a tributary of the Eden,
abound with crayfish. I had many opportunities of
seeing them last spring. The inhabitants of the dis-
trict have a legend that the “crabfish” were intro-
duced by some member of the Featherstonhaugh
family, but so long ago that I could gather no precise
information as to the date. I think it improbable
that they are indigenous, but not knowing anything
of their geographical distribution, I shall be glad of
any information on the subject. — W. Duckworth ,
Grey-street , Carlisle.

Natterjack Toad on the Shores of the
Solway Firth. — While staying at Bowness on
Solway in August last, I found quite "a colony of the
Natterjack. On one part of the shore, where the
ground was damp, nearly every stone of moderate
size I turned up had a natterjack below, sometimes
two. There was no mistaking it, the yellow line
down the back being ample means of identification.
It would be interesting to know if ever it has occurred
thus far north before, as I was under the impression
that it belonged only to the east and south of Eng-
land.— W. Duckworth , Grey-street , Carlisle.

The Pigeon a Polygamist. — In Mr. Dixon’s
interesting account of the pairing instinct of birds,
he says, “I have once observed the rook practising
polygamous propensities. We have a pigeon of the
‘ horseman ’ variety which is a confirmed polygamist.
I observed this during the course of last summer
repeatedly.” Is this peculiarity in the pigeon known
to ornithologists as a common or uncommon occur-
rence ? Does this present to view an inherited energy,
or only applicable to the surrounding circumstances ?

! — M. King.

68

HARDWICKE'.S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

Query respecting Sea-Anemones. — Sea-
Anemones, like other animals, require to “be
fed.” But, unlike most other domestic animals,
this need not be done daily. Once a week will
do in most cases, though some like it oftener ;
but if it fouls the water more harm than good will
accrue to the animals by over-feeding. No doubt
they derive some nourishment from organisms in the
water, but these should be microscopical, and not
perceptible, i. e. , the water should even be sparklingly
clear and coloiirless ; if not, there is something wrong.
Find out the cause of this, and set it right without
changing it : time and patience alone will often
effect this. Or it may be aerated or circulated with-
out changing. In no case change it, unless it has
become chemically poisonous. Organic impurities
can always be got rid of by oxygenation, or a process
known as cremacausis, or burning up. Thus, living
animals give out carbonic acid gas, and certain effects
of food, which, if allowed to accumulate, generate
carburetted or sulphuretted hydrogen. But living
plants take up these poisonous gases (assimilate the
carbon to build up their tissues), thereby rendering
them harmless, and liberate the free oxygen again for
the animals to breathe. This goes on ceaselessly
under the action of light, and this balance of animal
and vegetable life is the grand governing principle of
all aquaria, great or small. If W. T. H. C. Trome
wishes to keep a scientific aquarium, he will remember
this, and never change the water. He will thus be
able to keep his animals more happily, healthily, and
easily. But the anemones must be fed. Mussel or
oyster flesh is best, handed to each individual by a
pair of wooden forceps, in pieces varying in size from
a pin’s head upwards, say, to a quarter of a mussel,
according to the size of the anemone ; experience
will soon show how much. Under proper conditions
this is nearly all assimilated. If it is rejected, perhaps
the pieces are too large, or the water too hot or too
cold, or the animals too crowded, — most probably
the latter with beginners. The thing is to find out
how many animals will live and flourish in a given
space : keep these and no more. If oysters or mussels
or fish cannot be easily procured for food, butcher’s
meat will do, but not so well. Much depends upon
the distribtition of the water. The smaller the
depth in proportion to the size of the animals the
better ; because the greater the surface aeration,
and, as oxygen is perpetually wanted for the animals
to breathe, and to purify the water, the more regular
the supply the better. This may be accelerated by
stirring in air, say, with the stick of a camel’s
hair pencil, this may be done daily, especially so
the day after feeding, to prevent or dissipate any
cloudiness in the water. The brush at the other end
will be useful to pick up any refuse bits, and skim off
the mucus which otherwise collects round the base of
most anemones, and would in a state of nature be
washed away and dissipated by the waves. We
collect them into a cup of water, and throw them
away, and thus prevent the accumulation of untidi-
ness, in small domestic aquaria of still water. In
large aquaria, as at the Crystal Palace, impurities are
dissipated by a ceaseless flow of water from tank to
tank, down to the underground reservoir, to be
pumped up again fresh and clear for ever ; and I
know of no cheaper or better guide than the sixpenny
and twopenny handbook to this successful institution ;
but if W. T. H. C. Trome will state his aquarium
dimensions and difficulties, we may be able to tell
him more in Science Gossip. Hardy anemones
are about the easiest animals to begin with. Ours
live and flourish, year after year, in shallow tanks, or
glasses, commercially known as “anemone pans,”

or pastry pans. In all cases growing plants cannot
be dispensed with, and spontaneous vegetation is found
best, because best suited to each separate situation.
To prevent this growing to excess, and causing the
water to become green, avoid too much direct day-
light, by using blinds or screens. Blue paper will
sometimes serve sufficiently. — G. S.

Botanical Localities. — The following is a fairly
accurate description of the localities inquired for by
Mr. H. Morton, in the January number of Science
Gossip : — Shotover Hill is 2\ miles E. of Oxford ;
Cowley is a village not far from the latter place,

2 miles S.E. of Oxford ; Bagley Wood lies 2\ miles
to the S. of Oxford and 3 N. of Abingdon; Wych-
wood Foiest (Winch wood being apparently a mis-
print) lies 14 or 15 miles to the N.W. of Oxford
(nearest station, Charlbury, on the Oxford and
Worcester line) ; Cornbury Park is situated at the
N.E. corner of Wychwood Forest, and half a mile S.
of Charlbury station. I have been unable to discover
the exact situation of Cornbury Quarry, but presume
it must be in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Park. Sunninghill Wells is in the extreme S.E.
corner of Berks., 6 miles S.S. W. of Windsor, 6 W. of
Egham, 7^ E. of Wokingham, and nearly a mile from
Ascot station. Most of these places are, as Mr.
Morton says, good localities for plants (I know nothing
about insects), and he may perhaps be interested to
know what plants may be found there. The fol-
lowing are the names of a few, which I give partly
from my own observation, partly from “ Walker’s
Oxfordshire Flora.” Shotover Hill, Polemonium
cceruleum , D rostra rotinidifolia, Gentiana Amarella ,
G. cainpestris , Trifolhim subterraneum , Habenaria
bi folia, H. viridis , Epipactis palustr is, Cephalanthera
grandijlora ; Cowley, Geranium rotundifolia , Pin-
guictda vulgaris, Anagallis ccendca, A. tenella, Fri-
tillaria meleagris, Orchis conopsea ; Cowley Bog is
also very rich in Scirpi, Car ices, &c. ; Bagley Wood,
Iris fcetidissima, Convallaria viajalis, Luzida congesta,
Neottia nidus -avis ; Wychwood Forest, Aspcrula cy-
nanchica, Atropa Belladonna, Orchis pyramidalis.
If Mr. Morton wishes to learn more about the good
botanical localities in this neighbourhood, I shall be
very happy to correspond with him. — H. W. Trott,
24, Walton-street, Oxford.

Entomological and Botanical Localities.
— (Reply to H. Morton.) (Winchwood should be
Wychwood ; Sunninghill Wells should be Sunning-
well Hill. ) Four of the places inquired for are within
a short distance of Oxford — say two to four miles
Shotover and Cowley are on the Oxfordshire side of
the Thames valley ; Sunning well and Bagley Wood
on the Berkshire side. Shotover may be reached by
rail to Wheatley, whence a pleasant walk of five
miles over the hill to Oxford. Sunningwell and
Bagley form part of an ironsand range of hills bound-
ing the Thames valley, between Abingdon and
Oxford, and are easily accessible from Radley sta-
tion. Cornbury Park and Wychwood Forest adjoin
Charlbury station on the West Midland line, about
twenty minutes’ ride per rail from Oxford. — E. C.
Davey, Wantage.

Fairy Flax (No. 158, p. 44), and Fairy Lint,
are names which, according to Johnston, in his
“ Botany of the Eastern Borders,” are given in the
border-land to Linum catharticum, L. The district
comprehends “ Berwickshire, the Liberties of Ber-
wick, N. Durham, and the immediately adjacent
parts of Northumberland and Roxburghshire.” I
should think the name, “ Fairy Flax,” is given to this

HARDWI CKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

69

pretty little plant merely from its delicate appear-
ance, being, in fact, a miniature or fairy imitation of
the common flax in everything but the colour of the
flowers. Still there may be some legend connecting
it with the fairies, and, if so, I shall be much obliged
to any correspondent who can furnish me with any
folklore of Fairy Flax illustrative of its name or other-
wise. “ E. L. S.”may be interested to know its other
English names, though, as far as I am aware, it has
fewer than most British plants. Gerard calls it
Mill Mountaine , which Prior, in his “ Popular Names
of British Plants,” derives from the Lat. Cha -mcel-
inum montanum , Gr., %ajuai-Xirw, Ground-blax.
In Cumberland, Shropshire, and Cheshire it is called
Mountain Flax , being frequent in hilly and moun-
tainous districts : and in the latter county it is also
known as Purging Flax , a translation of its scien-
tific name, or vice versa , and it is so called from its
reputed cathartic properties. In Cheshire, however,

I have found that herb-doctors are not very particular
what the effects of a herb may be, so long as it is a
herb, and they generally administer it as a stomachic
on account of its bitter taste. — Robert Holland.

The Nebular Theory. — It has been discovered
by M. Cailletet, and M. Raoul Pictet that our air can .
produce water; they have also converted oxygen and
nitrogen into liquids, and have produced a vapoury
cloud from hydrogen, under great pressure and ex-
cessive cold. Under the nebularh ypothesis of La-
place, the origin of water is nowhere satisfactorily
accounted for. Mr. Proctor has told us that it is to
all intents and purposes demonstrated that the nucleus
of this earth was formed from a nebulous condition.
The German astronomer, Gruithuisen, adopting the
same primary condition, formed this earth by the slow
aggregation of cold matter, leaving the water origin
unaccounted for. By this new discovery, it seems
that all the conditions for producing the water were
present under the latter system. The light and heat
had not penetrated the nebula ; there was therefore
intense cold, as there is now in the air above us and
at the sea-bottom. As the solids of the nebula slowly
condensed, they caused great pressure. As the gases
are expressed now in water from the earth, so we may
infer that they were at the beginning. In The Mail
of January 9th, 1878, I find, “It is only a question of
carrying these experiments further in order to reduce
these liquid gases to the solid form.” We have then
a nebulous mass filling the whole space now occupied
by the atmosphere, the water, and the solid earth.
Under the universal law of gravitation, the heaviest
molecules of the mass subsided towards their centre —
as these molecules condensed, they produced pressure.
Hence we have the result in our quasi-solid earth, the
water resting on it, and the air enveloping the whole,
the entire system resulting naturally from the nebu-
lous mass, the sunlight and heat reducing or refining
the atmosphere to its present condition by causes well
known. — H. P. Malet, 8, Via Venezia , Florence.

Harebell (No. 158, p. 47). — There are two good
reasons why this name should not be derived from the
hairlike stalks upon which the flowers hang. The
first is that the spelling “ Hairbell ” is of compara-
tively modern introduction, inasmuch as the older
writers, such as Gerard and Parkinson, spelled it
“ Harebell,” though it must be confessed that the
spelling of the older herbalists does not go for very
much. The second reason is that when those old
writers do make use of the name, they are not speak-
ing of Campanula rotundifolia , but of Scilla nutans.
When the name was transferred in books from Scilla
to Campanula I am not aware. Some choose to spell

the word “Airbell,” from the supposition that it
refers to the colour of the flowers being similar to the
air or sky ; but the same objections apply to this also
— the first does, at any rate. As a matter of fact,
however, the name Harebell or Hairbell is not the
name in most general use, except in books, for either
plant. In fourteen different stations in England and
Scotland I only have Hare — or Hairbell recorded for
Campanula in three, viz., Yorkshire, Cheshire, and
the West of England ; and in twenty-five counties I
have the name applied to Scilla in but one, Devon-
shire. Lyte is, I think, the oldest writer who gives
an English name to C. rotundifolia , and he calls it
“ Blewbelles,” which is still one of its commoner
names, but which is also as often given to Scilla. It
would seem, then, that Scilla nutans is the original
“Harebell”; that it was “hare,” not “hair”; that
the name has been transferred to Campanula rotundi-
folia, and the spelling altered in some cases in order
to account for the name, because its stalks are delicate
and hairlike. I do not possess a copy of Gerard to
refer to, but it is possible he may say why Scilla is
called “ Harebell.” — Robert Holland.

Pairing Instinct of Birds. — As to the question
of birds using the nests of other species, and why not
of the same species? It will invariably be found that
the selected nests are old ones, and belong to birds
who only once use them for their purpose. In the
case of the House Sparrow using the nest of the
Martin, the bird has utilized it for its purpose, in the
absence of the Martins, and, upon their return, keeps
possession of the nest by “force of arms,” and con-
sequently compels the rightful owners to build else-
where. I may also mention that sparrows may be
found breeding the year throughout, and retain their
old nests in many, if not all cases. There is a stately
fir-tree in my neighbourhood containing several
sparrows’ nests. They have been there for several
years, and I have not the least doubt but they have
been tenanted by the same pairs of birds, as the nests
are always equal in numbers, and should one of the
nests be destroyed, it will again be built in a more
inaccessible situation. Now, if birds used the nests
of their own species indiscriminately, their ranks
would be fraught with strife and discord, which I
have, as yet, failed to observe. All birds would con-
sequently strive to obtain an old nest, rather than be
at the trouble of constructing one for themselves ;
fierce combats would prevail, and then, no doubt,
the “survival of the fittest ” would in one sense be
correct. Again, all birds work as influenced by their
respective instincts. The Martin, having once con-
structed its abode, remains, through the agency of
instinct, at rest, as far as nest-building is concerned,
until that structure is damaged, or forcibly taken from
it, as in the case of the sparrow, when it must repair
its handiwork, or make new quarters elsewhere, if
not able to repel the aggressor. How can we explain,
except through this peculiar instinct, the annual
return of the same number of birds, and the little
wanderers alighting upon their temporary homes
shortly after their arrival; or, if their nests have been
destroyed, clinging to the old sites, and, as the breed-
ing season arrives, constructing new nests on the ruins
of the old ones? A word as to the circumstance
mentioned by your correspondent, “G. T. B. ” I have
no doubt that he is quite correct in believing that
the pair of blackbirds laying in the same nest
three successive years is one and the same pair.
But did not the nest undergo repairs? I have
never known a nest of this bird, however com-
pactly built, be fit for its purpose again, even the
next season, let alone three successive seasons.

70

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

However, as no such instance has come under my
own observation, I decline making further remarks
on such instance. The blackbird pairing with the
song-thrush, if correct, is no doubt a very exceptional
occurrence, and can only be explained as a mon-
strosity, which this, and all similar instances, un-
doubtedly are, and which, however unexplainable,
are repeatedly found in various birds and animals.
I will also mention the fact, that the pairing of
annual birds is not so closely linked with the vernal
year as is currently supposed. The hedge-sparrow,
through what I have observed, invariably pairs late
in December. A few weeks prior to that date the
birds are solitary; they gradually become more social,
and very garrulous ; and now, at the time of writing
this, all specimens seen are invariably in pairs. I
think Mr. Parsons somewhat mistakes my object in
saying, “the only way is by polygamy.” I do not
for a moment entertain the idea that all birds could
multiply quickly by practising it, but only those
which I have stated (first section of gallinaceous
birds), and for what that gentleman brought forward
the human race as examples, bearing on the present
subject, I am at a loss to imagine. As to polygamy
occurring in species under domestication, I ask why
the domestic swan (C. olor ) remains in a strictly
monogamous state for life, although, in many cases,
the males must be in the minority. I have known
a case where three of these birds were kept (two
females and one male). Now, the male bird paired
with one of the females and remained united to her,
and never bestowed any of his affections upon the
more unfortunate female. Ducks always show a
polygamous instinct when in confinement, if the
females do not exceed the males. Again, the do-
mestic pigeon, though the females may far exceed
the males, a polygamous instinct will never be
manifested, the male birds pairing in due season,
and assisting to rear their offspring with as much
care as the female birds. It must also be remem-
bered that the males of polygamous birds are in-
variably of bright, if not conspicuous colours, while
the females closely resemble the colours of surround-
ing objects. The males, too, are the best eating,
invariably the largest, and consequently the most
liable to capture, and the most prized as articles of
food ; while the females are more often rejected, or
never discovered in their haunts. It will thus be
:seen that the females would exceed the males, and,
did no such polygamous instinct exist within them,
'circumstances the most disastrous would arise with
deadly certainty to their race. Thus, I again say,
that through one of the wisest provisions of nature,
these birds are able to afford us sustenance, and at
the same time maintain their position amongst their
■congeners in the struggle for existence. — Charles
Dixon , Heeley , near Sheffield.

The Pairing Instincts of Birds. — Seeing
■.something in January part of Science-Gossip, about
the pairing instinct of birds, I thought the following
might be interesting. About April of last year I had
a brood of chickens, and amongst them I reared one
■duck. When they grew old enough I killed all the
cocks except one, for which one the duck has shown
a strange attachment, following it all about. The
cock has reciprocated and continued this sexual
attachment, showing a decided preference for the
duck over the hens. I have, unfortunately, lost the
duck, but the night before, the cock, instead of going
up to roost beside the hens, as it generally did, slept
on the ground beside the duck. It is impossible now
to say what would have been the result of their
attachment ; but perhaps some of your readers would

say whether they have observed the like. — John

Baillie , Sunderland.

Herrings. — Can any of your numerous readers
inform me, what are the signs by which some fisher-
men know where large bodies of herrings are
swimming, even when their boats are sailing rapidly
through the water ? — J. IV.

Dredging. — Would some of your correspondents
be so kind as to give me some information on dredging
not far from the shore, also as to what books would
be useful in determining the objects I am likely to
find ? — R. G. C.

Curious Modes of Blossoming. — I have in my
garden here a Rhododendron which grows near the
house, and is sheltered by it from the south and
west, but has no shelter from the north or east. For
the last three years it has blossomed about this time
of the year (January). There have been several flowers
this year, but all on the same side of the tree, and
near together. Last year they were on the other side,
towards the house, and were a little earlier (at Christ-
mas), and less numerous, but this year there is no
shelter whatever from the north and east. The
flowers are a beautiful pink, like the flowers on the
same tree in the summer. There is also a yellow
jasmine, which grows in the drawing-room balcony,
now in blossom, and neither of these plants has any
sun during the winter, and not much in the summer,
owing to their position. — Z. T.

Caves in Somersetshire. — Nearly all that is
known of these caves is summarised in Mr. H. B.
Woodward’s “ Memoir on the Geology of East Somer-
set, and the Bristol Coalfield,” published in 1876
by the Geological Survey ; but as “ Somersoeta” and
other readers of Science-Gossip may not have ac-
cess to such expensive luxuries as Survey Memoirs, I
venture to offer a brief epitome of the subject. The
Lamb Cavern near East Harptree is now closed. It
seems to have been artificial, but was fully described
in Collinson’s “History of Somerset” ( 1 71 1 ). In
Burlington Combe are several caverns, four of which,
viz., Aveline’s Hole, Plumley’s Den, Whitcombe’s
Hole, and the Great Goatchurch Cavern in Lower
Twinbrook Ravine, were explored by Professor Boyd
Dawkins and Mr. W. A. Sandford. (Geol. Mag.
vol. ii. p. 43 ; Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1864; Proc. Somer-
set Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc., partii., vol. xii. p. 161.)
They obtained remains of sheep, ox, reindeer, roe-
deer, ibex, goat, mammoth, bear, water-vole, wolf,
fox, badger, rabbit, hare, pig, mole, birds, and, in
Aveline’s and Whitcombe’s Holes, of man. The
human bones encrusted with stalagmite were evidently
buried. There are, or were, also caves in the Carboni-
ferous Limestone at Weston-super-Mare, Loxton, the
western end of Banwell Hill, and near Hutton. At
Uphill there are caves in the same formation, in which
remains of mammoth, deer, rhinoceros, wolf, ox,
horse, bear, otter, pig, hyaena, fox, polecat, water-
vole, mouse, birds, and man, have been found.
(Pooley, Geologist, vol. vi. p. 331 ; E. C. H. Day,
Geol. Mag., vol. iii. p. 118; W. W. Stoddart, Proc.
Bristol Nat. Soc., vol. v. p. 37.) There are several
caverns at Cheddar, but Cox’s is, though not large,
perhaps the most beautiful in England from its stalac-
tites. Bones of bear, deer, ox, horse, and man,
were recorded from a cave on the summit of the
Mendips here, by Mr. Long, in 1838. (Brit. Assoc.
Rep. 1838, p. 85.) Wookey Hole, near Wells, more
correctly spelt Okey (from British ogo, a cave), is only
second to the Peak Cavern in Derbyshire in point of
size, being nearly six hundred feet long, and, in one

HARD WICKE 'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

7i

part, eighty feet high. It is in the Dolomitic Con-
glomerate of the Trias. Messrs. Dawkins and Sand-
ford found here bones of hyama, lion, bear, wolf,
fox, mammoth, two species of rhinoceros, horse,
Irish deer, red deer and reindeer, and human im-
plements of flint, chert, and bone, of contemporary
date. (Dawkins, Q. J. G. S., vol. xviii. p. 115;
vol. xix. p. 260 , Proc. Somerset Arch, and Nat.
Hist. Soc., vol. xi., part ii., pp. 197-219 ; and Geol.
Mag., vol. ii. p. 44.) — G. S. Boulger.

The Furniture Beetle. — I can mention another
instance of destruction to furniture by the ‘ ‘ furniture-
beetle.” Two years ago I found them working and
living in the frame of a sofa that has been about thirty
years in my possession. The sofa was taken out of
the house, and during three days was frequently
brushed with very strong carbolic acid. Last week I
examined it, and found fresh borings of this pest.
The sofa has a beech wood frame, I in. thick and faced
with mahogany half-inch thick. The insects have not
touched the mahogany, but in many places have bored
close up to it. I am now having the beechwood re-
moved, and mahogany substituted. Can anything be
devised (short of destroying the wood) that would kill
these destructive insects ? I fear that their habits
render liquid applications unable to touch them or
their eggs. — T. Hughes.

The Freshwater Aquarium. — Scarcely a
number of Science-Gossip appears but contains
queries or notes on the above subject ; and, judging
from some of these queries and the replies to them,
aquarium-keeping on a small scale would appear to
the tyro an extremely difficult task. We are told
(“Ben Plant,” July, 1877) to limit the plants to three
species, molluscs to two, and reptiles to exclude en-
tirely. Others have complained of sticklebacks eating
all their snails, and of killing each other. My own
opinion is that there is nothing in connection with
practical natural history involving less trouble than
aquarium-keeping. In giving this opinion, it is true
that it is not the result of so many years’ experience
as some of your correspondents can boast, but it is
based upon seven or eight years’ successful work.
With regard to the vessel which is to constitute the
aquarium, I believe this to be of minor importance,
and that, so far as the inhabitants are concerned, a
washing-tub will serve as well as an elaborately con-
structed plate-glass tank, though, of course, the latter
is the best adapted for observation. I think the chief
charm (and use also) of an aquarium lies in the fact
that we see various creatures living under natural
conditions. To make the conditions as natural as
possible, I would introduce most of the inhabitants of
an ordinary pond ; the exceptions would be only such
species as prey inordinately upon the others. Such,
as the aquatic coleoptera and hemiptera, and the
larvae of dragon-flies. I would admit all the pond
gasteropods ; the two species of newts ( cristatus and
punctatus), and I certainly have not found it necessary
to limit the species of plants. The larvae of the
caddis-flies are interesting and amusing, and I cer-
tainly cannot agree with “ S.” as to the difficulty of
rearing them to their final stage. The aquarium must
have walls, and as the caddis-worms have legs, they
can therefore have no difficulty in reaching the surface.
It is no uncommon thing, at the proper season, to see
several escaped caddis-flies hovering about my aqua-
rium. “ P. E. C.” is troubled because the stickle-
backs eat his snails. His best plan would be to feed
the fish with small worms, until the snails have had
time to increase in number ; this they will soon do at
such a rate as will defy the most voracious stickleback.

Difficulties of this kind only occur at starting ; things
soon right themselves, and the “balance of power”
is maintained. “ S.” thinks sticklebacks are the most
troublesome inmates of an aquarium. I would sub-
stitute “ interesting ” in place of “troublesome,” and
I think Mr. Scott (Jan., 1878) has given “ S.” the
correct reason of his failure in keeping them. I believe
that all these difficulties are caused by having the in-
mates unnaturally select. With a plentiful and varied
supply of vegetation, a host of Entomostraca and In-
fusoria will be introduced, which will form an inex-
haustible food supply to the fish. The decaying plants
and animal exuviae will form a fine mud at the bottom,
in which the pretty little bivalve, Cyclas cornea ,
annelids, &c., will find a congenial home. The water
should not be changed or disturbed. In spite of the
mud the water will neither be turbid nor odorous, and
the student can observe the habits of the inmates under
natural conditions. An aquarium, so conducted, may
not look so ornamental as an elegant glass vase with
a floor of scrupulously clean gravel, above which two
or three lazy gold-fish are slowly swimming round a
solitary plant ; but it will afford the microscopist or
biologist excellent opportunities of study. — Edzuard
Step.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip at least a week earlier than hereto-
fore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any
communications which reach us later than the 9th of the
previous month.

W. Wakefield. — Your mosses are: — 1. Hyfinum undu-
latum ; 2. Neckera crispa ; 3 and 4. Hypnurn sericeuvi.

W. A. C. — Your specimens are: — 1. Physcia parietma ;
2. Evernia pruuastri (both lichens) ; and 4. Hyptium squar-
rosum (a moss).

F. T. M. — Your moss is Hypnum confertum.

M. Skilton.— Your specimens are : — 1. Hypmim ripcirhim ;
2. Bryum capillare ; 3. Hypnum rutabulum.

J. C. Johnstone. — Your specimens are: — 1. Dicranella
hetercnnalla ; 2. R haco7nitriu77i heterostichum ; 3. R.

ellipticui7i ; 4. Orthothecimn rufesce7is ; 5. Bryum crudum;
6. B. bimum ; 7. Rhacomitriw7i lanugindsum.

G. S. — Apply to the London Stereoscopic Company, Regent-
street, London; or to James How & Co., 5, Bride-street,
London; orC. Baker, 244 and 245, High Holborn, London;
or J. H. Steward, 406, Strand, London, and inform them of
the kind of lantern slides you require.

C. Swatman. — The article you refer to has not yet appeared.

C. Harris. — The following are the names of the zoophytes
sent:— 1. Flusta ? 2 and 3. Sertularia polyzotiia ; 4. Sertu-
laria ope7'culata l 5. A ntenmilaria ant emit na.

A. W. P. — We do not think your chrysalides will harm under
the circumstances.

A Constant Subscrip,er. — A facsimile reprint of Walton’s
“ Compleat Angler ” has been issued by Messrs. Eliot Stock.
Frank Buckland’s “Popular History of British Fishes” is
cheap and good. Couch’s “British Fishes” is our best and
largest book on the subject.

T. Q. C. — The fungus is called Peziza awtantium.

J. K. — Your sponge specimen is Halicho7idria (or Chalina)
ocutata.

The Botanical Exchange Club.— Those members who
may be still waiting for return parcels are requested to bear
the delay, which has been owing to the severe illness of the
Secretary. No time will be lost in distributing the parcels as
soon as possible.

W. B. — The present address of the South London Entomo-
logical Society is the South Metropolitan Temperance Hall,
Biackfriars-road, S.E.

K. D. (Almondsbury). — Your shells are : 1. Cla7isilia.

Ia77iinata ; 2. Balia perversa; 3. Cochlicopa lubrica ; 4.

Bulimus ; 5. Pupa marginata ; and 6. Siiccinea putris.

J. Sims. — The “coloured matter” sent was doubtless iron
oxide, produced perhaps by the decomposition of the argillaceous
carbonate of iron nodules often so abundant in the coal mea-
sures. The piece of limestone shale is of carboniferous age,
and is impressed with Prodjicta, Orthis , and Rhy7ico7iella.

R. M. Christy. — We have no doubt that a published list of
British marine shells for labelling cabinet specimens, &c., may
be had of Van Voorst, publisher. A cheap book on bird and
animal stuffing is that published by F. Warne & Co., price
one shilling.

72

HARDWICKE'S science-gossip.

H Haines.— Your shells are all correctly named, and many
of them are most excellent examples of their kind.

G \ Holt. — The object on Briza media was not a fungus,
but looks like one of the pollen masses of an orchid, transferred

b> _ The micr0-fungus on leaf of Lavatera

svlnestris is Puccinia malvacearum, Corda. _

F C Kelland. - Your micro-fungus is Phragmidmm
mucronatum, Fr„ see Dr. Cook’s “ Rust, Smut, Mildew, and

^Geo* Clinch — The fragment of fossil wood sent appears to
be from The Portland bedsfbut it is impossible to tell from such
a small piece. The fossil from the chalk is not a tooth, but

pa'p °W.n b!— The drawings sent us for identification are :

No "i Pleura sigma ; 2. Stephanodiscus ; 3. Amphora ovalis
a Ts not a diatom ; 5. Globigerina is an interloper. It certainly
did not live with the diatoms, which are all fresh-water forms.
J. Cunnack.— Masters’s “ Vegetable Teratology was pub-

llSA!dBbyCt-d/«rJ«Sshould be pronounced Markantia.
EXCHANGES.

1

Send mounted or unmounted material (good) for various
Diatomaceous Earths, to W. Wood, 25, Gower street W C

htnt% °?£ *7 Mi S9. »■’«,

l°X “s’, 287” 343?35<, 379, 45*. 4<S6, and 474 ; and Crith«ium
maritimum for 411, 4I3. 4M> 4X5> 42I» 4~2> 43 > an 4 9-
F W Andrews, University School, Hastings. ,

Sfveral duplicate slides, well mounted, Diatoms in situ,
fruited Marine Algse, Holothuria plates, and other interesting
marine objects ; stfme choice unmounted matenal m Diatoms,
Foraminifera, Zoophytes, Holothuria Algm &c ^. Wanted
Magic Lantern, first-class Slides or Cash. Will send mine on
aoDroval. — T. McGann, Burrin, Ireland.

PFor exchange : 690 foreign stamps (in book), all different, o
/countries^ agnd all genuinl Wanted Lepidoptera or Eggs.-
? McAldowie, 82, Bonaccord-street, Aberdeen. . .

^ Will exchange washings from the London Clay containing
Foraminifera, Entomostraca, &c., or select specimens of laiger
Fossils for Bell’s “ Monograph on the Malaco.->tracous Crus-
taci? Part I. London Clay.-W. H. Shrubsole, Sheerness-on-

SeDR. Partridge, of Stroud, will exchange Science-Gossip
for 1877 for well-mounted micro slides of parasites, fish

PeDutmcATEsd— Missel Thrush, common Snipe Water Hen,
Bald-headed Cock Peewit, Pheasant, Blackbird, Song Ihrush,
and Greenfinch in exchange for other eggs ; side-blown eggs
only accepted.— J ohn Tholpe, Spring-gardens. Mrodleton.

MFoCRsSrs of Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) send stamped
1 a td Ocrilvip Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.
^Fight years’ Science-Gossip, newly half-bound in leather,
for good slides or micro apparatus.— R. Bridger, 23, Oxton-r ,

B DkiATOMd‘, twentv-one fossil and sub-fossil earths (material)
from various parts of the world Good recent diatoms v, d
(material), marine species preferred. Send list to vv.
Paterson Westfield-terrace, Loftus. . ,

1 Wanted, a halfdnch objective o 4? degrees, with or wt -

;■ crartr^r; of Platvcenum alcicoma, and section 01 cane.

Wanted, objects mounted or unmounted in exchange for above.
T Watson Bank Parade, Burnley. ,

other kinds from Africa or other parts.-J. N., 14. *ork 10aa>
BAVan-Ied Lepidodendrons and other stems from the carboni-

^"oU^J'Catalogue : Nos. .71, 8.*, tc7t, .074, M«3.
S’ -a A. °0 L “Mildma^oad, Highbury

KLondon Catalogue, 7th edition: 121, 122, ^^3,^01,

217, 238, 328, 330, 346, 363, 533. .539. 542,

list to Edwin Hepworth, 17, Spring-lane, Lees.

Teeth of Saurichthys and rilff to «cWe

<named), from the Rhoetic bone-bed at Aust Cliff,
for tertiary fossils, Barton series preferred.— Rev. K. Ueakin,
Almondsbury, Gloucestershire.

Send good slides or material for Siliceous Foraminifera,
fossil (rare), or Sucker-foot of Acilius sulcatns (beetle).— Wm.

T. Fuller, Broad Plain Soap Works, Bristol.

J. W. B ulmer, South Parade, Northallerton, Yorks, will
send, post free, 50 varieties of rare Foreign Stamps for British

B1Exchange. — British and Foreign Shells, Fossils, Minerals,
and polished specimens of Madrepones, for Dudley and other
Trilobites. — A. J. R. Sclater, 4, Bank-street, leignmouth
Exchange. — Can occasionally send Octopus, Squid, Cuttle-
fish and a great variety of marine animals to parties who will
exchange for the same. — A. J. R. Sclater, 4, Bank-street,

^ Zonites purus, Z. fulvus, and a few Rotundata (var .Alba),
also a few Birds’ Eggs, for British Marine Species or Foreign
Helices. — Thos. Hedworth, Dunston, Gateshead. .

Good Slides offered for unmounted material; specially
wanted, Parasites and Eggs of Parasites Eggs of Lepidoptera,
&c., also British Polyzoa, Biccellana, Cillata.— J. D. Pepper,
rt Talbot-street, Moss Side, Manchester.

' For a Slide of Crystals for Polar send two good Prepared
but Unmounted Entomological Objects to Wm. Sargant, Jun.,

Caverswall, Stoke-on-Trent. , . , ,

For sound pieces of Wood 8 by 6 by 4, showing bark on one
side, of No. 46, 295, 297, 299, 382, 480, 482, 516, 616, 621, 830,
848, 1125, 1201, and 1203, I will give in exchange rare British
plants or micro slides.-J. Tempere, 23, Croucy-street, Col-

ChWiLL send specimen of Ptychogasier allies (microscopical
fungus) for good plant, moss, or microscopical material.—
F. Crosbie, The Chestnuts, Barnet.

Wanted, recent Diatoms from Monterey Bay and Cuxhaven
Mud, Diatomaceous Earth from Stoneyford County Antrim,
and well-mounted slides offered in exchange.— William A. r irth,

'^Will exchange Book on Diatoms by Prof. A. Mead Edwards,
cost 3s. 6d., fur some back numbers of Science-Gossip or
unmounted micro objects. — E. V., 41, Peckham Grove, S.E.

The beautiful Green Lizard, L. Vindis (living), in any
number. Open to offers.— J. Sinel, Bagot, Jersey. .

In exchange for any other Mounted Objects, Proboscis of
Blow Fly, Pleurosigma angulatum, Amphipleura pellucida.

—Address, T. C. Maggs, Yeovil. iu.t

Wanted, Gosse’s Works on “ Marine Natural History, in
exchange for Botanical Works.— C. A. Gwines, 8, Crafford-

St Wanted, Cuticles, Insects, &c., prepared for mounting, for
other material. 200 oz. covers, glass, cheap.— Tylar, 165, Well-

''sEND^dFmmuned 3 by 1 Slide for a sample of Diatomaceous
Tripoli. — T. Brown, 7, Spencer-street, E.C.

British Coleoptera. Exchange^correspondents wanted.—

British coleoptera.

James Walkden, 183, Broad-street, Pendleton, Manchester.

J Melicerta ringens, exchange for living Sea Anemones
(.actinia) or madrepores, or good mounted micro object. H. E.
Forrest Lloyd’s Bank, Aston-road, Birmingham _

Living ormounted specimens i of
for good mounted or unmounted objects.— John Levick, Lime
tree Villas, Albert-road, Aston, Birmingham.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

By Alan Bagot. London : C. K.

“Accidents in Mines.”

Paul & Co.

“ Industrial Art.” February.

“ Land and Water.” February.

“Journal of Applied Sciences. February.
“ Chambers’s Journal.” February.

“ Science pour Tous.” January.

“ Botanische Zeitung.” January.

&c. &c. &c:

BEEN

-f 1

HVu: oT'HvviAwwws.-i 1 Si-w.H.sr

• T w r G A G-E C. D.— R. E— A. S.-Di
JIaJ°r Ir~KH- / w p -W. E. G.-E. W. W.-J. C.-V.C
derCV MlfTS-C. W. C.-D. S.-F. C.-H.W.T.-
TTF‘rC*D _Le V — W. T.— C. A. G.— J. w.— W. A. F.-
H' £ F— A B C.— H. A. M.— W. S. jun^W. C.— J.

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h. J.— A. j. R.— T. Q. C.— J. M. M.— j. K.— &c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -G OSSIP.

73

REPORT OF SCIENCE-GOSSIP BOTANICAL

EXCHANGE CLUB.

approaching this sub-
ject it is pleasant to say
we have in a measure
succeeded beyond our
expectations, but we
should have been still
more successful and
have been able to send
more of the marked
desiderata, had we been
supported in our efforts
by more of our working or rather collecting botanists.
Evidently it was regarded solely as an Amateur Club ,
so that one of the rules seemed to be totally over-
looked in so far that a lot of specimens were sent
such as Beilis, Leontodon ; in fact, some few parcels
contained only such as could be gathered in a field a
few yards from our door. Another year, we are
satisfied, all this will be changed for the better.

A few contributors have kindly sent short notes
upon any specimens thought to be unusually rare :
these we give below. We also name a few good
things which we have had great pleasure in distri-
buting : — Ranunculus fioribundus, Bab., common
in the Tweed district. Some of our plants ap-
proach elongatus, others triphyllus , and confusus. —
A. B. Ranunculus salsuginosus. This form is
frequent in the river Tweed. — A. B. Ranunculus
Jluitans , Newb., river Lathkill, Derbyshire. — C. B.
Draba muralis , plentiful in cultivated ground
(nurseries), to which it has been introduced about
Kelso and Melrose, Roxburgh. — A. B. Raphanus
maritimus. Lizard Point, Cornwall. We supplied
about one half of the parcels with this rare species.
Dentaria bulbifera, High Wycombe. — T. E. D.
Viola Curtisii, Lytham. — J. C. M. V. amcena ,
Bishop Auckland.— J. P. S. V. lactea, Helston,
Cornwall. — J. C. V. Curtisii , Land’s End. — J. C.
Silene quinquemilnera. Introduced to the Tweed
district. — A. B. Circcea alpina, (5. intermedia,
Gaitheugh, Berwickshire, where it is abundant : along
with it I observed a few patches of C. luietiana ,
No. 160.

possibly true “ or typicalR Alpina grows there also,
but I did not detect it. — A. B. Rubus cceshis, var.
pseudo-idceus, Springwood Park, Roxburgh. Various
forms of Rubus uesius are plentiful in the district, but
I have seen this only from the above locality. — A. B„
Rosa pomifera. On the roadside at the highest part,
above Sweethope, Roxburgh : one of the bushes is a
fine old plant about 7 feet high, and as much through.
They are as far as possible, under the circumstances,
from any house or garden, being about halfway
between two farm-places. I have never seen it in a
garden in the district. — A. B. Rosa Wat torn, also
common in the T weed district, and, like Rosa subcris -
tala, very variable. — A. B. Rosa subcristata. This
variety is common in the Borders.— A. B. The
fruit of Watsoni can scarcely be confounded with any
other species, when once recognized. Alchemilla
conjuncta, Buttermere Fells, Cumberland. — R. W,
Upon writing to Mr. W. respecting this locality,
which is open to doubt, he informed us the specimen
sent was cultivated in his garden, but was originally
brought from Buttermere by a friend of his in the
North of England. Not the least doubt, however,
exists as to its being the true conju?icta, and if the
locality is also a genuine one, it is one of the most
important discoveries our contributors have brought to
light this season. We may also add, the leaves are at
least one-third larger than the plants we have inspected
| at Kew and Benthall Hall. Adedicago lappacea. I
have found a few specimens of this species on Tweed-
side every year, for the past five seasons. It”grows
in company with the other Medics (Ad. denticulata,
Ad. maculata, and Ad. minima), along with which it
has been introduced to the district with wool. — A. B.
Trifolium Molinierii, Lizard Point. — J. C. T. stric-
turn, Lizard Point. — J. C. The above clovers are
old friends. It is pleasing to know they still retain
possession of the old station, from which they were
recorded many years ago. Sarothamnus prostratus.
Lizard Point. — J. C. ddelianthemum canum, Great
Orme’s Head. — C. B. Ribes alpinum , Rokeby,
Teesdale. — J. P. S. Spergularia marginata, Arnsidc.

E

74

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

— C. B. Ccillitriche antwnnalis, abundant in Yet-
holm Lock, Roxburgh. Although it has not been
recorded, so far as I am aware, from the Till or the
Tweed, judging from the large quantity that is
annually, after every high wind, carried into the Bow-
mont, and thence to the Till and the lower reaches
of the Tweed, it will very probably be found
there also. — A. B. We believe this was recorded
by Dr. Johnstone several years since. Lamium
intermedium , a rare weed in cultivated ground about
Kelso. — A. B. Scrophularia Scorodonia , Penzance.
-J. C. Pulmonaria officinalis , some very large
patches in Makerstown Woods, Roxburgh. Pro-
Babiy a remnant of monkish cultivation. — A. B.
Veronica peregrina, a garden weed, at New Louden,
Berwickshire. — A. B. This plant is rapidly spread-

ing : it seems but a few years since it was named
by Prof. Babington, from specimens then discovered
near Perth. Rtimex rupestris , Helston. — J. C.
Polygonum littorals, Link, P. Raii, both gathered at
St. Bees Head. — C. B. P. arenastrum , Bor.,
St. Bees Head. — C. B. Orobanche ccerulea, St. Owen’s
Bay, Jersey. — G. C. D. 0. rubra , Gunwalloe. —
J. C. Allium triquetrum , Helston. — J. C. Goodyera
repens , Bowmont Forest, Roxburgh. — A. B.

Plentiful in many Scotch Fir woods in both
Roxburgh and Berwickshire. Most likely it will
also be found in similar situations in Northumber-
land ; indeed, I have found it within three miles of
the borders of that county. Owing to the increase of
plantations, this plant has increased rapidly of late in
this district. The Goodyera appears to have been
one of the original natives of the Borders when this
part of the country was covered with forest. When
the land was cleared, it, and others of a like nature,
would disappear and remain in a dormant state, until
circumstances rendered the soil again suitable for
their existence. Cephalanthera grandiflora , High
Wycombe. — Mrs. T. E. D. Erica tetralici-ciliaris
Penryn, Cornwall. — J. C. Cuscuta epithymum ,
Kingswood-heath, Surrey. — J. L. Crocus nudifiorus ,
Derby. — W. H. P. Impatiens parvifiora, Ockbrook,
Derby. — W. H. P. Potamogeton nitens , Web.
Abundant in the Tweed and Teviot, in the counties
of Roxburgh, Berwick, and Northumberland (Che-
viotland). Like others of the genus, it is variable.
The description of P. nitens in “Student’s Flora”
says the leaves are recurved, — surely a misprint for
incurved. — A. B. Potamogeton zostercefolius, Spon-
don, Derbyshire. — W. H. P. P. lanceolatus, River
Lligway, Anglesea. — C. B. This is another record
for a very old station, originally made public in
Davie’s “Welsh Botanology. ” Plantago Timbalii ,
Mullion, Cornwall. — J. C. We believe this has
not hitherto been noticed in the above county.

Veronica triphylla , York. — H. R. M. Mellittis
mellis sophy Hum, Beeralston, Devon. — W. H. Carex
humilis, Leigh Woods. — W. G. C . filiformis, abun-
dant in Lurgie Loch, Berwick ; Prins-de-bog, Rox-

burgh ; and Campfield Bog, Northumberland. —
A. B. Wherever this species is met with, it is
generally abundant ; such is our limited experience.
C. digitata , near Tintern Abbey, Monmouthshire. —
C. B. — C. ornithopoda , Cresbrook Dale, Derbyshire.
— C. B. Three of our contributors send a limited
supply of the above novelty. It will doubtless be
new to most of the members. Carex punctata, Gau-
din. Ledges of perpendicular rocks in the Water-
winch, Tenby. — C. B. We hope again shortly to
refer to this species ; the fruits have been submitted
to Dr. Syme. Cyperus longus, Rennoch Valley. —
J. C. Juncus pygmceus, Lizard Down. — -J. C. We
are glad to be able to supply the whole of the mem-
bers with this species, which is, comparatively
speaking, a recent addition to the British Flora.
Scirpus parvulus, mouth of Ovoca, Arklow. — C. B.
Kobresia caricina, Widdy Bank, Teesdale. — J. P. S.
Leersia oryzoides, Woking, Surrey. — H. E. W. It is
but seldom good specimens of the Leersia can be
secured ; nearly all we have seen have been im-
perfect : the few we have on this occasion distributed
are excellent examples. Bromus Lloydianus, near
Lizard Point. — J. C. Ophioglossum ambiguum , St.
Martin’s, Scilly Isles. — J. C.

A total of forty-four parcels of plants were sent
out. In each case we made as good selection as was
within our power.

DOES DESICCATION KILL DIATOMS?

A COMMUNICATION on the above subject, by
M. P. Petit, was made to the Societe de
Botanique, Paris, and as the subject is of considerable
interest to the diatomist, we have much pleasure in
reproducing it.

‘ ‘ As the heat of summer dries up the ditches, pools,
and puddles, one sees that when the last trace of
humidity vanishes, the diatoms with which they
were stocked also disappear. But when the rains of
autumn and winter refill the places we have indicated,
the diatoms revive and soon reappear in great
numbers.

For some years I have gathered with care the
dried surfaces of the ditches in which I knew that
great quantities of diatoms existed, in the hope of
finding traces of spores or zygospores. I, however,
never found anything but empty frustules mixed
with the soil that had served as a substratum. Never
being able to find traces of spores, the idea occurred
to me to make experiments on the diatoms when
placed under the same conditions as occur in nature.
I therefore collected, at divers periods of the year,
the diatoms, with their substratum of mud or clay,
and submitted them to desiccation in the sun, placing
the material in glass vessels covered, to keep them
from dust, some for six, and others for eight months.
The desiccation was such that the deposits at the

75

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

bottom of the vessels were cracked in every direction.
In the month of September last (1877) I examined
some fragments of these deposits. I saw that the
frustules were there, and also that they were trans-
parent and apparently empty. But on making a
more careful examination, I saw in the interior of
one of the extremities, in a majority of frustules, some
brown granules, which I considered were the remains
of the dried endochrome.

The vessels were then filled with distilled water
sufficiently aerated by prolonged agitation ; after this
they were exposed to the direct heat and light of the
sun.

During the first two or three days there appeared
but little change in the frustules, but on the fourth
day the large brown granules had augmented in size,
and had taken the yellow tint characteristic of the
diatomaceous endochrome. In following from day to
day the augmentation of the plasma, I remarked
that on or about the fifth day this nearly filled • the
middle of the frustule, and on the eighth day it had
assumed the normal form peculiar to the genus to
which the species belonged. The naviculas had re-
sumed their curious movements, and some days later
it became evident that a number of the frustules had
commenced to multiply by self-division.

In the presence of these observations, we are able
to conclude that the diatoms, like many other of the
lower organisms, preserve the vegetative force in
spite of desiccation. At the same time I observed a
circumstance which deserves mention. In one of the
vessels a large number of diatoms were attached to
the sides of the glass : in these the endochrome never
returned to its normal condition. It is probable that
the plasma had been killed by too rapid a desiccation,
while the diatoms on the surface dried less rapidly
as the substratum slowly lost its humidity : the
plasma was, therefore, able to contract slowly ; thus
preserving the power of returning to life under the
influence of favourable conditions. It seems, there-
fore, necessary, in order that the diatoms should
preserve their vegetative force, that the desiccation
should proceed slowly ; and that is exactly what takes
place in ditches and pools. After these facts, it is
easy to comprehend why, during the wet season, we
are able to find, almost directly, the diatoms for which
we have searched in vain during the drought. ”

{Note by Translator. — These experiments will, I
think, not only account for the rapid reappearance of
the diatomaceae in dried-up pools when these were
again refilled, but will also explain their presence in
such habitats as the moss on the trunks of trees,
roofs of cottages, or the damp places near leaky
water-butts or tanks. The debris from the dried-up
ditches is raised by the wind as fine dust, and carried,
perhaps, miles away, and after a time deposited in
the localities just alluded to ; the presence of moisture
not only soon restoring their vegetative power, but
enabling them to reproduce by self-division.

Those who have examined gatherings from the
previously-named sources have, no doubt, been
struck with the absence of the larger forms : these
have, probably, been eliminated by their rapid sub-
sidence, owing to their much greater weight. )

Norwich. F. Kitton.

PRIMITIVE MAN :

HIS TIMES AND HIS COMPANIONS.

By the Rev. J. Magens Mello, M.A., F.G.S.

IN the history of almost all nations there is a point
at which that history loses itself in tradition and
myth, a point at which we should be left in im-
penetrable darkness were it not for the new light that
has been shed, at any rate, upon the past history of
man in Europe by the discoveries of the still young
science of Geology. When we attempt to trace back
the history of the human race in England, which we
may take by way of example, the earliest historical
records carry us back to the period of the Roman
Conquest; the writings of the Roman Tacitus, and of
some other authors of that epoch, show us more or
less distinctly what kind of a country this was, and of
what sort the inhabitants were which they found in
possession ; and there history leaves us. We must
look elsewhere for any further information. That
information lay buried for long centuries beneath the
earth : in mounds, in caves, in gravel-pits the foot-
prints of primitive man were left for the explorers of
the 19th century to track and to interpret.

During the last fifty years evidence has been fast
accumulating, showing us that long ages must have
elapsed, ages marked by many changes, since man
made his first appearance here ; evidence slowly
received indeed at first, but which has yet surely
made its way, forcing upon us the belief that long
before the Romans visited our shores, generations after
generations of men had come and gone, men to whose
eyes was presented a very different England to that
with which we are acquainted, men who had as their
companions animals very different to those with
which we are now familiar. What that England was
probably like, what those animals were, and what
little we know about those men is the subject of this
present sketch.

Many ages before the Romans came there was a
time when England, instead of being an island,
together with Scotland and Ireland, formed part of
the continent of Europe ; there twas then no Bristol
Channel, no Irish Sea, no Straits of Dover, no
German Ocean such as we now have them ; we must
picture to ourselves a northern and western extension
of the Continent with a great river, an^enlargement
probably of the present Rhine, flowing northwards
through a wide valley or plain, where is now the sea.

Into this river flowed, as tributaries, the Thames^and

e 2

7«

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE ■ GOSSIP.

Humber and other streams; dense forests, wild moor-
lands and heaths, great swamps and morasses,
diversified doubtless in places by green pastures,
stretched far away inland from this great valley, as
well as from others on the south and west of Eng-
land. In those early ages, no mild winters were
known, though probably the summers were far hotter
than any which we now experience. We may even
imagine, if we will, snow-covered mountains, with
their glaciers creeping down into the valleys, in which
the snow would lie thick as winter drew on, whilst
die rivers would be sealed up by ice. We may
picture to ourselves the animal life of that period. It
is winter ; from the northern hills and forests come
travelling southward, driven by the excess of cold,
animals now called Arctic ; and in the valleys and amid

Fig. 51. Flint Implement from Brandon ; \ nat. size.

the woods of middle and southern England might
have been seen the herds of rein-deer, the gigantic
shaggy-maned mammoths with their huge recurved
tusks, smooth-skinned but woolly rhinoceroses, great
bears, wolves, and foxes, crafty gluttons, troops of wild
boars and other animals. Spring and summer draw
on, and as these animals begin to move once again to
more northern pasture-grounds, we find with the
increasing warmth an influx of other visitors, strange,
indeed, to England now, — lions and tigers, and
leopards, hyaenas, hippopotami, elephants, and other
species of rhinoceroses ; and thus, in the strange climate
of those days, might have been witnessed a continual
swinging to and fro, and an intermingling for a time,
of Arctic and southern animals, who made this
country their home, and many of which were even
born here, and here lived and died. Do any ask,
how do you know all this ? is not all this a mere idle
dream? Let us, then, record some of the evidence.
These animals have left us their remains to this day ;
in many a brick-field and gravel-pit, in the soil of
numerous caverns, their bones, nay, occasionally even
their complete skeletons, have been found, and no
chance accumulation this, no stray bones are these,
washed in by some great flood or floods from distant
regions. The evidence shows that many of these
bones were deposited in the very spots near to which
these animals died. Sealed up in the floor of many a
cave are these relics of the past, not water- worn and

rubbed, but fresh and sharp as to all their angles, some-
times also bone lying close beside its bone, as though
quietly dropped and covered up where found, as
must, indeed, have been the case, almost immediately
after death. Our cave floors give us proof also that
many of these animals, the rein-deer, hyaenas, mam-
moths, and others, must have been born in this
county. In the same bed, lying side by side, we
have lound the young and the old, the rein-deer and
its fawn, the hyaena and its cub, the young as well as
the old elephant or rhinoceros, and a very brief
examination of the contents of some of our caverns will
demonstrate these facts ; we may not only see the
jaws, for instance, of the old hyaena with the teeth
worn by hard work almost to the gums, but also
those of the young animal, in which the permanent

Fig. 52. Flint Implement from Langey, Fr. ; § nat. size.

teeth are only just sprouting and pushing their way
beneath the deciduous ones. Most of the teeth of the
mammoths found in caves are those of young animals,
and when we come to look closely at all the bones
and teeth, we are at once struck with the fresh-look-
ing conditions of the majority, and are convinced that
they can have had no long journey to perform between
the death and burial of their owners. Another thing
which we may observe in the case of bones found in
caves is that many of them are seen to be scored and
gnawed into their present shape by the teeth of some
animal, and analogy has led to the conclusion that
the great devourer of the bulk of the animals whose
remains are found in caves was the hyaena. This
savage beast in those early days, as now, was
in the habit of dragging its victims wholesale or
piecemeal into its den, where it devoured not the
flesh only, but also the bones, rejecting only the
very hardest portions ; and the teeth, then, left lying
about on the floor, would soon be covered up by the
mud brought in, partly by the frequenters of the
caves, partly by floods, and also by the slow deposits
from the moisture which found its way through cracks
and fissures. It seems a strange thing that such
animals as those spoken of should ever have been
found side by side in our country, — the northern rein-
deer and the southern hyaena, for instance. Some
geologists have not been able to realize that they
could thus have lived during Ihe same season, and

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE ■ G OSSIP.

77

have suggested that during those early times there
may have been warm and cold periods, each lasting
perhaps ten or twelve thousand years, and that “the
southern animals lived in our island during the warm
periods of the glacial epoch, while the northern ani-
mals lived during the cold periods.” That there were
such interglacial periods of warmth appears to be not
improbable, but, allowing this, I do not see how we
can, with the testimony of cave deposits before us,
fail to be convinced that northern and southern forms
did not make their appearance separately, each living
here for awhile and then disappearing, but that they
lived during long periods actually side by side. I he
condition of the various bones found is such that they
undoubtedly convey the impression of perfect con-
temporaneity ; any way, they are found lying side by
side, without a vestige of rolling or wear and tear,

in the same beds in which the bones of the animals
are found, and showing most clearly that they must
have been deposited at the same time. And is it
asked, what are those traces? Have you any
human bones ? The answer is, not many. A few
have been found in some caverns, and these have been
found to be in exactly the same condition as those of
the extinct animals ; but I do not think that we have
any right to expect to find many bones, and one
reason is that although man was then present, his
numbers were few indeed, compared with the vast
multitude of wild animals. Why, even as recently
as the time of Queen Elizabeth I believe that the
population of all England did not exceed that of
London to-day. Man would then be in the propor-
tion of one to many thousands of wild animals, with
whom he would have to wage a hard and often

Fig. 53. Quartzite Implement, Creswell ; § nat. size.

in deposits from a few inches to only a foot or two in
thickness ; a rein-deer bone, for instance, almost, if
not quite, in contact with the jaw of a hysena, and
bearing upon it what we can hardly help believing to
be the marks of the hyaena’s teeth upon its surface.
The remains of Arctic and southern forms are so
intimately blended together, and pi'esent such simi-
larity of aspect in such caves, for instance, as those
of Creswell, and the gnawed bones of rein-deer,
rhinoceroses, and other animals are so exactly like
the bones gnawed by hyaenas of to-day, that the
evidence appears overwhelming that they all must
have lived side by side ; and the easiest way of
accounting for such a condition of things is to sup-
pose, as has been suggested, a seasonal immigration
and intermingling of the animals in a climate subject
to an extreme range of summer and winter tempera-
ture, unless we accept as an alternative that the
intermingling may have taken place at the com-
mencement or close of an interglacial period, but that
there was such an intermingling of forms appears to
be beyond question.

Now, when these animals lived in England, man
was their companion ; there is now not the slightest
doubt of that. The evidence, fifty years ago so
scanty, so incredulously received, has become over-
whelming. To take the evidence of caves alone :
in numerous caves in this country, in those of France,
Belgium, and Switzerland, traces of man’s presence
have been found in vast quantity intimately mixed up

Fig. 54. Flint Implement, Le Moustier, Fr. ; f nat. size.

precarious struggle for existence. And again, if the
men of those primitive times neglected their dead, as
do some tribes of men now, the hyaenas, wolves, and
other animals would not leave many bones to tell the
story of man’s existence. What we do find to prove
that man then lived are his weapons and his tools, —
rude, indeed, at first, and ill formed, but yet showing
a certain amount of design and intention in their
shape never to be found in mere naturally-broken
stones. Man’s first tools and weapons were the
pebbles picked up around him, rudely fashioned for
such simple work as he required them to perform by
a few pieces chipped off here and there, to enable
them to be more readily held in the hand, or fastened
into holders of bone or wood ; such rude tools would
serve as hammers to break bones for the sake of their
marrow, to scrape the skins of animals killed in the
chase with the primitive stone-headed lance or arrow.
Implements of this primitive character have been
found in abundance in the lower beds of some of the
caves of this and other countries, as well as in the
ancient river-beds. In England, the caves of Creswell
and that of Kent’s Hole have furnished many highly
characteristic specimens of these earliest efforts of
human skill, whilst the gravels of the Thames Valley,
of the Ouse and other rivers in this country, and
those of Amiens and Abbeville, amongst others in
France, have also furnished numerous examples, some
made of quartzite and other pebbles, others of flint. In
the case of the rude hammer-stones, little has been

73

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

done to the original pebble beyond giving it a suf- |
ficiently convenient form to enable the user to grasp it,
but the bruised and battered face of the implement
clearly shows to what use it was put. In the scrapers we
see that a sharp edge has been placed by skilful blows
on one side of the stone, whilst the other has been
probably fastened into some kind of holder. Primi-
tive man would very soon have discovered that few of i
the stones commonly met with more readily adapted
themselves to his wants than the flints so common
wherever there was chalk, or, indeed, often found
scattered here and there in gravel-beds and other
spots at some distance from their original source.
The sharp edge of a broken flint, the comparative
ease with which it could be variously shaped, soon
led man to prefer it to other materials.

The razor-like edge of a flint-flake would be found
to make an excellent knife, and such long thin flakes
are amongst the implements most commonly met
with. They are usually flat on one side, with a well-
defined bulb of percussion at one end, — a proof of
their having been struck by a deliberate blow from
the original block ; a mere splinter broken accident-
ally by the crushing of a mass of flint never has this
well-marked protuberance. The upper surface of these
flakes has also two or more faces, giving to the specimen
in section a more or less triangular aspect. Broader
flakes, with a sharpened edge at one end, would
adapt themselves as scrapers. We also often find
flints with very carefully-worked points, which may
well have been used for boring holes in fragments of
bone, to form needles, and they might be used, too,
for piercing the skins, that the bone needle might
more readily pass through. Some of the most
primitive implements were large, somewhat oval-
shaped, ones, made of flint or some other hard stone ;
these, which are frequently found in the old river
gravels, and some of which are made of quartzite
pebbles, have been discovered in the earliest beds of
the Creswell caves in England would, if bound firmly
into a handle, serve as formidable axes or tomahawks,
and were probably used as such.

( To be continued. )

THE REAPPEARANCE OF AN OLD
FRIEND.*

BRITISH natural history has produced few works
which have become national classics. But
White’s “ Natural History of Selborne” undoubtedly
takes rank as such, and finds its place on our library
shelves side by side with Goldsmith and Addison.
The unaffected and graceful simplicity of the style,
the cheerful and yet reverential tone of thought, the
quiet love for all that lives, the keen power of
observation, and the readiness to draw correct in-

* “ The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne.” By
the late Rev. Gilbert White. Edited by Thomas Bell, F.R.S.,
F.L.S., and Professor of Zoology, King’s College, London.
2 vols. London : John Van Voorst.

ferences from complex facts, have rendered this work
the most popular of its kind that was ever written.
There is a freshness and a charm about every page,
which seems imbued with the breath of the green
fields, and the spirit of the silent woods. One returns
to its occasional perusal with delight. It appeals as
successfully to youth as to age, and commands its large
circle of readers by reason of its broad sympathies.
Naturalists and non-naturalists alike confess to its
charm. Perhaps no other English work on natural
history could have borne half the editing which
White’s “Selborne” has had to experience. We
have editions of all kinds, voluminous and com-
pendious, editions de luxe , and ‘ ‘ cheap editions for
the people” ; and still the work has lived throughout.

In our opinion the present edition of White’s cele-
brated book is the best which could possibly be
produced. There are many reasons why this should
be the case. First of all the editor, Professor Bell,
is himself one of^our best naturalists and natural-
history writers. No man more fully recognizes the
scope of his work — no living naturalist has more
pleasant memories of by-gone workers. Moreover,
Professor Bell has lived in White’s house at Selborne
for the past thirty years, and so must have become
imbued in no small degree with the spirit and charm
of the place. This edition of White’s work has,
therefore, been edited in the house where it was ori-
ginally written. The style in which this edition has
been published demands a few words of remark. The
binding of both volumes is after the modest style
which White would have undoubtedly preferred. The
engravings and woodcuts (not numerous) are of the
best kind of artistic work ; the paper is excellent ;
the type large and cheerful ; and there is an absence
of those abounding foot-notes in small print on every
page, which, in some editions of White’s “Selborne,”
have made its perusal almost a torture.

After saying thus much for the manner in which
this edition has been brought out, we have next to
draw attention to several matters in which it differs
from all previous editions. A few years ago a series
of twenty letters, constituting a correspondence be-
tween Gilbert White to Robert Marsham, of Stratton,
Norfolk, were discovered, and published, we believe,
in the “Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich
Naturalists’ Society,” accompanied by a notice of
Mr. Marsham’s life, by Mr. Thomas Southwell, hon.
sec. These letters are included in the second volume
of the present edition. In addition to them are other
letters and correspondence of Gilbert White’s, which
now appear in print for the first time. Such is the
correspondence between himself and his brother John,
who was English chaplain at Gibraltar, and after-
wards vicar of Blackburn, in Lancashire. In these
letters we gain a loveable knowledge of Gilbert
White otherwise than as a naturalist. His brother
seems to have been as simple-minded and guileless as
himself, and this correspondence has a quaint, affec-

HARD WICKE’S S CIENCE- G O SSIP.

79

tionate, brotherly, but unfortunately old-world charm
about it that almost makes one sad. The Rev. John
White was a correspondent of Linnoeus, six of whose
letters also appear in these pages. Another corre-
spondence consists of a series of letters, also now first
published, between White and his brother-in-law, Mr.
Thomas Barker, of Lyndon Hall, Rutland, and the
latter gentleman’s son. Natural history and archae-
ology are the chief subjects herein pleasantly dis-
cussed. The correspondence between the well-known
naturalist Pennant and Gilbert White form the bulk
of the first portion of the work. In addition to the
above new additions to White’s “ Selborne,” ren-
dering it richer and fuller than any previous edition,
Professor Bell has had the sympathetic aid of several
modern naturalists, among whom the suggestions of
Professor Alfred Newton on that part of the work
relating to Birds, have unquestionably raised its
authoritative value. All lovers of natural history and
English classics who can afford it, will have this best
edition of White on their library shelves ; and all our
provincial scientific societies and clubs ought to
include it in their circulating list.

THE HARVESTMAN “ SPIDER.”

THE animal which from the enormous length of
its legs has attracted the notice of most per-
sons from childhood upwards, seems from its very
slight resemblance in external appearance to the form
of a spider to have received a name to which it is
not at all entitled ; some of the peculiarities of spiders
are so exceptional to the general characteristics of all
other living beings, that no creature in which they
are absent ought to be called a spider. I am there-
fore induced to compare the harvestman with an
ordinary spider, in the hope that some one will suggest
its appropriate name.

The first difference that strikes the most superficial
observer is, that the bodies of spiders are divided into
two distinct portions by a very slender waist which
connects the abdomen with the chest and head ; in
the harvestman the head, chest, and abdomen are all
under one shell or homy covering, without any waist
or division. The most remarkable feature in spiders
is the position and character of the reproductive
organs. In the female spiders they are on that por-
tion of the abdomen next the waist, and in the male
spiders in a much more extraordinary position, being
connected with the head of the animal by the palpi ;
a further exception to the prevailing order of nature,
and equally remarkable, is seen in the fact that each
male spider has two distinct and complete organs,
one in each palpus, and both exactly alike, one not
being the complement, but the exact counterpart of
the other. In the different species of spiders these
organs vary in a greater or less degree, so that by
these differences species might be determined ; some

of them are extremely complex and beautiful, as in
Lyniphia marginctta , others, though more simple, are
still worth studying. May not the absence of this re-
markable apparatus in the harvestman be considered
a conclusive answer in the negative to the question,
Is it a spider ?

Those who have not the opportunity of examining
these organs microscopically I would refer to Black-
wall’s celebrated treatise on spiders, where they will
be found beautifully illustrated. This authority says,
spiders moult or change their skin from five to nine
times, according to species ; that the male sexual
organs are not commenced in their development till
the penultimate moult, and are not completed till the
final moulting : now in the harvestman the sexual
organs are found in the smallest individuals. In the
harvestman there is one slight approach to the resem-
blance of spiders, the position of the reproductive
organs being similar to that in the female spider, viz. ,
nearly close to the chest ; in the harvestman the
position is the same in both sexes, there is, however,
no difficulty in distinguishing one sex from the other ;
in both sexes the organ is situated within a flexible
tube by means of which it is drawn within the abdo-
men, or projected externally, both organs are repre-
sented in the following sketches (figs. 55 and 58).

In the male organ the parallel lines represent the
membraneous tube, the shaded portion the horny
instrument which slides within it by introversion, or
something like the'tube of a telescope ; it may be seen
in its normal position (after the body has been
rendered transparent) seated within the abdomen
with the hooked point near the external orifice, this
hook is attached to the shaft by a movable joint, and
the hairlike termination of the hook is also jointed,
so that it is possible to place the hook in a line with
the shaft, though it is always found at a right angle
as represented ; the length of the organ with its
elastic tube extended is about as long as the diameter
of the body, the horny portion being a little shorter
than the membranous. The female organ, from the
great length of its elastic tube, which is about twice
as long as the body of the animal, is probably used as
an ovipositor, the horny portion is not more than one
third the length of the elastic tube ; the latter, how-
ever, when drawn within the body is shortened by
contraction to the length of the horny part then con-
tained within it. This part appears to be formed of
a series of bands or rings connected together and
terminating in lobes, to which are attached strong
tufts of hair, or spines, the bands are covered with
stout hairs about as long as the width of each band,
and the membranous tube is so thickly studded with
minute hairs, that when contracted within the body
the organ appears black, the surface resembling that
of a steel rasp. It might be supposed that a tube
that has to slide within itself by introversion would
be greatly impeded by the friction arising from its
surfaces being prickly instead of smooth. If we ask

8o

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

what purpose do these hairs serve, or why is it that
all other internal organs being so perfectly adapted
by their smooth and lubricated surfaces for moving
together without friction, these should present a
roughened surface, we might learn a lesson of
humility by reflecting that as we proceed step by step
in our investigations of the mysteries of nature, we
are continually finding how inadequate is the capacity
of the human mind to comprehend the designs of an
omniscient Creator. I now proceed to the considera-
tion of the breathing organs. Spiders breathe by
branchia, organs somewhat resembling the gills of
fishes, being a series of thin membranous plates
placed together like the leaves of a book in two
dusters within the abdomen, one on either side the

spiders says, “ the foot (or portion corresponding to
the tarsus of insects), is divided into two parts, the
tarsus and metatarsus, and in some species into three
joints.” The tarsus of the harvestman has in some
cases as many as ninety joints, the lowest number I
have met with being twenty-five. The feet of spiders
are terminated by two or more claws, generally pec-
tinated ; those of the harvestman have only one claw,
curved, but quite smooth. The palpi of the harvest-
man closely resemble those of the female spider,
excepting that the claw at their termination is
generally; if not always, pectinated in the spider and
smooth in the harvestman, though I have found two
instances in which the claws of the palpi were pecti-
nated, although those of the feet of the same

Fig. 56. Falx of
Ditto.

Fig. 57. Bipennis of
Ditto,

Fig. 55. Oviposito of Harvestman “ Spider.” (The fines show actual size of full-grown organs.)

A A A A A A A
A A A A A A A

Fig. 59. Part of a (Fig. 55) highly magnified.

individuals were not so. The absence of spinnerets
distinguishes the harvestman from the generality of
spiders, but as some few species of spiders are also
without them, this is not a difference of so positive
a character as the other points I have noticed. The
last organs to which I would draw attention are the
falces : in spiders these are terminated by a curved
claw sometimes deeply serrated on its inner side ; in
the harvestman the termination is a pair of forceps or
nippers like those of a lobster or crab. These falces in
most of the harvestmen are rather smaller
than we find them in spiders, but in some
cases they are fully three times larger than
we find them in any of the spiders, and
assuming quite a different form ; in fact,
they no longer resemble reaphooks, from
which they derive their name of falces, but
are much more like pickaxes : therefore, following
the same kind of nomenclature, I propose bipenni
as an appropriate name for them ; the fig. 57
shows an outline of their peculiar form and the
comparative size that the bipenni and the falces bear
to each other. All the specimens I have found
possessing bipenni were males ; I think, however,
these organs do not distinguish the sexes, but a
difference of species, as both males and females
are found bearing the falces ; as the upper spur or
arm of the bipenni is not present in those in-
dividuals that are less than half grown, I think it is
not fully developed till the last moult, as in some
that are about three-quarters grown it is very short

sexual orifice in the female. The air is admitted
to these branchia through stigmata, or horny plates
having fine irregular openings, presenting the appear-
ance of a grating, corresponding in some measure to
the spiracles of insects. The harvestmen breathe by
trachea, the same as insects ; there are two spiracles,
one on either side of the abdomen ; the principal
tracheal tube proceeds a short distance from each
3piracle, and then divides and subdivides, permeating
every part of the body. The eyes present a difference
in number only to those of spiders ; Blackwall says,
“ the number of the ocelli in spiders is always two,
six, or eight ; ” in the harvestman the number is
four. The same authority in describing the legs of

HARD WICKE ’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

8 1

and round at the top, instead of terminating in a sharp
point, as when the animal is full grown.

Having now shown (as I think conclusively) that
the harvestman is not a spider, will some one tell me
what it is ?

Norwich. J- H. Cary.

THE MIGHTY DEEP.

IN a general way persons have a better appre-
ciation of the vastness of the land than of that
of the sea ; mainly because the former is more fre-
quently forced on their attention. The area of the
ocean is nearly thrice that of the land ; the one
being estimated at about 52 million square miles,
and the other at 145 million square miles. On the
land, as well as in the ocean, there are vast tracts on
which life is absent or scanty ; but whereas, on the
land the inhabitable portion is to a great extent
superficial, in the ocean life occurs more or less
abundantly at all depths. The ocean forms one
continuous mass of water broken up into irregularly-
shaped portions by the land. When portions of
the sea are inclosed by the land, the water under-
goes so marked a change in character that such
inclosed portions (forming lakes and lagoons) can
no longer be considered as forming part of the
ocean. The great bulk of the sea is concentrated in
the South hemisphere, and the pole of the sea (that
is, the centre of the hemisphere in which it is most
extensive) is in 520 S. 6° E. In this hemisphere
the land is to sea as 1 to 8, while in the opposite
hemisphere there is nearly as much land as sea.

The mean depth of the sea has been variously
estimated, but as yet there are scarcely sufficient data
for accurate estimates. Buflfon suggested it might
be 200 fathoms or 1,200 feet ; Lacaille, 163 to 2 73
fathoms; Laplace, 656 fathoms; Lyell, 2,600
fathoms; and Herschel, 3,520 fathoms. The most
probable mean is about 2,600 fathoms. Assuming
this as correct, the average volume per square mile
would be 418, 176 million cubic feet, and the total
volume 60,635,520,000,000 million cubic feet. The
mean height of the land is 1,000 feet above the sea-level,
which would give a volume of 1,449,676,800,000
million cubic feet for the supramarine portion.
Hence the ocean’s bulk is 41 times greater than that
of the land above its upper surface.

One of the causes now in operation which tend to
make the ocean encroach upon the land is the intro-
duction of detrital matter into the sea. Every grain
displaces its own bulk of water, and so far causes it
to encroach upon the land. Denudation is always
going on at a probable mean rate of one foot in
3,600 years, at which rate all the land would be
removed in about ten million years. The sea, in
that case, would gain on the land at the mean rate of
about five square miles per year. If all the land

were transferred to the sea, the mean depth of the
latter would be reduced to 1,50° or 1,600 fathoms.
Other causes, however, may influence the extent of
the ocean. One is the subsidence of land below the
sea-level and elevation or subsidence of the sea
bottom. The subsidence of the whole of the land
would involve a depression of about 30,000 feet ;
and the elevation of the whole of the sea bottom
would require an uplift of about 35,000 feet. In all
probability elevation and subsidence proceed simul-
taneously in different parts of the earth, and may or
may not counterbalance each other. The bearing of
this conjecture is that extensive subsidence or eleva-
tion of the sea bottom is calculated to be more in-
fluential than the introduction of sediment in causing
the sea to advance upon or withdraw back from the
land. The introduction of a mass of matter equal in
bulk to all the supramarine land would be sufficient
to cause the ocean to overflow the land up to about
the level of 6,000 feet above the present level ; while
alterations of level less than those of which the
geologist is cognizant, as local phenomena at least,
would, if extended over large areas account for the
displacement of entire continents and oceanic basins.

It has been assumed that the bulk of the ocean has
been approximately unaltered ; but surmises might be
made upon the variations in the amount of water
which, in its aeriform and liquid states, is temporarily
withdrawn from the sea. A rough calculation indi-
cates that the average amount of vapour constantly
in the air corresponds to about 13,412,704 million
cubic feet of water, and that the amount of fluid re-
quired to keep all lakes, rivers, &c., supplied for six
months is about 2,364,072,004 million cubic feet, or
about sufficient to form 5,894 square miles of sea of
average depth. The entire absence of all flowing
fresh waters, or a doubling of their present volume
(extreme conditions which are not likely to have hap-
pened), would have no appreciable influence geolo-
gically in altering the relative areas of land and sea.
The accumulation of snow and ice would perhaps be
more influential. For, supposing it possible that at
one time there were no ice, and that at another some
10 million square miles were covered therewith to a
depth of 500 feet, this would give a volume of
139, 392, °°2, 000 million cubic feet, which cor-
responds to 309,071 square miles of sea of average
depth. If we assume that the sea has retained its
mean depth unaltered, the utmost probable irregu-
larity in the amount of rainfall and in the accumula-
tion of ice upon the land would not cause its area to
vary by so much as one million square miles. Hence,
from a geological point of view, the possible influence
of such irregularities may be disregarded. There is
yet another influence to be noticed. It is exceed -
ingly probable — nay, we may say certain — that the sea
bed consists of material which is in places permeable,
and in others impermeable, to sea water. At what
rate the water percolates into the rocks, and what

82

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE . G OSSIP.

quantities are retained in them temporarily, we are
not prepared to state ; but it does not seem likely
that the rates of absorption and evaporation have
varied much. A certain portion of the water, how-
ever, remains in the rocks for prolonged geological
periods, and it is believed the amount is constantly
increasing. It is not known what the amount may
be, but there seems to be no reason to suppose that
it has affected the volume of the ocean to any large
extent. The conclusion at which we arrive is that at
every geological period there has probably been water
somewhere on the earth’s surface, having a mean depth
of over 9,000 feet. It has been suggested that comets’
tails may have condensed on the earth, and, as a conse-
quence, given rise to floods ; but such speculations may
be dismissed as purely imaginative. The attractive in-
fluence of the land draws the ocean above the level it
would otherwise have, and thus causes the water to
encroach upon the land ; but such elevation of the
water is a local phenomenon only, the mean level of
the ocean being in no way affected.

The existence and, to a large extent, the conditions
of the present sea are indicated by direct evidence ;
but the position, depth, and conditions of the seas of
former periods can only be ascertained by indirect
means ; and mainly from the fossil remains found in
strata. The occurrence of a species belonging to a
group of organisms which, so far as known, is exclu-
sively marine, is a fair proof of the co-existence of
marine conditions, provided, of course, such remains
have not been introduced by accident or by derivation
from older marine beds. In most cases collateral
evidence sufficiently indicates "whether the stratum is
or is not marine. The distribution of marine or-
ganisms is dependent upon circumstances, so that a
study of these in the case of living species enables us
to infer, more or less correctly, some of the condi-
tions of the sea in which they lived ; and amongst
others that of the contour or depth. The matter is,
however, somewhat complicated, for it would seem
that depth alone has little influence on the distribu-
tion of animals and plants, and that the influencing
conditions are temperature, light, food, currents, &c.
The evidence then which fossils afford as to depth is
probably wholly circumstantial. In the present seas
the greater depths are associated with a low tem-
perature, slow currents or movements of water, sedi-
ments of extreme fineness, and absence of solar lumi-
nous rays ; the probabilities are that such has always
been the case in the older oceans ; but the only con-
stant condition associated with great depth is absence
of the sun’s light. In closed seas the temperature
may be high at great depths, and under certain con-
ditions moderate currents may exist in the deepest
oceans. In a general way shallow waters are asso-
ciated with the stronger currents, the coarser deposits,
varied conditions of temperature and accessibility to
solar light. Deposits of extreme fineness may occur
in shallow and cold seas, which conditions would be

nearly the same as those of the deepest seas ; for,
irrespective of depth, the principal difference is pre-
sence of light in the shallow water. This would
allow of the existence of species to which ordinary
light is directly or indirectly essential, along with such
of the deep-sea forms as could live in association with
them. In the shallowest waters along the sea margin
we find a certain relation between the depth and
particular groups of species of organisms ; but ex-
amination shows that this relation holds because
certain conditions of temperature, exposure to air,
food, &c., concur with such depths. These condi-
tions may correspond with a certain depth in one
area and with a different depth in another area ; so-
that it becomes necessary to take many circumstances
into account before drawing conclusions as to depth
from the association of certain species. When the
conditions regulating the co-existence of particular
species are known, we can readily infer somewhat as
to the depth of the water. These considerations have
an important bearing upon the geographical distri-
bution of species and the inferences deducible from
such distribution in space and in time, and, conse-
quently, upon the continuity of oceans in space and
in time, or, rather, on the continuity of certain oceanic
conditions. A. Ramsay.

( To be continued . )

BOTANICAL WORK FOR APRIL.

THE early part of the present month will be the
season to work at several species : thus, the
common Pilewort ( Rammcnhis Ficaria, L.) is now
in full bloom in some parts of Britain. We have
been recently taught to regard it as comprehending
two distinct species ; for example, it is divided
into two varieties, viz., a. divergens, F. Sch. ;
b. inctwibms , F. Sch. The first variety, a, has lobes
of lowest leaves not overlapping at the base , lowest
sheaths narrow : variety b, incumbens , has lobes of
lowest leaves overlapping at the base , or parallel with
petiole and lowest sheaths, very broad, amplexicaul.

Which of these varieties occurs in your district ?
It will make many a walk pleasant and delightful to
know one is helping to clear up a question not yet
satisfactorily answered.

In the south of Europe another form is found ; in-
fact, a distinct species, named by most botanists
Ranunculus Ficariceformis. Have we not overlooked
it in England ? It is very similar to our plant, and
may quite possibly have been passed over. Let it be
cleared up this spring.

Viola sylvatica, Fries. — This is another species
which can be worked up in April. Most of our
readers are aware that from the days of Linnaeus
until a very few years ago, this plant passed current
under the old name of V. canina; nay, not a few still
persist in knowing it under the old name, and refuse
to listen to the “ new species .” Linnaeus’s name

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

83

{canina) was applied by him. to the present and
another species, V. canina of Babington’s “Manual.”
When it was found needful to separate the two, this
name was restricted by Fries to the one now recog-
nized as the true canina , and he proposed sylvatica
as the present species. Most European botanists at
once adopted his views, but it was some time before
we recognized the new species. But we wish to call
the attention of our readers to another fact, which
may be advantageously worked at in every district,
for V. sylvatica comprehends two well-marked
varieties, viz., a. Riviniana , b. Reichenbachiana.
We have many book species, with not near the
distinctive characters possessed by the above.
V. Riviniana , Rich., has the leaves broadly cordate,
acute ; calycine appendages persistent, broad ; petals
blue , remarkably broad, lower one with many
branched veins at its base ; spur thick , cream-coloured ,
or very light blue. V. Reichenbachiana , Bor. , leaves cor-
data, prolonged; calycine appendages small , narrow ;
petals bright lilac , lower one with parallel, few, nearly
simple veins at its base ; .spur flattened, light lilac. If
the above varieties are once recognized, they will
never again be mistaken. The common form, that
often called V. canina, Linn., is seen as a roadside
plant on every sunny bank or sandy lane in
the northern counties, but V. Reichenbachiana is
generally found, and then very sparingly, in deep,
damp ravines and glens, where the sun seldom
penetrates, although sometimes seen on the same
bank with the common form. It may be identified
at a glance, the peculiar lilac petals exceedingly
narrow when compared with any other species ; also
the narrow, often sharp-pointed spur, just tinted with
pale lilac : the leaves are, when young, pale green,
not thick, fleshy, and dark green, like Riviniana,
and it is altogether the prettiest violet known in the
British islands.

Draba verna, L. — Continental authors make six
■species out of our earliest spring gem, the “ Whitlow
Grass ” {Draba verna). We have often wondered
how many of these could be found on our old walls
or sandy pastures. After fifteen years’ experience in
the northern counties and Wales chiefly, we can only
detect three varieties, for we do not think they can
fairly take rank as species. From Boreau, ‘ ‘ Flore
du Centre de la France, ” we take the following; so that
our friends, who may have the opportunity, may work
them out : — 1. Erophila {Draba) brachycarpa , Jord.
Leaves oval, ^lanceolate, narrowed at both extremities,
entire, clothed with simple and bifurcate hairs ; flower-
stalks slender ; sepals oval, hispid ; petals oboval,
oblong ; pedicels flexuose, 2-4 times longer than the
silicules ; silicule very obtuse at summit ; seeds
elliptical, few in number. Loc. old walls and
rocks; “ the first to flower .” 2. E. glabrescens, Jord.

Leaves dark-green, lanceolate, narrow, gradually taper-
ing into a long petiole, often smooth ; sepals oval, a
little hairy ; petals oboval, oblong, with slightly

spreading lobes ; pedicels hardly three times as long
as the silicules ; silicules nearly evenly oblong,
elliptical ; style very short ; seeds 20-24 in each
hemicarp. Loc. dry open places. 3. E. medioxima,
Jord. Characters same as in E. glabrescens ,
only the pedicels are longer, 4-5 times the length
of the silicule. 4. E. hirtella , Jord. Leaves linear
lanceolate, pointed, narrowed into a broad petiole,
often furnished on each side with one or two very
sharp teeth, covered on both sides with long, spread-
ing, often bifurcate hairs ; flower- stalks flexuose,
hispid at their base ; sepals oval oblong, a little
unequal at the base, clothed above with long recurved
hairs ; petals oblong ; seeds oval, brown, covered
with minute points, 30-35 in each cell. Loc. sandy
places. 5. E.stenocarpa, Jord. Leaves linear, pointed,
narrowed into a footstalk of nearly their own
width, covered with numerous bifurcate hairs ; flower-
stalks flexuose, numerous, in crowded tufts ; sepals
oblong, hispid ; petals oblong ; seeds oval, pale brown,
a little rough, about 40 in each cell. Loc. dry
open places. 6. E. majuscula, Jord. Leaves ashy-
green, oblong oboval, a little pointed, wedge-shaped
at the base, with a petiole slightly narrower than
their own breadth, entire, or more usually bordered
with strong teeth, clothed with short, thickly-set
bi- or tri-furcate hairs ; flower-stalks often hispid in
their lower half ; sepals rounded oval, slightly hispid
near the summit ; petals large, nearly three times size
of calyx, oboval, veined, with wide obtuse lobes ;
seeds oval, pale brown, finely covered with raised
tubercles, 40 in each cell. Loc. dry sandy pas-
tures. They are thus divided dichotomously : —
I. Lobes of petals, more or less apart, spreading, 3 ;
lobes of petals nearly contiguous, 2. — 2. Silicules
rounded, very obtuse at the top, 1 ; silicules oblong,
much narrowed below, 4. — 3. Leaves linear or lan-
ceolate, narrow, 4; leaves oblong oboval, 6. — 4.
Sepals oval silicules oblong, elliptical, 5 ; sepals ob-
long ; silicules linear oblong, 5. — 5. Pedicels hardly
three times the length of silicule, 2 ; pedicels 4-5 times
as long as the silicule, 3. We have met with No. r,

D. brachycarpa, Jord., frequently in sheltered nooks ;
also D. glabrescens, Jord. : the latter comes into flower
a week^or two later, and is what we have recognized
as our “ common ” plant. Then occasionally we have
come across what we should most unmistakably name

E. majuscula, Jord. : however, as it is an open ques-

tion, we hope it may soon be settled, as to whether
we have two, or three, or even six varieties amongst
us. F.

Glow-worms. — Returning from Barnstaple on
Friday evening, the 22nd of February, I was surprised
to observe a glow-worm shining as brilliantly as in
summer. To be certain I was not deceived, I caught
and brought it safely home in a vesta box. Is it not
very rare to see them at this time of the year? — Arthm
Smyth, Parracombe, North Devon.

84

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

THE SEALS AND WHALES OF THE
BRITISH SEAS.

By Thomas Southwell, F.Z.S.

No. IX.

THE Pilot Whale ( Globicephahis me! as. Trail),
known in Shetland as the Ca’ing or Driving
Whale, is a frequent, although a very uncertain,
visitor in British waters. It is met with, according
to Lilljeborg, in the North Sea and northern part of
the Atlantic Ocean, occasionally as far north as
Greenland ; off the Orkney and Shetland Islands it
frequently makes its appearance, and has been found
on the British coast as far south as Cornwall. In

following. Bell gives many instances of large num-
bers of these animals being taken, the last of which,
quoted from the “ Zoologist ” for 1846, is, perhaps,
the most extraordinary. It is there stated, “on
newspaper authority,” that 2,080 were taken in
Faroe in the previous year within six weeks, and that
1,540 were killed within tzvo hours in Quendall Bay,
Shetland, on the 22nd September, 1845. This
species (fig. 61) is remarkable for its peculiarly
rounded head, — hence its generic name ; the flippers
are long and pointed, the dorsal fin long and low ;
the teeth about an inch in length, seldom all present
in the adults, and the normal number, according to
Bell, about twenty-four on either side each jaw ; ten
to twelve is, however, the more usual number present.

Fig. 60. Head of Zifihiits or Mesoplodon (mentioned in Dr. Busteed’s and Mr. Southwell’s papers of last month ;

from Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxiv.).

Bell’s “British Quadrupeds” it is said that it also
appears to enter the Mediterranean. This species is
pre-eminently gregarious, and generally occurs in
large herds, often numbering several hundreds. So
strong is their habit of association that they follow
the leading whale like a flock of sheep, a habit of which
the Orkney and Shetland Islanders are fully aware, and
avail themselves to the full. When a herd appears
in one of the bays, boats immediately set off, and, if
possible, get to seaward of them, then gradually
approaching, with shouts and splashes, they urge the
whole herd shoreward, and are generally successful
in driving a large portion of the whales into shallow
water ; but should the leader break through the line
of boats, the probability is that no efforts the boat’s
crews can make will prevent all its companions

The length of the adult is about nineteen or twenty
feet, its colour glossy black, with the exception of a
white stripe along the belly, which has a heart-shaped
termination under the throat. Its favourite food is
said to be cuttlefish. The figure is from the “ Trans-
actions of the Zoological Society,” vol. viii., pi. 30.

The Common Porpoise ( Phoccena communis, F.
Cuv.) is the best known of the Cetacea inhabiting
the North Sea, being met with in abundance all
round the British Isles, seldom occurring far from
land, and often ascending large rivers for a consider-
able distance : it has been seen in the Thames as high
as London Bridge, and in the harbour at Lynn I have
often seen it. Nothing can be more interesting than
to watch a shoal of these animals at sea, sometimes
tumbling and gambling under the bows of the vessel

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

85

which is passing rapidly through the water, with as
much ease as if she were motionless, or chasing each
other playfully round and round the ship as she lies
becalmed, their white bellies glistening in the clear
sea, and frequently, apparently out of pure mad
delight, leaping completely out of the water, return-

they just bring the blow-hole to the surface, breathe
without stopping, and continue the curve, till in due
course they reach the surface again, This is repeated
for the whole length of their spacious tank, or is
varied by unexpected eccentricities, all indescribably
graceful. Under these favourable circumstances for

Fig. 6 1. The Pilot Whale (1 Globicefthahis me las).

Fig. 62. Common Dolphin ( Delphhncs delfihis).

Fig. 63. Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Dctyhinns tursid).

ing to their native element with a most determined
header. But it was not till I saw these animals in
the Brighton Aquarium that I fully appreciated the
beauty, and I may even say the poetry, of their
motion ; swimming along in a series of gentle curves,

observation it is also clearly seen that the horizontal
tail is the propeller which gives the motion ; the
alternate upward and downward pressure of this
organ against the water evidently producing the
graceful mode of progression which is so difficult

86

HARD W1CKE ’ S SCIENCE - G OSSIP .

to describe, but so easily understood when witnessed.
All this I understood in theory before, but it was a
new and beautiful sight to view the practice from a
stand-point, on a level with the animal itself, and
as it were in its own element.

The food of the Porpoise consists of fish, and it
follows the shoals of herrings, &c., amongst which
it commits great depredations ; it has a taste for
salmon, and is sometimes taken in the salmon-nets.
The period of gestation is said to be six months, and
it brings forth one young one at a birth ; its colour is
black on the back, shaded off to silver-grey on the
belly, the whole skin beautifully smooth and polished.
The teeth number about twenty- five on each side of
either jaw, and are spatulate, with a contracted neck,
unlike the usually conical teeth of the Delphinidce .
The length is four or five feet. The flesh of the
Porpoise seems formerly to have been esteemed as an
article of food, and is mentioned several times in the
L’Estrange Household Book (1519 to 1578) and |
other similar records ; it is said by one who has eaten

ancients could raise the most gorgeous structures of
poetry and religion upon the most slender basis . . .
it requires some stretch of the imagination to
identify the round-headed creature which is repre-
sented in ancient coins and statues, with the straight
sharped-beaked animal ” which is here figured. It is
said to destroy at one fell swoop all the romance
which once surrounded this species ; but Dr. Gray
tells us that “the dying Dolphin’s changing hues”
are not observed in a cetacean at all, but in a fish of
the genus Coryphcena , which, although normally
black, is stated by Mr. Couch (as quoted by Mr.
Yarrell) to have changed to a fine blue whilst he was
making a drawing of it. The food of the Dolphin
consists of fish, cuttlefish, and crustaceans, and on
the Cornish coast it makes its appearance in con-
siderable numbers, according to Mr. Couch, in the
month of September during the pilchard season. It
is very social in its habits, and even more sportive in
the water than its relative, the Porpoise. The upper
surface is black, shaded off to white below, the length

Fig. 64. White-beaked Dolphin (. Delfihinus albirostris ).

it to be “ excellent meat, dark in colour, and large in
fibre, but of excellent flavour, very tender, and full
of gravy.”

The Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis, Linn.),
fig. 62, is not unfrequently met with in the seas
surrounding the British Isles, but it doubtless often
passes unrecognized. It may, however, be at once
distinguished from the Porpoise by its attenuated
beak, the head of the Porpoise being obtuse, and the
beak altogether absent. It is a native of the temper-
ate seas, and becomes scarcer as the north is ap-
proached. Lilljeborg says it is seldom obtained on
the coasts of Scandinavia ; in Greenland it is rarely
met with. Professor Bell, in his “British Quadru-
peds,” says: “The mythological and poetical associa-
tions which belong to the Dolphin, its reputed
attachment to mankind, its benevolent aid in cases of
shipwreck, its dedication to the gods, and many
other attributes expressive of the high estimation in
which it was held in olden times, afford a striking
•example of how the um*estrained imagination of the

about six to eight feet. The illustration s copied
from Reinhardt’s figure.

The Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Z>. tursio, Fab.),
63, appears to be found occasionally from the
Mediterranean to the North Sea ; it is by no means,
however, a common species.

Of the habits of this species very little is known : its
colour is black above, shaded to dirty white below,
and its length from 8 to 12 feet. The figure is from
a drawing of a nearly adult male taken at Holyhead,
in October, 1868, for which I am indebted to the
kindness of Prof. Flower.

The White-sided Dolphin ( D . acutus, J. E.
Gray) is a rare species, which has occurred in a few
instances on the British coast : its colour is black above
and white below, between which runs a broad band of
yellowish brown, about the centre of which, and
surrounded by it, is a large oblong patch of pure
white. A figure and description taken from one of a
herd of twenty landed at Kirkwall, on the 21st August,
1858, will be found in the “Ann. and Mag. of

IIARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

87

Nat. Hist.” (3rd series) for August, 1864, vol. xiv.
P- 1 33-

The last species on the British list, the Wiiite-
beaked Dolphin [D. albirostris, J. E. Gray), fig. 64,
is also of rare occurrence : it is a native of the North
Atlantic, but little is known of its habits. A dolphin
of this species was killed at Hartlepool in 1834, but
not recognized at the time : the skull is now in the
Cambridge Museum. It was, I believe, first de-
scribed as British by Mr. Brightwell, under the name
of D. tursio , from a specimen taken off Yarmouth in
1846. His paper, with a figure from a drawing
made by Miss Brightwell, will be found in the “Ann.
and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,” first series, January, 1846,
vol. xvii. p. 21. Another specimen was shot by
Mr. H. M. Upcher, near Cromer, and will be found
recorded by Dr. Gray in the same Magazine, for April,
1866, vol. xvii. p. 312. A fourth was taken at the
mouth of the Dee, in December, 1862; and a fifth
on the south coast in 1871. A few Continental
specimens are also recorded.

In September, 1875, a young female was taken off
Grimsby, and in March, 1876, a young male was
captured off Lowestoft. The first-named of these
latter formed the subject of a communication to the
Zoological Society of London, by Dr. Cunningham,
of Edinburgh, and the latter of a subsequent notice
Mr. J. W. Clark, of Cambridge. Both papers will be
found printed in the “ Proceedings of the Zoological
Society ” for 1876, p. 679, et seq., and figures of the
two specimens are given on the same plate. Through
the kindness of Mr. Clark I am enabled to give a
figure of the Lowestoft specimen (fig. 64). Mr. Clark’s
figure differs considerably from Dr. Cunningham’s
both in outline and in the disposal of colour, being
much more slender, and showing considerably less
white ; both, however, differ still more from Mr.
Brightwell’s figure than they do from each other. Mr.
Clark’s specimen was glossy black on the upper part,
and creamy white on the under ; the upper lip white,
with a black spot at the tip, and a few irregular pale
grey cloudings on its surface ; the coloration exceed-
ingly beautiful, and such as no drawing could give
an adequate idea of. Mr. Brightwell’s specimen had
the whole upper part and sides rich purple-black,
the lips, throat, and belly cream-colour, varied by
chalky white. This specimen, an adult, measured
8 ft. 2 in. in length, Mr. Clark’s 5 ft. 5$ in., and Dr.
Cunningham’s 4 ft. 2 in. The teeth vary in number,
but are about twenty-six on either side each jaw.

This species concludes the short list of the twenty-
two British Cetacea, of which I have endeavoured to
give a popular, but I hope at the same time, so far as
it is at present known, a reliable account, my principal
object, as I stated in my introductory remarks, being
to induce those residing in suitable localities to take
up the study of this interesting family, and to assist
in the identification of those specimens which from
time to time are cast upon our shores.

MICROSCOPY,

The American Microscopical Journal. — We
have just received parts 1 and 2 of vol. iii. of the
A mericcin Journal of Microscopy and Popular Science ,
and we have much pleasure in calling attention to
this unpretending periodical. It is not like our
own quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science , in-
tended for specialists only, but addresses itself to all
who are anxious to know what is being done in those
branches of natural history requiring the aid of the
microscope. This periodical started into existence
in 1876, the annual subscription being 50 cents. :
with the commencement of the present year that has
been increased to 1 dollar, and the work enlarged
from 16 pp. to 24 pp. Amongst its contributors are
Professor H. Smith, of Hobart College, N. Y. (the
celebrated diatomist), Professor Hitchcok, J. Edwards
Smith, Zeus Zundlach, and others. A subscription
of 5s., which may be sent in English stamps, entitles
the subscriber to a copy every month, post-free.
Mr. Charles Stodder, 131, Devonshire Street, Boston,
has consented to receive subscriptions.

Machine for Mounting. — I send you a sketch
of a little mounting machine, which I have found
very useful. A is a zinc vessel to hold hot water ;

Fig. 65. Machine’ for Mounting Slides.

B are brass rods, topped with screws ; C are nuts ;
and D are brass springs. By turning up or down
the nuts C, any degree of pressure can be obtained
upon the thin glass. — Albert Smith.

A new Posting-box for Slides. — A new
style of posting, or as our American brethren call it,
“ mailing” box contrived by. Dr. R. H. Ward, has
proved successful beyond anything tried before. An
account of it is therefore published in the hope that
it may be made more generally useful. In the boxes
hitherto used for posting slides, the slides are occa-
sionally found shattered to pieces, while the box con-
taining them is quite uninjured or only a little
strained. In some boxes containing six or twelve
slides, half or more of the slides have been found
broken in a perfectly sound box. This seemed to in-
dicate not the effect of a crushing blow but the result
of the inertia of the slide itself, which was only sup-
ported by the wooden racks at the ends and more or
less perfectly by the cotton stuffed around it. An

88

I1ARDWI CKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

adequate occasion for such an accident might be fur-
nished by throwing the mail-bag from a waggon to
the pavement, or transferring it to or from a rapidly-
moving train. It was therefore decided to reject the
wooden rack altogether, and instead to support the
slide by the whole of its edges and much of its sides
by cloth, leather, indiarubber, or other soft and
evenly-yielding material. This may be attained with
the common boxes by removing the racks, lining the
top, bottom, and ends with thick, soft cloth, and
arranging folds of the cloth, glued or stitched in place,
like a rack at each end of the box so that a double
thickness of the cloth shall extend between the slides
from each end one inch towards the centre. It is
better, however, to have the boxes made for this use
somewhat larger than the customary size, so that very
thick beaver cloth can be used for the packing. For
six slides a box may be made of hard wood 3-16U1S
of an inch thick, 3! inches long, 1^ wide and i£ deep
inside measurement. The folds of cloth should be so
arranged that not more than an inch in the centre of
the slide is unsupported, except when large cover-
glasses are to be used, when more space should be
left to avoid pressing on the cover. The outside of
the box is covered with strong thin cloth. The com-
parative safety of this method is indicated by the expe-
rience of the American Postal Club. During a trial
of several months in many of the circuits, not one
slide is known to have been broken while packed in
this manner, while to slides in the ordinary boxes
with wooden racks, accidents are unfortunately fre-
quent. For sending by express, these boxes should be
made of thicker wood, or enclosed in larger cases, to
prevent crushing by the weight of heavy packages
among which they may be carried.

Actinocyclus Barklyi. — I believe this form
has not been published, at least in a scientific sense.
Some dozen or more years ago a diatomaceous
deposit was discovered in or near the Yarra Yarra,
Melbourne, Australia, and was distributed under the
name of the “ Yarra deposit.” The form about which
“ C. V. S.” inquires received the MS. name of
Coscinodiscus Barklyi , in honour, I believe, of one
of the governors. It was originally referred to the
Coscinodisci from the supposed absence of the mar-
ginal nodule. It is, however, to be detected by careful
examination, although very minute; it is situated on the
extreme edge of the disc, and when the inner surface
of the valve is uppermost, it is often invisible. Cos-
cinodiscus fuse us, Norman, is supposed to be identical
with the above species. — F. Kitton.

Sap Crystals. — The sap of the Scotch fir contains
very beautiful crystals ; they may be obtained at this
season of the year by cutting a slice through the bark,
from the under side of the branch ; in a few days the
sap will flow containing the crystals. — S. C. Hincks.

Cleaning Diatomace^e. — I have followed “Da-
vis ” in his manner of cleaning diatoms, but cannot

get rid of the flocculent matter and the sand, — in fact,
my slides are sand interspersed with diatoms, &c.
I have washed, and washed, and washed, till there is
very little left out of a rich gathering ; can you give
me any help ? — II. G. IV.

The Resolution of Diatom Tests. — At a
recent meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society,
Mr. Adolf Schulze, of Glasgow, read a paper on “A
new and simple Method of Resolving the finest Bal-
sam-mounted Diatom Tests.” The author described
the success which had attended the examination of
this class of objects by means of the reflex illuminator,
and the immersion paraboloid moistened with Castor
oil instead of water. The lines on Amphipleura pel-
lucida were in this manner shown in order to illus-
trate Mr. Schulze’s method.

ZOOLOGY.

The Golden Oriole ( Oriolus galbula). — Can
any of your readers supply information respecting the
notes of this bird ? It is asserted by those who have
heard it in Austria, that it has three definite notes,
and that those notes follow each other in the follow-
ing musical order :

If this can be verified, it will elucidate a remarkable
statement made by Nieremberg in his Natures
Historia , 1635, in which he speaks of a bird called
the Tritono Ave, and to which the late Canon Kings-
ley refers in his Life (vol. ii. p. 332)- ^ worthy

of remark that Bechstein states that the male bird’s
notes resemble “ a flourish of trumpets,” and very
curiously the above notes are a common bugle-call.
It will also be noticed that the last two notes are
those of the Cuckoo. If there be any truth in the
statement advanced, a very singular musical question
is solved, that a bird possesses the power of uttering
a “common chord” ! This was observed by Shield
in his treatise on Harmony (1800), and which first
attracted the attention of the writer of this notice.—
IV. II. C.

Parasitic Worms in Leg of Grebe.— When
skinning a Little Grebe ( Podiceps minor, Pen.), on
November 25 th, 1874, I came upon a cluster of
nematoid worms amongst the muscles and tendons of
both legs — exactly in the same place in each — near
the lower part of the tibia. From their larger size
they appeared to have been longer in the left leg than
in the right. They were rather hard and stiff — not
soft and flabby — of a regular spiral form, of about
six turns, tapering to each end, the largest about
three-quarters of an inch in length — not following the
turns of the spiral : if straight, they would be about
an inch long. They seemed unable to straighten

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

89

themselves ; when found, they were twined together
like the strands of a rope, and I observed that one,
after being separated from the others, bent slowly
round until it was twisted on itself. The bird was
very much emaciated, and no wonder, as, in addition
to the worms in the legs, it had a large fibrous
tumour in the back.” The above extract is from
some “zoological notes” contributed by me to the
“ Proc.” of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club,
vol. viii. p. 288. Lately — February 27th, 1878 — I
had a similar case, but in a different species of bird, —
an immature female of the Water-hen ( Gallinula
chlor opus'). When skinning the legs near where the
muscles end and the tendons begin, there was a quantity
of gelatinous matter which, as the bird was ap-
parently healthy and in good condition — not like the
Grebe in that respect, — induced me to examine it
carefully, when I found in both legs a number of the
same worms, or a nearly allied species, to that found
in the Grebe. The chief difference was in their not
being so regularly spiral, various sizes intermixed,
and not in such compact clusters. Although some of
them were entwined and interlaced together, others,
when the lower part of the tibia was pressed from
below upwards, came out singly amongst the ten-
dons, with a spiral motion like that of a corkscrew.
Perhaps some of the readers of Science-Gossip may,
from the above imperfect description, be able to
identify the species to which they belong. — Andrew
Brotherston , Kelso.

The Solitaire. — Prof. Newton recently drew
the attention of the Zoological Society to the state-
ment of Leguat that every Solitaire ( Pezophaps soli-
taria) carried a stone in its gizzard, and exhibited
one of three stones found by Mr. Caldwell associated
with the remains of as many birds of that species in
the caves of Rodriguez.

The National Entomological Exhibition
at the Westminster Aquarium well deserves a visit
from every entomologist who has the opportunity.
The committee who have arranged it are well known
entomologists, and it is not too much to say that
there never was a series of collections of insects like
this got together before. The insect fauna of Great
Britain and other countries are shown ; insects bene-
ficial and injurious to man ; insect productions useful
in commerce, &c. Nearly all the collections are
sent by persons living in and near the Metropolis.
The few exceptions to this rule are Mr. Prest, of the
York Natural History Society; Sir Thomas Mon-
creiffe, who sends a fine collection of Scotch insects ;
and Lord Walsingham, of Merton Hall, Thetford,
whose collection of preserved larvae, with their food-
plants, is one of the most interesting and beautiful
objects in the exhibition : the specimens were all pre-
pared by his lordship’s own hands, and they repre-
sent a great amount of labour and study. Nearly

every class in the exhibition is well represented ; the
Lepidoptera naturally predominating on account of
their greater beauty. The collections of Mr. Well-
man, Mr. Stevens, and Mr. Earn are especially good,
while among the micro-lepidoptera, Mr. Machin’s
and Dr. Harper’s collections are remarkably good :
one case of the latter gentleman’s contains upwards
of 3,000 specimens. Coleoptera and Hymenoptera
are also well represented, the latter by Mr. F. Smith,
of the British Museum, whose collection is the result
of forty years’ labour. The life histories of insects,
illustrated by Messrs. Adams, of Enfield, the cases
showing the habits of insects, prepared by Messrs.
Eedle & Son, and the foreign lepidoptera of Messrs.
Cook & Son are highly meritorious.

The Odontophore in Mollusca. — At a recent
meeting of the Zoological Society, Mr. P. Geddes
read a memoir on the mechanism of the odontophore
in certain mollusca. In this paper the view of Cuvier
— that the movements of the radula depend upon those
of the underlyingcartilages— was substantially revived,
arguments being adduced against the more recent
theory of Professor Huxley, that it runs like a chain-
saw, the cartilages merely forming a pulley-block.
The use of bacteria as food by Lymnceus was also
described by the author in this paper.

“The Fins of Elasmobranchs, with Con-
siderations on the Nature and Homologies
of Vertebrate Limbs.” — This is the title of a
paper by Prof. Mivart, read before the Zoological
Society, wherein the author detailed his dissections
of the fins of Elasmobranchs, which dissections had
convinced him that the paired and azygous fins are of
similar nature. Pie represented them all to have
resulted from the centripetal growth and evalescence
of a primitively distinct series of cartilaginous rays
developed in longitudinal folds, of which one was
dorsal, one ventral, and two were lateral. He also
advocated the view that the limb-girdles result from
the further centripetal growth of the evalescing limb-
cartilages, which growth seeks a point d'appui, the
pectoral limb-girdles in fishes shooting upwards and
downwards as well as inwards to obtain a firm support,
and at the same time to avoid the visceral cavity.
He contended that the Archipterygium was not to be
sought for in Ceratodus, which he by no means
regarded as a primitive type of structure, but rather
in Raia and especially in the ventrals of Polyodon.
He objected to Gegenbauer’s view that the meta-
pterygium formed the limb-axis of the cheiropterygium,
advocating instead the propterygium, or, if not that,
then the mesopterygium. He cited the varying con-
ditions described as evidences of the presence of an
innate intra-organic polar force as the main agent in
morphological modifications.

The Importation of Humble Bees into New
Zealand. — There would probably be no great

9o

HARD WICKE >S S C1ENCE - G OSSIP.

difficulty in taking out dormant fertile female humble
bees to New Zealand, if they were dug up in the
early spring, and packed in moss, and put into an
ice-chest and kept cool until their arrival at their
destination. If, however, the common species, Bombiis
terrestris , were sent out, it might do a great deal of
harm, and very little good. It obtains the nectar
from the red clover and other flowers with narrow
corolla-tubes, or otherwise difficult of access, by boring
holes from the outside, as has been shown by Darwin.
The red-tailed humble bee, Bombus lapidarius , on the
contrary, always, so far as my experience serves,
goes to the natural opening of the flowers, and is the
great agent in fertilizing the narrow-tubed ones. I
once watched a small patch of red clover for upwards
of an hour. Both of the above species came to it ;
Bombus terrestris , without exception, buried its head
amongst the flowers, and made holes at their base, or
sucked the nectar from those already made. Bombus
lapidarius just as invariably went to the opening of
the flowers, although the most of them had holes
made by the other species. Bombus lapidarius has
a longer proboscis than B. terrestris , and this is pro-
bably the reason for the different way in which they
go to work. Early in the summer I have seen young
individuals of B. terrestris sucking the nectar from
the flowers of the scarlet runners in a legitimate
manner, but they soon learn to make by preference
the holes at the base. The successive steps in their
education may be watched from their first hesitation,
awkward attempts to do this to the instinctive-like
facility they attain later on in the season. I know
nothing more interesting to a naturalist when he
wishes to rest from more serious study than to devote
a few hours on a summer’s day to watching the hum-
ble bees at work amongst the flowers. They have
been favourites of mine from early childhood, one of
my first experiments being the determination of the
stinging powers of the three species, and the time
they might be kept between the hollow of the two
hands before they got sufficiently angry to sting.
My recollection is that Bombus lapidarius , although
it has the longest proboscis, has also the shortest
temper and most virulent venom, and if it be not set
free as soon as its first angry note is heard, it will
not fail to punish severely. Notwithstanding this
trait in its character, I have no hesitation in recom-
mending that it is the one that should be sent out to
New Zealand, and that Bombus terrestris should not
be. — Thomas Belt , the Cedars , Ealing.

Development of Frogs’ Spawn. — For the last
two years I have carefully watched the development
of frogs’ spawn, and my observations give much
quicker results than those noted by Mi*. McAldowie.
In 1876 frogs spawned on April 4th, and my note of
April 8th says, “Observed tadpoles associated
together in twos and threes, gills visible with Cod-
dington lens.” Thus in four days my tadpoles were

as far advanced as those of your correspondent in
twelve. In 1877 frogs spawned in the afternoon of
March 30th; at 9 a.m. on the 5th April one tadpole
was free, and at 5 p.m. several were clear of the
albumen. If possible I will again collect and watch
the spawn this year. If others do the same, and we all
send our notes to the editor of Science-Gossip,
perhaps he may make some use of them. While ex-
amining tadpoles under the microscope in 1876, I
fancied that the whole of the exterior cuticle was
covered with very minute vibratile cilia. I could find
no mention of such a fact in any work, and concluded
I must have been mistaken; last year, however,
rather confirmed my idea, and as many readers of
this journal will doubtless keep and examine tadpoles
this year, may I ask them whether my suspicion is
correct or not. — R. B. C., Fanhams Hall , Ware.

The Human Eye. — A well-written and attract-
ively got-up book on this subject has just been
published by Messrs. Hardwicke & Bogue, from the
pen of Dr. R. E. Dudgeon. It deals with the optical
construction of the human eye, and has some novel
views concerning subaqueous vision, air lenses, &c.
The optics of human vision are clearly and scientifi-
cally discussed, and yet with a popular and even
attractive style of description. The book is well
illustrated.

Practical Taxidermy. — We have been fre-
quently applied to to recommend a good book on
Taxidermy, and are now glad to be able to do so.
Mr. Montague Brown has just completed a work en-
titled “ Practical Taxidermy : a Manual of Instruc-
tion to the Amateur, &c.” It is the completest
little hand-book of the subject we have, giving
figures of tools, modes of stuffing and setting up
birds and animals of all kinds, preparing skins, &c.
It is published at the Bazaar office, 32, Wellington-
street.

The Freedom of Modern Science. — Mr.
John Murray, of Albemarle-street, has issued, in a
cheap and well-got-up form, the address on this
subject by Dr. Rudolf Virchow, given before the
Conference of German Naturalists at Munich last
September. The high authority of the speaker and
the fact that he has not often expressed his opinions
on the evolution theory, although he may be said to
be the founder of embryological research, gave his
remarks much prominence. The address is a search-
ing criticism into the views of Darwin, Haeckel,
Naegeli, and others, and a protest against modern
science being led captive by any theory, no matter
how fascinating.

New Species of British Insects. — In the last
number of the Entomologists’' Monthly Magazine Mr.
P. Cameron describes two new species of Nematus
under the names of N. hibernicus and N. placidus.

HARD WICKE’S S CIENCE - G O SSIP.

9T

The former was taken near Dublin, and the latter in
England.

The Barbastelle ( Synotus Barbastellus). — This
evening (March 7th), whilst driving near Colchester,
I fancied I saw three bats that were new to me. I
struck at one with my whip and killed it. On picking
up my game, I was pleased to find the above bat was
my unknown friend. This district therefore can be
added to those in which this rare British mammal
occurs. — Henry Laver , F. L. S.

BOTANY,

Carex punctata, Gaud. — This species was sent
to tbe Botanical Exchange Club, labelled as follows :
— VLedges of perpendicular rocks in the Waterwinch,
Tenby. — C. BaileyP This exceedingly rare sedge
has hitherto been reported from several places in
Ireland, the Channel Islands, and Cornwall : we
believe the above locality is new to science. It is
very closely allied to Carex fulva , Good., but differs
from that species by its smooth humid fruit , which is
obscurely veined, but not ribbed. The fruit is also
pale green, but in C. distans , L., it is yellowish-
brown. The beak is slightly longer than in our
herbarium specimens, but the rough nut, tumid punc-
tate fruit, and tall slender stem, at once distinguish
this from its near allies.

Vegetable Teratology. — I recently found a
singular monstrosity in Harleston Firs, Anagallis
arvensis , which had the petals transformed into leaves,
and the calyx also leaf-like. The plant was fertile.
On the Barnack quarries Trifolium procumbens , was
so called viviparous . — G. C. Druce.

The “Rain Tree.” — At a recent meeting of the
Linnean Society, Professor Thistleton Dyer described
the “Rain Tree” of Mogobamba, South America,
under the name of Pithecolobium saman. The so-
called “rain” is the fluid excreta of cicadas which
feed on the juices of the foliage, and its dropping is
therefore analogous to the “ honey-dew ” which some-
times drops from the leaves of lime-trees by the
agency of aphides.

Polygala calc are a. — In the February number
of Trimen’s fournal of Botany, Mr. James Britten
notes the occurrence of a specimen of Polygala cal-
car ea in a collection of British plants presented to the
British Museum herbarium. It is associated on the
same sheet as Polygala vulgaris, and was collected at
Hughenden, Bucks, in June, 1865. It had not pre-
viously been recorded as occurring in that county.

Monstrosity in R. bulbosus.— In a field near
Leicester, in June, 1877, I found a specimen of Ra-
nuncidus bulbosus , having three completely deve-
loped whorls of petals, and nearly fifty stamens.

Neither myself nor any of my botanical friends have
ever found similar specimens. If the petals were
developed from the stamens, the original number of
the latter must have been much greater than usual. —
Arthur Wheatley.

Volvox globator. — In the neighbourhood of
Ashton-under-Lyne Volvox globator has been found,
by myself and others, in great abundance, from the
24th of last November (on which date it was first
detected in our locality) up to March. The pits
have been visited two or three times each month
since November, and several times we have got volvox
from under the ice. I myself gathered it from
under half an inch of ice on January 28th, some of
which were exhibited at the meeting of the Man-
chester Field Naturalists’ Society on February 3rd. —
Thomas Whitelegg.

GEOLOGY,

Tile Influence of the Advent of a Higher
Form of Life in modifying the Structure
of an older and lower Form. — This was the
title of an important paper, by Professor Owen,
C.B., F.R.S., recently read before the Geological
Society. The author, after referring to the general
question of the modification of the structure of
organic forms produced by the action of external
influences, indicated that, in connexion with this,
changes in the nature of the prey of carnivorous
animals ought to be taken into consideration. He
inferred that cold-blooded aquatic animals formed a
much greater proportion of the food of Mesozoic than
than of Neozoic Crocodiles, and pointed out as con-
nected therewith the well-marked distinction between
the amphiccelian and procoelian type of vertebrae re-
spectively characteristic of the two groups. The
procoelian character of the trunk-vertebrae better
adapts that part of the body to be sustained and
moved in air, and may be connected with the in-
coming in Tertiary times of mammalian prey inducing
the Crocodiles to rush on shore. The Mesozoic
Crocodiles were encased in a much stronger and
more complete dermal armour than their successors,
doubtless for their protection from the great Ich-
thyosaurs, Pliosaurs, &c., which coexisted with them ;
but as these passed away at the close of the Secondary
epoch, the armour of the procoelian Crocodiles has
become more scanty, and the diminution of weight
and rigidity thus caused would favour progression in
the air, and the rapidity of movement required for
capturing mammalian prey on land. The difference
in the position of the palato-nares, and in other related
gular and palatal structures, between the Mesozoic
and Neozoic Crocodiles is apparently connected with
the power possessed by the latter of holding sub-
merged a powerful mammal without permitting the

92

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

access of water to the posterior nostrils and windpipe
of the Crocodile : and hence the author is inclined to
ascribe a fish-diet even to those massive-jawed Croco-
diles from the Purbeck (such as Goniopholis crassidens
and simus), which in some respects might seem fitted
to grapple with large and active mammals. The
small size of the upper temporal apertures in Tertiary
and existing Crocodiles is regarded by the author as
a further proof in the same direction ; these apertures
are reduced by the progressive increase of the osseous
roof of the temporal vacuities, which again is corre-
lated with increase in the bulk and power of the tem-
poral muscles, the main agents in biting and holding.
The differences in the length and strength of the jaw,
as a rule, testify in the same direction. Further, the
fore limbs in Mesozoic Crocodiles are shorter than in
Neozoic species, indicating that the former were more
strictly aquatic in their habits ; the fore-limbs in all
Crocodiles being closely applied to the body during
rapid swimming, and small limbs being less ob-
structive than larger ones. On the other hand, they
would be less efficient as a means of progression on
land, and hence it may be inferred that the advent in
Tertiary times of mammals frequenting the water-side,
tempting the Crocodiles to make a rush upon the land
to seize such passing prey, would lead to such
strenuous action of the fore-limbs as would account
for the increased size and power of those organs in
the Neozoic species. The author concluded with
some remarks upon the influence of the above con-
siderations upon our views as to the generic divisions
of Crocodiles.

The Glacial Period. — Dr. Ricketts, F.G.S.,
has reprinted his valuable paper, read before the Liver-
pool Geological Society, on the “The Conditions
existing during the Glacial Period.” It also contains
an account of the Glacial deposits in the valley between
Tranmere and Oxton, near Birkenhead.

Marine Fossils in the Gannister Beds. —
Prof. G. A. Lebour has announced the discovery of
marine fossils in the lower coal measures, or “ gan- I
nister” beds of Northumberland, between Stocksfield
station and Whittonstall. Hitherto no marine fossils
have been met with in these rocks.

The Geology of Colorado. — The Atlas of
Colorado, soon to be issued by the United States
Geological Survey of the Territories, under Prof.

F. V. Hayden, embodies the results of the geological
and geographical work of the survey during the years
from 1873 1° 1876 inclusive. This Atlas will contain
the following maps 1st, A general drainage map of
Colorado, on a scale of twelve miles to the inch.
2nd, An economic map of the same region, having at
its basis the above-mentioned drainage map. This
map will indicate the areas of arable, pasture, timber,
coal, mineral, and desert land in as great detail as

possible on the scale. 3rd, A general geological map
on which the areas covered by the principal forma-
tions will be shown. The drainage map will form
the basis for this also. 4th, A map showing the
scheme of the primary triangulation in the State.
Scale, twelve miles to the inch. 5th, Six topogra-
phical sheets, showing the same area as that covered
by the general drainage map, but in much more detail.
The scale of these sheets is four miles to an inch.
The relief of the country is indicated by contour lines,
at vertical intervals of 200 feet. The area covered
by each of these sheets is 11,500 square miles. 6th,
Six geological sheets, of which the basis is the six
topographical sheets just mentioned. On these the
detailed geology is expressed by colours. With the
appearance of this map, Colorado will be better
known, topographically and geologically, than any
other State.

Winds, Ocean-Currents, and Tides. — Mr.
W. L. Leighton, F.R.G.S., has published a second
edition of his lecture on the above subject, together
with the discussion which arose when the discourse
was delivered. Mr. Leighton is a formidable antago-
nist, and is not likely to surrender his own views
because some scientific authorities think lightly of
them. Even the latter must confess that he makes
out a good case.

Fossil Fungus. — Prof. Lesquereux has recently
described a fossil fungus ( R h izo morph us sigill: iria;)
discovered under the bark of a Sigillaria from the
Carmelton Coal of Beaver County, Pennsylvania.

NOTES AND QUERIES,

A Singular Place for a Bird’s-nest. —
Whilst waiting on the platform of the railway-station
at Coventry, one day last week, I observed an old
sparrow’s nest built inside a signal-bell. This bell is
of a saucer shape, some 10 inches in diameter, and
placed with its concave face within about inch
of the side of the “ crossover ” bridge, and directly
over the centre of the railway. The hammer-head
of this bell is attached to a long lever, in connection
with a wire, leading to a distant operating spot.
There is also a heavy counterweight and lever,
forming part of the apparatus of the signal ; so that
when the bell is struck, there is, besides the loud
ringing, a great rattle and noise of levers, and a
heavy thump caused by the falling counterweight.
This bell is used many times every hour of the day,
and frequently during the night, three or four blows
being struck each time. The officials of the station
informed me that inside the bell was a favourite
building place of the sparrows, and that the nests had
frequently to be removed, but that young ones had
been hatched and reared there. — G. A. Biddcll,
Ipswich.

Carnivorous Slug. — Whilst perusing the
columns of your journal, the accounts of the predatory
slug recalled to my memory a circumstance which
occurred to me some years ago. While out walking

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

93

one day in the country, across my path I observed
a slug and a butterfly very close together. On
stooping down I noticed that the half of the body of
the butterfly had disappeared, and the slug (the com-
mon white variety) was busily devouring the remain-
der. In a short time it all disappeared. Now, the
curious part of this is, how could the butterfly have
been so unwary as to allow the slug to approach so
near ? Perhaps some of your numerous correspon-
dents could relate some similar circumstances. —
y. D. 0. , Carrickfergus.

Asplenium septentrionale. — In the January
number of SciENCE-GossiP there is a paragraph
which states that Asplenium septentno7iale was dis-
covered near Dolgelly, by Mrs. Chamberlain Barlow,
of Edgbaston, in 1867. Allow me to inform the
writer that it had been previously discovered in the
district by the Rev. T. Sal way, vicar of Oswestry,
and in a “List of certain Plants found in the Neigh-
bourhood of Barmouth,” published by him in 1863,
this passage occurs: “ Asplenium septentrionale , a
single plant gathered by me on the wall of the turn-
pike-road between Hendwet and Dolgelly, in 1842,”
and this note, “I could never find this in subsequent
years, though I gathered only a few fronds, and left
the root.” — F. C. Raivlings , Barmouth.

Venomous Reptiles of Ireland. — In reply to
S. E. Bennett, page 42, for February, I beg to say we
have none such ; our reptiles are frogs, green lizard,
one newt, and Natter Jack, in Co. Kerry. It was not
St. Kevin, but a bigger saint — St. Patrick — who sent
them adrift from Croagh Patrick, in Co. Mayo. “He
gave the snakes and toads a twist, and banished all
the vermin, ” as the song goes. — F. H.

Solanum Dulcamara. — In reply to Mr. W.
West, Bradford, as to above, I regret to say I have
known two fatal cases in this neighbourhood (Athy)
from children eating the berries of|this plant. One fact
is worth one hundred doctors. — F. H.

The Mildness of the Season. — On the 21st
of February, whilst taking my accustomed walk
through the beautiful beech-woods of Nettlebed, I
was surprised by an adder attempting to cross my
path, and having destroyed many of these venomous
reptiles, particularly in the county of Devonshire, I
found, on killing it, that it was the largest I had ever
seen, — its length being not less than twenty-eight
inches. The occurrence of this reptile so early, with
the primrose and other wild flowers in bloom, on this
elevated, picturesque, healthy range of the Chiltern
Hills, is a proof of the extreme mildness of the sea-
son.— Thomas Shipway.

Small Mites. — Some newly-married friends of
ours, gone to reside in a farmhouse in a pretty, undu-
lating country district in Gloucestershire, have been
sadly annoyed for some time past by the presence of
numbers of very small mites ; they come on their
books, clothes, and furniture, — even on the piano
specks of dust-like particles are often seen, and an
inexperienced eye would think them to be only dust ;
but, on close inspection, they are seen to move.
Benzoline and sanitas have been tried in vain. Can
any of your readers throw any light on the matter ?
— whence they come, or in what way they may be
exterminated? — M. R. D.

Age of Sea-Gulls. — It may not be generally
known to what age sea-gulls live. There is a gull
living at Freshwater, Isle of Wight, at the present

time, which has reached its thirtieth year, and is appa-
rently as well as ever. It was taken when young from
the nest, and was supposed to be a male bird, but
when nearly twenty years old, to the surprise of
every one an egg appeared, and since that time it has
laid many more. All this time it was called by the
name of Willie, but the name was then changed
to Rittie, which it still bears. The bird is perfectly
tame, and comes at once when called. It lives in a
garden, and is fed principally on meat and fish ; it
has also a great liking for cheese. The bird has been
in the possession of the same person all its life ; I
believe it is the common gull (Larus canus). — Frank
Morey.

Midnight Songsters. — On Feb. 15th and three
following evenings, blackbirds, thrushes, and many
of the smaller birds have been singing merrily at mid-
night.. The gentleman at whose house I am staying,
a doctor, driving late through the park, and several
others, have heard the above, but no one seems ever
to have known of such an occurrence before. A
blackbird was seen while singing, perched on a tree,
close to the house-windows. The nightingale has
not yet been heard in this part. — M. B. Gordon ,
Little Chart, Kent.

Birds Singing at Midnight. — On the night
of Saturday, the 15th of February, I was returning
home from the house of a friend, between the hours
of eleven and twelve o’clock, when I was consider-
ably surprised to hear a thrush singing away merrily.
Presently, the songster was joined by others, and in a
short time a regular concert began, taken paid in by
at least a dozen thrushes and blackbirds, whilst the
robin, wren, and other small birds were singing and
chirruping in the hedgerows, just as you hear them in
the early morning in summer. On arriving home, I
called the attention of my friends to this singular
circumstance, and we stood at the door for some
time listening with wonder to this — at such an hour
— unusual melody. On the following night, about
the same hour, the concert again commenced, and
was even more lively than on the preceding night,
and continued until morning. On both nights the
weather was very'calm and mild, and the moon shone
with great splendour, making it almost as light as
day. I should be glad to learn whether any of the
readers of Science-Gossip residing in other parts of
the country have noticed this — to me — remarkable
incident in the history of our singing birds, which
most certainly has never come under my observation
before. — R. Standen, Goosnargh, Lancashire.

Herring Fishery. — A correspondent in your
March No. inquires how fishermen tell when herrings
are in their vicinity. On this coast most of our
cobbles cast their nets by night, and if any herrings
are near, they can readily see the phosphorescence
caused by this fish, which is generally very brilliant,
especially if the night be dark and the herrings plen-
tiful. Nine out of ten of our cobbles do not shoot
their nets unless this “ flame,” as the fishermen call
it, be visible. They can also tell the difference
between “full ’’and “spawn” fish, a shoal of the
former swimming like a single one, the whole body
oscillating gently from side to side as they proceed,
whereas, in a shoal of the latter, each fish is constantly
on the move, darting restlessly about. This is by
far the most useful sign of the approach of herrings,
as the following can only be observed during the day,
and are even then not very reliable ; viz., that if the
weather be warm and the sea smooth, a whole shoal
will frequently disport on the surface of the water,

94

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

their shining bellies gleaming by thousands in the
sun, and the innumerable splashes looking at a dis-
tance as though a heavy shower, or a sudden gust of
wind, were ruffling the water. Seabirds too, usually
follow the shoals, and if many are seen “working”
together, it is a pretty sure sign that small fish are at
hand, though they need not, of necessity, be herrings.
— G. W. L., Bridlington Quay.

“ Fairy-flax.” — I see in the January number of
Science-Gossip, “ E. L. R.” asks, What plant is
known under the name of Fairy-flax. I believe it is
Linum catharticum , so-called from its great delicacy.
— A. F. Gissing.

Hare-bell. — The following is an extract from
Dr. Prior’s “Origin and Meaning of the Names of
British Plants,” on the derivation of Hare-bell : —
Hare-bell, a name to which there is no corresponding
one in any other language, is in all probability a
corruption of some other word, perhaps “ Heather-
bell.” Thomson, in his “Etymons,” gives A. S.
hoeur, blue, as its origin ; but there is no such word
to be found. Prior also traces the derivation of Hare ,
A. S.“hara.” Da. “hare.” Ger. “hase.” Skr.
s’as’a, from s’as’, spring. — A. F. Gissing, Wakefield.

Harebell. — In No. 159, p. 69, Mr. Holland
seems wishful to know if Gerard, in his Herbal,
gives any reason why Scilla nutans is called Harebell.
I beg to say that he does not, at least in Johnston’s
edition of 1536* He calls the plant Hyacinthus
anglicus, and in his index names it Haresbell ; thus
clearly showing that the animal is meant, and no
allusion to the stem. Campanula rotundifolia he
calls the small Bellflower. This latter in Cumber-
land is almost invariably, except in books, called
Bluebells, and often Bluebells of Scotland — some
allusion, I suppose, to Blue-bonnets. Hairbell is,
no doubt, an appropriate name for Campanula, and
so is Harebell ; for as its slender peduncles are moved
and shaken by every passing breeze, so is the fearful
hare [Lepus timidus ) agitated and stirred by every
noise and movement around her. I may also men-
tion to Mr. Holland that the Mountain Flax is in
Cumberland often called Mountain Flocks. This
shows how strange names are often introduced by
substituting for the right term some better-known
word similar in sound. The word flax is seldom
used here : Line is the common name. — R. W.

White Hairbell. — With reference to Mr. Tate’s
remark on White Hairbells, I may mention that my
experience of albino flowers has been almost invaria-
bly the same as his. I have in my herbarium albino
specimens of Campanula rotundifolia, Calluna vul-
garis, Stachys betonica, Geranium robertianum , and
others, all of which have indications of colour, which
they did not have when living. — Albert C. Coxhead.

White Harebell, &c. — On September 5, I
gathered white flowers of Campanula rotundifolia,
between Largrave and Malham, and they are per-
fectly white now when dry. I also found white
flowers of Lychius Flos-cuculi, at Hawksworth, near
Bradford, in July. White flowers of Scilla nutans
occur regularly about here ; also white Erica cinerea ;
but I believe this latter occurrence is not very fre-
quent. — William West, Bradford.

White Flowers. — A young friend found at Rhyl,
in the late summer of last year, a flower of the Scabiosa
urbensis, perfectly white. We have also met with a
root of Ononis arvensis, the flowers of which were
entirely album. The lovely little harebell, or blue-

bell, Campanula rotundifolia, I have often met with
white, as well as blue ; indeed, we had large tufts of
both colours, growing in our garden. The Scilla
nutans is also often to be met with white and even
pink. We have from childhood been taught to call
the Scilla nutans the wild hyacinth, and the Cam-
panula rotundifolia the bluebell ; this latter name is
in Staffordshire mostly applied by the country people
to both plants, without any discrimination. — E. Ed-
wards.

Longevity in the Slow-worm. — A very fine
specimen was captured by me, near Beacontree
Heath, in the year 1850, and was killed by an
unfortunate mischance a few days ago. It had con-
sequently been in my possession twenty-eight years.
It was several years old when caught, and was in
sound health up to the time of the misadventure
which caused its death. — C. fpringham.

Toad and Gold Fish. — In my garden is a tank
let into the ground, where it receives a regular supply
of fresh water, and affords room for several fish, in-
cluding some of the carp family, known as “gold
fish.” On 15th February last I saw one of the latter
lying on its side, apparently ill or dead, and a toad
just by its head. Reaching a stick, I touched the
fish, and to my surprise found it was alive, but
grasped firmly by the head in the front legs of the
toad, which I endeavoured to dislodge. But although
the fish struggled violently, the toad held fast, and at
length carried the fish down among decayed leaves
and vegetation in the bottom of the tank. To free
the fish, I had to get my gardener to empty and
clean out the tank. — Horace Pearse, F.L.S., The
Limes , Stourbr idge.

Dredging. — “R. G. C.” will find that if he
dredges near shore from, say a small boat, the hempen
tangles, invented by Captain Calver, are a good and
simple substitute for the costly and often unsatis-
factory dredge, such specimens as Crustacea and
echinoderms becoming easily caught, and frequently
fishes and mollusca ; but care is required to extract
them from the hemp, into which they are often too
much entangled, and thereby spoilt. Gosse’s “Marine
Zoology ” is a useful accompaniment to a dredging
expedition, where the above-named orders are being
fished for. — E. Lovett, Croydon.

Snakes and Birds. — May I venture to say, in
answer to the question in your Science-Gossip,
whether the English snake eats birds or not, that I
have known two instances in which a snake has been
killed with a bird in its mouth. The one case was-
in Cornwall, when, with some gentlemen friends, I
going towards Penzance, when a large snake met us
with a bird in its mouth, evidently taking it home for
its dinner. One of the gentlemen gave the snake a
fatal blow with his stick ; so we did not see the
actual eating of the bird (but I think we should have
hanged a man on less presumptive evidence that it was
' eaten). The second case was in our own garden,
where the gardener despatched a snake on the
manure-heap with a bird in its mouth. — B. H. K.

Intelligence of the Fox. — One of the Cum-
berland newspapers last October contained an
account of a fox being chased for two hours by the
Blencathra foxhounds on Skiddawand the neighbour-
hood. The fox was raised from his lair at Lonscale
Crag, and made towards Littleton, “thence over
Lonscale Fell to the Skiddaw Little Man,” the
hounds being in full cry after him. Thence he ran
at a terrific pace to the top of Skiddaw on to Rannel

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

95

Crag, through Southwaite Dale, over Ling Howe’s
Nook, to the Sandbeds at Bassenthwaite. About
two hours had now elapsed, and the pace was begin-
ning to tell on the poor fox when his intelligence
began to be displayed in a remarkable manner.
After crossing and recrossing a road he made towards
a stackyard, but, failing to find there the shelter he
sought, he took another direction for some distance ;
but again returned by almost the same route, until he
reached a road on which a flock of sheep was being
driven. Knowing that he had nothing to fear from
these animals, and placing confidence in the driver,
he deliberately took his place in the middle of the
flock ; and, measuring his pace with the sheep, in
this manner he travelled with them for some dis-
tance. The means he had adopted to save his life
might well have excited a feeling of pity and admira-
tion at this remarkable act of intelligence, but the
gratification of witnessing the poor animal mangled
to death by a pack of ravenous dogs possessed greater
attraction, and he was ruthlessly driven from the
midst of the sheep, and compelled to devise other
means for the preservation of his life. He made to
a cottage hard by, and attempted to enter it, but was
driven from the door by one of the female inmates.
He then passed to the rear of the cottage, and threw
his wearied and exhausted frame down on the sward
instead. But his rest was brief ; he was again
aroused by his relentless pursuers, and, making a
final effort for his life, he was shortly caught and
worried to death. Has the Society for the Preven-
tion of Cruelty to Animals no power to take cog-
nizance of such inhuman acts as this ? Here is an
animal endowed with little short of human intelli-
gence for the protection of his life, tortured for up-
wards of two hours, and then torn in pieces for the
gratification of his persecutors. Cases twenty times
less revolting than this are almost daily brought up
by the Humane Society and punished. Burns, when
he had turned up the nest of a mouse with his plough,
and saw one of his labourers chasing it, indignantly
exclaimed, in that beautiful poem to a mouse, —

“ I’m truly sorry man’s dominion.

Has broken Nature’s social union.”

It is no argument, that because the fox, to sustain
his life may make free with pheasants, rabbits, and
even barn-door fowl, he should be tortured for
hours, and ultimately torn to pieces. It is his nature,
and his life is as sweet to him as to us. There are
other means for his destruction with comparatively
little pain without this prolonged torture. — Dipt on
Burn.

Aquaria. — I have kept a great number of Aquaria,
both salt and fresh-water ones. I have often watched
the sticklebacks, both salt and fresh-water, and both
sorts are very fond of attacking other fish, particu-
larly the fresh-water species. The latter attacked
goldfish, roach, sace, minnows, and other kinds of
fish, as well as newts and tritons. They nibble the
tails and fins off the fish, particularly the goldfish,
and the fish get diseased through it and pine away
and die. I have lost a great many goldfish by their
depredations. They nibble or bite the toes and tail
off the newts : I have seen their tails bitten so fre-
quently by them that there has been very little left of
them. _ I should never advise any one to place them
in a nice-stocked aquarium, and they should be kept
out of small ornamental ponds where there are gold-
fish. If you wish to see how destructive they are,
place some of those fish or animals in an aquarium
that I have mentioned by themselves ; you will then
see that the sticklebacks will not let them rest a

minute ; they will worry the poor fish to death. — A.
J . R. Sclater, Teignmouth.

Black Beetles. — On looking over my old Sci-
ence-Gossips, I find cucumber peelings are recom-
mended as a bait for black beetles. It is the custom
in these parts to throw the peelings near their haunts,
under the impression that it kills them ; but this
paragraph leads me to believe the cucumber merely
allures but does not destroy the beetles. Can any of
your readers inform me whether it destroys as well as
allures them? — Arthur Smyth, Parracombe.

Early Birds. — Our local papers contain notices
of a robin’s nest containing five eggs, on which the
hen bird was sitting on the last day of the year.
This was between Watchet and Williton, Somerset.
It is also stated that a thrush’s nest with four eggs
might be seen in a drove way at Ilminster, in the
same county, the first week in the year. — W. Mac-
millan, Castle Cary , Somerset.

HWhat is the Whipultre? — Can any of your
readers say what tree Chaucer meant by the
££ Whipultre ?” The word occurs in an enumeration
of trees. All those otherwise mentioned are there-
fore precluded. Vide 2,925 of the ££ Ivnighte’s
Tale.” — G. L.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science -Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the gth of the previous
month.

A. L. (Nottingham). — It is a variety of common water-mint

( Mentha aquaticd).

W. K. (Leeds). — The light, or whitish seeds, are the product
of CcEsalpinia cariaria, often named “ Libi-dibi,” probably
now corrupted commercially into Divi-divi. We could only
detect about two of the darker seeds : they must have trickled
from the envelope.

D. S. (Ealing). — The brown spots on the under side of leaf of
oak are generally called by village children “Oak-stars” and
“Oak-spangles.” They are not fungi, but galls produced by
Diplolepis lenticularis. On the long (lanceolate) leaves you
enclose, evidently a sallow, is a perfect fungus, now named
Melampsorn salicina. Early in the season it assumes a straw
colour at this stage ; it was formerly named Lecythea sp.,
because it was supposed to be a distinct species. It is very
common on poplars and willows the year through. The best
work on British Botany is Hooker’s “ Student’s Flora.” You
should get Davies on “ Microscopic Mounting.”

E. Clark. — We are sorry you are not pleased with the
return parcel of plants. With the exception of another botanical
exchanger (a lady), all have expressed their high sense of satis-
faction with their parcels, the labour and expense of arranging
which have been very great.

A. H. H. — You will find full directions “how to preserve
spiders,” in an article by Dr. Dyce, under the above heading,
in Science-Gossip, for January, 1868. In Science-Gossip
volume for 1875 there is an article by our best spider authority,
the Rev. Mr. Cambridge, on the same subject, together with
several notes and queries relating to collecting and preserving
spiders.

E. C. J. — There is no work as yet published on Australian
Tertiary Polyzoa that we are aware of. Inquire of Mr. Robert
Etheridge, jun., Geological Survey Office, India-buildings,
Victoria-street, Edinburgh, who has worked on the subject.
Your best plan would be to offer to exchange Polyzoa with
C. Harris.

T. Shipton. — We should think you would be able to obtain
the collapsible nozzled tubes by ordering them through any
first-class chemist.

J. S., Jun. (Warrington). — Your sea-weeds are — 1. a faded
red plant, probably Rhodymenia. palmata ; 2. Fragment of
some dried plant, species undistinguishable, covered with tufts
of Calothrix confervicola and faded masses of Jania rtibens .£
3. Portion of Halidrys siliquosa, with tufts of Sphacelaria
cirrhosa ; 4. Probably Gracilaria confervoides ; 5. Faded and
stunted specimens of Ceramium rulrum.

96

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

X. Y. Z. — There is no examination for the degree of F.G.S.
It is purely honorary. You had best apply to the Secretary,
Burlington House, for further and fuller information.

J. H. Jones. — Communicate with the Naturalists’ Agency,
Salem, Mass., U. S. A., respecting exchanges of American
lepidoptera. If you look over the Exchange column of some
back numbers of Science-Gossip, you will find American
lepidoptera offered for English.

E. S. M. — See article in present number as to the Antiquity
of Man. You had best write to the Secretary of the Society
for list of names, and inclose stamps.

A. S. K. — Get Landsborough’s “British Seaweeds,” pub-
lished by Lovell Reeve. It has coloured plates, and the price
is ics. 6d. One of the cheapest and best is Grattann’s “ British
Marine Algae.” It contains 205 capital engravings, and is
written by one of our best algologists. The price is 5s. 6d. It is
published at the Bazaar Office, 32, Wcllington-street, Strand.

\V. W. Walters. — You will find full instructions how to
use the cyanide bottle in Dr. Knaggs’s article on “ Collecting
and Preserving Natural History Objects,” published by Hard-
wicke & Bogue, at 3s. 6d.

John Astley. — Your small insects (which came to hand
alive) are springtails or Podurce , and the species sent is
Achorutes purpurescens. They belong to a distinct group of
insects called Thysanuradee. See articles (with illustrations of
chief species) in Science-Gossip for December, 1872, and
January, 1873.

M. G. — Woodward’s “Manual of the Mollusca” is the best
book of its kind yet issued. The price is 7s. 6d., published by
Lockwood & Co. Any of the kinds of food mentioned would
serve as “treats ” to the pigeons.

T. W. (York). — You may obtain every article required for
natural history purposes from J. Gardner, 246, Oxford-street,
London.

F. H. A. — Thanks for note respecting Geutiana acaulis ; we
fear it will never occur as a genuine native. The Sedum resem-
bled sexangidare very closely. It is difficult to tell the dif-
ference betwixt this species and reflexum, except by seeing the
barren shoot, — then it is known at a glance.

G. C. D. (Northampton). — Thanks for Carex, which we hope
to make use of. The rust on leaf of Trifolium Molinieri is a
not uncommon fungus. It also affects several species of dock.
It is the Uromyces apicidata , Lev.

J. C. — You will find in Sach’s “Botany,” translated and
edited by Professor Thistleton Dyer and A. W. Bennett, and
published by the Clarendon Press, the best treatise on Vegetable
Morphology.

F. W. Morriss. — It is a common occurrence for the tortoise-
shell butterfly to come out on warm sunny days early in the
year. Such specimens have been hybernating, and the light
and heat have revived them.

H. L. Graham. — Your moss is Hypnum denticulatum.

W. Thomson. — Your specimens of mosses are: — Pottia trun-
catula; 2. Hypnum deuticulaturn ; 3. Homalia trichoma-
noides ; 4. Anomodcni viticidosus ; 5. Hypnum nndulatum. —

R. B.

V. G. — Your micro fungus is Ceidhospora phacidioides, Grev.

S. A. B. — The fungus on leaves of box is Puccinia Buxi,

D. C.

EXCHANGES.

Mounted slides of Craterium pyriforme in exchange for
well-mounted Slides of interest. — S. C. Hincks, Farnham,
Surrey.

A quantity of Balsam Mounts, of common but interesting
micro objects, for Coleoptera, Birds’ Eggs, or anything in-
teresting.— C. W. Lawton, Essex-road, London.

Isoetes hystrix, Helianth. guttatum , Oroianche car idea,
and Gymnogramma leutophylla, &c., for Lathy rus palustris,
Galium Anglicum, Arnoseris pusilla, Carex tomentosa, &c.
— G. C. Druce.— — Also G. C. Druce, Northampton, will be
pleased to hear from the contributor to Exchange Club who
sent specimens collected by Mr. Notcutt.

Asterina gibbosa (small) for foreign Echinus Spines. —
J. Keogh, 25, Camperdown-place, Yarmouth.

First two vols. Cassell’s Birds, in red leather, 12s. 6d. Also
wanted, first 12 parts, Morris’s Birds, 2nd edition, exchange for
Morris’s Butterflies, 1st edition, 12 parts. — E. Evans, Brins-
combe, Gloucestershire.

WELL-mounted slides of Polycystina and rare Foraminifera
in exchange for others, or Lepidoptera. — Phonographer, 78,
Lozell’s-road, Birmingham.

Living Ferns and Alpine Plants, interesting microscopic
Slides and material, & c., in exchange for Section-cutter, really
good Slides, or material. Please see my offer in March number.
List free. — T. McGann, Burren, Ireland.

Birds’ Eggs. — Wanted, oological correspondence, and ex-
change with some of the numerous American, Colonial, and
Foreign readers of Science-Gossip. All letters answered.
William H. Armitage, Etruria Villa, Crookes-road, Sheffield.

Wanted, Mounted Microscopic Objects of every description
for mounting materials. Send specimen and state wants. —
E. Atkins, 200, Essex-road, Islington, London.

Foreign Shells. — Duplicates, mostly of Japanese, Chinese,
Burmese, Java and Philippines, Australian. Desiderata: princi-
pally North and South American, West Indian, Mediterranean,
Spanish, French, Algerian, and Egyptian ; also Duplicates of
about fifty sorts of British Land and Fresh-water Shells for
the above desiderata. Exchanges invited. — W. Sutton, Upper
Claremont, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

H. lamellata, H. aculeata, H. pygmcea, Z. radiatulus,
and H. fusca for any good A nodonts, Unio tumidus, or
Pictorum, from any place where I have not got them, in
England. — J. Whitwham, Cross-lane, Marsh, Huddersfield.

Many species of British Shells, Sea, Land, and Fresh-water,
offered in exchange for foreign Clausilias. — Address : F. M.
Hele, Fairlight, Elmgrove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

A pair of Telephones in exchange for Microscopic Slides,
well mounted. — L. Hawkins, 7, Castle- Down-terrace, Hastings.

Small collection of Coleoptera, in good order, or well-
mounted objects, for cabinet, specimens of Flint Sponges from
the Chalk. — Address : R. H. E., Mr. Morton’s, 165, Lewisham
High-road, S. E.

For slide, with scales, of a rare and supposed new species of
Lepisma, send well-mounted slide to James Simpson, 15,
Prospect-place, Dumbiedykes-road, Edinburgh.

Forty species of Hepaticce (named), F. tamarindifolius,

G. squarrosum, T. abietinum , H. hians, offered for foreign
Marine Algse. — E. C. J., 12, Church-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

A few rare British Birds’ Eggs to exchange for rare British
Birds’ Skins or Eggs, not in collection. All letters answered. —
R. Standen, Goosnargh, Preston, Lancashire.

Send Botanical or prepared Entomological material in ex-
change for a healthy plant of Valisneria and Capsules of
Whelk Egg for Polariscope. Other material for exchange. —
Tylar, 165, Well-street, Birmingham.

Send really good unmounted Material of any kind (except
diatomaceous earths), when well-mounted Slides or Material-
's preferred) will be forwarded in exchange. — J. Sherlock, 32,
Exchange-street, St. Helens.

Rare Mosses, including Tortula Horusckuchiana, Hypnum
triquetrum, &c. (all in fruit), for well-mounted Micro Slides —

T. Watson, Bank Parade, Burnley.

Wanted, Lepidoptera (perfect or imperfect insects) for
Polyzoa'from the Coraline Crag; Eggs, mostly sea-birds’, and
other objects of interest. — F. M. Ogilvie, Sizewell House,
Leiston, Suffolk.

London Catalogue, 7th edition, Nos. 135, 209, 239, 556,
577, 7°4) 7°9> 769> Sio, 838> 97 5> 1031, 1284, 1297, and others,
in exchange for Nos. 1265, 1267, 1270, 1279, 1286, 1292, 1293,
1298, 1299, 1300, 1302. List exchanged. J. Tempere, 23,
Crouch-street, Colchester.

In exchange for well-mounted slides, send Fossils or objects
relating to Marine Zoology. — C. P. Ogilvie, Sizewell House,
Leiston, Suffolk.

Wanted, good gathering of Pleurosigma angulatum, for
Diatoms, Slides, Material, or Cash. — Eug. Mauler, Travers,
Switzerland.

A bottle of Preliminary Varnish, and one ditto of white or
coloured Enamel Cement, for good unmounted material. Micro.
Fungi, Diatoms, Marine Algae, &c., preferred. — Henry Vial,
Crediton.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

White’s “ Natural History of Selborne,” edited by Prof.
Thomas Bell, F. R.S., in 2 vols. London : Van Voorst.

“ Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Liverpool,” vol. xxxi. 1876-77.

“ The System of the World,” by W. L. Jordan. London :
Hardwicke & Bogue.

“The Freedom of Science in the Modern State,” by Rudolf
Virchow, M.D. London : John Murray.

“ Land and Water.” March.

“ Chambers’s Journal.” March.

“ Botanische Zeitung.” February.

“American Naturalist.” February.

“ The Naturalist.” March.

“ Midland Naturalist.” March.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications have been received up to the ioth
ult., from:— F. K.— J. F. R.— M. G.— M. H. C.— T. W.—

H. B. W.-J. E. J.— F. C. R.— T. E. D.— F. H.— E. W.—
E. D. M.— J. H. R.— D. D.— G. C.— J. D. O. -C. W. L.—
Dr. R. H. W.— G. C. D.— H. L. G.— T. McG.— S. C. H.—
A. S.— G. N.— C. P. O.— F. M. O.— G. C. D.— H. G. G.-
H. L.— G. P.— W. T.— F. W. M.— T. S.— Prof. J. T.— T. W.
— W. W. W.— J. H. K.— J. P. S.— R. S.— J. A.— G. W. L.—
E. H.— E. C. J.— M. R. D.— J. S.— E. S. M.— J. L. H.-

A. S. K.— E. E.— J. R. S.-F. M.— R. H. E.— R. B. C.—

B. H.— H. P.— H. G. W.— S. A. B.— L. H.— C. W.— J. W.—
H. W. T.— F. M. H.— T. B.— W. H. A.— E. C.— J. K.— A. B.
— T. W. D.— F. A. A.— A. J. R. S.— A. S.— H. A. F.— X. Y. Z.
—A. H. H.— R. W.— Dr. C. C. A.— W. S.— M. K.— E. A.—
H. B. — A. B. — &c. &c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

97

THE MIGHTY DEEP,

By A. RAMSAY.

CCORDING to E.
Forbes and others, it
is a convenient hy-
pothesis to assume that
each species has arisen
from a single centre,
so that each species,
each genus, and each
fauna occupies an area
which is complete in
itself. Thus, a species
may spread from a particular centre as far as it can find
suitable conditions. If such conditions were universal,
there is no reason why the species should not spread
into every sea and exclude all other forms. There
are, however, always restrictions, so that each species
has a limited distribution, and if it spreads over most
of the space occupied by the ocean, it generally occurs
more or less sporadically, owing to alterations of
condition having driven it from certain parts. The
distribution of each species is, in most cases, a clue
to the distribution of the particular set of conditions
under which it lives. Hence species which find the
conditions for living on the sea bottom in deep water
will spread over that area of deep water so far as the
suitable conditions are sufficiently continuous. If
there is a break in the distribution of such conditions,
whether caused by the shallowing of the water or in
any other way, the further extension of the species
will be arrested. Most marine organisms have
powers of locomotion during some portion of their
lives, a circumstance which, combined with the trans-
porting power of currents, must not be overlooked.
The continuation of the species in time implies the
continuance of the conditions suitable to it, a circum-
stance which should always be present to the minds of
both palaeontologists and geologists when endeavouring
to synchronize old sea bottoms. In all oceans of the
present period, and, as may be assumed, in all oceans
of past periods, there is and has been a similar con-
currence of physical conditions. The main difference
in time have been variations in the distribution of each
No. 161.

set of conditions relatively to one another, while both
in time and in space these have been accompanied by
variations in the facilities afforded to each species in
passing from one area to another. This has caused
local groupings of species into faunas and floras, and
the preoccupation of the ground frequently prevents
a species from localizing itself where the physical
conditions are favourable for it. This preoccupation
is often a barrier to the spread of a species. Generally
the persistence of a fauna associated with a particular
set of conditions, whether in space or in time, indicates
the persistence of these conditions. For instance,
during the post-pliocene period, a particular assem-
blage of mollusks frequented the shallow waters of
the British isles. All these, or at any rate nearly all,
now occur on the east shore of N. America ; while
a much smaller proportion exist on the present shores
of Britain. Currents will not account for this altera-
tion in the distribution ; but the existence of a line
of shallow water on a coast extending from the
British isles to America would. The destruction of
this coast-line and modifications of the conditions on
the British shores with the continuance of such con-
ditions on the shores of America would explain the
remaining phenomena. This illustration (which is
only one of many that could be cited) shows that
the occurrence of the same fossils in the strata of two
distant areas indicates the occurrence of similar
conditions in both areas, but not that the faunas
are synchronous : the question of contemporaneity
should be based on other evidence. So, again, the
relative ages of strata cannot be deduced solely from
the similarity or dissimilarity of their fossils. It
is essential that the conditions connected with each be
taken into account, in order to determine this point.
If all the species now living were regarded as
fossils, and if local lists were made of them with a
view to comparing them with older faunas, some
would have a more ancient facies than others ; and a
geologist would, we suspect, assign them to different
periods. Facts indicate that geological provinces
existed in past periods analogous to those of the

F

98

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

present ; but the knowledge we have of the old sea
bottoms is partial, so that it sometimes happens that
while the known strata representing one great period
indicate the prevalence of one set of conditions, those
representing the succeeding one indicate the preva-
lence of a widely different set. The difference in
these faunas is frequently considered to be that of the
entire fauna of the two periods, whereas it may really
be that of the faunas belonging to different conditions
of the ocean of different periods, not the faunas
belonging to the similar conditions of those seas.
For instance, we know that the fauna of the deepest
parts of the Atlantic Ocean of the present period is
markedly different from that of its shores ; but pro-
bably if those species had represented a past period
in geology they would have been assigned to different
ages, if there were no stratigraphical evidence to
prove their contemporaneity. The distribution of a
species in time is also assumed to be continuous, so
that when it dies out it never recurs again, but its
place is often taken by a representative species.
Those species which can endure under many condi-
tions generally have an extensive range both in space
and in time, and are by themselves of comparatively
little use in synchronizing marine strata. Zones and
horizons are best marked by the maximum develop-
ment of one or a few species in association with the
same fauna. Such zones are generally of local

importance, and do not apply to the whole ocean of
the period ; and the synchronizing the fauna of
different areas is the most important work which the
student of the ocean has yet to perform. The sea is
a barrier to the dispersion of many land animals and
plants ; and hence facts as to the distribution of
these afford a clue as to the position and persistence
of oceanic basins. The geological provinces of the
land are usually separated by wide and deep oceans.

Marine and non-marine forms are sometimes
mingled in the same stratum. This may be naturally
effected in many ways. In deep inlets of the sea,
into which rivers discharge themselves, it frequently
happens that the surface water is fresh enough for
the existence of fresh-water species, while the deeper
water is tenanted solely by marine forms. When
the individuals die, the fresh-water and marine forms
are mingled in the same deposit, and marine fishes
may have the remains of fresh-water species in their
stomachs. Land shells are sometimes blown on to
the shore between tide-marks, and may thus be asso-
ciated as fossils with the littoral marine fauna. The
sea- water flows up estuaries below the river water
for long distances ; and in many cases the alluvial
deposits about the mouths of large rivers are largely
composed of marine microscopical organic remains.
On the other hand, similar remains of terrestrial
forms of life are deposited on the sea bottom as a
consequence of dust-storms and dust-deposit gene-
rally on the surface of the sea. In many places
springs of fresh water well up on the sea bottom both

near to and far from the shores ; and as these persist
for lengthened periods, it is not impossible that they
may be the means of distributing fresh-water remains
over a marine area. However, there appears to be
no case on record of any species of organisms having
been found having such areas for their special
habitat ; but this may arise from no one having
undertaken any search for the express purpose of
obtaining such forms, should they exist. As occur-
rences of this kind (excluding the surmise relative to
submarine springs) are known to happen now, we
should not overlook the possibility of their having
occurred in past periods.

The contour and age of old seas may then be in-
ferred from three kinds of evidence: (i) Lithological,
or the superposition, nature and origin of sediments ;

(2) Physico-geographical, or phenomena relating to
elevation and subsidence of the earth’s surface, vol-
canic eruptions, position of land, denudation, and
others which need not be specially mentioned ; and

(3) Biological. The inferred age of any particular
sea-bed ought to be based on facts belonging to all
three kinds of evidence, and an adequate knowledge
of old sea-beds is not attained until we have ac-
quired evidence as to the fauna of the various zones
and provinces of each period. Our knowledge of
the seas of past periods is but fragmentary ; but by
attending to the considerations suggested, we shall be
enabled to see more clearly where the deficiencies are.
Facts as to deficiencies or breaks, whether strati-
graphical or biological, are of great importance ;
such breaks are generally associated with lapse of
time, because changes require time for their develop-
ment ; and generally the greater the change the
longer is the time necessary to develop it. But such
changes are primarily associated with change of con-
ditions, and different conditions may abruptly suc-
ceed each ether ; while similar conditions may recur
on the same area after a long interval of time without
any intervening strata. Hence stratigraphical breaks
do not always coincide with nor are proportional to
biological breaks. The cause of such breaks is a
matter for inquiry in each particular case, and it is
only from data thus acquired that one can judge of
the probable lapse of time indicated.

PRIMITIVE MAN :

HIS TIMES AND HIS COMPANIONS.

By the Rev. J. Magens Mello, M.A., F.G.S.

No. II.

AS man advanced in civilization, or, as amongst
ruder tribes more cultivated ones made their
appearance, the forms of his implements became
more and more perfect, and better adapted to their
purposes. Bone would be at the same time more fre-
quently used ; and we have proofs that this was the
case in the fact that in the floors of some of our
caves, notably in those of Creswell and in the French

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

99

caves of St. Martin d’Excicleuil, whilst in the
lower beds we get the rudest tools made of pebbles or
flints fashioned in the roughest way, overlying these
in the higher deposits are found more elaborate ones,
accompanied by bone needles, harpoons, arrow-
heads, and other implements. Another point worthy
of notice in connection with these primitive men is
that they were not all of them such utter savages as
we might have supposed. Evidence has been
gathered, showing that even the higher forms of art
had followers in those early ages of the world’s
history ; bones skilfully engraved have been found in
some caverns, especially in those of the Dordogne in
France, and in this country the Robin Hood Cave at
Creswell has yielded one solitary British example.
On these bones, fragments of rein-deer antlers, or
ribs, are seen roughly, yet very beautifully, drawn ;
figures of rein-deer, Arctic foxes, horses, and even of
the great woolly mammoth, all perfectly recognizable,
and showing beyond all doubt that the engravers
must have been thoroughly familiar with the forms of
the animals they drew so well, and that therefore
man and these animals must have lived side by side
in these countries. These men were essentially
hunters and fishermen, and it is not improbable that
they lived very similarly, in most respects, to the
Esquimaux of to-day ; so much so, indeed, that it
has even been suggested that these latter may be
their remote descendants. These men, then, who
chased the rein-deer and the horse, the bison,
and the urus in the forests and plains of Northern
Europe, and harpooned the fish in its rivers, were
the first men of whom we have any positive traces ;
and because they used as their chief implements those
made of stone, they are called the Palaeolithic or
Old Stone Men, and the age in which they lived is
known to geologists as the Palaeolithic age. After
their age, and when they lived it appears impossible
to guess at, great changes, involving a long lapse of
time, must have taken place. The climate became
milder, England sank lower, and the sea again made
ts way between us and the Continent, and these
islands became, in some respects, what they are now.
The animals of the Pleistocene age gradually
disappeared ; some died out altogether, others, such
as the lions and the hyaenas, retreated to more
southern climes, and some others lingered on for
awhile to be extinguished in time by the repeated
attacks of man.

A new race of men have now made their appear-
ance ; different in their physical conformation, as
shown by the shape of their skulls, &c. ; different also
in their degree of civilization and in their companion-
ships. These were the men of the Neolithic or New
Stone age. Stone was still used for tools and for
weapons ; but the flint or other material was far more
skilfully wrought, and it was not only chipped into
shape with the utmost perfection, but was also
frequently ground to an edge more or less polished.

These Neolithic men introduced into Europe many
of the animals which are now familiar to us ; the
domestic hog, the small ox, called the Celtic short-
horn ; the sheep, goat, and others. They also brought
with them the cereals, wheat, &c. ; and so man, from
having been merely a hunter and fisherman, at last
settled down into a dweller of more fixed habits, and
was, in his way, an agriculturist and shepherd ; he
was also a bit of a potter, rude fragments of earthen-
ware vessels having been found not unfrequently with
remains of this period. Neolithic man, although not
so essentially a hunter as his predecessors, yet neces-
sarily depended in a great measure on the chase for
his sustenance. Hares, horses, stags, oxen, goats,
and other animals would supply him with abundant
food.

It has been thought, with considerable probability,
that traces of these Neolithic men still exist amongst
the populations of Europe ; the Basques of Spain,
and an allied race in the South of France, as well
as in Brittany, and the small swarthy Welshman of
Denbighshire, and others of a similar type in Ireland,
are possibly the remote descendants of these primitive
men.

When the next tide of human immigration swept
over Europe, it brought with it an art destined ere
long to sweep the old stone implements away. The
incoming men were those of what has been termed
the Bronze age. Their tools, and weapons, and
ornaments were largely made of that alloy of copper
and tin we call bronze. Poorer people would doubt-
less continue for awhile to make use of stone imple-
ments ; but the metal was the characteristic feature
of the period. A small race of men were these users
of bronze, as is witnessed to by the smallness of the
sword-handles, bracelets, and other objects ; and
judging by this and by symbolical ornamentations
sometimes seen in their works, they would seem to
have entered Europe from the East, and to have been
either an Asiatic or Egyptian race. It may be ob-
served that the Bronze men were in the regular habit
of either burning or burying their dead, whose remains
are frequently met with in tumuli.

Magnificent weapons were many of these bronze
ones. Finely-shaped axes, called celts, swords and
daggers of very peculiar and perfect forms, spear-
heads, and knives, bracelets, pins, and other orna-
ments have been found in large numbers in Denmark,
in Germany, Switzerland, and Ireland, and in a
somewhat lesser quantity in this country. Man by
this time had, at any rate, for the most part, forsaken
the cave-dwelling for the hut ; he had even learnt to
build himself villages ; these were often, for pro-
tection, skilfully constructed on piles, in lakes, or
were walled round ; the remains of lake dwellings,
some of them even belonging to the earlier Stone
age, have been found in considerable numbers in the
Swiss lakes, and also in Ireland. The man of the

Bronze age had become a weaver as well as a potter ;

F 2

IOO

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G 0 SSIP.

rude fabrics of flax or even of straw have been dis-
covered amongst the relics of his times ; and his
pottery shows a considerable advance upon that of
Neolithic man.

Fig. 66. Flint Dagger (Neo-
lithic), Denmark, size.

Fig. 68. Flint Axe (Neo- Fig. 69. Bronze Celt (Bronze age)
lithic), Denmark, l size. Chesterfield, ^ size.

When the Bronze age passed away, which it
gradually did, a new metal gave its name to the j
succeeding period ; that metal was iron, known in
Europe, and used before the Roman invasions outside j
Italy, yet doubtless the Roman armies helped to make !
its use more common, even if they did not actually

introduce it into some countries. The men of the
Iron age may be looked upon as the immediate fore-
runners of the men of to-day, who are most un-
doubtedly users of iron, the metal of our modern
civilization.

Thus, then, age after age of man has passed away ;
who shall say how many generations have lived and
died since the days when men, clothed in skins,
roamed from cave to cave, as they followed the chase,
and contended with the mammoth and the hytena, and
the cave bear, and their congeners ?

What a tale of progress has to be recorded since
then, what a wondrous history of change ! Where
the forest and the morass once stretched, waving
cornfields now meet our eye ; where the savage beasts
of prey fought over their victims, the flocks and the
herds of our domestic animals peaceably feed ; and
man has ever advanced, step by step fighting his
arduous battle, and he has won victory after victory,
over nature, over circumstances, over himself, ful-
filling his lofty mission of Lord of Creation. And
as man has advanced in civilization, ever-increasing
powers seem to have been made his own, as it has
been well shown, new sources of strength, new
means of overcoming the difficulties of his position ;
nay, even new senses may be said to have been put
within his reach. The telescope and the micro-
scope have given him new eyes ; the printing-press
has given him new ears with which to hear the voices
of all ages ; machinery has given him new hands.
Thus shall man press forward, we may surely hope,
out of all the darkness of the past ; and at length
emerge through the struggles and imperfections of
time into the perfection of eternity.

ORNITHOLOGICAL ESSAYS.

No. 1. — The Kestrel.

( Falco Tinnuncuhis .)

By T. W. Dealy.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION, HABITS, ETC.

THIS well-known and widely-distributed little
falcon is often confounded with the Sparrow-
hawk [A crip iter nisus), and has often to pay the
penalty - of death for the pillaging attacks of that
noted farm-yard devastator. It is counted by the
gamekeeper and agriculturist as “vermin,” and a great
destroyer of game and bird life generally, while, in
reality, it is one of their stanchest friends, as it rids
them of the numerous mice, beetles, reptiles, &c. ,
which otherwise would injure the crops. Although
the Kestrel is such a great destroyer of mice (thus
benefiting the farmer), it is a hawk, and for this
reason the land must be rid of it. We have often
heard of the land being overrun by multitudes of

HARD WICKES SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

ioi

mice, beetles, and such like, when this or other
equally useful birds have been so ruthlessly exter-
minated ; but I have just read of a recent instance
which ought to act as a warning to all farmers. It
has been stated that the borderlands of Scotland are
being overrun by immense numbers of mice, the
smaller mammalia, beetles, and such like destructive
creatures, and that the farmers there are encouraging
these hawks to stay, being now fully convinced of the
folly of destroying them.

The Kestrel has a great number of provincial
names, but the one by which it is commonly known
is that of “ Windhover.” It acquires this suitable
appellation on account of its hovering or poising
itself on outstretched wings in mid-air. In Sweden,

“ Old Bushman ” says it is named the “ Torn falk.”

It may easily be seen that the Kestrel is not the
bird’s enemy whenever one appears in the vicinity of
a flock of birds, for, instead of the hurry and pre-
cipitation so apparent on the approach of that dreaded
little tyrant, the Sparrowhawk, the birds quietly |
pursue their peaceful duties, as if there were nothing
extraordinary or to be feared in the Kestrel’s presence.
At times, Swallows ( Hirundidce ), actuated by play-
fulness or a desire to tease and torment the “Wind-
hover,” will mob it in the same manner that they
do the Sparrowhawk, and, like the latter, it will
sometimes retaliate, and, from being pursued, will
itself become the pursuer.

Keepers place traps in likely situations, near the
nest and elsewhere, in which to entrap this bird. A
keeper in the habit of doing this, on going his
daily rounds to visit his traps, perceived a Kestrel in
one of them, which, on seeing him (not liking the
prospect of having its neck twisted), made strenuous
exertions to regain its former freedom, and was so
far successful that it escaped, leaving, however, about
half of one of its legs attached to the trap.

The “Windhover” may easily be distinguished
from the Sparrowhawk : (a) by its hovering in the
air, which the latter does not practise to such
perfection as the former; (b) in straightforward
flight it has neither the dash nor the rapidity so no-
ticeable in the Sparrowhawk. It flies along gently,
while the Sparrowhawk sweeps rapidly on, now
swooping at this, then at that. (<r) When seen off
the wing, the “ Windhover” is also easily known by
its inclined and rather stooping posture, while the
Sparrowhawk stands “as straight as an arrow,” bid-
ding defiance to everything by all its movements and
actions. Even the uncouth country-lad can perceive
the difference between these two, for, on asking a
little rough-headed boy on the outskirts of Sheffield
if there were “ any hawks about there,” he replied,

“ Which hawk do you mean ; the one which catches
pigeons, or the one which stands still in the air?”

— by the former, meaning the Sparrowhawk, and the
latter, the Kestrel. The Kestrel takes great delight
in tormenting other birds, — above all, the Owl

(. Strigidce ), which appears to be the “laughing-
stock ” (if I may so use the expression) for all birds.
The cry of the Kestrel is a strong, wild, ringing note,
which becomes harsh and loud on the threatened
approach of any danger to either its young or its
eggs.

Flight. — The flight of this bird is very light and
airy. Generally, it flies at a moderate distance from
the earth, but during, or rather on, the choice of a
building site it soars high up in the air, when its
actions are most elegant. The question then arises,

Fig. 70. The Kestrel (FaZco tinnunculus).

“Is it seeking to discover food from so great an alti-
tude?” No. It is the joyousness of the bird which
prompts its lofty flight and graceful evolutions so
high up in the heavens. When on the “look-out ” for
sustenance it flies at a moderate elevation, that it
may drop down suddenly and unexpectedly on its
prey and secure it before it has sufficient time
to escape. If the “Windhover” attempted to
descend (even were it possible for it to discern its
prey from the great height to which the Kestrel often
ascends) its intended victim, startled by the rushing
noise which the bird’s velocity causes in descending,
would have time to escape the talons of its would-

102

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

be captor. Kestrels are very early risers, and are
busily employed procuring food almost as soon as
night rolls back her gloomy mantle and the wide
east is tinged with the rosy hues of the rising sun,
and pursue their vocations until it becomes dusk ;
and even then, long after the brilliant orb of
daylight has disappeared in the far-away ruddy
west, and the soft twilight of a summer’s even-
ing has overspread the country, they may be seen
lightly skimming over the surface of the earth in
search of food. As the compact body, great extent
of wing, and fan-like tail of the Kestrel indicate, it
has great command of itself in the air, making long
sweeps and elegant curves in the ethereal regions.
It is, indeed, a beautiful performance, and one we
all delight in witnessing on a fine, clear summer’s
day, the Kestrel, quite at its ease, with nothing in
the blue sky above but itself ; its movements so
unconstrained, and withal so replete with joyous-
ness, as it revels in the celestial atmosphere in perfect
harmony with the surrounding landscape. The
wings and tail are expanded, and seem scarcely to
move as their owner ascends and descends in grace-
ful curvets. Now it takes a longer and a higher
sweep than usual, and then, coming low, keeps on
circling, now here, now there. Suddenly it stops !
Probably it caught a momentary glance of some
small animal ! No ! It again resumes its flight,
again it is wheeling majestically aloft ! It hovers
again ! What a beautiful object ! How pleasing are
its actions, as it “stands anchored,” as if sus-
pended by some invisible cord from on high ! Its
head is turned a little on one side, its tail spread
out like a lady’s fan ; it is watching with its keen
eye some small animal it intends to catch, probably
a field-mouse little aware of the fatal danger which
menaces it. In what fine style it comes down on
that unfortunate mouse, which it soon bears away in
its talons, to its craggy fastness in yon distant wood,
there to be torn to shreds by four or five hungry
young “ Standgales.” When the Kestrel is hovering,
its wings, although to the naked eye they do not
appear to move, are in a perpetual quiver. Suppose
the Kestrel be unsuccessful in one attempt, it repeats
its efforts, and so on, until it reaches “home.”
But there is not a field, valley, pasture, or any place
at all likely to furnish it with food, which it passes
without a strict search. The beauty, smoothness,
and facility with which all these evolutions are
executed are beyond the power of the pen to
adequately describe. No ! You must go and search
for it amidst its haunts, and watch it in its re-
treats, before you can fully appreciate the character
of this bird. Sometimes we can just discern it like
a mere speck on the horizon winging his way slowly
under the clear, blue canopy of heaven. At other
times it moves along at an immense height until it
disappears beyond the verge of the distant horizon.
In fact, on the wing, this bird appears indefatigable.

What would be the value of scenery were it not
enhanced by the presence of birds ? How dreary and
desolate, how desert-like would be the vast expanse
of heather-covered moors without the hoarse cackle
of the Red Grouse ( Tetrao Scoticus vel Britannicus )
or the Curlew’s (Numenius arquata ) solitary cry !
What would be the aspect of our woods were we not
in Spring time, and, indeed, throughout the Summer
months, to see the Kestrel hovering over its leafy
bowers ; or what of such diversified scenery as is to be
met with in and about the “ Peak district,” were
we not to meet with the “Standgale” amidst its
fastnesses ; or of the lakes, were not the still solitudes
to be awakened by the plash of the water as the Coot
{Fulica atra) or Moorhen, startled by the intruder’s
presence, dashes away to gain shelter among the
many islets which dot its surface ; or the shrill piping
whistle of the Sandpiper ( Tot anus hypoleuchos ) as it
hastily wings its way across the watery expanse, to
some other part ? Were the world to be deprived of
birds, it would lose one of its most powerful charms.

Migration. — We have now arrived at the most
interesting, but, at the same time, vexing portion of
the history of this bird, viz., its migration. Does
the Kestrel migrate wholly or partially from Britain ?
or does it merely move to other localities in our
island more congenial to its habits? I have been
much interested in this question, and have studied it
deeply, — at least, as regards the immediate vicinity
of Sheffield. It has proved a most interesting study.
We all know what a distinctive feature are the elegant
aerial evolutions of this bird in our summer scenery,
and how blank seems the wood which is not in-
habited, or, at the least, its neighbourhood frequented,
by a pair, or more, of these beautiful little falcons.
After the breeding season, when the young have been
reared and are able to fly, we see them very often
hovering over the waving golden corn-fields, or other-
wise engaged in search for food. Then, after a brief
interval, they suddenly disappear without any warn-
ing, and we do not again see them until their appear-
ance in early spring. The period of departure, of
migration, varies, according as the weather regulates.
If winter sets in early, they “go away” about the
latter end of September, but if the season be fine and
open, they may prolong their stay until the earlier
portion of October, and by the end of that month not
one is to be seen. Whither are they gone ? Happily
the days have gone by when people were deluded by
the supposed fact of birds hiding in holes, and there
remaining in a dormant condition until spring’s
verdant call awoke them. There is but one con-
clusion. It was Charles Waterton’s opinion that the
majority of these birds migrate to other more
southern countries, leaving here, according to his
observations, about October. He had excellent
opportunities for the observance of their habits, and
yet he never saw them in winter after their final
departure. Certain it is that we see but very, very

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103

few of these birds from October to the middle
of February. In my opinion, they do migrate
wholly to other countries. Coming from the North
and joining those in the south of Britain, they
assemble, cross the Dover Straits, and, although
numbers may stay in the provinces of central France
and northern Spain, I have reason to believe that
the immense majority cross the Mediterranean along
with the numberless birds that periodically do
so, to the northern shores of Africa, whence they
commence their return during the month of January,
arriving in Britain in the course of the succeeding
month. The few (and they are but few) exceptions
met with during the winter months only tend to prove
this, and we must treat their appearances as those of
the casual swallows which often appear at unseasonable
periods.

Food. — As I have before said, this bird is not so
destructive to poultry or game as is the sparrow-
hawk. It is also a much more sociable bird, and is
more frequently seen near the habitations of man than
the former. Its food consists of the smaller mam-
malia, such as rats and mice, also beetles and other
destructive insects. Charles Waterton says that it
consists “almost entirely of mice.” For the vermin
this bird destroys, its life should not be sacrificed as
it is by gamekeepers, who, almost without excep-
tion, seem to have the most ungovernable aversion
to all kinds of hawks. A great observer of the
economy of birds, Mr. Booth, says, “The rats
alone which these birds destroy while procuring food
for their young would commit more, ten times more,
damage in one year than a pair of Kestrels could in
their joint lives.” The Windhover does, indeed,
occasionally have a change in its diet in the shape of
a small or unfledged bird, and, as sure as it does so,
it is either caught or seen “red-handed” by the
keeper, who, having seen its partiality to birds,
firmly believes that all its food consists of such, and,
acting on this illusory belief, he exterminates this
really useful little hawk and points out with evident
satisfaction the ominous row of Kestrels suspended in
a conspicuous position in his “museum.” *

Mice are swallowed whole, the indigestible parts
being afterwards cast up in the form of pellets.
Insects are dexterously caught while on the wing,
being clutched with either foot and adroitly conveyed
to the mouth without at all impeding the flight.

Representation in other Countries. — 1
Though not found in Australia, the Kestrel’s place
is well supplied by the Nankeen Kestrel ( Timiuncu -
lus cenchroides , Gould). As before mentioned, the
Kestrel’s flight is very buoyant, but what must that of

I notice in the Zoologist for April a remarkable instance
of this. On p. 120 of that periodical Mr. W. A. Durnford,
writing from the Lake district, says : “A kestrel rose from
the embankment within a few yards of me, whh a large object
in its claws. ... It dropped its prey, which on examination
proved to be a full-fledged young cuckoo, dead, though still
warm.”

its Antipodean representative be, of which Gould says,
“ The flight of the Nankeen Kestrel differs from that of
its European ally in being more buoyant and easy ” ?
In North America this bird is partially represented
by the American Sparrowhawk, which partakes of the
character of both the Kestrel and the Sparrowhawk.

Distribution. — It is the commonest of the
Falconidae which frequent our isles. Charles Water-
ton had numerous Kestrels in his park ; he, himself,
visited in 1835 no less than twenty-four nests, all
having Kestrels’ eggs in them. I have never since
heard or read of so many being found in so small a
space, but, of course, he had them strictly preserved.
Around Sheffield its nest is not found as frequently as
that of the Sparrowhawk, although I have seen the
bird oftener. In many parts of Lincolnshire it is
also very common. It is very frequent in Scotland,
breeding mostly on the precipitous and craggy rocks
which fringe its shores. In Ireland, Mr. Thompson
says, “It is common and indigenous to suitable
localities throughout the island.” It is found in most
European countries, even as far north as Lapland,
where “Old Bushman,” in his trip up there in 1862,
procured specimens of both skins and eggs of this
bird. Specimens of it have also been sent from all
portions of Asia and Africa.

Nidification. — One cannot fail to be struck by
the facility with which the “ Standgale ” adapts itself
to places of nidification. In sylvan localities it
constructs its nest mostly on a tree, but if the spot
chosen be a wild, mountainous, but picturesque
district, either on the coast or in the interior, it will
be placed in some crevice in the rock. Sometimes
the nest is placed in the interstices of a dilapidated
old barn, or, perhaps, it is situated in a church tower.
The rough and hastily-composed structure which
serves for a nest is quite adapted to the contiguous
wildness. The “ Stannelhawk ” is but too glad to
avail itself of the deserted nest of any of the Cor -
vidce family ; that of the Magpie ( C . pica) or the Car-
rion Crow ( C . corrone) being generally chosen. If
the country be favourable, the nest is placed on some
precipitous “scar,” from which the Kestrel may have
a view of both his enemies (should any ever assail
him) and his prey.

Dovedale, in Derbyshire, is noted for the number
of Kestrels which frequent and nidificate on the rock
surrounding. The bird does sometimes build itself a
nest : it is composed of sticks outwardly, the inner
portion of twigs lined with, perhaps, a little moss, a
few dead leaves, or, maybe, a little wool, often no
lining at all beyond the twigs, and is erected at the
commencement of April.

The eggs, which are laid from the middle of April
to the end of May, are four or five in number ; very
beautiffil in appearance. They are of a pale reddish-
brown ground colour, marbled and mottled all over
with a darker red. In some varieties, the ground-
colour is of a white, delicately suffused with a faint

104

HA RD WICKE ’S S CIENCE - G OSSIE.

blush red, the spots being distributed so scantily as
to give it a slight resemblance to a Sparrowhawk’s
egg. Other varieties have a zone of a darker hue
encircling either ends. I have at times seen eggs of
this bird of a light yellowish-brown, with spots so few
and minute as to resemble a strongly-marked speci-
men of the Red-legged Partridge ( Perdrix rubra).
It is a well-established fact that there is generally one
egg in the “clutch” much smaller than the others.
This, however, may be explained by its being the last
egg, and the producing organs in the female having
been weakened by previous exertions. In due time
the eggs are hatched, and on the appearance of the
young, the energy and watchfulness displayed by the
parent birds are extreme. Generally they are both to
be found in the vicinity of their young, and are never
absent together, one (probably the female) being
continually with the young, attending to their re-
quirements, and rigorously guarding them from all
intruders ; while the other parent is occupied in pro-
curing food, of which there is always an abundant
supply. Their only real enemy, and of whom they
have most fear, is man. Should a person invade the
precincts of their territory, and threaten their precious
“citadel,” the vigilant guards always give the invader
due warning by uttering a shrill, piercing cry. Should
the hard-hearted fellow take no heed of this, but be
intent on robbing the nest of its young occupants, the
parents, on the too near approach of the robber, fly
up from their resting-place and sail around, out of
immediate reach of danger, uttering the while a
shrill, plaintive note. Sometimes either of them will
make a swift descent at the intruder’s head, it would
seem, but, checking its course, will sweep rapidly past
at a short distance overhead, making a loud rushing
noise.

The eggs of this neat-looking hawk stand at the head
of the schoolboy’s collection. When he is in possession
of one, he is satisfied, and congratulates himself on his
“luck,” and on hearing of any one of his schoolmates
having a rival collection he immediately sets out to
view it. The first question asked by him is, “ Have
you a Kestrel’s egg?” If the answer be in the
negative, he thinks absolutely nothing of the col-
lection,— in fact, treats it with contempt, tells the
owner of it about his Kestrel, how and where the
egg was procured, and finally departs, thinking he
has made an impression on his brother collector.

The Kestrels, both male and female, are very
assiduous in their attention towards their offspring,
keeping them sufficiently supplied with nourishment.
Space will not allow of me to describe the birds, but
they are so well known that it is almost unnecessary.

WHAT A DIATOM IS.*

By Mons. Julien Deby,

Vice-President of the Belgian Microscopical Society.

(Translated by F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S., Corresponding
Member de la Societe Beige de Microscopie.)

BY the kind permission of M. Deby I am enabled
to place before the readers of Science-Gossip
a translation of a very interesting paper on the above
subject, read by M. Deby before the Microscopical
i Society of Belgium. The attention of foreign dia-
tomists has lately been directed to the elucidation
of the life history of these remarkable organisms, in
some instances with the hope of constructing a
natural system of classification. Herr Pfitzer, of
Bonn, and Mons. Petit, of Paris, have both published
treatises on this subject. f

I

Fig. 71. Ideal section of a navicula : A, nucleus and nucleolus ;
B B, protoplasm ; b' b', primordial utricle ; c c, endochrome ;
e e, oil globules ; f f', valves ; g g g' g', connectives ; d d,
central cavities.

Fig. 72. Section of a diatom commencing deduplication : a,
nucleus commencing to divide, with two distinct nucleoli ; b,
protoplasm ; b', primordial utricle ; c, endochrome ; D, cen-
tral cavities ; f f', valves ; G g', connectives.

Mons. Deby’s little treatise is devoted to a descrip-
tion of the living diatom and its mode of growth.
Of all the forms of unicellular plants, the diatom is
probably the most remarkable, not only on account
of its siliceous shell, but also for its mode of repro-
duction.— F. K.

The “Veteran Eel.” — Replying to J. J. New-
ton ; the veteran eel, when I bought him in London,
was not quite three inches long, and at his death he
was eighteen inches long, so that he grew fifteen
inches in twenty-two years. — Ben Plant.

* “ Ce que e’est qu’un Diatomee ? ” par Julien Deby, Vice-
President de la Societe Beige de Microscopie. Extrait des
Bulletins de la Societe Beige des Microscopie pour 1877.

t “ Untersuchungen iiber Bau und Entwicklungen der Bacil-
lariaceen,” von Dr. E. Pfitzer.

“ Un Essai de Classification des Diatomees,” par Paul Petit.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

IO:

What a Diatom is.

The little microscopic organism of which we here
propose to say a few words is distinguished from
the unicellular algae, properly so called, as well as
from the animals of the class Infusoria and the
Rhizopods, by very distinct characteristics. They
constitute one of those numerous links between that
which one is apt to consider (very empirically) as
forming two distinct series in nature, known as the
Animal and Vegetable kingdoms; grand divisions that
are only separated one from the other by the traditions
of the first fathers of biological science. In their time
the studies of anatomy, biology, physiology, and
morphology, did not exist, and the philosophical
idea, relating to life, was presented to us under a
very dim veil, of which the microscope has only very
recently succeeded in raising the corners.

An isolated diatom reduced to its simplest form is
composed, according to our view : —

Fig. 73. Section of a diatom undergoing deduplication : a a,
new nucleus and nucleoli ; b b, protoplasm ; b' b', double
primordial utricles ; c c, divided endochrome ; d d, central
cavities ; f', external mother-valve ; F, internal ditto ; f f,
new young valves ; G G, connectives.

1st. A central nodule, or nucleus, more or less
apparent, colourless, formed of living matter of dense
protoplasm in the interior of which a nucleolus may
generally be detected (fig. 71, A).

2nd. A mass of the protoplasm less dense (fig. 71, BB),
surrounding the nucleus, very finely granulated, which
form a certain number of prolongations, which extend
up to the limits of the internal cavity of the diatom,
sometimes under the form of two large bands, some-
times under that of radiating filaments, which some-
times anastomose and are of various diameters.

Under favourable circumstances an amoeboid cir-
culation, analogous to that seen in the cells of Spiro-
gyra and in the hairs of the Urticacese.

3rd. A closed vesicle, more or less dense, transpa-
rent, and of the same composition and texture as that
of the mass surrounding the nucleus, and that may be
considered as an effusion of the branchings above
mentioned. It is the primordial utricle (fig. 71, B'B').
Its thickness is considerable at the two ends of those
diatoms whose axes are lengthened.

4th. A material of a golden-yellow or brown colour,

known under the name of diatomine, or a mixture of
chlorophyl and phycoxanthine, and which constitutes
the endochrome (fig. 71, CC). This material is placed
in the substance of the primordial utricle, which
entirely surrounds it. It often forms (according to
the species) one or more bands, continuous or inter-
rupted, sometimes the granules are more or less
rounded and scattered, or radiating.

The endochrome is subject to periodic changes of
position, at certain epochs in the life of the diatom,
dragged by the movements of the entire substance
of the primordial utricle. The diatomine is evidently
analogous to the chlorophyl of ordinary plants, of
which it possesses many of the chemical and most of
the spectroscopic characteristics.

5th. A central cavity (fig. 71, DD), surrounding the
nucleus, and limited exteriorly by the primordial
utricle, and which contains —

(a) A limpid, colourless fluid.

Fig. 74. Diatom (Isthmia)
formed of four valves and
two connectives.

(^) Drops of an oily nature, coloured or colourless,
and highly refractive (fig. 7U UE).

(r) Granules of a nature not determined.

6th. An external protecting envelope formed of
cellulose strongly impregnated with silica, secreted
by the primordial utricle (which it invests) in a pecu-
liar manner during the life of the diatom.

This envelope is never simple, as in ordinary cells,
but is composed of two distinct opposed valves (fig. 71,
FF), representing the lids of a little pill-box, and of
one or two rims which adapt themselves to these
valves, without, however, forming an intrinsic part of
them, in a similar manner to the sides of the pill-box.
These rims have received the name of connectives *
(fig. 71, GG). The valves and connectives form what
is called the pustule.

The living diatom must be considered as an or-
ganism in which the interior is in conformity with
many other unicellular organisms, but in which the
protecting envelope is siliceous and formed of several

* This is the connecting zone, cingulum, or Gurtelband of
various observers : we shall here use M. Deby’s term.

io6

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

parts, and which we meet with nowhere else in nature,
and which distinctly defines these forms.

The only communication between the surrounding
fluid and the interior of the diatom exists at the
margins of the connectives, and probably in certain !
cases at their line of junction with the corresponding
valves; and always in the form of linear sutures,
visible only under the most powerful of our modern
microscopes. We shall probably never be able to
find pores or openings, properly so called, in the
diatomaceous frustule, in spite of the assertions of
certain microscopists : this is an illusion.

Solid matter never penetrates into the interior of
the living diatom : they drink, but eat not.

(Since the above was printed, M. Deby tells me
he is not quite certain that the communication be-
tween the external fluid and the interior of the diatom
is at the margins, it may possibly exist, particularly
in those forms possessing a median line at the ter-
minal nodules : this will be referred to further on.
— F. K.)

The movement, so curious, active, and conspicuous
in certain diatoms (the principle upon which it de-
pends is nevertheless obscure), manifests itself along
the sutures, as before noticed. It is also true, that if
by some cause the movement of a frustule is arrested
by some immovable obstacle, the movement is re-
versed.

It is generally admitted, that when once a diatom
becomes free, the valves increase neither in length
nor breadth. The connectives, however, continue
to increase by means of fresh accessions of silica
around their free margins, secreted by the primordial
utricle : this growth is necessary for deduplication
(self-division), as we shall see further on.

The valves of diatoms are very often composed of
several siliceous layers, closely superimposed, and
presenting various forms, according to the genera and
species, and bearing on their surface the sculpturing
that ornaments them, and of which the varieties are
very numeroi’s, and the design generally very elegant.
The connectives are also often furnished with similar
designs, but more simple.

We will not now enter into the question as to the
intimate structure of the markings on the surface of
the valves of the diatoms, some of which defy our
most powerful objectives. The simplest form of
diatom frustule is composed of —

ist. A superior valve (fig. 71, F').

2nd. An inferior valve, sometimes differing from
the superior (fig. 71, F).

3rd. A connective adapted to the superior valve

(fig. 71, G'G').

4th. Generally a connective adapted to the inferior
valve (fig. 71, GG).

One of these connectives slides within the other,
like the draws of a telescope, and can be separated.

We must consider all diatoms as organisms, formed
of two distinct materials, one of which is living , viz.

the protoplasm, the other non-living. The first alone
is able to produce the second ; that is to say, the
endochrpme and the oily corpuscles in the interior ;
and exteriorly, the cellulo-siliceous frustule, with the
various supplementary appendages which we meet
with under the form of stipes, tubes, mucous cushions,
gelatinous envelopes, &c. The endochrome of
diatoms, like the pigment found in animals, or
the chlorophyl in plants, has not the power of
secreting the secondary products; being themselves
formed materials, their role is in connection with the
functions of respiration.

Deduplication (self-division). — If a diatom is ex-
amined when the connective is turned towards the
observer, we perceive that it increases longitudinally
by accretions at the margins of the connectives ; at
the same time, at the extremities of the frustule, a
fold may be seen in the primordial utricle. (This fold
is not at the extremity of the frustule, but at the ex-
tremity of the connective of the inferior valve. — F.K. )
This fold gradually approaches the central cavity, and
is prolonged by degrees until it reaches the nucleus,
which it divides in two, if it has not done so before.
The opposing edges of the fold continue to approach
each other, and at last unite, and the point of
contact is obliterated at the place where we originally
saw the nucleus, and which is completely separated
(fig. 72). At this time there exist in the interior of
the diatom two contiguous primordial utricles, each
possessing a nucleus, which quickly becomes central.
In each nucleus may be seen a nucleolus. As soon
as this phenomenon is accomplished, both external
surfaces of the new utricles commence secreting a
siliceous covering, which quickly thickens, and is
covered with the design proper to the species, and
speedily assumes the form and aspect of the old
valves (fig. 73). The new interior valves occupy a
central position in the frustule, and are face to
face.

We have seen a diatom formed of four valves, when
the two old external valves and the two new internal
ones were close together ; the new valves were sup-
ported all round the circumference by the connectives
of the original valves.

Soon after — sometimes even before — the parting of
the primordial utricle, we perceive that the connec-
tives are considerably enlarged, and at the same time
the interior slides in the interior, and by this means
separating the two valves to a considerable extent ;
thus augmenting the dimensions of the internal
cavity of the frustule. The connectives of the young
valves are not developed until later on, — sometimes
before their liberation, and sometimes after, according
to the genera and species of the diatom.

Later on, the sliding of the connectives in the
species whose frustules live isolated, attains its
maximum ; the narrowest liberating itself entirely
from that which had served it as a sheath.

From what we have just said, we may meet with

HARD W ICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

107

the same species of diatom, according to id
development, — individuals possessing

(1) Two valves, a connective, and a nucleus

(%• 75)-

(2) Two valves, two connectives, and a

nucleus (fig. 71).

(3) Two valves, two connectives, and')

two nuclei (fig. 71)* j States of

(4) Four valves, two connectives, and [deduplication

two nuclei (figs. 73 and 74)* 1 lllore or ^ess

(5) Four valves, four connectives, and | advanced.

two nuclei. J

Sometimes the external connective is fragile, and is
detached spontaneously. This is a fact that must he
taken into account.

It is also well to note that the protoplasm of the
primordial utricle generally moves to the interior of
the siliceous envelope, first at the commencement of
the deduplication, and again after the termination of
that phenomenon, dragging with it the endochrome,
and that these movements of the colouring matter
vary in character according to the families and genera
of the diatoms.

When a diatom is divided into two parts by dedu-
plication, the endochrome is also separated into two,
in order that it may be equally divided between the
two utricles.

'Every frustule, as we have seen, consists of an old
valve (fig. 71, F', fig. 72, F') originating from the primi-
tive frustule, and a new valve of later formation, and
whose connective when developed will slide in the
connective of the old valve. It follows from this, that
in the great majority of the genera of diatoms, when
the connective is of the exact breadth of the valves,
or even inferior to them in diameter, all deduplica-
tion must lead to a diminution of the dimension of
the new frustule equivalent to double the thickness of
a connective. The thickness of the latter being
known, we are able a priori to determine the size
any descendant of a frustule will have after a deter-
minate number of deduplications. The act of dedu-
plication, considered only in connection with the pri-
mordial utricle, is analogous to that which takes place
in the majority of vegetable cells, and we may there-
fore consider every series of diatoms proceeding from
a primitive mother-cell as forming in reality only a
single whole — a single plant, if you will.

In those species which form permanent series
(filaments) where the frustules produced by dedupli-
cation never separate one from another, this is very
obvious, but those species in which they become new
frustules become detached, and live free or isolated ;
only the eye of the philosopher can recognize the
analogy.

( To be continued. )

The Natterjack Toad.— The Natterjack Toad
may be found on the west coast, near New Brighton,
Cheshire, amongst the sand-hills between Midston
and Liscard. The eggs of this interesting and un-
common toad appear, in their early stage, like a
string of beautiful pearls.

HOW TO MAKE AND COLOUR CASTS 0F
FISHES.

ByJ. E. Taylor, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.

OF all the natural history objects intended to be
preserved, perhaps none have been hitherto
more difficult than fishes. Either they were pre-
served in spirits in glass bottles, in which case they
were scarcely visible in the sherry-coloured liquid,
or they have appeared in the stuffed state as the most
grotesque of caricatures. Nothing can be more
strongly contrasted than the supple and graceful
forms of fishes in their native element, and the stiff
and angular specimens in our museums which have
been “stuffed.” Of all skins, those of fishes are least
amenable to the animal preserver. They stiffen and
set sooner than any other, and he is obliged often
to turn them out, not as he would like, but as well
as he can.

Some years ago, the really fine specimens of
coloured casts of fishes placed in the South Ken-
sington Museum, under the direction of Mr. F.
Bucldand, drew the attention of all lovers of fishes to
the new method of preparing specimens. Those ex-
hibited by Mr. Buckland are still so like life, both in
colour, marking, and the graceful supple outlines
characteristic of fishes, that the observer is some time
before he is assured they are not real fishes he is
looking at. Every scale, fin, and ray is in its place ;
and a brighter and more attractive set of natural
history objects it would be impossible to arrange. It
should be understood, however, that these are merely
casts, for which the fishes themselves have supplied
the moulds. We are not aware that Mr. Buckland,
or any one else, has ever published a description of
how these casts are prepared. Some time ago, when
desirous of learning the secret, we made all the
search we could, but failed to find anything beyond
an allusion. Since then we have experimented and
blundered until we have attained some degree of
success, and now have the pleasure of laying before
our readers the benefit of our experience.

Let us observe that the student will find fish-
casting both a pleasant and profitable recreation
from sterner studies. It is artistic enough to require
the good taste of the most educated, and being as
cleanly as any cooking operation, there is no reason
why ladies should not engage in the work as well as
men. Moreover, it is cheap, and a little practice and
skill will soon enable any one to take natural casts of
fishes, and to colour them well enough to be far
better natural history ornaments for halls and rooms
than the cases of stuffed birds we often see hung in
such places.

The first thing is to get some well-ground plaster-
, of- Paris. We have found that the second quality is
better for fish-casting than the first, as the latter sets
too quickly. The fish whose cast is intended to be
1 taken should be as fresh as possible. Fish stiffen

» state 01

Simple

state.

io8

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

after being taken out of the water, and become
too limp afterwards. If it is not convenient to
take a cast of fishes immediately, then, if fresh-
water fish, they should be packed in plenty of
damp moss, and if sea fish, in soft seaweed, and
kept in the dark. Before casting, fish should be
washed by letting the water from the tap flow over
them a few moments. They must not be rubbed
with a cloth or otherwise, as the scales are apt to
come off. The fish should then be laid on a smooth

bevel away the plaster which has so run under and
about it as to prevent its easy extraction. But a little
patience and experience will suggest to the student
how to proceed in such cases.

The fish having been taken out, there remains
its perfect mould, showing every scale and fin. The
mould should now be put away in a dry and warm
place for several days ; indeed, until it gets perfectly
dry. It may then be brought out on the working -
table, and propped up with paper or anything else,

table or planed board, perhaps on a newspaper is
best, as the lime will not then adhere to the wood.
It must be laid out according as the taste of the
operator may suggest, so that the cast of it may look
as like life as possible. Four , bars of wood should
then be arranged, as in fig. 76, so as to include the
fish as in a frame. When the plaster-of-Paris is poured
over the fish this loose framework will prevent the
lime from running about. The plaster-of-Paris should
then be mixed, the operator judging of the quantity
required. At first he will undoubtedly mix too much
or too little, but a very short experience corrects this.
It is best to mix the powdered plaster under a water-
tap, and to have the water gently trickling whilst the
lime is being stirred with a wooden spoon. When it
has attained the consistency of thick cream, shut off
the water, and with all possible despatch pour the
mixture over the fish, and the space within the frame
as well. The fish need not be covered to a thickness
of more than half an inch. The fish, embedded in
its plaster covering, should then be left where it is for
a few hours. By this time the lime will have tho-
roughly set, and the entire mass can be easily turned
over, for the newspaper has prevented the lime ad-
hering to the boards. The paper is then torn off,
and the fish carefully extracted. This requires much
care ; and perhaps the operator will have to cut or

Fig. 78. The Flounder, laid in easiest position for casting.

with the concavity left by the fish uppermost. This
hollow should then be well anointed with a strong
and tolerably thick solution of soft soap. We have
found that it answered better than anything else. The
soap should be gently and delicately rubbed over the
interior of the mould with a large and dense camePs-
hair brush, so as not to rub off any of the sharpness
of the impressions left by the scales, &c. The flat
surface of the outside of the mould, where the liquid
plaster flowed within the space of the frame of w^ooden
bars, should also be equally well anointed with the
interior.

Fig. 76. Brill, laid on table and enclosed in thin wooden bars ready for
plaster of Paris being poured over.

Fig. 77. Thorn-
back, laid in posi-
tion for casting.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

109

The mould having been made as firm and steady
as possible, the operator now mixes another batch of
plaster-of-Paris. At first it is best to mix too much
rather than too little, for if there is too much it need
not be all used, but if there is too little the cast will
set whilst more is being mixed, and the entire labour
may thus be lost. The plaster should be of about
the same consistency as when it was used for making
the mould. It is poured into the latter gently and
evenly, until it is completely filled, and the process
is continued over the square-bar space, until it covers
the latter, say an inch in thickness. By means of a
trowel, or any other tool, the plaster is smoothed
down to an equal level. With a knife, the over-
flowing plaster should then be pared off before it
sets hard, so as to be flush with the square sides of

When the mould has at length been stripped off, the
operator has the perfect cast of the fish as first laid
down. Every scale and fin is present, whilst the
space between the movable wooden bars (which we
recommended should be covered over on the mould)
is now a square background, from which the cast of
the fish stands forth in high relief. A littile trimming
and truncating of the edges makes it perfect. Any
cavities left either in the cast or the base to which it
is attached, may now be filled up and smoothed down.
Sometimes the tips of the fins break off when peeling
away the mould. In that case the student must re-
pair them as best he can, by adding a little plaster, and
carving it down when dry. The feelers or barbules
of such fish as Cod, Whiting, &c., may best be imitated
by fixing a little copper wire into the under jaw of

Fig. 79. Position of Pollack Whiting for casting.

Fig. 80. Ballan Wrasse, with fins spread out, ready for casting. ’

the mould. Both mould and cast must be put away |
for a day or two, after which the task of taking off
the mould may be commenced.

Perhaps, in setting, the heat of the larger quantity
of plaster which has been employed in making the
cast will have cracked the mould. If so, it is ad-
vantageous, for each mould can only be used once ; if !
the fish operated on be a rare one, it is best, there-
fore, to take several moulds of it. Of course, a good
deal depends on the shape of the fish as to how it
shall be extracted from the mould. In the flat-fishes,
as the sole, turbot, brill, halibut, flounder, and
skates, there is little difficulty. By inserting the
edge of a knife between the mould and the cast, the
former will come off. Most fishes are laid on their
sides when the mould is being made, as, for instance,
perch, bream, roach, pike, cod, mackerel, salmon,
&c. ; but such triangular-bodied fish as the gurnard,
cottus, See., had best be placed with the belly side
downwards, and their large pectoral fins spread out.
Sometimes it will be necessary to break off the mould
in pieces, and much care and patience will then be
required. But experience in manipulation comes after
a few trials, and it is astonishing how soon we learn
to proceed under all circumstances.

Fig. 82. The Piper Gurnard (Trigla lyra), showing separate
rays of pectoral fins.

Fig. 83. Three-bearded Rockling, showing barbels on mouth,
which have to be imitated with wire.

the cast, and then covering it with a mixture of gum-
water and plaster of Paris, laid on with a small camel-
hair brush. The loose, leg-like rays of the pectoral
fins of the Gurnard may easily be imitated in a
similar way. We always like to see the dorsal,
caudal, pectoral, and other fins laid out, so that the

Fig. 81. Butterfly Blenny, showing expanded dorsal fin.

no

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

cast shows them as when the fish is swimming (see
fig. 8 1).

By means of a knife it will be easy to undercut the
back of the expanded fins, or to loosen and cause to
stand out any part of the cast that may require it.
The entire cast of plaster, say to take the case of a
five-pound Codfish or Salmon, will not cost more
than sixpence. What is to be noted is, that fish are
as fit for the table, after having had their likenesses
taken as they were before !

And now comes the colouring of the cast — a more
difficult, because a more artistic operation, but not half
so difficult as would be at first supposed. Although
the natural colours of our native fishes are given in
such works as those of Yarrell, yet it is best for the
student to note the distribution and tone of the colours
before he commences to take a mould of his fish.
This he can readily do by drawing a rough pencil
outline of the fish, and then marking on it the colour,
and what depth and tone. We have found these
outline sketches quite enough, with the. help of
Yarrell and a good memory, to colour a cast twelve
months after making it. Moreover, it forces the
student to be particular and careful, and he is the
gainer therefrom. The colours of fishes are apt
to be taken from their appearance on fish-stalls. No
mistake could be greater. If we are obliged to eat
fishes, there is no reason why we should libel them
as well ! The black-leaded tints and shades of a
herring which has been lying a couple of days on a
stall, are quite different from the prismatic colours it
had when first taken out of the water. We prefer
colouring them according to nature, rather than after
the dictation of the fishmonger ; and as the colours
are brighter, the effect is more artistic.

The proper colours of the eyes, fins, &c., should be
first attended to. We always use water-colours, and
prefer them to oils. The water-colours should be
mixed with a little ox-gall to make them flow better.
A wetted flannel by one’s side enables us at once to
rub out an error. Sufficient colour to spread over the
fish must be mixed at first, and a bushy camel-hair
pencil employed to distribute the colour. Such spots
as those on the Homelyn Ray are easily made by
rubbing the ground colour lighter, and then sur-
rounding each spot with a ring of darker pigment.
You lay on the colours and shades of the back of
the fish in successive tones, until you get them deep
enough. If possible have a fresh fish before you
when colouring the cast, so as to get the tints, shades,
spots, and other markings quite correctly. Notice
the difference (often the only external means of
identifying them) between the colours of the male
and female fishes, as in the Mackerel for instance.
The delicate prismatic tints of the silvery-white belly
are the most difficult to imitate ; and the student
gives up in despair the attempt to reproduce the
more than silvery glint of the lower parts of the body.
Still, a few endeavours to rub in alternately streaks

of lake, blue, and yellow succeed in forming a not
bad imitation. We have found that a few drops of
common writing-ink, diffused in a quantity of water,
enabled us to reproduce the silvery and steely
glint of the belly better than anything else. The
student should always have plenty of the fragments
of the broken mould by him, to try his colours upon
before transferring them to his cast.

At last the cast is coloured satisfactorily. It must
now be laid by for a day or two, until the water from
the colours has been given out. Then it should be
sized with a thickish solution of the best and clearest
glue, and put away again for some time- At length
it is brought out for the last time, and painted with a
thickish coat of transparent copal or coach-varnish.
This gives to the coloured cast a wonderfully moist
and fish-like look, and no mould or other fungus ever
attacks this varnish, as it does glue. The background
may now be painted a deep Wedgwood blue, so as
to represent water, and at the same time throw forth
the coloured fish into strong and prominent relief.

If the coloured cast is intended to ornament a
room, the background must be set in a wooden frame-
work, with glass sides, top, bottom, and front (as in
ordinary stuffed - animal cases) : these protect the
specimens from dust, and the operator may thus
adorn his hall or study with exact and artistic models.
It will have been seen that there is nothing whatever,
either of dirt or labour, to prevent ladies from en-
gaging in what we guarantee will prove to them a
most pleasant and profitable recreation.

For such small fishes as sprats, minnows, whitebait,
&c., it will be advisable to make the moulds of the
same materials as those composing printers’ rollers ;
that is, half in weight of common glue and common
treacle. These are boiled together until a uniform
liquid is produced, which may then be kept fluid by
placing the pot containing it in a pan of boiling water,
just as carpenters keep their glue-kettles. This hot
mixture is then poured over such a picturesque little
heap of whitebait or sprats as would make, say, a
decent handful. Of course it takes the impression of
the mass, and of every individual fish it covers. The
mould is then to be turned the other side up, and the
fishes carefully picked out one by one. At length the
last is picked out, and a perfect mould of the heap
remains. This must be cast in plaster of Paris, where
no difficulty remains in undercutting (as would be if
the mould had been made of plaster), for the soft
gelatinous mould can be picked out with a penknife,
and the small fishes thus form a loose, pretty heap.
They must then be coloured when ready, and the
background tinted blue, as above suggested.

For casting large fish more than one pair of hands
may be required, as the plaster soon sets when mixed.
Only two qualities are required to be successful in
fish-casting, — patience and perseverance. If those
who attempt to carry out the experiment possess them,
they will succeed ; if they have them not, they may,

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

1 1 1

but we will not answer for it. It would be possible,
we should imagine, for students to take several moulds
of a rare fish, and to exchange these with one an-
other, so as to get together a good collection of
British fishes.

A WET METHOD OF PREPARING OBJECTS
FOR MICROSCOPICAL MOUNTING.

IN the preparation of objects for permanent mount-
ing, the bete noir of the microscopist is the too
well-known and ever- recurring air-bubble. Books
on microscopy seem to recommend but one way of
mounting vegetable or animal tissues in the usual
preservatives, Canada balsam or dammar. And this
method is certainly, on the face of it, rather a peculiar
one. It is that of drying the object and then steep-
ing it for some time in turpentine. In fact, in order
to get rid of the small quantity of air contained in
some of the vessels, the whole of the object is filled
with air, and then this extra quantity of air (unne-
cessarily put in) has to be quietly soaked out again,
or is forcibly dragged out by the air-pump. This
process of filling up with air and then extracting it
again occupies no small amount of time, but, in some
cases, no such expenditure of misapplied patience,
even combined with the persuasions of the air-pump,
will entirely extract the air.

Now, objects such as insects, sections of plants
and animals, may be prepared for mounting entirely
by a wet process, and that with speed and certainty.

This wet method I have used for several years,
and I believed at one time that most of those inte-
rested in microscopical work must have known of it.
But of late, conversation with microscopical friends
has led me to imagine that it is little, if at all, known
to the mass of workers with the microscope. I
cannot suppose that the plan is original, though I
have not yet met with any one else that has worked
at it.

The only piece of apparatus required is a single
test-tube. Into this the sections or parts of plants or
animals are placed, and the tube about half-filled
with distilled water that has been made acid with a
few drops of nitric acid.i The liquid is now heated
almost to the boiling point for from five to fifteen
minutes. The acidulated water is then poured off,
and the tube filled with hot distilled water and gently
shaken once or twice. The water is now completely
poured off and replaced by methylated spirit ; this is
heated almost to its boiling point for about five
minutes. It is then poured off, and the tube about a
quarter filled with ether, and the contents heated
gently by immersing the end of the tube in a cup of
hot water for half a minute. Ether, being highly
inflammable, should not be heated by, nor brought near
to, a light. Now pour off the ether and quickly drop

in a quantity of turpentine that will a little more than
cover the objects. The whole operation is now
finished, and every particle of air and water originally
in the object has been replaced by turpentine. The
objects are now ready for mounting in Canada balsam
or dammar.

There need be no waste of materials, since the
methylated spirit and the ether may each be poured
into separate residue bottles, and, after a quantity has
been collected, be re-distilled without any loss worth
mentioning.

In this method we first fill the object with its
natural permeator, water, and then replace this with
methylated spirit. This latter, being of greater
tenuity, enters into some of the minuter vessels which
the water has still left only filled with air.

Ether is next made to take the place of the spirit,
and this, from its marvellous tenuity, rapidly fills any
vessels that the spirit even had perchance failed to
fill. Thus a road, as it were, having been made
for fluids, turpentine easily and rapidly spreads
throughout the object. I know that there is a
process somewhat similar in which oil of cloves is
used. But oil of cloves has not the same extreme
tenuity as ether, and so does not permeate tissues
anything like so thoroughly as ether does. It is also
rather expensive, and does not readily admit of being
used over and over again.

The advantages of the wet process are its economy
of materials, its leaving the object almost unaltered
in appearance, its cleanliness, and, above all, its
extreme rapidity and certainty.

Only a single test-tube is required in which a dozen
or two of objects may be placed at one time.

'fhe re-agents, with the exception of the water and
acid, which are not worth saving, may be used again
and again.

In drying an object, since all the water which made
up so much of its bulk is driven off, its shape is often
greatly altered, its original form being only partially
restored by the after processes. By the wet method,
the cells are never empty of liquid ; of course, both
spirits and ether shrink objects to some extent, but
the turpentine and balsam usually all but entirely
restore the original form. As to the time taken, the
drying method often requires weeks ; the wet method
seldom needs an hour. There are some objects
which I have never seen entirely freed from air by the
drying process, followed by prolonged soaking in
turpentine and the use of the air-pump ; but I have
not yet seen an object that the wet process would not
rapidly free from air. It is possible by this method
to cut three or four fresh sections from a tree, per-
manently mount them in Canada balsam or dammar
without a single bubble of air, ring them with coloured
cement, and label them within the hour.

The use of nitric acid is not a necessity, but it
quickens the process. Sometimes it is better to use
in its stead a little potash, only then the objects

I I 2

I1A Ii D WICKE 'S SCIENCE -G OSSIP.

should be afterwards well washed with distilled water
before adding spirit. Objects, such as some parts of
insects, which are not transparent, need, as usual
previous maceration in potash solution. Benzole
would, doubtless, do equally well as ether, but I
have hitherto only used the latter.

This method is not applicable to all objects ;
those containing, like the water-lily, an excessive
amount of water shrink too much, and must be
mounted in fluids. If it be desired to stain the
specimens, this is best done by adding the dye to the
methylated spirit.

I do not claim this as a new method, but, as I
know many workers who have not heard of it, I
thought that such might care to try so expeditious,
easy, and certain a method. A. W. Stokes.

Laboratory , Guy's Hospital , S.E.

MICROSCOPY,

A New Immersion Object-glass. — At the last
Meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society, Mr.
J. H. Stephenson read a paper on this subject, in
which he described a new immersion object-glass
which he had designed to obviate the difficulty often
experienced in the accurate arrangement of the ad-
justing collars of high-angled objectives. This glass
had a focal distance of 1-9, and a balsam angle of
1130. It was stated to bear very deep eye-pieces,
and to have a very flat field. The great difficulty of
obtaining an “immersion” fluid having the same
refracting index as crown glass has at length been
overcome by the adoption of oil of cedar-wood,
diluted with I -5 parts of oil of fennel-seed.

Marine Amceba. — Dr. Entz states that species of
A mceba have been found in sea as well as fresh water.
At Cuxhaven he found two species, A. Umax and
A. radiosa, very abundantly. He regards A. marina
as probably identical with A. 7'adiosa, and possibly
also Haeckel’s Protamoeba polypodia.

“A New Field for the Microscope.” — Under
this title, Mr. W. Saville Kent, F.L.S., has a pro-
fusely illustrated article in the April number of the
Popular Science Review. It describes the life-history
of a new group of flagellate monads, which require
a very high power to determine ; and the writer very
properly remarks that the new and high class magni-
fying powers, often only used to resolve dots or striae
on a diatom, or to solve a question of angular aper-
ture, might very usefully be employed in following
out the details of the life-histories of these most
interesting organisms. The article is of a most inter-
esting character throughout.

Fossil Diatomace^e, &c. — Some months ago I
received a piece of cement-stone from the island of
Fur, coast of Denmark. It is a poor variety of lime-
stone, and if a portion be dissolved in acid, the residue,

i when examined, is seen to consist of interesting marine
I forms of diatomaceoe, chiefly species of Triceratium ,

I believe, possibly Amphitetras , also a few Cosciuo -
disci , and a great many small Polycystince , and Adi-
niscece. Is this stone generally known to microscopists? ,
I have not been able co get any information concerning
it. Dr. Carpenter mentions Triceratium occurring
in a fossil state only in the Bermuda and Richmond
earth. — Will. Paterson.

Diatomaceous Deposits near Richmond. —

I send herewith specimens of prepared diatoms, from
parts of the Richmond and Petersburg fields, lately
discovered by me. The Petersburg slide shows several
varieties of Coscinodisctis, Actinocyclus, Actinoptychus ,
Plcurosigma, and Euphodiscus. There are many
specimens of Triceratium on it, the most character-
istic being perhaps T. spinosum; B. rhombus is also
plentiful. The transparent character of most of these
diatoms, and the fact of finding many forms in this
deposit, common in fresh water, would indicate that
this part of our diatomaceous stratum may have been
laid down near the mouth of some great river of
later tertiary times. The Richmond slide shows most
of the rare forms of that deposit in greater abundance
than I have ever seen before, while it contains com-
paratively few of the Orthosira marina , which makes
the larger portion of the deposit from other parts of
the Richmond field. A Navicula with curious
beading on the connecting zone, and very fine stria-
tion, is shown in tolerable abundance, from four to six
or more on each slide. This particular form, Prof.
H. L. Smith thinks new, and it is a very good test
for a I -8th or i-ioth objective, which should resolve
it into squares with oblique light. The areolations
on the larger Coscinodisci can be seen with a good
simple triplet, while to show the markings on some
of the Rhizosolenia is a test for the very best high
powers. The two Richmond Pleurosigmas Virginica
and angulaium , are also plentiful, and as the striation
on these is uniform, so far as my observation goes,
this slide makes one of the best general tests to be
had, furnishing an accurate measure for the com-
parison of objectives, of nature’s own ruling, perhaps
superior to any artificial lines made. — CrL. Peticolas,
Richd. , Va.

Living Microscopic Organisms. — It is with
great pleasure that we draw the attention of our
microscopical readers to the agency started by Mr.
Thomas Bolton, whose advertisement has several
times appeared in our columns. For a trifling sum,
Mr. Bolton sends forth living organisms of Spongilla,
Hydra , Actino-sphcerium, &c. It is some time since
we had more sincere pleasure in recommending what
our microscopical readers will agree with us in affirm-
ing is a genuine and praiseworthy undertaking.

An Apology for Diatomaniacs. — Professor
J. E. Smith, in an address delivered before the

HARD WICKE J S S CIENCE - G OSSIP.

Dunkirk U.S. Microscopical Society (published in
the American Journal of Microscopy for March),
makes the following remarks : — “ We often hear the
diatomists spoken of in terms of contempt. They
are now regarded by the histologist as a class of
observers who use the microscope as a mere play-
thing, and the fact that diatomists are not altogether
agreed as to the structure of these favourite shells is
■often used as an argument to show the folly of
studying diatomaceae at all. All this, my friends,
is sheer sophistry. The study of the diatomacete is
as legitimate as that of any other branch of the
science of Biology, and the labours of the diatomists
have not been for nought : it is to them, and to
their constant demands on the optician, that we
are indebted for the wonderful improvements which
have been made in object-glasses ; and I am bold
enough to tell you that skilful diatomists can tell
you as much about the structure of a diatom as
can the pathologist equally skilled inform you as
to the structure of a blood-corpuscle. But to the
student, to those who desire to prepare themselves
for advanced work, the study of the diatomacece
cannot be neglected. No line of practice has yet
been discovered that will teach the student the use
and management of his tools that can at all com-
pete with the superior claims of these minute
organisms. It is said that ‘ adversity tries us, and
shows up our best qualities.’ The little shells, too,
will try the would-be manipulator, and, like the
country judge, show up his worst qualities.”

ZOOLOGY.

The Literary and Philosophical Society
of Liverpool. — The “Proceedings” of this well-
known society always contain welcome matter. The
thirty-first volume is now to hand, containing a mas-
terly address by Mr. A. J. Mott on Haeckel’s “ His-
tory of Creation,” in which the writer opposes the
evolutionistic view. Mr. J. A. Picton, a well-known
antiquary, and president, publishes his presidential
address on “The Present State of Linguistic Science”;
Mr. Edward Davies has an essay concerning “ Popu-
lar Errors about Poisons Mr. George Morton one
on “The Introduction of Geological Maps”; Mr.
Alfred Morgan another on “ The Origin and Progress
of the United States Geological and Geographical
Survey of the Territories”; the Rev. H. H. Higgins
one on “The Liverpool Museum Reports,” &c.
Besides the above there are numerous papers on
purely scholastic and literary matters. A handsome
and bulky volume is thus compiled.

Natural History Societies. — We have received
the eighth annual report of the Wellington College
Natural History Society, and are pleased to find indi-
cations of increased vigour on the part of the members.
It is an excellent thing to find natural science culti-

1 1 3

vated for its own sake by the students of our public
schools, and still more so to find, as this and other
reports give evidence of, that the students are doing
actual field work, and thus contributing to the solid
stores of scientific information. The present report
shows that in addition to various papers read and
excursions made, the botany and ornithology, &c., of
the district has been worked, collections and observa-
tions made, and lists published of the results. We
wish the Society continued success in its ardent and
praiseworthy labours. The Huddersfield Naturalists’
Society, established in 1847, for the promotion of
knowledge in various branches of Natural History,
have issued their list of members, &c. ; each member
has the special study to which he is attached placed
after his name. Curators are appointed for the
departments of conchology, botany, entomology,
zoology. The report of the Chichester and West .Sus-
sex Natural History and Microscopical Society, just
issued, shows that the Society is in a healthy con-
dition. At no previous period has the number of
working members been so great as at present.
Eighteen papers on various natural-history subjects
were read during the session just terminated.

\ Toad and Goldfish. — The incident which Mr.
Horace Pearse relates (p. 94) of his Goldfish being so
tenaciously embraced by a toad, is easily explained
by a knowledge of the habits of toads and frogs. At
this season of the year, or a little earlier, when their
generative instinct is intensely strong, the male clasps
the body of the female with his fore-legs in order to
fecundate the ova as they are emitted. To enable
him to do this the more firmly, a small digit or warty
protuberance is temporarily developed in the thumbs,
and the hold is thus rendered so secure that it requires
considerable force to effect a separation. It was in
obedience to this strong instinctive impulse that the
toad in question grasped the goldfish “firmly by
the head in his front legs.” That male frogs should
attach themselves to the surface even of large fishes
is not an unfrequent occurrence, and old Izaak Walton
referring to a fact of this kind, attributes it (erro-
neously of course) to a “great antipathy betwixt the
pike and some frogs.” — Ed. Hart Vinen , M.D.

The “Harvestmen.” — Mr. J, H. Cary, in his
interesting observations on the Harvestmen or Pha-
langiidoe, desires to have further information on the
subject. The monograph on the British species by
Mr. R. H. Meade, F. R.C.S., in the Annals and
Magazine of Natural History for June, 1855, is
excellent, and I think the only one in the English
language. For the anatomy of Phalangium Opilio
there is a paper by Mr. A. Tulk in the same magazine
for October, 1843. Mr. Cary has fallen into some
errors regarding the true spiders. He seems to imply
that the palpi are the reproductive organs of the male
spider ; which is hardly the fact, for the male has a
complete generative system in the abdomen, and the

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

1 J 4

palpi are only conveyers of the seminal fluid. Also,
he says, there are spiders without spinnerets, which
is very doubtful : there is but one species, Liphistius
desultor (Schrodte), found at Penang, of which the
typical specimen had no spinners ; but the Rev.

O. P. Cambridge, M.A., has since described a
specimen in the British Museum, which is in all
respects L. desultor except having the spinners.
The “ Plarvestmen ” that Mr. Cary describes, are, I
think, from his description of the falces, Phalangium
cornutum (Linn.). He has probably mistaken the
stigmata on the fore part of the cephalothorax (as
Mr. Tulle did) for another pair of eyes, as our British
species have but two, placed on the apex of the
cephalothorax. The male and female of P. cornu-
tum are often mistaken for different species, because
of the great difference between the falces. Regarding
the moulting of the Phalangiidce, I have never heard
that they cast their skin as spiders do, but maybe
Mr. Cary has made some observations that would
prove that that is the case. The abdomen of true
spiders is not segmented as in the Phalangiidce. —
Tom Workman, Belfast.

Practical Darwinism.— Dr. E. Coues, of the
United States Geographical Survey, states that a
breed of solid-hoofed pigs has apparently been estab-
lished in Texas. The terminal phalanges of the toes
are united to form a single broad phalanx. Above
this, however, the other two phalanges of each of
the two principal digits remain perfectly distinct.
The hoof is perfectly solid, and on its sole there is a
broad angular elevation of horny substance, very like
the “frog” of the horse’s hoof. The breed is so
firmly established that no tendency to revert to the
original form is noticeable. It is also stated that in
the cross of a solid-hoofed boar with a sow of the
ordinary type, a majority of the litter have the pecu-
liarity of the male as regards their feet.

The Colours of Caterpillars. — At a recent
meeting of the Entomological Society of London, Sir
John Lubbock, in accepting the opinion laid down
by Darwin, that dull-coloured, green, and smooth-
skinned caterpillars are eaten by birds, whilst spiny,
hairy, and brightly-coloured species are rejected,
stated, that by the statistical method it was proved I
that no hairy caterpillars are ever green ; whilst, on
the other hand, a large majority of black and brightly
coloured species are hairy or otherwise protected.

I he Ceratodus. — Mr. E. P. Ramsay has re-
cently written to Nature, to say that a fine series
of eleven Ceratodus have been kept alive at Mary-
borough, Queensland. This rare and geologically
ancient fish can only be obtained at certain seasons,
and in certain parts of the rivers Mary and Burnet.
The Osteoglossum is frequently and erroneously con-
founded with it.

BOTANY,

The London Flora. — The doubts as to the
actual occurrence near London of Crepis paludosa,
expressed by the author of a review on the new
London Flora, in the Journal of Botany, are well
founded. It is not that species, but Crepis setosa,
which occurs in the locality indicated. The entry in
my note-book with regard to it was corrected in one
place and not in the other ; hence the mistake. Carex
curta, hedge at Totteridge, is right in the Index ;
while the entry in the Localities should have been
Carex divulsa (lane), curta (hedge, &c.). Both
species are not unfrequent in hollow lanes both of
Middlesex and Herts. Bromus racemosus : the

habitat, &c., given of this plant refers to B. giganteus.
The entry should have been “ meadows and pastures:
flats by the Thames in Kent.” Many English
authorities consider this species a variety of commit-
tatus ; smoother and with panicles more compact.
But the distinguishing characteristics ascribed to them
by the French botanists are, outer glumellas entire,
B. pratensis (i.e. commutatus), outer glumellas-
notched ( khanchees ), B. racemosus. Through inad-
vertence, interlineations in the MSS., and inexperi-
ence in the correction of proofs of the kind in ques-
tion, errors and misprints were extremely probable,
and “these are of them.” Others, the omission of
“ Bromus mollis , common, everywhere,” for example,
I leave to the critics to find out and dilate upon,
wishing them every gratification in the task. — Eyrede
Crespigny, M.D. P. S. — Nasturtium sylvestre in the
Index should have been N. terrestre, and vice versd
as may be guessed from the context.

Rapid Growth of Vallisneria. — Mr. A. W.
Bennett says: “ The first flower-bud of Vallisneria
spiralis made its appearance in my aquarium last
year on July 1st, the pedicel being at three p.m. about
I ’5 inch long. On the 3rd, at four p.m., the base of
the bud just touched the surface of the water, and the
pedicel was about 7 inches long. At one p.m., on
the 7th (an inteiwal of about ninety-three hours), it
had reached the astonishing length of 43 inches.”

Early Flowering of Borage. — It may be
interesting to your readers to know that the common
Borage {Borrago officinalis') is in full flower as early
in the year as this. I do not know of any instance
of this plant being seen so early in flower, June being
usually its earliest time for appearing. The specimens
in question were gathered by my brother, Mr. F. H.
Worsley Benison, of Chepstow, at Beechley, near that
town, on March 27th, and sent to me. It was found
in abundance on a bank immediately overhanging the
Severn. — //. W. S. Worsley Benison.

The Ferns of North America. — Messrs.
Hardwicke & Bogue announce their intention to issue
1 in parts (by arrangement with the American pub-
lishers), Professor Eaton’s “Ferns of North America.

HARD WICK E'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

1 1

“ Flowers: Their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes,
and Colours.” By J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., &c. Lon-
don : Hardwicke & Bogue. — The position we hold in
relation to this book prevents our doing otherwise than
drawing attention to its publication, although this op-
portunity affords us the means of thanking both Printer
and Publisher alike for turning out so handsome and
attractive a volume. The arrangement of the con-
tents is as follows: — Chapter i, “The Old and the
New Philosophy of Flowers ;” 2, “The Geological
Antiquity of Flowers and Insects;” 3, “ The Geogra-
phical Distribution of Flowers;” 4, Ditto ( continued );
5, “ The Structure of Flowering Plants;” 6, “Rela-
tions between Flowers and their Physical Surround-
ings;” 7, “ Relations between Flowers and the
Wind;” 8, “The Colours of Flowers;” 9, “The
External Shapes of Flowers;” 10, “The Internal
Shapes of Flowers;” 1 1, “The Perfumes of Flowers;”
12, “Social Flowers;” 13, “Birds and Flowers;”
14, “ The Natural Defences of Flowering Plants.”
The work is embellished with thirty-two coloured
figures, and nearly one hundred and fifty woodcuts.

Botanical Curiosities. — Most of these facts
were communicated by me to the Natural History
Journal (W. Sessions, York), a monthly magazine,
intended to encourage young people in the prosecution
of scientific pleasures. By one path in one field at
Woodhouse, near Sheffield, three forms of Plantago
major have been gathered: — (1) spike bifid; (2) the
very small bracts developed into little foliage-leaves,
over an inch long below, and lessening towards the
top, so as to form an elongated cone, in which the
flowers themselves were still present; (3) flowers on
branches from the main stem, i.e., in a raceme instead
of a spike. The last form, being very handsome, we
have tried to keep in our garden; vainly, however, for
it bears no seed, and after two or three years, it dies.
Near Sheffield, also, we picked two specimens of
Scabiosa arvensis ; one with its involucrum bracts so
large as to extend far out from under the head of
florets; the other, long since transplanted into our
gardens, where it receives the admiration of all its
beholders, with globe-shaped heads of flowers, the
peculiar outer ones being absent. In Sherwood
Forest, between Edwinstowe and Mansfield Wood-
house, in a sandy lane, in company with Plantago
coronopus, was a fasciated specimen of Crepis virens,
several stalks appearing as a single flat one, i-fo
inch broad all the way up, and clustered at its
summit with flowers. By Wharncliffe Crags, in the
Don Valley, a birch, 9 inches at least in diameter,
appears at a height of about 12 feet, from out the
trunk of an old oak. In a valley through which runs
a stream, dividing Yorkshire from Derbyshire, a little
tributary of the Rother, once crystal-clear and trout
inhabited, now anon black from “sleek washing,”
and again ochre-yellow from the pumpings out of a
colliery, we gathered a dandelion with leaves 2 feet

long, and proportionately broad; also another with
twin heads on one scape. In a valley by Coal-Aston,
near Dronfield, Orchis maculata appeared in various
shades of hue till nearly pure white. White Columbine
occurred in Hell Wood — a splendid locality by Roche
Abbey, near Rotherham. White Flair-bells ( Campa-
nula rotund 'folia) occurred in Monsall Dale, near Bake-
well. My experience is identical with that of a recent
writer in Science-Gossip, in the process of drying,
White Hair-bells turn blue; Blue Hair-bells, white.
Linnseus named the Red and White Campions , Lychnis
diurna and L. vespertina, as one species — L. dioica.
In Cliff Wheel Wood (Rother Valley), a bed of Red
Campion contained several with white blossoms; nor
is it rare to see White Campion, in fields or waysides,
assuming a rosy tint. In Hail-Mary Hill Wood
(named, as some suppose, from signalling made to the
unfortunate “Queen of Scots,” then imprisoned in
the Earl of Shrewsbury’s Sheffield Manor, which is
visible from the wood) we collected a Lychnis diurna,
with leaves all triple-pointed. Near York, we saw
all these with white blooms: — Tri 'olium pratense,
Geranium pusillum, Scabiosa succisa, Calluna vul-
garis, Erica tetralix. In the extreme north of
Derbyshire, Raphanus raphanistrum, the Wild
Radish, was both white and brimstone-yellow. On
September 20, at Castle Howard, near Malton, a
Dog-Violet (Viola sylvatica?), had three unjoined
carpels, holding seed, and accompanied by a few small
calyciform bracts; Water- cress (Nasturtium officinale )
was also in flower, and a tangled mass of it rose
5 feet, at least, out of the water. Rwnex alpinus is a
species, doubtfully indigenous ; it still grows by One-
ash Farm, near Monyash, N. Derbyshire ; but this
homestead, long tenanted by the Quaker family of
Bowmans, was once a place of exile and “ durance
vile” for the refractory brethren of a Yorkshire
Abbey ; it is well-known that monks esteemed it
virtuous as a healer, and grew it in their herb-gardens.
My friend, Alfred Montague Grimsley, of Leicester,
found bifid and trifid catkins of Salix fragilis by the
river Foss, near York. My brother, F. T. Le
Tall, observed albids of Orchis pyramidalis and Cen-
taurea nigra, near Scarborough ; he also plucked a
Rose (Rosa villosa ?), fully double, many yards from
any house, some miles from any village, in one of the
deep, narrow, well-wooded, and well-watered gullies
lying amid the moorland which extends from Levi-
sham, near Pickering, to Scarborough. — B. B. Le
Tall, York.

“The History of Bible Plants.” — Under this
title, Messrs. Hardwicke & Bogue have just pub-
lished an attractive little book, written by Mr. J.
Smith, A.L.S., of Kew, the well-known botanist. It
is abundantly illustrated with lithographic plates by
Mr. W. H. Fitch, F.L.S., perhaps the best botanical
draughtsman of the day. Mr. Smith’s name as author
is enough to ensure fulness and correctness of detail.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

116

Perhaps we have never before had so trustworthy —
certainly we have never had one so cheap and well
got up — a book on Bible Plants. It will make an
excellent gift-book for young and old alike.

Report of Science-Gossip Botanical Ex-
change Club. — Your remark (p. 74) on my note
regarding Callitriche autumnalis — that it will very
probably be found in the Till and the lower reaches
of the Tweed — in which you say, “We believed this
was recorded by Dr. Johnston several years since,” is
founded on a mistake in the “ Flora of Berwick-upon-
Tweed” (1829). C. autumnalis is there recorded from
“Pools of Water in the Vale below Langleyford”
(FI. Ber., i. p. 3). In the “Botany of the Eastern
Borders” (1853), by the same author, C. autumnalis
is left out, which shows that Dr. Johnston had dis-
covered the mistake, although he makes no remark
concerning its record in his earlier work, or what
species was there mistaken for it. From seeing a
specimen of C. pedunculata , which was. gathered in
the above locality, and labelled by Dr. Johnston
C. autwnnalis , and also its frequency in the district,
I have no doubt that it was that variety. I enclose
an example of a similar form of C. hamulata,
with all the leaves linear, which is apt to be mis-
taken, when not in fruit, for C. autumnalis, by those
unacquainted with that species ; but when once
known, they are easily distinguished. — A. B., Kelso.

GEOLOGY.

The Fossil Fungus. — In answer to that part of
W. G. Smith’s letter on p. 67 of March number,
referring to mine on p. 41 of February number, he
states that “such a genus as Peronosporites was not
known till last year,” and yet he tells us just previously
that it had been known to Mr. Carruthers for many
years ; and Mr. Carruthers stated in a late presiden-
tial address delivered in London, that he only knew
of the existence of two Palaeozoic fungi, one of which
he had himself described. My friend Mr. Young
being present, at once rose and said that he had a
very fine section, showing fungoid growth, in his own
cabinet. This is the section that Mr. Smith has in
his possession now, and it is the same section that I
cut from a specimen of Lepidodendron I found on my
first visit to Halifax in 1869. The fungus Mr. Car-
ruthers alluded to in his address above mentioned,
was found in an Eocene fern-stem from Herne Bay,
and is described as probably belonging to the genus
Peronospora. The Manchester gentleman alluded to
by Mr. Smith instantly recognized my fungus as
Peronospora in a fossil state, but it required more
learning to give it the name of Peronosporites , a dis-
tinction without a difference. If Mr. Carruthers is
the discoverer of this fungus (as Mr. Smith says he is),
how comes it that my friend Mr. Young should write

to me as soon as Mr. Smith’s paper appeared, and
say that my name was to have been mentioned in
connection with the discovery, but by some mistake
it had been “forgotten”? Mr. Smith tells us what
drudgery he has been put to while labouring to find a
new name for this fungus, I may tell him that I have
also been a “slave” to the study of fossil botany
for very nearly twenty years, and that I have pored
over my sections too many hours to let either fungus,
or any other, new or old, object escape my notice.
— John Butterworth, Goats Shazv, Oldham.

Government Research Fund. — Among the
names of those who have received grants from the
Government fund of ,£4,000 recommended by the
Royal Society, we find the names of the following : —
Prof. H. A. Nicholson and R. Etheridge, jun., “For
aid in examining the fauna of the Silurian deposits of
the Girvan district, Ayrshire, and in publishing a
descriptive list of the same,” ,£73 : Mr. C. Callaway,
Wellington, Shropshire, “ For aid in working out the
so-called Eruptive Rocks ofShropshire, and in verifying
certain points in local geology,” £25 : to Dr. J. W.
Dawson, Montreal, “For aid in excavating erect trees
in the Coral Formation of Nova Scotia, in beds where
they are known to contain reptilian and other re-
mains,” £50 : to Dr. R. A. Traquair, Edinburgh,
“For aid in preparing and publishing a monograph
on the Carboniferous ganoid fishes of Great Britain,”
£75 : to Dr. Henry Woodward, “For continuation
of work on the Fossil Crustacea, especially with re-
ference to the trilobites and other extinct forms, and
their publication in the volumes of the Palaeonto-
graphical Society,” £75 : to Prof. H. G. Seeley, “For
an examination of the structure, affinities, and classi-
fication of the Extinct Reptilia and allied forms, ӣ75 :
to Rev. J. F. Blake, “For aid in continuing the pub-
lication of a Synopsis of British fossil Cephalopoda,”
£100. Besides the above, we find the names of
W. Saville Kent, Jersey, “ To pay for microscopical
apparatus for the further prosecution of investigations
into the structure and life-history of certain lower
Protozoa,” £50 : to R. M ‘Lachlan, “For aid towards
the publication of a revision and synopsis of European
Trichoptera , £50 : to Prof. A. H. Garrod, “For aid
towards publication of the second fasciculus of an
exhaustive Treatise on the Anatomy of Birds,” £100:
to Prof. W. K. Parker, “For assistance in continuation
of researches on the Morphology of the Yertebrate
Skeleton ; and the relations of the Nerves to the ske-
leton structures, chiefly in the head,” £300.

Fossil Walruses. — The Ipswich Museum now
contains a splendid series of tusks of the fossil walrus
( Trichecodon Huxleyi ) found in the Red Crag. These
were recently sent up to the Linnoean Society by
J. E. Taylor, and described by Prof. Ray Lankester.
It was discovered that the two supposed species were
in reality tusks of male and female animals.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The Triassic Strata of the South-western
Counties. — At a recent meeting of the Geological
Society of London, a paper was read by Mr. W. A. E.
Ussher, F.G.S. The author maintained that the
general thinning-out of the Trias in the South-Devon
and West-Somerset area as it is traced northward, of
which he adduced evidence, proves that this area was
not connected with that of Gloucestershire and the
Midland counties until the later stages of the Keuper ;
and endeavoured to show by a comparison of sections
that the area east of Taunton and south of the Men-
dips was not submerged before the deposition of the
Lower Keuper Sandstone, and probably not until the
later stages of its formation, the Quantocks acting as
a barrier dividing the Bridgewater area from the
Watchet valley. He thought that a subsidence pro-
gressing from south to north led to earlier deposition
in South Devon, and to a consequent attenuation of
the lower beds towards Watchet and Porlock. Hence
the lowermost beds of the Trias of the south coast are
much thicker than their more northerly equivalents,
and probably were still thicker where the English
Channel now flows, some beds perhaps dating as far
back as Permian times. The presence of numerous
fragments of igneous rocks (quartz-porphyries) in the
basement-beds of- the South Devon Trias, and the
absence of known corresponding rocks in the county,
led the author to infer that the cliffs and beds of the
early Triassic sea were composed of such rocks, any
undestroyed portions of which would probably occur
, either under the Triassic beds near Dartmoor and
between Newton and Seaton, or in the area now
occupied by the English Channel. As continuity is
evident only in the upper division of the Trias, be-
tween the area of Devon and Somerset and that of
the Midland counties, and there is no conformity in
the former, the author maintained that the upper
marls, upper sandstones, and probably the conglome-
rate and pebble-bed subdivision of Devon and
Somerset, are equivalent in time to the Keuper series
of the Midland counties, and that deposition took
place in Devon and Somerset between Keuper and
Bunter times, bridging over the hiatus marked by
unconformity in the Midland counties.

The Newly-discovered Dinosaurs.— Prof.
Marsh has named the new family of gigantic fossil
Saurians, recently discovered in the Oolitic rocks of
America, Atlanto-sauridce. One species (A. immanis)
had a femur over eight feet long, and, taking a croco-
-dile as a comparison, Prof. Marsh thinks that A.
immanis may have been more than one hundred feet
in length !

An American Fossil Ceratodus.— Prof. Marsh
has recently described the dental plate of a fossil fish
belonging to the curious existing Australian genus
Ceratodus, under the name of C. Giintheri. It was
found in the upper Oolitic deposits of Colorado, and

117

is the first specimen of Ceratodus which has been
found in America.

Fossil Insects.— At a recent meeting of the
Entomological Society of London, Mr. H. Goss
exhibited a collection of fossil insects from the Leaf-
ceds at Bournemouth. They had been obtained by
M. J. S. Gardner, F.G.S. Among them were
numerous Coleoptera and Hyme)ioptera, including a
finely-preserved anterior wing of CEschua.

Artificial Albite and Ortilose. — In addition
to the artificial Corundum, Ruby, &c., which have
been made by Messrs. Fremy & Feil, M. Hautefeuille
now announces similar artificial reproductions of
Albite and Orthose, which have both been discovered
in the copper furnaces, both at Mansfeld and in the
Hartz. It is supposed they have been formed by
sublimation, with the aid of the calcium chloride
employed as flux.

The Geology of Ireland. — A want long felt
by all students of Irish geology has been a good text-
book. We understand that before the meeting of
the British Association in Dublin in August next, a
“Manual of Irish Geology,” by Mr. G. H. Kinahan,
will be published. With the exception perhaps of
Sir Richard Griffith, there is no one more competent
to write such a book than Mr. Kinahan. The work
will have a description of the sedimentary rocks, and
also of the igneous, or, as the author calls them,
“ Eruptive ” rocks, chronologically arranged, together
with short descriptions of the superficial deposits,
minerals, mines, soils, and prehistoric remains, in-
cluding the Crannoges, Kitchen-middens, &c.

NOTES AND QUERIES,

Birds’ Eggs. — “ L. W. G.” (p. 43) is mistaken in
stating that an Act of Parliament has been passed to
prohibit the taking of birds’ eggs. The taking of the
birds only, during the close time, is prohibited by the
“Sea-birds’ Preservation Act,” 1869; the “Wild-
birds’ Protection Act,” 1872; and the “Wild-fowl
Preservation Act,” 1876. Therefore, no person can
“break the laws of the land in this particular,” except
in the case of eggs protected by the Game Laws. — ■
R. Eger ton.

The Marten ( Maries foina). — Modern invasion ot
its haunts with axe and gun has rendered this a very
rare animal in Cornwall. The capture of a female is
thus noticed in the Western Morning News of March
15th : — “ The marten cat, which is now almost an ex-
tinct quadruped in England, has occurred at or near
Delabole within the last ten days. It was caught in
a gin, and proved to be a female. It is the finest and
the most elegant of all the weasel tribe, and it more
frequently is observed in trees, along the branches of
which it may be seen creeping or jumping after its
prey, which consists of birds, squirrels, &c. Its
actions are most graceful and elegant, and it is to be
regretted that so beautiful a wild animal, which used
to be more or less seen in our woodlands, should be
extirpated and lost. There are two varieties, not now
supposed to be specifically distinct, viz., the common,

r 1 8

HARD WICEE’S SCIENCE -G OSSIP.

or beecli marten, with a white breast, and the yellow-
breasted, or pine marten. It is now supposed that
the yellow-breasted sort is a younger animal than
those which have a white breast ; at all events, speci-
mens have been obtained from the same covert, hav-
ing an intermediate tone of colour. Foxhounds hunt
this animal with great eagerness, and seem to like
their scent. It has been remarked that the viscid
effluvia belonging to the other members of the Mus-
telidre does not exist in the Marten, which has the
usual glands for the secretion of humour ; but, instead
of a fetid smell, it emits a musky and rather agreeable
odour.”

Worms in Sticklebacks. — I have been waiting
patiently for some answer in the pages of Science-
Gossip to a letter of mine asking the nature and
reason of the occurrence of large flat worms in every
stickleback taken from a certain pond. These worms,
in number as many sometimes as six, seemed almost
to fill the fish, and to cause their death in our
aquarium. The matter seems to me both curious
and interesting, and I should be glad if some corre-
spondent would give an account of them. — W. E.
Thompson.

Tree-creeper. — Leaning against a tree in
Hyde Park, London, I saw a Tree-creeper, Certhia
familiaris , alight on a tree close to me and begin
searching for insects. I watched it for some time,
till it flew away to another tree, whither I followed
and again watched it. Are they often seen in Lon-
don ? — Arthur S. Blachett.

The Botany of the Channel Islands. — Can
any of your readers give me any information as to the
best method of conducting a botanical tour in the
Channel Islands ? Is the living there expensive or
not ? Is it best to put up at hotels, or at farm-
houses ? Any such information will be most accept-
able. — J. Comber.

Frog-spawn. — I send a few notes on some frog-
spawn collected on March 14th of the present year,
and exposed only to the natural atmosphere. March
15th, at 7 p.m., — a few tadpoles free from the albu-
men. March 20th, all out of the embryo state, and,
by the 22nd, the gills clearly visible. During the
cold weather at the latter end of the month, the tad-
poles lay at the top of the water, apparently stupefied.
— R. E. S., Richmond.

Midnight Songsters. — In reference to the
thrushes and blackbirds, together with other of our
sweet songsters, singing at midnight during the early
spring and summer months (Science-Gossip, page
93), we have often noticed this fact with surprise,
especially on a fine bright night, when the chorus of
song seemed to be carried on through the night, with
very little cessation, increasing in liveliness as the
early morning dawned, causing one to remark that
the birds sang all night as well as all day long.
Some four years since, about the months of May or
June, many people visited our neighbourhood (New-
castle, Staffordshire), to listen to the sweet music of
the various birds singing far on in the night ; among
which was one of the warblers, whose note was so
sweet that it was mistaken for a nightingale. The
latter bird has rarely been known to come so far
north. — E. Edwards.

Cucumber and Black Beetles. — In reply to
Mr. Smyth’s question, as to whether the peel of the
cucumber destroys as well as allutes the beetle, I
venture to remark that it does both. Some members
of my own household have tried the experiment ; the

| smell of the cucumber peel allures the beetles, and
after eating it they die almost directly, some close to
the peel, others as they are moving away from it, to
retire in their holes. — E. Edwards.

What is the Whipultre (Science- Gossip,
No. 160, p. 95). — I do not think Chaucer’s “Whip-
ultre ” has ever been satisfactorily identified, and I
can only make a very diffident suggestion as to the
species meant. In some dialects the cross-bar from
which horses pull a plough is called a “ whippletree,”
and these are generally, if not always, made of ash.
It is possible, therefore, that the whipultre is the ash;
and it might be so called because whipple-trees were
made from the wood, or the instruments might be
named from the tree of which they were made. This
view receives confirmation — very slight, it is true —
from the fact that whilst most of the more common
trees are mentioned by Chaucer in the passage indi-
cated, the ash is omitted from the list. The Cornel-
tree (Cornns sanguinea) has been suggested, but I do
not know on what grounds. — Robert Holland, Norton
Hall, Runcorn.

Fluid for Strengthening Bones, &c.— Will
some of your readers inform me whether dilute sili-
cate of potash, recommended some time back by one
of your correspondents for strengthening fragile shells,
is suitable for fragile small bones and teeth, say, of
Arvicola, &c. ? — John E idler.

Preserving Skins. — Sir, I should feel greatly
obliged if any one could tell me of any means of pre-
serving the skins of birds and other animals without
the use of arsenic and corrosive sublimate, or any
other poison. If you will be good enough to answer
this query in the pages of Science-Gossip, kindly
do so under the initials “J. Y.” — J. Young.

The Colorado Potato-beetle. — Without affect-
ing to undervalue Mr. Rye as an antagonist, I certainly
should not have asked you for any portion of your
space to reply to him had he not chosen to indulge
in insinuations, as I think, totally uncalled for.
Notwithstanding Mr. Rye’s strictures, I adhere
unflinchingly to the positions taken in my first paper.
1st. That the potato-beetle is not of such great import
as to justify Mr. Rye in dubbing him an “oppressor,”
nor in saying that “earnest and energetic steps should
be taken at the present unprecedented juncture” to
prevent the access of the foe to the shore of Great
Britain. 2nd. That although it is well to exercise
vigilance in this matter, I do condemn the use of
Paris gieen as a curative agent, because dangerous
and totally unnecessary ; and I say again, without
intending any reflection against anybody in particular,
that the notoriety given to Paris green in America
is very probably due to the cause mentioned in my
first paper. As to the “fouling of the nest,” then,
the charge would appear to be groundless ; but
whether or not, I contend that this is one of the cases
in which truth should prevail. Mr. Rye appears to
think that 1 have unjustly classed him among the
alarmists. I never so classed him, except by impli-
cation. Will any one read over the first part of Mr.
Rye’s article in your September number, and say
whether such a c'assification would not have been
correct ? To be sure he does, in your March number,
inform us that the article “was written sarkastic,”
and as I did not appear to see the “ sarkasm,” he
impeaches my knowledge of the English language.

I fear that I shall have to plead guilty ; but the
language used by Mr. Rye is in general anything
but funny. Still he ought best to know whether or

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

I io

not he was “ funning,” and if he insists upon it that
“it is all a joke,” there is an end of the matter.
In conclusion, I object to Mr. Rye’s dragging into
this matter the names of gentlemen not even alluded
to by me ; thus implying that my remarks had refer-
ence to some or all of them. There is nothing in my
paper justifying such implication. Mr. Rye thinks
that my concluding “caution” betrays an ignorance
of the British insect fauna, “ remarkable in one who
proposed to allay our fears,” &c. &c. 1 confess to a

respectable amount of ignorance of British insect
fauna, although I have Rye’s “British Beetles,” and
one or two other things of the kind ; and why igno-
rance on such a point should be remarkable in a per-
son professing some knowledge of potato-beetles,
I cannot imagine. My notion was that, in case the
potato-beetle did arrive, it was ju-T possible that
some of its parasites might arrive with it ; and further,
that striped beetles might appear in potato-fields,
which, if mistaken for D. lo-lincata, might have their
existence shortened without cause. — W. Andrews.

The Song Thrush and Missel Thrush. —
Mr. Ingleby asks if it is not an unusual occurrence to
find the Missel Thrush ( Turdns viscivorus) nesting
on the top of a wall. It is certainly an unusual oc-
currence ; but it should be borne in mind that birds
frequently build in strange places, and mostly from
necessity. The Missel Thrush loves to build in gar-
dens, shrubberies, and orchards, though at other
times it is a wild and shy bird. Possibly the owners
of the nests i-eferred to by Mr. Ingleby could not find
suitable nesting-places in trees or bushes, or their
previous nests may have been plundered by prowling
cats, who destroy many nests of young song thrushes,
blackbirds, and missal thrushes in gardens. The
birds, no doubt, finding they could not keep their
young from cats or vermin in their ordinary nesting-
places, finally built their nests on the top of a high
wall, where, it is to be hoped, the parent birds
succeeded in safely rearing their broods. In my
district, where there is little shelter for the early
breeding birds, blackbirds and song thrushes some-
times build their nests in stone walls, and in the roofs
of open haysheds. “G. S. B.” has fallen into a singular
mistake. He intimates — though his statement is not
over clear — that he has discovered a Song Thrush and
Blackbird mating together, and rearing, we must sup-
pose, a hybrid brood. Had he described how the
nest was constructed, the question might easily have
been settled. The eggs with “ claret markings ” were
undoubtedly those of the Missel Thrush, and the
female which he saw hatching, and which he states
was a Song Thrush, was, no doubt, a female Missel
Thrush. If “G. S. B.” cannot distinguish between the
eggs of the Song and Missel Thrush, he would easily
jump to the conclusion that the female Missel was, as
he states, the Song Thrush. The nest, which he has
not described, would be lined with dry grass or hay,
if the eggs found therein had “claret markings.”
The eggs of the Song Thrush are blue with black
blotches, densest at the thickest end ; though I have
several Song-Thrush eggs in my collection which have
not a single speck of black upon the blue. The nest
of the Song Thrush has always an inner lining of
hardened clay or cattle-droppings, while the nest of
the Missel is invariably lined with dry grass. This
latter bird is a very early breeder. His favourite
nesting site is in the fork of a tree, not often very
high up. I have seen the nest of a Missel Thrush on
the bare branch of a tree projecting over a public foot-
path, and the nest was so conspicuous that it was
plainly visible at least twenty yards off. The Missel
is our largest song-bird, and though in colour and

markings it is not unlike the Song Thrush, yet it is
much larger. The cock bird commences to sing very
early in the year. In stormy weather it sings best,
and on this account the Missel Thrush is called the
“storm cock” in many parts of the country. The
nest and eggs described by “ G. S. B.” are those of
the Missel Thrush. This correspondent also seems to
believe that the Blackbird and Song Thrush breed
together. Such an unusual occurrence, so far as I
know, has never been recorded by any naturalist ;
and “ G. S. B. ” cannot be wrong if he describes the
eggs in his cabinet as those of the Tnrdus viscivorus —
viz. the Missel Thrush. If he is still in doubt as to
the identity of his eggs, if he will send me one in a
small box, I will name it correctly and return it. At
the same time I have no hesitation in asserting, from
his description of the nest and eggs, that they are
those of the Missel Thrush. — H. Kerr , Bacup , Lanca-
shire.

Aquarium for Microscopic Work. — As two
or three of my friends, with myself, are anxious to
construct a small domestic aquarium (say about thirty
inches in length), for the purpose of keeping in stock
objects for the microscope, will you or any of your
contributors to Science Gossip kindly supply us
with information how to make one — size, shape, and
material, &c. ? I feel certain our thanks, with those
also of many of your readers, would repay you or
them for your kindness. — IV. D. B.

“Gooseberry. — Dutch, Kniis berry, Cross-berry,
from its triple spines forming a cross.”

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS,

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science -Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

M. R. D. — Your species are as follows : — No. 1. Filago
minima. No. 2. Filago germauica. No. 3. Filago spathulata ;
the last species is much more unfrequent than the first two.
No. 4. We should not like to name anything from single leaves.
No. 5. /Egopodium Podagraria ; L. No. 6. Angelica syl-
vestris ; in future dry them a little before packing them for
post, they are then much more easy to determine, because they
travel in a better state.

J. C. (Helston). — Thanks for inquiry. Your parcel, No. 2,
has been sent.

A. W. Rosling. — The only Flora of the Isle of Wight we
can advise you to purchase is Bromfield’s “ Flora Vectensis.”
This is both a valuable and reliable work.

F. H. A. (Fishbourne). — We have several letters expressing
the interest felt in “ Botanical Work for April.” You are quite
correct. No. 1. Viola Reickenbac iana ; a very characteristic
specimen. No. 2. Draba brachycarpa. Look out for Ranuu-
culus Jicaria, and its varieties ; yours is a good locality
for it.

B M. W. (Hentland, Ross). — The specimens are, as you
judge, Micro-fungi. No. 1. Trickobasis Geranii, or Geranium
Rust. We are unable to detect any perfect fungi on No. 2,
perhaps you would send another example when more mature.

Science-Gossip Botanical Exchange Club. — Amateur
Botanical Collectors wishing to join the Club this year, should
as early as possible state their wishes. To save the promoters
from any loss, a sm dl charge of say five shillings will be made ;
this may be remitted when the parcels are sent in October.
Rules to guide our members will be sent in Vfay to those only
who announce their names. The Rules this season will con-
tain the numbers of species particularly wanted ; these numbers
will correspond with the London Catalogue, 7th Edition, pub-
lished by Hardwicke ft Bogue, post free, sevenpence.

M. R. D. — The Poison Ivy is the Rhus Toxicodendron. \ ou
must not, however, confound it with our “rare old plant,” the
English Ivy, which is Hedera Helix. The Rhus is used as a
remedy for paralysis, but we do not know the results.

S. A. B (Allan, Dungannan).— The specimen enclosed was
Disandra prostrata.

120

HARD WJ CKE’S SCIENCE - GOSSIP.

D. S. — The leaf-like exxrescenccs are not a fungus, but a
gall.

X. — We are not aware that any book has been published on
sea-side pebbles except that of J. G. Francis, called “ Beach
Rambles,” which is as full of geological errors as it could pos-
sibly be.

B. Hooker. — Your larva of the goat-moth should be kept in
a tin or wire-gauze box, and a large piece of half rotten ash-
wood placed with it. It will appear as a moth the third year
from its commencing its life as a caterpillar.

D. Cooper. — There is no doubt your specimen is Clausilin
laminiata, in which the mouth is almost entirely deflected to
the side opposite to that on which it is usually found.

R. Ramsay. — You will be able in your subsequent geological
reading to answer your own difficulty better than we can in the
short space at our command. But we may say that the reason
why it would be futile to bore for coal through the Oolite or
Wealden would be on account of the known thickness of the
overlying formations. 2nd. Your highest Scotch mountains
have nothing to do with the thickness of our old red sandstone.
The thickness of the latter is known from observing the angle
of the dip of the strata, and the area covered by the outcrop. If
you study Page’s “ Geology,” you will soon get over your
present difficulties. Persevere !

A. Sells. — Your Zoophytes are : No. 1, Flustra foliacea.
No. 2, Sertzdaria operculata. No. 3, Dasya coccinea, a sea-
weed. No. 4, Sertzdaria argentea. Nos. 5 & 7, Sertzdaria
filiczda. No. 6, Plzcmzdaria falcata. No. 8 , Antezinzdaria
antennina.

A. Wheldon. — You will And full instructions for “sugaring”
for moths, &c., in “ Collecting and Preserving Natural History
Specimens,” published by Hardwicke & Bogue, 192, Picca-
dilly, at 3s. 6d.

A. G. N. — Your specimen is an English plant, usually found
growing in such localities as that you name. It is the curious
Butcher’s Broom ( Rztscus aczdeatus').

J. W. N. and Others. — It is intended to revise the rules, &c.,
of the Botanical Exchange Club. Due and full notice of revi-
sion, &c., will be given in our columns. Application for mem-
bership can then be made.

W. Hobbs. — Very likely your chrysalides will develop early
during the coming summer.

J. P. Thompson. — We understood that a new edition of
Pritchard’s “ Infusoria ” was postponed. Lownde’s “Anatomy
of the Blow-fly ” can be had of Messrs. Hardwicke & Bogue.

R. B. N. — The fossils are corals, belonging to the Silurian
formation. No. 1 is the “Chain-coral” {Halysites catenipord),
and No. 2 is Favosites Gothlazidica. The small shells which
you think look like “cockles” are in reality not bivalves, but
specimens of Mollztscoidea. They are fossils belonging to a
group (. Brachiopoda ) once as abundant as they are now rare.
The name of those enclosed is Rhycoziella IVilsoni.

T. McGann. — Your entomostracans are the male and female
of Canthocazzzptzis mizizitzis. Your slides are very well got up
indeed.

A. S. A. — Get “ Collecting and Preserving,” published by
Hardwicke & Bogue, 192, Piccadilly, price 3s. 6d., and read
the article on collecting butterflies and moths, by Dr. Knaggs,
and beetles, by Mr. E. C. Rye.

EXCHANGES.

Duplicates. — A number of Lepidoptera in good condition,
and well set. Desiderata : Birds’ Eggs, side-blown, not in my
collection. — R. Kay, 2, Spring-street, Bury.

Wanted, Newman’s or Stainton’s “Lepidoptera.” Offered
5 vols. bound, and 3 unbound, Science-Gossip, and other
books. — W. E. Green, 24, Triangle, Bristol.

J. W. Bulmer, near the church, Northallerton, Yorks., will
exchange Jackdaw’s, Lapwing’s, Song Thrush’s, Moorhen’s,
Stock-dove’s, Starling’s, &c., birds’ eggs, for other varieties of
eggs.

Wanted, British or foreign Stone Implements and Weapons
of any kind ; Stone Hammers, Chisels, Wedges, &c. ; also
Tools and Weapons wholly or partly composed of stone, relating
to any uncivilized race of men. — W. M. Cole, 93, St. Helen’s-
street, Ipswich.

Bird’s Eggs, 250 varieties, valuable duplicates, side-blown, in-
cluding many unprocurable species. Desiderata : Species new
to collection. Exchange lists supplied. All letters answered.
Sissons, 11, Priory-road. Sharrow, Sheffield.

Well-mounted Slides of injected human Kidney, Palate of
Whelk, and transverse Section of Porcupine Quill, in exchange
for others mounted in balsam. — J. A. Kay, Mansion House,
Brompton, Chatham.

Wanted, some good Polariscope Objects, for others or cash.
— T. Brown, 7, Spencer-street, London, E.C.

For Elytron of Diamond Beetle, or Skin of Tench or Sole,
Polar-mounted, send well-mounted objects or material to
Thomas Shipton, Chesterfield.

Slide, as announced in last month’s Science-Gossip,
offered in exchange for first-class prepared material (unmounted).
Box must accompany material to be returned with slide.— -James
Simpson, 15, Prospect-place, Dumbiedykes-road, Edinburgh.

London Catalogue, Seventh Edition, Nos. 19, 121, 122, 130,.
133, 201, 265, 267, 349, 394, 396, 497, 533, 542, 534, 841 b, 860,
888, 912, 923, 1014, 1040, 1109, 1142, 1310,' offered for any
of Nos. 775 to 807 inclusive.— W. Jones, Manchester-street.
Oldham.

For Bat racho sperznum znonili/onne and Tabellaria ventri-
cosa, both just as collected, send objects of interest. — W. West,
Chemist, Bradford.

Wanted, Westwood’s “ Introduction to the Classification of
Insects,” for foreign insects (chiefly parasites), mounted or un-
mounted.— M., Anglesea Lodge, Godalming, Surrey.

Wanted, a few Eggs of Lepidoptera, and Micro-Lepido-
ptera, whole for mounting, in exchange for really good slides. —
T. H. Buffham, Clarendon-road, Walthamstow.

Wanted, a Coddington Half-inch Lens, Matthews or other
Turntable, and a Section-cutting Machine. Can offer good
Micro Slides, &c. — Wright, 8, Grosvenor-road, Headingley,
Leeds.

Will exchange “ Live Stock,” Journal, cost 8s., and other
books, for back numbers of Science-Gossip, or scientific works.
E. Velge, 41, Peckham Grove, London.

Wanted, every description of Mounted Objects and Micro-
scopic Apparatus, in exchange for Mounting Materials. A list
sent to all applicants. Foreign correspondence solicited. All
letters answered. — E. Atkins, 200, Essex-road, Islington,
London.

Wanted, Volumes of Science-Gossip, Coleoptera, or Books
on them, in exchange for very large Latin Book on Insects,
date 1634. “ Insectorum sive minimorum animalium Theatrum.”
Calf, full of woodcuts of all insects, exchange value 15s. — J. N.
Minnitt, 5, Regent-street, Nottingham.

Wanted, Wood Sections, Fish Scales, Hair Sections, and
every variety of Unmounted Objects, for Mounted Objects
(good). — C. W. Lawton, 200, Essex-road, Islington, London.

Wanted, unmounted, Ripe Capsules of Mosses, Sori of
Ferns, cleaned Polycystina and Foraminifera. Well mounted
Slides in exchange. — Send postal slide-box for return to
T. Sherlock, 32, Exchange-street, St. Helens.

Foreign Shells. — Duplicates, mostly of Japanese, Chinese,
Burmese, Java, and Philippines, Australian. — Desiderata :
principally North and South American, West Indian, Medi-
terranean, Spanish, French, Algerian, and Egyptian ; also
duplicates of about fifty sorts of British Land and Freshwater
Shells for the above desiderata. Exchanges invited. — W.
Sutton, Upper Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

London Catalogue, 7th edition, wanted, 1479, 1495 b,
1496 b, 1505, 1511, 1513, 1520 b, 1523 b, 1531 b, 1535 b,
1548, 1572 b, for 1447, 1449, 1448, 1136, 1145, _ &c.— B. M.
Watkins, Treaddow, Hentland, Ross, Herefordshire.

A firm, substantial, Equatorial Stand for Telescope for
exchange. Wanted, a Foot-lathe, good Magic -Lantern, or
Scientific Apparatus. — Address, H. Morland, Cranford,
Middlesex.

Mosses. — Wanted, a Northern Correspondent to exchange
Species from the West of England District. — Address, E.
Wheeler, 31, Triangle, Tullen-road, Bristol.

Rake British and Foreign Eggs to exchange for others not
in collection. All letters answered. — J. T. T. Reed, Ryhope,

! Sunderland.

Will exchange any class of neatly-mounted Micro Slides.

! or Material, Diatoms izi sitzi ; Parasites or their Eggs particu-
larly wanted. Prefer to send stained vegetable preparations,
unless otherwise requested. — W. Teasdale, Headingley, Leeds.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“ Popular Science Review.” April.

“ Land and Water.” April.

“ Midland Naturalist.” April.

“ Scottish Naturalist.” April.

“ American Naturalist.” March.

“ Science pour Tous.” March.

“ Bulletin de la Societe Beige de Microscopie.” February.

“ Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.” January, February,
March, and April.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications have been received up to the iotr
ult., from: — B. H. — D. C. — C. W. L. — A. J. — H. B. —
J. W. D. K.— A. W.— H. A. M.— B. B. T.— J. F.— Col. B.—

B. P.— P. T.— H. K.— T. Q. C.— Dr. E. De C.— W. B. G.—
H. F. B.— W. R. M.— F. A. P.— A. P.— G. N. M.-R. N.—

C. L. P.-J. N.-R. E. S.- W. T.— W. H. B.— VV. J.-J. P. S.
— R. R.— J. C.— Col. M.— W. V. A.— W. W.— H. L. G —

B. M. O.— R. H.— W. H. H.— J. C.— E. W.-J. T. T. R-
— A. S. B.-T. W.— T. H. B.— J. D.— E. A.— W. E. G.—

C. F. W.— W. M. P. -J. W. B.— J. A. K.— Dr. E. H. V.—
A. G. N.-J. W. N.— R. K.— W. H. W.— F. H. A.— W. W.—
T. S.— T. B.— E. V.— T. C.— J. K.— H. W. S. W. B.— J. W. C.
— J. s.— J. T. P. — J. P. T.— H. P. M. -T. S.— H. N. B.—
j. w. S.— W. S.— J. McG.— W. E. J.— H. M.— B. M. W.—
W. D. B.— J. P.— W. H. B.— G. L. H.— T. W. D.-A. B.—
E. W. M.— A. S.— H. B.— A. S. A.— G. A.— &c. &c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

I 2 I

THE HABITS, FOOD, AND USES OF THE EARTH-WORM.

{Lumbricus terrestris. )

BY PROFESSOR PA LEY, M.A.

F thei-e is a creature of
tolerably large size
which one would be
disposed at first sight
to place lower than
most others in the scale
of creation, it is the
common lob - worm.
To an unobserving eye
a very simple organism
without any particular
head or tail, and possessing only a slightly rough and
bristly body of tubular form, composed of contractile
rings — from which the class it belongs to is called
annelidae - it is regarded by most people as a rather
ugly, but harmless, wriggling thing, slimy and disagree-
able to touch, unsightly to look at, and about as
destitute of interest as anything that lives and moves
and has an independent existence. But all this is
founded on a false estimate, and the false estimate
is, as usual, founded on ignorance. The lob-worm
may almost be called a clever and intelligent creature ;
very shy indeed of letting its mode of action be seen,
but showing by certain results, which readily come
under our observation, that it has instincts which fall
very little short of reasoning and design. And yet
this creature has “no eyes, nor any other organs of
special sense that are known.”*

There are difficulties in ascertaining the habits of
the lob-worm, first, from its timidity and watchful-
ness, next, from its rarely appearing on the surface
except at night, thirdly, from its operations being
conducted almost entirely under ground. It is im-
mediately conscious of the tread of an approaching
foot, or of the least tremor of the earth, such as is
caused by digging or any garden-work. In these
cases it acts in two apparently opposite ways. If a
stick or a spade be thrust deep into rich garden-soil,
in which large lob-worms generally abound, and
moved to and fro, several of them will crawl out of
their holes, even at the distance of a yard, and wriggle

* Huxley.

No. 162.

about on the surface. In this way the extraordinary
elasticity of the creature may be seen. It can stretch
itself out to more than twice its natural length, and its
power of locomotion consists in its turnings and
twistings, its grasp of the earth by its short stiff
bristles, and by forming its head into a kind of hook
or anchor, and then dragging its body towards it.
But if, walking gently, and towards evening, you
chance to see a worm partly out of its hole, it will
immediately retire into it. Blackbirds and thrushes
may be watched pulling long writhing worms out of a
grass-plot, and devouring them; but if you walk
across the same grass you will not find a single one.
The reason is, that the light hop of the bird does not
warn the worm of its approach; the bird sees just the
head protruding, and by a dexterous clip and jerk he
extracts the delicate morsel, and bolts it whole — alive
and kicking.

The lob-worm has a singular habit of filling up the
entrance of its hole with fallen leaves, bits of stick or
straw, feathers, or any small and light objects— it is
rather fond of bits of string — that it finds near. If it
cannot get these, it piles up a little hillock of pebbles
or small bits of lime, cinder, &c. Why it does this?
it is not easy to make out. Possibly it is to allow the
passage of air into the hole, and yet to prevent the in-
trusion of insects, such as beetles, or ants, which
would give it as much trouble and annoyance* as a
ferret gives to a rabbit in its burrow. For if it were
solely for purposes of food, which fallen leaves or seeds
of trees might be, and apparently are, the worm
would not draw in such indigestible delicacies as
string or feathers. Perhaps they pull in anything that
they find soft and yielding, and make trial of its
edible qualities at their leisure. Whatever be
the reason, the holes are carefully stopped up in the
way I have described. This seems, indeed, rather
stupid; because a knowing bird may regard the tufts
upon worm-holes as so many points for attack; but

* In Mr. Taylor’s “ Half-hours in the Green Lanes,” a slug
( Testacella haliotidea) is described as “ the terror of the com-
mon earth-worm ” (p. 21 1).

G

122

HARD WICK HS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

this is the habit of the creature, and as I once, and
once only, caught a lob-worm actually at work, I shall
describe what I saw, which I thought extremely
■curious.

My attention was directed to the fact that if the
small heaps of pebbles were cleared away from a
worm-hole, they were sure to be replaced next
morning. Suspecting they worked only at night, I
went late one summer evening, after a shower of
rain, to a bed in the garden which was very full of
earth-worms. Walking up to it on tip-toe, and with
extreme care (for I was well aware that if it felt the
footstep two or three yards off, it would retire into
the hole), I was lucky enough to see one very big
worm with its body about half out of the hole. I
then stood for some time perfectly still, and watched
it as it reached out its elastic head to a small pebble,
and by a clever jerk, or possibly, by its slimy mois-
ture adhering to it, it drew the pebble to its hole
and left it close to the edge. Thus it took another
and another, and now I was able to explain what I
had often noticed, that every pebble within a circle
of about six inches was moved away and piled up
over the hole. The worm took the circle, elongating
Jts body, and moving east or west and to every point
•of the compass, so to say, till not a pebble was left
within its reach. This I saw, and the reader may
believe that it is a strictly accurate account, though it
may seem to credit the creature with more intelligence
than it has any right to possess.

I believe the same may be seen by anyone who
•will take a lantern into the garden late on a summer’s
night, for they can hardly be conscious of light ; even
of this, indeed, I have sometimes entertained a doubt,
though I cannot explain it in an eyeless creature.
Certain it is that on gently uncovering a pot of earth
containing a lob-worm, and bringing a candle to
examine it, when it happens to be above ground, the
creature will almost always immediately disappear.

But the feat which I saw performed is nothing to
what I am going to describe. I found on a gravel
path in my garden, and on the grass-plot adjoining,
a number of worm-holes, all stopped up with the long
narrow leaves of the weeping willow, which had
fallen in the late autumn, and had been placed erect
in small bunches. On examining separately a num-
ber of these leaves (of which each hole contained on
the average about twenty, though many of them had
more), I found, to my surprise, that every leaf had
the stalk-end tippermost, and the other end rolled
together into a kind of plug so as to fill up the hole.
Very rarely indeed, perhaps in one or two out of
a hundred leaves, the creature had made a mistake,
.■and put the stalk-end dowmuards. But in these few
leaves the end was quite entire, whereas the leaf-
plugs in general seemed to have been nibbled or
partly eaten at the ends within the holes. Evidently
the stalk-ends were too tough, and the worm had
the extraordinary intelligence, blind as of course it

is, to find out by the touch the right and the wrong
end, and to make use of each leaf accordingly.

The mouth-end (so to call it) of a lob-worm has
many analogies to an elephant’s trunk. It can curl
it and twist it, make it blunt or sharp, curved or
hooked, as it pleases ; and it is evident that an acute
sense of feeling resides in it. Therefore, recklessly
to chop worms in half with a spade, on the plea that
they do not feel, or to impale them on fish-hooks, is
cruel, even though we take old Walton’s advice and
perform the operation “tenderly.”

Worms feed by a kind of suction, as well as by
digesting vegetable fibre; they pass earth through
their long tubular stomachs, and eject it on the sur-
face in those little hillocks which we call worm-casts,
and which so much disfigure our closely-mown lawns,
till we flatten them down with the garden roller.
But these worm-casts perform more than one very
important function.

( To be continued. )

BOTANICAL WORK FOR JUNE.

IN taking our usual daily walk in the spring months,
we have often seen the Chickweed, Marsh Mari-
gold, and Water-blinks. We select these species
because they are so common as to be generally passed
over with the remark, “Oh, it is only the Chick-
weed,” and so on.

Stay, however ; not quite so fast. The poor Chick-
weed, despised because it is so common, covers, with-
out doubt, three distinct species. As the result of a
careful examination, extending over twelve years, we
now regard this despised plant with deep interest,
and, at a glance, can detect the three species we now
lay before our readers : —

First. — The Stellaria media, Linn., may be recog-
nized by the line of hairs on the stem and branches.

I. The true S. media , Linn., has five stamens;
petals invariably present.

2. S. Borccana, Jord., is devoid of petals; stamens
three.

3. S. negleda, Weihe. Sepals wdth long hairs,
often as long as the petals ; stamens ten. Note. —
We are unable to detect any good specific distinction
betwixt S. umbrosa and S. neglecta.

Further. — No. 1 has showy flowers, with few
-branches, about four inches long. No. 2 is a small
tufted plant ; branches very short ; flowers inconspi-
cuous. No. 3 is not unlike dwarf specimens of Stel-
laria nemorum, L. ; branches sometimes eighteen
inches high ; leaves large ; flowers large.

Our next species is the Marsh Marigold {Caltha
palustris). For many years we overlooked this
species, but now it seems like an old friend altered
by long absence. It is split up into three varieties ;
but we now only notice those wrhich are common, or

HARD WICKE’S S CIENCE- G O SSJR.

123

of frequent occurrence, so as to throw a new charm
to our spring rambles : —

Cctltha pains tr is, L.

1. C. vulgaris , Schott. Flowers large, one and
a half to two inches across ; sepals meeting at the
margins ; follicles (seed-vessel) with a short beak ;
branches stout, very few.

2. C. Gtterangerii , Boreau. Flowers numerous,
very small ; sepals spreading ; follicles with a long
beak.

No. 1 is generally found in swampy situations ;
No. 2 in brooks, &c.

Another plant is often overlooked, the lowly
Blinks.

Montia fontana, L. In this instance new names
have been introduced to distinguish each separate
plant.

No. 1. — M. minor , Gmelin. Stems short and
tufted ; flowers inconspicuous ; tubercles on seed
with a raised point. This bears a striking resem-
blance to Stellaria Borceana , Jord.

No. 2. — M. rivularis , Gmelin. Stems long, soli-
tary, thick and flaccid ; tubercles on seed with flat-
tened point.

We regard No. 1 as a very distinct species; it alters
not in a state of cultivation, but is rather rare in the
northern counties.

Who does not recognize with feelings of delight
and joy the pretty Milkwort? {Poly gala zmlgaris,
Linn.) Probably no British species has been split up
more frequently, if we except the Rubi. After years
of toil in looking up these sub-species, and after
examining, may . be, thousands of specimens, we
have come to the conclusion that the so-called P.
vulgaris , as originally described by Linnaeus, includes
two well-marked forms, as follows : —

No. 1. P. vulgaris , L. Racemes, many-flowered;
leaves scattered, lanceolate ; branches numerous, as-
cending.

No. 2. P. depressa , Wend. Racemes few
flowered ; flowers small, white or pink ; leaves often
tufted below, or crowded thickly on the stem just
beneath the flowers, becoming opposite, all linear.
This is a pretty species.

There are other varieties, such as oxyptera, gran-
dijlora , &c., but the characters are so liable to varia-
tion, even on the same plant, that it is difficult to
distinguish them without close inspection, but the
above have generally constant characters. F.

THE DATE-PALM.

PHOENIX DACTYLIFERA is the name given
by Linnaeus to this very important member of
the vegetable kingdom. Phoenix is the Greek name
of the date, and is probably derived from Phoenicia,
whence the best dates were brought. Its origin, like
that of so many of our cultivated fruits and vege-
tables, is unknown, but it may reasonably be sup-

i posed to be a native of Arabia and Persia. In very
ancient times it was cultivated in Egypt (in the
Museums of Economic Botany, Royal Gardens, Kew,
is a specimen of “mummy bread” which is appa-
rently made of dates, such bread being frequently found
in jars in the tombs at Thebes) and in North Africa,
from which countries it was introduced very long after-
wards, probably by the Arabs, into South Europe.
It is a noble tree, attaining under favourable condi -
tions a height of from 60 to 100 feet. The stout
stem, which is very rugged, owing to the persistent
bases of the decayed leaves, is surmounted by a large
head of feathery leaves, 12 to 20 feet long. The
flowers are produced on large branches, which spring
from the axils of the leaves. Each inflorescence is
at first enclosed in what is called a spathe, which
afterwards falls away. As many as 10,000 flowers
have been counted in one spathe, and, as one tree
will produce many spathes at a time, some idea of
the total number of flowers may be obtained. Each
tree bears flowers of one sex only ; therefore cross
fertilization is necessary. It is said that in times of
war the Arabs cut down the male dates belonging to
their enemies, the result being of course a total
failure of the date crop. In “ Hortus Collinsonia-
nus,” occurs the following memorandum : — “At
Berlin was a large date-palm, at Leipsic was another,
which was the male ; both made attempts to produce
fruit, but imperfect, as these trees are of different
sexes, the Berlin tree being the female; anno 1749,
they married the two trees by carrying a branch of
male flowers and impregnating the Berlin tree ; and
then it produced good fruit, from which young trees
have been raised, but this espousal must be done
annually.”

To the inhabitants of many countries the import-
ance of the date-palm cannot be over-rated. The
pulp of the fruit serves them and their various do-
mestic animals for food ; and even the extremely hard
and apparently useless stones are ground and given
to their camels. The young undeveloped leaves are
eaten as a vegetable ; in a mature stage they are made
into bags, and are the sole material used in con-
structing the huts of the common people. The stalks
of the leaves, when softened by boiling, serve as food
for camels ; and numbers are imported into this
country for the manufacture of walking-sticks. From
the stalks also, excellent baskets and crates are made.
Timber for the houses of the better class is obtained
from the stems, which also furnish an inferior kind of
sago. The fibre, called “lif,” from the bases of the
old leaves, is converted into ropes and a sort of
coarse cloth. The heads of trees not bearing freely
are cut off, and the trunks scooped out. Into the
hollows thus formed, the sap rises at the rate of
from three to four quarts a day ; this quantity is kept
up for one or two weeks, after which it gradually
diminishes : in six or eight weeks the trees become
quite dry, and are used either as timber or firewood.

G 2

124

BARD WICK E ’S S C IE NCE - G O SSI P.

The syrup-like juice obtained as above described is I
turned into an intoxicating beverage by fermentation ;
and sugar is procured from this juice by mere boiling.

It is very probable that the palm-branches carried
before Christ on His triumphal entry into Jerusalem

were the leaves of this tree. Various branches of the
Christian Church, by their use of date-palm leaves in
decorating their churches on the anniversary of this
event, and the Jews, by their use of them during the
Passover, uphold this idea. For these purposes vast
numbers of trees are cultivated, especially in the
neighbourhood of Bordighiera, on the Sardinian
coast. Collinson says, “ Mr. Bowles writes me . . .
the upper branches they tie up to turn yellow, and
then sell them to adorn churches and houses to
keep away the devil ; they have the art of managing
them.”

Without the date the Sahara would be uninhabitable.

In every spot where there is any water this tree
flourishes, furnishing shelter to the traveller from the
fierce tropical sun, and food for himself and camels.
Very many varieties, differing much from each other
in colour, size, and shape, are cultivated, each known
by its own particular name. Some travellers mention
as many as forty-six ; and twenty-six distinct varie-
ties are exhibited in the Kew Museum. The date
is fast disappearing from the Holy Land, where at
one time it seems to have been very abundant. Moses
refers to Jericho as the “City of Palms,” and we
have the testimony of Pliny in his Natural History
that palms abounded in Judea and the surrounding
regions. On several of the coins of Titus, Domitian,
and Trajan the country is represented by the symbol
of a palm-tree.

Formerly dates were credited with many medicinal
virtues. In some old herbals a decoction in red wine
is recommended for the piles. The date’s prevailing
qualities are nutritious and saccharine. One pound
of dates might produce about one ounce of the dry
nitrogenous substance of muscle or flesh.

In conclusion, we may observe that the date-palm
may be seen growing in many collections in this
country, notably a very fine specimen in the large
conservatory at Sion House, the residence of the
Duke of Northumberland. In the Palm House at

J

Kew there is a much smaller one with an abundance
of a parasitical fungus on its leaves. This fungus,
which bears the name of Graphiola phccnicis , and
seems partial to Phcenix dactylifera , attacks several '
other species of the genus. Geo. Nicholson.

A LESSON FROM A FAGGOT-STICK.

THE object of this short paper is to show what
pleasure may be derived by the observer of
nature, from the contemplation of the most unlikely
and commonplace objects, and how numerous are
the sources from which instruction may be gathered
to serve as a lesson in entomology.

Those who are happily acquainted with this part
of Kent, to whatever county they may belong, and
to whatever part of the world they have travelled,
or may hereafter travel, will gladly confess that it

HA R D WICKE’S S CIENCE - G O SSIP.

I25

possesses points of beauty and interest which are not
easily surpassed by those of any other county, and
which entitle it to a place in the memory as a county
of singular beauty, well deserving the appellation
it has gained, “The Garden of England.” Its
graceful swelling hills are everywhere mantled with
woods, sepia-tinted in winter, emerald-green in
spring ; fuller, deeper, and richer-hued in summer,
and splashed with purple, gold, and bronze in
autumn. It would, indeed, be difficult to say at
what season of the year they are most attractive.

Fig. 85. Tracks of Hylisiu'ts Fig. 89. General form of
fraxini. main track or channel.

Many of these woods are devoted to the growth
of a kind of underwood for the sake of hop-poles,
faggots, &c. They are allowed to grow for a period
of about seven years, and are then cut down ; the
trees are lopped to within a foot or two from the
ground. This frequently-repeated act of cutting down
causes the stumps to assume the most fantastic and
picturesque appearances. They are often decorated
with an elegant drapery of clematis, ivy, black
briony, briony, and other climbing plants, and the
graceful polypody hangs its waving tufts from their
wrinkled sides. Among the trees so grown may be
enumerated the horn-bram, hazel, chestnut, ash,
white-bram, oak, cherry, maple, &c., so that the

woods present considerable variety to the wanderer.
Beneath their shade grows a great selection of wild
plants, decorating the earth as with a coloured
carpet. During April these woods are gay with
anemone, primrose, cardamine, two or three species
of viola, and the golden pilewort ; while a little
searching discovers beautiful cushion-like masses of
Adoxa inoschatellina , the tropical-looking spurge-
laurel, with its hanging clusters of yellow-green
sweetly-scented bells. The curious, unhealthy-looking
Lathrcca sqiicnnctria , growing from the roots of the
hazel, and other trees, upon which it is parasitic,
trailing branches of ground-ivy, and the sweetly
pretty Oxalis cicetosella.

The faggots brought to our doors for lighting fires
contain specimens of all the trees above mentioned,
and many an interesting botanical lesson may be
gathered from their examination. The nature of the
bark, the formation and arrangement of the buds,
the peculiar scars left by the falling leaves, and other
points, may be well studied from these. When winter
winds are howling round, and torrential rains are
drenching the earth, we may well fly to the study of
such objects as these for recreation and instruction.

About the end of the month of June I had occasion
to hunt through one of these faggots in search of a
stick for the amusement of one of my children. I
picked up a straight branch of ash, which appeai-ed
just to suit my purpose, and commenced to cut and
trim it. To my surprise, although looking perfectly
fresh and sound, I found the bark almost completely
separated from the wood below, and the space between
the two filled with a fine sa-wdust-like powder.
Fixing my attention a little more closely upon the
twig, I now noticed that the bark appeared as if
riddled with small shot, as shown in the upper part
of fig. 85. On stripping the bark, and blowing away
the dust alluded to, I detected a groove, originating
below a leaf-scar, which, after passing under the scar,
branched off in opposite directions, as seen in fig. 85.
Springing from these grooves were now clearly
discernible a great number of shallow channels, sepa-
rated from each other by the merest film of wood ;
each channel widening out in proportion to its dis-
tance from the main groove. At the end of each of
these branching channels I found a small, fat, active
little grub busily engaged extending its passage, the
wood forming its food. I now, of course, saw at a
glance the meaning of all this loose dust and apparent
rottenness, and the origin of these main and lateral
canals. It appeared quite clear that the main ducts
were made by some insect, that eggs were deposited
at minute intervals, on both sides of these tracts, that
these eggs were finally hatched out, that the grubs
so resulting immediately commenced feeding, tra-
velling continually away from the centre, and that as
they waxed in stature they necessarily enlarged their
tracts.

Having proceeded thus far in my discoveries, and

126

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

my interest being thoroughly aroused, I determined
to prosecute my search. For this purpose a number
of ash-branches were selected, and carefully laid on
one side. A cursory glance at these showed nothing
at all abnormal or noticeable, but a more careful
examination disclosed a number of small ridges of
discoloured skin traversing the branches in various
directions. Taking off the bark at these points, the
main passage before-mentioned was exposed to view.
On tracing this up or down the stem it was always
found to terminate below an old leaf-scar. Finding
this, I now examined the leaf-scars, and in a majority
of cases found a small hole filled below with fine
dust. Detaching the skin at this point a small run
was visible, passing just below the scar to the right
or left ; and when clear of it branching off in two
opposite directions up and down the branch (fig. 89),
but usually more or less spirally arranged. At the
entrance to this passage was generally found a small
beetle, and another some distance along. There
were mostly two, but whether they were male and
female, or whether they were both females acting in
concert I was not able to determine. The diameter
of the principal passage is about i-i6th in. The
beetle I found to be Hylisinus frcixini.

It appears to be very prolific, and must be very
destructive to the trees it attacks. In the cases I
examined there were usually from 60 to 80 diverging
passages, and at the end of each, as before-stated,
was a fat larval beetle, busily engaged excavating for
its daily rations. In many branches, almost every
node was the starting-point for these channels, and
the amount of mischief done to the tree may well be
imagined when we bear in mind the numbers found
in each run, and their method of working side by
side so closely as to all but completely sever the bark
from the wood. After examining a great number, a
few specimens were put on one side for the purpose
of watching their progress towards maturity.

On the 28th August the now-transformed larvae
began to emerge in the imago form, i.e., as perfect
winged beetles. They were pretty little insects,
varying considerably in colour, some being much
lighter than others, and most distinctly clouded.
On raising the bark I found a great number still
occupying their snug quarters, where they had fared so
comfortably during their early days, and where they
had undergone their final change preparatory to
entering upon a more active and greatly extended
sphere of action. I now found that, prior to under-
going their first metamorphosis, i.e., assuming the
pupa form, they sink for themselves, at the end of
their respective galleries, a comparatively deep pit, in
which the change takes place. In these pits they
may be found in August ready to make their way out
previous to setting up housekeeping on their own
account.

Noel Humphreys gave an interesting account of
these beetles in the pages of the “Intellectual Ob-

server,” in 1862. He there states that they attack
the elm as well as the ash, and that their ravages are
often terrible. The ash, however, is their favourite
tree, as may be gathered from the specific name
{Fraxini) of the insect.

Having thus learnt how numerous and destructive
these insects are, and remembering that in a row of
ash-trees that I passed daily some were flourishing
grandly while others were dead or dying, I determined
to ascertain whether these beetles had anything to do
with the matter. On examining the dead and dying
trees, I found them literally riddled with minute
shot-like holes — the significance of which was now
only too plain to me. I had often noticed the dif-
ference between these trees, whose conditions, as to
soil, climate, &c., appeared to be identical, and
wondered what could be the cause of the death of
these, while those by their side grew vigorously.
Had I noticed these holes a few weeks earlier, their
meaning would have been hidden from me, but now,
from the study of a few faggot-sticks I was able to
understand most clearly what had been going on
beneath the bark of these unfortunate trees, and why
they had gradually, without any apparent cause,
drooped and died, branch by branch and limb by
limb, until a giant mass of mere dry sticks remained,
rearing its weird and awe-inspiring form against the
sky.

Thus, from the careful examination of a “ faggot-
stick” I gathered the life-history — or at all events the
leading facts in the life-history — of a pretty little
British beetle, which undoubtedly plays an important
part in the “struggle for existence,” which ultimately
results in the “survival of the fittest,” that has to
compete in common with every other member of
the organic world.

Rochester. John Hepworth.

WHAT A DIATOM IS.

( Continued from page 107.)

IT is the act of generation that brings back the
normal size of the frustule, already reduced in
dimensions by repeated deduplications ; if this did not
take place, the diatom would (theoretically) at last
become a mere atom — a circumstance which never
takes place.

The act of generation, properly so called, may be
said to consist in all organisms of a simple amalgama-
tion of two more or less distinct particles of proto-
plasm. The diatoms are no exception to this rule,
and with them this union comprises either the contents
of two distinct frustules, or of differentiated protoplasm
contained in a single frustule. This phenomenon is
called the conjugation of the Diatomaceoe. The
study of the phenomena of conjugation in some forty
species of diatoms, by various distinguished microscopic
observers, has not furnished us with such complete

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

127

results as we might desire, and the greatest circum-
spection is necessary in the interpretation of the facts
observed. That which we appear to know for certain
is that conjugation takes place in diatoms, and that
the material result of this is the formation of what is
called a sporangium. This proceeds either from the
condensation of the protoplasm and endochrome con-
tained in the interior of a single frustule, of which the
valves are separated in such a manner as to enlarge
the internal capacity of the frustule, the matter thus
amassed giving place, according to the species, to the
formation of one or two bodies, more or less round or
oval ; these very soon secrete on their surfaces a hard
shell ( test-resistant ). These are the Sporangia, or

the intimate union and fusion of the protoplasm of
two contiguous frustules that have partially opened
along the sections of the connectives for its liberation.
Here also is formed, according to circumstances, one
or two sporangia. When the sporangium [is pro-
duced by a single primitive frustule, it is probable that
the original primordial utricle, which was already pre-
viously divided into two for the purpose of deduplica-
tion before the secretion of the new siliceous valves,
and that the sporangium, formed of the differentiated
protoplasm, produces that of the two young utricles.
This, however, requires to be verified by direct obser-
vation. In both cases there is promptly developed in
the interior of the sporangium a special body, which
varies in form according to the genus, which grows
rapidly, and which possesses an envelope rich in
silica, and is able to resist calcination and the
action of concentrated acids ; it is often wrinkled
across the external surface ; this is the Auxospore.
This last is the analogue of the zygospore of Zygne-
macese. Its growth at last bursts the sporangium,
and carries with it to ks apices, the two halves of the
sporangium-like little caps.

When the auxospore has attained a size generally
double, or even more, of the frustule that has origi-
nally produced it, we discover in its interior, lying
across the envelope, the valves forming the new frus-
tule. These last are apparently the product of a true
generative act, and which we are justified in consider-
ing for the moment as sexual, although our means of
observation up to the present are much too imperfect
to permit of our being able to distinguish the male
from the female element in the products of conjuga-
tion. The first frustule is called the sporangial frus-
tule. With this is destined to commence a new cycle
of vegetative generations by deduplication, which
continues up to the moment that a new conjugation
takes place. It restores also the normal size of the
frustules degenerated by the repeated deduplications,
and we see here the singular phenomenon of the child
being at its birth much larger than its parents. The
sporangial frustule is always enormously large in com-
parison with its parents, the empty valves and con-
nectives of which are generally retained by a mass of
gelatinous matter secreted previous to the act of con-

jugation. We believe that other modes of reproduc-
tion exist in the diatomacem beside that of conjuga-
tion, but the biology of these little beings is much too
imperfect to enable us to hazard any profound hypo-
thesis on this subject. It is evident that all the
frustules do not finish by conjugating ; this is highly
improbable, when we consider the rarity of that
phenomenon. Some other explanation is necessary
to account for the variations in the dimensions we
meet with in the different individuals of the same
series other than that of deduplication, as without it
those frustules that escape conjugation would go on
diminishing in size indefinitely, and we know from
observation that every species of diatom possesses a
maximum and minimum of dimension which it never
passes.*

The rapid appearance of species where they did not
previously exist — their periodic succession at deter-
mined seasons, and which we had never been able to
find in the intervals in the same locality — this presents
the possibility of a mode of generation which is only
yet suspected, by germs, by micro or macro-zoospores,
possibly even in the first case with the formation of
zygozoospores, as it takes place among many of the
inferior alg?e who live under the same conditions as
the diatoms.

We enter here a field of study of the greatest interest
and novelty to every naturalist furnished with a good
microscope, and possessing time and patience neces-
sary for such researches, and we dare affirm that any
member of a microscopical society who shall follow
with care the entire life cycle of a single species of
diatom, even the commonest, will probably render a
greater service to science than if he had described and
figured hundreds of frustules from the four quarters of
the globe.

Note. — In a communicationf to M. Deby, Professor
H. L. Smith makes the following remarks : —

‘ ‘ I have received your brochure, entitled, ‘ Ce que
c’est qu’une Diatomee,’ for which I thank you. What
you say is generally correct. I have myself published
a part in the ‘Lens’ in 1873, but I entirely differ
from you on certain points. The communication
which you say exists between the internal protoplasmic
substance and the external medium does not take
place, as you say, along the sutures of the connective,
but in the naviculus, properly so called ; it exists along
the raphe or median line, and in the Nitzschias and
Surirellas along the alse and carinse. (This is an in-
teresting confirmation of Ehrenberg’s observations,
who had also studied this phenomenon many years
before J. D. ) I possess drawings showing the injec-

* The process of self-division, no doubt, gradually exhausts
the vigour of the sporangial frustule, but this power is possibly
retained longer by some individuals than others (thus bearing
a striking resemblance to parthenogenesis in the Aphides, &c.),
but there is probably no fixed limit. I have seen much smaller
valves of Aulacodiscus Kittoni in a New Zealand gathering
than in a copious and pure gathering from Vera Cruz. — F. K.

t A translation into the French appears in the Bulletin de la
Societe Beige de microscopie for Dec., 1877.

128

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

tion of indigo along the median line, and its penetra-
tion into the interior of the diatom, particularly in
Stauroneis kept for some days in indigo water.
Beside this demonstration, I was able, by the em-
ployment of the pigment, to obtain a glimpse of the
mode of progression in the large Pinnularias. I am
half tempted to send you my drawings. Many cases
of conjugation are not always so simple as is generally
supposed.

“ When a large Pinnularia is observed in the field
quite blue with indigo, we see in side-view (fig. 90)
little particles of indigo running along the (X) raphe
as far as the end of the median line ; here they accu-
mulate into a little ball, at C. In fig. 90, a b ,
a little ball is seen on each side, but that which is
most surprising is, these balls revolve on their axes.
When the ball acquires a little size it suddenly breaks,
and the particles sail off in the direction a e (fig. 91),
and a new ball is again formed ; this is on supposition

Fig. 90. Side view of Pinnularia, showing balls of Indigo
running alongside.

Fig. 91. Diatom, showing mode in which ball of Indigo breaks.

Fig. 92. Diatom in act of Deduplication at a and b.

that the frustule is moving in the direction of the
arrow d. Moving the other way, the particles slip
down the other half of the median line or raphe, and
form a little ball, as before, at its end. I have
watched this for hours, and I can assure you that it is
a glorious sight. I had some magnificent large Pin-
nularias, and these effects were best seen when the
motion forward of the frustule was prevented by its
coming in contact with some particle of sand or dust.
The colour in the field was the ordinary indigo-blue
water colour, pretty thick. Furthermore, there
always appeared a gelatinous envelope which pre-
vented the actual contact of the indigo particles with
the frustule, which, as it moved forward, pushed them
in advance, as at d (fig. 90). The slightest applica-
tion of aniline red (Fuchsine) demonstrates the

external gelatinous covering by the absorption of the
colour, even before the colour is seen elsewhere in the
field, but this aniline instantly arrests all motion of
the diatom.

“ The act of deduplication of the primordial utricle
is effected with great rapidity; it manifestly commences
at the two ends of the frustule at the points a and b
(fig. 92) ; the membrane there forms a fold, which is
gradually prolonged until it reaches the central
nucleolar mass ; this occupies about six minutes from
the commencement of the phenomenon.

“ I have never been able to perceive a true circular
nucleus in Pinnularia major (Ehr. ), but it is very
visible in divers species of navicula, such as N. firma ,
and in the Stauroneis. It is very manifest in the
Surirellas. The frustules only separate from each
other in seven days, rarely before. The conjugation
in the Pinnularias continues for four days before the
act is entirely completed. I have followed it step by
step, and measured with a micrometer the sporangial
development. ... I remain, &c.,

“ H. L. Smith.”

(The above experiments are of great interest, and
will, I hope, be repeated by other diatomists.
The study of the living frustule has, I fear, been too
much neglected for that of the dead valve, the
diatomist having been seduced by the elegance of its
contour and the. beauty of its ornamentation. If, as
Professor Smith describes, the communication with
the interior of the frustule is through minute apertures
at the termination of the raphe or median line, it is
evident that those forms which do not possess this line,
and are neither alate nor carinate, must possess some
other means of communication ; in the Aulacodisci
this may be by means of the processes which are
apparently perforate, but in the Triceratia, Coscino-
disci, &c., I think M. Deby’s suggestion, that it takes
place at the margins of the connectives, is probably
correct. — F. K.)

' Those interested in the structure of the diatom frus-
tule will find much valuable information in the papers
of Dr. Wallich, particularly that published in the
Monthly Mic. Jour ., Feb. 1, 187 7. A paper by the
same author, entitled “ Are the Desmids and Dia-
toms simple Cells ? ” will be found in the April part
of Popular Science Review , 1877.

A GLASS-EATING LICHEN.

ON visiting an antiquarian friend, to whom I am
indebted for the loan of specimens, & c., some
old stained glass of about the fifteenth century was
submitted to me, and an opinion asked as to the cause
of certain irregular worm-eaten-looking holes of some
depth, occurring generally only over one surface of the
plates. My friend informed me that it was publicly
discussed some twenty years ago as to its cause, for it
had often been observed in old glass windows. At

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

129

first, on carelessly looking at it, it appeared to be
explained by that disintegration which gives rise to
those beautiful iridescent scales on old glass, and
especially in the old black glass Dutch bottles, whose
surface, on removing the scales, presented somewhat
the appearance described. My friend informed me it
was considered by some to have been made by the

95 is a portion seen by reflected light of the surface of
some dark green glass twice its natural size, which
shows the general arrangement. On submitting
them to microscopical examination, to my delight,
all the edges of these masses appeared to be spiked,
and, although they had been in my friend’s possession
for thirty years, showed the cellular structure deline-
ated in fig. A (Hartnack, ob. 7, oc. 2, tube drawn
out), being the portion C of fig. B (Hartnack, ob. 4,
oc. 4, tube in). I have shown them to two botanists,
who are quite satisfied as to their nature ; but they
asked the question as to whether they might not be
lichens which had occupied already existing holes;
this, however, was capable of denial on the following
grounds. It will be observed in fig. D that the bodies
1 commenced to grow at certain points, but as they
became larger they also became confluent, forming
irregular masses with a serpiginous margin, to which the
depression in the glass always corresponds ; the central
portion of each depression is level, and however large
it may be, it is of the same depth, the steep edges

Fig. 93. Cellular Structure of Glass-eating Lichen (mag.).
See fig. 94, at c.

Fig. 95. Lichen as
seen by reflected
light on green glass.

/

Fig. 94. Glass-eating Lichen (mag.).

workmen, to give a better effect to the light ; but the
irregularity sets that question at rest directly, though
it stimulated me to look into the matter more care-
fully, and on a careful examination I was fully satis-
fied that each depression wras occupied by a small
lichen, such as we see covering grave-stones ; at figure

being occupied by the growfing processes which seem
alone to have the absorbing power ; and lastly, on
removing the growth by various re-agents, the exact
figure of the points and even in some instances of
the individual cells, are seen beautifully cut and em-
bossed upon the glass. It occurs on the side opposite,
and not on the painted side, which, in glazing, is
placed on the inside of the window, and therefore
would be unfavourable to the growdh of these plants ;
neither does it occur round the edges, which are over-
lapped by the lead. One point was at first puzzling ;
these erosions sometimes appearing to run in straight
lines, as seen in fig. E ; it could, however, be de-
monstrated by a magnifying glass that it occurred
along old scratches, the rough surface of which had
afforded the most easy attachment for the spores and
young plant. It is to my friend, Mi*. T. Coates
Archer, to whom I am indebted for the specimens,
and also for a few notes as to their history. They
are from the Church of Little Dunmow, in Essex
(celebrated for the annual distribution of a flitch of
bacon), from which it was removed by some glazier
of Felsted, from whom my friend bought it, and has
now had it over thirty years.

130

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The remarks may at first appear to be of little
interest, but in putting them forward it is with the
hope that they will teach us to at least take pre-
cautions to protect or remove such an unpleasant
enemy from some of the most beautiful works of
art. H. T. Johnston-Lavis.

ON PREPARING AND MOUNTING LEAVES
AND OTHER PARTS OF PLANTS TO
SHOW THE CRYSTALS IN SITU.

By W. H. Hammond.

EVER since I first began to use the microscope
Plant Crystals have been objects of interest
to me, not only on account of their great beauty as
‘ 4 objects,” especially with the polariscope, but also
because they open a new and comparatively unex-
plored region of phytotomy ; in fact, except in Pro-
fessor Gulliver’s writings, they are hardly mentioned,
or very summarily dealt with by other botanical
writers. At first I used to be content with a sight of
them after boiling and mashing parts of plants, but I
soon became dissatisfied with this method, and began
to look about for some means of examining the
crystals just as they grew in the different plants ; for-
tunately I happened to look at a back number of
Science-Gossip (January, 1875), and came across a
paper by the late Dr. Beatty, “ On Decolouring and
Staining Vegetable Tissues for Microscopic Ex-
amination ” ; other papers, by Dr. Beatty, came out
afterwards, and I gathered many valuable hints from
them on the subject.

I am often asked how my preparations are made,
so I will describe my process of preparing and
mounting, for the benefit of other workers with the
microscope who are interested in these beautiful,
but much neglected, marvels.

The first thing to be done is to get the bleaching
solution, and this may be very easily prepared as
follows : — Equal weights (say four ounces) of chlori-
nated lime and common washing soda, both in fine
powder, are put into a half-gallon bottle of cold
water, and well shaken together, then left to stand
till the fluid is quite clear, this is poured off gently
into another bottle, and a strong solution of washing
soda added as long as a white powder is thrown
down. The mixture is again left till clear, and then
poured off ; this is the bleaching fluid. The original
substances in the first bottle may be again treated with
cold water. Leaves and other tissues are kept in this
fluid till bleached and semi-transparent, large or thick
leaves should be cut up into small pieces. I find the
small, round night-light glasses, which may be bought
for a penny each, are very convenient for bleaching
the tissues in, and also for the dyeing and subsequent
soakings, covering them over with pieces of glass to
keep out the dust. It is not always convenient to !

prepare and mount leaves directly they are gathered,
so I always carry with me a small account-book,
interleaved with blotting paper, and with an elastic
band round it ; leaves are put into this when gathered,
and by carrying it in the breast-pocket of the coat,
they are soon dried by the warmth of the body ; in
the summer time several books full of leaves are col-
lected, ready for the long winter evenings. Dried
leaves will bleach sooner than fresh-gathered ones.

Llaving bleached some leaves (the time it takes to
do this varying very much), they must be well washed
in warm water in basins or pie-dishes, changing the
water often for about two days, and brushing the
tissues with soft camel-hair brushes. I often find it
of use to put the plant tissues into acetic acid and
water for about a minute before the final washing,
but acids must be very cautiously used, or the crystals
may be dissolved.

The leaves or tissues are then ready to go into
either of the following dyes : —

The carmine dye is prepared partly according to

Dr. Beales’s formula, viz. : —

Carmine 20 grains.

Strong liquor ammonice ... | dram.

Pure water 4 ounces.

The carmine is heated in a test tube with the am-
monia till dissolved, and then added to the water in
a bottle and well shaken, and left to settle or be
filtered. The dye should smell strongly ammoniacal.
Sections are soon dyed in the above, but leaves take
several days, or a week or more. Sections of the
India-rubber plant leaf, or of the common fig, dyed
in carmine, will show the stalked crystals, called
cystoliths, very nicely ; pieces of the leaves of the fig,
hop, nettle, wall-pellitory, or wych elm, dyed, will
show the cystoliths when viewed from above or
below. I generally mount two leaves or pieces on
the same slide, one with the superior and one with
the inferior surface uppermost.

The logwood dye is prepared according to the
prescription in Rutherford’s “ Histology.”

A. Make a saturated solution of calcium chloride
in 70 per cent, alcohol, and then add alum to
saturation.

B. A saturated solution of alum in 70 per cent,
alcohol.

C. Add A to B in the proportion of one to eight.

D. A barely alkaline saturated solution of logwood
in water.

Add D to C till a deep violet-coloured dye is
obtained.

I make D by boiling logwood chips with water
and a very little potash, then filtering.

I generally use methylated spirit where alcohol is
recommended.

The leaves and tissues may be immersed in either
of the above dyes, straight from the last wash- water,
and will be dyed in either in about the same time.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Tissues when dyed must be put into clean water, then,
if dyed with carmine, into acetic acid and water for
a minute ; if dyed with logwood they must be put
into alum and water, they must then be put into
two changes of clean water and brushed with
soft brushes. The remaining operations will be
described further on.

I also use a blue dye made by pouring six or eight
drops of Judson’s aniline blue into an ounce of
methylated spirit, shaking and filtering. Leaves and
sections to be dyed in this must be soaked in methy-
lated spirit for about a day after being taken out of
the last wash-water. After dyeing they must be
washed and brushed in methylated spirit. Leaves
generally require to be kept in this dye for about
a week. Leaves and sections after undergoing these
operations may either be mounted in Deane’s gelatine
medium or in dammar or balsam dissolved in ben-
zole. I like to have specimens of the same kind
of leaves dyed in all three colours and mounted both
ways, or only the blue-dyed ones mounted in balsam
or dammar.

Leaves or sections, which are to be mounted in
Deane’s medium, should after the final washing, after
dyeing, be put into the following solution as recom-
mended by Mr. Deane, for two days : —

Rectified spirit ounces.

Pure water ounces.

Pure glycerine 5 drams.

Take the tissues out of the above fluid, drain off as
much as possible and mount in the medium. I prefer
this way of mounting for most leaves and other
tissues, for this reason, it does not make them so very
transparent as dammar or balsam does, and generally
every cell-wall is distinctly seen, the crystals in the
cells, the hairs, and every other part of the leaf.

Leaves to be mounted in dammar or balsam should
be thoroughly dried from the last washing, after
dyeing, this is best done by putting them into one of
the before-mentioned interleaved books, and carrying
in the pocket for a day or two. When thoroughly
dry take them out and put them into a small wide-
mouthed bottle, pour over them benzine enough to
cover them, and cork up tightly till perfectly trans-
parent. When ready to mount, take the leaves out
of the benzine, drain, but do not dry them, and
mount quickly in balsam or dammar dissolved in
benzine (benzine collas is the best benzine to use).
Leaves mounted in this way are beautiful objects
for the micro-polariscope, if they contain crystals or
have hairs upon them, but they are nearly always
so transparent that the cell-walls are quite ob-
litei'ated.

Good leaves to experiment upon, for sphaeraphides,
are Chickweed, Mercury, Wild Strawberry, and
many of the Rosaceae.

For long crystal prisms — the outer skin of the
Gladiolus Bulb, Onion, Shalot, and Garlic.

131

For short prismatic crystals — Clover, Sanfoin,
Beech, and Trefoil.

For true raphides— Squill Bulb, Hyacinth, Blue
Bell, Lemna Trisulca, Balsams, Willow Herbs,
Fuchsias, and Arums.

Cystoliths. — Leaves containing these should not
be mounted in balsam or dammar, as they do not
polarize, and are generally rendered quite invisible
by this way of mounting.

No one need be afraid of not being able to procure
specimens, for I believe the greater part of our plants
contain crystals of one kind or other ; they may be
well and easily studied by mounting in Deane’s
medium after preparing and dyeing, they may also
often be very well seen by simply bleaching, washing,
and examining in water. And I may add that the
crystals afford an abundance of beautiful materials
for the microscope, and that the more they are studied
the more they will be admired. Their taxonomic
and physiological significance too, is an important
subject for further research, concerning which, Pro-
fessor Gulliver has given the results of extensive
observations. He recommends boiling the plant
tissues in a solution of caustic potash ; this is an easy
way of exposing some crystals and their cells, though
by no means so effectual in the preparation of beau-
tiful and instructive slides, as the methods which I
have attempted to describe.

NOTES ON A DREDGING EXPEDITION.

BEFORE entering upon the subject of actual
dredging, it would, perhaps, be as well to give
a brief description of the little fishing-village which
formed my head-quarters. Rossbeigh is a small
watering-place on the east shore of Dingle Bay, in
Kerry, Ireland. It is the property of the Hon. Row-
land Winn, and consists of a few lodges, one of
which, in the month of September last, I rented.
About a mile away from these lodges are a few scat-
! tered fishermen’s huts ; and when the reader is
I informed that Rossbeigh is eight miles from the
nearest town, and twenty from any railway station,

1 he will understand that I had greatly to depend upon
my own resources.

On looking at the map of this district, it will be
noticed that there is a long spit of land running out
towards a place called “Inch”: this spit is over
three miles in length, and is entirely composed of
sand. From the signal-towers at the termination of
this peninsula to a point called Feaklecally, an ima-
! ginary line may be drawn, and within this no great
i depth of water can, I believe, be found, for the fol-
lowing reason : Rossbeigh is situated on a mountain-
side, a mountain whose base terminates upon the
seashore ; the soil at its foot is largely composed of
a conglomerate, containing a great quantity of rounded

'32

HARD W1 CKE ’S S CIENCE ■ G OSSIP.

stones, and formed, in al] likelihood, by the conti-
nual detrition of the mountain-streams. This soil,
being so friable, falls an easy prey to the eroding
influence of water, the sea having made considerable
inroads into the land ; so much so, that a lodge which
about thirty years ago was occupied by Lord Headley,
is now entirely washed away ; its site being utterly
unrecognizable. Now the headland of Feaklecally
checks any currents running up from the Atlantic,
while the sandhills at Rossbeigh are another break-
water. Thus the bottom of the bay at this portion is
shallow, and largely consists of the rounded boulders
of the conglomerate. I have given this description
in order to explain the kind of sea-bed I had to work
pon. We will now proceed to the actual dredging.

The first requisite is of course the dredge and rope.
The former of the two consists of a strong iron frame-

work (if galvanized the better) ; the scrapers are two
in number, so that, no matter on which side the
dredge may fall, it can work. The rope is made of
good stout material, and ought to be “barked,”
which can be done in any tan-yard for a trifle. The
rope is attached to the dredge in a somewhat peculiar
manner ; the end is tied securely to only one of the
attachment rings, and with a piece of spun yarn the
other ring is whipped to its fellow ; so that, supposing
the dredge to have anchored on a stone, and that it
cannot be liberated by retracing ground, and thereby
reversing the strain on the dredge, the boat is pulled
rapidly until the spun yarn breaks ; then the dredge,
being capsized, is freed easily. The next item is the
boat : the heavier this is, within reason, the better.

In this I was, at the outset, unfortunate, as at first
I could only obtain one of the Irish native canvas

canoes, which, drawing but little water and keelless,
would, on the smallest provocation, perform a
rotatory motion, which would result in heading in a
totally opposite direction to the one started from ;
however, Mr. Winn very kindly had a small whale-
boat belonging to him repaired for me, which served
my purpose excellently. Across the boat, resting on
each gunwale, I had a board fixed, as a support for
the tray which received the contents of the dredge.
This little detail is a very useful one, as it not only
saves the trouble of stooping to examine the spoil,
but also prevents the giddiness which often attends
that position, and which is very frequently the herald
of sea-sickness. Three sieves, of varying meshes,
are also very useful ; one, a coarse mesh, of about
half-inch diameter ; the second moderate, about
one eighth-inch ; and the third of perforated zinc.
Their use will be afterwards explained. Also a shal-
low box as a receptacle for the contents of the
dredge, plenty of bottles, in which to store the

treasures, a gallon can of fresh water, a good strong
pocket-knife, a brass forceps and a pocket-lens com-
plete the equipment. The last I would recommend to
be slung round the neck, so that it may be free, as it
is neither an easy nor a clean task to be searching for
it in the pocket with wet and often slimy hands.
Now all being completed, dressed in your oldest
clothes, and legs encased in mackintosh leggings, the
boat is pulled out to the dredging-ground, and there
the dredge is thrown overboard, near the stern, on
the windward side, taking care that the rope runs
freely. When it touches the bottom, the boat should
be rapidly pulled until enough rope has been let out :
roughly speaking, there should be twice as much rope
out as the depth of the water dredged. When enough
is paid out, a turn or two should be taken round a
belaying-pin, and the inner end retained in one hand,
while the other should clasp the part outside the
boat, by which aid, the rope serving by its vibration
as a kind of telephone, the working of the dredge

HARD WICKE 'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP .

*33

may be detected. If the dredge is jerking and
bounding, the boat is being pulled too fast, whereas,
on the other hand, too slow a progress causes the
irons to sink too deeply ; but when all is as it should
be, the hand feels a gentle quivering, which proves
the machine is working steadily. Do not, how-
ever, hold the rope too tightly, else, in the event
of the dredge being suddenly anchored by a stone,
you, in all probability, will collide rather unpleasantly
with the side of the boat. Should the dredge get
entangled, the best way to free it is to retrace
ground, and, in most cases, it will free itself on being

place in the tray. The process of sifting is greatly
facilitated by washing the top mass.

My first day’s dredging off Rossbeigh was about a
mile from shore. This attempt was made from a
native canoe, and from the little hold the craft had
upon the water, the dredge could scarcely be got to
work. The only benefit that accrued to me from
that day’s work was a rough knowledge of the depth
of the water and the nature of sea-bottom, which,,
unfortunately, largely consisted of heavy, rounded
stones. The next day’s work was undertaken at low
tide. The course chosen was further out to sea ; but

towed in an opposite direction ; if that means fails,
the rope must be strained until the spun yarn, already
alluded to, breaks, when the dredge, being capsized,
will easily free itself.

Supposing all to have gone on well, after half an
hour the dredge may be lifted rapidly, but steadily,
to the surface, taking care to lift it clear of the side of
the boat, else you run the danger of crushing the
Crustacea and shells it may contain, and the contents
emptied into sieve No. 1 (the coarsest). Large
shells, stones, &c., are here retained, the smaller
specimens successively passing into sieves Nos. 2 and
3, and finally the very minute forms find a resting-

even at this distance from land (about 1^ mile from'
shore), where comparatively deep water might have-
been expected, the depth did not, I should judge,
exceed 5 to 7 fathoms, the dredge coming up choked
with Rhodosperms and other sea-weeds, mostly'
Polysiphonia and Ptilota. However, on emptying
the dredge, a variety of marine animals were dis-
covered, which, although not rare, were none the
less curious. Two specimens of Pisa tctraodon
rather obtrusively first made their appearance, and
were followed soon by what very easily might have
been mistaken for a lump of sea-weed, Stenorhynchus
phalangiwn ; several specimens of the Hermit Crab-

1 34

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE - GOSSIP.

( Pagurus Bernhardii ) were also inclosed. On more
closely examining some of the sea-weed, I found
several specimens of Caprella linearis, a most
grotesque-looking animal, its movements very much
resembling the walk of the looper caterpiller (Brim-
stone Moth), also a specimen of Nymphon gracilis,
very few shells, and those very common ones.

On looking over the result the next day, I found a
great quantity of foraminifera. I also found a few
sponges and zoophytes : of the latter, Laomedea
geniculata was the most common ; also two specimens
of Lucernaria , and, of course, any quantity of
MembraJiipora pilosa.

The next day’s work was undertaken in company
with Dr. Battersby, who kindly gave me the benefit
of his knowledge of this coast, of which he is a
resident, and we judged it wiser to commence lower
down the coast, off a small coast-guard station, called
Kells ; but although the water was considerably
deej^er and more sheltered, we found very little more
to reward the trouble : a few shells, all dead and
containing Pagurus , a dead specimen of the ‘ ‘ shoul-
der of mutton” shell (Aporr/iais pes-pelicani), and
one living Natica. In the cavities of some of the
roots of the Tangle ( Laminaria bulbosa ) brought up,
a few specimens of Patella pellucida were found. We
also obtained a few specimens of Ophiocoma neglecta
and one of O. roszila ; but on the whole, probably
because of the sharp currents running along the
coast, the conditions conducing to animal life were
not very favourable.

Before concluding, perhaps a few words respecting
the method of preserving specimens collected would
not be out of place. The best methylated spirits of
wine and ordinary sea-water mixed in the proportion
of one part spirit to five water, is as good as any for
the majority of forms. In first mixing, the spirit,
owing to the resin in it, is apt to throw down a cloudy
precipitate. This may be got rid of by adding to the
mixture about an ounce of bicarbonate of soda to each
quart, and filtering the whole through paper. Sea-
weeds may be simply spread out and dried. If it be
wished to get the shells of foraminifera from sand
dredged up, a good plan is to dry the sand
thoroughly in a moderately warm oven, and when
perfectly free from moisture, allow them to cool, and
gently place the whole in a vessel of water, when the
sand will sink to the bottom, whilst the foraminifera,
containing air in their chambers, will float. The now
separated foraminifera may be easily selected under
a lens by simply picking them out with a camel-hair
brush, to which they will adhere, if it be drawn
through the lips : they may be afterwards mounted
dry or in balsam. Before throwing any of the dredge
contents overboard, it is a wise plan to place the sea-
weed, or at least the feathery forms, in fresh water,
as unexpected discoveries are revealed by this means —
minute forms, whose very existence was unsuspected,
are compelled to declare themselves.

To briefly sum up, the dredger must have plenty of
patience, must not mind wetting, evil smells, although
on a sandy coast this is not very bad, and must trust
as little as he possibly can to a boatman’s assistance
in sorting over his spoil, else half his treasures will
be lost. A few good books for identifying his results
are, I need not say, invaluable. The ones I have
found very useful are Gosse’s “Marine Zoology:”
this will give the genera of the animal spoil, while
“British Sea- weeds,” by W. H. Harvey, will supply
the botanical want. If, however, the latter is too
expensive, there is a small shilling book by Mrs. Lane
Clarke that is very useful. One, however, of the best
general books, embracing a good deal, in fact, of nearly
every class of sea plunder that the beginner is likely
to come across, is “Half-hours at the Sea-side,” by
J. E. Taylor.

In conclusion, I can assure my readers that if any
one of them care to devote his holiday to dredging,
he will not only make a great acquisition to his
marine knowledge, but also to his health ; and I only
wish that he may have as lovely surroundings in
scenery as I had. H. A. Francis.

HOW TO MAKE AN HERBARIUM.

A CHAPTER FOR YOUNG COLLECTORS.

By John W. Buck, B.Sc.

AS the summer advances doubtless many young
lovers of nature will begin again gathering
wild-flowers, and bringing them home in nosegays, as
they have often done before, to be looked at for an
hour or two and then, when withered, thrown away.
Some may have tried ere this to dry them, and so
to keep a record of their industry and their love for
flowers, but may not have succeeded to their own
satisfaction for want of a little help or instruction to
begin with. It is for such that I intend this paper.
To make an herbarium may sound a very imposing
task, but such it need not be, for it can be done
slowly and gradually — a plant at a time, if need be —
and the flowers, when thoroughly dried and mounted,
if taken care of will keep an indefinite time and be a
lasting source of enjoyment. Nothing is so condu-
cive to a knowledge of our British wild-flowers as to
make as complete a collection as possible of them ;
although those who take my advice and make the
attempt will probably be surprised to find how few
flowers they already know, and how many there are
hidden away under the hedges or in the woods which
they never saw before. An object such as this gives
a new zest to our country walks, besides making us
find out new ones ; gives us pleasant associations
with particular spots as being the places where we
first found such and such a new flower, fern, or moss ;
and above all gives us new and brightened views of
nature and of nature’s God.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

J35

To collect flowers for an herbarium, all that is neces-
sary is a tin box and a trowel, though some collectors
prefer to carry a portfolio containing porous paper
and to put the plant under pressure on the spot. This
has the advantage of securing that the flower shall
lose none of its freshness while being carried home ;
but it is a cumbrous and troublesome plan, and it
will probably be found, in the case of most flowers,
that if they are brought home in a biscuit-tin, and
the roots perhaps placed in water to freshen them up
if necessary before pressing, that they will appear as
good as need be. It will nevertheless be found very
convenient to carry a small pocket-book with some
porous-paper leaves, in which to preserve at once
some blossoms which will require it. For instance,
it will be found impossible to bring home an entire
Dandelion or Bindweed without the blossom closing
up ; and the corolla of the Germander Speedwell, the
bright little blue flower often called Bird’s-eye or Cat’s-
eye, that looks so pretty and lasts so long in the
summer hedgerows, will almost certainly be knocked
off before the plant can be pressed at home. In such
cases these parts must be put under pressure separately
from the rest of the plant, and at once. Indeed,
such a sleepy plant as the Tragopogon, or John-go-to-
bed-at-noon, almost requires to be caught with guile.
Go in the morning when it is open and press the
blossom in the porous-paper book before detaching it
from the stalk. Some entire plants, from their delicate
and brittle nature, had better be pressed on the spot ;
as, for instance, the pale-green Moschatel, the stalks of
which are almost sure to snap with the slightest rough
usage. Of course, when the roots have to be cleared
from much earth, especially if the earth is of a clayey
nature, it is absolutely necessary to bring the plant
home before doing anything with it. On the whole,
the tin box will be found preferable to the portfolio,
and the occasions on which the latter must be used
will soon be learnt by experience. Better than either,
because more convenient, is the regulation vasculum,
of japanned tin.

For digging up the plants, since in most cases the
roots must be preserved, a trowel is generally recom-
mended. After a few of these have been broken by
lough usage in stiff soils, or spoilt by friends who
have borrowed them “ just for once,” they will pro-
bably be replaced by a small three-pronged fork, about
the same size as the trowel, but much more durable.
Even this, however, has its disadvantage, which will
be found out on trial. In selecting the specimens for
pi es^rvation, a little discrimination should be exer-
cised. It is best, perhaps, to take two plants of the
same kind and dry both, and afterwards choose the
best of the two for mounting. It is not advisable to
take more, unless they are somewhat inaccessible, or
unless, for other reasons, it should be difficult after-
wards to obtain more if required, as a large number
only fills up the box, takes up a great deal of room in
the press, and gives much unnecessary trouble in

many ways. Choose, therefore, two plants which are
fairly developed, and which show, if possible, speci-
mens of all the kinds of leaves the plant may possess,
which have some blossoms fully open and others in
bud, and, in short, which are in all respects good
specimens of their kind. In some cases the leaves
are not up when the flower is open, as with the
Yellow Coltsfoot, which flowers in the early spring,
but whose leaves are not to be found until much later.
It is a mistake to choose too large a plant, under the
impression that it will look well ; a medium should
be aimed at in this matter, as in everything else.
Perhaps it is not unnecessary to say that rare plants
ought not to be exterminated. Persons who go about
hunting for rarities, and who take all they can lay
their hands on, are collectors only , not botanists.
Many of our uncommon ferns are daily becoming
rarer, and harder to be found by those who really
want to study them, because they are so diligently
sought after and dug up by collectors who only want
them to sell. My advice is, if you find a rarity, take
of it in moderation, and then, in the interests of
science, keep your own counsel as to its where-
abouts.

In removing a plant, care must be taken not to
I spoil the root, nor to injure the leaves that spring
from near the ground. It is often of great importance
that these latter should be kept intact, as they fre-
quently differ from the leaves which grow higher up
the stem, and are vei'y useful in assisting to determine
the name of the species. With many plants, as is the
case with the Coltsfoot, the root will be almost sure
to break off sooner or later. Again, a complete Blue-
bell, bulb and all entire, will be a very good certificate
of perseverance for its possessor. The adhering earth
should be shaken off as far as possible without doing
injury to the roots, and the rest carefully pulled off at
home, or removed by holding the root (only) under
a stream of water.

The next thing ought to be to name the specimen ;
and if I could take for granted a little knowledge of
botany on the part of my readers, it would not be
very difficult to show in brief -the easiest method of
arriving at the correct botanical and popular names
of most of our common wild-flowers. For those, how-
ever, who know nothing of botany, the best way is to
compare the flowers brought home with the illustra-
tions in some such work as Ann Pratt’s “ Wild-
Flowers,” or John’s “Flowers of the Field,” or
Sowerby’s “English Botany,” or to obtain the help
of some botanical friend. At all events, you need
not despair of making good progress with your her-
barium, even if you do not know the names of all the
plants it contains, as these can generally be added
afterwards.

In any case, proceed to dry your plants before
they lose their freshness. This is accomplished by
pressing them between porous paper. The best
paper for the purpose is, or used to be, made by

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

•36

Messrs. Spicer, of New Bridge-street, Blackfriars
(who also supply white paper for mounting, in sheets
about 17 in. by 11 in.), but in default of this, thick
blotting-paper is said to answer, though I have not
tried it. The plants must not be damp when they
are put in the press, and if the roots have been
washed to clean them, they should be wiped as dry
ns possible. If for any reason the plants are at all
damp, the papers should be changed very frequently
.at first, even twice a day, until the excess of moisture
has been removed. I am frequently asked, “How
is it you manage to keep the colours of your flowers
so well ? ” Mainly by attention to this point — by
not allowing the flowers to remain damp. Otherwise
they are very apt to change their colour ; as, for
example, the Wood Anemone, or Windflower, which
generally turns brown, but which may be kept white
with proper care. Heaths and firs are said to require
a dip in boiling water before drying, in order to pre-
vent the foliage from falling off. The same process
prevents succulents, such as the curious flesh-coloured
parasitic Tooth wort, from growing during or after
pressure, by killing them at once. Here, also, the
superfluous moisture should be removed by a hand-
kerchief before pressing. Do not mix fresh speci-
mens with dry ones, but separate them with several
sheets of brown paper. Laying the plants out will
often be found a troublesome process, and one which,
in order to do it well, will in some cases require time
and patience, but it is not of much use to give advice
on this head, except to say that the various parts of
the flower should be as well exhibited as possible.
For instance, where the flower has a coloured calyx
and no corolla, as in Marsh Marigold, Clematis, and
Wood Anemone, one blossom should be folded up so
as to show the absence of the customary row of green
leaves below the coloured ones. Or the same subject
may be effected by completely reversing one blossom,
so that its face is towards the paper. Where bracts,
or small leaflets at the base of the flower-stalks occur,
.as in orchids, they should be shown. The specimens
should be distributed among the sheets of porous
paper in such a way that the pressure may be some-
what equal in all places ; but those plants, however,
are likely to dry more quickly which are nearer the
margin of the sheets. Thick stems had better be
sliced in half longitudinally, as it prevents their
taking up too much room, and also enables them to
dry very much faster. The same course may be taken
with thick l'oots or root-stocks, as in Primrose and
Coltsfoot ; but in such cases care must be taken to
leave enough root-fibres adhering to the main axis.
Bulbs and corms, and the fleshy tuberous roots of
orchids may also be sliced ; some l'ecommend scooping
out the inside, but this is apt to make them break and
spoil under pressure. Berries and stems that are not
thick enough to slice may be repeatedly pricked on
their under surface, or slashed with the point of a
penknife, to let out the moisture. A very good plan

with fleshy berries, and thick stems and roots, is to
dry them, apart from the rest of the plant, by pressing
them between several folds of porous paper, and
baking the whole for three-quarters of an hour in an
oven. But this does not always answer, and should
not be tried with green leaves, as it is apt to turn
them brown. In short, the more rapid the drying
process the better ; and hence the necessity of having
recourse to these contrivances in order that the colours
of the blossoms may not be injured through being
kept damp by the slow drying of the thicker parts.

( To be continued. )

MICROSCOPY.

“ Cutting it fine.”— At the usual conversazione
which followed the ordinary meeting of the Quekett
Microscopical Club on April 26th, Mr. E. T. Newton
exhibited thirty-three sections of the head of one cock-
roach ! — Blatta Orientalis.

Fossil Diatomace^e. — The Diatomacese in the
Cementstein are described and figured (very beauti-
fully) by Dr. Heiberg, in his “ Kritisoversigt over
de Danske Diatomeer.” The richest in diatoms is
the Cementstein from the island of Mors, situated in
the Liimfjord, lat. 56° 50' N., long. 8° 40' W. This
fjord is the largest in Jutland, and runs from east to
west, connecting the North Sea with the Kattegat.
The material is also known as “ Jutland slate.” A
similar deposit occurs in Fuur ; it is less affected by
acid, and bears considerable resemblance to the de-
posit known as “Brown coal.” Another deposit is
found at Nykjobing, a village on the western side of
the island of Mors. This is much more difficult to
prepare, neither acid nor alkali making much im-
pression upon it. The following forms have been
described and figured by Dr. Heiberg in his treatise,
and by myself in the “ Journal of the Quekett Micro-
scopical Club,” in the Parts for 1870 and 1871.
The following are the most abundant forms in the
Mors deposit : — Tnnacria regina , Heiberg; T. cx-
cavata = Tiiceratiwn solenoceros , Ehr = T. Kitton-
ianwn, Greville ; Trinacria Heibergia, Kitton ; Do.
var., Kitton; Triceratium maculatum, Kitton;
Solium exsadptum , Heiberg ; Corinna elegans,
Heiberg ; Stictodiscus angulatus , Grunow ; Stepha-
uogonia Danica, Grunow; Trochoseira mirabilis,
Kitton ; T. spinosa, Kitton ; Hemundus proteus ,
Heiberg ; PI. hostilis, Heiberg ; H. februatus ,
Heiberg ; Do. (q. sp. ), Kitton ; Coscinodiscus stel-
latus , Roper ; C. radiatus , Ehr ; C. octdus Iridis,
Ehr; Stcphanopyxis (qu. sp.) ; Aulacodiscus Jut-
lafidicus, Kitton. Triceratia occur in the Barba-
does, Californian, and Morsa deposits, as well as in
the Virginian “earths.” — F. Kitton , Norwich.

Aquaria for Microscopic Work. — In answer to
W. D. B., I would suggest that I find several small
aquaria (none of them holding more than a quart)

HARD WICKE ’S S CIENCE - G OSSIP.

*37

much be-tter for microscopic work than a large one,
for we can hold one up to the light with one hand
and use the dipping-tube with the other. We are
able to keep a better and more varied assortment,
and the depth is better for dipping. Anatomical
specimen-jars and beakers I find to be most con-
venient, but wide-mouthed bottles may be substituted
on account of cheapness. I have usually about thirty
in use, some of them being very small, and I never
find it necessary to change the water. Covers of
muslin, cardboard, paper, or glass can be used.
Among the plants I find to be useful are Elodea
canadensia , species of Chara , Calhtnche verna , Sca-
pania undulata , Pilularia globtdifera , Moniia fontana ,
and species of bog and water Hypna. — Win. Wes/,
Bradford.

Small Aquarium for Microscopic Objects. —

It is likely that W. D. B. may have some difficulty
in finding his animalculoe, &c., if he should put them
into a tank of thirty inches length and proportionate
depth and breadth. I recommend him to make
much smaller ones upon the following plan : — buy at
the grocers some of the empty tin boxes which have
held between two and three pounds of Huntley &
Palmer’s Water Biscuits (mind, Water), cut out the
ends and sides, leaving a framework sufficient to sup-
port the glass, and you have at once the skeleton of a
handy and well-proportioned tank. Cement the
glass with a mixture of red and white lead, let it set
for two or three days, then fill the tank with water
and let it remain for a week, so that the taint of the
lead may be removed ; empty out, put a layer of well-
washed Calais sand at the bottom, and the tank is ready.
Mount it upon a slab of wood, and put four slips of
thin wood to retain it in position. The tin frame
should have two coats of paint or Brunswick black.

I prefer the latter. — A. P. W.

Canada Balsam in India. — Will slides mounted
in balsam stand the heat of India ? Would it be suffi-
cient to surround the cover with some heat-resisting
cement ? If balsam will not do, what other medium
will ?— //. F. Blackett.

The Hackney Microscopical Society. — This
society, which specially devotes itself to the study of
microscopy and natural history, has just issued its first
annual report. We are glad to see abundant signs of
vigorous health, although the society is only a year
old. The president is Mr. PI. Ramsden, M.A.,
F.L.S. ; and the hon. secretaiy, Mr. Collis Willmott.
The list of members is numerous, and includes many
names well known in science. Papers on various
natural history subjects, chiefly entomological, have !
been read, and five field excursions made during the !
summer. The foundation of a good natural history
library has also been laid, and with such a start we
shall look forward with interest to the progress of
the society during its second year.

ZOOLOGY,

Tiie Uraniid^e. — At a recent meeting of the Zoo-
logical Society, Professor Westwood communicated
a memoir on the Uraniidce, a family of Lepidopterous
insects, with a synopsis of the family, and a mono-
graph of one of the genera, Coronidia. These insects
were remarkable for their extreme beauty, and the
difficulty which had attended their systematic classifi-
cation. Their relations with other groups of Lepido-
pterous insects were discussed at considerable length,
and their numerous affinities were shown to be with
certain other moths belonging to the great division of
the Bombyces, whilst their connection with the Hes-
perian butterflies, the Pseudo-sphinges, Erebideous
Noctse and Ourapterygeous Geometrae was disproved
by their general structure, the venation of their wings,
and their transformations. A synopsis of the species
of all the genera was given, and a complete mono-
graph with figures of the genus Coronidia.

The Brachiopoda of the Atlantic. — At the
same meeting Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, F. R.S., F.Z. S.,
read a paper on the above subject. The areas from
which the Brachiopoda were obtained were restricted
to portions of the North Atlantic, including the
Mediterranean. A table of all the Brachiopods known
to inhabit the European seas was given, comprising
ten genera and twenty-two species, of which latter
four were for the first time described, and six figured.
The table also particularized the geological and ba-
thymetrical range of all the species. Two plates
accompanied the paper, and were furnished by
Mr. Davidson.

Mimicry in Birds. — Mr. J. Young writes to
ATature to say that in a tract of land on the coast of
Kent called Reculver Marsh, the place is much fre-
quented by skylarks and plovers, and that almost all
the larks have incorporated the well-known alarm-
note of the plover into their song. Professor Newton
remarks that this fact has already attracted notice ;
for at Thetford, in Norfolk, where the ringed plover
is common, skylarks often mimic its peculiar cry.
Starlings are said to have acquired the cries of various
kinds of birds, notably those of the plover and
swallow. Jays are also stated to imitate the note of
the carrion-crow.

The Nightingale in Derbyshire. — Pray let
me note to you, and through Science-Gossip to
others, the pleasing fact that a nightingale has made
its appearance here, and has been nightly for the
past week (and is still) singing its sweet song close to
this village. It is but seldom that the nightingale
visits Derbyshire at all, and this is the first time, so
far as my knowledge goes, of its ever having come so
far north in our county as Winster, which, as you are
aware, is in the Peak district. It will be well, with
your permission, to make known this visit through
Science-Gossip. — Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., Crc.

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

!3S

Development of Proteus Anguinus. — Pro-
fessor Schulze has recently discovered the mode of
development of this blind amphibian. He found a
specimen in the Adelsberg cave which had laid
fifty-six eggs. The Proteus is proved, by researches
on the ovary of a female from which the eggs were
taken, to be oviparous.

The Cumberland Association for the Ad-
vancement of Literature and Science. — A
capital plan is in successful action in Cumberland,
whereby scientific societies in six of the chief towns
are affiliated into the above association. The annual
gathering was held in Cockermouth in Easter week ;
when Mr. Isaac Fletcher, M.P., gave the presidential
address. Afterwards, Sir George Airy, the Astro-
nomer-Royal, delivered what he said would most
probably be his last lecture, on “ The Interior of the
Earth.” Mr. J. Clifton Ward, F.G.S., the hon.
secretary, read a valuable paper on ‘ ‘ Quartz in the
Lake District.” Various other papers were read.

The Northampton Natural History So-
ciety have issued their second report, which shows a
numerical increase in members, and a uniform success
in all their efforts. The meetings have been held
monthly, at all of which papers have been read. A
list of the Lepidoptera of the county is being pre-
pared by the President of the Entomological Section,
Mr. A. Perry. The President of the Society is the
Right Hon. Lord Lilford, and the Hon. Sec. Mr.
G. C. Druce.

Early Appearance of Colias Edusa. — Mr.
W. H. Liversedge saw three specimens of Colias
edusa, on Monday, April 22, while driving near
Ryde, Isle of Wight. They were strong on the
wing, as if freshly emerged, or they may have hyber-
nated in the imago.

New British Crustacea.— Mr. Spence Bate has
described two new species of small Crustacea, found
by Mr. Sims of Aberdeen. One species belongs to
the Diastylidce, and the other to the Amphipoda.
The former has been named Diastylis bimarginatus,
and the latter Lestngonus spinidorsalis.

Salmon Disease. — Mr. Worthington Smith de-
scribes and figures the disease which this spring has
destroyed such numbers of salmon in the Eden and
other rivers. It is the result of the growth of a
fungus, Saprolegnia ferox, in enormous quantities ;
and Mr. Smith thinks the unusually vigorous growth
may be due to the mildness of the past winter.

BOTANY.

Summer Lady’s Tresses {Spiranthes aestivalis). —
I am quite sure all botanists will deeply regret to
learn that this rare plant — which, like Gladiolus
illyncus and Pulmonaria angustifclia , is to be seen

nowhere in England but in the New Forest — is being
rapidly cleared out of its station near the Lynd-
hurst and Christchurch Road. I have reason to
fear that in two years not a single specimen will
be found in the famous Spiranthes bog. This is
deplorable — and I must explain how this much-
to-be-deprecated eradication is being effected. The
year before last a second edition of the “New
Forest Handbook” was brought out, comprising,
among other additions, a short paper on the botany
of the district, and in this the author thought fit to
describe, with almost painful minuteness, the exact
locality of the bog. This, no doubt, was kindly
meant, but the consequences are lamentable, as I
shall presently show. In the vicinity of Lyndhurst,
and in many other parts of the Forest, there are resi-
dent “collectors,” who collect insects (chiefly Lepi-
doptera), birds’ eggs, rare ferns, and anything else
which is marketable, and dispose of them either to
London dealers or to visitors. Now, when the hand-
book appeared containing the notice of Spiranthes
ccstivalis, and referring to it as “a plant quite peculiar
to the New Forest, and to be found in no other spot
in England,” they saw at once a rare opportunity for
increasing their returns; since, by carefully pulling up
every plant they could find, they would hold the
monopoly, and always be sure of a ready and certain
sale. This was made more apparent when large
numbers of visitors flocked to the bog last year, even
as early as May, and when orders for specimens came
in from all parts of the kingdom. Their anxiety to
discover the plant as early as possible was very great,
and on more than one occasion I have been asked
what it looked like, and how they might know it, for
a plant a few inches high, with a lax spike of small
white flowers, growing in a veiy wet sphagnum
bog, is not very likely to attract much attention.
In the month of August I called at one of the
cottages close by and inquired about the Spiranthes.
I was told that the day previously it had been found
by a visitor. “ So,” continued my informant, “as we
have so many people asking about them, and so many
orders, we went out last night and this morning and
brought in every plant that was in blossom. I’ll show
you them,” and — shall I say it? — to my intense dis-
gust a large earthenware pan, about two feet in
diameter, was brought out completely filled with
Spiranthes ccstivalis — roots, flowers, and all ! Besides
this there was on the table a good handful of cut
blossoms. I said I would walk over the bog and see
if there were any more, which called forth the remark :
“I don’t think it’s of any use, Sir; I don’t think
there’s one left.” However, I searched, and after
wading half-knee-deep in water for an hour or so,
succeeded in finding three specimens, two of which I
took, and afterwards reproached myself for leaving
the third ; for I felt sure it would be gone next day.
I have not visited the cottage since, but I have no
doubt that eveiy visible specimen was ruthlessly

HARDWICKE'S S CIENCE-G OSSIE.

139

pulled up. The only chance was for young plants
which did not blossom — these of course are bound to
go this year ; next year the last lingering vestiges will
be swept away, and Spiranthes cestivalis shall never
again flourish at its celebrated station in the New
Forest of Hampshire. Nothing can save it. Other
bogs will, when this one is exhausted, be searched,
and if, as is said, the Spiranthes occurs elsewhere in
the neighbourhood, it will soon be a thing of the past,
and one of the very rarest plants in the United King-
dom will be extinct, unless specimens are procured
from the Channel Islands and planted. Can anything
be done to prevent its complete extirpation? I do
not for a moment blame the cottagers ; if a wild plant
will fetch a given number of shillings in the market,
these people have, undoubtedly, as great a right to
sell them as have more wealthy collectors to travel a
long distance in order to gather them for themselves.
The plants do not belong to anybody in particulai-,
and the cottagers may as well make money out of
them as by the sale of a Vanessa antiopa, a Montagu’s
Harrier, or a nest of raven’s or honey-buzzard’s eggs.
The error lies in making the habitat of a rare plant
publicly known. When will kind-hearted botanists
learn that it is a grand mistake to publish the exact
habitat of a rare or local species ? It is disheartening
enough to know that a plant is gradually becoming
more and more scarce in a district, yet it is some con-
solation to know that it grows in other parts; but
what must be the feeling of all right-minded botanists
on learning that the only spot in the kingdom in
which a species flourishes is being rapidly and surely
shorn of its glory? Spiranthes cestivalis, compared
with other orchids, has but small pretensions to
beauty, and is far from being a conspicuous plant;
and growing in the very wettest part of a peat bog,
might have escaped destruction, and continued to
flourish for many long years to come. The (per-
haps) well-intentioned, but most injudicious, publi-
cation of half-a-dozen lines will, in all probability, be
the means of extirpating it, and robbing the British
flora of one of its brightest gems. — E. D. Marquand,
Brockenhurst.

Orobanche on Begonia. — We have in our
greenhouse an Orobanche that has arisen from the
roots of a Begonia. In the field close to the house
every year we have many Orobanche minor, arising,
we presume, from the roots of clover. We therefore
thought that it might be this plant, but from the descrip-
tion, which I send you, you will see it is not. Sepal
with no vein, or if with one vein, very indistinct ;
ovate below, narrowed into one subulate point shorter
than the tube of the corolla ; corolla tubular arcuate ;
lips denticulate, wavy ; lobes of the lower lip nearly
equal, middle one largest ; upper lip emarginate,
sides patent. Stamens inserted near to the base of
the corolla tube, slightly pilose, anthers dark brown.
Stigma approximately two-lobed, pale red. Bract

one. Leaves none. Stem purplish, four inches high.
— T. J. Edwards.

Look at the Hedgerows during June. —
Mr. Hobkirk some few years since, in the pages of
the “Naturalist,” gave us an admirable article on the
sub-species of the Hawthorn ; until then they ap-
peared to be overlooked by British botanists, or they
merely regarded them as a single species. For several
years they have furnished to us matter for thought
and study, so that now we can generally when riding
rapidly along the lanes point out any of the species,
or varieties, when in flower. What we particularly
wish, in fact our object in drawing the attention of
our readers to them, is to ascertain their distribution.
For the present, and as the space at our command
must be limited, we describe only two of the species,
probably both will be discovered in many counties : —
i. Craicegus oxyacanthoides, T hi til, may be recognised
with ease, by having from two to three carpels, and
the peduncles and calyx tube being glabrous or
smooth. — 2. Cratcegus monogyna, yacq. Carpel
solitary, peduncles and calyx pubescent (clothed
with fine down). The leaves are large, and deeply
lobed. No. 2 is our common species in the North
of England, No. 1 more rare. — F.

Fertilization of Mergenia Erecta. — At a
recent meeting of the Linnaean Society, Mr. R. I.
Lynch read a paper on the mechanism for the fer-
tilization .of the above plant. It is a West African
Acanthaceous shrub, bearing funnel-shaped corollas,
with hairy anthers midway in the tube, their backs
pressed against the wall. The lower slender flexible
style has its double-lipped stigma so formed and
placed, that insects alighting and entering towards the
nectar at the bottom of the flower, on their return so
move the lever-lip of the stigma as to produce pol-
lenization.

Position of the Pasque Flower. — I have
noticed that whenever I have found the Anemone
Pulsatilla it has always grown in belts of a certain
altitude, as for instance : last year on the Blewberry
Downs I found the above specimen ; it was growing
in a belt at about 40 feet elevation, and the belt only
being about 25 or 30 feet broad. I was rather sur-
prised at this, and determined to take notice this year ;
I have done so, and again noticed the same pecu-
liarity. I have never found one out of the belt. I
have consulted many Botanies, but have seen no
record of so marked a peculiarity in this specimen.
The question is whether this is a universal fact or
only a partial one, occurring only in the localities in
which I have found the Pasque Flower. — Albert
Henry Barrett.

Experiment with Mistletoe Berries. —
Having just been making an experiment with the
above, I thought it probable that some of the

140

HARD WICKE ’S S Cl E NCE - G 0 SSIE,

readers of Science-Gossip might be interested there-
with. About a fortnight after Christmas I took some
mistletoe berries, which had already done duty as
decorations during the festive season, and squeezing
each one separately, applied it to a branch or twig
of a little hawthorn hedge. This hedge is now about
three years old and is in vigorous growth. I applied,
altogether, about two dozen seeds, without opening
any of the bark at all, and left them to maintain their
position by means of the viscous matter surrounding
them. For a long time I could observe no outward
difference on them, with the exception that they
seemed to be swelling, so I had hope that life was
present. About this period I one day observed that
two or three of them had been pecked out by the
birds. However, as I did not notice any more
marauding behaviour of this kind, I am hopeful that
a considerable percentage of the seed thus sown may
grow. The next step in the way of progress — the
seeds in addition to having become considerably
swollen became of a bright green colour, and on
several of the finest I could distinctly make out the
lobed character which the cotyledons still wrapped
together are beginning to assume. Last week, as I
was making one of my daily inspections, I became
aware of several of the little seeds having effected
a junction with the branches they are attached to.
Since then I have observed more of them, and I am
congratulating myself that my venture will succeed.
As the hedge is now fast becoming green it daily
becomes a more difficult matter to find out the where-
abouts of my friends. I must now wait to the end of
the year, when the Hawthorn puts on its winter garb,
before I shall be able to count how many have
“taken.” As Devonshire is famous for producing
very little of the mystic parasite, I have had the more
pleasure in my pursuit, and hope that the “ Mistletoe
Bough ” may become a permanent denizen of my
hedge. — J. Mills Higgins, Silverton , Devon.

GEOLOGY,

Gold in New Guinea. — The discovery of gold
in this hitherto unknown country promises, ere long,
to make us better acquainted with its natural history
and mineral productions. Expeditions are being
fitted out, both in Australia and New Zealand, for
the exploration of the interior, and the collection of
general trustworthy information.

Ancient Vegetation. — Professor Claypole has
found the remains of Lepidodendron-like plants in
the Clinton limestones of Ohio, belonging to the
Upper Silurian period. The provisional name of
Glyptodendron has been given to this, the oldest
known American plant. As representing arborescent
vegetation, it may be regarded as the oldest known
specimen in the world.

Fossil Insects. — Mr. Scudder is preparing a
work on the fossil insects of America. He has
recently spent a couple of months in the Western
Territories, collecting fossil insects. Six to seven
thousand specimens were obtained from Florissant ;
all being remarkable for their beautiful preservation.
There is every reason to believe that the tertiary
strata of the Rocky Mountains are richer in the
remains of fossil insects than any other part of the
world. Mr. Scudder possesses more than twelve
thousand specimens.

Fossil Fresii-Water Sponges. — - Mr. J. T.
Young, F.G.S., announces the discovery of spiculm
of fresh-water sponges in the so-called “ flints ” found
in the Purbeck limestones. The spicules are like
those of Spongilla fluviatilis , only larger. This is
the first discovery of fossil fresh-water sponges in
Great Britain. Mr. Young has called his specimen
Spongilla Pm beckensis .

NOTES AND QUERIES,

Irish Wolf-dogs. — Will any one kindly inform
me if the above dogs are extinct ; if not, to whom
they belong? — L. M.

How to Make Plaster Casts of Fish, &c. —
I have read with much interest your article in Science-
Gossip on the making of “ Plaster Casts of Fishes.”
Being a user of plaster in my occupation as a dentist,
I venture to give you a better plan of managing that
material. The process of mixing water with plaster
should be as follows : — Put water first into the mixing
vessel, and then add the plaster to it by shaking it
from a scoop as evenly as you can into all parts of the
water (in large quantities through a sieve), until the
dry plaster floats on the surface ; stir it slowly a little ;
then you have the proper quantity to make it of the
consistence of cream, which is also the proper consist-
ence to use for casting ; then shake or jar the vessel
a little, and let it stand for a few seconds to get rid of
air-bubbles. The plaster, in this state, will give
plenty of time to mix more and add if necessary.
You may use any quality ; but I should prefer “super-
fine,” 9s. per cwt. Trusting this will facilitate your
interesting work. — E. R. Pearce.

A Plague of Flies. — A small district, lying in
the counties of Antrim and Derry, has this spring
been afflicted with a plague of flies, entailing both
inconvenience and loss to the inhabitants. The area
affected was the river Bann, for about a mile and a
half of its course, near Kilrea, and the pastures
adjoining. The stones and plants in the river were
completely encrusted with the pupa-cases of the
insects, from which they issued in millions and
attacked both men and cattle. The latter had to be
removed from the vicinity, and many of the people
had their heads and necks much swollen, owing to
the venomous nature of the sting with which the
insect was armed. The flies lived only for a few
days, and left their dead carcases heaped up on the
river banks, in some places three inches deep ; they
have now (1st May) almost disappeared. Some of
thdse supposed to be wdse in such matters think that
these flies have had their origin in the battle-fields of
Turkey ; others that their advent is a portent of omin-

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

ous coming disasters. I enclose specimens of the flies,
and also of the pupa-cases : I presume they belong
to the Tabctnidce , or horse-flies ; but why have they
appeared in such force, and taken possession of the
limited area referred to, where they had not attracted
attention previously ? — S. A. Stewart , North- street ,
Belfast.

Removing Surplus Balsam. — Allow me to call
the attention of those microscopists who mount their
own objects, to a most useful and effective implement
for removing surplus balsam. It is the invention of
Mr. Carey, of Norwood, and can be seen, by his
permission, at Mr. Baker’s, 244, High Holborn. I
call it “The Carey Scraper.” In using it, heat accord-
ing to the hardness of the balsam, and run the scraper
round the edge of the covering-glass, wiping off the
removed balsam on a piece of paper. It comes off
freely, and leaves but very little on the slide to be fin-
ished off by benzole or other spirit. — John Bramhall.

Natterjack Toad on the Shores of the
Solway Firth (p. 67). — Sir William Jardine
mentions the Natterjack as occurring “in a marsh
on the coast of the Solway Firth, almost brackish,
and within a hundred yards of spring-tide high-water
mark. It lies between the village of Carse and
Sotherness Point, where I have found them for six
or seven miles along the coast. They are very
abundant.” The late Mr. Edward Newman also, in ;
an article on the Natterjack published in the “ Zoolo-
gist ” for June, 1869, writes : — “In Scotland it has
been found abundant on the coasts of the Solway
Firth.” — W. R. Tate, Blandford.

The Natterjack Toad in Cumberland. — I
have for several years known of the existence of this
toad on the shores of the Solway, at Silloth, a few
miles from the locality noticed by your correspondent,
Mr. Duckworth. I have from time to time obtained
specimens by digging them out of the sand, where
they hide during the day. They are found in
burrows, sometimes a foot or more deep, opening
usually at the top of a “scree” of sand, just beneath
the overhanging turf. I have found from one to
three toads in each hole. Last June I found that
they frequented a pond near the railway station by
hundreds. Their croaking, which was intermittent,
beginning suddenly and ceasing as abruptly after two
or three minutes, could be heard on a still evening
more than 500 yards away. This toad, like the
common one, has the chameleon-like property of
being able to adapt its colour to surrounding circum-
stances. Those found in the sand were of a beautiful
light grey, almost without any spots. Those found
amid the moss and slime of the pond had large
blotches of greenish yellow, not at all improving to
their appearance. — T. Lattimer.

Wood-Pigeons’ Nests. — I was much interested
a few days ago, in seeing a pair of wood-pigeons that
are building a nest in a tree, in a garden a few feet
from the backs of houses and a public road, and not
many hundred yards from a large railway station and
a busy thoroughfare, with tram-cars and omnibuses to
the City and West End. Is it not curious that birds,
so associated in our minds with peaceful country
scenes, should choose a spot so very near the great
desert of bricks and mortar? If the poor birds are
unmolested and hatch their young, what long
distances they must travel to procure food enough for
them. — Id. Budge.

The Whitethroat a Mimic. — A curious inci-
dent occurred to my observation on Saturday

141

afternoon, 4th May. While walking across a mea-
dow I heard, proceeding from the hedge on the far
side, a variety of guttural sounds, in which I recog-
nised the song of the whitethroat ( Currnca cinerea), but
it was strangely interrupted by the alarm notes of the
common swallow, sparrow, green and grey linnets,
greater and lesser tits, and possibly a few others
which I did not recognise. At first I was convinced
that the several species were present. I drove the
whitethroat out of the hedge, upon which he pro-
ceeded to a neighbouring one, and there resumed his
imitations. Being anxious to make sure of this, I
lay down near the hedge where I formerly heard him.
In a short time he returned to it, and I had a favour-
able opportunity of seeing him. I watched him
long enough to convince myself that every note
proceeded from the same species. This peculiar
characteristic of this bird I do not find mentioned in
any books on ornithology which I have read. — John
D. Osborne, Can ickfergus, Co. Antrim.

The Botany of the Channel Islands. — In
reply to your correspondent’s first query under above
heading. — Living in the Islands is not expensive. To
his second : — At a farmhouse, or private lodgings, by
all means. If J. Camber will send me his address I
shall no doubt be able to give him all the information
he requires. — J. Sine!, Bagot, Jersey.

Aquarium for Microscopic Work. — I use
leech vases about eight inches in diameter, which I
get from the chemist for three and sixpence each. I
think W. D. B. would find two or three such vases
better than a larger aquarium. Among several other
advantages specimens can be kept separate, and the
bottom of the vase reached with the dipping tube. —
Richard B. Croft.

R. F icaritEFORM is. — If some correspondent
would kindly give the specific characteristics of this
plant in Science-Gossip, it would facilitate search
for it in the South of England. — F. H. A.

Pairing of Birds. — I deny altogether that we
have any proof that fowls have the slightest regard
for the best fighting cock, or for the superior beauty
of one male over another. Such ideas are totally
opposed to science and to truth. — C. R. Bree, M.D.

Colias Edusa and its Varieties. — The great
abundance of this graceful butterfly during the past
season has offered to entomologists more opportunities
of studying its nature and habits than they have had
for several years. The question naturally arises : — to
what cause are we to impute the strange appearance
in such numbers of this once-prized insect ? Many
are the theories that have been brought forward to
account for it, but the solution of this entomological
problem seems as far off as ever. Although the
investigation of it has been carried on for many years,
we have no explanation of this phenomenon that we
can receive with any particular amount of credit.
The suggestion that the insect we find here has
crossed the Channel, tempted by the fineness and
heat of an English summer, certainly cannot be put
forward as an argument in the case of last year. But
to dilate upon, or even to mention, the numerous
theories that have been brought forward to account
for this would occupy more time and space than I
have at my disposal. Another fact may be men-
tioned, namely, that the number of males taken was
very nearly double that of the females. The differ-
ence in the appearance of these is much greater than
one at first sight would suppose. The most striking

142

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

distinction is that the male has each of its wings
edged with a black border, unbroken except by very
fine yellow lines that are a continuation of the veins.
In the female this border is broken by greenish-
yellow patches, varying in size in different speci-
mens. Besides this there is another less striking
difference, namely, that at the root of each hind wing
in the male there is a light yellow spot, of which
there is no trace in the female. In the Science-
Gossip for last December one of your correspondents
remarks that he noticed in a specimen of this butter-
fly that the hind wings were suffused with a rosy
purple lustre. If he will carefully examine his speci-
mens, he will find this apparent peculiarity is common
in a greater or less degree to every specimen of the
male insect. Those male butterflies that had very
lately emerged from the chrysalis would display it
most vividly, while in the female there is not the
least trace of it. — C. E. B. Hewitt , Birmingham.

Preserving Skins. — Skins of small birds may
be preserved by dipping wool in carbolic acid, and
stuffing the birds with the same. — J. Y.

The Mighty Deep. — In your issue for April, I
find a very interesting paper on this subject from
Mr. A. Ramsay. Will you permit me to offer to
him, and to your readers, a brief remark upon it ?
Mr. Ramsay says — “The great bulk of the sea is
cencentrated in the Southern hemisphere ” — and on
the authority of several authors he gives the most
probable mean depth at about 2,600 fathoms. In
the reports from the Challenger, as published by the
Admiralty, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7, the mean depth of 446
soundings is about 1,716 fathoms 4 feet 1 inch. I have,
put down in the Geographical Magazine for March,
page 66, the mean depth of the Northern hemisphere
at about 1,907, and of the Southern at 1,642
fathoms ; giving a mean depth all round the world
of 1,774 fathoms 3 feet. The two means do not
coincide, because I omitted certain coast soundings
in the latter calculations. It follows, that the
volume, as given by Mr. Ramsay, must be wrong;
and though the surface-water area is more extensive
in the South, the bulk of water is about the same in
both hemispheres. The deepest water in the North
is 4,575, in the South 2,900 fathoms ; in the Arctic
regions 1,860, in the Antarctic 1,800. There is water
round the North Pole, and land round the South.
The equilibrium of the globe seems perfect. The
mean depth of the ocean, beyond coast soundings,
may be put down at 1,750 fathoms; very nearly two
miles. If Mr. A. Ramsay can turn his attention to
the Geological Survey report of the Winter Moun-
tains, as published at Washington, U.S., he will find
some curious facts as to the depth of water in those
regions in times long past. — H. P. Malet.

The Natterjack Toad. — Can you tell me if it
is true that the Natterjack toad (. Bufo calamita ) gives
forth a most intolerable odour when handled or
frightened ? I should be much obliged, too, if you
could inform me of any place near London where this
reptile may be met with. — J. Perry cap.

Our British Snakes. — In answer to a ques-
tion put in the February number of the Science-
Gossip as to whether our British snakes eat birds or
mice, I can state positively that the viper eats both.
In 1876 I killed a viper, which I found to contain
six young willow wrens, feathered, and within a few
days of flying. Last year I killed a young one, which
contained a large long-tailed field mouse. Can any
of your readers give me any information as to how

or why the blind -worm carries its young in a case,
in its back, and how long this continues ? and do either
the viper or ringed snake do the same ?

Remarkable Nests. — This year we have noticed
three curious instances of a departure from the usual
habits of bh'ds in building their nests, which seem
worth recording. The song-thrush lines her nest with
cow-dung and clay ; and it is usually considered by
ornithologists that, as she builds very early in the
spring and frequently in exposed situations, the mud
lining protects the eggs and the young brood from the
fierce March winds. Early in March we found a
thrush’s nest in our garden, containing four eggs ; but
the nest had not a vestige of the usual mud lining.
Unfortunately we found the nest destroyed one morn-
ing before the bird had time to hatch, so it was
impossible to note whether the inclement weather
had any effect on the eggs. We have at this moment
a blackbird sitting upon six eggs, four of which are
her own and the other two those of the song-thrush.
When first the nest was found it contained two of
each kind, a thrush having laid in the blackbird’s
nest. Although sparrows will sometimes appropriate
swallow’s nests to build in, and though several birds
will build a new nest on an old foundation, it is, I
think, very unusual for one species — the cuckoo, of
course, excepted — to make use of a nest built by
another species. The third curiosity in nest-building
is the nest of a chaffinch, placed in the fork of an
elder-bush near our house. Usually the chaffinch
assimilates the colour of her nest to the situation in
which she places it ; if she builds in a hedge she
generally covers it with green moss ; but if she builds,
as she often does, on the bare branch of an old apple-
tree, she uses the grey lichens, -which are usually near
at hand, and covers her nest with them so skilfully
that though quite open and exposed it becomes hidden
by its resemblance to a knob or excrescence of the
tree itself. In this case, however, though the bird
has recognised the necessity of covering her nest with
so?nething, she has rendered it most conspicuous by
sticking little bits of white decayed wood all over it.
The wood is so white that the nest looks almost like
a snowball in the branches. Possibly this bird may
be colour-blind, or she maybe just a little bit “ want-
ing” in her instinctive faculties, as human beings are
occasionally in their reasoning powers. Why not ? —
Robert Holland , Norton Hill , Runcorn.

How LONG CAN A FlSH LIVE OUT OF WATER? —
A friend of mine some days since removed a gold-fish
from a glass globe, on account of its having mildew
(probably a parasitic growth of Epistylis). It was
placed in a basin of water at night on the kitchen
dresser. In the morning, at six o’clock, my friend
discovered the fish was missing from the basin, and
could be nowhere found. At past twelve o’clock at
noon the fish was discovered behind some plates
under the dresser ; as it moved when handled it was
placed in water, when it gradually revived, and is
now as lively as ever. This unfortunate fish was
certainly above six hours, possibly much more, out
of its proper element, and in my experience I have
never known one to survive one quarter that time. —
Henry Taylor, Peckham.

Sparrow-Hawks and Windows.— On hearing
a dash against a plate-glass window in an adjoining
room, I found a sparrow-hawk lying on its back,
stunned, with its wings extended ; taking it carefully
up, after holding it in my hands for a minute I
placed it on its legs close by a plate of water ; it
gradually recovered, tried its legs, and in about ten

HARD WI CKES SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

i43

minutes flew away. Kindness to it, was I fear,
cruelty to other birds. — A Subscriber.

Early Appearance of the Swift. — I was
agreeably surprised this morning (May 1st) by the
premature spectacle of a swift ( Cypselus apus) hawk-
ing over this town. This is the more singular, from
the fact that the other summer migrants have been
unusually late in their arrival in this neighbourhood.
The swallows appeared first on April 19th. I heard
the cuckoo for the first time on April 26th, and the
nightingale on the 28th.' — W. R. Tate, Blandford.

What is tile best Mixture for “ Sugar-
ing ” ? — I have generally used coarse sugar, beer,
and rum. Can any of your readers suggest anything
more attractive for moths ? Is it ever successful
•except in autumn? — Walter W. Walter, The Gables ,
Stoke - tinder- Ha m .

How to Destroy Ants. — Can any of your
readers inform me of the most successful mode of
destroying ants, so great a nuisance to many house-
holders?— George Pearce.

“Dittany,” &c. — Will some botanical expert
assist me to the exact name of the species of ‘ ‘ Dit-
tany” or “ Dittander,” and ‘ ‘ DictamiuiF' ? The
words frequently occur in the Elizabethan writers ;
but as their learned modern editors hold all natural
history in contempt, they merely copy from the old
dictionaries one after the other. The synonyms are
all confused ; as Floris says dittany is garden rue,
while Cotgrave gives garden ginger, peppermint,
-&c. ; then Halliwell says, the first is cayenne
pepper, and another authority that there is no such
thing; and Bentham (Handbook) adds that Dittany
is “the Fraxinella of Gardens, ” and not a British spe-
cies, while Dictamium is always got over as a bastard
■sort of Dittany. Also, what species is the Man-
drake, so common of mention by our early poets ?
Bentham has merely, “ Mandragora, an exotic”;
nnd your notice of the “ Rolls MS.” says “ White
Bryony,” a name not found in Bentham or Sowerby’s
“ Wild-Flowers.” The glossaries, of course, afford
no help as to species. The English Dialect Society
have long promised us a book of “ Plant names,”
under the most competent editorship, but the long
delay makes us despair of it in any reasonable
time. — Henry F. Bailey.

Aquarium Matters. — Your correspondent Ed-
ward Step seems to have been lucky in hitting upon
a mode of keeping aquaria without difficulty, and I
am glad his system gives him satisfaction ; but I j
think, if his washing-tub arrangement is correct,
most of the readers of his letter, with any knowledge
•of the subject, will think that he is deluding himself
with the idea that he is keeping aquaria, whereas he
is only keeping a small ditch ; for, that water can be
kept clear and inodorous for any length of time in
a tub in which there are all sorts of aquatic plants,
animals, insects, &c., I much question ; and that such
fish as dace, roach, perch, trout, &c. will live many
days in such water, my experience makes me deny.
The tub, mud, and water arrangement may do very
well for Edward Step if he only wants to keep objects
for the microscope, but to fill a vessel with mud and
water, and to place in it animals, fish, snails, insects,
and plants, irrespective of quantity or selection, and
let them fight and devour each other until they have
•established what he calls the balance of power, is
about the queerest way of keeping aquaria I know of.

It is acting upon such injudicious advice that has
made aquaria-keeping so rare in private houses.

People have been told that they have only to get
a vase or glass tank, fill it with water, put
some mud or sand at the bottom, place water, plants,
snails, fish, caddis-worms, reptiles, beetles, or any-
thing they find in a river, ditch, or pond in it, and
they will at once have a thing of beauty and a joy
for ever : they do so, and, after weeks of patient
waiting, they find they are keeping a mass of slimy
decaying plants, dead fish, &c., in water which the
wife or housekeeper declares is not only very odorous
but very dangerous. If fresh-water aquaria are to
be kept to be of any use or pleasure, they must
be so upon a judicious selection of situation, plants,
and live stock, which live stock are most accustomed
to still waters, and if your correspondent had had
a little more field and river experience before setting
up his tub, he would, perhaps, have discovered that
there are plants of the river, pond, ditch, and stream;
and fish, mollusks, &c., of the same, each having its
own habitat in which it will flourish. — Ben Plant,
The Crescent , Leicester.

V. AntiopA. — I always thought that the dif-
ference between a foreign and a British specimen ot
the above-named insect was, that the former had a
cream- coloured margin, and the latter had a white
one ; but during the last few months I have been
often told that there is no difference. I should be
much obliged if some of your entomological readers
would give me an answer. — W. R. Morse, Norwich.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS,

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

Science-Gossip Botanical Exchange Club. — We shall be
glad to receive the names of all intending members. The sub-
scription (5s.) is intended to cover expenses of carriage of speci-
mens to and from those botanists who are engaged in naming
them, postage, printing, &c. The scientific labour is in every
instance gratuitously given. It has been thought, however,
that even this sum might be too great for some members, and
it is therefore decided that in the cases of bona Jide working
men, who may desire to become members, the fee shall be
reduced to 2s. 6d. We feel certain that all members will at
least desire that the Club shall be self-supporting.

W. H. L. (Bristol). — Your letter contained nothing but some
granular red powder.

C. Gould. — The “Trumpet,” or “cup-moss” as it is also
called, is not a moss but a lichen, called Cooiomyce pixidata.

X. — The spider’s threads used for astronomical purposes are
those of the Common Garden Spider.

J. W. — The specimen is that of the Common Primrose. Your
other flower is that of the Wood Sorrel ( Oxalis acetosella ) ;
and your fern the Maiden-hair Spleenwort ( Asplenium tricho-
vianes). Get Mrs. Lankester’s “ Familiar Wild-Flowers,”
with coloured plates, published by Hardwicke & Bogue, 192,
Piccadilly.

W. A. Pearce (London). — The enclosed water-plant is a
pond-weed {Potamogeteu crispus).

T. H. Buffham. — The better plan would be to sow the
seeds. You would then with ease determine the species; it
will probably prove to be a Galium.

A. B. (Kelso, N.B.). — Thanks for your kind suggestions ; in
a few days we hope to send out the Rules of our S.-G. Bot.
Ex. Club ; we beg to acknowledge Callitriche hamulata.

R. F. Z. (Salisbury). — It is difficult to state why the leaf is
discoloured, however we find the cells in the parenchyma are
devoid of chlorophyll, excepting on one side, then only in very
small quantity ; you will be able to prepare a good microscopic
object from the white part.

E. H. (Stepney). — Procure “ The Flora of Faversham, Kent ” ;
it is a most interesting and readable volume.

D. McD. (Edinburgh). — We have a very old proverb, well
known in many parts of England, “When the gorse is out
of bloom, kissing is out of favour.” The latter part is varied,
as “ kissing is not in fashion.”

144

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

S. B. (Oxford). — A few slugs and small worms for the
common snake and blindworm will serve admirably as food.
The same kind of food, with such dead flies as may be picked
up from the windows during the summer, will supply the
lizards. Keep both dry moss and sand at the bottom of
your box.

“Arinas.” — We cannot undertake to say what the object
you mention is without seeing it. It may be a fungus, but
could only decide upon seeing it.

F. L. St. A. — The Fritillary is a variety of F. meleagris.
The fungus is Polyporus betuliuus.

J. G. J. — Your beetles to hand. The larger one is Dytiscus
marginalis (male) ; and the smaller is Acilius sulcatns.

B. M. O. — Your mosses are as follows : — A. Hypnum sylva-
ticum; B. Tortilla muralis ; C. & D. Hypnum palustre ;
E. Weissia controversa ; F. Hypnum serpens ; G. Fissidens
viridulns ; H. Bryum atropurpureum ; I. Polytrichum
commune.

W. E. Green. — Your mosses are: — i. Tortula nitida ; 2.
Bryum pseudotriquetriim ; 3. Hypnum albicans ; 4. Hypnum
prcelongum; 5. Hypnum Kneiffii ; 6 & 7. Hypnum cupres-
siforme ; 8. Hypnum Swartzii, B.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted sections of common woods, bone teeth, &c., fora-
minifera, feet and parts of insects, diatomaceous earths, &c.,
in exchange for well-mounted slides. — C. W. Lawton, 200,
Essex-road, Islington, London.

One-holed eggs of Dipper, Wheatear, Creeper, Long-tailed
Tit, Pied, Yellow, and Grey Wagtails, Red-winged Starling,
Rook, Jackdaw, Magpie, Golden-winged Woodpecker, King-
fisher, Stock Dove, Turtle Dove, &c., &c., to exchange for
Nightingales, Reed Wren, Owls, Wrynecks, or other eggs. — J.
F. Pratt, Westgate, Ripon.

Colorado Potato Beetles. Unset specimens to exchange
for examples illustrating Economic Entomology.— R. S. Hul-
bert, 40, Catherine-street, Strand, W.C.

Material for slide of crystals for Polariscope in exchange
for good unmounted Entomological object (not wing). — Wm.
Sargant, junr-., Caverswall, Stoke-on-Trent.

Birds’ Eggs, side-blown. Well-marked specimens, labelled,
300 varieties. Exchange for others new to collection. Send
at once for my list. All letters answered. — H. Sissons, West-
bourne-road, Sheffield.

J. W. Bulmer, near the Church, Northallerton, Yorks, will
exchange small screw printing-press, type, &c., also bird
eggs, for gold fish and other small fish for aquarium or fish-
globe.

For Gomphonema geminatum, as collected, send stamped
envelope with micro-object of interest, or a well-mounted slide
in exchange. — James Simpson, 48, Arthur-street, Dumbiedykes-
road, Edinburgh.

Poa bulbosa and Coryucphorus cauescens for 1479, 1483, 1484-
1487 and other rare grasses, London Catalogue, 7th Edition. —
J. Keogh, 25, Camperdown-place, Great Yarmouth.

For well-mounted palate of land-snail or slug send good
slide, not diatoms or polariscope object. — Henry Insley, 1,
Back Chester-place, Gerrard-street, Birmingham.

Larvae of Quercus, Salicis, Dispar, Monacha, Castrensis,
Trepida, Caruleocephala, &c., for Lepidoptera in any stage ;
or good Bird Eggs. — Roland Green.

Wanted diatoms mounted or unmounted, or any thing of
interest, for crystals mounted, diatoms mounted in situ, zoo-
phytes’ palates mounted or unmounted, starches to show the
adulterations of food, & c. — Arthur Smith, 198, Essex-road,
Islington.

For insects mounted whole send mounted slides, clean, of
diatoms, eyes of insects, diatom mounted in situ, &c. Only a
limited number to exchange. Apply early. — Albert Smith,
198, Essex-road, London.

I have Science-Gossip 1877, bound, photo of Darwin, two
dippers (skins), and green woodpecker and Ray’s wagtail
(wired). Wanted British Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, side-blown
birds’ eggs, or mounted diatoms. — W. Barrett Roue, 165, White
Ladies-road, Bristol.

Wanted in exchange for Science-Gossifs, Grattan’s
“ British Marine Algae,” either bound or unbound. — John
D. Duthie, Stonehaven, N.B.

Wanted side-blown eggs in large quantities, every variety
almost. Exchange as may be arranged. Correspondence
answered from all parts, especially foreign. — John Wm. Sissons,
Sharron, Sheffield.

Rare and local Suffolk plants during the season for exchange.
Now ready Nos. 1039, 1337- Shall be glad to hear from former
correspondents. — W. Jordan, Cockfield, Sudbury, Suffolk.

Science-Gossip for 1876 and 1877 offered in exchange for
fossils or shells. — A. Harker, Spring Bank, Hull.

Rare Zoophytes and cleaned Foraminifera wanted. Will
give in exchange good wood sections, soundings, and other
material. — H. L., 6, Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, W.

For slide of parasite of horse ( Trichodectes equi) send a
well-mounted parasite to W. A. Hyslop, 22, Palmerston-place,
Edinburgh.

! London Catalogue, Nos. (7th Edition) 20, 27, 35 with
; bulbils, 93, 96, 203, 206, 299, 301, 398, 352, 516, 532, 550, 608,
645, 671, 726, 932, 995, 1015, 1169, 1387, 1405, 1442, 1452, 1501,
1586, 1623, 1652, offered for 10, n, 46, 47, 48, 56, 66, 68, 92,
j 104, 116, 131, 251, 264, 270, 358, 360, 365, 369, 374, 396, 474,
495, 502, 566, 574, 590, 600, 620.— Wm. West, 15, Horton-lane,
Bradford.

Asarum Europanm or Asarabacca. Specimens of this rare
British plant in exchange for others of equal rarity, ferns pre-
ferred.— James W. Lloyd, Kington, Herefordshire.

Seventh Edition London Catalogue, Juncus pygmcus,
Carex capillaris, and others. — L. Tellow, 19, Radclyffe-street,
Oldham.

For a slide of C. and Anchorate spicules send some object
of interest, Foraminifera preferred. — A. Alletsee, 11, Foley-
street, London, W.

Either living or mounted specimens of Zonites cellarius,
Zonites excavatus, for either pupce, larva, or imagos of moths
or butterflies, British or Foreign, or other offers. — T., 26, Parker-
street, Warrington. ^

Noel Humphreys’ “British Moths,” Macro and Micro,
splendidly coloured. Wanted eye-piece or object glass for
microscope. — W. Harper, Norfolk-park, Maidenhead.

Wanted parts of Foreign Beetles and Butterflies, Forami-
nifera, Zoophytes. Stained anatomical preparations and a.11
kinds of unmounted material in exchange for good specimens. —
Alpha, 16, Brunswick-street, Poplar, London, E.

Eggs of sparrowhawk, bullfinch, common bunting, red
wagtail, chiffchaff, &c,, in exchange for others. — G. B. Wood,
Lindow Grove, Alderley Edge, near Manchester.

Wanted Bulimus Reevei and Bulimus Portei and other
Philippine land shells. Many rare species offered in exchange,
British and Foreign.— Address, F. M. Hele, Fairlight, Elm-
grove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

A naturalist, who is going on a dredging cruise round
the South and West coast of England, would be glad to hear
from a gentleman having similar tastes who would be willing
to join him and pay a small part of the expense. For further
particulars address C. P. Ogilvie, F.L.S., Sizewell House,
Leiston, Suffolk.

Salix alba, var. ccerulea, offered for other good plants ;
rare species of Rubus, Rosa, Pyrus, Carduus, Hieracum,
Salix, Scirpus,’ and Carex especially desired. — E. W. Andrews,
University School, Hastings.

Wanted, Science-Gossip for 1874-5-6, except Oct., Nov.,
and Dec. 1876. Offered, double the number of weekly parts
of “Nature” and a quantity of consecutive numbers of the
“ Garden,” or offers.

For disposal, at a very cheap rate, a beautiful series of
polished sections of Carboniferous corals from Clifton, Bristol.
— Apply to S. G. Perceval, Henbury, Bristol.

L. C., Nos. 135, 209, 235, 253, 555, 556, 577, 581, 605, 653,
683, and many others, for other rare plants. List exchanged. —
J.Tempere, 10, Heald-place, Rusholme, Manchester.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“Flowers: their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours.”
By J. E. Taylor, Ph. D., F.L.S., &c. London : Hardwicke &:
Bogue. Price 7s. 6d.

“Tropical Nature.” By A. R. Wallace. London: Mac-
millan & Co. Price 12s.

“ Nutrition in Health and Disease.” By Dr. J. H. Bennet.
Third Edition. London : J. & A. Churchill.

“ The Planisphere, and How to Use It.” London : J. E„
Catty.

“ Transactions Watford Natural History Society.”

“ Industrial Art.” May.

“ Land and Water.”

“American Naturalist.” April.

“ Potter’s American Monthly.” April.

“ Familiar Science and Fancier’s Journal.”

“ Science pour Tous.”

“ Chambers’ Journal.” May.

&c. &c. & c.

Communications received up to 9TH ult., from : —
F. K.— T. McG. — W. B. R.— J. S.— N. B. C.— G. T. B.—
R. G.-R. L. H.— L. J.— J. P. G.— W. H.— G. B. W.—
E. H.— W. W.— A. A.— D. J. P.— J. D. O.— A. H.— J. W. W.
-W. H. L.— J. H. A. J.— L. T.— J. S.— J. W. R.— H. L.—
W. R. T.— W. B.— T. P.— G. C. D.— H. L. S.— J. B.—
W. A. P.— H. R. P.— H. I.-W. B. B.— W. B. G.— J. W. S.
— W. J.— T. H. B.— H. T. S.— J. V.— Z. L. E.— F. R. M.—
A. S.— A. C.— F. M. H.-S. A. S.— L. S. F,.— H. C. C.—
J. D.~ R. H.— Dr. de C.— E. D. M.— H. P. M.-W. A. H.—
J. W. L.— H. E. W.— J. A. K.— H. L.— J. M. H.— T. L.—
H. B.— C. G.— J. D. D.— J. K.-J. H.— A. H. B. -H. T.—
W. H. B.— J. K.— Dr. B.— J. F. R.-R. B. C.— C. W. L.
— F. H. A.— J. F. P.— S. B. A.-H. S.— H. J. J. L.— F. A.
St. A.— A. P. W.— E. R. P.— J. G. J.— E. E. E.— W. S. jun.
— W. S. F.— J. W. B.— W. S.— H. F. B.— J. B. G.— R. S.H.
—Dr. L. G. M.— R. M.— &c. &c. &c.

BARD WICKEDS SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

J45

THE PRONUNCIATION OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES,

HE question as to ‘ ‘ the pro-
nunciation of scientific
names ” which has been
raised and discussed in
some of your recent
numbers, is one in which
I take a considerable
interest. The subject is
only one branch of the
much larger question now
being freely discussed
amongst scholars— the proper pronunciation of
Greek and Latin words generally — whilst, under
another aspect, it is only one branch of that
well-named “Opprobrium Botanicorum ” — the
subject of botanical nomenclature, a subject upon
which I have a few crotchets, which I should be
glad, on some future occasion, to have the oppor-
tunity of airing in your journal.

Your correspondent Mr. Newlyn makes two assump-
tions, from both of which I beg leave to differ. First,
he assumes that we have no means, except accentuation
(by which, from his reference to “the poets,” he
plainly means quantity ), to guide us to a knowledge
of the mode of pronunciation which the Greeks and
Romans themselves adopted : and, secondly, he as-
sumes that “university men” at the present day
acquiesce in the barbarous practice of English
scholars during the two or three last centuries
only, of pronouncing Greek and Latin words as if
they were English ; whereas those who know the
Universities know well that both there, and in our
large public schools, a sturdy effort is being made to
bring back the pronunciation of Greek and Latin
words to what we have good I'easons for knowing, or
believing, was the actual pronunciation in a Greek
or Roman mouth of classical times. And to those
who give themselves to the study of the subject,
indications of the old method of pronunciation are
not ^wanting ; although the difficulty of arriving at
a satisfactory solution is greatly increased by the fact
that then, as now, the pronunciation in different
No. 163.

provinces at the same time, and in the same province
at different times, varied considerably.

However, means for recovering the old pronuncia-
tion are not wanting to those who are on the look-
; out for them. One principal source of information
is the mode in which the ancients represent natural
sounds, which certainly have never changed, and for
the vowel sounds this alone is almost sufficient. Thus,
Aristophanes, in the “ Acharnians,” introduces a
countryman with a pig under his arm. And the
I part assigned to the pig is written (I write in Roman,
not in Greek letters) ko'i — koi — koi : now let any one
repeat ko-ee, ko-ee, ko-ee, several times, rapidly,
and he will find that it gives perfectly the sound of a
pig’s squeak, and leaves no room for doubt that by
Aristophanes and his contemporaries the letter i was
pronounced ee. Again, the Latin word for a breast
is mamma. And there can be no question that a
Roman infant called for the breast in exactly the
same sounds as an Anglo-Saxon infant calls for the
mother who presents it to him, pronouncing the a as
ah. So — cuculus (the cuckoo), ulula (the owl),
mugire (to low like a moo- cow), supply plenty of
proof that u was sounded like double o; not as
we sound it, as if it was written yoo (which is really
a diphthong — ee-oo).

Then as to consonants. That c was always pro-
nounced hard before c and i, as well as before a , o,
and u, is manifest from many indications. Thus, it
always represents the Greek kappa, in words derived
from the Greek ; c. g. Kentauros is represented by
Centaurus. Kimmerioi becomes Cimmerii, and (by
transposition) in English Crim-Tartary and the
Crimea, which shows that the c was pronounced
hard when the transposition was made. A very
clear indication of the hardness of the c is afforded
by those very numerous places in Ireland which
begin or end with hit, such as Kilkenny, Clonkill,

& c., all of which were formerly the seat of a monas-
tery, known as Celia (alluding to the solitary cham-
bers of the monks), and proving most convincingly
that the c in cella , in the early centuries of the

H

146

HARD JVJCKE ’S SCIENCE -G OSSIE.

Christian era, was pronounced as k. Again, a joke
preserved by Quintilian serves to show that qu was
also pronounced like k, not, as in English and
modern Italian, as coo. Quintilian mentions that a
man who had formerly been a cook, but had risen in
life till he had become a great swell, Jiaving on some
occasion said something insulting to a man who knew
his origin, the latter replied, “Et tu quoque,”
where the whole force of the joke lies in the pro-
nunciation of quoque and coque being identical.

But I must not continue these illustrations at a
length which would suit a philological rather than a
natural history journal. Suffice it to say that there
is plenty of proof of the sound of all the vowels, and
of most, if not all, of the consonants. And I live in
hopes that, if not the present, the next, or perhaps
the paido-post-futurum generation will not only, by
careful research, have recovered the genuine old
pronunciation, but will make use of it in reading 01-
speaking Greek and Latin.

But when we have arrived at the conclusion of its
being both desirable and possible to pronounce Greek
and Latin literature as Greeks and Romans would
have pronounced it, it still remains to consider how
far it is either desirable or possible to pronounce
botanical, or other scientific terms, according to the
rules of genuine Greek or Latin pronunciation. As re-
gards genuine Greek or Latin words, such as Geranium ,
Hieracium , Cineraria , I know no reason, except
persistence in a vicious custom, why they should not
be pronounced in proper Greek or Latin fashion,
with the c or the g hard. But what are you to do
with the atrocious barbarisms, the disgrace of all
sciences alike, with which the bad taste of modern
times has encumbered our nomenclature ? Take such
words as Brownii , Smithii , Lecocqnii , Hookeria,
Scheuchzeria , and (worst and most frightful of all)
Warsiewiczii. No rules for the pronunciation of
Greek or Latin words will ever enable any one to
make any of these sound in the least degree like a
Latin word. And for this very good reason ; namely,
that they are not Latin words, but only English,
French, or German, slightly disguised by having a
Latin tail tacked on to them ; and reminding one
very much of the statues of old George III., with his
stiff pig-tail protruding, clad in a Roman toga, or a
Greek chlamys. With such words, as I fear it is
quite hopeless to get rid of them, the only thing to
be done is to mark their bastard and mongrel origin,
by pronouncing them, the head according to its
nationality, and the tail only in Latin fashion.

How the Romans themselves would have dealt
with these uncouth sounds we are not left to con-
jecture merely. A characteristic instance presents
itself in the place at which I am now writing, Church
Stratton, in Shropshire. Close by is a hill, on which
the British chieftain Caradoc maintained his last
fight against the Roman power. The hill still bears
his name, and is called Cacr Caradoc , the Seat of i

Caradoc. This name (with the accent on the penul-
timate syllable, according to the general rule in
Celtic words) is obviously the original of the, not
uncommon, surname of Cradock, or Craddock. Now,
suppose the discoverer of a new plant, wishing to
honour a botanist of the name of Cradock, in
all probability he would designate his discovery by
the hideous title of “ herba CradockiiP But what
did the Romans themselves do with such an unac-
commodating word ? Now it so happens that one of
the most classical of Roman writers, viz. Tacitus,
had a good deal to say about Caradoc, but he has
adapted his name to Latin ears, and speaks of him
always as Caradacus. Plentiful instances of this
adaptation of names occur even in Scripture, to
which I need not more particularly refer. The New
Testament version of Old Testament names, such as
Jesus for Joshua , Eliscus for Elisha , See. , shows the
principle upon which the writers of that age pro-
ceeded. In the time of the Renaissance they adopted
a, perhaps better, plan, wherever it could be resorted
to ; that, namely, of translating those names which
(as is the case with most) have a distinct meaning.
Thus, Ilausschein becomes CEcolampadius ; Schwarzcrd
is rendered Melancthon ; Hahn is known as Gallus ;
and so on. Now, if these writers had been botanists,
instead of theologians and musicians, and it had been
desired to commemorate them by giving their names
to plants, we should have been tortured by the bar-
baric words — Hausscheinii, Schwarzerdia , Idahnii,
Se c. &c., instead of the equally commemorative, but
far more euphonious designations of CEcolampadii,
Plelandhonia , Galli, Sec. And why cannot we now
adopt the same plan, and instead of Brown take
Fuscus, for Smith write Faker, for Hooker , Haznator,
Sec. Sec. Sec. Linnaeus himself is, no doubt, re-
sponsible for many of the uncouth names with which
botanical nomenclature abounds. But even he on
occasion could make a concession to euphony, as
witness his turning such a harsh-sounding word as
the German for a sore-throat, Breune (pronounced
Broina), into the pleasant-sounding Prunella.

But the great difficulty in the way of a correct pro-
nunciation of classical and pseudo- classical words used
in botany is undoubtedly the question of quantity ; and
it is perfectly astonishing, in turning over botanical
works, written, too, by persons who are supposed to
have some scholarship, to see the flagrant blunders and
erroneous marking of quantities which they exhibit.
Many of these are simply the result of carelessness,
and arise from the author not giving himself the
trouble to think for a moment of the real origin of a
word. Thus the very common pronunciation of
(Enothera, with the e short, arises only from the
carelessness of not remembering that the plant origi-
nally so called (by Dioscorides I think, but I have
not got him at hand to refer to) was used by the
Greeks as we use olives, to give an appetite for
wine, and thence derived its name from Oinos and

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

i47

Therao. The latter word spelt with an eta , and there-
fore as long as daylight on the 21st of June.

But the real difficulty, especially in Greek words,
or words derived from the Greek, arises from the
conflict between accent and quantity , the true prin-
ciples of reconciling which are as yet but very imper-
fectly understood. Thus, I can even find an excuse
for some persons who will pronounce the i in Veronica
short, although they know its origin (from Vera dkoii),
and that the i represents the diphthong ei. But then
the Italians throw back the accent and call the Saint
Santa Veronica (with the accent on the 0), which has
the effect, to careless ears, of making the 1 seem short.
But no such excuse can be offered for making the i in
Hypericum (from hupereikon) short, or the e long. In
words like Conium, Geranium, Hieracium, &c., in-
deed accent has beaten quantity out of the field ; and
despite the fact that the i in these words represents
the necessarily long diphthong ei, we always pro-
nounce according to accent, which is thrown back on
the ante-penultimate, just as we do in speaking of
Arius, or Alexandria, although in the original Greek
the words are Areios, Alexandreia. But what are we
to do in such a case as Sisymbrium Sophia ? Are we
to pronounce the i, according to accent, long, as we
do in the common female Christian name, or short,
according to its quantity, as we do in pronouncing
Philosophia. And the worst of it is, that even in this
matter of accent we are so abominably capricious.
Thus the tendency in English to throw back the
accent will perhaps account for our making the o in
anemone short. But why, in the world, in defiance
of this tendency, and against every rule of quantity,
do we make the a in Clematis, and the 0 in Gladiolus,
long ?

After all, however, as the great majority of com-
munications upon botanical subjects are made in
writing, it matters only to a few professors, who are
called on to deliver lectures orally, and their pupils,
how the words are pronounced. But as they are re-
garded as authorities, and their practice gradually rules
that of the ordinary run of students and amateurs, it
is a great pity that the leading men amongst them do
not establish some agreement between themselves as
to the principles which should for the future prevail
in the pronunciation (and, I would add, the forma-
tion) of classical and pseudo-classical words, adopted,
or to be adopted, into the botanical vocabulary. —
Chas. Browne.

Aquilegia. — -This word is generally believed to
be derived from the Latin root Aquila, an eagle. Is
this correct ? Is it not rather obtained from an old
word, Aquilegium, signifying a gathering of water.
The spurs of the petals are often partly filled with
water, or some honied secretion ; in early times they
may have been thought to be to collect rain or dew.
hence its subsequent generic name ; but the resem-
blance in any way to an eagle must be very far-
fetched ; besides, look at the long terminology if it is
really derived from Aquila.

THE TEETH OF THE BLOW-FLY.

By the Rev. L. G. Mills, LL.D., F.R.M.S., &c.

DURING the summer of last year I made a
careful examination of the proboscis of the
Blow-lly, with a view to determine the particulars of
its structure, and to discover the causes of the diffi-
culties* which have been felt by some, in their
endeavours to get a clear and distinct view of the
teeth, and their failure to trace them in the position
which they are now well known to occupy.

I was the more anxious to make this examination,
because, long before Mr. Suffock or Dr. Lowne had
given any account of these teeth, I had been very
successful in mounting many specimens of the entire
proboscis, upon Mr. Topping’s plan, and, quite
satisfied with my performance, and the beautiful view
of the general structure, I did not observe anything
to lead me to suspect even the existence of teeth in
these preparations. However, when I read Mr.
Suffock’s paper, as given in vol. i. of the “ Monthly
Microscopical Journal,” and having studied the illus-
trations there given, I re-examined my preparations,
and, on a few of them, I was able to verify the
account, and clearly to see the teeth as figured in the
‘ ‘ Microscopical Journal.” The causes of my failure to
discover the teeth until my attention was directed to
the fact of their existence, may have some relation to
the difficulties that are still felt by some to see them,
and their vain endeavours to trace them, even with
the knowledge of their position, and on slides of
especially prepared dissections.

I desire therefore to give the reasons for these diffi-
culties as they appear to me ; to give a clear figure
and explanation of the structure of the teeth ; and to
give a method of preparation whereby even the un-
skilled operators may succeed in mounting simple
dissections that will give very distinct and unmistak-
able views of them in their position, and show their
particular structure.

In whatever way the proboscis may be mounted,
it is important to observe that the pseudo-tracheoe be
upwards, — that is, next to the thin covering glass. A
mistake on this point would, of itself, be sufficient to
prevent any clear view of at least two of the three
rows of teeth. The object is usually examined with
a quarter-inch object-glass, and by the aid of trans-
mitted light.

Now, it is plain from the nature of the proboscis,
that the light from the mirror must pass through the
two membranes of lips before it can fall upon the
teeth. One of these membranes, the lower, appears
to be thickly dotted with dark spots, due to a num-
ber of hairs that are closely set on that membrane,
and two of the rows of teeth, at their free ends, are
very transparent, and pale in colour, and they

* Science-Gossip, Vol. XII. page 69.
II 2

148

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

terminate a little above and near to the strongly-
marked ends of the pseudo-tracheae.

These tracheae and the dotted membrane obscure
the view of the teeth, and, in many cases, it is only
by a particular and careful management of the mirror
that it becomes at all possible to discern the thin
lines of light or shade that mark the outlines of their
bifurcate extremities.

Further, in mounting the object upon Topping’s
plan, pressure is used on the head of the fly with the
design of throwing the proboscis into position of ex-
pansion before being fixed on the slide, and in doing

As may be seen in the foregoing figure, there are
three rows of teeth. These lie one above another,
and their free ends crop out between the lines of the
pseudo-tracheoe. The teeth of the first or upper-
most row are simple and strap-shaped chitinous bands,
and for a considerable portion of the length of each
tooth the band is turned in on each margin, and then
for the remainder is flattened out and widened before
it is terminated in the thin and knife-edged bifurcate
extremity.

The teeth of the second row differ somewhat in
form from those of the first. Each tooth is not a

Fig. 100. Teeth of the Blow-fly (mag.).

so a dark reddish fluid generally passes into the
proboscis between the membranes and under the
teeth, thus giving an additional hinderance to the
view required. I had found that prolonged steeping
in turpentine will bleach the teeth rather than remove
the stain, and only increase the difficulty of examina-
tion. Sometimes, however, a case will occur in
which this latter difficulty*, even Avithout especial
caution, will not arise ; then the teeth and pseudo,
trachece will be fairly seen, as in the following figure
of a small portion of one of the lips of the proboscis.

simple and single strap, but, for about two-thirds
of its length, is a divided one, and springs from Iavo
different points of attachment, as in the following
figure.

The two bands of chitine join, and are then
flattened out and terminated as in the tooth of the
first roAV, but much fainter in colour, and by [no
means so easily distinguished and observed.

The teeth of the third row are similar in structure
to those of the second, but only of half their length,
and they spring from quite different positions in the

HARD WICKE'S S CIENCE - G O SS1P.

149

lips, — namely, from the points in which the bands
separate which go to form the teeth of the second
row. This will be clear by reference to fig. 101, where
the points p /' are those from which one of the teeth
of the third row has its divided origin, it, where the
bands unite and become flattened out ; after which
the tooth is soon terminated as in the teeth of the
other rows, but still thinner, sharper, paler in colour,
and more delicate in outline, so as frequently, with
every care and the best appliances, to be difficult to
observe.

The explanations I have given are I think sufficient,

tracheae become gradually changed as they approach
toward the teeth ; that each tooth of the third row is
but a simple development of the nearest rings of the
adjacent pseudo-tracheae ; the teeth of the second row
but a further development of those of the third ; and
finally, the strongly-marked simple strap-shaped teeth
of the first row are but further and final develop-
ments of those of the second.

It now only remains that I should suggest a plan
by which any ordinary operator with but little skill
may prepare slides that will afford distinct views of
the teeth as well as of the pseudo-tracheae.

Fig. 101. Teeth of the Blow-fly (mag.), showing teeth springing to different positions.

-and it will appear that the arrangement of the three
wows of teeth is such as to permit their superposition
with the flattest possible surface, and consistent with
Ihe greatest steadiness of position.

By contrasting the structure of the broken rings
of the pseudo-tracheae at about the centre of one of
the lines with those at the termination of the line,
and near to the teeth, and comparing these latter
with the teeth themselves, I think it will appear that,
after all, the teeth are but developments of the
pseudo-tracheae, and that the transition from the one
form of structure to the other is by no means abrupt,
‘but that, on the contrary, the rings of the pseudo-

Press the head of a blow-fly gently between the
finger and thumb so as to cause the proboscis to shoot
out and the lips to expand, and then, with a fine pair
of scissors, cut off the lips when expanded close to
the mentum, and place them in a watch-glass contain-
ing three or four drops of water. To insure success,
proceed thus in three or four instances, until there are
several examples of the lips in the watch - glass.
Place the watch-glass with its contents in a good
light and upon a slip of white paper. Add to the
water about two large drops of spirits of wine and
two or three drops of strong liquor ammonise ; mix
with a camel-hair pencil, and watch the action of

HARD TV I CKE 'S SCIENCE - GOSSIP.

J5°

the ammonia until it has caused a complete diffusion
of the red stains within the objects : this it will do in
a few seconds. Now transfer the objects to another
small vessel or watch-glass containing pure water
alone, and wash and press them with the camel-hair
pencil. It will be well to change the water a few
times during the washing. The ammonia will now
be partially cleaned off, but yet the diffused red stains
will remain within the objects, and must be removed.
To do so, place the objects in a drop of water on a
glass slide, cover with a thin glass, and use a tapping
pressure with a needle. The reddish fluid will pass out
of the objects, and they will become quite clear. Retain
a steady and easy pressure with a wire spring clip, and
put the slide into a cup of water, and move it fre-
quently with an alternate dipping and draining action,
to wash away the expressed fluid and every trace of
ammonia. The objects may then, whilst still under
pressure, be allowed to become dry, gradually, in the
usual way, to prevent any too sudden or too great
contraction, and, if subsequently treated with turpen-
tine, they may be finally mounted in balsam.

I have now in view, under a good quarter-inch
object - glass, a slide containing seven such lips,
prepared a year ago, and on most of them the teeth
can be seen with a clearness of definition and a
precision of outline that leaves nothing to be desired ;
and I feel no inclination whatever to attempt any
further experiments at improvement by mounting in
either gum damar or glycerine : I am quite satisfied
with the old-fashioned Canada balsam, and the
beauty of the results of the process I have described.

HOW TO MAKE AN HERBARIUM.

( Continued. )

By John W. Buck, B.Sc.

IN speaking of laying out the specimens, I omitted
to give one hint which may be of service : I refer
to the judicious use of the scissors. It will sometimes
be found advantageous to cut away leaves and
blossoms, from what we may call the back of the
plant, when there are too many of them, and when
they would conceal one another’s shape by their
number. It has the effect also in many cases of
making the specimen look more natural, since, when
growing, the branches of a bushy plant do not in-
commode one another, but spread out equally on all
sides. A bunch of berries — those of the spurge laurel,
for example — must generally be partly cut away.
Sometimes it is well to postpone the operation until
the specimen is dry and ready for mounting. But
be very cautious that in cutting you do not disfigure
the plant, or deprive it of some important feature.
Every plant has its characteristic kind of inflorescence,
or flower-arrangement, and also of leaf-arrangement,
and if you snip away recklessly you will produce

effects that will sadly puzzle any botanist who may
afterwards look over your collection.

The pressure necessary for the thorough preserva-
tion of the plants may be caused by large books laid
over the papers, with a few bricks on the top, or by
strapping the papers together between two strong
boards. The latter plan I prefer, and almost always
make use of, because the whole affair can be carried
about from place to place if required, or set before a
fire to dry quicker, which is often a great convenience.

I need hardly say that, however the plants are pressed,
they should always be in as dry a place as possible.
As regards the amount of pressure to be applied, it
should be borne in mind that the object is not to
squash the plants but to keep them flat and dry them ;
and hence, especially with succulents, a too excessive
pressure should be avoided. If, however, enough
paper be interposed and the specimens well distri-
buted among the sheets, ordinary plants will take no
harm under any reasonable pressure.

In transferring the plants, when changing the sheets
of porous paper, it will be found advantageous not to
lift up each plant by itself and place it on another
sheet, but to adopt the following plan. After having
lifted away the damp sheets above the plant — which
must be done with great care, by turning them slowly
back with the right hand while guiding and modera-
ting the operation with the left, which should be held
down on the upper surface of the paper you are
removing, — place a diy sheet over the plant. Then
take up the two uppermost sheets, with the plant
between them, carefully invert them, lay them on the
pile of dry sheets, and lastly skin off the damp sheet
, in the same way as before. Even by this method it
will not be found easy to keep the blossoms and
leaves of some plants smooth, as they are so apt to
stick to the papers. All blossoms that are at all
troublesome had better be dried separately ; and in
the case of such as poppies, they should be protected
by a couple of pieces of tissue-paper, which should
not be removed until the drying process is quite over.
The chief difficulty in transference will be found only
while the plants are damp, and will disappear entirely
as they get drier. The damp sheets should be com-
pletely dried before using them again, by exposing
them to warm, dry air.

There are several ways of judging when the plants
are dry. In the first place, a thoroughly dry plant is
generally rigid, unless it be very long and weak.
Feeling of the plant by the lips, or placing the hand
on the sheet of paper from which it has just been
taken, are other tests, but in these cases you must
distinguish between coldness and dampness. Gene-
rally speaking, you may rest satisfied that if the
specimen has been under pressure, with dry and
frequently-changed papers, for eighteen or twenty
days, it is likely to be quite dry, unless its nature is
such as to make the matter doubtful.

Now comes the mounting, which should not be

HARDIVICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

'51

deferred ; as postponing it probably means spoiling
the specimens and losing the labels, and certainly
means an accumulation of work at some future time.
For fixing the plants, some recommend the application
of hot glue ; but this is very troublesome to manage,
and as the operation of carefully gluing a large
specimen is rather a long one, the glue is not likely
to be very hot when the time comes for fastening it
down. Strong gum answers quite as well and is
more convenient. To make the gum, take one ounce
of picked gum arabic, as colourless as possible,
powder it, and stir it with a clean stick or a glass
rod in an ounce and a half of cold water until it is
dissolved ; add a quarter of an ounce of powdered
gum tragacanth (“gum dragon”); and lastly, add
two grains of corrosive sublimate previously dissolved,
alone with two grains of sal ammoniac, in one drachm
of water. A metal stirring-rod should not be used,
as it is apt to discolour the liquid. The latter, if
carefully made, is quite colourless, and does not show
much, if any be accidentally smeared. (N.B. — Corro-
sive sublimate is very poisonous, and the bottle of
gum containing it should be labelled “ Poison.”)

To mount the specimens, lay them on a sheet of
brown paper or newspaper, gum them carefully all
over the back, and then lay them gently on the white
sheet in the best position, which you should have
previously decided on, and press them down with a
clean handkerchief. Use no more gum than is abso-
lutely necessary, and wipe away any excess at once.

A good plan with a very large or weak plant is to
gum the back of the stem, fix it by a gentle pressure,
and then turn up the leaves and flowers one by one,
gum them, and then lay them back again in position.
Another method, which I remember trying once with
a long trailing pimpernel, and which succeeded well,
was to gum it on the back as before ; shift it, still
face downwards, to a sheet of brown paper the same
size as that on which I was going to mount it, arrange i
it as I desired, and lastly turn the white sheet down
over it. On lifting it up, it of course brought the j
specimen away with it. The delicate blossoms which
have been separately dried should next be placed in
their natural position, care being taken to hide any j
awkward appearance of a join in the stem. Long
plants, too long to lie on one sheet, should be cut in
two pieces and these laid side by side ; and if the
stem be very long and a piece of it be permanently
removed, the cut ends should not be brought close
together, but it should plainly appear that a piece of
the stem is absent. All parts of the plant should be
shown as far as they can, and on the same sheet. For
instance, somewhere on the dandelion sheet should be
shown the globular downy seed-head, and with the
strawberry plant the strawberry fruit itself, which
latter, notwithstanding its succulent nature, may be
easily dried, if not too ripe to begin with. These
should not be made to appear as if growing from the
same plant as in flower unless they were actually

found so growing. In fact, in mounting such parts,
nature must be imitated, not contradicted. A few
slips of well-gummed paper of the same kind as that
you are mounting upon should be kept at hand, with
which to fix down stiff stems, which often have a
tendency to part company with their sheets.

Labelling should be done immediately after mount-
ing. To keep the names, localities, and dates of the
plants while pressing, the particulars may be written
on small scraps of paper, which must be transferred
each time with the respective specimens whenever the
sheets are changed. I have found this plan answer
best in practice, as if the entries are made in a note-
book there is a danger of afterwards mistaking one
plant for another. But however these facts are pre-
served, as soon as a specimen is fairly mounted they
should be transferred to the right-hand bottom corner
of the permanent sheet. They may be written thus :
Rlnnanthus Crista-galli,

(Yellow-rattle),

Hay fields, near Fresh ford,

10. 6. 78.

(Collector’s name.)

Or printed labels may be obtained with spaces to be
filled up. After mounting and labelling, the sheets
should be again pressed flat for a day or two.

But the young botanist who does not wish to have
a good deal of trouble thrown away, and to see his
well-dried specimens devoured by insects, has more
work before him yet. Mould is not likely to trouble
him with plants which have once been made com-
pletely dry. A botanical friend, to whom I am
indebted for several of these hints, writes : “At one
time, in the very wet summer of 1875, and when 1
had my press so full that scarcely more than two
sheets were between plant and plant, I found, to my
disgust, many of them moulding. But I took heart
and brushed off the mould with a moderately stiff
brush continually till they were thoroughly dry, and
then stacked them away between thin dry sheets,
and did not look at them again till nine months
afterwards, when I found them without a particle
of mould. Later on, I cured some of the mould by
brushing it off and washing the plants with corrosive
sublimate, while they were still in the press. But,
by pressing few at a time, or by using more paper,
I might, of course, have escaped that ; and it does
not do to trust to being able to get rid of the mould
so, for it discolours the specimens.” But all plants
are more or less liable to the attacks of insects, and
some, as the Ranunculacecc, Crucifer a, and Umbellifenr ,
especially so. The best preventive is corrosive sub-
limate. The Rev. Gerard Smith recommends dipping
Ranunculacecc (Buttercups) and Cruciferce (Shepherd’s
Purse, Cuckoo-flower, &c.) before pressing, into a
saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in equal
parts of rain-water and methylated spirits. A more
convenient plan is to paint the specimens with the
liquid after they are mounted. For this purpose

!52

HARD W1 CKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

a solution should be made of one quarter of an ounce
of the sublimate in] half a pint of methylated spirit
(not “methylated finish ”), which is to be applied to
the specimens with a pretty stiff brush, taking care
that it penetrates all corners and crevices. Every
plant should be treated in this way, as it not only
prevents the attacks of insects in the future, but
entirely destroys any animal life that may be already
there. The sheets are then to be again subjected to
pressure for twelve hours, after which they will be
ready for the herbarium.

It only remains now to arrange the specimens in
proper order, but as it is unnecessary to do this until
a large number have been collected, we will leave the
consideration of it at present. Meantime the sheets
should be laid flat in a box, secured from dust, kept
in a dry place, and not exposed to the light more
than necessary.

A RARE ACARUS.

( Glyciphagus plumiger. )

N the February number of Science-Gossip I
announced the capture, for the first time in this }

Fig. xo2. Glyciphagus plumiger (mag.).

country, of that singular and beautiful acarus
Glyciphagus palmifer , which since that time I have
bred pretty freely in confinement. Whenever I
have visited the same locality subsequently, I have
not failed to search in the hopes of finding what
may be called the companion mite, Glyciphagus
plumiger, but up to a late period unsuccessfully.
On my last visit, a few weeks ago, my search was
unexpectedly rewarded by finding a single specimen
of this species, which is scarcely less beautiful than
Palmifer itself. I say unexpectedly, because I found
il where I did not anticipate doing so. Messrs.

Robin and Fumose, the highest living authorities,
who have treated of these two species in a most
exhaustive manner in the “Journal de l’Anatomie et
de la ^Physiologie ” for 1868, say that it is found
chiefly in the dust and walls of damp cellars along
with Palmifer, and there I looked for it without
finding it. I eventually found it in fodder in a stable,
where I was looking for other mites, and I find that
this is the place given for it by Koch, in his
“ Deutschlands Crustaceen, &c.,” published in 1834 •
and Robin does not omit its being found there.

I am not aware that there is any record of the
capture of this species in this country hitherto, and
the late Andrew Murray, in his “Economic Entomo-
logy,” treats it as not having been yet found here ;
but Mr. George, of Kirton-Lindsay, informs me that
he has in his possession a single specimen which some
gentleman in that neighbourhood found, also in hay.
As therefore it has been found in two remote parts
of the country, between which there would not be
likely to be communication, and which are both
agricultural, we may, I think, fairly claim this as a
British species, although only a single individual has
been detected in each instance.

The genus Glyciphagus was founded by
Hering upon the type of a mite which he
found in dried prunes ; and taking only the
conspicuous characteristics, it may easily be
known by the following ; — viz., 1. legs of five
joints, terminated by a small sucker and very
minute single claw ; 2. the skin of the back
being closely and irregularly plicated, so as to
have a soft look ; 3. the hairs on the body
being either plumose or developed into
transparent leaf-like expansions ; 4. the fe-
males having a small conical projection or
button on the anus, the use of which is not at
present known. The last two characters are
practically almost sufficient for identifica-
tion.

The leaf-like membranous hairs are peculiar
\ to Palmifer ; the plumose hairs attain their
; highest development in the present species,
no other known sort approaching it in this
respect, and it is to this fact that it owes
its peculiar beauty ; the hairs, indeed, remind
one of miniature ostrich-plumes, as will be
best seen by the drawing, which I think may
possibly be of interest, because it is carefully
drawn from the female, and I am not aware that
the female has hitherto been figured. Robin’s
beautiful illustration is of the male only, and Koch’s,
which does not state sex, is, contrary to his usual
habit, so poorly drawn that it might be either,
but I think it is the male. The sexes both in this
and Palmifer are very different and easy to distinguish.
The average length is about 35 mm., and the width
about 25 mm.

A. Michael.

HARD WICKES SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

J53

NOTES AT THE BRIGHTON AQUARIUM.

H^HE cunning exhibited by the Angler (Lophlus
JL piscatorius) in the capture of its living prey
is a matter of ancient history, and naturalists, from
the time of Aristotle to the present day, have variously
commented on its extraordinary manoeuvres. T he
researches carried on during the cruise of the Chal-
lenger have recently revealed further interesting de-
tails respecting the genus, for closely-allied species
were dredged in the Atlantic, at a depth of over
2,000 fathoms, with peculiar modifications of struc-
ture fitting them for life in the comparative darkness
of their habitat in the oceanic abysses.

A fine specimen of the British species has now
been on view in a living state in the Brighton
Aquarium for many months, affording an opportunity
of studying its habits to unusual advantage, and
illustrating the general accuracy of the descriptions

given by Messrs. Yarrell and Couch in their admirable
works on the history of British fishes. The absence
of the Angler from aquaria hitherto, has certainly
not been owing to any unusual delicacy of structure,
for it is a hardy fish and very tenacious of life,
but has resulted rather from the difficulty of procuring
it a supply of the living prey necessary for its support,
and also from the obstinate sulkiness of the creature, i
which caused it to refuse food when such was forth-
coming ; matters which have now, however, been
successfully overcome. In common with many other
fishes, the Angler possesses the power of assimilating
its colour to the nature of its surroundings. Placed
on shingle, it retained a darkly spotted appearance,
which disappeared on its removal to a more spacious
tank thickly strewn with sand ; it then quickly buried
itself in the sand, assumed a pale colour, and was j

hardly distinguishable from it. A third change, to a
dark bluish tint, is perceptible when it lies near the
mussels placed in the tank to clear the water. About
a week after its capture it was induced to feed,
and for some time partook freely of small plaice,
bass, and gurnards. A little while back it refused
food for some weeks, until a fortunate catch of live
herrings furnished a change of diet tempting to its
dainty palate. They were at once placed in the tank,
and the Angler almost immediately commenced to
ply his rod and line vigorously, was soon rewarded
with a “bite,” and the unwary herrings disappeared
in rapid succession. A supply of whiting, plaice,
gurnards, grey mullet, and herring, is now regularly
placed at its disposal.

The Angler, or fishing frog, is also called wide-
gab, frog-fish, and sea-devil. It is a sluggish, slow-
breathing fish, generally lying almost motionless at
the bottom, and rising but rarely to the surface. The
breadth of the body is disproportioned
to its length, and the head is large,
the mouth exceedingly capacious, and
thickly set with minute finely-serrated
conical teeth, in addition to the palatal
ones ; the eyes are large, beautifully
bright, and capable of separate move-
ment. The Angler is obviously un-
fitted, from the unwieldy nature of its
body, for the swift pursuit of its living
prey, and is, therefore, compelled to
resort to artifice. Among the most
noticeable of its many peculiarities, the
two long, thin filaments affixed to the
top of the head are very remarkable.
These generally lie out of sight, but,
controlled by special muscles, are
susceptible of pliant movement, pos-
sessing great freedom of action. When
desirous of ensnaring the fishes on
hich it feeds, the Angler elevates
these filaments and waves them to and
fro in a very energetic fashion. The
victims, attracted by the flag, or bait, affixed to the
end of the fishing-rod, come within reach of the
monstrous wide-gaping jaws, and are speedily seized
with one quick upward movement. 1 he head is
peculiar, and so jointed to the vertebrae that it is
capable of independent action, whilst the body of the
fish lies almost motionless. Mr. Farrell states that
“they stir up the mud and sand with the pectoral
and ventral fins,” but this movement has not been
observed in the specimen under notice, which appears
to conceal its presence as much as possible, lying
perfectly still in the same position for many hours,
and endeavouring to attract the fishes solely by the
action of the fishing-rod. In the deep-sea forms “the
fly ” was luminous and phosphorescent, and was thus
rendered visible to the neighbouring fishes in the dim
obscurity of the abyssal ocean depths. Many of the

154

HARD WICK HS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

deep-sea fishes and crustaceans also emit a pale
phosphorescent light, and, illumined in the darkness,
are enabled to prey on each other, a marvellous in-
stance of adaptation to natural surroundings.

The John Dorey {Zeus fabe r), like the Angler, is
also somewhat of a rarity in captivity, but the speci-
mens exhibited in this Aquarium continue to thrive
admirably, feeding on the shoals of live sprats and
sand smelts sharing their abode. All the tanks, well
stocked with healthy inmates, are in excellent order,
testifying conclusively to the efficient care and atten-
tion of Mr. Lawler, resident curator and naturalist.
The sea-lions {Otaria Slelleri) are again on view, the
lioness having completely recovered from her late
serious indisposition. Two young female seals {Phoca
vitulina) now share the new seal-pond in the con-
servatory with the two males of the same species, old
inhabitants of the Aquarium. A fine specimen of
the curious Japanese Salamander {Triton Sieboldi),
measuring nearly 3 feet, has recently been added
to the collections. It is thoroughly acclimatized,
existing in fresh water at a normal temperature, and
feeding principally on raw beef and liver, which it
seems to prefer to the species of fresh-water fishes
offered alike for its acceptance. It is a sluggish,
weak-limbed reptile, covered with a dark-brown skin,
the head and throat being thickly dotted with the
glands so characteristic of the “warty newts,” and
the large pores serving to distribute the viscous matter
shed over its exterior are distinctly visible. The
mouth is remarkably capacious, and the eyes so
minute and dull as to be hardly perceptible. Repre-
sentatives of the genus were first brought to Europe
by Dr. Von Siebold, who discovered them inhabiting
a lake on the top of a basaltic mountain in Japan.
It is the Sieboldtia gigantea , Bonap., and the Sala-
mandra maxima, Schelegel, but is now classed with
the Tritons , and bears a close resemblance to the
gigantic American newt {Mcnopoma) of the Alleghany
mountains, the generic difference consisting chiefly
in the permanence of the gill-slits in the one form,
and their disappearance in the adult Japanese species.
It is also interesting as being nearly allied to the huge
fossil salamander {Andrias Scheuchzeri ), from the
fresh-water Miocene beds of CEningen, in Switzer-
land, so famous as the “ Homo diltivii testis 5 ’ of
Scheuchzer, who long maintained it to be a fossil
man, and therefore an indisputable relic of the
Noachian deluge. His views were put forth with
such persistence as to be accepted by many naturalists,
until the illustrious Cuvier finally settled the contro-
versy. He obtained permission to remove the matrix,
and having previously made a rough sketch of the
animal he expected to find, proceeded to lay bare
some hidden portions of the specimen, and thus irre-
futably proved, in the presence of a group of asto-
nished spectators, that the much-vaunted fossil-man
was merely a gigantic salamander.

THE HABITS, FOOD, AND USES OF THE;
EARTHWORM.— No. II.

By Professor Paley, M.A.

1. TN the first place, they bring up fresh under-

X earth to the roots of the grass : this useful office
is done on a much larger scale by moles, which live
on worms, and throw up those heaps of well-crumbled
mould which are intended to relieve at intervals their
tunnels, made a few inches below the sod. We
know that farmers, who generally dislike what they
regard as superfluous trouble, and rarely possess much
scientific information, will pay a mole-catcher con-
siderable sums for the destruction of this harmless
and even useful creature, which they seem to regard
as a kind of rat ! If they would pay a tenth part of
the money to send into a meadow a small boy with a
small rake, and get the mole-heaps spread over the
grass, they would get a third more in their crop of
hay.

2. All grazing animals eat a great quantity of
earth. They cannot avoid swallowing the worm-
casts, and they like to do so. Earth seems comfortable
to their insicles, and it is certain that they enjoy it.

I used to ride a horse which, being regularly fed on
hay and corn, and not turned out to grass, pined for
a little dirt. Finding out this, I sometimes let him
go to a hedge-bank, slackened the rein, and watched
him scoop out with his tongue earth enough to fill a
pint-pot. This, I think, is the reason why a horse so
often stirs up the mud in a pond with his hoof be-
fore drinking. Many horses will paw the water even
when passing a clear stream, giving their riders the
fear that they want to lie down in it. Some races of
American Red Indians eat earth. The fact is attested
by Humboldt and others. It is said that the Jamaica
negroes will do this when other food is deficient or
not procurable. #

3. Seeds of trees are dragged by worms into their
holes, and there germinate. This is most commonly
the case with the seeds of the ash and the sycamore,
both of which have their winged appendages set
slightly on one side, like the sails of a windmill, or
the screw-propeller of a ship, so that they are carried
by the wind and fall aslant at some distance from the
trees. I have repeatedly drawn both of these seeds
out of worm-holes, after they had begun to germinate.
The fact is established by the carrying down of seeds,
strewed on the surface, by worms kept in a pot.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that it is one of
the provisions of nature for the propagation of
vegetable life.

If you examine a worm-cast, you will find that it is
composed partly of the earth ejected from the hole,
in small clods, slightly coherent (probably from some
admixture of the slime), and partly of excrementitious
matter. The latter is easily distinguished by its

A. Crane.

* See “ Races of Mankind,” by Robert Brown, vol. i. p. 290.

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE ■ G OSSIP.

i55

granular and mammillated appearance, somewhat re- !
sembling mouse-dirt. It does not seem to be thrown
out of the hole mixed with the rest of the earth, but
it is deposited separately, often in considerable
quantity. If you crumble it when dry, you will find
it full of vegetable fibre, which has the appearance of !
undigested moss, or small blades of dried grass,
curiously rolled up in rather hard little pellets, which
do not easily crumble with the rest of the earthy
excreta. It is clear, therefore, that the dirt of the
lob -worm is part vegetable, though the greater part
of it is simply earth. If the excreta are dissolved in
water, the vegetable debris is still more easily col-
lected on the top of the muddy sediment. It is not
surprising, from the nature of their food, that the
richest earth is generally most full of worms. 1 hey
are scarcely ever found in digging in sand or gravel,
and this is the reason why you so rarely meet with
mole-hills in sandy or pebbly soil ; viz., because these
clever little creatures find out that worms are not to
be had there for their trouble in boring. How the
worm ejects these little pellets on the outside it is
perhaps impossible to say. The head is always pro-
truded first from the hole ; can it be that the pellets,
after being discharged, are conveyed to the surface
by some special process ? Or does the worm emerge
entirely from its hole during the night ? The excreta,
however, are never found apart from the worm-cast
covering the hole.

I enclosed three large worms in a flower-pot of
moist earth, covering it so as to prevent their escape, j
and occasionally sprinkling a little water on the surface. '
I found, as I had expected, the next morning that a
hole had been bored, opening to the surface, and the [
bits of earth were thrown out, but not a particle 1
of the excreta. I then placed some leaves, with
bits of stick and string, on the surface of the pot,
in order to see if they would be used as a plug for
the hole.

I was desirous also to ascertain if the worm came
to the surface to feed, or if it in any way disturbed or
fed on the leaves, the positions of which and their
condition I took note of. I found that the bits of
string and the leaves had been all moved, and some
of them drawn into the aperture of holes they had
opened against the sides of the pot ; also that the
leaves were in part nibbled away, if one may use
such a term of a creature which has only some power
of sucking up or sucking off. It seems certain then
that worms swallow both earth (rich earth in pre-
ference to poor or sandy earth) and also fibrous
vegetable matter.

Every effect that the worm leaves visible on the
surface seems done at a time when its enemies, the
birds, are not abroad. How a blind creature can tell !
night from day seems surprising ; possibly the warmth j
of the sun, or the dew at night may serve it for this l
end. By keeping one or two worms in a flower-pot,

I once or twice found one partly exposed. It was

passing, by peculiar jerks made, with intervals of rest ,
from one hole into another. From this I suspected
that, as in a rabbit-warren, the same creature has
several holes communicating with each other under
ground.

To ascertain this, after keeping the worms fo
some time in a flower-pot, I let them escape, and by
drying the earth I was able to dissect it so as to
expose all the galleries and passages. I found these
very numerous, and towards the bottom of the pot
containing portions of leaves which had been drawn
down for food. Grains of wheat and other seeds had
been carried down to the bottom, and it seemed to
me that the worms had fed on the tangled roots which
these seals had sent out through the whole thickness
of the earth. The excreta in some cases were adhering
to the sides of the pot. I think they must have some
way of conveying it or pushing it out of their holes,
as birds are said to eject the dirt of the young nest-
lings. I think, also, that it is got rid of as soon
as deposited. For, though worms are very shy of
making themselves visible by day, it is common to
find worm-casts so moist and fresh that they have
evidently just been thrown up. This is the case with
mole-heaps ; but I never saw, and I never met with
any one who could say that he had seen, the earth
actually being thrown up. The mole, like the worm,
is evidently very sensitive to the tread of a foot.
Both remain quiet when they feel the vibration of
the ground.

Worms by no means invariably draw into their
holes leaves or bits of sticks, or cover them over with
pebbles. The reason of their doing so at all is there-
fore the more obscure, since it is not a necessity. Very
often the hole is marked only by the little heaps of
earthy excreta , and however carefully you remove
these, you will find the hole itself is completely
stopped. They nibble off the ends first, and then
pull the remainder down lower, till little more than
the stalk and mid-rib is left. And a little observa-
tion will show that the leaves have really been
devoured, and have not rotted away in the moist
earth. This fact I ascertained to a positive certainty
by repeated supplies of dry leaves put into the flower-
pot, the whole being clean eaten up except short por-
tions of the stalks. It seems then that a very large
part of the decaying vegetable matter in gardens is
consumed by the numerous lob-worms, for they are
greedy eaters, though they seem to do no harm to
growing plants, even if they do eat some of the fibrous
roots. In this respect the worm resembles the mole
and the dung-beetle, which never leave the hole to the
upper surface open to the air, as most of the burrow-
ing animals do.

Nevertheless, it is certain that worms do feed on
leaves or bits of stick drawn into their holes. My
grass-plot in late autumn quite bristled with the tufts
of fallen willow-leaves (the weeping willow), but in a
few weeks they had vanished, entirely consumed by

HA RD WJ CKE ’S S CIENCE - G OSSIE.

J56

the worms, which had drawn them there for food. I
laid about a dozen of these dead willow-leaves on the
top of my flower-pot, and in a day or two they were
all drawn in (always with the stalk uppermost), and
so gradually devoured. I put in a fresh supply, and
one evening, on gently removing the cover, I detected
a worm with its head affixed, or stuck by the slime,
to one of the leaves. It did not stir in the least, and
seemed perplexed by the stalk of the leaf resting
against the side of the pot. But in the morning the
clever creature had turned it round, and there was the
stalk-end sticking up in the worm hole ! It had
turned it completely round, and whereas it had lain
like a bar across the hole, it had contrived to pull in
the narrow end. All this is evidently done by the
creature feeling the position of the leaf. But to turn
it when it is the wrong way is a process that resem-
bles a kind of low reasoning rather than mere instinct
— if, indeed, we have any right to regard the two
motives of action as essentially distinct.*

Not only leaves were thus drawn in and devoured,
but grains of wheat, canary, and rape-seed, sprinkled
on the top of the earth in the flower-pot, were gra-
dually carried down, and soon entirely disappeared,
so that after a few days not a single seed was to be
seen. I tried bits of stick, bread-crumbs, scraps of
ginger-bread, and biscuit, but they were not much
noticed, though the sticks were generally moved.
After a few days, the seeds came up, thus affording a
pretty conclusive proof that one province or function
•of the earth-worm is to promote the growth of plants
by burying seed which might otherwise perish, or be
picked up by birds.

In the above purely popular account of the earth-
worm, no attempt has been made at a scientific descrip-
tion.

The anatomy of the earth-worm, and the organs
and process of reproduction, which are extremely
curious, are very fully explained in an elaborate
paper by Sir Everard Home, Bart., in the “ Philoso-
phical Transactions of the Royal Society” for 1823,
part 1, pp. 140 — 15 1, illustrated by four plates,
xvi. — xix., containing magnified diagrams of the various
internal parts, f These are, to enumerate them briefly,
a head with a distinct mouth, having some serrated
apparatus, not very unlike teeth, a brain (cerebral
ganglia), spinal cord, artery, with six lateral lobes or
cells on each side, containing red blood, perhaps
equivalent to a series of hearts, an oesophagus, crop,
gizzard, intestinal canal, and anal aperture. The
creature is divided through its entire length into com-
partments, containing eggs enclosed in membranous

* Sir Emerson Tennent, in his “ Natural History of
Ceylon,” p. go, relates, as a singular instance of the sagacity of
an elephant, his turning sideways a log, which he was carrying
balanced across his tusks, so as more easily to make his way
through the trees.

t See also Dr. Nicholson’s “ Manual of Zoology,” p. 209)
ed. 3, and especially Prof. Huxley’s “ Manual of the Anatomy
of Invertebrated Animals,” pp. 219 — 226.

bags. Near the middle is a thick swollen ring * of
rather darker colour. This is connected with the
generative process, and appears to have given rise to
the popular opinion that a worm cut in two will ‘ ‘mend
itself,” or grow into two worms. The roughness
which is felt on handling a worm arises from minute
bristles which grow out of the rings, and doubtless
assist the creature in its movements. The slime
exuded is not nearly so tenacious as that of the snail
or the slug, but it probably facilitates the progress of
the worm through its labyrinthine home, and it ap-
pears to impart some solidity both to the walls of the
passages and to the substance of the excreta.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIALLY
ADAPTIVE APPLIANCES IN PLANTS.

THERE is perhaps no branch of scientific know-
ledge which has received greater stimulus of
late years than that part of physiological botany which

Fig. 104. Flower showing
stamens in juxtaposition
with style in keeled lip
a (nat. size).

Fig. 106. Flower showing the dropped keel a (nat. size).

refers to the colours of flowers and the origin of their
forms. The observations of Drs. Darwin and Muller,

of Sir John Lubbock, and others, have supplied
material for modern scientific thought to explain the
whole scheme of vegetable creation, and attempt is
now even being made by some to connect with the
development of vegetable life the colour sense of the
animal world, including that of man himself.

A writer in Cornhill Magazine for May has
striven to show that all irregular-shaped flowers,
especially those which combine with colour attractive-

* In a full-grown worm, a part of the body into which more
or fewer of the segments between the twenty-fourth and thirty-
sixth inclusively enter, is swollen, of a different colour from the
rest, provided with abundant cutaneous glands, and receives the
name of cingulum or clitellum. — Huxley, p. 221.

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

157

ness, svveet-scentedness, such as the Labiate, are the
most recently evolved, and that with this development
have been correlated the colours of insects. Also
similarly is it so in the case of coloured fleshy fruits
and the development of the colour sense in the higher
vertebrates to suit their frugivorous tastes. And it is
interesting to remark that these higher stages have
been observed to be intensified even in historic
times, as in the case of the human race ; for the mere
mention of colour itself — that is to say, in any sense
of appreciation — is entirely absent from the most
ancient literary works which we possess.

and also of both colour and the colour sense in the
vegetable and the animal world.*

A recent observation of my own upon a member of
the Scyophularinecu led me to the idea of communicating
the foregoing remarks as introductory to those I am
about to make in reference to the development of
floral adaptations in relation to fertilization.

Unquestionably the prime important function of
life, both vegetable and animal, is the securing of
means for perpetuating its existence, but in an
improved direction. Therefore, if in the former
division of the organic world any usual acquisition be

Fig. 107. Raceme of Scluzanthus fiapiUouaceus (nat. size).

These views may be looked upon as more or less
fanciful, but nevertheless it is difficult to say they are
vain speculations, and they combine, moreover, to
harmonize with other great principles of evolution
already propounded. But I will not dwell upon this
theme here, pregnant as it is with fascination and
interest. Readers of Science-Gossip will find else-
where matter which sets forth the views affecting the
development of flowers, constituting the Phanerogams,

occasionally wanting pertaining to these means for
reproduction, it often happens that some organ or
organs is or are so modified as to supersede that incon-
venience. For instance, the plant Ajuga ophrydis ,
of South Africa, has flowers much resembling those

* Vide “ The Colours of Animals and Plants,” by Alfred R.
Wallace, in Macmillan' s Magazvie for September and October,
1877 ; “ The Origin of Flowers,” in the Cornhill Magazine for
May, 1878 ; and J. E. Taylor’s recently-published “ Flowers :
their Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours.”

!

HARDWICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

138

of an orchid, and it has been suggested that this
acquirement may have been a necessary modifica-
tion, in order to assist, by its assumed attractive power,
in the means for fertilization, in the absence of some
other alluring property, such as nectar ; and, as
Mr. Wallace adds, the supposition is rendered all the
more probable considering that this is the only species
of the genus in South Africa.

I may now be permitted to call attention, for the
first time, I believe, to the special adaptations for
cross-fertilization in another irregular-flowered species,
viz., Schizanthus papilionaceus, alluded to above.
This plant belongs to the sub-order Salpiglossidece of
Scrofihularinetz (according to Bentham), forming an
intermediate section towards which the Figworts and
Nightshades approach each other. The inflorescence
of Salpiglossidece differs from the other two sub-orders
of the order in being entirely definite or centrifugal.
The plant here mentioned formed one of the two
subjects selected by the Science and Art Department
for diagnosis in the “ Honours ” grade in Botany this
year ; and there cannot be two opinions that the
corolla, which makes the flower so conspicuous and
handsome, is particularly easy to describe. The
inflorescence is a large loose panicle, or, as it is
definite, it may perhaps be more properly defined as
consisting of true racemes, arranged upon a loosely-
branched floral axis : the individual flowers are some-
what papilionaceous, as its specific name indicates, or
rather more correctly termed, perhaps, papilionaceo-
labrate, the upper or posterior portion of the limb
being perfectly erect, whilst the lower anterior, which
is three-lobed, forms a horizontal “keel,” in which are
the two long perfect stamens (fig. 104). The petals
of the combined whorl are more or less deeply cut
(fig. 105) ; hence the signification in the prefix to the
generic name. Similarly we have it in corolla and
name in Schizopetalon belonging to the cruciferous
order. The lovely flowers of Schizanthus papi-
lionaceus strike one for the first moment as those of
an orchidaceous plant, and doubtless the cause of such
a development has a similar purpose to fulfil as that
of Ajuga ophrydis and other peculiarly abnormal
corolline forms.

Now it will be seen that the position of the two
perfect stamens in the keeled lip are in juxtaposition <
with the style (fig. 104). But the extreme condition
of proterandrism appears to prevent self-fertilization,
whilst another attendant condition in the way of
insect adaptability must evidently favour cross-fertili-
zation. This lower keeled portion of the limb is, as
I pointed out before, horizontal. When the plant
was first brought under my notice, I observed that
whilst the two developed stamens in some cases had
closely approached the style, the “keel” of those par-
ticular flowers had dropped down (fig. 106). I also
observed that the anthers in those instances had dis-
charged their pollen ; in other words, they had
finished their work. Not dreaming of such a thing

as inherent irritability, I merely shook the flower-
stalk, with its numerous flowers, violently in my hand,
to notice if motion had anything to do with the
bringing about this changed position of keel and
| stamens. All remained the same, and so at present
did the mystery. My books at home afforded me no
I help, neither did persons of whom I sought informa-
tion, until I reached a professional gardener, and
seedsman,"' an old acquaintance, of some half a
dozen miles distant, wrho, to my utter astonishment,
was cultivating Schizanthus papilionaceus in pots for
the conservatory in abundance ! It was an exquisite
floral sight. Having this further opportunity, I
examined the flowers again. The “ keel ” of one of
them was slightly touched when we perceived that
the two stamens instantly jerked upwards out of it,
and closely approached the style ; at the same time
the anther-cells burst, expelling the profuse pollen
with great elastic force ; simultaneously also the
“keel ” dropped down as if upon a hinge.

The problem was now fully solved, and there
remains but little for me to add. The points of
consideration in the flowers of this plant as affecting
a condition opposed to self-fertilization may be sum-
marized as follows : — (1.) By the unequal develop-
ment of the stamens and pistil (proterandrism). (2.)
By the existence of a large area of attractiveness
provided by the combined numerously flowered in-
florescence, and peculiar structure of the individual
flowers. (3.) By the need of mechanical stimulus to
disturb the concealed perfect stamens.

The “keel” forms an alighting stage for the
insect, which swings down under the weight of its
body, and, especially its underside, becomes at the
same time dusted over by the discharged pollen. As
the position of the style is parallel with and close to
the upper side of the “ keel,” the insect’s body would
naturally come first in contact with the stigma of any
foreign flower the insect may visit, and if the stigma
be in a state far enough advanced, fertilization would
be effected. Probably no plant, orchids excepted,
affords a more interesting subject for study and such
combined appliances, emphatically promoting the end
which incontestably supports the Darwinian view
that “ Nature abhors perpetual self-fertilization.”
Slough. George Newlyn.

P. S. — Since the above has been in type, the Rev.
G. Henslow has kindly communicated to me some
interesting details of similar observations he has made
in the floral structure of a few leguminous plants. —
G. N.

Plow to Destroy Ants. — If Mr. George Pearce
uses a mixture in equal parts of calomel and powdered
white sugar, he will speedily rid himself of the ant
nuisance. — Samuel JVoods.

* Mr. Elliott, of Bray Wick, Maidenhead, who informed me
that S. pi mint us was very similar to Y. papilionaceus , both in
the structure of the flower and habit of growth. — G. N.

HARDWICKE'S

BOTANICAL WORK FOR JULY.

^ UPPOSE any one absent from England for
many years, were to be landed, or placed on
our shores about the early part of summer, but to be !
totally ignorant as to the month of the year, rambling
along the lanes and fields, and seeing a profusion of
the various though elegant species of Veronica, he
would naturally say, ‘‘This must be the month of
May ! ” So, in like manner, a little later in the season,
finding the willow-herbs scattered here and there
With a lavish hand— would he not exclaim: “This
is July ! ” ?

Our subject this month then must be to work up
:he willow-herbs. We trust we shall make them so
[ simple and plain, that our meaning or descriptions
cannot be misunderstood, but make a large addition
of new forms to our herbaria of curious and distinct
varieties, which have hitherto been passed over : —

Section i. Corolla irregular, wheel-shaped {rotate).

In this section we have only one British species,
:he handsome Rose-bay, Epilobium august folium,
Linn., with its garden variety, E. brachycarpum,
height.

Section 2. Flowers regular, campanulate , or
funnel-shaped.

Note. — By carefully observing the characters of
he following divisions, it will be easy afterwards to
ecognize the different species and varieties, without
fiaving the least doubt as to thier identity.

Division i. Stems terete, stigma y cleft.

1. Epilobium hirsutum , Linn. Whole plant very
lairy. L. opposite, oblong-lanceolate ; flowers large,
showy, rose-purple, often ~ in. diameter ; the four
lobes of the stigma curled backwards (revolute) ; buds
’reef.

2. E. paiviflorum, Sclireb. ( E . molle, Lam., in
FI. des Environs de Paris). A much smaller plant
han No. 1. Stigma lobes short, not bent back; L.
xlternate ; flowers | in. diameter, rose-purple, more
pr less pubescent.

Var. a. E. rivulare, Wahl. Often quite glabrous
ir smooth ; not unfrequent on the borders of shallow
crooks.

Var. b. E. intermedium, Merat. Covered with
ine silky hairs. L. all alternate. Frequent by
stagnant ponds, &c.

Var. c. E. molle, pubescent. L. in threes, verticil-
ate (whorled) ; more rare than the above. By the
fiver at Kew.

3. E. montanum, Linn. L. quite smooth, except
»’eins, oblong-ovate ; buds drooping ; flowers pale
purple.

Var. a. E. gracile (FI. des Environs de Paris). A
smaller plant, and much branched. L. oblong, on
Fort stalks ; flowers all drooping gracefully.

Var. b. E. verticillatum, Thuret. L. small, whorled
n the lower part of the stem.

£ Cl E NCE- G OSSIP. 1 5 9

Another variety, though probably not a permanent
one, with white flowers , is occasionally found in
plantations.

4. E. lanceolatum, Sebast. Very rare. L. stalked,
lanceolate, narrowed to an entire base ; buds droop-
ing, ovate.

Division 2. Stem with raised lines, or 2/^4
angles , stigma entire, club-shaped.

5. E. tetragonum, Linn. Stem with 4 unequal
angles ; L. strap-shaped, smooth, stalkless ; buds
erect. A much-branched species.

Var. a. E. obscurum, Schreb. L. tapering from
a rounded base, lanceolate, not shining above. We
regard this as a true species, as do most continental
authorities. {Vide Gren and Godron.)

6. E. palustre, Linn. Stem 1 foot, simple, with 2
lines of hairs, seldom branched. L. mostly opposite,
downy on upper surface, smooth beneath, except
midrib, lanceolate, with wedge-shaped base. Flowers
small, in leafy clusters.

Var. a. E. pubescens, Cuss. Whole plant covered
with downy hairs, and densely branched.

Var. b. E. ligulatum, Baker. L. toothed ; style
simple ; partakes much of the characters of palustre.

In this month we must also keep a look-out for the
Loosestrife, Lythrum Salicana, Linn. Being so well
known, it is not needful to describe it particularly ;
first, let usobserve, Hooker, in ‘ ‘Student’s Flora, ’’notices
two varieties growing by the Thames, at Kew, — a long-
styled and short-styled plant. These have recently
attracted considerable attention, by observers of the
modes of fertilization, and justly so, for, even viewed
in this light, they are full of instruction.

In the Floras of France, three varieties are enume-
rated. Having occasionally detected these, we mention
them with confidence, — it may throw a new charm
upon an old face to many of our readers.

1. L. alternifolium. Floral leaves alternate (rare-
ment toutes les feuilles alternes — FI. des Environs de
Paris). We have not seen the whole of the leaves
alternate ; as here described. Flowers pink.

2. L. verticillatum. L. in threes, verticillate,
styles long. A smooth plant, slender, with narrow
leaves. Flowers bright or pale pink.

3. L. pubescens. Style short, a large coarse plant.
Flowers dark dull-purple, very hairy (Plante tres-
pubescente, or plant very pubescent). FI. des Environs
de Paris.

The Sundews (Drosera) are becoming just now so
conspicuous that we may be pardoned by a passing
though brief reference to one of the species. Probably
Drosera obovata (Mert. et Koch) has hitherto attracted
very little attention, from the fact, it is supposed to
be a hybrid betwixt D. anglica and D. rotundifolia,
but any one knowing the true plant, and observing
its habit, style, and capsule carefully, will never so
regard it.

D. obovata , Mert. and Koch. L. truly oberoate,

i6o

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

broader at the summit than the type. Style notched,
capsule half as long as the sepals.

M: A

anglica.

We give an engraving of the leaves, natural size, of
both the type and variety ; this may help in its
identification.

F.

MICROSCOPY.

Diatomaceous Material. — Mr. Clark, the Se-
cretary of the San Francisco Microscopical Society,
announces to diatomists that the Society is now
enabled, by the kindness of the State Geological
Survey, to offer return exchanges of the Pacific Coast ;
diatomaceous deposits on receipt of any valuable
microscopical material.

The Queicett Microscopical Club. — We have
received the latest issue of the Journal of this vigorous
society, containing a description by Mr. J. G. Waller,
of a new British sponge, of the genus Microcionia ;
a paper on “The New Autographic Process,55 by
Mr. A. Cottam ; an abstract contribution by M. M. j
Hartog, B.Sc., on “The Investigation of Floral j
Development55; and a “ Record of the Proceedings I
of the Meetings of the Club.55

A Wet Process of Mounting in balsam is well
described by Mr. Stokes, in the May number. I have
for some years used a similar method, and which for
large and whole insect preparations I prefer. It is diffi-
cult to set out all parts of an insect, and at once apply
balsam without again disarranging your work. I there-
fore proceed thus : — The object having been sufficiently
soaked in potass to soften it, and washed well in
distilled water and freed from dirt, See., I place it for
a minute or two in alcohol, then lay it out on a piece
of glass in a little alcohol, cover with another piece,
press and tie with cotton, and throw into a bottle of
alcohol— the longer it stays here the less likely to
alter form, — take it out after a day or two, put into

turpentine and again brush ; it may be then mounted
after a few minutes’ soaking in the turpentine, but I
generally prefer to tie it up again and throw it into
turpentine for a few days. To mount, lay object on
slide on some balsam (liberally), and cover with thin
glass, which hold down lightly with clip of some kind;
boil, until a portion of the balsam around the cover,
taken on the end of a needle, is tolerably stiff-
There may be very many bubbles, but if they only
arise from vapour of turpentine, and the balsam is
not too hard, they will all go out in a few days.
The boiling need be for a very short time, and a little
practice will make perfect work. It is the simplest
method of balsaming I know of, much more easily
managed than damar. — An Old Mounter.

Canada Balsam in India.— An experience of
twenty years enables me to give a satisfactory answer
to the inquiry of FI. F. Blackett as to the heat-
resisting power of Canada balsam in India. I have
brought back with me many specimens, mounted in
that medium, which I took out with me twenty-five
years ago, and they are as perfect as ever they were.
My experience of mounted slides is as follows,
though it may possibly not accord with that of others.
Canada balsam stands well, and so (and I was
much surprised at the fact) does sealing-wax varnish
as a surrounding cement ; though much, no doubt,
depends upon the quality of the sealing-wax. The
black asphalt cement is apt to run in under the thin
glass. I have some specimens surrounded with this
material entirely spoilt, while a few have stood well.

All chemical preparations are spoiled by the climate. !
—C. S. P. Parish.

Plant-Crystals. — Mr. Hammond’s paper, in y
the June number of Science-Gossip is likely to Vj
lead to valuable microscopical work. Now, micro- i
scopists need no longer be advertising for good
materials for the preparation of interesting slides, for ■
they everywhere surround us, in our walks through
the green lanes and excursions to the conservatory,
and to the shops of the druggists. In the latter may
always be had guaiacum bark and quillaja, in both of ('
which the long crystal prisms exist in great abundance
and beauty ; while the short prismatic crystals are
very plentiful in most of such common plants as the
Leguminosce, and in the testa or seecl-skin in the Elm,
Black Bryony, and Scarlet Pimpernel. All these
crystals are admirably fitted for experiments on the
polarization of light. The sarsaparilla of the drug-
gists affords true raphides ; but these do not polarize
light well, nor do the cystoliths or other sphiera-
phides. All of them are figured either in Science-
Gossip, May, 1875, or in the Monthly Microscopical
Journal, December, 1873 ; and it is understood
that Professor Lionel Beale will devote two plates to
all these interesting crystals in the forthcoming new
edition of his great work, entitled “IIow to Work
with the Microscope.” — G. K.

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

161

ZOOLOGY.

The Hemipterous Fauna of St. Helena. —
At a recent meeting of the Zoological Society of
London, a communication was read from Dr. F. Bucha-
nan White, entitled “ Contributions to a Knowledge
of the Hemipterous Fauna of St. Flelena, and specu-
lations on its origin.” In the first part of his paper
the author, after briefly noticing what was known
with regard to the Fauna and Flora of that remote
and interesting oceanic island, and mentioning the
various theories that had been brought forward to
account for their origin, discussed the difficulties of
the animals, and argued that they had evidently been
derived at a remote period from the Palcearctic Region
by way of Madeira, the Canaries, and the Cape de
Verde Archipelago. In the second part of his com-
munication Dr. White described the Hemiptera
collected in St. Helena by the late Mr. T. V. Wollas-
ton, during the recent visit of that naturalist to the
island. The collection included thirty species, of
which five were probably introduced ; one appeared
to be indigenous, but seemed identical with
European species ; and the remaining twenty-four
were regarded by the author as new and peculiar to
the island. Seven new genera and one new sub-genus
were created for the reception of ten of the species,
the rest, with one exception, being referred to
European genera.

Testacella haliotoidea in Jersey. — This
slug, though recorded as occurring in the sister isle
of Guernsey, seems not to have been reported from
this island. On the 21st of April last, about 9 a.m.,
I observed a specimen crawling at the foot of a dry
bank, after rain. It carried a prominent oval lami-
nated shell, of an ashy-white colour, about \ an inch
in length by J of an inch in breadth, just in front of
the hinder extremity. But it appears that an intel-
ligent observer, R. Macdonnell, Escp, by whose
kindness I have since seen a second specimen, has
noticed it occasionally, for several years, in his
garden, about half a mile from the other locality.
Whether it is indigenous in Jersey, or imported from
France with soil, I must leave to those who, unlike
myself, are learned in the history of mollusca. —
Martin M. Bull , ^Jersey.

The Cuckoo at Night.— On the 24th of May
I heard the note of the cuckoo at 2*15 a.m. The
night was very dark, and it was raining heavily, yet
the cuckoo was singing as loud and as cheerfully as
it would in the daytime. Is it usual for the cuckoo
to sing during the night?— A. M. Me A., Stoke-on-
Trent.

Irish Wolf-Dog. — Lord Talbot of Malahide
formerly had a dog said to be the Irish Wolf-dog ;
he probably can give “L. M.” the information he
requires.

BOTANY.

Meyenia erecta. — It must have been obvious to
Science-Gossip readers that the name “Mergenia
erecta,” which headed a paragraph in the June num-
ber, page 139, and which had reference to fertiliza-
tion adaptability, was a misprint for the above.
Acanthacece, to which natural order this plant be-
longs, approach Labiatoe and Verbenacem, Scro-
phularineoe and Bignoniaceae in the irregular anisos-
temenous corolla : they differ from the latter two
orders in the aestivation of this whorl, and by the
absence of albumen. All these groups of irregular-
shaped flowers are specially adapted for insect fer-
tilization, and, as regards the favoured theory of the
origin of species, they doubtless constitute the last
link in the developed series of flowering plants. I
am inclined to suggest that there is a field open in
connection with the investigation and study of the
floral structure of these groups, and that special
attention devoted in this direction will be attended
with fresh interesting discoveries. — George Neavlyn.

Epilobium angustifolium (Rose-bay Willow-
herb). In “ Flora Lapponica,” Linnaeus describes the
hut of the Laplander encircled with the tall stems
and elegant blossoms of this species ; he goes on to
state they in state emulate the palaces of the gods.
The Swedes call it Himmelgrecs , or “ herb of
heaven.” The only true wild form found in England
is the E. macrocarpum , Steph., whilst the one often
found in cottage-gardens is the E. brachycarpum of
Leighton’s “ FI. Shropshire ” ; they are quite distinct.
—R.

Destruction of Rare Plants. — As this sad
work is still going on, Mr. E. D. Marquand deserves
the thanks of all botanists for his judicious remon-
strances, in the June number of Science-Gossip,
against the rooting out of the New Forest such
interesting species as Spiranthes cestivalis and Pul-
monaria angustifolia. It would be a libel to attribute
such wanton destruction to botanists, since it is done
by mean dealers. But it unfortunately happens that
the destruction is too often encouraged under the
pretence of science, especially by some of our pro-
vincial societies offering rewards for the best col-
lections, as if mere collectors had any pretence to be
regarded as botanists or zoologists. If the rulers of
such societies had any intention of encouraging, by
rewards of money or otherwise, the promotion of
botanical or zoological science, that might be more
easily and effectually done by proposing investigations
of the species and intimate structure of common
plants and animals. For example, the species of the
Wild Roses, Brambles, Willows, Sedges, Grasses,
&c., would afford excellent exercises ; and so would
the examination of the intimate structure of the
glands, hairs, pollen, and distribution and significance
of raphides and other plant-crystals, & c. It is really

l6 2

BARD WICKE 'S S CIENCE - G 0 SSIR.

aggravating that Mr. Marquand should have been
■called on to protest now against a crying evil ;
especially as it has long since been denounced by
Professor Gulliver and others in Nature, May 22,
1873, and in the Nineteenth Report of the East Kent
Natural History Society ; and all this about the same
time that Professor Babington and other eminent
botanists were protesting strongly but ineffectually in
the same cause. — Q. F.

A Glass-eating Lichen. — My friend Mr. John-
ston-Lavis’s lichen seems probably of more interest
than the unpainted surface of much old glass. If
this lichen — for lichen it very probably is — really has
the power of dissolving glass, it is certainly of the
very deepest interest. I quite agree with the disco-
verer in setting aside the “workman” theory; but I
much regret that the extent to which the figures are
magnified is not given, the method of drawing not
stated, and the “various re-agents” used to remove
the growth not named; for in Mr. Johnston-Lavis’s
paper I see no evidence that would make me attribute
a solvent power equal to that of hydrofluoric acid, to
thislichen, rather than believe in the simpler hypothesis
that it is filling up by its growth previously existing
holes. I hope my friend will prosecute this inquiry,
and produce some more decisive evidence one way or
the other. — G. S. Boulger.

Old Plant-Names. — In answer to Mr. Henry F.
Bailey, I may say that Dittany does not occur in
Turner’s “ Libellus de re Herbaria” (1538). In Ge-
rard’s “ Catalogus ” (1596), Dictamnum cneticwn and
fraxinella are mentioned, and in the second (1599)
edition, the former is called “Dittanie of Candle,” and
both “Fraxinella Bastard Dittanie” and “Fraxinella
altera, Great Bastard Dittanie,” are recorded. The
Dictamnum crceticum is described on p. 651 of Ge-
rard’s “ Herbal ” ( 1 597)? ancl is identified by my friend
Mr. Benjamin Daydon Jackson, editor of the “ Cata-
logus ” and “Libellus,” with Origanum dictamnus
of Linnaeus. Fraxinella is described on p. 1065 of
the “ Herbal,” and is, according to the same high
authority, Dictamnus albus , L., whilst F. altera is on
the same page of the “Herbal,” and is Dictamnus
fraxinella of Persoon. Dictamnus belongs to the
Rue tribe. It is remarkably inflammable, owing to
its oil-secreting glands. D. albus is now commonly
known as Dittany. Origanum belongs to the Labi-
ates, and our Marjoram is a species of this genus.
On p. 61 of the “Herbal,” and in both editions of
the “Catalogus,” Gerard also mentions “ Pseudo-
dictamnum, Bastard Dittanie,” which Mr. Jackson
makes Ballota pseudo-dictamnus of Bentham. Garden
Rue is, and was in Gerard’s time, Ruta graveolens,
though then known as Ruta sativa. I am not at all
sure about the Mandrake, but the probabilities seem
in favour of a solanaceous plant, rather than the
White Bryony, which is the popular name by which

Bryonia dioica is distinguished from Tamus communis,
the Black Bryony. Tournefort named the genus of
Solanacece, now known as Mandragora, of which the
species officinalis is commonly known as the Man-
drake, “The insane root which takes the reason
prisoner,” is often said to be the Dwale, or Deadly
Nightshade ( Atropa Belladonna). I may refer
Mr. Bailey to the Rev. IP. N. Ellacombe’s “ Plant-
lore of Shakespere,” an excellent work, which I
have not by me at present, and I may perhaps also
take this opportunity of calling attention to the exist-
ence of a “Turner Printing- Club,” for reprinting
early works on British botany, under the superin-
tendence of Mr. B. D. Jackson, of 30, Stockwell-
road, S.W. In Gerard’s “Catalogus,” and the
“Herbal,” p. 274, the Brinjal, Aubergine, or Egg-
plant of Asia, Solanum Melongena, L., is mentioned
as Mala insana, Mad or Raging Apples. I take
this opportunity of publishing, for the justification of
our early authors, their meaning in the various Maiden-
hairs. The true Maidenhair is Adiantum capillus-
veneris. Possibly the foliage of Thalictrum minus,
the Lesser Meadow Rue, was sometimes mistaken
for it. The common or English Maidenhair is As-
plenium Trichomanes ; the Black Maidenhair is Asple-
nium Adiantum-nigrum ; the White Maidenhair is
Asplenium Ruta-muraria, the Wall-rue Fern ; and
the Golden Maidenhair is the moss Mnium hygrome-
tricum, also called Little Goldilocks. The Goldilocks
is Ranunculus auricomus. — G. S. Boulger.

Bible Plants. — An interesting little volume with
| this title, by John Smith, ex-curator of the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, has just been published by
i Hardwicke & Bogue. One plant, however ( Lycium
Europceum ), appears to me calculated to mislead ; it
| is described (page 207) as “a rambling, prickly shrub,
well known in this country as Boxthorn or Tea-tree,
and often used for covering garden-seats, arbours,
and the like, and is a hedge-plant in Palestine.”
At plate 9 is a figure of the plant, marked C, which
is no doubt correct as it is found ip Palestine, but
bears no resemblance to the tea-plant so well known
| in England. Mr. Baker, curator of the Royal
Herbarium at Kew, says, “it is Lycium Barbarian
not Europceum that is commonly cultivated, but they
are very near to one another, and the genus is in a
great muddle and wants re-monographing.” He
says, “The Lycium of Syria is L. vulgare of Lin-
naeus, L. Mediterrancum of Dunal, and copiously
spiny when wild, but loses its thorns when under
cultivation.” The Lycium Mediterrancum, Dunal,
D.C. Prod. ; Lycium Europceum, Linnaeus, Mant. 47 ;
Desf. Atl-kock syn., is described in the “'Flore de
France,” by Grenier et Godron, as with leaves a little
fleshy, oblongues-obovees, insensibly attenuate in a
short petiole, common on the whole littoral of the
Mediterranean. No one looking at the figure at
plate 9 could suppose it represented the tea-shrub, so

HA R D JV/C ICE’S SCIENCE - G O SSIP. 163

well known in England. The plant is stated in the
“ Treasury of Botany ” as being known as “ the Duke
of Argyle's tea-tree,” the leaves being recommended
for use in the place of tea, a piece of advice not
generally acted upon it would seem. The leaves
appear in the figure so extremely diminutive that they
never could have been used as a substitute for tea.
There appears, therefore, to be some confusion ; the
plant in the figure should have been referred to as
the Lychun Europceum of Palestine, but altogether
unlike the tea-tree, sometimes found in a semi-wild
state in England, where it is so well known as the
tea-tree. Mr. Baker says he has not seen the Bible
plant, and of course he can give no opinion as to the
figure in plate 9. — T.B. IV. , Brighton.

;

Definite and Indefinite Inflorescence. —
Sir J. E. Smith thought the distinction of not much
importance, on account of the difference found among
the species of Allium in the order of expansion of
their flowers. Nor did Professor Lindley seem to
recognize the distinction as of primary importance,
for in this little work on Descriptive Botany, the
spike, the raceme, and the corymb are represented
by figures each terminated by a central flower. Such
a central flower may indeed be found in the spike
of Agrimony, the corymb of the Pear, the umbel of
the Apple, and the panicle of London Pride. After
noticing such facts, one may be pardoned for enter-
taining a doubt as to the existence of any form of
inflorescence strictly indefinite, i. e. , incapable of pro-
ducing a terminal flower on the axis of inflorescence,
or a lateral bud below the flower upon its pedicle.
Such a mode of inflorescence does, however, seem to
be in the orders Crucifercc and Primulacecc, and it
may be in other natural orders, only subject to such
exceptions as belong to the province of teratology.
For nearly twenty years I watched the inflorescence
of cruciferous plants before finding an indisputable
case of a flower-stalk with a flower on the summit
and another below it on the side. This was on one
of the ramifications of a much-branched stem of a
perennial stock which flowered last year, and of
(which a note appeared in Science-Gossip of July,
1877. This year a similar phenomenon has appeared
on another plant of the same kind. Foliar prolifi-
cation of the inflorescence is, however, much more
common, though I have observed it only in perennial
I plants, not in annuals' or biennials. The stem of the
watercress will sometimes grow beyond the series of
flowers on its sides, producing leaves above the raceme
as freely as below it. Cardcimine pratcnse may be
occasionally found with a tuft of leaves on the top of a
flowering stem, and I have now in bloom in my garden
a stem of a wallflower which bore flowers, produced
pods, and ripened seeds last year. Between the two
series of flowers came a tuft of leaves, and this year
there is a branch above the mortal remains of last
year s pods, which, as well as the main stem, has

blooming flowers. If the stem be not exhausted too
much to ripen seed, I will allow it to do so, that I
may see if such a variation is hereditary. It thus
appears that in cruciferous plants median prolifica-
tion of the inflorescence is always foliar, median
prolification of the flowers floral. — John Gibbs.

Orchis-hunting in Surrey. — Surrey is to
me associated with many delightful rambles, and
none of them more so than those I have deno-
minated “Orchis-hunting.” Living at that time
close upon the North Downs, I was able to make
acquaintance with some of the chalk-loving species
of theOrchidaceee seldom met with now, especially
as I am at present located amongst the Red Sandstone
1 of Devonshire. My “happy hunting-grounds” at
that time consisted of the parish of Ockham as a
centre, from which I made pedestrian excursions into
the surrounding neighbourhood. Most of the species
I find referred to in my notes were found within some
five or six miles of what was then Ockham Middle-
Class Schools. In the moist meadows around, and up
what everybody knew as the “Rides,” were found
very plentifully, 0. mascula , 0. inaculata , O. latifolia,
Neoltia Nidus-avis, and the Listera ovata. (The
Adder’s Tongue Fern was very plentiful in a meadow
by the side of the Rides.) In a meadow near a pond
called the “ Sheepwash,” I came upon the Habenaria
bifolia, and on several occasions 0. morio. It was,
however, by walking some few miles and getting upon
some of the chalk ridges that I made acquaintance
with some of the more strange-looking species. In
the adjoining parish of East Horsley was a hilly piece
of ground known as the “Sheep Leas,” as far as I
can remember the name. I am not sure of the ortho-
graphy of the word, — I give the name as it sounded to
me. This was a favourite place for a holiday of the
pic-nic order, and our people often resorted to it in
days of yore. Many a pleasant day’s botanizing I
have done there. It was there I made aqcuaintance
| with the Accras anthropophora and the Ophrys
mucifera. The Ophrys apifera I found here most plenti-
fully distributed, in fact, almost carpeting the ground.
This odd-looking Orchis I also found in great abun-
dance in a “ rough field ” near the Fox, on Ranmoor
Common. I also remember a few being found in
Ockham Park one season. As to the 0. mucifera I
think it was under the beech-trees on the Sheep Leas
that I found it. In the same neighbourhood I found
the Ophrys aranifera, and the Orchis hircina . I

think it was in the Sheepwash meadow already men-
tioned that I also found the Orchis'conopsea. — J. Mills

Colias Edusa. — Can any of your readers of
Science-Gossip give me a reason for calling the
clouded yellow butterfly “ Colias Edusa ”? “ Colias ”
meaning a kind of tunny-fish, and “Edusa” the
goddess who presides over the nourishment of child-
ren. — Has >ila nd.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

1 64

GEOLOGY,

The Glacial Phenomena of the Long
Island, or Outer Hebrides. — A paper on this
subject has recently been read before the Geological
Society by James Geikie, LL.D. The author gave a
detailed account of the glacial phenomena of Harris
•and the other islands that form the southern portion
of the Outer Hebrides. Evidence was adduced to
show that Lewis has been glaciated from S.E. to
N.W., and the shelly boulder-clays and interglacial |
shell-beds of that part of the Long Island were de- |
scribed in detail. Harris, North Uist, Benbecula,
South Uist, Barra, and the other islands that go to
form the chain of the Long Island were successively
described under the headings of Physical Features,
Geological Structure, Glaciation, Till or Boulder-clay,
Erratics and perched blocks, Morainic debris and
Moraines, Freshwater Lakes and Sea-lochs. Numerous
bearings of strice, which abound, were given, and
these were held to prove that the whole Outer
Hebrides have been glaciated by ice that flowed out-
wards from the mainland of Scotland. The position
of abundant roches moutonnees points to the same con-
clusion, and this is still further supported by the
“travel” of the Till. That deposit is generally
absent or very sparingly present on the rock-faces
that look towards the mainland, but it is heaped up
in their rear, and spreads over the lower tracts that
slope gently towards the Atlantic. On the west side
of the islands, not a few boulders occur in the Till,
which have been derived from the east ; and the same
is true of certain erratics lying loose at the surface of
the ground. The islands are well glaciated up to a
height of 1,600 feet above the sea; and the line of
demarcation between the glaciated and non-glaciated
areas is extremely pronounced. Above 1,600 feet the
hills show rugged, splintered, jagged, and sometimes
serrated tops. The author regarded the Till or
boulder-clay as the morainic material that gathered
underneath the ice, and proof of this is given. Erratics
and perched blocks are very numerous, and most of
these, as well as much of the morainic debris , are
believed to have been dropped where we now find
them during the final melting of the ice-sheet. It was
shown, however, that certain erratics and perched
blocks and some well-marked moraines are due to
local glaciers, as are also some of the striations in a
few of the mountain valleys. The origin of the rock-
basins, which are now lakes, was discussed, and
attributed to the erosive action of ice. To the same
-cause were assigned the rock-basins which occur in
certain of the sea-lochs. In concluding, the author
pointed out that we may now arrive at a true estimate
of the thickness attained by the ice-sheet in the north-
west of Scotland. If a line be drawn from the upper
limits of the glaciations in Ross-shire (3,000 feet) to a
height of i,6co feet in the Long Island, we have an
incline of only 1 in 210 for the upper surface of the

ice-sheet ; and of course we are able to say what
thickness the ice reached in the Minch. Between
the mainland and the Outer Hebrides it was as much
as 3,800 feet. No boulders derived from Skye or the
mainland occur in the Till of the Outer Hebrides,
and this was explained by the deflection of the lower
portion of the ice-sheet against the steep wall of rock
that faces the Minch. The underpart of the ice that
flowed across the Minch would be deflected to right
and left against the inner margin of the Long Island ;
and the deep rock-basins that exist all along that
margin are believed to have been scooped out by the
grinding action of the deflected ice. Towards the
north of Lewis, where the land shelves off gently into
the sea, the under strata of the ice-sheet were enabled
to creep up and over the district of Ness, and thus
gave rise to the lower shelly boulder-clay of that
neighbourhood, which contains boulders derived from
the mainland. The presence of the overlying inter-
glacial shell-beds proves a subsequent melting of the
ice-sheet, and a depression of the land for at least
200 feet. The overlying shelly boulder-clay shows
that the ice-sheet returned and overflowed Lewis,
scooping out the older drift-beds and commingling
them with its bottom moraine. The absence of
kames was commented upon, and shown to be in-
explicable on the assumption that such deposits are
of marine origin ; whilst if they be of torrential origin
their absence is only what might be expected from
the physical features of the islands. The only traces
of post-glacial submergence are met with at merely a
few feet above present high-water mark.

The Fossil Fungus. — Too much credit cannot
be given to Mr. Butterworth for his labours on fossil

plants, carried on for so many years under great diffi-
culties but with great perseverance, and with most
important results. Prof. Williamson has again and
again expressed his obligations to Mr. Butterworth ;
and the collections of the British Museum have several
valuable specimens prepared by Mr. Butterworth’s
own hands, the importance of which I have testified
to on several occasions. No doubt Mr. Butterworth
observed the fossil fungus in his specimens before
they were sent to London, although Mr. Smith and
myself were ignorant of it. But the fungus had al-
ready been observed by myself, and shortly described
from specimens in the British Museum prepared by
Mr. Norman, and the interest of Mr. Butterworth’s
specimens to me, when they were shown me by
Mr. Young, was that they confirmed the specimens
I already possessed, and added to my knowledge of
the fungus. The two Palecozoic fungi which Mr.
Butterworth refers to could not include the Neozoic
parasite in the fern-stem from Herne Bay, as he sup-
poses. These two Palaeozoic fungi were — 1. I he
curious mycelium masses found at Newcastle by Mr.
Atthey, and described and figured in his “Annals
and Magazine of Natural History and 2. '1 he

i

1

0

HARD WICKE 'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

l65

parasite fungus in the stem of a Lepidodendron de-
scribed by myself without a name, and afterwards,
by the help of Mr. Butterworth’s specimens, de-
scribed at greater length by Mr. Smith. — William
Carruthers.

The Tertiary Flora of America.— Thanks
to Dr. Hayden, we have received the seventh volume
of the Report of the United States Geological Survey,
containing Prof. Lesquereux’s “Contributions to the
Fossil Flora of the Western Territories,” Part II.
“The Tertiary Flora.” It is a large and handsome
: quarto volume of nearly 400 pages, and contains
65 magnificently-lithographed plates. In every-
thing, type, lithography, quality of paper, and even
binding, these publications shoot far ahead of our
own “ Memoirs of the Geological Survey,” whose
small type seems intended to deter people from
reading them — a plan which is considerably aided
by the extravagantly high prices charged for them 1
Our geologists are not particularly fortunate in the
possession of large salaries, and the high price
charged for their memoirs almost places them be-
yond the reach of ordinaiy readers, and thus con-
demns the labours of some of our ablest scientific
men to an undeserved obscurity. Moreover, the
niggardly way in which the publications of our own
survey are doled out to the authors, and the plan
adopted of sending none out for review, must be a
mode of treatment keenly felt by the authors, who at
least ought to be publicly credited with the scientific
value that would be attached by all geologists to
their work. In this respect the United States Go-
vernment is the very opposite of our own. Their
splendidly got-up volumes are sent over to the scien-
tific journals of Europe without stint, and so the
American States geologists obtain a recognition
which the unaccountable stinginess of the British
Government denies to ours. Prof. Lesquereux’s
Volume is the best we have seen of the series, and it
will surely take its place as a most valuable contri-
bution to Fossil Botany.

Ancient Vegetation. — The notice on this sub-
ect in last month’s “ Gossip” on American Silurian
'plants is not quite correct, as plants have been known
ong since in the “ Glengariff ” or “Dingle beds” of
Ireland. These rocks were taken by Jukes out of the
Silurians, and put provisionally in the “Old Red
Sandstone,” on account of the plants found in them.
The “Dingle beds,” however, pass downward into
ypical Silurians, while they are capped uncon-
'ormably by the “ Old Red Sandstone.” — G. IP. K.

NOTES AND QUERIES,

Starlings and Sparrows’ Eggs. — Having
>ccasion to enter the roof of our house, I came across
he nest of a house-sparrow, and on looking into it
ound that it contained three young ones just hatched,
me egg that was rotten, and to my great surprise a

starling’s egg. This making me rather curious, I pro-
longed my search, and about three yards from the
nest occupied by the sparrows I discovered a starling’s
nest containing five or six fully-fledged young ones.

I must not forget to state that the starling’s egg
found in the sparrow’s nest had apparently only been
sat upon but a few days. Will any of your readers
kindly state if such an occurrence is rare ? — C. If.
Sharp.

The Grey “Lag.” — Can anyone give the mean-
ing of the word “ Lag,” as applied to the goose ?
The proper grey wild-goose, as recognized by natu-
ralists, is popularly called the “grey lag,” and the
universal summons to a flock of geese, in part of
Gloucestershire, is — “ Come lag, Come lag, Come
lag.” Now, whence “Lag”? — G. L .

Visits of the Cuckoo. — Does the Cuckoo, like
the Swallow, revisit the same place yearly? I feel
interested to know, for this reason. Last year I noticed,
many times one of the same colour as the Kestrel,
quite red ; unfortunately I was not able to secure it
for my collection of birds. This year again I have
also seen the same bird or one very much like it, and
from this circumstance I am inclined to think that
the bird does return to the same place ; but whether
I am right or not I cannot say. At the same time,
will you be good enough to describe for me the
Cuckoo’s egg. I have the Rev. F. O. Morris’s
“ British Birds,” but the Cuckoo’s egg is not described
there, I mean the colour of it. I procured a little
while back a very peculiar skylark, of a fine cinna-
mon colour. I have it stuffed in my collection. —
Wm. Bennett.

The Swift’s Appearance. — The fact of the
Swift appearing on May 1st is not a very unusual
occurrence. I live to the north of your correspondent,

I should therefore see it a little later ; yet I find, on
referring to my notes, that I saw numbers on April 30^'
Stragglers put in an appearance about the 28th,
which is about the average date for this city. —
J. B. P, Hereford.

Varieties of Camberwell Beacjiy. — In reply
to Mr. Morse’s inquiry, I can most certainly say that
he is misinformed. I have seen numbers of specimens
of European V. Antiopa , and several British ones ;
there is a distinct difference in the shade of the border :
in the former it is pale yellow, in the latter a pearly
white or pale cream-colour. American examples
vary again ; the ground is the same or a little deeper,
but more dappled with black specks than the Euro-
pean specimens ; they are also much larger. I have
one that measures rather more that 3! inches. —
7. B. P.

How to Destroy Ants. — In reply to Mr. George
Pearce’s question, as regards the most successful
mode of destroying ants, he will find Keating's
insect powder good, as it will at once kill them, and
if scattered about the rooms and furniture infested
by them, will effectually drive the ants away. — E.
Edwards.

Colours of Dried Primroses.— Can any of
your readers kindly inform me how it is that the
beautiful colour of the Primula vulgaris and elatioi
should, when destroyed, change to a bright green,
leaving only the centre of the corolla (and that a
small portion), together with the stamens, the original
primrose-colour? The leaves turn brown. Is theie
any method of preserving this lovely flower, so as
to retain the primrose colour of the petals ?— E.
E 'hoards.

i 66

HARD W7 C RE’S SCIENCE - G OSSIE.

Dittany. — There is a foreign species of Marjoram
called “the Dittany of Crete,” much used in medi-
cine. and known as Origanum Dictamnus, genus
Labiates , and the “Bastard Dittany,” Dictamnus
Fraxinella , one of a small order of Rutacece found in
Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and also the Cunila
mariana , called Dittany, likewise belonging to the
genus of Labiatce. This is all I am able to find in
my botanical books concerning Dittany, and I have
much pleasure in forwarding it. — Helen Watney.

Mandrake. — Mandragora is the name applied to
a genus of Solanacece or Atropacecc , natives of South-
ern Europe and the East. Mandrakes have poison-
ous properties, and are somewhat like in their effects
to belladonna. The roots of the Bryony are often
trained round a mould, and then sold as Mandrakes.
Linnaeus considered the red-berried Bryony a variety
of the Bryonia alba , or White Bryony, which is a
Central European species possessing like properties
to the English species. -Helen Watney.

Robins’ Eggs. — I found myself some years ago a
robin’s nest, containing five white eggs, of a larger
size than any eggs of a robin that I have ever seen,
more the size of a cuckoo’s egg. The other day I was
asked to name an egg, which from the nest I had no
hesitation in setting down as a robin’s, too ; this nest
also had contained five eggs. As both these nests
contained the full complement of eggs, all of the
same size and colour, they must have been an abnor-
mal production from the birds. If there had been a
single egg, I should have concluded it to be a white
cuckoo’s. Is this an unusual variety ? I have, you see,
come across two such instances myself ; others may
have done the same. — C. A. Haden.

The House-Martin and House-Sparrow. —
At the commencement of the past week two martins
began to build under the eaves of my house. Being
a great admirer of them I was pleased, and hoped
nothing would hinder the completion of the nest.
It was not long, however, before I noticed two
sparrows taking more interest than I liked, and after
five or six days, when the nest wanted but little to
finish it, they drove away the rightful owners, and
took possession. I could not remain neutral ; so
with small pebbles I tried at intervals for two hours to
drive away, the sparrows. This proved effective only
for the moment ; so I thought of another expedient.
Taking my trout-rod, I tied a piece of string to the
end and placed it within a foot of the nest. I never
saw more of the sparrows, but in less than an hour
the martins recognized the altered state of things, and
soon completed the nest. — //. G., Horbling Lodge.

Birds Singing at Midnight. — In Science-
Gossip for April i of this year there is an account of
“Birds Singing at Midnight,” by Mr. R. Standen,
Goosnargh, Lancashire, in which he states that he
heard the various songsters on the night of Saturday,
15th February. As I am rather anxious to fix the
exact date of the occurrence, I should be greatly
obliged by your informing me whether Friday, the
15th February, or Saturday, the 1 6th, is meant;
either the day or date being evidently a misprint.— X.

Position of the Pasque Flower. — Mr. Barrett
asks in the June number of Science-Gossip whether
the finding of Anemone pulsatilla at a certain eleva-
tion “is a universal fact, or only a partial one”?
From my own experience I should say the latter.
I have found it in both situations ; but if I remember
rightly, in greater abundance in some of the chalk
ridges of the North Downs than in the lower-lying
country around. I have found it growing in the

corner of a hay meadow, the land being quite flat, in
the parish of Ockham, Surrey, in close proximity to
some woodlands. I have also found it growing some
two or three miles off, in the adjoining parish of East
Horsley, on a piece of rising ground, or hilly pasture,
and called the “ Sheep Leas.” — J. Mills Higgins.

Soi.anum Dulcamara. — In reference to the
notes lately given about this plant, I forward the fol-
lowing facts. In 1869 one of my pupils partook
rather freely of the berries while he was searching
one evening for “haws.” On reaching home he
became sick, and for several hours he was in a wild
and violent delirium, requiring to be forcibly held
down. This happened, too, after the stomach had
been emptied of its contents, the poison having had
time to extend itself into the system. The physician
who attended him at his house told me that the pupils
of the eyes were much dilated, and the symptoms
closely resembled those resulting from taking the
berries of Atropa Belladonna ; in fact, he concluded
that these were the berries the boy had eaten. Ice
in large quantities was applied to the head, and the
patient soon recovered. I copy this from notes which
I made at the time. It could not be ascertained how
many berries had been eaten. — Henry Ulyctt , Folke-
stone.

Queries as to Flowers. — To what flowers do
the following lines allude ?

“ One blossom, ’mid its leafy shade,

The virgin’s purity portrayed ;

And one, with cup all crimson dyed,

Spoke of a Saviour crucified.”

Holy Flowers, , M. Howitt.

“ So have I seen some tender flower,

Priz’d above all the vernal bower,

Shelter’d beneath the coolest shade,

Embosom’d in the greenest glade,

So frail a gem, it scarce may bear
The playful touch of evening air ;

When hardier giown, we love it less,

And trust it from our sight, not needing our caress.”

Keble.

C. F. W.

Hop-gardens. — I am living in the midst of hop-
gardens. Can any of your readers kindly tell me if
there are any curiosities of vegetable or insect life to
be gathered during the season ? — A. C. Smith ,
Crowboro ’.

Lob-worms. — In reference to this subject by
Professor Paley, in Science-gossip for last month,
permit me to say that the materials found at the
entrance of their holes had adhered accidentally to
their slime, and were rubbed off on entering. Leaves
with stalks forward they do not carry, with the thin
end forward they do, and frequently pass into the hole.
Lob-worms clear away the things they have brought
home, because it is not convenient for them to adhere
again when they go out on visits of ceremony. In
clean-swept lawns these encumbrances are not met
with, and the entrance to the holes is not obstructed.
Grass and leaves may be eaten by these worms, but I
do not think they are taken to the hole, and then left
at the entrance for breakfast. Fifty years ago and
more I used to handle these creatures as Isaac Walton
did — tenderly. — H. P. M.

Blackbirds’ Nest. — A pair of blackbirds have
built a nest just six feet from the ground in a honey-
suckle climbing up a verandah outside our drawing-
room window, and close to a door which is in constant
use for going in and out of the garden. They have
now hatched their young ones in spite of all the dis-
turbance arising from curious eyes 'watching them,

RARDIVICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

167

and from three little terriers constantly playing and
barking immediately under the nest. — M. T. Palmer.

Batractiospermum, & c. — I cannot say whether
I shall be giving any or new interesting information
when I inform your readers that recently the Misses
Willis brought some fine examples of the lovely fresh-
water alga, Batrochospermum moniliforme from the
stream at Ewell. And that Mr. Morse, of the original
Epsom nurseries, discovered in the same parish, a
habitat for Cystopteris fragilis. — John E. Daniels ,
Epsom.

Malformation in a Sheep. — I saw lately in
London a handsome well-grown wether sheep two
years old, with five legs, the extra one being apparently
anchylozed to the right scapula. The shank-bone
was full-sized, but instead of one set of the other feet
bones there were two, the four hoofs being prolonged
into claws. I have often met with monstrosities, but
not often so full-grown. — A. Bell.

Double Lilac. — In a garden at Southend I have
observed a lilac-tree covered with double flowers.
The owner told me that five or six years ago this
peculiarity was first remarked on one or two branches
only. The quantity gradually increased, and now
the whole tree is nearly covered with double blossoms.
There are other lilac-trees in the garden which have
never shown any disposition to become double. Is
this an uncommon circumstance ? I have never met
with it before. — E. Fisher.

Superstitious Dislike to the Wren. — In
February’s Science-Gossip, Mr. H. Allingham, in
an interesting note, speaks of the bitter dislike which
the country folk in some districts entertain to the
Wren. I have occasionally met with instances of this
superstition myself, but have always been unable to
trace the reason for such an aversion. Mr. Allingham
says the Wren has been designated the “devil’s bird.”
Lias he heard the old couplet which says —

“ The robin and the wren
Are God’s cock and hen ? ”

Apropos of this bird, I may mention that on Satur-
day, the 1 2th January, a newly-built wren’s nest,
containing five eggs, was discovered at Galley Hill,
near Gravesend. — G. O. Howell , Shooter's Hill.

Double-blossomed Horse-chestnut.— In the
New London-road, Chelmsford, during May, a horse-
chestnut tree in the garden belonging to Weston Villa
was in full bloom. The flowers were apparently all
the subjects of multiplication, for in a panicle, which
I took the liberty to pluck, I found twenty-four petals,
and twenty stamens in one flower, and from the
general appearance of the flowers on the tree they
seemed more or less like it. The tree is well-grown
and vigorous, equalling in height the villa near which
it stands ; but is by no means old, so that it may be a
study for botanists during many years to come. —
John Gibbs.

Ranunculus repens. — In Cheshire the curious
or strange name of Devil’s-claw is applied to this
species, but in “Flora Vectensis” it is stated the
term is used to an allied species, the R. arvensis.

The Natterjack Toad (p. 142).— This reptile
emits a rather strong sulphurous scent when
frightened ; but only extremely fastidious persons
could consider it “a most intolerable odour. ” The
locality nearest to London in which I have found the
animal is Barnes Common, where it was very abundant
seven or eight years ago. It is also to be found on
Coombe Warren, between Wimbledon Common and
Kingston. — IV. R. Tate, Blavdford, Dorset .

Cheap Aquaria. — For the benefit of “ W. D. B.,”
who asks for a way of constructing a cheap aquarium,
I will describe the primitive one I have in use. It is
simply a “carboy,” such as can be procured at any
chemical works for a small amount of money. To
convert it into an aquarium lay a ring about ten
inches in diameter on top of it for a guide, and run a
glazier’s diamond around, then use a hot wire, and you
have a clean cut edge, which you can set off a little
by binding with tinfoil or something of a similar
nature. I don’t know the exact capacity of mine,
but believe it approximates something near fifteen
gallons. For keeping in stock objects for the micro-
scope, such as entomostraca, infusoria, &c., I prefer
a small globe holding not more than two or three
pints. — //. F. Atwood, Chicago, U.S.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS,

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science -Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

V. G. — The insect, of which you sent us a sketch, is LibclluLi
depress a.

E. E. Evans (Brimscombe). — Hewitson, in his “Eggs of
British Birds,” gives no markings on the eggs of the Martin
( Hirnndo urbica). They are nearly white, with a slight plum-
coloured tint at the smaller end.

T. Spencer Smithson. — Your letter inquiring the name of
a diatom did not contain any specimens when it reached us.

R. J. S. — The plants are not “Rushes,” but “Cotton-
sedges” or “Cotton-grasses” ( Eriophoru/n polystachyuvi)
common in all marshes. Its economical employment has been
frequently attempted, but hitherto, we believe, without suc-
cess.

W. C. Penny (Frome). — The figure of Nymphon gracile, in
the last number of Science-Gossip, is ten times the size of the
animal. You will find an account of it in Taylor’s “ Half-
Hours at the Sea-side,” from which the above-mentioned illus-
tration was taken.

Warrawarra (St. Vincents, W.I.). — The specimen en-
closed was a species of Mistletoe ( V iscum). Could you send a
larger specimen ?

C. T. M. (Plymouth). — The ferns were respectively Adiantum
trnpeziforme and Pteris tremula.

S. K. A. (Stafford).— Your specimens are — No. 1. Weasel-
snout ( Galcobdoton Intcum, L.). No. 2. Wood Sanicle ( Sani -
c/da europced).

C. S. (Sevenoaks). — Many thanks for the specimens of
orchids.

R. R. (Earlstown, N.B.).— The fern No. 1, is very rare
(. Asptenium lanceolatuni). No. 2, the Common Male-fern ( Las-
trea Filix-mas). No. 3, Lastrea dilatata.

G. Clinch. — Many thanks for your excellently-mounted
specimen of fossil wood.

L. L. — Get the “ Collector’s Handy-book of Algse, Diatoms,
Desmids, Fungi, Lichens, and Mosses,” translated and edited
by the Rev. W. W. Spicer, and published by Messrs. Hardwicke
& Bogue, 192, Piccadilly, at 2s. 6d.

Prof. Tempere. — The plant you enclosed was Brassica
mot/ensis. It is confined in its distribution to the western and
south-eastern coasts.

E. W. Andrews. — Your specimen is Ran/tnculus divergens,
Schulz, though a much smaller one than we have seen before.

G. S. Mitchell. — Yes; the place of birth does not affect
the children.

R. Bolton. — The following are well known elementary books
on geology: — Taylor’s “Geological Stories”; “Geology,” by

T. Clifion Ward, F.G.S. ; Jukes’ “Geology,” new edition, by
Jukes-Brown ; Skertchlev’s “ Geology,” and Tate’s “ Geology,”
published by Lockwood & Co.

N. O. (Brompton). — Your insects are — No. x, R. cratccgata ;
2, V. ruber at a ; 3, M. hastata ; 4, T. bat/s; and 5, Ar.
camelina ,

EXCHANGES.

Ace/ as a/ithropophora , Gagea lutca, Sitcnc conica, Scirpus
p/tngens, He. , for Orchis incarnata, Scirpus triq/ieter, Pvrus
co/nm/mis , Potcntilta rupestris. Carcx tomentosa, Lychnis
alpi/ta , He. — G. C. Druce, Northampton.

i68

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

Having about two dozen duplicates, well mounted, I shall
be glad to exchange them. For list, &c., write to F. M.
Swallow, Charing Cross Hospital, London.

Wanted, good gathering of Pleurosigma angulatum, for
Diatoms, slides, material, or cash.— Eug. Mauler, Travers,
Switzerland.

Diatoms. — Material from Santa Monica, containing, among
other good forms, Aulacodiscus pulcher, Actinoptychus Griin-
.dlii, &c. &c. Also material from islands of Fur, Trinacria, &c.,
very fine. Guanos and recent material required. Send list. —
W. M. Paterson, Westfield-terrace, Loftus.

Can offer sets of many rare and valuable British Eggs, side-
blown, for others equally rare and valuable. — All letters
answered. — T. W. Dealy, 140, Clarence-street, Sheffield.

Fossils from the Red Crag, to exchange for those of the
Barton Series, or from the Gault. — Rev. H. B. Capel, Great
Easton Rectory, Dunrnow, Essex.

“ Cultivated Vegetables," by Philips, handsomely bound
in calf, 2 vols., 1822, ten inches by six. Also “ Pomarium
Brittanicum,” by same author, in 1 vol., same binding, &c., in
exchange for back vols. of Science-Gossip, Monthly Ento-
mologist, or Ray Society’s publications ; value 20s. — G. N.
Minnitt, 5, Regent-street, Nottingham.

Nitei.la translucens, showing circulation, in exchange for
well-mounted Slide. — J. B., 36, Windsor-terrace, Glasgow.

Send well-mounted Slide in exchange for an Anatomical
specimen (mounted). — E. Atkins, 200, Essex-road, Islington,
London.

Wanted (about one dozen each) Fresh Specimens of 513
and 875 (7th edition); also Ecbolium. Exchange rare plants,
■&c. — Higginson, Newferry, Birkenhead.

A few well-mounted Slides to exchange. Lists to Tho.
Shipton, Chesterfield.

An Album of eighty Micro-photographs of nearly 200 of the
Diatomaceae, magnified 250 to 4000 diameters, in exchange for
first-class 5-inch Objective, or first-class Micro Slides (ap-
proval).— Address, Dr. Redmayne, Bolton, Lancashire.

Wanted, foreign Land and Fresh-water or Marine Shells,
also British Birds’ Eggs, in exchange for British Land and
Fresh-water Shells, and foreign Land and Marine. Dupli-
cates of about 100 varieties of each. — W. Sutton, Upper Clare-
mont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Well-mounted Physiological specimens in exchange for
unmounted material of interest. — George Baker, 37, Cross-
street, N.

For FEcidium tussilaginis send stamped directed envelope,
and object of interest, to Charles F. W. T. Williams, King-
meade, Woolcott Park, Redland, Bristol.

Orchis Simia, Lam., for either 37, 106, 459, 511, 546, 949,
955, 1222, 1223, 1279, 1286, 1329, 1410, 1669, or 1678, 7th
edition Lon. Cat. — A. B., 107, High-street, Croydon.

Parasite of Crow, or other insect preparations, mounted in
balsam, in exchange for Eggs of insects, Diatoms or soundings,
mounted opaque. — J. Horn, 5, Belle-vue-square, Scarboro’.

For unmounted Hair of Vampire Bat and Seal, send stamped
envelope and object of interest. — E. J. Wilson, 14, Albion-road,
Dalston, E.

I should be glad to exchange Lepidoptera with collectors
on the Continent or elsewhere. — Roland Green, Rainham,
Kent.

C. cdusa, M. cinxia, V. polychloros, L. adonis, L. cory-
don, A. ulmata , and others, offered for Lepidoptera in any
stage. — W. Jordan, Cockfield, Sudbury, Suffolk.

Sea Birds’ Eggs (such as Guillemots, Razorbills. Kitta-
wakes, Puffins), to exchange for other Eggs, side-blown, or
Butterflies. — Geo. W. Coultas, High-street, Bridlington,
Yorks.

Polariscope Object. — On receipt of stamped and addressed
■envelope, will be happy to forward a small portion of “ Arra-
gonite ’’ from coal-measures. Described in Science-Gossif,
1877, page 192, in reply to J. J. M. — Address, J. J. Morgan,

5, Prospect-place, Tredegar.

Beautiful opaque object (mounted), Orbulina , from Ber-
muda, for other good Foraminifera or Diatoms. — J. Ford,
Wood View, Newbridge Crescent, Wolverhampton.

Nos. 171, 625, 1071, for 477, 500, 517. Lists exchanged. A
very extensive list of duplicates can be supplied by C. A. O.,
76, Trafalgar- road, Old Kent-road.

Plants of Asarum europceum, or Asarabacca, in exchange
Lor rare British Ferns or flowering plants. — James W. Lloyd,
Kington. Herefordshire.

Well-mounted Slide of part of Caterpillar, showing spira-
cles, &c., offered for good clean material, unmounted. —
J. Neville, Wellington-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

I have fine specimens (collected last month) of Fritillaria
meleagris, which I should be glad to exchange for an example
of U tricularia vulgaris, if collected this season, or Hiero-
chloc borealis. — G. Garrett, Harland House, Tyler-street,
Ipswich.

Hcematopinus spinulosus from rat, and II. vitnli from
calf, offered for other animal parasites. Send list to H. E.
Freeman, 1, Templeton-road, Finsbury-park, N.

Scientific Books and Microscopic Slides, offered for Marine
Animals in spirits, especially Ccphalopods and Echiuoderms. —
Wm. Cash, 38, Elmfield-terrace, Halifax.

Side-blown Eggs, 300 varieties, including Golden and other
Eagles, Ospreys, Falcons, Owls, Greenshanks, Buzzards, Cup-
bills, Stints, Chough, Bartram’s Sandpipers, Cranes, Storks,
Aquatic Warblers, Bohemian Waxwings, Pine Grosbeaks,
Great-spotted and Yellow-billed Cuckoos, Belted Kingfishers,
Bustards, Buff-backed and great White Herons, Green Sand-
pipers, little and glaucous and other Gulls, and many other
varieties. Write for list. Exchange wanted.— J. W. Sissons,

11, Priory-road, Sheffield.

Pathological Specimens wanted, either hardened or recent.
Choice Slides of very superior finish, or select unmounted
materials (of which lists will be forwarded) are offered in
exchange. — Dr. Marsh, Duke-street, St. Helen’s.

Wanted, one or two good specimens of Calymene Blumeti-
b acini. I will give a good exchange in Cambridge Greensand
fossils. — J. W. Carr, Union-terrace, Cambridge.

Several thousand specimens of British Shells, Fossils,
Minerals, Slabs of Polished Coral, Madrepores, also specimens
from Deep-Sea Dredgings, for Foreign Shells, Fossils from
the Gault (if good specimens), and all other kinds of Fossils,
particularly Trilobites, or Fossil Crustacea of any kind. —

A. J. R. Sclater, 4, Bank-street, Teignmouth.

Wanted, Avicula Tarentina, Anomia striata, A. patelli-
formis. Area tetragona. Pandora rostrata,, P. obtusa,
Thracia convcxa, Thracia pubesccns, Psammobia vespertma,

P. costulata, P. tellinella, Venus casina, V. verrucosa,

V. fasciata, A siartc\ elliptica, A. sulcata, A. crebricostata,
Pccton Audouinii, Pectcn danicus, P. tigrinus, P. similis,

P. sfriatus, P. furtivus, for British Shells, if in stock. —

A. J. R. Sclater, 4, Bank-street, Teignmouth.

“The Zoologist,” 2nd Series, complete, in parts, January,
1866, to December, 1876, and vol. i. of the 3rd Series, 1877,

12 volumes ; also Gmelin’s (S. G.) Historia Fucorum, 33
plates, 4to., old calf, 1768 ; also a Mahogany Box (16" x 8")
containing specimens exemplary of the manufacture of Alum,
from its raw state up to the perfect crystal (a large crystal of
Alum, 14 inches long), for works on Fungi, See. Greville’s Crypto-
gam ic Flora, or Sowerby’s Fungi wanted. — C. Perceval,
Hanbury, Bristol.

For specimen of Anemone pulsatilla, send address to John

W. Carr, Union-terrace, Cambridge.

For parasites from Horse or Mole, send well-mounted Slide
to George Turvill, East Worldham, Alton, Hants.

Birds’ Eggs, side-blown, labelled ; well marked and^selected
specimens ; all ready for placing in cabinet ; 300 varieties.
Exchange arranged by letter. Send at once for full list, post-
free, Henry Sissons, Westbourne-road, Sheffield.

A naturalist, who is going on a dredging cruise round the
South and West coast of England, would be glad to hear from
a gentleman having similar tastes who would be willing to join
him and pay a small part of the expense. For further particu-
lars address C. P. Ogilvie, F.L.S., Sizewell House, Leiston, J
Suffolk.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED. ’

“ Contributions to the Fossil Flora of the Western Terri-
tories.” Part II. The Tertiary Flora. By Prof. Lesquereux.
Washington : Government Printing Office. 1878.

“ The Insect Fauna of the Recent and Tertiary Periods.’’

By H. Goss, F.L.S., F.G.S.

“ Industrial Art.” June.

“ Midland Naturalist.” ,,

“ Land and Water.” ,,

‘ ‘ Chambers’ J ournal . ” , ,

“ American Naturalist.” ,,

“ Botanische Zeitung.” May.

“ Der Zoologische Garten.” No. 4.

“ Comptes Rendus.” No. 20.

“ Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.” June.

“Journal de Micrographie. ” May.

“ Boston Journal of Chemistry.”

“ Ben. Brierley’s Journal.” <

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to June 8th, from: —
J. M. M.— S. G. P.— A. B.— L. L.— R. W.— A. A.— J. B.—
W. H. P.— E. W. A.— J. T.— J. F. R.— G. H. K.— W. H. P.
— W. B.— W. H. S.— A. C. S.— G. N.— E. de B. M.— F. M. S.
— S. W.— W. E. R.— T. B. W.— Col. G. E. B.— J. M. W.—
J. M. H.— G. N. M.— W. P.— H. G.- H. U.— G. P.— J. E. D.
— E. M.— T. W. D.— C. S.— W. W.— M. J. P.-J. C.-
H. B. C.— A. R.— A. B.-W. C.— J. W. C.— V. G.-E. E.-
G. C. D. — J. H. M. — H. E. W. — H. S. — J. K. A.—
W. C. P.— C. A. S.— E. L.— W. F. A.— A. M. McA.— Prof G.
— Q. C.— Prof. B.— R. J. S. -J. P. G.— G. S.— G. M. D.~
j. b. P.— J. W. L.— Dr. R. B.— J. F.— B. M. O. L.—
J. J. M.-M. M. B.-J. W. N.-H. E. F.-H. P. M.—
E. S.-G. W. C.-J. H.-M. V.-W. J.-W. R. T.—
W. C. P.— G. C.— E. E. E.— R. G.-E. J. W.— J. H.—
A. B.— F. W. E. S.— J. B.— C. F. W. T. W.— J. M. C.-
t w. S.— Dr. M.— J. W. B.— H. N. B.— G. G.— W. D.—
G. B.— W. S.-W. A. H.— C. F. W.-J. T. G.-C. W. B.~
E. E.— I. C.— E. D. B.— T. S. S.— F. M.— T. S.- H. H.—

, Dr. R.— J. T. G.— C. S. P. P.— &c. &c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

169

ANOTHER WAY OF MAKING PLASTER CASTS

OF FISHES, &c,

By J. H. LAMPREY, Editor of “ Industrial Art.”

AVING made many hun-
dreds of casts of sea and
fresh-water fishes, and
having tested every method
I have seen employed, I
have come to the con-
clusion that the simplest
and most effectual plan
is the following Place
the fish on a board, pin
out its fins and tail neatly
with ordinary pins, pass some brown paper or
tow inside the mouth, in order to raise the
eye if sunken from any cause, or to force asunder
the lines of the mouth and operculum, which
become contracted after death ; place some putty
under the dorsal fin, and then trim away all that
extends beyond its outline. The fish is now ready to
mould from. Next, take a long strip of thin sheet zinc,
about two or three inches deep, and place it in the
form of a wall all round the fish, and about one inch
from it, at every point ; partly split asunder a fire-
wood stick, and with it clip the free ends of the zinc
wall, drive in a twelvepenny nail at each end to keep
this wall steady. Bear in mind that both the pin
points and the nails need only sticking in the wood
in the most temporary way. Now take some plaster
of Paris in a cup, and, after mixing it as thin as cream,
smear the inside of the zinc along its edge where it
comes in contact with the board, and pour some down
the place of junction near the clip. In a few minutes
this extemporized dish is water-tight ; now nearly fill
it with the cleanest water procurable, and sprinkle
rapidly from a ladle some common or second-rate
plaster of Paris, coloured with a little washing-blue,
over the fish until it is just covered with plaster ; now
lay four pieces of strong cord across the fish, leaving
the ends over the sides of the zinc receptacle ; having
arranged these cords so that they just touch the
plaster, without any loss of time continue to pour in
the dry plaster until the vessel is full, or there is at
No. 164.

least one inch of plaster over the highest part of the
fish, then remove the cords by lifting each end at
once ; as soon as the plaster is set , break away the
zinc band, and strike the board sharply with a hammer
until the plaster becomes detached ; if it sticks
closely, pour a pail of water over the plaster, and it
will at once give way. Turning over the mould we
have the fish buried in the case, or mould of plaster,
with only a very small portion of the underside of the
fish exposed where it rested on the board. Proceed
to break away the thin coat of plaster which has
settled along the margin until only an inch of plaster,
or even less, remains from the fish outline ; remove
the putty from the under portion of the back fin, pull
out the padding from the mouth, and then lift up the
tail, draw the thin end of the fish slightly backwards
and upwards; be careful not to injure the surface, but
get out the jaws and raise out the back. Use no force
that would break the fine surface of the mould. If
need be, open the fish, and remove the intestines,
and so give more space for getting out the fish ; this
being successfully accomplished, dip the whole mould
in water, and then pour in a spoonful of naphtha,
which will cover the cast with its oily adhesion ; wash
it again with water, and place the mould in a vessel
of water ; pour in the plaster so that it will fill the
interior of the mould, but have ready some copper
bell-wire bent to fit the tail, back fin, and pectoral
fin, if raised at all. No care need be bestowed upon
the shapes of these wire supports so long as they are
flat and just roughly define the form of the tail and
back fin ; the plaster must be poured over the mould
in sufficient quantity to represent the board on which
the fish was resting. By casting under water there
are no air-bubbles, and the plaster is homogeneous.
After a few hours, which may be profitably spent in
cleaning up the work-table of all the filthy plaster,
the plaster-mould must be plunged into cold water,
and the table on which it rests must be struck with a
mallet. To cause the mould to separate from the cast,
take a chisel, and where the line is defined by the

1

HARD W1CKE ’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

170

plaster of the mould tinted with washing-blue and
the perfectly white plaster of a better description
used in the casting, insert the edge of a broad chisel,
and tap it gently with the mallet ; make several very
cautious attempts along the edge of the two plasters,
until there is an evident sign of a parting having taken
place ; now plunge the whole under water, or poui-
some over the edge, and the shrinkage will give the
desired cleavage. If, in endeavouring to break open
the plaster, a portion of the cast is knocked away, it
can be replaced, the cords drawn up through the half
set plaster have served to cut it up, but if the fish is
round, and the plaster has much “ under-cutting,” it
will require much skill to break away the mould
without injury to the cast beneath. It will be well,
therefore, to commence operations with a flat fish,
whose head, mouth, and eyes are the only highly
developed portions ; the fins can be pinned out, after
the skin has been washed with great care, to remove
all the slime with which most fish are covered. The
body of the mould taken from a flat fish of course
will come away like a seal, the impression beneath
being devoid of undercutting, but the head of the fish
cast requires great care, as about it are portions of
great delicacy of structure which may break away,
Casts of fishes in plaster are only of value to the
student ; they are heavy, and liable to injury ; to be
worth having, fish-casts should be made in paper.
From the plaster moulds we have described these
paper casts are made by successive layers of clean
white paper, and paste made from rice flour, backed by
coarse paper, chips, and thick wood shavings, inter-
spersed in the work, or a bit of common wire netting
cut to fit the mould, if the fish to be represented is
large in size, as a salmon or pollack. The first layers
of white paper need being spread with extreme care,
and if edges do occur in these first layers, the paper
must be torn and not cut, as the joining cannot other-
wisebe concealed. The plaster cast cannot be painted,
all the attempts to make plaster and colour agree having
hitherto failed, andwhere gilding is resorted to, the sharp-
ness of the cast is utterly ruined. The paper cast can
be painted in fine washes of water-colour, or gold and
silver. The varnish over water-colour does not injure
the sharpness of the mould, and it is possible so to
imitate a fish, in this way, that the veiy keenest
angler may be deceived as to the material. There
are some fishes which can be cast showing both sides,
as a gurnard, or a cat-fish. Suspended by a fine
line, these casts are capable of accurately representing
the originals, but there is one difficulty about plaster
casting, — it is, without exception, the dirtiest occupa-
tion upon which an amateur can engage himself.
The plaster (if not properly dealt with) will follow
the operator over the house, adhering to his boots
and clothes, and hands, to the great discontent of
servants and others, who object to the filthy traces
which are so difficult to remove from floors and
carpets.

IS THE BLACKNESS ON ST. PAUL’S
MERELY THE EFFECT OF SMOKE ?

By Professor Paley, M.A.

MANY years ago I took a great deal of pains
to investigate a question which to many,
perhaps, will appear both trifling and useless, but
which really has an important bearing on the aspect
of our great public buildings. It is often said, that
Paris is not such a smoky city as London, because
the stone buildings are much whiter. The north side
of St. Paul’s Cathedral must, from its extreme black-
ness (curiously relieved as it is by lines and patches
of light), have attracted the attention and excited
the regret of most observers. There are other
buildings, of course, built 'with the same kind of stone,
which are equally black ; there are even towns, such
as Bath, built entirely of a similar (oolite) stone,
where all the new houses are of a rich creamy colour,
but most of those built a hundred years ago are as
black as a piece of black cloth.

From investigations I made, and which I think
worth being recorded, in order that further inquiries
may be conducted with patient and scientific care, I
was led to believe that this blackness is due to a
hitherto unknown and undescribed species of lichen.

Two of its peculiarities are, that it only grows
upon some kinds of limestone, and it will not grow
where the rays of the sun fall directly upon the sur-
face.

I first noticed the latter fact in a wall of rusticated
Italian work at Cambridge. It faced due west, and
it overlooked the country for many miles, so that
smoke was not likely to have caused the blackness.
The whole wall in this part reminded me somewhat
of the lights and shades of a photograph. Those
surfaces were quite black on which the sun could not
fall, and those remained quite white on which the
rays were directly incident. I concluded that, at
least, sun-light was in some way concerned in the
appearance produced. But what reason can possibly
be alleged why a stone should contract less soot in
the light than in the dark ?

I proceeded to scrape off some of the black sur-
face, which I collected, in the form of black dust,
exactly like gunpowder. If, I argued, the blackness
is really soot, surely a washing in hot water with
soap or soda will bring me white lime-dust, or lime-
sediment. But no ! I might as well have tried to
“ wash a blackamoor white.” The gunpowder was
gunpowder still, as far as the look of it went.

Then I tried the microscope. The washed granules
were intensely black, somewhat amorphous in ap-
pearance, and more or less angular. My power was
not very high, and my knowledge of such very
minute cellular structure was too small : I could not
say whether the object was organic or inorganic. I
was afterwards told that under a good microscope it

HA RD WICKE ’S SCIENCE ■ G OSSIE. i 7 1

had been conclusively proved to be vegetable, t.c. 1
a lichen.

I found by extended inquiry that the Portland,
the Bath, and the Barnack (also lower oolite) stone
were all liable to the blackening in the course of
time. But the churches and buildings of sandstone,
in that most smoky of towns, Wolverhampton, were i
not blackened at all. Evidently it was an effect
peculiar to limestone.

I observed further, that in fluted columns, window-
jambs, arches, &c., the blackness was always in pro-
portion to the absence of sun-rays, and that the stone
remained quite white where the sun shone full upon
it. If any one will walk round St. Paul’s, and com-
pare the south with the north side, he will see the
difference. Let him also notice the lines left white
by the oblique rays of the summer sun on parts of
the north wall.

In Bath, you may see whole ranges of buildings,
like the Circus, so black on the sunless side, that in
many cases the walls have been painted with black
paint, as giving at least a more shiny and respectable
black than my mischievous little lichen, which has a
dingy, sooty, uncanny appearance.

In other parts you may see a wall on the north side
perfectly black, while the east wall of the same
building is perfectly white.

On the smoke-theory, this is inexplicable ; on
the light-theory, it is precisely what we might
expect.

For if this blackness is really, as I now fully
believe, due to the gradual growth of a lichen, we !
may conclude that it dislikes surfaces warmed and
dried by the sun ; and it is also to be inferred that
the lime is a necessary part of its food. I examined a
curious lichen, that grew in circular patches on the
Barnack stone in Peterborough Cathedral, and I found
that it had the property of extracting quantities of
lime from the texture of the stone.

But its extremely slow growth, requiring a long
series of years before complete blackness results, its
very hard and stony texture, its amorphous form, and
its extremely low organization, — the lowest, perhaps,
that vegetable life can possibly possess, — render its
history a very interesting one.

The practical result of the inquiry would be, to
ascertain if Portland and Bath stone can be treated with
some chemical solution, such as sulphate of copper,
which would prevent the growth of the lichen, sup-
posing it really to be such. It would be a valuable
scientific discovery that a brush and a pail would
restore surfaces that no water-washing will keep
dean, and not only restore, but prevent from
future discoloration.

If it be true that the beautiful Caen stone used in
Paris does not become thus black, it must be due to
causes well deserving of investigation. One cannot
help hoping that some process of “pickling” build-
ing-stone may be discovered, which will tend to

make churches and mansions less like an undertaker’s
hearse.

I have not given, in this brief paper, the substance
of nearly all the observations, experiments, and
reasonings, which led me to the result I have de-
scribed. But I think some grounds of probability
have been shown, enough to encourage those who are
competent to prosecute the inquiry.

It is still open to conjecture, that some chemical
change in the texture of the stone, — some oxidizing
process gradually effected by the air, — may be the
cause of the blackness. But the singular effect of
sun-light in preventing it is a fact beyond all question,
and one that must be borne in mind in forming any
conclusion on the subject.

A CHAPTER ON MICROSCOPIC FUNGI.

( Perisporicuei. )

By Greenwood Pim, M.A., F.L.S.

THIS is a small but very interesting group of leaf
parasitic fungi, and includes most of the forms
popularly known as Mildews. In their immature
condition three species of this order form the mildew
of the rose, vine, and hop, respectively. That the
vine mildew is a member of this group is to a certain
extent an assumption, as its perfect fruit has never
yet been discovered ; and it is only by its analogy
to, almost its identity with, the rose, pea, and hop
mildews that it is believed to be the conidiophorous
condition of an allied species.

All Perisporiacei consist at first of a woolly growth,
consisting of delicate threads of concatenate cells,
arising from a mycelium, which makes its way through
the parenchyma of the stems and leaves of the plant
on which it occurs. Under a low power of the micro-
scope a mildewed rose-leaf looks like a delicate forest
of crystalline vegetation. The threads break up very
easily into their component cells, each of which, on
meeting with a suitable nidus, immediately com-
mences a separate existence, and, as is well known to
rose-growers and others, spreads with a rapidity
almost marvellous. In this condition the various
species obtained the name of Oidium, and it is only
comparatively recently that the identity of the Oidium
with the fully-developed conceptacles of the mature
form has been demonstrated.

In the case of the vine mildew, only the oidium
or conidiophorous condition is known ; the cells of
these threads being known as conidia. In the other
species, towards autumn a kind of spherical capsules
are formed, each containing one or more sacs or asci,
which include 2, 4, 8 or more spores. These concept-
acles are usually furnished with curiously-formed ap-
pendages, threadlike, curved, hooked, horned, needle-
shaped, forked, &c. By these characters, as well as
he number of asci and spores, the species which were

172

HARD WICKE ’S SCIENCE - G OSSIE,

formerly almost all included in the genus Erysiphe ,
have been divided into the following genera : — Peri-
sporium , Lasiobotrys , Sphcerotheca, Phy I [actinia, Unci-
nula , Podosphcera , Microsphceria , Erysiphe , Chcr.to-
mium , Ascotricha, Eurotium.

I will endeavour to describe the forms most usually
met with, and would refer any one who wishes for
fuller and more detailed information to Dr. Cooke’s
“Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould,” and to his
“Handbook of British Fungi,” to the latter of which I
am indebted for the generic and specific descriptions.

Perisporium, Kunze. Perithecia (conceptacles)
subglobose, without manifest mycelium or append-
ages ; spores numerous. The three species described
are far from common, and appear to approach in
character the neighbouring order Sphceriacei .

Lasiobotrys, Kunze. Erumpent, central peri-
thecia between fleshy and horny, proliferous, collaps-

ing above, attached to radiating fibres ; secondary
perithecia ascigerous ; asci cylindrical. There is only
one species, which is parasitic 011 living leaves of
Lonicera — L. lonicerce , Kze., which, though not com-
mon, appears widely distributed. It differs from the
rest of the order in being subepidermal.

Sphcerotheca, Lev. Perithecia globose, spring-
ing from an arachnoid mycelium, containing one
many-spored ascus. Sphaerotheca is distinguished
from Erysiphe by having a single many-spored ascus,
while the latter has several asci, each containing but
few spores. Appendages numerous, fioccose.

S. pannosa , Lev., the Rose Mildew, occurs on
leaves, petioles, &c. of roses. The conidiophorcus
condition is extremely common, while the perithecia,
which are very minute, occur but very rarely.

S. castagnei, Lev., which differs but little from
S. pannosa, is found on Hops, Meadow-sweet, &c.

Phyllactinia, I.ev. Perithecia hemispherical,
depressed ; appendages needle-shaped, stiff, and
brittle.

P. guttata, Lev. Conceptacles large, easily distin-
guished by their straight acicular appendages. Occa-
sionally veiy abundant on Hazel, also on Ash, Elm,
Alder, Birch, Oak, Hornbeam, &c. (fig no).

Uncinula, Lev. Perithecia globose ; appendages
numerous, simple, or dichotomous, always hooked.

U. adunca, Lev. Perithecia scattered, small ;
appendages simple, hooked ; asci 8-12, containing
4 spores. On leaves of Willows, Poplars, Birch, &c.
Rather common (fig. hi).

U. bicornis, Lev. Mycelium effuse ; perithecia
rather large ; appendages bifid, hooked ; asci 8,

containing 8 spores. Sycamore-leaves, — common,
(fig. 112).

U. Wallrot/iii, I.ev. Perithecia minute; asci 12-16,
6 spores ; appendages very long, hooked, simple.
Distinguished from U. adunca by the greater length of
the appendages (fulcra).

Podosph^era, Kunze. Mycelium arachnoid ;
perithecia globose, containing a single 8-spored
ascus ; appendages few, repeatedly dichotomous,
thickened at the extremity, hyaline.

P. Kunzei, Lev. Perithecia minute, scattered,
globose ; appendages 3 times the diameter of the
perithecium. On plum-leaves.

P. clandestina, Lev. Similar to P. Kunzei, but
appendages much shorter and more numerous. On

BARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i73

leaves of hawthorn, common ; the conidia stage very
abundant in spring.

MiCROSPHi^ERiA, Lev. Perithecia globose, with
many asci ; appendages dichotomous.

M. Hedwigii , Lev. Hypophyllous ; conceptacles
minute ; appendages few, scarcely longer than the
perithecia ; asci 4, containing 4 spores. On mealy
Guelder Rose (fig. 113)*

M. penicillata, Lev. Appendages 8-12, equal to
diameter of perithecium ; asci 4, containing 8 spores.
On Guilder Rose and Alder.

M. mougeotii , Lev. Appendages loosely dichoto-
mous ; asci 12-16, 2-spored. On leaves of Lycium
barbarum.

M. berberidis , Lev. Mycelium web-like, persistent;
appendages 5-10, long, divaricate, obtuse; asci 6;
spores 6-8. On Berberry, — abundant.

M. grossularice, Lev. Mycelium web-like ; perithecia
scattered ; appendages 10-15, vaguely dichotomus ;
asci 4-8, spores 4-5. On gooseberry-leaves, — very
common.

M. comala, Lev. Perithecia scattered, minute ;
asci 8, ovate beaked, containing 4 spores. On
Euonymus.

Fig. 113. Microspficzria. Fig. 114. Erystphe Montagnei.

Erysiphe, Hedw. Mycelium arachnoid ; appen-
dages floccose, simple or irregularly branched.

* Asci 2-spored.

E. Linkii, Lev. Perithecia minute, scattered ; asci
8-20, pyriform ; appendages interwoven with the
mycelium.

E. lamprocarpa , Lev. Perithecia minute, globose,
scattered or gregarious; appendages coloured; asci
8-16, shortly pedicellate. On Salsafy, Plantain, &c.

** Asci 3-8 spored.

E. gramims, D.C. Mycelium effuse, floccose; peri-
thecia large, hemispherical, at length depressed and
semi-immersed ; appendages simple ; asci 20-24. On
various grasses — autumn.

E. Marta , Lk. Mycelium web-like, often evanes-
cent ; peiithecia globose, varying from yellow to
black ; appendages short ; asci 4-8, globose, with
4—8 spores. On P eas and U mbelliferae, — very common.

E. Montagnei , Lev. Perithecia minute, globose;
appendages distinct from mycelium ; asci 8, spores
2-3 (fig. 1 14).

E. tortilis , Lk. Perithecia minute, globose ; ap-
pendages very long, 10 times diameter of perithecium ;
asci 4, with 4 spores (fig. 1 1 5).

E. communis , Schl. Mycelium effuse, evanescent
or persistent ; pei'ithecia small ; appendages short ;
asci 4-8, ovate-rostrate, 4-8 spores. On various Legu-
minosoe, Ranunculus, &c.

E. horridula , Lev. Mycelium web-like ; perithecia
clustered ; asci 20- 24, oblong, attenuated, with 3-4
spores. On Bugloss.

Ch^tomium, Kunze. Perithecia thin, brittle,
mouthless ; asci linear ; spores lemon-shaped.

C. datum , Kze. Perithecium sub-ovate, hairs on
vertex very long, interwoven, branched ; base of
perithecium fibrose ; sporidia broadly apiculate. On
straw.

C. chart arum, Ehb. Perithecium subglobose,
black, surrounded by a bright yellow spot ; spores
subglobose (fig. 116). On paper.

C. glabrum , B. Recorded by Berkeley, not de-
scribed ; cf. “ Grevillea,” ii. p. 165.

C. murorum, Corda. Gregarious, glaucous blackish ;
perithecium sub-globose, brown, hairs circinate,

pulverulent, erect, septate ; spores oblong. On
plaster.

C. griseum, Cooke. Subgregarious or scattered,
grey or cinereous ; perithecium globose, brown, sub-
membranaceous; hairs long, elastic, circinate, pellucid;
asci clavate, fasciculate ; spores lemon-shaped, colour-
less, endochrome granular. On old sacking. (Cooke
in “ Grevillea,” i. p. 175*)

C. funiculum , Cooke. Perithecia scattered, sub-
ovate, black ; hair on vertex very long, dichotomous
or simple, erect, slender, acute, black ; sporidia
lemon-shaped, dingy brown. On twine. British
Museum. (Cooke in “Grevillea,” i. p. 176.)

Ascotricha, Berk. Perithecium thin, free,
mouthless; threads loose, branched, conidiophorous ;
asci linear ; spores, dark elliptic.

A. chartarum, B. Perithecia olive-brown. On
paper.

EurOTIUM, Link. — Perithecia reticulated, ves-
cicular, coloured, attached to mucedinous threads.

E. herbariorum , Link. — Perithecium spherical,

J 74

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

flattened, yellow, seated on radiating, branched, intri-
cate flocci.

On various decaying substances, tan, See. This is
the fully-developed form of Aspergillus glaticus.

A word in conclusion as to mounting these fungi
for the cabinet. They seem to be best put up in
shallow varnish cells, filled with glycerine and water.
Deane’s gelatine, so invaluable a medium for most
other vegetable preparations, is too viscid, the appen- j
dages enclosing a myriad of air-bubbles, which in
gelatine are almost impossible to get rid of. More- '
over, without a cell the covering-glass presses too
closely and is apt to cause the perithecium to rupture
from pressure. The modus operandi is a simple one.
When the cell is ready, filled with dilute glycerine,
scrape the leaf on which the parasite grows with a
sharp knife, which will remove a good number of
perithecia ; push gently into the mounting fluid, and
finish as in any other wet mounting.

ON TANKS FOR THE BREEDING AND
MAINTENANCE OF MICROSCOPIC
ORGANISMS.

IN the May number of Science-Gossip a corre-
spondent seeks information on the subject of the
establishing and management of tanks or receptacles
for the preservation and development of microscopic
organisms. To the microscopist it is a matter of some
importance, and one of which there seems to be no
record of any valuable, reliable, or actual experience.
The subject is of deep interest, and possibly your corre-
spondent and readers generally may consider the few
following notes, founded on many years’ experience,
worth attention, more especially as the mode of esta-
blishing a permanent tank, containing microscopic
plants and animals only, is not generally studied or
even understood, the popular idea being that a collec-
tion of organisms found in the water of a rich pond
turned into a glass vase will at once afford and possibly
maintain and develop objects of interest and curiosity
for immediate examination, when in fact a keeping
or breeding tank requires many months, sometimes
years, for the perfect development of its contents.
No one could hope to raise the most interesting
features (to a microscopist) of a garden in a few days.
Time and the seasons are required to develop the
mosses, lichens, fungi, and obscure growths to be
found on good rockwork : the same prolonged causes
developing life, apply (perhaps in a lesser degree)
to the microscopist’s breeding-tank ; it is a question of
patience. As a notable instance, the statoblasts of the
most beautiful of fresh- water polyzoa (Lophopus) are
frequently found in early autumn in the muddy sedi-
ments of ponds, rich in microscopic life. This
sediment, transferred to a well-ordered perfectly-
balanced tank, will produce the young polyps freely in

the spring, and there are numerous instances of a
similar character where time is a factor in the appear-
ance of microscopic life in captivity.

In the practical management of these tanks two
points are of essential importance : first, size, and, as
regards light, position ; secondly, the internal arrange-
ments, and the character, requirements, selection, and
management of the occupants, both vegetable and
animal, so as to ensure development and repro-
duction.

The shape and place of occupation of the receptacle
claim the first attention, and are of great importance.
It is true that ordinary glass jars or vases of various
sizes are continually used with more or less success in
preserving living objects, but they utteidy fail as
breeding or developing places : their circular forms
impede observation ; again, their portability causes
them to be frequently shifted into different aspects,
which is fatal to steady development. They are too
often placed in positions overwhelmed with light,
when they rapidly become choked with filamentous
algae, destructive to the preservation of the higher
microscopic forms. The proper adjustment of light
seems to be the touchstone of success in the cultivation
of organisms, both animal and vegetable. The
vitality of some water-plants, under what would seem
the most unfavourable, but, as it turns out, the most
favourable circumstances, is very singular ; the merest
fragment of Nitella will live for months in a wine-
glass of water, or even in a small test-tube, if kept in
a cool and rather dark place, but abnormally excited
by exposure to sun, light, and heat, it soon fades and
collapses. This is a lesson of importance, as un-
doubtedly the same influences affect minute animals.

The tanks for the purpose in question should not
be too large ; a convenient proportion, and meeting
all contingencies, is a vessel made of narrow iron
frame-work, glass sides and ends, with slate bottom,
measuring fourteen inches wide, fourteen deep, and
twenty-eight inches in length. Two or more of these
tanks are necessary : two are indispensable, as there
is a marked difference in the character of the occu-
pants of a tank facing a wall with only side light (and
no sun) and another facing a window (north aspect)
with occasional rays of setting sun. Besides these
permanent and larger receptacles, square glass vases
or vessels, such as are sometimes used for galvanic
battery cells, of the capacity of three pints, are very
valuable to contain objects dipped from the larger
tanks for special observation on the study table.

The permanent tanks should be placed in position
and never again moved. A good aspect is north-
east, fronting a window catching an hour’s early
morning sunlight, but a better is against the wall of
a room or hall with a full side-light, and no sun;
the difference between the life contained in tanks -
placed in such positions is strikingly apparent. Of
the internal arrangements anything approaching the
idea to make it “pretty” should be studiously

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

175

avoided : nothing should be included but with the
object of use — the more useful the more beautiful it
will be ; two pieces of goodly-sized stone or irregu-
larly shaped brick should be placed nearly touching
the front glass ; these stones soon become covered
with organisms, and may be so adjusted as to be
within range of an ordinary magnifying lens. Two
•or three plants (not more) of vallisneria, or chara,
are to be planted in one corner in well-washed gravel,
banked up with one of the pieces of stone ; the other
part of the floor of the tank should be left bare, to
facilitate the picking up, free of sand or gravel, of
anything that may appear. If a pond be accessible,
three parts of the tank are filled with water from it ; if
it be cloudy or even muddy the result may be more
favourable. After being left in repose for at least a
week, the character of the contents (if the pond be
fairly productive) will be seen ; the water will be
clear and probably reveal a variety of common objects,
such as larvae of insects, entomostraca, planaria, and
hydrce ; in a week or more vegetable growth will
appear, covering every portion of the interior. The
tank is now in a condition to be inoculated with
whatever choice objects can be obtained, the result
of special and favourable gatherings, and this should
be repeated frequently ; the front glass must be occa-
sionally cleaned with a sponge tied to the end of a
cane, but on no account be tempted to touch the
sides or back : the water will soon become as clear as
crystal, however muddy it may have been when first
introduced. The pieces of stone will show signs of
vegetable growths, with patches of such forms of in-
fusoria as vorticellae and stentors. The waste from
evaporation must be supplied by additions of pond
water (the richer the better), and such a tank will be,
in a month or two (not before), a marvel of micro-
scopic beauty and interest. The untouched back
glass will be covered with a dense mantle of dark-
green velvety vegetation, in the midst of which will
be discovered groups and patches of the fixed
infusoria, and it is essentially the habitat of the
polyzoa; hydne, and the rarer rotifera philodina,
even melicerta and stephanoceros, may be found under
such circumstances, to say nothing of the countless
tribes of free infusoria, ever ready for observation in
all their various phases of existence, and such con-
ditions will preserve and increase them indefinitely.
Enemies to eliminate are larvse of insects (but these
soon disappear naturally), the fluviatile arachiadae,
and the larger molluscs; the latter in browsing through
the vegetation on the glass are apt to destroy perhaps
a favourite group of stentors. Other enemies are the
floating filamentous algae ; they should be removed,
but if the tank be well watched as regards light no
trouble in this respect may ensue. Nothing ought
to be planted in the middle, as it is of importance the
back glass should be clearly seen, and much may be
lost if anything impedes this view. It needs hardly
be said that the water must never be changed.

Tanks so established will greatly improve by time,
even when it extends to yeai'S. It is worthy of note,
as a matter of practical observation, that a great
excess of animal life (of a certain chai'acter) much
conduces to the development and well-being of
microscopic life. In a tank measuring fourteen
inches deep by fourteen wide and twenty-eight inches
long, five full-grown Mexican axolotls (nearly as
lai-ge as water-i-ats) have existed and thriven for
moi-e than four years. In eveiy part of this tank there
are swarms of Crustacea, infusoria, and rotifera, and
the back glass facing a wall is covered with the velvet-
like growth, shading off into patches of pale browns
and purples, imbedded in which are considerable
masses of living animal objects. It would seem as
if the l-ejectamenta of these axolotls (they axre fed
once a week with strips of raw beef) is conducive
to the development of life. In large ordinary tanks
with growing plants of vallisneria, and not devoted
to the special object of these notes, it is desirable to
have a piece of floating wood ; it will in a few weeks
or months form the nidus or habitat of many strange
organisms. Vegetable forms requiring running or
moving water, as desmids, volvox, &c., cannot be
reared or even kept in captivity. Much might be
said of collecting to supply tanks with objects did
space admit, but hydrse and countless forms may be
procured in abundance by the very simple process of
bringing in a handkerchief-full of duckweed, washing
it thoroughly in a pan, injecting the weed, and
pouring the resulting water into the tanks.

Crouch End. E. D.

HOW TO USE THE MICROMETER.

By F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S.

ALL interested in microscopic studies have been
moi'e or less inconvenienced by the frequent
absence of a scale of measui'ement attached to the
figui'es ; this is a great blemish in that otherwise
valuable work, “ The Microscope,” by Di*. Carpenter.
This in many cases was no doubt unavoidable, no
scale having been given with the original figures. As
the measurement of microscopic objects is by no means
difficult, every one using the mici'oscope should make
it a rule to ascertain the dimensions of the objects
he is examining. The only additional apparatus
requii-ed is some form of camera lucida : personally I
prefer Wollaston’s ; others give the preference to
Beale’s neutral-tint camera lucida (the former
costs 2is., the latter 7s. 6d.), and a micrometer ruled
in and Wott- The chief difficulty in using the
camera of Wollaston is bisecting the pupil of the
eye with the edge of the prism ; if this is not care-
fully attended to either the paper or the object be-
comes invisible : practice soon overcomes the diffi-
culty. In using either form of camera it is necessary
that the body of the mici'oscope should be horizontal.

17 6

HARD WJ CEE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

In using the camera lucida two things have to be
considered : the distance of the prism or the reflector
from the object, and its distance from the paper.
(In my own instrument the edge of the prism with B
ocular, and £-in. Ross objective, is exactly 12 inches
from the object ; this distance with the paper 10
inches from the edge of the prism gives a magnifica-
tion of 369 diameters.) As the length of the body
and the magnifying power of the objectives and
ocular are variable, it is best to construct a scale for
the purpo se of ascertaining in the first instance
the amplification employed ; the most convenient
is the following : Rule a line 10 inches in length, a ,
(fig. 1 1 7), and from the centre of this rule another

from 300 to 500 diameters by using the A B and C
oculars, and adjusting the amplification by means
of the draw tube or the elevation of the microscope.
A memorandum may be kept of the ocular used, the
length of tube, &c., but I always measure off a *oi
with micrometer, which should of course i-epresent
1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 inches, according to the amplification
employed.

The eye-piece micrometer, in its simplest form, con-
sists of a disc of glass upon which a series of equi-
distant lines are engraved; this is placed on the
diaphragm in the ocular, the lines being magnified
by the eye-lens. The distance of these lines is not
important, but, whatever their distance, they must be

line, b , of the same length at right angles to it ; care-
fully divide these lines into inches and tenths, then
rule lines commencing at a to the point c parallel to
the vertical line a ; rule nine other lines 1 inch
apart : each of these divisions represents one hundred
diameters. The inner margins of the lines b c should
be divided into tenths, and we shall then have a
series of diameters increasing by tenths 100, no,
120, &c. This space between the lines a and e
should be ruled as accurately as possible with lines
1% of an inch apart ; this will give measurement to
the ’0001 of an inch. I always prefer using such
diameters as are easily divided, viz., 100, 200, 300,
400, &c. With my i objective I obtain a range of

made to coincide with the divisions on the stage
micrometer ; when this has been done the object is
placed on the stage, the number of divisions occupied
by it gives the diameter in parts of an inch or milli-
metre, according to the divisions of the stage microme-
ter. This method, although somewhat less trouble-
some than that just described, is not so accurate, and
if the object is somewhat opaque (e.g., Aulacodiscus
fon/iosus), the divisions on the eye-piece micrometer
are very indistinct.

For very delicate measurements eye-piece microme-
ters with fine screw adjustments are used, but for
ordinary measurements the camera lucida and stage
micrometer will be found sufficiently accurate.

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE -GOSSI P.

177

Microscopic dimensions in England and America
are usually given in parts of an inch ; Continental
observers now generally employ some division of
the millimetre, such as *1, *oi, '001 ; the latter is
sometimes written thus : 1 p, (p = 1 millieme) •ooi'.
of an English inch = 25 p '399. An English inch
contains 25 mm. *3995- A millimetre may be
roughly estimated as being equal to of an inch.

Ehrenberg, KUtzing, and the earlier microscopic
observers used fractions of the Paris line, or the
of a Paris inch; the latter equals 27 mm. '12 ; the
Paris line equals 2 mm. ’255* Rees gives the Paris
line -088815 of an English inch ; the nearest vulgar
fraction to this is 2-23rds = 087121, differing by less
than 1 -500th of an inch. Practically the French
inch is equal to IT\T English inch.

The scale used by Ehrenberg was i-25th of a Paris
line, magnified 300 diameters equalling two Paris
inches in length.

NOTES ON THE RHODODENDRON.

/^\N Saturday, the 1st of June, on our visit to the
Rhododendrons, at Cobham Park, my atten-
tion was drawn to the form of the flower by a query
from one of the party as to how fertilization was
brought about, seeing that the stamens and style all
pointed upwards, and the style was greatly exserted
beyond stamens. I was thus led to pay particular
attention to the point ; and, I think, was enabled to
arrive at a just solution.

A very small amount of attention demonstrated
quite clearly that the plant is proterandrous, i.e., that
the stamens arrive at maturity before the stigma is
in a receptive condition ; and that, therefore, although
the flowers are bisexual, they are to all intents and
purposes unisexual, as the stamens of a given flower
cannot fertilize the ovary of the same flower. This
might be inferred from the size and showiness of the
flower, as such plants, it has been clearly shown, are
usually entomophilous, i.e., are fertilized through the
agency of insects. We were soon enlightened as to
the peculiar fitness of the upturned style and stamens
for the purpose of securing cross fertilization by the
agency of large honey-loving insects, such as the bee.
While examining a cluster of flowers a large bee or
bee-like insect was seen to enter a flower ; and,
alighting upon the stamens, to apply its long pro-
boscis to the upper part of corolla at a point about
half-way down the tube. An examination of other
flowers showed in every case at this part a large drop
of fluid matter resembling dew or rain, but which
proved, on tasting, to be honey.

The modus operandi of fertilization was now patent
enough. Large insects, such as the bee, are attracted
by the honey ; and, from its position within the tube

of the corolla on the tipper side , and from the form
and position of the up-curved stamens, are unable to
reach it without, in the male condition of the flower,
literally dusting the under-side of the thorax and
abdomen with pollen, and without, in the female
condition, where the style protrudes beyond the now
pollenless stamens, depositing a portion of their trea-
sure upon the expanded glutinous stigma. Thus, as
they flit from flower to flower, in search of honey
for their own benefit alone, do these insects unwit-
tingly carry on a work that is absolutely essential to
the continuance of the specific life of the Rhodo-
dendron.

We may thus in a general way see and admire the
mutual adaptation of insect and flower for each other’s
good, but a closer examination of the flower will
reveal to us many small modifications in the form of
corolla, stamens, ovary, &c., which cannot fail to
increase our admiration.

ULAINDS

OVARY

IMPERFECTLY 10 GELLED

Fig.’ 1x9. Ovary
of Rhododendron.

Fig. 120. Stamen
of Rhododendron.

Fig. 122. Cross section of tube of Corolla.

First, with regard to the colour of
the corolla. This is of an almost uni-
form tint, varying in different plants,
from deep rose-colour to pale pink, or
even white. Within the tube, how-
ever, on the upper side a number of
yellow oblong splashes will be found
forming more or less distinct lines,
clearly converging upon the drop of duFa?j^V?W
honey already alluded to. Sir J. Lub- of Stamen (mag.),
bock has shown by direct experiment
that insects profit by experience, and having once learnt
that certain lines or striae lead to their food, use them
as guides in their future excursions. Hence, doubtless,

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE * G OSSIP,

1 78

the raison d’etre of these lines or splashes in the
Rhododendron.

Secondly, with regard to the form of the coiolla.
This, as in all Ericacm, is monopetalous. When
pulled off and examined, it is found to be curiously
folded and plaited, especially near the base of the
tube on the upper side. A cross section taken near
the base is fairly represented by fig. 122 (magnified).
It will be seen from the figure that the dorsal fold is
so deep and perfect as to form a tube or canal. This
channel gradually shallows out at the point wheie the
honey is always found. What is its use? At hist
sight it appears as though the honey were secreted by
the corolla itself at the point where found, but such is
not the case. On pulling off the corolla, the honey will
be seen oozing from the upper side of the base of the
ovary. The use, then, of this fold appeals to be to
act as a tube for the passage of honey from the base
of the corolla to a point nearer its mouth where it is
more readily accessible to insects of a large size.
The honey, doubtless, passes up this tube by means
•of capillary attraction.

The stamens are very peculiar, as will be seen from
fig. 120. The lower half is thickly covered with stiff
.glandular hairs of very various forms and lengths.
Some of these forms are represented in fig. 121. One
use of these hairs is, perhaps, by firmly interlocking,
to strengthen the stamens, and enable them the better
to resist the pressure of insects alighting upon them ;
but the principal one, I should think, is by means of
their crowding and intertwining, to prevent smaller
insects, that would be incapable of carrying on the
work of fertilization, from penetrating to and carry-
ing off the honey, which is the incentive to the visit
■of those larger insects that are capable of performing
the task. The bottom of the stamens, as shown in
fig. 1 20, is free from hairs, and rests in a groove in the
hypogynous disc that surrounds the base of the ovary.
This insertion in a groove and close application to
the ovary cannot fail to give additional stability and
strength to the stamens as a whole, while it most
effectually prevents any insect from arriving at the
source of the honey.

The imperfectly ten-celled ovary, with its surround-
ing secreting disc, is represented by fig. 119. The
upper two lobes only of this disc, which are larger
than the rest, appear to be concerned in secreting,
or, at all events, in pouring out the honey.

This paper is written, not as an exhaustive account
of the flower of the Rhododendron, but as an incen-
tive to further examination by others. As my oppor-
tunities of observation are small, I feel sure that
those more favourably situated may, by a little atten-
tion, show us many curious and highly-interesting
points that I have altogether overlooked ; and I, for
one, should be very glad to get a fuller and more
perfect account of this plant.

Rochester . J. Hepworth.

ACCLIMATIZATION OF PALMS.

By Staff-Surgeon R. Nelson, R.N.

PLANTS differ greatly from animals in the close-
ness of their adaptation to meteorological and
other conditions ; hence, on the one hand, while in
England, we can have parrots, monkeys, lions, tigers,
and other tropical and sub-tropical animals, live with
us during winter, and even the polar bear look as
pleased as a bear can look during our hot summer
months ; we lose, on the other hand, the enjoyment
of many beautiful wild flowers and magnificent forest
trees which enliven the scenery and greatly enhance
the pleasure of the traveller abroad.

Who that has travelled much does not remember
the pleasure, nay, the rapture which he felt as he
neared his first foreign port — say Madeira, for in-
stance— in beholding the luxuriant “feathery palm-
trees rise,” as Heber sung when he linked them
together with other of our earthly conceptions of
“the better land.” They are undoubtedly the first
objects which forcibly strike the wanderer, and enable
him to realize that his dear old home is far behind,
and that he is, indeed, in a distant land. There is
nothing so thoroughly foreign to the eye, and few
objects in nature more attractive. The long-tailed
Celestial, the almond-eyed “Jap,” and the black-
skinned negro, have been long familiar in our streets,
but the palm stands out in bi-oad relief as the first
novelty which attracts attention abroad.

Having lately spent some months in Shanghai, I
have been led to these remarks by observing, during
the present severe winter, how well the few palm-
trees planted there have withstood the rigour of the
climate, and was first forcibly struck with the subject
when, one bitterly cold morning, a friend called my
attention to the almost anomalous condition of nature,
that the palm-trees were covered with snow ; and
very pretty objects they were.

What genus or species of Palmacese they belong to
I cannot at present discover, but doubtless many
readers of Science-Gossip know which are the
hardiest of the order. That the specimens planted
along the Bund of Shanghai are as graceful as the
lofty cocoa-nut trees of Ceylon, or the Sago-palm of
Borneo I do not maintain ; but they are well worthy
of the attention of those interested in the acclimati-
zation of plants, for few things would add more to
the beauty of our parks, or better set off a landscape
than endogenous trees, of which our climate has, or
is supposed to have, deprived us.

Shanghai is situated on the Woosung river, about
twelve miles above its junction with the mighty
Yang-tze-Kiang; the country around is perfectly flat,
and the soil alluvial. Although so far south as 310
N. lat., 20° below the south of England, the winter
is rigorous, and altogether the climate bears a most
remarkable contrast to places in the western hemi-

HARD WICKES SCIENCE * G OSSIP.

179

sphere situated iu nearly the same parallel of latitude
e.g. , Malta and Bermuda.

The following table shows the average mean

monthly temperature of

several years past

: —

January

... 40° Fah.

July

83° Fah.

February

... 420 ,,

August

83° „

March

• •• 50° »

September

76° „

April ...

... 58° „

October

67 >,

May . . .

... 69° „

November ...

55 „

June ...

... 76° „

December ...

47 „

During the recent winter there has been at least

ten days continuous skating, and the thermometer
during the month of January was frequently below
200 Fah. or 12° below the freezing-point. During the
last six months there has been an extreme range of
82°, i.e. from 990 to 170.

This subject is well worthy of enlargement and
development, but meantime this is perhaps enough
for Gossip.

SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF DUBLIN
AND WICKLOW.

By Wm. Hellier Baily, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
M.R.I.A., &c.

THE metropolis of Ireland is most favourably
situated with regard to its position, its eastern
extremity being bounded by the sea, to the north-
east the peninsula of Howth forms the limit of
Dublin Bay in that dii-ection, to the south that of
Kingstown and Dalkey ; south of Dublin the granite
range of mountains are a conspicuous feature in the
landscape.

Of the igneous rocks, granite, the most important,
is well displayed near Dublin, commencing about
three miles south, extending in a south-westerly
direction for a distance of twenty-nine miles to near
New Ross, in the county of Wexford, with an average
width of eight or ten miles, and a maximum, at one
part, of eighteen miles. It forms the Dublin moun-
tains, rising to an elevation of 1,763 feet from the
sea-level, above the Three Rock Mountain at Fairy
Castle. The lower hills, near the sea-coast, such as
that of Killiney, are 480 feet, and Dalkey 472 feet,
in height. The outline of this range shows a suc-
cession of gently-undulating and rounded eminences,
descending more rapidly towards the sea.

In the adjoining county of Wicklow the mountains
rise to a greater height ; Lugnaquillia, in the southern
part of the county, being the highest, is 3,040 feet
elevation, consisting of a mass of mica schist resting
on the granite ; all the loftiest parts of the adjacent
mountains are also composed of mica schist.

The granite may be seen along the coast from
Blackrock, south of Dublin, to Kingstown and
Dalkey; from the latter place it has a superficial

breadth of about eight miles. From the quarries at
Dalkey Hill was obtained the stone used in the con-
struction of the harbour and piers at Kingstown,
about 6,000,000 tons being used in the formation
of the two breakwaters. A large quarry in the town
of Kingstown was also extensively worked for mate-
rial used in the construction of the harbour and
piers at Kingstown ; other quarries have been
opened on the eastern side of the Three Rock
Mountain for supplying stone for building purposes
and for flagging.

The Killiney and Dalkey granite is coarsely
crystalline, varying somewhat, however, in different
places. The Rev. Dr. Haughton, F.R.S., &c., has
fully described the Dublin and Wicklow granites in a
memoir of the Lower Palaeozoic and associated Igneous
rocks of the south-east of Ireland. (“Trans.
Royal Irish Acad.,” vol. xxiii., 1859, pp. 564, See.}
Veins of a closer and whiter texture, in which the
mica is scarcely or not at all perceptible, are fre-
quently found to traverse the granite of this district ;
it is called Eurite , and is evidently intrusive ; occa-
sionally it assumes larger dimensions than that of
mere veins. Black mica {Lepidonielane) is not
uncommon in this granite ; a remarkable plumose
variety of white mica {Margarodite) has been found
at Ballybrack. In the Dalkey quarries it is not
unusual to find perfectly-formed crystals of black
quartz in the joints ; fine crystals of Tourmaline
are also occasionally met with in the granite of
Dalkey, and the mineral called Killinite , from its
having been found in the granite of Killiney and also
at Dalkey.

Metamorphic Rocks. — Mica schist, or altered
Lower Silurian slates, these again blending into
unaltered Lower Silurians, flank the granite from a
point near Killiney to near New Ross, in the county
of Wexford, spreading out, as shown on the southern
boundary of sheet 121 of the Geological Survey maps
to a breadth of over four miles. The junction of the
Granite and Metamorphosed Slates is clearly observ-
able along the sea-shore under Killiney Hill, at
Roche’s Hill, and to the west of Killiney Park ; in
the road and railway cuttings of the neighbourhood
as well as their metamorphism into mica schist, which
often contains crystals of chiastolite.

The manner in which the granite has been forced
into the slates, penetrating them in wedge-shaped
masses and veins, may be observed on the shore at
this place. From the Killiney Hills a fine view of
the Bay of Dublin, with Howth to the north and
Bray Head south, may be seen.

The Scalp, about two miles north of Enniskerry,
and about three miles south of Carrickmines station,
on the Dublin, Wicklow, and Wexford Railway, is a
picturesque pass, the granitic rocks showing great
erosion ; its junction with the mica schist may be
readily observed.

In the glen of the river Dargle, near Enniskerry

i8o

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP ,

Fig. 123.

SCALt

:

Coal Measures

Carbora/eraas

Limestone

\Vi\O

Old Red
Sandstone

Lower Silurian,

0 0

O 0

0 0
0 0
0 0

_ 0 c

Cambrian.

+ + +
+ + + 4

4- + +

JSRccl Schist

/V /V
/\ /\ /\. a

/N /X

TrapJRock *x

X X
X X A
X X

* Granite.

GEOLOGICAL MAP of the NEIGHBOURHOOD of DUBLIN.

the prominences which are called “ the Burnt Rock,”
“ the Lover’s Leap,” and “ the View Rock,” are of
quartz rock, associated with the Cambrian formation.
The well-known Powerscourt Waterfall, nearly 300
feet high, in the same river, is about four miles south-
west of Enniskerry, in the Powerscourt demesne,
where the metamorphic rocks are prevalent.

Of the stratified or sedimentary rocks the lowest
Palaeozoic formation is the Cambrian, which is com-
posed of green and purple grits and slates, often

interstratified with masses of dull yellow or brown
quartz rock, and having a total thickness of several
thousand feet.

Strata of this character form the bold and rugged
headland a little south of Bray, rising to a height of
793 feet. The outline of these hills when viewed from
the north is very picturesque, with the prominent
peaks of the Great and Little Sugarloaf Mountains
(formed of quartz rock), in the background. The
Great Sugarloaf, four miles south-west of Bray, rising

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP \

181

to a height of 1,659 feet, and the Little Sugarloaf,
about two and a half miles south of Bray, to 1, 120 feet.

This Cambrian district of North Wicklow, com-
mencing somewhat north of Bray, and including part
of the river Dargle, extends to near Wicklow, a length

of seventeen miles, spreading out to seven or eight
miles.

At certain places in the district this formation
contains a very distinct, though specifically small,
assemblage of fossils. Two species of Oldhamia

Fig. 127. Burrow of Histioderma Hibernicuin.

Fig. 125. Tracks and burrows of Arenicolites sparsus, copied from
Baily’s “ British Fossils.”

Fig. 126. Burrows of Arenicolites didymus.

Fig. 128. Extremity of tube of Histioderma
Hibernicuin.

(named after Professor Oldham), 0. antiqua
and 0. radiata , have been described and
named by the late Professor E. Forbes ; they
are confined to Irish strata, and occur in
considerable abundance at several places in
the rocks of Bray Head; at Graystones, on
the coast three miles further south ; and at
Carrick Mountain (1,260 feet high), north of
Rath drum. These fossils were believed, by
Professor Forbes and the late Professor J. R.
Kinahan, M.D., to be allied to Sertularian zoophytes;
other scientific observers consider them to have been
plants, probably marine algoe, allied to lime-secreting
nullipores.

Accompanying the Oldhamia are evident remains
of marine annelids, which burrowed in the sand of
that period, producing tracks penetrating the beds
in a vertical and horizontal direction ; they correspond
with those described by the late Mr. Salter from
the Longmynds as Arenicolites didymus , and A.
sparsus (probably identical species) ; some of them
occur in pairs of double openings, which pass

Fig. 124. Oldhamia radiata.

182

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE - GOSSIP.

vertically through the beds ; others as tracks
running along the surface. Larger tubular casts
passing vertically through the beds have been de-
scribed by the loce Dr. Kinahan as Histioderma
Hibernicum.

At the top of '.he hill in Kilruddery demesne, be-
longing to the Earl of Meath, the surfaces of the
quartz rock, associated with the Cambrian formation,
are distinctly rounded and scored by glacial action.

The Dublin, Wicklow,
and Wexford Railway is con-
structed through this mass
of rocks at Bray Head by a
series of short tunnels and
cuttings, and by bridges or
viaducts, exposing sections
of strata and exhibiting
various geological pheno-
mena.

The Lower Silurian rocks,
south of Dublin, are only
fossiliferous at a few locali-
ties ; near Rathdrum, in the
county of Wicklow, at Slie-
veroe, are strata of Caradoc
Bala age, from which have
been obtained the following
characteristic fossils: — Fa-
vosites jibrosus, Orthis testu-
dinaria , 0. actonice, Leptcena
sericea, and Euomphalus per-
turbatus ; the Trilobites
Calymene Blumenbachii , Ho-
inolonotus bisulcalus, Trinu-
cleus concentricus , and Bey-
richia complanata.

Cambrian strata are also
the prevalent rocks on the
peninsula of Howth, county
of Dublin ; they are asso-
ciated with quartz rock, as at
Bray. The ' rocks here are
more slaty in composition,
and the presence of Old-
hamia is rare ; the late
Professor Kinahan believed
he had discovered it in
what are called the “ Puckrocks,” on the shore
east of Howth, accompanied by tracks, resembling
those observed at Bray; the highest point, Ben
Howth, is 560 feet high. In the demesne of the
Earl of Howth these rocks are well seen, and a
picturesque view may be obtained of the island of
Ireland’s Eye, which is composed of similar strata,
Cambrian and quartz rock. In the further distance
may be seen the island of Lambay. The drift at
Howth, in the cliffs over Balscadden Bay, is of consi-
derable thickness, containing fragments of marine
shells. On the Dublin mountains, at an elevation of

Fig. 129. Large Tubular
cast of Histioderma
Hibemicum.

more than a thousand feel, marine shells have been
collected and described by the Rev. Maxwell Close
from two places (“On the Elevated Shell-bearing
Gravels near Dublin,” Journ. Geol. Soc. of Dublin ,
vol. iv., New Series, p. 36). At Bohernabreena, near
the river Dodder, beyond Fort Bridge, about six miles
S.W. of Dublin, marine fossils were also obtained
from the drift-gravel and sand by the late Dr. Kina-
han ( Journ . Geol. Soc. of Dublin, vol. viii. p. 87).

The formation upon which Dublin is built, and its
immediate neighbourhood, is Upper Limestone ; this
formation, however, being for the most part covered
by drift, composed of sand and gravel.

Sections in railway cuttings, rivers, and canals,
and various quarries, show the character of the rock
to be a dark earthy limestone, technically termed
calp ; fossils in this rock are comparatively rare.
The Lower Carboniferous Limestone appeal's at
Raheny, continuing to Howth, where it is more
fossiliferous. At Balscadden Bay, north-east of
Howth, Lower Limestone shale, similar to the rocks
forming the low cliffs on shore a little south of Mala-
hide, may be seen. It rests unconformably on Cam-
brian strata, containing numerous corals, crinoids,
brachiopods, &c.

The Limestone at Howth is compact and thick-
bedded, frequently magnesian, and occasionally as-
suming a perfect dolomite.

The picturesque scenery of Howth (reached by a
branch of the Great Northern Railway from Amiens-
street terminus), is of considerable interest, especially
where seen from the road round the east cliff, and
through the Earl of Howth’s demesne, the more
elevated parts (towards the Baily Lighthouse) being;
nearly as wild in character as some parts of Connemara.

The rocks forming the low cliffs on the shore
south of Malahide, Lower Limestone shale, contain
an abundance of fossils, corals, crinoids, and mol-
lusca, especially brachiopoda. On the surface of
some of the beds, where weathered by sea and atmo-
spheric action, the characteristic coral, Lithodendron
junceum , may be seen in bunches attached to a large
bivalve shell, which was named by Professor McCoy
Pleurorhynchus fusiformis. The quarries of Lower
Limestone near Malahide, at Feltrim, a little to the
south-west, and Sea Mount, south-east, has supplied
a large number of species.

Still farther north, at Portraine, reached by the
same railway from Donabate station, eleven and a
quarter miles from Dublin, the prominent rocks are
Lower Silurian, of Caradoc Bala age,' similar strata
also occurring at the Island of Lambay, two and a
half miles east.

The beautiful rock called Lambay Porphyry, which
forms a large proportion of the Island, composed of
pale green crystals of orthose felspar, in a base of
a dark green colour, also occurs on the opposite Por-
traine coast.

The Lower Silurian Limestone on this coast, as at

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

183

Lambay, is a very dark and compact grey rock, very
fossiliferous in certain places. Corals are abundant,
projecting in relief, where weathered. Still farther
north on the coast, at Loughshinny, reached from the
Rush and Lusk station of the same railway, the
Lower Coal Measure shales appear with characteristic
fossils, Posidonomya Becheri and Goniatites sphcencus ,
the first-named shell defining the horizon of the junc-
tion beds between the Lower Coal Measure shales
and Upper Carboniferous Limestone.

North of this, on the shore at Balbriggan, may be
seen black slates, with numerous Graptolites ; these
are principally single-celled species referred to G.
Hisingeri . At the Cardy rocks, a little more north,
fossils indicative of Caradoc age, are found in
brown shales, of which several species have been
enumerated.

The great Irish Deer ( Cervus megaceros) has been
found near Dublin, associated with the Reindeer
( Cervus tarandus) ; it existed formerly in considerable
numbers in this neighbourhood, as in other parts of
Ireland. The Bog of Ballybetagh, near Kiltiernan,
on the boundaries of the counties of Dublin and
Wicklow, has supplied a great many examples of this
stupendous animal. Professor Oldham, in a paper
read before the Geological Society of Dublin, in
1847* records the discovery of the remains of at
least thirty individuals, accompanied by the head
and antlers, with other bones of a Reindeer ( Cervus
tarandus ), in the cutting for a drain in this bog. Dr.
A. Carte, in a. paper read before the same society, f
gives an account of a skull and antlers of a Reindeer
from the Curragha Bog, near Ashbourne, county
Dublin (Sheet 101, Geol. Survey Maps). This
fine example, in the Royal Dublin Society’s Museum
was found in a very similar deposit to that previously
mentioned, imbedded in marl and clay, under four or
five feet of peat. From the peculiar shape of the
brow antler, these specimens are proved to belong to
the Caribou, or “Barren ground” variety, which now
inhabits America between the sixty-third and sixty-
sixth degrees of north latitude, in the winter ; migra-
ting to the coasts of the Arctic Sea in summer. It is,
therefore, very interesting to meet with evidence of
the former existence of this variety of the Reindeer
in Ireland.

Glacial action is evidenced by scorings of the rocks,
which are observable at Kilruddery, Bray, and at
Portraine ; by the transport of large masses, such as
that of granite, on the top of Bray Head, and the
distribution of boulders of various formations, in the
drift along the railway, near Killiney.

The Eskers of Ireland are frequent over all the
low central plain ; they are continuous banks of drift,
composed of sand and gravel, sometimes fifteen or
twenty miles in length, with steep sides, varying from

* your. Geol. Soc. of Dublin, vol. iii. p. 280 (1848).
t Ibid., vol. x. p. 103 (1863-64).

twenty feet to seventy feet above the general level.
One is to be seen three or four miles to the
west of Dublin, running from the banks of the
Dodder, past the old castle of Tymon, by the Green
Plills, to the valley of the Liffey.

Should any member of the British Association
visiting Ireland wish to travel further, there are the
collieries near Castlecomer, county Kilkenny, and
Killenaule, county Tipperary, with anthracite coal and
numerous fossil plants, &c. , in the shales, especially in
the collieries near Tipperary ; the celebrated old red
sandstone quarry at Kiltorcan, near Thomastown,
county Waterford, with its well-preserved plant
and fish remains; the promontory of Hook Head,
county Wexford, where the lower shales of the car-
boniferous limestone are covered with a profusion of
beautiful fossils, and at Sand Eel Bay, close adjoin-
ing, the junction between the Old Red Sandstone and
carboniferous strata may be seen ; the carboniferous
limestone between Limerick and Foynes, full of
good fossils ; the Upper Silurian rocks of the Dingle
promontory, county Kerry, more difficult of access,
but containing numerous fine fossils ; the cliffs of
Moher, county Clare, of Coal Measure strata, up-
wards of nine hundred feet high, looking out upon
the broad Atlantic, and the Llandovery strata of Con-
nemara ; the Silurian limestone of the Chair of Kil-
dare, with its profusion of fossils and intrusive
porphyry, like that of Lambay ; the hard chalk
“ white limestone ” of Antrim, capped by basalt,
with lias and Rhoetic beds, near Belfast and Larne ;
and the Miocene plant beds, associated with the iron
ores in the basalt, near Carrickfergus, and extending
over a considerable portion of the north of Ireland.

MICROSCOPY,

A Good Mounting Medium. — For some time I
was at a loss to find a good medium that would fix
a metallic or other ring to the glass slide, and at the
same time resist the action of thin balsam, that is,
balsam rendered thin by the addition of chloroform,
benzine, or turpentine. I tried gold size, and allowed
the slip to remain for some months to get perfectly
hard before attempting to use it. This was mode-
rately successful as far as the turpentine-balsam went,
but with the chloroform and benzine it was a com-
plete failure. Marine glue is, of course, entirely out
of the question, it being so rapidly and easily dis-
solved by the two last-named fluids. The only
medium I have found, that is thoroughly to be relied
upon, is a cement known as “Thompson’s Cement,”
which is made by Messrs. Thompson & Capper, of
4, Lord Street, Liverpool. I give the name and
address, as it is important to know where it can be
obtained. I have used it now for some time with
the most satisfactory results. The balsam, no matter

184

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

with what it is diluted, remains clear and transpar ent.
The ring can be put on the glass slip, the cell
cleaned, and be ready for use in a few minutes. I
strongly recommend it to the working micro scopist.
— John S. Hicks , F.R.C.S.

Volvox Globator. — We strongly recommend
our readers to study an article in the Popular Science
Review for July, on “Volvox Globator,” written by
Mr. A. W. Bennett, M.A., F.L.S. The same
journal also contains a capital paper by Dr. Wallich,
“On the Radiolaria as an order of the Protozoa.”

Microscopy in America. — It is proposed to hold
a Microscopical Congress in August next at Indian-
apolis, at which it is expected that all the leading
microscopical societies in the United States and
elsewhere will be represented. Perhaps this may be
the means of settling many of the vexed questions
with which journals devoted to microscopical re-
search are often too full. There is every expectation
of the meeting being successful, both in point of
numbers, and in the character of the papers to be
read.

The Examination of Minute Living Organ-
isms.— Mr. Dudgeon suggests that living microsco-
pical objects might always be seen, if the objective
were enclosed in a brass or other metallic tube,
having its lower end closed by a piece of thin micro-
scopic glass coming close up but not touching the *
object-glass. With this protection, he says, the end
of the microscope may be plunged into a small tank
filled with water, containing living organisms, and
thus the latter may be examined at leisure.

ZOOLOGY.

The Colouring Matter of Birds’ Egg-
shells.— Mr. Liebermann has recently proved that
the blue or green colour of birds’ eggs is due to a
bile pigment which resembles biliverdin in certain
respects. The shells frequently contain a second
colouring matter — not a bile pigment — which ex-
hibits a characteristic absorption spectrum.

The Manatee at the Westminster Aqua-
rium.— Those who have the opportunity should
lose no time in seeing the Manatee ( Manatus Ameri-
cans) now on exhibition at the Westminster Aqua-
rium. This very individual might have been the one
which sat for its portrait in Science-Gossip for
March, 1876, so true is the illustration. Mr. South-
well’s paper of the above date will be now read
with greater interest by those who visit the living
example. The latter was taken at the mouth of the
Essequibo, off the island of Leguan, British Guiana.
It was brought on the deck of the Blenheim to
Glasgow, where Mr. Carrington, the able naturalist of
the Westminster Aquarium, purchased it, on the 1st

of July last, and brought it thence to London, in a
special truck. The greatest difficulty experienced in
its transit by railway was in keeping up the right
temperature, which is between 70° and 750. When
the temperature was lower than 70°, the Manatee
would resent the reduction by raising itself bodily
upright out of its tank. The powerful muscles of
its enormous tail, and the extreme buoyancy of its
body, would easily enable the animal to do this. It is
healthy, eats about two stone weight of lettuces,
cabbages watercress, zostera, ulva, &c., every day;
and sleeps in what seems a most uncomfortable
posture, arched like a half-bent bow, but still resting
on its tail. The last of its tribe as a denizen of
English waters was the Halitherium of the Suffolk
Crags.

Planorbis Nautileus (Crista). — I have been
fortunate enough to find the above minute shell upon
the Potamogeton in two ponds, not far from the Via-
duct, Folkestone. In one the specimens were more
numerous and finer than the other. It is the first
time this Planorbis has been found in this locality
(July)* — H. J. T.

Habits of Raptorial Flies. — My attention
being attracted by a sharp buzzing on the window, I
looked, and saw two flies struggling together and
rolling over. After a very few moments one of them ,
an Empis I think, flew away, leaving the other, a
common house-fly, alive, and apparently little the
worse. It walked about, and took a short flight, but
in less than half a minute it rolled over, became
convulsed, and died almost instantly after. Whether
its death was due to the abstraction of the blood, or
to the injection of a poison, I cannot say, but the
brief attack of the rapacious fly seemed certainly
more rapidly fatal than that of a moderate-sized
spider. — J. IV. Slater .

The Microphone in Natural History.—
Mr. S. D. Bairstow suggests the use of the micro-
phone for the investigation of the phenomenon of
stridulation in insects.

Mimicry in Insects. — At a recent meeting of
the Entomological Society the photographs of two
species of Orthoptera, allied to Ple7-ochroza illus -
trata and P. ocellata were exhibited, in illustration
of the doctrine of “mimicry.” The above insects
are remarkable for their perfect imitation of dead
leaves, which is carried out in the neuration of the
wings even to microscopic details, as compared with
the ribs and veining of leaves.

Moles at Work. — Professor Paley, in a late
number of your periodical, says that he never met a
person who could aver having seen a molehill cast
up. I beg to state that moles have been at work
under my eyes on two occasions. So many years
[ have since passed, that I can only say, as to time,

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

that the process took place in broad clay ; whereas
the mole usually works, I believe, at three or four
o’clock in the morning. On one of the above occa-
sions I was walking through a wood, and seeing a
disturbance in the ground close to me, I watched it.
A mole, in working through the ground, had come
upon the root of a tree running horizontally near the
surface : it did not suit the animal’s convenience to
burrow under, and so up he came into daylight. In
another minute, however, he was into the earth again
on the other side of the root. — IV. H. B. P.

Science in the Provinces. — One noteworthy
feature of modern scientific research is the spirited
manner with which it is pursued in nearly every city
and town of importance in the United Kingdom.
Under some name or another denoting the nature of
the particular sciences affected, societies, associations*
and clubs, are distributed far and near. In most of
them we find men whose names are widely known for
scientific research, and who frequently act as nuclei
around which those gather who love science in some
form or another. Many of these provincial societies
publish their transactions, in which we often find
papers that would do honour to any learned society
in London. In natural science prominence is usually
and very properly given to papers dealing with the
fauna and flora, geology and meteorology of the neigh-
bourhood. The number of societies publishing some
abstract or another of their work is increasing, inso-
much that it has been found necessary to establish
such periodicals as the “ Naturalist,” to record the
doings of the various Yorkshire societies and clubs ;
the “ Midland Naturalist ” doing the same useful
Work for all societies in the Midland counties.
Among other publications of this kind we have
lately received, we are glad to note the establishment
of another society in Manchester under the name of
“ The Science Association,” the president of which
is Mr. Thomas Harrison, F.C.S., and the secretary,
Mx*. A. Hutton. This association has been founded
chiefly to enable working men to meet together for
scientific purposes. We wish it every success ! The
Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club have just issued
their “Proceedings” for 1877-78, containing their
president’s address, and well-written accounts of the
excursions and evening meetings. This is one of the
oldest of our field clubs, having been in existence
eighteen years. It is fortunate in having for its
president such a well-known and enthusiastic natural-
ist as the Rev. H. H. Higgins, M.A. The Goole
Scientific Society have also issued their Annual Re-
port, in which we find short, but interesting, and often
valuable accounts of the summer excursions ; whilst
some valuable papers, such as the list of birds ob-
served in the neighbourhood (by Mr. T. Bunker),
and another, the flora of the district (by Mr. Birks),
have been printed in full. The Hastings and St.

185

Leonard’s Philosophical and Historical Society have
published a cheap but full and clear guide to the
natural history of the vicinity, in which we find a
catalogue of all the mammals, birds, reptiles, amphi-
bians, fishes, mollusca, insecta, Crustacea, &c., to-
gether with an equally accurate list of plants, phanero-
gamic, and cryptogamic. The Birmingham Philoso-
phical Society have also issued their “ Proceedings ”
for 1876-77, in which we find more abstruse papers
“On the Kinetic Theory of Gases,” by the Rev. H. W.
Watson; “On Science as an Instrument of Higher
Education,” by Mr. Hookham ; “On the Place of
Archaeology in Science,” by Mr. J. Ken ward, &c.
We shall at all times be glad to receive copies of the
papers or abstracts of meetings of any or all of our
provincial societies.

The British Association Meeting at Dub-
lin.— This annual congress of science commences
its meetings at Dublin on August 14th, under the
presidency of William Spottiswoode, LL.D., F.R.S.
&c. The following are appointed Presidents of
Sections : — Mathematical and Physical, the Rev.
Professor Salmon, F.R.S. ; Chemical, Professor
Maxwell Simpson, F.R.S. ; Geology, John Evans,
D.C.L., F.R.S.; Biology, Professor W. H. Flower,
F.R.S. ; Department of Zoology and Botany , Profes-
sor Flower ; Department of Anthropology, Professor
Huxley ; Department of Anatomy and Physiology
Dr. R. Me Donnell ; Geography, Professor Sir
Wyville Thomson ; Eco non lies and Statistics, Profes-
sor J. K. Ingram ; Mechanical, E. Easton, C.E. In
addition to the inaugural address there will be lectures
by Mr. G. J. Romanes, F.L.S. on “Animal Intelli-
gence,” and by Professor Dewar, on “ Modern Ideas
of Chemical Action.” An excursion committee has
prepared a guide book to all the places appointed
to be visited, so that every object of scientific interest
may be brought before the notice of the visitors.
We anticipate a great success for the Dublin meeting.

BOTANY.

Fertilization of Ophrys muscifera. — H.
Muller has communicated to Nature some new facts
in connection with the hitherto mysterious fertilization
of this plant. In sunny weather, and under normal
conditions, the labellum secretes fluid, and a broad,
central, longitudinal stripe of its surface is covered
with small drops. Of 50 fresh flowers, Mr. Muller
found the labellum in 13 covered with such drops ;
in 25, shining adhering moisture; and in 12 without
any conspicuous trace of fluid. The two small
shining projections on each side of the base of the
labellum were quite dry in all the flowers. In one
flower he saw a fly (Sajrophaga) sitting on the
labellum, and licking the drops. Its head was directed
towards the base of the labellum. On Mr. Muller’s

1 86

HARD IVICKE’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

approaching, it flew away before having reached the
sham-nectaries, and the flower visited by it was found
without pollen on the stigmas, and with both pollinia
in their cells. Mr. Midler thinks it probable that
this fly, if it had not been disturbed by his approach,
would have stepped forward on the labellum, and,
trying one of the sham nectaries, would have removed
one of the pollinia, and perhaps have transferred it to
the stigma of another plant.

Botanical Notes from the Isle of Wight.
— Some of your readers may be interested in the fol-
lowing botanical notes on specimens obtained in the
Isle of Wight early in June. Taking Ventnor as a
starting-point, there are a great number of plants to
be found, either by rambling through the beautiful
landslip between Bonchurch and Luccombe Chine
to the Shanklin Copse, or by ascending the steep
sides of St. Boniface Down through the Rew Wood,
and returning to Ventnor by St. Lawrence and the
cliff. In either case, by walking about five miles,
the diligent collector will be rewarded with a great
variety of flowers — some necessarily common, others
of rare occurrence. In the more shaded parts of the
landslip I obtained specimens of Epipactis latifolia ,
or broad-leaved Helleborine ; List era ovata (T way-
blade) ; Ophrys apifera (Bee Orchis) ; Orchis metadata
(Spotted Orchis) ; Orchis latifolia (Marsh Orchis) ;
also, half-withered mascida (early Purple Orchis) ; the
Iris foctidissima , or Purple Iris ; Chlora perfoliata
(Perfoliate yellow-wort) ; Hypericum perforatum (St.
John’s Wort); Anthyllis vidneraria ; Lathyrus
pratensis ; Hippocrepis comosa ; Lotus corniculatus ;
Lychnis Flos-cuculi ; L. diurna ; L. vespertina ;
Silene inflata ; Geum urbanum ; Anagallis arvensis y
Lysimachia nemorum ; Ononis arvensis ; Tamus
communis ; Galium cruciatum ; Scrophularia
nodosa ; Geraniums (3), Veronicas (2), Myosotis (2) ;
Epilobium palustre. These were the plants actually
in flower, but I observed many just in bud, or, on
the other hand, already faded ; among the latter the
Garlic had evidently been out in profusion near
Luccombe. On the Ivy the parasitical Orobanche
major (Greater Broom Rape) is found in great quanti-
ties ; and altogether, during a hurried search, I col-
lected thirty-two different species between Ventnor
and Luccombe Chine. From Luccombe Chine a
footpath leads over a couple of fields across the
Shanklin road to the copses beyond, here I found
Asperula odorata (Sweet Woodruff) ; Tragopogon
pratensis (Goat’s-beard) ; Cornus sanguinea (Dog-
wood) ; Salvia vtrbenaca (Wild Sage) ; Reseda
Luteola (Dyer’s Rocket) ; Tormentilla officinalis
(Tormentil) ; Fragaria vesca (Strawberry); Linum
perenne (Flax), growing in the fields ; Euphorbia
amygdaloides (Spurge) ; Cynoglossum officinale
(Hound’s-tongue) ; Rhinanthus Crista-galli (Yellow
Rattle) ; Pedicidaris palustris (Dwarf Red Rattle) ;
Lonicera Periclymcnum (Woodbine); Ligustrum

vulgare (Privet), and other common plants. Re-
turning to Ventnor over the downs, I found Gentiana
campestris in abundance ; Polygala vulgaris , or Milk-
wort, red, blue, and white ; Gymnadenia conopsea ,
or Sweet-scented Orchis ; R. spinosissima, and the
Sweet-briar; Helianthemum vulgaris , or Rock Rose;
Onobrychis sativa (Saintfoin) ; Thymus Serpyllum
(Thyme) ; also masses of handsome Foxglove.
Starting in the opposite direction, walking through
the Rew Wood, I obtained Ophrys muscifera after
careful search, but almost faded ; possibly three
weeks earlier it might be found more easily. The
Habenaria bifolia (Butterfly Orchis) is plentiful in
this wood ; Melampyrum pratense is common enough ;
also further on towards St. Lawrence the peculiar
Melampyrum arvense , or purple Cow-wheat, which
is almost confined to the Isle of Wight ; Hypericum
pulchrum also I found here. At St. Lawrence grows
Cotyledon umbilicus ; the rare Matthiola incana (or
Wild Stock) ; Armeria maritima (Thrift) ; the rare
Silene noctiflora (Night-flowering Catchfly) ; Jasione
Montana ; Humulus Lupulus. Other flowers I have
not given the names of ; but, altogether, in two
mornings’ ramblings I collected over eighty different
species. Going somewhat further from Ventnor the
Sundew, Asphodel, Bog Myrtle, Bog Bean, and other
interesting plants are to be found. — C. Parkinson.

Chemical Imitations of Vegetable Dyes. —
In 1868 the manufacture of alizarine from coal-tar
refuse was discovered, and thus the madder-dye was
artificially imitated, and quite a new industry sprung
up. No other vegetable dyes have been chemically
imitated, until a few weeks ago, when synthetic
chemistry obtained another great triumph, in the
production of dyes identical with those of the Indigo
plant ( Isatis tinctorial). The discovery is due to Pro-
fessor A. Baeyer, the successor at Munich to Baron
Liebig. The name of Indigotine has been given to
this new dye.

Arum italicum. — This plant has only been
recorded from the Isle of Wight, and most of the
specimens distributed have been cultivated ones. My
attention was drawn to an arum growing near Pen-
zance, by Dr. Ralfs, which he believed was A.
italicum. It was the first living specimen I had seen,
and I found it was the same form I had noticed near
Helston, in Penrose Wood, where it grows in con-
siderable quantity. I had put it down as a variety
of the common form. I have tried to dry a few
| specimens but they are most troublesome. — James
Curnoch, Helston.

New Cheshire Localities for Rare British
Plants. — Ophrys apifera , Sandiway, Mid Cheshire.
Geranium pyrenaicum , by the roadside, Hartford.
Corydalis solida , Sutton-by-Aston. Vinca minor ,
Roadside, Over. Viola Reichenbachiana , Crowton.
Scrophularia vernalis , Weaver Valley. Cystopteris

187

HARD WICKHS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

fragilis , near Over. Euonymus europceus, Weaver
Valley. Rhamnus catharticus, Newton-by-Frodsham.
— James F. Robinson , Frodsham.

A Glass-eating Lichen. — In reply to Mr.
G. S. Boulger, if he carefully looks at my paper he
will see that I have mentioned the conditions under
which the objects were seen by a Hartnach micro-
scope. If he will refer to Sanderson, Klein, Foster,
and Brunton’s “ Handbook to the Physiological La-
boratory,” and many other works, he will see the
magnifying power is thus expressed : — Fig. A is, I
believe, about 450, fig. B about 200, and fig. D
about 2 diameters, fig. E being natural size. They
were drawn from the growth as it was placed, glass
and all, under the microscope without re-agents. The
drawings were by the camera lucida and in pencil.
The reasons why I concluded that these growths de-
stroyed the glass were these : — 1. When they occupy
a hole, it is entirely filled by it, no more, no less.
2. The growing processes always fill the radiating
furrows. 3. The cellular structure is embossed on
the glass. 4. No other explanation is admissible of
the formation of the holes. 5. The impressions
become confluent, as all areas do where growth com-
mences at different points and continues from the
margins. 6. It is known that calcareous, and even
silicious rocks, are eroded by the larger varieties of
lichens growing on them, as he may observe for him-
self.— H. J. Johnston-Lavis.

Carex Buxbaumii (Wahl.) — This rare plant,
which is confined, according to the “Cybele Hiber-
nica,” to a very limited station in Lough Neagh,
near Toombridge, Co. Derry, had not been seen for
many years up to the present one. The last record of
its existence occurs in Science-Gossip for July 1st,
1867, in a note communicated by my friend Mr. S.
A. Stewart, of Belfast, where we are informed that
“ two flowering stems were taken away.” Although
diligently looked for several years subsequen tly, no
trace could be seen of the plant ; and in the ‘ * Guide
to Belfast,” published by the Belfast Naturalists’
Field Club, on the occasion of the British Association
meeting in 1874, we find a fear expressed that it had
become extinct. The winter of this year proved a
very wet one, and the waters of Lough Neagh con-
sequently rose far above their usual level. This
circumstance decided me to go and search for the
Carex, and endeavour to ascertain whether it still
existed, or had become one of the “lost plants” of
the British Flora. Several hours careful search, in
which I went over the ground almost by inches,
resulted, however, to my extreme delight, in the
discovery of a fine tuft of the Carex adorned with
a number of flowering stems. Of these I removed a
few, but I left untouched the tuft of perennial roots
which appeared in a very healthy condition. This
is the fourth occasion on which the plant has been

gathered, since its discovery in 1835 by Dr. David
Moore, of Glasnevin, and its scarcity appears to be
accounted for by the fact, that in dry seasons the
plant may not flower, and as it is only in very small
quantity would consequently escape observation. — -
Thos. IP. Corny, Belfast.

Drying Plants. — Mr. Buck’s excellent article,
“How to make an Herbarium,” has touched on a
subject of great importance to the “ Science-Gossip
Exchange Club,” that of mould in plants which have
not been made completely dry. How many sighs
would be saved to those who, having mounted
apparently lovely specimens, find them, a few months
after, enshrined in microscopic fungi ? If a little
longer pressing had been given them this would not
have been the case. May I be excused for this
appeal to collectors. — F.H.A.

GEOLOGY,

The Geology of Well Sections. — At a recent
meeting of the Geological Society, Prof. Prestwich
read a paper “on the Section of Messrs. Meux & Co.’s
Artesian Well in the Tottenham Court-road, with
notices of the well at Crossness, and another at
Shoreham, Kent ; and on the probable range of the
Lower Greensand and Palaeozoic Rocks under
London.” The well-known boring at Kentish Town
in 1856 showed the absence at that point of Lower
Greensand, the Gault being immediately succeeded
by hard red and variegated sandstones and clays, the
age of which was at first doubtful, but which were
finally considered by the author to approach most
nearly to the Old Red Sandstone near Frome, and to
the Devonian sandstones and marls near Mons, in
Belgium. The existence of some doubt as to this
identification rendered the boring lately made at
Messrs. Meux’s brewery particularly interesting, and
the method of working adopted by the Diamond-
boring Company, by bringing up sharply cut cores
from known depths, gave special certainty to the
results obtained. The boring passed through 65 2 £
feet of Chalk, 28 feet of Upper Greensand, and 160
feet of Gault, at the base of which was a seam, 3 or
4 feet thick, of phosphatic nodules and quartzite
pebbles. Beneath this was a sandy calcareous stratum
of a light ash-colour, passing into a pale or white
limestone, and this into a rock of oolitic aspect.
Casts and impressions of shells found in this bed
showed it to be the Lower Greensand, whose place
it occupied. The boring was carried further in the
hope of reaching the loose water-bearing sands of
this formation, but the rock became very argillaceous,
and, when 62 feet of it had been passed through, the
boring entered into mottled red, purple, and greenish
shales, dipping at 350 in an unascertained direction.
These beds continued through a depth of 80 feet,

i88

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

when, their nature being clearly ascertained, the
boring was stopped. The fossils of these coloured
beds, which included Spirifem disjuncta , Rhynchonella
cuboides , and species of Edmondia , Chonetes , and
Orthis , show them to be of Devonian age. Thus,
the existence of Falreozoic rocks at an accessible
depth under London, and the absence of the Jurassic
series, as maintained long since by Mr. Goodwin-
Austen, is experimentally demonstrated. These facts
are of interest in connexion with the question of the
possible extension of the coal-measures under the
Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of the south-east of
England. The beds found at the bottom of Messrs.
Meux’s boring are of the same character as the
Devonian strata which everywhere accompany the
coal-measures in Belgium and the north of France,
being brought into juxtaposition with them by great
faults and flexures. The author refers especially to
a remarkable section at Auchy-au-Bois, in the western
extremity of the Valenciennes coal-field, which is
particularly interesting from its furnishing, evidence
that the Hardinghen coal-field, between Calais and
Boulogne, is a prolongation of that of Valenciennes,
and because the same strike and a prolongation of
the same great fault observed at Auchy-au-Bois through
Hardinghen would carry the southern boundary of
any coal-field in the south-east of England just south
of Maidstone, thence passing a little north of London.
Hence it is in the district north of London that there
is most probability of the discovery of the Carboni-
ferous strata. The extent of country in which shafts
could be sunk to the Palaeozoic strata will, however,
be limited by the presence of the water-bearing
Lower Greensand, which probably reaches close to
London in the south, reappears in Buckinghamshire
and Bedfordshire, 30 or 40 miles north of London,
and probably extends some distance towards the city
under the chalk hills of those counties and Hertford-
shire. The nature of the representative of the Lower
Greensand in the boring, and the character of the
fossils contained in it, lead the author to the conclu-
sion that in it we have a deposit produced near the
shore of the Neocomian sea, here probably consisting
of cliffs of Devonian (or Carboniferous) rock. From
these cliffs the calcareous material which here replaces
the usual loose sands of the Lower Greensand was
perhaps derived by the agency of springs ; and the
shore-line itself must be situated between the south
end of Tottenham Court-road and the Kentish Town
boring. The sandy beds of the Lower Greensand
will probably be found to set in at no great distance
to the southward, presenting the conditions neces-
sary for storing and transmitting underground waters.
A test boring made by Mr. H. Bingham Mildmay at
Shoreham-place, about 5 miles from Sevenoaks, and
in which the Lower Greensand was met with at about
the estimated depth (450 feet) and furnished a supply
of water, seems to confirm these views. At the close
of Prof. Prestwich’s paper, Mr. Charles Moore, F.G.S.,

remarked that the various deep well-borings around
London have abundantly proved the correctness of
Mr. Godwin-Austen’s inference that the Palceozoic
axis of the Mendips is continued beneath the Secon-
dary rocks of the south-eastern counties. Mr. Moore
has himself shown that where these Palaeozoic rocks
finally disappear under the Secondary strata, there
are found at the unconformable junction of the two
formations a set of deposits indicating the existence
of very peculiar physical conditions, and containing
an admixture of fossils from very different geological
horizons. Hence he was led to inquire whether any
trace of similar abnormal deposits might be found in
the deep well-borings of London. With this view he
set to work at washing some of the materials supplied
to him from Meux’s well, and studying the minute
and often microscopic organisms thus obtained. The
Chalk was not particularly examined ; but from a
single small sample of Upper Greensand he obtained
numerous Foraminifera and Entomostraca, including
one Cyprid new to science. The Gault yielded 16
genera and over 30 species of Foraminifera, and 20
species of Entomostraca, 4 of which are new, together
with many young forms of Gasteropods and Cephalo-
pods. But the chief interest of Mr. Moore’s investi-
gations centres in the 67 feet of strata intervening
between the Gault and Devonian. In this marly
and oolitic-looking deposit he found no less than 85
different kinds of organisms, exhibiting a singular
admixture of marine and lacustrine forms of life.
Foraminifera are rare, but Entomostraca and Polyzoa
are very abundant. Some genera are found, such as
Carpenteria, Saccammina, Thecidhun , and Zellanin ,
of which the range in time is greatly extended by
these investigations. The author fully confirms
Mr. Etheridge’s reference of the beds in question to
the Neocomian period, widely as they differ in
physical characters from the Lower Greensand strata
of the south-east of England. From a careful study
of the nature and condition of preservation of the
minute organisms, he concludes that the deposits
which contain them were formed at first in shallow
lacustrine hollows on the surface of the Devonian
rocks now lying buried at a depth of 1,000 feet below
London, and that these lakes were invaded by the
waters of the Neocomian sea, with the deposits of
which their sediments were in part mingled, and
under which they were finally buried. Prof. Ramsay
said that as the South Wales coal-field, the Bristol
coal-field, and the Forest of Dean coal-field were
basins originally continuous, and only separated by
denudation, Mr. Prestwich and himself had agreed
before the Royal Coal Commission that coal-fields
might exist below the Secondary strata to the east-
ward. The correctness of this opinion was proved
by the boring put down by Mr. Fox at Burford, in
Oxfordshire, which reached undoubted Coal-measures.
Prof. Ramsay thought that one of these coal-fields
might yet be found near London by penetrating the

HARDWlCKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

189

overlying Secondary rocks. Mr. W. Whitaker, F.G.S.,
remarked on the difference between the Lower Green-
sand at the outcrops north and south of London, and
the peculiar oolitic limestone found in Meux’s well.
He regarded the beds at the bottom of the Crossness
boring as by no means proved to be Devonian ; but
thought some of the specimens more closely resembled
New Red Marl. He referred to the Loughton section,
in which water was got at the base of the Gault,
probably indicating the existence of Lower Greensand.
He thought that, considering the inverted condition
of corresponding strata in France and Belgium, the
determination of the direction of the dip of the beds
in Meux’s well was by no means of great importance.
He did not think that the depth of Gault at Shore-
ham was exceptional, as at Caterham and other
points along the outcrop an even greater thickness of
Gault had been found. He stated that the Cambridge
phosphate-bed, a few inches thick, was found imme-
diately above the Upper Greensand in Meux’s well,
and pointed out that some doubt existed as to the
thickness of the several beds passed through in the
boring.

A Fossil Bird. — Mr.J. A. Allen has just obtained
a new genus and species of fossil Passerine bird from
the insect-bearing shales of Florissant, Colorado,
which shows the greater part of the skeleton, and
the impressions of the feathers. The general features
indicate arboreal habits, and well developed power
of flight. The name of Palccospiza bella has been
given to this interesting Tertiary fossil.

A new Fossil Mammal from the Oolitic
Formation of America. — The right lower jaw of
a small mammal has just been found in the Rocky
Mountain regions. Its position was in the Upper
Oolitic or Jurassic rocks, where it was found asso-
ciated with the remains of Dinosauria. The name
of Dryolestes prisons has been given to this newly-
discovered mammal, which bears out the evidence of
early mammalian life elsewhere by its being mar-
supial, 'and allied to the existing opossums. The
size of this primitive animal was about that of a
weasel. No fossil mammals have previously been
discovered in the Oolitic rocks of America.

NOTES AND QUERIES,

Remarkable Nests. — Having noticed two short
articles on “Remarkable Nests ’’ in the Notes and
Queries, I thought it might not be out of place to
add one other which came under my notice this year.
While out for a walk late in March, I saw two black-
birds and one thrush fly out of a hawthorn-bush. On
looking into it, I found a true blackbird’s nest, built
of old hay, with a lining of mud, and then relined
with hay, &c., again; but, curious to say, it con-
tained three eggs of the thrush ; there were no signs
of their being crossed. I am sorry to say that I have
not since had the opportunity of visiting the nest,

else I might have been able to account for it in some
way or other. — Joseph T. Gttmersall.

Plow did they get there?— On the 17th of
June, 1877, I put a few bits of straw into a bottle
of water, placed it in the sun, left it there for
some time, and had a large quantity of the infusoria.
After I had finished with the infusion, I put it into a
dark cupboard ; it was left there for about seven
months, when, wanting some wide-mouthed bottles,
I filled this up with water, and left it for a day or
two, and when I came I found it swarming with the
water-flea. If any of your readers can give me any
light on the subject, I should be much obliged. —
E. W. Wilton.

Ornithological Nomenclature. — My little
boy is beginning to study ornithology, and I have
warned him to be very careful that, in his scientific
terms, to make his adjectives agree with nouns, &c.
In the first week of his study he brings me Morris
with Erythaca nubecula , and Wood with Erythacus
nubecula, and asks me to explain. I cannot. Will
some correspondent kindly do this for my little boy ?
— Robin Goodfellow.

Strange Suicide. — The following account
appears in a Bedford paper as occurring at Wootton :
— A cat belonging to the Vicar of this parish had
given birth to four kittens. As she did not seem
strong enough to suckle so many it was judged best
to drown them. After this she moped and went
about in quite a desponding manner. On Thursday,
June 20, she seemed worse, in fact half frantic, con-
tinually rushing about the house. On a sudden she
dashed out of the house, ran across the lawn and
plunged into the ornamental pond in front of the
house. She was quickly rescued, and a little brandy
given her. As she then seemed a little better she
was let loose. Later in the afternoon, however, she
spied an opportunity to get out of the house, ran
again to the pond, and plunging in was drowned
before she could again be recovered.

Moles at Work. —In Professor Paley’s paper on
Earthworms in last month’s Science-Gossip this
passage occurs : “ This is the case with mole-heaps ;
but I never saw and I never met with any one who
could say he had seen the earth actually being thrown
up.” If the professor is here speaking of moles,
surely he knows but little about them, almost every
professional mole-catcher carries a spud with which
to pounce on any luckless mole seen throwing up the
earth. I myself, one day last month, observing a
perfectly fresh mole-run, followed it up, and soon had
the satisfaction of seeing the earth being thrown up,
evidently by a mole ; after watching this proceeding
for some seconds, I put my heel hard down behind
the mole, thereby cutting off his retreat, and dug him
out with my walking-stick. Within a quarter of an
hour in the same field I served another mole the
same. A third, which I saw actively employed in
digging, heard me coming and had time to retreat
before my foot barred his tunnel. I may mention that
the field had been that day sown with turnips and
rolled down, so that the moles, as is their custom,
were not throwing up what are commonly known as
mole-casts, but simply burrowing about 3 inches
under ground and forcing up the soil as they pro-
ceeded. From this and other evidence I am strongly
of opinion that the intelligence of the mole is by
many naturalists over-rated ; it is by far the easiest
animal I know anything about to trap, and although
if it does hear you coming it undoubtedly runs

190

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -G O SSIP.

away, yet I think you may very often of a mild
summer’s evening catch live moles in the way I got
mine as narrated above. — James Crouch.

Cheap Aquaria. — I am glad to hear of your
Chicago correspondent’s “Carboy because it must
form an excellent, cheap, serviceable, dark, non-cor-
rosive aquarium, for workshop, schoolroom, or places
where appearance is not essential ; and must serve
well as a supplementary reserve tank or hospital ;
but is not a carboy unsightly for drawing or sitting-
rooms? For small, simple, movable aquaria, I know
nothing better than shallow glasses, commercially
known as “ pastry pans,” or “anemone pans.” They
are made from 6 in. to 24 in. in diameter, varying
in depth from 4 in. to 12 in., costing about
6s. 6d. for one 22 in. by 10 in. I must take exception
to “ H. G. Atwood’s ” “ tinfoil binding ” (Science-
Gossip, p. 167, July, 1878), because metals of all
sorts, or any corrosive material are bad for aquaria.
Therefore slate tanks are preferable to iron ones, and
vulcanite pipes are found best for circulating pipes,
stop-cocks, See., because rust is thus avoided, and
the material strong and durable. “ Obedience to
the laws of service ” is of primary importance in
aquaria. — G. S.

Ranunculus arvensis. — The carpels of Ranun-
culus arvensis, which are covered on both sides with
conical, straight, or hooked prickles, probably gave
rise to the appellation “ Devil’s claws,” one of the
common names of this species of Ranunculus. —
Ada P.

Robins’ Eggs. — It may interest your correspon-
dent, Mr. C. A. Haden, to know that I have taken,
or noticed, many clutches of white eggs of robin.
This season, I had brought to me six eggs, white,
and considerably larger than the ordinary robin’s
egg, with a query as to what they were, and at once
pronounced them to be robins’. I have often had
them brought to me by lads as cuckoo’s eggs. — R.
Standen, Goosnargh , Lancashire.

Birds Singing at Midnight. — The date given
in the April number of Science-Gossip is a mis-
print. I heard the vocal concert on the night of
Saturday, the 16th of Februai-y, and two following
evenings. I had not observed the error until it was
pointed out to me by a friend, and purposed correct-
ing it in the next issue. — R. Standen , Goosnargh,
Lancashire.

The Cuckoo at Night. — Early last June, I
often heard the cuckoo singing between eleven p.m.
and midnight, once as late as eleven fifty, but I never
heard his voice in the “small hours,” as Mr. A. M.
Me A. appears to have done. — J. IV. Slater.

Varieties of the Camberwell Beauty. — In
Central to Eastern Europe, this butterfly, which is
amazingly common, and always turns up when you
want something better, has a decidedly yellow border.
In old-flown specimens, the margin is sometimes
faded down to a white. — J. IV. Slater.

Fasting Parasites. — A friend gave me some
living parasites of Capercailzie ( Tetrao urogallus),
about seven months ago. I put some in a box, and
left them undisturbed till last week, when upon open-
ing the box, I was much surprised to find two were
still alive ! What can they have lived upon ? —
A. A. G. A.

Origin of “ Colias.” — In answer to your corre-
spondent’s (Haviland) query, respecting Colias edusa,
I transcribe from the “accentuated list of the British

Lepidoptera,” published some years back by Van
Voorst, the following at p. 2. “ Colias, a surname

of Venus, from a promontory of Attica, where she
was worshipped.” “Edusa, a Roman divinity wor-
shipped as the protectress of children, and supposed
to bless their food (edere, to eat.)” I think the above
derivation of Colias, a more satisfactory, and, at
least, a more pleasing one than the one lie gives. —
W. Hambrough.

“Green Hastings”! — A day or two since I
heard the cry, “Green Hastings” ! which I do not
remember having heard for some years. When a
boy, fifty years ago, it was the usual cry for green peas.
Perhaps some readers of Science-Gossip can give
the origin of the cry, “Green Hastings ” ! — IV. S. S.

Fleas in Country Quarters. — I wish to
mention what seems to me to be a somewhat unusual
occurrence. Two members of my family and myself
were walking out in the country on the 10th inst.,
and after having travelled some miles', feeling tired,
we seated ourselves upon some trees, in a meadow,
which had evidently been cut down some time, as
they presented a very bleached appearance. Shortly
after we had reached home we made the unpleasant
discovery that we had become victims to the attacks
of the common flea (Pulex irritans), and it was with
much difficulty that we were able to rid ourselves of
such troublesome and unwelcome pests. There is no
doubt in my mind that the insects were occupants of
the trees upon which we rested ; but the question
arises, how they came there. Probably some of the
contributors of Science-Gossip could throw some
light upon the circumstance, which, to say the least,
is a rather peculiar one. — IV. W. Lngall.

Development of Frog’s SPA\vtf. — One of your
contributors on this subject finds a difference of results
with regard to the same period of time to those of
another observer. I think that temperature has a
great influence on the speed of development ; for I
gave some frog’s spawn to a friend in order that, we
might observe together ; it was from one agglomera-
tion of ova that both the observed batches were taken.
He placed his in a warm room, exposed in a window
facing south, while I placed mine in a large cold
room, facing north-west. His had developed into
active tadpoles before mine had altered much, and
after this stage his still progressed far quicker than
mine, so much quicker, in fact, that I concluded that
the rate of development could be very materially
altered by temperature.

Mustard. — In the article on mustard (p. 36) it is
stated that some authors derive sinapis from sino, to
hurt, and opis, the eyes. It would be difficult to find
an idea more absurd than this, even amongst the
wildest vagaries in which etymologists have run
rampant. In the first place the i in sinapis is short,
and the i in sino (or rather sinomai ) is long ; then
there is no such word as opis meaning eyes (in Greek),
and though there is one something like it, which might
by a stretch bear that meaning, the s is an essential
part of that word, and not, like the s at the end of
sinapis, a mere accident. For older forms of the
word are sinapi, sinapu, and napu. We may not be
able to say how the si came to be prefixed, but it is
certain that the origin of all these words must be
sought in connection with the Celtic and Gaelic root,
which the author mentions in the next sentence.
For those on the look-out for prima facie derivations,
there is one suggested by Mr. Glasspoole’s paper,
so obvious that it is strange he did not hit upon it,
as others have done. Why should not the name of

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

mustard be derived from mustnm aniens, in the
preparation of which it was used? Suspicious as it
may seem at first sight, on deeper examination more
will be found in favour of this source than of any
other that has been proposed. At any rate, as the
slightest acquaintance with etymological principles
will show, that furnished by Mr. Glasspoole’s pretty
anecdote may be despatched to the limbo of all mere
prettiness in science — oblivion. For it is subject to
two cardinal objections: first, it does not account
for the s which originally formed part of the word
(compare Old Fr. inoustarde, It. viostarda , Sp. mos-
taza) ; secondly, it commits the serious error of
attempting to account for the French name merely
as a French word, without reference to the cognate
forms in other languages, all of which must have had
a common origin. These remarks, though rather
different from the ordinary contents of this journal,
are not out of place. For there is a science of
language. The days are past, when it could be said
that in etymology “ the vowels meant nothing, and
the consonants very little,” and, if the subject is to be
entered into at' all here, something more is wanted
than merely to copy derivations out of old books. —
W. B. Grove, B.A.

Destruction of Insects, &c. — In the February
number of Science-Gossip, your correspondent
“ L. W. G.” protests against the robbing of birds’
nests ; in which protest I certainly join. May I be
allowed, in your columns, to protest also against the
wholesale massacre of insects ? In the same number
I read an account of a visit to Sponsa’s head-quarters,
and there I find that the writer pleads guilty to
destroying no less than 70 of those moths, while
he succeeds in taking 80 specimens of Quercus. More-
over, he meets with a brother collector who has
taken 120 of the former insect in three nights, and
usually takes from 12 to 20 per night. “ Some
gentlemen ’uv took fourty a noight this season,” he
is informed by another. May I ask such collectors
where this is to end ; for surely Sponsa is no Colorado
beetle to be stamped out ! Is science promoted in
any way by wholesale destruction ? The system of
exchange is pleaded as a reason, or rather an excuse,
for obtaining duplicate specimens ; but the zealous
entomologist should aim at something higher than
becoming a mere collector, I had almost said de-
stroyer, of insects. In the life of the Scotch naturalist,
Thomas Edward, by Smiles, at page 93, I read,

“ He sometimes lost for a time the object of
which he was in search, because he wished to ob-
serve its traits and habits. For this purpose he would
observe long and carefully before obtaining posses-
sion of it. By this means he was enabled to secure
an amount of information in natural history, such as
no book, except the book of Nature, could have sup-
plied him with.” — H. L. G.

Sea Anemones. — I have kept sea anemones for
the last four years with a tolerable amount of success,
and have tried various sorts of food for them ; such as
raw meat, fish, cockles ( Cardnm edule), and mus-
sels (Mytdus edulis) ; but find the last-mentioned
agree best with them, as they seldom reject any
portion after feeding, which I have found they con-
stantly do after they have partaken of meat, &c. I
give them pieces varying from the size of a sparrow-
shot to a pea, according to the size of the anemone,
every fifth or sixth day. Care must be taken to
remove any rejecta or pieces they do not happen to
eat, or they will soon decompose, and render the
water foetid and thick. I may mention that by
attending to this rule, the water in my tank, holding 1

191

about fourteen gallons, is as clear as crystal, although
it has been over a year in use. Referring to my
friend Mr. Edward Horsnaill’s note on Sagartia
sphyrodeta (page 16 of the current volume), it may
interest some of your readers to know that I have had
three specimens of Corynactis , variety Corallina,
undergo spontaneous fission in manner described by
Mr. H., and both the parent and offspring are alive
and doing well (I had the original specimens from
Torquay early last year, since which they have grown
considerably). I think this will assist in confirming
the opinion expressed by Mr. P. H. Gosse, in his
“British Sea Anemones,” page 291, as to the in-
crease of this species. I may also observe that I have
succeeded in rearing several anemones born in the
tank, principally Bunodes gemmacea, and they are
now, when distended, nearly an inch high, and the
disc more than an inch in diameter. — C. A. Grimes.

“Buttercup. — Boas, cow ; taros, curd (Greek).
Butter is therefore ‘ cow-curd in early times curd
was also obtained from goats and other animals.”

“Tulip, from the Persian tulip an , a turban.”

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS,

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the gth of the previous
month.

C. W. Burgess. — Your sea-weeds are too minute and ob-
scure to tell with any degree of certainty.

J. W. J. — The plants you sent us from Shanklin contain
fossil sponges. That polished is a Scyphonia ; the other (No.
8) contains a Ventriculite. See Taylor’s “ Geological Stories,”
page 180, et seq. Price 4s. Published by Hardwicke &
Bogue, 192, Piccadilly.

Dr. R. B. — It is a Puccinia , very much like Puccinia Thesii.
Is it quite certain that the foster-plant is Lythrum ? — M. M. C.

J. K. (London). — It is the Cerastium tetrandrum, although
scarcely distinguishable from some specimens of C. sevndecan-
drum.

Meta V. — Your plants are as follows : 1. Cerastium tri-
viale. 2. Doubtful. 3. Chrysanthemum leucantheminn.
4. Equisetnm arvcuse. 5. Lotus corniculatus. 6. Geranium
mo lie. 7. Erica cinerea. 8. Luzula congesta. 9. Gerantuni
pusillum. 10. Malva rotundifolia. 11. Polygala vulgaris.
The one marked 2. is too imperfect for identification.

Meta. V. — We should advise you to procure a small book
published by Hardwicke & Bogue, “Notes on Collecting
Natural History Objects, &c." Price 3s. 6d. This would give
you the information desired.

“An Amateur” (Bristol). — You would find Backhouse & Son,
York, the best nurserymen. No doubt you could purchase a
living plant of Dioncea (Venus’s Fly-trap).

S. E. L. (Penrith). — An excellent specimen of N cphrodium
Fcenisecii — or Lastiea Fcenisecii , Lowe. It is very uncommon.

J. H. M. (London). — You might have been much wider from
the mark. It is Sagina procumbens, L.

A. B. M. — The plants enclosed are as follows : — No. r,
Goosegrass ( Galium Aparine , L.) ; No. 2, Herb-Robert
( Geranium Robertianum, L.); No. 3, a Moss ( Polytrichum
commune) ; No. 4, also a Moss ( Hypnum rutabulum) ; No. 5,
Creeping Cinquefoil ( Potentilla rep tans); No. 6, Galium
saxatile.

Mr. Buck sends us a plant gathered on the banks of the
Orwell last August, and thinks it is Lolium temulentum. It
is a much commoner species, namely, Triticum repens, var.
littoreum , Schum., or the T. littorale , Host, a species according
to continental authorities.

A Subscriber. — Cow’s horn may be easily softened and
even dissolved in a strong alkaline solution, such as strong
soda-lye. „

W. Hamborough. — “The strange little stalked
are the eggs of the Lace-wing Fly ( Chrysopa vulgaris), be-
longing to the Neuroptera.

W. C. C. — Botanical drying-paper may be obtained at
Messrs. Spicer’s, New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London.

T. S. S. (Rochdale).— Your plants are : No. 1, Thyme-leaved
Speedwell ( Veronica serpyllifolia). No. 2, Heath Bedstraw

( ( Galium saxatile) u

192

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE GOSSIP.

C. H. G. (Clifton, Bristol). — Thanks for the specimen of I
Geranium ; it is very interesting, and we trust you will again j
send anything of the kind.

W. Hamborough.- -We are thankful for the Japan honey-
suckle, having never before observed it in flower ; your locality
must suit it well.

G. S. (Knison, Wimborne). — It is without doubt the variable j
Veronica agrestis : your description at once shows it is not
polite. It differs very much in habit, &c.

J. C. (Helston). — Thanks for your interesting notes on Scilly
Isles; we are unable to state the condition of the bean-leaf.
The leaf of elder has been noticed very similarly affected this
season. We will try to trace reason, then will write to you.

M. S. (Brentford End). — Although we speak with some un-
certainty, yet we should name it Medicago scutellata. Could
you allow us to look at the pod? This would settle the diffi-
culty.

R. W. (Westward). — It is Thalictrum montanum , Wall,
and R. Bachii. The latter is very imperfect, and thus difficult
to determine ; but it is evidently a good variety of Jhiitans —
possibly a new form.

M. J. Wilde. — The stone you enclosed was a fragment of
Basalt. One of the best books on Conchology is Woodward’s
“ Recent and Fossil Shells,” published by Lockwood & Co.

J. P. G. — See an account of the Origin and Spread of the
Potato Disease, in the vol. of Science-Gossip for 1873. It
begins with the leaf.

B. K. — You had best obtain “ Botanical Labels,” by J.
Robson, arranged according to the London Catalogue, and
printed (on one side only, for labels) by Hardwicke & Bogue,
192, Piccadilly, at 4s. 6d.

John Hazard. — Your cardboard-box reached vis in an utterly
smashed condition, and it is a matter for curious speculation as
to where the caterpillars are !

T. W. B.— No. x is not like any diatom we have seen, and we
should say it does not belong to that order. No. 2 is Eunotia
diadema , a form not uncommon in the American subpeat
deposits and subalpine gatherings from all parts of the world.
The species are, according to Ehrenberg, distinguished by the
number of crenations, thus : diodou, triodon, tetraodon,
diadema, &c. The largest number of teeth we have seen is 24.
Pritchard (Kalfs) unites them all, and names them E. robusta.
No. 2 is perhaps Gomphonema coronation ; 4, 5, 6, 7, are
either sponge spicula or fragments of Radiolarians.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, in exchange for 5-in. bevelled Insect-board,
bevelled boards under 25 in.— W. H. Cheesman, Coolinge,
Folkestone.

For either Nitella translucens, showing rotation of sap,
Batrachospermum jnonilifoi me or C/iara aspera, send well-
mounted Slide, or any of the following : — Cristatella mucedo,
Plumatella repens. Hydra fusca, Ophrydium versatile , to
M. H. Robson, 7, Clay ton-street East, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Side-blown Eggs for exchange, — Golden Plover, Ring
Plover, Sandpiper, Curlew, Dunlin, Red-shank, Oyster-
catcher, Tern, Grey Wagtail, and others. — J. Lancaster,
24, Prince’s-street, Carlisle.

An Injection Syringe and twelve parts of Science-Gossip
for 1874, for well-mounted Slides, or offers. — A. Alletsee, 11,
Foley-street, London, W.

Will exchange Fossils (including sponge from the chalk)
for British Birds’ Eggs or Lepidoptera. — J. Wrangham, 93,
Tyrwhitt-road, London, S. E.

Will give Parasite of Crow, or other insect preparations,
mounted in balsam, in exchange for Diatoms, or Insect Eggs,
mounted opaque. — J. Horn, 5, Belle-Vue-square, Scarboro’.

London Catalogue, 7th edition. Nos. 41 and 1620 given in
exchange for 44, 280, 346, 455, 392, 395, 495, 496, 484, 557, 615,
613, 626, 627, . 676, 682, 683, 692, 706, 709, 749, 767, 768, 772,
826, 844, 851, 855, 895, 933, 1649, 1659, 1664, 1665.— A.
Wheldon, 8, Albion-street, Darlington.

Wanted, autographs of celebrated English or Continental
scientists, or letters. No signatures only, but letters, essays,
treatises, or writings of interest. Particularly wanted, letters,
&c., of J. J. Audubon the ornithologist. In exchange small
specimens of our beautiful Emys picta, a turtle very suitable for
Aquaria, or some of our native moths, or anything procurable
by a collector here. For anatomists could procure Nec turns
lateralis, our representative of the Mexican Axolotl. — Address,
Chas. Mann, 44, Lake-street. Chicago. 111.

Send object of interest, with stamped addressed envelope, for
packet of Foraminfera from sponge sand, to E. W. Wilton, x,
Northfield-villas, Leeds.

A few Silkworms (will soon spin) for other objects of interest,
shells, fossils, &c. Please state how many required. — Mrs.
Skilton, Brentford-end, Middlesex.

Viola sepincola offered for 101, 156, 159, 467, 535, 544, 598,
855, 907, 950, 954, 985, 1029, xo59c, x 1 15, 1133, i*94, 1212,
1286, 1295, 1319, 1453, 1655, 1672, I- Cat., Ed. 7.— W. H.
Beeby, 2, Outram-road, Addiscombe, Croydon.

Orbicuhna, from Bermuda, a beautiful object, well mounted,
in exchange for other good slides.— J. Ford, Wood-view,
Newbridge-crescent, Wolverhampton.

sEcidium Urticce, VEc. Ranunculacearum, and Pnccinia
Malvacearum to exchange for other unmounted micro-fungi. —
List to H. J. Roper, 5, Lausanne-road, Peckham, S.E.

For Snake’s-head Coralline (A ngu inaria spatnlata), un-
mounted, send stamped envelope and object of interest to W.
H. Skan, 15, Brownlow-street, W.C.

Wanted Slides or Material (Triceratium Diatoms) and
Polyzoa tentacles extended, for well-mounted slides of Alyssum
or Hippophae rhamnoides. — E. W. Burgess, 35, Langham-
street, London, W.

First-class Micro-slides offered in exchange for live Water
Beetles — Dyticus marginalia, Hydrous piceus, and Ac Hi us
sulcatus. — H. Vial, Crediton, Devon.

A quantity of Cambridge Greensand Fossils in exchange
for others, especially Crustaceans and Echinoderms. — John
W. Carr, Union-terrace, Cambridge.

Orchis incarnate and Linum perenne for other rare plants.
— John W. Carr, Union-terrace, Cambridge.

I have a 4-joint Telescope, draws to 17 in., to exchange for
Lepidoptera. — G. F. B., 23, Rosemary-street, Islington, N.

1 have eight numbers of Science for All (from commence-
ment up to present month), a capital stuffed squirrel, and good
nests of Butcher-bird, Yellow-hammer, and Bullfinch. — Wanted,
British birds’ eggs, in sets, side-blown, Lepidoptera or store-
box ; Natural History books; or offers. — W. Barrett Roue, 165,
White-Ladies’-road, Bristol.

Lond. Cat., Nos. 31, 102, 162, 185, 273, 277, 295, 296, 464,
634. 5i5, 560, 609, 865, 1013, 1053,1x23, 1213, 1276 1318, 1342 b,
1378, 1383. 1411, 1418, 1428, 1462, 1472, 1476, X527, 1535, 1537,
1538, 1556, 1641, 1657, 1661, and 1.666, for 623. 626, 631, 637,
640, 647, 649, 657, 658, 663, 676, 691, 693, 698, 725, 733, 746,
747, 759. 772, 802, 826, 864, 870, 905, 938, 965, 975, and 1007. —
Wm. West, Chemist, Bradford.

Well-mounted physiological specimens in return for any
unmounted material of interest. — George Baker, 37, Cross-
street, Islington, N.

Send well-mounted slides of Foraminifera or Polariscopic
objects for others, or mounting materials. List sent. — E.
Atkins, 200, Essex-road, Islington, London.

Wanted, Blackwall’s “ British Spiders,” vol. ii. , in exchange
for Science-Gossip from the commencement, 12 vols., bound
in cloth ; or cash. — Address, James Grant, care of Editor of
Science-Gossip.

Wanted, a pure and clean gathering of Volvox globator,
(communicate before collecting). First-class slides in exchange.
— E. Wheeler, 48, Tollington-road, Holloway, N.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“ West Yorkshire : An Account of its Geology, Botany, &c.”
By J. W. Davies, F.L.S., and F. A. Lees, F.L.S. London:
L. Reeve & Co.

“ The Physical System of the Universe.” By S. B. Skertchley,
F.G.S. London : Dalby, IsbLter, & Co.

“ The Creation of Moses and Science in Harmony.” By the
Rev. Dr. Stewart. London : Eliot Stock.

“The House of Life.” By Mrs. Miller. London : Chatto &
Windus.

“ A Science Primer.” By Dr. McVicar. London ; W.
Blackwood & Sons.

“ Phosphates in Nutrition.” By M. F. Anderson. London :
Bailliere & Co.

“ Science Made Easy.” By Thos. Twining. London : Hard-
wicke & Bogue.

“A First Catechism of Botany.” By John Gibbs. Chelms-
ford : E. Durrant & Co.

“ Popular Science Review.” July.

“ Land and Water.” „

-‘ Chambers’ Journal.” ,,

“ The Country ” (New York). June.

“ Familiar Science.” ,,

“ Potter’s American Monthly.” ,,

“ Journal of Applied Science.” July.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to July 8th, from: —
A. J. R. S.-T. H. C.— J. W. G— J. C. A.-H. S.-C. P.—

F. w. S.— G. T.— J. S.— M. R. W.— C. L. B.— T. W. D.—
J. H. L.— J. C.— J. A. K.-J. P. S.— A. B. M.— A. J. R. S.—
J. F. R.—J. H. M.— E. E. E.— E. W. H.— Dr. R. B.-C. P.
-J. A. W.— E. W. W.-E. W. A.— J. B. B.— B. M. W.—
R. L. P.— C. M.-J. W. J.— J. T. G.— T. H. C.-F. H. A.—
Dr. J. S. H.-M. S.— W. H. L.— W. H.-G. P.-G. S.—
Prof. P.— A. J. R.-D. D.— F. A.— C. M. B.— B. K.— H. W.
-S. C. S.— J. H.— W. W. I.— M. S.— J. W. S.— R. A. D.—
W. E. R.— H. G. R.— W. B. R.— F. J. B.— G. S.— H. V.—
W. H. S.— E. W. B.— J. C.— W. S. S.-C. H. G.— W. C. C.—
A. P._ J. W. C.— A. A.— G. F. B.-J. L.— J. W. -W. M. P.
T. F. -T. W. B.— W. H. B.— R. S.— A. C.— T. S. S.—
H. J. I. L.-W. H. B. P — T. H. C.— W. H. C.— M. H. R.—

G. F. B — D. W.— J. C.— R- W.— M. J. W.— J. P. G.-W. W.
— J. I.— H. J. T.— E. A.-H. B.— G. B.— H. T. S.-Dr. E.
de C.— E. B. G.— &c. &c.

NOTES ON CELERY AND OTHER SMALL SALADS,

By H. G. GLASSPOOLE.

ELERY ( Apium graveo-
lens) belongs to the
Umbelliferae order of
plants, and in its wild
form is found growing
in ditches and marshes
near the sea, in Europe
and in Britain, where it
is known under the
name of Smallage ; but
in this state it is wholly
unfit for food, having a peculiar coarse rank taste and
smell, being considered poisonous to man, and is not
even relished by animals. Cultivation, however, has
transformed this suspicious plant into one of the most
agreeable and wholesome of all our esculents. This
species of Apium appears to have been known to the
ancients, for it was reckoned by them as one of the
greater aperient roots, and Pliny states that it hath
a peculiar virtue against the biting of venomous
spiders. There is no account from which we can
gather that the ancient Greeks and Romans were
acquainted with the method of bleaching this plant,
and thus rendering it fit for food. By most of our
old herbalists, it is mentioned under the name of
Smallage, and only used by them as a medicinal
plant. Gerard tells us that the leaves of it boiled in
hog’s-grease and made into the form of a poultice,
taketh away the pain of whitlows on the fingers, and
healeth them. Culpeper recommends that the juice
of this plant, mixed with honey of roses and barley-
water, be used as a gargle by those who suffer with
sores and ulcers in the throat and mouth. Bartho-
lomseus Lorn, in his “ Botanologia,” (published in
1714), mentions that the roots and seeds of Apium
were used medicinally in his day. This esculent
appears to have been cultivated for the table at the
early part of the seventeenth century, for John Ray,
the celebrated botanist of that period, says that, if
this plant is neglected, it will degenerate into its first
unpalatable state. We are indebted to the Italians
No. 165.

for the method of its cultivation, and also for its
name. Evelyn, in his “ Acetaria ” (published 1699),
says “Sellery was formerly a stranger with us,
and not very long since, in Italy itself.” He tells
us that it is not a distinct species of Smallage,
or Macedonian parsley, though, by its frequent
transplanting, somewhat more hot and generous, and
sweeter-scented. We have, he says, “ the best seeds
from Italy, whose tender leaves and blanched stalks
do well in our sallets, as likewise the slices of the
whitened stems, which being crisp and short, first
peeled and slit longwise, are eaten with vinegar, oil,
salt, and pepper. And for its high and grateful taste
is ever placed in the middle of the grand sallet, at
our great men’s tables and Praetors’ feasts, as the grace
of the whole board.” In our oldest seed-lists we find
that two varieties of celery were introduced from
Italy under the name of Red and White upright
Italian celery. It is stated in the “ Monthly Maga-
zine and British Register,” for July, 1 797» that the
seed of a new sort of celery, from the island of
Samos, had been introduced into the county of Nor-
folk, which grew to the height of three feet, and
possessed other superior properties. Celery may be
grown to a very large size, for Loudon states that, in
1815, a plant was taken up at Longford, near Man-
chester, which weighed 9 lb. when washed, with
the root and leaves still attached to it, and measured
4 feet 6 inches in height. It was of the red sort,
perfectly solid, crisp, and firm, and remarkably well-
flavoured. There is a variety of this plant called
Celerica, or Turnip-rooted celery {Apium graveolens
napazeum ) ; it is more hardy than the upright varieties :
of this the root is the only part used. It attains to a
considerable size, especially in Germany, where it is
much esteemed, both prepared by itself and in con-
junction with other herbs as a salad. It rarely forms
an object of cultivation in English gardens. Sir
Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander found in considerable
quantities, on the coast of Terra del Fuego, wild
celery, which appears to be possessed of wholesome

K

i94

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

qualities, as it was found a very useful ingredient in
the soups for seamen, because of its antiscorbutic
properties. Celery contains sugar, mucilage, starch,
and a substance resembling manna sugar, which acts
as a stimulant. A decoction made from the seed and
drunk as tea is often recommended in some diseases
by village herbalists. Celery is regarded as a lucky
plant by the modern Greeks, and is hung up in rooms,
placed on silkworm-frames, and given to children.

The common name appears to have been derived
from Italy, — sellari, under which it was introduced in
the old seed-lists into this country, but it is found in
old works, spelt in various ways ; thus, Sellery,
Celeri, and Celery.

The etymology of the botanical name, Apium,
appears uncertain. Some authors think it is derived
from the Celtic Apon, water, from the place where
the plant grows ; others state it is from Apis, a bee,
because these insects are fond of it. Celery has
quite supplanted our native Alexander’s (Smyrnium
Olusatrum), which our forefathers used to eat as a
common salad.

Among other herbs which are sometimes to be
found -in the salad-bowl, are the various Valerianella,
or Lamb’s lettuce. The French call them Salade de
pretre, from their being eaten in Lent. Evelyn says
they certainly deserve a place among the penitential
herbs, for the stomach that has admitted them is apt
to cry peccavi. The leaves of Burnet ( Poterium
sangiiisorba), when bruised, have the smell of cucum-
ber : in former time this plant was in great repute. A
small low thistle ( Picridium vulgare ), is often used in
France and Italy, both as a salad and greens. Bon
Jardinier says it tastes a little like mutton. The
flower of the Judas-tree ( Cercis siliquastrum ) and
leaves of the Wood-sorrel ( Oxalis acelosella ), when
mixed with other herbs, give an agreeable acid flavour
to the salad. %

Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, in the “Manual of Diet
in Health and Disease,” says, “ Salads ought to form
an important article of diet in every family. The
salad ought to be dressed by one of the daughters of
the house after she has dressed herself for dinner,
singing, with her clean cool fingers, sharp silver
knife, and wooden spoon —

“ Weaving spiders, come not here :

Hence, you long-legged spinners, hence ;

Beetles black, approach not near ;

Worms nor snails, do no offence. ”

The purity of the salad-bowl is also of great im-
portance. In the days of the Tudors the cooks were
accustomed to mix their salads in a silver saladier, or
some other vessel of metal which was affected by the
chemical action of the acids so composing the mix-
ture, and must have proved deleterious to those who
partook of it. Evelyn, the great reformer in the art
of salad-making in those days, says, the proper
material for the salad-bowl should be porcelain, or of
Holland delf-ware. We find in the writings of our

old poets and dramatists allusions to salads, as is
shown in the following conversation between Lafeu
and the Clown in “All’s Well that Ends Well —

“Lafeu. ’Twas a good lady, ’twas a good lady;
we may pick a thousand salads, ere we light on such
another herb.

Clown. Indeed, sir, she was the sweet marjoram
of the salad, or rather herb of grace.

Lafeu. They are not salad herbs, you know, they
are nose herbs.

Clown. I am no great Nebuchadnezzar, sir ; I
have not much skill in grass.”

The author of the “ Book about the Table ” states
that Poetry seized the dish to use it as an emblem of
vernal freshness and greenness.

Shakespeare’s Cleopatra says —

“ My salad days.

When I was green in judgment.”

Our forefathers were accustomed to introduce the
salad into some of their wise and pithy sayings, for
among our English proverbs we find the following : —

“A fool can pick a sallet as well as a wise man.”

“He would live for aye, must eat sallet in May.”

The following is a translation of a Spanish proverb :
“ Four persons are wanted to make a good salad.
A spendthrift for oil, a miser for vinegar, a coun-
seller for salt, and a madman to stir all up.”

Dr. Doran, in his “Table Traits,” tells us of a
certain Frenchman who made his fortune by making
salads for the aristocracy of England. Chevalier
d’Albignac, one of the refugees which the great
Revolution had cast on our hospitable shores,
where he, like many of his unfortunate countrymen,
contrived to subsist on a small pittance allowed him
by the English Government, was one day dining with
an affluent friend in the coffee-room of a fashionable
hotel ; he took upon himself to make a salad, and
the way he handled and mixed the preparation at-
tracted the attention of a young nobleman who was
dining with another party in the same room. The
nobleman approached the foreigner, and politely
entreated him to mix a salad, French fashion, for
his table. M. d’Albignac consented, and made such
a one that put the four gentlemen into a state of un-
controllable ecstasy. His complaisance and com-
municativeness to the young nobleman and his
friends had agreeable results, as they did not let the
poor Frenchman depart without slipping into his
hand a golden fee. A few days after M. d’Albignac
received a letter from a certain lord, politely request-
ing him to repair to his house in Grosvenor -square
for the purpose of mixing a salad for a dinner-party
he was about to give. The Chevalier obeyed the
summons, and after performing his mission returned
home, richer by ,£5 than when he went out. His
mai'vellous salads were soon the talk of the town.
The “gentleman salad-maker” was the hero of the
hour, and ladies of the highest fashion, we are told,

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE- GO SSIP.

i95

were heard rapturously commending his “ works ” in
gilded salons, or avowing they could not live another
week without devouring one of them. The lucky
Frenchman was soon enabled to start his carriage,
and might be seen driving from house to house
during the dining hours of the aristocracy, attended
by a servant, who carried a mahogany case, which
contained the various ingredients for concocting his
salads, according to the taste of his employers. He
opened a shop, where he drove a lucrative trade in
sauces and other culinary dainties. Being a prudent
and saving man, he managed to realize some 80,000
francs, 60,000 of which he invested in government
securities, which stood just then at 50 per cent., and
with the other 20,000 he purchased a little estate at
Limousin, where he spent the rest of his days en-
joying his well-earned fortune.

I conclude by introducing a

Receipt for a Winter Salad, written many years ago,
at Castle Howard, by the Rev. Sydney Smith : —

“Two large potatoes, passed through kitchen sieve,
Unwonted softness to the salad give ;

Of mordent mustard add a single spoon —

Distrust the condiment which bites so soon ;

But deem it not, thou man of herbs, a fault
To add a double quantity of salt.

Three times the spoon with oil of Lucca crown,

And once with vinegar procured from town.

True flavour needs it, and your poet begs
The powdered yellow of two well-boiled eggs.

Let onion atoms lurk within the bowl,

And, scarce suspected, animate the whole.

And lastly, on the flavoured compound toss
A magic tea-spoon of anchovy sauce.

Then though green turtle fails, though venison is tough,
And ham and turkey are not boiled enough,

Serenely full, the epicure may say,

‘ Fate cannot harm me — I have dined to-day.’ ”

A HOLIDAY ROUND DORKING.

LIKE most of those who are engaged during the
day with the bustle of City life, we were
anxiously looking forward to rest and quietude in the
country, where we could throw off for a while the
routine and formality of business, and enjoy that
sense of freedom which only the lover of nature can
appreciate.

The longed-for time came at last, and after the
visual amount of preparation we arrived at Cannon-
street station, and were soon spinning away from
dusty London into the more picturesque country.
The sun was shining brightly into the carriage, and
the atmosphere was anything but cool ; but we
were in excellent spirits, and such weather led us to
hope that we should spend a very happy holiday,
being particularly suitable for our chief pastime,
entomology. At length we arrived at Dorking sta-
tion, and everything around looked bright and
promising, as we got into the conveyance which was
to take ourselves and luggage to the town. We con-
tented ourselves for the remainder of the day with a
general survey of the town, which presents the
appearance of a thriving but quiet country place.

We were greatly delighted on waking next morning
to find that the weather promised to be a repetition
of the day before. The first thing for us to do, after
having enjoyed a good breakfast, was to settle in
what direction we should go, as we were very anxious
for the chase, and our nets and boxes were all in
readiness. Leaving Dorking at ten, and not for-
getting to fill our flasks with lime-juice, we took a
friend’s recommendation, and started off in the
direction of Ranmer Common, distant about two
miles. Just past the railway-station, South-Eastern
Railway, we found a chalk-pit, and were not long
in discovering that some sport was to be obtained
therein. Getting over the railings a very bright -blue
butterfly was seen ; the gauze soon enveloped him,
and he turned out to be the Adonis , Clifden Blue.
He was sadly battered, as it was quite a month late
for him, so we gave him his freedom, and away he
went, no doubt happy to be released from our
clutches. No sooner had we done this than we
noticed a dull-looking little insect tripping sharply
along, and settling for a moment on the blue flowers
that grew in the chalk. This we soon found to be
Alsus, the Bedford Blue, and we were very pleased
to find them in great plenty and very nice condition.
After another parting look round the chalk-pit, and
having beaten a few blackthorn bushes unsuccessfully,
with the exception of taking one Jacobs, we went on
our way to the road which leads to Ranmer Common.
We had been told that parallel with the road was a
grassy path, adjoining a very pretty estate called the
Denbighs, and that we should very likely have some
sport if we went that way, and, moreover, avoid the
dust of the chalky road. Immediately we got into
this path we noticed the intense contrast which the
fresh foliage of the trees afforded from the dry chalk.
On our left was a thick plantation of pine and fir-
trees, and on our right a hawthorn hedge, separating
us from the road, whilst peeping out from the grassy
bank was an occasional patch of wild strawberry-
plants, some in bloom, and others loaded with the
pretty rosy-coloured fruit. This path soon widened into
almost a glade, with a wonderful variety of herbage :
blackthorn, whitethorn, juniper, clematis, privet,
honeysuckle, and almost every imaginable kind of
vegetation. The sun was now blazing forth, and we
were out of the shade which the pines afforded ;
moreover, insect life was swarming all around us.
The two common skippers, Linea and Sylvanns, were
buzzing about in the utmost profusion ; the Meadow
Brown, Mcegeria, was lazily flitting from one flower
to the other, sometimes with that sombre quiet-looking
butterfly, Hyperanthus, the Wood Ringlet ; every-
thing seemed "so quiet and happy, affording such a
contrast to the noisy city which we had only the day
before quitted. Soon we came to another plantation,
and then sport began in real earnest. What is that
flying round the top of the pines, and occasionally

descending to within reach of the net? We strained

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196

HARDWICK E'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

Fig. 132. Small Skipper, female
(. Hesperia line a).

Fig. 133. Upper side of
Small Blue ( L . alsus).

Fig. 134. Large Skipper, Fig. 135. Small Skipper, male
male ( Hesperia sylvanus). (Hesperia, linen.)

Fig. 136. Large Skipper, female ( Hysperia sylvanus .

secure our prize, we were thrown from the path
amongst the bushes below. But we were not thus to
be disheartened, so taking a pull at our flasks, and
wiping our perspiring faces, we again set to work.
This sort of thing continued for nearly an hour, in
which time we obtained about a dozen each of
Piniaria , and discovered that it was nearly time to
return home, without reaching Ranmer after all.

On looking around from the elevated position
which we now occupied we were all struck with the
marvellous view which presented itself. The railway
lay in a valley, and on rising groun beyond stretched
the well-wooded district around Leith Hill and Cold
Harbour, and the contrast between the various kinds

of vegetation was wonderful ; towering above all was
Leith Hill itself, standing out boldly from the clear
blue sky, while on the right of the railway could be
seen the long ridge of hills in the direction of Guild-
ford. Streams meandered here and there, and the

Fig. 137. Upper side of Ringlet ( Epinephilc hyperanthus).

Fig. 138. Under side of Ringlet (Epinephile hyperanthus).

Fig. 139. Under side of White Admiral (Limenitis Sibylla.)

our necks trying to capture one, and soon found it
such hot work that our coats were off and satchels
laid down, whilst F., who was not an entomologist,
was not sorry to take a rest by seating himself on
the stump of an old tree. Our nets had only got
short walking-stick handles, so our chance of success
seemed very small at first, more especially as there
was a hollow between the path on which we stood,
and the ground on which the plantation was situated ;
if we made an extra effort in our excitement to

Fig. 130. Underside Fig. 131. Clifden Blue (Lyccena
Small Blue (Lyccena alsus).) adonis ) upper side of male.

Fig. 140. Upper side of White Admiral ( Limenitis sibylla.)

sun shining on them made them sparkle like dia-
monds. We were indeed glad that we had come to
Dorking, for we had never seen a finer piece of
landscape before. Moreover, the intense heat, the
cloudless sky, and the buzzing of the bees, gave a
lazy look to everything around ; the cows in the

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

197

adjacent meadow were swishing their tails and
stamping their feet to release themselves from their
summer pests, the flies, and we, too, found them by
no means pleasing companions.

Common, and accordingly made arrangements to
have a late dinner. This time we took the road, on
the right hand side of which was a stone wall, with
a plantation above. Flying up and down this was

Fig. 141. Bordered White, male ( Fidonia
piniaria).

Fig. 142. Clay Triple-lines (FEphyra
trilinearia).

Fig. 143. Small Emerald
(low's vernaria).

Fig. 144. Humming-Bird Hawk Moth
(Macroglossa. stellntarwn).

Fig. 145. Lace Border
(Acidalia ornata).

Fig. 148. Gold Swift (Hepiahis
hectus).

Fig. 149- Chalk Carpet (Eubolia
bipunctata).

Fig. 150. Chalk Carpet (Mela?iippe
procellatn).

Fig. 151. mood-Y^n(Titnandraamatari'a). Fig. 152. Bird’s Wing (Dipterygia Fig. 153. The Gold Spot (Plusia

pinastri). fiducaP).

In the afternoon we went for a drive to Shiere, a
village about half-way between Dorking and Guild-
ford, which we enjoyed very much, after having had
a good tea, and partaken very freely of strawberries,
vvhich the landlord had just gathered from his garden.

The next day we determined to reach Ranmer

Stellatarum , the Humming-bird Hawk-moth. It
gave us a rare chase, with no success, so we made up
our minds we would hurry on towards the Common.
On arriving at the end of the road, and unfastening
the gate, we found ourselves on a large tract of wood-
land and common, which seemed to invite us to more

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE -G OSSIP,

1 98

closely examine it, which we accordingly did, and
set off down a long glade, which made us think it
should be called a wood rather than a common.
The trees were chiefly oak, with an undergrowth of
bramble, honeysuckle, and blackthorn, and on going
a little farther in, we came upon a magnificent group
of wild foxgloves, all in full bloom, and some of
them as much as seven feet high. What was that
large golden butterfly which just flew over our heads?
exclaimed J. It must be Paphia, and sure enough it
was, for no sooner had we spoken than back he
came, and settled on a bramble, right in front of us,
flapping his wings in the sunshine as if making fun
at us. For a moment we were speechless with plea-
sure and admiration, for this was the first time we had
seen any of the large Fritillaries on the wing. Then
quickly raising his net without letting the shadow
intervene, J. gave a swift stroke over, and the silver-
washed Fritillary was safely in his net. We did not
have to wait long before seeing several others as we
went farther down the glade ; they all flew very
swiftly, and appeared very fresh on the wing, it being
only the second week in July. After we had obtained
about half-a-dozen each, and having captured a few
Thee, quercus flying round the oaks, together with
some Trilinearia , which we beat out of some beeches,
we resolved to try the old wall again, and return to
the Common next day. On our way back we man-
aged to capture three Stellatarum , and then we turned
into the grassy path before mentioned. In one of
the fields the grass was particularly high, and we
thought it not unlikely something might turn up in
it. We soon found that we were to be rewarded for
our trouble, for we obtained about twenty of that
delicate little geometer, A. ornata , and also dis-
covered^. Galathea in the neighbourhood. We espied
the first one, seated on a thistle-head, evidently
only just emerged from the chrysalis. This was a
very agreeable surprise, as we had neither of us taken
Galathea before. We took as many as we wanted,
and then lay down under the shade of a yew-tree,
and watched them bobbing up and down in the long
grass. Whilst dreamily passing the time in this way,
suddenly something whizzed by like a great bee, and
then back again, circling round the meadow in a very
giddy way ; then it seemed as if making straight for
me, so getting my net in readiness, with a swift
sweep, I secured it. What could it be ? It buzzed up
and down the net with great vehemence, and I was
very anxious to see it safely bottled in the cyanide.
When this was done we found that we had captured
B. rubi, the F ox-moth, and a very hot chase we had
for the other two we secured. We also took a few
specimens of Corydon, but it was rather early for
them, and we knew that each day would make them
more plentiful.

In the evening, by beating the neighbouring bushes,
we obtained A. ornata , emarginata , amataria
vernaria, and procellata. The whole of the week

was just as fine as our first day, and on looking over
our diaries, we had captured one Sybilla , one Syrin -
garia, seven Albicillata , about twenty I mi t aria, and
nine Adippe , and we could have taken as many
Galathea , Paphia , Corydon , and Alsus as we cared
for, not to mention the swarms of Burnet moths and
commoner butterflies which frequented every meadow.
We tried sugar, but with no success, but by dusking
and beating, we had obtained Chrysitis , Urticcey
Derasa , Pinastri, Fulvata , Pyraliata , Didymata ,
Albulata, Rubidata, Trilinearia , and several other
geometers, whilst, settled on thistle-heads in the day-
time, we took a few specimens of Conigera.

We had during the week paid a visit to Box Hill,
and very much we enjoyed the cool shade afforded
by the copious foliage. On arriving at the top a very
extensive view is presented, stretching right away to
the downs of Sussex, the marvellous variety of woods,
rivers, and villages, forming a panorama beyond
description. Height 800 feet.

So far we had had wonderful weather, not a drop
of rain had fallen, and the same bright prospect was
before us when Monday morning came, and we
decided to go for a walk in Betchworth Park, about
a mile distant from Dorking on the Reigate Road,
in which is a magnificent avenue of lime-trees, and
we were told that had we come a month earlier we
should have found the scent of the bloom almost
overpowering.

The river Mole runs through the park. It is a
dull-looking stream, moderately wide here and narrow
there, deep here and very shallow there. I think
most of the fish to be obtained in it are tench, carp,
eels, &c., those kinds which frequent muddy still
streams. But although the water itself is not very
inviting, the scenery along its banks is very pic-
: turesque, especially at this particular spot, where the
foliage of the park sometimes forms quite a bower
over the water. After walking through the park we
came out again into the road, and then across some
corn-fields in the direction of Box Hill, on climbing
the sides of which we were greatly delighted to again:
find our friends the wild strawberries in plenty, with
which we regaled ourselves for some little time, thus
we worked round to Burford Bridge, and then home
along the road to Dorking.

In the afternoon we went for a drive to the Holm-
wood, a large tract of common and forest land, south
of Dorking, on the Horsham Road, where a camp
was being held, the white canvas of the tents stand-
ing out boldly against the green of the forest, whilst
about every hundred yards we went we came upon
a fresh batch of geese, which always greeted us
with a quack ! quack ! or hizz ! hizz ! In all our
rambles on the commons we met with these con-
sequential creatures, who seemed as if they wero
enjoying themselves while they had the chance. On
we went until we arrived at Ockley, and then back
along quiet country lanes by Abinger and Wot ton..

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

199

The nut-bushes seemed loaded with the young nuts,
and the banks covered with a profusion of ferns ;
moreover the woods and meadows adjoining Leith
Hill seemed to present an unusually fresh appearance
for the time of year. In the evening we tried
sugaring in the Glory, a wood almost in Dorking,
leading on to the Holmwood ; it was, however,
no good, but on our way back, flying over the
corn, we could have taken as many as we
wanted of Palleus, besides the following insects by
dusking, Hectus, Ocellata, Sambucata, Thymiaria ,
Albicillata, and Adustata , and flying round an old wall
we discovered Perla in plenty.

The next day we again went to Ranmer, on our
way turning out swarms of Bipunctata from every
bank. We went down our old glade until we came
to a spot where the wood had only latterly been
cleared, and which abounded in thistles, teasles,
nettles, &c. We sat down for a minute or two to
rest, and found that we had discovered a regular
stronghold for Paphia. They came sailing over our
heads and settled on the tallest thistles, and then
off again to exercise their wings. This sort of
amusement we very much enjoyed ; we also took
several specimens of G. rhamni , and I had the good
fortune to take a battered specimen of Sibylla. We
then went through a gate into a sort of plantation,
with waste ground on the right ; every fresh step we took
turning out a lot of wild rabbits, which were on the
path enjoying themselves in the sunshiiNe. On this
waste land was a great deal of ragwort, and on
inspecting the same we found several larvae of [ ' cobcc,
in fact on going a little further the ragwort heads
were quite tinted with their orange-coloured bodies.
Here we also saw a specimen of Aglaia, but we were
not able to get near him, a few T. quercus only
rewarding us. During the weak we came several
times to the common, and always found some new
employment in walking along the glades, sometimes
under the shade of the oaks, sometimes penetrating
into the thick, and getting ourselves nicely pricked
with the brambles, listening to the song of the thrush
or blackbird, sometimes hearing the melancholy Coo !
Coo ! of the ringdoves, or pausing to catch the distant
sound of Cuckoo ! Cuckoo ! All these delights are
only to be realized, they cannot be recorded.

Our next visit was to Leith Hill, five miles distant
from Dorking, which was particularly enjoyable.
We walked to Cold Harbour through wooded lanes,
in which the trees sometimes met, forming a beau-
tifully-shaded walk, and being exceedingly pic-
turesque and romantic. Here we had some lunch,
and then commenced to ascend the hill. The path
is very rough, especially for a pony, which we saw
pluckily struggling up. The sides of the hill are
covered with a growth of bracken and furze, with an
occasional plantation of young fir-trees. On arriving
at the top and going up into the tower, a magnificent
view presents itself; and it is said that on a clear

day twelve counties are visible. We could distinctly
see without the aid of a glass the clump of trees at
Chanctonbury Ring, near Worthing. A few children
were scattered here and there gathering the whortle-
berries which grow on the hill, and from which they
say a very delicious jelly is made. Leith Hill is
993 ft. above the sea-level, and is the highest eleva-
tion in this part of the country. Like everything
else, this sort of thing was not to last for ever, as the
time was quickly passing on, and rapidly bringing
our holiday to a close ; so we resolved to have a
good turn at collecting for the two or three remaining
days. During this time Colias Edusa had been
coming out in plenty, and we captured as many as
we wanted, flying over the lucerne fields near the
railway-station, and amongst them were fortunate
enough to come across two Helice. I also took one
Ochroleuca settled on a thistle-head. We obtained
moreover Cardin and Rhamni in fair abundance,
besides turning out Semele on the dry hill-sides. If
we had only had good sugaring we should have had
a very successful holiday in an entomological point of
view, for novices like ourselves ; but we were far
from discontented, as the lovely weather and variety
of the country would require a very peculiar indi-
vidual not to appreciate. Our only regret was
that we had got through the time allotted to us ;
and it was with somewhat of chagrin that we said
adieu to the shady woods and open meadows, and
returned once more to our usual vocation, a great
deal the better both in mind and body for our fort-
night’s holiday. A. J. R.

LIVE TOADS IN LIMESTONE ROCKS.

I HAVE lately been working geologically among
the culm-measure limestones of North Devon, and
there I heard the oft-repeated story of a live toad
having been disinterred from the solid rock. Un-
fortunately it was an event of the past, and I did not
see either the toad or the rock from which he came.
But I can testify to the good faith and general in-
telligence of my informant, who assures me that he
saw the toad, which had just been wantonly crushed
by the quarrymen, and that he also saw the mass
of rock which had been cleft, and the cavity in which
the toad had been. He further assures me that the
rock was perfectly solid, without flaw, joint, or per-
foration of any kind leading to the cavity. He has
no reason to think that the quarrymen intended to
deceive him, and he himself evidently intends faith-
fully to describe what occurred.

At about the same time that this information was
given me, a similar case was reported to me from the
limestone near Totnes, in South Devon. In this
instance the quarryman who saw the toad taken from
the rock has been well-known to me for years as a
steady honest man of superior intelligence. But here
again I was not an eye-witness, and can only repeat

200

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

what I am told. I am, however, firmly convinced
that the man himself fully believes what he reports.

Concurrent testimony, if sought, would be obtained
from many independent sources, and yet I find that
scientific men are generally disposed to treat such
stories with simple incredulity. But surely the
phenomenon is worth investigation. No British jury
would believe that the quai'rymen in all parts of Eng-
land were leagued together to impose upon the public ;
nor would any man of science believe that the toads
were really imbedded in homogeneous rock. Until
a better solution can be offered, I may venture to
suggest the following : —

It is well-known that all limestone rocks abound in
fissures and joints, which may be and often are filled
up with angular debris. At Westleigh, in North
Devon, there are many thick beds of breccia alter-
nating with highly inclined and vertical strata, the
breccia being just as hard and serviceable as the
stratified rock. In some cases where the cementing
carbonate of lime has not been coloured ,* the two
varieties of rock might not be distinguished at first
sight, even by a geologist, still less by an ordinary
observer. These breccias may be of any post-car-
boniferous age, and may be still in the process of
formation.

We have then only to imagine our toad to have
accidentally or purposely got into a fissure, and to
have there found himself in what (from a batrachian
point of view), we may call comfortable quarters.
There, being of a phlegmatic temperament and of
sedentary habits, he stood (or rather squatted) his
ground, indifferent to the angular fragments which,
from time to time, fell around him. Like Horace’s
“Vir justus ac tenax propositi,” of whom it is further
said, “Si fractus illabitur orbis Impavidum ferient
ruin?e,” so he also was not shaken in his sense of
tenant’s right by the “wreck of matter” which, in
the form of rock-debris, threatened his cranium.
Dripping water bearing carbonate of lime by degrees
would change his home into a prison, cementing the
congeries into the semblance of homogeneous rock.

How long a toad might live under such conditions,
I do not venture to conjecture, but the many instances
of modern conglomerates, and the stalactites which
rapidly collect under newly-built bridges, would argue
that the process of forming such a breccia as I have
described need not necessarily have occupied many
years. I submit, at least, that the independent testi-
mony of quarrymen from many places remote from
each other ought not to be set down as mere inven-
tion or exaggeration, but should be accounted for as
above, or upon some better hypothesis, if such can
be suggested. W. Downes.

Kentispeare , near Collwnpton.

* It is generally coloured red, owing to the proximity of
Triassic rocks.

THE BIRTH OF A ROTIFER.

THE water from which my Rotifer was taken had
been standing for some months in one of the
marine tanks at the Brighton Aquarium, and was
filled with dead mussels. The body, which was sur-
rounded by a single row of filaments, resembled a
Paramecium , but was longer and not so broad.

The head was blunt, and was beset with strong
cilia, amongst which were three or four long fila-
ments. This part of the animalcule was sack-like,
and a broad sinus formed the mouth, which was
fringed with cilia smaller than those at the margin of
the head. A row of globules, about thirteen in
number, commencing from near the mouth, extended
the whole length of the body, within which could be
traced three distinct bulbous sacks, connected by
alimentary canals ; near the posterior extremity a
single dark spot was observed.

Fig. 154. First appearance of Rotifer.

The integument was marked with a fine series of
j horizontal lines. The animalcule had a peculiar
mode of feeding. It first rubbed its gelatinous body
against a mass of vegetable matter with which it
happened to come in contact, to disintegrate it, as it
were, and then pushed its head amongst the debris,
grovelling like a pig, and using its cilia to draw the
particles into its mouth. On moving the stage,
another of the species was brought into the field.
The upper part of the head was shrunken and dead,
and was almost separated from the body ; but round
the lower part of the gullet the cilia were in rapid ’
motion. The other part of the body was perfectly
quiescent, even to the filaments, and was compressed
and colourless. About midway down the Rotifer, a
slight swelling commenced, which gradually increased.
It then burst, and a violent disruption took place,
which resembled a mimic Vesuvius. A jet of water
issued from the orifice, followed by six minute, pellu-
cid, oval creatures. Their motion was at first very
sluggish, but they soon gained sufficient vital energy
to prove beyond all doubt that they were endowed
with life.

The young lingered over the body of the mother

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

201

for some time, and then, joining a community of
atoms no larger than themselves, were lost beyond
all identification. The vortex round the head of the
parent ceased. The animal slowly dissolved through-
out its entire length ; and, in a few seconds, became
one indistinguishable mass of inanimate matter.
Having fulfilled its mission, it ceased to exist, leaving
nothing but the integument, which retained its pristine
outline. John Davis.

TERATOLOGY OF A CABBAGE-LEAF.

A CORRESPONDENT has kindly forwarded to
us a specimen of cabbage-leaf, showing one
of the most peculiar malformations we have seen.

Fig. 156. Malformation of Cabbage-leaf: two-thirds nat. size.

The midrib of the leaf has become detached about
an inch from the base, and exists as a separate
stalk, exactly simulating an ordinary flower-stalk.
Meantime the true leaf only just shows in its vena-
tion the place where the midrib ought to be, whilst
the laminae of the leaf are abbreviated so that the
stalk extends nearly a couple of inches beyond the

apex. At the summit of the stalk (or detached mid-
rib) the laminae have again grown, but the two
external edges have been fused together in growth,
so as to present the appearance of a gamosepalous
calyx. We have shown the specimen to several
botanists, who had not the slightest idea of its being
a malformed cabbage-leaf. The accompanying sketch
by Mr. J. W. Buck, B.Sc. , is two-thirds the natural
size of the specimen. On page 1 13 of “Vegetable
Teratology,” Dr. Masters figures and describes a
similar malformation in a lettuce-leaf, and mentions
the cabbage-leaf as occasionally liable to malforma-
tions of this kind. The fruit of the rose, he remarks,
is only the dilated end of the flower-stalk, in which
the true carpels become imbedded. “Between such
a case and that of a peltate leaf with a depressed
centre, such as often occurs to some extent in Nelum -
bium, there is but little difference.” These mal-
formations thus throw interesting sidelights, not only
on the origin of such pseudo-syncarpous fruits as the
rose, but also on the peculiar leaves of Sarracenia ,
Cephalotus , Aristolochza, and others.

HOW TO START A NATURAL HISTOR\
SOCIETY.

WE have repeatedly been applied to for in-
formation how one or two individuals fond
of natural science should proceed in starting or
founding a society for the furtherance of its study.

We have had some experience in this matter, and
can honestly say we know of few organizations which
may be made so mutually helpful or so socially plea-
sant for such a small outlay of money. What Mrs.
Glass said of the hare is true of societies of this kind.
You must first catch one or two people interested in
some department of natural science. There are few
towns or districts in Great Britain now where there
does not reside some one who is a Fellow of one of
the learned societies, and who has so far won his
spurs. Such an one is generally willing to act as
president, and to throw the weight of his influence
into the scheme. The secretary should always be
selected on account of the greater interest he takes in
science, for we regard a good secretary as really
more useful to a society than a president. The
meetings of a young society should not be held too
often, or there will soon be a dearth of papers.
Once a month, in the winter, is quite often enough ;
and one paper only each night, the rest of the
evening being taken up with discussion. It is a good
practice to encourage members to bring something
at every meeting for exhibition — something which
strikes them as singular, and which they do not under-
stand. This practice causes members to look out for
objects, and develops the observing faculties. It
is also useful in raising discussions and oral descrip-
tions at meetings, and perhaps, eventually, in origi-
nating papers.

202

HARD WI CKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

New societies should not aim too high. Let them
accept papers on any subject connected with natural
history, and endeavour to raise good discussions on
them. The subscription fee should not be too much —
never more than half-a-crown or five shillings a-year,
or the pocket will affect the members. We have in-
variably found the most prosperous societies and clubs
those which charged the smallest subscriptions. In
almost every village, to say nothing of towns, there
would be little difficulty in hiring, or even in obtain-
ing free, some school-room, either in connection with
church or chapel. Indeed, numerously attended
churches and chapels have started scientific clubs of
their own, so beneficial has it been found to found a
society that will find intellectual work for young
men. The rules of a young club should be as few
and simple as possible, and as free from penal
clauses. At first, it would be as well to think of
nothing but mutual instruction in scientific matters.
Afterwards, the careful study and cataloguing of the
plants, insects, birds, fossils, &c., of the neighbour-
hood might be considered.

Some very young societies are ambitious early to
appear in print, and to publish their own ‘‘Trans-
actions” or “Proceedings.” This is well enough
when there is anything really worth publishing, but
even then there are plenty of magazines willing to
publish such papers, and able to give them a wider
publicity than they could have obtained locally.
Young societies soon find printing and publishing
very expensive, and it is frequently a source of vexa-
tion to the members. This matter, therefore, should
be left out of consideration when it is intended to
start a new society. If there be any surplus money,
let it be spent in purchasing such high-priced stan-
dard books or magazines as would perhaps be beyond
the pockets of many members, and these could be
circulated in the usual manner. We have known
successful instances of members specially combining
to circulate such books among themselves, in addi-
tion to any which might be obtainable from the
society’s library. The summer excursions should
not be numerous —not more than two or three during
the season. Half a day will be often found long
enough to do a great deal of real good work in. If
the society limits its members to the male sex, there
is no reason why they should not enjoy the pleasure
of ladies during the summer excursions. To con-
clude, the chief things to be considered are, (i)
earnest study (no matter by how few, for the
numbers will increase if the original members can
only “learn to labour and to wait”) ; (2) an absence
of any pretension to intellectual superiority ; (3)

an endeavour to make the membership as cheap
and inexclusive as possible, so as to throw the
society open to all classes — the only specification
being a love for scientific subjects, even if there
be not always the means or the opportunity to
cherish it.

“BRUCE,” THE MANCHESTER FIRE
HORSE.

AT the latter part of the spring of 1864 “ Our
Bruce ” was born ; he soon began to show
signs of a very promising hunter, of over sixteen
hands, and in due course commenced his training for
the chase. At five years old he had grown to a
beautiful animal, very docile and tractive — his mottled
grey coat the pride of the groom and the admiration
of his master. “Our Bruce,” in the hunting-field,
once stumbled, and, in consequence, lost the con-
fidence of his master, who disposed of him to the
Manchester Carriage Company. In the early part
of the year 1870, he was sold by the Carriage Com-
pany to the Manchester Corporation for the fire-
engine department, and commenced his duties on
the 24th March. His general appearance, and kind,
tractable, willing ways were soon noticed by the
firemen, and in less than a month after he joined
the brigade he was the favourite of the whole estab-
lishment, having pretty well the free run of the yard,
in which he caused much diversion by his singular
and funny ways. He was always full of innocent
mischief, and one of his greatest delights was to
chase the men about the yard. It sometimes hap-
pened that he was let out for a gambol when the
children were playing. On such occasions it was
most interesting to notice how careful he was in not
going too near them. At other times, when the
engines were in the yard, he seemed not to forget
his early training as a hunter, and would amuse him-
self by jumping over the poles. When tired, he
would lift the latch of the door and go into his
stable, and just as easily, after a rest, when the stable -
door was closed, he would let himself out again, or
knock loudly at the door to attract attention. Near
the stable-door there is a water-tap with a revolving
handle. “Our Bruce ” would turn the handle with
ease and help himself to a drink. It sometimes
happened that a hose-pipe would be attached to the
tap ; this would not cause him the least inconvenience ;
in such a case, after turning on the tap, he would lift
up the end of the hose-pipe with his teeth and hold
the end in his mouth until he had satisfied his thirst.
Many curious anecdotes could be told about our pet :
how on one occasion he picked up the end of the
hose and wetted one of the firemen who had offended
him ; how, at a fire, he would stand amidst the greatest
noise and excitement, with showers of sparks falling
around him, and on his beautiful coat, only to be
shook off ; and at other times completely enveloped
in smoke ; but there was no shying or fretting under
fire or smoke with “Our Bruce.” He seemed to
know that he had brought those who would fight
that ruthless tyrant fire, and he stood proud and
confident that before long he would return home
with the victors, when, after being refreshed and
groomed, he would again be ready, always first, for
the next “turn out.”

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

203

For nearly six years “Our Bruce” never missed
going with the first machine, at the end of which
time he was, in consequence of his fine appearance,
and our desire to give him a less active duty in his
old age, transferred from the fire-engine to police-
patrol duty. We did not altogether lose our faith-
ful animal’s services, for one of his duties was to
attend fires with the mounted police-sergeant (whose
name was also Bruce) to keep back the onlookers,
which he most effectually did for nearly two years,
during which time he was as great a favourite with
the policemen, rarely leaving a police-station without
an apple, a piece of bread, or some mark of affection.

On the 7th of June “Our Bruce” fell sick ; the
veterinary surgeon was sent for, who pronounced him
suffering from inflammation of the bowels. The usual
remedies were applied, and everything was done to
relieve his pain and make him comfortable, but to no
avail. For three days afterwards he was never left
for a moment, night nor day, and at the end of the
third day he drew his last breath, surrounded by
those who loved him well, and who had been taken
by him to the scene of many a hard fight. A post-
mortem examination was held the following morning
to ascertain the cause of death. A stone (calculus)
six inches in diameter, weighing five pounds eleven
ounces, was taken from his bowels. This was, no
doubt, the principal cause of the disease which led to
the death of the fire horse, “ Our Bruce.”

Chief Fire Station, Manchester. A. Tozer.

BRAMBLES ABOUT LONDON.

By Dr. E. De Crespigny, Author of “ A London
Flora.”

“In the days when we went blackberry big,

A long time ago,”

WE knew that blackberries were distinct from
dewberries, and no more : happier in our
ignorance then, than we now are in our knowledge,
that there are blackberries and blackberries ; and
that Rubus j^uticosns represents an aggregate of forty
species, regarded by collectors as distinct, besides
varieties. Of these, twenty-eight species are classed
as occurring in the home counties, province III. of
the “ Cybele Brit. ” (see Compendium) ; but to what
extent they severally prevail there are at present no
records to show. Something, therefore, might be
attempted towards ascertaining the range, compar-
ative frequency, and particular habitats of the more
uncommon kinds, assuming that the ordinary forms
are generally distributed. The difficulty is not so
much in being able to find them, as in the ability to
appreciate the small and inconstant shades of difference
by which many of them are to be distinguished, not
only from each other, but also from intermediate
forms or variations ; because, placed as all are now
on the common footing of separate species, we are no

longer at liberty to assign any values to the difference
between what were formerly considered species and
what sub-species ; added to which there is, com-
paring the London Catalogue with the books, no
little confusion with regard to nomenclature. The
difficulties in the way of correct diagnosis is only
lessened to a certain extent by arranging the species
into groups or sections ; for unfortunately the lines of
demarkation are by no means distinctly defined, and
in doubtful cases we are at a loss for fixed rules by
which we may be guided in determining to which of
the sections our specimen should be referred.

Brambles are arranged in sections as follows : — -
i. Suberecti ; ii. Csesii ; iii. Glandulosi ; iv. Villi-
caules ; v. Nitidi.

I. Suberecti : type, R. suberectus. This, found in
boggy woods, is a northern plant, and is nearest the
raspberry, R. Idceus, in habit ; it is not found near
London, but R. plicatus occurs in Tilgate Forest,
near Tunbridge Wells, and R. affnis has been re-
ported from Epping Forest. We have not met with
either species ; they may be known by their suberect,
slender, terete stems, furnished with a few weak
uniform prickles, and glabrous leaflets, which are
often arranged in a sub-pinnate manner ; that is to
say, the terminal leaflets are either ternate with two
pair of basal leaflets, or they are quinate with a single
pairs of basal leaflets, but there is no continuity
between the sets. Another characteristic of the
group is a distinct white border to the margins of the
sepals.

II. Csesii. Subsection a : type, R. ccesius. We
venture to suggest that the proper position of this
group is next in order to the preceding one ; with
which subsection a has very much in common. R.
ccesius may be regarded as a trailing form of suberectus.
They are much alike in flowers and fruit, besides
other points. R. ccesius is readily diagnosed, but
when met with in its more robust form it may some-
times be mistaken for corylifolius. There are several
varieties : tenuis, ulmifolius, &c. The stems are
usually very slender, terete, and glaucous, furnished
with many slender unequal prickles ; leaves ternate,
terminal one often lobed ; sepals setose, and clasping
the glaucous few-grained fruit. Plentiful by the
banks of the Thames about Kingston, and in one
form or another not unfrequent on damp, shady ditch -
banks, which are seldom cleared or trimmed, at a
little distance from the environs. It grows also by
the Bave stream in the hollow W. of Wimbledon
Common. Subsection b : type, R. corylifolius. This
is a very common and also a very variable plant.
Its characteristics, however, are so well marked that
it can seldom be mistaken for a bramble of any other
section. The stems are terete, although strong
young shoots are sometimes obscurely angled ;
smooth, of a greenish subglaucous hue, somewhat
rufous when old, furnished with uniform weak
prickles and a few subsessile glands; generally

204

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

prostrate when unsupported ; the leaflets are broad,
doubly dentate, serrate, or biserrated, and remark-
ably imbricated, owing to the lateral pair being sub-
sessile, and the basal ones entirely so ; rugose above,
pubescent below;* sepals ovate and tomentose ;
petals rotund white, sometimes pale blush (in pur-
pureas they are pinkish) ; the panicle always corym-
bose ; its flowering is both early and prolonged. It

are somewhat elliptical. They may be found on damp
shady places and ditch-banks. We have gathered
them in a lane between the “Spaniards” (Hamp-
stead Heath) and Hendon.

III. Glandulosi. This section will also admit
of subdivision, a. Transition of the -trickles into
aciculce , seta, and hairs , abrupt ; that is to say, the
prickles are clearly distinct from the other appen-

Fig. 157. Portion of stem and trans- Fig. 158. Ditto of R. corylif olius.
verse section of Rubus casius.

Fig. 159. Ditto of R . glandulosus.

Fig. 160. Ditto of R. rudis.

Fig. 161. Ditto of R. umbrosus. Fig. 162. Ditto of R. koehleri. Fig. 163. Ditto of

R. discolor.

is a common hedge bramble about London. On the
Finchley-road, near the station, for instance, and in
the lanes leading to Willesden, it is plentiful. The
leaves are often ternate by abortion ; that is to say,
the lateral pair are two-lobed, a peculiarity by no
means confined to this species. R. Balfourianus and
R. althceifolius are straggling forms belonging to this
section, with large flat leaves, usually ternate, and
large ccesius-like flowers. In althceifolius , the leaves

* The pubescence of the under surface of the leaflets is
seated on the veins ; even when glabrous below the principal
veins are never quite free from hairs. In brambles with strong
arching stems, such as the nitidi and larger species of glandulosi
and villicaules, the veins and pedicels are also furnished with
small hooked prickles.

dages ; type, R. glandulosus. Stems subterete,
trailing when unsupported ; of a dingy dark-greenish
or dark-red hue ; prickles small, straight, weak ;
aciculte, setae, and hairs copious ; leaves dull and
green, slightly pubescent below ; leaflets ternate,
rarely quinate ; of a rhomboidal or ovate form, with
biserrated margins ; sepals very glandular and fur-
nished with a long acumen ; petals narrow, white or
pale blush ; the panicle broad-topped ; pedicels very
slender, prickly, and glandular. Frequent in hedges,
in the lanes and roadsides about London. R. Gun-
theri is a form of it with large, flat, thin, dark green
leaves ; leaflets ternate ; straggling, decumbent, less
prickly stem, and a long, open, leafy, few-flowered

HARD WICKES SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

205

panicle ; petals similar, but sepals without the long
acumen of glandulosus. It grows in shady places ;
abundantly by the palings, northern border of Bentley
Priory, Harrow Weald. R. radula : not frequent
in hedgerows ; more generally on the borders of
copses in upland situations : on the outskirts of
Harrow Weald Common and Pinner Woods, for in-

stance. Stems arching, angular, of a dark, purplish
hue ; prickles strong (or rather, slender, from a strong
broad base), nearly equal, patent ; setse and aciculse
short, numerous ; hairs few ; leaflets dull green,
paler beneath ; obovate, acuminate, narrow below,
sharply and moderately dentate ; sepals ovate, re-
flexed ; petals white, obovate ; the panicle is rather
long, with lanceolate leaves and short corymbose
branches ; the prickles of the rachis are remarkably
deflexed. R. mdis differs from the above in having
much narrower leaflets, of an elliptical form, felted

beneath, with coarsely serrated jagged margins ;
shorter panicle ; pink petals and sepals furnished
with rather broad, leafy points ; the prickles are

conical and slightly deflected. It is of less frequent
occurrence than R. radula. We have gathered it
on Harrow Weald Common. It is probably
not very rare. R. hystrix : this is a trailing

206

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -G OSSIP.

bramble, with angular prickly stems of a light red
colour, abundantly furnished with aciculoe, &c., all
shorter than the prickles ; the leaflets are of a light
grass-green colour, finely serrated and of an oval
form ; panicle in shape, like that of radula ; rachis
wavy ; petals obovate, pinkish ; sepals lanceolate,
with a long, leafy point. Rare : outskirts of Worm -

t

i I

N ’\

hairs , gradual. Type, R. Kcehleri. — Stems trailing,
terete ; abundantly furnished with prickles aciculae,
setae, and hairs of unequal lengths : this bramble is
not very common ; at any rate, we have only gathered
it in Broxbourne woods : the prickles are slender and
patent ; the leaflets obovate, coarsely dentate, and
scarcely acuminate ; somewhat cuneate ; pale green
beneath and hairy on the veins ; panicle, with short
leafy corymbose branches ; sepals ovate, attenuated,
and reflexed from the fruit ; petals white, obovate.
R. fusco-ater differs considerably from the preceding
plant : it occurs sparingly on Harrow Weald Com-
mon, and is equally unfrequent. The stems are dark
purple, bluntly angular, and prickles declining ; the
leaves ovate acuminate, the basal ones oval ; the
toothing of the margins subpatent on the stem leaves,
finely serrate on those of the flowering branches ;
leaflets coriaceous, rugose, dull green above, paler
below ; the panicle long, leafy, narrow, with very
short few-flowered branches ; rachis wavy ; petals
pinkish, obovate ; sepals ovate acuminate, reflexed ;
thickly beset with dark purple setae. R. neniorosus,
or dumetorum ( diversifolius of the London Catalogue),
is a form of corylifolius intermediate with this section
and the cas'd. The leaves are variable, of the same
character as regards imbrication, but the stems, and
especially the rachis pedicels and sepals, are abun-
dantly furnished with setae ; the petals,
however, are obovate and not contiguous ;
not narrow, as in R. glandulosus ; and the
sepals not furnished with a long acumen,
as in that species. It is also of frequent
occurrence in hedges.

( To be co?itinued. )

THE LAND AND FRESHWATER
SHELLS OF TASMANIA.

By W. F. Petterd.

\ LTHOUGH the descriptions of many
species of the Conchological Fauna

A

Fig. 169. Ditto of
R. discolor.

ley Wood, Broxbourne. Allied to this is R. pallidas
(or rosaceus), also a trailing but more prostrate
bramble than hystrix ; with bright red stems, and
leaves of a lighter green and of a different shape ;
leaflets obovate acuminate, the terminal one some-
what cordate ; the panicle simple and racemose ;
petals white ; sepals ovate, not leaf-pointed. Harrow
Weald Common. On Hampstead Heath and on the
sandy heaths adjoining the Basingstoke Canal there
is a trailing bramble, with an open panicle of pink
flowers, remarkably leafy, pointed sepals, and leaflets
green on both sides, which would seem to be R.
bloxami. The stems are much less setose than in
any other species of this section.

b. T/ansilion of prickles into acicula, seta , and

of Tasmania have appeared scattered
through various scientific publications, I
do not think a brief and condensed sketch
of what is up to the present known concerning the
land and freshwater shells of this island will be
altogether an unacceptable contribution to the
columns of Science-Gossip, for I feel assured it
must number many among its readers that take an
interest in Conchology. My design in writing the
present paper is not to enter into elaborate and ex-
haustive details of the description and distribution of
the various species, but to give a general idea of the
land and freshwater shells Of this far-off land. Tas-
mania is situated about 120 miles south of the south-
eastern corner of the Australian continent; it is 165
miles average length and 155 average breadth, and,
exclusive of adjacent small and numerous islands
and indentations, has about 7°° miles of a coast-line

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

207

of diversified aspect, often rugged in the extreme,
their beautiful snow-white sands stretching for miles.
It is watered by numerous streams, which meander
through its wild mountain-ranges and undulating
hills that intersect the island, mostly covered with
dense vegetation of gigantic trees and almost im-
penetrable undergrowth. These natural barriers and
the physical character of the island, by dividing it into
districts, may to some extent account for the extremely
restricted localization of many of the species of land
and freshwater shells, which is very marked and
noticeable to the conchologist, although the disper-
sion of animal life in the other departments of zoology
is not so generally restricted. The marine species
have received much attention, and the richness of the
Tasmanian coasts is well known among the lovers of
nature, comprising, among its numerous members,
some of the most gorgeous and attractive of the
collector’s cabinet. Among the number may be
mentioned Cyprceciovida utnbilicata , Voluta fusi-
f or mis, V. mantilla , V. papillosa , V. Sclateri , and
V. Augasi, with the beautiful Venus lam ellata, Tryonia
margaritifera , Phasianella Australis , and many others
of equally attractive appearance.

Recently many new species have been described in the
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, mostly
from dredging operations on the coast, comprising
species of genera hitherto unrecorded from this island,
and some even from Australia. They include new species
of Mur ex, Trophon , Ranella, Siphonalia, Dentalium,
Gibbula, Cyclostrema, Scissurella, Marginella, Conus,
Pleurotoma, Columbella , Conionella, Styloptygma,
Stylifer, Rissoa, Mytilus , Gouldia, Kellia, Macro -
schisma, Turbonilla , Clanculus, Diloma, DapJinella ,
Fusus, Triforis, Natica, Crossea, Liotia, Acmcca,
Callista, Myadora, Gasterochccna, and a new Astele,
a genus of Swainson’s, described by that talented
naturalist when in Tasmania, in the Proc. Royal
Society of Tasmania for 1854.

The land shells of Tasmania have received a fair
share of attention from Australian scientists, [and
numerous species have been described by Dr. Cox
and Mr. Brazier. The former, in his monograph of
Australian land shells, enumerates twenty-two species
as from Tasmania ; the latter gentleman has
many descriptions in Proc. Zoological Soc. of London
{vide Proc. for June, 1870, &c.), and a general cata-
logue was published by Mr. Legrand, in i87r, of
all the sorts known up to that year. Since then
several additional have been described in the Proc.
Linnean Society of New South Wales, and Proc.
Royal Society of Tasmania. The number of de-
scribed species now known is eighty-seven, dis-
tributed in the following genera : Bulimus 2 ; Vitrina
2 ; Succinea 2 ; Truncatella I ; and Helix 80 ; and
during my last collecting tour in the northern portion
of the island I obtained twenty-two additional
species, seven Helices, which are as yet undescribed.
The Helices are strikingly different from those of the

mainland of Australia, although I have collected
several undescribed species in Victoria with a some-
what general resemblance to some of the Tasmanian
species ; nevertheless, the general characteristic
difference is very distinct and noticeable. The number
of species, more especially of the smaller forms, is
surprising, particularly when it is taken into con-
sideration that but a very small portion of the
island has been searched for land-shells, for the
workers in natural history are extremely few in
number. I have never, to my recollection, collected
in a fresh locality without finding one or more new
species, which is certainly a great stimulus for further
investigation in this attractive department of science,
so that we may reasonably anticipate a great augmen-
tation in their number as the unsearched localities
are worked up.

Among the most remarkable sorts may be men-
tioned Helix Launcestonensis, Reese, a fine large
and unique form, of a black colour, with a broad
yellow band on the under surface. It is confined to
the dense myrtle forests in the north-eastern portion
of the island, where it is comparatively plentiful
about decaying vegetable debris. Helix lampra,
Pfr., a pretty glossy wild chestnut shell, found
generally distributed along Jhe northern coast-line.
Helix lamproides, Cox, which reaches occasionally
the size of II. Launcestonensis, and is possibly the
H. bisulcata of Pfeiffer.

Helix dispar, Brazier, is the only species recorded
with a tooth in the interior of the aperture, either
from this island or Australia.

Helix vitrinaformis, Cox, a curious form dis-
covered by myself on Mount Wellington, with a
peculiar Vitrina-like appearance, and Helix Weldii,
Tenison Woods (Proc. Royal Soc. of Tasmania,
1877), a very interesting minute shell from Circular
Head, as it is the only reversed Helix recorded from
Australasia. The majority of the remainder com-
prise a group of small Helices very different from
those of any other part of the world, of which only
three species have been ascertained with any cer-
tainty to be common both to the mainland and
Tasmania; viz., H. Sydneyensis, Cox, which is
abundant in cellars and such-like places in Sydney,
New South Wales ; Auckland, New Zealand ; and
similar localities in Launceston and Hobart Town.
It may possibly be the European II. cellaria, intro-
duced by some means. H. Alexandras, Cox, which
is abundant in gardens about Sydney, New South
Wales, and like localities around Hobart Town.
This I consider the acclimatized H. costata of
Europe. The other is H. Norti, Cox, which is
generally distributed through Southern Australia,
and may have been brought over by accident with
plants, or by some such means. The identification
of this species is somewhat doubtful, for I think,
upon careful examination, the Tasmanian specimens
will prove to be a distinct species.

208

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Of the Bulimi, B. Dufresnii, Leach, is an unique
form, distantly represented by B. Angasianus , Pfr.,
in Australia. It is widely distributed, and varies
much in general coloration and size. The larger
specimens are found in the dense jungle, and the
smaller dwarf varieties in the more open and dry
parts.

B. Tasmanicus, Pfr., is allied to B. Kingi , Gray,
of King George’s Sound. It is distributed around the
northern and eastern coasts, always near the sea,
clustering on trees and rocks, almost invariably in
considerable abundance.

Vitrina Milligani , Pfr., is one of the finest species
of the genus ; it is of a beautiful shiny black colour,
and is truly the gem of the land shells of the island,
for its remarkable colour and size render it very
attractive. It represents in Tasmania H. attramen-
tasia of Victoria, Australia, and H. Busbyi of New
Zealand. The animal is of a bright and showy red
colour. It is confined to the western portion of the
island, where it is tolerably plentiful in the dense fern
scrubs, particularly about the Duck River.

V. Verreauxi , Pfr., the only other species, is gene-
rally distributed, aud reaches a somewhat large size
in favourable localities. I obtained a species in Gibb’s-
land, Victoria, bearing a close resemblance to this
shell.

Like the land species, the fresh-water are very
local in their distribution, almost every creek and
mountain-stream affording a distinct species. The
Rev. J. T. Woods, in a paper read before the Royal
Society of Tasmania, enumerated 32 species ; that is
to say, 28 univalves and 4 bivalves, belonging to the
following genera: — Physa , 12 ; Limnea , 4; By-
thinea, 7 ; Ancylus , 2; Pomiatopsis , 1 ; Planorbis , I ;
Assiminea, 1 ; Unio, 1 ; Pisidium , 2 ; Cyclas, 1.
More recently he has described a species each of the
genera Valvata and Ampullaria. Mr. Brazier, in
the Pro. Linnean Society of New South Wales for
1876, describes two species, which he places in the
genus Amnicola, — A. Petterdiana and A. Sivisoniana ,
and he has also described, in the Pro. Zoological
Society of London,. two species which he assigns to
the genus Paluaestrina.

The Physa and Limnea are of the ordinary forms,
having mostly close representatives in the mainland
of Australia ; and the same may be said of the re-
mainder, with the exception of two, viz., the Ancylus,
A.Cmningianus , Bourgingnat, a remarkably fine and
pretty species, — in fact, the finest of the genus known
up to the present time. It is peculiar to the Upper
Derwent River, in the southern portion of the island,
and is without doubt the most remarkable and inte-
resting of the fresh- water shells of Tasmania. The
other is a small shell, which the Rev. J. T. Woods
has placed in the genus Ampullaria, to which genus
it very doubtfully belongs, for, in all probability,
upon close examination of the animal, it will be
found to require a sub-genus, if not an entirely new

genus, for its reception. The specimens were col-
lected in a creek on the northern coast of the island.
Several species still remain undescribed, and no
doubt, as further investigation proceeds, many more
novelties will be brought to light in this highly inte-
resting portion of natural science ; as it is, the number
of species now known is great for its comparative
small size. Still, much remains to be done before we
shall have a complete and exhaustive knowledge of
the land and fresh- water shells of Tasmania. Should
this short and rough sketch prove of interest to the
readers of Science-Gossip, I shall be only too
happy to contribute something more concerning the
conchology of Australasia.

MICROSCOPY,

An Improved Wax Cell. — The following plan
of mounting in wax is a modification of that sug-
gested by Professor H. L. Smith, of New York
(Science-Gossip, December, 1876). To my mind
it possesses two great advantages over that of the
professor, being cheaper and more easily accom-
plished. Into the centre of a clean glass slip place
one of Pumphrey’s vulcanite rings, and into this put
a few chips of white wax ; then hold the slip over
the flame of a spirit-lamp until the wax is melted,
and set aside to cool, taking care that the ring does
not slide out of position. When well set the wax will
be found to have formed a capital cell on the inside of
the ring, and to have filled up the angle formed by
the outside of the ring and the glass slip. This form
is meant essentially for opaque objects, but it can
be easily made available for transparent mounts by
placing the slide upon the turntable, and with a
broad-pointed scalpel turning out the centre of the
wax cell. An exceedingly neat opaque mount is
made by filling up this central space with asphalte
or other black varnish whilst it rests on the turn-
table. To fix the cover-glass, rub the end of a piece
of warm wax round the upper surface of the vulcanite
ring, when sufficient will be found to adhere for the
purpose; place the cover in position, and pass a
heated iron round the edge, and the whole process is
complete. In this way a great many objects may be
mounted, ready for the cabinet, at a single
sitting, which for neatness, durability, and sim-
plicity of construction are unrivalled. — H. C. Crew,
Netherton.

Quekett Microscopical Club. — The 13th
annual meeting of this flourishing society was held
at University College on July 26th, Henry Lee,
Esq., F.L.S., President, in the chair. The report of
the committee briefly reviewed the work of the past
year, and congratulated the members upon the con-
tinued prosperity of the club in every department of
its work. A large number of books had been added to

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIE.

209

the library, 185 slides had been presented to the
cabinet, the meetings had been well attended, and
many valuable and interesting papers had been read.
49 new members had been added to the list during
the year, making the present number 562. The
treasurer’s statement of account was also presented to
the meeting, and showed the satisfactory balance in
hand of ^106. 13s. 5d. The president then delivered
the customary annual address, taking for his subject
“The commercial application of the microscope,”
in the course of which many interesting instances
were cited to show how the skilful application of the
microscope had proved of great value in the settle-
ment of important questions of social and commercial
interest. Much good counsel was also given to the
members as to the future usefulness of the club, and a
well-merited tribute was paid to the honorary secre-
tary, members of the committee, and officers, to whose
efficient discharge of their various duties so much
of their success was due. Votes of thanks were
unanimously passed to the president and officers of
the society for their services during the past year, also
to the council of University College for continued per-
mission to meet in that building; and an announcement
that a donation from the funds of the club of twenty
pounds had been voted towards the building fund now
being raised for enlarging the college, was received
with cheers. Some further interest was also excited by
the presentation of a valuable gold watch to Mr. R.

T. Lewis, as a mark of appreciation of his services as
honorary reporter since 1866. Dr. Harkness, of San
Francisco, having been introduced to the meeting as
a distinguished foreign visitor, was requested to con-
vey the greeting of the club to the microscopical
society of San Francisco, and briefly acknowledged
the compliment on behalf of himself and his colleagues.
The result of the ballot for officers and council for
the ensuing year was as follows : — President, Professor
Huxley ; Vice-Presidents, Dr. Matthews, Messrs.
Henry Lee, C. Stewart, and T. C. White ; Trea-
surer, Mr. Gay; Secretary, Mr. Ingpen ; Foreign
Secretary, Dr. M. C. Cooke ; and to fill four vacancies
on the committee, Messrs. F. Crisp, A. D. Michael,

E. T. Newton, and F. Oxley.

A Theoretical Limit to the Apertures of
Microscopical Objectives. — At a recent meeting
of the Royal Microscopical Society, Professor Stokes
read a paper on the above subject, in which he
showed that theoretically a pencil of rays from a
radiant in glass (or under equivalent conditions) of
1800 could be refracted by a single refraction at a
spherical surface so as to present to the second lens
a pencil of about 81 0 free from spherical aberration ;
and, while not asserting the possibility of utilising the
whole of the pencil of 1800 in glass, he thought a
very large part of it might be available in a practical
construction, — a far larger part than can be used in
dry lenses. ,

ZOOLOGY,

Birds’ Eggs in Wrong Nests. — The circum-
stance mentioned by Mr. Sharpe in the number for
July must be very unusual. Last year, on May 9th,
I found a blackbird’s nest with three blackbird’s eggs
and a thrush’s ; the blackbird was sitting, but I do
not know if they were hatched off. In April, 1873,
I found a coot’s nest near St. Albans with seven
coot’s eggs and one moorhen’s. On going again a
few days afterwards I found an eighth coot’s egg and a
second moorhen’s, with the coot sitting on them.
These are the only instances I can recollect to have
met with of one species of bird laying in another
nest, besides the ordinary custom of the cuckoo, during
several years’ experience of birds’-nesting. Single
eggs of various birds, partridges, thrushes, and black-
birds, more especially, are frequently found dropped
on the ground, probably either because the bird has
not finished its nest in time, or else because its nest
has been torn out. In pulling out an old partridge’s
nest some years ago, from which all the young birds
had run (by the way it was, as I should say they
usually are, rather elaborately concocted of dead
leaves, grass, &c.) ; in the materials I found an egg
which had evidently been laid while the nest was in
making, and had been covered up so effectually by
the lining that it was addled. I have also a red-
start’s egg which my brother found in a corner of an
old tree, between the trunk and a branch, where it had
evidently been dropped for lack of a nest. Very
probably the starlings not having a nest of their own
ready, made use of their neighbour’s from the same
cause. — A. F. Griffith , Cambridge.

Appearance of Papilio Maciiaon.— On the
25th of June, 1876, the weather was warm and fine.
At noon on that day P. Machaon made its appearance
out of the pupa ; the wings were developing at the
time. Another machaon emerged from the pupa just
before 8 a.m. on the 25th June 1878; its wings
were fully developed ; the weather was warm and fine.
Both imagos emerged on the same day of the same
month in different years. This may be of interest to
those who notice the influence of insects. The usual
month for its appearance is May. — R. A. Dent.

Testacella Haliotoidea I have lately found
in considerable abundance in my garden ; they are
generally found whilst turning up the ground. The
nearest recorded locality I believe to be Taunton, in
Somerset. I have some in confinement, and have
been watching their habits, which are very interesting.
— H. T. Johnston- Lavis, Stalbridge , Dorset.

BOTANY,

The Pronunciation of Scientific Names.—
Cordially agreeing with the principles laid down by
Mr. Charles Browne, I only write once more on this
subject with reference to three names mentioned by hi m.

2 10

HARD WICKE *S S C I ENCE - G 0 SSIP.

— Veronica , Clematis, and Gladiolus. Not presuming
to give an opinion as to the origin of the legend and
name, or name and legend, of the saint who bears a
name derived from the Latin vera and the Greek
eikon , I venture to think it highly probable that, as
a plant-name, Veronica is simply a corruption of
Betonica, and is therefore rightly accentuated on the
second syllable. Clematis is now rapidly giving
place to the more natural, as well as the more accu-
rate, Clematis. Gladiolus is no worse than Gladiolus.
The probably classical alternative, Gladjolus, does
not seem to occur to the ordinary gardener’s ear. —
G. S. Boulger.

Notes on Silene inflata. — Is it commonly
known that this widely-distributed plant is di-, if
not tri-, morphous ? On Wednesday evening, the
1 2th June, I was forced to seek shelter beneath a tall
hedge from one of those not very seasonable storms
that were this year so disagreeably characterising this
month. Amusing myself by examining various flowers
within my reach, I was struck with the apparent fact
that there were two well-marked forms of the common
Catchfly. In one form the three styles (sometimes
4, sometimes 5) projected fully | from the tube of
corolla, no stamens being visible. A closer exami-
nation showed that the stamens were present, but
that their filaments were extremely short, seldom
much exceeding the average in length ; and, more
remarkable still, that the anthers were contabescent,
i.e., dry and shrivelled, containing no pollen. In
the other form the stamens projected while the
styles were rarely visible. On pulling to pieces these
flowers, however, the styles were found more or less
closely oppressed, and evidently quite immature.
Further examination showTed that this form was
decidedly proterandr'ous ; for, though the stamens suc-
cessively arrive at maturity, commencing with those
on the under side, all the anthers have shed their
pollen before the styles are fully grown. At this time
they are largely exserted, and have their receptive
stigmas widely spreading. I have since passed many
hundreds of plants in review, and find these two
forms about equally distributed in this district, and
wonderfully persistent in the characters mentioned.
There does not appear to be any other striking points
of difference between them, so far as I can at present
determine. The first form is evidently to all intents
and purposes always female ; the second, first male
and then female. I found a very few plants in which
the presence of a few dry anthers (the rest being per-
fect) seemed to indicate a transition stage between
the two. Fertilization must, I think, be brought
about by a small dipterous fly, but how is not very
clear. Its common name of Catchfly is fully justified,
as any one may see who will take the trouble to
examine a number of plants in the earlier part of the
day. Almost every flower will then have a tenant.
I applied to Dr. Morton, who informs me that Sir
John Lubbock quotes Axell, to the effect that there

are three forms, one with stamens only, another with
pistils only, and yet a third with both stamens and
pistil. This scarcelv agrees with my observations on
British specimens. If it be correct with regard to con-
tinental species, it is highly interesting as showing
that the modification in them has proceeded much
further than in ours, and along a somewhat different
line, as I can find no tendency to the production of
purely male plants in ours. — J. Hepworth , Rochester.

Variability of Colour in Hollyhocks. — In
the autumn of 1873 I picked up a spike, or rather
stem, of a hollyhock, with ripe seeds, which had been
thrown on a heap of rubbish where it was customary
to dispose of the refuse of neighbouring gardens. It
was kept through the winter, and then the seeds on
it were sown in a row in which the seeds from the
lower part of the spike were sown at one end, those
at the upper part at the other end, and the others
between them in positions corresponding with those
they occupied on the plant. When they had come
up I took one, as from the lower part of the spike, and
planted by itself, and another from the uppermost
part and planted by itself, in perhaps a better situa-
tion. These two plants flowered in 1875. The one
which grew from a seed produced on the upper part
of the parent stem was rather stronger in growth and
earlier in flowering than the other, which I attributed
to its more favourable situation ; for I find that holly-
hocks are very much affected by circumstances.
This earliest flowering plant had blossoms of a crim-
son red, those of the other were of a much darker
colour. The plant with crimson blossoms was the
one from which I took the seed which I sowed in
1876, putting in the ground the seeds from each
flower separately as well as I could, — though I cannot
be perfectly sure there was no error, as a few seeds
fell out of their places on the ground. The plants,
however, which came up in irregular places I de-
stroyed, that I might ensure as much accuracy as
possible. I had expected a difference in habit among
plants raised from seeds proceeding from different
parts of the inflorescence, but did not think of colour.
Of two plants from seeds at the bottom of the spike,
one was left on the seed-bed, where it is now alive,
having made no attempt to flower. This seems to
show the necessity for planting out seedling hollyhocks
in order to their becoming vigorous. The other which
I planted out in 1877, flowered, as did also four plants
from seeds taken from a lateral spike which sprung
from the same stem. The seedling plant from the
spike of the main stem produced crimson flowers, like
those of its parent ; the plants from seeds on the
lateral spike were white, with only so much of a
reddish tint as to indicate their parentage. Not
having much ground at my disposal, I did not take
heed of the seedlings from the middle of the spike,
but planted out nine grown from the seeds yielded by
one of the uppermost flowers. Seeds from the upper-
most flowers of all, which were hardly ripened, ger-

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

2 I I

initiated, but the plants had not vital force enough
to live through the summer. The nine which I
transplanted did not flower till this year, and they
have not all flowered now. Three of them are like
the one from the lower part of the spike one is much
darker, and with many a blossom, having six petals.
The plants from the lateral spike having all white
flowers, that those from the main spike should pre-
sent this richer colour, is what I did not expect.
I suppose the variability displayed in this instance
may be dependent on the fact that the parent plant
from which the seeds were gathered was itself derived
from a seed on the upper part of a stem. But there
is one plant whose flowers are yet unopened ; and
from what I can make out by examining the bud, it
seems as if its flowers would be white. This is so
inexplicable as to make me examine my memory as
to the possibility of errors, but I trust you will believe
me that I cannot imagine any source of error as to
the seeds being those of the same plant, and so far as
I have reason to believe, four plants with crimson
flowers, one with rather lighter, two with deeper,
richer colour, and one whose blossoms will also spring
from seeds proceeding from the same flower. I
enclose flowers, the two white being of plants from
seeds on the lateral spike, the others from the main
spike, the most diverse from one of the upper flowers ;
the one from the lowest flower undistinguishable
from three others. — John Gibbs.

How to grow Filmy Ferns. — A writer in The
Garden gives the following interesting instructions.
Any one interested in these most beautiful of ferns
may grow them successfully without covering them
with bell-glasses or keeping them in warm houses.
In confirmation of this we may refer to a houseful of
them in the Boxhill Nursery. It is of small dimen-
sions and sunk in the ground, so that the eaves of the
roof, which is of octagon shape, are only just above
the surface. It is entered by means of rustic steps
through a narrow span-roofed house, in which hardy
British ferns are growing amongst virgin cork. The
inside of the Filmy Fern-house is lined in the first
place with old railway sleepers, placed in an upright
position, and which support the roof. These are
covered with virgin cork, on which are growing
various kinds of ferns. The Filmy varieties consist
of fine specimens of Trichomanes. Radicans , Todea
Superba, T. Pellucuia , and others are growing in
pots or pans placed on a bank raised three feet or so
above the ground-floor, and extending all round the
house, excepting at the doorway. The side walls
are built with rough stones, among which grow club-
mosses and small ferns. A canvas shading under the
roof is left there summer and winter, but no means
are provided for heating the house artificially.
Inside it is easily kept damp and close, and under
such conditions Filmy Ferns grow remarkably well,
both in summer and winter.

Dimorphism in the Rubiacehd. — Mr. C. B.
Clarke, in a paper on this subject read before the
Linnaean Society, shows that there are two kinds of
dimorphism in the Rubiacece. The group is known
to be largely dimorphic, the variations consisting
chiefly in the lengths of the style and stamens. Mr.
Clarke’s two forms of dimorphism are as follows : —
I. Where the point of insertion of the stamens is
altered, being situate in one form high above the
middle of the corolla tube, and in another form at
the base of the corolla tube. 2. Where there are two
kinds of fruit, one corresponding to a sessile flower,
and another to a peduncled flower.

“Flowers, their Origin, Shapes, Per-
fumes, and Colours.” By J. E. Taylor, F.L.S.,
&c. A second edition of this work has already
been called for, and has just been published. The
author has corrected various errors which almost un-
avoidably creep into a work of this kind, touching as
it does on such a multiplicity of subjects. An
American edition has also been prepared and sent
over. The rapidity with which this book has gone
off, whilst gratifying to the author, is a sure token of
the widespread interest taken by the public in the
leading scientific questions of the day.

Botanical Notes.— Aram italicum. — This plant
as many of your readers are aware, is much more
abundant than Macidatwn in Jersey, and, I believe,
Guernsey. Orobanche major and Linnm perenne. —
Can your correspondent, C. Parkinson, inform me if
the specimens of 0. major , “parasitical on ivy,” and
Linnm perenne in field,” noticed in Isle of Wight,
have been verified, as the undoubted occurrence of
these plants would be interesting ?— G. C. Druce.

GEOLOGY.

The Physical History of the English Lake-
district. — This was the subject of a paper read by
Mr. J. Clifton Ward, F.G.S., in which the authortraces
the physical history of the Lake-district from the com-
mencement of the period when the Skiddaw slate
was deposited. To this succeeded the volcanic
Borrowdale series, which is followed, after a physical
break, by the Coniston Limestone. Between this
and the succeeding Silurian deposits there is little, if
any, break. Thus, in the Lake-district, the break
between Upper and Lower Silurian is physically
below the Coniston Limestone, though palaeontologi-
cally it is above it. The Old Red Sandstone period
was one of denudation, which was continued into
the Carboniferous period ; and perhaps the whole
district was actually covered by the sea daring the
maximum depression of the Lower Carboniferous
epoch. Since then it has probably never been sub-
merged, but exposed to continuous subaerial denu-
dation. The physical significance of the Mell Fell
(Lower Carboniferous) conglomerates received special

212

HARD WICKE S SCI E NCE - G OSSIE.

attention. The author then, from consideration of
the amount of deposition and rate of denudation,
attempts to estimate the period which has elapsed
since the commencement of the record, and sets it
down as 62,000,000 of years. The author then
considers the age of the Skiddaw slates. From litho-
logical resemblances he is led to correlate the Skiddaw
grit with the basement grit in the Welsh Arenig
series, and thus to regard the beds below the grit as
the equivalent of the Tremadoc, and perhaps of part
of the Lingula Flags. The palaeontological evidence
for the correspondence of the Arenig series with the
whole of the Skiddaw slates rests chiefly on Grapto-
lites and Trilobites. The author holds that the
evidence from the former is inconclusive, and that
from the latter to some extent contradictory, so tha^
the physical evidence can in no way be overridden
by it.

Stromatopora and Loftusia. — Principal
Dawson has contributed a statement of his views as
to the nature of these problematical fossils from the
palaeozoic rocks, which are commonly known as
Stromatopora. They are massive fossils, often showing
concentric structures when weathered, and have been
referred by different writers to the corals, to the
Hydroida as allied to Hydractinia, and to the
Foraminifera. Principal Dawson says that Stroma-
topora is ‘ ‘ a calcareous, non-spicular body, composed
of continuous concentric porous laminae, thickened
with supplemental deposit, and connected by vertical
pillars, most of which are solid ” ; and he maintains
his old opinion, that “ Stromatopora is a foraminiferal
organism and the palaeozoic representative of the
Laurentian Eozoon .”

Norwich Geological Society. — We have re-
ceived Part I. of the “ Proceedings ” of this old-
established society, containing a list of all the papers
read before the society since its foundation in 1864,
and abstract of papers read during the recent session.

Ancient Man. — Mr. Thomas Belt, F.G.S., the
well-known naturalist, has made the interesting dis-
covery of a human skull in the section of a railway
cutting in the neighbourhood of Denver, Colorado.
The skull was imbedded in perfectly undisturbed
ground, at about three feet and a half from the sur-
face. Neither the lower jaw nor any other bones were
found with the skull.

Fossil Saurians from the Cape. — Mr. Thomas
Bain, F.G.S., the well-known African traveller and
geologist, has just sent home a splendid collection of
fossil Saurians, many of which are new to science,
and which have been found in the carboniferous and
triassic formations of Cape Colony. They include
skulls and other remains of Dicynodon , Galeosaurus ,
Cynodracon, Oudenodon , &c.

The Coralline Crag. — Dr. Gvvyn Jeffreys, in a
communication to the Linnrean Society, on some

shells dredged in the Korean straits, said that of
fourteen species enumerated, six are now, for the
first time, found living in the North Pacific as well
as the Atlantic. Micinella ovalis and Kellia pumila ,
which had been supposed to be extinct, are shown to
be living in the Korean region. No fewer than nine
of the above fourteen species are Coralline crag fossils.
Dr. Jeffreys holds that these facts support his view,
that Mollusca common to the North Atlantic and
North Pacific Oceans may have originated in high
northern latitudes and have found their way to Japan
on the one side and Europe on the other, by means
of the bifurcation of the great Arctic current.

Our Water Supplies. — Mr. De Ranee has re-
cently read a paper, “ On the Palaeozoic and Secondary
Rocks of England as a Source of Water Supply for
Towns andDistricts, ” before the Manchester Geological
Society. The paper contains much useful informa-
tion on a subject growing every year more important,
inasmuch as the demand for water increases, while
springs and rivers do not increase. Instances are
given which show how vast are the underground
stores of water within the region occupied by the
rocks above-named. A spring at Barrow-in-Furness
yields, from a depth of two hundred and fifty feet,
thirteen thousand five hundred gallons of water daily.
Nearly three million gallons a day are pumped from
a single well at Liverpool. Three-fourths of the
seven million five hundred thousand gallons supplied
daily to Birmingham is got from wells in the New
Red Sandstone, and the water is described as of a
uniformly excellent quality, and the Perry Well as
one of the best waters for dietetic and domestic pur-
poses ever inspected. Kidderminster has deep wells,
one of which gives one hundred thousand gallons a
day, and yet the present domestic supply is entirely
derived from dangerously polluted shallow wells and
streams.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Double Egg. — Last year a friend brought me two
hen’s-eggs which were joined together in a very
curious manner. The shell was continued at the
apices in the form of a tube connecting the two eggs,
about i in. long and £ in. thick. It formed ap-
parently a perfect communication, being filled with
albumen. The eggs had the appearance of leaning
one against the other, one being quite depressed
where the other came in contact with it, which was
about a quarter of an inch below the points of junc-
tion. I may mention that the shells of the eggs were
very imperfect, being almost soft in some places. — G .
M. Doe, Torrington.

Fungus on Flies. — I have seen a somewhat
similar instance to that mentioned by Mr. E. Wheeler,
but with this difference, that the flies so affected
seemed to be confined to one particular plant. The
plant was withered and dried, and the flies (several
dozens) were stuck about it in all directions, and in
very natural attitudes. I was not at that time botanist
or dipterist enough to identify either the plant or the
insects, but the latter were very similar in appearance

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

213

to the Yellow Dung-fly (S. stercorarius). They
appeared to be all of one species. — W. II. Warner,
Standlake.

Book on Dragon-flies, &c. — Can any reader
of Science-Gossif inform me of a work on the
British Libellulce (or Dragon-flies) giving plain and
satisfactory descriptions of each species? The price
must be moderate. Also of a similar work on the
British Ants. — W. H. Warner.

Bees and Paint. — In answer to Mr. Smith’s
query on this point I must confess my utter inability
to assign any probable cause for his bees’ apparent
fondness for paint — my sole reason for replying to his
question being to draw attention to another curious
penchant of bees, viz., their partiality for smoke. In
early spring, when engaged in gardening operations, I
have often noticed the few bees out at that time
hovering about the weed fires, and endeavouring to
penetrate into them, even when the thick dense smoke
has been issuing in volumes from the fires. This
proceeding has often puzzled me exceedingly. The
genial warmth given out by the fires is doubtless the
attraction. — W. H. Warner , Standlake.

Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus.) — Towards the middle
of July I caught in the garden (within two miles of
the centre of Birmingham) a young cuckoo. It flew
into the greenhouse, and was there caught. I sup-
jjose that the bird was enticed by the great quantity
of magpie moths with which the kitchen-garden
swarmed, so much so that (much as I disapprove of
killing creatures uselessly) I destroyed over fifty cater-
pillars in twenty minutes, and have caught in a net
almost as many perfect insects in the same time. As
I have never seen a cuckoo similar to this one before
I give below measurements and general description : —
Extreme length from tip of bill to end of tail, ni
inches; length of wing, 9^ inches; spread, 20 inches;
third primary, 7^ inches; tarsus, finch; and tibia, if
inches. The plumage was dark iron-grey, except
primaries and secondaries, which were of usual colour
barred with “rufus.” The barrings of throat as in
the adult bird, but with a great tendency to very dark
brownish-grey, so as to appear at a little distance to
be almost black. Tail, greyish-black, with “ rufus”
markings on inner webs. Iris, dark hazel-brown ;
cere, very light lemon-yellow. Upper mandible of bill,
hair-brown ; lower mandible, lighter brown at tip ;
suffused with light-yellow gape ; and inside of mouth
as usual, orange ; legs and toes, light lemon-yellow,
suffused with pink. — G. T. B.

Dittany. — Your June issue contains a request,
preferred by Henry F. Bailey, for information re-
specting “the name of the species of Dittany .” It
is an American plant, and is described in Professor
Asa Gray’s “ Manual of Botany.” It belongs to the
Mint Family ( Labiatce ). The Common Dittany is
Cunila Manana. It blooms, with us, from July to
September. Gray affirms that the Latin name is of
“unknown origin.” The Mandrake is also an
American plant (. Podophyllum peltatu/n). It is a
member of the Barberry family ( Berberidacecz ), and
is the well-known Podophyllum of the Pharmacopoeia,
so valuable a specific in complaints of the liver. We
read, Genesis xxx. 14, that “ Reuben went in the
days of wheat harvest, and found mandrakes in the
field.” This, I need scarcely add, is an older quota-
tion than any that can be culled from the works
of “ our early poets,” referred to by Mr. Bailey. —
V. Clementi.

Vanessa Antiopa. — W. R. Morse inserts a query
respecting the Va?iessa Antiopa. This is one of our

' commonest Butterflies. There is no doubt that our
specimens have a yellow margin to their wings. At
the same time Westwood, to whose beautiful work
1 I refer your correspondent, says that the margin of
the English specimens is “of a white or whitish
colour”; also that “the pale margin of the wings
varies to deepish yellow.” I was under the impres-
sion that this handsome butterfly had become extinct
in England. — V. Clementi.

Co li as. — The Colias mentioned by C. E. B.
Hewitt is a very common butterfly in Canada, and
may be frequently seen, in larg'i numbers, fluttering
over rain-puddles on our roads, or settling on their
margin. This pretty butterfly is thus described by
the American entomologist, T. W. Harris : “Their
wings are yellow, with a black hind border, which
in the females is quite broad on the fore wings, and
spotted with yellow ; the fringes of the wings, the
antennae, and the shanks are red ; the fore wings
have a small narrow black spot on both sides near
the middle ; the hind wings have a round orange-
coloured spot in the middle of the upper side, which
on the under side is replaced by a large and a small
silvery spot close together, and surrounded by a rust-
coloured ring.” — V. Clementi , Ontario, Canada.

Lapwings ( Vancllns cristatus). — During the snow-
storm in the end of March and beginning of April,
the Lapwings, who had returned to their breeding-
grounds, were so pressed with hunger, that some
entered the very houses in search of food. After the
snow had disappeared, the remains of hundreds who
had perished were to be seen. It appears they will
rather die of starvation than leave their favourite
haunts in the breeding season. — IV. S. Fyvie.

Intelligence of a Magpie. — Some years ago,
when residing at Stowmarket, I was much struck
with the intelligence of a Magpie belonging to my
next-door neighbour. In a very short time, and
without any effort to teach it on the part of any one,
it learnt the names of several members of my family,
and never misapplied them. This proves that birds,

; in acquiring human language, connect the object and
the word, and do not use the latter at random. The
Magpie in question was evil-disposed, and loved to
annoy girls by pecking their feet ; but on the approach
of a man or a boy it scuffled away, uttering most
unparliamentary phrases. Its leg having been acci-
dentally broken, it repudiated all surgical aid. It
used to sit on the sound foot and hold up the maimed
limb, looking at it disconsolately, and pecking at the

bandages with continual ejaculations of “ D it !”

and died at last worn to a skeleton. — J . W. Slater.

Gigantic Mullein. — When botanizing on the
15th of August last in Spittlesea Wood, near the
place I was gratified by finding an extraordinary
specimen of the Great Mullein ( Verbascum t haps us).
It towered up to the height of eight feet and a half,
lifting its spike of yellow blossoms above the sur-
rounding undergrowth, which had been cut down
about three years ago. The total length of the
raceme was three feet six inches, and at the base of
it were two small lateral flower spikes, the one about
six and the other about eight inches in length. Not
far from the spot other specimens were growing,
the height of which was five and a half feet, but
this appeared quite diminutive by the side of its
gigantic fellow. This excessive growth may be
accounted for by the humidity of the season and the
sheltered position in which it grew. The soil is
light gravel, over chalk, with flint. — y. Saunders,
Luton.

HARDWJCKE* S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

2 j 4

Natural History Notes from Ireland. —
A hen was found in a loft, the flesh eaten and picked
off, leaving as perfect a skeleton as could be desired.
The feathers were lying about. Rats or mice would
have broken the bones. What animal could have

done it ? A young black rat was killed at Port-

more, Antrim, October, 1877. The gamekeeper

of Mr. Lowry, Pomeroy House, told me, within the
last two years he has caught, in traps set for rabbits,
two wild cats. I questioned him respecting them,
in case he might have mistaken them for the domestic
cat gone wild, but he stated they were perfectly dis-
tinct, having bushy tails like a fox, and dark grey in
colour. He could hardly be mistaken, as he is con-
stantly trapping the domestic cat. The water-vole

is found near Pomeroy ; the squirrel is also to be
found in the neighbouring woods ; the water-
ousel frequents the streams. — Sam. Arthur Brenan,
clerk.

Rare Birds. — It is with great regret that I read
of the slaughter of rare birds, recorded from time to
time in Science Gossip and other papers. I am
sure no real lover of birds, or true naturalist, would
so ruthlessly destroy birds, as they are destroyed, for
the sake of their skins, whenever they come to our
island. Hardly a season passes but that beautiful
bird the Hoopo appears in Berkshire, and I believe
it would breed, if it were not so eagerly sought after,
and shot. — J. L. H.

The Cuckoo and Water-Wagtail. — Last
August, before 9 a.m., a young cuckoo was observed
perched on a croquet-hoop on the lawn, in front of
our house, full in view of spectators from the win-
dows. A water- wagtail was busily engaged in feeding
it, flying on the hoop each time it fed its strange
foster-child. The cuckoo remained for half an hour
on the hoop, then flew on to a small rockery near,
and from thence to an adjacent railing, the wagtail
following it to both places, and continuing to feed it.
Both birds afterwards disappeared from sight in a
large sycamore-tree. The feeding-time lasted nearly
an hour, the wagtail often going some distance in
search of food for the cuckoo, ©ur gardener told us
he had noticed before the same birds thus occupied
in the early morning, and had also seen a young
cuckoo being fed by robins in a similar manner. —
C. M. Baynes.

A Mysterious Gift. — I remember reading in an
old book (which also gave an account of the first
ascent of the Peter Boite Mountain, near Port Louis)
an account of a French creole in Mauritius, who
possessed the marvellous faculty of discerning objects
far out at sea long before they were visible to the ordi-
nary human eye. His powers were repeatedly tested,
and he was officially employed by the governor or mer-
chants there to announce coming ships. He foretold
the arrival of the British fleet, which came to take
possession of the island, several days before it hove
in sight. He stated that he saw these objects upside
down (refracted ?) on the horizon, and professed to teach
his art ; but the attempt only proved that he was
possessed of some exceptional natural gift, perhaps
akin to what the Scotch call “second sight.” I
was under the impression that the foregoing account
was to be found in one of the volumes of Charles
Knight’s “Useful Knowledge Society’s Series”;
but as I have failed to discover it there, perhaps some
of your older readers can help me. My present pur-
pose is to point out a striking confirmation of the
above narrative, which I have recently met with on
p. 185 of Boddain-Wheltham’s “Pearl of the
Pacific.” In narrating a visit to the Samoan Archi-

! pelago, or Navigators’ Islands, he alludes to “a man
now living iu Tutuila, I believe,” he says, “ but who
formerly resided near Apia, who possessed the extra-
ordinary power of seeing in the clouds, or in the sky,
vessels that were bound for the island. Credible wit-
nesses told me,” he continues, “that he had fre-
quently foretold the approach of ships days and days
before their arrival, and had accurately described
them, their rigging, their build, and the weather they
were having — sometimes storm and sometimes calm ;
reference to the ships’ logs on their arrival in port
confirming the truth of his statements. He himself
attributed his remarkable visions to the state of the
atmosphere — a sort of mirage — at a certain point
where he took his observations, but I never heard of
anybody else witnessing similar phenomena.” I
thought the concurrence of these totally distinct and
independent accounts worthy of your attention, as
they may tend to establish the general fact of the
existence of a sort of “ double sight ” in certain gifted
individuals, and thus refer the mysterious power of
the “seer” to a physical rather than a spiritual
source. — F. A. Allen.

A Spider’s Instinct. — Dr. J. Lawrence-Hamil-
ton writes from 34, Gloucester-terrace, Hyde-park : —
“The following incident, which I witnessed, may
1 possibly interest some of your readers : — A boy re-
moved a small spider to place it in the centre of a big
spider’s web which was hung among foliage, and
distant some four feet from the ground. The larger
animal soon rushed from its hiding-place, under a
leaf, to attack the intruder, who ran up one of the
ascending lines by which the web was secured. The
big insect gained rapidly upon its desired prey, the
smaller creature (spiders are cannibals, notably the
I larger females, who are given to devour their smaller
male lovers). When the little spider was barely an
| inch in advance of its pursuer, the small spider cut
with one of its posterior legs the line behind itself, so
that the stronger insect fell to the ground, thus
affording time and opportunity for the diminutive
spider to escape along the ascending rope of the web.
This is not the only fact which seems to indicate that
a spider’s instinct may almost equal reason.”

How TO exterminate Mites. — In answer to
“ M. R. D.,” in the April number of Science-
Gossip, as to how to exterminate small mites, I
have myself found Keating’s Insect Powder quite
successful, after having tried other remedies in vain.
— Alfred Paterson.

Reasoning Power of Dogs. — I should like to
call attention to what I think to be a remarkable
instance of reasoning power in a dog (a setter, if I re-
member rightly). The yard in which this dog is kept
at large is separated from a very narrow lane by a
wall about five feet in height, from the top of which
our four-footed friend is wont to study humanity. On
an interesting occasion he loves to leap into the lane ;
but, when once down, he is unable to jump up again
I without a long run, and this is apparently rendered
impossible by the narrowness of the roadway. The
dog, on wishing to re-ascend, begins to trot round
and round in the centre of the path, gradually increas-
ing his pace and the diameter of the circle in which
he moves, until he is galloping round at full speed,
taking a good, “kick off” from the stone at each
revolution as soon as his orbit extends from wall to
wall. When he feels that he has acquired sufficient
momentum, he bounds on the top of the wall with
ease. I hold that the above performance involves a
process of reasoning. Instances of dogs pulling bell-
ropes and turning door-handles may result from mere

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

2I5

imitation, but the case in point cannot be thus ex-
plained. This dog, having discovered that a recti-
lineal career was impossible, must have, somehow,
hit upon the idea that he could run round the circum-
ference of a circle to any desired distance, and this
principle he has applied to the solution of the diffi-
culty in a truly ingenious way. — C. W. Carrington.

Clams. — I have noticed for two seasons past
“ Preserved Clams ” in tins, on a Liverpool Trade
Circular. I think they are new candidates to gastro-
nomic favour in this country. I take them to be the
“ Otter” shell (Lutraria maxima ), found so plentifully
on the coasts of Vancouver’s Island and British
Colombia. Tridacna gigas is also known as the
“clam,” and is, I believe, eaten, but its habits
render it difficult to procure in large quantities. The
“ Otter” shell on the other hand is known to be one
of the staple foods of the Indians of the North-West
Coast, and J. K. Lord tells us that it is, in fact, a
“molluscous cereal,” which the squaws dig in
summer from the sand and mud-banks of the coast,
and dry and smoke in the interior of their dusky
wigwams for winter use. I have not tasted the
“preserved” clam, and cannot therefore speak of
their edible qualities, but Mr. Lord’s experience of
“smoked” clam does not appear to have been a
pleasant one, as he compares it to chewing “ good
old tarry rope yarn.” Are any of your readers able
to speak of its worth as an addition to our food
stuffs? — IV. A. Cairns , Leominster.

Preserving Animals. — I, like “W. G.,” have
met with an article mentioning the method of pre-
serving animals, practised by Mr. Waterton. This
article occurs in the Cornhill Magazine, January, 1863.
It tells what has to be done, but not how to do it.
“ The tools required hardly deserve the name, for all
these wonderful effects are produced with a penknife,
a lump of wax, half-a-dozen needles, and three or four
wooden skewers. In simple fact, the modus agendi
is pure modelling, the skin being used as the material,
and reduced by art to the plastic state of sculptor’s
clay, a temporary stuffing being placed within it
to keep the skin moderately distended during the pro-
gress of its drying.” I should be very glad if some
one among the many readers of Science-Gossip
would give better the directions, or name some work
where they may be found. — W. L. Beaumont.

Rose-coloured Pastor is not the shelah, a
thrush, nor ever will be. It is a starling, and closely
allied to our well-known birds. It is a visitor to all
parts of the United Kingdom. There is a most
interesting account of its visiting and breeding in Italy,
in the “Zoologist” for last January. See also
Harting’s “ Handbook of British Birds.” — C. R.
Bree , M.D.

The Opercula of Shells. — Among those who
take an interest in the science of Conchology there
are many who almost leave out of sight the opercula
or lids by which the mouths of many shells are
closed. They ought, however, to be noticed,
because, according to Gray, the typical form of a
shell-fish is the bivalve ; and he considers the oper-
culum but as a variation of the other valve. There
seems to be some reason for this, because, as we all
know, in many bivalves, as in the Oyster, the smaller
valve takes very much the place of it ; and in that
curious shell, the Anomia, it seems hardly needed,
and — one step further — in the Limpet it is altogether
wanting. There is a curious provision of nature in
those cases of Univalves in which this lid is wanting ;
they secrete in very dry weather, and in the winter,

what is called an epiphragm, or thin membrane, which
covers the opening as a substitute for the operculum.
An example of this is to be seen in the common
garden snail ( Helix aspersa). The variety of form
among the opercula is very remarkable. In the case
of Cyclostoma elegans, our only land-shell having this
lid, it is nearly circular ; that of Tiirbo Sarmaticus
has a coralline appearance on the upper side, or, as
Woodward calls it, like some of the tufaceous
deposits of petrifying wells. Some again are very
thin and brittle, as in the Whelk ( Buccimtm undatui?i),
and not at all the same shape as the former, but
brown and horny, and in shape an ellipse. — A.

Cream - coloured Blackbird. — A cream-
coloured Blackbird was shot in Easingwold church-
yard some time in March. It is a very fine specimen,
and in very good condition. I may also mention
that a cream-coloured mouse was trapped in a house in
this city on the 7th. They are both in the possession
of Mr. Ripley, Bird-skiffer, Feasegate, York. — Percy
Thompson, York.

Poisonous Properties of the Fluid of the
“Solanum Dulcamara.” — To my certain know-
ledge, the berries of this plant are injurious to chil-
dren. I have seen more than one instance of very
serious effects having followed the eating of “dead
men’s cherries,” as the fruit of the bitter-sweet or
woody nightshade is often called, — effects which
would probably have ended sadly had not prompt
measures been taken. The children had fortunately
in each case eaten sufficient to produce sickness, and
this was aided by emetics until all the berries were
dislodged. One little fellow had slight convulsions
for days, therefore, I have not the slightest doubt on
the subject, though Majendie and others state that
they would not hesitate to take them, because they
are innocuous to animals. “Seeing is believing.”
The twigs and leaves of the Solaniun Dulcamara
possess medicinal properties. — H. G. IVatney.

“ Sorrel, from the Low German snur , sour.”

NOTICES TO* CORRESPONDENTS,

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the gth of the previous
month.

R. G. — Thanks for the slide. The mounted arachnise taken
from the legs of the House-fly appears to be a species of
Gainasus, allied to the Beetle-mite ((7. Coleoptrntorum, L.),
but another species.

W. H. N. — Your bald-headed sparrow had, perhaps, been
in the “ wars,” a not uncommon occurrence ; or it had been
affected too considerably by mites.

M. H. Robson (Newcastle-on-Tyne). — The box containing
glass tube in which you enclosed a variety of Hydra, reached
us with the glass smashed to pieces. It should have been
posted with a luggage-label attached, on which the address and
stamp should have been placed. The blow given when stamp-
ing had shattered the glass.

M. J. Wilde. — Your specimens are : — (1) a piece of Trap,
with calcite crystals on joint face ; (2) fragment of Copper ore
(Cupric suiphite) ; (3) piece of Milk-quartz ; and (4) portion of
water-worn nodule of Flint.

F. Norris.— The plant you sent us is a fine specimen of the
Blue Fleabane (E>igeron acris).

Anonymous. — We are obliged to call attention to an old
rule of ours, which declares that anonymous communications
cannot be attended to.

R. G. C. — The insect found on the dog is a well-developed
specimen of the Dog-tick (Ixodes ricinus). We cannot under-
take to answer your latter question without fuller information.

Newquay. — The grass you inclose is the Annual Meadow
Grass (Poa a?tnua), and the other species intermingled with it
is the common Spurrey (Sperguta arvensis, L.).

2l6

BAKDWICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

F. L. St. A. (Hants). — The shrub labelled No. i is a Buck-
thorn [Rhamttus Frangiila, L.), and the other specimen is very
imperfect, and too small to judge correctly ; but we believe it
to be Calamintha Nepcta. Many thanks for your kind note
respecting orchids.

B. M. W. (Treaddow). — We detected only one rust, or clus-
ter, at the margin of one of the leaves, which is undoubtedly
Trichobasis Geranii, B., but we believe it is attacked by an-
other fungus unknown to us ; but it is immature, therefore
difficult to decide in its present state.

G. A. H. (Manchester). — It is what we have recognised as
Chara hispida; however, we confess they are too little studied,
and very little seems to be known about this class of plants.

C. H. Bould. — Your plant is the Soap-wort ( Sapouaria
officinalis).

W. H. Legge. — We have forwarded your account of “a
strange bird ” to several first-rate ornithologists for identification,
but all, without exception, state they cannot make anything out
of it.

G. S. Barnes. — See an account of your peculiar malfor-
mation of cabbage-leaf in present number.

E. E. Evans. — Your eggs were completely smashed when
they reached us, so that it was impossible to name any of them.

W. E. Richardson. — We have received the Trilobite, which
is a fine specimen of Calyme7ie Blutnenbachii. What you took
to be a “fin” is merely the rim of the cephalic shield. The
Trilobites being Crustaceans (allied to King-crabs) did not
possess “ fins.”

R. H. N. Browne. — The eggs grouped on the backs of oak-
leaves are not those of Coccus, but of a species of Aphis. Two
of them hatched whilst the leaf was under the microscope, so
that the aphides were visible.

A. Lury (Southampton). — The white substance you sent us
from the bark of a young Scotch fir is not a fungus, although
it was formerly considered, and even described, as such, under
the name of Psilonia nivea. It is of animal origin, however,
like the “Apple-blight,” and formed by an insect, a species of
Cynips.

E. C. — From your specimens we can only make out the
male and female of the common gnat ( Culex pipiens) ; except
that they are smaller specimens than usual under the micro-
scope, they exhibit all the characters of the common gnat.

S. — It is Mr. Lankester’s “Wild Flowers worth Notice ” to
which we referred.

F. R. S. — Prof. Hull has already published a work on the
Geology of Ireland, and another and a fuller work on the
same subject by Mr. G. H. Kinahan is about to be published.
See papers called “Sketches in the West of Ireland,” by Mr.
Kinahan, in Science-Gossip for 1873, 1874, and 1876, giving
archaeology, botany, and geology of the district.

J. Cass. — A potato tuber is only an underground bud ; and
the monstrosity you sent us is not an unfrequent one, as it con-
sists of pseudo-tubers, or buds, forming at the base of the leaf-
stalks. We have seen several examples this summer.

J. A. Floyd. — The specimens sent us from Cambridgeshire
are of Lower Cretaceous age, but, perhaps, not sueh excellent
phosphates as the so-called “ coprolite ” stones, on account of
their containing a large percentage of iron oxide. No. 1 are
the teeth of Spherodus. 2. Tooth of Saurian, probably Cam-
pylosaurus. 3. A mmonites lautus. 4. Tooth of Saurian.
The others are fragments of fossil wood, impressions of Arnmo-
nites, casts of chambers of Ammonites, &c.

EXCHANGES.

To dispose of. — Eleven volumes of the Palaeontological
Society’s publications, viz., for the years 1848 (2), 1849 (2),
1850, 1851, 1852, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865 ; also a Ten Guinea
Smith & Beck microscope. — S. J. B., Rectory, Beaconsfield,
Bucks.

WELL-rooted plants of good varieties of Ferns, blooming
Greenhouse Plants (not bedding), and Cacti, in exchange for
rare British and foreign Shells, polished Stones, and Fossils. —
Address, F. R. E., 82, Abbey-street, Faversham, Kent.

Wanted in exchange for Lepidoptera, or a small hand
Printing-press, British Birds’ Eggs, side-blown.— R. Cross-
key, Castlegate, Lewes.

WELL-mounted Slides of Foraminifera ( Lagina ), or Diatom
{Campy lodiscus cyp.), in exchange for good Mounts, not
Polariscope. — A. Alletsee, 11, Foley-street, London, W.

Wanted, unmounted, scales of fish, palates of mollusca,
spines of star-fish, parts or entire foreign beetles and butterflies,
stained anatomical and vegetable preparations, zoophytes, wood
sections, sori, mosses, marine algae, fungi, and micro -geological
specimens. Good exchange offered. — Alpha, 16, Brunswick-
street, Blackwall, London, E.

Botanical exchanges desired. — Send lists to F. W. E. S.,
Hadlow, Tunbridge.

Birds’ eggs, side-blown. Having collected during late tour,
can offer collectors many extreme rarities in exchange. —
Sissons, Sharrow, Sheffield.

To American Entomologists. — East Indian, African, and other
exotic Butterflies sent in papers in the finest condition and
good species for Cocoons of Cecropia, Luna, Io, Polyphemus,
and Cynthia. — William Watkins, 36, Strand, London, W.C.

Offers. — “ Lond. Cat.,” 7th ed., Nos. 81, 82, 97, 100, 133,
I4I> M5» 280, 296, 301, 316, 319, 326, 354, 369, 373, 376, 491,
53x< 564, 612, 622, 627, 753, 761, 917, 984, 1147, 1160, 1241,
1317, 1447, 1448, 1502, 1577, and many others, in exchange for
British Mosses or Flowering Plants. Lists exchanged. — W. E.
Green, 24, Triangle, Bristol.

Cerastium holosteoides, Listera cordata, Juncus trigliunis,
Hemiaria subciliata, &c., for 101, 103, 153, 202, 309, 358, 374,
4°4>^477> 481, 526, 767, 1046, 1082, 1438, 1484, 1507, 1521, &c. —

G. C. Druce, Northampton.

For unmounted Scales of Carp, Sole, Perch, Roach, Pike,
and Haddock, send unmounted Object to J. Moore, 12, Por-
chester-street, Birmingham.

Micro-Fungi. — Wanted, unmounted Specimens of the order
ZEcidiacei, first-class slides or material for good specimens
only. — Dr. Marsh, Duke-street, St. Helens.

For mounted Chelifer muscorum send a well-mounted Slide
(named diatoms particularly wanted), to George Turvill, East
Worldham, Alton, Hants.

Wanted. — Set of the Human Eye : Optic nerve, cross and
per. sect. ; sclerotic coat, sect. ; cornea, sect. ; retina, sect. ;
chrysaline capsule ; iris ; ciliary process ; choroid coat, long, and
trans. sects. ; .eyelid, with hair on eyelash. Will give Geo-
logical Transparent Slides in exchange. — Address, M. Fowler,
45, Burn-row, Slamannan, N. B.

Mammalian Fossils from the gravel and caves, in exchange
for others. — W. G., 10, Newcastle-street, Tuxford, Newark,
Notts.

All or part of Design and Work , cost 4s. rod. ; English
Mechanic, 5s. ; Fancier s Gazette , 6s. 9d., for back numbers of
Science-Gossip, or offers. — E. V., 41, Peckham-grove, S.E.

Spines of Amphidotus cordatus and Algae, with Diatoms in
situ, in exchange for other objects of interest. — J. Wooller, 10,
Farm-road, Hove, Brighton.

Anatomical sections, mostly human ; lung, heart, liver, &c.
Will send some in exchange for any well-mounted objects. —
C. P. White, the Priory, Lewisham.

F. atomaria, piniaria, P. rota, and others, in exchange
for Moths, Plants, Mosses, or Shells. — R. Renton, Fans,
Earlston, N.B.

A large case, containing two well-stuffed Squirrels ; also a
preserved stuffed Snake (Python), to exchange. Wanted, side-
blown British Birds’ Eggs, Natural History Books, or offers.
Correspondence invited, all letters answered. — W. Barrett,
Roue, 165, White Ladies’-road, Bristol.

NEATLY-finished Slide of Scorpion Fly, mounted whole,
offered for good Slide of picked Diatoms, or Diatoms i?i situ.
— J. Neville, Wellington-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

To Conchologists resident at home, abroad, or in the colo-
nies.— Having Duplicates of nearly a hundred species of the
British Land and Fresh- water Shells, including many of the
rarer Vertigos, such as s/d’striata, antivertigo, alpestris,
pusilla, and angustior. Will be glad to exchange these for
Foreign or Colonial Shells, equally good, either land, fresh-
water, or marine, or would exchange foreign duplicates only for
the same. — W. Sutton, Upper Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Good side-blown Specimens of the following Eggs for ex-
change : — Cormorant, Puffin, Sandwich, Arctic and Common
Terns, Dunlin, and Eider Duck, Desiderata : other good Eggs
or Lepidoptera. Send offers. — John D. Walker, 21, Holly-
avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“ Science pour Tous.”

“ Land and Water.” July.

“Journal of Applied Science.” July.

“The Natural History Journal.”

“ Potter’s American Monthly.” June.

“American Naturalist.” ,,

“ Chambers’ Journal.” July.

“ Ben Brierley’s Journal.” July.

“ Botanische Zeitung.”

“ Collecting Butterflies and Moths.” By Montagu Brown.
London : Bazaar Office.

Appendix to “ Contributions to Natural History.” By
James Simson.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to 8th ult., from: —
S. A. B.— H. T. G.— Prof. B. A. T.— H. W. S. W. B.— G. T.
— H. C. C.— T. B.— E. C.— E. W.— V. C.— J. G.— T. G. B —
G. H.— R. H.— C. H. B.-G. T. B.— G. S. B.— W. G. P.—
Dr. E. de C.— G. C. D.— E. B. S.— A. F. G.— R. H. N. B.—
- F. K. — C. P. O. -F. B. N.— F. R. M. — J. W. S. —

F. W. E. S.— A. J. R.-J. M.— W. E. G.— W. W.— H. C. C.
— R. G. C.— J. C. C.— R. G.— Dr. M.— M. S.— W. H. N.-
A. A.— G. C.-C. E. R.-H. E. W.— M. J. W.— R. C.—
E. R. F.— S. J. B.— Dr. M.— M. H. R.— J. S.— P. T.—
J. D. W.— W. S.— J. N.— F. R. S.— H. L.— J. G. G.—
W. L. B.— W. M. C. C. S.— W. B. R.— H. M.- F. H. A.—
R. R. — C. P. W. — H. W. T. — J. W. — R. S. — J. W. S. -

G. R.--E. V.— J. C.— J. A. F.— G. H. H.— W. G. -M. F.—
C. C. — & c. &c.

HARD WICKE’S S CIENCE - G O SSIP.

217

QUARTZ, AS IT OCCURS IN THE LAKE DISTRICT :
ITS STRUCTURE AND ITS HISTORY.

By J. CLIFTON WARD, F.G.S., F.R.M.S., &c.

(Read at the Annual Meeting of the Cumberland Association for the Advancement 0/ Literature and Science.)

INTRODUCTION.

HERE are few minerals
more widely spread than
Quartz, a chemical com-
pound of the two ele-
ments, Silicon and Oxy-
gen. Common though
this mineral is, however,
its study opens out
questions of deep inte-
rest, and may lead us
from the contemplation
of a pretty piece of rock-crystal to the consideration
of subtle and hidden processes in the formation of the
crust of our globe.

1. Geological Distribution. — Quartz occurs among
our lake-country mountains in several forms, but
never as a rock by itself, in thick-bedded masses, as is
occasionally the case in other mountain tracts.

Vein Quartz exists under four conditions.

(1.) Constituting the whole thickness of a lode or
vein, in which case the latter may be said to be a
quartz vein, unless the quartz contains much valu-
able ore, such as lead or copper, for then it will
more frequently be called a lead or copper vein
with a quartz veinstone. Some of these quartz

veins are of considerable width — many yards, — and
run in straight lines, sometimes for several miles,
though often broken by faults. That they contain
gold in small quantities is certain, and I have in my
possession some small grains of this precious metal
extracted from a vein of quartz in Borrowdale. It is
well known that gold has been mined in Wales for a
great many centuries, but it seems not to exist in any
of our Cumberland quartz veins in workable quanti-
ties, so far as I have been able to judge.

(2.) Instead of being itself a lode or vein, quartz
frequently forms strings or courses running in or
through a lode formed of various mineral substances.

No. 166.

Supposing the lode to be lead-bearing, it often be-
comes an important question how much of the vein-
stone may be quartz, and how much calc-spar, barytes,
or other minerals ; for the quartz is very much harder
than most other constituents of veins, and if the ore
has to be extracted entirely from such a matrix, the
labour is much increased. Nevertheless, sometimes
even quartzose vein-stuff is quite crumbling, and,
when so, the woidcing is comparatively easy. This
is the case with several lead-veins occurring in the
Vale of Newlands.

(3.) Quartz, when occurring either as a massive
lode or a slender string, is opaque, and generally of a
pure white colour ; but it occurs, thirdly, in the form
of clear transparent crystals, lining the sides of cracks
and fissures either in massive quartz or in some other
mineral substance. These crystals have the general
form of a six-sided prism, terminated by a six-sided
pyramid, but owing to variations in the relative size
of the several faces, the appearance of the crystals
may vary. Sometimes also they are coloured in
various tints, due to oxides of iron, manganese, &c.,
mingled with the oxide of silicon, or silica, as it is
more usually called. It will be noticed that the
pointed ends of the crystals project away from the
sides of the crack or fissure which they line.

(4.) Lastly, vein quartz occurs in indefinite
lenticular masses and strings among the strata of many
geological formations. Thus, occasionally it may be
seen to occur between the planes of bedding of strati-
fied rocks, more frequently, however, traversing those
planes in an irregular and stringy manner, and some-
times much developed along the cleavage planes, as
may be seen in the Skiddaw Slate between the sum-
mit of Hindscarth and Scope End.

Quartz as a Rock-constituent : —

(a.) Of Stratified Rocks.

(b. ) Of Unstratified Rocks and Volcanic Rocks.

(a.) Of Stratified Rocks.

In the Skiddaw Slates there are many parts,

L

2l8

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

especially the lower, seen on Whiteside and Gras-
moor, which have been produced by sandy or gritty
deposits, and the grains of quartz may frequently be
distinguished clearly with the naked eye. Again, in
a well-marked bed of grit, in the upper part of the
Skiddaw series, to be well studied in Great Cockup,
north of Skiddaw, in the sides of the southern breast
of Skiddaw, and notably at Lank Rigg and Latter-
barrow, in the south-west of the Lake District, the
grains of quartz frequently approach the size of small
pebbles. In all these cases the quartz fragments are
more or less rounded, showing that they have been
rolled in the water, and are formed of white quartz,
such as occurs in veins, or such as may be won from
the disintegration of granite. Even in the clay-slate
proper, the microscope reveals the presence of small
grains of quartz amongst the aluminous matter.

In some of the beds of Carboniferous Limestone
that wrap round the mountainous tract, quartz occurs
both in the form of small pebbles and of curious
amorphous masses, very similar to the flint in chalk,
but known as chert. In the sandstones, interstratified
with the limestone, quartz, in more or less rounded
grains, is the chief constituent. In the Penrith sand-
stone, of younger age than the Carboniferous, the
small grains of quartz are specially interesting,
because, in some parts of the sandstone, at any rate,
each grain shows the form of a doubly-pyramidal
crystal, the crystals being of very uniform size, and
their form often not a great deal affected by rolling. 1
Whence these little crystalline particles could have !
been derived, to form the sandstone, is somewhat of
a puzzle. Among the Blue Mountains of New South j
Wales, Darwin observed a similar case, and remarks :

11 It is difficult to imagine how these crystals can have
been formed ; one can hardly believe that they were
separately precipitated in their present crystallized state.

Is it possible that rounded grains of quartz may have
been acted on by a fluid corroding their surfaces and
depositing on them fresh silica ? ” The silica in old
glass sometimes regains its crystalline structure, as
shown by Sir David Brewster in 1840.

Quartz as a Constituent of Unstratified and
Volcanic Rocks.

( 1.) A mong Granitic and Granitoid Rocks. — Gene-
rally speaking, in true granites, quartz occurs uncrys-
tallized, being the last of the constituent minerals to
solidify ; it then appears to fill up all the interstices j
of the other minerals, the felspar and the mica. This
is the case with the Skiddaw, Eskdale, and Shap !
granites in the mass ; though sometimes very locally,
or in the form of dykes proceeding from the main
mass, the disposition of the quartz is not interstitial,
but crystalline. This latter mode of occurrence may
be well studied in the quartz felsite of St. John, and
notably in the Armboth Dyke. In these cases the
quartz and some of the felspar have crystallized out
in a felsitic base, and the cross sections of the quartz

crystals often look nearly square from the unequal
development of all the six sides. In the Armboth
Quartz Felsite Dyke, the embedded crystals are most
clearly seen, and the pyramidal termination of both
ends may be well observed.

(2.) Among intrusive Dior it es, Dolerites , &c.

( Greenstones ). — I know of no cases of quartz occurring
in a crystalline condition in the rocks of the Green-
stone class. Nor is quartz generally a conspicuous
constituent in any form among such rocks. Micro-
scopic study of the class, however, reveals the very
frequent existence of this mineral in small portions
among the other constituent minerals. In some cases
its presence may be due to deposition subsequent to
the first formation of the rock, and such belong to
our next group.

(3.) Quartz as an Accidental Constituent. — By an
accidental constituent is meant one that forms no
essential part of the rock, but has been introduced,
perhaps, long after that rock was formed or solidified.
Its manner of occurrence in these cases clearly shows
that the quartz has been deposited from solution, —
water containing silica infiltrating through the rock-
mass. It thus fills up cavities, and sometimes replaces
other minerals dissolved away.

Among the volcanic rocks of the district, quartz is
very common in this form. In beds of lava, and
sometimes in those of volcanic ash, vesicles or long
almond-shaped cavities are generally produced by the
escape of vapour and gases from the molten or heated
matter, on its first eruption from the volcano. Subse-
quently, when such lava-beds have been covered up
by great thicknesses of overlying strata, the water,
which is for ever percolating the crust of our earth,
and contains very various mineral substances dissolved
in it, deposits these in the cavities and vesicles, and
amongst other minerals thus left to fill the vacant
spaces quartz is very common, and may often be
found filling the same vesicle with the minerals
calcite (carbonate of lime) and chlorite. When a
large vesicle has been thus filled with quartz, vari-
ously coloured and under different physical forms, it
sometimes happens that the surrounding rock is
subsequently broken up and destroyed, and then the
hard kernels of quartz are isolated in the form of
agates. Such are the agates of Wallow Crag,
Keswick.

( To be continued.)

BRAMBLES ABOUT LONDON.— II.

By Dr. E. De Crespigny, Author of “ A London
Flora.”

iy T 7ILLICAULES.— In this section the
V aciculse and setse disappear : the stems
are angular, strong, prickly, and furnished with hairs,
which are usually duplicate or fascicled, and spread-
ing; or stellately downy and adpressed ; a difference

IIARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

sufficiently well marked to admit of the species of
this section being also subdivided.

a. Villicaules proper ; type, R. Umbrosus ( Macro -
phyllus, var., of some authors). — The stems of
this bramble when old, are frequently apparently
glabrous, from the hairs being deciduous; the young
shoots and flowering branches are, however, always
shaggy with spreading pubescence ; the leaflets
round with a short acumen, moderately thick,
smooth, and dull green above, pale and furnished
with short hairs beneath ; prickles strong, conical,
patent ; panicle pyramidal, with ascending branches ;
not unfrequent in copses and shady places : Pinner
woods, Putney Heath, Broxbourne woods. R.
villicaulis. — Stems and general habit similar to the
preceding ; leaflets thick, obovate, or broadly oval,
often cuneiform below; obtuse or mucronate ; patently
dentated, green above, whitish and velvety beneath
veins of the upper leaflets often reddish ; panicle
compact above, more open below, with ascending
branches ; petals white, obovate, not contiguous ;
sepals ovate, with a mucronate point, setose and
aciculate ; prickles moderately strong and straight ;
rachis and pedicels frequently remarkably velvety :
Broxbourne and Wormley woods. R. macrophyllus . —
The leaves in this species are large, broadly obovate,
thin ; panicle elongated, with ascending branches.
It is a variable plant, and occurs in the woods about
Broxbourne, or intermediate, with the following
species : — R. leucostachys may be easily recognized
by its close-set panicles of pink flowers, with fila-
ments of a still pinker hue ; the petals are large,
obovate, and contiguous ; the stems angular and
hairy; leaves soft, dull green, hairy above, and more
so beneath, of a roundish or obovate form ; those of
the upper part of the young stem and of the flowering
branches whitish beneath, the rachis is whitish, with
a soft tomentum, as are also the pedicels ; the calyx
is rather dark, hairy, setose, and aciculated. — N. B.
In common with all brambles of this subsection, a
few setae are sparsely scattered on the rachis, &c.

b. Tomentosi. — In this group the spreading hairs
of the stem, and especially of the rachis, appear in
the altered form of adpressed stellate down ; type
R. discolor . This is the bramble of general occur-
rence in wayside hedges ; it is so well known that,
except to indicate the chief points in which it differs
from others, it is hardly worth while to refer to it.
The stem is angular and armed with strong, usually
recurved prickles ; hoary when young from the stel-
late down ; leaflets quinate below, ternate above ;
narrowly obovate, small (usually) coriaceous, slightly
convex, dull green above, white or grey below, with
a close-set felt or tomentum ; rachis, pedicels, and
calyx felted in the same manner; panicle narrow,
with short branches ; petals contiguous, obovate,
pink ; styles more or less deeply tinged with purple,
as are also, not unfrequently, entirely or in part, the
filaments. R. thyrsoideus : less common, but by no

219

means rare. The stems are as stout and strongly
angled as are those of R. discolor , but the stellate
down is less closely adpressed ; the leaflets are
broader and more acuminate upwards, larger, and
not convex ; the under-side similarly felted ; rachis
and calyx both hairy and felted ; panicle long, nar-
row ; lower branches many, axillary ; petals white.
R. rubeolus [Salieri). — This bramble is the connecting
link between the Villicaules and the Nitidi. The
stems in this species are nearly terete, reddish ; hairs
scattered and deciduous ; prickles rather strong,
declining, straight, not curved ; leaflets obovate, or
lanceolately acuminate, grey and slightly pubescent
below ; rachis loosely pubescent ; panicle narrowly
thyrsoid and prickly ; petals pale x'ose, obovate ;
contiguous sepals, hairy, aciculate, obovate. It
flowers early : gravelly commons, — Barnes, Putney
Heath.

V. Nitidi. — Stems thorny, strongly angled, en-
tirely free from hairs, aciculie, and setae ; but the
rachis of the panicle is hairy more or less : type, R.
rhamnifolius [cordifolius ?). Arched stems of a lively
red colour, angled, and furnished with strong prickles,
straight and deflected, sometimes patent ; leaves
quinate, of a bright green colour, lighter below,
ovate, the terminal one cordate, acuminate, or sub-
cuspidate ; the basal ones narrowly ovate and
strongly directed backwards, finely serrated ; petals
white or faintly tinged with pink, obovate ; styles
green. Copses and on the borders of woods, not
often in hedges : Hampstead Heath, Putney Heath,
Harrow Weald Common. On Barnes Common and
elsewhere there is a variety with smaller and more
coriaceous leaves ; terminal leaflet not cordate ; a
smaller and more compact panicle and smaller flowers
of a pale blush colour. This is certainly R. rhamni-
folius proper ; R. Lindleyanus ( nilidus ) differs from
both in the form of its inflorescence, which is corym-
bose somewhat, with short patent branches below, and
not pyramidal. It has shining bright red stems ; shin-
ing light-green leaves, whitish underneath, narrower
than those of R. rhamnifolius, and coarsely and
doubly toothed ; petals pure white ; filaments turning
crimson as the flowers fade. It occurs on Harrow
Weald Common and Stanmore Heath. R. incurvatus.
- — This bramble, uncommon elsewhere, is plentiful
on Putney Heath and on Barnes Common ; there are
also a few bushes on the lower part of Hampstead
Heath. The stems are green, reddish when old,
smooth, angled, and furnished like its congeners with
rather strong prickles, which are patent on the
stems, but decurved on the rachis ; the leaflets dark-
green and glabrous above and below, deeply and
sharply toothed, concave, the margins incurved and
wavy ; the panicle is narrow, branches short and
patent ; petals white, obovate ; sepals ovate, hairy,
greenish. (The peculiarity of the leaves is not seen
when they are pressed and dried. )

The foregoing is by no means an exhaustive notice

L 2

220

HARD WICKEDS SCIENCE - GOSSIP.

of the London Rubi. Probably other species and
varieties are known to observers ; we have several
doubtful specimens ourselves, which would, if really
out of the common, warrant the inference that much
may be done in this field of research. Altogether,
the subject is not a very satisfactory one ; but some
practical gain would result from a determination of
the extent to which certain deviations from the cha-
racteristics of a definite number of typical forms
occur under certain conditions of locality, and
whether they are constant in such conditions. The

the niticii ; and that which is narrowly obovate to
the tomentosi ; but we could do so only in a general
sense, because the exceptions in every case would be
too frequent. Specific nomenclature, therefore, de-
rived from the form of the leaflets, should be dis-
carded.* The down and pubescence of the stems,
on the other hand, are often deciduous : true, these
characteristics are frequently apparently wanting,
but the lens applied to that portion of a stem which
has not been exposed too directly to the sun or vicis-
situdes of temperature will often reveal its presence

Fig. 171. Prickles, aciculae,
setae, and hairs of stem of
R. koehlcri.

Fig. 172. Setae and hairs
(magnified).

Fig. 177. Adpressed stellate
down (mag.).

Fig, 178. Spreading
fasciculed hairs.

Fig. 173. Prickles,
aciculae, and setae, of
R. nemorosus.

Fig. 174. Gland and
tomentum of sepal of
R. discolor (mag. ).

181. Glandular
sepals of R. glandu-
losus.

Fig. 180. Flower-bud
of R. nemorosus,
with few-grained
fruit, and sepals
ascending, often
reflexed.

Fig. 182. Glandular Fig. 179.

sepals of R. hystrix. Hair (mag.).

Fig. 175. Sepals of R. ccesius,
clasping the fruit.

Fig. 176. Flower-bud of

R./usco-ater.

Fig. 183. Flower-bud
of R. umbrosus.

characteristic distinctions of the sections above de-
tailed are deduced entirely from the stems ; no reli-
ance can be placed upon those derived entirely from
the leaves, still less from the form of the panicle.
This may be racemose, corymbose, pyramidal, or
what not ; and we may assign the corylose leaf to
one section, the oval or elliptical form to the glandu -
lost; the rotund or broadly obovate shape to the
villieaules the ovate or obovate acuminate one to

* No definite idea seems to be attached nowadays to the
term “ carpinifolius ” ; formerly it was the general expression
for a villicaulis, or hairy-stemmed bramble. Specimens so
labelled in herbaria seen by us had no resemblance to the
typical form of the section whatever, nor to any of the others
composing it.

in the form of withered shreds interspersed with small
black specks, the points of its former attachment.

In September the blackberries are ripe, the right
time for gathering specimens as well as fruit ; the
panicle, the new leaves, and the young or barren
stems are then full grown and formed ; not that
flowering specimens should be dispensed with. The
localities from which the fruiting ones and cuttings of
the stems have been obtained should be carefully

* The terminal leaflet is always more or less different to the
others. It may be cordate acuminate while the lateral ones
are ovate, and basal oval or elliptical. As for the situation of
the prickles, these are on the angles of the stems when these
are angled, and rarely elsewhere ; their bases are often glan-
dular or hairy as well as the stem itself.

BARD WICKES SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

22 1

noted and remembered, in order, when July comes
round again, to obtain the flowers. Sometimes in a
brake three or four species of bramble will be found
growing together, their branches intertangled : care
must be taken in such cases, when making cuttings,
to avoid mistakes ; flowering branches should always
be taken with sections of the old stem attached, and
in making sections of the new stem it should always
be so done as to include a leaf. Notes also
should be entered in a memorandum-book relative
to soil and locality ; habit of growth ; colour of
the leaves, on the upper as well as under-surface ;
shape and colour of the petals ; colour of the styles,
filaments, stems, See., — points which cannot be de-
termined from dried specimens. Good localities for
research are the borders of copses in open upland
situations, bushy places in old chalk and gravel pits,
shady unfrequented lanes, swampy woods, gravelly
commons, and the bushy borders of sandy and peaty
heaths.

ON A “TANGLE” DREDGE.

By H. C. C. M.

HAVING spent my holidays for several years
past in shore-collecting on the North Welsh
coast with considerable success, I determined this

Fig. 185. A New Tangle-dredge.

year to attempt dredging in the Menai Straits.
Happening to notice a query in Science-Gossip for
March about dredging, I thought I would wait for

further communications on the subject before having
a dredge made. In the following number of SCIENCE -
Gossip Mr. E. Lovett, of Croydon, recommends a
dredge of hemp “tangles ” as being superior in some
respects to the ordinary form. Not clearly under-
standing how Mr. Lovett would construct his dredge,
I wrote to him for further particulars, and the con-
struction of the dredge, which I will now attempt to
describe, is the result of several suggestions made in
his courteous reply. My thanks are also due to
David Keid, Esq., of Oldham-street, Manchester, for
one or two valuable hints. A, fig. 185, is a piece of
brass wire, about the thickness of a lead pencil, and
16 inches long, each end of which is firmly soldered
into a boat-shaped piece of lead, BB, 4 inches in
length. Lengthwise through each piece of lead a
piece of brass wire, CC, about half the thickness of
A, and 10 inches long, is fastened, with the ends
bent round in the form of a ring. D is a V-shaped
piece of brass wire of the same thickness as CC, the
two arms of which are each 15 inches long, and the
ends are firmly hooked to the rings of CC. To this
the towing line is tied. EE are bundles of rope
4 feet long, the strands of which are untwisted, and
the fibres pulled out, until they resemble bundles of
coarse, rough string. These are firmly tied to the
bar A. Fig. 186 shows the bar A and the boat-shaped

showing the Tangle-dredge at work, supported by runners.

“runners” in section, and it will be seen that the
bar is bent upwards, to allow of its passage over large
specimens without injuring them by its weight, big.
187 shows the complete dredge as it appears when
travelling over the ground. I found that, in order to
make the machine fall to the bottom with the keels
of the runners on the ground, it was necessary to have

Fig. 187. Section of Tangle-dredge as it appears when
travelling over the ground .

the boat rowed against the current, and to put it into
the water in the proper position, allowing it to fall
to the bottom very gradually. Although I did not
get a large number of specimens, my captures included
sponges, sertularians, echinoderms (including some
very fine specimens of O. rositla and 0. neglect a),

2 2 2

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

polyzoons, mollusca, and Crustacea, not one of which !
was injured by the tangles. A pair of scissors
were, I found, very useful in removing the specimens.

I am afraid that with one exception (the channel
between Penmon and Puffin Island) my choice of
localities for dredging was unfortunate. One place,
about half a mile from Beaumaris pier, in the direction
of Puffin Island, was recommended to me by several
fishermen as being likely to repay the trouble of dredg-
ing, but I was much disappointed with the results of my
efforts. However, I feel quite certain that the tangle-
dredge will prove to be a useful implement in the
hands of marine zoologists, and I shall be glad if
some of the readers of Science-Gossip will try it,
and record their experience. Manchester.

CANADIAN NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.

I SAW in last October number of Science-
Gossip, an advertisement offering specimens of
the notorious Dor yphora decem-lineata for sale at
one shilling each. We pay for specimens also, but
we pay a few cents a pint, or so much a hundred,
for them.

I also read, in a recent English newspaper, a re-
port of the mulcting of a labouring man, the fine
being likewise, if I remember aright, a shilling, for
having a living specimen of that beetle of evil
reputation in his possession. If such a law as that
brought to bear upon the unhappy rustic were in
existence here, it would superadd a large amount to
our revenue, inasmuch as few of us are able to dis-
possess oui’selves of such specimens.

It is not, however, my intention, in troubling you
with this communication, to treat, at any length, on
the Colorado Potato-beetle, for your September
number (1877) contains an interesting article on the
natural history of that garden pest from Mr. Rye,
amply sufficient for your purpose at the present time.
I say at the present time, for if the insect reaches
your shores in any numbers, and if it breeds thereon,
you may be glad of hints from those of us who have
been overrun by this unconquerable enemy, and who
have spent nights in an attempt to devise some plan
for its extermination, and days in an endeavour to
carry out such plan if regarded as at all feasible.

The beetle is commonly called the Potato-beetle,
but it by no means follows that that all-important
esculent is alone subject to its attacks. I think it
will be found that, under certain circumstances, it is
omnivorous, and that, at all events, it will not succumb
to starvation even where potatoes are not grown,
provided other vegetables are at hand.

For instance, where the egg-plant, Solanum melon-
gena, is cultivated, my experience induces the belief
that the beetle prefers this plant even to the Solanum
tuberosum. It also attacks, although less ravenously,

tomato and pepper plants, and, somewhat singularly,
the latter in preference to the former. Inasmuch
however, as these three plants are grown only on a
small scale, hand-picking, the most effectual method
of removing all insect-pests, can be resorted to ; and
therefore the beetles do not, as in the case of potatoes,
at the period of hybernation, burrow in their neigh-
bourhood, and, as a further necessary consequence,
do not emerge therefrom in the spring.

Where hand-picking, from the large space to be
traversed, is impracticable, Paris green is the only
panacea ; the powder being mixed with water in a
pail and sprinkled over the plants by means of a
whisk.

There is, however, a principle of compensation
pervading nature, which has a tendency to check
the ravages of noxious insects. Thus, with the
advent of the Potato-beetles into Canada, there
appeared, attendant upon their flight, large quantities
of lady-birds, the Coccinella novemnotata, and others,
with the object of preying on their eggs. And it
should be noted, lest friends and foes be involved in
simultaneous destruction, that the eggs of these two
insects are very similar in appearance, being much
the same in size and shape, of the same colour
(deep orange), and deposited alike on the under-sides
of the leaves of the plants on which the insects feed.
And now we are told of another enemy of the dreaded
beetle, — the Ly della doryphora, — to which allusion
was recently made at a meeting of the Toronto
Entomological Society, by its president, Mr. Brodie,
in the following terms: — “It is by far the most
reliable and valuable of all the enemies of D. decem-
lineata. ”

When the Colorado Beetles make their unwelcome
appearance in England — far distant be the day ! — I
would recommend the enactment of a law for the
preservation of rooks ; for, if I mistake not, those
Corvi will be found most useful coadjutors to children
in a potato-patch. These beetles are seen more
frequently on the wing in the day-time than any other
Coleoptera I am acquainted with, and present a some-
what brilliant appearance in their flight.

It may hap that the English climate will prove too
damp, and the soil, in winter, too moist for their
comfortable hybernation, but these conditions should
not altogether be relied on : they will be upon you in
time, just as the Scotch thistles have become an
“institution ” in the United States, and the English
Cabbage Butterfly, Pieris rapce, has become accli-
matized in Canada.

By the way, par parenthese, while alluding to mi-
grations, I noticed a communication from A. Wyles,
p. 188, respecting some eggs he “obtained in the
village of Roundhay, near Leeds,” and which he
supposes to be those of the Red-winged Starling.
He describes the eggs as being of “a greenish grey,
streaked with deep yellowish brown.” I have none
of these eggs by me at present, but Wilson informs

HARD WICKE’S S CIENCE- G OSSIP.

us that they are “ of a very pale light blue, marked
with faint tinges of light purple, and long straggling
lines and dashes of black.” The Sturnus predatorius
is very common with us, and up our lakes hundreds
of them may be seen of an evening on the rush-
beds, just as I have seen the common starlings in
England, where I have killed a dozen or more at a
shot.

While submitting my notes on the parasites of the
Colorado Beetle, it occurs to me that perhaps a few
more instances of the principle of compensation may
not prove uninteresting.

We have in Canada a great variety of Ichneumon-
flies, from the large Pimpla lunator , with its four-
inch borer, to the Ichneumon minutus , each in its
own peculiar way, whether by piercing the living
insect, or its egg, doing its providential work in the
destruction of hurtful life.

Some time ago my eye was attracted by the eccen-
tric motions of one of the larger steel-blue Ichneumons
that was flying round and round a currant-bush in
my garden, ever and anon darting at an object which,
on approaching it, I found to be a spider in her web.
The contest, for such it was, was a long one, and
put me in mind of the description of an arena-fight
between a retiarius and a secutor. The latter, on
this occasion, was victorious : the rete proved an in-
sufficient protection, and the fuscina, or ovipositor,
was thrust into the victim’s body, with what result is
well known to naturalists.

On another occasion I saw one of our larger grass-
hoppers, Locusta Carolina, struggling in apparent
agony and certain helplessness on the ground. On
examination I discovered a small ichneumon, not
much larger than a winged ant, upon its body, intent
on the insertion of its ovipositor, and although the
fly was so much smaller and so much weaker than
the unhappy grasshopper, the latter was unable to
make use of its powerful legs or its wide expanse of
wings as a means of escape.

Another singular parasite, if parasite it may be
called, is the Hair Worm, Gordius. I once obtained
two of these Abranchiata from the body of a large
spider — a somewhat uncommon habitat. These
worms were tightly rolled up into small balls of the
Gordian-knot type, and were, when unfolded, only
about two inches each in length.

At another time I found one of our common
crickets, the Acheta abbreviata, with a Hair Worm
curled around it. Whenever the miserable insect
made an effort to release itself from the coils of its
tormentor the latter lashed itself into apparent fury,
and seemed to paralyze its victim until at length it
accomplished its horrible design.

Are these egg-depositing operations painful to the
subject ? It would be interesting if observers would
state their opinions, and give us the results of their
observations, on this interesting subject.

Ontario. V. Clementi, B.A.

223

SOME REMARKS ON HORSE-TAILS.

THE Horse-Tails compose the order Equisctacecc,
and this order of Cryptogams is a very inte-
resting one, both as regards the structure of the plants
contained in it, and the curious hygrometric move-
ments of their spores.

The stem is underground, and in the spring sends
up branches, some of which are barren, while others
bear the spores. The branches are hollow, except at
the joints, which are numerous ; at these points the
different segments of the stem are separated by a
sort of cellular membrane. Each joint likewise
terminates in a sheath, which is membraneous, and
embraces the base of the succeeding joint. The
branches are fluted, and the sheath at its upper
extremity is cut into teeth, the number of which
corresponds, or bears some simple proportion, to the
flutings on the stem.

These plants are devoid of true leaves ; but the
latter are represented by branchlets, which are of a
green colour, and often assume a verticillate arrange-
ment. A very interesting microscopical object is
furnished by the cuticle of the Horse-Tail — the sto-
mata being seen with great clearness under a mode-
rate power. The epidermis is likewise peculiar, on
account of the large quantity of silex which it con-
tains ; this is so abundant in many species that they
have been used by the Dutch housewives for polishing
brass.

The most interesting points, however, about these
plants is their fructification. All the branches are
not fertile, but those that are bear at the terminal
extremity a cone-like body, which, on examination,
is found to consist of a great number of disks, more
or less polygonal in outline, borne in a peltate
manner upon a central stalk, by which they are
attached to the central axis. On the under surface
of these disks the spore-cases are arranged, and these
discharge their contents (the spores) by a lateral slit,
which looks towards the axis of the plant. The
spores themselves are more or less rounded bodies,
each provided with two filaments called elaters, and
to the contraction and expansion of these the move-
ments of the spores are due. The elaters end in
club-shaped extremities. If the end of a branch of
Equisetum bearing fructification be shaken gently on
to a glass slide, and the latter be then breathed upon,
and placed upon the stage of a microscope of low
power, the spores will be seen to be undergoing the
most curious movements. Some will be quite closed
up, the elaters being so closely applied to the spores
as to be scarcely distinguishable ; others, again, will
be seen gradually unfolding the filaments, and a few
may be observed to move with a sudden start, as it
were, from the contracted state of the elaters to that
of full expansion. The ultimate cause of this move-
ment is quite unknown. That it depends upon the

224

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

amount of moisture with which the spores are sur-
rounded there can be no doubt. Most probably it
takes place by the contraction and expansion of the
cells of which the elaters are composed, under the
varying influence of the moisture contained in the air.
The phenomenon is a very curious one, and should
by all means be seen by every one who possesses a
microscope.

Fis

1 88. Sporangium of Equisetum
aruense.

Fig. 189. Transverse section of Fruit-
spike of ditto (twice nat. size),
showing how sporangia are attached
to the axis.

Fig. 191. Fragment of the branched
stem of Equisetum palustre.

Doubtless the spores are endowed with this suscep-
tibility to hygrometric changes in order to ensure
their distribution, and thus the species is continued
in distant places. The spore on germination gives
origin to a cellular structure called a prothallus, upon
which the antheridia and archegonia are borne —
much as in Ferns. In former periods of the world’s
history the Equisetacese occupied a much more pro-
minent situation in the vegetable kingdom than they
do at present. If we turn to the Palaeozoic strata we
shall find in the Carboniferous formation of that

period abundant evidence of this. The reed-like
fossil Calamites most likely belonged to this order,
and the vegetation of the Carboniferous period is
made up of the genera Lepidodendron, Stigmaria,
Sigillaria, &c., belonging to the Lycopodiacese, Equi-
setacese, and allied orders.

This order also affords an instance of what has
been called homoplasmy, or likeness between plants
belonging to totally different orders, and even different
divisions of the vegetable kingdom. Thus the Equi-

Fig. 194. Fertile stem of Equisetum
arvense, springing from rhi-
zome (natural size).

setacese of the acrogenous sub-kingdom has its coun-
terpart in the Hippurus, or Mare’s - Tail, which
belongs to the division of flowering plants.

It is often the case that botanical collectors give
a great deal of attention to the Ferns and Mosses,
and treat with comparative neglect the humble Cryp-
togams, including the Equisetaceae. This neglect
seems to be unmerited ; for, although the flowering
plants, doubtless, at first sight, form a more attractive
field for the display of the energies of the popular
botanist, yet any one who will take the trouble to
work at the Equisetaceae and allied orders, with lens
and microscope, will find, in the adaptation of means

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

to ends and delicacy of structure, quite as beautiful
a series of phenomena as is presented by the structure
and economy of the flowering plants. H. W. S.

NATURAL HISTORY IN THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.1VLS.

IN the eighth volume of Science-Gossip we called
the attention of our readers to the Bestiary of
Philip de Thaun, written in the twelfth century, during
the long period that had elapsed between the publication
of that treatise and the work I now propose to give
some extracts from, we might expect to find a consi-
derable advance in Zoological knowledge. Such,
however, is not the fact, not the slightest attempt
seems to have been made to verify the descriptions of
the early writers, and their accounts of monsters are
implicitly believed in.

This book is much more pretentious than the
Bestiary, as the following verbatim copy of the title-
page will show : —

“ The

HISTORY

OF

Fovre-Footed

Beastes,

Describing the true and lively figure of every Beast
with a discourse of their several Names, Conditions,
Kindes, Verities ( both naturall and medicinall ),
Countries of their breed, their love and hate to man-
kinde, and the wonderfull work of God in their
Creation, Preservation, and Destruction.

Necessary for all Divines and Students, because
the story of every Beast is amplified with Narrations
out of Scriptures, Philosophers, Physicians, and
Poets : wherein are declared divers Hyerogliphicks,
Emblems, Epigrams, and other good Histories, collected
out of all the Volumes of Conradvs, Gesner, and
all other Writers to this present day. By Edward
Topsell.

London :

Printed by William G. laggard.

1607.”

The book is a small folio, and contains about 900
pages (including the ‘ ‘ Epistle Dedicatory ” and
index.) It is dedicated

“To

THE REVEREND AND RIGHT
Worshipfull Richard Neile, D. of Divinity,
Dean of Westminster, Master of the Savoy, and
clearke of the King his most excellent Majesties closet
all felicity, Temporall, Spiritual, and Eternal l .

The library of English Bookes and Catalogues of
writers (Right Worthy and Learned Dean, my most
respected Patron) have growne to the height not
only of a iust-number, but also innumerable : and no

225

maruell, for God himself hath in all ages preserued
lerning in the next place to life, for as life is the
Ministereall Governor, and moouer in this world,
so is learning the Ministeriall Governor, and moouer
in life .... As life is different, and diuers
according to the spirit wherein it is seated, and by
j which it is norished, as with a current, as also is
| Learning according to the last vse and practise of
j rules, Canons, and authors from whan as from a
fountaine it taketh both beginning and encrease euen
j as the spirit of a Serpent is much quicker than the
j spirit of an Oxe, and the learning of Aristotle and
( Pliny more lively and lightsome then the knowledge
I of other obscure Philosophers vn worthy to be named,
j which either through enuie or Non proficiencye durst -
j neuer write.”

I The dedication then proceeds to dilate upon the

desirability of a knowledge of the history of animals
which the writer thinks will tend to make mankind
better. “Were not this a good perswasion against
murder, to see all beasts so to maintaine their
natures that they kill not their owne kind. Who so
vnnaturale and vnthankfull to his parents, but by
reading how the young Storkes and Wood-peckers
do in their olde age feed and nourish them, will not
repent and amend his folly and bee more naturale ?
What man is so void of compassion that hearing of
the bounty of the Bone breaker Birde to the young
Eagles, will not become more liberale ? Where is
there such a sluggard and drone that considereth the
labours, paines, and travels of the Emmet, Little
bee, Field mouse, Squirell, and such others that will
not learne for shame to be more industrious and set
his fingers to worke ! Why should any man living
fall to do euill against his conscience, or at the
temptation of the Deuill seeing a Lyon will never
yeeld. Mori scit unici nescit — and seeing the little

226

HARD IV1CKE ’S SC/EJVCD - G OSSIP.

Wren doth fight with an Eagle contending for
soueraignty ? Would it not make men to reverence a
good king set over them by God ? Seeing the bees
seek out their king if he loose himself, and by a most
sagacious smelling sence never cease untill he be
found out, and then beare him upon their bodies if he
be not able to fly, but if he die all forsake him. And
what king is not united to clemency and dehorted
from tyranny, seeing the king of the bees hath a sting
but never useth the same ? . . . . I have followed
D. Gesner as neer as I could, I do professe him my
author in most of my stories, yet I have gathered vp
that which he let fal, and added many pictures and
stories as may apeare by conference of both together.
In the names of the beasts I have not swarved from
him at all. He was a Protestant Physitian (a rare
thing to find any Religion in a Physitian) although
Saint Luke a Physitian were a writer of the

Gospell — Your Chaplaine in the Church of

Saint Buttolphe, Aldergate, Edward Topsell.”

In the “Epistle to the Learned Readers’'1 he
gives “the Catalogue of the Authors which have
wrote of Beasts,” viz., Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Ger-
man, Italian, French, and the following English
writers, Edward Wooton, William Turner, M. D.,
John Estwyck, John Falconer, M.D., Thomas
Bonham, M.D. Thomas Gybson, M.D.

The Rev. E. Topsell adopts a very simple arrange-
ment, viz., an alphabetical one, thus avoiding all the
troubles of orders, families, and genera. The first
animal he describes is the Antelope. “The Antalope
called in Latin Calopus, and of the Grecians
Analopos or Aptolos. Of this beast there is no
mention made among the auncient writers except
Suidas and the Epistle of Alexander to Aristotle,
interpreted by Cornelius Nepolius. The vertues of
this beast are vnknowne, and therefore Suidas saith
an Antalope is but good in part.”

The woodcut represents the animal with slightly
curved horns conspicuously serrated on the upper
margins and a long tooth in the lower jaw.

The next beast described, according to the author’s
arrangement, is the Ape, of which he remarks that it
“is held for subtell, ironical, rediculous, and un-
profitable beast, whose flesh is not good for meate
as a sheep, neither his backe for burthern as an asses,
nor yet commodious to keep house like a dog, but
of the Graecians termed Gelotopioon , made for
laughter.

And as the body of an Ape is ridiculous by reason
of an indecent likeness and imitation of man, so is his
soul or spirit ; for they are kept only in riche men’s
houses to sport withall, being for that cause easily
tamed, following every action he seeth done, even to
his owne harm, without discretion.”

The female, the writer tells us, “mostly has twins,
whereof they loue the one and hate the other ; that
which they loue they beare in their armes, the other
hangs at the dam’s back, and for the most part she

killeth that which she loueth by pressing it to hard :
afterwards she setteth her whole delight upon the
other.

The male and female abide with the young one,
and if it want anything, the male, with fist and irefull
aspect, punisheth the female. When the moone is in
the waine they are heauy and sorrowful, but they
leap and rejoice at the change, for, as other beasts,
so do these feare the defect of the starres and planets.
They are full of desimmulations and imitation of
man ; they readiler folow the euile then the good
they see.

They loue conies very tenderly, for in England an
old ape (scarse able to goe) did defend conies from
the weasell, as Sir Thomas Moore reported. They
feare a shel-fish and a snaile very greatly, as appear-
eth by this history.

In Rome, a certaine boy put a snaile in his hat and
came to an Ape, who, as he was accustomed, leaps
upon his shoulder and took off his hat to kil lise in
his head, but, espying the snaile, it was a wonder to
see with what hast the Ape leaped from the boyes’’
shoulder and in a trembling manner looked backe to
see if the snaile followed him.

A Lyon ruleth the beasts of the earth, and a
Dolphin the beasts of the sea. When the Dolphin is
in age and sicknes, she recovers by eating a sea-ape
and so the Lyon by eating an ape of the earth, and
therefore, the Egyptians paint a Lyon eating an Ape
to signify a sicke man curing himself. The hart of
an ape, sod and dried, whereof the weight of a groat
drunk in a draught of stale Hunny sod in water,
called Mcllicraton , strengtheneth the heart, embolden-
eth and driveth away the pulse and pusillanimity
thereof, sharpeneth ones understanding, and is
soueraigne against the falling euill.”

The following is a list of Apes described by
Topsell : — Vulgar ape, monkey ape, marline ape,
callitriche ape, Persian ape, baboun ape, Tartarine ape,
satyre ape, monster ape, Norwegian ape, pan ape,
sphinx ape, Sagon ape, ape called beare ape, ape
called foxe ape. Figures are given of these forms..
We need scarcely say that they were in the majority
of cases evolved from the artist’s inner conscious-
ness. As a specimen, we give a copy of the head of
the Sphinga or Sphinx ape. Of this species the writer
gives the following description: — “The Sphinx , or
Sphinga , is of the kind of Apes hauing his body
rough like Apes, but his breast, up to his necke, pilde
(bald) and smooth without hayre : the face very
round, yet sharp and picked, hauing the breasts of a
woman, and their fauor or visage much like them.”

To the utter confusion of the anti-Darwinites, we
quote the following from the history of a Satyre ape,
clearly showing the existence of an intermediate form.
Topsell’s authority for this is unimpeachable, for he
says : — “ S. Ierom, in the life of Paul the Eremite,
reporteth there appeared to S. Antony an Hippo-
ccntatire , such as the poets describe, and presently he

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

227

saw in a rocky valley, adjoining, a litle man hauing
croked nostrils, homes growing out of his forhedj
and the neather part of his body had goat’s feet : the
holy man, not dismayed, taking the shield of faith
and the breast-plate of righteousnesse, like a good
souldior of Christ, preased toward him, which
brought him some fruites of palmes as pledges of his
peace, upon which he fed in the iourney, which same
Antony perceiving, he asked him who he was, and
received this answer : I am a mortall creature, one of
the inhabitants of this desart, whome the Gentiles
(deceued with error) doe worship and call Fauni ,
Satyres, and Incubi. I am come in ambassage from
our flock, intreating that thou wouldst pray for vs
unto the common God who came to saue the world :
the which words were no sooner ended but he ran
away as fast as any foule could fly. And least this
should seame false, vnder Constantino , at Alexandria,
there was such a man to be seene aliue, and was a
publike spectacle to all the world, the carcase
whereof, after his death, was kept from corruption by
heat through salt, and was carried to Antiochia that
the Emperor himself might see it.”

“ Satyres are very seldome seene, and taken with
great difficulty, as is before saide, for there were two
founde in the woods of Saxony, towards Dacra, in a
desart, the female whereof was killed by the darts of
the hunters and the biting of dogs ; but the male was
taken alive, being in the vpper parts like a man, and
in the neather parts like a goat, but all hairy through-
out : he was brought to be tame, and learned to go
vpright, and also to speak some wordes, but with a
voice like a goat, and of this kind there are store in
Ethiopia.”

“ Of the Asse. — Asses are of very foolish condicions
and slender capacity, but yet very tame, not refusing
any manner of burthen although it break his back.
Ammonianum was in such love with an asse, and
holding him of so great capacity, that he had one
continually to heare his lectures in Phylosophie.
Gallen affermeth that an ass understandeth, genus
species et individimm ; because, if you shew him a
camell that never saw one before, he is terrified and
cannot endure his sight ; but if he have been accus-
tomed to such a sight, if you shew him never so
many he is not moved at them. In like sort hee
Enoweth men in general, being not affraid of them ;
but if he see or heare his keeper he knoweth him for
his keeper or maister.

The asse being overcome with melancholy humour
naturally looketh for the hearbe Citterach , or Finger-
feme, to cure him. The asse is neuer at peace with
the cio, because he longeth for the asse’seyes j likewise
the bird Salem , for when the asse commeth to the
thornes to rub himselfe where the same bird buildeth
her nest, the asse spoyleth it, wherefore the said bird
maketh continual assault vppon him. In like sort
the Colot a, or Sielho, for it sleepeth in the mangers,
and creepeth up unto the asse’s nose to hinder him

from eating. The woolfe is also an enemy to the
asse, for he loveth his flesh, and with small force
doeth he compasse the destruction of an asse ; for
the blockish asse when he seeth a woolfe layeth his
head on his side that so he might not see, thinking
that because he seeth not the woolfe the woolfe can-
not see him ; but the woolfe vpon this advantage
setteth vppon the beast on the blind side and easily
destroyeth the courageless asse.

Another argument of an asse’s stupidity is that he
careth not for his own life, but will with quietnesse
starve if meal be not laid before him. Wherefore it
is apparent that when a dull scholler not apt to
learne is bid to sell an asse to signifie his blockishnes,
is no vaine sentence ; therefore they which resemble
asses in their head, round forehead, or great face,
are said to be blockish ; in their fleshy face, fear-
full ; in broad or great eies, simple, and like to be
mad ; in thick lips and the vpper hanging over the
nether, fooles ; and in their voyce contumelius and
disdainfull. . . . The Iewish people, who like asses,
could not understand the evident truth of Christ in
the plaine text of Scripture, wherefore our Saviour
secretly vpbraided their dulnes when he rode upon
an asse.

Touching such medicinall vertues as have been
tried and found to be in the several parts of asses in
learned and approved writers, now in this history
they shall be briefly remembred, and so this narration
finished.”

These remedies would occupy more space than the
editor would grant me, an example must therefore
suffice. “ If any be hurt by the starres wash them in
asses stale mingled with Spiknard, the same force has
it against cornes and all hardness or thicknesse of
skinne.”

“ Of the Indian Asses. — It is questionable whether
the Monoceros, commonly called a Vnicorne , the
Rhinoceros, the Oryx, and the Indian asse be one
beast, or diuers ; for the Vnicorne and Rhinoceros
haue the same things attribvted to them in stories,
and differ in verie few reports, both Aristotle, Pliny,
and JEhanus coyntly agree that they differ from
all other whole-footed beasts, because they haue one
home in the forehead, and so have also the Rhinoceros,
Monoceros, and Orix, but the Indians cal a Vnicorne
Cartagono ; and the home so highly prized at this day
is thought to be of the Rhinoceros, but ^Ehanus and
Philes acknowledge no other Vnicorne, but the Indian
Asse, who in bignes equalleth a horse among the
Indians, being all white on the body, but purple-
headed or red (as some say), black eyes, but Volatter-
ranus saith blew, hauing one home in the forehead,
a cubit-and-a-halfe long, whose upper part is red or
bay, the middle black, and the neather part white,
wherein the kings and mighty men of India vse to
drink, adorning it for that purpose with sundry
bracelets, precious stones, and works of gold holding
for truth that all those which drinken in those homes

228

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

shall be freed from annoyance of incurable diseases,
as conuulsions, the falling euile and deadly poi-
sions.”

We find two other species of asses described in this
veracious history, viz. , the Alborach and Axis ; the
former is, the author says, “the animal whereupon the
Turkish priestes and blasphemous idolaters perswade
the silly pilgrims of Mecha that Mahomet was
carried up to heaven.”

Of the Badger , otherwise called a Brocke , a Gray,
or a Bauson. — The Rev. E. Topsell most unkindly
exposes the ignorance of this animal ; he commences
his description by saying, ‘ ‘ The Badger could neuer
find aGreeke name. The Italians call a Badger Tasso ;
the Rhetians, Tasch ; the French, Tans son, Taixen,
Tasson, Tesson, and sometimes Grisart( for her colour),
sometimes Blareau (now Blaireaii), and at Parris
Bedouo ; the Spaniardes, 7 asugo, Texon ; the Ger-
mans, Tachs, or Daxs ; the Illyrians, Gezweez. Badgers
are plentiful in Naples, Sicilly, Lucano, and in the
Alpine and Heluitian coasts ; so are they also in
England. In Italy and Germany they eate grayes
flesh, and boil it with peares, which maketh the flesh
tast like the flesh of a Porcupine. The flesh is best
in September, if it be fat.”

( To he continued. )

AN EDITOR’S HOLIDAY IN THE WEST
OF IRELAND.

ONE of the most bewilderingly lovely drives or
walks in the West of Ireland is that from
Westport to Cliefden. The distance is something over
forty miles, and the road is tolerably good, although in
many places chequered by acclivities and declivities.
If walking, we should recommend the pedestrian to do
the first eighteen miles to Leenane, which is, in our
opinion, the most beautiful spot we visited. The road
thereto lies over the mountains, and, after gradually as-
cending three or four miles from Westport, we traverse
the surface of a table-land, everywhere boggy and wet,
and with pretty loughs or lakes studding its surface.
Some of these loughs are very paradises of water-
plants, and their margins are covered with the cool
green leaves and exquisite white blossoms of the
common water-lily. All round this table-land there
rises a panorama of hills. Some of them may be
called mountains, for they are three thousand feet in
height, and their tops stretch upwards into the sky,
so that the cloud scenery is mapped and patterned by
their presence, and presents quite a different appear-
ance to cloud-land in our own parts of the country.
1 hey have a riven and a weird look, these ancient
hills, for they are composed of the very hardest rocks
known to geologists — namely, the metamorphic rocks.
The Silurian sandstones and slates and limestones, most
of which once contained fossil remains, have been so

completely altered by heat that scarcely a trace now
remains of a fossil, and yet their geological map
— for this country has been geologically surveyed
by some of our ablest men — shows the whole region
in a variously coloured pattern which indicates how
different is the variety of rocks. The white lines on
the map, which represent faults or vertical crackings
and slippings of the solid rock, are exceedingly
numerous. Along the line of some of these faults
the valleys now extend, for they have proved the
weak places where weathering action could be best
exerted. The outlines of these grand old hills
have been sculptured by .Father Time. They are
amongst the oldest of our British mountains, and no
country in the world has such ancient mountains as
Great Britain and Ireland ! For millions of years
the storms of different climates have gathered around
these ancient peaks, and have spent their fury upon
them not in vain, for it is chiefly to the combined
and continued action of the weather that their very
shapes are now due.

Fig. 196. Terraced Limestone Hills, Glen Colombkill.

From the table-land we have mentioned, a peaty
stream called the Erive makes its appearance, at
first so small that a boy could jump across it easily.
As we pass along the uneven road, the stream
gathers strength from its numerous tributaries, all of
them after a rainy night seaming the sides of hills
like silver threads ; and anon it gains in violence and
volume and brawls over its rocky bed, which latter
widens as well as deepens as the stream descends to-
wards the sea. Here and there it throws its volume
of seething water over some rocky terrace as a water-
fall or cataract, and occasionally its restlessness seems
to be checked by some deep pool which the brown,
peaty-coloured water causes to appear of unfathom-
able depth. Everywhere, however, along the route
of the stream, even in these elevated regions, there was
growing such a wild luxuriance of that most magni-
ficent of all British and even exotic ferns — the Royal
Flowering fern ( Osmund a regalis) — as we have
never before seen, except perhaps once along the

HARD WICKEDS SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

229

southern side of Barton Broad, in Norfolk. The
tall fronds rise to a height of five and six feet, with
their brown spore-bearing branches rustling to and
fro in the mountain wind. As we passed along the
road we saw numbers of ordinary marsh plants, but
we were on the outlook for one particular flower
which occurs nowhere else in the British Islands,
except these western coasts of Ireland. It is
one of the heaths, known as St. Dabeoc’s (named
after an Irish saint), and formerly christened by
botanists Dabeocia poll folia, although now, in honour
of a Scotchman, its generic name has been unmu-
sically changed to that of Menziesia. By and by we
came in view of this lovely heath. Great was our
joy, for we had never seen it before except in the
pages of Sowerby. The reader may well pardon the
delight of an ardent botanist at the first sight of this
plant, growing in luxuriance in its wild abodes, for
its beauty is not exceeded even by the magnificent
heaths which have been imported into our green-

the primitive village and capital inn of Leenane is
situated. No better spot for the tourist to rest a few
days could be selected than this. Along one moun-
tain pass he can proceed to Kylemore Lough, which
is, perhaps, the loveliest in Ireland, with the excep-
tion of one of the lakes of Killarney, for Kylemore
Lough has not only rugged and bare mountains rising
around it on every hand, but these are softened down
near the margin of the lake by rounded bosses,
festooned with honeysuckle, and bramble, and wild
rose, the haunt of a thousand plants dear to the
botanist, and now bright with three or four species of
heath, including an abundance of our prized Dabeocia.
Shrubberies of hazel bush, willows, alder, and larch
come down to the very edge of the water, while
above them stand stately groups of Scotch fir, whose
rough stems gather all the light that is in the sky
and reflect it in the very warmest of colours. Rarely
have we been more pleased with a situation than that
of Kylemore. At one end stands the magnificent

houses from the Cape of Good Hope and Australia.
Its rose-coloured, bell-like flowers are about three
times the size of those of our English heaths, which
latter grow side by side with it, as if for the sake of
comparison.

After some miles of tramping, the pedestrian will
discover that he has passed the highest point of the
water-shed, for the streams are now flowing in a
different direction. The mountain scenery becomes
grander as he proceeds, the mountains appearing to
present themselves one after another like the billows
of a stormy sea. At length a glimmer of light
appears between the hills where the valley ought to
be, and we gradually approach Ivillery Bay. This
is a fiord like Clew Bay, extending from the sea
sinuously into this mountain land for a distance of
twelve or fifteen miles, the mountains rising in some
places quite steeply from the water. Various moun-
tain streams pour themselves into it at the head where

seat of Mr. Mitchell-Henry, M. P. for Galway, who
has done good work in the neighbourhood by in-
ducing the peasantry on his estate to drain the bog
lands, so that they are being rapidly'converted into
fertile fields.

From Leenane there are beautiful roads to Delphi,
through Glen Fee, and to the Pass of Saal Ruck, a
walk of about six or seven miles after having crossed
Killery Bay. The bay is full of fish, especially
mackerel and whiting, and this delicate food can be
obtained in almost unlimited quantity. From Leenane
to Cliefden is about twenty-four miles, and Kylemore
Lough may be taken on the road. Towards Letter-
frack we were particularly struck by the signs the
landscape presents of the influence which moving
ice has exerted in this region. During all our
journeyings we had been beset by the strongest evi-
dence of this kind, but nowhere is it more plainly
seen than at Letterfrack. Huge hillocks of refuse

230

HARD WICK HS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

ai*e composed of fragments of rocks of almost every
size of bigness and smallness, each fragment polished
and scratched by the ancient ice-sheet which long ago
disappeared. Low rounded bosses' of rock, called
roches moutonnee, had been seen on each side of the
road all the way from Westport, many of the latter
covered with scorings and stria:, all of them con-
verging in the direction of the valleys. There can
be little question that, before these bays or fiords were
filled with salt water, they had been filled with ice,
and had very probably been deepened by the mechani-
cal erosion of the moving ice-sheets towards those
deeper and lower parts now covered by the waters of
the Atlantic.

Near Letterfrack we came upon some limestones
which had been altered by heat until they assumed
the appearance of loaf-sugar. Some of the lime-
stones have been coloured green, and the well-known
“green marbles” of Connemara are obtained from this
deposit. Of them many exquisite ornaments are
manufactured and sold at Clifden, the deposit crop-
ping out along the hillsides. A grander country for
the geologist, and especially for the physical geologist,
could hardly be selected than this, for there are so
many varieties of rock formations, particularly of the
older and more primitive rocks, that at every few
hundred yards the student comes upon a new stratum
on which he feels forced to exercise his hammering
abilities. Perhaps none of them struck us more than
the outcrop of what had once been a Lower Silurian
conglomerate, that is to say, a shingle or gravel bed,
which had accumulated as such in one of the earliest
geological periods. The pebbles of this bed were
formed of various kinds of granite, and they had been
cemented together in a sandy and clayeykind of matrix,
until the entire stratum had become solid. Then this
bed had been exposed to the influence of heat and the
enormous pressure of overlying masses, so that both
the pebbles and the material in which they had been
imbedded had been metamorphosed together. No
more instructive illustration of the great changes
effected upon the configuration of the earth’s surface
by the agency of heat could have been afforded. The
only drawback to the geologist whilst studying these
rocks is the absence of a donkey-cart and a good
strong donkey, for his knapsack soon gets full and his
pockets weighed dowm, and, worst of all, he is
obliged to leave specimens behind him that he would
otherwise gladly carry away to gloat over and study
during the winter months.

We reached Cliefden late in the evening, when the
dusk was falling around us, and the neighbouring
hills were gradually shading off into immaterial
obscurity. We rose early next morning in order
to catch the eight o’clock mail-car for Galway.
Punctually to the moment, a lumbering old car, with
two Irish horses harnessed thereto, made its appear-
ance at the hotel door, an Irishman perched as
if he were on the top of a chimney-pot in front of the

! machine. The first part of our way led us by the
side of the well-known and much-talked-of Twelve
Pins or Bens, both the word “Pin” and “Ben”
(which is common in Scotland) meaning head or peak
in the Celtic language. The names, in this instance,
have reference to a group of twelve tall mountains
which stand clustered together in the wildest part of
Connemara. The road to Calway winds in and out
of the valleys formed by and along the base of the
mountains, so that we had magnificent mountain
scenery on the left-hand side, whilst, on the right,
there extend, for miles, a series of lakes like “pearls
on a string. ” Some of these lakes, as, for instance,
Lough Inagh and Glenda Lough, are of considerable
size, and have islands in their midst upon which are
the ruins of many an old castle or keep. At Ballyna-
hinch, in one of the largest of these islands, we
behold one of the finest of these castles, that of
the Martins, an Irish family which once possessed
almost regal power in this part of the country, and
owned no fewer than 200,000 acres of land. At
Recess there is a capital hotel, much frequented by
salmon and trout fishers, their prey being abundant
in the lakes and rivers of the neighbourhood. Here,
too, the scenery becomes more wooded ; but the drive
from Recess to a village called Oughterard is one of
the wildest and most dismal that it is possible to
imagine. We saw it under characteristic conditions.
There was a drizzling rain descending from the
mountain clouds all the way, and it seemed to bring
out the misery and the sloppiness and the bogginess
of the low grounds in all their intensity.

As we approach Galway the country becomes more
cultivated. The roadsides and walls are perfect para-
dises of ferns, among which Scolopendrium vulgare,
Asplenmm trichomanes , and Celerach ojjicinarum ,
are most abundant. There are signs of greater
wealth, and here and there mansions make their
appearance with rich woods around them. Lake
Corrib stretches away to the very heart of the Twelve
Pins, some forty miles away, and a steamer plies
up and down the water during the summer months.
At Galway bridge we could see from the parapets
the salmon in scores, three or four thick, lying at the
bottom of the stream, waiting for the freshets, so that
they could pass up the salmon leap and through the
loughs into the mountain streams above. A day or
two lnay be agreeably spent in Galway, especially in
exploring that outlying suburb called the “ Claddagh,”
where the Spanish settlers of 300 years ago still live
apart from their Irish brethren, with a mayor of
their own, elected every seven years, and governed
by their own unwritten laws (which are obeyed
much more strictly than the written laws of the Saxon
in Galway town).

We left Galway by the steamer which crosses the
bay to Ballyvaughan. The day was intensely hot,
and the atmosphere seemed full of light. Hence the
white limestone-terraced hills of the Burren would

HARD WICKHS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

231

have been unbearable for one’s eye to gaze upon had
it not been for the oases of greenery here and there.
We think there can be little doubt that these rock-
terraces are due to weathering, and that they do not
represent successive sea-beaches, as some imagine.
The terraces appear to coincide with the outcrop of
the limestone beds, and the terraces are most pro-
nounced towards the tops of the hills, the debris
lying along the bases having greatly protected the
lower strata from meteorological erosion. The rain-
fall hereabout is 54 inches in a year, and as it mostly
descends in a fine drizzle, nearly every drop must tell
upon the limestone, and its weathering action must
therefore be almost complete.

We stayed a few days at Lisdoonvarna, a pleasant
green country, richly undulated, where the
Yoredale shales abut against the Carboniferous
limestones, and the water percolating through the
former dissolves away its iron pyrites, so as thus to
form “ Spas” of notable benefit. Dr. Westropp, the
kind and genial physician of the place, has made a
remarkable living collection of all the varieties of the
Hart’s-tongue ferns found growing in the fissures and
joints of the Carboniferous limestone near Black-
head. These joints are very numerous, and in each of
them we saw growing a wonderful luxuriance of
Maiden-hair (A. capillus-veneris) and other ferns ;
while on the cliffs the surface was matted with Dryas
octopetala (still in flower) ; and patches of Statice
spathidata grew here and there, close by denser tufts of
Asplenium marinum. Near Mohr Cliffs we found
Lastrea recurva completely covering a bank for a
short distance. These Cliffs are a magnificent
spectacle, rising quite perpendicularly for nearly 600
feet out of the sea. They are formed of Lower
Carboniferous rocks, the thin flagstones of which
are completely covered with worm or molluscan
tracks. We should be delighted to convey to our
readers even a faint idea of the pleasure we enjoyed
from the detailed exploration of the limestone rock-
gardens, surely unknown the whole world else-
where, and of the loveliness of the green western
Irish land, and of its balmy atmosphere, which one
can almost taste !

The Carboniferous limestone underlies the whole
country hereabout — a ,lan:l bare, almost as a wooden
table, of grass, and yet richly feeding numbers of
sheep. The real reason why sheep are able to feed
over the limestone tract of the Burren hills, is that
the rocks are so much fissured with the vertical
cracks, in which grow the loveliest of wild plants,
many of them rare to the botanist, and a profusion
of such ferns as the Hart’s-tongue, the Maiden-hair
(A titanium capillus-veneris), the Ceterach, and many
others. Various species of grass also grow in these
chinks, and it is upon the latter that the sheep
browse, and so the spectator is presented with the
peculiar appearance of sheep grazing on what appears
to be a region of the poorest and the baldest rock.

MICROSCOPY,

“ New Forms of Animal Life ! ! ” (vide Times
report of Sir W. C. Thompson’s paper on the official
report of the Challenger Expedition, August 21,
1878). — “Sir W. Thompson says that Mr. Holdich is
illustrating most of the pelagic genera, these plates re-
presenting several remarkable forms of ‘ shizopods,’
to which they have given the name of Challengerida ,

: as they seem to have hitherto escaped observation.
Professor Hatchel is about to publish a splendid
memoir of the Radiolari. Any one acquainted with
Hatchel ’s classical work, ‘ Die Radiolariem,’ would
have some idea of what may be expected of that
memoir. Mr. Moseby is at work on a most remark-
able little series of coralloid forms of the Hydrogor,
which he has named Hydrocorotmal , and on their
strictures and relations Mr. Moseby’s careful work,
during the voyage and since their return [query, of
the Hydrocorotmal ?], had thrown quite an un-
expected light. Professor Hatchel would describe
the medusce. The Peliatozo would be described by
himself (Sir W. Thompson). About twenty plates
were cut stone (these will make a heavy book)
illustrating the stalked crinoids. Professor Alexan-
drac Ligussis was going on rapidly /with the Echiniden.
Mr. Lyman was working at the Opherxides , and he
expected Mr. Phere, of Upsala, to come over to ex-
amine the Holtheridea , which he was going to describe
under the general superintendence of Professor
Lowe.” A friend says I am mistaken, these are not new
names, and if the following corrections are made it
will be all right. For shizopod read rhizopod , Radio-
lariem read Radiolarien, for Hydrogor read Hydrozoa
(I still adhere to it that Hydrocorotmal is new),
Opherxides is the same as Ophiuridce , and Holtheridco
is identical with Holoilmridce , and Professor Hatchel
is vulgarly known as Haeckel. — F. K.

Highbury Microscopical Society. — We are
pleased to state that a Highbury Microscopical So-
ciety has just been formed under the presidency of
Dr. Alabone. Applications for membership should
be addressed to the lion, secretary, Mr. R. B. Brind-
ley, 37, Highbury Park, N. The opening meeting
of the society will take place on Thursday, October
loth, at Harecourt Hall, St. Paul’s Road, High-
bury, with an exhibition of objects of a scientific
nature, principally shown by the microscope.
Tickets free on application.

Measuring with the Microscope. — A very-
simple arrangement for measuring microscopic ob-
jects has been invented by Mr. G. J. Burch, and
fully described in the “Transactions of the Quekett
Club,” for July, 1878. It is as follows : — The body
of the microscope is placed in a vertical position,
and one of the forms of “Beales’s” Neutral Tint
Camera Lucida, placed as usual over the eyepiece,
attached to the tube of the Camera, and at right

232

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -G OSSIP.

angles to it is a light rod, 'of any convenient
length, upon which a graduated scale slides opposite
to the thin glass in the Camera. On looking through
the latter the object will appear to have the scale
laid upon it, and its size can be easily determined.
The rod upon which the scale is clamped should be
graduated in order that the magnifying power of the
objective may be ascertained and registered : this is
ascertained in the following manner : — the divisions
on the scale are adjusted to those seen on the stage
micrometer, and its position noted for future reference.
It is necessary the figures on the scale should be
reversed. A goniometer scale for the measurement of
angles can be easily substituted for the ordinary scale.

The Miniature Microscope Lamp. - We have
recently tried the above-mentioned lamp, just intro-
duced by Messrs. How & Co., St. Bride-street,
Ludgate Circus, London, and find that, although veiy
much smaller than those hitherto
in use, it affords a pure white
light sufficient for all micro-
scopic purposes. One of the
advantages of its small size is
the much less heat given off, a
somewhat important matter,
when a dozen or more lamps
are burning simultaneously. It
is fitted with the Improved
“Hailes” shade; this in its
original form, as most of our
readers are aware, was that of
a porcelain cylinder, with an
aperture at the lower part, the
rest of the light being obscured ;
it was supported by a brass ring
sliding on the upright rod of
the lamp. One fault in this
form of shade was that a great
amount of light was visible
above it, and generally on a
level with the eye of the ob-
server. In the new shade this
has been obviated by the upper
part being made dome-shaped, the eyes being thus
effectually protected from glare. The shade is sup-
ported by a “gallery” just below the burner; it
is therefore always in position. The lamp, when
not in use, is packed in a japanned tin case, about
3 inches in diameter, and 9 inches in height, and
weighs under two pounds.

The Painted Lady. — Have you ever observed
a kind of metallic sound when this insect is on the
wing ? I also fancy it has a partiality for sandy
patches on hedge-banks, especially under the shade
of trees. It flies later in the evening than some other
species, and is a bold insect — returning to the spot
where an attempt has been made to capture it.
— IV. M. C. C. S.

ZOOLOGY.

The Black-Throated Stonechat in Lanca-
shire ( Saxicola stapazina). — It is a pleasing duty
to me to record the taking of a very beautiful
specimen of what I consider an exceedingly rare bird
in our neighbourhood ( Saxicola stapazina). The
specimen was shot by a friend of mine about the
middle of May this year on the margin of the Bury
and Radclifife Reservoir ; and, though very mangled
with shot, having a goodly number of 6’s, it has been
very well mounted indeed by my friend Johnson, of
Prestwich. Considering the condition it was in from
being killed with such large shot, I really doubted at
one time whether it could be mounted ; however, it
has been, and a valuable addition to our list of birds
it is. We naturally ask ourselves now, if this bird
is no native what is it doing here, and how came
it to visit us? The most probable solution to this is,
the Stonechat family are migratory, leaving us for
more southern and western countries about the begin-
ning or middle of September, returning to us in large
flocks about the end of April or beginning of May ; and
likely enough this specimen, being of the same habits
as our Wheatear, has travelled along with a flock
and reached our shores, whence he would drive
inland in search of a mate. I have sought many works
on British birds, but failed to find its mention ; and
the only description I can find is in Cassell’s “Book
of Birds,” vol. ii. , p. 199. The bird I have is
a male bird, in fine mature plumage, and in very
good condition when shot. Its habits when alive,
as noticed by several parties for a few days prior
to its being captured, were very active, vigilant, and
shy. It seemed to hoid itself aloof from any of
the same order ( Saxicola amanthe). Cassell’s de-
scription of these birds in their native home is very
interesting, and I here give an extract : — “Though
they by no means avoid fruitful tracts or cultivated
districts, these birds very decidedly prefer to take up
their abode in mountainous or stony regions ; and
are for this reason particularly numerous in Sweden,
Southern Germany, and Switzerland ; in the latter
country they are popularly known as Mountain Night-
ingales, from the height to which they often ascend.
Even the icy and rugged tracts of Scandinavia and
Lapland seem to suit their requirements, and we have
often seen them hopping nimbly over the glaciers in
situations where no other living objects were dis-
cernible. Individuals inhabiting more southern lati-
tudes display the same liking for barren grounds, and
are usually seen in localities so sterile and arid as to
appear totally incapable of affording them a sufficient
supply of the insects upon which they subsist ; their
disposition is lively, restless, and very unsocial ; only
during their winter migrations do they seem to com-
mingle with others of their species, even when cir-
cumstances compel a certain amount of neighbourship ;
each bird lives for itself, without appearing to have

Fig. 198. The Miniature
Microscopic Lamp.

HARD WICKE’S S CIENCE -GOSS IP.

233

the slightest interest in the proceedings of others in the
vicinity.” In order to more clearly identify this spe-
cimen from our Wheatear ( Saxicola cenanthe), I have
had a male specimen of the latter mounted along with
it, from which it will be seen there is a very wide
difference ; the colours of S. stapazina are, on the
head, nape, and back, white, slightly tinged with
rust yellow ; on the belly and breast dulled white ; the
throat and cheeks, from above the eyelids, including
the ear-coverts, are jet black, quite as much or more
than the Pied Wagtail ( Motacilla Yarellii) ; the upper
and under tail-coverts are white ; the two outer tail
feathers on each side are white, slightly edged and
tipped with black ; while the three next on each side
are white, slightly edged (but not tipped) with black,
the middle tail feathers are entirely black, the wings
are a beautiful glossy black, as are also the legs and
toes. I did not take the dimensions of the bird when
dead, but it is a trifle smaller than A. cenanthe , as
will be seen on comparison. I have shown the
specimen to several very able naturalists, and not
one remembers having seen the species before. —
R. Davenport, Bury, Lane.

Animal Stupidity. — In studying the intellects
of the lower animals it is no less important to note
their mental shortcomings than the cases in which
they reason correctly. Early this year I observed
a singular piece of irrationality on the part of a large
black retriever. The animal lived in the last house
of a “terrace,” in one of the northern suburbs of
London, separated from the next terrace by a walled
alley. Finding itself one day locked out, and being
unable to effect an entrance either by the front door
or by a side door leading into the alley, it made its
way into the front garden of the end house of the
next terrace, and made most persevering but fruitless
attempts to leap over the wall. Had it succeeded it
would, of course, only have landed in the alley
which it could enter from the street. After a short
time it left the garden, and ran round into the street
and the alley, but still returned again and again to its
endeavours to jump the wall until its master came
home. — J. W. Slater.

Ca nnibalism among Caterpillars. — Receiving
two half-grown larvae of the Goat Moth, I put them
into a tin box and left them for a short time. On re-
opening the box I found that one caterpillar had en-
tirely devoured the other except the hard case of the
head and a portion of the skin and prolegs. At first
sight I thought that the larvae had assumed the chrysalis
state, or had thrown off its skin, but a careful exami-
nation failed to discover the chrysalis, and the box was
too securely fastened to allow of the caterpillar’s
escape ; so the conclusion that one larva had devoured
the other was the only one I could satisfactorily come
at.— C. C.

Parasite of the Linnet. — I am induced to
write the few following remarks to Science-Gossip

under the belief that this parasite is not well known.
I shall be glad to hear if any subscriber has a similar
specimen. Figure 199 shows this parasite magnified
50 diameters, and figure 200 shows one foot magnified
280 diameters. It is evidently a Physostomum and
not unlike Physostomum mystax , said by Mr. Denny

Fig. 199. Parasite of Fig. 200. Foot of Parasite

Linnet x 50. of Linnet X 280.

to infest the chaffinch. The head is large and
devoid of antennae and trabeculae. The legs are long,
the femora thick, the first joint of the tarsus has a
pulvellus. The mesothorax is wanting and the
metathorax is continuous with the abdomen, which
consists of 9 segments. The colour of this parasite
is brownish yellow with a dark band down each
side. It can move with great rapidity among the
feathers of its host. — W. A. Hyslop.

The Colorado Potato-Beetle. — The appear-
ance of the Colorado Beetle at Jaratschervo, in the
district of Schrimm, in the Prussian province of
Posen, has been officially reported.

The Habits of the Field Vole. — At the
British Association Meeting, Sir Walter Elliott
made a few observations on the annual increase
of the common vole (Arv/eola agrestis) of late years.
In the spring of 1876 they appeared in such numbers
in the hill pasture farms of the Border districts
between England and Scotland, and parts of York-
shire and Wensleydale, as to destroy the grazing
ground on which the sheep depended in spring,
causing serious loss to the farmers by impoverishment
and death of stock. The shepherds destroyed as many
as they could without sensibly diminishing their
numbers, although assisted by birds and beasts of
prey — hawks, buzzards, owls, weasels, foxes, &c. At
the same time that the vole was doing such mischief,
another species (Arvieola arvalis), not known in

234

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

England, made its appearance in Hungary, and
attacked the corn-fields, which it had done to a less
degree in two or three previous years, and this year
they had attacked the wheat-fields of Moldavia, as
appears by a late paragraph in the Times newspaper.
Many instances are recorded of great damage being
done by them, both in England and Scotland, by
destroying plantations, of which Mr. Jesse described
a notable instance in New Forest and Dean Forest
some time ago. These examples prove that they do
not confine their attacks to pastures and woods, and
it is possible that they might, under favourable circum-
stances, betake themselves to our corn-fields. It is
therefore worth consideration whether our game-
preservers should not be more forbearing towards the
hawks, owls, and weasels, which are nearly extermi-
nated in many places, although they live almost entirely
on these and other small creatures. Sir Walter
inquired whether anything similar had been seen in
Ireland ; also whether, as moles and hedgehogs were
the natural enemies of the vole, they should not be
spared ; and with reference to a statement in “Bell’s
History of British Quadrupeds ” (last edition) that the
hedgehog was not found in Ireland, whether this was
really the case ? Several speakers said that the hedge-
hog was very plentiful in all parts of Ireland.

Dr. Sclater on Specific Names. — In answer
to Robin Goodfellow, in Science-Gossip, p. 189, I
would observe, that it is a great error to suppose that
specific names must necessarily be adjectives. In
many cases they are substantives, and may then be of
a different gender from the generic name, e.g. Turdus
merula, and Cervus dama. This is the case with
the now scientific name of the common robin,
which has puzzled R. G.’s little boy, and which is
correctly written Erithcicus rubecula , rubecula being
a substantive like Erithcicus , and standing in appo-
sition with it. In the same way Linnceus called the
Kestrel Falco Tmnunculus , the Bell Falcon, from
its bell-like cry. But a recent systematist, under the
same misapprehension as R. G., has proposed to
alter Tinnunculus into Tinnunculci (!) because the
genus to which he referred it, Cerchneis , is feminine.
— P. L. Sclater.

Tpie Eartpi-worm. — Professor Paley has added a
great many interesting facts to the little-known habits
of the earth-worm, but he has not exhausted the
subject, and I shall only be too glad if I can add
an item to what has been recorded. After some
very wet days in the month of last June, I spent
several hours in the dusk of evening carefully
noting their actions, my great object being to discover
by what means earth-worms dragged leaves, string,
twigs, &c., along the ground into their holes. I
knew, for I had often seen them clasp objects by
their prehensile heads, twining their finely-pointed
heads firmly round the object, and so draw it towards
their hole, but I had reason to suspect that this, No. 1,

was their ordinary but not their only method. Very
carefully and quietly placing a candle on the earth
where a number of large worms were foraging round
their holes, I took care to place decayed leaves, &c.,
within the radius of the circle swept by their opera-
tions. The objects placed within their reach were,
however, too much the colour of the soil accurately
and distinctly to be sure of the modus operand. i, the
thought suddenly occurred to me to try white paper.
Tearing up little strips about three inches long, I
gave them a single fold, and placed one within the
reach of a foraging worm. Very soon its elongated
head came in contact with the paper, and instead of
twining its head round the paper I saw it put its head
underneath. Carefully watching, I saw a lip on each
side of the paper, which being compressed between
the two, the paper was held firmly as in a vice, and
so dragged to its hole. Continuing the experiments
with my paper bait, I saw distinctly that the worm
can compress and almost flatten its head as easily as
it can elongate it. When the head is rendered obtuse,
it can extend it on each side of the mouth so as to
form two large distinct lips, between which it took
hold of the papers and dragged them to the hole ; but
this is only method No. 2. There is yet another,
which at first I could scarcely understand. Observing
a worm place its head under the white paper, so that
its operation was invisible, I saw the paper, without
any apparent means of motion, slowly, ghost-like
moving along the dark ground to the hole of the
worm. Its head was not round it, nor did its lips
enclose any part of the paper, and yet it moved.
Quietly and carefully, by candle-light, continuing for
hours my observations, I saw that when it suited the
creature’s purpose best, it had yet a third method of
attaching itself to its baits. The worm having retracted
its head in the same way as when forming its lips,
firmly pressed it for a moment on to the paper, and
then apparently forming a sucker of its mouth, the
paper was firmly attached to it, and so without being
held, except as the leathern toy attaches itself by
exhaustion of air to the stone, the paper followed the
retreating worm and was dragged to its hole. I am
perfectly satisfied as the result of my patient and
tiring watching therefore, that the earth-worm can
secure its object just according to which method best
suits the thing it desires to obtain, either by encircling
a part of it with its prehensile head, by pressing it
between two expansions of the head-like lips, or by
attaching its head and mouth in the way of a sucker.
— IV. Budden, Ipswich.

Notes of Great Tit. — Gilbert White, in his.
“ Selborne,” says the curious notes, resembling the
whetting of a saw', are the early spring song of the
Marsh Tit. I have always taken it to be the Great
Tit’s note. Can any reader of Science-Gossip
inform me to which of these birds the song belongs ?

H A P\DW I C K E' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

235

BOTANY,

Arum italicum. — This plant is mentioned in
Hooker’s “Flora” as occurring in the Isle of
Wight ; but Bentham says the white-veined variety
of A. maculatum from the Isle of Wight is some-
times mistaken for A. italicum. I have a quantity of
tubers of what I believe to be the true variety at the
disposal of those readers of Science-Gossip who j
would like to naturalize them, by planting some in
any situation where A. maculatum is established, in
any shady lane or hedge- row, or in their own garden.

I will forward one or more on receipt of stamped
envelope. Larger tubers or extra number will re-
quire two stamps for postage. — Dr. Morton , New
Brompton , Kent.

Mould in Herbaria. — May I suggest a plan
that I have found to answer when a plant that has
been insufficiently dried is attacked by mould. Let
the sheet be taken out of herbarium and placed be-
tween two thick pieces of blotting-paper. Then iron
well with hot iron, changing paper until quite dry.
By that time mould will have entirely disappeared.—
Fred. IV. E. S.

1

How to Preserve Colours of Dried Plants.
— In the July part (p. 165) a correspondent inquired
for a method of preserving the colour of Primula
vulgaris and Primula elatior for the herbarium. If
the dried plant is painted all over with a mixture of
-one part of nitric acid to about twenty parts of spirits
of wine it will retain its colour. I have a specimen
of each treated in this manner, and though they have
been mounted a long time, both petals and leaves are
of the freshest colour. — Fred. W. E. S.

Flowers of Hollyhock.— On reading what I
wrote about the hollyhock, I perceive an ambiguity,
arising probably from an error on my part in writing.
From seeds proceeding from the same flower, in fact,

I have nine plants, four whose flowers have been
crimson, one light red, one of darker, richer colour,
and one white, which has opened its flowers since I
wrote to you last, besides two plants which have not
flowered yet at all. Of the plants with white flowers,
which came from seeds borne on a branch of the same
parent plant and flowered last year, two have blos-
somed again this year with white flowers as before ;
-another, a smaller plant, growing between those two,
had not flowered this year till a few days ago, when I
was startled by the sight of a crimson flower on a plant
whose flowers last year had been white. Here is
variability indeed. — John Gibbs.

Verbascum blattaria. — I have found the
Moth Mullein ( Verbascum blattaria ) in a waste place,
near Luton, Beds. It was discovered on a hill-side,
above chalk, with flints, by Mr. F. Wiseman, who
brought it to me for identification. That you may be
assured of its authenticity I enclose one blossom.

I would send you more, but after the most careful re-
examination of the locality we can find no other
specimens of it. — y. Saunders.

Botany of Derbyshire. — The Rev. W. H.
Painter desires us to say that he is engaged in editing
a Plant-list for Derbyshire, and would be glad to
receive communications from any botanist concern-
ing it.

Sugar in the Nectar of Flowers. — This was
the subject of a most interesting paper read before
the recent meeting of the British Association, by Mr.
A. S. Wilson, M.A., of Glasgow. Nectar, he said,
is the sweet-tasted fluid secreted within the cups of
flowers, and is intended to provide an inducement to
cause insects to visit the flowers. These insects
confer great benefit on the flowers by assuring their
cross fertilization, bringing pollen from other plants
and depositing it on their stigmas. The result of
this is that the plant is enabled to produce seeds of
much greater vigour than it otherwise wrould. The
saccharine fluid is usually contained in the most
secluded part of the flower, in order that it may be
protected from rain, for, owing to the solubility and
the diffusibility of sugar, were it not so protected it
would speedily be transferred to parts of the plant
where it could be obtained by the insects without
their serving the plant in the way of cross fertiliza-
tion. The colour, odour, and marking of flowers
enable insects to find the nectar more easily. The
importance of these insects will be apparent from the
smallness of the amounts of sugar found in the flowers
experimented on by Mr. Wilson. Flowers of fuchsia
yielded a total of 7 '59 m.m.g. of sugar ; i-69 of this
was fruit sugar, and 5 '9 apparently cane sugar. Of
red clover each head gave a total of 7 '93 m.m.g.,
fruit 5 '95, apparent cane sugar I '98. On each head
of clover there are nearly 60 distinct florets. Calcu-
lating from these results there was the astonishing
industry of the bee brought out in an extraordinary
manner, for in order to obtain the kilo of sugar
7,500,000 distinct flow’ers must be sucked. As
honey contained roughly about 75 per cent, of sugar,
a bee has then to make two and a half millions of
visits in order to collect a pound of honey. It was
rather a curious fact that nectar should contain cane
sugar, seeing that honey never did ; indeed, were a
vendor to sell honey containing cane sugar he would
probably be prosecuted under thei Adulteration Act.
A change must therefore take place while the sugar
is in the bee’s possession — possibly through the action
of the juices with which it comes in contact while in
the honey-bag. As nectar is acid in its reaction it is,
however, possible that the process of inversion may
take place spontaneously.

Proposed Experimental Garden. — Mr. Lax-
ton, Fellow and late Member of the Scientific
Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society,

236

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

proposes to establish in a central locality and within
easy access of London, an Experimental Garden, for
the purpose of hybridising, cross-breeding, and
selecting fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamental and
economic plants (chiefly hardy and half-hardy), for
the raising and propagating of useful and choice
novelties, scarce and little known plants of beauty
and utility, and for the trial of new fruits, vegetables,
flowers, &c. It is intended that all experiments shall
as far as practicable be thoroughly and crucially
conducted, and that each experiment with its results,
whether apparently successes or failures shall be
carefully and systematically recorded. The ad-
vancement of Horticulture will be the chief desider-
atum, but scientific and botanical considerations will
be kept in view, and should available means and
space be obtained, the improvement of cereals,
forage, and other agricultural plants will also be
sought. Amongst incidental objects will be that of
testing the adaptability of introduced plants, &c., to
the climate and soil of the district.

GEOLOGY,

The Extinction of the Mammoth. — Mr.
H. II. Howorth read a paper on this subject, in
which he examined the mode in which the Mammoth
had become extinct in Siberia. His conclusion was
that there had been a sudden and violent change
of climate in that country, which had frozen the
previously soft ground, and had also preserved the
Mammoths as in a huge meat safe.

The Pikermi and Sewalik Deposits.— Mr.
W. T. Blandford, F.R.S., has recently published
his reasons for concluding that the above deposits
are of Pliocene, and not of Miocene age, as they have
hitherto been held to be by most geologists. The
nature of the marine shells at the base of the
Pikermi bone-beds attests a Pliocene age. One
mammal (Bos palceindicus) found in the Upper
Sewalik 'deposits occurs also in the Nerbudda
alluvium, where it is associated with paleolithic
implements.

Carboniferous Amphibia and Fishes. — Mr.
W. H. Baily, F.G. S., Paleontologist to the Irish
Geological Survey, read a paper before the Geolo-
gical Section of the British Association on the
above subject, in which he showed that the remains
of amphibians and fishes were impressed on the true
coal, in a coal-seam, 3 feet thick, at Jarrow colliery,
near Castleconner, county Kilkenny. All the
remains were turned into carbon, one of the fishes
( Mega lie h thys Hibberti) being over 3 feet in length.

New Species of Star-fish. — Mr. W. H. Baily
has described a new species of Star-fish from the
Lower Silurian Caradoc beds of county Wexford,
Ireland, under the name of Palasterina Kincihcini.

A Permian Fauna in North America. — At
the British Association meeting Prof. Cope described
the remains of a fauna characteristic of the period
which in North America succeeded the Carboniferous.
It occurs in Illinois, and the remains were referred
to Reptilia and Batrachia. In one genus, Clepsy drops ,
almost the entire skeleton was discovered. This
was a clawed Lizard, with large canine teeth, and
several incisors.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Toads in Stone. — The stories concerning live
toads which have been found inside limestone rocks
are so well known and often well authenticated, that
the fact can hardly be doubted. The article by Mr.
Downes in your last number would seem to offer a
good explanation of the phenomena. Any one who
has observed the way in which the so-called “petri-
“ fying wells” at Matlock and other places deposit
thick crusts on any articles placed in them, will easily
perceive how the working up of a toad in a rock may
be a question not of years but of months. We must
remember, too, that though the independent testimony
of quarrymen from many places remote from each
other ought not to be set down as mere invention, yet
exaggeration with regard to the thickness or solidity
of the rock is very likely to take place. A short while
ago, however, a curious story was told me about a
toad having been found in the heart of an oak-tree.
The toad was an enormously large one, and the
impression of its body was plainly to be seen. When
I saw the article in your last number, I wrote for
further particulars, and have to-day received a reply
to the following effect, — that the time was thirty or
forty years ago, that the tree was a large oak in
Pignell Wood in the New Forest, that it was cut in
the spring of the year. The three men who cut the
tree are dead, but my informant, who is getting an
old man, well remembered the circumstances, and, I
believe, was on the spot a short time after the tree
was cut, and saw the impression ; at any rate, the
circumstance seems to be well remembered by him.

I give the fact on its own merits, hoping that it may
call forth an answer in explanation or otherwise. —
IV. W. Fozvler, Repton , Burton-on- Trent.

Toads in Rocks. — To those interested in the
subject of the frog and toad living without food, -
the following may be interesting : — In the Spring of
1876 I had occasion to go down a well, at Lewisham,
to examine some pumps. Looking round for a place
to put a few tools, I took out a loose brick from the
side of the well, and, while putting my tools into the
hole, felt something soft and cold, which turned out
to be a frog : it was very thin and weak. I took it
to the surface and carefully put it in a suitable place.
The next day it had breathed its last ; it was nothing
but skin and bone. On making inquiries, I ascer-
tained that during the Spring of 1875, while the
pumps were being repaired, the frog had fallen down
the well, and had been picked up and imprisoned,
thus having been buried forty feet from the surface
about twelve months. Its death, no doubt, was
accelerated by the exertions it made to procure food.
Shortly after this I was at Crayford Water-works,
and mentioning the above circumstance to one of the
turncocks, he told me that about twenty years
previously he had put a toad into the hollow column
of a drilling-machine he was helping to put up at a
works at New Cross. I obtained permission to look

HARD WI CKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

237

into the column of this drill-machine, and there, sure
enough, was the remains of the toad, nothing now
but a few bones and dirt. By its side was the wick
of a tallow candle, but no trace of the tallow was left ;
possibly the toad had eaten the tallow, or, perhaps,
the tallow had decomposed. I should state that the
column was perfectly air-tight, and, as far as I could
learn, had never been opened. It was about four
feet high and seven or eight inches in diameter in-
side. The air inside was foul, as a light would not
burn. Without comment, I leave these two instances
to speak for themselves. — M. O. Hay don.

The Longevity of Toads. — I have read in
the last number of Science-Gossip, the account,
by Mr. W. Downes, of a live toad having been
found in limestone rock. I believe there are
several well-authenticated instances of that nature,
one of which I now send you. My informant is a
personal friend, and a well-known mining-engineer of
great celebrity. About two years ago, in a Yorkshire
coal-seam 600 yards below the surface, a live toad
was found in the middle of a block of coal. My in-
formant was not present at the moment, but within
half an hour he saw the toad, then dead, and the hole
out of which it came. He had no doubt whatever as
to the truth of the collier’s statement that the toad
was in the hole alive at the time he broke the lump
with his pick, and came out apparently unhurt, but
lived only about twenty minutes. I believe my
friend has the toad in his possession.— J. D.
Shake spear.

Teratology of Leaves, &c. — I think the en-
closed leaves as curious as the Cabbage-leaf of your
last number of Science-Gossip. We received from
South Africa some seeds of Cobicp. Capensis and some
of Mimosa. We conclude, from the result, that a
seed of each was set in one pot, as two distinct plants,
yet united at the bottom of the stem, came up, and,
as you see, there is a second freak in the union of the
two plants. Can you tell me if this is only a freak of
nature, or is there a plant that is always so ? — B. H.
Kirby.

Goat Caterpillars. — Can any of the readers of
Science-Gossip say whether there are any means of
saving trees which have become infested by these
caterpillars, and of preventing their spread to others in
the same garden, other than cutting down and de-
stroying the tree ? If any know of a remedy, and
would state it, it would greatly oblige, and save some
valuable trees in this neighbourhood. — A. Warner ,
Hoddesdon.

Behaviour of Lightning during Thunder-
Storms. — A friend and myself were talking of
thunderstorms, apropos of the late ones, when he
spoke of the lightning as having been observed by him
leaving the earth and shooting up towards the sky.
This, I replied, was owing to the position of the
clouds, as electric fluid never left the earth in that
manner during a storm, but might be seen darting
from cloud to cloud. He, however, affirmed that it
did so, and referred me to a work by Captain Snow
Harris for confirmation of what he had seen. He
also said that when trees or buildings were struck the
injury was often done by the electric fluid leaving the
earth, not, as I always supposed, attracted to it, and
that the nature of its track displayed the fact. As I
still doubt whether it be so or no, will you kindly
settle the dispute ? — J. H. G.

Roots of the Palm-Tree. — Two sermons have
been preached lately in our neighbourhood on Psalm

xcii. 12, “ The righteous shall flourish like the palm-
tree.” In the first sermon special mention was made
of, and a lesson was drawn from, the tap-root which
we were told a palm-tree possessed. The second
preacher, ignorant of the previous sermon, told us
that a palm-tree had no tap-root like most other trees,
and drew a lesson from its absence. “ Where doctors
differ disciples disagree.” We should be greatly
obliged if any correspondent of SciENCE-Gossi!’
could tell us whether palm-trees have tap-roots or
not. — A. B.

Preserving Animals. — The whole of the

“modus operandi” of Waterton’s method, most
exactly described, may be found in the end of his
“ Wanderings in America.” The early editions of
this work are scarce, but I am happy to say a new
one has lately been issued, price 3/6, and may be
obtained of any bookseller, from the London houses.
W. Barrett -Rowe, Bristol.

Preserving Slugs. — In “Rambles in Search of
Shells,” and also in the article on “ Land and Fresh-
water Shells” in the “Notes on Collecting and
I Preserving Natural History Objects,” the following
receipt is given for preserving slugs. “ Make a cold
saturated solution of corrosive sublimate ; put it in a
deep wide-mouthed jar or bottle, then take a slug you
wish to preserve and let it crawl on a long slip of card.
When the tentacles are fully expanded, plunge it
suddenly into the solution ; in a few minutes it will
die with the tentacles extended in the most lifelike
manner, so much so, indeed, that if taken out of the
fluid it would be difficult to say whether it were alive
or dead.” I have tried this repeatedly, and have
never yet succeeded in obtaining one specimen with
the tentacles extended. In most cases the head of
the slug, when it is dead, protrudes a little outside
the mantle, but there is no sign of a tentacle in any of
them. I should be glad if any of the readers of
Science-Gossip would give me information about
the preservation of slugs, as I am anxious to obtain
them for my collection of land and fresh-water shells.
In the same books it is also stated that the best
mounting fluid is glycerine and water in the propor-
tions of one to one and one-half. But I find that the
fluid becomes coloured a deep yellowish brown soon
after the slug is put into it. — B. E. Smith.

Grey Lag. — In answer to “G. L. ’s” inquiry con-
cerning “ Grey Lag,” as applied to the goose, I beg
to draw attention to the Cumbrian word laghter, brood
of chickens, setting of eggs, which is from the A. S.
Iccgan to lay (eggs). The Grey Lag may therefore be
the Grey ~Egg-layer. — y. C. Clough.

Green Hastings. — This cry undoubtedly is a
corruption of Green “ Hasties,” for Coghan, in “The
Hauen of Health,” black letter edition of 1584, says,
“ There be three sortes of Pease common among us
in Englande, — the first garden pease or hastie pease.
The seconde sorte is called graie pease. The thirde
greene pease, both growing in the fieldes.” He then
gives the cooking of them at that time, and states
that “ The two first sortes are used to bee eaten greene
before they be full ripe. First they are sodden, then
buttered, salted, and peppered. But if any student
list to eate greene Beanes or greene pease, let him
spare no pepper upon them, for this is a generall rule
in Galen for meates that be windie.” Also it appears
at that day bread was made from peas, as further on
he says, “If pease be unwholesome, then the bread
which is made of’ them is unwholesome ; yet it is much
used in Lecestershire. But I leave it to Rustickes,

23S

HARD WI CKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

who have stomachs like Ostriges, that can digest hard
yron.” — W. H.

Strange Friends. — In my parish, Lordington
(Sussex), dwells a pretty little chestnut pony, of ad-
vanced years, who has been turned out to end his days
exempt from toil; and in the same park is a white
goose who has gone round the world with the British
fleet. Between these dissimilar animals a friendship
has sprung up. When any stranger approaches the
goose, it waddles off cackling towards the pony,
apparently for protection. The goose was, doubtless,
a great pet with the sailors. Has any one observed
a like anserine attachment? — F. TV. Arnold.

Migrating Birds. — On dark nights from August
all through the autumn I often hear birds passing
over here. They make a constant whistling or piping
noise, and begin to come over as soon as it is dark.
They appear to fly in a westerly or south-westerly
direction. I have never seen any of them, because it
is only on dark nights that we hear these birds. Some-
times they seem quite close, just above the house-tops.
At the end of August in 1875, several letters appeared
in the Times about this migration. One correspondent
said, “Soon after eight o’clock on the evening of
Saturday, the 28th instant, my attention was drawn
to a strange noise over my house. It was raining in
torrents at the time, but I could distinctly hear, above
the pelting of the storm, shrill cries, somewhat
resembling the note of the Sandpiper, and the flapping
of innumerable wings. This continued with scarcely
any intermission for hours, at any rate until after
twelve o’clock.” This was eighteen or twenty miles
from Maidstone. Another correspondent said, “These
birds are frequently heard at Dover, and generally on
‘ dirty nights.’” I heard them here, for the first time
this year, on Friday, the 2nd of August, and again
on the following Sunday night, about ten o’clock.
Are they Curlews and Sandpipers, and how far does
their migration extend ? Perhaps some of your
readers could inform me. — Henry Lamb , Maidstone.

Colours of Dried Primroses. — A lady friend
has been very successful in preserving the colour of
the petals of Primula vulgaris by adopting the
following simple method. As soon as possible after
being gathered, the plant must be killed by washing
the roots for two or three minutes in boiling water,
then dried with a soft cloth, and immediately trans-
ferred to the drying papers, which should be well
warmed at the fire, and changed frequently, until
the plant is perfectly dry. The corollas of a number
of specimens she has treated in this way have preserved
all their original beauty of colour, and the leaves have
also retained their natural appearance. Some I my-
self dried, without first subjecting them to the hot
water treatment, lost their natural colour, and changed
to the bright green, which has annoyed so many
collectors. I have been very successful in drying
Orchids, by following the instructions given on page
88 of Science-Gossip for 1873, where it is recommen-
ded to dip the root and leaves in boiling water for a
few minutes previously to putting the specimens in the
press. — R. Standen, Goosnargh , Lancashire.

Geology of North Devon. — If “ W. Downes ”
would kindly give a few particulars as to his “ finds ”
in this district, and a few hints as to localities, he
would greatly oblige a native, who is now an occasional
visitor, and would be glad to make the most of his
time at his next visit. — W. G.

Sea Anemones. — I should be obliged if “ C. A.
Crimes” would kindly state in the next number of

Science-Gossip how he feeds the baby sea anemones,
as I find it an utter impossibility to make them take
the food. After their birth does he leave them where
they are or move them ? I should also like to know
whether he has any peculiar treatment for his B anodes
gemmacea , as I have been most unfortunate with mine.
Within a few days of placing them in the tank they
have a decomposed appearance, the colour fades, and
they are covered with a sort of slime. Sagartia venusta
I have succeeded very well with, and also Sagartia
bellis, but the “gem” invariably dies directly. We
once kept a Tealia crassicornis for three years, but
this also seems a very difficult one to manage.
— C. E. R.

Protection from Forest Flies. — Having
received personal benefit from the remarks in Science-
Gossip on the Harvest Bug, I send a perfectly trust-
worthy recipe for the protection of horses from the
Forest Fly. Smear the face and flanks well with
parafin oil. I have been here nearly three weeks with
my two young ponies ; they are not foresters, and one
cannot stand the fly at all without the oil. — Catherine
Middleton , Lyndhurst .

Birds’ Eggs in Wrong Nests. — The communi-
cations of Messrs. C. H. Sharp and A. F. Griffith on
the above subject brings to my recollection an incident
which happened in the north of Aberdeenshire, in
1865. When walking along the banks of a stream
which ran through a wood, my cousin disturbed a wild
duck sitting on, and attempting to cover, eleven wild
ducks and thirteen pheasant’s eggs, which were all
crowded together in the same nest. — A. M., Mlc A.,
Stoke-on-Trent.

Wild and Tame Ducks. — A pair of wild ducks
located themselves on a moat surrounding the house
of a friend of mine last October. During the severe
weather they came to the feeding-place of the domes-
tic ones, but otherwise kept themselves separate. In
the spring, a tame duck hatched a brood of young
ones near the haunt of the wild ducks, which now it
is supposed were destroyed by them. Soon after-
wards, the tame duck, whose brood was lost, was
caught in the act of drowning the progeny of the
wild duck, and succeeded in killing five of them before
being discovered. She was at once sent off to another
farm. In the same moat, several moor hens have
reared their young for years, taking their departure
regularly every winter. — J. Wiggin.

Barbots. — I enclose the following cutting from a
newspaper, and shall be glad if any of the readers of
Science-Gossip can tell me more of these insects (?).
The name is quite new to me. Are they only to be
found there ? Galignani states that a terrible accident
has just taken place at Biarritz. Miss Gordon, who
had passed the winter in Paris, was drowned while
out on an excursion. She attempted, without a guide,
to go along the cliffs far beyond the point marked by
the authorities as the limit for the public to go safely.
She reached a place known as the Falaise de la Mort,
and in stooping to pick a flower, her foot slipped,
and she was precipitated into a hole known as the
Barbots, a spot said to have this peculiarity, that at
the end of forty-eight hours nothing more than the
skeleton remains of any beings which fall into it. It
contains millions of small insects which devour the
body, and which are called by the inhabitants of the
district barbots, and are by them held in especial
horror. The Duke de Frias met his death under
similar circumstances a few years ago.

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

239

Egg Drills. — Where are Egg Drills, described
and figured at pp. 30 and 31 of “ Notes on Collecting
and Preserving Natural History Objects,” to be ob-
tained ? As far as I know, they are not to be had at
any of the naturalists’ shops in London, where only
very inferior implements for this purpose are sold. —
Beta.

Birds Singing at Midnight. — Extract from the
Standard , Feb. 22, 1878.— “ W. F. E.,” writing on
the above subject, mentions something much more
remarkable in the history of our singing-birds which
has occurred in the immediate neighbourhood of
Little Chart Rectory, Charing, Kent, within the last
few days. Between the hours of eleven and twelve
o’clock on the night of Friday last, the 15th hist., on
Saturday night, and again on Sunday night, at the
same hour, the blackbirds and thrushes were singing,
whilst the smaller birds in the hedgerows were
chirruping and twittering just as you hear them in
the early morning in summer. He himself listened
to them with open door and window, and he has
been told by several who were out on those nights —
the neighbouring doctor amongst the number — that
they heard with wonder this, at such an hour, unusual
melody.”

Birds Singing at Midnight. — The singing of
thrushes, robins, and other birds for several nights in
succession, during February last — although, doubtless,
accounted for by the singular beauty of the weather
about that time — is such an unusual occurrence, that
I should be very glad to hear of it prevailing generally
in the country. — X.

Brotherly Love in a Guinea-pig. — Some
years ago I possessed a guinea-pig which had never
shown any more wisdom than the rest of its species.
One day a friend gave me a young rabbit which he
had caught in a neighbouring warren, and I put it
into the guinea-pig’s cage. I was somewhat aston-
ished to see the guinea-pig feed the rabbit with
clover and other vegetables provided for its own
nourishment. It also gave up to it the snuggest part
of the cage. The guinea-pig continued these atten-
tions till the rabbit was sent back to its native warren,
when the unfortunate guinea-pig expressed its
anguish in most pitiful cries. — Anna Ward , Belfast.

Phosphorus in Salt Water. — I have observed
that when thunder is prevalent, the flashes of light
in sea water, occasioned by phosphorus, are much
more numerous and distinct. — A. Ward, Belfast.

Ranunculus repens. — I have never heard the
name “ Devil’s-claw ” applied to this plant. In this
part of Somerset it goes by the name of “ Ram’s-
claws,” as its long trailing stems are a great annoyance
to the rakers in the hay-field. — W. Herridge , Cuck-
lington.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

G. A. H. (Manchester). — No. r. Viola Curtisii, a very
characteristic specimen ; No. 2. Some form of Viola tricolor,
probably V. Mackaii ; No. 3. Statice auriculcefolia , Vahl ;
No. 4. Sagina ape tala.

E. H. (London). — No. 1. Everlasting Pea [Lathyrus sylves-
tris, L.); No. 2. Erigeron, sp. ; No. 3. It is difficult to name
a species from leaves only, but we believe your example to be
Oxalis acetosella, L.

J. A. W. (Darlington). — No. 1. Cerastium triviale ; No. 2.
Mountain Willow-herb (Epilobium montanuni) ; No. 3.
Meadow Pea ( Lathyrus pratensis, L.) ; No. 4. Common
Valerian ( Valeriana officinalis ); No. 5. Restharrow ( Ononis
spinosa) ; No. 6. Bedstraw ( Galium verum) ; No. 7. Anagallis
tenella.

Cujas (Beauly, Glasgow, N.B.). — Your specimens are as
follow: No. 1. Bog Asphodel (Narthecium ossifraguni) ; No.

2. Bur Marigold ( Bidens tripartita) ; No. 3. Rough Chervil
( Charophyllion temuluni) ; No. 4. Winter Green ( Trientalis
euroficea) ; No. 5. Hogweed (Heracleum sphondyliuvi) ; No. 6.
Field Gentian ( Gentiana campestris, L.) ; No. 7. Stitchwort
( Stellar ia gramined) ; No. 8. Earth-nut ( Bunium Jlexuosuni) ;
No. 9. Red Dead Nettle [Lamium purpureum) ; No. 10. A
very curious and remarkable monstrosity of No. 5 ; we hope to
figure it in our columns shortly ; No. n. Dead Nettle (Lamium
amplexicaule ) ; No. 12. Lesser Spearwort ( Ranunculus flam-
muld).

Q. Q. (Elie Fife). — Unfortunately your example came to
hand in a poor state to determine ; it was partly decayed ; it
may prove to be Lycium barbarian ; have you another speci-
men ?

B. D. (Newport). — It is Cirsium oleraceum. We cannot tell
why it is so named. Some of our thistles are edible.

E. W. (Bristol). — The Carex you send is Carex paludosa ; it
is nearly allied to C. riparia.

J. C. W. (Salterton, Devon). — No. 1 and No. 2 are both
Lotus tenuis, Kit. According to Hooker a sub-species of L. cor-
niculatus, L. ; but it is readily distinguished from that species
by its filiform and often shrubby stems.

G. W. Bell. — See article in Science-Gossip for July, 1877,
by Mr. J. Young, F.G.S., on “ How to Clean Fossil Polyzoa.”

A Subscriber. — The best book on British Butterflies and
Moths is unquestionably that of E. Newman. There you will
find illustrations of every species except the Micro-lepidoptera.
Morris’s “ British Moths ” contains coloured plates, but they
are not so faithful as Newman’s woodcuts.

W. G. Piper. — The lias, both at Lyme Regis and in the
neighbourhood of Whitby, is full of fossils. A capital hunting-
ground may be found at Aust Cliff, on the Severn, near New
Passage, where there is an abundance of Rhoetic fossils. The
carboniferous limestone at Castleton, Derbyshire, is a splendid
fossil locality. The tertiary beds in the Isle of Wight are also
exceedingly fossiliferous.

C. E. R. — You can purchase Sea-Anemones of Mr. King,
Seahorse House, Portland-road, London.

F. W. E. S. — Your article will appear shortly in our pages.

J. W. S. (Sheffield).— Your exchange exceeds the three lines

allowed gratis, and would have to be charged as an advertise-
ment.

Essex. — The insect you trod upon which gave forth a phos-
phorescent light was most probably Geophilus electricus, one of
the Millipedes.

J. R. Murdoch. — Your Mosses are: — No. 1. Hypnum
Sendtneri ; 2, Hypnum purum ; 3. Hypnum tamariscinum ;
4. Hypnum loreum ; 5. Hypnum piliferum ; 6. Hypnum
Kneiffii ; 7. Dicranella squarrosa ; 8. Hypnum lutescens ;
10. Hypnum splendens ; 11. Neckera complanata ; 12. Hyp-
num myosuroides ; 13. Bartramia fontana ; 14, Homalia tri-
chomanoides. Hepaticse : 9. Madotheca platyphylla ; 15. Pla-
giochila asplenioides ; 16. Scapania nemorosa.

A. Cole. — Your Mosses are : — No. 1. Sphagnum Jimbria-
tum ; 2. Sphagnum acutifolium : 3. Sphagnum subsecundum
(var. contortion) ; 4. Sphagnum cymbifolium (var. squarrosu-
lum) ; n. Sphagnum cuspidatum ; 5. Hypnum Jl age llare ; 6.
Dicranum scoparium (young); 7. Hypnum rivulare ; 8. Ce-
ra todou purpureus ; 9. Bryum cczspiticium ; 10. Hypnion ser-
pens ; 12. Hypnum sericeum.

A Beginner. — The insect you describe was most probably
one of the Hornet Clear-wings, a moth which simulates the
appearance of the true Hornet in a remarkable degree. See
Newman’s “ British Moths.”

A. W. A. — 'J here is a capital old-established Naturalists’ Field
Club in Liverpool, whose subscription is low, that would suit you
and such as you, and we feel certain it would welcome artisan-
naturalists. The president is the Rev. H. H. Higgins.

C. H. G. — The caterpillar of your moth had been attacked
during life by an ichneumon (a not uncommon thing), and the
ichneumon had deposited its eggs in the tissues of the caterpillar.
These subsequently hatched into the condition you found them
in, at the expense of their host.

X. — Your packet contained some of the purifying lime used
in gas-works.

J. Kirkham. — The six ivory slides are very heterogeneous
as to objects, and old-fashioned. No. 1 contains a piece of Red
Seaweed ( Plocamium ) and of a Sea-fir ( Sertularia argentea ) ;
No. 2 shows wings, legs, &c. of some orthopterous insects ; No.

3, Fish-skin. Feather-barbule, & c. ; No. 4, pieces of Snake-
skin and part of a Beetle ; No. 5, Coral-sand, portion of
Diamond Beetle, of Sea-mat ( Flustra ), &c. ; No. 6, piece of
Cora litta officinalis (a Sea-weed), of Flustra , and a group of
Foraminifera ( Globigerina ). Please send us your address, as
we have mislaid it.

240

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

Undergraduate. — The “ rough” sketches will only permit
of a rough guess at the names of the objects delineated :—
No. 1 are possibly the fragments of species of some Echinoderm
(Spatangus or Ophioco»ia ; 2. Polyotomella ; 3. Rotalinn ; 4.
Heliopelta Metii (diatom) ; 5. Cingulum or connecting zone of
some discoid diatom ; 6. Actinoptychus (diatom) ; 7. Coscino-
discus liueatus (diatom) : 8. Actiniscus Sirius (diatom) ; 9 and
10. Upper and lower apices of Sceptroneis caduceus (diatom).

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, in exchange or for purchase, “ Natural History
Review” for years 1854 and 1855 (bound or in parts, latter pre-
ferred) and following numbers : — April, 1856 ; April, 1858 ;
April and October, i860. I have some odd number^ of same
work, if required. — Alpha, 18, Upper Fitzwilliam-street,
Dublin.

A Student in pathology, having constant opportunities of
procuring specimens in bulk (physiological and pathological),
would be happy to send his duplicates, hardened in spirit and
ready for making sections, to any gentleman, in exchange for
Natural History specimens. Further particulars by letter. —
W. Barrett Rone, 165, White Ladies’-road, Bristol.

Several Natural History curiosities to exchange, including
Bat (stuffed), Python (stuffed), and a fine specimen of the
Goliath Beetle; also a new copy of Rye’s “British Beetles”
(10s. 6d.). Wanted, Wood’s “ Insects at Home ” or “ Abroad,”
Lewes’ “ Sea-side Studies,” British or Foreign Lepidoptera and
side-blown Birds’ Eggs. — W. Barrett Rone, 165, White Ladies’-
road, Bristol.

OAK-feeding Silkworm Moth (Yama Mail) for portion of a
wing. Send a stamped directed envelope to W. H. Gomm,
Sandwich, Kent.

WELL-mounted sections of Sponges in balsam, showing
spicula in situ : Grantia compress'd, Hymeniacidon suberea ,
II. caruncula, Halichondria panicea, offered for unmounted
pieces of Pachymatisma, Spongilla, See. — T. H. Buffham,
Clarendon-road, Walthamstow.

Several hundred Silkworms’ Eggs for exchange, for Micro,
or other objects of interest. — Mrs. Skilton, London-road,
Brentford.

Offered, Unio margaritiferus from river Tay. Wanted,
Anodonta, or other good freshwater or land-shells. — Address,
Henry Coates, Bridgend House, Perth, N.B.

Wanted, Slides or Material, Triceratium, Diatoms, and
Foraminifera, for well-mounted Slides, Alyssam, Eleagnus,
Onosma. Material of same or other slides in exchange. — E.
W. Burgess, 35, Langham-street, London, W.

Wanted, Harvest Bugs, Ti’ombidium autumnale. First-
class slides in exchange. — E. W., 48, Tollington-road, Hollo- j
way, N.

Good Microscopic Slides in exchange for any of Hugh
Miller’s works, or a good turn-table. — E. Edwards, 8, St.
John’s Cottages, Penge, S. E.

Offered, Nos. 42, 133, 164, 165, 185, 206, 242, 273, 386,
389, 390, 451, 452, 520, 550, 634, 729, 753, 761, 773, 831, 841 b,
1015, 1517, 1040, 1131, 1259, i4°6, i5OI> i57i» i572> in ex-
change for rare British plants. — W. J. Hannan, 6, Tatton-
street, Ashton-under-Lyne.

London Catalogue, 7th ed. wanted, 5, 7, 19, 23, 25, 61,
and others, for 241, 120, 171, 804, 1136, 1379, and many others.

— M iss H., 75, Todmorden-road, Burnley.

For a few scales of any six of the following send well-mounted
object Greater Weever, Black Bream, Atherine Smelt, Blue
and Ballan Wrass, Grey Mullet, Sapphirine, Red and Streaked
Gurnards, Bass, Tench, Rudd, Roach, Dace ; also, skin of
Spotted Dogfish and Picked Dogfish. — E. M., 20, Cropley-
street. New North-road, London.

For exchange, upwards of five dozen microscope slides,
chiefly parasites, wanted in exchange, parasites, either mounted
or unmounted. — W. A. Hyslop, 22, Palmerston-place, Edin-
burgh.

Palates of Helix aspersa and Patella vulgaris, neatly
mounted, in exchange for good slides or material. — J. Black-
sham, 78, Lozell’s-road, Birmingham.

Rosa tomentilla, dumetorum, Reuteri, Sec., for Caliha
Guerangerii, Digitaria humifusa, and other Rosse and Rubi.

— G. C. Druce, Northampton.

Wanted, Rubbings of Monumental Brasses from all parts of
England : exchange natural objects, Rubbings from Kentish
churches, or Curiosities. Have Science-Gossip from com-
mencement.— F. Stanley, 6, Clifton Gardens, Margate-

British Land, Freshwater, and Marine Shells, and British
Lepidoptera, offered for British Marine Shells or foreign
Helices. — Thomas H. Hedworth, Dunston, Gateshead.

Birds’ Eggs, side-blown, labelled, picked, well-marked
specimens. Wanted, side-blown specimens of many varieties.

— Henry Sissons, Westbourne-road, Sheffield.

F. S. Collins, 26, Tremont-street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.,
would like to exchange American Algse for English or others.

Wanted, Rev. J. G. Wood’s “Insects at Home” and '
“ Insects Abroad,” or any similar works, for foreign insects,
mounted or unmounted, chiefly parasites. — M., Anglesey Lodge,
Godaiming, Surrey.

To Conchologists, resident at home, abroad, or in the Colo-
nies.—Having duplicates of nearly 100 species of the British
Land and Freshwater Shells, including many of the rarer
British Vertigos, such as Substriata minutissima, Alpestris,
Pusilla, and Angustior, would be glad to exchange these for
foreign or colonial shells equally good. Also in duplicate,
Limncea involutus and Succinea oblonga, for other English]
Land, and Freshwater Shells, in quantities suitable for foreign
exchanges ; many common species required. — W. Sutton,
Upper Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Side-blown Eggs.— Many very rare specimens for exchange,
mostly marked with collectors’ own marks for authentication.
Wanted, Woodcocks, Ruffs, Puffins, Nightjars, Shags, Wag-
tails, Hobies ; also, American and other foreign species. —
Sissons, Sharrow, Sheffield.

For injected human Kidney, stained section of human Intes-
tine, and Japanese Grass, all in balsam, send pure gatherings,
of diatoms, or any well-mounted balsam slide, to J. A. Kay,
Mansion House, Brompton, Chatham, Kent.

“ HALF-Hours in the Green Lanes,” new and clean, offered
for Lepidoptera, or books on Entomology. — A. Wheldon, 8,
Albion-street, Darlington.

Number of first class Anatomical Slides wanted, for first
slides or material ; send sample and list for sample and list to
James Green, the Cross, March.

Cretaceous Fossils to exchange for others. Also, wanted,
good books on Palaeontology. State price, &c. — J. A. Floyd,
Alcester, Warwickshire.

Wanted, in exchange for well-mounted microscopic slides,
Science-Gossip for 1870, unbound ; also, 1865-66-67. List sent
to choose. — W. Wise, Broad-street, Launceston.

Offered Nos. 68, 70, 140, 233, 284c, 625, 682, 1071, 1074,
1341 and b, 1577, 1600, 1634c, — for 4 b, 6 be, 15 b, 18c, 23, 28^, 32:,
37, 48 b, 50, 50 b, 52 b, 57 b, and Malva Borealis. Lists exchanged.
— C. A. O., 30, Queen’s-road, Hastings.

L. C., 7th edition, Nos. 135, 146, 176, 235, 237, 246, 369, 527,
556, 611, 702, 730, 767, 769, 858, 864, 882, 913, 929, 988, 999,
1130, 1140, 1262, 1332, 1485, 1519, 1615, and many others, in
exchange for other rare species. Send list to J. Tempere, 10,
Heald-place, Rusholme, Manchester.

Withering on British Plants, 4 vols. cloth, 1830, Que-
kett’s Lectures on Histology, 2 vols. cloth, 1852, in exchange
for unmounted British Mosses, British Birds’ Eggs or offers.—
J. R. Murdoch, Horsforth, near Leeds.

Green Woodpecker, Red Grouse, Sparrow-hawk, Long-
eared Owl, Pochard, and pair of Water-hens, in separate cases,
in exchange for Microscope or offers. — J. R. Murdoch, Hors-
forth, near Leeds.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“ Flowers ; their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours.”
By J. E. Taylor, Ph.D., F.L.S., &c. Second edition. London :
Hardwicke & Bogue.

“ Alphabetical Handbook to England and Wales.” London :
John Murray.

“The Sight, and how to Preserve it.” By H. C. Angell,
M.D. London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

“The Speaking Telephone, Talking Phonograph, and other
Novelties.” By George B. Prescott. New York: Appleton
& Co.

“ Boston Journal of Chemistry.” September.

“American Journal of Microscopy.” ,,

“ Land and Water.” ,,

“ Midland Naturalist.” ,,

“ Chambers’s Journal.” ,,

“ Ben. Brierley’s Journal.” ,,

“ Botanische Zeitung.” August.

“ Science pour Tous.”

Various Pamphlets.

&c. &c. Sec.

Communications received up to ioth ult., from: —
F. K. — C. H. G.— G. C.— J. W.— E. D. R.— E. E.— T. S.—
E. H.-C. M.-D. D.-T. L.— W. J. H.— A. B.— G. C. B.—
E. W.— X. G— J. W.— A. W.— E. W. B.-W. H.— R. D.—
A. H. B.— A. J. J. B.— J. M.— G. D.— H. E. W.— Dr. G. A. S-
— W. H. N.— C. H. B.-J. R. M.— E. T. C. W.— K. D.—
j. c. W.— P. L. S.— W. W. S.— M. G.— H. C. C. M.— W. B. R.
— J. A. W — G. R. R.--J. K.— Col. B.— W. F.— W. W. F.—
J. L.— H. C.— J. H. M.— A. T.— M. P. H.-Mrs. S.— I. C.—
W. H. G.- B. H. K.— J. D. S.— G. D. S.— W. C.— A. W. A.
— T. H. B.-G. S. H.— Dr. J. H. G. — J. G.- Dr. B.—
Col. M.— J. W. N.-C. E. R.— T. S.-J. C. C. -Dr. M.—
W. M. C. C. S.— F. W. E. S.— A. W.— C. C.— W. W.—
W. H. W.— H. L.— F. S.— W. C.— J. W. S.-R. S.-F. H. A.
— J. F. S.— J. R. M.— H. J. B.— W. G.— G. C. D.— T. H. H.
— H. S.— J. C.— S. M.— R. T. G.— F. S. C — W. H. P.—
W. W. F.— E. C.— W. H.— W. H. B.— R. A. B.— H. C. C.—
J. B.— A. B.— W. A. H.— J. G.— J.C. C.— M. J. W.— C. A. O.
— B. S.— B. E. S — J. A. K.— Prof. J. T.— W. W. F.— J. A. F.
— W. W.— A W.— H. T. S.— G. P.— W. B.— O. P. C.— E. M.
— W. G. P.— S. F.— W. G.— G. W. B.— &c. &c.

HARD WICK HS S CIENCE - G O SSIP.

241

QUARTZ; AS IT OCCURS IN THE LAKE DISTRICT \
ITS STRUCTURE AND ITS HISTORY,

PART II.

By J. CLIFTON WARD, F.G.S., F.R.M.S., &c.

The

UARTZ as a Micro-
scopic Study : —
Having enumerated
the various forms and
conditions under which
quartz is found in the
Lake District rocks, I
wish to say something
about its internal
structure as revealed
by the microscope,
method of study is this : — The fragments of

quartz, or the rocks containing quartz, are sliced very
thin and mounted, the slice being reduced to such a
degree of thinness as to allow of its ready examination
by transmitted light.

At the outset let us find out what can be the
difference between a piece of opaque white quartz
and clear transparent rock crystal. The difference is
somewhat similar to that between a piece of opaque
ice and a piece of glassy transparent ice ; for if water
be frozen very quickly, a large number of air-bubbles
will be entrapped, while slow freezing enables the
air to escape. Or, again, take a handful of snow, —
it is white, but decidedly opaque. Though formed of
clear crystals of ice, air is so mixed up with them
that the rays of light, constantly suffering reflection
from the limiting surfaces of the two, are unable to
pass through the mass. Subject such a mass of snow
crystals, however, to powerful pressure, the air will
be squeezed out and the formerly opaque snow may
be converted into a block of transparent ice.
Reverse the experiment; pound up your block of
clear ice, and once more you have an opaque white
powder, the minute icy particles being separated from
one another by air. The same may be done with a
transparent quartz crystal : grind it to powder, and
the powder is found to be opaque and white.

Hence, may we not conclude that the difference

between clear rock-crystal and opaque white yein-
No. 167.

quartz is that, while in the case of the transparent
quartz there is nothing or but little to reflect the rays
of light or to prevent their passing uninterruptedly
through the mass, in the case of the opaque white
quartz there must be something included which acts
in the same manner as the air-bubbles in opaque or
cat’s ice, as it is called ? The microscope reveals
what this something is.

Take a piece of ordinary vein-quartz, and examine
a thin slice of the same ; every part of the field of
view is seen to be full of little cells of very various
form, some round, some long drawn out, some
branched, and some even having a regular and
what appears like a crystalline outline. Examine
them more closely, and each little cell is seen to con-
tain a bubble, sometimes large, and more or less
flattened by the sides of the cavity, and immovable ;
sometimes like the bubble in a spirit-level, moving
sluggishly from end to end of a tube-like cell ; and
sometimes very small, and moving about freely in the
cell, like a thing of life, perhaps visiting all parts of
the cell in turn, occasionally becoming hazy and in-
distinct, because, passing to a deeper part of the cell,
the bubble has gone slightly out of focus. If the
cell, too, be very small, the bubble, owing to its
extreme minuteness, may seem like a mere black
speck ; and in these cases the motion is exceedingly
active, and reminds one still more of a living organism.
What can these things mean? For a bubble to move
thus freely about, all analogy would lead us to sup-
pose that the cell must be full of liquid, except the
bubble-spot, otherwise this free motion would be
impossible. What, then, is the liquid ? and what does
the bubble contain ? Mr. Sorby has paid great atten-
tion to these interesting facts, and has clearly proved :
1st, that the liquid in most cases is water ; 2nd,
that the bubble is a vacuum, or empty spot, when
the movement in the cell is very free ; and 3rd, that
the water is frequently saline, and sometimes the

cells contain small cubical crystals of salt. Thus we

M

242

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

have the astounding fact revealed to us, that in every
small fragment of opaque quartz there are thousands
upon thousands of these minute liquid parcels shut
up within it, and each containing a vacuous bubble.
Again, we ask, what can this mean ? Can it be that
water has had so large a part to play in the formation
•of this hard mineral quartz, that granite, which we
nsed to look upon as a molten rock formed in the
bowels of the earth, can yet have been formed largely
in connection with water ? for the quartz combining
with felspar and mica to form granite is literally full
•of these minute water-cavities. Let us see how this
can be in the case of granite, and then other quartz
occurrences may prove easier to understand. Mr.
Sorby has made many and delicate researches into
this subject, and he has found that on subjecting the
liquid cavities to heat, first, any minute crystals of
salt contained in them are slowly dissolved ; and
second, that when the heat is made sufficiently ex-
treme the minute bubble becomes smaller and smaller
until finally the liquid fills the whole cavity, the
bubble completely disappearing. Now it is evident
that these little parcels of water must have been
enclosed within the quartz on its solidification, when
the granite was being formed deep beneath the surface,
for all geological evidence goes to show that granite
is deep-seated in its formation ; although of various
ages, yet no other rock is ever found beneath it.
Therefore, it is further evident that when first en-
closed the water must have been in a highly heated
condition, and unable to attain the state of vapour
by reason of the great pressure to which it was sub-
ject, so that we may regard the liquid now contained
in the quartz as part of the original mother-liquor, if
I may use the term, which, together with a heated
condition of other minerals, and great pressure, made
up the conditions under which the granite was formed*
In the formation of the granite the two minerals
mica and felspar were the first to crystallize, impress-
ing their form upon the semi-molten or semi-fluid
quartz, which solidifying last, wrapt up within itself
large quantities of the highly-heated water in the
form of minute liquid parcels or cavities. Subse-
quently, on cooling of the mass, removal of pressure,
or both, the water would cool, but being closely
sealed up in glassy (quartzy) cavities or minute bottles,
it could not escape in the state of vapour any more
than at the first, but in its cooled condition would
occupy a slightly less space, in other words, the con-
traction would leave a minute bubble or empty space
(called for convenience5 sake, a vacuity ), which
vacuity you will see must have a size proportionate,
first, to the size of the liquid parcel ; second, to the
heat and pressure under which the fluid was origin-
ally confined. Hence, if it is found that in a number
of cases the relative size of vacuities and liquid-
cavities is the same, these relative dimensions give us
clue to the amount of combined heat and pressure
under which the granite (or, to speak more accurately,

the quartz of the granite) was formed. Here, then, is
an interesting problem ; but at the outset it appears
that to find out the exact amount of either the heat
or the pressure, it is necessary to know that of one of
these elements ; thus, if we knew the pressure and
observed the relative size of vacuity (or bubble) to
liquid-cavity, we should have the two elements from
which to calculate the heat ; or, if we could form a
tolerably accurate estimate of the heat, and made
observations on the relative size of vacuity and liquid-
cavity, these elements would allow us to form some
fairly correct idea of the pressure under which the
rock was formed.

Now, by an elaborate series of investigations, Mr.
Sorby has shown it to be very probable that the heat
was not much greater than 360° C. (68o° Fah.), or
not more than a dull red heat visible in the dark.
We have already seen how the water in many cases
contained, when hot, more mineral salts dissolved in
it than could be so contained when cold ; hence the
small crystals of salt sometimes found in the liquid-
cavities ; but Sorby has also called attention to the
fact, that crystals of the mineral called Schorl (a
variety of hornblende) are frequently enclosed in the
liquid-cavities, and that these would be fused at any
temperature greater than a dull red heat ; and from
this and other facts he has fixed on the temperature
of 360° C. (68o° F. ) as the probable extreme at which
the quartz of granites was formed. Calculating on
the basis of these elements, and having made a large
number of observations upon the relative size of the
vacuities and liquid-cavities in the quartz of the
Cornish granites, Mr. Sorby arrived at the conclusion
that the mean of the pressure expressed in feet of
rock under which the Cornish granites were con-
solidated was 50,000 ft. (this not necessarily the
actual depth at which formed).

{To be continued. )

THE CRITICAL BOTANIST.

Hj^HE educational value of “natural” or biological
X science, as distinguished from “physical” or
“experimental55 study, depends on the stress laid,
not only on mere observation, but on observation at
once careful and minute. Experiment is being intro-
duced with much good result into the biological
sciences. It teaches handiness or skilful manipula-
tion, and exactitude in recording results. The
use of quantitative analyses and statistics has
also a great value, not only to science, but also
to education. Still, critical observation is the chief
educational raison d'itre of biology, and especially
of botany, to the tyro. In proportion as it is care-
ful and minute, will this observation be valuable
to the observer. Its value to science is really a
secondary matter, and will come unexpectedly, being
dependent, not only on care and minuteness, but also
on what may be termed “rationality.” By this, I

BARD WICKE’S SC/ENCE-G OSSIP.

243

mean a direction of observation into channels of im-
portance, channels not filled by work already done.
This “rationality” will come to the tyro who both
studies and observes.

As I know that the unbotanical and junior students
are entirely ignorant of what iC critical botany means,
and as science sadly needs more critical observers, I
thought Science-Gossip would be the best medium
for a few notes on the subject.

Criticalness is necessary in all branches of the
science. In the chemistry of plant-life, it is not
enough to know that certain elements occur in certain
plants. We want to know in what proportions they
occur, in what manner of composition, at what periods
of the life of a plant, and in what organs or tissues.
We want to know where the plant gets them, how it
assimilates them, what changes they undergo in the
plant, and whether they are essential to its life. This
amounts to a want — very partially supplied at present
— of detailed chemical analysis of various tissues and
organs of many different species at various stages of
growth and decay, and an extended practice of the
valuable experiments in “water-culture,” the growth
of various plants in definite solutions.

In general Morphology or Minute Anatomy, we
must not rest content with knowing that such and such
a member is built up of such and such tissues, or that
these latter are composed of various laminae of cells
or vessels of different shape or structure. We want
also to see the mode of development of each cell,
how they make up the vessels and tissues, and how
the complex member arrives at its complexity. Not
only is there room for additional research on the
functions and behaviour of the nucleus of cells and for
further elucidation of the history of starch, but the
subject of the crystalloid granules, the aleurone
particles, and the “raphides,” or true crystals, con-
tained in the cells of many plants, is a mine but
slightly worked. Systems of branching and phyllo-
taxis are also lines— among many I might mention
— in which there is yet much to be done by accurate
observation, especially that of development.

In elementary Physiology, science stands in need of
help, rather from experiment and statistics than from
pure observation ; such as the experiments of Pro-
fessor McNab on the movement of water in plants
(Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxv.), those of Sachs
on the corroding power of roots, and of Mr. Darwin
on twining plants.

In special Morphology and Physiology, however,
there is an inexhaustible field for new and valuable
observation. The life-history of the lowest plants, as
studied by Messrs. Dallinger and Drysdale ; the
hybridization of ferns and flowering plants, both in
cultivation and in a wild state; the homology of
certain special organs, in various groups, worked out,
as Mr. S. H. Vines has done that of the suspensor
(Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci. , Jan., 1878) ; the
minute anatomy of the leaf as a classificatory cha-

racter, as Professor McNab is proving it among the
Conifers ; the floral development and teratology, or
abnormal forms, of various groups, studied on the
method inaugurated in Payer’s Organogenic de la
Fleur, excellent examples of which may be seen in
Dr. Masters’s paper on Primula, just issued, in the
Transactions of the Linncean Society, in his note on
the Composite, in the Journal of Botany for Feb-
ruary, and in Mr. Hartog’s paper on the Sapotaceoe,
in the same journal for March : these are a few of the
wider subjects for critical study. Here it will be seen
that it is often necessary that observations should be
both numerous and even continuous, and that they
should be compared one with another.

But even in the simpler and isolated observations
of the collector and tyro, the critical faculty comes
equally into play. I call it a faculty, for, like the
imagination of the poet, some people seem to be
utterly destitute of it ; but I have little doubt that
this arises, mainly, from its never having been culti-
vated, educed, educated. If you have a garden, and
are likely to remain in one locality for years, you may
render much service to botanical science by observing
the exact date of the opening of leaf-buds and flower-
buds in various species in each year, noticing also the
altitude above sea-level, latitude and soil of your
garden; and, if possible, other meteorological details,
such as rainfall, thermometric and barometric obser-
vations, wind, &c. If you can name, or capture and
get named, the various insects which feed upon your
plants, or which visit their flowers, distinguishing
those that suck the honey, those that eat and those
that carry away the pollen, you will also be doing
good scientific work.

If you collect wild plants, it is important to notice
the altitude at which a species occurs, the nature of
the soil it grows in, and its exact topographical posi-
tion, so that it can be seen, not only in what county
and parish it occurs, but also in what river-basin ;
since the vast importance of river-basins in the dis-
tribution of plants is now generally acknowledged.

Lastly, it is important to note exactly what your
find is. This is what English botanists genei-ally
speak of as ci'itical knowledge. You must make
yourself sui*e, not only of genus and species, but in
many cases of sub-species, variety, or variation. To'
do this is time well spent. It makes you examine
a plant more closely than if you ali*eady knew it well,
were told its name or identified it, as some tyros do,
from its general resemblance to a pictui'e.

By this close examination you unconsciously gain a
far deeper and more permanent knowledge of a plant
than by being told its name ; and, moreover, your
accui'ately determined locality for one of these
“segregates,” as they are termed, may be of great
use in the generalizations of botanical geography.
Independently, therefore, of any theory as to the
origin of species, it is far better, from the point of

view of self-education and instruction, to be a

M 2

244

HARD W1 CKE ’S 5 CIEN CE-GO SS/R.

“splitter” than a “lumper.” For books, then, the
student cannot have a better general manual of
British Botany than Professor Babington’s. For
many groups, however, he will do well to use special
monographs ; and it must also be clearly understood
that varieties are hardly to be recognized by mere
“ book-characters,” but must be studied in the living
state.

In conclusion let me take as an example the first
group which requires critical study in the first of the
natural orders, viz., the genus Thalictrum (Meadow-
rue), among the Ranunculacese. Whilst the order
Ranunculaceoe, which contains some thirty genera
and some five hundred species, is almost universally
distributed, but is especially abundant in temperate j
and cold regions, the genus Thalictrum is confined to
the northern hemisphere. Like the order to which it
belongs, this genus is essentially European, occurring
comparatively rarely in North America, North Africa,
and Asia, in which continent it is only known in the
north and west, to the Himalayas. The order is
what is termed a very “ natural” one, being, in spite
of many anomalous genera, clearly defined and sepa-
rated from its nearest allies. It is also readily
and naturally divisible into the five tribes, originally
framed by De Candolle; viz.,Clematidese, Anemonere,
Ranunculeoe, Hellebores, and Pceoniece. The last
two of these agree in having the fruit “dehiscent,”
i.e. splitting when ripe, and all except Clematides
have the sepals overlapping, or “imbricate.” Ane-
mones and Ranuncules differ in having the single
ovule in each “achene,” or indehiscent carpel or |
fruitlet, pendulous in the former, ascending in the j
latter. The genus Thalictrum, along with Anemone,
Knowltonia, Adonis, Callianthemum, and Myosurus,
constitute the tribe Anemones. Knowltonia curi-
ously occurs in South Africa, and Myosurus in
Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.
Thalictrum and Anemone differ from the other genera
of the tribe in having no petals, and Thalictrum is
distinguished from Anemone by the absence of the
involucre of three leaf-like bracts characteristic of
the flower-stalk of the latter. The Meadow-rues are
herbs with a perennial rootstock and erect habit ;
leaves bi- or tri-pinnatisect and stipulate ; inflores-
cence panicled or in a raceme, without any involucre,
often polygamous ; sepals four or five, imbricate,
petaloid, and dull green, yellow, purple, or whitish
in colour, usually small ; petals absent ; stamens
numerous ; carpels on a narrow receptacle, with
short styles, which are persistent or deciduous, and
with one pendulous ovule in each, afterwards forming
a fruit of achenes, which are often stalked, and are
variously ribbed, nerved, or winged. There are
about fifty species, some three to six of which
only, accordingly as one “lumps” with Hooker or
“splits” with Babington, are British.

G. S. Boulger.

( To be continued. )

NATURAL HISTORY IN THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

By F. Kitton, IIon. F.R.M.S., &c.

Part II.

THE ignorance of natural history displayed in the
description of animals living in distant lands,
may be excused on the ground of the difficulty of
obtaining any accurate knowledge of their habits, or
even form, from those who had seen them in their
native wilds. The principal authorities were sailors,
who, with that love of the marvellous usually ac-
companying ignorance, allowed their imaginations to
run riot in describing the animals or plants of foreign
countries.

This excuse will not, however, apply to the
author’s descriptions of our domestic animals, as the
following extracts from the chapter on dogs will
show : —

“OF THE DOGGE

IN GENERALL.

“ A Dogge is called in hebrew Keleb , and Lamas
according to Munster , in Caldee Kalba , in Arabique
Kalbe , in Persia Sag ; the Saracens Kep or Kolph ;
the Grecians Kuon, because of his love to man, and
vulgarly at this day Skilos and Skirle ; the Medians
Spaco, the Germans Hund , the Italians Cane, the
French Chien , the Spaniards Perro or cavendo, be-
cause his barking is as loud as an Artificiall song ;
also Catellus ; the Illyrians Pes or Pas , and the
Latins Canis.

“ There is no region or countrey in the world
where these are not bred in some store, as shall be
declared afterwarde, in the particular discourse of
every kind of Dogges. For as shall be manifested
more at large, there are Dogges very great, some for
hunting, some for Warre and defence, some for the
Bull or Bear, some for the Hare, Cony, or Hedge-
hog ; againe, some are smaller, which are called
Hounds, Braches,* Beagles, Shepheardes Dogges,
House-curres, Spagnels, both for Water and Land ;
and some foysting Dogges, f for the pleasure of the
rich.

“In the first-place there are to be handled the
nature of Dogges in generall, wherein they agree,
and their common properties of nature, such as are
not destroyed in the destinction of kindes, but re-
maine like infallible and invariable truths in every
kinde and country in the world. . . . The outward
proportion of the head altereth as the kind altereth,
being sometime like a Lyon, sometime like a Hedge-
hog ; some long with a broad snout, and some with

* These dogs are supposed to be dogs of scent. No very-
definite meaning seems to have been attached to the name by
early English writers. The word is apparently synonymous
with the old French word Brache (German Brack), translated
chien. Shakespeare seems to have considered them as pet
dogs. “Truth’s a dog that must to kennel when Lady thebrach
may stand by the fire and stink.” — Lear.
t Lapdogs ; see fysting, in Nares’ Glossary.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

245

a piked snout ; but the braine decreaseth and in-
creaseth with the moon. There is no commissure
or seame in his scull (like as in a mans), but it is a
continued bone without separation inward or out-
ward.*

“ The louder and shriller voice of a Dogge is called
barking, the lower and stiller is called whining or
fawning. It was a monstrous thing that a Dogge
should speake and a serpent barke, as it is beleeved
in antiquity both came to passe, when Tarquinius
was driuen out of his kingdom. It is not cause-
lesse that the barking of Dogges hath attributed unto

holy actions, and so ought the eies and ears of a
Prophet be attendant upon heavenly things. The
spleene because a Dog hath little or no spleene*
and therof commeth his madnes and death whereof
also it commeth that the seruants which have charge
of Dogges being with them in their sickness and
latter end for the most part prove splenaticke.
Smelling, neezing, and Laughing, because the
spleenatike can do more of all these, but of this
more afterward.”

The Rev. Topsell concludes his account of the
Village Dogge or Housekeeper by relating the fol-

it divers qualities, as for a man to dreame of the
same presageth some treasonable harme by enemies,
so likewise if they fawne and claw vpon a man.

“The Egyptians signifie three thinges by a Dog,
a Scribe , a Prophet , a spleene , smelling, laughing,
neezing. A Scribe because a Dog is silent more than
he barketh, so must a perfect scribe meditate more
than he speaketh, for to barke at euery one were to
pleasure none, and to speake continually were a signe
of madnes. Again, a Prophet because a Dogge
doth most eagerly behold and admire constantly all

If the writer had taken, the trouble to examine a skull, he
would have found that cranial sutures were present.

lowing anecdote, the truth of which is vouched for
by Antonins Schnebergerus, an authority with whom
I regret to say I am unacquainted.

“In a Church in Cracouia, dedicated to the
Virgin Mary, wherein euery night are an assembly of
dogs which unto this day (saith the Author) meete
voluntarily at an appointed houre for the custody of
the Temple and those ornaments which are preserved
therein against theifes and robbers, and if it fortune
any of the dog Dogges be negligent and slacke at the
houre aforesaide, then will he bark about the Church
until he be let in, but his fellows take punishment
of him [and fall on him, biting and rending his

246

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

skinne, yea sometimes killing him ; and these Dogs
haue a set dyet or allowance of dinner from the
Canons and Preachers of the Church, which they
duely observe without breach of order, for to day two
of them will goe to one Cannons house and two
to anothers, and so likewise al the residue in turnes
successively visit the severall houses within the cloyster
yard, neuer going twice together to one house nor
preuenting the refection of their fellowes ; and the
story is reported by Antonins Schnebergerus for cer-
tain truth upon hia own knowledge.”

He concludes his own history of dogs with a
description and anecdotes of the little Melitaean Dog,
of whose intelligence he relates some remarkable
instances of instinct, far surpassing anything in

Jesse.” One kept by a certain Italian, about
1403, called Andrew, is perhaps the most remarkable.
The dog, although blind, “ would find, even when
buried in the earth, Rings, Iewels, bracelets, pieces
of gold and silver, lent to his master by the standers
by, and when he was commanded, give to every one
his own Ring, Iewell, Bracelet, or money, which the
blind dog did without stay or doubt. Afterward the
standers by gave vnto him divers peeces of coine
stamped with the images of sundry princes, and then
one called for a piece of English money, and the
Dog deliuered him a peece ; another for the Em-
perors coine, and the Dog deliuered him a piece
thereof : and so consequently every princes coine by
name till all was restored, and this story was
recorded by Abbas Vrspergensis , whereupon the
common people said the dog was a diuell, or else
possessed with some pythonicall spirit : and so much
for this dog.

“ Now a daies they have found another breede of
little dogs in all nations beside the Melitoean Dogs,
cither made so by art, as enclosing their bodies in the
earth when they are whelpes, so as they cannot grow
great, by reason of the place or els impayring their
growth by some kind of meat or nourishment.

“ The Dogges of Casamania can neuer be tamed, for
their men also are wilde, and liue without al law and
ciuility, and thus much of Dogs in special.

“ In the next place I thoghtgood to insert into this
story the treatise of English Dogs, first of all written
in Latine by that famous Doctour in Phisicke, Iohn
Cay, and once translated by A. F., and directed to
that noble GesnerA

This treatise is written in the form of a letter, which
he commences thus. “I wrote vnto you (well beloued
friend Gesner), not many years past, a manifolde his-
tory containing the divers forms of Beast, Birds, and
Fishes, the sundry shapes of plants, and the fashions
of Hearbes, &c.

‘ ‘ I wrote moreouer vnto you seuerally a certain
abridgement of dogs which in your discourse uppon
the formes of Beasts in the second order of wilde and
tamable beasts wher you make mention of Scottish
Dogs, and in the winding up of your letter written and

directed to Doctour Turner comprehending a Cata-
logue or rehersall of your books not yet extant, you
promised to set forth in print, and openly to publish
in the face of the world among such your workes as
are not yet come abroad to light and sight. But
because certain circumstances were wanting in my
breuiary of English Dogs (as seemed vnto me), I
staied the publication of the same making promise to
send another abroad which might be committed to the
hands, the eies, the minds, and the iudgements of the
Readers.”

(To be continued .)

A FEW AUTUMN FLOWERS, WITH HINTS
UPON THEIR CULTURE.

By Mrs. Battersby.

A GROUP of autumn flowers — not geraniums,
or heliotropes, or calceolarias, though they
are very brilliant and lovely for those who can afford
greenhouses and forcing-pits, and the amount of
care, time, and trouble which will tide these deli-
cate favourites safely over a winter’s frost and snow —
but a bouquet of out-of-door plants which may be
left in the garden season after season, gathering
strength and beauty, and lighting up our autumnal
parterre with their vivid tints.

One of our chief favourites is the Fuchsia. It is
quite wonderful to find what numberless varieties of
these beautiful shrubs will survive our winters. As
a proof, I must tell you I once struck three cuttings
of the then rare double white fuchsia ; upon the
approach of frost two were safely housed — the other,
much to my annoyance, could not be found. Next
summer my housed plants were healthy, but rather
stunted both in leaf and flower; while the missing one,
which had died down to the ground in winter, threw
up long luxuriant shoots, and blossoms which looked
like small white roses enclosed in rich crimson
sepals. The sole protection which the young plants
had enjoyed was a light surface-dressing of turf-
mould ; — and cocoa-nut fibre, coal-ashes, or moss
would pi'obably have answered quite as well.
Fuchsias are very easily managed ; the chief secrets
are a rich, light soil, and a sheltered, yet sunny
aspect. They enjoy the protection of a wall, and
blossom particularly well when planted against one ;
and the sole drawback to the out-of-door culture of
fuchsias is, that in late seasons their best flowers are
generally “ caught ” some frosty night, and present a
melancholy spectacle on the following day.

Next to my fuchsias I would place a real autumn
gem, the tall, white anemone ( Japonica ), which,- rising
from a cluster of rather coarse but handsomely-shaped
leaves, on a stem of more than three feet in height,
bears a number of snowy blossoms singularly alike,
both in shape and size, to the white wild-rose of our
hedges; but though we miss the fragrance of the way-

HA RD WICKE }S S CIENCE - G OSSIP.

side flower, our anemone has the charm of pre-
serving its beauty in a vase for nearly double the
time of the much-prized rose ; indeed, with the
exception of china-asters, pyretheums, and chrysan-
themums, anemones might claim a prize for this
property. Anemone Japonica is perfectly hardy,
and easily cultivated, as the roots can be separated
in early spring without injury to the plant ; but a
row of white anemones left undisturbed in front of a
garden-hedge becomes one of the prettiest sights in
an autumn garden — the masses of snowy petals are
brought into such bold relief by their green back-
ground. For scarlet to place against our white
blossoms perhaps Lobelia cardinalis can hardly be
surpassed ; except perhaps by some late blossom of
gladiolus. But the lobelia is rather a capricious
plant ; it requires a large amount of moisture in a
thoroughly well-drained situation. The most suc-
cessful bed I have ever seen was made by removing
about two feet of the upper soil, and placing a
quantity (about half a foot) of broken bricks in the
pit. The soil was then replaced, and the lobelias
grew and flourished for years. Unfortunately they
were removed to an adjacent bed without drainage
precautions being taken, and they “damped off,” or
sent up sickly stunted shoots as long as they sur-
vived. A clergyman, for many years resident in
America, told me the beauty and brilliancy of a
swamp of lobelias in their native habitats is almost
dazzling.

There is a rather pretty violet-coloured and also a
lilac lobelia, both of which blossom in autumn ; but
even the scarlet of the lobelia pales beside the blos-
soms of the “velvet” Salvia , and its sister, the blue
salvia, is not surpassed by any autumnal flower. The
length of time this plant remains in blossom, if not
destroyed by rains or high winds, is marvellous.
First the “king spike,” and then the side spikelets,
seem never weary of showing their brilliant colouring
to grace our autumn bouquet ; and after a trial of six
seasons out of doors, merely protected by a covering
of turf mould, my noble plant is the admiration of
all visitors. Sometimes in spring the early shoots of
both salvias are cut off by frosts, but the hardy plant,
like the field potato, only waits for a few congenial
days to send up a succession of fresh sprouts from its
uninjured tuberous roots. Blue salvias are easily
reared from seed (if these are defended from robins,
which seem particularly fond of them) ; they will also
root from small side-shoots, or slips, in summer ; but
until the tubers form they should not be left out in
winter time ; and when the plants are meant to re-
main out of doors they should be planted in spring
and left undisturbed during the summer, so that they
can “settle themselves,” as our old gardener used to
call it, before winter.

And now for yellow to set off my scarlet, white,
and blue favourites. I shall either take a few blos-
soms of Viola hitea , or twigs of Spanish broom j

both are perfectly hardy. Though I shall not place
purple beside blue, I may remark, en passant, that
a bed of Viola cormita of that lovely shade is at
present one of the most brilliant spots in the garden,
whilst its yellow sisters form glowing borders to
several other beds, and they have now (October)
been in blossom for the last three months. A box oi
slips taken from young shoots of violas (close to
the ground), and stuck between the old cut-down
plants in spring each season, will give a beautiful
succession of flowers all through the summer months ;
and entomologists may care to know that the Viola
cornuta and all its purple varieties are veritable moth-
traps on summer evenings. The Spanish broom is a
beautiful shrub in autumn, with one defect, — that it
blossoms so late in the season that it is difficult to
procure ripened seed.

And now I must look for some pretty leaves
wherewith to form a background for my bouquet,
and I shall find them in the delicate fem-like green
of a bed of young carrots; they are so light as to
prove invaluable at this time of year for arranging
vases, and We may often find a leaf almost as scarlet
as the lobelia beside it. One shade more and our
group will be complete, — something dark, — and our
children supply it. They have been out boating, and
have brought home a bunch of “giant black-tufted
grass,” as they call it, a plume of which will make
our autumnal vase of flowers quite artistic in effect.

FOSSIL POLYZOA.

The Genus Fenestella: its History, Develop-
ment, and Range in Space and Time.

By George Robert Vine.

I. — History of the Genus.

SOME of the most prolific forms of animal life
found in the palaeozoic series of rocks are a
group of Polyzoa, which has passed under several
names. By the earliest investigators, some of these
Polyzoa were classified with the corals, and were
consequently placed by Goldfuss with the genus
GorgoniaV Other forms were restricted by the same
author, and placed with Lamarck’s genus Retepora .
This was the status of classificatory knowledge when
Phillips wrote his work on the “Geology of York-
shire.” Turning to one of the later editions of
Brown’s “Zoologist’s Text-book,” published by
Fullarton, in 1833, I find the class Polypi placed
among the Radiata, in the fourth division of the
Animal Kingdom. The animals of this class were
gelatinous, with elongated contractile bodies ; and
provided with an alimentary sac, which had one
opening ; mouth terminal, surrounded by radiated
tentacula ; the greater number of the species con-

* Linnaeus

248

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

gregated, adherent, and forming compound animals.*
The class was divided into five orders ; but under
one order, those of Polypi vaginati , Spongia, Coral -
Una, Gorgonia , and Retepora found a home. With
these were associated many of the corals, polyzoa,
and anthozoa, which have been separated by later
investigators, and placed under classifications alto-
gether different from either that of Brown or
Cuvier.

The generic character of Lamarck’s Retepora is as
follows : Stony, and interiorly porous, with thin,
depressed, branched expansions, sometimes free, at
others formed like net-work ; the polypiferous cells
on one side only, at the upper or internal surface of

Fig. 202. Fenestella plebeia (McCoy), Hairmyres (Scot).
Showing the growth of the dissepiments (a) from the
Zooecia ; sometimes from the base, at other times from just
below the orifice of the cell. Natural size : about |th of
an inch to two fenestrules. Diastopora megastoma was
parasitic upon this. (Transparent.)

the mass ; and Brown gives as a type of the genus —
Retepora cellulosa , with this restricted specific cha-
racter : — Flattened, thin, greatly undulated, with
elliptical cells ; inhabits the Indian Ocean. With this
before them, I can easily understand how difficult would
be the labours of the earlier palaeontologists. Both
Goldfuss’s and Phillips’s Carboniferous, Devonian,

* Brown’s “Zoologist’s Text-book.”

and Silurian Polyzoa had to be classified as they were,
or remain unclassified, and consequently undescribed.
The few fossils at their disposal forced them to be
particular with the minute specimens in their posses-
sion, and the diagnosis of their species suffered in
consequence of their poverty.

From the time when Phillips wrote his “ Geology
of Yorkshire,” till the time of William Lonsdale, the
founder of the “ Devonian System ” in geology,
very little labour was bestowed upon the Palaeozoic
Polyzoa. Like the rest of the investigators, he was
inclined to place the Fenestella with the Retepora ; but
previous to the publication of Phillips’s “ Palaeozoic
Fossils of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somersetshire,”
Mr. Miller, of Bristol, in correspondence with
Phillips on Fossil Zoophyta , suggested that a new
genus should be constituted for some of the reticu-
lated corals allied to Retepora in the Carboniferous

Fig. 204. This sketch of the fig of F. banyana was in all
probability a recumbent form. The figure represents a
cavity in the limestone, and shows the processes extending
from the frond. — Mr. John Young, F.G.S. Fig. 4,
plate 18, “Transactions of the Acad. Sci. St. Louis,”
vol. i. p. 450.

limestone. On mentioning this to Mr. Lonsdale, he
at once adopted the suggestion, and named a species
of the Silurian strata Fenestella Milleri (Lonsd.).# In
1841 Phillips himself adopted this term.

This more expressive generic term has since been
adopted by nearly all writers on Palaeozoic Polyzoa ;
and Lonsdale gave as a description of the genus,
characters altogether different from Retepora , and
more in accordance with known facts. It is impos-
sible for me to give the exact description as given by

* Phillips’s “ Palaeozoic Fossils of Cornwall, &c.” Through
the kindness of Mr. Plant, curator and librarian of the Peel
Park Museum, Manchester, I have been allowed to extract
whatever I required, and trace the original figures of specimens
from this rare volume.

HARD WICKE ’S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

249

Lonsdale — not having his works at hand to refer to —
but the following is taken from M ‘Coy’s “ Palaeozoic
Fossils ” : — “ Polypidom calcareous, cellular, forming
a conical or fan-shape expansion of radiating branches,
•interstices connected by transverse dissepiments ;
exterior surface of branches rounded, covered by
dense minutely porous layers ; inner surface with a
keel along the middle, separating two rows of mouths
of short tubular cells, which extend a variable length
obliquely downwards and inwards into the interior of
the branch : dissepiments usually without cells,
occasionally a row of small cells on the mesial keel.
Non-celluliferous side formed internally of a layer of
vertical capillary tubes.” This genus was placed by
M‘Coy among his Family, Group Myriaporid^e, a

group which embraced the genus Rdepora of
Lamarck ; the Elasmopora of King ; the Glauconome
of Goldfuss restricted by Lonsdale ; the Penniretopora
ofProdomas; th e Acantfiocladia of King; together
with the sub-genera Fenestellina and Reteporina of
D’Orbigny.

The first recorded appearance of this genus is in
the Bala beds of the Lower Silurian series. In Morris’s
Catalogue, and also in Jukes’s “ Student’s Manual,”
1857, it is recorded as appearing in the Upper
Silurian, in company with many other forms of
Polyzoa. In the later edition of the Manual this

may have been corrected, but I have not seen it.
But in Morris’s earlier Catalogue, which he began in
the 1st volume of the Geologist , Fenestella subantiqua ,
D’Orb., and F. Milleri , Lonsdale, are given with the
Lingula, Llandello, and Caradoc or Bala Bed fossils.

From either the figures or even the specimens, it is
very difficult to make out the true character of
F. Milleri. The habit of the species as impressed
upon the Bala shale is peculiar and characteristic.
It is partially flabelliform, but not universally so, as
some of the branches cross and recross the under ones ;
thus obliterating the true character. The interstices
are thin, and according to the description, the dissepi-
ments are narrow and slender, and two lines apart.
The fenestrules are five or six times longer than wide,
with about twelve pores to the fenestrules.
If this be a true description of the species,
F. Milleri is a marvellous specimen of the
earlier Fenestella group. Fenestella Lons-
dalei, D’Orb., is figured in Siluria, and is
given by Morris in the earliest, as in the
latter catalogue. It is found in the Dudley
limestone as well as in the lower beds,
and if the synonyms be true, the species
had a very wide range, as it is figured as
an American species as F. prisca, and
Morris, in his catalogue, gives F. prisca
as a synonym of the species. The figure
before me is cup-shape, attached by a
broad base to some foreign object. The
outline of the margin of the cup-like form
is entire, and the poriferous face will be
on the inside, like modern species of
Retepora and Hornera. It seems to be a
good species, and habit alone would be a
sufficient character. F. sub-antiqua , D’Orb. ,
is another Silurian Fenestella ; but among
synonyms of this are given F. antiqua ,
Lonsdale, Retepora antiqua, Goldfuss, and
R. membranacea , Phillips : it may be a frag-
ment of some larger specimen of F. prisca.
D’Orbigny’s species, as recorded and de-
scribed in his Palaeozoic Fossils, has a
corallum very slender, with straight inter-
stices, seven or eight of these measuring
only two lines ; the dissepiments are thick,
and the fenestrules are rectangular or
oblong, about three lines longer than wide. The
pores are small, thick, with prominent edges, their
own diameter apart, and six or seven to the length of
the fenestrules. F. reticulata , Lonsdale, is a species
that has been often confounded with Hisinger’s
Retepora , so much so, that M ‘Coy draws attention to
the fact, acknowledging that it is scarcely possible to
determine the specific character, as no information is
given relative to the pores. Yet, as his species of
Retepora Hisingeri ? agrees in some particulars with
the original, he would even add confusion to the con-
fusion, and name it R. ret if or mis, even though Mr.

1

0

8,

2

fit'

A

m

Fig. 205. Fenestella with lateral Palceocoryne. a. Bases of cells partially
exposed, b. Immature development of Fenestrule with Palceocoryne
(b) on reverse. The wider openings are the fenestrules, very irregular
in shape and size. The specimen is upside down, to show the connec-
tion on the branches. (Natural size, slightly over ^ of an inch.

250

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

Lonsdale had applied the term to “a very similar
corallum, which he, however, places with the genus
Fenestella , and figures with only the two rows of
pores usual in that genus. ”

F. patulci, M‘Coy, and F. rigidula , M‘Coy, are
good forms and very well described. The corallum
of F. patula is small and semicircular, about half an
inch in diameter. The interstices are broad, strongly
carinate, slightly flexuous ; the dissepiments are
strong, and the fenestrules are a little wider than the
interstices ; the pores are large and prominent, about
3 or 4 to length of fenestrule. Its general features
and character are very much like some of the smaller
species of the Carboniferous limestone. The figure
of F. rigidula is peculiar and striking, and it much
resembles some of the Devonian species of Nicholson.

The following, however, is M ‘Coy’s note on the
synonyms of the several species : —

‘ ‘ Fenestella antiqua, Lonsdale = F. subantiqua ,

D’Orb.

F. antiqua , Goldfuss, is a distinct Devonian form.

F. prisca, Goldfuss, Silurian —F. rigidula , M‘Coy.

F. elegans, Hall, Silurian = F. rigidula , M‘Coy.

F. assimilis , Lonsdale, Silurian."

My list contains the names of three other forms.
Dawson describes one by the name F. Lyelli , and
Hall figures and describes two other species from the
Clinton series of America, — F. cribosa and F tenui-
ceps. There are figures of these species, I believe, in
Dana’s Manual.

I could not pretend to give anything like exactness
to my review of the Silurian species of Fenestella.
To say that the whole of the descriptions are very
foggy, would be perhaps vulgar denunciation, but it
would be nevertheless a fact. And before altering
my formerly written paragraph, which was less
sweeping than this, I have gone over again the whole
of M ‘Coy’s figures and descriptions. These are
good so far as they go, but they do not come up to a
proper analysis of the specific characters of the genus
which modern biological, or even palaeontological
studies demand. Too much dependence has been
placed upon the isolated fragments, which give only
a partial view of the true ideal of specific type. In
reviewing the Carboniferous Fenestella I shall be able
to make this more clear.

Atter cliff e , Sheffield.

( To be continued.)

[I should be glad to correspond with any student
who has described or undescribed species of Fenes-
tella in his cabinet, for the purpose of more accurate
identification.]

Cotoneaster vulgaris. — Could I ascertain
whether this plant still exists on Great Orme’s Head ?
The habitat I have down for it is, on rocks above
the copper-mines. Along with two friends I worked
the locality well, without avail, last month : probably
it has got exterminated. — H , T. G.

HOLIDAY RAMBLES IN ST. OUEN’S BAY'

“ O HALL it be Scotland or Jersey?” wastheques-
v3 tion put when arranging for a botanical tour;
and though the flora of Clova, Glen Isla, Braemar,
and the Grampians is sufficient in itself to make a
holiday enjoyable, but when the additional advantages
of lovely scenery and health-giving mountain breezes
are added, it must indeed be a rich and peculiar flora
to outweigh them ; but possibly it was the long
monotonous spring, with its absence of sun, that
caused the Channel Islands to exert a spell so mag-
netic that not even the presence of the “silvery
streak ” was sufficient to break or neutralize its in-
fluence. So, having prepared for work by spending
a day among the oaks of Whittlebury Forest, whose
natural history has yet to be written, and glorying in
another at Kew, we proceeded with considerable
misgivings to cross from Southampton by a passage
whose horrors had been sufficiently dwelt upon by
candid friends ; but, thanks to the soporific effect of
the daily literature we had assimilated, we slept a
dreamless sleep as we passed through the Solent and
the chops of the Channel. Arriving at St. Helier’s,
in Jersey, we noticed the slopes of Fort Regent were
brilliant with Medicago maculata, Silene Anglica ,
Linuin angustifolium , Tragopogon porrifolius , Sedum
Anglicum , and two or three specimens of Gladiolus ,
which had established themselves there. But it would
be wearisome to give in detail the various plants seen
on the different days spent in Jersey ; sufficient to
say, that, having beautiful weather we visited the
rocky Corbieres, home of the seabirds, enjoyed the
delightful breezes on the samphire-covered cliffs of
Pleinmont, the only Jersey locality for A. capilhis
veneris , admired the ivy-covered castle of Mont
Orgueil, the shady lanes of St. Saviour’s, home of
Arum Italic Jim and Sibthorpia , and had taken the
rather noisy coach-rides by Beauly Bay, with its view
of sunny France, and the romantic gardens of Rozel,
not to speak of the sea-bathing, which the firm sands
and clear water render so pleasant, and the entomolo-
gical hunts after Thecla rubi , Cinxia , Edusa, Cardui ,
and Daplidice , on the hot slopes of Noirmont Point
and Greve de Lecq ; while the enormous cow-cab-
bages, 'the fig-trees, and extensive vineries had been
properly inspected. So, in order to give some idea
of the peculiarly rich and extensive flora of Jersey,
one day shall be used. as a sample, comprising, as it
did, some of the best and most typical plants. Its
route may be shortly given as follows : from St. He-
lier’s to Beaumont, thence to St. Ouen’s on to L’fitac,
returning by St. Ouen’s Bay to La Moye and St. Bre-
lade’s. The distance walked would be from 24 to 26
miles. The success of the day was owing to the
company of Mr. Piquet, who is compiling a new flora
of Jersey, and the previous reading up of Babington’s
“Flora Samicse.” Shortly after leaving the nau-
tical-looking station of St. Helier’s, the rail, which

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

251

runs round St. /Cubyn’s Bay, was bordered with
Borago and Anchnsa sempervirens , common viatical
plants in Jersey, followed by great quantities of
CEnothera odorata. Dismounting at Beaumont, and
walking to Bel Royal we found Alyssum maritimum ,
and then visited St. Peter’s Marsh, where Ranunculus
ophioglossifolius, Cyperus fuscus, and Isnardia pains -
Iris, formerly grew, but with the drainage of the
marsh and its subsequent cultivation these rarities
have disappeared. Mr. Piquet, however, pointed
out the exact spot where he had last gathered the
Ranunculus. At Bel Royal, in Professor Babington’s
locality, we gathered Herniaria subcihata , growing
in straggling dark green patches, not unlike Thymits
Serpyllum. Near it we also found Allium sphero-
cephaltu?i and vineale , Silene conica, whose prettiness
is lost by drying, and CEnothera in great plenty.
Passing through one of the shady lanes we gathered
Scrophidaria Scarodonia , which takes the place of our
nodosa and aquatica , the two latter being rare in
Jersey. On emerging into the bright sunlight we
noticed the pretty Lotus hispidus and Sedum An-
glicum, while the gardens of the nice little villas
were blazing with Mesonbryanthemum and Gazonia.
Nearing St. Peter’s, on a shady wall we came upon
the Jei'sey Fern, Gymnogramma lento phylla, in abun-
dant fruit, but losing its colour, May being the month
for it in perfection. On the way to St. Ouen’s Manor, -
about Vinchelez, where we had previously caught a
fine specimen of the Jersey Lizard, Lacerta viridis,
before it threw off its tail, as did another we caught
near St. Brelade’s. In these oak-shaded lanes ento-
mologists possibly would have been pleased by the
strong odour emitted from hundreds of the goat
caterpillars which infect and destroy many of the
trees about here ; but to us the smell of Allium trique-
trum that haunted our vasculi was deemed preferable.
Gratefully accepting the invitation to visit the Manor
H ouse, we went over one of the ancient homes of
Jersey, — the ancestral seat of the Cartei'ets ; and had
we been archaeologists, we might have reported upon
the quaint oak carvings and mullioned gables ; but
being only botanists, we most enjoyed the view over
the island, down the well-wooded valley to the coast
of St. Ouen’s wide-stretching bay, and the pond,
dear to botanists, the ultima Thule of our journey :
while, above us, the grand old chimneys, covered with
white and pink snapdragons, and the thatch-roofed
outhouses, covered with such profusion of Cotyledon ,
surpassing any previously noticed, — not excepting
Pandy Mill, delight of artists, the rocky lanes of Car-
marthen, or the peat-topped walls of county Mayo.
Leaving St. Ouen’s we came upon a marshy piece of
ground, where Ly thrum hyssopifolium was plentifully
growing, though, of course, not in flower. Ranun-
culus hirsutus , Orchis latifolia , Bartsia viscosa, and
Hypericum elodes , also occurred. Nearing L’litac,
the roadsides were bordered with Siuapis incana, and
a wet meadow was adorned with the rich purple

Orchis laxijlora . Chenopodium murale occurred in
the village, Atriplex Halimus being used as a
hedge-plant.

St. Ouen’s Bay is about six miles long, and is bor-
dered with sandy tracts cultivated wherever possible,
in some cases potatoes being planted in the actual
sand, where Car ex arenaria and Festuca rubra are
agrarian weeds ; but the uncultivated portions shone
as a field of gold with Raphanus, Brassica , Cheiran-
thus , Sinapis incana , and other Cruciferse. The road-
sides yielded Lotus diffusus , Alihan vine ale, Silene
conica anglica, Trifolium striatian and subterraneum ,
with stems 18 in. high ; while, growing among the
silvery abundance of the long-awned Bromus maximus
and Festuca uniglumis, appeared Medicago minima
and Armeria plantaginea , with other sand-loving
plants.

On the hot toilsome walk across fields of small
dimensions enclosed by stone walls of rickety struc-
ture, specimens of Orchis laxiflora, Bartsia viscosa,
Cyperus longus, and CEnanthe crocata were noticed.
An exploration 'of the shingle was next attempted,
when a solitary specimen of Crambe, a very rare
Sarnian plant, was seen. Euphorbia Paralias was
frequent, and is occasionally frequented by the larvae
of Sphinx Euphorbii. Diotis maritima was not
plentiful, but Atriplex arenaria , Sal sola kali , and
cakile were very common. Standing by the shingle,
and looking over to the sand dunes, a beautiful sight
was presented by the great quantities of Matthiola
sinuata in magnificent bloom, growing with the
glaucous Eryngiwn and glaring golden Brassica.
By the second Martello tower a nice patch of Lagurus
ovatus occurred, and plenty of Orobanche amethystea,
while here and there might be seen bleached skeletons
of Mibora minima. Between the sea and the hills
appeared great patches of Centaurea aspera , the lower
flowers of which were only in bloom. On reaching
the hill slopes, a complete mass of beauties presented
themselves, so that the exclamations of admiration,
which had been popping off at no distant intervals
all day, now came by volleys ; and down we lay
among thousands of Dianthus prolifer , Linum angus-
tifolium, Orobanche ccerulea, Centaurea aspera , Cen-
taw'ea paniadata , and Scabiosa maritima. Next came
a descent to St. Ouen’s Pond, where, having seen
Cladium Alariscus, we came upon Scirpus Tabennz-
montana, followed by its rarer relative pungens, and
eventually maritimus and pauciflorus ; then came the
prettily-veined leaves of Potamogeton plantaginens
and the fugacious flowered Alisma ranunculoides ;
after which a long search was made for the leaves, —
it was too early for the flowers, — of Spiranthes cesti-
valis and Epipactis palustris. On the road to the
Corbie res, Keeler ia cristata , near albescens , Coryne-
phorus canescens , Radiola milligrana, Trifolium
arvense, Lepturus filiforme , Convolvulus Soldanclla,
Bromus Lloydianus , and Schlerochloa loliacea were
found, but Solanum miniatum searched for without

252

HARDWICKK S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

success. On the hill-slope below La Moye came a
tract of ground covered with Sarothamnus prostratus,
on which grew some fine Orobanche major. About
here Mr. Piquet had a week previously found Linaria
Pelisseriana in plenty, but as we had searched with-
out success a few days after, were not very sanguine
about adding it to our store ; but, however, we care-
fully searched among the Cnscuta- covered Ulex and
prickly Ruscus, and then, as these became less fre-
quent where the hill-side was purple with Echium
violaceum, and then higher still among myriads of
Sedum Anglicum , J uncus capitatus , Trichonema
column ce in fruit, Radiola milligrana , Helian-
themum guttatum surrounded with its quickly-
falling petals, Silene conica, Loins angustissimus ,

Aira prcecox, and Euphorbia Portlandica , but no
Linaria. Some Jersey cows were browsing
eagerly about the gorse clumps ; and as Mr.
Piquet said they are very fond of the Linaria , its
disappearance was at once laid to their charge.

As no ready means of revenge presented itself,
another search was made, this time rewarded with
Asparagus prostratus and Asplenium lanceolatum ,
and at last, with the real Simon pure in fruit.
Having mercy upon it, we selected only a scrap
or two, and, elated, set off at a fast rate for St.
Brelade’s, where suddenly we had to halt to avoid
the desecration of trampling upon a few hundreds
of Trifolium strictum growing some io in. high. De-
scending to St. Brelade’s, Silene nutans, Silene quinque -
vidnera, Sedum dasyphyllum , and Delphinium Ajacis
were picked. The road to St. Aubyn’s was bordered
with Silene nutans and Scrophularia Scarodonia ;
while, with vasculi, hats, books, and hands full of
specimens, we trudged along up the sandy road,
scarcely deigning to notice Polycarpon ietraphyllum,
Oxalis stricta , Epilobium lanceolatum , and Hie -
racitn pilosissimwn, reaching St. Aubyn’s in time for
the train to bear us round the beautiful bay to St.
Helier’s, where something more solidly sustaining
than cocoa had to be discussed previously to putting
in press our numerous and rich collection.

G. C. Druce.

AN AUTUMN RAMBLE IN
EPPING FOREST.

Part I.

rains, in great variety and abundance. Many clearances
have been made of late years in the neighbourhood
of Walthamstow and Wanstead ; consequently,
although there are still many unenclosed patches of
woodland thereabouts, of which the most consider-
able extends southwards of Wanstead, we can hardly
consider ourselves fairly within the precincts of the
forest proper until we have left Woodford behind us.
Traversing, then, one of these detached woods — that
which lies between this place and Walthamstow, — we

1 fii h n%

Fig. 206. a. Vertical section of an Agaric {Tricholoum nudus).

b. Ditto of lamellae of ditto showing the trama continuous
with the pileus.

Fig. 207. Filamentous Trama Fig. 208. Persistent Scales of
of an Agaricus {Amanita the Cuticle of A. \Lepio in)

rube sc cm,. ).

rachodes.

Fig. 209. Section of A ( Pleurotus ) Fig. 210. Decurrent lines
nlmarius. and ring on the stem of

By Dr. De Crespigny.

TO procure specimens of a late-flowering and
uncommon Chenopod ( C. urbicum) from a
locality on the borders of Epping Forest, we had
lately occasion to make an excursion in that direction,
when the opportunity was taken advantage of for a
ramble through the shaded dells and broken uplands
of the forest in search of fungi, which are always to
be found there on the setting in of the autumnal

turn down the Chingford road into the hollow below,
where a lane, right, leads into a copse bordered by
a rill and a narrow strip of pasturage ; beyond, left,
is the warren and farmhouse, well known to ex-
cursionists as Queen Elizabeth’s Lodge ; onwards, a
footpath to High Beech Hill. Forcing our way in
this direction, at one time with difficulty through
tangled and almost impenetrable thickets, at another
crossing some open grassy glade, or stretch of

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

253

pollard oak and hornbeam, where bramble and
blackthorn scrub gave place to an undergrowth of
bracken, and where progress was easier and less
irksome, we gathered as we went anything and every-
thing in the shape of fungus we could see, retaining,
however, only two or three specimens of each kind.
From the “King’s Oak,” near High Beech, the high
road to Epping traverses the very heart of the forest :

hence it is not far from an ancient intrenchment,
called “Amesbury Banks,” and whence we retraced
our steps through deme thickets and interminable
groves of lopped beech ».nd other trees, until we
reached the picturesque slope which rises behind
Loughton.

As anticipated, the heavy rains of August had
produced a more than usual abundant crop of fungi ;

Fig. 213. Bulbous Stem and
warted Cuticle of A. [Ama-
nita) Cecilice.

Fig. 211. Ring, Bulbous
Stem, and Volva of A .
(. A manita ) phalloides.

Fig. 212. Cuticle of
A. [Amanita') ru-
be scens, showing

the scattered mealy
warts of the cuticle.

Fig. 214. Section of
fistulose Stems of
A . [Hypholoma)

fascicularis.

ill

ft PI#

Fig. 2x5. Floc-
cose Trama of
a) Cortinarius.
( T richloma)
violaceus.

Umbonate and Fibrillose
Pileus of an Hebeloma.

Subumbonate Fibrillose
Pileus of a species of
Hebeloma.

Fig. 216. Mealy
subsquamulose
Pileus of Clitocybe
laccatus.

Fig. 219. Pileus clothed with innate
hairy scales of Pholiota aureus
(magnified).

trudging onwards, first on one side and then on the
other of this road, another central station is reached
— “The Wake Arms,” and where it is crossed by
the road from Waltham Cross to Theydon Bois ;

and on sitting down next day to examine and sort
the contents of our pockets, hat, and vasculum, we
felt fairly bewildered at the sight of the spoils, and
hurried multitudinous entries in our note-book.

To take them scientifically, and in proper order of
sequence, let us commence with the Agaricini ;
those with a gilled or plated hymenium : these, of
course, were the most numerous, and were easy to
separate from the rest. Referring to “ Berkeley’s
British Fungology,” we find that they are all included
in fifteen genera, of which some three or four are
rare, or have but few representatives in England ; on
the other hand, the Agarics proper are so numerous
as to comprise twenty-seven sub-genera, arranged in
five sections, according as the colour of the spores
is white, salmon-coloured, tawny or ferruginous,
purplish 01* brown, and black. The characteristics

254

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

of the genus are_ persistent membranous gills and a I
filamentous trama continuous with the pileus ; but
those of the sub-genera ar^ very miscellaneous and
confused : differences in the character of the velum
or veil, whether preseat or present only in the form of
an annulus, or wanting entirely in any shape ; con-
fluence or otherwise of the hymenophorum with the
stem ; decunence or other peculiarity of the lamellae ;
peculiarities of the stem, of the pileus, of its margin ;
presence of a volva or absence thereof. In one sub-
genus there is no stem — Pleurotus. Of this we gathered
a specimen from the dead trunk of a tree : the gills
are narrow, and margin of the pileus remarkably in-
curved. Illustrative of the scaly-cuticled sub-genus
Lepiota we found a few specimens of L. rachoidcs
growing singly in a hedge ; besides this peculiarity, it
has a stem furnished with an annulus, and is alto-
gether a pretty little plant. Not unfrequently A.
(Amanita) rtibescens was met with, rather a hand-
some fungus with a brownish warty cuticle and white
gills, bulbous and ringed stem : the rubescent cha-
racter is not very decided, sufficiently so, perhaps, to
warrant the use of the term ; the bulb and stem when
broken exhibited this characteristic more clearly than
the pileus : edible.

Less frequent was another, — not edible as this, but
very poisonous species, A. ( Amanita ) phalloides , with
stem strongly ringed, and a bulb furnished with a
volva free above ; white, except the upper part of the
pileus, which has a yellowish tinge. A ringless but
bulbous fistulose-stemmed Amanita we found in A.
Cecilia:, also furnished with a volva, and with a pileus
more persistently waited than that of A. rubescens.
It is a much smaller species, and the brownish colour
of the pileus is of a colder shade, greyish or mouse-
coloured. A. ( Tricholoma ) nudus we observed only
in one place, a handsome, but probably very dan-
gerous mushroom : there was one small patch of it,
three or four growing closely together (fig. 206).
Pileus obtuse, moist, pale violet shaded with brown ;
gills and short, thick bulbous stem of a beautiful
violet throughout. The warted scarlet pileus of A.
nmscarius we looked for in vain, — one of the hand-
somest, at the same time one of the most poisonous of
its tribe. ( Tricholoma') A. per sonatas is more frequent,
but grows singly, here and there, in open grassy
places : the pileus is convex, obtuse even, moist and
of a pale ochre-colour ; gills dirty white, stem ring-
less, firm, and covered with a stain of pale violet.
On the stumps of decayed or felled trees was the
well-known A. ( Hypholoma ) fascicnlaris , with its
dull rufous-coloured pileus, passing into yellow at the
borders, yellow fistulous stems, and greenish-grey
gills : and in many parts of the forest growing in
patches, often of a circular form, H. sublatcritius,
much like the preceding species.

Examples of a section of Agarics (among our
specimens), characterized as having pilei clothed with
fibrillose scales, usually umbonate (a), or sub-

umbonate (b), and fibrillose stems, we have in two
kinds of Hebeloma ; the colour of the cuticle in a is
golden brown : and in A. ( Clitoeybe ) laccatus we have
a pileus the very reverse of umbonate, viz., the umbi-.
licate form : it grows on dead leaves abundantly in
the forest ; colour variable, from flesh-coloured to
cinereous grey and pale cobalt. Clitoeybe candicans
is also plentiful. On the margin of a pond, not far
from the “ Wake Arms,” we obtained several fine
specimens of A. ( Pholiota ) aureus , a mushroom re-
markable for its pileus brilliantly coloured of a golden
tawny hue, and, examined with a lens, sprinkled with
closely adpressed or innate hairy scales of an orange
colour, which impart no doubt a brilliancy to the
plant in its living state, but which fades away when
no longer fresh.

Last, and not by any means least of the Agarics,
is a tall species of Collybia (C. radicatus), plentiful in
the wood behind Loughton. It is furnished with a
long tap-root, the stems at least six inches long,
slender, and tapering upwards ; pileus of a greyish
brown, smooth, moist, plane, and umbonate.

(To be continued.)

A GOSSIP ABOUT NEW BOOKS.

ON nothing does a “war fever ’’leave its mark
more impressively than scientific literature.
The tide of true progress is then stemmed, if not
rolled back. The literary history of the last two
years proves how few important works of science
have issued from the press. And yet that period has
been marked by scientific discoveries of the most
important and even sensational character. It is the
epoch of the Telephone, the Microphone, and Phono-
graph ; of the Radiometer, Otheoscope, and other
instruments, which revealed to us the molecular mys-
teries of matter.

It is with much pleasure that we turn to a short
notice of a few books which have for the last month
or two been accumulating on our library table. The
short space at our disposal does not enable us to do
that justice to some of them which they require.
“Tropical Nature,” by Alfred R. Wallace (London :
McMillan & Co.), deserves a leading place in any
notice of new books. The volume consists of a series
of essays, chiefly relating to animal and plant life in
equatorial regions, speculations as to the colours of
birds and animals, flowers and fruits, and how they
have arisen through the process of natural selection.
All are written in that delightsome manner which
characterizes Mr. Wallace’s other books. The chapter
on humming-birds is one of the most charming ever
penned by its original writer. That on the distribution
of animals as indicating geographical changes is a re-
markably clear piece of philosophical generalization.
By this time most readers of natural history will have
read “ Tropical Nature,” and our advice to those who
have not yet had the opportunity is that they should

HA RD WICKE’S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIP.

255

read it as soon as possible. “ West Yorkshire ; an

Account of its Geology, Physical Geography, Clima-
tology, and Botany,” by Messrs. James W. Davies
and F. Arnold Lees (London : L. Reeve & Co.). This
book contains much valuable work. Few counties
are more interesting geologically than Yorkshire, and
many books and papers have been written upon it.
All of these have here been duly arranged chrono-
logically, and the authors always refer to such of their
literary pi'edecessors as have furnished them with
material. The geological portion is written by Mr.
James W. Davies, the hon. sec. of the Yorkshire
Geological Society, and all geologists will acknow-
ledge that he has done his work conscientiously and
well. The second part, devoted to physical geo-
graphy and botanical topography, is the joint work
of Messrs. Davies and Lees. The arrangement of
the material is most excellent, and so clear and sug-
gestive that the reader is enlightened instead of being
perplexed by its abundance. Numerous maps and
engraved sections assist the text, and these are of
excellent execution. The geological structure of York-
shire is treated of in detail, from the Lower Silurian
beds to the Glacial series. The physical geography
and topographical botany then follow in order, and
one sees almost at a glance the relation between plant
distribution and the physical geography of the valleys
in which they occur, or the geological structure of the
underlying rocks. A handsomely got-up volume of
upwards of 400 pages thus represents a most creditable
scientific industry on the part of the authors.

The new term of Physiography (as Physical Geo-
graphy is now called) has called forth a series of
“ manuals” devoted to its exposition. How import-
ant is even an outline knowledge of nature has been
shown by the success of Huxley’s little book on this
subject. There is always the danger of causing
shallow-minded students to imagine they have nothing
more to learn when they have acquired a well-defined
idea of natural phenomena as a whole ; and on that
account we object to “ physiography.” But if books
have to be written on this subject, they may as well
be in good hands ; and we are therefore pleased to
notice “The Physical System of the Universe,” by
S. J. Skertchley, F.G. S. (London: Daldy, Isbister,
& Co.), which is intended as a manual of physio-
graphy. It is a book, however, which will delight
those who do not intend “going in for examination ”
more than those who do, for it is a well- written and
very clear outline of the universe as a whole, and of
the unity of natural forces. We know of few recent
books which comprehend so much in so limited a
space. All the recent discoveries in physical, natural,
and geological science are included in Mr. Skertchley’s
book. It is a work which we hope will be read with the
same pleasure that we have ourselves derived from it.

“A Science Primer,” by the Rev. Dr. Macvicar
(London : W. Blackwood & Sons), although a

small book in comparison with those above men-

tioned, is a remarkable one in many respects. If
professes to deal with “the nature of things.” Its
author is a man possessed of great ability, extensive
reading, and a brilliant power of speculating. There
are many subjects briefly discussed, especially those
relating to molecular physics, which strongly impress
us by the undoubted ability and originality of view
with which they have been treated. Our readers will
not always agree with the author, but few will come
away from this suggestive little book unimpressed
with new ideas.

“ The History of Glanville’s Wootton,” by C. W.
Dale (London : Hatchard, Piccadilly), is a detailed
account of the archaeology, zoology, and botany
of a district in Dorset, after the manner of White’s
“ Selborne,” only arranged in chapters, instead of
being given to the world in the form of letters. The
book is very well got up, with capital paper and in
clear type, and the few photographs which illustrate
it are excellent. As for the rest, the work consists of
lists of animals, vertebrate and invertebrate, and of
plants, phanerogamous and cryptogamous, which have
been found in the district of Glanville’s Wootton.
Mr. Dale has devoted much time and careful labour
to his task, and as a consequence has given a very
valuable little monograph to the world.

“ A Handbook for England and Wales ” (London :
John Murray), which should give, alphabetically ar-
ranged, a short and trustworthy account of every town,
village, and place of importance, with all relating
to them of archaeological, geological, botanical, or
geographical interest, was a happy idea. A handier
book of reference could hardly have been prepared
than has been now compiled. All depended, how-
ever, upon the author and his ability to select just
such material as would be valuable to the traveller,
tourist, or student. We are happy to say that this
has been done in the present work, and that, having
tested, from personal knowledge of numerous places
referred to, the pains taken by the author to insure
accuracy, we believe it to be one of the best books of
its kind which the well-known publishers have issued.

“Holmes’s Botanical Note Book,” by E. M.
Holmes, F.L.S. (London : Christy & Co.), may be
utilized by the student as a means of acquiring a
practical knowledge of botany. It contains diagrams
showing the parts of flowering plants, directions for
examining plants, the microscopical examination of
plants, directions for describing plants in schedules,
and a glossary. The schedules, however, form the
principal part of the work, and these may be obtained
separately of the publishers. The printed head-lines
oblige the student to note down every feature of a
1 plant, and in this way he will soon learn to look out
for particulars which are too frequently shunned,
because deemed troublesome to detail. We are
much pleased with Mr. Holmes’s note-book, and
heartily recommend it to students.

“A First Catechism of Botany,” by John Gibbs

256

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

(London: Simpkin, Marshall. & Co.). This is
a new and enlarged edition of a very noteworthy
little book, written by a botanist who is a fre-
quent contributor to our pages. We have before
expressed our liking for the book, and are glad to
see it revised and enlarged. All young botanists

would do well to get it. “ The Creation of Moses

and Science in Harmony,” by Dr. Alex. Stewart
(London : Elliot Stock), is another of those laboured
productions in which so much intellectual force is
thrown away in attempting to harmonize what have
never been disturbed, except by men themselves.
They frequently consist of bad geology and weakened
theology, and are usually unsatisfactory. Correct
science needs no harmonizing : incorrect science soon
gets corrected. Meantime the great truths which
theology has in its keeping have a sphere entirely
apart from scientific investigation. As might be
expected, the greater part of the book under notice
is devoted to demolishing the theory of evolution.
Would that such writers were wise in time! No
“ reconciliations ” would then be needed.

To turn from these unsatisfactory subjects to note
the appearance of the ninth edition of Proctor’s
“Half-Hours with the Stars ” (London : Hardwicke
& Bogue), is a pleasant change. The twelve plates
of the maps are new, and in bolder execution, so
that the astronomical student is considerably aided
thereby. It augurs well for the spread of astro-
nomical science when books of this class are so well
received and largely circulated.

A capital little book on human physiology, simply
but attractively written, is Mrs. F. Fenwick Miller’s
“House of Life” (London: Chatto & Windus).

It is a work which should be in every family library,
not to lie idly on the shelves but to be read by every

member. “The Sight, and how to Preserve it,” by

Dr. H. C. Angell (London : Hardwicke & Bogue),
is another work of a similar kind, bringing within
intelligent knowledge those parts of our own frames
about which we have hitherto been in such culpable
ignorance. Perhaps no sense is so much valued by
us as that of sight, and there is scarcely any other so
abused. Take one hundred people whom nobody
would call other than educated , and let them answer a
few questions as to the structure of the eye and the
nature of vision, and perhaps not five would pass the
examination entitled to an elementary certificate !
This ought not to be ; and it is pleasant to see the
leading medical specialists devoting what little spare
time they have to popularly instructing the masses in
the subjects to which the former have devoted long and
useful lives. Nothing could be more understandable,
more practical, or more useful, than Dr. Angell’s re-
marks on “ The Sight and how to Preserve it,” and
everybody with eyes ought to read them.

“Nutrition in Health and Disease,” by J. H.
Bennet, M. D. (London, J. & A. Churchill).
This is the third edition of a valuable work, J

chiefly written for public rather than special
readers, but which the latter cannot fail to estimate
very highly. The title is a very happy one, and
rightly expresses the character of the work. Its
aim is the same as that of the two little works just
mentioned, — the endeavour to make people acquainted
with their own bodies, and what is taking place in
them every hour of the day under the name of

“nutrition.” “Phosphates in Nutrition,” by M.

F. Anderson (London : Bailliere, Tindall, & Cox), is a
work of a similar important nature. Its endeavour is
to show the importance of certain inorganic materials
in the food, and their functions in the tissues. In
this way the author’s views lead him to some novel
explanations of the causes of certain diseases hitherto
but little understood. The chapter on the “Mineral
Theory of Wasting Diseases ” is especially noteworthy.

“ English Folk-Lore,” by the Rev. T. T. Dyer,
M. A. (London : Hardwicke & Bogue), cannot

fail to be a popular and widely-read book. “ Folk-
Lore,” or the wisdom of the common people, as
expressed in their proverbial and other sayings, has
of late years been a fruitful study. All of us are
acquainted with some of these sayings, and their
quaint utterance frequently carries us back to the days
of our childhood. There are scarcely any natural
phenomena which have not been thus noticed ; whilst
the pages of our best poets frequently sparkle with the
richest and quaintest of these gems of folk-lore.
Mr. Dyer’s book is a very attractive-looking volume,
both outside and inside, for it has been given to the
world in a handsome cover and good paper and
print, — the very auxiliaries to make such a work
successful. The author is very happy in his style,
for it is light and airy without being flippant. Evi-
dently he is interested to his subject, as he sometimes
rises almost to enthusiasm. We have chapters on
the folk-lore of plants, birds, animals, insects, and
reptiles ; the moon (a fruitful source of old-world
sayings) ; besides half a volume relating to birth,
death, marriage, &c.

MICROSCOPY,

The Congress of Microscopists, held at
Indianapolis, Ind., August 14th, 15th, 1 6th, and
17th, was a great success as regards numbers pre-
sent and results arrived at. Delegates were in
attendance from all parts of the Union, sixteen
societies being represented by delegates. Many
papers of value to the working microscopist were
read. Amateurs had ample opportunity to profit by
the work of older workers. Results were compared,
and many delightful acquaintances formed. Dr. R. H.
Ward, of Troy, N. Y., was elected President, and Mr.
H. F. Atwood, of Chicago, Secretary. One evening
was devoted to a “conversazione,” at which the
public attended, and were duly pleased with the
| popular slides which were chosen for their entertain-

I

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

257 ,

ment. Perhaps the most enjoyable part of the meet-
ing were the “seances,” held each evening in the
various rooms in the hotel. No such gathering of
microscopists could come together and not bring
about a discussion on “Angular Aperture”; high
and low angles were both well represented, the former
by such well-known authorities as Prof. J. Edwards
Smith and Dr. Geo. E. Blackham, while Prof.
Romyn Hitchcock, of New York, supported the
latter. While the question will remain an open one
for long time yet to come, it is but fair to say that
many gentlemen who had always used low-angled
lenses prior to the meeting, went away essentially
high-angled men. Several of the American dealers
made fine displays of microscopes and objectives.
Of the English manufacturers, Beck & Crouch were
fully represented through their respective American
agents. Before the congress adjourned, the “Ame-
rican Society of Microscopists ” was formed, Pres.,
Dr. R. H. Ward, Troy, N.Y. ; Sec., Henry
Jameson, Indianapolis, Ind. ; Treas., H. F. Atwood,
Chicago, 111. The next meeting of the new society
is to be held in August, 1879, at Buffalo, N.Y., and
from its auspicious beginning, and the enthusiasm
manifested by its members, it is fair to predict that
the future meetings will be of more than ordinary
interest.

Microscopical Society of Liverpool. — The
seventh ordinary meeting of this society was held at
the Royal Institution, on Friday, the nth October.
After the ordinary preliminary business, a paper was
read on “The Life History of a hitherto Unrecorded
Septic Organism”; with drawings from life; illus-
trated by means of the Oxy-hydrogen Lantern, by
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.B.M.S. At the conclu-
sion of the meeting a conversazione was held, when
the following subjects were illustrated : — “Algoe,
Marine,” T. C. Ryley ; “Carchesium Polypinum,”
natural state, mounted, Isaac C. Thompson; “Dia-
toms,” Charles Symes, Ph. D. ; “ Durio Zibetha-
rinus, — decolorized leaf of from Borneo,” polari-
scope, the President; “ Oscillatoria,” mounted slides
and alive, the President ; “Polyxenes lagurus,” Rev.
W. H. Dallinger, F.R.M.S. ; “Pond Life,” George
Thomas; “ Section of Wigan Coal,” John II. Day ;

“ Spores of Fungi,” Rev. W. Bannister.

A Remarkable Photograph. — The “American
Journal of Microscopy” for August, 1878, describes
a marvel of photographic manipulation in the form
of a micro-photo of the Lord’s Prayer. Our readers
are well acquainted with the ordinary micro-photo-
graphs of engravings, &c., and for which a power of
30 diameters is usually the extreme limit of amplifi-
cation which can be used effectively, the higher
powers destroying the sharpness of the outline. The
above-mentioned photo is only of an inch square,
or Towu of a square inch (one of the squares in
Maltwood’s finder would contain it four times), and

will bear inspection with £ objective and B ocular-
These slides are the production of Mr. Langenheim
(of New York ?).

ZOOLOGY.

Marine Dredging. — I have collected for years
on the Lancashire and North Welch coasts, and I
thought I should like to try a fresh locality. Know-
ing the ruggedness of the coast scenery of the Isle of
Man, I proposed making that place the theatre of
my operations, and I can certainly say I never saw
happier hunting-grounds for the naturalist. Ane-
mones by thousands, Algae, Red, Brown, and Green,
in wonderful profusion ; in fact, almost every depart-
ment of Marine Zoology is well represented. I was
enchanted, and determined that next year, if spared,
I should devote a week or so to collecting. A friend
of mine who brought some anemones back with him,
sent for me to name them for him. Among a lot of
Actinia mesembryanthcmum , Tealia crassicornis ,
Anthea corns, &c., I found one I had not previously
seen, but which I had no difficulty in recognizing as
Bunodes gemmacea (the Gem Pimplet of Gosse). It
is a charming animal, well worthy of its name. It is
still alive and healthy, having had two feeds of
mussel. The only locality Gosse gives for this
anemone is “the south-western and southern shores
of England and Ireland, on exposed rocks and shallow
pools between tide-marks.” If this locality is new, I
gladly record it for the benefit of brother naturalists.
It is not uncommon even in Douglas Bay. In answer
to “ C. E. R.,” I may say this anemone requires no
peculiar treatment. It is easy to keep alive if the
aquarium is in good condition ; also, the best method
of feeding baby anemones is to let them feed them-
selves, and they’ll not starve. In fact, none of the
animals in a large tank I had were fed for twelve
months, and I can aver that there were no deaths,
and the whole affair required less looking after. I am
much obliged to “ H. C. C. M.” for description and
figure of Tangle -dredge. I have no doubt it will be
a very useful instrument to the marine zoologist. I
was very sorry to hear of his want of success, but can
readily divine the cause. Since the establishment of
public aquaria there has sprung up at various parts of
the coast quite an army of collectors. The locality
he mentions is very familiar to me, having collected
on its shores and dredged in its deep waters many
times. The channel in the straits (north entrance) is
very narrow, and runs close to the Anglesea shore,
but my boatman took me to dredge on the low banks
of mud, which I knew were exposed every tide, and
it was only on showing him I knew better that I got
my dredge down on prolific ground. I have tried
many times to procure a “Ball’s Naturalists’ Dredge,”
but have as yet been unsuccessful ; none of the
London fishing-tackle-makers know anything about

HARD WI CHE’S SCIENCE ■ G OSSIP

258

it. Could you or any of your numerous readers tell
me where I could get it ? — J. E. Lord, Rawtenstall .

A Seal in a Trap. — A seal has recently been
engaged in exploring the interior of Suffolk. It
ventured up a dyke near Leiston, in Suffolk, and was
shot whilst lying there. As one might have expected,
it was a young animal, weighing just thirty pounds,
and measuring forty-one inches in absolute length.

Living Beetles as Female Ornaments. —
We hope the attempts to introduce living exotic beetles
as female ornaments will fail, if only in the interest of
the animals themselves. We read in a fashionable
newspaper of one which has been adorning a lady’s
shoulders for six weeks, and subsisting for that period
without food ! The lady did not know (and probably
did not care) how long it had been without food
before she had it ; and as it came from central America,
it may have been some time. Are we so hard up for
ornaments that we must resort to these aboriginal
customs ? They are understandable in the case of
those African beauties who are obliged to dispense
with any other dress, but we have not quite retro-
graded to that condition.

“ Science Made Easy.” — Under this title Mr.
Thomas Twining has issued a series of six familiar lec-
tures on all kinds of scientific subjects, but chiefly those
bearing on economic industries. They are issued
in shilling parts by Hardwicke & Bogue, 192, Picca-
dilly. The type is large, and pleasant to the reader’s
eyes ; the illustrations of the very best and most
effective kind. Science teachers and others interested
in the spread of scientific education will find these
“ Lectures ” invaluable. We should like to see them
used in every Board School in the kingdom, and we
would strongly advise such of our readers as are con-
nected with those institutions, either as managers or
committee, at once to obtain copies of these lectures,
and endeavour by their means to lay that foundation
of scientific instruction which to England, more than
any other country, is absolutely indispensable.

Popular Science. — The Popular Science Reviav
for October contains articles on “The Sand and
Brittle Stars,” by Professor Martin Duncan ; “ Coal
and Colliery Accidents,” by Mr. C. De Ranee,
F.G. S. ; “ The Radiolaria as an order of Protozoans,”
by Dr. Wallich ; “The Eucalyptus globulus,” by
M. Betham Edwards; and on “The Extinct British
Wolf,” by J. E. Harting, F.Z.S.

Rare Birds. — From various paragraphs in last
month’s Zoologist we gather that the Hoopoe has been
unusually abundant this year on the south and south-
western coasts. Observers mention it as being seen
at Chichester, in the Isle of Wight, and near the
Land’s End. It has also been seen near Gloucester.
As one might expect, in most places the beautiful
stranger was shot! Perhaps in time natural selection
will endow rare birds with more sense than to approach
the English coasts.

Provincial Natural History.— We have re-
ceived a copy of Part 4, vol. ii., of the “ Transactions
of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society,”
containing a most able address by the President, Mr.
F. W. Harmer, F.G.S., which deals chiefly with the
difficulties of the Darwinian theory, and is a capital
defence of it against some recent attacks. It also
contains papers on the Norwich crag, by Mr. Harmer ;
a list of plants found near Cromer, by Professor
Babington ; letters relating to the Natural History of
Norfolk, by Mrs. R. Lubbock and Professor A.
Newton ; on William Arderon, an old Norwich
Naturalist, by F. Kitton ; notes on Norfolk Mam-
malia, by F. Norgate ; Meteorological Notes, by
John Quinton, jun. ; Ornithological Notes, by H.
Stevenson ; and Heteroptera and Homoptera of
Norfolk, by J. Edwards. The “ Report of Proceed-
ings” of the Norwich “ Science Gossip Club ” has
also been forwarded to us, containing an abstract of
all the papers read last winter, embracing a variety
of scientific subjects, all ably and intelligently
treated, together with the Address of the President,
Mr. S. C. Sothern. This is a very popular society,
and one which those young naturalists would do well
to correspond with who wish to found an unpretending
science club. Part 10 of vol. i. of the “ Transactions
of the Watford Natural History Society ” is also to
hand, containing index, list of members, &c.

The Kingfisher in London. — On Monday,
30th September, when crossing Westminster Bridge,
I was surprised to see a kingfisher fly across the
Thames from the Houses of Parliament towards St.
Thomas’s Hospital, and then cross the bridge and
fly down the river. It seemed at a loss to know
where to settle. I see by the Standard it has been
noticed lately in the Serpentine. — J. Z. Hawkins.

The Bottle-head Whale. — On the 31st August
I wrote a letter to the editor of Chambers's Journal
respecting the capture of a cetacean. It happened
on the 22nd ult. near Nice. He advised me to for-
ward to you the drawing and description of the
same. As to external appearance, this cetacean had
a great likeness to the Bottle-head, of which a de-
scription is given in Chambers’s “ Encyclopedia,”
except that the surface of the body was all over
covered with narrow irregular white stripes ; but
when I went on the spot (three days after the capture)
they had almost disappeared. A more remarkable
difference between the two specimens lies in the skull,
as you can judge from the adjoining drawing. Would
not this induce us to establish a new species of Hyper -
obdon , contrary to the general opinion that there
exists one species only ? The total length of this
cetacean was 570 metres. It was driven ashore
alive, and was condemned to total destruction had I
not interfered. The skeleton has been so preserved
and brought to Nice. A similar, but not quite
identical specimen, was caught many years ago on.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

259

our coast, and described by our naturalist Risso.
There were stripes on the body, as in the present one,
hut the forehead was even more flat, and the dorsal
fin trapezoidal instead of triangular ; so, at any rate,
it was represented by a drawing. No description
was given of the skeleton. — Hippolyte de Picrlas , Nice.

BOTANY,

Alpine Flowers. — Hermann Muller writes to
Nature to say that in the Alps he has found some
instances of different forms of flowers in plants of
the same species, which, as far as he knows, have
been hitherto undescribed ; of which he gives a short
notice as follows : — Geranium sylvaticum is in one
locality near the Albula Pass gynodioecious, with
large-flowered hermaphrodite, and small-flowered
female stems. Veratrum album , Dry as octopetala ,
mid Geum reptans are in all the localities where he
has examined them androdioecious.’ Astrantia minor
offers a quite peculiar sort of androdioecium, some
stems bearing, as in other Umbelliferce , in the same
umbel hermaphrodite flowers and male ones, other
stems producing solely male flowers. Dianthus
superbus seems at first sight to exist in three forms :
(1) Stems with hermaphrodite flowers, being per-
fectly proterandrous and producing a moderate quan-
tity of whitish pollen ; (2) stems with female flowers
containing very conspicuous rudiments of stamens,
but pollenless anthers ; (3) stems with pistils remain-
ing imperfectly developed, and with anthers con-
taining abundance of a brown powder. At first
sight H. Muller thought their flowers to be male, and
the brown powder to be pollen- grains ; but under
the microscope the latter proved to consist of grains,
the diameter of which is only about one-eighth of
that of the pollen-grains of the hermaphrodite flowers.
He supposes, therefore, these grains to be the spores
•of some species of fungus, and Dianthus superbus
to be gynodioecious.

Vegetable Teratology. — The state of Plantago
■lanceolata in which the spike is replaced, surrounded
or surmounted by a tuft of leaves, appears to be very
plentiful this season, as I gathered no less than
thirteen such specimens, all growing in different
places, when taking a walk on August 16th. In
several of these the spike is surmounted by from two
to five leaves, while in others a second spike springs
from the centre of the leafy tuft. In one specimen
Ihe rosette of leaves surmounting the stem is pretty
large, and ten spikes spring from its base, their stems
varying from half an inch to four inches in length,
and the whole forming a sort of irregular umbel.
The dry summer, succeeded by showers at the end of
July and beginning of August, has probably some-
thing to do with the unusual abundance of these
-curious aberrations. — D. Douglas , Leith.

Beeches and Hollies ; Oaks and Haw-
thorns.— A friend of mine tells me that about the
middle of September he was in the New Forest,
where he noticed that beneath the large beech-trees
there was an abundant under-growth of hollies, but
no hawthorns, whereas under the oaks there was an
abundant growth of hawthorns, but no hollies. I
should be glad to have an explanation of this. — R. //.
Alcoch.

“ Flowerless Plants.” — Under this title Dr.
Franklin Parsons has contributed two most readable
articles in the recent numbers of The Naturalist ,
which, as our readers are aware, is the journal of the
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, and their general field
club record. Some time ago we heard a whisper
that The Naturalist would have to be discontinued
for lack of support. We sincerely hope our York-
shire friends will not allow such a stigma to fall on
their hearty and generous county.

Vegetable Moth-trap. — Mr. W. Simpson, of
Dartmouth, has described a large plant of Physianthus
albicans , belonging to the Asclepiadce , which flowers
there in the autumn very profusely. He says it is
one of the most deadly moth-traps he knows. Many
days running he found from two to eight Humming-
bird Hawk-moths caught by their probosces in the
flowers, where they died in about two minutes.
Other insects were also found dead in the flowers.
The plant is of trailing habits, and easily trained
over porches. Have any of our correspondents
noticed its insecticide habits ?

European Fungi. — All botanists will be rejoiced
to hear that Dr. M. C. Cooke, A.L.S., and Mons.
L. Quelet, M.D., have written conjointly a work,
entitled “ Clavis Synoptica Hymenomycetum Euro-
pueum,” which has been just published as a handsome
little volume by Messrs. Hardwicke & Bogue at 7s. 6d.
In this book every species of fungus heretofore found
in Europe is described in brief but excellent and
easily understandable Latin ; so that it is a work
Which thus requests a world-wide circulation. The
high reputation of its authors as fungologists must
make the present work a hand-book to all botanists.

Double Flowers. — A few days ago we examined
the flowers of the common Petunia, and found the
stamens had developed into petals. Each so-formed
petal was distinct, so that the internal structure was
thus polypetalous. We have noticed that whenever
the stamens are thus modified in gamopetalous flowers,
the newly-formed petals do not cohere. Does not
this indicate that polypetalous corollas must have
preceded the gamopetalous in the order of floral
evolution ?

“The Herefordshire Pomona.” — Under this
title the first part, price 15s., has just been issued by
Messrs. Hardwicke & Bogue, of a most magnificent
work, containing coloured figures and descriptions of
the most esteemed kinds of apples and pears.

26o

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -GOSSIP.

coloured plates are of the very highest degree of
excellence, and it is long since we have seen illustra-
tions of natural-history books so artistically executed.
There can be no doubt that this artistic superiority
will of itself give this much-needed work an extensive
circulation. It is edited by Dr. Robert Hogg, F.L.S.,
and is chaperoned, we believe, by the well-known
and energetic Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club.
The letter-press contains outline woodcuts of every
variety of apple aud pear in cultivation, besides other
engravings of high merit.

Fig. 220. Median prolification in Common Daisy.

Monstrosity in the Daisy. — The above is an
illustration of median prolification occurring in a
specimen of the common Daisy [Beilis per ennis) found
at Cobham. It occurs frequently in gamosepalous
and gamopetalous flowers, when it is known under
the term of “hose in hose,” but we have never seen
it before in a composite flower.

GEOLOGY.

The late Mr. Thomas Belt, F.G.S. — It is
with much regret that we have to announce the death
of Mr. Thomas Belt, F.G.S., one of the most dis-
tinguished of the younger school of naturalists, who
died after a short illness, of rheumatic fever, at
Denver, United States, in the 46th year of his age.
He was a frequent and valued contributor to our
columns, and only a few weeks ago sent us the
account of his discovery of a human skull at Denver,
under circumstances indicating high antiquity. He
was the author of several works on natural history,
the best known of which is the “Naturalist in
Nicaragua.”

What are Conodonts? — At a recent meeting
of the Natural History Society of Glasgow, Mr. John
Young, F.G.S., read some notes on a group of fossil
organisms termed Conodonts, which have recently
been discovered in the Carboniferous limestones of the

Ayrshire coal-field by Mr. John Smith, of the Eglintoi*
Ironworks, Kilwinning. These organisms are minute,
slender, conical, tooth-like bodies of varying forms,
of a brownish colour, and having a glistening or
enamelled appearance; few of them exceed an eighth
of an inch in length, many of them being much
smaller ; they are mostly of a comb-like form, being
serrated along one of the sides with a row of teeth,
often of unequal length and stoutness. Conodonts
were first brought under the notice of geologists by
Dr. Pander in 1856, in a work descriptive of the
fossil fishes of the Silurian formation in Russia, in
which country they are found ranging in strata from
the Upper Cambrian to the Carboniferous deposits.
In America they have also been discovered in the
Devonian and Carboniferous formations ; Professor
Newberry having figured and described a number of
Carboniferous forms in his work on the palteontology
of Ohio. But until this discovery of Mr. Smith’s, no
remains of Conodonts seem to have been noticed in the
strata of the several formations in Britain. Mr. Young
stated that he had recently the opportunity of sub-
mitting Mr. Smith’s specimens to a Canadian palae-
ontologist, Mr. Jennings Hinde, while on a visit to
this country, and he stated that they were closely
related to the American forms, especially to those
described by Prof. Newberry. Although Conodonts
have now been known to palaeontologists for more
than twenty years, great doubts still exist as to what
group of animals these curious teeth-like organisms
belong. Dr. Pander, their first discoverer, thought
they were the teeth of a group of cyclostomatous
fishes allied to the present lampreys. Professor Owen
doubts their fish affinities very much, and says some
of them may be the dentated claws of small Crustacea ;
others may be the teeth booklets or denticle; of naked
mollusca or annelides. Professor Newberry thinks
Dr. Pander is right in referring them to fishes ; if so,
fish-life will have to be carried forward to a much
earlier period in the history of our globe (namely, the
Cambrian), no undoubted fish-remains being at present
recorded from strata older than the Upper Silurian.
These Conodonts are found in both the upper and
lower limestones of the Ayrshire coalfields ; upwards
of thirty forms have already been discovered, and it
is probable the number may be increased by further
researches in the deposits. Along with the Cono-
donts, Mr. Smith has also found a new group of fossil
sponges, different from those of Hyalonema , which
he discovered last year in the Lower Limestone series
at Cunningham Bedland, near Dairy. The silicious
spicules of this new group of sponges from the Upper
Limestone are of various types, and Mr. \ oung stated
that at present the forms were being examined by
Professor Young and himself, and they intended
bringing them up at a future meeting. The same
deposit also contains an interesting group of small
forms of mollusca, in a fine state of preservation, many
of the univalve or spiral shells, having their mouths

HARD WICKES SCIENCE - G OSSIE.

261

quite entire, and several of them being of species not
formerly recorded from the Carboniferous strata of
the West of Scotland.

Perpendicular Holes in Rocks. — In a sec-
tion of what is, I believe, inferior oolite, underlying
sand at Manton Warren, near Kirton-in-Lindsey,
Lincolnshire, there are exposed to view perpendicular
Loles of some ten inches in diameter, passing through
the successive layers of stones, and through the stones
themselves, as if bored. A depth of 5 ft* is exposed
to view, but how much deeper they go I do not know.

I observed three within a few feet of each other.
The diameter does not appear to decrease with the
depth. Will any one state the probable origin?
Are they “pot-holes”? The stone obtained has been
broken up for roads. The warren is elevated above
the surrounding country. — J . N. D., Tuxford.

A New Eocene Mammal. — A new genus of
pachydermatous mammals, nearly allied in its denti-
tion to Paleeotherinm , has been recently found in the
Lower Eocene beds of Transylvania. The fearful
generic name of B rachydiasteinatheriuni has been
given to this extinct creature.

A New Oolitic Pterodactyle. — Hitherto
no Pterodactyle remains have been found in America
of older date than the Cretaceous period. News
comes to us, however, of a species of Pterodactyle
which has just been found in the Oolitic rocks of
Wyoming, whose outspread wings must have been
five feet from tip to tip. It has been named P. mon-
iamts.

Geology of the American Lake Region.—
Mr. George Maw, F.G.S., writes as follows on this
subject : — “ We must set aside the view that the
chain of large lochs is due to glacial excavation ; for
Ontario, the deepest of the lakes, running east and
west, is in lower latitude than Huron, the bottom of
which is 510 feet above that of Ontario ; and there is
no high ground about Ontario from which ice could
have originated as a preponderating mass, capable of
excavating Ontario 600 feet deep ; nor is there any mass
of debris anywhere to be seen about the lake as would
represent such an excavation.”

NOTES AND QUERIES,

Water-Boatman. — Your readers, who are no
doubt familiar with the very savage instinct of this
insect, may be interested to learn my experience of
him. He really appears to be quite shark-like in his
nature. A few weeks since, whilst staying with some
friends in Cambridgeshire, to amuse the children I
collected from several ditches various Sticklebacks,
Whirligigs, Newts, a Frog, &c., and three Water-
Boatmen. These I thought might possibly make a
nice little “happy family”; but my hopes were
doomed, as the boatmen soon proved themselves to
be most formidable. They> attacked each of the

animals before-mentioned except the Whirligigs, whose
movements were too quick for them. After killing
the insects and Sticklebacks, one fastened himself to
the frog’s leg. — H. Hall.

Laburnum Flowers. — Laburnum trees are in
blossom here now (September). Is not this an unu-
sual phenomenon? — R. II. Nisbet Br ozone, Folkestone.

Palm Roots. — With reference to the question
propounded in your issue for October, as to whether
palm-trees have tap-roots or not, 1 find, on consulting
the highest authorities in the library of the Linnaean
Society, that the roots are fibrous masses. Stephen
Endlicher, in his “Genera Plantarum,” published in
1836-40, writes thus : — “ Palmae Plantae liques-
centes, acrobryae habitu peculiari. Radix palaris,
mox evanida ; radiculae plurimae, cylindrical, sim-
plices et ramosae, fibrillosae, in molem conicam saepe
ex parte hypogream dense compactae.” Loudon, in
his “ Encyclopaedia of Plants,” writes: — “The lofty
stems of palms are supported by a mass of fibrous
roots, which frequently cross along the surface of the
ground.” In the “ Hortus Indicus Malabaricus,” by
Henry Van Rheede, published in 1628, the author
states that the Palm diffuses its root-fibres widely in a
transverse direction. With regard to the interpre-
tation of the verse of Psalm xcii., where the righteous
are compared to the vigour of the Palm-tree, it would
be presumptuous in me, as a layman, to offer an
opinion or discuss it in a theological point of view.
Canon Tristram, in his “Natural History of the
Bible,” alludes to the 12th verse of the above Psalm :
“ Here the life of the righteous may be compared to
the Palm-tree for many reasons. It flourishes in a
barren soil ; it requires constant moisture ; it is a
lofty tree, a straight tree ; it is always growing so
long as it lives, and it is always green, and always
bears fruit as far as possible from earth, and as near
as possible to heaven. We may add, too, the elas-
ticity and upward growth of its fibre, even when
loaded with weight.” The following is extracted
from Mr. Hooker’s translation of Le Maout et
Decaisne*' — “ Palms, perennial woody plants, elegant
or majestic in habit. Primary root decaying early
and replaced by numerous adventitious roots, which
are developed at the base of the trunk, and form a
compact conical mass, often very voluminous and
rising more or less above the soil, and in certain
cases raising the trunk and supporting it like the
shrouds of a ship.” The Palm-trees with which I was
most familiar in India were the Cocoa-nut and Date.
Neither had tap-roots. Professor Bentley, in his
“Manual of Botany,” writes: “The true or pri-
mary root, from its being formed by a direct elongation
of the radicle, generally continues to grow downwards
for some time at least, and hence forms a main trunk
or axis from which the branches are given off. Such
a root is termed a tap-root, and may be commonly
observed in dicotyledonous plants. On the contrary,
the roots of monocotyledonous and acotyledonous
plants, which are adventitious, are usually of nearly
equal size, and given off in variable numbers from
the radicle.” The above remarks will, I think, show
that the palms do not possess tap-roots. — John
Colebrook.

Roots of Palm-tree. — There are several kinds
of trees called Palm, and the first question to be
settled should be, Which is the Palm-tree of the
Bible? Many are of opinion that it is the Phoenix
dactylifera, or Date-palm, which affords food to
both man and animals ; and I will, therefore, give
you a short description of the Palm met with by
Bonar in the desert of Sinai. He says : “ The roots

262

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

are unlike any other tree-roots we had seen, and
peculiarly fitted to absorb every drop of moisture
that the sand contains. In general form and structure
they put us in mind of the Dahlia and Ranunculus,
consisting of long fleshy strings or ropes, shooting
straight down into the soil in numbers quite beyond
our reckoning, and extending over a large circle,
whose width we could not ascertain.” Again, the
same writer observes : ‘ ‘ What an apparatus for

drawing up the moisture of the desert.” The roots
of all the Palmacece are described as fibrous : no
matter what the form may be, or the size of the
stem, it is invariably woody, and the roots fibrous.
This is the sum and substance of all I have been able
to call to mind as having read of the Palm-tree ; but
many who are better versed in the matter will reply
to “ A. B.’s ” question. — Helen E. Watney.

Cat and Rabbits. — A curious case of the adop-
tion by a cat of some rabbits has come under my
notice. The mother of the rabbits died, and the
kittens having been destroyed, the cat suckled the
rabbits and brought them up. This occurred in a
small village in Surrey. May not this throw some
light on the story of Romulus and Remus being
suckled by a wolf, supposed by historical research
to be fabulous ? — H. P. Barclay.

Egg Drills. — Beta will be able to obtain the
instruments described in my article on collecting
birds’ eggs, of Mr. J. Everard, surgical instrument
maker, 34, Berners-street, W. — T. Southwell.

Marsh Tit. — In answer to “ C. C.’s ” question
(Science-Gossip, page 234) “as to whether the
curious note, resembling the whetting of a saw,
belongs to the Marsh Tit,” it is certainly not the
Marsh Tit, Parus palustris, because that peculiar
note is heard in situations where the Marsh Tit is
not found. We believe the note to belong to the
Great Tit, Parus major. The song is heard as
early as January, often from the top of a high tree.
The bird is very remarkable from the similarity of
the simple note to the sound made in filing a saw.
Hence, in Staffordshire, the bird is commonly called
“ Saw-whetter.” — Elizabeth Edwards.

Migrating Birds. — Last Sunday I heard, about
eight o’clock p.m. the whistling of innumerable
birds, passing over Northallerton in a south-westerly
direction. I presume them to have been a flock of
plovers. They continued to pass over until eleven
o’clock. Are these birds regular migrators, or does the
present case betoken the approach of a severe winter ?
— J . A. Wheldon.

Sea Anemones. — “ C. E. R.”will be glad to
learn that I kept two of Bunodes gemtnacea for the
greater part of a year, and might have done so for a
longer period, as they were still in first-rate condition
when the accident occurred which caused their death.
I kept them in a glass bottle of about six inches
diameter, with a loosely-fitting stopper always on,
and they were fed twice a week with bits of shrimp,
such as one buys at the fishmonger’s. I find that small
and delicate sorts do well in these bottles ; the glass
stopper prevents evaporation. Small plants appear
quickly all over the sides, and altogether they are
the most self-compensating aquaria which I know.
I have kept them for long periods without diminution
of the contents, and consequently without having the
water more dense than at first. Will “ C. E. R.” be
good enough to describe his treatment of Tealia crassi-
cornis ? I have read, and have been told on good
authority, that it is impossible to keep it. My
attempts have always failed ; but, owing to circum-

stances, I have been unable to obtain one of which I
could say with certainty that the base had not been
injured. — W. G. H. C., Frome.

Zoological Notes. — There was shot on the Tees
on the 30th September a female Great Northern
Diver {Colymbics articus), also a Stormy Petrel {Pt ocel-
lar ia pelagic a). Two swans were also shot, and are
now in the hands of Mr. Richardson, of this town,
for preservation. During the last fortnight large
flocks of Wild Duck, Teal, Widgeon, &c., have been
passing on their autumnal migration ; several large flocks
of geese have been seen passing over the Cleveland
Hills. A Death’s-head Moth was also captured at
the end of September. — George Simpson, Middlesbro\
October 6th.

The Song Thrush and Blackbird Pairing.
— In confirmation of Mr. Robert Holland’s article in
Science-Gossip of June, on “Remarkable Nests,”
it might be well to insert the following well-authen-
ticated instance. In the island of Howth my
daughter saw a cock blackbird sitting on a nest where
previously a hen thrush had been sitting. There
were young ones in the nest, which was not lined.
There can be no doubt as to identity, as it was re-
marked by others. — S. A. B re nan , Clk., Allan Rock ,
Co. Tyrone.

Songs of Birds, &c. — A work on the songs of
birds and other animals as related to human music,
and as furnishing a basis for a theory of melody, has
occupied me two years. The chief impediment is the
lack of received observations. I should be most
grateful if you kindly assist me in any of these ways,
viz. : — 1. Reference to books, &c. , containing songs of
birds or other animals in musical notation. (Ccjpies
of these would be still more valuable.) 2. Results of
your observations on bird or other songs. 3. Is ,
there noticed with any frequency in these songs the
occurrence of any fundamental intervals of human
music, — as the octave, fifth, fourth, and third ?
4. (A question only seemingly irrelevant) — If sing-
ing in the ears has ever happened to you, have
any of the fundamental intervals above mentioned
been observed between the minute tones ? 5* Any
information that may occur to you as bearing on these
subjects. All contributions will be acknowledged,
and the results sent to you on publication. — 916,
Washington Street , San Francisco, Cal.

Parasites on Birds. — Are there any means of
destroying the parasites on fantail pigeons ? The fan-
tails are kept in a large open room at the top of the
house, with the window constantly open, so that they
fly in and out at pleasure. The parasite which most
infests them is about the eighth of an inch long, dark
in colour, very slender in proportion to its length, so
that to an ordinary observer it hardly appears to be
an insect ; there is also another, round in shape,
perhaps one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, and
pinky in colour. The birds have fresh water every
day for bathing. Is there any danger of the creatures-
forsaking the bird for the human habitants of the
house, as the pigeons are very tame, and perch on
head or shoulder ? And will the Editor kindly tell
Mrs. Geveke if there is any sensible reason why
pigeon feathers should not be used for stuffing pillows,
&c. — M. G.

Palms at Shanghai (page 178). — Your corre-
spondent, Mr. Nelson, calls attention to the fact ot
Palms enduring frost and snow at Shanghai with im-
punity. Judging from the short and negative descrip-
tion which he gives, viz. , that they are not ‘ ‘ as

HARDWICK E^S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

263

■graceful as the lofty Cocoa-nut trees of Ceylon, or
the Sago-palm of Borneo,” I am inclined to think
that the species to which he alludes is Fortune’s
Chamoerops, which is an inhabitant of the cooler
portions of China, and one or two specimens of
which might be seen, a few years ago, growing in the
open air at Kew. But the general question of
acclimatization is one well deserving the attention of
botanists and florists. If all plants that are uninjured
by frost or snow in their own country could be
•guaranteed to be equally hardy in England, the
matter of acclimatization would be very simple. Our
shrubberies, and heaths, and hedgerows would be
enlivened with many a bright gem from Canada,
Switzerland, and the mountainous portions of hotter
lands. I have lately returned from a sojourn in
Tasmania, and there, every winter, the lovely Fern-
trees, which abound in the mountain gullies, are
weighed down with snow ; and quaint Gums
(. Eucalypti ) and feathery Wattles ( Acacia ) flourish in
& temperature rivalling in coolness that found in many
parts of England. But nothing is more certain than
that neither Fern- tree, Gum, nor Wattle will exist in
Great Britain, except in one or two favoured situa-
tions. The reason of this apparent paradox is not
far to seek. The incapability of these foreigners
to bear the severity of an English winter is simply
due to the difference between their respective sum-
mers. In the countries named, during Lhe summer
months, there is an almost continuous outpouring of
the sun’s actinic rays, thoroughly ripening the wood,
and giving life and vigour to the contained fluids,
while, at the same time, the atmosphere is com-
paratively dry, and the air is not eternally loaded
with superabundant moisture. We all know how
different from this is the normal condition of the
English summer. We certainly get the advantage in
the greenness of our meadows and the fresh appear-
ance of our vegetation, aspects for the most part
unknown in the countries alluded to ; but the in-
cessant humidity, and the general absence of sunlight,
are fatal to the well-being of plants which in other
lands, thanks to the summer solar ray, can defy the
frost and snow of winter. A very careful selection
might add a few foreign names to our native species ;
but before Palms and Fern-trees grace our land-
scapes, the theory of “heredity” must be worked
out patiently and slowly, and then possibly the
“survival of the fittest” may take place. — W. IV.
Spicer.

Clams. — I have tasted clam soup in America.
It is somewhat like oyster soup, but I believe it is
made, not from the giant-clam, Clama gigas, but
from the soft clam of the northern shores, the Mya
arenaria, which is very much used in America as an
article of food. It is found in great abundance on
the coast of New England, and makes good bait in
cod and haddock fishing. The shells are dug up
from thin beds at low water. They are found a foot or
so deep below the surface, their siphon-tube projecting
upward in the hole by which they communicate with
the water at high tide. They are “ shucked,” that is
taken out of their shells, and salted for the fisheries.
As many as five thousand barrels a season are thus
consigned. Clams are often mentioned in the early
history of the Plymouth colony; and judging from
scalloped clams, roasted clams, and clam soup, I
have no doubt but what Mr. W. A. Cairns will find
preserved clams very fair eating for persons who
rejoice in a good digestion. — H. E. Watney.

A Mysterious Gift.— An account of the first
ascent of the Peter Botte Mountain is given in the

| Penny Magazine for 1833, which is probably the one
referred to by your correspondent, Alfred Paterson.
■^—Charles Aladehy.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

M. (Bradford). — You will find instructions as to preparing
such skeletons as you require in the chapter on “ Bones,” in
“ Collecting and Preserving Natural History Objects,” pub-
lished by Hardwicke & Bogue, price 3s. 6d.

C. A. Cowley. — Your specimen is the beautiful and rare
Astraniia major, found in Shropshire. See articles on it at
page 8 of Science-Gossip, vol. for 1873.

M. J. Wilde. — No rock specimens, such as described in
your letter, have yet reached us.

O. P., Cambridge. — 'i he Agaric is evidently a very young
state of Agaric us (Afycetta) polygra minus. Fr. AT. C. C.

David Scott. — Your plants are: 1. Autkemis nobilis ;

2. Cardamine amara ; 3. Paruassia palustris ; and 4. Saxi-
fraga ste llaris.

Young Muscologist. — Get Hobkirk’s “ Synopsis of British
Mosses,” price 10s. 6d., published by Lovell Reeve.

A. Bernard. — The curious monstrosity of the stems of the
Malva moschata (which we are much obliged to you for
sending us) is described by Dr. Masters in his “ Vegetable
Teratology” by the name of fasciculatiott. It is caused by

the abnormal growing together of branches, just as the normal
substance we call “ horn ” is due to the agglutination of hairs.

J. Sims. — Of course we are obliged to trust to the honour
of those who use our exchange column, and we cannot be
expected to guarantee good faith. We shall always feel
obliged if “ exchangers ” will notify to us any breach of faith.
We shall then take good care to exclude the offenders for the
future.

A Young Geologist. — Your fossils are : — 1. Pcctunculus
glycimeris (young specimen); 2. Fragment of Natica ; 3.
Purpura lapilius. The crystals are selenite, or sulphate of
lime, derived from the London clay. See chapter in Taylor’s
“Geological Stories,” entitled “ Story of the Crags.”

J. K. (Yarmouth). — Trimmer’s “Flora of Norfolk” is a
well-known and highly esteemed work. (2) We have not heard
of any recent numbers of Donkin’s “ British Diatomaceae ”
being issued ; nor can we guess the cause of the delay, unless
it be the author’s professional engagements. Your plants are
named correctly in the parcel sent us.

J. Kirby. — You may get the materials mentioned in Dr.
Woodward’s process for staining muscular tissues from any
first-rate chemist.

W. J. R. — Write to Mr. Van Voorst, publisher, who has (we
believe) published lists for labelling, such as you require.

J. Anderson, jun. — The Fuchsia with the calyx segment
transformed into a green veined leaf is very curious, and very
instructive as an illustration of reversion.

J. W. N. — The slide contains elytra, &c. of the female of
the common water-beetle (. Dyticus margiualis). The female
is so unlike the male in appearance that it was formerly re-
garded as a different species.

A. Wheldon. — Thanks for your monstrosity of Plantago
lanceolatum, showing three heads on one stalk.

K. D. — Will you kindly send us your query again, as we
have mislaid it.

G. R. Redgrave. — The malformed rose with mass of
petals arranged around the stem beneath the main mass is a
case of what Dr. Masters terms “ mediate prolification.” See
his masterly work on “Vegetable Teratology.”

Gregorius and A. G. Wright. — See article on “ Pre-
serving Fungi,” by Mr. Worthington Smith, the eminent
fungologist, in “Collecting and Preserving Natural History
Objects.”

T. Watson (Burnley). — Your best plan would be to offer
the instrument for exchange in our “ exchange ” column. Or
advertise it for sale in the magazines you name. There are
none better.

A Subscriber. — Your grapes are attacked by the usual vine
disease, which is a fungus. For its treatment consult any
work on grape-culture.

H. W. S. — We like the paper, and shall insert it at our
earliest opportunity.

F. W. Hytch. — There is a “ Postal Microscopical Club”
established, of whose rules, &c. you will find a full account in
Science-Gossip, vol. for 1873.

W. Gain. — From the description of your larva we conclude
it is that of the goat-moth ( Cossus ligniperda), but we cannot
judge definitely without seeing it. Leave it where it is.

264

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

F. Alexander. — Your larvae of Jacobcea will hybernate.
Benzine may be used in stuffing moths ; and a little fine chalk
or fullers’ earth mixed with the wool, to absorb the natural
grease. You will find a good description of Filipendula in
Hooker’s “ Student’s Flora of the British Islands.”

Lymnea involuta. — We should feel obliged if some of
our correspondents in the Killarney or other districts would
supply us with a few living specimens of this mollusk. The
sooner the better.

J. Sinel. — The parasitic insect of which you sent us a
sketch is named Gamasus coleoptrntorum.

A. C. — Your moth was a specimen of N. rhomboidea, whose
wings had been aborted. It reached us alive, but the wings
never fully developed.

L. S. — The objects on surface of the leaf are not due to any
parasitical disease, but are caused by an insect, a species of
Cynips , which punctures the skin.

“Constant Subscribers.” — We wish our correspondents
would adopt some other nom do plume. We have several this
month, and are in a complete quandary as to which is which.
To one who writes under this name we beg to say that no plant
was enclosed.

EXCHANGES.

Microscopical cabinet for exchange, capable of holding
1,920 slides lying flat ; mahogany and deal, value £4 ; for
further particulars write to Wm, J. Fuller, Corve Lodge,
Greenway-road, Redland, Bristol.

Wanted, vol. ii. of “ Coloured Illustrations of British Birds
and their Eggs,” by H. L. Meyer (1842). — Jos. Sinel, Bagot,
J ersey.

For unmounted pieces of skin showing scales from the back
and belly of Lizard, send object of interest to G. Moore, ic,
Porchester-street, near Clifford-street, Birmingham.

Offered, Turton’s “ British Shells, Land and Freshwater.”
in exchange for any other Book of equal value. Fossils, or any
Natural History Objects. — Address, T. C. Maggs, Yeovil.

Offered, 84 numbers “ Nature,” 2 vols. “ Popular Science
Review,” Hogg “On the Microscope,” Latourneau’s
“ Biology,” and Withering’s” Botany.” Wanted, vols. 3, 4,
and s of Jeffrey’s “ British Conchology,” or back numbers
of “Zoologist and Naturalist” prior to 1878. — J. D. Butterell,
26, Coltman-street, Hull.

For cleaned Forammifera from Ireland send good Slide or
Material, not polariscope, to A. Alletsee, 11, Foley-street,
London, W.

Several pairs of Cowries (C. caput serpentis) for exchange
for Shells, &c. — Mrs. Skilton, London-road, Brentford,
Middlesex.

For Cuticle of Indian Corn (Zea Mais) send a stamped
directed envelope to W. H. Gomm, Sandwich, Kent.

Rare British Plants dried, for Lepidoptera, Birds’ Eggs, or
Shells. — L. R. H., 4, Ellesmere-villas, Devonshire-road, Forest-
hill.

Offered, Nos. 246, 1280, 1381, 1403, 1479, 1505, and many
others, for Nos. 187, 325, 500, 518, 615, 626, 676, 728, 762, 823,
985, 997, 1299, 1300, 1471, 1622. — E. D. C., 25, Oxford-road.
Kilburn, London.

For leaf of Deutzia scabra unmounted, send stamped
envelope or other microscopic object to M., 3, Belmont Villas,
New Brompton, Kent.

For injected Human Kidney, injected Human Intestine,
stained Human Intestine, and Japanese Grass, all in balsam,
send pure gatherings of diatoms or any well-mounted balsam
slides to J. A. Kay, Mansion-house, Brompton, Chatham.

I have Cassell’s History of the Franco- Prussian War (com-
plete, weekly numbers, unbound). Required micro slides. —
W. H. Skan, 15, Brownlow-street, London, W.C.

I have five numbers (one more completes the work) of
Twining’s “ Science Made Easy,” illustrated, Hardwicke & Co.,
quite new and cost 5s. Should be glad to exchange them for
British Lepidoptera, side-blown eggs, or tolerably recent
numbers of “The Entomologist,” “Science-Gossip,” or
“ Zoologist,” bound or unbound. — W. Barrett Roue, 165, White-
Ladies-road, Bristol.

A few Adders, preserved in spirits of wine, in exchange for
rare Plants, Mosses, Lepidoptera, Shells, Fossils, or offers. —
R. Renton, Fans, Earlston, N.B.

L. C., 7th edition, Nos. 84, 104, 135, 146, 176, 184, 237, 253,
363* 527> 6lI> 682, 683, 704, 767, 769, 831, 838, 856, 858, 864,
882, 913, 929, 971, 979, 988, 1000, 1001, 1130, 1334, 1485,

1 519, 1539, and many others, in exchange for other rare
British Plants. Send full list of duplicates to J. Tempere, 12,
Cecil-street, Moss-side, Rusholme, Manchester.

Beautifully mounted Slides (crystals) for the polariscope in
exchange for objects of interest, mounted or unmounted. —
A. Smith, Essex-road, Islington.

London Catalogue, 7th ed. offered, 2, 39, 47, 79, 267,
277> 394) 591) 831, 858, 974, 1014, 1036, 1284, 1310, 1504, and
1650, in exchange for other rare British plants. — W. Jopes, 32,
Manchester-street, Oldham.

Sphccro theca castagnei on Hop offered for foreign Marine
Algse, — E. C. J., Monson Nursery, Red Hill, Surrey.

First-class Slides given for good material, Foraminiferous,

&c. , in quantity, either prepared or in the rough.— James
Green, March.

L. C., 7th edition, Nos. 38, 273^, 534, 809, and others, in-
cluding many from the Lake District, for 183, 553, 588, 590,
and others. Lists exchanged. — A. W. Preston, 49, Cheltenham-
street, Barrow-in-Furness.

Rare British Vertigos. Correct and well-authenticated
(duplicate) specimens of V ertigos antivertigo, pusilla, minutis-
sima, alpestris, substriata, and angustior, offered in exchange
for really good and choice Foreign Shells — land preferred to
marine. Also offered, Limncea involuta, Succinea oblonga .
Wanted, Limncea Bicrnetti, Acme lineata.. — W. Sutton,
Upper Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

For exchange, an Herbarium of British Phanerogamous.
Plants, containing over 600 species, many rare, in good condi-
tion. Offers requested, list will be forwarded. — A. Macindoe,
Maryhill, Glasgow.

Offered, Helix revclata, Clausilia biplicata, Planorbis
liueatus, &c. &c., and many British marine. Wanted,
British Vertigos and Northern marine species. — A. H. Cooke,
King’s College, Cambridge.

For piece of Chinese Rice-paper (pith of tree) mounted
send well-mounted object to Thos. Shipton, Chesterfield. Lists
exchanged.

Birds’ Eggs, side-blown, well-marked, labelled, picked
specimens ; also beautiful specimens of British Butterflies and
Moths, well set ; also British Coleoptera, splendidly set, new
style. Lists free. Exchange side-blown eggs new to collec-
tion. Foreign correspondence solicited. — Henry Sissons, West-
bourne-road, Sheffield.

Several packets of Diatomaceous Earth for exchange for
mounted sections of Coniferous wood (three packets) for good
slide. Wanted also the Club Mosses and Selaginelli. Fossil
Polyzoa in exchange. — G. R. Vine, Attercliffe, Sheffield.

For piece of Sea-mat ( Flustra truncata) send stamped
directed envelope. Also for portion of lung of White Whale
( Beluga leucos) or two or three embryo cuttlefish (Sepia
officinalis) send well-mounted object to E. M., 20, Crossley-
street, New North-road, London.

Several immense living Chrysalides of Acherotitia Atropos-
offered in exchange for good Natural History Slides or micro-
scopical accessories. — W. Lane Sear, Margate, Kent.

Side-blown Birds’ Eggs and Skins. Will exchange about
200 varieties, guaranteed true typical specimens, richly
marked ; dates and localities supplied. Lists exchanged. — 1

John William Sissens, 11, Priory-road, Sheffield.

Wanted to exchange, Mounted Objects, principally photo-
graphs, for good mounted objects. — E. Atkins, Chemist, 200,
Essex-road.

To exchange, a quantity of Diatomaceous Earth for mounted t
objects or anything of interest. Stamp for reply. — A. Smith,

198, Essex-road.

Wanted, varieties of Succinea (especially Y. putris, var.
vitrea) and other species. Good exchange given. — Mr.
Marshall, 1, Portland-cottages, Portland-place North, Clap- 1
ham, London.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“ English Folk-Lore.” By the Rev. T. F. Thistleton Dyer,,
M.A. London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

“ Pleasant Days in Pleasant Places.” By Edward Walford,
M.A. London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

“ Annual Report of the U.S. Entomological Commission on
the Rocky Mountain Locust, 1877.” Washington : Govern-
ment Printing Office.

“ Section Cutting.” By D. Sylvester Marsh. London ;
J. & A. Churchill.

“ Popular Science Review.” October.

“ Land and Water.” ,,

“Journal of Applied Science.” ,,

“ Chambers’s Journal.” ,,

“ Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.” ,,

“ Midland Naturalist.” ,,

“ The Scottish Naturalist.” ,,

Various Pamphlets.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to 9TH ult., from: —
F. K.— T. S.— M. S.— J. C.— J. H.— C. A. C.— H. C. C.—
A. A.- W. J. F.— J. M.— F. E. M.— W. H. G. -J. D. B.—

F. I. B.— J. L. H.— E. E.— J. A.— J. M. H.— J. W. J.—

G. T. B.— H. E. W.— H. L. B.— E. F. C.— T. W. D.— D. S.
—Prof. B.— S. T.— C. A. G.— W. J.— E. C. J.— A. B.—
J. N. D.— W. G. H. C.— R. H. A.— Dr. P. Q. K.— J. E. L.
—A. S.— W. E. F— J. T.— A. G. W.— G. S.— J. P. G.—
G. A. G.— W. H. S.— J. S.-W. B. R.— J. K.— R. R.—
J. A. K.— Dr. M.-U. W. M.— J. A. W.— R. D.-H. J. R.—
W. C.— W. S.— A. W. P.— A. M.— A. H. C.-J. G.— T. S.—

E. M.— K. D.— H. S.— W. L. S.— H. I. T.— E. S.— R. M.—
I. T.— W. E. G.— G. R. V.— W. S.— J. K.— H. W. S.—

F. W. H.— J. T. M.— A. S.— E. A.— &c. &c.

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I

HARD IV IC RE’S SCIENCE - GOSSIP.

265

QUARTZ, AS IT OCCURS IN THE LAKE DISTRICT :
ITS STRUCTURE AND ITS HISTORY.

PART III.

By J. CLIFTON WARD, F.G.S., F.R.M.S., &c.

FEW years ago, being
anxious to apply Mr.
Sorby’s method to the
granites and granitoid
l'ocks of the lake-
country, I examined a
number of slices of the
granite rocks, and mea-
sured nearly five hundred
cases of liquid-cavities,
ascertaining the relative
size of the vacuity (or bubble) to the liquid-cavity. My
method of proceeding I will describe directly, but I
will at once state that the result arrived at in the
case of the Skiddaw granite, for example, was, that
its consolidation took place under a pressure of rather
more than an equivalent of 51,000 ft. of rock, and
that the mean pressure under which all the principal
granitic and granitoid rocks were consolidated was
equivalent to that of 44,000 ft. of rock.

My experiences in the course of this investigation
may be of interest to some who wish to undertake
original work of a similar kind. (For the Memoir
containing the investigation as a whole see Quar-
terly Journal of the Geological Society , vol. xxxi.,
p. 568.)

The object-glass generally used was a J-in. (of
Collins), with a C eye-piece, the combination magni-
fying 665 times. When I first began my measure-
ments I used a neutral-tint glass reflector, and traced
on paper all the best-defined fluid-cavities, making a
note by the side of those in which the vacuities
showed a constant spontaneous movement. I soon
found, however, that on a comparison of a consider-
able number of drawings, the fixed bubbles were
almost invariably relatively larger than those which
showed this free movement. Hence I was led al-
together to reject from my measurements all cases in
which the bubble was fixed, and in which it would
seem either that gas had been primarily entrapped,
No. 168.

or that in the making of the thin slice leakage had
occurred in the cavity. This last case must neces-
sarily often occur in the making of thin slices, espe-
cially as the liquid-bearing cavities are frequently so
irregular in shape and prolonged into horns and
fine points. I then gave up tracing the outlines of
cavities on paper, and measured the relative size
of bubble and liquid-cavity directly by means of a
Jackson’s micrometer, with divisions equal toTTrjjooth
of an inch. This micrometer being placed in the
eye-piece, the fine divisions could be brought over
the bubble and liquid-cavity, and their relative size
at once estimated with tolerable accuracy. But a
little consideration will make it evident that measure-
ment of a liquid-cavity in one plane would be of
little use unless the cavity be exceedingly shallow
and lie along that plane. Hence it became neces-
sary to take this further precaution, viz., to rely only
upon the measurements of those cases in which the
tiny bubble (or vacuity) moved freely into all parts ot
the liquid-cavity without going out of focus ; this
would imply that the cavity was of tolerably uniform
depth, but little more than the depth of the diameter
of the bubble. And it was found that, when I
restricted my measurements to these cases, there was
a fairly-marked uniformity in the ratio between
vacuities and liquid-cavities occurring in the quartz of
the same rock.

Thus, take as an example two different rock-slices
of the same granite : —

■ 1 54s

t‘i 66 v

■154

•125

•154

•166

*i 66

,

•180

'i 80

■162.

•200

'180

-I54

No. 2. (

•166

•166

l’1 54.

•166

\ /

•154

‘166

•142

V142 i

N

266

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

In No. i there are five cases in which the whole
liquid-cavity is 6| times the size of the vacuity, one
case in which it is six times the size, and two cases in
which it is only 5^ times. The mean *162 is pro-
bably not far from the truth.

It maybe difficult to realize the size of these liquid-
cavities and their contained bubbles. Those reliable
for measurement are extremely small, sometimes less
than jo 6 513th of an inch in diameter. Much larger
cavities generally occur in plenty ; but these seldom
exceed the ^j^th of an inch in length, and in them
the bubbles either have no movement, or but a very
slight or sluggish one. In fact, such is the minuteness
of these cavities and their number, in many cases,
that more than a thousand million might be contained
easily within a cubic inch of quartz, and sometimes
the contained water must make up at least 5 per cent,
of the volume of the containing quartz. In some
cases the liquid-cavities are much arranged along
lines, as in the quartz crystals occurring in the
Armboth Dyke. Occasionally, however, liquid-cavi-
ties are met with in quartz crystals of very considerable
size, such that the movement of the bubble can even
be recognized by the naked eye. Having accumu-
lated a sufficient number of reliable measurements,
and struck the mean for any one rock, such as the
Skiddaw granite, the calculation of the pressure
under which the granite was formed is proceeded upon
by mathematical formulae furnished by Mr. Sorby’s
investigations, the temperature of a dull red heat
visible in the dark (68o° F.) being assumed as the
probable temperature of consolidation. The result,
in the case of the Skiddaw granite, is that a pressure
equivalent to 52,000 ft. of rock must have been
necessary to compress the liquid so that it would fill
the cavities at a temperature of dull red heat.

The next question bearing upon this result is one
for the field-geologist alone to determine. What is
the greatest thickness of rock which can have been
removed from over the mass of the Skiddaw granite
as we now see it exposed ? Geological investigation
•f the whole district leads me to infer that at one
time the granite must have been covered by some

30,000 feet of rock — including Skiddaw slates, vol-
canic series, and Upper Silurians. But we have seen
that the calculated pressure is equivalent to 52,000 ft.,
hence the pressure to which the consolidating granite
(and therefore quartz) was subject was greater than
what could be due to the mere weight of overlying
rocks. How, then, was this pressure applied ? We
have seen that the condensed liquid confined within
the quartz has remained as a registering thermometer,
to show the existence and amount of the pressure,
and geological examination of the district further
informs us that the overlying 30,000 ft. of rock was
in some way elevated and contorted, — being also
slowly removed by denudation. Thus we have
physical evidence, from two different sources, of the
existence of great pressure exerted upon the granite-

forming mass ; evidence derived from the liquid-
cavities and their contained bubbles, and evidence in
the rocks overlying the granite of such pressure having
produced elevation, contortion, cleavage, and general
! metamorphism. It is further interesting to notice
what would be the probable heat at a depth of

30,000 ft. according to our estimates of known
increase on descending through the crust of our globe.
If we take that increase as i° F. for every 49 ft.
(Mr. R. W. Fox, Brit. Assoc. Report , 1857, p. 91),
we find that at a depth of 30,900 ft. the temperature
would be 360° C. (68o° F.), or that of a dull red heat
visible in the dark, and just the temperature at which
we were supposing the granite was formed. Thus,
to sum up our results in the case of the Skiddaw
granite : — •

1st. It is probable from geological evidence that
this granite was consolidated at a depth of about

30,000 ft.

2nd. An increase of i° for every 49 ft. on descend-
ing gives a temperature of 360° C. (68o° F.) at a
depth of 30,900 ft.

3rd. Microscopic evidence, deduced from examina-
tion of the liquid- cavities in the quartz, gives a
calculated pressure under which the quartz was con-
solidated at a temperature of 360° C. (68o° F.),
equivalent to 52,000 ft. of rock.

4th. As the calculated pressure thus far exceeds
(by 22,000 ft.) that due to the estimated thickness of
overlying beds, or, what is the same thing, to the
estimated depth at which the granite formation took
place, it follows that there must have been a great
amount of available pressure to be exerted upon the
rocky crust around, and hence we find evidences of
folding and contortion of the rocks, and of their up-
heaval and general metamorphism around the granitic
area.

The case of the Skiddaw granite will suffice as an
example of this mode of treatment. I have elsewhere
(Qua?'t. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi., p. 568) treated
all the other granitoid rocks of the Lake District in
the same way, and with very similar general results.
There are yet, however, one or two points I should
like to call attention to.

The first of these is the general absence among the
liquid-cavities in the quartz of Lake District rocks of
crystals of various salts, such as have been found in
plenty in some other districts. Are we to infer from
this that the liquid enclosed at the period of the for-
mation of the granites was less saline than in some
other cases ? Or is it possible that a more extended
investigation would make it appear otherwise ?
Another thing worth noting is the general absence,
as far as I have been able to judge, of cavities in the
quartz containing, not water, but liquid carbonic
acid, which in some other rocks and other districts
are not infrequent.

While thus calling attention to various points con-
nected with the formation of quartz-bearing rocks of

HARD W1CKE ’S SC IE NC E - G O SSI P.

267

the district, I am far from claiming to have examined
into the question exhaustively, and would gladly see
other workers take up the subjectmore completely, and
either prove or disprove the results already obtained.

It is evident that microscopic examination throws
light not only upon the origin of such quartz-bearing
rocks as granite, but also upon that of quartz as an
accidental and accessory mineral among rocks, and
upon the mode of formation of quartz veins. We
are, in fact, led to see that heated water containing
silica in solution has played a most important part in
geological history, that such water has sometimes
been diffused through a rocky magma at a dull red
heat, under enormous pressure, and finally become
entrapped in millions of minute cavities in the solidi-
fied rock ; sometimes it has worked its way up along
cracks and fissures, and deposited quartz in those
fissures, forming veins ; sometimes circulating
throughout the mass of a rock, it has deposited the
quartz in all irregular cavities or vesicles, at a less
degree of temperature ; and finally we recognise the
same heated water fully charged with silica rising to
the surface in the form of the geysers of Iceland, and
playing a large part in all volcanic outbursts. Surely
there can be few thoughts more surprising than this,
that every piece of granite we pick up contains in its
quartz particles thousands of minute liquid-cavities,
and, moreover, that every such liquid-cavity in-
cludes a tiny vacuous bubble in constant tremor or
active motion, such motion, it would seem, having
been kept up for the countless ages since the granite
was first solidified deep down in the bowels of the
earth. Truly, we learn great things from study of
the most minute.

NATURAL HISTORY IN THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

By F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S., &c.

Part III.

THE first part of the treatise is devoted to hunting.

dogs — Canes Venatici. “But because we English
men make a difference between hunting and fowling,
for they are called by these seuerall words Venati and
Aucupium , so they term the dog who they vse in these
sundry games by divers names, as those which serue
for the beast are called Venatici. the other which are
vsed for the fowl are called Aticupatorij. The first
called Venatici I deuide into fiue sorts, the first in
perfect smelling, the second in quicke spying, the
third in swiftnes and quicknes, the fourth in smelling
and nimblenes, the fift in subtility and deceitfulnes,
herein these fiue sorts excelleth.”

The description of each kind of dog is preceded by
the derivation of its name, of which we give some
examples.

“Of the Dogge called a Terrar , in
Latine Terr arms.

“ Those whom we call Terrars, because they (after

the maner and custom of Ferrets in searching for
Connies) creep into the ground, and by that meanes
make afraid, nippe, and bite the Foxe and the Badger
in such sort that they either teare them in peeces with
their teeth, being in the bosom of the earth .... or at
least through conceived feare drive them out of their
hollowe harbours, in so much that they are compelled
to prepare speedy flight, and being desirous of the
next (albeit not the safest refuge), are at leisvre taken
and intrapped with snares and nets laide ouer holes
to the same purpose.

“ Of gentle Dogges seruingthe hauke and first
of the Spaniell called in Latine Hispaniohts..

“ The common sort of people call them by one gene-
ral word, namely Spaniels, as though these kind of
dogs came originally and first out of Spaine.

“ There is also at this day among vs a new kinde of
Dog brought out of France (for we Englishmen are
marueilous greedy gaping gluttons after noueltiesand
couetous cormarants of thinges that be seldome, rare,
strange, and hard to get.) And they be speckled
al ouer with white and black, which mingled
coulores incline to a marble bleu, which beautifietb
their skins and affordeth a seemely show of comlinesse.
These are French dogs, as is aboue declared already.’*

The treatise concludes with remarks on the diseases-
of dogs and their remedies, of which one specimen
will suffice.

“ If a dog grow lean, and not through want of meat,,
it is good to fill him, twice or thrice with Butter *
and if that does not recouer him, then it is a signe
that the worme vnder his tongue annoieth him
(which must be presently pulled out by some Naule
I or Needle), & if that satisfie not, he cannot liue,
j but will in a short time perish. . . . Dogs are also-
many times bewitched by the onely sight of inchanters^

! euen as infants, Lambes, and other creatures, accord-
ing to Virgils verse —

A rescio qnis teneros oculns mihi fascinat agnos.

For the bewitching spirit entereth by the eie into-
the hart of the party bewitched : for remedy whereof
they hang about the neck a chain of corah, as for
holy hearbs I hold them vnprofitable.”

Scepticism is said to be the great fault of scientific
men of the present day. This sin cannot be laid to
the charge of the writers on natural history in former
times, and least of all to the Rev. E. Topsell ; in
proof of which we gave a copy of “ the true picture
of the Lamia.”

“ This word Lamia hath many significations, being
taken some-times for a beast of Lybia, sometimes for
a fish, and sometimes for a Spectre or apparition of
women called Phairies. And from hence some haue
ignorantly affirmed that either there were no such
beastes at all, or else that it was a compounded
monster of a beast and a fish.”

Our author quotes a whole host of Greek and
Latin writers who had heard of some such monster ~

N 2

268

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE - GOSSIP .

but as their descriptions are very vague, he thinks
they have mixed up a good deal of fable with them.
To leave, therefore, these fables, and come to the
true description of the Lamia, we have in hand : —

“In the foure and thirty chapter of Esay [Isaiah]
we do find this beast called Lilith in the Hsebrew,
and translated by the auncients Lamia, which is there
threatned to possesse Babell. Likewise in the fourth
chapter of the Lamentations, where it is said in our
English translation that the Dragons lay forth their
brests. In Hcebrew they are called Eihannm , which
by the confession of the best interpreters cannot sig.
nify Dragons, but sea calues being a general word for
strange wild beasts. How be it, the matter being wel
examined, it shall appeare that it must needes be this
Lamia, because of her great breastes, which are not
competible either to the Dragon or Sea calues, so
then we will take it for graunted by the testimony of
holy Scripture that there is such a beast as this.
Crisostimus Dion also writeth that there are such
beasts in some part of Libia, having a womans face
and very beautifull, also very large and comely shapes
on their breasts, such as cannot be counterfeited by
the art of any painter, hauing a very excellent colour
in their fore parts, without wings, and no other voice
but hissing like dragons. . . . The hinder parts of
this beaste are like unto a Goate, his fore legs like a
Beares, his vpper parte to a woman, the body scaled
all ouer like a Dragon,* as some have affirmed by
the obseruation of their bodies, when Probus the
Emperor brought them forth in publike spectacle.”

Gesenius in his Commentary on Isaiah, says :
“ Lilith is, in the popular belief of the Hebrews, a
female spectre in the shape of a finely dressed woman,
which in particular lies in wait for and kills children,
like the Lamiae and Striges of the Romans.”

In his “Anatomy of Melancholy ” Burton remarks
that “The Talmudists say that Adam had a wife
called Lilis before he married Eve, and of her he
begat nothing but demons. ”

One of the most remarkable animals figured in this
veracious history is the Mantichora. “A beast, or
rather monster (as Ctesias writeth), is bred among
the Indians, hauing a treble row of teeth below and
aboue, whose greatnesse, roughnesse, and feete are
like a Lyons, his face and eares like vnto a mans,
his eies gray and collour red, hiss taile like the taile
of a Scorpion of the earth, armed with a sting, casting
forth sharp pointed quils, his voice like the voice of
a small trumpet or pipe.”

A long chapter is devoted to the Unicorn, in
which he discusses the probabilities of the existence
of such a beast, “ whereof diuers people in every age
of the worlde haue made great question.”

The Rev. E. Topsell, however, is quite satisfied of
its existence, and he silences his opponents with the
following unanswerable arguments : —

* It is from this description that the artist has evolved the
drawing, of which we gave a copy last month, omitting the
well-developed di'Spttov aioolor.

“ David, in the 92 Psalm, says, ‘ My horn shall
bee lifted vp like the horn of a Vnicorne,’ whereupon
all Divines that ever wrote have not only collected
that there is a Vnicorne, but also affirme the similitude
to be betwixt the kingdome of Dauid and the home
of the Unicorne, that as the home of the Unicorne
is wholesome to all beasts and creatures, so should
the kingdom of Demid be in the generation of Christ.
And do we think that Dauid would compare the
vertue of his kingdom and the redemption of the
world unto a thing that is not, or is vneertain and
fantastical. The Lord speaketh in this manner to
lob, Will the Vnicorne rest and serue, or tarry beside
thy cratches (Mangers, from this word is derived the
name of the childs game of scratch cradle, properly
cratch cradle or manger-cradle, in allusion to the
manger at Bethlehem), canst thou bind the Vnicorne
with a halter to thy plough to make furrows, or will
he make plaine the clots of the vallies ? Likewise
the prophecy of Esay, the 34 chap., and in many
other places of Scripture, whereby God himselfe
must needs be traduced if there be no Vnicorne in
the world.”

Among the varieties of sheep described, he includes
one of somewhat doubtful existence, viz. the Musmon
or Musimon of Latin authors, and which was sup-
posed to be a cross between a ram and a goat.
“Pliny makes mention of a beast called Ophion,*
and he saith hee found the remembrance of in the
Grsecian books, but he thinketh that in his time
there was none of them to be found in the worlde ;
heerein he speaketh like a man that did not knowe
God, for it is not to be thought that hee which
created so many kindes of beasts at the beginning,
and conserued of every kind two, male and female,
at the generall deluge, would not afterward permit
them to be destroyed till the worldes end, nor then
neither, for seeing it is apparent by holy scriptures
that after the world ended al Creatures and beastes
shall remain vpon earth as the monuments of the
first six daies worke of Almighty God for the further
manifestation of his glory, wisedome, and goodnes,
it is unreasonable to imagine that any of them shall
perish in general in this world.” If this theory be
true, naturalists may reasonably hope to find the
Dodo and great Auk still existing.

Many of our readers will, we fear, be inclined to
ask the use of rescuing from oblivion the errors and
fallacies published centuries ago. From a scientific
stand-point the answer must, perhaps, be in the
negative ; but may it not be worth our while occa-
sionally to take a retrospective glance, if only to
ascertain the progress that has been made ? And it
ought also to teach us to avoid dogmatizing — one of
the greatest faults a scientific mind can be guilty of,
Apart from its scientific merits or demerits, this book
is of considerable interest to the student of English,

* This, Topsell says, is identical with the Musmon.

HARD WICICHS SCIENCE- G OSSIE.

269

particularly with regard to its orthography. Many
peculiarities will be noticed in the extracts we have
given; for example, the indifferent use of v and u ;
the occasional reduplication of the final consonants in
nouns, to which an e is sometimes added ; the termi-
nation ness, with only one s ; and the omission of
the ’ in the possessive case. Some of the woodcuts
are fairly well executed, and occupy a whole page.

The book concludes with an epilogue to the reader,
in which he says: “ I do require al men of consieence
that shall euer read or see these Histories, or wish
for a sight of the residue, to help vs with knowledge,
and to certifie their particular experiences in any kinde
or any one of the liuing Beastes, and with all to con-
sider how great a task we do vndertake, trauelling
for the content and benefit of other men, and there-
fore how acceptable it would be vnto vs, and procure
euerlasting memorie to themselues, to be helpers,
encouragers, ayders, procurers, maintainers, and
abettours to such labor and needfull endeuour as was

never before enterprized in England

Farewell. ”

A NEW COLLECTING BOX.

SOME time ago you did me the honour of admit-
ting to your pages illustrations of the “ Sear ”
collecting bottle, which I have reason to know has
been useful to many naturalists. I now beg to
introduce to them a little contrivance which I have

Fig. 222.— Ditto, % full-size,
open.

tested, and found good for practical work, in the form
■of a light tin collecting box. The annexed sketches
are almost self-explanatory. The notches at a a a
allow the introduction of “small deer” without
imperilling the escape of previous captures. The
dotted circles show the position of the bottoms of the

boxes, all of which are like the top A, made of fine
wire gauze, and thus the specimens are kept separate
while air passes freely to all. The collector can
open his case hours or even days after his excursion

Fig- 223. — Annular Top of ditto, with wire lattice, full size.

without the certainty which exists in pill-box captures
of finding half his subjects smothered, and the other
half destroyed by ferocious companions.

The box is very strong, very light, and inexpensive,
and may be obtained of Messrs. Thomas Bentley &
Co., of Margate, to whom I have given the pattern.

W. Lane Sear.

A FEW WORDS ABOUT A LITTLE GNAT.

ON the 1st July a friend gave me two ounces of
Thames water, which had been drawn from the
cistern supplying his house ; and this small quantity
contained more than thirty worm-shaped creatures,
which, upon examination, I found to be the larvce of
some kind of gnat : the largest were about a quarter
of an inch long.

Fig. 224.— Larva of Gnat, natural size Finch.

The larva of this species has a brown head, with
the eyes, mandibles, and a fine line round the neck,
dark brown; the thorax and the abdomen pale greer.
Two prolegs project from the under side of the
prothorax, and two from the last segment of the
abdomen, which has also, at its extremity, three

270

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

appendages, and on the top two pencils of hair, each
pencil being supported on a short stalk.

I put my specimens into a small glass vessel.
After some hours I found several tubes of cobweb -
like texture, open at both ends, and slightly tapering,
attached to the sides of it, and in each tube a larva,
which, holding on by the anal prolegs, gave to its
body a vertical serpentine motion, which made a
current of water to flow through the tube. About
once a minute it would contract itself, and then,
pressing its head against the sides of the tube, collect
with its conspicuous mandibles and devour such of
those solid particles which had been drawn in by the
current and were entangled in the tube, as suited its
taste, and occasionally it would turn about and collect
at the narrow end, but it always brought its head
back to its old position at the larger end before it
commenced pumping again.

This larva does not come to the surface of the
water to breathe, neither does the pupa, which also
lives in a tube, and makes the water flow through it
by the undulations of its body, just as the larva did, in
order, I presume, to bring the air contained in the
water into contact with the hairy fringes which border
the segments of its abdomen ; certainly not to obtain
food, for it does not eat. It has no hairs on the
thorax like those represented in the figures of Chiro -
nomits flumosus.

I was amused to see that each of my pupoe kept its
old head under its body, where it rocked to and fro
with each wave of its abdomen ; there it was, with
its dark jaws, its little eyes, and neat brown collar,
and with the same comical, Japanese kind of expres-
sion that it had when it was in its old place. When
the pupae were about three days old they left their
tubes, and after swimming, or rather throwing them-
selves about with the most violent contortions for
three hours or so, and now frequently coming to the
surface, they remained there for a little while, and
then the transformation took place.

Although I watched my captives pretty closely,
many of them changed their state unobserved. Once,
when I went away for two minutes only, I found
on my return the gnat creeping up the side of the
vessel. At last I was fortunate enough to see one
come out. It did not free itself in a careful, delibe-
rate manner, like the common gnat, which, sailing
about in its pupa skin, gently extracts its anterior
legs, and, after carefully placing these on the water,
proceeds to liberate the next pair, and so on ; but it
came forth as though it were being steadily squeezed
out, and then immediately flew away, the whole
operation occupying just fifteen seconds !

I had previously placed a pupa on the stage of my
microscope in order to examine it ; but before I had
time to do so, the skin parfed, the head appeared, and
in about eighteen seconds the whole imago was out.

My specimens lived a month as larvae, and from
three to four days as pupre. I am sorry that I have

been unable to obtain the name of this insect. I
think it is allied, if it does not belong, to the genus
Chironomus. The imago is 1^ line long. The two
, anterior legs ar.e distant from the others, and the rost.
rum is short.

The female is yellow, and has short antennae, of
few joints, the terminal one being the largest ; the
male is darker, with the abdomen greenish-brown ;
the tibiae and tarsi dusky ; the antennae plumose, of
many moniliform joints, with the terminal one cylin-
drical, and very long. — Edward Cox, Brixton.

A TOUR IN SEARCH OF FOSSILS.

THE experiences of a collector during a run from
Edinburgh to Bristol, and a stay of twelve
days at the latter place, may, perhaps, be interesting
to the readers of Science-Gossip.

The first halting-place was Settle, in Yorkshire,
classic ground to the brachiopodist, mainly through
the labours of Mr. John Burrow. Mr. Burrow was
the son of a doctor of independent means, and spent
his life in working out the palaeontology of his dis-
trict. He was known to all of the inhabitants of the
town to whom I spoke, and an intelligent shoemaker,
who occasionally accompanied him on his rounds,
gave me what information he could, as to his habits
and excursions. He described him as “ rather dull-
i looking ” as a lad, and as one from whose after-life
no great things were to be expected. From what I
had known of his work I was curious to find out as
much as I could about him, wondering, as so much
has recently been said of men in a humble grade of life
who have worked in pretty much the same groove,
what could be said of a man who was above them in
the social scale ; but I had not time to pursue such
inquiries very far ; the sum of what I learnt was that
he was a man who spent nearly the whole of his time
on the moors, that he worked hard, and, uniting
quickness of eye and intelligence with zeal, was able
to accomplish what he did. Mr. Davidson’s mono-
graph of the British Carboniferous Brachiopoda bears
frequent testimony to his merits. His collection went
to the Woodwardian Museum, at Cambridge, fetch-
ing a sum which, as he himself said, paid him scarcely
at the rate of a halfpenny per hour for the time
during which he had been making it. He died
comparatively young.

A collector’s first experience of Settle would pro-
bably be disappointing. It requires, above all things,
time to know what a locality can produce, and a very
considerable amount of patience and muscular activity
to successfully work a locality that is known. Al-
most in accordance with my expectation, I found
Settle exceedingly barren during the single day I was
able to spend there. A few common Brachiopods
only rewarded my labour, but these, with the beauti-
ful mineralisation characteristic of the limestone of
the district, were thought worthy of preservation. A

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

27 r

few good Productus striatus occasionally occurred on
window-sills and over porches. Many good things
were got when the new line between Settle and
Carlisle was being constructed. The quarries scarcely
repay a visit to the chance collector. The richer
beds are not always worked, and the quarrymen do
not seem to have much to offer. Fish remains, I
was told, occur in the Dent marbles, a few miles
further up the line, but I am not aware of any verte-
brate remains having been found in the carboniferous
limestones of the immediate vicinity.

The next halting-place was Dudley. The fossils,
with which every palaeontologist is familiar, are got
at two places, the Wren’s Nest and the Castle ;
neither place is far from the town. I spent a day at
the Wren’s Nest, but hadn’t time to visit the Castle.
The beds I saw were tilted at a sharp angle, and
good weathered fossils are to be found in the debris
at their base. The beds themselves are so crowded
with organic remains that they offer the finest study
possible of an important part of the world’s ancient
life. These remains, however, are not easy to
transfer to the collecting-bag, and the geologist must
betake himself to the various places where the softer
shales have become disintegrated, and have yielded
up a part of their fossil contents. His first feeling
will be one of disappointment, even here, where he
is aware of an enormous profusion of organisms, and,
indeed, if his object be merely to secure fine cabinet-
specimens, his disappointment will be keen ; good
trilobites and shells are not easily to be picked up,
but if his object be of a more purely scientific kind,
especially if he has learnt to feel much interest in the
lower forms of animal life, he will not be dissatisfied
with his gatherings. Novelties are, of course, not
easy to find in a locality so long and often wrought
as Dudley ; but it appeared to me very probable,
from the almost inexhaustible abundance of material
to work upon, that something might even yet be
obtained, especially in groups that have not yet
received their full share of attention, as corals, poly-
zoa, sponges, &c. A week’s good work would
probably yield some interesting results. Atrypa
reticularis seems to be the commonest fossil, and I
mention it because I found the mineralisation ex-
ceedingly favourable to the preservation of the spires.
Out of a handful thrown into acid, a large percentage
yielded the desired result. If one is at all anxious
to know whence all the good museum specimens have
come, and makes inquiry, he finds that there is
a band of men who make a business of collecting.
They get good fossils still, and an old man, in
particular, had quite recently made several valuable
finds. It is hopeless to attempt to compete with
such men, and the visitor who has thought of getting
them for himself had better give up the idea, and
make for the nearest dealer’s shop. There are two
semi-professional dealers at Dudley, a druggist, Mr.
Hollier, and a herbalist, Mr. Fletcher. I only saw

a few of Mr. Flollier’s things, but Mr. Fletcher
obligingly showed me what he had. He has some
good trilobites, but seemed unwilling to part with
them. I was told that there was a museum at the
Mechanics’ Institute, but it was too late to see it.
The museum which was before it in date has become
defunct, and its collection is scattered.

The neighbourhood of Bristol is perhaps as good a
one for the paleontologist as any in the kingdom.
Several horizons are well represented, and many of
the best localities are easily accessible. I began work
upon the inferior Oolite at Dundry. To give an idea
of the richness of this locality, it may be mentioned
that the quarry is exceedingly small, being used
simply to obtain road-metal from, but that out of it
have come an enormous number of genera and species,
of which specimens occur in almost every museum and
private cabinet in the country. At the Bristol Museum
I counted from this locality 226 species distributed
amongst 67 genera, but a complete list of what it has
yielded would give a much higher figure. This great
abundance of organic remains was a treat to one
coming from the comparatively sterile horizons of
Mid-Lothian.

The chief excavation is near the top and on the
north side of Dundry-hill, close to the main road
leading from Bristol to Dundry, and is two or three
miles distant from the city. A little way down on
the south side is another and smaller quarry, which I
found rich in corals and large Rhynchonellas. It is of
no use visiting the north quarry unless the workmen
have been getting out some road-material ; this they
get in rather large fragments, and for a small fee will
allow the visitor to set to work upon them, and
gather for himself what he can. In breaking up the
blocks for their own purposes, they put aside the
better specimens themselves, and generally have some
for sale. The sellers of minerals on the Clifton
Downs usually have a few Dundry fossils on their
stalls, in addition to a great many very beautiful
polished carboniferous corals and sponges, which
can be bought at a very cheap rate.

The well-known Rhcetic beds of Aust gave me
occupation for a day. The fish remains occur on the
surface of the Avicula contorta shales, and in bluish-
grey seams which run irregularly through a coarse,
pebbly-looking kind of rock. The beds are exhibited
well up on the face of the cliffs, and the collector is
dependent upon the crumbling away of the marl
beneath for material to work upon. After a high tide
with a strong westerly wind is the best time to visit
the locality. A good deal of material was strewn
about at the time when I was there, and a star-fish
and Ilybodus remains rewarded my search. To
extract good reptilian or fish remains the collector
must prepare himself for hard work, as the matrix is
very intractable, but with patience, and a heavy
hammer and sharp chisel, he will assuredly meet with
good success. Ichthyologists have lamented that

272

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

so few Ceratodus teeth have been obtained in recent
years. A partial explanation may be found in the fact
of the hard work required to extract them. That the
locality is rich in such remains is well known. The
Higgins Collection recently acquired by the Bristol
Museum is a striking proof of it. Many of the Ceratodus
teeth of this collection are figured in Mr. Miall’s
monograph just published. If the visitor at Aust
wishes to spare himself trouble, he may sometimes
find a few things at one of the cottages in the village.
There does not seem to be any well-sustained effort in
any quarter at present at extracting the riches of the
locality.

At first view the limestones at Clifton seem barren,
but a little careful research soon opens up a better
prospect. Mr. Emery, a gatekeeper at the Suspen-
sion Bridge, obligingly rendered me very material
assistance. His knowledge of the carboniferous lime-
stone of his district is both accurate and extensive,
and he has made vthe aluable discovery of seams of
Rhoetic in the limestone of the Durdham Downs. The
upper shales I found exceedingly fossiliferous, and at no
greater distance than the new buildings on the Leigh
side there were beds exposed in which fine Brachio-
pods were abundant. The “Black-rock” quarry,
which has yielded such good fish remains, is unfortu-
nately closed. Wishing to examine the carboniferous
limestone of the Mendip Hills in Somerset, I found
myself, almost by accident, in Burrington Combe, a
glen produced apparently by the same causes as those
which have hollowed out the gorge of the Cheddar
Cliffs, with which it is in line, but on the opposite
slope of the hills. This combe is of considerable
interest both to the physical geologist and palaeonto-
logist. The section exposed is one of very considerable
thickness, and the fossil-bearing beds are accessible.
Brachiopods, lamellibranchs, gasteropods, and corals
were abundant. Good Psammodus teeth would
reward the diligent collector. A fine one fell to my
share. High up on the right-hand side, almost half-
way up the combe, I came upon some shales from
which the earth had fallen, and was delighted at the
display of organic remains. The dip of the beds was
about the same as that of Dudley, which I had just
seen, and the profusion of extinct life nearly as great.
The fossils I observed were chiefly referable to the
genera Chonetes and Spirifera , S. cuspidata being
quite common. I am not aware that this locality has
been much wrought, but it would unquestionably
repay any good work spent upon it.

Two days upon the inferior Oolite of Bradford,
Wilts, and Minchinhampton, Gloucestershire, con-
cluded the field work of the excursion, and the short
time that remained was spent at the Bristol Museum.
There is evidence of good work in this museum,
especially on the part of the geologists and malaco-
logists. It possesses several very valuable type speci-
mens, and is, on the whole, well arranged for the
display of its collections. It has no funds for pur-

chases, and when the Higgins Collection was in the
market had to resort to the expedient of a public
subscription to secure it, but in spite of this draw-
back it has done exceedingly well, and has received
many valuable donations. The late Mr. Sanders
took great interest in it, ' Mr. Etheridge, palaeon-
tologist to the English Geological Survey, and many
others, have contributed largely to increase the number
and value of its specimens, and the zeal of the gentle-
man, recently its curator, and now of the Wood-
wardian Museum at Cambridge, has done much to-
bring it to its present satisfactory state. It occupies
beautiful premises on a good site. The upper hall is
devoted to Mineralogy, Palaeontology, and recent
shells. The fossils are arranged in table- cases, in
stratigraphical order, and the light is all that could
be wished. A striking feature is the Ichthyosaurus ,
completely extracted from the matrix, and suspended
from an iron support. This way of mounting, as
novel as instructive, arose out of a mistake. The
wrong faces of the blocks were, in some instances,
developed, rendering it necessary for the remains to
be entirely extracted, if the specimen was not to be
spoiled.

The lower hall is devoted to Ethnography and
recent Zoology. I was sorry and rather surprised to
hear that more use was not made of this part of the
Natural History collections. The attendance of
students is almost nil. No attempt seems to have
been yet made by those who have the direction of
what biological teaching exists at Bristol, to take
advantage of the facilities which the museum offers.

Edinburgh. T. STOCK.

AN AUTUMN RAMBLE IN EPPING
FOREST.

By Dr. De Crespigny.

Part II.

HP HE genus Coprimis has membranous gills, which
become black (with the black spores)11 when fully
developed, and finally deliquescent. Coprimis comatus
we gathered in a pasturage below the warren. It is a
singular-looking fungus, edible, and remarkable for
its scaly cuticle : the scales are seen in the figure as
tufted and revolute at their ends. In the same pas-
ture grew another and pretty little species called
C. pticatilis , with plicato-sulcate pileus and small
umbone. As it is a good example of this kind of
pileus, a figure in illustration is subjoined. A good
specimen of the genus Cortinarius we gathered in
Inoloma [C .)vio/aceus, said by Mr. Worthington Smith
to be one of the very best for esculent purposes.
Cortinarius has been subdivided into six sections ;
they have all persistent membranous gills and a
floccose trama ; a veil of arachnoid threads and rust-

* Specimens of the black spore section of Agancus may be
found on dung-hills everywhere in A. ( Cofirinanus or Pan -
ceolm) scparatns.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -G O SSI P.

273

coloured spores. When torn nv otUiwiso atccipctpri.
tkc remains of the veil may he usually discerned as
stains upon the bulbous stipe ; but the violet tinge
upon the stipe is not constant, nor is the pileus
violet except when quite young. It is by no means
common.

Most of the smaller specimens of fungi, which
grew upon leaves or on the ground, were damaged.
We made out, however, that the subgenus Myxanim
is well represented.

Fig. 226.— Pileus of Cop-
rinus plicatilis.

Fig. 227. — Stem of Maras-
mins oreades covered with
a woven villous coat (mag.)

Fig. 225. — Vertical section of Jf'

C opr inns comatus, showing >C.*vVo Cf

the narrow pileus and scaly

cuticle, crowded gills and £ «.:! .Q Q Pp- V, : Q:

cavity of the stem filled with _ ’

filmy reticular tissue, sup- Fig. 228. — Vesicular trama of
ported by a central columella. Lactanus and Russula.

Fig. 229. — Vertical section of Hygrophorus psittacinus showing
the hollow splitting stipe, ike.

Hygrophorus is characterized by its waxy hyrne-
nium, hymenophorum continuous with the stem and
descending unchanged into the sharp-edged gills.
Specimens of H. psittacinus we obtained from a wet
pasturage : the colour of pileus, gills, and stem is of
a crocus yellow, tinged here and there, on the gills
especially, with grass-green in the young plants, the
stipes hollow and splitting ; the hymenium, too, has
a tendency to separate from the trama when dry.

T.cirtnri.iis iv wpll vppi-pcpnfpd a - sjjI-.Juccis i» ex-
tremely plentiful. The gills and flesh are milky i>i
this genus, the trama vesiculose, hymenophorum
confluent with the stem ; two or three of this species
which are of a rufous or cinnamon-brown colour are
much alike ; the milk of L. seriflmis, however, is
1 watery, and that of L. fuliginosus turns yellowish.

A specimen of L. blennius , pileus greenish-grey,

! gills white, was also gathered.

230. — Vertical section of a Ladarii.s.

Fig. 231. — Vertical section of Russula nigricans.

Fig. 232.— Hymenophyllum of a Russula confluent with the
vesicular trama (A\ hcterophylla).

Equally abundant with Ladarius were species ot
Russula. The structural characteristics of this genus
are precisely the same as those of the preceding,
except that the flesh is not milky. Very common
was Russula hetcrophylla , pileus of all shades of dull
yellow, greenish, purplish, and dull red ; frequent

274

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-G OSSIP.

A. fragile, red when vounu, but white and polished
afterwards, viscid. Another common species is Rus-
sula nigricans, dark greyish green or dingy olive,
becoming charred as well as the stem, when old ;
umbilicate, as are the Russulas generally, and with
the margins of the elevated borders inflected ; the
gills are white with a black border.

Cantharellus cibarius is sometimes plentiful in
Epping Forest. It may be known by its golden -
yellow colour, infundibuliform pileus, and gills re-
duced to mere folds or swollen veins. We could
obtain no specimen to illustrate this curious structure
of hymenium. The genus has a floccose trama ;
gills in other species thick, swollen, and obtuse.

Marasmius is another genus in which the trama is
floccose ; the hymenophorum confluent with the
stem, although of different structure; not confined
to the lamellae, but spread over all the interstices.
M. Oreades is said to be good eating, grows on diy
pastures, generally in rings (the circle is rarely com-
plete) of from six to eight feet broad. The whole
plant is of a dirty cream-colour, pileus more or less
slightly stained with brown, and seldom more than an
inch or two in diameter. We found them on a com-
mon near Woodford.

Intermediate between the gillbearing Hymenomy-
cetes, and those with a porous hymenium, are the two
curious genera, Lenzites and Dcedalea, both of common
occurrence in forests, and of which the former is
retained in the first-mentioned family, and Dcedalea
in the latter ; but the fact is, when fully developed, it
is very difficult, out of a number of specimens, to
decide which is which. Nature is very unaccommo-
dating, and refuses to be tied hard and fast by laws
and rules, as laid down, in the books which treat of her
phenomena. The lamellae of Dcedalea are indeed
sometimes so much broken up, in old plants, as to
resemble the toothed processes characteristic of the
hymenium of a Hydintm.

FOSSIL POLYZOA.

The Genus Fenestella: its History, Develop-
ment, and Range in Space and Time.

By George Robert Vine.

History of the Genus.

IN these papers I do not wish to discuss questions
that are purely geological. I wish to deal only with
one type of a class, out of many of the classes which
fall naturally into the divisional roll of the palaeon-
tologist. But while keeping this before me as a
guide, I cannot ignore the fact that in speaking of
formations it will be necessary to either enlarge or
restrict my meaning when I use certain terms. In
speaking of the Silurian System, this was not so
much needed, but in speaking of the Fenestella of the

Devonian sy^m it will be necessary to limit my
meaning, as my remarks on me species will apDiy
more particularly to the typical Devonian rocks of
Devon and Cornwall.

In 1841, Mr. John Phillips published his elaborate
work on the Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West
Somersetshire. In this work there are numerous
plates of Fossils, with letterpress descriptions of the
same. Figures and descriptions are given of these
species of Fenestella , for in this work Phillips discards
the word Retepora, and uses Miller’s more expressive
term. The specific character of F. laxa is similar to
that given in his Geology of Yorkshire. “The net-
work is extremely large and irregular, the obverse
bearing two rows of tubular pores, reverse granulously
striated,” and the localities are S. Petherwin and
Croyde. Of the F. antiqua Goldfuss, Phillips gives
several very good figures, and his description is little
more precise. He says of one of his figures (35a),
F. antiqua var. that the specimen was sub-conical, and
that the celluliferous face was external. This is clearly
a mistake, for even from the figure it seems to give an
idea that the polyzoon was parasitic on some object.
The corallum was irregular, with thick, slightly
flexuous interstices, very obtusely carinated ; the
dissepiments were thick and short, and placed at
regular intervals ; the fenestrules were oblong, and
the pores were small, with slight prominent margins
about their own diameter apart, and usually
about three to the fenestrule. The species and
varieties are common in the Devonian Limestone of
Plymouth. This description applies to Goldfuss’
figure of Retepora antiqua, and not to Lonsdale’s
F. antiqua of the Silurian System. F. anthritica is
another of the Devonian species, but it is not very
well described. The figures are very good, but I
cannot make much out of them. The Hemitrypa
oculata of South Devon seems to me to be clearly
a Fenestella. It is a thin laminar expansion in
a cup-formed mass. The external surface is wholly
covered with numerous round pores or cells radiating
from a centre, and associated in double rows, which
near the centre undergo frequent divisions, so as to
form two such rows. The figures seem to bear, in
some respect, the character of Hemitrypa Hibernica,
and also to the Fenestella {?) Sykesii of De Koninck.
One of Phillips’s drawings, fig. 38 E., is decidedly
characteristic of the Fenestella type, and one would
have no hesitation in placing it with that group. I
have been rather more particular with Phillips’s
Devonian Fenestella than I should have been had the
work been less scarce. As it is, I have done my best
to furnish the student with his specific characters in
this history of the Genus.

Several American Devonian species of Fenestella
have been figured and described by H. A. Nicholson,
Professor of Biology, in his work on ‘ ‘ Ontario, ” and in
the Geological Magazine for 1874-5. Some of these new
forms are very characteristic, and although they bear

HARD WICKEDS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

275

different specific names, there is a tendency of some
to ally with Silurian, while others approach Carboni-
ferous species in character. But every fragment given
by Nicholson is well described — a property that adds
much to the value of his specimens. One of these,
Fenestella magnified , bears a close resemblance in its
non-poriferous aspect to F. laxa of Phillips. To this
particular point Nicholson himself draws the attention
of the reader. I do not, however, set a very high
value upon Phillips’ F. laxa from the Carboniferous
or Devonian series. It is very loosely described, and
very loosely figured, both in his Palseozoic Fossils,
and in his Geology of Yorkshire. Nicholson’s species,
then, has this advantage over the older description ;
it is well figured and well described. The poriferous
aspect is unknown. He says : “ I have only seen a
single specimen of F. magnified , and that only exhibits
the reverse side of the coenecium, but the general
character of the frond so distinctive, that I have no
hesitation in founding a distinct species for its recep-
tion. It is from the Carboniferous Limestone of Port
Colborne, Canada.”*

F. marginalis (Nich.) is a very peculiar species.

It is described from a mere fragment, but the charac-
ter is distinct. The polyzoary was fan-shaped, but
of unknown dimensions. f In his critical remarks,
Nicholson says : “The specimen does not enable me
to affirm with certainty that the two marginal rows
of cells were separated by a medium keel, but it
appears highly probable that this was the case. In
the genus, or sub-genus, Fenestrellina (D’Orbigny),
the mesial keel, separating the two rows of large
lateral cells, carries a central row of minute cells. In
F. marginalis , however, the space between the lateral
rows of cells carries a series of minute crowded cells,
which are arranged in two, or sometimes in three,
alternating rows ; so that the central keel, if present,
must have exhibited the openings of two or three
rows of cells. This character, so far as I am
aware, has not hitherto been noticed in any species
of Fenestella , except F. rigidula (M‘Coy), and it
may, perhaps, afford a ground of sub-generic dis-
tinction.’^

Fenestella filiformis (Nicholson) is the most
beautiful and delicate Fenestella that I have ever
seen. It is finer in the branches than the finest and
most delicate of any of my Carboniferous species.
The specimens are only in fragments, and the celluli-
ferous aspect is unknown. Of the branches, Nicholson
says, fifteen or sixteen of these occupy the space of
a quarter of an inch.

Another species from the Hamilton group of the
Devonians of America is figured and described by

* Geo. Mag., May, 1874, p. 197.

t As the descriptions of these species are easily accessible to
the geological student, I do no more than draw his attention
to a few of the minute details of Nicholson — reference to the
larger description will well repay him for the trouble.

t Prof. H. H. Nicholson. New Devonian Fossils, Geo.
Mag., May, 1874.

Nicholson, which he dedicates to his friend David-
son. It is the Fenestella Davidsoni. From the
peculiar growth of the frond, it approaches nearest in
character to the F. Milleri , of Lonsdale, but both the
branches, fenestrules, and number and character of
cells are altogether different from that species. “ In
the general aspect of the celluliferous surface and the
sinuous course of the branches, the species makes a
close approach to some of the species of the genus
Retepora ; but the presence of non-poriferous dissepi-
ments, and the existence of a keel separating two
rows of cells, seem to justify its reference to the genus
Fenestella In his “Ontario,” Nicholson gives
another species, F. nervata , but having no access to
his work, I am unable to describe it.

There is a striking peculiarity, however, about the
Silurian and the Devonian Fenestella when com-
pared with the Carboniferous species, which marks
them as distinct. But there are no arbitrary lines
about any of the Palseozoic group, except in the F.
rigidula and F. marginalis . If the poriferous

character of the keel, or the place the keel should
occupy, has not been exaggerated, this is peculiar ;
but, as I have been myself very much deceived in the
apparently poriferous keel,f I merely record my
doubt, with all due respect to the describers of these
species. Some specimens, too, show this poriferous
keel outwardly , but when reduced to sections, the
real cells are contiguous, and all the keel that exists is
the thin, wavy line which separates the two rows of
cells, and even this apparent line is nothing more
than the impingement of the walls of the separate
cells one upon the other.

The Fenestella group seems to have reached its
climax in the Carboniferous seas. No fewer than
twenty-two species have been described by Phillips,
M‘Coy, and others, to which Mr. Robert Etheridge,
jun., has added two others from the Scottish series
of Carboniferous shales. Many of these species are
fictitious ; the characters of some of them have been
described from fragments of other species. As, how-
ever, my friend G. W. Shrubsole, F.G. S., is engaged
on a complete revision of the Carboniferous Fenestella ,
I will just here indicate the specific character of a
few only of the list. F. membranace , Phillips, is a well-
marked and characteristic species. It is elongate and
conical, bearing — generally — three small pores on each
side of the fenestrule ; it has, moreover, long, solid
non-poriferous roots. F. antiqua, Lonsdale, Retepora
antiqua, Goldfuss, and F. sub-antiquay D’Orb.,
are included with this species as synonyms.
F. fiabellatay Phillips, vary very much in different

* Geo. Mag., 1875.

t “ I believe that all that has been written about poriferous
keels on the Fenestella is wrong, and that these so-called pores
are only worn-down rows of tubercules. Like you, I have
sectioned specimens showing these worn tubercules, and find
they lead to nothing, and have no connection with the cells.” —
Mr. John Young, F.G.S.

276

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE -G OSSIP.

localities. It is fan-shape in character; but the
branches of specimens from Richmond, in Yorkshire,
differ materially from those found in North Wales.
It often presents two different characters in well-
developed fronds — so much so that if a good frond was
broken and distributed to several Palaeontologists,
asking them to identify the species, two sets of
opinions would be the result. F. fmtex , M'Coy, seems
to be a good species, so also are the F. polyporata ,
and the F. undulata, of the same author ; but
F. nodulosa, and F. tenuijila , are somewhat doubtful.
The F. formosa , of M‘Coy, is also doubtful in the
character of the poriferous dissepiment ; but the
F. plebeia, F. quadradecemalis, and the F. carinata,
of the same author, have pretty constant characters.
The F. crassa , and F. ejuncida , are doubtful. The
F. hemispherica is a beautiful specimen, but may it
not be the young form of some of the larger specimens
described as species ? Besides these forms there are
several others in my list, but after having examined
many of the fine species gathered by Mr. Shrubsole
from the Halkyn Mountains of North Wales, I am
rather in favour of a reduction than of an extension
of species. My belief is that many of the so-called
species are the result of indiscriminate grouping. The
fault of the confusion, is not so much pressed home
upon the describer as upon the collector. It may be
that no Fenestella bands have been so well preserved as
are those of the Halkyn Mountain group ; and it may
be that collectors have been more careful for general,
than for particular fossils. Be that as it may, the
group well deserves revision, and having a sufficient
knowledge of the material at his disposal, I believe
the work will be well and honestly done by Mr.
Shrubsole.

The Fenestella of the Permian rocks are few in
number — both as regards species and individuals.
The form generally met with in collections is
F. reticularis , of Schlol. In Morris’ Catalogue this
is given as F. retiformis , with the synonyms Kerato-
phytes, Gorgonia infundibuliformis , Goldfuss, and
Retepora Jlustracea, Phillips, but as my own specimens
show only the non-poriferous side, I am unable to
give any minute details respecting the species. The
non-poriferous aspect bears a close resemblance to
some of the Carboniferous, and also of the Silurian
Fenestella ; dependence, however, upon this is unsafe
as a palaeontological guide.

In space this genus had a remarkably wide range ;
it being tolerably abundant in the Palaeozoic series of
America. In this country the foregoing remarks will
justify my assertion that it was also abundant with
us. De Koninck and others have shown how preva-
lent certain species are in the Bohemian and Belgian
series, some of the species belonging to the latter
extending as far east as India. In time the genus
ranged throughout the whole of the Palaeozoic rocks,
becoming extinct, so far as is yet known, at the close
of the Permian era.

MICROSCOPY.

Varnish for Glycerine Mounts. — Some time
since I asked in Science-Gossip for some varnish
which would not be affected by glycerine jelly. No
satisfactory answer being given, I had to fall back on
my own experiments, and am glad to say I have at
last found a varnish, which, worked with others,
answers in the best possible manner. The varnish I
allude to is gold size, and I find the following method'
of applying it answer best. Having mounted your
slide, and allowed time for the glycerine to set, go
carefully round the thin glass circle with a warm pen-
knife, then with a fine camel’s-hair brush run a ring
of gold size round, by means of the turn-table ; allow
this to dry, then apply another layer, and when this
is dry a third ; lastly, run a ring of white lead varnish
over the gold size, and finish with a ring of green
varnish in the centre of the white if your object be
a vegetable preparation, or red, if it be animal. I
have mounted some dozens of slides in this way, and
in no case have I so far found the varnish to fail.
Let me recommend readers of Science- Gossip, who
like myself have had a difficulty in finding a stable
varnish, to give this method a fair trial. Dr. Car-
penter in his work, “ The Microscope,” it will be re-
membered, speaks highly of gold size as a varnish.

I consider, however, that without some varnish over
it, gold size does not make a very neat or a very
elegant appearance. — Charles F. IV. T. Williams,
the Vicarage , Tinslade , Bucks.

New Diatoms. — Melosira Barren (Grev.) var.
Plispida Castracane. This variety is distinguished
from the type form by the presence of short teeth or
spines scattered over the surface of the valves, but
especially on the lower convexity of the frustule.
Canal de Trau, Dalmatia, Cyclophora, n.g.
Castracana, frustules tabular, rectangular, sometimes
in series, sometimes free, sometimes connected by a
gelatinous isthmus forming a zigzag chain in f.v.
linear-oblong, sometimes slightly inflated, valves
unequal, one of them with a central loculus, living in,
sea-water. Cyclophora tenuis , Castracane ; frustules in
f.v. oblong, rectangular, slightly inflated, valves linear,,
inflated, rounded at the ends, dissimilar, one of which
has a central ring or loculus. Length of valve,
44M 5> 55/b 2> breadth 4 /i 8, iijx 3. On rocks at
Ancona ; Naples, in aquarium. (Extracted from
Brebissonia, anew monthly serialdevoted to Algaeology
and Micrographic Botany, edited by M. G. Huberson.).'

Diatoms in Coal. — It is, perhaps, in the recol-
lection of our readers, that about two years ago,
Count Castracane announced the discovery of marine
and fresh-water diatoms in coal ashes. Professor
W. C. Williamson, at the Dublin meeting of the
British Association, doubted the accuracy of this, and
stated that Professor Roscoe had permitted one of.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE GOSSIP.

277

his ablest assistants to make analyses of various kinds
of coal, in accordance with Count Castracane’s direc-
tions, and these ashes he (Professor Williamson)
had carefully examined, but had been unable to
detect any traces of diatomacece. I can confirm this,
having myself made many observations on the ashes
of various kinds of coal and coal shales ; many of the
latter were rich in the remains of equisetums and
ferns, and ought to have contained diatoms, if any
existed at that period. So acute an observer as
Count Castracane could not be mistaken as to the
presence of diatoms in the ashes he examined, and
we must, therefore, come to the conclusion that their
presence was accidental. I have examined very many
samples of chalk, not only from this country, but also
from various other localities, but have never seen any
valves of diatomaceae. I should be glad to learn if
any other observer has been more successful. — F.
Kit ton, Norwich.

A Collecting Stick. — The following is a de-
scription of a collecting stick I have made, and found
very useful in collecting diatoms from the bottom of
streams, as it does not disturb the mud and sand, like
the ordinary collecting bottle. A is a bamboo-cane,

Fig. 233. — Collecting Stick.

with a piece of Indian-rubber tubing running down
the centre, such as is used for feeding-bottles ; B is a
glass-tube fastened to rubber-tube ; C is an Indian-
rubber ball, by squeezing which you force air out of
the glass-tube, and then by placing it near the object
you wish to get, and letting the ball expand, the
object is drawn up into the tube. On squeezing the
ball it is then forced out into the bottle. The stick
can be also used as an ordinary walking stick. —
Albert Smith.

ZOOLOGY,

How to Preserve Skins, &c. — I can give your
correspondent J. Y. a really good non-poisonous
receipt. It has stood the test of fifteen years, and can
be well relied on, viz. : — I. Whiting or chalk, 1^ lb. ;
2. Soft-soap, 1 lb. ; 3. Chloride of lime, 2 oz.

Boil Nos. 1 and 2 with about a pint of water, and add
No. 3 while hot. Before adding the lime see that it
is finely powdered, or else it will not work smoothly.
Another good one is as follows : — Burnt alum, 1 lb. ;
saltpetre, 5 lb. ; pound and thoroughly mix. This is
especially for animals, as when well rubbed in it will
fix the fur and hair admirably, and penetrate the
thickest skin. — Edward E. Evans.

Mimicry among Vertebrata. — Mr. Wallace,
in his work on “Natural Selection,” by way of en-
forcing his arguments, quotes instances of mimicry

among snakes only. In the beginning of 1877, when
I was stationed at Shwaegyeng, in British Burmah, a
wild dog was brought to me, and on the first glance
I thought it was a young deer ! The resemblance
was striking in many ways ; colour, form, and mo-
tions of small deer were imitated in a wonderfully
deceptive manner. The head especially was remark-
able for its resemblance to the head of a doe, the
ears were long and very mobile, and could be thrown
back on to the neck in a way habitual to the female
of the common hog deer. These wild dogs are rare,
but they are to be found on the plains of Burmah, and,
as may be readily inferred, they prey upon the small
deer which abound in the grassy plains of that
country. I kept the animal for several days ; it was
a young one, and was very fierce. I sent it down to
Rangoon as an exhibit for the Phayre Museum and
Menagerie there, but the creature died on the way,,
and the person in charge unfortunately threw away
the carcase, instead of preserving it. I hope shortly
to be able to get another of these animals, and shall
do my best to send it alive to England. — Arthur
Hough.

Pronunciation of Scientific Names. —
Mr. Browne (see July No.) is no doubt right in his
suggestion that the Latin qu was originally pro-
nounced like k. In the memoir prefixed to the “ De
Naturis Rerum ” of Alex. Necham (born 1157) the
following anecdote is related. “Necham abandoned
his school at Dunstable, and became desirous of
entering one of the monasteries, and he first turned
his eyes to the great Benedictine monastery in his
native town of St. Alban’s. He accordingly addressed
an application to the Abbot in these terms, Si vis
veniam sin autem , &=c., to which the Abbot, who
appears to have been somewhat of a wag, replied, Si
bonus es ve/tias, si nequani nequaquam ” (If you are
good, come ; if bad, by no means come). Nequam
of course being pronounced necham, this pun on his.
name offended him, and he did not join the St.
Alban’s monastery. — F. Kitton.

The Alternate Generation of theEciiino-
dermata.— Professor Haeckel has recently sent the
following to the San Francisco Microscopical Society r
— “ The palingenetic development of the Echinoder-
mata, ordinarily known as metamorphosis, which
leads to important inferences as to their race history,
is to be considered as a genuine alternation of
generations, and especially for this reason, that the
two succeeding generations are destroyed in order to
make possible the change into one another by a
single transformation. The first generation, the
‘Nurse,’ or so-called larva, is a solitary, bilateral,
limbless individual or ‘person,’ which consists of only
one piece or antimera, and possesses the greatest
resemblance to true worm larvae. On the contrary,
the second generation, the perfected echinoderm, has.
the ground-plan of a symmetrical, five-sided pyramid,

278

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

and consists of five antimera or parts ; it forms a true
stock or cormus, which is composed of five articu-
lated, worm-like, bilateral persons. When this
cormus originates within the nurse by budding, a
multiplication of antimera occurs, whereby from one
antimera five arise. This origin can be interpreted
only as a non-sexual reproduction, not as a mere
transformation. The true nature of these genuine
alternate generations is clearly shown by those sea-
stars, in which the body remains free from the five
(or more) independent arms, and the central disk,
which barely unites the latter in the middle, exists
almost as an independent body. These are Ophidi-
aster , Che? faster , Brisinga , &c. Particularly inte-
resting in this relation are most species of the genus
Ophidiaster , or Linckia, from which several specimens
are exhibited ( 0 . diplax , O. ornithopus , 0. multi-
formis,, and 0. Ehrenbergii). Here the single arm,
which possesses the morphological value of an
articulate worm, is freely detached from the disk, and
every arm forms by regeneration both the central
disk and the four remaining arms. With numerous
specimens of the four species of Ophidiaster selected,
all the various stages of this reproduction process
were shown, and he discussed the significance which
these so-called comet forms of sea-stars possess for
the morphological interpretation of the same. There-
fore we should take as the oldest stem form of the
Echinodermata the Asteroidea, from which as di-
verging branches have developed Ophipridea, Crinoi-
dea , and Echinoidea. In the last, the centralization
of the whole cormus is carried farthest, and from
them the Holothuroidea have arisen. Thus the Holo-
thuroidea stand most distant from the original form
of the Echinodermata — the Asteroidea.”

BOTANY.

Cotoneaster vulgaris. — This plant still exists
in small quantities on the Orme’s Head. I saw it
there in July last. — James Britton.

Polypogon Littoralis. — This rare plant, which
does not appear to have been recorded for Glouces-
tershire, occurred this year in considerable quantity,
on marshy ground, near the north bank of the Avon
river at Bristol. On inquiry it seems that the soil
here has been taken from the river bank and bed
at places much nearer Clifton, when the river was
widened and the new dock-gates constructed, and
brought to this marsh to fill hollows from which the
clay had been dug for manufacturing purposes. Its
appearance is of interest, as furnishing another instance
of the occurrence of new plants when soil that has
been long buried is brought to the surface.

Lizard Orchis ( Orchis hircina). — I had sent
to me last June a very fine specimen of the Lizard
•Orchis ( Orchis hircina ). It was found in a chalk-

pit at Greenhithe. As I see from Hooker and
Arnott’s “British Flora,” published 1850, that the
plant “ is very rare (perhaps now extinct),” it maybe
interesting to your readers to know it has been found
so recently. I enclose one dried blossom that you
may be sure of its authenticity. The plant was nearly
3 ft. high, the spike of blossom over 21 in. Per-
haps if it has been found by any other of your
readers they will let you know, as it must be a plea-
sure to know so handsome a plant is not yet extinct.

GEOLOGY.

A New Genus of Fossil Corals. — Mr. James
Thomson, F.G.S., who is well and widely known as
an enthusiastic student of carboniferous corals, has
just published a monogram on a new genus, which he
has named Albertia. He also gives us, in the same
elaborate paper, a short sketch by which it has been
attempted to delineate the internal structure of fossil
carboniferous corals during the last twenty years.
Most palaeontologists are aware that Mr. Thomson
has succeeded in causing thin sections of coral to
photograph themselves on sensitised copper-plates,
so that every line is truthfully portrayed. Mr.
Thomson, after a long account of failures that would
have damped the ardour of a less enthusiastic geolo-
gist, relates his triumph as follows : — “ It would be
tedious to enumerate the various other unsuccessful
attempts I made in the way of obtaining casts fitted
for the accurate reproduction of structural details ;
but I may say, generally, that these attempts were
very numerous, that they occupied a large portion of
my leisure time for several years, and that they in-
volved a very considerable amount of expense. Out
of these laborious attempts, however, there finally
emerged the process which I now employ, and for
which I claim the merit of being applicable to the
accurate delineation of the minutest details of coral-
line structure, and of being comparatively inexpen-
sive. This process I have now used for two years for
the production of lithographic plates, and quite re-
cently I have succeeded in modifying it so as to pro-
duce electrotypes for use in the ordinary printing-
press. Of the first form of this process, I may say
that it consists in taking an impression of the struc-
ture upon a sensitised copper-plate, that this impres-
sion is then engraved upon the plate, and that a
transfer is thence taken and put upon a lithographic
stone. Of the second form of it, I may say that an
impression is taken upon a plate of sensitised copper,
that the plate is next engraved and etched very
slowly, but somewhat more deeply than in the first
case, that a cast in wax is taken from the plate, and
that from this again is produced an electrotype in the
! ordinary way. The fact that the process which I
have now so far described is applicable not merely to
! the delineation of structures presented in my own

HARD WICKES SCIENCE - G OSSIP.

279

favourite pursuits, but also to the delineation of the
minute structures which present themselves to the
anatomist, the physiologist, the pathologist, the
botanist, and many others, is, I conceive, one of its
clllef mciily,”

Liverpool Geological Society. — The Pro-
ceedings for 1876-77 of this well-known and vigorous
society contain the annual address of the President,
Mr. T. M. Reade, F. G. S., and papers on local
geology as follows: “Glacial Striations at Little
Crosby,” by T. M. Reade ; “The Conditions existing
during the Glacial Period, with an Account of the
Glacial Deposits in the Valley between Tranmere and
Oxton,” by Dr. Ricketts, F.G. S. ; “The Glacial
Striae of the County around Liverpool,” by G. H.
Morton, F.G.S. (Hon. Sec.); “ The Carboniferous
Limestone and Millstone Grit of Llangollen,” by
G. H. Morton [continued) ; and other papers of
general geological interest.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Animal Ventriloquism. — Two very interesting
notices of Brazilian fauna occur in Mr. Rigg-Wither’s
account of his work and wanderings in the forests and
prairies of Parana, the one of a frog, and the other
of a bird. The author does not give a description of
either sufficient for determining their species, but he
refers to both of them as possessing in high develop-
ment the special power of ventriloquism. This is
not only of much interest in itself, but as it is the
first instance I have met with of any animal lower
than man being gifted with this abnormal faculty, I
venture to ask room for the following condensed
abstracts from the “Pioneering in South Brazil,” with
a few observations which the narration suggests. At
page 145 of vol. 1, Mr. Rigg-Wither, whilst camping
out near Porta Grossa, notes that “aery, like the
moaning of a sick child, came wailing on the ear,
apparently from only a few yards off ; the tone, how-
ever, was too musical for a child’s cry. The vocalist
was a frog, and soon another from a more distant
spot took up the strain, and the two sang together,
now in solos, now in chorus. ” The author “ took a torch
and proceded to the spot from whence the sound
was (or seemed to be) proceeding.” He “stooped to
search in the grass, when the music seemed to float away
to another place some yards distant, and on following
it, the sound still moved, but nowhere could he dis-
cover whence it came. The fact is, this frog is recog-
nised to be a ventriloquist of no common order ” — a
property the author reasonably concludes to be “given
him as a protection against the numerous cranes and
other frog-enemies that would otherwise be guided by
the sound, and soon render the species extinct.”
Again, in vol. 2, page 193, a bird, notable for its
shrieking voice, and known as the Bell-bird, is thus
referred to: “It is seldom seen in its wild state,
being, like the musical frog, a ventriloquist of very
high powers, and as a sun-loving bird, a frequenter
of the highest tree-tops, where its snow-white plumage
and transparent wings render it almost invisible, even
when in motion. In size it is but slightly bigger than
a starling, with a voice powerful as a peacock’s.” From
a description of this bird’s performances in a cage, at
Antonia, its notes were heard in every quarter of the
town as well as beyond the outskirts, and seemed at

times “to come from the mountains at the back of
the town fully a quarter of a mile distant from where
the bird was actually encaged.” Calling to mind the
peculiar cry of the Corn-crake ( Crex pratensis ), and
one’s similar inability to trace the varying points from
which the sounds appear to proceed, I beg to add a
parallel extract from an account of the habits of this
eccentric vocalist of our own meadows. “The crake,
crake, crake of the landrail may be heard during
May and June, resounding on every side, now close at
hand, as if the bird were not a yard distant, now far
off ; while the voices of others in different parts are
unremittingly exerted. The note is the call of the
male to his mate. So shy and cunning is the bird
that it is seldom to be seen, and unless by means of a
dog accustomed to such work, it is almost impracti-
cable to force it to take wing. It seems to elude
pursuit as if by magic , and is here and there threading
its way through the long grass before its pursuer can
imagine it has even left the spot from which its call
had first resounded. Its swiftness and dexterity are
indeed almost incredible.” (Knight’s Museum of
Animated Nature.) It will be observed that no
attempt is here made to account for the sudden
changes of the cries heard, now near, and now far off.
It is taken for granted that the crake, by some sort
of superhuman speed of foot, can elude its pursuer as
“ if by magic,” before it can be imagined to have left
the place from which its call first resounded. The
performances of a human ventriloquist afford the
aptest illustration, if not a credible and rational theory,
for all the conditions of the hypothesis accepted by
Mr. Rigg-Wither being fulfilled by the incidents he
records, and which are remarkably enforced by the man-
oeuvres described in the last extract, of “ the sly and
cunning ” Corn-crake. I am desirous to learn if any
naturalist has noticed similar phenomena in any other
bird or beast, and if so, whether the solution above
indicated has been referred to, if not recognised.
This marvellous faculty may possibly be a vestige
of a once more extended power conferred on the
animal creation, as a means of defence, by deluding
and so evading their enemies. Can any of your read-
ers assist me in these inquiries ? — A. H.B.

Preserving Animals. — I think Mr. Beaumont
will find the most complete information in Waterton’s.
“Wanderings in South America,” published by B.
Fellowes, Ludgate-street, 1852. Further useful par-
ticulars are given in his first series of Essays on Natural
History, Longman, Brown, & Co., Paternoster-row,
price 8/-. An abridged account appears in a small
work on Taxidermy, by J. Gardner, 426, Oxford-
street, price 1/6. Another account is shown in
“Taxidermy,” by M. Brown, Bazaar-office. If any
further information is required respecting the details
of the system I shall be glad to quote them from any
of the works named. — J . C. Carritt , King's Lynn.

Preserving Animals. — In answer to W. L.
Beaumont, I beg to furnish an outline of Waterton’s
method of preserving animals : — “Wash the animal
well in soap and water with a hard brush. Then
skin the animal, taking out every bone to the last
joint of the toe next the claw, and proceed to pare
down from within the nose, the lips, and the soles of the
feet, and sew up the mouth from the inside, beginning
exactly in the front, and continuing the operation
each way to the end of the gape. Now immerse the
skin in a solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol ;
take it out and fill it quite full of chaff, and proceed
to support it on the table by introducing into the
abdomen a machine made by joining two pieces of
wood in the shape of a carpenter’s gimlet, and of

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size corresponding to the size of the animal. Let the
shank of this machine hang down outside the skin,
just as though it were a fifth leg in the centre of the
body, and let it pass through a hole in the table, and
then be fastened at sufficient height by a couple of
wedges. Now touch the nose, lips, and orbits of the
skin with a mixture of one part of salad oil and three
parts spirits of turpentine, and repeat this touching
every day till the finish. Then with a penknife cut
small holes on the top of the head, behind the root
of each ear, under the jaws, others on the back, and
one under each foot. Now working through these
holes with a piece of iron, from the size of a large darning
needle to that of a ramrod, and shaped at one end
like a carpenter’s pricker, push out every part of the
skin which ought to be pushed out, and reduce with
the end of the finger any part that may be too pro-
minent consistently with the expression and form
which the animal exhibited during life. The lips
must be reformed by means of two irons, one held in
either hand, and working in opposite directions
outside and inside. In due course of time, as the
skin stiffens, the artist will see (as the sculptor does)
the features gradually appear ; and at last the skin
will retain the slightest impression communicated to
It by the touch of the working iron. A slit must be
made in the crown of the head, or under the jaws,
to allow of the artificial eyes to be fixed with a little
putty or wax. T wo or three weeks’ practice is required
in order to become an adept at this mode of pre-
serving animals ; but of course there must also exist
a considerable native talent and taste for sculpture.
The foregoing account is condensed (perhaps too
-much so) from an article on Museums in the first
edition (1838) of Waterton’s “Essays on Natural
History.” It will be observed that this process is
simply one of modelling : the softened skins of
animals being operated upon instead of the clay of
the modeller or sculptor. Various other methods of
preserving animals (especially birds) have been
described in the “Philosophical Transactions” for
1770, in “The Naturalist’s and Traveller’s Com-
panion,” in the “Natural History of Guiana,” in the
Amiens Acad., vol. ii ., in the “Boy’s Own Maga-
zine” for 1859, in the “ Boy’s Journal ” for March,
1863, “The Art of Taxidermy,” published by
F. Warne & Co. — P. Q. Keegan , LL.D.

Bark Bread. — In a note to page 528 of the Flora
Vectensis is the following : “ Panis hie albus est dtielis
et gratissimus, proesertim recens. Usus hujus panit
primarius et receptissimus apud,” &c., &c. Linnaeus
says the bread is sweet and grateful, but he does not
say that it is composed solely of the roots of the
Calla ; but he does say, “ haec farina miscetur cum
farina ” (he does not tell us in what proportion)

“ Cerealium vel Pini, et exinde conficitur panis secun- j
dum artem.” The above quotation must have been
printed incorrectly, it should be, “Panis hie est albus,
et dulcis , et gratissimus ” (this bread is white, sweet,
and very palatable). “ Usus hujus panis primaris, et
receptissimus apud,” &c. (This is the bread chiefly
•used by Norwegians and Swedes, and they like it very
■much.) But the flour from the roots of Calla is first
mixed with rye or barley meal, and often with
powdered pine bark ; and of these the bread is made
in the ordinary manner. We may add, the mixed
bark of the pine is, even now, thus used. — J. F.
Robinson.

Wild Animals and Man. — An interesting lec-
ture was recently delivered at the Society of Arts,
by Sir J. Taylor, on the destruction of life by wild
animals in India. An extract or two may, perhaps,

be of interest. In 1876, 18,273 persons were killed
by wild animals ; out of these, 15,946 lost their lives
by snakes, 917 by tigers, 887 by wolves ; the remain-
der being by leopards, bears, hyaenas, &c. In the
same year 54,430 cattle were destroyed. TVw»
ber of wild animals killed during tKa.i time were
234,830, out of which snakes were 212,371. There
are several ways of compassing the tiger’s death.
They are snared in pitfalls and traps, shot by spring
guns, poisoned by strychnine, and killed by sports-
men. The natives of India, especially the Hindoos,
hold the tiger, as they do the cobra, in superstitious
reverence ; many would not kill him even if they
could, for they fear that he would haunt or do them
mischief after death. In one instance in the Central
Provinces a single tigress caused the desertion of
thirteen villages, and 250 square miles of country were
thrown out of cultivation. In 1869 one tigress killed
127 people and stopped a public road for many weeks,
until finally killed. The shark is a fierce and bold
creature ; he dashes in amongst the crowds bathing at
the ghats, and though he seldom, if ever, under these
circumstances, succeeds in carrying off his prey, yet
he inflicts a dangerous, often a mortal, wound. These
accidents appear to have become more common of
late years, since the practice of throwing bodies into
the river has been discontinued. — H. Budge.

“Sugaring.” — In reply to your correspondent,
“ W. W. Walter,” I used to do a little in the gentle
art of sugaring, and as I was pretty successful, a few
hints of mine may be of use. The best mixture to
my knowledge is Jamaica foots sugar gently boiled
in stout or porter, care being taken not to burn it.
As most of the sugar known as “moist sugar” is
actually refined sugar, and not the raw material at all,
it is not good for the purpose. When made, a little
rum may be added just before using. Several sugges-
tions have been offered at times as to the advantage
of adding oil of anise seed, and other oils of a similar
nature, as powerful moth attractors, but I do not
think they are so potent as supposed, a great deal
depending on the weather chosen for a sugaring
expedition, which should be a moonless night with a
light south or south-west wind, a moonlight night or
east or north wind being quite enough to ensure an
empty bag. Although the autumn for numerous
reasons is the best time for sugaring, still, there are
other times of the year when lepidoptera are captured
at natural or artificial sugar. In the spring the
catkins of die willow or sallow are most killing traps
for the Taeniocampse, and a sheet spread under a
willow in bloom will be almost sure to catch such
specimens as Stabilis, Munda, Cruda, Gothica, &c.,
on the branches being shaken. Reverting again to
sugaring, the mixture should be laid on with a brush
on the lee-side of trees, about 5 feet from the ground,
and I have found that exposed trees are the best, I
presume from the fact of the wind carrying the scent
better ; where there are no trees I have succeeded
with pieces of rag or fragments of bark or board,
either fastened on a bush, or in want of that, a post,
gate, or rock. — Edward Lovett, Croydon.

A Strange Place for Marsh Plants. — For
a considerable time operations have been in progress
for the construction of a new wet dock at Leith, and
for this purpose upwards of eighty acres of a low
sand-flat, known as Leith Sands, has been reclaimed
from the sea. The greater part of this being within
tidemark, was consequently covered and left dry
alternately with every tide, and no vegetation, ter-
restrial or marine, was apparent. But since the
reclamation wall was finished, and the salt water

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

281

excluded, along a muddy place on the sands a number
of marsh plants have sprung up, and some of the
species are growing in great abundance, many of
them being at this date (July 1st) in full flower. I
have observed the following : — Ranunculus sceleratus,
Nasturtium officinale, Stellaria uliginosa, Epilobium
hirsutum, Callitriche verna, Veronica A nagallis,
V. Beccabunga , Alisma Plantago, J uncus glaucus,
y. lampocarpus, y. bufoniits, Scirpus sctaceus,
Alopecitrus geniculatus, and Catabrosa aquatica. The
first and last-named species are both common on the
coast between Leith and Portobello, but the others
appear to be new. Now the question naturally
occurs, how do they happen to be springing up
there ? I am not aware of any satisfactory explana-
tion that can be given, and supposition will throw no
light on the subject. But as all who take an interest
in the matter will have their own opinions, the fol-
lowing is given as a possible, if not a very feasible,
one. We may suppose that a stream once entered
the frith at this place, that aquatic and marsh plants
grew in and around its margin, that its mouth was
gradually encroached upon and covered by the sea,
and the marsh plants disappeared. But their seeds
remained in the sand in a state of dormant vitality,
and withstood the action of salt-water and other
adverse influences, perhaps for many years, till now,
surrounded by conditions favourable to their develop-
ment, they are again springing up into life and
luxuriance. — D. Dotiglas, Leith.

A Day at Cliveden. — By the kind permission
of his Grace the Duke of Westminster, I was en-
abled, on Saturday, July 6th last, to take my class at
Westminster Hospital for a field-excursion through
the above grounds. The day was, in every sense,
favourable for such an excursion, and the result was
well worth the journey to Taplow. We were for-
tunate enough in the space of three hours to collect
some 1 19 different species, representing thirty-nine
natural orders. The walk from Taplow station to
Cliveden is one of the best to be found round London
for its abundance of flowers of all kinds, and the
gravel-pits en route are a storehouse of treasures to
the enthusiastic botanist, who will find himself 5m ply
rewarded for any trouble taken by studies of many
of our most beautiful wild-flowers, from Verbascum
Thapsus , which grows in rare luxuriance, down to the
humble Fedia olitoria. The Hypericaceae are well
represented, no fewer than eight species being seen,
and Boraginacese, Dipsaceae, Solanaceae (including
Atropa belladonna ) and Onagraceae form prominent
features in the neighbourhood. A longer search
would doubtless have only considerably raised the
number of orders represented, seeing that our in-
vestigations, hurried as they were, produced the above
number. — II. IV. S. Worsley-Benison.

Curious Places for Nests. — I’ dare say your
readers will be able to recall curious instances of the
choice birds have made in selecting a place for a nest,
but perhaps none more eccentric than the follow-
ing. A short time back a tomtit took possession of
a beehive, deserted by its proper inmates, and, having
cleared out the comb, filled the circumference of the
hive with wool and moss, in the centre of which it
built its nest and reared its young. And a friend
now sends me another curious instance. In his garden
were four inverted 12-inch pots. The titmouse
must have had curious stairs down to his nest, which
was built on the ground in the last pot. — George
Dowker.

Hawks in Ireland. — Can you give me any infor-
mation about the various species of hawks to be

found in this locality, as we have observed four distinct
varieties, and have captured and trained two ? The
one we have at present is ruddy-brown on back and
head, with black bars, tail also barred, eye black, full,
and encircled with yellow band of skin, beak with
tooth or notch in upper mandible, emarginated wing,
with notch or sinuosity situated near the end of the
quills, breast fawn-colour, with black markings
perpendicularly ; he has a moustache of black hairs on
the cheeks, head round and full. The first hawk we
had was quite different : he had a flattened head, with
projecting ledge over the eye, which gave him quite
a sinister expression ; back very dark brown, breast
white, with horizontal black bars, very long toes, and
curved claws. Both these birds were taken from the
nest and tamed. As I see natural monstrosities some-
times mentioned in your journal, I mention a deformed
chicken which was hatched here and preserved by me.
It has four legs, three of the legs being at ojie side,
and of these three legs ''two have the elbow-joints
reversed (and also the thigh-joint) ; there is but one
thigh-joint for the two superfluous legs, the third leg
I at that side has a thigh-joint in the natural position ;

all the legs are perfect as to feet, claws, &c. This
! bird chipped the shell, but died in coming out. It is
a Bramah.

Izaak Walton. — Perhaps some of the readers
of Science-Gossip may be interested to hear that a
marble bust has just been placed in St. Mary’s
Church, Stafford, of Izaak Walton. The ceremony of
unveiling was performed by the Earl of Lichfield.
The bust has inscribed upon it, “ Izaak Walton,
Piscator; born in the parish of Stafford, August 9th,

1 593 y baptized in St. Mary’s Church, September
21st, 1593 ; buried in Winchester Cathedral, Decem-
ber 19th, 1683. Erected by public subscription,
1878.” The bust was decorated by a Stafford lady
with various water and other plants, such as the
gentle old fisherman loved so well, and which still
grow luxuriantly among the bright streams, so plenti-
ful about his native town, where the author of the
“Complete Angler” first imbibed his love for angling,
and still greater love of nature. The poor of Stafford
receive still an annual benefit from the friend whose
bust they can now look at, and which will, in a
measure, enable them to realize their kind benefactor.
The “Complete Angler” has had its adverse critics,
but Charles Lamb, in a letter to Coleridge, the poet,
dated October, 1796, speaks of it in these words : “It
would sweeten a man’s temper at any time to read it ;
it would Christianize every discordant angry passion :
pray make yourself master of it.” The “Complete
Anghr ” has gone through well-nigh sixty editions in
this country alone. — E. Edzvards.

Spider Instincts. — Seeing a paragraph in your
September number illustrating the possession of an
acute instinct in spiders encourages me to trouble you
with one or two observations of a like nature that have
come across myattention in watching spiders’ motions.

I was watching recently the completion of a web, and
observing the apparent self-satisfaction with which
the spider at the finish settled down, after some
tightening and fortifying processes, in the centre.
It seemed to me that the spider in question settled
down as if in the full happiness of a domestic
establishment — say, house, pictures, and so on, and
the only remaining need would be the daily bread
that he would require. Reflecting thus, 1 wondered
how far he would resent any infringement or slight
disturbance upon his “castle;” to ascertain which,

I put a small curled-up leaf through, or partly so, one
of the interstices at the lower part of the web. I was

282

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE -G OSSIP.

astonished at the promptitude of Mr. Spider’s observa-
tion : he was at once militant, and sallied forth, and
gradually one by one appeared to unhook the web
wherever it had hold of the tipper part of the leaf, so
that being thus loosed the leaf rolled over until again
suspended at a lower level {i.e. just the breadth of the
curl of the leaf) by the film which had fastened to the
lower part originally, and which, of course, now
became the top part. Quicker than the time taken
to read this, the spider seemed in like manner to
unfasten the newly-placed upper part, and of course
the leaf rolled over again, and this method of
proceeding was continued until at last the leaf was
rolled beyond the limits of the web. Thus freed from
such an intrusion, the spider seemed to squat down
again comfortably enough in the centre. Surely,
thought I, another attempt will not be cruel, and so I
placed an angular bit of a leaf (about half an inch
square) in the upper part of the web. Immediately my
friend started forth again. Taking stock of the invading
leaf, he seemed to decide that a new method of attack
was necessary in this case, and so he speedily
unbuckled each entangled corner of the leaf, and
grasping the latter with the full expanse of all his
limbs, he seemed to take it out of the .mesh, and by
a herculean feat to expel and throw it away outwardly
from all contiguity with the web, so that it at once
fell to the ground. After this, he returned to the
domestic hearth in the centre. I was singulaidy
struck by the apparent method pursued in face of
these difficulties, and did not again impose upon his
good nature for any further edification. On another
occasion, a very large spider had spun a web across
the frontage of some Virginian creeper leaves. I ha.d
no experimental intention in disturbing the “animal,”
and so, I forget whether I destroyed the web or
merely commenced by teasing the spider. Which-
ever it was I however remember that he presently
beat a quick retreat beneath some of the curved
leaves, and from one place of refuge to another I
continued to fidget him. At last — perhaps he was
exhausted — he seemed to say, “ I shall go no further,”
and the little twig (about a foot long) in my hand
with which I had teased him, failed to dislodge him
from his chosen refuge. He kicked out in reprisal
to my annoying him, and seemed to wince, so I
imagined, with great indignation. While this was
going on, I happened to pull my twig of branch
nearer to myself, and observed that the spider had
attached a line to the end of it, and that it was con-
tinuous and unbroken. It immediately struck me to
test the length to which, in the spider’s wrath, I
might extend the film. Steadily and carefully I
carried my twig across a distance of about 9 or 10
paces of ground (about 22 feet) and fixed the free end
of the twig branch into the trunk of an adjacent tree.
I had therefore stretched a fine filamentous thread
across a distance I never expected, and although it
was so exceedingly fine and attenuated that it was only
by difficulty that I could trace its course, yet it was
apparently as continuous and intact as a telegraph
wire. To prove this, I picked up some blades of
grass, and by bending them into an angle I was
enabled to hang them tipon the spider line. At
varying distances I placed a blade here and then a
blade there — only, by-the-by, in single blades, for I
was afraid of overtaxing the “ line.” If I remember
aright, I had hung up five of these blades ; but
the weight of the sixth proved to be the straw
which broke the camel’s back — my line broke. This
seemed an extraordinary case, for the spider seemed to
throw out an unlimited length of “ wire,” and seeing I
was enabled to put thereon five or six blades of grass —
each blade being probably of greater weight than

the whole length of film— he might perhaps have
allowed me to “runout” 30 feet or more of his
gossamer thread had I carried my twig that length
in the first place. My last observation of spider
instinct has been in the construction of the web itself,
but I fear to trespass further on your space just now,
however interesting and wonderful these phenomena
of nature and life may be. — J. F. S.

Engineering Skill of a Spider.— The follow-
ing specimen of the engineering skill possessed by a
spider may possibly interest your readers. It was
discovered in an office in this town (Omagh), and was
kindly shown to me by a gentleman connected with
the concern. A spider, desirous of making a web,
being either hard-up or taking a thoughtful view of
matters, appropriated a string for an outside border,
and that in a very curious manner. The string was
a stout one, and hung perpendicularly from a beam.
Moreover, it had a copper-wire hook attached to its
end. The spider must have crept down the string,
and fixed the end of one of its own lines to the eye
of the copper hook, then ascended the string, carrying
its own line with it, walked along the beam as far as
nine inches, and then fixed the other end of its line.
It must then have pulled bit by bit at the line, till it
had drawn up the copper hook, and made the string
describe a curve; and considering the size of the
string and the size of the spider, it must have been a
rather arduous task, requiring plenty of patience and
perseverance. It then, by a few more lines cleverly
placed, managed to relieve the strain on the main
line, and complete the foundation. The web was
never completed, but was left in its present unfinished
condition. — Isaac Crawford.

Cat and Rabbit. — When living in Essex a few
years back I made the acquaintance of a splendid
cat, of a glossy black from the tips of his whiskers to
the end of his tail. In temper and disposition he
differed from most pussies, for he was a morose old
fellow, and seemed to have very little affection for
anything but cat’s-meat. The cry of “ meat ” seemed
to electrify him, but after his “haporth” had been
duly disposed of he would retire within himself, and
take no further heed of temporal things. A more
unsociable old Turk could not well be imagined.
And yet — would you believe it?— this reserved old
character had a soul (or its equivalent) tucked away
somewhere under that black exterior, and this is what
brought it out. Another member was added to the
family in the shape of a glossy black and white rabbit,
which in a short time was leading a very ‘ ‘ free and
easy” life on the premises. Well, between this
pretty creature and the morose old “blacky” an
acquaintance sprang up which by degrees ripened
into a downright fancy for each other’s society. Then
they took to romping and playing together, and
after a time the two oddly-matched animals might
be seen lying on the hearthrug together, pussy’s sable
paws lovingly clasped round bunny’s snowy neck. —
IV. H. Warner.

A Mysterious Gift. — I beg to draw P. A.
Allan’s attention to the following paragraph, relating
to the wonderful power of sight possessed by M.
Fillifay. It is taken from a work entitled “Mauritius
or the Isle of France,” by the Rev. F. P. Flemyng,
M.A., F.R.G. S. “It was from this station (viz. the
long Mountain) that the notable M. Fillifay, some
years ago, used to astonish the colonists, and indeed
the world, by the singular power of sight which he
possessed. His time for observation was usually at
dawn, and by directing his vision to the clear unclou-
ded sky (and not to the horizon), he could behold,

HARD WI CKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

283

inverted (with the naked eye), any object within the
singular circuit of his sight. The accuracy of his
observations was verified when the British squadron
was assembling at Rodrigues (an island 300 miles
eastward of Mauritius), in the year 1810, for the
attack upon the island. M. Fillifay stated so to the
French governor, and was, it is said, imprisoned for
raising false alarms. At another time he discerned
what he described as two ships joined together, or, if
there were such a thing, a four-masted vessel ; within
a few days a four-masted American schooner arrived
in Port Louis harbour. He also described a large
Indiaman dismasted when nearly 400 miles from the
island, and afterwards announced that he could see that
she was erecting jury-masts, and was steering for that
port. This proved to be the case. He was a pen-
sionnaire on the Treasury, and for years used to render
‘ his report ’ at the Port-captain’s office, which was
always written down by the officer as he laconically
announced it : A ship, N.E. 200 miles, nearly
becalmed ; a schooner, W., will make the land to-
morrow ; two brigs standing to the southward, &c.

It is a remarkable fact that, although this old man |
visited Bourbon, Europe, and several other places, he
was unable to exercise this singular faculty of vision
anywhere but at Mauritius. This, most probably,
arose from the singular rarity of the atmosphere on
this island, which is certainly most remarkable. He
is since dead. He professed, at one period of his
life, to be able to teach this mode of vision, and even
obtained a fair and ambitious pupil, but he found
that a Power beyond his could alone impart this
wonderful gift. ” — J . Henry Maughan.

Have Palms Tap-roots? — As a rule the radicle
of monocotyledonous seeds is little, if at all, developed ;
so that tap-roots are generally said not to occur in the
class. A true tap-root must be the direct prolongation
of the radicle. Palms seem, however, to be some- j
what exceptional, to judge from the most readily
accessible account of their germination, viz., that in
Mr. W. B. Hemsley’s papers on Garden Botany in
the Garden , vol. xiii. (1878), p. 288 (March 30),
from which I take the substance of what follows.
The radicle or primary root is very often vigorous in
seedlings, but it is stated that it is soon replaced by
succeeding roots which appear above its apex, i.e. are
lateral adventitious roots like those of bulbs. Whether
this is invariably the case is uncertain ; but the genus
Borassus is a good example of this replacement.
The stout tap-root of the young seedling in this genus
is soon surrounded by adventitious roots, to which it
surrenders its work, itself dying off. In another
genus, Sabal, however, the primary root seems to
be a lateral outgrowth of the embryo, the radicle
apparently not being at all developed. On the whole,
the preacher who said that palm-/; ees had not tap-
roots was decidedly nearer the truth of the two. —
G. S. Boidger.

Hackney Microscopical and Natural His-
tory Society (194, Mare-street).— The members of
this society made another excursion on Saturday
afternoon, the 19th October, under the presidency of
one of the honorary members, Worthington Smith,
Esq., F.L.S., F.R.M.S. The place of assignation
was Chingford, from thence through the old forest to
High Beech, returning by way of Loughton. The
special objects of research were “fungi,” which are
found in this part of the forest in quantity and variety
sufficient to repay the labours of the numerous com-
pany assembled, though comprising entomologists,
microscopists, and students devoted to other branches
of natural history. The weather was fine, perhaps

rather too dry for the specific object in view ; the
forest was clothed in the varied tints of its autumnal
foliage. The way being led by such an authority on
“ fungi ” as the president for the occasion, gave to
the excursion an interest and charm peculiarly enjoy-
able ; and the instruction thus gained by an afternoon
spent in the investigation of this page of nature’s
history will long be remembered by those who were
so fortunate as to be present. No fewer than thirty-
six species of fungi were collected and identified.

What was the “Fagus” of the Latins?—
Was the Rev. J. Mitford (formerly editor of the
Gentleman's Magazine) right when he asserted that
“fagus” must mean the sweet chestnut? because
Coesar says the Britons had not the fagus. Landing
in Kent or Sussex, Caesar must have seen the beeches,
which love a chalky subsoil. The 11 Spanish chestnut ,”
as it is often called, is no doubt an importation from
abroad. — IV. H. Freeman , Reepham , Norwich.

Lapwing and Hawk. — Some five years ago
Mr. G. R. Bull, of Stafford (who related to me the
incident), was driving out one morning, a few miles
from Stafford, with, I believe, Dr. Day, when they
suddenly heard a confused rustling noise overhead,
and something then plumped down into the ditch by
the roadside. On alighting they found a hawk and
lapwing in deadly embrace, the hawk’s talons em-
bedded in the lapwing’s breast, the bird just expiring ;
the hawk already dead, from the beak of the lapwing
being fixed in the eye and brain of his enemy. As
the latter had made his fatal pounce, the intended
victim had made one supreme effort, and by a lucky
peck in the one vulnerable spot, avenged his own
death. — A If. Freer.

Ornithological Instruments. — Where can
scissors for cutting the bones of the embryo in birds’
eggs, described in Prof. Newton’s “ Suggestions for
forming Collections of Birds’ Eggs,” be procured? also
German-silver blowpipes ? — Beta.

Arge Galatea. — Could any of your correspon-
dents inform me as to whether Arge Galatea has ever
been noticed near Bedford before ? I took a rather fine
specimen at the close of August this year. — W. E.
Fairbridge, Bedford.

“ Bob-owlers.” — It may interest those of your
readers who care to note the local names of plants,
insects, &c., to know that in Staffordshire the thick-
bodied moths are called “Bob-owlers.” — K. D.,
Ahnondsbury.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

W. T. Horn. — Thanks for the specimen of Helichryswir ,
which, unfortunately, was jumbled into an indistinguishable
mass when it reached us. Get Burbidge’s “ Cool Orchids and
How to Grow Them,” with plates, published by Hardwicke &
Bogue, 192, Piccadilly, price 6s. It is the best work of the
kind we know.

A Young Beginner. — Mr. Collins has recently issued what
he calls a “ Histological Microscope,” at £5. 10s., which
would answer all your requirements. It is a marvel of me-
chanical skill, and can be easily stowed away. It is sufficient
for all the requirements of a natural history student.

W. H. Jones.— The spikes of Plantcigo are the largest we
1 have seen.

284

HARDWICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

E. E. Evans. — For details concerning the construction of an
Egg Cabinet see “ Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural
History Objects,” price 3s. 6d., published by Hardwicke &
Bogue.

K. D. (Almondsbury). — Orbitolina is a genus of fora-
minifera ?.

G. O. Howell.— The calyx segment of the Bud of Fuchsia
you enclosed has reverted to the condition of a true leaf.

H. F. Rasell. — Get “ Half-Hours with the Microscope,”
bv Dr. Lankester, with chapter on the “ Polarisation of Light,”
by F. Kitton, published at 4s. by Hardwicke & Bogue, 192,
Piccadilly, London.

A. Smith. — Get Cooke’s “ Microscopic Fungi,” (illustrated)
price 6s. London : Hardwicke & Bogue, 192, Piccadilly.

K. D. — Bentham’s “ Handbook of the British Flora,” pub-
lished by L Reeve & Co. ; and the Second Edition of
“ Hooker’s Student’s Flora of Great Britain,” just out, pub-
lished by Macmillan.

R. Rattray. — Many thanks for your excellently mounted
slide of Licmopkora Jlabellata.

M. Shaw. — Accept our thanks for seedlings of the Date
Palm.

W. H. Shrubsole. — “Banded-flints” were originally
Formed by the filling-up of cavities in nodules, layer by layer.
Subsequently the nodules have been broken up, and the harder
banded parts liberated, and rolled into the shapes and appear-
ance in which you see them. (2). The boring appears to have
been made by some other mollusc than Teredo. (3). No doubt
the concretionary nodules, and the appe trances you describe,
are due to the soft, decomposing, organic matter of the animals
wrhose hard parts usually form the nuclei, . having caused
chemical segregation.

To Querists. — We are obliged to postpone the publication
of several answers until our next, on account of want of space.

EXCHANGES.

In exchange for a few Microscopical Slides, a Flying Fish
8)4 inches in length, from Pacific Ocean. — W. E. Barker, Jesus
College, Cambridge.

In exchange, a Centipede (in spirits) from Honolulu. — W. E.
Barker, Jesus College, Cambridge, for Microscopical Slides.

Wanted, Perfect Specimens of AEcidiacei, unmounted.
Several species of Pucciuia , Uromyces, &c. offered. — E. W.
Halway, Decora, Iowa, U.S.A.

A naturalist having a large collection of British and
Foreign Birds’ Skins at his disposal would be glad to hear from
any gentleman requiring the same, either in lots or singly, in
exchange for other Skins. — W. Barrett Roue, 165, White
Ladies’-road, Bristol.

Several splendid Slides of Algse for well-mounted Parasites,
also British Butterflies, and some Birds’ Eggs, including gold
crest, black-cap, great tit, redstart, and se\eral others, about
twenty-five in all. Desiderata, Birds’ Skins, particularly hawk,
owl, or woodpecker tribe, or swallows and British Lepidoptera,
not in collection. — W. Barrett Roue, 165, White Ladies’-road,
Bristol.

Wanted, Devonian Rocks and Fossils, in exchange for
specimens from other formations. — Thomas D. Russell, 48,
Essex-street, Strand, W.C.

Wanted, P. machaoji , G. rkamni, C. Hyale , C. edusa,
A. cratcegi, A. Galatkea, in exchange for British Birds’ Eggs,
blown with one hole. — T. V. Devey, Woodland, Cockfield,
Darlington.

Cornish Rocks and Minerals, Diallage, Serpentine, Steatite,
Mica Schist, Luxubganite, Schorlite, Schorl, &c., in exchange
for Scientific Books, Fossils, Rock specimens, and Minerals. —
J. S. Ilsley, 6, Trevethen-terrace, Falmouth, Cornwall.

Erytk-'cza. lati/olia (vera) and 460! for the following, ex-
clusively, ioi£, 153 var. ?, 158^, 202c, 215, 461^, 536, 544 to
546, 690^, 708, 721, 861 b, 874 b, 934, 970 b, 1212, 1219c, 1223,
1228, 1238, 1262, 1266, 1267, 1282c, 1298, 1453, 1457, 14 76^,
1554, 1624.— J. Harbord Lewis, 145, Windsor-street, Liverpool.

1,000 polished specimens of Madrepores, Minerals, Fossils,
British Shells, in exchange for foreign Shells, good Ferns
from coal measures, or good Silurian Fossils. Will also send
good polish slabs of Madrepore for slabs of the Bristol or
Clifton Landscape Stone, or a box of rough Madrepores for a
box of good and well-marked rough Landscape Stone.— A. J. R.
Sclater, Naturalist, 9, Bank-street, Teignmouth, Devonshire.

For a pair of Fedonia Conspicuata (frosted yellow), send a
good slide of clean Diatoms or Anatomic human, for half an
ounce of foreign sand, containing foraminifera, specular talc,
&c. — Send slides as above. — E. Eaton, 48, Currier’s-lane, Ips-
wich.

I am collecting various Specimens of Pond Life, and shall be
glad to exchange for unmounted or mounted microscopic
objects or accessories. Wanted particularly, unmounted
anatomical sections, either stained or injected. — C. W. Lawton,
5, Montpelier Vale, Blackheath, S.E.

Wanted, Diatoms and Desmids, good slides of material,
in exchange for other slides or rare British Plants, L. C. Nos.
104, 146, 184, 176, 253, 368, 527, 556, 611, 704, 767, 769, 831,
858, 9X3> 929> 975, 999. x°oi, xx3°> 1218, 1293, 1519, and

1 many other lists exchanged.— J. Tempere, 12, Cecil-street,

: Moss-side, Manchester.

1 Licmopkora Jlabellata , growing on algae, stained and
mounted in balsam, for good samples of Marine Diatomaceous
Earths. — R. Rattray, 30, Balfour-street, Dundee.

Specimens of the new mineral Hullite, described at last
meeting of British Association, also Trachyte, Chalcedony,
&c., from the basalt of county Antrim, in exchange for Lias,
or Cretaceous Fossils, or recent British Shells. — William Gault’
68, Christopher-street, Belfast.

Offered Nos. hi, 140, 155^, 169, 184, 203, 315, 326, 354,
355> 363> 587. 622, 812, 813, 1128, 1264, 1281, 1290, 1297, 1584,
1586, Trifolium stellatum, and many others, for rare or local
British plants. — J. H. A. Jenner, 4, East-street, Lewes.

Volume of “ Palseontographical Society ” for 1878. What
offers? Wanted, sixth edition, “Chaffers on China. ” — James
Griffin, 3, South Bar, Banbury.

Wanted, to purchase Smith’s “British Diatomaceae ” and
Pritchard’s “ Infusoria.” A good price will be given.— Apply
to J. F., 11, Truro Vean-terrace, Truro.

Wanted, 78 a.b.c, 106, 108, 119, 175, 202, 367 b, 467, 477, 637,
7OI> 737. 747^> 819, 828, 839, 945, 1020, 1082, 1095^, 1255, 1484,
1507, 1631, &c., in exchange for rare plants. — G. C. Druce,
Northampton.

Wanted, all kinds of unmounted Microscopical Material, in
exchange for other specimens. — Alpha, 16, Brunswick-street,
Poplar, E.

For exchange, a quantity of well-mounted histological
specimens (duplicates). — C. James, 19, Vincent-terrace, Isling-
ton, N.

For injected Human Kidney, stained Human Intestine,
Gomphonema geminatum , wing of Brazilian Butterfly, scale of
Pollack, and Japanese grass (polariscope). Send any well-
mounted Balsam Slide to J. A. Kay, Mansion-house, Brompton,
Chatham.

Offered:— A small collection of American Birds’ Skins.
Wanted : — Fossil fish remains or offers. — T. Stock, 16, Colville-
place, Edinburgh.

American, Bermudas, European, British Eggs, side blown ;
many rarities, Eleonora falcon, Rufus swallow, Wall creeper,
Phaeton flavirostus (tropic bird), Rock thrush, Turdus cyaneus
(Eastern thrush), Alpine chough, &c., in exchange for others.
— Sissons, Shanon, Sheffield.

Rare British Vertigos. — Correct and well- authenticated
specimens of Vertigos, Antivertigo pusilla, minntissin a,
Afestris, substriata , and angustior, offered in exchange for
really good and choice Foreign Shells, land preferred to marine ;
also offered, Lint, iuvoluta, Succiuea oblonga, Unio margariti-
fera, vatvata, cristata, Bala a pragilis, Clausilia rugosa,
var., Scklechtii. Wanted, Pupa ringens, Achatina acicula,
Conovulus bideutatus , var., albus, Tes tacel la kalioto idea , Lim.
Bur/ietti, and Acme lineata. — W. Sutton, Upper Claremont,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Wanted, Microscopic Fungi, mounted ; will exchange
Crystals or other objects for the same. — A. Smith, Essex-road,
London.

Wanted, Microscopic Fungi, unmounted; other Fungi will
be sent in exchange. — A. Smith, Essex-road, London.

Shells, Carychium minimum , &c., for other good land,
fresh water, or marine Shells, or offers. — Mrs. Skilton, London-
road, Brentford, Middlesex.

BOOKS, &c., RECEIVED.

“The Geology of Ireland.” By G. H. Kinahan. London
C. Kegan Puil.

“The Beginning.” By H. P. Malet. London: Triibner
& Co. “Abstracts of the Proceedings of the Liverpool Geo-
logical Society” (from the commencement in 1859).

“American Naturalist.”

“American Journal of Microscopy.”

Potter’s “ American Monthly.”

“ Boston Journal of Chemistry.”

“ Botanische Zeitung.”

“ Chambers’s Journ il.”

“ Ben Bratley’s Journal.”

“Land and Water.”

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to 8th ult. from: —

E. W. H.— E. W. B.— C. C.-J. M. S.— W. H. J.-C. P.—

F. K.— W. L. B.— W. C. T.— W. E. F.— E. E. E.-W.
L. S. — K. A. D.-W. J. H.— J. O. B.— C. W.— C. F.—
W. S. W.— W. E. G.-S. M.— C. w. c.— A. J. R. S.— W. L.
_j. w. S.— J. M. vV. A. H.— H. J.— W. H. F.— T. M.
R.— A. F.— T. V. D.— W. B. R.— R. A. R.— H. B.— J. H.
L — M. H. R.— J. D. R. — T. E. L.— M. K.-A. T.— W. G.
—A. H. H.-J. H. A. J.— J. D.— C. W. L — A. W.— H. M.
-R. R.-M. V.— W. W.— J. T.-T. W.— F. J. F — W M.
B.— H. P. M — T. L.— C. T. B.— J. N. D.— A. W.-T. G.—
J. B. -W. J. M.— *1. S.— C. A. J.— R. H. M.— J. M. M.—
J. F. -A. S.— J. D. O. G. C. D.— W. S.— M. E. M. H.—
W. B.— J. W. S.— T. S.— J. A. K.-&c. &c.

HA RD WICKE ’S SCIENCE ■ G OSSIP.

2SS

INDEX TO VOL, XIV,

«ci

Acarus, a Rare (fGlyciphagtts plumiger ),

152-

Actinocyclus Barklyi , 88
Albertia, 278

Albite and Orthose, Artificial, 117
Algae, British Marine, 40, 66
Algae, British Marine, Mounting of, 37
Algae, Parasitic, 37
America, Microscopy in, 184
America, Tertiary Flora of, 165
American Lake Region, Geology of, 261
Amoeba, Marine, 112
Ancient Vegetation, 140, 165
Animal Bones, Preservation of, 24
Animal Life, New Forms of, 231
Animal Ventriloquism, 279
Animalculae, How to Preserve, 22
Animals, Fur-bearing, 41
Animals, How to Preserve, 22, 38, 39, 215,
237> 279

Animals, Wild, Destruction of Human Life
by, 280

Annelid, “ Dero,” the, 10
Ants, How to Destroy, 143, 158, 165
Apium graveolens, 193
Aquaria, Cheap, 167, 190
Aquaria, Marine, Cement for, 23
Aquaria for Microscopic Work, 119, 136,
x37> ,I4I .

Aquaria, Sticklebacks in, 23, 95
Aquarium, Brighton, Notes at, 153
Aquarium, Freshwater, Hints as to form-
ing a, 71

Aquarium, Matters Relating to, 143
Aquilegia, 147 •

Arge, Galatea, 283
Argillornis lougipeuuis, 41
Artificial Precious Stones, 20
Arum Italic urn, 186, 21 1, 235
Arum 77iaculatum , 21 1
Aspleiiiu77i septe7itrio7iale and Germa7ii-
cu77i, 18, 40, 65, 93
Aust, Rhsetic Beds of Fossils in, 271

Balsam, Removal of Surplus, 141

“ Banded Flints, 284

Barbastelle, the, 91

Barbots, 238

Bark Bread, 280

Batrachospermum, 167

Bears, Tame, in Sweden, 5

Beatty, the late Dr., 15

Bees, Fondness of for Paint, 213

Bees, Humble, in New Zealand, 67, 89

Beetles, as Female Ornaments, 258

Beetles, Black, Bait for, 95

Beetle, Potato, 1

Beetle, the Furniture, 22, 38, 71

Belt, Mr. Thomas, Death of, 260

Betularia, the, 46

Biological Association of the Dublin
University, 16
Birds, Arctic, 16
Birds’ Eggs of, 43
Birds' Eggs. Acts Relating to, 117
Birds, Migration of, 238, 262
Birds, Mimicry in, 137
Birds, Pairing of, 21, 69, 141, 262
Birds, Parasites on, 262

Birds, Rare, Slaughter of, 64, 214, 258
Birds, Songs of, 262
Blackbird, Nest of a, 166
Blackbird, a Cream-coloured, 215
Blind-worms, Food for, 144
Blossoming, Curious Modes of, 70
Blowfly, Teeth of, 147
Bob-owlers, 283
Bo77ib7ts lapidarius, 90
Bo77ibus terrestris, 90
Bones, Fluid for Strengthening, 118
Borrago officinalis (Borage), Early
Flowering of, 114
Bos paler hidicus, 236
Botanical Curiosities, 115
Botanical Exchange Club, the Science
Gossip Report of, 73
Botanical Holiday, a Dominie’s, 3
Botanical Localities, 68
Botanical Work for April, 82
Botanical Work for June, 122
Botanical Work for July, 159
Botanist, the Critical, 242
Botany, 18, 39, 64, 91, 114, 138, 161, 185,
209, 235, 259, 278

Botany of the Channel Islands. 118, 141
Botaurus stellaris (the Bittern), 64
Bow, the Lunar, 45
Box, Collecting, a New, 269
Brachiopoda of the Atlantic, 137
Brachydiaste77iatheriu77i, 261
Bramble, the, near London, 203, 218
Bristol, Fossils in the Neighbourhood of,
271

British Association, Meeting of, at Dublin,
i85

“ Bruce,” the Manchester Fire-horse, 202
Burrington Combe, Fossils at, 172
Buttercup, Derivation of Name, 191
Butterfly, a Five-winged ( Go?iopte7yx
rha7U7ii), 17

Cabbage Leaf, Teratology of, 201
Cader Idris, Flora on, 39
Calloptine, a New Oil from Dead Locusts,
64

Callu7ia vulgaris, 3

Camberwell Beauty, Varieties of, 165, 190
Ca7/ipa/iula rotuiidifolia (the Hairbell), 3,
47

Canada Balsam in India, 137, 160
Canada, Natural History Notes on, 222
Carboniferous Amphibia, 236
Carboniferous Limestone, Microscopic
Life in, 64

Carex Buxbau7/iii, 187

Carex pimctata, 91

Castracana, 276

Cat, Anecdotes of a, 42

Cat and Rabbits, 262, 282

Cat, Suicide of a, 189

Catch-fly, two Forms of, 210

Caterpillars, Cannibalism among, 233

Caterpillars, Colours of, 114

Caterpillars, Goat, How to Destroy, 237

Caves in Somersetshire, 70

Ceil, an easily made, 14

Cement for Marine Aquaria, 23

Ceratodus, 114

Ceratodus (an American Fossil), 117
Certhia fa77iiliaris (Tree-creeper), 118
Cetacea of Kerry, 57

“Challenger” Expedition, Results of, 231
Channel Islands, Botany of, 141
Chickweed, Species of, 122
Clams, 263

Clams, preserved (Tridacua gigas), 215
Clepsy Drops, 236
Clifton, Fossils at, 272
Cliveden, Day at, 281
Coal, Diatoms in, 276
Cochlearia officinalis (Scurvy-grass), 10
Cockroach, Sections of Head exhibited,
136

Colias Edusa, 47, 138, 141, 163, 190, 213
Collecting-box, a New, 269
Collecting-stick, a, 276
Colorado Beetle, 222, 223
Colorado, Geology of, 40, 92
Colyvibus septe7itrio7ialis (Red-breasted
Diver), 64

Compositae, Side Lights on the, 66
Conodonts, 260
Coralline Crag, 212
Corals, Fossil, a New Genus of, 278
Costa Rica, Birds of, 64
Coto/ieaster vulgaris , 250, 278
Covers, Thin, How to Clean, 16
Cratcegus 7no7iogC7ia , 139
CratcFgus oxyacanthoidcs , 139
Crayfish in Cumberland, 67
Creole, a French, Double Sight of, 214,
263, 282

Crocodiles, Mesozoic, 91
Crocodiles, Neozoic, 91
Cruciferae, 9

Crustacea, New British, 138
Cuckoo, the, 161, 165, 213
Cuckoo, the, eaten by Kestrel, 103 (note)
Cuckoo, Fed by Waterwagtail, 214
Cucumber, Influence of on Black Beetles,
118

Cumberland Association of Literature and
Science, 20

Currents and Tides, Mr. Leighton on, 92
Cyclophora tc7uiis (Castracane), 276

Daisy, Monstrosity in, 260
Dana, Professor, Medal awarded to, 21
Darwinism, Practical, 114
Date Palm, the (P/ue/iix dactyl if. era), 123
Deer Family, Geological History, 41
Delphinapterus lucas (Beluga), 60
Derbyshire, Botany of, 235
“ Dero,” the Annelid, 10
Diatom, What is a? 105, 126
Diatoms, Does Dessication Kill ? 74
Diatoms, New, 276
Diatoms in Coal, 276
Diatomaceae, Fossil, 112, 136
Diatomaceae, Habirshaw’s Catalogue, 63
Diatomaceae, Method of Cleaning, 88
Diatomaceous Deposits near Richmond,
112

Diatomaceous Material, 160
Diatomaniacs, an Apology for, 112
Dinosaurus, a newly-discovered, 117
Dittany, 143, 166, 213

286

HA RD WICKE ’S S C IE NCE - G OSSIP.

Diver, Great Northern ( Colymbus Arcti-
cus), 262

Dogs, Reasoning Power in, 47, 214
Dogs, Stupidity on the part of, 233
Dolphin, the Common, 86
Dolphin, the White-beaked, 87
Dorking, a Holiday round, 195
Dragon-flies, Works on, 213
Dredge, a “Tangle,” 221
Dredging Expedition, Notes on a, 131
Dredging, Marine, 257
Dredging, a Simple Method of, 94
Dredging, Works on, 70
Dryolestes prisons, 189
Ducks, Wild and Tame, 238
Dublin, Geology of, 179
Dublin University Biological Association,
16

Dudley, Fossils at, 271
Dundry, Fossils at, 271
Dyes, Vegetable, Chemical Imitation of,
186

Eagle, Attack of, on Two Girls, 46
Earthworm, Habits, &c., of, 121, 154, 234
Earthworm, Slug the Terror of the, 121
(note)

Echinodermata , Alternate Generation of,
277

Eel, a Veteran, 23, 104
Eels, Birth of Vinegar, 15
Egg, a Double, 212
Egg Drills, 239, 262
Egg-shells of Birds, Colouring of, 184
Eggs of Birds in Wrong Nests, 209, 238
Eggs of Birds, How to Blow, 22, 38, 39
Elasmobranchs, the Fins of, 89
Entomological Exhibition at Westminster
Aquarium, 89

Epilobium angnstifolium (Rose-bay
Willow-herb), 161

Epping Forest, an Autumn Ramble in,
252, 272

Eye, the Human, Dr, Dudgeon on, 90

Fagot-stick, a Lesson from, 124
“ Fagus ” of the Latins, What was the ? 283
Fairy-flax, the, 44, 68, 94
Falco Ai salon (Merlin), 64
Fauna Insect in Palaeozoic Period, 20
Eeuestella, History of the Genus, 247,
274

Ferns, Filmy, How to Grow, 211
Ferns of North America, the. By Prof.
Eaton, 1 14

Fish, Parasites on, 33.

Fish, Survival of out of Water, 142
Fishes, Plaster Casts of, 107, 140, 169
Fleas in Country Quarters, 190
Flies, Forest, Protection of Horses from,
238

Flies, Fungus on, 212
Flies, Plague of, 140
Flies, Raptorial Habits of, 184
Flora near Cader Idris, Notes on, 39
Flora, the London, 114
Flora of Natal, 49
Flowers, Alpine, 259
Flowers, Autumn, Hints on Culture, 246
Flowers, Double, 259
Flowers, Fertilization of, 20
Flowers, Sugar in Nectar of, 235
Foraminiferze, Classification of, 30
Foraminiferse, Recent, from the Shetland
Isles. 51

Fossil Bird, a, 189
Fossil Bird at Sheppey, 41
Fossil Corals, a New Genus of, 278
Fossil Diatomaceae, 112
Fossil Fishes of Sussex, 67
Fossil Fresh- water Sponges, 140
Fossil Fungus, a, 21, 41, 67, 92, 116, 164
Fossil Insects, 140
Fossil Polyzoa, 247, 274
Fossils, a J'our in Search of, 271
Fox, Intelligence of a, 94
Foxgloves, Slugs on, 23
Frog, Chameleon-like Changes In the, 17
Frog, Development of Spawn, 53, 90, 118,
190

Fungi, Microscopic, 171

Fungi, Spore-producing Power of, 37

Fungus, the Fossil (see Eossil Fungus)

Gannister Beds, Marine Fossils in, 92
Garden, Experimental, Proposal to Form,
235

Gentiana acaulis , 18, 65
Gentiana acaulis in Wales, 40
Geology, 20, 40, 66, 116, 140, 164, 187, 211,
236, 260, 278

Geology of Dublin and Wicklow, 179
Geophilns electricus, 239
Gigartina Teeaii , 40
Glacial Period, Dr. Ricketts on, 92
Glacial Phenomena of Outer Hebrides, 164
Glass Slips. Preservation of, 15
Globicephalus melas (Pilot Whale), 84
Glyciphagus palmifer, 38
Glyciphagus plumiger , 152
Glyptodendron, the, 140
Gnat, a Few Words about a Little, 269
Gold in New Guinea, 140
Gold Size as a Varnish for Glycerine
Mounts, 276
Gold-fish and Toad, 94
Gongylus gonegyloides, 38
Gonopteryx rhamni , 17
Goose, a Friendship of, with Pony, 238
Gooseberry, the, 119
Gorilla, the Berlin (“Pongo”), 17
Gossip about New Books, 54, 254
Gourds and Pumpkins, Inflorescence of,
19, 64

Government Research Fund, 116
Grampus griseus (Rissot’s Dolphin), 62
Gray Lag, 237
Great Tit, Note of, 234
Grebe, Parasite Worms in Leg of, 88
Green Hastings, 190, 237
Grouse, Red, New Habits of. 17
Guinea-pig, Brotherly Love in, 239

Hair-b£ll, the White, 23, 94
Hair-bell {Campanula. rot undifolia),
Spelling of, 69

Hair-bell, Derivation of Name, 94
Halitherium of Suffolk Crags, 184
Harvestman Spider, the, 79, 113
Hawk, the, and Lapwing, 283
Hawk, Pertinacity of, 42
Hawk, Species of in Ireland, 281
Hedgerows in June, 139
Heer. Professor, Medal awarded to, 21
Helice, 47

Hemipterous Fauna of St. Helena, 161
Hen, Singular Affection of a, 43
Herbaria, Mould in, 235
Herbarium, How to make an, 134, 150
Herrings, 70
Herring Fishery, the, 93
Hirundinidse, Later Appearance of, 39
Histological Microscope, 283
Hollyhock, Flowers of the, 235
Hollyhock, Variability of Colour in, 210
Hop Gardens, 166
Horse, Anecdote of a, 202
Horse Chestnut, Double-blossomed, 167
Horse-tails, Remarks on, 223
House Martin, the, 166
House Sparrow, the, 166
Howitt, Maty, Poetry on Flowers, 166
Human Hair, Sudden Change in Colour
of, 44

Hylisinus fraxini, 126
Hyperoodon rostratus , 38

Inflorescence, Definite and In-
definite, 163

Insect Fauna in Palaeozoic Period, 20
Insects at Bournemouth, 23
Insects, Destruction of, 191
Insects, Fossil, 117, 140
Insects, Mimicry in, 38, 184
Ipecacuanha Root, Propagation of, 22
Ireland, Editor’s Holiday in West of, 228
Ireland, Hawks of, 281
Ireland, Natural History Notes from, 214
Ireland, Venomous Reptiles of, 42, 93

Japan, Pre-historic Man in, 20

Keeble, Poetry of, on Flowers, i 66

Kestrel, the, 100

Kingfisher in London, the, 258

Labiatze, 20

Laburnum, Flowers of the, 261

“ Lag,” the Grey, 165

Lake District, the Physical History of, 21

Lapwing ( V anellus cristatus), 213

Lapwing, Pugnacity of the, 45, 283

Leaves, Teratology of, 237

Leeds Natural History Society, 16

Lemming, the, in England, 44

Lepidium sativum (Garden cress), 9

Lepidoptera, Rare, Notes on, 38

Lichen, a Glass-eating, 128, 162, 187

Lightning, Singular Appearance of, 237

Lilac, Double? 167

Linnet, Parasite of the, 233

Linum catharticum , 94

Linum perenue , 21 1

Lizard, the Food for, 144

Lizard Orchis, the, 278

Lobworms, 166

Locusts, How Utilized when Dead, 64

London, Flora of, 114

Long Island, the, or Outer Hebrides,.

Glacial Phenomena of, 164
Lophius piscatorius , 153
Lumbricus terrestris, 12 1

Magpie, Intelligence of, 213
Mammal, Fossil, from Oolitic Formation
of America, 189

Mammoth, Extinction of the, 236
Manatee at Westminster Aquarium, 184
Mandrake, 166

Marsh Plants, a Strange Place for, 280
Marsupial, the New Australian, 38
Martes foina (the Marten) in Cornwall,
11 7,

Martin, Postponement of Departure, 23
Megalichthys Hibberti, 236
Melosira Barreri, 276
Mergenia erecta , Fertilization of, 139
Mesoplodon Sowerbiensis (Sowerby's
Whale), 59
Meyenia erecta , 161

Micrometer, the, and How to Use it, 175
Microphone, 184

Microphoto of the Lord’s Prayer, 257
Microscope, Improvement in Stands for,

63

Microscope I, amp, Miniature, 232
Microscope, Measuring with the, 231
Microscope, a New Field for the, 112
Microscope, the, a Plea for as a Toy, 33
Microscopic Fungi, 17 1
Microscopic Journal, the American, 87
Microscopic Journal, the Monthly, 15
Microscopic Mounting, a Wet Method of
Preparing Objects for, in
Microscopic Objectives, Apertures of,
Theoretical Limit to, 209
Microscopic Organisms, 112
Microscopic Work for Aquarium, 119, 136,
?37> t4L

Microscopists, Congress of at Indianopohs,
256

Microscopy, 14, 37, 63, 87, 112, 136, 160,
183, 208, 231, 256, 276
“ Midland Naturalist,” the, 39
Midnight Songsters, 93, 118, 161, 166, 190,

239

“ Mighty Deep,” the, 81, 97, 142
Missel Thrush, and Song Thrush, 119
Mistletoe, the, 22

Mistletoe, Growth of on Apple, Pear, Thorn,
and Willow Trees, 45
Mistletoe Berries, Experiment with, 139
Mites, How to Destroy, 17, 21, 47, 93, 214
Mites, White, 34
Moles at Work, 184, 189
Moth-trap, Vegetable, 259
Mounting, Machine for, 87
Mounting, Gold Size as a Varnish in, 276
Mounting, a Wet Process of, 160
Mounting Medium, a Good, 183
Mullein ( VerbascumThapsus ), a Gigantic,
213

Murray, Andrew, Memoir of the Li te, 50
Musical Notes of Birds, 88
Mustard, 35, 190

Nais oscillatoria, 10
Nais proboscidea, 10

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

287

Names, Scientific, Pronunciation of, 2, 25,
145, 209, 277

Names, Specific, Dr. Sclater on, 234
Narwhal, the, 59

Nasturtium officinale (Water-cress), 10
Natal, Flora of, 49

Natterjack Toad on Barnes Common, 167
Natterjack Toad in Cheshire, 107
Natterjack Toad on Shores of the Solway
Firth, 67, 141, 142

Natural History in the 17th Century, 225,
244, 267 _

Natural History in Canada, Notes on, 222
Natural History in Ireland, Notes on, 214
Natural History Society, How to Start a,
201

Nebular Theory, the, 69
Nematus, New Species of, 90
Nests of Birds in Signal-bell at Coventry,
92

Nests of Birds, Curious Places for, 281
Nests of Birds, Remarkable, 142, 189
New Forest, Beeches, Hawthorns, Hollies,
and Oaks in, 259

Nightingale, the, in Derbyshire, 137
North Devon, Geology of, 238
Notes and Queries, 21, 42, 67, 92, 117, 140,
165, 189, 212, 236, 261, 279
Notes from West Kerry, 57

Oak “ Spangles,” 95
Object-glass, a New Immersion, 112
Odontophore in Mollusca, the, 89
Ophrys muscifera , 185
Orca gladiator (Grampus), 61
Orchis-hunting in Surrey, 163
Orchis hircina , 278

Organisms, Examination of Minute Living,
184

Oreole, the Golden, Musical Note of, 88
Ornithological Essays, 100
Ornithological Instruments, 283
Ornithological Nomenclature, 189
Orobanche, Growth of on Begonia, 139
Orobanche major , 21 1
Orthose and Albite, Artificial, 117
Owen, Professor, on Influences affecting
Organic Forms, 91
Oysters, Coloured, 37

Painted Lady, the, 232

Palaeontographical Society, 24

Palceospiza bella, 189

Palms, Acclimatization of, 178

Palms at Shanghai, 262

Palm-tree, Roots of the, 237, 261, 283

Papilio Machaon , Appearance of, 209

Parasites, Fasting, 190

Pastor, Rose-coloured, 16, 215

Pasque Flower, Position of the, 139, 166

Perisporiacei, 171

Permian Fauna in North America, 236
Petrel, Stormy, the, 23
Pezophaps solitaria, 41, 89
Pigeons, Polygamy among, 67
Pigs, Solid-hoofed, 114
Pike, Holes in Head of, 17
Pikermi Sewalik Deposits, 236
Pinnularia, 128
Pithecolobium socman, 91
Phalangiidce , 113
Phoccena communis (Porpoise), 84
Phosphorus in Salt Water, 239
P hyseter macrocephalus (Sperm Whale), 7
Physostomum, the, 233
Plano rbis nautilieus (Christa), 184
Plant Chemistry, 18
Plant Crystals, 63, 160
Plant Crystals, How to Mount, 130
Plant-hunting, at Bournemouth, 3 1
Plants, Anomalous Parts of, 19
Plants, Flowerless, 259
Plants, How to Dry, 187
Plants, Dried, How to Preserve Colours,
235

Plants, Development of, Specially Adapt-
ive Appliances in, 156
Plants, Old Names of, 162
Plants, Rare, Destruction of, i6r
Plants, Rare, New Localities for in
Cheshire, 186
Plcopus nudicandatus , 38

fct

Polygala calcarea , 91
Polygala vulgaris (Milkwort), 123
Polygamy among Pigeons, 67
Polypogon littoralis, 278
Polyzoa, Fossil, 247
“ Pongo ” the Berlin Gorilla, 17
Pony, Friendship of a, with a Goose, 238
Posting-box for Slides, 87
Potato Beetle, 1, 57, 118, 222
Precambrian Rocks in Caernarvonshire, 20
Primroses, Dried, Colours of, 165, 238
Primitive Man, His Times and Compan-
ions, 75, 98 .

Primula, hybrid, 19

Proteus anguinus, Development of, 138
Prunus avium (Wild Cherry-tree), 40
Pterodactyle montanus . 261

Quartz in Lake District, 217, 241, 265

Rabbit, Friendship of, with a Cat,
282

Rabbits, Adopted by a Cat, 262
Rainfall, Inflnence of Trees on, 39
Rain-tree, the, 91

Rallus aquaticus (Pied Water-rail), 64
Ranunculus arz<ensis, iqo
Ranunculus bulbosus, Monstrosity in, 91
Ranunculus Ficaria , 82
Ranunculus Ficariceformis , 82, 141
Ranunculus repens, 167, 239
Rats, Drowning of, by Swans, 45
Reptiles, Venomous, in Ireland, 42, 93
Reviews :

Darwin on Forms of Flowers, 54
The Antelope and Deer of America, by
Catton, 54

Proteus, or Unity in Nature — C. B.
Radcliffe, 55

Physiography, Prof. Huxley on, 55
Origin of the World — Dr. Dawson, 55
Accidents in Mines, 55
Habirshaw’s Catalogue of Diatomacese,

63 , . . . „

Flowers : their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes,

and Colours — Taylor, 115, 21 1
History of Bible Plants — J. Smith, 115,
162

Manual of Irish Geology — Kinahan, 117
Tropical Nature — A. Wallace, 254
West Yorkshire — J. W. Davies and F.
Lees, 255

Physical System of the Universe — S. J.
Skertchley, 255

Science Primer — Dr. McVicar, 255
Glanville’s Wootton — C. W. Dale, 255
Murray’s Handbook for England and
Wales, 255

Botanical Note Book — E. M. Holmes,
255

First Catechism of Botany — J. Gibbs,

255 .

The Creation of Moses and Science in
Harmony — A. Stewart, 256
Half-hours with the Stars — Proctor, 256
The House of Life — Mrs. Miller? 256
The Sight, and how to preserve it, 256
Nutrition in Health and Disease — J. H.
Bennett, 256

Phosphates in Nutrition — N. F. Ander-
son, 256

English Folk-lore — Rev. T. T. Dyer,

256

Science made easy — T. Twining, 258
Popular Science for October, 258
Clavis synoptica Hymenomycetum Euro-
peeum — Dr. Cooke and M. Quetet,
259

The Herefordshire Pomona, 259
Rhododendron, Notes on the, 177
Rhytiphlcea tinctoria, 37
Robin's Eggs, 166, 190
Rocks, Perpendicular Holes in, 261
Rocks, Precambrian, in Caernarvonshire,
20

Rotifer, Birth of a, 200
Rubiaceae, Dimorphism in, 21 1

Sagartia sphyrodeta , 16
St. Helena, Hemipterous Fauna of, 161
St. Ouen’s Bay, Holiday Rambles in, 250
Salad Plants, Notes on, 9, 35, 193

Salmon, Disease among, 138
Sand-hills, Structure of, 29
Sap-crystals, 88
Saprolegniaferox, 138
Saurians, Fossil, from the Cape, 212
Saxicola CEnanthe, 232
“ Science - Gossip ” Botanical Exchange
Club, Report of, 24, 73
“ Science-Gossip ” in the Provinces, 185
Sea Anemones, 45, 68, 191, 238, 262
Seagulls, Age of, 93

Seals and Whales of the British Seas, 7,
26, .59, 84

Seal in a Trap, 258
Shanghai, Palms at, 262
Sheep, Malformation in, 167
Shells, Land and Freshwater of Tasmania,
206

Shells, Opercula of, 215
Sigillaria, Fossil Fungus discovered
under Bark of, 92
Silene inffiata, Notes on, 210
Skins, Birds’, How to Preserve, 142
Skins, Method of Preserving, 118, 277
Skull, Human, found in Colorado, 212
Slides, Cleaning of, 15, 63
Slides, Posting-box for, 87
Slips, Glass, Preservation of, 15
Slow-worm, Longevity of, 94
Slug, Carnivorous, 37, 92
Slug, the Predatory, 44
Slugs in Foxgloves, 23
Slugs, How to Preserve, 237
Smoke : Does it cause Blackness of St.
Paul’s? 170

Snakes, British, 42, 142
Snakes : Do they Eat Birds? 94
Snakes, How to Feed. 144
Societies, Proceedings, &c. of : —

Dublin University Biological Associa-
tion, 16

Leeds Naturalists’, 16
Cumberland Association of Literature
and Science, 20, 138
Palaeontographical, 24
Metropolitan Scientific Association, 30
Quekett Microscopical, 37, 160, 208
Watford Natural History, 39, 258
Geologists’ Association, 41
East Kent Natural History, 63
Chester Society of Natural History, 64
St. Mary Lambeth Field, 64
Liverpool Literary and Philosophical,
”3

Wellington College Natural History, 113
Huddersfield Naturalists’, 113
Chichester and West Sussex Natural
History and Miscroscopical, 113
“ Science Gossip ” Botanical Exchange,
24, 73, 116, 1 19 _

Hackney Microscopical, 137, 283
Northampton Natural History, 138
St. Francisco Miscroscopical, 160
Manchester Science Association, 185
The Goole Scientific, 185
Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club, 185
Birmingham Philosophical, 185
British Association, 185
Norwich Geological, 212
Highbury Microscopical, 231
Liverpool Microscopical, 257
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’, 258
Norwich Science-Gossip, 258
Liverpool Geological, 279
Solatium Dulcamara, 18, 40, 93, 166, 215
Solitaire, the, 41
Somersetshire, Caves in, 42, 70
Song Thrush and Missel Thrush, the, 119
Sorrel, Derivation of Name, 215
Sparrow-hawks and Windows, 142
Spectral Phenomena, 45
Spheraphides, 15
Spider, the Harvestman, 79
Spider, Instinct in the, 214, 281, 282
Spider, Mode of Preserving, 95
Sponges, Researches among, 37
Sponges, Freshwater Fossil, 140
Sponsa’s Headquarters, 31, 64
Spontaneous Generation, 15
Star-fish, New Species of ( Palasteriucc.
Kinahani) 236

Starlings and Sparrows’ Eggs, 165
Sticklebacks, Pugnacity of, 23, 95

288

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP :

Sticklebacks, Worms in, 118
Stonechat ( Saxicola Stapazina), a Black-
throated, in Lancashire, 232
Stones, Precious, Artificial, 20
Stromatopora and Loftusia, 212
Structure of Organic Forms, Influences
on (Professor Owen), 91
Sugar in Nectar of Flowers, 235
Sugaring, Best Mixture for, 143, 280
Summer, Ladies’, Tresses ( Spiranthes
PEstivalis), 138

Sun and Earth, Distance between, 47
Sussex, Fossil Fishes of, 67
Swift, Early Appearance of the, 143, 165
Sword-handle, Curiously Carved, a, 44
Sycamore, Fructification of, 44
Synotus Barbastellus, 91

Tanks for Breeding Microscopic
Organisms, 174

Tasmania, Land and Freshwater shells of,
206

Taxidermy, Practical, 90
Teratology, Vegetable, 91
Testacella haliotoidea (Predatory Slug),
44, 161, 209

Tests, Diatom, Resolution of, 88
Tetrao Urogallus, 190
Thrush, Nest of a, 43
Thunbergia allata, 55
Tides, Mr. Leighton on, 92

Tinnnncnlus cenc/iroides ( Nankeen Kes-
trel), 103

Tit, Great, the, Notes of, 234
Titmarsh ( Pams palustris ), 262
Toad and Goldfish, 94, 113
Toads, Live, in Limestone Rocks, 199
Toads, Longevity of, 236, 237
Triassic Strata of South-west Counties, 117
Trichecodon Huxley i (Fossil Walruses),
116

Trilobites, Jointed Limbs in, 20
Tulip, Derivation of Name, 191
Turdus roseus, 16

Turdus viscivorus (Missel Thrush),
Nesting of the, 43
Tyrian Dye, the, 44

Uraniid^:, 137

Vallisneria, Rapid Growth of, 114
Vanessa Antiopa, 143, 213
Vegetable Teratology, 259
Ventriloquisim, Animal, 279
Vcrbascum Blattaria (Moth Mullein), 235
Vertebrata, Mimicry among, 277
Virchow, Dr. Rudolph, on Freedom of
Modern Science, 90
Vivaria, Reptile Plants for, 38
Volvox Globator, 63, 91, 184
Vole, Field, Habits of, 233

Walruses, Fossil, 116

Walton, Izaak, Bust of, 281

Water Boatmen, 261

Watercress, 42, 45

Water-fleas on Straw, 189

Water Supply, Mr. De Ranee on 212

Wax Cell, an Improved, 208

Well Sections, Geology of, 187

Western Scotland, Geology of, 66

Whitethroat, the, a Mimic, 14 1

Whales and Seals of the British Seas, 7,.

26, 38, 59, 84, 258
Whipultre, the, 95, 118
White Flowers, 94
White’s Selborne, 78
Wicklow, Geology of, 179
Wight, Isle of, Botanical Notes on, 186
Winds, Mr. Leighton on, 92
“ Windhover,” the, 101
Wolf-dog, Irish, 140, 161
Woodpigeons, Nest of, 14 1
Worms in Flowerpots, 40
Worm Parasite in Leg of Grebe, 88, 89
Wren, Superstitious Dislike to, 47, 167

Ziphius, the, 58
Zoological Notes, 262
Zoology, 16, 38, 64, 88, 1 13, 137, 161, 184^
209, 232, 257, 277

WYMAN AND SONS, PRINTERS, GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W C.

HARDWICK E’S

Science-Gossip

1 87 9.

WORKS BY THE EDITOR OF “ SCIENCE -GOSSIP.”

HALF-HOURS IN THE GREEN LANES: a Book fcr a Country Stroll.

Illustrated with 300 Woodcuts. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo., cloth, 45-.

HALF-HOURS AT THE SEA-SIDE, or Recreations with Marine Objects.

Illustrated with 150 Woodcuts. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo., cloth, 4 s.

GEOLOGICAL STORIES: a Series of Autobiographies in Chronological

ORDER. Fourth Edition. Illustrated with 175 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., cloth, 45-.

THE AQUARIUM; its Inhabitants, Structure, and Management.

Illustrated with 239 Woodcuts. Second Edition. Crown 8vo., cloth extra, 6s.

FLOWERS ; their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours. Illustrated

with 32 Coloured Figures by Sowerby, and 16 1 Woodcuts. Second Edition. Crown 8vo.,
cloth, 7 s. 6d.

NOTES ON COLLECTING AND PRESERVING NATURAL HISTORY

OBJECTS. Edited by J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S. Contents : Geological Specimens
by the Editor; Bones, by E. F. Elwin ; Birds’ Eggs, by T. Southwell, F.Z.S. ; Butterflies
and Moths, by Dr. Knaggs ; Beetles, by E. C. Rye, F.Z.S. ; Hymenoptera, by J. B.
Bridgman; Fresh-water Shells, by Professor Ralph Tate, F.G.S. ; Flowering Plants, by
James Britten, F.L.S. ; Mosses, by Dr. Braith waite, F.L.S. ; Grastes, by Professor Buckman ;
Fungi, by Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S.; Lichens, by Rev. James Crombie, F.L.S.;
Seaweeds, by W. H. Grattan. Illustrated with numerous Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., cloth,
3 s. 6d.

LONDON: DAVID BOGUE, 3, ST. MARTIN’S PLACE, W.C.

HARDWICK E’S

AN ILLUSTRATED MEDIUM OF INTERCHANGE AND GOSSIP

FOR STUDENTS AND

LOVERS OF NATURE.

EDITED BY

J. E. TAYLOR, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

F.R.G.S.I., &c.

VOLUME XV.

"Edition :

DAVID BOGUE,

3, ST. MARTIN’S PLACE, TRAFALGAR SQUARE, W.C.

1879.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,

STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

PREFACE.

IFTEEN years is a long period in the life of a
man, and a relatively longer one in the existence
of a magazine. It is time enough to have given
a fair trial to any scheme, or to have proved
a raison d'etre for any institution. We are re-
minded of this in prefacing a few lines to the
Fifteenth Volume of Science-Gossip. And it
is with no small pleasure, as we take a mental
review of our situation, that we find ourselves
surrounded with more numerous friends, and even abler
contributors than ever.

The domain of Natural Science extends in widening
circles every year. New and more complex organic relation-
ships are discovered the more we look for them. We bear
the highest of unconscious testimony to the Supreme Intelli-
gence which governs the universe, when we require the facts
of Science to be subordinated to intelligible laws ; and
there is a higher mental pleasure in finding out the laws
which govern these facts, than in discovering the facts them-
selves. But as the circle of the Known increases in its
circumference, we perceive the larger periphery of the Un-
known which circumscribes it. Within this infinitely little
circle, there is light as in the land of Goshen, but outside, darkness
like that of Egypt ! The attitude of the scientific mind, therefore,
ought more than ever to be the reverse of dictatorial.

During the past year we have opened our columns to the dis-
cussion of one of the most interesting of the many biological side-paths

PREFACE.

which modern investigation has opened out, the question of “ In-
telligence in Man and Animals.” We have been pleased with the
ability with which the subject has been discussed from the evolutional,
as well as the anti-evolutional sides, and not less so with the good
temper and courtesy displayed by the partisans. Twenty years ago
this mutual forbearance would have been impossible, and a discussion
like this would have broken up into personal recriminations. We must
now, however, close the debate.

The crowded state of our “ Exchange ” columns shows how zealously
amateurs are working in their special departments of natural history ;
and the various and oftentimes queer questions put to us in the
columns devoted to that purpose, indicate the number of recruits who
are joining the ranks. We hope that the “ List of Naturalists” which
appears in the present number will prove of great practical advantage
to young and ardent workers.

We look forward to a more active year than ever. Our editorial
box is well filled with articles — technical, descriptive, and popular,
on every branch of Natural Science. We shall do our best to make
the volume for 1880 more attractive in every way than any of
its predecessors. And, whilst thanking our numerous, zealous, and
hearty friends for the many kindnesses we have received at their
hands, we wish to all our contributors and subscribers, “ A HArPY
New Year!”

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Amceba, a peculiar Dactyllosphceriu m
vitreum , 335
Ananchytes ovata, 181
Argynnis Adippe, Broken Scale from, 37

Bear, Brown, 224, 225
Bolehis Jlavus, 5

Boulder Clay, Section of, at Leith, 33
Brain of Mole-Cricket, 104
Brain of Formica rufa, 104
Brain of Cockroach,’ 104, 107
Butterflies in New Forest, 124, 125
Buzzard, the (Bnteo vulgaris), 57

Calceolaria, a Monstrous, 41
Calceolaria, Malformation in Flowers of,
90

Calyptostoma Hardyi, Nymph of, 249
Camera lucida, the Hofmann, 62
Cardamine hirsuta, 128
Cardamine sylvatica, 128
Cephalopoda of Chalk Marl, Isle of Wight,
204, 205

Cidaris coronata, Shell of, 180, 181
Comfrey (Symphytum officinale), 148
Compressorium, Sketch showing Details
of, 185

Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carlo), 196
Cormorant, Crested, 196

Dad ale a quercina and unicolor, 4, 5
Dissecting- table. Details of, 200

Echinus in Aquarium, 180
Echinus esculent a, 180
Echinus miliaris, 84, 85
Electrical Cloud Masses, 153
Electrical Stratus, 230
Euglena viridis, 184, 231

Fenestella plebeia, 52, 53, 248

j

Filago canescens, 129
Filago spathulata, 129
Fistulina hepatica, 5

Forget-me-not, the (Myosotis palustris),
148

Fossil Corals, Varieties of, 272, 273/274
Fossils, Cambro-Silurian and Silurian, 12
Fossils, Upper Carboniferous, in Ireland,
13

Foxglove, the Common Monstrosity in, 16
Free Crinoids, Extinct Species of, 156, 157
Fungi in Epping Forest, Varieties of, 76,
77

Galerites albogalcrus, 181
Guillemot, the Common (Uria tj-oile),
176

Guillemot, the Black (Uria grylle), 176

Hemiptera, a rare, 9
Herb-Robert (Geranium Robertianum),
128

Horsehair, Arrangement of Pigment in, 37
House-fly (Musca domcstica), 8
House-fly, Chrysalis of, 8
House-fly, Egg of, 8
House-fly, Maggot of, 8
Ilydrophilus piceus Depositing Eggs, 132
Hydrophilus piceus, Nest of, 133
Hydrophilus piceus. Larvae of Head of,
133

Hydrophilus piceus, Larvae of Tail of, 133

Improved Live-Box, 38

Kestrel, the (Falco tinnunculus), 57
Kite, the, 56

Lamella;, various, 4

Lenzitcs betulina, 4

Lincolnshire Marshland, Map of, 244

I Magnified Pollen Grains, 187
Merlin (Falco oesalon), the, 268
Micraster, the Common, 181
Micro-fungi Slides, Mode of Labelling, 4
Microscopical Apparatus, 32
Mite of Gamasus on Humble Bee, 81
Mite, the Didactyle Tarsus of, 250

Pala:ocoryne, Diagram of, 52, 53
Palaocoryne radiata, 248
Palaeocoryne, Specimens of, 228
Parasites on Fish, 79
Pigment Cells in Lepidoptera, 36
Polecat, the (Bustela putorius), 59
Po'ypora tuberculata, 52, 53
Polyporus versicolor, 5
Puffin, the, (Fratcrcula arctica), I73

Ranatra linealis, 252, 253
Rhaetic Beds at Penarth, 100
Rotifer, a New, 200

Scolopendrium vulgare, 209
Section of Geological Strata of Sheffield,
172

Section of Strata from Cardiff to Caerphilly,
xoi

Simla sy)iddctyla, 28, 29
Slides, Air Bubbles in. Pump for Removing,
61

Slides, Improved Centerer for, 160
Sparmannia Africana, 60, 61
Sparrowhawk ( Accipitcr/ringillarius), 56
Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), 220

Tube for Preserving Larva;, 257

Water Crowfoot, Varieties of, 108,
109, no

White Dead-Nettle, tli z( Laminin album),
i T49

THE CAPPED CUMULUS, OR ARCHED CROWN.

✓

Bv #he Rev. S. BARBER, F.M.S.

I S phenomenon,
which is not very
unusual in thundery
weather, when the
storm is gathering
or passing away, is
interesting as being
indicative of the
extent to which the
electrical masses af-
fect the contiguous
atmosphere. When
highly charged piles
of cumulus are seen
drifting in the breeze,
at no great distance,
and exhibiting rifts
and chasms and
mountain crags
about their precipi-
tous sides and sunny peaks, — wreaths of mist and
vapoury bands may be seen floating athwart the dark
sides and rolling upwards toward their summits. This
foggy vapour holds off from the rock-like sides of the
towering cumulus (with which it refuses to coalesce),
and gives to the latter an appearance of great solidity, j
Often maintaining its isolation, it spreads over the
topmost crests in a thin, loose strip of vapour, and,
bending down the opposite side of the cloud, forms a j
complete detached arch. At times this arch has the
appearance of being highly condensed ; and, allowing
for the height of the species of cumulus to which
it attaches itself, the intervening space of clear sky ;
between the two clouds must often be of considerable
dimensions.

There can be little doubt that the cap or arch
formed in this way has a form which corresponds to
that of the larger cloud. At times, however, the
appearance may be one of perspective only, as may
be seen when there are short strips or thin lines of
No. 169.

condensed stratus lying among the cumulus. These,

! particularly in unsettled weather, have their ends
! sometimes bent downwards , as if attracted by the
| earth.* In passing, we may say that this latter form
! of cloud (which is closely allied to the cumulus-
“ cap ”) is seen generally before rain storms, and
I often precedes violent squalls. It is seen occasionally
in parallel bands.

Whether the form of the vapour which crowns the
summit of a cloud-pile results from the radiation of
electrical force acting at a certain distance, or is
merely the effect of condensation caused by the chill-
ing effect of the cloud mass on the surrounding air,
is an interesting though a difficult matter to determine ;
the relations existing between different masses of
cloud not having yet much engaged the attention of
meteorologists. Even when these masses are similar
in species there is much difficulty; but the difficulty
is greater when those species are different, e.g., those
of stratus and cumulus, as in our present subject.

It has been remarked by Maury and other writers,
that the sudden formation of hail or snow must often
be attended by a noticeable increase in the temperature
of the surrounding atmosphere, and the fact has been
so recorded. This increase of temperature is in agree-
ment with, and indeed corroborates, the mechanical
theory of heat so fully enunciated by Tyndall in his
interesting work on “Heat as a Mode of Motion.”
The part which electricity plays in regard to the
origin of the stifling and oppressive! atmosphere that
precedes thunderstorms must be very powerful,
whether acting directly or indirectly.

It has been noticed that the passage of a large
bank of cirro-cumulus will often cause a remarkable
dropping of the temperature of the air beneath; and
(allowing this to be true) we can only account for the

* Probably it is merely a more condensed variety of that
which forms our present subject.

f There can be little doubt, however, that the sensations
many persoiiN experience before a storm result from the direct
action of the electricity in the body.

B

2

HARDJVICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

fact by supposing that the particles of the cloud are
in the transition state — changing rapidly from the
condition of half-frozen water into the vaporous state
of cumulus or nimbus. We say half frozen, for the
cirro-cumulus scarcely ever exhibits, like the various
forms of cirrus, prismatic effects, which it undoubtedly
would do if it were composed of fully formed ice-
crystals. If then, we allow the accuracy of the ob-
servations recorded, as to the chilling effect of this
cloud on the atmosphere beneath, we may also be
justified in inferring that, for the most part, it is a
transition cloud between cirrtcs (the proper ice-cloud)
and some other more watery species , e.g. , cumulus or
stratus, rather than an intermediate stage between
these and the cirrus itself.

[To be continued.)

A RAMBLE ON THE KENTISH HILLS.

I THOUGHT that an account of some of the
spring plants to be found on the hills near Otford
and Kemsing might be interesting to the readers of
Science-Gossip who had never botanised in this
locality. My first intention was to call this article
“A Walk on the Chalk,” but thinking the title
might mislead, I changed it — “A Walk on the
Chalk” generally being considered in London “a
milk walk !”

Three of us started from Otford platform — it can
scarcely bear the dignified title of station — at about
eleven o’clock in the morning, walked through the
village, admired the old castle (where, by the bye,
a blacksmith has erected a smithy), and then through
a gate, over a ploughed field, up the hill ; what
with the hill and the field, it rather tired us, it
being extremely warm. Halfway up, on a grassy
bank, we espied Ophrys muscifera and Aceras anthro-
pophora ; a little higher up two or three clumps of
Cynoglossum officinale] on the brow, under the trees,
we passed Daphne Laureola and Atropa Belladonna ,
both in profusion ; then we caught sight of a fine
spike of Orchis fusca , which amply repaid our blow
up the hill. A short distance on we found Neottia
Nidus- Avis, its brown stalk and flowers exactly match-
ing the colour of the ground. Down the hill again
more fusca, then a large specimen of Habenaria chlo-
rantha, measuring about 28 inches in height, and
a quantity of Habenaria bifolia a little farther on.
Out of the wood, and on to a grassy knoll, where we
had a fine view of Kent stretching for miles and
fading away into the Sussex hills. Just a bit of
lunch ; then we turned into a copse on our right ; here
we found Cephalanthera grandiflora in full bloom and
plenty of it ; out again, down a disused chalk-pit ;
here growing were Helianthemum vulgare, Hippocrepis
comosa, Pyrus aria, Viburnum Lantana, and a few
stray specimens of Aceras anthropophora. Left here
and walked down to the small village of Kemsing,

noticed the quaint old church, which has lancet-shaped
windows, and, if report says true, is built on an old
Roman temple ; next came to St. Edith’s Well, which
originated, not from the chalk hills, as we profane
moderns think, but from St. Thomas a Becket’s staff ;
he, good man, travelling by the pilgrims’ way, feeling
thirsty, stopped at Kemsing and struck his staff into
the ground, from whence, we are told, gushed the
water. After taking a good draught from it, and
gathering some of the Asplenium Ruta-muraria,
which grows on the wall built round, we set out on
the dusty road. Before we got far, one of my friends
drew my attention to the curious laciniated variety
of Elder ( Sambucus nigra laciniata) growing in the
hedge ; further on we came to a specimen or two
of Lathrcea squamaria, which the road-man had
tried hard to destroy by throwing a heap of stones
on it ; but no, he had left three untouched, all
with seeds ; one we gathered, and left two. Turned
back a little way, and down a lane past an old
farmhouse, where we found on a wall Cetcrach
officinarum — this, by the way, a rarity in Kent. We
must scarcely mention a closer description of the
locality than this, or the herb collectors would be
after them, but enough to say, if any botanist
searches for it, he will be rewarded. Over a field, and
narrowly escaping wet feet by plumping into a boggy
ditch, out into a pretty country lane ; we walked down
here for about half a mile, and then came to the
(L. C. & D.) railway bridge, under which we pass,
and into the meadow on the left-hand side ; here
we gathered Orchis mascula, latifolia , and Morio,
also Valeriana dioica by the side of the ditch. Out
into the road, and a little higher up we found a beauti-
fully variegated variety of Sambucus nigra, all the
veins being surrounded with a broad cream- colour
border.

Up the short but steepish hill, the road delight-
fully overshadowed with the green foliage, and re-
lieved here and there by a bit of blue sky ; then on
to the Chart (Seal) ; here Junipcrus co77vnunis is
very common ; among the fir-trees we found Con-
vallaria majalis flowering very sparingly ; this, I
believe, is the characteristic of the uncultivated
plant Lomaria spicant, of course growing abundantly
here.

On looking at the time, we find it to be five o’clock.
And now we are close to Ightham ; here I part with
my friends and make my way through Inghatch (here
by the roadside is a clump of La77iiu7n I7iac7ilatui7i) ,
and on to Plaxtol, but go a bit out of my way to the
copse at the bottom of Sheet Hill, where Paris quad-
rifolia and Ophioglossiwi vulgatu77i grow, the first-
named plant being rather a local one in Kent. Gather-
ing a specimen or two of each, I walk on to Plaxtol,
and thence home, after having spent a most enjoyable
day.

Hadlow. F. W. E. S.

HA R D IVICKE ’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

3

ON MOUNTING MICRO-FUNGI.

AS the seasons of the year revolve in rapid succes-
sion, each, and all, bring with them their own
particular work and studies Tor the microscopist.
When, as Horace puts it, ‘ ‘ Solvitur acris hiems gratd
vice veris et Favoni,” the ardent microscopist begins
to prepare for his early campaign, over hill, through
dale, and in the woodlands ; again, when summer
bursts upon him with all her warmth and beauty, he
plunges deeper than ever in scientific research for
objects dear to his own particular branch of study ;
autumn, too, finds him busily engaged wandering
through fields lit up with the brilliance of the golden
grain soon to be ingathered. At last comes winter,
“clothed all in frieze,” this is without doubt the
season of all others when study and manipulation of
his objects collected in the bright seasons are brought
more particularly into play. Within his study, with
his microscope and objects at hand, cheered by the
friendly blaze and warmth of his own fireside, he feels
that the dull dark months, as some consider them, are
to him anything but dark and dreary. To such a
time we have once more come, and to each and all it
has brought its delightful work. My own particular
study throughout this year has been the micro-fungi,
those minute organisms which live on other plants.
It is my intention therefore in this short paper to
put before my readers, as briefly and as concisely as
possible, a few brief hints, culled from my own ex-
perience, as to the best and the easiest way of
mounting those micro-fungi for which we have made
so diligent a search throughout the spring, summer,
and autumn months, with, let us hope, plenty of
success. I do not intend to enter into the minutioe of
collecting the fungi and classing them. To those who
at present have not taken to this most interesting
branch of microscopical research, let me recommend
a book which will give them all the knowledge on the
head of collecting and classing they will require ; I
mean “ Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould,” by
Dr. M. C. Cooke, a book to whose value and excel-
lence all who, like myself, have used it and (let us
hope) profited by it will, I feel sure, bear witness.

The mounting of micro-fungi is very simple, and
may be classed under two heads : —

1st. Those specimens which may be mounted dry.
2ndly. Those which require some medium in which
to be preserved.

And, firstly, of the apparatus required for dry
mounting : —

i. Plenty of glass slips with ground edges.*

2. Thin glass circles of various sizes.

3. Three or four dozen vulcanite balls.

4. Sharp fine scissors (a pair).

* Ground edge slips, though more expensive, are the cheaper
in the long-run, as they are neater and of smaller compass.

5. Bottle of white-lead varnish.

6. Turn-table and camel’s-hair brushes.

All these things being at hand, we may proceed to
manipulate our fungi. Of course, the great Order
from which so many dry mounts are taken are the
zEcidiacei ; we will suppose that we are about to
mount a specimen of A. Tussilaginis. First, take the
leaf on which the specimen is located, and with the
fine scissors cut round the cluster-cup, leaving suffi-
cient leaf to fill up the vulcanite cell. Having taken
care that the specimen lies perfectly flat in the field,
place a ring of white varnish round the top of the cell,
and on this lay the thin glass cover. After allowing
time for the varnish to dry, run two or more rings
round, and neatly, as a finish, one of green in the
centre of the white varnish. The slide having been
duly labelled is then fit to place in your cabinet. No-
thing is easier than this method, yet, like everything
else, the novice may fail in his attempts to succeed,
and after mounting a specimen /Fcidium in the way
above described, he will perhaps in a day or two be
surprised to find he is unable to distinctly see his
object through a dimness which appears to have come
over the thin glass. This is caused by the object not
having been properly dried. Great care should be
taken that all specimens are thoroughly dried before
mounting.

We now turn to the method of mounting in fluid,
which is by no means so easy or so certain of pro-
ducing good results. The apparatus and fluid required
may be briefly named as follows : —

1. Ground-edge slips.

2. Thin circles.

3. Fine knife.

4. Spirit-lamp.

5. Glycerine jelly (the best).

6. Gold size.

7. White-lead varnish and brushes.

In this case we will take as our example for mount-
ing a specimen of Aregrna bulbosum, of the order
Puccinia. Having seen that your slide is well
cleaned, take the leaf with the A. bulbosum on it,
and with the fine knife scrape on to the slide sufficient
spores to fill the field of view without crowding it.
Next take up some glycerine (which has been placed
in a cup of very hot water in order to liquefy) in a dip-
ping-tube, and gently let fall one drop on to the spores,
then hold the slide over the spirit-lamp in order that
all shall be warm, then very gently place the thin
glass cover over the medium, and put the slide aside
till cold. When the glycerine has well set, take a
knife with slightly warmed blade and scrape all the
superfluous glycerine from the outside of the thin
glass cover ; next run three rings of gold size round,
allowing each to thoroughly dry before the next is laid
on ; after this has been done, finish with white and
green varnish as in dry mounting. In this method
the difficulty will be how to obviate air bubbles ; these
in working with glycerine are its great drawback. I

B 2

4

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

am rarely, however, troubled with them, and I owe my |
success, I consider, to seeing that the glycerine is
thoroughly liquid and warm, and that the thin cover-
ing glass is laid down on the spores and fluid in the
most gentle manner. Be careful in mounting with
glycerine what varnish you use, as there is scarcely
one that is not affected by this fluid. After many
trials and many failures with others, I have come to
the conclusion that there is nothing equal to gold j
size.

Thus then have I very briefly endeavoured to
point out the easiest and quickest way of mounting
micro-fungi. In conclusion, let me add a word about
the labelling of your specimens. Be very careful

always to roughly note on
each slide at the time of
mounting the name of the
specimen, for it is of little
use, in the case of those
fungi the spores of which
are mounted in fluid, trying
to remember the name some
day or two after mounting,
many spores being so much
alike that the thing is almost
impossible. Before placing
in the cabinet, neat labels,
such as may be bought at
any optician’s, should be
placed on the slide one at
each end, bearing the Order
and Latin name of the
fungus, with date of mount-
ing and mounter's name. It :
is as well also to add the
English name. As an ex-
ample of what I mean, see

Fig. i. — Example to show fig. i. I must, before finish-
mode of labelling micro-' . . . .

fungi slides, and also of warning, and

applying rings of coloured that is, Be very sure that
varnish.

you get the best glycerine
jelly, viz. that which is as clear as crystal. There is
some sold which looks foggy and muddy, so to speak.
This, when viewed under the microscope, show s an
amount of deposit of some kind, which, with such

minute organisms as those of which I have been

treating and with a high power, prove ruination. The
clearest glycerine jelly I ever remember to have used
I procured of Mr. Dunscombe, optician, of St. Augus-
tine’s Parade, Bristol. It was put up in a test tube,
which was fitted into a case ; this doubtless could be
obtained at any optician’s, and is without doubt the
best glycerine for mounting micro-fungi 1 ever met
with. I trust that, this winter, many who have not [
yet turned their attention to micro-fungi mounting
may at last be persuaded to do so, and I can promise
them that the result will fully repay their labour.

Charles F. W. T. Williams.

Cceemacel
Usiifcgo Segetum

Co rn Sm ut
24-3-73
BROW

ANOTHER FUNGUS RAMBLE IN EPPING
FOREST.

If

:A ZJ 1 BP1UL1AA occurs on the roots

and stumps of old trees: it has the habit of a
Polvpore ; corky, coriaceous ; straight gills, some-
what branched when young, torn when old ; pileus
tomentose

Dcedalea quercina and D. unicolor. The former is

t ig • 4-— 1 .amelia; in the young state.

Figs. 5 and 6. — Lamellae straight-branched and anastomosing
of Dcedalea quercina (young state).

nearest Lenzites, the latter, of more frequent occur-
rence, approaches Polyporus : both are similar in
habit to this genus. The pileus of D. qjiercina is of a
pale buff-colour, with concentric lines not unlike

Polyporus ulmarius.

D. unicolor has a coriaceous, corky pileus, villoso-
strigose, cinereous, with zones of the same colour :
The sinuses of both species are torn and labyrinthi-
form when old ; similar in this respect to Lenzites.
The polypores are plentifully represented, both as

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

5

Boletus and Polyporus proper. The scientific dis- !
tinction between the two is that in the former genus
the hymenium of the cells is separable from one i
another and from the hymenophorum, which is not
the case in the latter. Generally speaking, the poly-
pores have a coriaceous, corky or even wood} struc-
ture, while that of the Boleti is sofi ancl spongy ; but
there are- intermediate forms : P. spumeus, for in-
stance, which we gathered from the dead trunk of a

The polypores are arranged in divisions, according
as the stem is central, lateral, or wanting; besides
these there are resupinate forms.

Of the stemless kinds, P. versicolor met the eye
upon almost every other old tree-stump ; rather hand-
some in the young state, before the rich velvety-brown
foment am of the pileus with its broad border of light
drab variegated with zones of the same hue has
faded ; the hymenium is white, and pores so small as

Figs. 7 and 8. — Labyrinthiform pore> « >t
Dcedalea u 7 d col or (young state).

Figs. 9 and io. — Hymenium of Polyporus Fig. xi. — Reticulated stem
versicolor (young state). of Boletus edulis.

Fig. 12. — Section showing the villose 5trigu.se
pileus of Dcedalea unicolor, and pores torn
and toothed when old.

Fig. 15. — Section of Polyporus Incidus, .-h. -wing the
tubular hymenium.

tree, is somewhat spongy. The polvpores are usually
stemless, with lateral attachments to their matrices ;
the Boleti have stipes like an agaric ; but P. ru-
fescens , of which we found one specimen near the
“ King’s Oak,” is furnished with a central stipe : it is
the prettiest of its tribe, the pileus is red and polished,
especially on the broad border; hymenium white.
P. lucidus (two specimens) is also a handsome fungus ;
it grows laterally from the roots of old trees ; the
pileus is of a dark reddish-bay (not unlike old red
morocco), and polished ; hymenium whitish.

Fig. 1 7. — Vertical section of a Boletus, show-
ing the porous hymenium.

to be scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. More
general and protean in its forms is Polyporus vulgaris ,
a white, corky, closely adherent, resupinate species,
with a most repulsive and sickening odour : on trees,
sticks, stumps, everywhere ; frequent and also re-
supinate, but not adherent, P. ferruginosus : pileus
with hardly any substance, thin, and coriaceous ; hy-
menium irregular ; pores unequal ; of variable habit,
but usually growing laterally from old stumps. P.
tomentarius was also observed on old trees.

Of Boleti we gathered specimens of six species.

6

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

These are in habit like Agarics (see figure). Most
frequent, B. chrysenteron ; brown and tomentose
above, greenish-yellow below : B. estiva l is ; pileus
dark brown, cracked when old, dirty white Beneath :
and B. scaber ; much resembling it, but stipe covered
with fibrous scales (both species in the wood behind
Loughton). B. edulis, one small specimen, brownish
above, whitish below (when young, but when old
turning to a pale yellowish-green), the tubes elongated
and half free ; it may be known from its congeners
by its stem, which is elegantly reticulated. B.flavus',
pileus viscid, yellowish ; hymeneal surface yellow ;
pores large, angular, ragged ; stem cribrose above
with the decurrent tubes ; not frequent. B. elegans ;
hymeneal surface lemon-yellow ; of firmer substance
than the preceding, and with much smaller pores ;
one specimen ; copse below Woodford.

Plentiful this year was another plant of the Poly-
pore family, of a soft, spongy, or fleshy consistence :
viz. Fistulina hepatica , growing upon old oak-trees.
Those who are unacquainted with its peculiar aspect
could hardly credit its strong resemblance to a piece
of raw bullock’s liver, and still less imagine that so
odd-looking and unattractive a thing can be edible.
We had a. portion of it dressed for dinner ; the odour
and flavour thereof were not bad, but it ate very much
like what stewed gutta percha might do, and there
was an after sensation upon the teeth and palate of
astringency, referable no doubt to the presence of
gallic acid. From a scientific point of view it is an
interesting fungus, because different to other Poly-
pores in that 'the hymenium is at first papillose, but
when full grown the tubes are seen to be all separate
and distinct.

( To be continued.)

CHEMICAL ACTION IN ITS GEOLOGICAL
ASPECT.

By T. Mellard Reade, C.E., F.G.S., See.

EVERY ONE is, no doubt, familiar with the fact
that, in boiling most water in our common
kettles, a white precipitate, known as “fur,” forms
on the inside of the vessel. This is specially the case
with our well water, and is due to the fact that the
water, in its passage through the pores of the rock,
has dissolved and taken up, in solution, lime, in the
form of a carbonate, which is precipitated in the pro-
cess of boiling. This is not only the case with well
water, but, to a greater or less extent, with river water,
the relative amounts being due to the nature of the
rock forming the drainage basin of the river. We are
thus brought face to face with the fact that all natural
water contains, however clear it may seem, extraneous
minerals in solution, for not only do we find lime in
it, both in the form of a carbonate and a sulphate,
but also magnesia, silica, potash, soda, iron, and other
minerals, in more or less minute proportions.

This may seem a very small matter, and a very weak
instance of “ chemical action,” but these very forces,
apparently so insignificant, have been mainly instru-
mental in fashioning this world of ours into its pleasing
alternations of mountain and valley, hill and dale.
But to make the importance of the fact plain, it is
necessary to put some figures that will give an idea of
the gross, as well as relative, quantity of minerals
removed in solution by water. It is possible, you may
think, that 19 grains per gallon of “solids in solu-
tion ” is so small as to be unworthy of notice, but as
regards the river Thames it means, according to
Professor Prestwich’s calculation, the removal into
the sea annually of 548,230 tons of saline matter, or,
roughly speaking, a ton a minute.

We thus see that all rivers are carriers of invisible
material, and that, in addition to the mud, sand, and
gravel which, the most unobservant person can see, is
hurried along to the sea at every freshet, a slow and
silent transference of materials is taking place with
great uniformity of action, winter and summer, dry
weather and wet, from the land seawards. The
Rhine, the Rhone, and the Danube unitedly, accord-
ing to calculations I have made, remove annually in
solution over thirty-six million tons of saline matter.

% By an elaborate calculation, but a thoroughly re-
liable one, I have arrived at the result that the rain-
fall removes, in England and Wales, matter in
solution equal to 1 foot in thickness over the whole
area (in round numbers) in thirteen thousand years.*
But these effects of chemical action mean much
more, geologically, than at first sight appears, for the
removal of so much mineral matter in solution is, in
most cases, the destruction of the cementing materials
that hold the more insoluble particles of the rocks
together, and their consequent degradation. It is as
if the mortar of this building were dissolved out. by
chemical action, and the loose bricks, stone, and
timber carried away by the first floods into the river
Mersey. Therefore it is clear that, in order to account
for geological changes of magnitude, we only require
time and large areas of land for the rain to act upon.

The effects of chemical action on rocks is often
apparent in an objectionable and costly manner in the
stone used for building purposes. The decomposition
and crumbling away of the new red sandstone of
which Chester Cathedral was built is an instance,
and in the Shrewsbury churches the decay is very
apparent. The same may be said of the Permian
sandstone, of which a church in Coventry is com-
posed, while in Ludlow parish church the same action
may be seen on the old red sandstone. The decay
of these stratified rocks is largely due to their numerous
planes of bedding and porous nature, permitting the
penetration of water. Solid granite, however, not
possessing any stratification, weathers and decays in

* Geological time. Presidential Address, Liverpool Geological
Society, session 1876-77.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

7

some cases, such as the granite used for building pur-
poses about Dublin, the decomposition being very
rapid. The decay appears to me to be due to the
state of agglomeration of the grains of which it is
composed, in addition to the chemical nature of its
constituent minerals. Solid granite rocks decay in
situ to the depth of many feet, and the resultant of
the decomposition is, in Cornwall, kaolin or china
clay. In the boulder clay about Liverpool, we find
many decayed boulders of granite and greenstone, in
some cases the core being preserved, and ringing like
metal under the hammer, while the surface exfoliates
and falls to powder. Limestone appears to be beauti-
fully preserved in the clay, but exposed to the atmo-
sphere it is dissolved away. These specimens show,
in the case of limestone, the most delicate striations
preserved, in the case of greenstone only a resultant
powder.

If from such small examples we extend our views
to natural scenery, we find that its character has been j
largely determined by chemical action. The valleys ,
and dells of Derbyshire, so admired for their beauty,
the gorge of the Chee Tor, the cliffs of Cheddar, in
Somersetshire, all result from the dissolution of lime- ‘
stone by the chemical action of rain, but by far the
most remarkable features of limestone districts are the
caverns with which they abound. The Peak Cavern, j
Kent’s Hole, Wokey Hole, the Mammoth Cave of
Kentucky, are all produced by the continued action
of water percolating from the surface through joints
and fissures, removing the lime in solution, and en-
larging, slowly but surely, its channels until large
caverns are produced, sometimes underground rivers,
and, finally, as the roof falls in, valleys.

Having just returned from a visit to the Burren, a
remarkable limestone district in county Clare, by
Galway Bay, I was much struck with the effect of
chemical action on the scenery. There you have
grand limestone mountains, rising terrace above ter-
race, in many places entirely bare of verdure, in
others covered with grass, of the hue which gives the
name of the “Emerald Isle” to Ireland, while a
closer inspection shows most of the terraces and the
sides of the mountains to be split up wdth joints in
all stages of enlargement by rain wash, the upper sur-
faces often bare ; in others with basin-shaped hollows
holding water like a saucer, in which a fresh-water
Alga grows. In others the joints may be overgrown
with moss and verdure, giving a treacherous appear-
ance of solidity — places to be avoided at the risk of a
sprained ankle or broken leg — but by far the most
curious thing is to see, perhaps 18 inches down at the
bottom of the crevices, the surface rocks being bare,
ferns growing in the greatest luxuriance. My friend,
Dr. King, of Galway, pointed out to me that the
decay of the Alga formed a very fine soil which washed
into these crevices, forming a fitting support to the
Maidenhair fern. The Alpine plant, Dryas octopetala ,
also grows in great luxuriance, and is the relict of a

former Arctic climate. In other places, where the
rock is not “jointed,” Dr. King informs me, there
exist plains of bare limestone. Not a stream of
water is to be seen in all this remarkable district, but
many springs, which the inhabitants hold in super-
stitious reverence, and call “holy wells,” sometimes
forming very picturesque subjects for sketching ; of
this character is the one at Glen Inah, near Bally-
vaughan. This continual solvent action on the rocks
from the joints frequently quarries out large blocks of
limestone, proving, I have no doubt, of great advan-
tage to the builders of those remarkable structures
called “ Round Towers,” the objects of so much con-
troversy and little knowledge, of which the use has
never been discovered, nor the date of their building
fixed.

Lochs Mask and Corrib are both basins in the
mountain limestone of Connemara. They communi-
cate only by an underground river. To show the
necessity of a knowledge of geology to the engineer,
I may mention that during the famine an attempt was
made to cut a canal to connect the two lakes for
navigation purposes. The cut was made, but when
the water was turned in, so fractured and fissured were
the bottom and sides that the canal would not hold
water, and it remains to this day a monument of
misdirected energy.

To treat fully of the connection between scenery
and chemical action would take up more space than I
have at my disposal, but I trust in this short outline
I have given an insight into the forces which produce
natural beauties that charm the eye, or grander ones
that awe the mind. The forces of the storm-tossed
sea, the hurricane, the earthquake, and volcano, may
seem much more potent and terrible, but the ever
evenly enduring wear of the elements through chemical
action produces in the end results quite as great, nay,
greater, though it is so distributed and slow as to be
unappreciable to the eye except in its effects after
long lapses of time.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF TPIE HOUSE-
FLY AND ITS PARASITE.

THE following remarks on the development of the
house-fly are such as have come under actual
observation, and the appended sketches were made by
Mr. G. Harkus from the microscope, with the aid of a
Beales reflector.

Mr. Harkus, with whom I experimented simul-
taneously,^ was fortunate, or the reverse, in having the
required ova brought to him in this way. A fly having
gained access to a cold joint of lamb considerately
left a sufficient supply for his examination. The
objectionable part of the arrangement was probably
counterbalanced by his being enabled to fix the time
of deposition with tolerable certainty. This was on
July 28. The eggs (one of which is represented

8

HARDJVICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

in fig. 20, its diameter ^ inch) were placed with a
portion of the meat in a glass vessel, and next day
the maggots had emerged as in fig. 21 (diameter ^
inch), where the ramifications of the tracheal system
may be traced.

The warm weather, coupled with the indoor heat,
matured the larva rapidly, the change from maggot
to chrysalis (fig. 19) being apparent at each observa-
tion, some having assumed this state on July 30.
The perfect stage was reached and the fly emerged
on August 5, or eight days from the deposition of the
ova (fig. 18).

This was a week in advance of the result obtained
in my experiment, which I preferred to conduct out

render the trachea, as well as the undulatory vermi-
cular movement of the internal organs, apparent
throughout under a low power ; in fact, from its
toughness, transparency, and strength, the larva is an
excellent object for microscopic examination. When
the animal matter was devoured, the maggots moved
restlessly about, changing in colour from yellowish-
white to brownish-red ; the cuticle became dense and
opaque ; motion gradually ceased, until the perfect
insect emerged by forcing of the segments of the
anterior end of the shell, occupying from fourteen to
fifteen days in completing its series of life changes.

Mr. Harkus’s part of the experiment appears to be
useful so far as to show the adaptability of the fly and
its ova to circumstances, and that the larva assumes
the chrysalid state when its supply of food becomes
exhausted, although otherwise immature (in this case
the animal matter given them would dry up), instead
of dying from starvation.

The chrysalis and fly in his examples are undersized
and impoverished, compared to those permitted to
feed in a semi-fluid mass of animal matter.

F g. 18. — The House-fly (Mmca domestic*'.' , magnified.

>f House-fly, July 28, 1878, X 30.

of doors. A piece of raw liver was exposed, which soon
had eggs enough attached to it. It would appear
that the fly has to some extent the power of with-
holding the deposition of her ova until a suitable
medium is found for the requirements of the larva.

In two or three days the maggots were at work ;
their activity and voracity in devouring the putrescent
mass of animal matter gave it the appearance of
fermentation.

For observation in the live box, any little weakness
connected with the somewhat objectionable odour
arising from the garbage had to be got rid of and
some few maggots washed clean. Neither immersion
in water nor yet compression seemed to inconvenience
them appreciably ; their leathery integument is not
easily ruptured, and is sufficiently translucent to j

In autumn the house-fly seems specially the
victim to the attacks of a parasitic fungus (Empusa.
Musccr), and may be seen glued, as it were, to
walls, a white powdery growth appearing at the
segments of its body (the spores of the fungus). This
vegetable pest js similar to, if not identical with, the
parasite which causes so much destruction amongst
fish in aquariums, and last year even attacked salmon
in some English rivers.

The cause of the fly becoming so firmly attached to
dry surfaces is this. The two pulvilli which, with two
strong curved claws (perhaps best seen with the flesh-
fly, Musca vomitoria , as a subject), terminate the foot
are surrounded by a fringe of tubular hairs, each ending
with a disc or sucker, through which a glutinous fluid
exudes. These form the points of attachment, enabling

BARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

9

the insect to walk in any position, the action of the
two claws detaching these points as the fly moves
along.

When the ravages of the parasite have sufficiently
weakened the 11 y by the destruction of its viscera,
&c., it becomes incapable of active movement, and,
remaining too long in a place, the viscid fluid continues
to exude, and then the fly “ sticks to the wall.”

M. H. Robson.

A RARE SPECIES OF HEMIPTERA.

TPIE following species of Hemiptera being, I
believe, an undescribed one, the account of it
may not be uninteresting to your readers.

It was discovered in some water percolating through

Fig. 22. — Dorsal aspect of sp. of Hemiptera.

Fig. 23.— Ventral aspect of Hemiptera.

a crevice in an old Avail, in conjunction with the
Oscillatona dccovticctns . Fig. 22 will give a general
idea of the dorsal aspect of the insect. The rostrum
was rather blunt, and at the apex were two small
globose suckers, containing a viscid matter of great
reflecting power. Eyes not apparent. The head
was joined throughout its whole width with the
thorax, with the exception of a small semicircular
space on either side ; from these spaces sprang the
wing cases, which stamps it as an individual of an
Order of the Hemiptera.

The sheath was closely covered with helical or
screw-like markings, which could only be brought
out distinctly with a high power, and forms a beau-
tiful object for the microscope. The first pair of legs

were devoid of any transverse segmentations, the
most singular feature being a long horny spine half
the length of the leg, and curved towards the tarsus.
I have not observed these appendages before on any
insect. The foot was beset with seven or eight fine
hairs terminating in a claw, which was continued into
an unusually long and fine point. The middle legs
I resembled the pair last described, except that the
long bristles were absent. ' The hind pair of legs were
■ placed low down the meta-thorax, and were composed
of five distinctly marked segments, the femur being
about twice as long as the remainder of the leg. The
tarsus gradually tapered, and ended in a single claw
surmounted by hairs, the long spine being absent.
I he ventral view, fig. 23, shows the abdomen with its
j eight segments tapering to the anal region. The
whole of the underside of the beetle was covered with
very fine hairs.

Although I had the insect under observation for
some hours in an excavated slide, I did not once see
it use its wings or rise to the surface of the water as
if for the purpose of breathing.

Its colour was a dark brown.

The elytra were a pale yellow, the markings being
the same colour, but much more dense.

They resembled the wing case of the boatfly

( Notonecta ).

Size of the object about 5's inch.

John Davis.

A GLANCE AT THE SCIENTIFIC WORLD
OF FIFTY YEARS AGO.

HAVING had lately to consult the volumes of
the “Philosophical Magazine” for 1829-30,
I have been much interested by the view of contem-
porary science which they afford. The volumes
record the death of four great lights of science, two
of chemistry, Sir Humphry Davy, Dr. Wollaston,
and two of astronomy, Dr. Young and the Marquis
de la Place. They contain the last papers written by
the two first named : that by Sir H. Davy on the
electricity of the torpedo ; that by Dr. Wollaston
on a method of rendering platina malleable. The
advance which knowledge has made since that date
is of course especially perceptible in geology. The
writers of papers on that science seem mostly to look
upon the literal accuracy of the Mosaic account of
the creation and the Noachian deluge as an axiomatic
truth to which the facts observed have to be made to
fit. One writer repudiates the idea of mineral veins
having their origin in fissures of the rock, and adopts
an explanation similar to that of the Cromarty quarry-
man, who told Hugh Miller that, when God made the
rocks, he made the fossils in them. Even geologists
so philosophical as De la Beche, Conybeare, and
Lonsdale, stoutly maintain that the appearances pre-
sented by the rocks, and the physical configuration of

IO

HARDWICK E'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the surface cannot be explained by any forces now
known to be in operation on the earth’s surface, and
call in the aid of “ debacles ” (a word now as obsolete
as the view which it embodies), or huge gushes of
water, set in motion by the convulsions which pro-
duced the dislocations of the earth’s crust known as
faults. The difficulties which prevented the accept-
ance of the uniformitarian theory seem to be, first, an
inadequate conception of the extent of past time (we
find it maintained that valleys could not have been
carved out by the erosive power of streams, since we
find ancient British and Roman fortifications attesting
by their perfect preservation that the form of the sur-
face has remained unaltered since the time of their
construction fifteen centuries ago) ; and, secondly, the
phenomena then known as “diluvial.” The glacial
theory had not then arisen to throw a flood of light
upon the origin of such phenomena as perched blocks
and transported boulders, carried far from their native
mountains, yet lying in the midst of fine clay.

In natural history we find the natural system

minister of Flisk, N.B. I knew him at the time
only by two or three articles in the supplement to the
“ Encyclopaedia Britannica,” which, if they be not fair
specimens of a Scotch D.D.’s usual quantum of Greek,
will at least remain a monument of his talent for
writing on animals that he not only never saw, but
would not even now know if he saw them. In addi-
tion to these truly novel specimens of entomological
knowledge, I knew him also by a subsequent compila-
tion called with much modesty ‘ The Philosophy of
Zoology,’ the first volume of which contains nothing
new but some miserable plates, and the second little
original except some names which have been framed
in a proper independent spirit and with a noble
contempt of Priscian. Thus * we have Trochusidce ,
Gordiusidcc , Ciciudeladce , cum multis aliis in dee of
similar calibre. Having two D’s tacked to the end of
his own name, the worthy minister doubtless thinks
that he has a right to clap one to the tail of anything.”
The following example is given of the dichotomous
system : —

i Scotch , i Breeched

i Dominies f i Of Flisk ( i D.D.

' 2 Not D.D.
2 Not of Flisk.

2 Not Dominies.

2 Not Breeched.

| x Fleming

2 Not Fleming

2 Not Scotch.

( i John.

X 2 Not John.

beginning to make headway against the overwhelm-
ing authority of Linnseus, an authority which it was
looked upon as something little short of blasphemy
to gainsay. We have heard of an entomologist who
went through his cabinet and destroyed every speci-
men which he could not find described by Linnaeus.
So the medieval physicians declared that they would
rather do wrong with Galen than do right with any
one else. A Mr. Roscoe, who speaks in a tone of
authority, declares that, whatever may be the merits of
Jussieu as a botanist, it is sufficiently clear that they
are not exemplified in the superiority of his arrange-
ment as a nomenclature for the vegetable kingdom.
“We are compelled to conclude that as a nomen-
clature and series of plants it is greatly inferior to that
of Linnseus ; and that however excellent it may be in
some respects, it will never supplant in general use
that long established work.”

Another system which has not been equally for-
tunate in standing the test of time is the dichotomous
system of the Rev. Dr. Fleming. A paper entitled
“ The Dying Struggle of the Dichotomous System ”
contains a criticism of that system, or rather of its
author, in comparison with which the debate chronicled
in the first chapter of the transactions of the Pick-
wick Club is amenity itself. The opening sentences
will give a fair idea of its tone : — “ Some years have
now elapsed since a gentleman, the sable hue of
whose vesture, if not the smile on his countenance,
betokened that he should be at peace with all men,
came up from the North to London, and announced
himself to me as the Rev. John Fleming, D.D.,

The author of this satire is W. S. MacLeay. When
Scot meets Scot then comes the tug of war. How-
ever, time brings its revenges, and if the worthy
D.D.’s dichotomous system has failed to obtain recog-
nition, his assailant’s own pet “quinary system” has
followed, or perhaps preceded, it into the limbo of
exploded vanities. We may congratulate ourselves
that scientific discussions are not now conducted in
such a tone. Very different in style are some plea-
santly written papers by Professor Schultes of Landshut,
Bavaria, “ On the Cultivation of Botany in England.”
The professor, in visiting England, was struck with
the deep, full verdure of English vegetation. He had
often heard and passed censures on the intense
colours of the figures in English botany, but now
perceived that the complaint was unfounded, the
prevailing hue of vegetation being even of a deeper
tone than there represented. He observed nothing in
the flora of the roadsides which struck him as being
different from that of Germany except Ulex europceus
and “ a species of Rubus, which, though called by all
the botanists of this country R. fruticosus , is not the
plant which bears that name on the continent, of
which the corollas are always pale red.” What a
charming picture of simplicity ! the critical botanists
or “ splitters ” had not yet tried their hands upon this
prickly genus.

The professor is justly indignant because Sir J. E.
Smith, the president of the Linnean Society, and the
most eminent botanist in England, was formally in-
hibited by the vice-chancellor of the university from
delivering lectures on botany at Cambridge, because

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

1 1

he was a Dissenter. However, the university of j
Cambridge is not alone in not always acting in a
spirit of wisdom : for the university of Landshut falls
in for censure in that, while it spends 6000 florins on
its beer cellar, it allows its botanic garden to fall
into decay. Kew Gardens, in pre-Hookerian times,
did not impress our author favourably, but he was
highly delighted with those of the Horticultural
Society at Turnham Green, being apparently capti-
vated by the delicious flavour of the peaches and
pine-apples grown there. The British Museum of
those days, the present building being then only just
commenced, he considered a disgrace to an enlightened
people. He notes the fondness of the English for
flowers : “ The poor Londoner, who cannot afford to
buy what is beautiful, will still, if possible, obtain
something green to decorate the window with of his
dark little attic, and give his last farthing for a bit of
verdure.” He is severe on the fiscal arrangements of
those days, especially the window-tax and the duty on
imported books. His herbarium being contained in
some musty old volumes on law and divinity, he was
charged thirty florins duty on them, to escape which
he had to take out his specimens one by one and
place them in papers bought for the purpose, and
abandon his old folios to the Custom House officials.
He visited Oxford, performing the journey in six
hours, though at the risk of breaking his neck. He
speaks with warm admiration of English botanists,
especially of Mr. Don, whose reputation does not
now stand so high as it then apparently did.

A curious example of the change which men’s ideas
have undergone in another department of human
interest is afforded by a description of a “ Parabolic
Sounding Board” erected in Attercliffe Church by the
Rev. J. Blackburn, minister of Attercliffe cum Darnall.
The woodcut with which the paper is adorned shows
a lofty pulpit of the “three-decker” pattern, sur-
mounted by a huge erection like a dimidiated um-
brella. This sounding-board was constructed on
mathematical principles, and it was claimed that, if
the preacher’s mouth was exactly in the focus of the
parabolic surface, an attentive hearer would perceive
an effect that might be compared to the gentle swell
of an organ.

We find various things now familiar to us an-
nounced as novelties. We are told where “those
curious substances bromine and bromide of potassium,
which we believe have not been hitherto prepared in
this country,” may be obtained. Iodine has also the
interest of novelty. There is a paper, now historic,
by Dr. Robert Brown, “ On the Movements of Active
Molecules ” ; and we may read the speech of the Pre-
sident of the Royal Society on delivering a medal to
Mr. Charles Bell for his discoveries of the functions
of sensory and motor nerves, in which he says : “Of
all the branches of human knowledge, anatomy has
experienced the greatest difficulties in struggling
against passions, prejudices, and superstitions.” We

may congratulate ourselves that the difficulties alluded
to were in great measure removed a year or two later
by the passing of the Anatomy Act ; but the prejudice
against the study of anatomy is not even yet extinct ;
and has it not been left to our present parliament to
prohibit in effect physiological research in the land
of Harvey, Hunter, and Bell, at the instance of an
ignorant and sentimental clamour, based upon the
groundless statements of disingenuous agitators ?

The perusal of these volumes shows us how great
the advance of science has been during half a cen-
tury, both as regards the number of ascertained facts
and the theories which connect them together and
give life to the dry bones. It is not, however, for us
to be puffed up with our knowledge ; if we know
more than our fathers, it is because we have inherited
the fruits of their labours ; and who can tell how much
that which passes current with us to-day may have to
be modified or set aside before another half-century
has passed? We see how time tries scientific as all
other work : if a theory be false, neither the prestige
of a great name nor the sanction of authority can
prop it from falling ; if it be true, neither denunciation
nor even ridicule can prevent it from becoming ulti-
mately accepted.

H. F. Parsons.

THE GEOLOGY OF IRELAND*

ALTHOUGH less known to English geologists
than any other part of the British Islands,
the geology of the “Sister Isle” is, perhaps, for
many reasons, the most interesting and instructive.
Representatives of the most important formations are
here found developed after a manner different to what
they are seen elsewhere. There is “eozoonal ” struc-
ture in the pure marbles of Connemara ; characteristic
zoophytes (Oldhamia) in the Cambrian slates of
Bray Head and the Wexford Mountains ; peculiar
Silurian fossils, as well as rocks, in the iron-bound
coasts of the west ; a wealth of Devonian ferns and
cryptogamia in the fine sandstones of Kilkenny, such
as no other member of this ancient formation has yet
yielded ; carboniferous rocks which, in addition to
the characteristic forms found elsewhere, have a fauna
of their own — strange-looking fishes, amphibians,
and labyrinthodonts. The carboniferous limestone
stretches over the greater part of midland Ireland.
Then we have triassic, Rhcetic, and a little oolite,
succeeded by chalk, miocene shales, and relics of
volcanoes and volcanic lava flows ; drift beds even
more distracting in the numerous forms they assume
than their representatives in England or Scotland ;

* “ Manual of the Geology of Ireland.” By G. Henry Kina-
han, M.R.I.A., &c., of H.M. Geological Survey. London,
C. Kegan Paul & Co. ,

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

I 2

Fig. 24. — Cambro-Silurian and Silurian Fossils. From Kinahan’s “Geology

of Ireland,” Plate II.

post-glacial peat-bogs, turbaries, relics of ancient man
and ancient art — surely in this short summary of rocks
of every geological age and mineralogical character
we have the secret of that picturesque and scenic
natural beauty which the “Green Island” possesses
more than any other in the northern hemisphere.

Mr. Kinahan’s “Manual of Irish Geology” is a
most useful addition to our scientific literature. No
other geologist was so competent to the task, for
Mr. Kinahan has been engaged on the Irish Survey
for many years, and now occupies the honourable
position of senior geologist. He has in person
examined, worked out, mapped, and surveyed the
most difficult and important parts of the geology of
Ireland. He has long been recognised as a keen
observer of physical geology, and the book before us
is filled with the results of a life’s hard work. The

Geology of Ireland, physical and stra-
tigraphical, is treated in the methodi-
cal detail which is most valuable to a
student. We might take exception to
some of Mr. Kinahan’s conclusions as
to the evidences of marine denudation
he freely quotes, for in many respects
the author is antagonistic to the
“ subaerialists ” in geology who at
present have the explanations all their
own way. And we think it would
have been better if the old instead
of the new technical terms had been
adopted.

The book is divided into five sec-
tions, each containing several chapters.
These sections are devoted severally
to “ Sedimentary Rocks,” “Metamor-
phic and Eruptive Rocks,” “ Super-
ficial Accumulations,” “ Physical
Features,” and “Economical Pro-
ducts.” It is illustrated by many
woodcuts, the sketches of which are
original, and some very good ; and
also by eight plates of fossils, &c., of
whose merit the reader can best judge
by the two which, through the kind-
ness of the publishers, we are enabled
to lay before them. The style in
which the book is written is well
suited to the subject, being matter-
of-fact and clear. Mr. Kinahan, with
Irish generosity, adopts the commend-
able practice of giving to all those
geologists who have in any way helped
him, or whose works are quoted, the
fullest credit they deserve.

This “Manual ” wall henceforth
be necessary to the student of the
geology of the British Islands, and
particularly that of Ireland. It is in
every sense of the word most credit-
able to its author, and we hope it will bring him the
scientific honours he so well deserves.

MICROSCOPY.

“The Germ Theory of Infectious Diseases.”
—This is the title of the address delivered by Dr.
Drysdale, as president of the Liverpool Literary and
Philosophical Society. It is a pamphlet of 74 pages,
published by Bailliere, Tindall, & Cox. We know
of no other similar paper which is so clear and com-
prehensive, so original and logical. It is not only a
capital summary of all that has been said and written
and experimented on this most important subject, but
it lays down the basis of new experiments, with a
view to determining the simpler and less complex
theories.

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

*3

Fig. 25. — Upper Carboniferous (Coal-Measure) Fossils. From Kinahan's “ Geology

of Ireland,” Plate IV.

A New Lamp for Microscopic
Mounting. — In mounting balsam
slides, I find that a small benzoline
lamp with opaque white glass answers
admirably in the place of the spirit
lamp and brass plate advocated by so
many writers on microscopic mount-
ing. The slide may be laid flat across
the lamp -glass, and the heat can be
regulated to any degree by means of
the rackwork. The light which this
lamp gives enables the worker to
detect any moderate-sized air-bubbles,
while the opaque lamp -glass prevents
the light dazzling his eyes. The cost
of this lamp is only is. 6d., and it may
be bought of almost any oilman. — Geo.

Clinch , West Wickham , Kent.

Section Cutting. — Messrs. J. &

A. Churchill have just published a
neat little manual by Dr. Sylvester
Marsh, entitled ‘ ‘ Section Cutting : a
Practical Guide to the Preparation
and Mounting of Sections for the
Microscope.” Special prominence is
given to the subject of animal sections.

It is a most useful little book, and
cheap, the price being, we believe,
half-a-crown.

The Quekett Microscopical
Club. — No. 38 of the “Journal” of
this popular and useful club has just
been published, containing papers as
follows : — “ On an Apparatus for Use
with Powell’s Small Bull’s-eye Illu-
minator,” by Geo. Williams ; “ On
the Influence of Diffraction in Micro-
scopic Vision,” by F. Crisp, LL.B. ;
and the address of the late president
(Henry Lee, F.L.S.). Prof. Pluxley
has been elected president for the
ensuing year.

Microscopy in Natal. — I have much pleasure
in informing you that we have, in our little colony,
just founded a microscopical society, which bids fair
to be very successful. It is called the “Natal Micro-
scopical Society,” and is under the presidency of
Julius Schulz, M.D. — Stephen C. Adams, Plon. Sec.

Sections of Quartz. — Would Mr. J. Clifton
Ward kindly describe how he obtains and prepares
for the microscope the “slices” of quartz he speaks
of in his interesting articles in Science-Gossip ? —

R. S. P.

Diatoms in Coal.— In reply to F. W. Kitton’s
communication, I only write to say that, when I saw
diatoms in coal first mentioned, I tried the ashes of
the coal we were then burning, and found abundance

of them of several different kinds, and from several
different specimens of ashes, but I do not think they
will be found in all kinds of coal. — Edward Thomas
Scott.

ZOOLOGY.

Science in the Provinces. — The number of
“Proceedings,” “Transactions,” &c., which reach
us, setting forth the work done in the scientific centres
which now exist in almost every town in Great
Britain, is increasingly great. One of the best
managed of these provincial societies is the West
Cumberland Association for the Advancement of
Literature and Science, which is formed by the union

14

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

of eight societies in as many of the Cumberland towns.
Their “ Transactions ” form a tolerably large annual
volume, and part iii. is now to hand, containing,
among other papers, reports, and presidential ad-
dresses, one on “ The Probable Condition of the
Interior of the Earth,” by Sir George Airy, K.C.B.,
F.R.S. ; on “Quartz,” by Mr. J. Clifton Ward,
F.G.S. ; “ Boulder Clay,” by Charles Smith, F.G.S. ;
“Common Beetles,” by W. Duckworth; &c. — The
annual report of another flourishing and vigorous
society, the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, is also
before us, containing, besides several papers of more
than local interest, the result of special geological
research in the Silurian rocks of county Down, by
William Swanston, F.G.S. , and their hitherto unknown
and unclassified graptolites, by Mr. Charles Lapworth,
F.G.S. Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S., also gives a
carefully worked out and arranged list of the recent
foraminifera of Down and Antrim. These three con-
tributions would alone make any report valuable to
naturalists and geologists generally. There are also
papers, chiefly geological, by Messrs. W. Gault,
W. Gray, &c., and well-written accounts of the
summer excursions. — The twentieth report of the
East Kent Natural History Society has been sent us,
showing a healthy state of scientific activity. The
abstracts of the papers read at various meetings are
very clear. Prominence appears to be given to
microscopical examination of natural history subjects,
to which Mr. James Fullagar, Mr. Hammond, and
Professor Gulliver contribute very importantly. There
is also a good abstract of the address by the presi-
dent (Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S.) on flint stones and
banded flints. — The Dulwich College Science Society
have issued their first annual report, and we cor-
dially hope it will be the pioneer of many to follow.
It commences well, by “reporting” on the botany,
zoology, &c., of the neighbourhood, and contains ab-
stracts of papers read at the bi-monthly meetings. —
The Eastbourne Natural History Society is favoured
by having several naturalists of note among its leading
members. Mr. Roper, F.L.S., has recently addressed
the society on “The Additions to the Fauna and
Flora of the Crickmere District during the Past
Year.” — The North Staffordshire Natural History
Society have had several important summer outings,
at which interesting papers have uniformly been read.
— The various societies at Burton-on-Trent, Notting-
ham, Birmingham, Leicester, Northampton, Tam-
worth, &c. have had capital abstracts of their
proceedings published in the “ Midland ^Naturalist,”
which has now reached the conclusion of its first
volume, and proves a most ably edited “Journal of
the Associated Natural Plistory, Philosophical, and
Archaeological Societies and Field Clubs of the Mid-
land Counties.”

i The Geographical Distribution of Animals.
— We have received a coloured map showing the six

geological divisions of the globe, according to Wallace
and Sclater. It is published by Messrs. W. & A. K.
Johnston, and has been arranged by Dr. Andrew
Wilson. The map is accompanied by a small hand-
book, which gives the necessary explanatory matter.

The Black-throated Stonechat. — At a recent
meeting of the Zoological Society, Dr. Sclater ex-
hibited and made remarks on an adult specimen, in
full plumage, of the black-throated stonechat [Saxi-
cola stapazina), which had been obtained in Lanca-
shire, and had been sent for exhibition by Mr. R.
Davenport, by whom an account of it was lately
written for Science-Gossip. The species had not
been previously recorded as occurring in the British
Isles, and is an interesting addition to the list of
“ Accidental Visitors.”

The Black-throated Stonechat in Lanca-
shire.— Your correspondent, “ R. Davenport,” in the
October number of Science-Gossip, may congratu-
late himself on being the first to record the occurrence
of Saxicola stapazina , or “russet wheatear,” in the
British Isles. I have for years anticipated and longed
to hear of the appearance of this species on our side of
the Channel, and wondered why (at least) a straggler
should not occasionally appear at the same time with
its near relation, S. a’7ia?ithe. There is a capital
coloured figure and description of stapazina given,
amongst other continental or European species, in
Bree’s “ History of the Birds of Europe not found in
the British Isles.” — John Gatcombe.

Ziphius curvirostris. — The drawing forwarded
to me is undoubtedly that of the skull of a specimen
of Ziphius curvirostris (Cuv.), a species often found in
the Mediterranean (see my article on “ The Seals and
Whales of the British Seas,” Science-Gossip for
February 1878, p. 29). Dr. J. E. Gray, in his
“ Catalogue of Seals and Whales in the British
Museum,” says that this species “has long been
regarded as fossil. It really exists in the Mediter-
ranean. The skull described by Cuvier (‘ Oss. Foss.’
v. t. 27, f. 3) was found by the fishermen of the Gulf
of Bouc. Others have since been obtained, and each
of them has been described as a new species.” See
also Professor Flower “On the Recent Ziphiod
Whales,” “Trans. Zool. Soc.” vol. viii. p. 207. Pro-
fessor Fowler has seen the drawing forwarded by
M. Piercas, and has no hesitation in ascribing it to
this species. — T. Southwell.

Preserving Skins, &c. — The following is a
French substitute for arsenical soap : — Savon blanc,
625 grammes ; sulfate d’alumine et de potasse, 250 gr. ;
sous-carbonate de potasse pulverise, 125 gr. ; chlorure
de sodium, 125 gr. ; chaux en poudre, 250 gr. ;
camphre en poudre, 60 gr. ; eau, 750 gr. ; huile de
petrole, 60 gr. Gently boil the soap and salts together
in two-thirds the water. Mix the lime with the

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i5

remainder. Dissolve the camphor in the petroleum.
Mix the whole when cold. — J. S.

Portuguese Man-of-war ( Physalia pelagica). —
It will doubtless be interesting to many of your
readers to learn that a specimen of this exquisitely
beautiful marine creature has been picked up at the
Isle of Wight. During a storm which prevailed
about the middle of October last, I was watching the
waves at Bonchurch, when I observed a singular-
looking object on the beach. Upon a closer in-
spection I discovered it to be a fine specimen of the
Physalia pelagica. In the “Intellectual Observer,”
published in November 1862, an accurate figure is
given of one, also obtained at the Isle of Wight in
July of that year. The colour of that found by me
was, however, of a richer crimson, nearly the whole
of the semi-transparent membrane being of that
colour, the surface of this membrane being tinted
with an exquisite blue, so that, when held at any angle,
the most lovely shades of purple, blue, or crimson
were to be obtained, giving the exterior of the object
the appearance of shot silk. The pendent tentacula
were slightly injured, but still retained their lovely
blue colour. Being at some distance from home, and
having no vessel in which to convey it, I returned it
to its native element, but fear that it did not long
escape destruction upon the pebbly beach, upon
which the waves were breaking -with great force. —
Edward II. Robertson.

“Health Primers.”— By this title, Messrs.
Hardwicke & Bogue have issued the first instalment
of simple handbooks on health subjects, such as any-
one can afford to purchase (a shilling each volume),
and anyone can understand and be interested in when
bought. They are severally written by the ablest
medical writers of the day ; and the complaint is now
altogether removed that clearly written and inexpen-
sive books on subjects of this kind do not exist for the
benefit of the masses. The first four volumes treat
on — “ The House and its Surroundings ”; “ Exercise
and Training”; “Alcohol: its Use and Abuse”;
and “ Premature Death : its Promotion and Preven-
tion.” These books are capitally got up, with good
type and good paper.

Science-Gossip Folk-lore. — Mr. James Britten,
F.L.S., has compiled a capital and useful Index
to the Folk-lore in the First Series of Hardwicke’s
Science-Gossip, vols. i.-xii. (1865-1876), which
has appeared in the “Records of the Folk-lore
Society.”

The Bony Pike ( Lepidosteus osseus). — This well-
known living representative of the nearly extinct order
of ganoid fishes, so abundant in the seas of the pri-
mary epoch, is not uncommon in the North American
lakes and rivers. Within the last few months the de-
velopment of the young fish, as they escape from the

eggs, has been studied by Professor A. Agassiz, who
says “that, notwithstanding its similarity in certain
stages of its growth to the sturgeon, notwithstanding
its affinity with sharks by the formation of its pec-
torals from a lateral fold, as well as by the mode of
growth of the gill-openings and gill-arches, the Lepi-
dosteus is not at all so far removed from the bony
fishes (Teleostei) as is generally supposed.”

BOTANY.

Epipactis purpurata (Sm.). — I have found this
plant growing in tolerable abundance under the shade
of a clump of trees. It seems to me to be quite a
different variety from E. latifolia. The whole plant
is larger, except the leaves, which are much smaller
and narrower in proportion, and lie closer to the stem,
than those of E. latifolia. The stem and roots are
thicker and more fleshy, and the latter grow much
deeper in the ground than those of E. latifolia. The
flowers are always of a yellow-green colour, slightly
tinged or lined with pink, there being no difference of
colour within the lip. The lower bracts are twice as
long, and the upper ones about the same length as the
flowers. I have found E. latifolia both in chalk and
alluvial soil ; but E. purpurata in the latter only. I
have seen nothing intermediate between this plant
and E. latifolia. Its purple colour is most decided. —
Walter Longley Bourke.

Vegetable Moth-trap. — In reply to your
inquiry in page 259 of Science-Gossip for November,
my attention was directed to the number of insects,
moths, bees, &c., caught by the flowers of Physian-
thus growing against a house at Newton Abbot,
Devon, in 1875. My impression is, that they do not
die in two minutes, but that some of them, at least,
live for two or more days after being caught. I have
had an opportunity every year since 1875 °f observing
this plant, and though it exudes a thick milky juice
on fraction, I cannot discover that this is of a narcotic
or soporific nature, as many insects which appeared
to have been some time captive, flew away readily on
being released. I am inclined to believe that the
action is purely mechanical, but have been unable to
discover whether the plant has any power of opening
and closing the trap, or whether the insects entangle
themselves. I have reason to believe that many have
been more or less entrapped two or three times before
their final capture. It would take too long to enter
into a minute description of the structure of the flower,
which I have minutely examined. I brought this
plant before the notice of the East Kent Naturalists’
Society in 1875. The plant to which I allude is
growing in the open air with a south or south-east
city aspect, but though it flowers profusely, it has
never formed seed : can you explain this ? — fohn
P. Hall.

1 6

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Phyllactidium pulchellum. — I have a large
number of freshwater plants, Phyllactidium pulchellum ,
growing upon the glass sides of a tall cylindrical
Vallisneria aquarium, and as in Science-Gossip,
1867, p. 178, it is requested that new localities for
this plant should be made known, I herewith send
the information. The water was furnished from the
Kennet and Avon Canal at Bath, but it has frequently
been supplemented by ordinary rain-water. — R. H.
Moore.

A New Catalogue of British Plants. — The
Rev. George Henslow contemplates printing a cata-
logue of British plants, arranged according to
Hooker’s “Student’s Flora.” Anyone wishing for
copies, is requested to communicate with him at
86 Titchfield Terrace, Regent’s Park, NAY.

Malformation of the Wallflower. — A pe-
culiar growth of this fragrant plant was recently
observed by me, the peculiarity in this case partaking
of a combination of petals, stamens, and pistil, to
form a six- celled body. The sepals of the calyx were
dark purple — almost black ; the plant remarkable for
vigorous growth. In florists’ flowers, stamens and
pistils are converted into petals ; in this instance
there is a reversion of this phenomenon in a sponta-
neous manner. — M. Kin z.

Autumn Ramble in Epping Forest. — Dr.
De Crespigny is hardly right when he says, regarding
Agarics (p. 254): “In one sub-genus there is no
stem — Pleurotus.” The larger species of this sub-
genus have a distinct and often very large stem,
some indeed being furnished with an annulus. A.

( Pleurotus ) Ulmarius (illustrated as stemless on
p. 252) always has a thick stem. Mr. Berkeley’s
A. Cecilice certainly grows in Epping Forest, but it is
not a “much smaller” species than A. rubescens ; it
is in characteristic specimens much larger : indeed
A. Cecilice is a decidedly large Agaric ; its correct
name is A. strangulatus , Fr., A. Cecilice being a
synonym. Why is A. nudus said to be “probably a
very dangerous species”? I have known it eaten
without ill-effect during late years. A. ( Pholiota )
aureus described as growing near the “ Wake Arms,”
does not grow in Epping Forest : the plant mentioned
by Dr. Crespigny is A. spectabilis. A. aureus found
a place in Berkeley’s “ Outlines ” by an inadvertence :
it has only been known of quite late years as a British
plant. A few years ago a variety of this species was
found at Downton, near Ludlow, whilst I detected
the true plant at Perth, three years ago. A. aureus
is very rare, whilst A. spectabilis is common every-
where.— W. G. Smith.

A Strange Place for Marsh Plants. — I have
been intex*ested in the record of the occurrence of
plants in the new docks at Leith, as given by Mr.
Douglas in the last number of Science-Gossip. As

all the plants given in his list are natives of the south
side of the Forth, and are to be found all along the
coast from Bowness to North Berwick (in clamp and
marshy places) it is quite unnecessary to imagine the
previous existence of a stream in order to account for
their appearance ; most of them used to grow at the
Figgat Whins, between Leith and Portobello. — A.
Craig - Christie.

Monstrosity in Digitalis purpurea. — An
instance of monstrosity in the flower of a cultivated
foxglove came under my notice last summer. It was

Fig. 26. — “ Monstrosity ” ( Synanthy ) in Common Foxglove.

an example of the malformation called “synanthy,”
which consists in the more or less complete union of
several usually distinct flowers. Dr. Masters, in his
“Vegetable Teratology,” p. 40, illustrates a somewhat
similar case, and indeed shows that the corolla of the
foxglove is liable to various forms of monstrosity, such
as the production of a spur, the formation of a polype-
talous corolla by fission, and the occurrence now and
then of a regular corolla. In the specimen I have here
figured, the flowers at the top of the raceme not only

HARD WICKE’ S S CIENCE-G OS SIR.

17

grew together into a cluster, but so grew as to form a
single cup, nearly four inches in diameter, not unlike
a shallow convolvulus with a very irregular margin.
The cup so formed, however, was not complete,
having a slit down one side — a feature I should per-
haps not have noticed had not the figure in Dr.
Masters’s work shown the same formation very
plainly, whence I infer that it may be usual. Inside
the cup was only a confused mass of distorted petals,
stamens, or carpels, while below it was an involucre
formed by the cohesion of the bracts of the several
flowers. When I gathered the specimen last June,
every other stalk on the plant showed promise of
producing a similar irregularity, though then only in
bud. — John W. Buck, B .Sc., New Kingswood School.

Destruction of Isoetes lacustris by Fish. —
I was geologising lately at the lakelets on the ice-
worn summit of Fairhead, county Antrim, and ob-
served a large quantity of fragments of the quill-like
leaves of Isoetes lacustris floating in the water. On ex-
amining the pieces I found they were all freshly
champed and bitten, the broad, flattened part of the
base was in every instance almost eaten away. Turn-
ing into a shallow little bay, I found this wholesale
destruction of this very interesting plant was caused
by a number of common black trout. They were
busily engaged nibbling and biting off the basal part
of the quills. I saw several of them with portions in
their mouths darting away into the deeper water. The
weather was very dry, and had been so for a long
time previous ; in consequence, the water of the
lakelets was low, and the brooklets flowing into them
were all dried up. The supply of worms and other
food brought down into the lakelets by the streams
was cut off owing to this cause, and the fish were
forced to feed on the Quillwort. This was the only
plausible explanation I could offer to account for the
strange conduct of the fish, but perhaps some of the
readers of Science-Gossip have observed something
similar, if so, 1 would very much like to be informed
of the circumstance. In conclusion, I may state that
the Quillwort, Isoetes lacustris, is a very rare and local
plant in this district ; only two stations are recorded
for it in county Antrim, these are the little lakelets on
Fairhead, and the river Bann, near Jackson Hall. —
William Gault, Belfast.

GEOLOGY.

Dwarf Fossil Crocodiles.— Professor Owen has
lccentl) descubed some fossil crocodiles found in
rocks of Purbeck age, under the name of Theriosuchus
pusillus. This crocodile was only 18 inches in length.
As regards its derivation, it appears to be related to
the theriodonts of the Trias.

The Upper Greensand Coral Fauna of
Haldon, Devonshire.— This was the title of a
papei lecently read before the Geological Society, by

Professor P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S. The author in this
paper stated that since the publication of his supple-
ment to the “ British Fossil Corals,” published by
the Palocontographical Society, several new corals
have been obtained at Plaldon by Mr. Vicary, of
Exeter. Twelve additional species were noticed, of
which ten were new. This brings the total number
of species in the Haldon greensand up to twenty-one.
The new species are thus distributed : — Aporosa :
Oculinidm (1), Astraeidae (3), Fungidae (5) ; Per-
forata : Turbinariae (2) ; Tabulata (1). The paper
concluded with remarks on the genera and species
represented, from which it appeared that the coral
fauna of Haldon is the northern expression of that of
the French and Central European deposits, which are
the equivalents of the British upper greensand. The
Haldon deposit was formed in shallow water, and the
corals grew upon the rolled debris.

Holes in Oolitic Limestone. — In Science
Gossip for November, F. N. D. asks why holes are
found in oolite beneath sand. I cannot say for certain
that the cause I have seen at work with a similar effect
is certainly the cause for the holes mentioned ; but as I
know of no other equally efficacious, I tell him what
I have seen. Holes in limestone and basaltic rock
caused by small surface hollows — water percolating
through the superstructure acts on sand particles in
these hollow places, and the sand grains act as
gimblets or gouges by constant friction ; the rock is
worn away, and holes are made for a few inches to
many feet in diameter. In the large holes pebbles
and gravel take the place of sand, and wear out deep
cavities ; in places where the water action is confined
to dripping, the holes are deep and uniform ; where
they are exposed to running water the erosion assumes
I varied shapes. The holes described by F. N. D. are
most likely made by water drops and sand in a rock
formed of some shale or soft material. — II. P. M.

The Thermal Sources of Carlsbad. — The
recent demolition of a house has led to the discovery
of a remarkable geological fact — the existence of
a peculiar zone, about 15 to 20 metres broad, be-
tween the steep pyritose granite, with frequent veins
of hornstone on which the town tower stands, and the
similarly pyritiferous granite creeping out beneath the
terrace of the Schlossberg. This zone is filled up
with a breccia of granite and hornstone, with thermal
waters circulating everywhere within its fissures, and
depositing on their inner surfaces crusts and veinules
of arragonite, some of them ij metre thick. The
1 temperature of the whole zone is high, on account of
the warm water and steam issuing out of every cleft
and crevice.

Marine Fossils in Gannister Beds. — I was
much surprised to learn that Professor G. A. Lebour
announced the discovery of marine fossils in the lower
coal measures or “gannister beds” of Northumber-
land, and that “hitherto no marine fossils had been

iS

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

met with in these rocks.” We in Oldham are situate
within an easy walk of a long and well-developed
outcrop of these gannister beds, and I have been
intimately acquainted with them for upwards of
twenty years, yet, in a palaeontological sense, it has
never occurred to me that this series, with some
limitations, could have had any other origin than a
marine one. From the time of my first acquaintance
with these beds I have believed that such fossils as
Goniatites, Orthoceratites, and Nautili, were the re-
mains of marine mollusca. — Jas. Nield, Oldham.

What are Conodonts ? — It will interest our geolo-
gical readers to know that at another recent meeting of
the Glasgow Natural History Society, Mr. John Young
stated that he has been enabled to compare Mr. Smith’s
carboniferous limestone conodonts with the series of
Silurian forms so beautifully figured in the plates of
Dr. Pander, and that he finds in these plates that at
least five of the Silurian genera are represented
amongst the carboniferous specimens. These genera
are Cardylodus, Gnathodus, Ctenognathus, Prionodus,
and Lanchodus. Of some of these genera there are
one or two species that are so closely related to the
Silurian forms that it is difficult to point out any
characteristic distinctions between them. Mr. Young
stated that Professor Owen in his “ Palaeontology, ”
first edition, p. 96, says, “ The writer, after the closest
comparison and consideration of the evidence, is
disposed to regard only those referred by Pander to
the genera Ctenognathus, Cardylodus, and Gnathodus,
as having any probable claim to vertebrate rank.” It
is therefore interesting to find, as already noted, that
these three genera are represented amongst the car-
boniferous forms, and it becomes highly probable that
the other genera may yet rank amongst the vertebrates
likewise. In the deposits yielding these remains are
found beautifully preserved vertebral bones, appa-
rently of small fishes, while another tooth somewhat
closely related to Aulocodus (Pander) and scales like
Ccelolepis (Pander) are also found. Mr. Young also
stated that amongst Mr. Smith’s specimens were one
or two slides of stout, minute, conical teeth, about a
line in length, of a round form, slightly curved, hollow
at their base, and tipped at their points with trans-
parent dentine or enamel. These teeth differ from
the conodonts figured in Pander’s plates, in being
nearly circular in section, while the Silurian forms in
most instances have sharp opposite margins. The
carboniferous specimens may therefore belong to
true fishes, of which there is plenty of other evidence
in the same beds.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Do Blackbirds migrate? — In the spring of 1876
a brood of blackbirds was hatched in the nursery of
Messrs. Lott & Hart, of Faversham, one of which,
a cock-bird, was mottled, one wing being entirely
white, which made it very conspicuous, and on that
account it was spared from being shot when it helped

itself to the cherries. In the early autumn it was lost
sight of with regret, being often looked for during the
winter, but was never seen ; and it was thought that it
had fallen a prey to some one who had the propensity
for putting into a glass case every bird that had the
misfortune to differ from its fellows. But in the
spring of 1877 it reappeared, and either found or
brought a mate with it, and built a nest in the garden,
where it remained all the summer, being the only bird
that held the royal prerogative of helping itself to the
fruit with impunity. In autumn the bird was again
missing, and it was thought that it had come to an
untimely end ; but on the evening of March 4 it
again made its appearance, and, perching on a fruit
tree quite close to the house, it made the inmates
aware of its presence by singing its evening chorus
with all its might. It would thus appear that the
blackbird does not stay in the same neighbourhood
all the year. Do they pass south for their winter
quarters like the ring-ousel, which we see passing
southwards in the early autumn ? these stay with us
for one day, helping themselves to the mulberries, of
which they seem very fond, and then are seen no
more. — James Pink.

Preserving Reptiles. — I should be much obliged
if you could give me any good way of preserving
reptiles, more especially frogs and newts. I have
read that, if put in a bottle of corrosive sublimate and
spirits of wine, it takes them a long time to die, and
they are in great agony all the time. By stating,
first, how to kill, and, secondly, how to preserve,
you will oblige — Allred Wheldon.

Stung or Scalded by Parsnips. — I was sur-
prised a few weeks ago to receive a note from the
Island of Guernsey, from which I quote : — “ I have
been poisoned round my wrists, so that I could not
write. You must know that parsnips collect quantities
of dew, and if we touch, or are touched by, the most
minute point of a leaf while the dew is on it, a red
spot comes, which brings intolerable itching, espe-
cially when warm in bed ; then each spot turns into
a nasty yellowish blister full of very hot water. When
that bursts, it leaves an open sore, as painful as a
boil, which takes a long time to heal, and which
continues itching till quite dried up.” And in answer
to an inquiry from me : ‘ 1 Only when wet with dew
will they sting or blister ; rain does not do it. Every
farmer or agricultural labourer in the island has
suffered from it.” I may just add immense quantities
of parsnips are grown on the island for the cattle, the
soil being peculiarly suited to them. As I have not
seen this stinging or “ scalding,” as it is called by the
workmen, I should like to ask your readers if it be
commonly met with in England, or is it peculiar to
the island ? — Spes non Fracta.

Position of Yews in Churchyards. — Has it
been noticed that, as a rule, yew-trees in churchyards
are on the south of the church ? In twenty church-
yards in East Surrey I find there are only two or three
yews out of about forty that are north of the centre
line of the church. I should be much obliged if any
of the readers of Science-Gossip living in Surrey
would inform me which churches in their neighbour-
hood have yews and which have not, especially to be
informed certainly that the South London parish
churches have none, as this would save me much
unnecessary trouble ; also of any traditions or
reasons why they should be planted in churchyards.

E. Straker.

Development of Frogs’ Spawn. — On March
20, at 9 a.m., I collected some fresh spawn (there

HARD WI CKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

19

was none on the previous evening), and placed it in
a vessel out of doors. On the 24th, I brought half
my collection into a greenhouse, temperature about
50° Fahr. On the 30th, the tadpoles in the greenhouse
were free of the albumen, while those out of doors,
after being several times under ice, were nearly all
free on April 7. — R. B. C. ( Ware).

Cats and Rabbits. — It does occasionally happen
for the cat to give suck and bring up rabbits. A few
years ago I got three young rabbits, at the time my
cat’s kittens were destroyed, when the youngsters
were put into the basket beside the cat. She, by all
appearances, was pleased with the change ; in a short
time they were sucking. I kept them about nine
months, but had to part with them, owing to their
mischievous propensities. Last year a farm servant
in the neighbourhood of Kelso got two young rabbits.
The cat having kittens at the time, the rabbits were
placed as a substitute for the kittens. The cat took
well with the change ; the rabbits, when they got
older, became so mischievous that they tore every-
thing tearable that came in their way. They were
taken to a rabbit burrow a considerable distance off,
but the old cat succeeded in finding them out and
conducting them safely back to their cottage-home.
There are authentic cases on the Borders of the fox-
terrier taking a liking to kittens, and even beating off
their own mothers, and the collie-dog nursing young
pigs. — R. R. Fans , Earlston.

Successful Breeding of the Fox Moth
(Bombyx Rubi). — In the months of September and
October the abundant number of the caterpillars
of this moth has often been observed. What with
weather and other causes, few become perfect insects.
For a few years back I have often tried to breed
them, but was never successful till I took the follow-
ing plan. I got a rough heather turf, sheltered it
from the north and east winds, made a wood frame
covered all over with thin cloth, and put thirty-six
caterpillars into it in October, and in June I had the
pleasure of seeing thirty-five perfect insects. — R. R.
Fans , Earlston.

Fagus, &c. — The “Fagus” of the Latins could
not have been the chestnut, for this tree was known
to the Romans by the name of Castanea nuces ,
it having been first found by them at Castanea, a
town of Thessaly, near the mouth of Peneus. —
Mrs. Alfred Watney.

Natterjack Toad. — In reply to your correspond-
ent, J. Perrycarp, I have kept a natterjack for a
considerable time, and have never found it to emit
any odour. Does he not mean the common snake,
which, like most snakes, gives forth an offensive odour
when irritated or under sexual excitement ? — J. M.
Campbell.

Our British Snakes. — The blind-worm does
not “ carry its young in a case in its back,” the young
being hatched shortly before they are brought forth.
The adder is also ovo-viviparous, the egg bursting in
the act of parturition. The ringed snake, on the
other hand, is oviparous, leaving its egg to be hatched
by the solar heat. — J. M. Campbell.

How LONG CAN A FlSH LIVE OUT OF WATER ?

I have on more than one occasion had proof of the
tenacity of life in some fishes, particularly those of
the perch family. Two instances are still fresh in my
memory : one where a goldfish which had been taken
from an aquarium had been left on a plate from six
till twelve o’clock at night, and being again placed in
the water swam about as vigorous as ever ; the other,

a roach, had been kept four hours out of the water,
with a like result on being replaced. — J. M. Campbell.

Late Swallows. — I find in Letter 21 of Gilbert
White’s “ Selbourne,” dated November 28, 1768, that
one of his neighbours saw a martin in a sheltered
nook, on a fine sunny day, hawking for flies ; he
also states he is perfectly satisfied they do not leave
this island in the winter. It is singular that in the
first week of this month in my garden I have seen
several pairs of swallows busily engaged in their
favourite pursuit of fly catching, although the nights
were very cold ; their numbers, however, dwindled
down, and on November 27 last one pair only
could I find in the district, and that pair about, my
garden. I saw them every day until the 12th. The
night of the nth was a very cold, frosty one. I
found them in the morning sitting very disconsolately
on the spouting of the dwelling-house, taking occa-
sionally a short flight and returning to the same spot.
I have never known the swallow ( Hirundo rustled)
so late before. It seems to me that Gilbert White is
right in assuming that some of the flights are left
behind. — S. Griffin , Salisbury.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — From
time to time we read in your journal anecdotes of
animals, the writers of which suggest that they may
be possessed of reason, in the sense that from two
premises they draw a conclusion. The great difficulty
in the investigation of the minds of animals appears to
be that man instinctively and unconsciously, unless
checked by reflection, explains their actions, especially
in extraordinary cases, by his own modes and laws of
thought. The dog, for example, is considered one of
the most intelligent of quadrupeds, and numberless
are the cases I have seen quoted to prove that he is
possessed of reason ; but in every instance it appears
to me that though his actions might and would in the
case of a man have been dictated by reason as above
defined, it does not appear at all certain that such is
the true explanation of the phenomena, at any rate it
is dangerous, scientifically speaking, to attribute to
reasoning powers what may perhaps have another
explanation. I purposely refrain from quoting any of
these alleged instances of reason in the lower animals,
merely wishing to suggest the difficulties in the way
of decision. If it could be proved that a dog de-
liberately chose one of two courses of action, the
case of reason would be established. It is for his
fidelity, attachment, and courage in defence of his
master that the dog has endeared himself to man. In
man’s vocabulary these are called moral qualities, but
in a dog they are not the result of choice and a dis-
tinction between good and evil, but are part of his
nature, primal impulses (possibly affected by training)
of which we know nothing ; and it is as illogical to
praise the dog for their possession as it would be to
blame a magpie for secretiveness or a tiger for ferocity.
There appears to be an impression that the intelligence
of animals differs from man’s only in degree. There
is a difference between a beggar and a prince, says the
old song, but this, however, is but one of degree ; but
until clear cases of reasoning are proved, and the
numerous mysterious instincts of animals explained,
surely are we not warranted in assuming that the
intelligence of animals differs from that of man not
only in degree but in kind ? — IP. D. Barclay.

The “Chiffonier,” or “Ole Clo’” amongthe
Insects. — I was amusing myself this last August in
watching the habits of spiders and other creatures in
the window, and on the broad window-ledge of an
unoccupied apartment in a villa at Bellosguardo, near
Florence, and collecting specimens for my microscope,

20

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

when I saw what, for the moment, I imagined was a
little nest of spiders’ eggs being blown along the
ledge ; but I perceived on closer inspection that the
object was not the usual dainty little spider’s nest,
but a rather untidy, fluffy ball, about the size of a large
pea, and that the object was steadily and rapidly
moving along of its own accord, stopping now and
then for a second and then resuming its journey. To
my amazement, I then saw that the ball of fluff was
borne on the back of a little insect, greyish-white,
somewhat resembling the larva of the dermestes, and
that the untidy but spherical mass was surely com-
posed of cobweb, held on the creature’s back by
being twisted about in and out among the long project-
ing hairs which were on the upper surface of the body.
The insect was about a quarter of an inch in length,
and bore on its head a pair of forceps about the size
of those borne by the common earwig, but for a
totally different purpose ; for, to my amusement, I
noticed that each time the creature paused it was to
pick up with these forceps some dead ant, or portion
of a dead insect ; legs, wings, scales of the common
wood-louse, or crumb of a thorax dropped from some
web after the meal of a spider ; and these fragments
were picked up so deftly, and in so droll a. way did
the creature turn its head round, and carefully arrange
his treasure on his pack so as neither to lose it nor
his balance ; the movement was so cunning and so
curious, that I was forcibly reminded of the chiffoniers
in France and Italy, with their hook and their basket,
and of the “ole clo’ ” and his pack in England.
And, quoting Mr. Squeers, I involuntarily exclaimed,
“ Well, Nature’s a rum-un !” and called my friend to
watch the creature with me. For more than two days
I kept it in a small glass-lidded box, supplied it with
“ole clo’,” and watched it constantly collecting and
packing ; but I never saw it feed, and one morning I
found that a large ant I had supposed to be dead had
attacked and eaten the creature, scattering the fluffy
pack and its contents all over the box. Some weeks
after this I received a note from a young friend at
Vevey, who from my description recognises the
“ chiffonier,” two of which, she says, “came towards
me, on the table in the garden where I was seated
reading, collecting and packing as you described.”
From my friend at Bellosguardo I also, on my return
to England, received an account of one she had found,
and of which she thus writes : “I had half a mind to
send you one of those scavenger, or ‘ ole clo’ ’ insects
which Mr. P. found ; but could not arrange anything
that would insure its arriving alive. The pack on his
back is much less choice than the others, consisting of
parts of the bodies of dead flies, spiders’ cobwebs, &c.,
while he himself is much smaller. I feel quite sure it
is his food he collects, because the first night I put
him under a tumbler he ate the wings of his fly, the
only ornamental article in his collection. He is
exceedingly fond of sugar, has eaten, I am sure, twice
his weight, and has just added two small dead ants to
his load, under which he staggers visibly. Flis pack
is held on by long projecting hairs, and likewise
secured and strengthened by cobwebs.” Whether we
have any “representative” insect chiffonier in Eng-
land I do not know, but thought this little sketch of
the insect might interest some of your readers. —

S. M.

Peregrine Falcon. — It may interest some of the
readers of Science-Gossip to know that a young
male peregrine (Falco percgrinus ) was shot at Moor
Street, in this neighbourhood, on the nth November,
1878. — Roland Green , Rainham, Kent.

Superstitious Dislike of the Wren. — In
July’s Science-Gossip a correspondent admits he

has occasionally met with instances of this supersti-
tion, but has always been unable to trace the reason
for such an aversion. I may mention an old Irish
tradition or legend, viz., that the Saviour, as alleged,
withdrew Himself, and took refuge under a tree, de-
sirous to be concealed, and the Robin carried moss
and laid it over the tree, making the covering more
dense, which so pleased the Lord that He blessed the
bird, and putting forth His hand left the red mark on
its breast ; but the Wren came and carried away the
moss, and so exposed His retreat, hence it is the
“Devil’s Bird.” — Win. Lipsett.

Spiders’ Webs. — Though I have often examined
spiders’ webs in all sorts of odd corners, 1 have never
found any in cupboards where there was nothing for
them to catch. In fact, in most instances the webs
have had remains of flies, and especially moths, hanging
about them. I, therefore, though agreeing with the
opinion of your correspondent in the September num-
ber (the last clause excepted, which requires proof),
think that the webs are also intended for the purpose
of catching the semi -dormant moths and flies which
retire into these dark corners. Moreover, the webs,
though thicker and more closely woven, have always
appeared to me quite as well adapted to their purpose
as those anywhere else. — An Observer of Spiders.

The Earth-worm. — Two or three days after
reading the interesting article by Professor Paley,
in Science-Gossip for June, on the habits, & c., of
the earth-worm, my attention was attracted by the
singular movement of the lower leaf of a geranium.
Moving closer to it I found this was caused by a
common lob worm, its hole being some distance
from the leaf, it had to reach almost the whole extent
of its body, catching hold of the leaf, it contracted its
elastic body, until it had it almost within the mouth
of the hole, but the leaf being still on the plant, it, of
course, sprang back to its original position. This the
worm attempted with great patience a number of
times, but eventually finding its exertions of no use,
it contented itself with a few pebbles, filling up the
entrance with them, in the same manner as explained
by Professor Paley. — C. B.

Tenacity of Life in a Wasp. — Some time ago I
made an experiment on the insect above-named in
order to know something of sensation in the insecta.
Securing a wasp, I severed the head from the thorax,
and the thorax from the abdomen. In the thorax all
motion seemed to cease in a few moments, but in the
head vitality was maintained for several hours, and
the motion of the tongue out and in alternately was
performed with as much vigour as is usual to the
creature, then it gradually ceased. The abdomen
retained vitality for fully four days, and when touched
would contract and the sting be protruded. This
seems to me rather strange, as the abdomen is farthest
removed from the cerebral ganglion. — J. D. O.

Kestrels’ Nests. — Thinking it may interest some
of the readers of Science-Gossip, I append a few
notes of four kestrels’ nests which lately came under
my observation, showing a strange diversity in nesting
habits for birds of the same species. The nests were
— three of them placed in a fissure of a limestone
cliff, some thirty feet from the ground — and the fourth
among the stems of the thick ivy, which covered part
of the rock. In two instances, however, no nest at
all (in the usually-understood sense of the word) was
made, the eggs, five in number, being laid on the
scanty soil, which scarcely covered the rock. The
third nest, though in an exactly similar position, was
elaborately constructed of twigs and small roots, and

HARDW1CKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

2 I

neatly lined with moss and wool, which was worked
up with mud to a firm consistency. The fourth nest
in the ivy was very roughly made, being, I think, an
old jackdaw’s nest “patched up,” this last contained
four eggs in the last stage of incubation. Directly
under it, at about a yard’s distance, was a nest con-
taining five young jackdaws, and these continued
unmolested by the hawk, sitting above them, till they
were fully fledged. — C. Candler.

House-flies and their Parasites. — A friend
of mine, a few days ago, observed a common house-
lly walking with apparently great difficulty and pain
upon the counter of his shop. Taking a glass he
looked closely at it and discovered that its lameness
and pain were evidently owing to something upon one
foot, which, however, he could not clearly discern,
owing to the low power of his glass. Taking, how-
ever, the sharp blade of his penknife he pressed it
upon what he thought was a growth from the foot,
but the leg of the fly came off. This object he
brought to his home, when we placed it under the
microscope, at first under a small, afterwards under a
high power, \ inch ; we then discovered what a
formidable creature it was, and could well understand
the intense pain that poor little fly must have suffered,
dragging with it, without any hope of shaking off, so
fully armed a parasite. Its length I estimate about
the one-twentieth part of an inch, its shape that of a
bottle, its snout quite pointed, and its mouth filled
with sharp teeth, which we could readily distinguish
under the high power of l inch. Its body was covered
with apparently sharj:> bristles, it had four legs on
each side, and near its snout a pair of most terrible-
looking instruments exactly resembling the large
claws of a lobster. Its colour was that of the leg,
viz., dark brown. Certainly in all my researches I
have never seen a more terrific-looking insect, and am
not surprised at the fly being lame and in pain when
within the clutches of so minute but so powerful an
assailant. Have any of your readers noticed this
creature, and can any one give me some information
about it ? Is it parasitic, or is it a foe of the fly, and
only attacks it occasionally ? I shall be exceedingly
glad if any one. of your numerous contributors can
throw any light upon it. — Rev. IV. Marsdon Becby.

Piping Bullfinch. — While visiting in this neigh-
bourhood a gentleman showed me a piping bullfinch,
whose plumage during the last season has turned a
complete dull black colour. The bird has moulted,
but still it does not recover the variegations of its
plumage ; and, although a very clever piper, has not
been heard to utter a note since the change came over
it. The bird had been in the owner’s possession for
many years, so that no trick could have been played
upon him. Can any of your readers account for this
strange metamorphosis ? — St. Austell.

Piping Bullfinches. — M. E. M. H. would be
much obliged if any one who has been successful in
teaching a bullfinch to pipe a tune would give her his
experience through these columns. She would par-
ticularly like to know what air he taught the bird,
how long it took to learn it, and whether he was
successful without a bird-organ ?

Second Growth of Plants. — Under this head-
ing there are three notes in Science-Gossip for
November on the second growth of various plants,
and only one writer, D. Douglas, Leith, suggests
that the late dry summer and the moisture of August
“has probably something to do with the unusual
abundance of these curious aberrations.” The second
growth is not confined to flowers, it extends to all

plants when their roots do not run deep ; it may be
seen in cabbages, turnips, and potatoes ; the action
is a natural consequence of the laws of nature. Every
plant is a duct for moisture from the soil, under the
great law of attraction ; when this law has exhausted
all the moisture from the surface soil and surface
roots, the plant they belong to ceases to grow. If the
season continues warm, and showers fall, the growth
is renewed where it ceased, flowers develop more
petals, daisies grow double, twigs shoot out fresh
sprouts, and even farm roots in dry soils grow afresh
in strange shapes. It would be a question if the
seeds of the second growth could attain perfection in
annuals if the wet weather commences early. I do
not see that the action can have anything to do with
evolution, the phenomenon does not change the order.
—II. P. M.

Teratology in a Moss. — In an old quarry I re-
cently found a stem of common Polytrichum undu-
latum , which had four setae, bearing capsules, spring-
ing from its summit.— Young Museologist.

The Crystal Palace Aquarium. — Mr. Gar-
diner, the secretary of the Crystal Palace Company,
in speaking of the admirable manner with which their
aquarium has been worked by Mr. Lloyd, says :
“Our sea- water is now more brilliantly clear and
healthy than it was when we obtained it, eight years
ago ; our animals (mostly those which we at first col-
lected, and of great number and variety,) are in ex-
cellent condition ; and we have never had occasion to
clean any of our tanks, &c., the labour saved thereby,
and the avoidance of disturbing the creatures, being
very great. We never remove any excrementitious
matters, large as is the quantity of food which the
creatures eat, nor do these substances accumulate.
They all are got rid of, or consumed chemically, as
fast as they are formed. Naturally, we doubted the
practicability of gaining these excellent results before
we saw them attained, because no similar aquarium
had before been erected in this country. Mr. Lloyd
is now prepared to make a further and important im-
i provement, in the direction of manufacturing sea-
water for aquarium purposes, instead of sending for
it from the sea. He made, and used, such water,
with success, as recorded by him in print, more than
twenty years ago, even when he had not succeeded in
dissolving some of the ingredients of which actual
sea- water consists. However, I have no reason what-
ever to doubt what he now says of his having suc-
ceeded in incorporating these things which he before
, left out, and that what he can now produce will be,

| not merely an imitation , but an absolutely identical
mixture. I have to add, that, in obtaining water from
the actual sea, unless a further and serious expense is
incurred of going far out from the shore for such
water, it is scarcely possible to obtain it clear, in
large quantities, and in a given time, from near any
coast, and consequently it arrives inland much con-
taminated with decaying organic matters, which have
to be removed before the water can be used. Here
this cause occasioned us some months of loss of valu-
able time before we could open our aquarium. But
in using artificial sea-water clearness and purity can
be obtained from the very beginning.”

Sea Anemones in Aquaria. — Our treatment of
Tealia crassicornis was of the simplest, as the speci-
men we kept for the unusual length of three years
was merely placed in the aquarium with the rest of
the anemones, occasionally fed with a bit of raw
meat or mussel, and the tank frequently syringed. If
“ W. H. C.” could succeed in finding one on a separate
stone, or in knocking off a piece of the stone with

22

HARD JVICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

chisel and hammer he would insure] its base being
uninjured. I found some magnificent specimens at
Scarborough last summer, and perhaps some of your
readers can inform me whether cats are partial to such
things, for I brought them home, and one night,
thinking they would be benefited by a “ low tide,” I
placed two (one was a splendid fellow, the size of a
small plate) on a pane of glass on the floor. The
next morning every trace of them had vanished. Our
cat was believed to be out all night, but this is not
positively known. Has any one ever heard of cat or
dog eating a sea anemone ? It may interest some
collectors to know that I succeeded in getting about
twelve varieties at Biarritz this spring ; and, what is
perhaps more wonderful, they nearly all reached Eng-
land alive, and are even now in first-rate condition.
When it is considered that the unhappy creatures
made a tour of ten days with us after leaving the sea-
side, and had to endure a daily packing and unpack-
ing, spending a few hours in a tin box, and at night
placed in a basin and just covered with a little water
carried with us in a bottle, their constitutions cannot
be called delicate, especially as the last journey was
taken in a paper bag ! One bay at Biarritz was per-
fectly carpeted with the lovely Anthea cereus of every
hue, and it was a matter of difficulty to walk ; but in
spite of all our exertions, we never could get them to
live two days. I know not why. We also found a
beautiful specimen of the Holothuria or sea cucumber,
and of a tiny bright blue and orange snail-like crea-
ture, which the sailors said was a sea-leech. Are
these rare? We could not bring them with us to
England for want of space. I would only add in re
Tealia crassicornis, that unless the tank is a large one,
a single specimen is enough to keep. — C. E. R.

Metropolitan Scientific Association. — The
twelfth session of this society was commenced on
October 22, when the president delivered the usual
introductory address to an appreciative audience.
The president mainly confined himself to the subject
of Light and its analysis, and gave an exposition of
the successive advances made in this branch of re-
search from the earliest to the more recent times.
On concluding, a cordial vote of thanks was passed,
and an adjournment made to November 26, when
Mr. A. P. Holden read a paper on “ The Sun-spot
Cycle in relation to Magnetic and other Disturbances.”
The M. S. A., which was established as long ago as
1866, has steadily progressed to the present time,
when it is now permanently settled in the city.
Meetings are held the third Tuesday in each month
at the ward schools, Aldersgate Street, E.C., and
the society invite visitors to any of these meetings.
Mr. C. Judd, A.K.C., F.R.A.S., is president, and
Mr. W. West, of 9 Ackerman Road, Brixton, S.W.,
honorary secretary. Amongst the other officers are
many well-known microscopists, whose papers have
appeared several times in our columns.

Cornus SANGUINEA. — Owing to the warmth and
moisture of the few weeks in the beginning of winter
which produced almost the conditions of a second
summer, the Cornus sanguined of this neighbour-
hood came out into full blossom for a second time
last year. The flowers which are on last season’s
wood were in no way different from those that blos-
somed on the same plants last June and July. Is this
unusual ? — J. S ., Litton.

Starlings and Larks. — The starling has often
been held up as a bird of immaculate character. I
am therefore sorry to state that I have last season
observed him plundering red currants as diligently as
his neighbours, the blackbird and the thrush. He has

also a taste for cherries. Still the benefits which he
confers are vastly greater than the injury which he
occasions, and I much regret that, to please such
sapient bodies as the London gun clubs, he has been
excluded from the protection — such as it is — of the
Wild Birds’ Preservation Act. The skylark is also a
corn-eater. I have seen him distinctly at a very short
distance hard at work in an experimental plot of
wheat. It is remarkable, as a proof of the intelligence
of birds, how soon they detect the harmlessness of a
scarecrow, and how often such devices have to be
changed if they are really to protect fruit or grain.
The gardener in charge of the experimental plots
above-mentioned tells me that nothing is of much use
for more than two days. — J. IV. Slater.

Sea Anemones. — In answer to your correspond-
ent’s (“C. E. R.”) queries respecting sea anemones,
I have no special treatment for Bunodes gemmacea ;
I have also found them very difficult to keep. The two
I now possess have been in my tank nearly two years,
and are the survivors of five I had from Torquay (one
being the parent of the young ones mentioned in my
notes on page 191) ; the other three dwindled away, as
described by “ C. E. R.” at periods varying from
three weeks to six months. With reference to feeding
the young ones (which I do once a week), I found it
a very difficult matter at first, but it is to be managed
with patience and care. The method I adopt is as
follows. I remove the young “ferns” into an old-
fashioned wine-cooler holding about a quart of water,
and keep them in a quiet place, where they get a
tolerable amount of light ; visit them several times on
feeding days, and when I find any of them open, I
drop a very small piece of mussel into the water and
guide it gently with a thin piece of stick until it drops
on the expanded disk, when it is soon devoured ; if
the first piece happens to miss the disk, I try a second
or third, and so on until all are fed, when I syringe
the water, which brings the pieces not eaten to the
surface, and they are then easily removed. I find,
after a few weeks of this treatment, the young ones
feed readily off a stick the same as the full-grown
ones, and I then put them back into the tank. I have
also reared B. gemmacea and S. bellis in one of my
aquaria, which is a glass fern disk (16 in. diameter),
having a rim about ij inches from the top, on
which rim I place the young anemones, where they
are easily fed with a stick, being only just covered
with water. I have now in my tank several young
S. miniata and Dianthus plumosus, produced by
spontaneous division, in a very flourishing condition.
— C. A. Grimes , Dover.

A White Rook. — While walking in the neigh-
bourhood of Dursley, in October, I noticed, at a
distance of a quarter of a mile or more, a white bird
walking in a ploughed field among a large number
of rooks. Taking it to be a sea-gull, I approached
the field, and found that the bird in question was a
rook without a single dark mark on any part of its
plumage, as far as I could discern at about a gunshot
off. — C. IV. Carrington.

Testacella Haliotidea, See. in Notts. — Per-
haps it may interest the readers of Science-Gossip
to know that Testacella haliotidea has been taken in
this county. I have taken four specimens, and seen
others, from which I conclude it has established itself
here. I believe, from inquiries I have made, that this
is the first time this species has been recorded from
Notts, if not as far north as here ; and probably it has
been introduced with herbaceous plants at some time.
Mr. Tate, in his “ Land and Freshwater Mollusks of
Great Britain,” says: “This species is found in

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

23

kitchen and market gardens around London, Nor-
wich, Gloucester, Taunton, Bristol, and in several
localities in Devonshire, Tenby, and in the Channel
Islands”; and Mr. Jeffrey’s localities are much the
same. I think it not improbable that this, like some
other introduced species, will become more widely
distributed throughout the country, as it seems to be
gradually gaining ground, and its principal food is so
universally distributed. The first specimen I dis-
covered was devouring a large earthworm, and when
I took it in my hand, it did not relax its hold. A few
other somewhat rare shells were found by Mr. Musson,
the secretary of the Nottingham Naturalists’ Society,
and myself a short time ago ; we spent a day collect-
ing on the Notts side of Pleasley Vale, near Mans-
field, and another on the same side of Creswell
Crags, of geological fame. In the former place,
amongst numbers of commoner species, we found a few
Cochlicopa tridens ( Azeca tridens of Tate), one speci-
men of Clausilia laminata (dead), and several of
Helix lapicida , in the same condition, but a living one
we could not find. However, in the latter place we
found one, but only one, alive ; a long search reward-
ing us with about half-a-dozen more dead ones. I
believe these, or part of them, are additions to the
Notts fauna. In the afternoon we spent some time in
one of the caves, known as “Mother Grundy’s Par-
lour”; and besides a number of pieces of bone, we
found three canine teeth of the hyaena, and a molar
tootlr of some animal we could not determine. Since
then I have found one specimen of Limax brunneus , a
somewhat rare species, according to Tate, but it has a
very distinct appearance, although so small. I think
Notts will bear a much closer investigation than it
has at present received, at least the northern part of
it ; and, doubtless, other species would be brought to
light. The list of mollusca found in the county at
present is about eighty ; and probably a list may be
prepared before long. — R.A.Rol/e, JVelbeck, Worksop.

Modern Zoology. — Some few weeks there ap-
peared in one of the daily papers a prolonged corre-
spondence on the sanitary value of the Eucalyptus,
which ultimately degenerated into a discussion on the
grammatical accuracy of scientific nomenclature. One
of the writers, speaking of an opponent, asked,
“ Does he not know that the scientific names of the
lion, dog, and panther respectively are Felis leo, Felis
canis , and Felis pardus ?” Felis canis the scientific
name for the dog ! I waited, expecting that a blunder
so gross would be at once pointed out by some of the
disputants, but no notice was taken. Is not this a
striking proof of the great ignorance of biology which
exists among the “ intelligent and educated classes” ?
— S.

Deptford Pink. — It may interest your readers to
know that a fine specimen of the Deptford pink
{Dianthus Armeria ) was found in the parish of Greet-
ing, near Needham Market, Suffolk, last summer. —
T. E. Z., Creeting.

Blackbird and Thrush. — Mr. Kerr, in his
article on the Turdus viscivorus, says that I have
fallen into a singular mistake, and that the eggs with
claret markings were undoubtedly those of the
missel thrush. First, the eggs I saw were pale
blue, speckled like a blackbird’s and spotted with
the deep claret markings of a song thrush as well.
If the claret spots could have been rubbed out, the
eggs would have been like handsome specimens of
the T. mernla. Now the eggs of the 71 viscivorus
are invariably either of purplish-white or very palest
sea-green ground with surface spots and blotches of
reddish-brown and underlying markings of faded

purple. In eight or nine nesting seasons I have not
seen one egg with “deep claret markings” ; also the
eggs of 71 viscivonis are considerably larger than
those of 71 merula. Mr. Kerr also says I must have
mistaken the bird I saw ( 71 musicus ) for 71 viscivorus.
Well, the size of the latter (as he says himself) is
quite a sufficient distinction, irrespective of the
different and deeper brown of the former ; and as I
saw the bird within a few feet of me, both sitting and
flying round me, I could not have made the mistake
he thinks I have. Now if I had been mistaken (and
I am quite sure I was not), the circumstance would
not be the less peculiar, for, instead of T. musicus ,
71 viscivorus would have been mating with 71
merula , for I saw (as I stated) 71 musicus and 71
merula together. Again, as to the nest, I confess I was
much at fault for not describing it. The outside was
rather roughly constructed of mosses interwoven with
grasses, and the lining was grass cemented with mud.
Also, as Mr. Kerr says, the missel thrush is an early
breeder, builds high, and prefers the fork of a tree for
the site of its nest. Now this was in the middle of
April ; the nest was not above 6 feet from the ground,
and was built in a hedge, and there are plenty of
trees all round in which it (if it had been a missel
thrush) would certainly have preferred to build. He
also says no instance has been known of a hybrid
between 71 musicus and 71 merula. Since my first
notice, I see that Mr. Dresser, in his “ Birds of
Europe,” mentions two or three instances : one on
the authority of Count Salvadori, another on that of
Mr. Wier, one of Macgillivray’s able correspondents.
He also says there is a hybrid in the British Museum.
I think that Mr. Kerr has not carefully read my
notice, or he would have seen that I did not take one
egg, but rather intimated the reverse. At the same
time I must not close without thanking him for
kindly asking me to send him an egg for identifica-
tion ; but I was not in any doubt as to what the eggs
were, and having a considerable number and not too
much room, I never take one unless I absolutely want
it.— C. T. B.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the gth of the previous
month.

S. M. — Send us the papers you enumerated.

W. Richardson. — You will find our answer to your query
as to “fins” in your specimen of trilobite in the September
number of Science-Gossip, 1878.

J. R. Ner> . — The following are good practical students’
books on geology: — “Geology,” by J. Clifton Ward; “Field
Geology,” by W. H. Penning (in both of these you get instruc-
tions as to mapping, &c.) ; Woodward’s “ Geology of England
and Wales,” and Kinahan’s “ Geology of Ireland.” Richard-
son’s is too old now. The second edition of Hooker’s “ Student’s
Flora of the British Islands” gives the critical species of British
plants.

Rita V. — Your specimens are: — No. 1 .Cardans pratensis,
Huds. ; No. 2. Restharrow ( Ononis spinosa , L.) ; No. 3. Knap-
weed ( Centaurea nigra).

W. L. B. (Pulborough). — A reply will be sent per post.

E. F. C. (Leicester). — First, names of plants, kindly sent for
identification, are as follows: — No. 1. A variety of Geranium
pusillum ; No. 2. Myriophyllum verticillatum, L. ; No. 3.
Rarninculus pseudofluitajis, N. ; No. 4. Ranunculus Lenor-
mandi ; No. 5. Ranunculus trichophyllus , Cha'x ; No. 6.
Ranunculus ploribtoidus, Bab. ; No. 7. Callitriche pedunculata,
T). C. ; No. 8. Potamogeton grammeus (?) ; No. 9. Juficus (?) ;
No. 10. Juncus bufonius ; No. 11. CEnanthe fl uvia tills, Col . (?),
not perfect specimen; No. 12. Chara flexilis ; No. 13. Gale-
opsis versicolor 1 No. 14. Trifolhim medium] No. 15. Plum -

24

HARD IVICKE* S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

bago Coronopus, L.; No. 16. Polygonum (Could you send another
specimen of this species ?); No. 17. Glycerin Jlmtans, Sm.
Campanula patula alba, is far from common anywhere.
Plumbago lacustris (Yes).

J. A. (Coventry). — Hooker and Arnott’s “ Flora” is superseded
by Hooker’s “ Student’s Flora” ; by all means secure this.

R. A. B. (Glasgow). — Your specimens are No. 1. Equisetutn

Telmateia ; No. 2. Hieracium alp hi urn, L. ; No. 3. Briza
■media, L. ; No. 4. Poa alpina ; No. 5. Fcstuca ovina (?) ; No. 4
was a curious viviparous specimen.

J. Finnemore (Truro).— Smith’s “Synopsis of the British
Diatomaceae” is now a very scarce book. We received a
catalogue from a Berlin bookseller who has a copy ; the price is
92 marks, and Mr. Finnemore should make immediate applica-
tion. This is the only complete work on the subject, but as it
has been published nearly twenty-five years, the number of
species have since been trebled. O’Meara’s “ Irish Diatoms,”
the first part of which was published above three years since, is
useful ; a copy may perhaps be obtained of the author, the Rev.
E. O’Meara, Newcastle Rectory, Hazlehatch, Dublin. All
other information is scattered through the “ Transactions ” of
the Royal Microscopical Society, Quekett Club, Linnean So-
ciety, “Annals of Natural History,” “Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science,” &c. The address of the German book-
seller is R. Friedlander & Sohn, 11 Carlstrasse, Berlin, N.W.

J. A. Kay. — It is impossible to name your species of diatom
from your rough sketch, and absence of description as to mark-
ings, size, habitat, &c. There are about fifty species of Navicula,
of which it is one.

The Botanical Exchange Club. — To save personal appli-
cations and inquiries, we beg to state that the parcels of return
plants are being rapidly made up, and all subscribers who have
not received them will receive them in a few days.

J. H. M. — Your specimen is a Sisymbrium ; we should not
like to speak positively as to species, though it may prove to be
A. Irio.

W. R. Wells. — It is a somewhat thankless task to have to
name an entomological specimen from a worn wing. But your
moth appears to be Bryophila gla?idifera, a rather uncommon
species.

EXCHANGES.

For half-ounce sand containing foraminifera (fossil) send good
foraminiferous or diatomaceous material, or two stamps, to Geo.
Clinch, Hayes, Kent.

Wanted, European Anodons and Unios in exchange for fine
eocene fossils (British) or for N. American L. & F. W. shells,
including many species of Anodo?i and Unio. — G. Sherriff Tye,
62 Villa Road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

Offered Colins edusa and other lepidoptera or birds’ eggs
for specimens of Leucophasia sinapis. — Herbert Ellis Norris,
St. Ives, Hunts.

In exchange for books or natural history objects, the fine cast
of a saurian from Lyme Regis, size 12 X 28. The matrix is the
colour of lias shale and the bones coloured in imitation of the
original, which is in Jermyn Street Museum. —Address T. C.
Maggs, Yeovil.

Wanted, any of the following in exchange for twenty-eight
parts of Sowerby’s “English Botany”; Rossmassler’s “Icono-
graphy,” 3V0IS., coloured plates; Jeffrey’s “British Concho-
logy/’ 5 vols., coloured plates; or an equal number of parts of
the “Journal de Conchyliologie.” — J. D. Buttered, 26 Coltman
Street, Hull.

Ichthyology. — Any reader of Science-Gossip requiring any
specimens (in spirits) for anatomy and other purposes who will
write to me with a view to exchange can obtain a number of
species according to the time of the year. Address, first instance,
Alpha, care of A. Reynolds, 58 New North Road, London, N.

Prepared slides of fossil wood from South Wales coal mea-
sures in exchange for other objects of interest. — W. H. Harris,
44 Partridge Road, Cardiff.

Polyzoa. fossil or recent, for exchange. — C. F. Ogilvie, Size-
well House, Leiston, Suffolk.

Nine good slides for polariser offered for Science-Gossip for
1870, unbound. Have a very large quantity of foraminiferous
sand from sponge, and will send on receipt of stamped and
addressed envelope, W. Wise, Broad Street, Launceston.

Will give well-mounted slides in exchange for good J or %
objective. Send description of objective, and I will send list of
slides. — J. Horn, 5 Belle Vue Square, Scarborough.

Wanted, “ Monograph of British Graphidese,” by Rev. W. A.
Leighton, B.A., or, Mudd’s “ Manual of British Lichens,” 1861.
Microscopic slides of lichen spores, &c. or other books in
exchange. — Rev. W. Johnson, 19 Union Lane, Gateshead-on-
Tyne.

Science-Gossip, 1873 (in fair condition, unbound), in exchange
for fossils ; or what offers? — W. H. B., 1 Percival Street, Long-
sight, Manchester.

American, African, Bermuda, European, British eggs, side-
blown, authenticated, many rarities : Eleonora falcon, Rufus
swallow, rock-thrush, Turdus cyaneus, Alpine chough, Cinereus
vulture, Lesser cormorants, imperial eagle, &c., in exchange for
others. — Sissons, Sharrow, Sheffield.

Slides of butterfly scales, garden white, small and large heath
and common blue, for other slides.— W. R. W., 20 London Road,
Carlisle.

British birds’ eggs, side-blown, picked, labelled ; well-marked
specimens. List free. Also complete collection of British
coleoptera, male and female specimen of every known British
variety; 8000 specimens, artistically mounted on cardboard,
without pins (new style) ; correctly named. Particulars sent.
Exchange arranged by letter. Foreign correspondence solicited.

— Henry Sissons, Westbourne Road, Sheffield.

Wanted, Science-Gossip for 1873, bound or loose. Must
be in good condition. Will give well-mounted micro slides or
cash. — F. Kellow, 94 Long Acre, W. C., London.

Offered, Scottish fossils and American lepidoptera. Wanted, I
fossils, brachiopoda, or fish-remains preferred. — T. Stock, 16
Colville Place, Edinburgh.

Well-mounted slides for exchange, including good foramini-
fera, animal hairs, &c. — J. Ford, Wood View, New Bridge
Crescent, Wolverhampton.

For section of clematis, send well-mounted slide to Thomas
Shipton, The Terrace, Chesterfield. —

Side-blown eggs for exchange (mute swan, carrion crow,
magpie, sedge warbler, pied wagtail, and others). — James
Ingleby, Eavestone, near Kipon.

In duplicate, about 100 different species of the British land
and fresh-water shells, including well-authenticated examples of
Vertigo minutisshna, V. alpestris, V. pusilla, V. substriata,

F. angustior, Limner a involuta, Siiccinea oblouga. Desiderata ;
Good foreign land shells, Helices, Bulimi, Achatina, &c. ; also
Pisidium roseum, P. obtusale, L. Burnetti, Pupa ringens. —

W. Sutton, Upper Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Science-Gossip from January 1874 to December 1878, inclusive
(three numbers missing); also “Nature” for 1876 (one part
missing) ; both unbound, in good order. For objects, &c., or a
parrot, or anything useful. Please send offers. — J. J. Macintosh,

47 Aylmer Street, Montreal, Canada.

I have about a dozen splendid exotic butterflies, also many
other natural history specimens, for disposal or exchange. Send
for list. — “ Science,” 165 White Ladies Road, Bristol.

Ianthina communis (small), in exchange for Isocardia Cor,
Cytherea chione. Scalar ia Turtonis , or other rare marine slides.

— J. W. D. Keogh, 25 Camperdown Place, Great Yarmouth.

Offered, infusoria, entomostraceans, crustaceans, isopod
crustaceans, rotifers, sponges in spirit, fresh-water polypes,
scales of young crocodile, sea-urchins, and spines and pedicel-
larise of sea-urchin and starfish, for specimens of small verte- ,
brate animals or bones of such. — Leo. 144 Finborough Road,
Earl’s Court, S.W., London.

North of Ireland beach and estuarine clay floatings and f
chalk flint powder, each rich in foraminifera, for good geological
or microscopic objects. — Wm. Gray, (Mount Charles, Belfast.

Slides of diatoms, hoofs, horns of animals, &c., well-mounted, J
for other well-mounted objects. — H. B. Thomas, 34 Montpelier
Street, Montpelier Square, S.W., London.

Quantity of first-class micro slides of general interest well- fl
mounted, and large assortment of unmounted material. Wanted (I
magic lantern, 3pinch condenser and slides ; photo apparatus, I
&c. All letters answered. — T. M'Gann, Burren, county Clare.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

“Ramsay’s Physical Geology and Geography of Great
Britain.” Fifth edition. London : E. Stanford, Charing Cross. ( I
“ Flowers and their Unbidden Guests.” By Professor Kirner.
Translated by Dr. Ogle. London : Kegan Paul & Co.

“Wild Sports and Natural* History in the Highlands.” By
C. St. John. London : John Murray.

“ Six Months in Ascension.” By Mrs. Gill. London: John 3
(Murray.

“ South-Western Pennsylvania in Song and Story.” By Frank
Cowan, Greensbury, Pa.

“ Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Glasgow. \ 1
Vol. iii. part iii.

“ Science pour Tous.”

“ Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.”

“Canadian Entomologist.”

“American Naturalist.”

“Midland Naturalist.”

“Land and Water.”

“Chambers’s Journal.”

&c. & c. &c.

Communications received up to ioth ult. from ; —

T. S.— R. D.— W. G. S.-K. L— J. H.— G. H.— E. S.— R. M.
— E. C— Dr. G. H. H.— L. C.— Dr. A. G. S. T.— S. M.— Dr.
A. M. Me A. — J. B. E.— S. B.— J. G.— S. G.— A. S.— H. B.—
A. H. S. W.— R. G.— Dr. H. F. P— Professor B-— J. A. S.—
C. E. R.— W. H. H.— E. M.— V. C.— F. C.— E. H. R.— J. D—
W. J.— A. W.— H. E. W.— J. D. B.— F. C. M.— J. W. B—
H. E. N.— J. A. W.— G. C— B. L. M.— M. L.— A. C. C.—
H. D. B.— J. R. N.— R. W. W.— T. R. J.— H. S. — J. M.W. —
T. S. — J. F.— F. T. F.— W. H. B.-W. R. W, — F. C. K.—
T. S—W. S.— F. H. A.— J. I.— J. J. M.— E. T. S.— J. W. D. K.
— W. G.— R. S. P.— J. F. R.— J. C.—H. B. T.— W. R. W.—
J. W. S.— T. McG. — E. F. C.— &c.

25

HARDWICKE ’ V SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

“SCIENCE-GOSSIP” BOTANICAL EXCHANGE CLUB

REPORT FOR 1878.

fewer than twenty-
five working mem-
bers during the
past season have
forwarded parcels
for exchange.
Most of the collec-
tions were small,
though they were
excellently pre-
served and label-
led. We prefer,
however, mention-
ing any novelty
(with the locality
where it was col-
lected), although
we feel bound to
give any notes for-
warded with the
parcels when they
are of public interest. Thus, Mr. Cunnack, of Helston,
writes : —

‘ ‘ Lavatera sylvestris : without doubt wild on
Tresco, St. Agnes, and St. Mary’s, Scilly Isles,
especially on the first-named. Valerianella carmata :
very plentiful near the town of Helston. Mentha
pubescens, Willd. : authenticated by Dr. Syme. Plen-
tiful in the corner of a damp meadow near Pengersick
Castle, in the parish of Breaze, about five miles west
of Helston. M. sylvestris is particularly abundant
close to it. Two forms of M. pu bescens were observed,
one spicate, the other a subspicate form. Echinm
violacewn : in great plenty in fields near St. Just, West
Cornwall, one where potatoes had been planted being
full of it, presenting a beautiful appearance. There
were thousands of specimens in full flower. There
seems no reasonable doubt of its being a native.
Juncus capitatus : very plentiful this year near Caer-
thillian Valley, extending to Gue Graze Valley, about
a mile and a half distant.”

Mr. King, of Edinburgh, also notes : — “ Symphytum
tuberosum : a somewhat local plant in the neighbour-
hood of Edinburgh, where we gathered the specimens
sent on the banks of the Braid Burn. The plant is
No. 170.

plentiful on the shady side of the rivulet ; on the
opposite bank we saw not a single specimen. On
the banks of the Water of Leith, near Bonnington, we
have gathered a stray plant, mixed with the butterbur
and other coarse plants. Lolium temulentum , Linn.,
is another local species in our neighbourhood, and
about Leith, waste ground in proximity to the docks,
and adjoining sea-beach, this plant is found less or
more for these three years back. In the month of
July, I found a single clump on the banks of the Firth
of Forth, about one mile west from Granton. The
variety arvense I have not collected previous to the
past summer. Carex pendula , Linn. : on the railway

bank near Trinity, where I gathered this plant, the
soil is poor and wet, the rusty water oozing out in all
directions. This sedge favotirs a soil containing com-
pounds of iron."

Mr. A. Brotherston observes several good things,
as follows : — “ Salix Russelliana , var. : very near, if
not quite, fragilis on the one hand, to alba on the
other ; apparently it is a hybrid between these two.
The male, which was unknown to Sir J. E. Smith, is
not uncommon in this district. Ranunculus fuitans,
var. Bachii , Wirt. : Tweed, near Kelso, and Teviot
near Roxburgh Castle, July, 1878. I send a few
specimens from four different plants, some of them
with well-developed floating leaves. Though perhaps
not typical Bachii , they are nearest that form.”

We were glad to be able to distribute this valuable
specimen to all our members. We trust they will
study it carefully ; perhaps some of them may be able
to note other characteristics. Also, a few carefully
selected examples of what we suppose to be Salix
ambigua , Ehrh., are sent out. Is not S. ambigua a
variable hybrid betwixt S. repens and S. aurita ?
These specimens are for comparison with others.

Picris hieracioides, var. arvalis : Tweedside, near
Kelso, June, 1878. Probably introduced with grass
seeds. Carex Watsoni, Syme : Tweedside, Makers-
town, Roxburgh, June, 1878. Plentiful many places
on Tweedside, occurring in long narrow beds close to
the edge of the river. Rotajnogeton pectinatus , L. :
Teviot, near Kelso, Roxburgh, July, 1878. This is a
common species on the borders.

Mrs. Edwards finds Eranthis hyemalis in a wood at

c

26

HARD WICKE’S SCIENC E-G O SSIP.

Subbery, on the borders of Derbyshire, “probably
introduced to this locality.” Also Crocus nudiflorus ,
from a hilly pasture in the village of Walstanton,
Salop. “We have it from several localities this
season, in fact from all the neighbouring counties.”

Amongst the novelties which will be doubtless
highly valued by all our contributors are the fol-
lowing : — Ruppia sph-alis : Bospham, Sussex. Coll.
Rev. F. H. Arnold. Mentha pubescens : by a rivulet,
Pra Sands, West Cornwall. Coll. W. Curnow. Tha-
lictrum flexuosum , Bernh. : cut from plants four to
five feet in height, growing in an exposed situation at
Bala Lake. Coll. C. Bailey, F.L.S. Seseli Libanotis :
Cuckmere, near Sleaford, Sussex. Coll. H. E. Wil-
kinson. Sarothajnnus prostratus : Lizard Point, 'Corn-
wall. Coll. J. Cunnack. Trifolium Townsendi : St.
Martin’s, Scilly Isles. Coll. W. Curnow. Zostera
nana : river Tamar, East Cornwall. Coll. W. Curnow.
Lavatera arborea : Tresco, Scilly Isles. Coll. W.
Curnow. Orobanche rubra , Sm. : Lizard Point. Coll.
W. Curnow. Orobanche amethysta : St. Mary’s, Scilly
Isles. Coll. J. Cunnack. Orobanche amethysta : St.
Ouen’s Bay, Jersey. Coll. J. Cosmo Melville, Esq.
Papaver somniferum fi.glabrum : Rosley, Cumberland.
Coll. Rev. R. Wood. Polygonum cognatum : Wes-
terley Ware, Kew. Coll. T. R. Sim. Viola per mixta,

var. sepincola : Merstham, Surrey. Coll. W. H. Beeby.
Cyperus fuscus , Linn. : Pond-side, Shalford Common,
Surrey. Coll. W. H. Beeby. Potamogeton zosteri-
folius : Spondon, Derby. Coll. Rev. W. H. Painter.
Callitriche obtusangula : Mitcham, Surrey. Coll. A.
Bennett, Esq. Rumex maritimus : Groby Pool,
Leicestershire. Coll. E. F. Cooper. Triticum acutum ,
DC. : Leith, Edinburgh. Coll. D. Douglas. We
have sent out a large supply of this species for our
friends to compare with other herbaria specimens,
the name being somewhat doubtful ; many of the
examples closely resemble T. repens , Linn.

We return our thanks to all members for the
excellent manner in which the specimens have been
got up. In some instances it is impossible by any
other means to secure so valuable a rarity, for
example, as the Cyperus mentioned above. Our best
thanks, and those of the members, are also . due to
Mr. J. F. Robinson for acting as curator.

“UNGKA,” APE OF SUMATRA ( SIMIA
SYNDACTYLA); THE ANATOMY OF ITS
LARYNX, etc.

By Dr. George Bennett, F.L.S. &c.

DURING a visit] to the Island of Singapore, on
the 13th of November, 1830, a male specimen
of this interesting]animal was presented to me. The
animal had been recently brought by a Malay lad
from the Menangkabau country, in the interior of
Sumatra. The Malays at Singapore called this animal

the “ungka” ; by Sir Stamford Raffles it has been
stated as being called the siamang among the natives ;
and the ungka ape is described by F. Cuvier as the
onko, in his splendid work on the Mammalia. On
making inquiry among the Malays at Singapore, they
denied this animal being the siamang, at the same
time stating that the siamang resembled it in form,
but differed in having the eyebrows and hair around
the face of a white colour.

The Simla syndactyla is described and figured in
Dr. Horsfield’s “ Zoology of Java;” but the engrav-
ing does not give a correct idea of the animal. The
following sketches are taken from drawings made
by Charles Landseer, Esq., from the original. My
specimen was a young male. It is preserved in the
collection of the British Museum.

I now proceed to relate the habits of the animal as
observed by me on board the ship “ Sophia,” during
the passage to England. The measurement of the
animal was as follows : — From the os calcis to the
vertex of the head, 2 ft. 4 in. ; span of the arms, 4 ft. ;
length of the arm, from the axilla to the termination
of the forefinger, 1 ft. iojin. ; length of the leg from
the groin to the os calcis, 1 1 in. ; length from the
xiphoid or ensiform cartilage to the crest of the pubis,
7\ in.

The teeth are twelve in each jaw ; four incisors,
two canine, and six molars : in the upper jaw the
canine were placed widely apart from the last incisor,
giving an appearance as if -a tooth was deficient : this
did not occur in the lower jaw. The teeth of the
animal were in very bad condition. The colour of
the animal is entirely black, being covered with stiff
hair of a beautiful jet black over the whole body ; the
face has no hair, except on the sides as whiskers, and
the hair stands forward from the forehead over the
eyes ; there is little beard. The skin of the face is
black ; the arms are very long, the radius and ulna
being of greater length than the os humeri ; the hair
on the arm runs in one direction, viz. downwards,
that on the forearm upwards ; the hands are long and
narrow, fingers long and tapering ; thumb short, not
reaching farther than the first joint of the forefinger ;
the palms of the hands and soles of the feet are bare
and black ; the legs are short in proportion to the
arms and body ; the feet are long, prehensile, and,
when the animal is in a sitting posture (fig. 29), are
turned inwards, and the toes are bent. The first and
second toes are united (except at the last joint) by a
membrane, from which circumstance he has derived
his specific name. He invariably walks in the erect
posture when on a level surface ; and then the arms
either hang down, enabling him sometimes to assist
himself with his knuckles ; or, what is more usual, he
keeps his arms uplifted in an erect position, with the
hands pendent (fig. 28), ready to seize a rope and
climb up on the approach of any danger, or on the
intrusion of strangers. He walks rather quickly in the
erect posture, but with a waddling gait, and is soon

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

27

run down if whilst pursued he has no opportunity of
escaping by climbing. On the foot are five toes, the
great toe being placed like the thumb of the hand ;
the form of the foot is somewhat similar to that of the
hand, having an equal prehensile power ; the great
toe has a capability of much extension outwards,
which enlarges the surface of the foot when the animal
walks ; the toes are short, the great toe is the longest.
The eyes of the animal are close together, with the
irides of a hazel colour : the upper eyelids have
lashes, the lower have none : the nose is confluent
with the face, except at the nostrils, which are a little
elevated ; -nostrils on each side, and the nose united
to the upper lip : the mouth large : ears small, and
resembling the human, but without the pendent lobe.
He has nails on the fingers and toes \ he has two hard
tubercles on the tuberosities of the ischium, but is
destitute of a tail or even the rudiments of one.

His food is various : he prefers vegetable diet, as
'rice, plantains, &c., and was ravenously fond of
carrots, of which we had some quantity preserved on
board. He would drink tea, coffee, and chocolate,
but neither wine nor spirits : of animal food he pre-
fers fowl to any other ; but a lizard having been
caught on board, and placed before him, he took
it immediately in his paw, and greedily devoured it.

The first instance I observed of his attachment was
soon after the animal had been presented to me by
Mr. Boustead. On entering the yard in which he was
tied up, one morning, I was not well pleased at
observing him busily engaged in removing his belt
and cord, at the same time whining and uttering
a peculiar squeaking noise. When loose, he walked
in the usual erect posture towards some Malays who
were standing near the place ; and after hugging the
legs of several of the party, he went to a Malay lad,
climbed upon and hugged him closely, having an ex-
pression, in both the look and manner, of gratification
at being once again in the arms of him who, I now
understood, was his former master. When this lad
sold him to Mr. Boustead, whenever the animal could
get loose he would make for the water-side, the Malay
lad being usually on board the prau in which they had
arrived from Sumatra ; and the animal was never
taken until, having reached the water, he could pro-
ceed no farther. On sending him aboard the ship, he
on arriving, after rewarding his conductor with a bite,
escaped, and ascended the rigging ; but towards the
evening he came down on the deck and was readily
secured.

He is not able to take up small objects with facility,
on account of the disproportion of the size of the
thumb to the fingers. The metacarpal bone of the
thumb has the mobility of a first joint ; the form of
both the feet and hands gives a great prehensile power,
fitted for the woods, where it must be almost impos-
sible to capture an adult animal alive.

Under the throat is a large black pouch, a con-
tinuation of the common integument, and very thinly

covered with hair : this pouch is not very visible when
undistended : it is a thick integument, of a blackish
colour and corrugated appearance. It extends from
the under part of the chin to the throat, and is attached
as low down as the upper part of the sternum, and is
also attached above to the symphysis of the lower
jaw ; its use is not well known, but it is not impro-
bable that it is an appendage to the organ of voice.
Sometimes, when irritated, I have observed him inflate
the pouch, uttering at the same time a hollow barking
noise j* for the production of which, the rushing of the
air into the sac was an adjuvant. The inflation of the
pouch was not, however, confined to anger ; for, when
pleased, he would purse the mouth, drive the air with
an audible noise into the sac ; or when yawning, it was
also inflated ; and in all instances he would gradually
empty the sac, as if he derived a pleasure from it.
When the sac has been distended, I have often pressed
on it, and forced the air contained within it into the
mouth, the animal not evincing at the time any sign of
its being an annoyance to him. When uttering the
barking noise, the pouch is not inflated to the same
extent as when he yawns. It has been stated in an
American publication, that the use of the air-sac is
for a swimming-bladder. It may be said in refuta-
tion (if the assertion is not too absurd to be refuted)
that the animal being one day washed in a large tub
of water, although much frightened, did not inflate
or make the least attempt to inflate the sac. He is
destitute of cheek pouches as a reservoir for food.

When sleeping, he lies along either on the side or
back, resting the head on the hands, and seemed
always desirous of retiring to rest at sunset ; but
would often (I suppose from his approximation to
civilisation) indulge in bed some time after sunrise ;
and frequently when I awoke I have seen him lying
on his back, his long arms stretched out, and, with
eyes open, appearing as if buried in deep reflection.
The sounds he uttered were various : when pleased
at a recognition of his friends, he would utter a pecu-
liar squeaking chirping note ; when irritated, a hollow
barking noise was produced ; but when angry and
frightened, or when chastised, the loud guttural
sounds of ra , ra, ra , invariably followed. When I
approached him for the first time in the morning, he
greeted me with his chirping notes, advancing his
face at the same time, as if intended for the purpose
of salutation. He had a gravity of look and m’ldness
of manner, and was deficient in those mischievous
tricks so peculiar to the monkey tribe. In only one
instance did I experience any mischief from him, and
that was in his meddling with my inkstand : he had a
penchant for the black fluid, would drink the ink, and
suck the pens, whenever an opportunity offered of his
gratifying this morbid propensity. He soon knew
the name of ,Ungka, which had been given to him •

* When the barking noise was made, the lips were pursed
out, and the air driven into the sac, at the same time that the
sound was uttered, the lower jaw was also a little protruded.

C 2

28

HARD WICKE' S SCZENCE-G OSSIE.

and would readily come to those to whom he was
attached when called by that name. His temper was
mild, and not readily irritated ; his mildness of dis-
position and playfulness of manner made him a
universal favourite with all on board.

When he walks in the erect posture, he turns the
leg and foot outwards, which occasions him to have
a waddling gait and a bow-legged appearance. He
would walk the deck, being held by his long arm, and
then had a resemblance to a child just learning to
walk. He has an awkward manner of drinking, by
which the liquid is much wasted : he first applies his
lips to the liquid,
throwing the head
up, which may in
some degree be attri-
buted to the promi-
nency of the lower
jaw ; and if the vessel
in which the liquid is
contained should be
shallow, he dips the
paw into it, holds it
over the mouth, let-
ting the liquid drop
in. I never observed
him lap with the
tongue when drink-
ing ; but when tea
or coffee was given
to him, the lingual
organ was carefully
protruded for the pur-
pose of ascertaining
its temperature. He
usually (on first com-
ing on board), after
taking exercise about
the rigging, retired to
rest at sunset, in the
maintop, coming on
deck at daylight.

This continued until
our arrival off the
Cape, when, expe-
riencing a lower tem-
perature, he expressed an eager desire to be taken in
my arms, and indulged by being permitted to pass
the night in my cabin, for which he evinced such a
decided partiality, that on the return of warm weather
he would not retire to the maintop, but was always
eager to pass the night in the cabin.

He was playful, but preferred children to adults ;
he became particularly attached to a little Papuan
child who was on board, and who, it is not impro-
bable, he^ may [have in some degree considered as
having an affinity to his species. They were often
seen sitting near the capstan, the animal with his long
paw around her neck, lovingly eating biscuit together.

She would lead him about by his long arms ; and it
was very amusing to see him running round the cap-
stan pursued by or pursuing the child ; he would
waddle along at a rapid pace, sometimes aiding him-
self by his knuckles ; but, when fatigued, would spring
aside, seize a rope, and ascend a short distance, safe
from pursuit. In a playful manner he would roll on
deck with the child, displaying a mock combat,
pushing with his feet (in which action he seems to
possess great muscular power), entwining his arms
around her, and pretending to bite ; or, seizing a
rope, he would swing towards her, and, when efforts

were made to seize
him, would elude the
grasp by swinging
away ; or he would
drop suddenly on her
from the ropes aloft,
and then engage in
various playful antics.
He would play in a
similar manner with
adults, but always
seemed to have a pre-
ference for children.
If an attempt was,
however, made by the
child to play with him
when he had no in-
clination, or after he
had sustained some
disappointment, he
usually made a slight
impression with his
teeth on her arm, just
sufficient to act as a
warning that no liber-
ties were to be taken
with his person ; or
as the child would
say, “ Ungka no like
play now.” Not un-
frequently, a string
being tied to his leg,
the child would amuse
herself by dragging
the patient animal about the deck ; tired, however,
of such practical jokes, without having himself any
share in the fun, he endeavoured to disengage him-
self and retire ; on finding his efforts fruitless, he
would quietly walk up to the child, make an im-
pression with his teeth on one of the members that
were the nearest, soon terminate the sport, and procure
his liberty.

There were also on board the ship several small
monkeys, with whom Ungka was desirous of forming
interesting “conversaziones,” to introduce a social
character among them, to while away the tedious
hours, and to dissipate the monotony of the voyage ;

Fig. 27. — The Ungka Ape [Simm synddctyla ) at home.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

29

but to this the monkeys would not accede, and they
all cordially united to repel the approaches of the
“little man in black,” by chattering, and sundry
other hostile movements peculiar to their race.
Ungka, thus repelled in his endeavours to establish a
social intercourse, determined to punish them for their
impudence ; when they again united to repel him, by
chattering and divers other impudent tricks, he seized
a rope, and, swinging towards the nearest, seized his
“caudal appendage,” and hauled away upon it, until
the agility of the monkey obliged him to relinquish
his hold. But it not unfrequently happened that he
made his way up the rigging, dragging the monkey
by the tail after him, and if he required both hands

to expedite his ascent, the tail of his captive would be
passed into the prehensile power of his foot. These
ludicrous scenes were performed by Ungka with the
most perfect gravity of countenance ; having no
caudal extremity himself, he knew he was free from
any retaliation. As this treatment was far from
being amusing to the monkeys, they afterwards either
avoided him, or made so formidable a defence on his
approach, that Ungka was obliged to refrain from
indulging himself in “ tale-bearing, .” He had, how-
ever, such an inclination to draw out tails , that, being
obliged from “peculiar circumstances” to relinquish
those of the monkeys, he cultivated the friendship of
a little pig that ran about the deck, and, taking his
tail in his hand, endeavoured, by frequent pulling, to
reduce it from a curled to a straight form ; but all his
efforts were in vain ; although piggy did not express
any ill-feeling at his kind endeavours. On the din-

ner being announced by the steward, he invariably
entered the cuddy, took his station near the table,
and “ scraps were thankfully received.” If when
once at dinner he was laughed at, he vented his
indignation at being made the subject of ridicule,
by uttering his peculiar hollow barking noise, at the
same time inflating the air-sac, and regarding the
persons laughing with a most serious look until they
had ceased, when he would quietly resume his dinner.
He disliked confinement, or being left alone ; when
shut up, he would display great ebullition of temper,
but would be perfectly quiet when released. At sun-

Fig. 29. — Ungka Ape in sitting position.

set when desirous of retiring to rest, he would ap-
proach his friends, uttering his peculiar chirping note,
beseeching to be taken into their arms : his request
once acceded to, any attempt to remove him was
followed by violent screams ; he clung still closer to
the person in whose arms he was lodged, and it was
difficult to remove him until he fell asleep. # His
tailless appearance, when the back is turned towards
the spectator, and his erect posture, gives an appear-
ance of a little black hairy man.

The limbs, from their muscular and strong pre-
hensile power, render the animal a fit inhabitant for
the forest (fig. 27) ; enabling him to spring from tree
to tree with an agility that we have frequently wit-
nessed him display about the rigging of the ship ;

30

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

passing down the backstays, sometimes hanging by
his hands, at others by walking down them in the
erect posture, like a rope-dancer, balancing himself
by his long arms ; or he would spring from one rope
at a great distance to another, or would drop from
one above to another below. Being aware of his
inability to readily escape pursuit when running on a
level surface, his first object, when about to make an
attack, was to secure a rope, and swing towards the
object he was desirous of attacking ; if defeated, he
eluded pursuit by climbing out of reach. He was
very fond of sweetmeats, dates, &c. ; some Manilla
sweet cakes that were on board he was always eager
to procure, and would not unfrequently enter the
cabin in which they were kept, and endeavour to lift
the cork of the jar : he was not less fond of onions,
although their acridity would cause him to sneeze and
loll out his tongue ; when he took one he put it in
his mouth, and ate it with great rapidity. He could
not endure disappointment, and, like the human
species, was always better pleased when, he had his
own way ; when refused anything, he would display
all the'ebullitions of temper of a spoiled child, lie on
deck, roll about, throw his arms and legs in various
directions, dash everything about that might be within
his reach, walk about, repeat the same scene as be-
fore, uttering during the time the guttural notes of
ra, ra ; the employment of coercive measures during
the paroxysms reduced him in a short period to a
system of obedience, and the temper was in some de-
gree checked. He had not an unapt resemblance to
a spoiled child, who may justly be defined as papa’s
pride, mamma’s darling, the visitor’s terror, and an
annoyance to all the living animals, men and maid
servants, dogs, cats, & c., in the house that he may be
inhabiting.

The position of the feet, when the animal walks, is
turned outwards, and the great toe, which has a
capability of great extension, is spread out wide,
giving a broader surface to the foot ; when he walks,
to use a nautical phrase, “he sways the body,” and
stepping at once on the whole of the under surface of
the foot, occasions a pattering noise, like that which
is heard when a duck or any aquatic bird walks on
the deck of a ship.

When the weather is cold, he is seen huddled
together, loses all his lively and playful manner, and
sleeps much during the day : on the return of warm
weather, it imparts life to the animal ; his spirits
revive, he resumes his gambols and sportive gaiety.
Although every kindness was shown to him by the
officers and crew, and sweetmeats were given to him
by them, he would not permit himself to be taken in
the arms, or caressed familiarly by any person on
board during the voyage, except the commander, Mr.
Hays, the third officer, and myself ; all those, in
particular, who wore large bushy whiskers he parti-
cularly avoided.

When he came at sunset to be taken into my arms,

and was refused, he would display a paroxysm of
rage, but that being unsuccessful, he would mount
the rigging, and hanging over the deck on which I
was walking, would suddenly drop himself into my
arms. It was ludicrous to behold the terrified looks
of the animal, and half-suppressed screams, if his
finger was taken towards a cup of hot tea, as if to
ascertain its temperature. He would frequently hang
from a rope by one arm, and, when in a frolicsome
humour, frisk about, shut his eyes, and have a re-
semblance to a person hanging and in the agonies
of death. When strangers came on board, he ap-
proached them at such a distance as he considered
consistent with his ideas of safety. The only lady
who had honoured him with her notice was one who
came on board from a ship (“ Euphrates ”) we spoke at
sea ; he evinced, however, no partiality to the gentle
sex, and would not permit her to caress him : whether
it was the bonnet, which was a la mode of 1828, or
other portions of the lady’s dress, that excited his
indignation, I know not ; but he was evidently not
eager to become acquainted with her : as she appeared
at first timid of approaching the animal, it may in
some degree have occasioned the cunning brute to
keep up the feeling.

On the 19th of March (1831) we had reached the
latitude 450 41' N. and longitude 240 40' W. ; the
animal seemed (although clothed in flannel) to suffer
much from cold, and he was attacked by dysentery :
his attachment was so great, that he would prefer
going on the deck, in the cold air, with the persons
to whom he was attached, to remaining in the warm
cabin with those whom he did not regard. On the
24th he became much worse, his appetite gone, and
he had a dislike of being moved ; the discharge from
the bowels was bilious, mixed with blood and mucus,
sometimes entirely of blood and mucus, with a putre-
scent odour : the breath had a sickly odour, mouth
'clammy, eyes dull and suffused ; drank a little water
occasionally, and sometimes a little tea ; he generally
remained with his head hanging on the breast, and
limbs huddled together ; he would, however, when
yawning, inflate the pouch as usual. On the 29th we
had prevailing easterly winds ; and he was daily
sinking until the 31st of March, when he died, in
latitude 48° 36' N., longitude 90 T W.

On examination, the thoracic viscera were healthy ;
the spleen was healthy, of small size, and lobulated
at one extremity ; the liver was large and healthy,
the difference in size between that organ and the
spleen was considerable in comparison with the rela-
tive proportions of those organs in the human subject ;
the gall bladder contained a small quantity of dark,
thick, and viscid bile ; some of the mesenteric glands
were enlarged, some being of a white, others of a dark
colour. On laying open the duodenum, it was found
to contain a quantity of mucus slightly tinged with
bile ; the colon and caecum were full of liquid bilious
faeces mixed with mucus, and several ulcerated patches

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

3i

on the inner surface, and a dark spotted appearance
at others ; the rectum also contained similar faeces,
but mixed with a curdy matter, and there were several
large patches of ulceration on the inner coat, more
particularly near the termination of the gut : the

kidneys were healthy, on the] right the capsula renalis
was large, but none was visible on the left ; the
bladder was quite empty, the inner surface scarcely
moist. The animal had been castrated, but the sper-
matic cord terminated in the scrotum in two small
oval substances, rather larger than peas ; the sacrum
and os coccygis were similar to those parts in the
human subject. The communication of the larynx
was examined ; the epiglottis was only indicated by a
slight obtuse angular rising ; the sacculi laryngis three-
eighths of an inch in the long diameter, one-eighth
in the short ; their margins were well defined, con-
tinued forwards below the body of the os hyoides
into a membranous sac situated internal to the external
thick one. This animal has one common sac, and
thus differs from the orang-utan, which has two ; the
lungs also differ from those in the orang-utan in being
subdivided on each side, the right lung having three,
the left two lobes, as in the human subject. The
extremities of the bones of the animal were cartila-
ginous.

When at Achua, on the coast of Sumatra, the
Rajah and suite came on board, and I amused them
with some drawings, among others they recognised
that of the Pearly Nautilus, but said it was seldom
procured at this place, but was occasionally seen off
the coast. They were not acquainted with the orang-
utan of which I showed them the engraving in Abel’s
“ China,” but immediately recognised that of the ungka
gibbon, which, they stated, was found in the forests
of the interior of the island, but was very difficult to
capture alive. As mentioned by the Rajah there
must be great difficulty in procuring them alive, as
since the one given me at Singapore, I am not aware
of any specimen, young or adult, of this species of
gibbon having ever been brought alive to Europe.

THE IVORY-NUT PALM.

IN 1843 Mr. William Purdie was despatched to
New Granada to collect plants for the Royal
Gardens, Kew. He was especially instructed to find
a few special plants, one of which was the ivory-nut
palm, of which he says : — “ In a journey of 600 miles
from Santa Martha to Ocana in New Granada, at the
village of Semana, seventeen leagues from hence
(Ocana), and near the great river Magdalena, I
entered the mountains by the Paroquia del Carmen,
and saw for the first time the ivory-nut palm ( Phyt -
elephas macrocarpa), called Tagua by the natives.
The habit of this palm is to have little or no stem,
what there is is decumbent ; its habit is not robust.
Old plants have from fifteen to twenty pinnate leaves,

which when full grown measure nearly twenty feet in
length, of a delicate pale green colour, and very
graceful in aspect ; the pinnae are numerous and
linear, the whole leaf being similar to that of the
date palm. The male and female flowers are pro-
duced on separate plants (dioecious). The female
flowers are produced generally in six clusters from
the bases of the leaves on short footstalks. The
clusters are of an imperfectly rounded form, covered
with strong protuberances, about an inch and a half
long. The clusters are compactly united together,
forming a nearly globose head, and on account of the
style-like projections resembling the rigid hair of a
negro it is not inaptly called Cabeza del Negro (negro’s
head). The heads lie close to the ground, each cluster
containing four to five seeds. The seed contains at
first a clear insipid fluid ; it afterwards becomes milky
and sweet, and ultimately hardens, and becomes the
vegetable ivory of commerce. Each nut is about the
size of a green walnut, and is covered with a yellow,
sweet, oily pulp, which is collected and sold under
the name of Pepo del Tagua, for one real (6d.) a
pound at Ocana. A spoonful of it, with a little
sugar and water, makes the celebrated Chiche de
Tagua, said to be the most delicious beverage of
the country.”

The stem of the male plant is longer and more
erect than that of the female, regarding which Mr.
Purdie says : “I have at last had the good fortune to
detect the male flowers of the ivory-nut palm, for
which I long sought in vain. The singularity of its
inflorescence is only equalled by its beauty. It differs
from most other palms by having a double spathe ;
the central column is thickly set with clusters of male
blossoms, and forms, when taken all together, a mass
three feet long and four inches thick. Half is con-
cealed within the spathe, from which the other portion
projects in a gracefully recurved form. The fragrance
is most powerful and delicious, beyond that of any
other plant, and so diffusive that the air for many
yards around was alive with myriads of annoying
insects, which first attracted my attention, the dense-
ness of the vegetation not permitting me to discern
the blossoms at any distance. I had afterwards to
carry it in my hands for twelve miles, and though I
killed a number of insects that followed me, the next
day a great many still hovered about it, which had
come from the wood where it grew, which are dense
and shady, and abound with snakes. The men I had
with me found it necessary to dislodge them from the
plants with a long stick before they approached them.
We killed several, not particularly formidable in
appearance, but deadly in their nature. A cross,
decorated with flowers and a few loose stones, near
one of the Tagua woods, marks the grave of a young
man who died a few hours after being bitten by one
of these snakes. ”

Mr. Purdie having sent abundance of seeds to Kew,
many plants were raised, one of which in 1864 had

32

HA RD WJCKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

formed a decumbent stem about a foot in length,
producing leaves 15 to 16 feet long.

Dr. Berthold Seemann, also a botanical collector for
Kew, found the Phytelephas in abundance in Darien ;
he gives a very interesting account of it, which in all
principal points agrees with the above.

J. Sm.

HINTS FOR THE YOUNG MICROSCOPIST.

IT has often occurred to the writer of these few
lines that it is a pity that so many practical
dodges as must have been adopted by various micro-
scopical manipulators should be lost, as it is to be
feared they have been from time to time. Unless
called out by queries, they seldom appear in the form
of suggestions. Acting under this impression, the
writer is led to call attention to two or three little
arrangements which he has found very useful, hoping
that others will follow the example.

A A

^ %

Fig. 30. — Brass stand to
support the forehead
whilst making micro-
scopical drawings.

Fig. 31. — Improved wash-
bottle.

In making drawings of objects seen under the
microscope (for which purpose no apparatus is so
satisfactory and easy to use as Natchet’s prism or
camera), most persons must be conscious that a steady
head is as requisite as a steady hand. To insure this,
a very simple plan (fig. 30) has been adopted for a
long time by the writer. It is this : — two thin stair-
rods (a, a) of any convenient length are fastened by
one end into a stand of brass or wood (b), and just as
far apart as to admit the head between them. Then
there is a sliding flat bar (c), which can be screwed
tight at any height. Round this is wrapped any soft
substance, as lint or list, on which the forehead is
placed just in the position desired. A steadiness and
comfort are thus at once obtained which greatly assist
the draughtsman.

Again, in using the wash-bottle the following little
alteration will be found most convenient. (Fig. 31.)
In place of having two glass tubes, one of which is
placed in the mouth, let this mouth-tube be broken
off an inch or two above the cork, and upon it fit an
elastic indiarubber tube (a) of any convenient length,

say nine inches ; then a couple of inches of glass tube
put into the free end (b) makes a nice mouthpiece.
The advantage is obvious, as this plan allows the head
to be moved nearer to or farther from the object
without interfering with the position of the bottle.
This has been used by the writer for many years.

Other suggestions may follow if it is thought
desirable.

Codicote Vicarage. T. R. I.

THE BOULDER CLAY OF LEITH.

IT may interest your readers to learn something
regarding the traces that have been left of the
glacial period in this vicinity, which has proved to
be a very interesting one in regard to that part of
geological history.

Edinburgh is surrounded by an extent of country
covered, more or less, with a thick layer of boulder
clay. In most of the excavations in and around the
city, this is reached after passing through the soil
to an average depth of six to seven feet. To the
south of the city, away on the first slopes rising
towards the Pentland hills, the boulder clay is very
thick, and forms a fine basin for the new reservoir in
course of construction at Alnwick hill. From that
point we can trace the clay to the north, through the
Newington district of the town, where I have found it
with the usual striated boulders. Passing through
the city this deposit disappears on reaching the ridge
which goes upwards towards the castle, till we
approach Leith Walk, where it is again found. Some
cuttings at Pilrig — the border-land between Edin-
burgh and Leith — have revealed the boulder- clay
about seven feet from the surface. It is not, however,
till we examine the shore at Leith that we get any-
thing like a good section of it ; and here both the
mercantile enterprise of that town and the denuding
power of the ocean, have come to our aid. As a
result of the latter, the banks which rise against the
sea between Leith and Portobello, are gradually
giving way and receding, revealing the tough boulder
clay, which seems to die hard in its battle with the
sea.

When the boulders are found in situ , they are
almost invariably lying with their longer axis from
W. S. W. to E. N. E., and are striated in the same
direction. This agrees with the striae in Arthur’s
Seat, a hill rising to the east of Edinburgh and
about two miles from the coast. I have found those
boulders all along the coast from Cramond to Joppa,
a distance of nine miles, but they are best seen
between Leith and Portobello, where they lie thickly
and where many of them have beautifully marked
striae. The ground here has been rendered geologi-
cally classic by the writings of Dr. Robert Chambers
and Hugh Miller ; the former however, attributing
the phenomena in question to the agency of the sea

33

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

during the various changes of its level, while Miller
detected in them the signs of a power now foreign to
this country. When Miller worked here, the boulder
clay was not so well exposed as it is now, and the
examination is thus rendered much easier. Owing
to the increase of trade at Leith, a new and very
large dock is being constructed to the east of the
town. In order to get a sufficient depth of water
the sea bottom has been excavated, and this has laid
open fine sections of the various deposits which have
accumulated there.

The boulders are generally of greenstone ; and

be made by one, who attempts for the first time, to
track the knowledge of early botanists on any point,
without some general knowledge of the subject-
matter, i.e., of the plants themselves. I propose
making the British forms of Thalictrum the most
prominent subject of my present investigation.

British botanists are looking forward with interest
to the Guide to the Literature of Botany promised by
the Index Society from the pen of Mr. B. Daydon
Jackson, the accomplished editor of Turner’s “ Libel-
lus” and Gerard’s “ Catalogus but, pending any
better arrangement, I venture to divide the history of

seem to have been carried from Arthur’s Seat and the
Corstorphine hill, some distance inland. So far I
have not observed any of the west country rocks en-
closed in the clay ; but do not doubt that this is the
track of the great glacier which, according to Geikie,
had its origin away in the western highlands.

Since the deposition of the boulder-clay in this
locality, the relative position of sea and land seems
to have changed twice. The following diagram
shows this ; and also gives a general idea of the posi-
tion of the deposit at Leith. On the top of the clay
is found a thick layer of sand and pebbles, giving un-
mistakable proofs of marine origin, by the stratified
order of the latter ; while the boulder clay is once
more raised above the bed of the ocean. A few
hundred yards from the beach, the boulder clay dis-
appears on account of the slight incline it takes
towards the sea, and unless this is noticed, the sudden
freeness of the shore from boulders is apt to confuse
the geologist.

Robert Humphrey.

THE CRITICAL BOTANIST.

[The History of Botany.]

THE experience of recent years has clearly shown
the great value of a historical or chronological
method of research in nearly every branch of science.
It may be well, therefore, in taking my own study of
the genus Thalictrum as an example of critical method
to give in considerable detail the materials as I have
collected them. Every study must have a beginning,
but many errors of interpretation will undoubtedly

British botany into four periods, the first terminating
at the year 1670, the second at about the year 1746,
the third at 1829.

Without going back to Solomon, or even to Aris-
totle and his pupil Theophrastus, who, born b.C. 371,
described some 500 plants, classified as trees, herbs,
and shrubs, I must 'just mention the name of Peda-
nius Dioscorides of Anazarba, in Cilicia, whose
Greek work on Materia Medica is believed to have
been written in the second century. It seems, how-
ever, to have been one of Pliny’s main sources of in-
formation, and the author of the “ Historia Naturalis,”
born a.d. 23, died in a.d. 79. After the time of
Pliny it may truly be said, in the words of M. Crepin’s
excellent “ Guide du Botaniste en Belgique ” — a work
well meriting an English imitation — “ Avant le xvie
siecle, la botanique ne peut etre consideree comme
une veritable science. Elle n’etait que l’humble auxi-
liaire de la medecine ; les plantes n’etaient pas
etudiees pour elles-memes et les traites qui les
concernaient n’etaient, pour la plupart, que des com-
mentaires des ouvrages de Theophraste, de Dioscoride
et de Pline.” Though in the sixteenth century the
Dutch may fairly claim the credit of possessing the most
illustrious names in botanical science, Fusch, Dodoens,
and L’Obel, we in England have reason to be proud
of the early date (1538) of the first botanical work
of “the father of British botany,” William Turner.
Turner was born probably between 1510 and 1515 ;
his first work was entitled “ Libellus de re Herbaria
Novus,” and has been reproduced in facsimile, and
edited by Mr. Jackson ; his “ Herbal ” was completed
in 1568, the year of his death. Remade Fusch, born
at Limbourg, about 1500, died at Liege in 1587, his

34

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

various works, such as “ Plantarum omnium quarum
hodie apud pharmacopolas usus est magis frequens
nomenclature . . . sententiam,” Paris, 1541, being
mainly materia medica. Rembert Dodoens was born
at Mechlin in 1517, and died at Leyden in 1585. In
1554 he published his “ Cruydeboeck,” which was
translated into French by Clusius in 1557, into Eng-
lish by Henry Lyte in 1578, and into Latin, as the
“ Stirpium Historiae Pemptades,” by the author in
1583. “La gloire de Dodoens,” says Crepin, “est
d’avoir rompu avec le passe, d’avoir, dans son histoire
des plantes, etudie la nature par lui-meme. . . . On
peut dire, en toute verite, que Dodoens est l’inventeur
de la classification des plantes.” His classification is,
however, hardly worthy of the name. Conrad Gesner,
born at Zurich in 1516, published a work, “ De Raris
et Admirandis Herbis,” in 1555, but his great work,
with figures of 1500 species, was not published when
in 1565 he died> and his ideas on classification were
carried out by Andreas Caesalpinus, called by Linnaeus
“ Primus verus systematicus.” In his “ D.e Plantis, ”
published at Florence in 1583, he distributes 1520
plants into fifteen classes, his primary division being
into trees and herbs, and the secondary ones accord-
ing to the position of the embryo, and the nature of
the fruit and seeds. In 1561 Valerius Cordus pub-
lished Gesner’s “ Historia de Plantis,” at Strassburg.
Matthias de l’Obel, born at Lille in 1538, died at
Highgate in 1616. In 1570, in conjunction with Peter
Pena, he published in London his “ Stirpium Adver-
saria Nova,” and in 1576, at Antwerp, his “ Observa-
tions. ” His works were largely followed by John |
Gerard (born 1545), who, in 1596 and 1599, published
catalogues of the plants growing in his garden, and
in 1597 his “ Herb all.” Gerard seems largely indebted
to Dodoens, and seems to have little original merit.
The “Herball” contains about 2000 plants. In 1601
appeared the “ Rariorum Plantarum Historia,” the
chief work of Charles de l’Escluse, commonly known
as Clusius (born 1526, died 1609). It was printed at
Antwerp, “ par le celebre Plantin, le genereux Mecene
des botanistes.” In 1606 and 1616 was published at
Rome the “ Ecphrasis ” ofColumna, who alone seems
to have appreciated the views of Caesalpinus ; for
both Caspar Bauhin, in his “ Pinax,” in 1623, and his
elder brother John, in his “ Historia Plantarum Uni-
versalis,” which describes 5000 species, follow Lobel.
Pulteney describes the latter work, published in 1650,
as “a repository of all that was valuable in the
ancients, in his immediate predecessors, and in the
discoveries of his own time, relating to the history of
vegetables, executed with that accuracy and critical
judgment which can only be exhibited by superior
talents.” In 1623 Thomas Johnson (died 1644) pub-
lished his “ amended ” edition of Gerard’s “ Herball,”
which is virtually a new work by an author far more
critical than that of the original. A botanist of per-
haps still higher calibre was John Parkinson, apo-
thecary of London, and the King’s herbarist, born J

in 1567, who, in 1629, published a horticultural work,

“ Paradisi in sole Paradisus Terrestris,” and in 1640
his “ Theatrum Botanicum.” The “ Phytologia Bota-
nica” of Dr. William How, published in 1650, “The
First attempt at a Flora in England,” and the
“Pinax” of Dr. Christopher Merrett, published in
1666, are surpassed longo intervallo by the “ Cata-
logus Plantarum Angliae” of John Ray, which
appeared in 1670.

Whilst the Catalogus opened a new period in
British botany, a series of great works marked a
fresh era in general botanical classification. These
were the “ Historia Plantarum Universalis ” of Robert
Morison, published in 1678, Ray’s “ Methodus Plan-
tarum” in 1682, Rivinus’s “ Introductio Generalis in
Rem Herbariam,” in 1690, and Tournefort’s “ Ele-
mens de Botanique,” in 1694. Robert Morison, a
native of Aberdeen, Regius Professor at Oxford, in
his history, and in a previous work on the Umbel -
liferae, followed Caesalpinus in looking to the fruit for
his main characters ; but so far as influence is con-
cerned, Ray is the founder of a natural system of
classification in England. He acknowledged his
obligations to Jungius of Hamburg. His primary
division was into Flowerless and Flowering Plants.
The latter he separated into Dicotyledons and Mono-
cotyledons, and he recognised the natural groups
Fungi, Musci, Filices, Compositae, Umbelliferae,
Labiatae, Boragineae, and Cruciferae. In his “His-
toria Plantarum,” completed in 1704* be describes
6000 plants, and in the second edition of the Me-
thodus (1703), he classifies about 18,000, then known.
His “ Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum,”
published first in 1690, was “ the first systematic Flora
of Great Britain.” Of him A. L. de Jussieu wrote in
1719, “Nona floribus tantum fructibusve, sed etiam
a foliorum, caulium, radicumque tantum partium
organicarum figura earumque colore, odore, sapore,
et totius plantae facie exteriori sumenda esse genuinae
methodi principia affirmabat.”

Rivinus first insisted on the classiftcatory importance
of the flower, especially eulogising Caesalpinus and
Ray. Tournefort first defined genera as now accepted ;
but in his classification he kept Theophrastus’s old
division into trees and herbs, basing his subdivisions
entirely on the corolla. He distinguished the Com-
posite, Scroplrulariaceae, Labiatae, Rosaceae, Cruci-
ferae, Umbelliferae, Caryophyllaceae, Liliaceae, Amen-
tiferae, Ferns, and Fungi ; but the primary division
renders his system far inferior to that of Ray. It,
however, prevailed on the continent till the time of
Linnaeus, as did Ray’s in Britain. Tournefort de-
scribed 698 genera, including 10, 146 species. Among
British botanists of this period it will suffice to name
Plukenet, Bobart, Buddie, Petiver, Sloane, Dillenius,
and Blackstone. The “Specimen Botanicum” of
the latter, Pulteney says, “I . consider as the last
book published in England on the indigenous botany
before the system of Linnaeus had gained the ascen-

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

35

clancy over that of Mr. Ray.” It was published in
1746.

Carl von Linne, born in 1707, died in 1 77^- The
first sketch of his artificial sexual system appeared in
his “ Systema Naturae,” published at Leyden in 1 735>
and it was further carried out in the “Genera Plan-
tarum” (1737) and the “ Species Plantarum ” ( 1 753)>
in which no less than 7294 species are defined. Lin-
naeus’s great services to botany were the establishment
of the binomial system of nomenclature and of ver-
bally-accurate and terse definitions. He required
every species to be definable in twelve words. He
adopted Ray’s division of the vegetable kingdom into
flowering and flowerless, coining the names Phane-
rogamia and Cryptogamia, and then divided phane-
rogams into twenty-three classes by the number and
character of the stamens. These were mainly sub-
divided into Orders, according to the number of
carpels. Linnaeus himself only regarded this as a
tentative system for practical purposes. “ Methodi
naturalis fragmenta,” he writes, “ studiose inquirenda
sunt. Primum et ultimum hoc in botanicis deside-
ratum est. Natura non facit saltus. Plantae omnes
utrinque affinitatem monstrant, uti territorium in
mappa geographica . . . Diu et ego circa methodum
naturalem inveniendam laboravi . . . perficere non
potui.” I cannot refrain from quoting the following
advice to the tyro from his “ Philosophia Botanica”
(1751), in which work he lays down the sensible rules,
“Descriptio ordinem nascendi sequatur,” and “ De-
scriptio compendiosissime, tamen perfecte, terminis
tantum artis, si sufficients sint, partes depingat.”
“ Tyro ignotas sibi plantarum species investiget ipse,
secundum classes, characteres, differentiasque syste-
matis.

“ Principia et Fundamentum Botanices rite intel-
ligat.

‘ ‘ Historiam literariam Botanices sibi familiarem
reddat et imprimis auctores de speciebus plantarum
consulendos. Synonyma auctorum, retrogrediendo
ad inventores, evolvere adsuescat.”

The “ Flora Britannica ” of Dr. (commonly called
Sir) John Hill was the first work arranged on the
new system in England ; but, as Sir J. E. Smith said,
it was the “Flora Anglica” of William Hudson,
first published in 1762, that “marks the establish-
ment of Linnaean principles of botany in England.”
A second edition appeared in 1778, the year of
Linnaeus’s death. Sir James Edward Smith, who
purchased Linnaeus’s herbarium and library, and
was the main founder and first president of the
Linnean Society, established in 1788, strongly, in
fact, too strongly, supported the Linnaean system,
adopting it in his “ Flora Britannica ” (1800-4) and
in his “English Flora” (1824-8). In 1776 appeared
the first edition of that very influential work, the
“Botanical Arrangement” of William Withering;
and it is most important for the student to note that
Linnaeus, Hudson, Withering, and Smith very fre-

quently meant very different plants when using one
name. In 1777 William Curtis commenced the
“Flora Londinensis,” which he continued till 1798,
the year before his death, and in 1787 he began
the “ Botanical Magazine.” Sir James Smith in 1790
commenced the issue of “ English Botany,” illus-
trated by James Sowerby, and in 1807 Professor
Thomas Martyn, in the ninth edition of “Miller’s
Gardener’s and Botanist’s Dictionary,” may be said
to have summarised the botany of his time with
considerable attention to early authors.

We next come to the last of our four periods, that
of the rise of the natural system — a period in which
the growth of our knowledge of plants may be par-
tially estimated from the facts that in 1819 Augustin
De Candolle estimated the known species of phane-
rogams at 30,000, in 1839 Loudon enumerated 31, 731 ;
in 1846 Lindley gave 80,387, and in 1853, 92,920.

It is Bernard de Jussieu to whom belongs the glory
of working out the true natural system, which he
embodied in his arrangement of the Trianon Gar-
den (1759). In 1773 his nephew, Antoine-Laurent
de Jussieu, having studied his uncle’s grouping, com-
municated a paper to the Academie des Sciences on
the Ranunculaceae, in which he showed the great
truth of the relative value of characters, that they
must be weighed, not counted. He extended his
views to other Orders in the following year, and in
1789 published his “Genera Plantarum secundum
Ordines Naturales disposita,” which, according to
Sir Joseph Hooker, “ with slight modifications, has
ever since retained its position as the basis of a com-
plete scientific classification.”

Robert Brown (born 1773, died 1858), “facile
princeps botanicorum,” as Humboldt termed him,
was the first in this country to advocate the natural
system. This he did in his “ Prodromus Florae Novae
Hollandiae, ” published in 1810. In 1818 Augustin
De Candolle commenced his “magnum opus,”
“Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Vegetabilium,”
which has been, with the assistance of many botanists,
completed, in seventeen volumes, by his son Alphonse
in 1873, and contains descriptions of every known
species of Dicotyledon.

In 1821 was published the first British Flora on
the new system, Samuel Gray’s “Natural Arrange-
ment of British Plants,” and in 1829 Dr. Lindley
produced his “Synopsis of the British Flora.” In
1830 Sir William Jackson Hooker, who had con-
tinued the “Flora Londinensis” from 1821 to 1828,
published the first edition of his “British Flora,”
and in 1843 Professor Babington issued the first
edition of his “ Manual of British Botany.” Then
commenced those great series of works which immor-
talise the names of Loudon and Hewett Watson.
Loudon may be termed the Martyn of the period,
and his works, especially the “ Encyclopaedia of
Plants” (1855) are a wonderful summary marking
the progress of half a century. Mr. Watson, in his

36

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

“ Cybele Britannica” (1847-1859), not only did for
British plants what Alphonse De Candolle has done
for those of the world in his “ Geographie Botanique ”
(1855), but anticipated many of the principles of that
work. Leaving unmentioned much important matter
in the pages of periodicals such as the “ Phytolo-
gist,” the “Journal of Botany,” the “Gardener’s
Chronicle,” and Science-Gossip, I will conclude this
list of authorities with the name of a great work still
in progress, the “Genera Plantarum ” of Mr. Bent-
ham and Sir Joseph Hooker.

There are, of course, many other important works
published abroad, besides special papers, &c., of
English authorship ; I shall even refer to others in
my research into the history of Thalictrum ; but these
are, I think, those most generally important in the
history of British Botany.

G. S. Boulger.

ON THE COLOURS OF ANIMALS, AND
THE ARRANGEMENT OF PIGMENT IN
LEPIDOPTERA.

By Alexander M. McAldowie, M.B., C.M.

ALTHOUGH limited to a few spots in man and
a few of the higher vertebrata, and altogether
absent in some of the lowest forms of animal life,
pigment is of almost universal occurrence in the
zoological kingdom. We gaze with wonder at the
dazzling splendour of the tropical birds and butterflies
which adorn our museums, and we admire even more
the softer beauty of the fauna of more temperate
regions, yet all this variety of tint is due to the
deposition in various parts of the body of colouring
matter, the nature and uses of which are as yet in
many instances but imperfectly understood.

In some cases the use of pigment is to protect the
deeper tissues from the bright glare of the sun by
absorbing the rays of light. This is its function in
the eye, where it prevents the rays from being re-
flected back on to the retina and interfering with
vision. In most animals, however, pigment is present
for the purpose of enabling them to conceal them-
selves from their enemies or their prey ; the colour of
the animal, as a rule, bearing more or less resemblance
to that of the soil, herbage, or foliage in which it
lives. This is very strikingly seen in the “leaf”
insects, where the likeness is so close as to merit the
appellation of “protective mimicry.” It may also be
observed in the eggs and young of birds which nidifi-
cate on the ground.

Some animals possess the power of changing their
colour in a certain degree and assuming that of the
surrounding medium. We have only to recall the
story of the chameleon in illustration of this. It
occurs in several reptiles, batrachians, and fishes.*

* See an interesting note on the Angler Fish in Science-
Gossip for July.

Many species of cuttle-fish can change their colours
rapidly under irritation or excitement. In birds and
mammalia, however, change of colour takes place
much more slowly, and is produced by shedding the
feathers or hair. This takes place at certain seasons ;
during the breeding season more especially, also in
the winter. The former is seen in the ruff and many
other birds, the latter in the ptarmigan, ermine, hare,
and others. The minnow, stickle-back, and several
other fishes exhibit bright iridescent tints during the
spring time.

While noticing the uses of colouring matter in the

Fig- 33- — Pigment-cells from the Tadpole.

Fig- 34- — Pigment-cells still
cohering, from the choroid ;
mag. 370 diameters (after
Heule) ; a, nucleus.

Fig. 35- — Ramified pigment-
cells, from the tissue of the
choroid ; mag. 350 diameter
(after Kolliker).

animal kingdom, it is interesting to observe the
difference between animals and plants in this respect.
The colours of flowers are now understood to have
reference only to the visits of insects.*

Pigment exists in the form of minute granules
deposited in the connective tissue corpuscles or the
epidermic or epithelial cells. The pigment-cells of
connective tissue are usually of a stellate or ramified
form (fig. 35), containing numerous processes. The
nucleus of the cell remains colourless, and, as a rule,
the ends of the processes contain no pigment. Briike
and Buchholtz have observed movements in the stel-
late pigment-cells of batrachians and fishes. The

* “ Flowers,” by Dr. Taylor, p. 14.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

pigment granules were seen sometimes congregated
in a spheroidal mass round the nucleus, at other times
diffused in a radiating manner through the cell or
into the processes. The movements were accompanied
with shortening and elongation of the ramifications.

The changes of colour observed in the animals no-
ticed previously are caused by alterations in the form
of the pigment-cells, and are produced either sponta-
neously, or by variations in the intensity of light, or
by other external stimuli. R. Wagner has observed
extraordinary mobility in the pigment-cells of cuttle-
fishes, which contain pigment granules of different
colours and are termed “ chromatophores.” Von
Wittich * has described the changes produced in the
cells of Hyla arborea by electrical excitation, although
Professor Rollett was unable to perceive any influence
exerted on the pigment-cells of batrachians by the
action of induction shocks of electricity.

Fig. 36. — Cortical section of horsehair, showing the linear
arrangement of pigment, i-inch.

The pigment granules vary in colour and shape.
Under the highest powers they exhibit no definite
form, being often subcylindrical, or elongated with
rounded extremities. Beale says : “ They may be re-
moved from the cell, and when they escape into the
surrounding fluid they exhibit molecular movements.” f
In vertebrate animals the pigment is derived from the
red blood corpuscles. These, as they grow old, part
with their colouring matter to the serum. From
thence it is taken up by the pigment-cells and con-
densed in their interior, where it undergoes several
chemical changes and passes through several shades
of colour. Rindfleisch states : “ Should they (the
pigment granules) be numerous enough to fill the
protoplasm of a cell, the colourless nucleus is partly
pushed aside, partly surrounded ; the pigmented cell
appearing to be perforated by a circular gap or
hole. Flat cells (choroid coat of the eye), in which
the nucleus is in contact with both surfaces at

once, retain their characteristic aspect (fig. 34). In
spheroidal cells, however, the nucleus ultimately
disappears, leaving a coloured corpuscle, in which
only the external form of the cell can still be recog-
nised.” *

The source of the pigment in the invertebrata is
not definitely known.

Pigment is also found in animals deposited in the
hair, feathers, and other tegumentary appendages.
In these situations it is not enclosed in cells. The
pigment granules in the hair are located in the cortical

Fig. 38. — Black scale from Vatiessa
urticcc, £ inch.

tissue, disposed in lines running parallel to the axis
of the hair (fig. 36). They are exceedingly minute,
estimated in the human hair at inch in dia-

meter. It is here that we must look for an analogy
with that occurring in Lepidoptera. The scales of
Lepidoptera are homologous to hair or feathers in their
situation and appearance, and also analogous in their
function. We find likewise a similarity between the
arrangement of pigment in the scales and that in hair.
The pigment is deposited between the fine membranous
layers which compose the scales, and is arranged in
parallel lines corresponding to the situation of the
ribs or striae. Under the microscope these appear as
straight dark lines with irregular edges (fig. 37). As

* Miiller’s “Archiv,” 1854, p. 41.
f “The Microscope in Medicine,” p. 154.

* “Pathological Histology,” vol. i. p. 62.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

* 38

a rule the pigment is most thickly deposited in the
upper third of the scale. It is sometimes altogether
absent from the lower third. But it is occasionally
pretty equally distributed over the whole scale, and
down into the foot-stalk.

In a broken scale of the Argynnis AcLippc the dark
lines of pigment at the seat of the fracture appeared
broken up into small irregular particles (fig. 37).
These had no definite form, but were mostly angular
in outline. It is not probable that these were the
ultimate molecules of pigment.

In examining the scales from the wings of Lepido-
ptera which had been decolorised by chlorine, the
lines appeared to be unchanged in their outline
although they were not nearly so dark as before. To
the naked eye the wings themselves had a translucent
membranous appearance.

Many of the bright and lustrous tints seen in Lepi-
doptera are not due to pigment, but are produced by
the surface and edges of the scales, which have the
power of absorbing some of the prismatic colours and
reflecting others.

MICROSCOPY.

A Live-box. — I send you a drawing of a live-box,
which might be of interest to your readers. A, A are
glass slips ; b, b are brass bands ; C, C are wedges ;

Fig. 40. — Thick indiarubber ring for live-box.

D is an india-rubber ring. The advantage gained by
using this form of live-box is that it is thoroughly
water-tight, and that it can be taken to pieces,
cleaned, and put together in a very short space of
time. — Albert Smith.

Newcastle Microscopical Society. — A general
meeting of the North of England Microscopical Society
was lately held. The following officers are appointed
for the ensuing year : — President, Professor G. S.
Brady, Mr. M. H. Robson, and a committee of ten.
The inaugural meeting was held on Wednesday,
January 8. This society has been formed to meet

a long existing want amongst microscopists, who
will now have an opportunity of meeting at regular
intervals with excellent accommodation, and under
the direction of an organised society, which since the
dissolution of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Microscopical
Society in 1864 they have not possessed.

The Pygidium of Insects. — At a recent meeting
of the Royal Microscopical Society, Mr. Henry Davis
read a paper on this subject, in which he showed
that the organ which went by this name had its re-
presentative in the Neuroptera, and other groups of
insects, as well as in the flea, and the lacewing fly.
He regarded the pygidium as a special organ of sensa-
tion for conveying to the insect an intimation of the
presence of dangerous enemies.

ZOOLOGY.

Birds Migrating. — In compliance with your
correspondent’s wish, I write to tell you that I have
noticed here (Oporto), during August, a migration
similar to that mentioned in Science-Gossip of
October 1. The night of August 26 was dark and
hazy, the wind light and from the south or south-west.

I heard more particularly from eight to nine o’clock
p.m. fluty querulous notes from birds flying over my ,
house from north to south, and not very swiftly.
There appeared to be only one species, and the notes
were in sets of four — tchoo-hoo-
hoo-hoo. It was impossible to see '
the birds, although I tried repeat-
edly when some must have passed .
close over the house, which is on <
a hill to the north side of the
mouth of the Douro, and about
eight minutes’ walk from the sea.
They seemed to pass in small flocks, keeping up a !
constant calling and answering. The notes were •
heard chiefly from eight to nine, but continued less
frequently till late on in the night. I believe that 1
hundreds, if not thousands, must have passed during >
that night. They had been heard some nights pre-
viously also. It would be interesting to learn the
species to which these migrants belonged. That
they were some species of large sandpiper I feel
pretty certain, and I suspect they were red-shanks.
Can any of your correspondents suggest how this
could be ascertained with certainty ? I noticed some
days previously numbers of red-shanks, ringed dotterel,
whimbrel, turnstones, and some smaller sandpipers
on the banks of the Douro. Most of these were
late arrivals from the north. Some possibly may
have passed Maidstone ! I suppose it would be
difficult to devise some way of catching them while
flying over at night ? Could the phonograph be
available for comparing the notes of birds ? 1 his is

an interesting locality for observing the migration of

HARDWICKE' S SC I E NC E- G O S SI P.

39

birds, such as the turtle dove, wood pigeon, hoopoe,
flycatcher, pipits, skylark, starling, red-wing, lap-
wing, golden plover, &c. We have arrivals of birds
from the north to spend the winter here before all
our summer visitants leave for the south. — Win. C.
Tait, Foz do Douro , Oporto.

House-flies and their Parasites. — There can
I think be little doubt that the parasite described by
the Rev. W. Mars den Beeby was the young nymph
of one of the Gamasinoe, which species or genus it
would not be possible to say from the description,
nor indeed are the genera and species of this family
well settled. With regard to the question of whether
the creatures are parasitic, or rather to what extent
they are so, this is still a subject on which opinions
differ ; the older writers considered that many species
were parasitic in all stages, but the researches of
modern French acarologists make it probable that
they are only parasitic in the larval stage, and in the
active asexual stage which is called the nymph. M.
Megnin, whose opinion deserves the highest possible
consideration on such a subject, considers that the
parasite is not in any way injurious to the fly, and
only uses the fly, or other insect or creature, as a
means of conveyance. I confess, however, that my
own observations of the positions in which the nymphs
of gamasids are found upon dipterous and hymeno-
pterous insects would rather have led me to the
conclusion that, at all events in some species, the
gamasid seeks nourishment from the juices of the
insect. The instruments resembling the large claws
of a lobster would be the chelate mandibles of the
Gamasus. These resemble the large claws (or chelae)
of the lobster and craw-fish, inasmuch as they are
chelate, z. e. nipper-like, the fixed side of the nipper
being formed by a toothed prolongation of the penul-
timate joint of the chelate limb or organ, and the
movable side by the ultimate joint, which is drawn by
powerful muscles against the prolongation' of the
penultimate. These mandibles, however, are not, like
the lobster’s claw, hard throughout their whole length ;
the two final joints only are hard, the posterior ones
being elastic and extensible at will, so that the man-
dibles can be greatly protruded or wholly withdrawn
within the body of the gamasid, nor can they probably
be considered to be the true homologues of the
lobster s claws, as these appear to be the appendages
of the ninth cephalo-thoracic somite, and to constitute
the anterior and prehensile pair of the ambulatory
legs, whereas in the gamasid they are true mandibles.
I confess that Mr. Beeby’s description of the teeth
made me somewhat hesitate as to whether the parasite
was really a gamasid, as I am not aware of any mouth
organs in Gamasinae which can properly be called
teeth. The mouth consists of the labium and maxillse,
which together form a suctorial sharp-pointed tube,
of the mandibles above mentioned, a labium or lingua,
and of a pair of maxillary palpi. At the base of

these, however, is an organ somewhat corresponding
to the galea in Orthoptera, and this may possibly bear
spines in some species. Finally, I may say that the
acarid would not have remained long on the fly’s
foot ; if left alone he would soon have mounted into
some more convenient position on the body. If it
were not for size, Mr. Beeby’s description would
answer equally well for a chelifer (say, such an one as
Hermann’s C. parasita, “ Memoire apterologique,”
p. 1 1 7) ; indeed the pedipalpi of the chelifer are even
more like lobsters’ claws than the mandibles of the
gamasid, but I presume that one of these well-known
creatures would have been at once recognised. It is
of course extremely easy to distinguish between the
two, as the abdomen of the chelifer is segmented,
while that of the gamasid is not. — Albert D. Michael.

“A Rare Species of Hemiptera.” — Would it
be possible to obtain from “ John Davis ” (the writer
of the article headed “ A Rare Species of Hemiptera,”
p. 9) an example of the creature which he describes ?
This I admit has fairly puzzled me. His calling it
both a hemipterous insect and afterwards a “ beetle”
or a coleopterous insect is decidedly peculiar. — C. O.
Waterhouse.

Birds and Fruit. — On December 23, whilst
taking a country walk, I was surprised to see a haw-
thorn tree which grew up out of the hedge, laden
with the following birds : — fieldfare, missel-thrush,
song-thrush, blackbird, and green linnet. The
bush had been evidently richly laden with scarlet
haws, and the ground was covered with those which
had been shaken off whilst the half-starving birds
were feeding. I concealed myself and watched the
birds I had disturbed return to their banquet. There
could hardly have been less than a hundred indivi-
duals, and the voracity with which they devoured the
tempting berries was both amusing and gratifying.
The remarks of Dr. Taylor, in that chapter of his
recently published “Flowers; their Shapes, Per-
fumes, and Colours,” relating to “ Birds and Flowers,”
that the red or other colours of fruits are for the sake
of attracting birds, just as the colours of petals are to
attract insects, came to my mind with great force.
In this way one could see how useful both the colour
and the succulent pericarp must be to seeds protected
by “stone” and pericarps in distributing the seeds
far and wide in the droppings of the birds. During
my walk I afterwards saw the blackbirds and thrushes
devouring the scarlet berries of the holly in a similar
way. — T. G. Hudson , Wolverhampton.

The Weather and the Birds. — The incoming
of severe wintry weather at the beginning of De-
cember had been foreshadowed to the ornithologist
by the large numbers of northern birds which visited
our shores. Flocks of snow-buntings, as well as
northern ducks (as the “ long-tailed ”), wax-wings,
&c., visited the eastern coasts. The fieldfares have

40

HARE WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

been unusually numerous, and no doubt the influx of
birds will help our native species to give a good
account of the larvae of insects. Wild duck, teal,
widgeon, &c., were abundant in Norfolk and Suffolk,
and were caught in immense numbers at the decoys.
Scottish eagles found the Highlands too severe and
drifted southerly to England, a golden eagle being
shot at Fritton, near Lowestoft, where it and an
uunsht companion had been attracted by the hosts of
wild fowl, &c. The poor paltry poppers at small
birds from behind hedges have had capital “sport”
this severe winter !

Errata. — In my note at page 14 of Science-
Gossip for Ziphius curvirostris read Ziphius caviros-
iris, and for Professor Fowler read Professor Flower.
— T. Southwell.

The Watford Natural History Society. —
Part II. of the second volume of the “Transactions”
of this vigorous society is to hand, containing the
Anniversary Address of the President (Dr. A. T.
Brett), and papers on “British Butterflies” by the
Rev. C. M. Perkins; “Observations on Injurious
Insects,” and “Economic Entomology,” by Eleanor
O. Ormerod.

The Moa not yet Extinct (?) — A miner writes
to a New Zealand paper to say that whilst he and his
mate were prospecting for gold last autumn, between
lake Rotorua and the Cannibal Gorges, in the pro-
vince of Nelson, he saw what he believed to be the
moa. His description is as follows : — “We heard a
strange screeching noise in a gully about a hundred
yards from where we were camped, and went to
where the noise proceeded from, and to our surprise
we saw two gigantic birds coming towards us. They
did not show the least alarm at seeing us, but con-
tinued coming to where we were, so we took to our
heels. We heard them two or three times that night
again. Having no gun with us we thought it advis-
able to start the next morning, for fear they would
tackle us. One of them was apparently about twelve
feet high, and the other somewhat smaller, with
feathers resembling the kiwi’s.”

BOTANY.

The Sea Lettuce ( Ulva latissima). — At a recent
meeting of the San Francisco Microscopical Society,
a paper on the “Fruiting of Sea Lettuce,” was read
by C. L. Anderson, M.D., who said : — “ A few days
ago I collected a quantity of Ulva latissima for my
marine aquarium. The fronds were well grown
(October 26), of a beautiful deep green colour. The
plant was put into the water at night. Next morning,
quite early, the water had a turbid look, and I feared
there was too much dead matter ever to become clear.
But as the sun came to shine on the side of the
aquarium, I noticed a band of green matter bordering

the side in the sunshine, and adhering, apparently, to
the glass at the upper surface of the water, and the
aquarium was clear. When the green band was
touched there seemed to be a dispersion of the mate-
rial, but readily coming together again. Like a cloud
of very minute insects they were constantly changing
the form of the mass, and, amoeba-like, throwing out
processes here and there, the greater part, however,
clinging to the glass. Putting a small quantity under
the microscope I found two kinds, or forms. One
was quite round, and moved slowly, with an irregular
rolling motion. I could not detect cilia, although the
motion would indicate their presence. The other
form was smaller, conical, and very active, moving so
rapidly that at first I could not make out its form. A
careful inspection revealed the fact that they were the
zoospores of the ulva. The conical form had fila-
ments at the apex. Carpenter says ‘ ciliated.’ I
would rather consider them as accessory to cilia, and
intended as holdfasts that the plant may grow. Both
Dr. Carpenter and Dr. Wythe present illustrations of
these zoospores, showing their development from the
frond cells of the ulva, and Carpenter remarks that
‘ they might easily be taken for true infusoria.’ And
so they might. On further examination I found some
of these zoospores clinging to the broken walls of the
cells, both forms, and exhibiting active exertions to
be free. As to the generative process, of which Car-
penter says, ‘ nothing whatever is known,’ I am of the
opinion that the filament spores are fertilised after
their escape from the cell by the round spores, and
that the latter, having performed their function, like
the antherozoa, disappear, and the filament spores
become fixed and grow by the multiplication of cells
peculiar to other algse. The next morning these zoo-
spores had diffused themselves into the water, and the
turbidity remains as it was the first morning before
the ‘ swarming.’ It is likely that nearly all these
germs have perished in the water for want of a
congenial place to become attached that they might
grow.”

“ Monstrosities ” in Plants. — In the middle of
last summer I had many plants of Canterbury bells
in my garden which had grown from seed that had
been sown in 1876, only two plants of the lot having
flowered in the year after they were sown, as biennials
are supposed to do, and ripening their seeds before
they died. The remainder became larger plants, and
were all in the following summer now past covered
with blossom. Some of the flowers were white, some
blue. Among the plants with white flowers was
nothing that I noticed as abnormal. Among those
with blue flowers two plants presented variations
worthy of notice. One of them was crowned with
a terminal head of synanthic flowers, as nearly as can
be like the figure of such a production in Dr. Masters’s
“Vegetable Teratology.” The corollas of several
flowers were fused into an oblong dish, to one end of

HARD JYICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

4L

which adhered a somewhat similar formation proceed-
ing from the fusion of two or more flowers, forming a
cup or vase not quite so long or shallow. These two
structures adhered to each other by the outer surfaces
of their compound corollas, and seemed as if they
were made up together of about five or seven flowers.
This curious phenomenon proceeded apparently from
fasciation : not from fusion of lateral flowers, for the
fused flowers were all equally terminal. In the Can-
terbury bell, as in other species of Campanula, the
sub-terminal flower does not expand till after those
on the lower branches, and therefore is considerably
later than the flower which terminates the stem. By
keeping in view this rule, the synanthic termination
of a fasciated stem may be easily distinguished from
any possible fusion of lateral flowers. No other in-
stance of synanthy was observed on the plant where
this occurred, though it had a profusion of well-
formed single flowers. Another plant which flowered
at the same time bore flowers each of which had a
double corolla. Nothing in the flower was mis-
shapen. The inner corolla was bell-shaped like the
outer, and its segments alternated with those of that
within which it was. The stamens too alternated
with the segments of the inner corolla, a fact which I
noticed in several flowers and think of some import-
ance, as it would place them in a different position
with reference to the sepals than is the case with
stamens of a flower whose corolla is single. All
these plants have since died. When withered flowers
were removed, or the plants were not exhausted by
ripening seeds, other flower buds grew and were ex-
panded, but no leaf bud was developed that might
form the basis of a new growth. No foliar prolifica-
tion was to be found in any of the plants whose lives
were strictly limited, so that it seems as if they can-
not by any means become perennial. — John Gibbs.

Teratological Notes. — I see in the September
number of Science-Gossip a short account of the

malformation of a common cabbage leaf. My slight
experience of a similar phenomenon may be of inter-
est. Some two or three years ago I came -across a
similar instance to that mentioned by your corre-

spondent. In my case several of these curious leaves
were produced on the same plant within a short
period of time, all more or less resembling one
another. I have been informed by a friend that he
has observed the same appearance in a geranium
leaf. I have enclosed a rough sketch of curious form
in the flower of a calceolaria. Two of these have been
produced at about the same time on different plants
in the same garden. I may mention the plant under
consideration was not the common yellow variety, but
a rich red-coloured species known to gardeners by
the name “ Prince of Orange.” — A. H. Hintor.

Teratology of Clover. — I have found a head
of Alsike clover, in which all the pistils are trans-
formed into foliage leaves, similar, but on a smaller
scale, to a single lobe of the regular leaves. — B. K.

Exceptional Fruitfulness of Mosses this
Season. — Is it the general experience of museolo-
gists that the present season is an exceptional one
with regard to the fruitfulness of mosses ? In this
district several kinds not generally in fruit are found
with fruit, such as Hypnum purnm , squarrosum,
tamariscinum , triquetrum , loreum , &c. In an excur-
sion of a few hours lately my brother and I found
nearly sixty different species, more than one-half of
which were in fruit. — R. Wood, Rosley Vicarage,
Carlisle.

New Species of Isoetes. — Dr. Moore has re-
cently given an account of a new species of Isoetes
found in Upper Lake, Bray, county Wicklow, Ire-
land, which has been named /. Moorei. It strongly
resembles /. lacustris.

White Varieties. — I found two perfectly white
plants of Geranium pusillum by a roadside in South
Devon last autumn. In Science-Gossip for 1875,
page 68, there is an account of a white variety of
G. molle : as both nearly resemble each other, one of
us may be mistaken. They are not mentioned in any
botanical work I have seen. — R. W. W.

Ranunculus Ficaria. — Whilst taking a morning
walk, at the beginning of last year, I was surprised to
find what a difference occurred with regard to the
number of petals in the lesser celandine [Ranunculus
Ficaria ). The smallest number I counted was six,
and the largest on one flower was sixteen, just double
the usual number. Probably in the latter case, some
of the stamens had been converted into petals, but at
that time I did not think of observing whether this
was the case or not. — J. A. Weldon, Northallerton.

A New Species of British Moss. — At a recent
meeting of the Linnean Society Mr. E. Holmes
showed examples of a species of Moss, Aulacomnion
turgidutn, new to our British cryptogamic flora.
This acquisition had been obtained by Mr. West, a
Bradford botanist, in Yorkshire. Mr. Holmes made
some remarks, and comparisons between this species
and A. paluslre.

42

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

GEOLOGY.

Burrow, the Geologist. — In your December
number a slight reference is made to Mr. John
Burrow, the “ Settle Palaeontologist” — where he is
mentioned as ‘ ‘ having spent his life in working out
the palaeontology of his district.” Perhaps it may be
worth noting that this was not strictly the case, and
also that Mr. Burrow’s work, in the fields of science,
furnished us with a good instance of what may be
done — as an interesting amusement — by our English
youth. I first made the acquaintance of Mr. Burrow
at Cambridge (where we kept in the same staircase),
and afterwards had the privilege and pleasure of re-
newing our friendship in his own much loved Craven
district. I frequently accompanied him to his pet
productive spots about Settle, which he had explored
for a considerable distance, and from which, by
patient energy, he had made a rich ingathering of
fossils — and all this (the point mainly to be noted)
while he was as patiently working his way to the
height of the sixth form in the neighbouring school at
Giggleswick. At Cambridge he won triple honours
— in mathematics, classics, and natural science —
still keeping to geology as a recreation, and proceed-
ing with the work of fossil-arrangement. Hence I
venture to say that the great work which he did
among the carboniferous rocks for palaeontology, was
the work of a schoolboy , and that, too, at a time when
“natural science” was never mentioned in public
school-life. Would that nowadays the interest of
this kind of recreative health-giving science could
compete in greater degree with the much- absorbing
interests of athletics, cricket, and football, in our
English schools. — Matthew Wood, Evesham.

The Ultra-gaseous State of Matter. — One
of the most important discoveries in molecular
physics is undoubtedly that just communicated to the
Royal Society by Dr. Crookes, in a paper entitled
“The Illumination of Lines of Molecular Pressure,
and the Trajectory of Molecules.” It has been so
long taken for granted that there could be only three
conditions in which matter existed — the solid, liquid,
and gaseous — that it comes upon us with downright
surprise to hear of a fourth condition — the ultra-
gaseous. But there can be little doubt that Dr.
Crooke’s experiments have proved this. The paper
is reported at some length in “Nature” for De-
cember 12, and we refer our readers to it for the
details of the delicate experiments from which this
important conclusion is arrived at. It would seem
that the hypothetical “ether” of astronomers, which
is supposed to fill space, is not so supposititious as
some have argued.

Marine Fossils in Gannister Beds. — Your
correspondent, Jas. Nield, of Oldham, has, I am
afraid, somewhat misapprehended the gist of my late
discovery of the above in Northumberland. The

occurrence of marine forms in the lower coal-measures
of England (not to be confounded with the often mis-
named “lower coal-measures” of Scotland, which
are the equivalent of our carboniferous limestone
series) has long been well-known to geologists, and
the neighbourhood of Oldham is the classical ground
for such finds. Up to the beginning of the year just
expired, however, the gannister series north of the
Tees had been determined and mapped by means of
stratigraphical evidence only, none but plant remains
similar to those characterising the overlying beds
(middle and upper coal - measures) having been re-
corded from these beds in the district. In February
1878, 1 hit upon the first batch of marine fossils in the
south of Northumberland. Since then I have found
more elsewhere in the county, and I am informed that
others have in the meantime been detected in carrying
out mining operations in South Durham. The entire
interest of the find lies in the palaeontological evidence
of occasional marine conditions having persisted from
upper carboniferous limestone or Yoredale beds into
those of the coal-measures much further north than
was believed by many (including myself) to be the
case. Some important theoretical considerations with
regard to the classification of the carboniferous rocks
depend on such facts, and give them a greater interest
than they might, at first sight, be supposed to possess.
In the original notice of my find in “ Nature ” an un-
fortunate misprint occurred — country for county —
whence, notwithstanding immediate correction, the
present misapprehension may have arisen. Some
account of the beds and their fossils will be found in
my recently issued “Outlines of the Geology of North-
umberland.”— G. H. Lebour.

Pleistocene Deposits of the Cornish Coast,
near Padstow. — This was the subject of a paper
recently read before the Geological Society, by Mr.
W. A. E. Ussher, F.G.S. The author described
certain deposits seen in a small bay near St. Enodock’s
chapel, and known as Daymer Bay, and in section at
Greenway cliffs. The former included a portion of
raised beach, and a reef of consolidated old beach and
a peaty deposit below high-water mark, the raised
beach indicating a depression of from 5 to 10 feet and
a subsequent elevation of more than that amount,
during a pause in which the lower beach was formed.
The further elevation of the coast was sufficient to
favour the growth of forests furnishing the peaty bed,
which a subsequent subsidence has brought down to
its present level. Greenway cliffs consist of grey
slates, resting against which, in two places, are old
consolidated blown sands ; about 5 feet above high-
water mark is a raised beach, near which the face of
the cliff consists of “head” capped by gravel. Mr.
Ussher discussed the relative ages of these deposits,
and inclined to regard the gravel as a fluviatile deposit,
and the stony loam or “ head ” as an ancient talus or
flood-gravel, both deposited before the raised beach.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

43

Peculiar Fossil Braciiiopod. — Mr. John Young,
F.G.S., has discovered a new species of Rhynchopora
in the upper series of the carboniferous limestones, at
Bowertrapping, near Dairy, Ayrshire. This genus
was established by Professor M. King, of the Queen’s
College, Galway, for a species of Rhynchonella, whose
shell showed a distinct perforated structure, which he
had found in some places on the Continent in the Per-
mian formation. Before the discovery of a perforated
structure in this species it was included in the genus
Rhynchonella, but is now named Rhynchopora Geimt-
ziana. Mr. Young finding the carboniferous specimen
to be distinctly perforated sent it for determination
to Mr. Thomas Davidson, F.G.S., Brighton, author
of the Monograph of the “ British fossil Brachiopoda,”
and he being satisfied of its punctate structure, for-
warded it to Professor King, who writes that it is
undoubtedly a new and second species of his genus
Rhynchopora, and that he considers the carboniferous
species an interesting discovery, confirming all he had
already written as to the structure of the Permian
shell. It is proposed by Mr. Davidson, who will
figure and describe Mr. Young’s specimen, to name
the species Rhynchopora Youngii in honour of the
discoverer.

Silurian Fossils in the Girvan District. —
This is the subject of a monography by Professor
A. Nicholson and Robert Etheridge, jun., published
by W. Blackwood & Sons. The monograph is a de-
tailed descriptive catalogue of the fossils of the
Silurian area of Girvan in Ayrshire, a district which
has long presented peculiar geological difficulties.
The authors have been assisted in their arduous work
by a Government grant made through the Royal
Society, and also by Mrs. Robert Gray, whose cabinet
of Girvan fossils is especially rich, and has been of
great use to the authors.

Fossil Entomology. — We specially direct the
attention of our geological readers to the exhaustive
and suggestive series of papers which are appearing
in the “ Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,” on
“Fossil Entomology,” by Mr. Herbert Goss, F.L.S.,
F.G.S. The fourth paper appeared in the January
number, on “The Insecta of the Carboniferous
Period, and the Animals and Plants with which they
were correlated.”

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Piping Bullfinches. — With reference to a query
under head of “ Piping Bullfinch ” inserted in
Science-Gossip for January, I would remark that
Gilbert White no less than three times in his
“Natural History of Selborne ” alludes to the fact of
the plumage of bullfinches becoming dark or black-
coloured from the administration of hemp-seed. In
the latest edition of White’s “ Selborne,” by Thomas
Bell, Esq., the author in a footnote states that the
effect of a diet of hemp-seed in blacking the plumage
of birds, and particularly the bullfinch, is now well
known. — John Colebrook.

The Doubleday Collection. — Having lately
gone through the above collection, it is satisfactory to
say the collection is less deteriorated than appeared to
be at first sight. There is not one type in the whole
collection lost. Some erroneous statements have

crept into several periodicals, stating that 238 species
have been destroyed by mites. This I deny in toto.
The collection is open for inspection, and all those
interested are invited. — James English.

Leafless Trees. — Although at the present wintry
season of the year but few flowers either in the garden
or the woods are left to gladden the sight, there is
still to the observant eye a never failing charm in the
leafless trees. When seen against a clear grey sky,
each one has a form and beauty all its own —

“Alike yet various.

Here the grey smooth trunks of ash, or elm, or beech, dis-
tinctly shine

Within the twilight of their distant shades.”

No tree in all the grove but has its charms, and
each its hue peculiar at all seasons of the year ;
and we may, if we are observant, learn to distin-
guish the several kinds of trees as easily by their
outlines in winter as by their leaves in summer.
We have also been much interested in noticing the
colour of the leafless trees surrounding our home
when the sunshine has lighted them up ; they then
appear as if tinged with a deep red colour. We have
much pondered over this appearance of the trees in
the sunlight. We have since seen it noticed in a little
book on “Field Flowers,” by Shirley Hibberd. He
remarks that, “ if you had to paint a winter scene
with sunshine, you would have to wash all the trees
with a tone of red.” What is the reason of this ? We
should be grateful if any of the readers of Science-
Gossip would kindly explain the cause. Could it
arise from the russet case, or envelope, in which the
tender germ of the leaf is folded, uninjured, with
inimitable art, till the bitter winds and cold frosts of
winter have passed away ? May be, Keble refers to
this appearance of the trees in the wintry sunshine
when he writes in one of his most beautiful hymns :

“ Red o’er the forest peers the setting sun ;

The line of yellow light dies fast away
That crowned the eastern copse ; and chill and dun
Falls on the moor the brief November day.”

E. Edzvards.

Parasites on Pigeons. — The best means for
destroying the parasites on fantail and other pigeons,
your correspondent “ M. G.” will find is to syringe
well the house in which the pigeons live, themselves,
and their nests with carbolic acid, diluted with water,
at the same time using very freely Keating’s Insect
Powder. There is no danger of the parasites found
upon pigeons, fowls, or other birds, forsaking them for
man or womankind ; they will not live upon the human
body. The most sensible reason why pigeons’ feathers
should not be used for stuffing pillows, &c., appears to
be, because they are too stiff, they would mat together,
and so make but an uncomfortable rest for the head.
For the same reason game and other small birds’
feathers would not be desirable for stuffing pillows ;
the old superstition why they should not be thus used,
we believe to be entirely without reason. — E. Edwards ,

Interesting Plants in the Royal Gardens,
Kew. — On the west side of the palm-house is a
most remarkable plant, which has given rise to a great
deal of writing upon the disputed phenomenon of
parthenogenesis, viz. Ccelebogyne ilicifolia , a native of
Australia, and included in the natural order Euphor-
biaceae. It is a small dioecious shrub with alternate
spinose leaves closely resembling the common holly

44

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

(hence its specific name) ; the small greenish flowers
are unisexual, the staminate flowers being borne on
toothed bracts in axillary spikes, and the pistillate in
a similar manner or in cymes. The first plants that
arrived here were sent by Allan Cunningham, in 1829,
and were all females. After a time some of these
flowered, and, without the application of pollen,
ripened seed which germinated and produced plants
resembling the parent form. A communication of
these facts to the Linnean Society by Mr. Smith
(“ Transactions of Society,” vol. xviii.) drew consi-
derable attention to the plant. Klotzsch examined
the seed and stated that it contained a bud and not
an embryo, but Braun, Radlkofer and others consi-
dered it as a true embryonic formation. Henslow
states that it is possibly an analogous phenomenon to
what takes place in some aphides, where one im-
pregnation is sufficient for several generations. If
that be the case, the definite settlement of any doubt
resting upon the subject is merely a question of time,
as it is almost impossible for true fertilisation to take
place, there not being a single male plant in Europe.
On the same side as the above we notice Laportea
stimulans , an urticaceous plant with large crenulate
ovate leaves, having numerous stinging hairs on both
surfaces. This plant was found by Leschenault in
Java, and he states that its sting produces inflamma-
tion and tetanic symptoms, similar to Laportea crenu-
lata , but less severe. On the same authority we learn
that the natives of Java rub buffaloes with the fresh
leaves to excite them to fight with tigers. At the
south end of the house is a magnificent specimen of
Grias cauliflora , the anchovy pear of Jamaica, a
native of the West Indies, included in the Order
Myrtaceae, tribe Barringtonieae. Its generic name is
derived from grao — to eat, alluding to the fruit ; the
specific name refers to the appearance of the flowers
on the old wood. It is a slender, unbranched tree,
having at the summit a crown of drooping lanceolate
glossy green leaves, which are larger than those of any
other dicotyledonous tree (3 feet long by ij to 2 feet
broad). The large white flowers spring in clusters
from the stem, but they are rarely seen, and this plant
has never flowered. The fruits are pickled and eaten
like mangos, which they are said to resemble in
flavour. We find on the shelf at the east side of the
house a small plant of Hura crepitans, the sandbox-
tree or Monkey’s “Dinner Bell,” considered as a
native of tropical America, but now cultivated for
shade through the tropics generally. It is a Euphor-
biaceous tree of extremely quick growth ; the wood
is so soft that a clap of thunder or gust of wind will
break the largest boughs. The fruit is a woody cap-
sule of many cocci, which in drying burst open down
the back into two valves, at the same time separating
from the axis with the noise of a pistol shot. The
juice of the tree contains an extremely poisonous
principle. Boussingault relates that when he and
M. Rivero analysed some of the milky juice, they
were both attacked with erysipelas. It forms a large
branching tree, 30 to 40 feet high, bearing unisexual,
inconspicuous, reddish flowers. The female flowers
have a very remarkable trumpet-shaped style, with a
reflexed, many-toothed, terminal portion. The seeds
are occasionally administered as a purgative to ne-
groes, but are extremely dangerous, for two seeds
have produced death. — Lewis Castle, West Kensington
Park.

The Cultivation of Mistletoe. — Seeing in
the June number of Science-Gossip a botanical note
by Mr. J. M. Higgins about growing mistletoe in
Devonshire, where it is seldom seen, I thought it
might interest some of your readers to hear about

attempts to grow it in Edinburgh, where it is never
found in a state of nature. In the first week of
February I planted about twenty seeds of mistletoe,
in the same way as Mr. Higgins, on hawthorn, ser-
vice, plane, poplar, pear and apple trees, and I may
add that in no cases were they pecked at by birds.
On April 24, when passing one of the apple-trees,

I noticed that one of the seeds had begun to ger-
minate, and on examining the others I found them
beginning to smell and turn green ; and by May 1,
other seven seeds had burst and had protruded small
green suckers, which have since taken hold on the
bark. By the beginning of June the rest of the seeds,
with a few exceptions, had sprouted, those on the
apple and hawthorn trees being furthest on and
healthiest looking. I have therefore great hopes of
growing the parasite, and I may mention that several
gentlemen in the neighbourhood have been very suc-
cessful in its cultivation ; one plant in particular which
I have seen several times in a garden near is remark-
ably handsome and strong, being, I believe, about
seven years old. There is one very good specimen of
mistletoe in the Edinburgh Botanical Gardens, and I
believe several smaller plants in Warriston Cemetery.
Can any of your readers explain to me why four of
my seeds have sent out two suckers apiece, while
the rest of them have only sent out one each? —
Horace N. Bonar, Edinburgh.

The Nightingale in Yorkshire. — Last May
a man found a nest in a wood near Ripon. He
thought it was a tree-pipit’s nest, with curious
coloured eggs in it. He took them to Mr. Pratt of
Ripon, who told him they were nightingales’ eggs and
not tree-pipits. This is the first nest I have heard of
being found in Yorkshire. — James Lngleby.

Cuckoo’s Visits. — Mr. Bennett asks if the cuckoo
revisits the same place yearly. I believe it does. A
neighbour told me last May he heard a cuckoo with
a very peculiar note for the last four years near his
house ; he was almost sure it was the same bird. In
answer to the inquiry for a description of the cuckoo’s
eggs : They vary very much in colour, and very much
resemble the birds’ eggs of the nests they are placed
in. Some are like meadow-pipits, others pied wag-
tails, some lighter in colour and others darker, and
small for the size of the bird. — James Lngleby.

The Cuckoo and her Eggs. — “ The Universe,”
by F. A. Pouchet (Blackie & Son, 18 77), speaking of
the cuckoo laying her eggs in the nests of other birds,
has the following, page 198 : — “It is the nest of the
golden crested, or common, wren that this bird selects
for the accomplishment of its designs.” Can any
reader of Science-Gossip verify this statement from
personal observation l Has any one ever seen a young
cuckoo in a wren’s nest ? In matters of this nature
statements not made from personal observation are of
no value. After careful search and observation of
many years, I have]never myself found a cuckoo’s egg
or young except in the nest of a ground - building bird,
never, indeed, except in the nest of the meadow-
pipit and the grey wagtail. The writer also [states
that the cuckoo has “never more than two eggs I
Has this been certainly ascertained, and how ? Have
any considerable number of birds been examined
before the eggs come to maturity, to justify this state-
ment?— J. A. Kerr , Whiteabbey.

Malformed Egg. — I have recently seen in this
neighbourhood an egg from a Brahmapootra hen
which contained within it another smaller egg. The
inner egg was imbedded in the albumen of the outer
one, and had pushed the yolk out of its normal

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

45

central position. Both eggs were covered by shell.
Can any one explain the nature of this malformation ?
— F PV. S., Todmorden.

Preserving Fossils. — Having a number of mam-
malian remains from caves which seem liable to chip
and decay after exposure to the air, I should be
greatly obliged to any reader who would tell me the
best treatment for their preservation. I have been
advised to paint them over with hot solution of gela-
tine, but this does not appear to improve those speci-
mens on which I have tried it. I should also be glad
to learn the best plan of preserving fossils from the
coal and chalk ; some specimens from the lias are very
liable to chip. — IV. G. Tuxford.

Pronunciation of Scientific Names. — The
great difficulty is to find the place of the accent. There
appears to be no certain rule for this ; most frequently
it is on the penultimate syllable, in other cases its
place is determined by the etymology, and again in a
few instances both systems find supporters, as in the
case of veronica and veronica. Would it not be a
good plan to mark the accented syllable in those
generic and specific names occurring in at least the
more popular of the manuals of the various branches
of natural history ? These accents need not appear
on every repetition of the word, a good accented
index would answer the purpose. The more fortu-
nate of the dabblers in science, who live' in large
towns, and have the advantage of hearing lectures,
and talking over their pet subjects with friends having
a similar taste to their own, may not need this help,
but it is different with those who live in out-of-the-
way country places, and read but rarely hear anything
about their favourite studies. — PV. G. Tuxford.

Birds Singing at Midnight. — “ X.” expresses a
wish to know whether it prevailed all over the
country. I heard them singing on the nights of the
15th and 16th of February, 1878, and other nights as
well. — fames Ingleby , Yorkshire.

The “ Fagus ” of Caesar.- — Caesar’s words,
“ Materia cuj usque generis, ut in Gallia, est, proeter
fagum atque abietem,” have puzzled many, and Mr.
Freeman has opened up a subject on which it may be
hoped that other correspondents will give an opinion.
Selby has touched on it in several places. It can
scarcely be doubted that Caesar must have seen the
beech, which loves the chalk of Kent and Sussex, and
is still the tree which characterises the hangers fring-
ing the northern slope of the Sussex Downs, while as
the sweet chestnut was (in all probability) introduced
to Britain by the Romans, he appears to have noted
its absence. Is it not then most likely that Caesar’s
“Fagus” was the chestnut? Both trees grew in
Italy in his days, as is apparent from Virgil. It may
be observed that Linnaeus included the beech and
the chestnut under the same generic name “ Fagus.”
Has this led translators of Caesar into an error ? Old
Gerarde’s quaint comparison of the fruit of the two
trees is worth quotation. Speaking of the beech, he
says, “ The fruit or mast is contained in a huske or
cup that is prickly and rough bristled, yet not so much
as that of the chestnut ; which fruit being taken forth
of the shells or urchin husks be covered with a soft
and smooth skin, like in colour and smoothnesse to
the chestnut.” “ The beech tree,” he adds, “ loveth
a plaine and open countrey, and groweth very plenti-
fully in many Forressts and desart places of Sussex,
Kent, and sundry other counties.” — F. H. Arnold ,
LL.B.

Colour of Birds’ Eggs. — Can any of the readers
of Science-Gossip inform me of anyway to preserve
the colour of birds’ eggs from fading ? I do not want

varnish ; something that will not show, but keep the
colour from growing dull ? — James Ingleby.

Birds using Others’ Nests. — In connection
with birds appropriating the nests of others to lay in,
the following may be interesting : — Walking through
a small copse in the early part of the summer I dis-
turbed a blue-tit which flew from a large bush. It
was soon joined by its mate, and by their rapid
motions and uneasy cries I concluded that their nest
was not far off. There was, however, no likely place
for it to be built, and I thought there must be some
other reason for the uneasiness of the birds. In the
bush before me there was a blackbird’s nest, which,
judging from its very untidy appearance, I expected
to find empty. I tried it however, and to my surprise
found it contained seven blue-tit’s eggs. The black-
bird’s nest had probably been robbed early in the
spring, and the tits had lined it with some soft
material, and there laid their eggs. — T. L. S.

Fossil Ferns. — I remember seeing in the British
Museum some years ago a number of fossil ferns, the
impressions beautifully coloured a bright emerald
green, without destroying the sharpness. I should
be glad to learn what colour is used for this purpose,
and how applied. — IV. G. Tuxford.

Query about the Daisy. — Will any reader kindly
inform me on what authority Chaucer, in “ The Legend
of Good Women,” states tire following : —

“ The greate goodness of the queen Alceste
That turned was into a daisy.

She that for her husbande chose to die,” &c.
******

“ In remembrance of her, and in honour
Cybele made the daisy, and the flow’r
Ycrowned all with white, as men may see
And Mars gave her a crowne red, pardie !

Instead of rubies set among the white.”

C. F. IV.

Poisonous Action of Dulcamara. — With refer-
ence to your correspondent’s query relative to the
poisonous action of Dulcamara on man, I would beg
to quote some interesting remarks from Professor
Taylor’s work on Poisons (3rd edition). That great
toxicologist writes : “ There are two species of night-
shade (. Solatium ) A. Dulcamara , bitter-sweet or woody
nightshade, which has a purple flower and bears red.
berries, and the S. nigrum or garden nightshade,
with a white flower and black berries. Duval gave
to dogs four ounces of the aqueous extract, and, in
another experiment, 180 ripe berries of the Dulcamara,
without any ill effects resulting. On the other hand,
Floyer states that thirty of the berries killed a dog in
three hours. The differences may perhaps be recon-
ciled by supposing that the active principle, solania,
on which the poisonous properties of both species
depend, varies in proportion at different seasons of
the year. In one instance a decoction of the plant is
said to have produced in a man dimness of sight, giddi-
ness, and trembling of the limbs. In September,
1853, the red berries of the woody nightshade are
stated to have caused the death of a boy aged four.
He had eaten some of the berries, and at first did not
appear to suffer from them ; but eleven hours after-
wards he was attacked with vomiting, purging, and
convulsions, which continued throughout the day,
the child being insensible in the intervals. He died
convulsed in about twenty-four hours. Other children
had partaken of the berries at the same time, but one
of them suffered only slightly.” — Lancet, June 28,
1856, p. 715. All my own books on botany certainly
point to the conclusion that Dulcamara berries are
poisonous, although of much less virulence than those
of belladonna ; from which I suspect persons ignorant

46

HARDWICKE'S SCI E JVC E-G O SSIP.

of the nature of these two solanums have been led into
some confusion. In the preparation of a conserve
from the berries, probably the active principle solania
was dispersed, if so, not only half a pound, but a
much larger quantity of it could be taken with
impunity ; moreover, because the French chemist
Duval gave both extract and berries to dogs without
injury, does it follow that man should escape ? I be-
lieve goats might eat any quantity without harm. I
imagine no parent in his or her senses would permit
a child to eat Dulcamara berries unless they wished to
compass its death. — John Colebrook.

Bombycide (Saturnia). — I have a fine specimen
of Hyalophora Cccropia (6 inches across the wings),
caught alive last July in a friend’s garden at Clapham.
Can any of your readers account for this? These
moths surely never breed in England ? Is it not
likely to have escaped from some entomological
cabinet ? — James Ives.

Tadpoles. — On March 15, 1878, I collected some
frog’s spawn, placing it in a small jar in a warm
corner of my room, and was surprised at seeing one
four days later. The little tadpoles had escaped
from their prisons. At that time each was attached
to its parent egg, all traces of which further on had
disappeared. 1 also noticed the ciliary movement
mentioned by “'R. B. C.,” but once only, although I
made continual observations as the animals became
more developed. — H. H., Aldeburgh , Suffolk.

A Spectre of the Mountain. — During a tour
of two months on the Continent, I chanced to witness
the following beautiful phenomenon : — On Sunday
afternoon, September 1, 1878, we ascended the
Eggischorn, from the Hotel Jungfrau (which is 7000
feet above the sea). We reached the wooden cross
on the summit (9640 feet) at 4.15. The day was dull,
and the clouds were too thick to enable us to see
clearly the glorious view of the Alps ; the Aletsch
Glacier and Mergelen See alone being plainly visible.
Having stayed there about an hour, we were on the
point of descending, when one of our party ex-
claimed, “Look, there is a rainbow!” and turning
round 1 quickly added, “It is a spectre!” for gra-
dually the phenomenon became visible, showing our-
selves on the clouds facing us (in the east), surrounded
by a double rainbow. To make sure that we were
not imagining this beautiful vision, we waved our
alpenstocks and hats, which were clearly discernible.
Our height appeared somewhat elongated, so that the
bar of the cross was lost in the rainbow. One
apparent difference between this phenomenon and
the so-called Spectre of the Brocken, was that we
were not magnified, only lengthened, and that the
bow was more arched than is usual. There were two
guides and an Alpine traveller with us, none of whom
had seen it before. — H. J. Taylor.

Dog and Kitten. — I have a high-bred pet blue
terrier, who has hitherto appeared to live entirely for
his master, and was at any rate a terror to cats, & c.
In our house we have made several attempts to keep
a cat, but our dog Charlie would not consent. About
a week ago, a poor, weak, nearly starved to death
kitten, about two months old, walked into the house,
and was taken by our domestic quietly into the
kitchen. Some food and milk was given to it, and
pussy was placed snug in the corner of the fireplace,
out of sight of the dog ; but it was not many minutes
before he discovered there was a cat in the house,
and instantly went in the direction where she was
lying, in a great state of excitement and ready for
fight. The kitten was alarmed, and stood up. To

our surprise the dog, instead of attacking it, ap-
peared to be instantly struck with its miserable
appearance, and made no attempt to molest it. On
the other hand, it showed evident signs of satisfac-
tion, which soon convinced us that between the two
there was a mutual understanding, for shortly after
they were lying on the rug together. The same
evening the usual saucer of milk was given to the
dog, the cat followed the dog to the milk, and both
lapped out of the saucer together. The cat-worrier
and the kitten are now great friends. If this is not
reason on the part of the dog, what is it ? If it is at
least sympathy, it is of a kind not often enough
shown by those who claim the sole exclusive right to
possess the higher quality. — Alfred Tozer.

Bougainvillea or Bugainvillea ? — Having
read in “Nature” of November 14 that the original
use of catechisms was to give precision to oral reli-
gious instruction, I cannot think that there is any
harm in an attempt to give precision to the teaching
of science. Precision in the use of words is a quality
not to be claimed by any writer who applies the term
biennial to a cabbage. This is done in the first lesson
in a little book on Elementary Botany by W. Bland,
Master of the Endowed School, Duffield. It is
nevertheless a very carefully written book, and that,
nearly the only error which it contains, was probably
the result of its author being misled by a similar
statement in a .Science primer by J. D. Hooker, C.B.,
P.R.S. The illustrious Director of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, may be excused for not knowing that
in my plebeian garden cabbages often live several
years, and flower every season, which entitles them
to be called perennial. Want of precision may be
found sometimes in the orthography of generic names.
One day last summer I saw and admired at a flower-
show a plant labelled Bougainvillea. Wishing to
know the Natural Order to which this plant belongs,
I consulted the Index to Lindley’s “ Vegetable King-
dom,” but found no such word. Having, however,
by the kindness of a neighbouring gardener, gained
possession of an inflorescence of the plant, I guessed
from the examination of it that it might belong
to the Order Nyctaginaceae. Turning to Lindley’s
account of that Order, I found among its genera
Bugainvillea. It would be nothing wonderful for
a gardener’s label to be inaccurate, but that on the
plant in question could not be said to be so, as the
name on it was identical with what is given in the
“Official Guide to the Royal Botanic Gardens,” by
D. Oliver, F.R.S., F.L.S., Keeper of the Herbarium
at the Royal Gardens, and Professor of Botany in
University College, London. Of this authoritative
Guide I happen to possess the twenty-sixth edition.
I dare not presume to say it is inaccurate, but I
should like to know whether the Botigainvillea men-
tioned in it be the same genus as in Lindley’s
“Vegetable Kingdom” is called Bugainvillea , and if
so, whether in spelling the word I ought to follow
Professor Lindley or Professor Oliver ? So long as it
remains uncertain, there can be no cause for appre-
hension that any catechism which may be written
will give the precision of religious teaching to that of
science. — John Gibbs.

The House-Fly and its Parasite. — In the
January number of Science-Gossip is an article on
“ The Development of the House-fly and its Parasite.”
Having given a good deal of attention to the house-fly,
I am able to affirm that Mr. Robson has fallen into an
error. The figure given is not Musca domestica.
The antennae are different, the eye is wrongly placed,
the body is not the right shape, and the abdomen is

HARD W ICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

47

quite wrong. Moreover, the maggot figured is not
the maggot of Musca domestica, neither is the chrysalis.
Again, Musca domestica never lays its eggs on meat,
nor will they, when hatched, feed on it, as far as I ever
observed. The egg is much too large if only mag-
nified 30 times, as the egg of M. domestica scarcely
ever exceeds inch, which x 30 would be only i§ inch,
while the figure is 2\ inches full. In fact, Mr. Robson
has been examining one of the flesh-flies under an error.
If confirmation of my correction be required, I refer to
Samuelson and Hicks, or, in fact, any work on the
subject. — E. Holmes.

Double Orange. — In opening an orange by
“peeling” it, I have just come across what, to me, is
a novelty amongst the many oranges in the dissection
of which I have assisted, aided by my little household
of seven or eight persons, but probably is well known
amongst your botanical friends. However, as it may
interest some of your readers, I send you a few
remarks on it. On turning back a portion of the
peel I found to my astonishment, instead of the usual
orange pulp with its thin cuticle, the yellow peel of a
miniature orange, of a conical form, having on one
side a very distinct seam or opening reaching from
the base to the apex of the cone. That the infant
orange was easily separated from the giant that had
buried it alive within its own body was shown by the
nature of the union between the two, gaps occurring
between the woolly substance of the larger orange,
and the similar covering of the base of the cone. On
carefully inserting a penknife between the two I
found that the complete form of the embryo, if I am
right in using that term, was that of two cones base
to base ; but whilst that end which I have described
as lying just under the peel of its consumer was
covered with a peel of the same nature and colour,
but more delicate in texture and of a lighter hue, the
end which joined the body of the orange was im-
bedded in the usual white woolly substance but of a
finer grain, but no yellow peel, except that it had a
decided yellow tinge at its apex. I have said that
the embryo separated easily from its matrix. There
was, however, on one side a small tough aggrega-
tion of fibres, forming a sort of hinge, after all the
rest of the looser fibrous matter was separated. Per-
haps some of your botanical friends will be good
enough to tell me if they would consider this to be
the undeveloped fruit stalk. By the help of a pocket
glass on removing the embryo entire, I found that the
under part, by which I mean the cone-like end which
touched the body of the orange, was covered with
the usual vein-like fibres, only, of course, very
minute ; and most interesting of all the folding in
process of the fruit leafs development was very
clearly shown. Dissecting the embryo the centre
was found to consist of a small sac containing a few
cells of the same shape as the orange pip, but they
were pulpy and yellow. — M. A. S.

Intelligence in Man and Animals.— The
anecdotes of animals which have from time to time
appeared in Science-Gossip and other publications,
and a little personal observation and reflection, would,
I should have thought, have suggested to your
correspondent, Mr. H. D. Barclay, that what is called
instinct in animals often passes under the name of
reason in man, and that the difference which exists is
chiefly one of development. Mr. Barclay says : “The
great difficulty in the investigation of the minds of
animals appears to be that man instinctively and
unconsciously, unless checked by reflection, explains
their actions, especially in extraordinary cases, by
his own modes and laws of thought.” Perhaps Mr.

Barclay will kindly inform us how else we are to
explain their actions if we are not to use our “own
modes and laws of thought.” If an animal does pre-
cisely the same thing that a man would do under
certain circumstances, are we not justified in con-
cluding that animal and man are moved by the same
power ? Is not memory an act of reasoning ? Is it
simply instinct that induces a dog to starve itself to
death on the grave of its master ; or risk its life
unbidden to save that of a helpless child? The
wonderful feats that animals have been taught to
perform, contrary to their natural habits, and the
marvellous memory exhibited by many, are proofs, I
think, that they are endowed with something more
than mere instinct. The impression that the intelli-
gence of animals differs from man’s only in degree is
founded on good evidence, and the difference between
the intelligence of the beggar and the prince would in
all probability be far greater than that between the
beggar and his dog. — A. C. Rogers , Red Lodge ,
Southampton.

Glyciphagus plumiger. — In the July number of
Science-Gossip, Mr. A. D. Michael announced the
capture of a single specimen of this acarus, and after
remarking on one in the possession of Mr. George of
Kirton Lindsay, says, “we may, I think, fairly claim
this as a British species, although only a single indi-
vidual has been detected in each instance.” I have
been fortunate in capturing a large number, male and
female, of this interesting mite, and as in the former
case, they were found among the fodder in a stable in
this city. As there is a considerable quantity of
foreign hay used in this place, it is quite probable it
may have been introduced, but the fact of its being
alive and active, in the middle of December, during a
very severe frost, shows that it is hardy enough for
our northern climate. — J. Lambert , Edinburgh.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the] previous
month.

John Lambert (Edinburgh). — Many thanks for your excel-
lently mounted slide of Glyciphagus plumiger.

T. R. Jones (Flint). — The fossils are : — r. Producta Llan-
golliensis, very abundant in the Carboniferous limestone rocks
near Llangollen, North Wales ; and 2. Fragment of fossil coral
from same strata, called Lonsdalia floriformis.

H. L. Smith. — You will find the best account of our British
newts in Cooke’s “ British Reptiles,” published by Hardwicke &
Bogue, 192 Piccadilly, at6j. It gives a full account of Lissotriton
punctatus.

H. Bangham. — We cannot undertake to give the name of a
moth from a magnified drawing of one of the antennae, although
the structure much resembles that of the antennae of the fox-
moth.

W. Bennett (Hereford). — Your bat cannot be without ears.
Perhaps they are very small, and, if so, it may be the whiskered
bat or the barbastelle. You should show the specimen to some
competent naturalist, as it is desirable to know more about our
British bats than we do.

Tracy Appleton. — A good and cheap popular work on
ornithology is that on “Birds” by Adam White, published by
Routledge, at 7 s. 6 d. The same firm have also issued the
“ British Ornithology,” by P. H. Gosse, at the same price.

J. N. D. (Tuxford). — We quite agree with you in your
remarks as to Wood’s work. The best book we know as a
calendar is the Rev. Leonard Jenyn’s “ Observations in Natural
History, with an Introduction on the Habit of Observing as
connected with the Study of that Science, also a Calendar of
Periodic Phenomena in Natural History.” It is published by
Van Voorst, at zos. 6 d.

New Cross Microscopical Society. — C. W. L. enquires
for the place of meeting and name of the secretary of the above
society. Perhaps some of our readers will answer him.

48

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

J. R. N. — Your little fish is the black goby ( Gobius nigef).

J. A. Wheldon. — Stark’s “History of British Mosses,”
price 7s. 6 d., published by Routledge ; and Cooke’s “British
Fungi,” price 6s., published by Hardwicke & Bogue, 192 Picca-
dilly.

Any Cheltenham coleopterist who would be willing to assist
a beginner in naming some specimens is requested to forward
his name and address to the Editor.

Perca. — Mr. Frank Buckland’s “British Fishes,” published
by the Society for the Diffusion of Christian Knowledge, is a
good introduction to the fishes of the British Islands. The
volume on Fishes, published in Jardine’s “ Naturalists’ Library”
(Hardwicke & Bogue), is another good volume.

S. B. A. — Both jellyfish and sea-anemones may be preserved
in a solution of picric acid.

W. G. Pearce. — There is a microscopical society at Bath,
and if there is not already a natural history society there, it is
not for lack of workers and others interested in the study. We
should think it would require little effort to found a society
there.

R. H. W. — You will find full instructions for making artificial
sea-water, &c. in Taylor’s “ Aquarium : its History, Structure,
and Management,” published at 6j. by Hardwicke & Bogue.

T. S. P. — The fossils are : — 1. Head of Phacops, a silurian
trilobite ; 2. Portion of a cystidean, a peculiar form of sea-lily
or encrinite ; 3. Atry pa reticularis.

J. A. Kay. — In the answer to your question last month the
words, “ having the outline of your sketch,” should have followed
after the words, “ more than fifty species of Navicula.” There
are more than one thousand species of Navicula known alto-
gether.

J. Finnemore. — Mr. G. M. Gowan, of 20 Beauchamp Square,
Leamington, writes as follows : — “ I see by Science-Gossip for
January that Mr. Finnemore (of Truro) Avishes for Smith’s
* Synopsis of the British Diatomaceae.’ I have a copy of it, two
volumes, in boards, one or two plates, loose, but quite complete.
I am willing to part with it, should it be Avorth Mr. F.’s Avhile to
offer a fair price for so rare a work.”

EXCHANGES.

First-class human physiological and pathological microscopic
slides, mounted by Hunter, in exchange for good British lepi-
doptera. — E. H. Jones, Rosslyn House, The Park, Ealing.

Acme lineata, Vertigo substriata, Helix lamellata, H.
aculeata, H . pygmcea, II .f usca, for any Vertigo Moulinsiatia,
Testacella haliotidea, or Geomalacus maculosus , or any other
good shells. — J. Whitwham, Cross Lane Marsh, Huddersfield.

Anatomical sections Avanted for well-mounted slides. — F. W.
EdAvards, 32 Hunslet Lane, Leeds.

Foraminiferous sand from Barmouth, containing many rare
forms, in exchange for slides, material, or minerals. — J.AV.
Cotton, F.G.S., Barmouth.

Will forward to anyone interested a copy of my neAV private
exchange list for skins and eggs, compiled to facilitate exchanges
and other useful purposes. — “Author,” 11 Priory Road, Sheffield.

Will give a collection of shells for any volume of Science-
Gossip ; want all years since commencement. Also want
Turton’s “Land and Fresh-water Shells.” — Musson, 68 Gold-
smith Street, Nottingham.

In duplicate about 100 different species of the British land
and fresh-water shells, including well-authenticated examples of
Vertigo minutissima, V. alpestris, V. pusilla, V. substriata,
V. angustior, L. involuta, L. Burtietti, Succinea oblonga.
Desiderata : good (named) foreign land shells, or numerous
species of British birds’ eggs, many by no means rare. — W.
Sutton, Upper Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Crystals of salicine or potassic chlorate, in exchange for other
well-mounted slides. — Thomas Shipton, The Terrace, Chester-
field.

Wanted, a good J-inch object-glass. Offered geological,
physiological, and other slides, many sirtable for polariscope. —
M. Fowler, Burn Row, Slamannan, N.B.

Offered, Nos. 3, 38, 116, 173, 192, 206, 217, 355, 358, 384,
515, 548, 557,667, 709, 1109, 1607, 1614, 1626, for other species. —
D. J. Powrie, 3 Greenbank Street, Galashiels, N.B.

H. pygmvEA, C. minimum, A. tridens, and many other species
from North Wales, offered for good specimens of Zonites cella-
rius, nitidulus, nitidtis, glaber, a l Harms, or excavatus. — George
Taylor, Mold, North Wales.

Science-Gossip, 1874, 1875, bound; having duplicates of
these, will exchange for other books, pocket microscope, or
natural history objects. — 3 Belmont Villas, New Brompton,
Kent.

British coleoptera, complete collection, male and female
specimens of nearly every British species ; 8000 specimens,
mounted on cardboard, without pins (new style) ; correctly named.
Particulars sent. Also collection of British birds’ eggs, side-
blown, labelled ; well-marked specimens, 100 varieties. Also
South African and American collections. Wanted, any foreign
eggs. Send list. — Henry Sissons, Westbourne Road, Sheffield.

Rare European, British, and African eggs and skins. Full
lists upon application. Wanted eggs and skins in exchange. —
Sissons, Sharrow, Sheffield.

Wanted, specimens of Ophiocoma and Coryne pusilla ; ex-
change.—3 Belmont Villas, New Brompton, Kent.

Poraminifera from several localities, also zoophytes and
mosses named and localised, well-mounted in balsam or damar ;
plant hairs, &c., for other slides or unmounted sections, &c., or
offers in shells, &c. — Mrs. Skilton, London Road, Brentford.

Wanted, unmounted animal parasites, fleas, and ixodes, those
from exotic animals preferred. — W. A. Hyslop, 22 Palmerston
Place, Edinburgh.

In exchange for good fronds of Fenestella from Silurian,
Devonian, or Permian ; offer carboniferous or Bala fossils. —
G. W. Shrubsole, Chester.

Offered, American lepidoptera. Wanted, pupas of silk-
worm, death’s-head, swallow-tail, emperor ; eggs of Bombyx
Zamatiii and Cinthya. — T. Stock, 16 Colville Place, Edinburgh.

Well-mounted slides in exchange for good diatoms, mounted
or unmounted. — Jas. Blackshaw, 78 Lozells Road, Birmingham.

Wanted, a good second-hand copy of Gosse’s “ Marine
Zoology of the British Isles,” in exchange for other works on
natural history, or for cash. — G. N. W., 10 Edinburgh Place,
Weston-super-Mare.

Unio tumidus, U. pictoTum, Anodofita cygnea, A. anatma,
Valvata cristata, L. peregra, var. maritima , L. auricular ia,
var. acuta , L. glutinosa, A. Grayana, L. agrestis, L. mar-
gmatus, H. potnatia, H. hispida, var. alba, H. hispida, var.
subru/a, A. acicula, C. myosotis, and many other British
species, for a copy of Rye’s “ British Beetles,” or foreign shells.
— Address E. R. F., 82 Abbey Street, Faversham, Kent.

A fine series of trilobites (including the new Silurian forms,
in exchange for microscopic rock sections. — Dr. Callaway,
Wellington, Salop.

I have several slides of interest to exchange for well-mounted
objects. Lists if required. — T. Comlidge, 5 Norfolk Street,
Brighton.

Unmounted micro material in great variety, including highly
interesting and beautiful marine objects, such as Foraminifera,
zoophytes, sertularians, Echinidese, Crustaceae, Holothuria
plates, diatoms, and in situ on Algae in splendid condition ; fruited
Algae, named, some prepared for balsam ; marine Entomostraceae
and larva, &c. ; and some very good slides of same. Wanted,
first class micro and lantern slides. Particulars on receipt of
stamped address. — T. McGann, Burren, Ireland.

A good 24-inch four-drarv telescope in exchange. Wanted,
good slides, Slack’s “ Marvels of Pond Life,” or other books on
microscopic subjects. — S. C. Hincks, Runfold, Farnham, Surrey.

Wanted, transparent unmounted material in exchange for
others, or Chinese natural curiosities, including insect archi-
tecture.— Tylar, 165 Well Street, Birmingham.

Coleoptera. — Necrobia nijicollis, Timarcha coriaria,
Agelastica ) 'lyalensis , Donacia sericea, Coccinella 22-punc-
tata, &c. for other species. Desiderata numerous. — Address,

J. Wilcock, 85 Northgate, Wakefield.

L. C. 7th ed. Nos. 291, 334, 353, 556, 710, 841b, 911, 858,
958, 1059, 1270, 1323, 143°. I44I> i446, i447> i4?i. 1516, 1537.
1614, 1619, and others, for 5, 10, 44, 135, 174, 191, 215, 228, 235,
348, 351, 360, and others. — T. Rogers, 27 Oldham Road, Man-
chester.

BOOKS, ETC. RECEIVED.

"Geological Stories.” Fourth edition. By J. E. Taylor,

F.G.S., &c. London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

“A Monograph of the Silurian Fossils of the Girvan District
in Ayrshire.” By Professor H. A. Nicholson and R. Etheridge,
jun., F.G.S. London: W. Blackwood & Sons.}

“ Popular Science Review.” January.

“ Midland Naturalist.” January.

“ Land and Water.” January.

“ American Naturalist.” December.

“Canadian Entomologist.” December.

“ Botanische Zeitung.” December.

“ Science pour Tous.”

“ Science News.” (Salem, Mass.)'

“ Scottish Naturalist.” January.

“Journal of Applied Science.” January.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to 12TH ult. from : —
W. B. H.— A. S.— C. R.-J. P. T.— Colonel B.— J. D.— G. C.
— E. H. J.— J. S.— J. F. R.— M. W— H. B.— H. N. B.—
J. M. W.— R. W. W— J. A. W.— F. H. A.— W. C.T.— F. W. S.
—A. T— C. F. W.— H. J. T.— H. H.— B. K.— J. I.— J. C.—

G. O. P. C.— J. W.— M. A. S.— T. B. W.— E. W. M.— W. H. S.
— A. J. J. B.— W. N. C.— K. D.— F. A.L.— D.J. P.— J. W. H.
— S. B. A.— C. A. G.— H. U. J.— J. W. C.— F. L.— W. W.—
W. G. W.— R. M. M.— G. H. L.— C. O. W.— M. F.— T. S.—
E. B. F.— E. D.— J. H. G.— E. H.-W. B.— J. P.— W. S.—

H. P. M.— J. B.— D. H. P.— F. L. St. A.— J. A. W.— T. S.—

H. P. S.— G. W. S.— H. C. W.— H. M. P.— W. A. H.— M. S.
— J. W. S.— A. G. R.— G. T. M.— H. S.— Dr. M. A. M. B.—
J. A— F. W. E.— G. D. S— M. D.— J. W. D. K.— E. L. F.—
G. T.— G. E. M.— J. W. C— G. R— T. L.— T. C.— W. G. P.
—Dr. C. C.-S. C. H — G. P.— D. D.— B. S. D.— E. D. M.—
T. McG. — J. W— W. T.-J. W. S.— G. M. G— R. H. W.—
T. R.— W. W.— &c.

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

49

NOTE ON PREPARING AND PRESERVING DELICATE

ORGANISMS*

will not do to rely
on the chemists
and druggists of
the south of France
or the Italian coast
for the chemicals
requisite for re-
searches in the
natural history of
those parts. If you
go to these worthy
folk and ask for
what you want,
they will stare at
you and ask if you
are a doctor, or
what you intend
to do. If you ex-
plain, they will
gaze at you in as-
tonishment, and
perhaps ask to see your papers, and you will be lucky
if they do not denounce you to the police ! It is
therefore necessary to carry all requisites with one.
But liquid chemicals are bulky, and leaky bottles
may stain the contents of the portmanteau ; besides
which the stock is soon exhausted. Crystalline sub-
stances, on the other hand, are easily conveyed, and
contain in small bulk enough material to prepare and
preserve a large number of objects.

The beautiful orange crystals of bichromate of
potash form a very suitable solution for histological
researches and for the preservation of delicate organ-
isms. A few grammes of this salt, portable in any
box, will meet all requirements. It dissolves in fresh
or salt water, a few crystals saturating a large bulk.
In this solution all the lower gelatinous animals, such
as polypes, Hydromedusse, Medusae, Salpse, cteno-
phora, &c., can be perfectly preserved. The shell-
less mollusca and annelids, and all worms with tough
skin can be kept in it. Small Crustacea and bryozoa
give also excellent results. We have kept a splendid
Medusa aurita in this way for a whole year, and its
No. 1 71.

beauty and transparency leave nothing to be desired.
But this solution has one inconvenience, it permits
the development of mould ; but this can be prevented
by the addition of a few drops of phenic acid or
phenic alcohol.

For histological purposes it is as good as, but acts
more delicately than chromic acid. It hardens the
tissues, brings out the outlines of the cellules, shows
their nuclei, and coagulates the sarcode. It is also
a valuable agent in maceration, dissolving in most
cases the intercellular cement and separating the parts.
On this account only tough-skinned organisms can be
preserved in it, lest the tissues fall to pieces. Still
the most delicate parts of the vibratile cilia and
infusoria are well preserved.

Another convenient and portable salt is perman-
ganate of potash, a little of which goes a long way.
It is especially good in histological researches, as it
acts like osmic acid, burning up the protoplasm,
bringing out the minutiae, and showing the nuclei
outlines of cells, &c. It is used as a saturated solution
in distilled or very pure spring water. Sea-water also
dissolves it. The concentrated solution, of a lovely
violet colour, kills small organisms at once, and then
burns them. They are left in it from thirty minutes
to an hour, then withdrawn and placed in alcohol,
after which they can be made transparent with essence
of terebinth and mounted in Canada balsam. Beau-
tiful results are thus obtained with echinoderms,
zoophytes, worms, and marine arthropoda. For
delicate researches, especially in the ciliated infusoria,
it is better than osmic acid) without its great cost,
and is everywhere easily obtained. G. du P.

Note by Translator. — Permanganate being deli-
quescent, and both salts highly coloured, wide-mouthed
bottles will be found the best mode of conveyance ;
the corks being coated inside with beeswax or other
protecting substance. The prices of the salts are,
bichromate, is. 4 d. per lb., and permanganate, Sd.
per oz. W. H. D.

* By G. du Plessis, in “ Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des
Sciences Naturelles,” ser. 2, vol. xv. pp. 278-280, April 1878..
Translated by W. H. Dalton.

D

5°

HARD WICKEDS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

NOTES OF AN AMATEUR ON SOME
CANADIAN PLANTS.

THE pitcher-plant, Sarracenia purpurea, which
grows in great abundance in our swamps and
marshes, is said to be possessed of very valuable
medicinal properties, as a mitigator of the severer
symptoms of smallpox. I am not prepared to
hazard an opinion respecting the properties thus
claimed for it, but I think it probable that there are
many plants, wild plants especially, whose virtues
are still undeveloped ; nor is it unlikely that it may
have pleased the God of Nature to provide that our
discovery of those virtues should be gradual and pro-
gressive, for the purpose of inciting us to persevere
in our endeavours to increase our stores of know-
ledge, and thus to be constantly adding to the fresh
disclosures ever coming to light of His wisdom and
His goodness.

The pitcher-plant, belonging to the Order Sarra-
ceniaceae, is a semi-aquatic plant, belonging to the
water-pitcher family, and luxuriates in moist' situa-
tions ; but I have grown it, although without signal
success, in my garden, and, with better effect, in
large pots or boxes filled partly with rough peat-soil
and partly with sphagnum moss. I never found the
leaves of the plant without cold water in them, even
in the hottest weather, floating on which are in-
variably discovered a number of minute drowned or
drowning insects.

There is a swamp, in the neighbourhood of this
town, in which, in addition to pitcher-plants, are
found many other interesting specimens of our flora ,
e.g. Ledum pains tre, Ledum latifolium , Kalmia an-
gusiifolia , &c., plants known in England by the con-
ventional term, “American Plants,” and cultivated
“ at home ” with great care and at considerable cost.

The milkweed, Asclepias. — This family is variously
divided, by different botanists, into, 51, 36, and 22
species. The last is the American limit.

The spring-shoots of one of these plants, A. Syriaca,
are used by the habitans of the Province of Quebec
as an esculent ; and the cotton, soft as down, con-
cealed within its pods, forms, in some cases, the
stuffing of their beds. This cotton is of peculiarly
soft texture, and has, in consequence, been called
“ Virginian silk.”

Another of the milkweeds, A. tuber osa, is a com-
mon plant in the county of Peterborough. It is a very
showy plant, with bright orange umbellate blossoms.
The English name of this species is the pleurisy-root.
The family, as we are informed by Gray, derives its
name from yEsculapius.

I do not think there would be much difficulty in
cultivating the milkweeds with beneficial commercial
results. The requisites would be a very light soil
and abundant space.

New Jersey Tea, CeanotJucs Americanus. — This is
an ornamental shrub, growing to the height of from

three to four feet, and embellished, in summer, with
clusters of elegant white flowers possessing a faintly
sweet perfume. The shrub dies down to the roots
every winter. It has, not unfrequently, been used as
a substitute for the Chinese leaves ; but although by
no means unpalatable, we Canadians cannot flatter
ourselves that it will ever prove a formidable rival to
either Hyson or Bohea.

It is, however, satisfactory to know that in the
event of our supply from the Celestial Empire being
at any time cut off, we may still indulge, — furnished
by our own soil, for I have tasted the infusion, — in
the “ cups that cheer but not inebriate.”

Vincent Clementi, B.A.

Peterborough , Cauda.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF
FENESTELLA.

By G. R. Vine.

( Continued from page 276, vol. 1878.)

IN the study of the polyzoa — whether recent or
fossil — two distinct characters are presented to
our view : A true morphological, and a true physio-
logical character. The morphology of the fossil
polyzoa seems to come more fully within the de-
scriptive range of the palaeontologist than the other ;
but if the biologist is allowedjo speculate when dealing
with living forms, surely when dealing with the
more ancient forms, sound physiological knowledge
will be an advantage rather than a disparagement.
Hence, in applying the results of modern investi-
gation into the biology of the polyzoa, I have been
guided in my selection more by the necessity on
the part of the reader of the accurate appreciation
of these results, than by the many and varied cha-
racter of the investigations ; some of which are too
elaborate for general appreciation.

It seems to me then to be an axiom by no means
inappreciable that the life history of the palaeozoic
polyzoa can form no exception to the life history of
polyzoa generally. The definite forms of the one are
as truly characteristic as the definite forms of the other.
Among recent polyzoa no type exists bearing the
close affinities with the palaeozoic types, the nearest
approach to the Fenestella being the Retihornera of
Kirchenpaur. These, however, differ in many parti-
culars— especially so in the mode of development of
the cells along the sides of the fenestrules, and of
the non-existence of a central keel. But the vital
actions of the individual animals of the Retihornera
were essentially of the same character as the vital
actions of the animals of Fenestella. It will be well,
therefore, to devote a few paragraphs to the record of
the ordinary modes of propagation noticeable among
the polyzoa, so that we may be able to appreciate
more fully the value and the bearing of the facts which
will follow.

IIARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

5i

According to Dr. Allman, the polyzoa have three
distinct modes of reproduction. By buds or gemmae,
by true ova, and by free locomotive embryos.

The gemmae or buds are developed on the body of
the polypides : this always happens whenever the
cells are in mutual apposition. If the cells are dis-
tinct they are developed from the connecting stem or
stolon, as in the recent Lagunculci reptans.

“The best examples” of the former mode “are
furnished by the Flustra and their allies. From a
single cell of the Flustra five such buds may be sent
off, which develop themselves into new polypides
around it ; and these in their turn produce buds from
their unattached margins, so as rapidly to augment
the number of cells to a very large amount. To this
extension there seems no definite limit, and it often
happens that the cells in the central portion of the leaf-
like expansion of a Flustra are devoid of contents and
have lost their vitality whilst their edges are in a state
of active growth.”*

Since this was written the “ dead cells ” have formed
the subject of many an excellent paper by Claparede,
Smitt, Nitsche, and Hincks. The cells are not dead
in a true and literal sense, for they often contain black
or brown spots, supposed by Ellis (1755) “ to be the
remains of the animals once inhabiting these cells.”
These dark bodies are supposed — and their history
has been accurately traced by Hincks — to be “germ
capsules,” and these may be characterised, if not as a
fourth, at least as a very peculiar method of repro-
duction. This view, however, is opposed to that of
Claparede who considered the “ dark bodies to be the
result of retrogressive metamorphosis of the original
polypides which, under certain circumstances shrink
back into this rudimentary condition, passing through
the same stages in their decline as in their progress
towards maturity, but in an inverse order.” f

Reproduction by ova is the result of impregnation
of the ova with the spermatozoa. Both the male and
the female particles are developed within the same
polypides, only situated in different parts of the body.J
The embryo is first a hollow sphere, a layer is then
thrown off from the surface at the same time that an
opening is made in the wall of the sphere ; a second
sort of little sphere is thus formed within the first, and
here little polypides are gradually developed. § This
development often takes place within the body of the
parent, and their final discharge is by an opening
situated beneath the tentacular circle.

I do not take into this account all the facts that
have been promulgated respecting the reproduction of
polyzoa by buds and by fertilised ova. A good paper
by Nitsche, on the mode of reproduction of Flustra
membranacea , is to be found in the “ Quarterly Journal

* Dr. Carpenter, 1868.

f Hincks’s “Contribution to the History of Polyzoa.”

} See Dr. Carpenter, p. 578-9, “ Quarterly Journal of the
Microscopical Society,” vol. xiii,

$ Dr. Ord, M.D.

of the Microscopical Society,” vol. ii. It is true, how-
ever, that not all the polypes are equally reproductive.
In recent polyzoa, and in all probability in the fossil
also, there were distinct centres of reproductive energy.
These are the oooecia or the ovicells of Busk and
others. In some of the polyzoa the ovicells are
separated from the ordinary cell structure and are
developed in the axils of the zoocecia, or else by an
inflation of the ordinary cell. Among the cyclosto-
matous polyzoa, the ovicells of Crisia and Crisidia
are thus formed in the axils. The observations made
on the ovicells of Idmoneidse are scanty — but in the
species called Idmonea gracillima , brought to light
during the Porcupine soundings from a depth in the
Atlantic at from 286 to 322 fathoms, the ovicells are
pyriform like Crisia.

In Hornera frondiculata the ovicells are oblong
and keeled — and in this and in several other species
they are dorsal : while in H. violacea the ovicells are
anterior either wholly or in part. They are unknown
in Retihornera, but in Pustulopora they are tumid.
In the Tubuliporidae (Alecto and Tubulipora) the
ovicells are represented by an uniform inflation of a
part of the zoarium.

The ovarian cells of many of the Cheilostomata are
cells situated among the ordinary cells of the polyzoary.
They are known by certain characters and are easily
distinguished by those who are in any way acquainted
with the polyzoa. In the Salicornaria either a
conical tooth or an elongated slit marks the ovarian
cell. In the Membranipora, they are either triangu-
larly marked, deeply immersed, or large and con-
spicuous. In Lepralia some are peculiarly punctured,
or else globose. In Cellepora and Eschara they are
either globose or else subglobose — except in E. moni-
lifera , here there are no ovicells but what answers
the same purpose— -fertile cells, large, depressed, and
irregularly placed. In Melicerita the ovicells are im-
mersed, opening with a cresentic within the summit
of the cell ; while in Retepora there is either a vertical
slit, or a large opening in front.

To the living polyzoa two very remarkable, but
minute appendages are attached. One is the avicu-
laria, or bird’s head process ; the other is the vibri-
cula or whip-like spines. Much doubt exists as to
the real function of either of the appendages. They
are present in nearly all the Cheilostomatous polyzoa.
In the Cyclostomata these appendages are rare —
probably the vibricula are only found among the
Crisia and the Crisidea — and as the carboniferous
polyzoa are generally placed among the Cyclostomata
it would be useless therefore to seek for these appen-
dages. But there is strong presumptive evidence that
in some at least of the Fenestella and Glauconome
we may discover — either by inflations of the cells, or
by gibbous masses clustering round the cell mouths,
indications of one of the modes of reproduction
prevalent among the carboniferous polyzoa. For
specimens of these gibbous masses I have sought.

D 2

52

HARD WICKE’S S CIENCE- G OSSIP.

very earnestly amongst my material, and I have been
rewarded by finding some surrounding the cell
mouths — others attached to the spiniferous processes
of Fenestella, and some few attached to the spiniferous
and infertile branches of Fenestella and Polypora.

To the Fenestella other small processes were at-
tached, and wherever they exist they are generally
developed, but not always, on the margins of the frond.
Some of these are of a spine-like, or rather of a hook-
like character : and these hooks are always turned
towards the margin whence the processes are de-
veloped. On other parts of the polyzoary — some-

of recent polyzoa — as was served by Palaeocoryne in
the ancient group.

The reproductive history of Fenestella generally
seem to me to follow any co-ordinate type of the
genus. The same character in the cell, the same idea
prevalent in the Paloeocoryne and in the spiniferous
and infertile branches, and the same character of the
bifurcations exist in one species as in the others ; but
there are certain peculiarities about F. plebeia that
are apparently absent in other forms.

The corallum (or polyzoary), says M‘Coy, was
flat, expanded, and fan - shape ; thickly carinated

Fig. 42. — Vertical and horizontal section of shale containing F. pJeieia, M'Coy. Natural size.

F'g. 43.— The broken edge of Fig. 1, reversed ; the t refers to the continuation on the same
plane of the polyzoon — slightly different at c.

Fig. 44. — Enlargement of infertile roots and branches as at a in both
figures, at X, Pakeocoryne, and infertile processes are developed,
pointing upwards. Branches and root-like process slightly exagge-
rated.

times in the front, sometimes on the back, other
processes are developed, of a character altogether
different from these spiniferous branches. These are
the Palceocoryne both radiata and Scotica of Duncan.
Singularly enough these have been placed among the
Hydrozoa, and characters given by him to separate
parts altogether at variance with the facts. Palseo-
coryne, however, are unique appendages, and they
indicate another method of reproduction — peculiar to
the fenestrate forms of polyzoa found in the palaeo-
zoic rocks. Neither the appendages of Bicellaria
tuba , nor the anomalous ones of Bimeria in any way
resemble — or serve similar purposes in the life-history

Fig. 45. — Spiniferous branch
of Polypora tuberculata.
(Hairmyres.)

OOOOO Oo

Fig. 47. — Diagram of Paheo-
coryne, showing that the
Fenestella cells are con-
tinued along the base of
the processes, and are not
covered up by them. (By
Mr. John Young.)

Fig. 46. — Sketch of branch-
ing spiniferous process on
frond of Fenestella, from
Cragenglen- Campsie,
Scotland (four times natural
size). By Mr. John Young.

interstices, with thin and regular dissepiments. The
fenestrules were equal and rectangular, from two to
three times as long as wide, with a width equal to
that of the interstices. There are four or five cell
pores to length of fenestrule, with slight prominent
margins, about the diameter of the cell apart. The
reverse of the interstices are minutely granulated, and
very coarsely sulcate longitudinally.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

53

I have before me the fragin<~^.~ 1 u

boniferous shale from the polyzoabeds of North VV al&s
(fig. 42). It is about four inches square, and the
average thickness is about one inch. The specimen
was sent to me by my friend, G. W. Shrubsole,

character. On breaking my own across the middle

of Fenestelia growtVq 'fbl ifiJu>K£sJet into the secret

evidence that I have long sought for, and much more
than I ever expected to obtain.

v prm

...J Q.\j‘$Gt
)ml fall

,!J ’‘efn

i lj \

"'.o' ' o ■ ■

Fig. 51. — Fenestella plebeia ; showing the interrupted development
of the fenestrules ; the entire absence of fenestrules at a, on
face on the back are partially developed fenestrules of the
character shown at b. Previous to being slightly rubbed down,
Palseocoryne were attached of the shape and character of c. (In
my own cabinet.)

Fig. 48. — Infertile branch of Poly-
Pora tuberculata. (Prout, Hair-
myres.)

a

Fig. 49; — Infertile branches of Messrs. Young,
peculiarly developed on the margin of a Fenes-
tella, from Hairmyres. (My own cabinet.)

F.G.S., and he had in his possession a slab even
larger still, but unfortunately he has failed in other
visits to the district- of obtaining more of the same

Fig. 52. — Processes from side of Fenestella. (Mr. Shrubsole’s
collection.)

The general idea of Fenestella growth is, that it
was either cup-shape or flabelliform, springing from a
rooted base similar to the recent Retepora or the
Gorgonia. My belief is that this species at least was
recumbent in habit, and that it began life on some
fixed spot, and that from this point it gradually spread
over the soft muddy bottom. Its development in
one continuous plane, in either large or small fronds,
was dependent upon the quantity of sediment held in
solution by the waters above. It the water was
tolerably fine and free from much sedimentary matter,

1

54

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the fronds of F. plebeia would be correspondingly
large ; but if the waters_ wejrg^1 then these,
tailing upon the recumbent life form would soon
bury itself out of sight. In the one case the frond
would be perhaps from three to five inches square, in
the other perhaps not more than one inch. The
mystery of development is apparent in this recum-
bency, and we have no better example of the battle
of life in the whole palaeontology of the older rocks
than is to be found in the life history of these
palaeozoic polyzoa.

During the last twelve months I have examined a
vast number of the fronds of F. plebeia , and I find
everywhere that the inequalities of the surface add to
the grace of the Fenestella. Here there is a dead
Productus,* there some fallen encrinal stems, im-
bedded in the mud. Over these the delicate polyzoa
weave their beautiful polyzoary, adapting themselves
gradually to all the undulations of the surface. Not,
however, passing over the shell or the stem with
that sharpness or splint-like character which would
exist had the polyzoary been developed in an upright
position— but delicately weaving their network even
into the angles formed by the rounded stem as it lay
in contact with the bottom. In no place is the poly-
zoary doubled upon itself so far as I am aware.

In figures 42 and 43, I have given an outline of
the fractured shale of the natural size of my specimens.
The continuous outlines are the shape of the block,
while the dotted ones represent the exposed edges
of the Fenestella. The marks in both figures are
parts of the same polyzoary on the same plane, only
one represents the right-hand fragment, while the
other is the left-hand fragment reversed. There is a
slight difference in the one that is not found in the
other (c, fig. 43). At a in the two figures there are in-
fertile processes of a root-like character, enlarged in fig.
44 to show their connection with layers of the polyzoary
on certain planes. The character of these root-like
processes will be considered further on. At the upper
surface at point a , fig. 44, Palseocoryne is developed
on the under part of the frond, and the poriferous face
just at this particular point is much confused in cha-
racter ; portions of the branches, with several bi-
furcations, turning towards each other and meeting
in a rounded form at the top. This, however is a
peculiarity at this one point only, otherwise the frond
is amply and admirably developed on other parts of
the same plane. Here, at least, Palseocoryne serves
the purpose, not only of the supporting of the poly-
zoary, but actually of passing over the reproductive
power from one stage to another higher up, producing
the uppermost dotted portion of the frond at a in
figs. 42 and 43. From the peculiar character of F.
plebeia at this point, I am inclined to the belief that
this is only one of many points where this energy

* Longispinus.

. _ — mar plane. There was a dis-

or» 4- 1- -

valuing cause, and this too has left its stamp upon
the shale. A large productus settled down upon the
polyzoary, burying a portion of the frond and forcing
by its unpleasant presence either death or new
development upon the polyzoa.

By the possession of these singular appendages,
Palaeocoryne, the colony was saved from destruction
and development was carried on a stage higher up.
In another piece of shale I have specimens of
F plebeia , on two planes. Here Productus longispinus
is the original tenant, and where Palaeocoryne passes
over the life form from the lower to the higher, no
confusion whatever takes place in development of the
polyzoary ; and in another specimen where there is no
disturbing influence the frond, or rather the polyzoary,
is beautifully developed, with that flat, expanded fan-
like character noticed by M‘Coy in his description
of the species.

By the careful measurement of the exposed sections
of Fenestella by the compass, on fig. 42, I obtain a
length of about fourteen inches, and this multiplied
by three, which is considerably less than the average,
gives a surface of about forty-two superficial inches —
an idea of Fenestella growth altogether different from
that generally entertained as to the capacity of the
genus.

Many of the earlier of Mr. Shrubsole’s Welsh
Fenestella plebeia I was inclined to place under the
descriptive character of Phillips’ sp. F. Jlabellula ; but
as specimen after specimen began to show characters
altogether different from Phillips’ diagnosis, I declined
to place any more with that species. After breaking
up my shale, I forwarded a small portion of it to
Mr. John Young, F.G.S., of the Hunterian Museum,
Glasgow, and he kindly identified the specimen as
a fragment of F. plebeia (M‘Coy). He also stated
in his letter (July 7, 1878), that “It would be an
interesting point to prove, in a satisfactory manner,
that Fenestella and other kindred forms of fenestrated
polyzoa grew in a recumbent method over the car-
boniferous old sea bottoms. One would be inclined
to think, that from the small size of the roots com-
pared with the large size of the fronds in many of the
species, that the recumbent method was their natural
way of growth.” So far as I am acquainted with the
subject there is no literature extant respecting this
idea, and I believe Mr. Young is equally ignorant of
any. The description and the figures of my slab will
be, I believe, sufficient to prove the habit of the species,
and any doubt respecting the true interpretations of
the facts can be satisfactorily corrected by a reference
to the fossils which I shall continue to keep in my
possession.

I shall now take Palaeocoryne in all its stages, and
endeavour to identify the whole as generative processes
of the fenestrate polyzoa.

A tter cliff e , Sheffield.

(To be continued.)

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

55

ON THE MARKINGS AND OTHER
CHARACTERS OF BRITISH RAPTORES.

AN inquiry at p. 281 in SciENCE-Gossir for De-
cember suggests that a few remarks grounded
on observation of several species of hawks may not
be unacceptable to young ornithologists. These
birds being now rare in most districts, opportunities
for inspecting recent specimens are not common.

The first description, referred to, seems to relate
to a kestrel ; the second — wanting an important item,
viz., size, may concern a sparrow-hawk— but is too
vague to support a reliable opinion.

Peregrines, hobbies, kestrels and merlins have
long and pointed wings, the first or second quill
being longer than others ; they have also * ‘ the falcon’s
tooth,” a process jutting downwards from either edge
of the upper mandible.

Sparrow-hawks, which Markham and the religieuse
of St. Alban’s would have included with the goshawk
as short- winged, have the fourth primary longer than
the fifth, which exceeds the third, giving together
rounder outline of wing and more lapwing or partridge-
like flight. Sparrow-hawks, and the long-winged
harriers, have a waved side edge to the upper mandible,
the convexity being downwards and placed nearer the
base than is the tooth of the Falconidse, that forms
their substitute for it.

Most hawks have increasing tendency to exchange
dark shades for lighter tints, and the males of several
species to assume a distinctly grey colour instead.
Not only do individuals of the same species differ from
Others of like age, but do so themselves at different
ages, and much confusion has thus been caused.

The female kestrel, and, if I remember, the young
of both sexes, at first, exhibit a warm foxy brown of
back, head and tail, the first part being freely sprinkled
with black triangles. A long tail projecting more
than an inch beyond the folded wings is barred all
down ; the halves of such dark traverses are not,
however, exactly continuous with their fellows on the
opposite web. The ground colour, in front, varies
from a dirty white or yellowish grey to a rufous tinge ;
the breast markings on this are narrow, vertical,
light reddish-brown splashes or streakings ; below,
these sometimes run together and expand, after the
semblance of knotted cords, like the markings on the
blue butterfly’s scale.

The kestrel’s head is elongated and flattened on the
vertex ; the beak is blue with black tip ; the base
being wide with yellow cere across it ; behind this
are many bristles. The eyes are large, dark and soft,
with yellow edges to the lids. The slightly larger
female after moulting retains her peculiarities, but
the male gradually acquires a pretty lavender of head
and pole finely streaked with vertical black lines ; the
back is then a richer cinnamon and with fewer black
patches ; the tail grey, with often only one bar ;
broad, tenninal, and edged below with white. If,

however, the tail feathers be spread, remains of barr-
ing may, perhaps, be found distributed irregularly and
chiefly, or entirely on the inner webs — one single spot
in several may be seen. A very fine female, in the
writer’s possession, has the ground colour of the tail
approaching a faded grey, the marks much paler than
usual, and the back cinnamon almost as brilliant as
that usually seen in males. Well-padded, strong,
feet are shorter proportionately than those of other
falcons, the sparrow-hawk or harriers ; and so are
the tarsi, except those of the peregrine ; the talons
are straighter and shorter than in the species just
mentioned ; weight, male about 6£ ounces, length
13-15 inches, spread 27 inches. The much heavier
female sparrow-hawk is, at least, an inch longer from
beak to tail, but little wider of wing.

Young peregrines show a warmish but less red
brown, and their breast markings, at this age, are
mostly vertical and of the same hue ; subsequently
these are replaced by much darker, horizontal, chevron-
like, traverses on breast, abdomen, and on under
wing coverts — but quite the upper streakings pass
into flask or tear-shaped spots, both becoming fewer
and lighter with advancing age, until the breast shows
nearly snow-white, a prong of which partly encircles
the throat, gorget fashion — above the ends is a
dark patch streaming back from either angle of the
mouth ; this peculiarity is more or less observable in
other falcons. The mature, but still young, peregrine
has the head, back and short tail of deep slate colour,
closely blotched with bluish black, which at a short
distance masks the general colour ; both become
lighter. The closed wings reach almost to the end
of the tail, which is so folded that a sort of channel
down it appears anteriorly. A fine female weighed
2 lb. 9 oz., measured 19 in., and spread 42 in. The
flesh was hard and very red, the heart large and
thick, the ligaments, aponeuroses, and tendons were
tough ; the feet very long, tarsi short and strong ; the
back toe and claw terrible. This bird was shot
stooping at pigeons near a harbour mill ; White’s
description and Morris’s illustration tally closely
with it. The only supposed Iceland falcon I recollect
to have seen was higher, with longer neck, legs and
tail, the latter extending much beyond the wings ;
the beak was carried further out and pinched in at
the setting on, whereas that of the peregrine, expands
widely there. The feet of the hobby and merlin
have the relative length of a peregrine, but not the
stoutness. The hobby’s wings reach quite to the
extremity of the tail ; the facial patch is well marked ;
the breast streakings are bolder, broader, and darker
than those of the kestrel or merlin ; the tail of the
latter is long, passing an inch or an inch and a half
beyond the wings, and is barred freely with light-
coloured traverses, they and the interspaces being
nearly of equal width. The female is larger than the
male ; the brown colour is lighter than that of the
sparrow-hawk, . but less red than the kestrel ; the

56

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

male, like that of the hobby and sparrow-hawk,
becomes dark grey above and behind, with reddish
sides of neck and breast. The merlin may be known
in the air by exceedingly rapid, unswerving, pigeon-
like, headlong flight, and by small size, and, when
seen more closely by the falcon tooth, warm but not
red brown and long tail, with numerous orange-
brown traverses. There is greater difference of size
between the sexes of sparrow-hawks than is the case
with kestrels or merlins.

The sparrow-hawk’s shanks are long, and the toes
also ; the former being, in the female, 2§ inches long,
the middle toe if, the back one |th, and far stouter

it is wanting in the falcon tooth, and somewhat in
strength of foot and leg. The young marsh harrier,
or moor buzzard of Bewick, who gives an excellent
representation of it, is of a deep brown, the colour
of a dark brown red game pullet, but with some
feathers laced at the edges by a lighter shade. The
head alone differs in colour, and with a dirty yellowish-
white cap. The beak is carried out and long, the
feet strong, and the general aspect ferocious. The
hen harrier has a slyer and more perky, softer look,
with a distinct owl-like facial fringe or whisker ; tall,
long-legged, and upstanding, it has a long tail reach-
ing far below the closed wings ; the plumage is rusty

Fig. 53. — The Kite (Milvus rcgalis).

than the others.' The long tail has a few dark bars
carried straight across both webs, or meeting with a
slight angle that looks upwards. The breast mark-
ing, and those of the abdomen and under wing
coverts, are very similar to the peregrine’s chevron,
but lighter in colour. As the male gradually becomes
greyish, with a reddish breast, the female adopts a
softer brown and paler traverses ; she has always a
sufficient scowl, very different from the haughty
aspect of the peregrine, hobby or merlin, or the
wistful pensive look of the kestrel. Of three harriers
one approaches the buzzard in appearance ; another,
owls ; the third, in some respects perhaps, more nearly
the kestrel, that is in lightness and length of wing, but

and mealy, reddish or darkish brown,
broken or streaked ; the breast has vertical
splashings ; tail traverses, and interspaces
are pretty equal, and perhaps mingled with
white ; a show of this on the tail coverts
has procured the name of ringtail, assigned
by Bishop Stanley to the goshawk. The
vertex is round, and the head wanting in the length
and breadth and over-hanging brows of the peregrine
or kestrel. The spread of harriers is very consider-
able ; I regret to have mislaid my own measurements.
Colonel Montague’s harrier, presumably the blue-
hawk, with which the observant old naturalist of Sel-
borne was acquainted (for he separately describes the
peregrine sometimes thus styled), is an altogether
lighter and more elegant bird ; long with weaker feet
and beak than those just spoken of ; two Montague’s
harriers in the writer’s collection differ much in
colour ; one has a decidedly rufous breast and dark
plumage, richer and warmer than that of the female
sparrow-hawk, and having here and there bright
orange lacing to feathers ; the other is larger and

Fig. 54. — Sparrow-Hawk (Accifiiter
fringillarius) .

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

57

paler with dirty white breast and sparsely covered
with long and wide tongue-shaped light red splashes,
base upwards ; this bird had, when spread, a very
mottled appearance of wings underneath, caused by
external marking showing through and barring the
silver grey beneath.

The talons of harriers or sparrow-hawks, who are
rather snatchers and pouncers, than swoopers and
strikers, are proportionately longer, sharper, and more
curved than those of most genera, but not so stout.
The beaks of harriers, like those of buzzards, do not
at once bend downwards, gradually forming a curve,
but at first project outwards. They are narrower at

Fig- 55- — Fair of Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus).

the setting on than those of true falcons, but make
up for this by greater depth — bristles and feathers at
the base somewhat hide this part, but a side view
reveals the true proportions. The harriers I have
seen were chiefly obtained from uninhabited marshes
of the shore line. The males of two species, at least,
turn to a bluish grey, with much white underneath
and in front. I have seen one such example, and
heard of two ; but in England this condition is now
very rare. The goshawk formerly used for hawking
in wooded places is still, it is said, much employed
in India and China, &c. This large bird appears to
have breast traverses, with dark brown back, &c. It

was represented in the wholesale massacre at Glen-
garry which Colonel Knox records — and may yet be
found in Scotland and Ireland as well as in France
and Germany. I have never met with it.

The three species of buzzards, also of large size and
far less active than falcons, are occasionally seen ; the
honey-buzzard in dense woods. Two specimens of
the rough-legged buzzard have come under my notice
in three years, one at Arundel, and the other twenty
miles west in the extreme south-west angle of Sussex.
Feathered tarsi mark the species ; one was much
greyer on the back, and altogether lighter-coloured
as well as smaller than the other, killed in October,

Fig. 56. — The Buzzard (Butco vulgaris).

1876. The latter measured twenty-four inches,
was dark brown upon a lighter shade, giving
large dark splashings on back and wings ; tail
whole brown, except at the sides towards the
base ; wings length of tail ; head and neck
showed lighter vertical streakings, and the breast
more ; dark upon a light reddish dove ground ;
much vulture-hocked, with light brown feathers
having fine dark streaks, legs closely feathered, with
the same pattern ; beak and claws large, dark brown
feet.

The common buzzard, it is stated, is rarer than
the others. The Rev. H. D. Gordon, of Harting,
has recently published a most interesting history of
that neighbourhood, associated with many historical
events, and Mr. Weaver, a resident gentleman, has
added a very complete flora and fauna of a wild and
beautiful district. This informs us that the common

58

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

buzzard is more often seen there than other species.
Several specimens killed at that spot, within a score
or two of years, are powerful, ragged, savage-looking
birds, with broken, grey and white plumage, and
tails considerably longer than the wings ; no two
were alike. The long forked-tailed kite has dis-
appeared from the South of England, to the great
satisfaction of all concerned in rearing young poultry,
game, or pigs ; these never being safe when once
discovered by that audacious thief.

M. O. H. -

ON MOUNTING AND PRESERVING THE
LARVAL OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.

WILL you allow me to describe my method of
✓mounting and preserving the forms of the
various moth and butterfly larvre ? What I have to
say may perhaps be a help to some ; or induce others
who know a better plan to communicate it in return.

For the last three or four years I have been
working out my own in my leisure hours ; and, con-
sidering that I have been totally unaided, I think I
may say that I have been tolerably successful. After
seeing Lord Walsingham’s fine collection of mounted
larvse at the Entomological Show held in the Royal
Aquarium last March, I made up my mind to write to
Science-Gossip on the subject. For I have long
felt that our collections would be greatly increased
in value and attractiveness by the addition of a nicely-
mounted larva to each specimen of the perfect insect.
The apparatus required is very simple, consisting only
of a glass retort holding about about a quart, a foot
length of india-rubber tubing about the size used for
babies’ bottles, a small piece of glass piping, and some
dry straws of different sizes. Into one end of the
india-rubber tubing fit a portion of glass pipe so as to
make a mouthpiece : this we will call our blow -pipe.
Then secure a well-grown caterpillar ; which must be
at least a week off the stage of becoming a pupa, for
when that change is about to take place an amount of
white fatty matter adheres to the skin, which it is
almost impossible to get rid of, and which, if left
there, spoils the preparation. Place this larva in a
box and some chloroform or benzole with it ; but
take care neither of them touch it ; having first
covered the inside of the box with blotting-paper all
round to absorb any of the dark green matter which
often exudes from the mouth of larvre when irritated
or alarmed. When the grub is quite dead and slightly
relaxed, take it out of the box and place it upon a
sheet of blotting-paper, and gently pass a roller, made
of a common pencil covered with blotting-paper,
down from the head to the tail. By this means the
entire contents of the creature may be expelled per
anum without any damage to the skin. Next select
a straw about the size of the opening through which
the contents were discharged, and pass it into the

body a short distance, and there fix it. This may be
done by passing two small pins at right angles to
each other through the extremity of the tail of the
larva and the inserted straw, and then adding a little
gum or glue round the skin of the caterpillar where
it touches the straw on the outside which will make
the whole air-tight. Now that you have your cater-
pillar fairly fastened on one end of the straw, pass
the other end into the india-rubber extremity of your
blow-pipe, and fix it there by a slight ligature. Put-
ting the glass end to your mouth, blow gently into it,
and you will inflate your larva, which will at once
assume its natural shape, provided only it is not dis-
tended too much. Then light your Bunsen burner,
and having moderately heated the retort, hold the
larva thus inflated in the hot air of the retort till it is
perfectly dry. Especial care must be taken that it is
neither over-heated nor imperfectly dried, or before
long the skin will become wrinkled or pitted. Now
clip your pins off close to the straw and cut away the
straw at the end of the caterpillar’s tail : and your
work is done. And if you have gone through all
these stages carefully, it will be done very satisfactorily
too, for the larva will be found to have lost little or
no colour and to be in a very natural position. There
is no need to trouble oneself at all on this last point,
for each will assume that which is most natural in its
own state of rest. The greatest difficulty I have
experienced has been the preservation of the colour
in the case of the light green ones, and I believe it to
be impossible without the aid of some colouring
matter or dye. For their colour is not in the skin, as
appears from the fact that, as soon as they cleared
out by our roller, the skin is no longer green but of a
whitish hue. It had always been a great object with
me to preserve their colour, and I looked upon its
reproduction by means of paints as an illegitimate
process, but I have been at last compelled to think it
indispensable.

In the case of hairy sorts the utmost care is required
to avoid destroying the hairs. But provided the
grub is not too near casting its skin you may
generally manage this by proper precaution.

I now think I have stated all that is necessary to
the perfect carrying-out of my process.

I may, however, mention in conclusion one other
way of securing the colours of the light green speci-
mens ; and that is by filling the emptied skins with
strong alcohol coloured by dyes. The alcohol hardens
the skin and colours it from the inside, which is more
natural than if the colour were laid on externally.

William Brewster.

Natural History Clubs. — If any of your readers
should have experience in connection with village
Natural History clubs, or Botanical clubs, they would
confer a benefit upon certain persons desirous to form
such a club if they would kindly send a brief state-
ment of the most advisable method of conducting
them to IV. L. B., The Rectory , Pulborough , Sussex.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

59

THE POLECAT {Mustela putorius).

ONE morning during the past summer, I was
taking a stroll before breakfast, when, going
down a “shady lane,” I was amused by one of our
sturdy villagers shouting out as loud as his famous
lungs would permit him. “ A fitchett,” “a fitchett,”
“ a fitchett just gone down the marsh.” Thought I,
what can the man mean ? Acting upon the thought, I
stopped him to inquire, when I was roughly answered,
“A fitchett dunno’ ye know ; well, then, I canna’ tell
ye.” Of course, all this was excused, for my friend
was quite wild with excitement. Scarcely knowing
for the moment what to do, I did what I conceived
to be the best, joined in the eager pursuit, along with
a score of lads and men, as fast as our legs could
carry us. At length panting, and out of breath, I
jumped with the rest over a five-barred gate, and
entered a meadow to find my fellow villagers pursuing

Fig. 57. — Polecat (Mustela putorius).

a dark looking animal along a thick edge. Before
proceeding further in my description of this Cheshire 1
hunt (you know we are noted for hunting in the
cheese-making country), permit me to add by way of
excusing my conduct, in joining in the chase, that I
was really anxious to know what a fitchett was. It
might be a large animal, just escaped from a strolling
menagerie, so it was important that the village should
be speedily free from its presence.

However, I at length caught a glimpse of this
intruder on the peace of our quiet village. It was a
long and elegantly shaped animal, of a rich black
colour along the back. The chase continued with
considerable excitement for almost half an hour. The
animal had the advantage over its opponents, by being
sheltered with the thick hedge bottom — it dodged
first to one side, then to the other, until it was
evidently weary ; then making a spring for liberty

and life, it was most humiliatingly held fast with a
large shovel tightly laid over its loins. The next
question was, should it be at once killed or preserved
alive ? The majority voted for a kind treatment, so a
boy was despatched to the nearest farmhouse for a bag,
in which to carry it safely. To make a long story
short, we soon had our captive in a large barrel,
where it was kept for a few weeks, until it was pur-
chased by an exhibitor.

I learned what I wished to know when I ‘ leg or
nothing ’ joined heartily in the hunt. The fitchett was
a polecat, an animal not at all common in this county,
and I gained my knowledge, not by hearsay evidence,
but by my olfactory nerves, for no sooner was the
captive held tightly under the labourer’s spade than
we were regaled by a most horrible stench. Talk
about bone-works in active operation, it is a pleasant
perfume when compared to the polecat ! Another
point was learned. The habits of this animal in
captivity were so similar to the ferret that I
have now no doubts the latter animal is a
domesticated polecat. Of course, by con-
tinued breeding in-and-in, to use a live-stock
phrase, it is now weakened, as well as puny,
compared with its original parents from the
“wild wood.”

I account for the common or local name
^ fitchett’1'1 from the fact that the long shining
hairs are used to manufacture the brushes
used by artists, | under the name of fitch , or
fitchet ; we thus perceive the name is not far-
fetched. The colour of the polecat is a
deep blackish-brown j the head, tail, and
feet almost black ; the under parts yellowish,
- the ears are edged with white, with a whitish

space x-ound the muzzle. The hair is of two
kinds, — a short woolly fur which is pale
yellow, or somewhat tawny, and long shining
hairs of a rich black, or a brownish-black
colour, which are most numerous on the
darkest parts.

For the unpleasant odour exuded from the animal,
we find a pouch, or follicle just under the tail, which
emits a yellowish, cream-like substance, of a very fetid
odour ; this is particularly strong when the polecat is
excited or irritated. It is an active little animal,
scarcely ever idle, and never still, except when it is
asleep, and it is one of the best friends a farmer can
have about his premises, if he can keep it away from
the hen-roost, for it is very partial to poultry, and
commits great destruction if the game is plentiful.
It destroys the latter solely for the brains and blood,
for the birds are never torn or mangled. It is how-
ever, indefatigable in its pursuit of rats, and its
presence in the rickyard is quite sufficient to drive
away all the vermin.

Another local name for the polecat is “ foumart
by many supposed to be a corruption of foul marten ,
in allusion to the odour it leaves behind. From its

Go

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

long, agile body and bushy tail, it bears a close re-
semblance to the weasel and stoat ; thus it is some-
times referred to the same genus.

It also has the same pugnacious disposition as the
weasel, for we have a record from Delamere Forest
of a fierce encounter betwixt a female and a game-
keeper. It appears the man had taken its young to
destroy them, when the mother came too quickly on
the scene, and attacked the keeper. The fight con-
tinued nearly an hour : the polecat came off victorious,
for it escaped with its young, but the man was led
home blinded, and with his features lacerated in a
dreadful manner. Our hunt ended
far more happily, for we secured
the poor “ fitch ettA a which has
furnished us with the text of the
present narrative.

R.

process of fertilisation; but it was difficult to see
how this could be so, and moreover the great di-
versity of form in the irregularities seemed to nega-
tive such a supposition. On a closer examination,
however, and on sketching the stamens, I am inclined
to think that this is a case of abortion accompanied
by an extra formation in consequence of such abor-
tion ; that is to say, that the anther being in many
cases absent or imperfect, the energy of the stamen,
diverted from its usual object, has spent itself instead
in this unusual manner. To this conclusion I have
been led by observing that the extent of the malfor-

Fig. 58.— Flowers of Spannannia Africana. (natural size).

PARMANNIA AFRI-
CANA belongs to the
Tiliacese, or Lime-tree order, this
genus being a native of Southern
Africa. It grows there as a small
shrub, one foot or eighteen inches
high, with coarsely serrate, downy,
heart-shaped leaves, and umbels
of handsome white blossoms.

Each flower consists of an inferior
polysepalous calyx of four white
silky sepals, a hypogynous poly-
petalous corolla of four white
petals, numerous hypogynous red
and yellow stamens, forming a
globular bunch, in the midst of
which is the style, rising from a
superior many-celled pistil. The
carpels are studded with tuber-
culated hairs, very much like the
glandular hairs of the stinging
nettle, but without the curved tip.

The pedicels exhibit a peculiarity
which I do not remember to have
seen elsewhere. About one-third of an inch from
each flower there is a joint, not very conspicuous,
but still easily seen, where the flower-stalk gives
way on being pulled.

But the stamens form the most interesting part of
the plant. I have figured a few in order to convey
a better idea of their structure, by which it will be
seen that their filaments are more or less enlarged by
growths which sometimes take very fantastic shapes.
Puzzled at first to know what could be the use of
these formations, I not unnaturally expected to find
that they were in some way connected with the

illations varies in the different stamens just in propor-
tion, roughly speaking, to the abortion of the anther ^
and also that the outgrowths are largest at the end.
of the stamen where the anther would have been,
and diminish in the other direction. That this is
the case will appear from the specimens figured,,
which are fair examples of the rest. The antheriferous
stamens occupy by far the larger portion of the group,
being found in the centre around the style ; while the
abortive stamens are found towards the edge of the
group, forming a ring around the others. The latter
are comparatively short and are en tirely yellow, while

ON THE STAMENS OF
S PARMANNIA AFRICANA.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

61

the former are longer and bright red for the upper
two-thirds of their length ; the two kinds merging
gradually into one another. This position of the
abortive stamens is just that in which they would be
of least use to the pistil even if they had anthers,

A Novel Air-pump for removing Air Bubbles
in Slides. — A is a frame made of wood or metal ; B
is an india-rubber pipe ; C is a valve made4 by
closing one end of a piece of glass tube, and then
drilling a small hole as shown in D, then slipping

supposing the flower to be self-fertilising ; while it is
also here that the stamens would be most likely to
undergo metamorphosis into petals.

As one might expect a flower with so many stamens
to have a tendency to become double, it would be
interesting to know what would be the effect of
cultivation, and whether the malformation would
advance inwards as the outer stamens were converted
into petals. It may be that instead of becoming
petals, the outer stamens would produce still more
extraordinary forms.

I am indebted for the specimen I have figured to
J. W. Morris, Esq., of Bath.

New-Kingswood, Bath. John W. Buck.

MICROSCOPY.

Cavities in Quartz. — The observations made
upon the liquid-cavities in the quartz-bearing rocks
of the Lake District were made from thin slices of
the rocks prepared for me by Mr. Cuttell, under the
superintendence of Mr. Jordan, of the Museum,
Jermyn Street. Mr. Jordan has invented a special
form of machine for the purpose. I would refer readers
of Science-Gossip to my paper in the “ Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society,” vol. xxxi. p. 568,
1875. — 7- Clifton Ward.

over it a small piece of india-rubber tubing as shown
at C. The top of frame A should be made perfectly
true, and then coated with tallow and a piece of glass-

laid upon it. The air is exhausted with the mouth
at C. I find with this handy little instrument I
can get sufficient vacuum to remove any air bubbles
that might have formed in my slide. Mr. Atkins,
of 200 Essex Road, Islington, made my instrument,
and I think he is now making them for sale. —
A. Smith.

How TO REMOVE CANADA BALSAM FROM SLIDES.
— I know that microscopists sometimes find it difficult
to remove Canada balsam from old slides, or un-
successfully mounted ones. I have always found the
following plan a very good one : Place the slides in

6 2

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

an oven for two or three days, the Canada Balsam
will then easily chip off with a knife, then wash them
in soda water. — S. C. Hincks.

New Forms of Camera Lucida. — In the
December number of the “Bulletin de la Societe
Beige de Microscopie,” Dr. Henry van Heurck
describes a new form of camera lucida, invented by
D. T. Hofmann (29 Rue Bernard, Paris), the well-
known optician. This camera lucida not only shows
the pencil with great distinctness, but every detail of
the image. Every one who uses the camera lucida is
annoyed at the uncertainty that accompanies the
ordinary apparatus, particularly when it is necessary
to reproduce delicate details, as, for example, the
markings on diatoms. With this new instrument
these fatiguing adjustments are avoided, and we feel
sure that it will be cordially welcomed by the micro-
grapher. The construction of the Hofmann camera
lucida will be under-
stood by the sub-
joined diagram. It
will be seen that it
consists of c, a com-
bination of lenses.

The image is received
by a silvered glass,
a, and is reflected
upon the second
glass, b. e is a small aperture, through which not
only the image in the mirror can be seen, but also
the pencil and paper, d are two very slightly convex
lenses, which may be used together or separately ;
they serve the same purpose as those on the ordi-
nary forms of camera lucida. The Hofmann camera
lucida is really a “camera lucida ocular,” the in-
ventor intending it to replace the ordinary ocular. —
F. Kitton.

Fig. 61. — The Hofmann Camera
Lucida.

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society.
— Some twelve months since the Society was informed
by the publishers of the “Monthly Microscopical
Journal” that in consequence of that work not being
a pecuniary success, the arrangement existing between
them must terminate. The Society thereupon de-
termined to follow the example of other societies and
publish their own Transactions. In accordance with
this resolution, the first part made its appearance in
March, 1878, a part being published every alternate
month. We have now before us the first volume and
part i. of the second. Volume i. contains 402 pp.
of letter-press, 17 plates and many woodcuts. The
names of the contributors of original papers guarantee
their value.

The following gentlemen have already sent papers :
H. Sorby, F.R.S., &c. (Presidential Address) ; Carl
Zeiss, Jena ; Adolph Schulze, Glasgow ; J. W. Stephen-
son, F.R.A.S. ; G. G. Stokes, M.A., D.C.L. Oxon.,
LL.D. Dublin, &c. ; Professor R. Keith ; F. H.
Ward, M.R.C.S. ; F. H. Wenham, F.R.M.S. ; F.

Crisp, LL.B., B.A. &c. ; Professor Owen, F.R. S*
&c. ; Dr. R. Pigott, M.A., F.R.S. &c. ; H. J. Slack,
F.G.S. ; Dr. H. D. Schmidt, New Orleans, La. ;
M. P. Petit, Paris ; Rev. W. H. Dallinger.

Amongst the important original articles we would
especially direct attention to the following, “On the
Measurement of the Flagella of Bacterium, a Con-
tribution to the Question of the Ultimate Limit of
Vision,” by the Rev. W. H. Dallinger (2 plates). It
has been asserted that any object whose dimensions
were less than a half-wave length of white light, was
incapable of being seen, however much our objectives
were ^improved in their revolution or definition. In
fact, that light was too coarse a medium for objects
less than inch in breadth, that being the length
of half a wave of white light ; supposing the blue
rays were used, the dimensions might be reduced to
about the inch without becoming invisible.

The Rev. W. H. Dallinger, with the careful manipu-
lation for which he is so justly celebrated, has not only
been able to see the flagella on Bacterium termo , but
has succeeded in accurately measuring their diameters,
and he finds that the mean of two hundred measure-
ments is nearly inch, being much less than

a quarter-wave length of white light. Mr. Slack,
F.G.S., the present president, communicates some
interesting observations “ On the visibility and optical
aspects of Hairs viewed from a distance.” He
finds that a hair ^ inch in diameter when stretched
on a pane of plate glass and viewed against a white
sky, was seen by several persons at a distance of thirty-
four feet, and under special conditions at a much greater
distance. In the February number Dr. Royston
Pigott, M.A., F.R.S. &c., has a learned and valuable
paper on a similar subject, viz., “ The Limits of
Microscopic Vision.” In this paper he very much
increases the limits of visibility, but we must refer our
readers to the paper itself, our space only permitting
this brief notice of it. Professor Owen in his article on
the microscopic structure of the fossils called “grani-
cones” (2 plates), shows with great probability that these
bodies are the dermal scutes of some Lacertian reptile
resembling the recent Moloch horridus of Australia.
Associated with these remains are the bones of mar-
supials. The “granicones” occur in the “Feather-
bed ” stratum, Middle Purbeck, Dorsetshire. Those
interested in the study of the Diatomacese will read
with pleasure M. P. Petit’s description of new diatoms
from New Zealand and Campbell Island (translated
by permission of the author, with notes by F. Kitton).
It is illustrated with two plates of figures. The notes
and memoranda form an important part of each number.
They are selected (and where necessary translated)
from the current literature, English and foreign ; the
ordinary microscopist is therefore kept “posted up”
in the most recent labour of foreign observers. In
the bibliographical division we have first a list of
microscopical works recently published (English and
foreign) ; second, an index to the contents of the various

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

63

scientific serials, English, French, German, and Ameri-
can, in so far as they relate to microscopical matters ;
as this division occupies eight closely-printed pages,
our readers well understand that it contains no ordinary
amount of information. The editorship has been
undertaken (as an honorary office) by one of the
secretaries, Frank Crisp, LL.B., B.A. &c.

ZOOLOGY.

The Weather and the Birds. — Under the
above heading,, a paragraph appeared in Science-
Gossip for February (p. 40), in which it is stated that
a golden eagle was shot at Fritton, and another seen
at the same time which escaped. The bird in question
was wounded and taken alive, and is now in the
Yarmouth aquarium, where I saw it a short time since.
It certainly is not a golden, but an immature white-
tailed eagle. Individuals in the same stage of plumage
occur along the east coast almost every autumn or
early winter, and are as invariably recorded as golden
eagles. The only authentic instance of the occurrence
of the latter species is that recorded by Mr. Stevenson
in the “Zoologist” for 1869, but the white-tailed
eagle, as before stated, although in the mature
plumage excessively rare, is in the immature dress by
no means a rarity. In order to distinguish between
the two species in any stage of plumage, it is only
necessary to remember that the tarsi in the golden
eagle are feathered to the toes, and the first joint
only of each toe is covered with broad scales, whereas
in the white-tailed eagle the whole length of each
toe is covered with broad scales and the tarsi are bare.
— T. Southwell , Norwich.

Killing and Preserving Reptiles. — In reply
to Mr. Alfred Wheldon’s inquiry, I beg to say that
the best way to kill a small reptilian or batrachian is
to put the animal into a phial which is of just suffi-
cient size, together with a piece of folded blotting-
paper, saturated with chloroform, and then place the
bottle for a few minutes out of the sight of ladies
and children. Death will speedily result from
asphyxia. The specimen should then be preserved
in methylated spirit, which may be diluted to the
extent of, say, 25 per cent, with water. The addition
of the water will very likely make the liquid thick
with air-bubbles, but these will disappear in a few
hours. The most convenient and inexpensive bottles
are “boxwood-topped kali bottles,” or, for rather
larger specimens, “one pound wide-mouthed stoppered
rounds.” Both may be obtained of Messrs. S. Maw,
Son, & Thompson, 10, 11, and 12 Aldersgate Street,
E.C., or through any obliging chemist. It is not
usually necessary to secure the specimen with a
thread. Lizards and newts should be preserved head
downwards. — A*. Morton Middleton , Jun.

The Nightingale in Yorkshire,— As Mr.
Ingleby has indicated the nidification of the nightin-

j gale, Philomela Luscinia having taken place in
Yorkshire, the following facts may prove interesting
■ both to him and other readers of Science-Gossip.

; In the summer of 1877, a pair of nightingales built
their nest in the shrubbery of a gentleman residing
near Beverley. Of course the occurrence attracted
considerable attention, and it was freely discussed in
the local papers. I am glad to say, however, that,
notwithstanding the general publicity thus given to
this remarkable fact, the young were hatched and
reared without any further disturbance than that
occasioned by the pardonable curiosity of onlookers.
In this they seem to have been more fortunate than
the pair described by Mr. Ingleby. I may add that
no further instance of this kind has occurred since in
the neighbourhood, and indeed had not done so for
some time previously. — Major Lawson.

Glyciphagus plumiger. — When I announced
the capture of this acarus in the July number, I had
only found one specimen ; subsequent search, how-
ever, enabled me to find many more of both sexes.
I scarcely thought this worth mentioning, but as
my silence may have misled Mr. Lambert, it is
perhaps as well to do so. For the purposes of obser-
vation, I endeavoured to breed them in confinement,
and have been fairly successful. I have several
thriving families at this moment. I may take this
opportunity of stating that although, when I first
announced the capture in England of the kindred
species, Glyciphagus palmifer, I doubted its being
truly indigenous, I believe now that it is, as I have
since found it where its introduction on any foreign
material would be highly improbable. — A. D. Michael.

Division of the Pteropoda. — At a recent
meeting of the San Francisco Microscopical Society,
Dr. G. Eisen stated that the class of Pteropoda had
hitherto been divided in two orders, viz., Thecosomata
and Gymnosomata, the animals belonging to the
former being covered by a hard shell, those of the
latter being perfectly naked. He thought a better
characteristic would be the presence or absence of a
silicate radula in the palate. The two genera ex-
hibited were very likely new, but seemingly related
to Tiedemannia and Pneumodermon. The wings of
the former genus were drawn more minutely, and
especially their anterior margin was seen in a highly
magnified scale. The author had here found some
new organs of sense, consisting of an agglomeration
of larger cells situated on a pear-shaped body of
minute granulated cells. In the middle of the larger
cells was to be seen a small opaque, pearl-shaped body
immediately connected with a nerve ganglion. Such
peculiar organs were distributed over only a small
surface of the hyaline wing. The masticatory organs
of this genus were situated in the stomach, and con-
sisted chiefly of four pyramidal chitinous teeth. The
same organ of Pneumodermon was seen to consist of
a radula full of silicate teeth. On both sides of this

64

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

radula, and also in fiont of the same, were large
round, or triangular bodies, covered with chitinous
teeth, between which the food apparently was ground
before entering between the teeth of the more delicate
radula. The animals of both genera being her-
maphrodites, their male and female generative organs
were found to be connected in the same individual.
In both genera they seemed to resemble each other to
some extent, but, as could be seen by the drawings,
those of Pneumodermon were the most complicated,
as having near to the exterior porus an additional
large prostate gland.

Birds in North Wales. — It may be interesting
to naturalists to know that several species of birds,
which I believe to be uncommon, have been shot up
the estuary of the river Mawddack, at Barmouth,
during the winter, viz., shoveller ( A . clypeata ) ; golden
eye (A. clangula) ; red breasted merganser {Mergus
serrator), chough, &c. I should like to call the
attention of your readers to a rather striking incident
which came under my notice on Saturday, January n,
whilst walking past Aberamffra Harbour. Between
twenty to thirty wrens ( Troglodytes Europceus) flew
from the rigging of the “Mary Jones” (a small
schooner) to the branch of an oak-tree close by. There
they remained for some time, until the approach of
evening compelled them to seek shelter elsewhere.
Will any of your readers kindly tell whether this
is a common occurrence or not ? — Joseph J. Cotton ,
Barmouth.

BOTANY.

The Cultivation of Mistletoe.— As an old
and successful grower of mistletoe, I would inform
Mr. Bonar that its seeds vary, commonly contain
two, and sometimes three embryos. It would have
been found, long ago, that nothing is easier than to
cultivate this plant, had not two erroneous statements
been circulated in books, viz. : (i) that the berry , not
the seed must be rubbed on the branch destined for
its growth ; and (2) that a notch is to be made in the
bark to receive it. Take the seed out of the berry,
and smear it on a smooth part of the bark, and it will
adhere and grow. Where the radicle comes into
contact with the bark, the latter swells. No further
change occurs till the next year, when the tiny plants
rise on end, open their cotyledons, and emit a minute
shoot. They grow the length of one internode,
annually ; so that the age of a bough of mistletoe is
readily known. — Martin M. Bull , Jersey.

Symphytum tuberosum, near Edinburgh. —
May I venture to point out a mistake into which
Mr. King has fallen, when he says with regard to
A. tuberosum, “a somewhat local plant in the neigh-
bourhood of Edinburgh,” a larger acquaintance with
our flora will convince him that, instead of being
“local,” it is exceedingly common in the neighbour-

hood. It is very abundant on both banks of the
Braid Burn, and also on the banks of the Water of
Leith through many miles of its course. On the
other hand, S. officinale is certainly “beal” in this
part of Scotland, its place being filled up by S.
tuberosum. I have not had so much field work in the
south, as in the north, but, while in England I have
been struck by the absence of what with us is a
“ common plant.” For one station for “ officinale ” I
can give twenty for “ tuberosum.” — A. Craig- Christie.

Plurality of Petals in the Genus Ranun-
culus.— I have repeatedly found, pot only Ranun-
culus Ficaria , as Mr. J. A. Weldon mentions it in the
last number of Science-Gossip, but also R. bulbosus
and acris with more petals than they should have,
owing to a certain number of stamens having turned
into that state. Several times have I looked in
meadows, where R. bulbosus and acris grow abun-
dantly, and found specimens with from five, six, seven
and so on, up to twenty. This is generally the case
when the ground is of good quality. I have also met
R. flamniula reptans and sccleratus with more than
their usual number of petals, six or seven for instance.
Once I met a specimen of R. confusus with six petals.
— T. Temp ere, Manchester.

GEOLOGY.

Fossil Reptiles related to Mammals. — There
has lately been disclosed a large series of remains of
American reptiles which appear to have been ex-
tremely abundant during the Permian age over the
whole continent. This was one of the most remark-
able faunas known in the history of the earth —
distinct from what went before and what followed it.

| The structure of all the species is very complicated,
but all agree in certain characters. The scapular
arch, by the presence of an epicoracoid and certain
other bones, forms a circle like the pelvis ; and this
gives significance to the name Pelicosauria, which
Professor Cope proposed to give to the group. The
1 specialised shape of the tarsus, the perforated ver-
tebrae surmounted by tall knotted spines, and various
other anatomical features have been dwelt upon at
length by him. A series of skeletons of very similar
structure have been discovered in the Permian beds
of South Africa ; but they differ from all American
examples in their long sacrums, and in not having
the vertebrae perforated. Owen had called these
fossils therodonts, intending that the name should
cover the American permian reptiles as well : but
this Professor Cope considers impossible, since the
American fossils are of a type distinct from the
African. The two types together form an order of
very high rank in the classification of vertebrates,
which presents the nearest approach of any group of
reptiles to the mammalia. Hence Professor Cope
has designated, them theromorphous. The presence

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

65

of the epicoracoid bone, the os innominatum and the
form of the tarsus and humerus, all show the remark-
able affinity of these reptiles to the Monotremata, and
convinced Professor Cope that they ought to be con-
sidered the ancestors of the mammals. Yet there is
no question but that they should be classed on the
reptilian side of the dividing line.

Preserving Pones. — In answer to your corres-
pondent, “ W. G.,” I beg to state that a very simple
method of preserving post-tertiary bones, is to paint
them with thin gum, which should be as clear and
colourless as possible. This is an easy and inexpensive,
and, as I know from experience, an effectual way of
preserving them. It makes them very strong, and
enables them to bear any reasonable amount of
handling. The gum must be thin, or it will give the
bones a shiny, varnished appearance. All fossils
which are liable to crumble and fall to pieces, may be
preserved in the same way.— f. IV. Carr, Cambridge.

New Carnivorous Reptiles. — Professor Owen
has just identified the remains of a new and gigantic
kind of carnivoroiis reptile among the collection of
South African fossils collected by Mr. T. Bain. The
name of Titanosaurus ferox has been given to this
creature, which Professor Owen regards as of a more
carnassial type than any existing carnivorous mammal.

The Geology of Arran. — At a meeting of the
Glasgow Geological Society on January 16, James
Thomson, F.G.S., read a paper on the “ Geology of the
North End of Arran.” He first gave a description of
the brecciated conglomerate of the Carriegills shore,
and round Brodick Bay, extending eastwards to the
shore below Masldon, pointing out that the views ad-
vanced by Sedgwick, Murchison, Ramsay, and Bryce,
could, as regards these rocks, no longer be adhered to.
He showed that the basement rocks of the carboniferous
system rested upon the underlying breccias, and
referred to sections exposed in Glencoly, Glensharg,
and Cnocken Burn, &c., where the order of succession
of these beds may be studied, and stated that beds of
the same stratigraphical position could be examined in
the following localities, viz. : Askoig, Bute ; Millport,
C umbrae ; the valley of the Griom ; the Garple and
Greenock waters, Muirkirk, Ayrshire ; Logan Water,
Lesmahagow ; Lanarkshire ; and Todholes, near Stir-
ling, Stirlingshire. He then described the stratified
rocks of the shore eastwards to Corrie, and referred to
the limestone of that locality being charged with
Productus giganteus and found with the ventral
valve downwards, the reverse being the case in other
localities for this fossil shell.

Mr. Thomson then reviewed the old red sandstone
beds from Corrie to the Fallen Rocks, and described
the nature of the fragments of rocks found in the
breccias, near Corrie, which all were agreed was of un-
doubted upper old red sandstone age, and referred to the
similarity of these beds to those found on the Corriegills
shore. He referred to the desirability of further in-

vestigation of the Fallen Rocks before a satisfactory
explanation of that extraordinary mass could be given.
About fifty yards to the north of the Fallen Rocks
he had some years ago discovered remains of fossil
fish in great abundance in volcanic ash beds, and there
also, in company with Sir Charles Lyell, discovered
a tooth of Cladodus. The coast line was [next traced
to the section where Mr. E. A. Wimsch, F.G.S.,
made his discovery of fossil trees in the volcanic ash
beds, and described in the Society’s “ Transactions.”
Proceeding northwards, a great fault is seen, produced
by a broad igneous dyke, which can be traced up the
hillside to the chasms seen in the breccias, on the top of
the hill above the Cock of Arran. Mr. Thomson then
referred to the physical features, and the fossil remains
of the limestone^ found on the north-east shore, lists of
which he had prepared to accompany his communica-
tion. Mr. Thomson then dwelt on the correlation
of these marine deposits with the rocks of the same
stratigraphical position throughout the central valley
of Scotland. He also referred to the breccias at the
Cock of Arran, and stated that they resembled those
he had examined at St. Bees Head, Northumberland,
and at Ballochmyle, on the banks of the Water of
Ayr. Mr. Thomson then described his hunt through-
out the range of rocks in the hills above the shore for
fossil evidence of their age ; and in these breccias he
was at last rewarded by the discovery of no less than
twenty-seven species of characteristic carboniferous
fossils, a list of which he had prepared to accompany
his paper. He was thus able definitely to confirm
the conclusions of Sedgwick, Murchison, and Ramsay,
as to the age of these rocks, at least to the extent
that they are posterior to the carboniferous age ; and
at the same time to show clearly that the classification
of these rocks adopted by Professor Geikie in his last
published “Geological Map of Scotland” was er-
roneous, while the same may be said as to that of
Professor von Lasaula in his work upon his studies
and sketches of the Geology of Ireland and Scotland
lately published.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Fermentation. — Professor F. R. Eaton Lowe, in
an article entitled “A Glass of Wine” in “ Science
for All,” says, the operations connected with wine-
making differ from those connected with beer-making
in so far as it is necessary for the beer-maker to in-
troduce a ferment into his wort, while the wine-maker
has not to do this, because the grapes “contain suf-
ficient nitrogenous matter in the shape of gluten,
which speedily undergoes decomposition, and com-
municates its state of change to the associated sugar.”
It is certainly unnecessary for the wine-maker to
introduce a ferment; but does fermentation take
place in the way Professor Lowe says ? I am under
the impression that the wine-maker introduces his
ferment unconsciously, just as sure as the beer-maker
introduces his consciously. How does the Professor
account for the presence in the liquid of the living

66

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

plant concerned in alcoholic fermentation ? I thought
M. Pasteur proved that the pure juice of the grape
has no power to ferment of itself ; and when he saw
this he set to look for the cause of the fermentation,
and found it in the small microscopic particles which
stick to the outside of the berries, and even on the
twigs of the vine. I shall feel greatly obliged to any
of the readers of Science-Gossip who can tell me
whether Professor Lowe or M. Pasteur is correct. —
D. M. D.

Anemones in Aquaria. — Some of your readers
may be interested in the following facts. I have
a small bell glass aquarium which as a marine
aquarium has been very successful, there having been
no deaths for upwards of two years, and the anemones .
throughout have maintained a high standard of
vitality, attributable, I consider, to regular feeding,
aerations, and scrupulous cleanliness. Numerous
young have been cast off and one stone is closely
covered with what are apparently the larval form of
the star fish. During this winter the anemones have
been of an unusually errant disposition, and I have
three times on different occasions observed what
seem to be conjugations. In each case the first sign
was the appearance round the base of the animal of
spermatic cords, and these in some cases reach an
inch and a half in length. They float in the water
and that they are perceived by other anemones is
proved by the animals moving up, and with their
base partially covering the extended base of the first.
They remain in this state for about twelve hours,
the emission of the spermatic cords is increased till
both are enveloped in the coils and these are per-
fectly visible, and between thirty and forty in number,
at least I have counted as many. After some interval
— about twenty-four hours from the first contact — the
one that has moved up moves away, each closes and
remains in a state of quiescence from which they do
not emerge for some days, no matter how tempted by
food or aeration. I shall be glad to learn if any of
your readers have noticed similar occurrences. —
G. L. B., Denmark Hill.

Mistletoe on the Pear. — A writer in Science-
Gossip, page 43, 1877, asks for further evidence that
the mistletoe grows on the pear. Kittel, in “ Bota-
nisches Taschenbuch ” and Dr. F. M. Bechstein, in
“ Forstbotanik,” page 679, both state that in Ger-
many Viscum album is found on the pear. P.S. —
Withering, in “British Plants,” states that Viscum
album occurs on the Pear. — J. A. Sandford.

Mandrake (?) (Science-Gossip, page 166, 1878).
— Throughout the United States Podophyllum peltatum
of the natural order Berberidaceae is known as man-
drake. The fruit, when fully ripe, is sweet and edible,
and weighs from 1 to 4 oz. — J. A. Sandford.

Hempseed and Bullfinches. — With reference
to my letter on the effects of hempseed causing the
plumage of bullfinches to become black, and which
was inserted in Science-Gossip of November 1, it
would appear that under the head of “ Cage Birds,”
in a paper contributed to the “Times” of February 1,
Norwich canaries fed on cayenne pepper (a teaspoon-
ful to one egg) have their plumage under such diet
changed into a bright metallic flush — which pales at
every moult. I must confess that if I possessed any
pet birds, whether bullfinches or canaries, I should
pause ere I continued giving either hempseed or
cayenne pepper on the ground of both being too
stimulating for any lengthened period. It would be

I interesting to know what the opinion may be of
I extensive bird fanciers upon this subject. — Joint

Colebrooke.

Hyalophora Cecropia at Clapham. — In
Science-Gossip, at page 46, Jas. Ives records the
capture last July of a specimen of Plyalophora Cecropia
at Clapham. He adds the rather extraordinary query,
“ Is it not likely to have escaped from some entomo-
logical cabinet ?” Live insects are not usually placed
in cabinets, nor do pinned and probably dead ones
generally escape. The explanation, however, is very
simple. Mr. A. Wailly, an importer and dealer in
silk-producing bombyces of the Clapham Road,
records in the “Entomologist,” vol. xii. p. 9, that in
December, 1877, he received from America an ex-
traordinary number of live cocoons of this moth, and
that a number of impregnated females which had
emerged therefrom, he let loose in his garden. Some
were also taken to a wood near London. — W. L.
Distant.

Curious Sites for Birds’ Nests. — From time
to time, notices of birds’ nests being found in strange
and unlooked-for situations, have appeared in
Science-Gossip. In the belief that a number of
instances which have come under my own observation
during my experience as a “ birds’-nester,” may not
be uninteresting, I have been induced to write a
short account of a few of the more remarkable
deviations from the ordinary rules followed by most
species of birds in their choice of a nesting-place, and
which I have jotted down in my note-book whenever
observed. Several years ago, I found a nest of the
common thrush, on the ground, in a large clover-
field, quite a hundred yards from the nearest fence.
The nest was merely an apology for one, being but a
few straws, collected together in a slight depression
of the ground, without any attempt at lining, indeed
I have seen plenty of lapwings’ nests with far more
materials collected about them. It was partially
concealed by the young clover, which was about six
inches high, but otherwise there was nothing to
screen it from view. My attention was first drawn to
the nest — which contained five eggs — by seeing the
old bird fly off. I watched the nest closely, until the
eggs were hatched, and the young ones nearly
fledged ; but one morning, I found that some
prowling weasel or hedgehog had discovered and
made a dainty breakfast of the unfortunate “throstles ”
as the mangled bodies of two, and the scattered
feathers of the rest, plainly showed. This is the
only instance I have noticed of a thrush nesting on
the bare ground, away from any cover. Another
thrush’s nest was in an old milking-can which had
been kicked about by the school lads, and finally
lodged in a large thorn bush, about two yards from
a much-frequented footpath, close by the village
church. I chanced to throw a stone at the can
when, greatly to my surprise, out flew a thrush. I
lost little time in jumping over the fence, and found
the nest snugly ensconced within the can, the mouth
of which, being turned away from the path, pre-
vented the nest from being seen by any of the numerous
passers-by, and, as I only divulged the secret to a
few trusted friends, I am pleased to say the mother
bird safely reared her brood. I have found a nest of
the blackbird on the branch of a tree quite thirty feet
from the ground, and several nests of missel-thrush
on the shelves of an old shed once used for the
manufacture of drain pipes. I have also seen a nest
of this species built on one of the stone walls used as
fences in moorland districts. As in this case there
were neither trees nor bushes within a considerable
distance, I suppose the birds had been obliged to

MAPDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

67

adapt themselves to circumstances. Last year I
found two robins’ nests on the top of a large haystack,
but they were destroyed by the stack being cut for
sale. A pair of robins have, for several years, built
their nest in the end of a pipe, formerly used to a
stove in our schoolroom, flying in at either an open
window, or a broken pane, and have generally
succeeded in rearing their young. The partiality of
the robin for curious nesting-places is well known,
but it is surpassed in eccentricity by some members
of the tit tribe, which seem to have a fancy for
“camping” in the most unlikely and outlandish
places ; one hears of their nests being found in such
places as the hat of an effigy, got up as a scarecrow ; in
a pump ; in a flower pot ; in a bottle ; or in a box
hung up against a wall, and I have myself found them
in all these strange situations. One day, when crossing
the orchard, I was rather startled at seeing a bird fly
from between my legs, apparently out of the ground,
and upon close search amongst the herbage, I found
what seemed to be a mouse-hole. Procuring a spade
I soon solved the mystery ; a nest of the great tit,
containing eight callow young, was built amidst the
ruins of what had the year before been a wasp’s nest,
the inmates of which had, as I well remembered,
given our household no slight trouble during the
previous autumn. In the cavity formed by the wasps,
and amongst the remains of their combs, the tomtit
had found a snug nesting-place. I carefully covered
up the hole, and believe the little bird brought up its
family in peace. I have on two occasions found
nests of the blue tit built amongst the honeycombs
of a deserted beehive. Did space permit, I could
cite many other instances of singularity shown by
birds in their choice of nesting-places, but will
conclude with the hope that what I have already
narrated will not be totally devoid of interest to
many, who, like myself, are fond of studying the
manners and habits of our feathered friends. —
R. Standen , Goosnargh , Lancashire.

Blackbirds’ Nests and Thrushes’ Eggs. — It
may interest some of my fellow-readers of Science-
Gossip to know that I have found a blackbird’s nest
with four thrushes’ eggs and five blackbirds’ in it ;
also a wren’s nest in the roof of a thatched shed, in-
side, containing several eggs of the common wren as
well as three eggs of the house sparrow ; I have also
several times found pheasants’ and partridges’ eggs in
the same nest, but in none of these cases have I dis-
covered which bird ultimately brought up the brood,
as I regret to say in those days I used to take all the
eggs I found. — J. T. Green.

The Cuckoo’s Eggs. — In last month’s number
of Science-Gossip, Mr. James Ingleby states that
the eggs of the cuckoo “vary very much in colour, and
very much resemble the eggs of the birds in whose
nests they are deposited.” That this is only partially
correct, despite the very high authorities by which it
is backed, I am assured. I have in my collection no
less than eleven specimens of these birds’ eggs. Four
of these were taken from the nests of hedge sparrows ;
all these four are of various shades of grey, mottled
with darker spots, whilst those of the hedge-sparrow
where of a bluish-green. One of the specimens I
found in a wren’s nest, along with nine wren’s eggs.
Here again the difference was very great, both as
regards size and colour ; the cuckoo’s egg being
brownish-grey, whilst the wren’s were white and dotted
with red spots near the larger end. Of the rest, two
were taken from the nests of common wagtails ; one
situated in a pear-tree trained against a garden wall,
and the other in a grape-vine in a similar situa-
tion. Two more were found in sedge- warblers’ nests

about three feet from the ground. One was taken
from a white-throat’s nest, and the last in May, 1878,
from a tree pipit’s nest built in a bank at the side of
the high road. In these last cases the difference was
of course, not so clearly defined, but all the cuckoos’
eggs in my collection are some shade of grey. In
fact I have never seen but one cuckoo’s egg that was
not, and this was of a decidedly brown tinge. Of
course, when the cuckoo lays her egg in the nest
of a skylark, tree pipit, wagtail, or whitethroat, the
difference is not so very great from those of the other
bird. In reply to Mr. Kerr’s queries, he will see that
I have taken a cuckoo’s egg from the nest of the
common wren, which was only about eighteen inches
from the ground. With the exception of the tree
pipit, I found all my cuckoo’s eggs in nests placed
several feet above the ground. In the edition of
“White’s Natural History of Selbourne,” edited by
Mr. Jesse, the editor states in a note, page 108, “ It
is now known, by examination of the ovarium, that
the cuckoo lays several eggs.” In conclusion, I
would refer both gentlemen to Volume XII. of
Science-Gossip, where the subject of the cuckoo
and its habits is discussed. — B. E. S.

Woodpeckers and their Nests. — In the middle
of February, 1878, I was deeply interested in a small
woodpecker [Picus minor) which daily kept up its
busy tapping on the dead boughs of some twenty
poplar-trees at the end of my garden. I watched it
whenever I could get close enough to see it clearly.
At one time I saw a larger species fly from the top of
the same tree that the smaller species was tapping on.
On March 3, I observed that it had a mate with it.
I watched the pair until the middle of April, when I
lost sight of them until, on June 20, I saw one
flying in a direct line towards the poplars, they being
just within sight. I saw it a second time three days
after in the same place just come from the direction
of the poplars ; it went over* a wall ; my appearance
above the wall frightened it from some ivy growing
on a house about ten yards distant, I believed at the
time that it was searching for food, and had young
up in the poplars ; and on July 6 I was surprised to
find that it had successfully reared, its young in a
hole that it had made in the under side of a dead arm
of an apple-tree, only ten feet from the ground (when
I had supposed it was fifty feet high in the poplars).
The entrance was perfectly and smoothly made, very
small, and arched over into the centre of the touch-
wood ; the arm was only fifteen inches round ; the
hole was about fifteen inches deep, and recently made.
The touchwood being quite clean, I carefully let a
spoon down into the hole, but all was gone. On the
1 2th instant I paid a visit to the hole, and found it
nrcvly and very much enlarged in the same perfect
manner, this could not have been done more than
eight weeks, most probably had only been done a
few days. A minute after this I heard the tapping
up in the poplars, and searching, found my acquaint-
ance of last year at his usual occupation ; and watch-
ing it, saw it disturbed by passers-by and fly on to
the apple-tree. My reason for inserting this interest-
ing account is : can any of the readers of Science-
Gossip inform me whether the larger species [Picus
major ) has enlarged the hole, and intends breeding
in the apple-tree this season, or is it the same pair as
last year ? If so, why they should require a larger
hole than last year, and at what date I may expect to
find eggs (being a collector) ? I should like to know
more clearly what their tapping is for, I believe it is
for two purposes. — H. B., St. Ives.

Colour of Birds’ Eggs. — I am afraid Mr. J.
Ingleby will find it difficult to procure anything that

68

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE. G OSS .1 p.

will answer his purpose. Varnish, of which I have I
tried many kinds, does not give a satisfactory result ;
and besides, destroys the natural appearance of the
egg. I never use varnish now, but find that I can
preserve the colours of nearly all eggs by taking care,
when blowing them, not to allow any moisture to
touch the outside of the shell ; and when drying,
before placing them in the cabinet, I carefully keep
them from the light , for most eggs when newly blown,
more especially those of a blue or greenish colour,
and many of the hawk’s fade more during a few days’
exposure to the light, than they would in as many
months when placed in the cabinet. Light should
also be carefully excluded from the specimens in
the collection. I have had few “faded” eggs since
I adopted the above plan, six or seven years ago. —
R. Standen , Goosnargh, Preston.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — The
settlement of the question raised by Mr. H. D. Bar-
clay in the January number as to intelligence in men
and animals, depends very much on what we consider
to be the precise nature or manner of the reasoning
process. As to this point there is a dispute amongst
philosophers. One school holds that all deductive
reasoning is from general propositions to particular
ones, whereas J. S. Mill and his followers maintain
that “all inference is from particulars to particulars,”
and on that account, “the lower animals profit by
experience, and avoid what they have found to cause
them pain in the same manner, though not always
with the same skill, as a human creature. Not only
the burnt child, but the burnt dog dreads the fire.”
As we have no evidence that animals can form general
propositions, if we adopt the latter view, then it must
be admitted that animals can reason as competently
as man can. If, on the other hand, the former
doctrine be adopted, then the seeming reasoning of
the lower animals can be explained as a simple pro-
cess of association. “Animals are led, not by a
concatenated train of discovered relations, but by
mere impulse, i.e., by the suggestion which comes up
according to the law of co-existence.” Mr. H. C.
Rogers asks, “If an animal does precisely the same
thing that a man would do under certain circum-
stances/are we not justified in concluding that animal
and man are moved by the same power ? ” If
“ power ” here means motive, then I do not think we
should be justified in forming any such conclusion.
Besides, it is impossible for us to know the full and
precise “circumstances” under which any animal
acts. Again, memory is an act of intellect, but cer-
tainly not an act of reasoning in the sense of inferring
one proposition from another. As regards the affec-
tion of the dog, it is very probable that there is more
of selfishness therein than is commonly supposed.
That the dog likes his master for the latter’s own
sake can scarcely be supposed. The fact seems to
be, that this animal is possessed of an irrepressible
prodigality of life-energy, and any source of the
gratification or exercise of that liveliness is of course
exceedingly prized by him ; and hence when the
master dies, the fountain of this life and energy is
stopped ; “ the very source of it is stopped,” a
circumstance amply sufficient to induce a serious
revulsion of feeling, and an unwonted peculiarity of
action. With regard to the wonderful feats per-
formed by animals, Dr. Carpenter has, it' seems to
me, conclusively shown that these are merely me-
chanical, the result of the animal organism ‘ ‘ growing
to the way in which it has been habitually exercised.”
Finally, the view that the reason of man is only
developed instinct, has been seriously disputed by
men of the highest culture, ability, and sanity. Man

seems to have the faculty of forming certain notions
(such as moral good, the fair, the sublime, God, &c.),.
and a power of anticipating the future, & c., which it
would be difficult to prove were ever acquired, or
could possibly be acquired by a mere process of
development. The average cranial capacity of an-
thropoid apes and of man, savage or civilized (viz.
io to 26 or 32), exhibits a proportion which is alto-
gether inexplicable on the supposition that man’s
brain is a lineal descendant of that of some pre-his-
toric ape, monkey, or baboon. — P. Q. Keegan , LL.D.

Intelligence in Animals. — Your’correspondent,.
Mr. A. C. Rogers, quotes my words correctly, viz. : —
“The great difficulty in the investigation of the
minds of animals appears to be that man instinctively
and unconsciously, unless checked by reflection, ex-
plains their actions, especially in extraordinary cases,
by his own modes and laws of thought,” but when,
he asks “will Mr. Barclay kindly inform us how else
we are to explain their actions if we are not to use
our own modes and laws of thought,” he appears to-
have misunderstood my meaning. Certainly we must
use our own laws of thought ; most of us do not use
them sufficiently. I will illustrate my meaning by
considering the questions he puts. Is it simply instinct
that induces a dog to starve itself to death on the
grave of its master ? or risk its life unbidden to save
that of a helpless child ? In my last letter I defined
reason as the power to draw a conclusion from pre-
mises. Now, touching as the death of a dog on the
grave of its master is, I can see in it no act of reason,,
but should rather conclude it indicated the absence
of the faculty, neither can I perceive any act of
reason in a dog leaping into the water unbidden to
save a child, which he may do precisely in the same
manner as he would jump after a stick which I have
also seen a dog do unbidden. A man who could
swim and declined to rescue a child from the water
would be justly blamed, but who could blame a dog
if it remained barking on the bank ? It is beyond
dispute that animals have some intelligence and
memory, but what I question is their power of
reasoning, which is the root of man’s civilisation and
makes him a responsible being. It is a distinct
faculty, and unless animals were originally endowed
with it, that it should be developed by training as
some maintain, appears to me simply incredible, and
I have never yet read an anecdote that convinced me
they are possessed of it. Since writing my first letter
I have seen a book, “Thirty Years among Wild
Beasts in India ; ” the author’s remark on the intelli-
gence of elephant and the popular opinions thereon
confirm my view of the question. — H. D. Barclay.

A Curious Crustacean. — Some years ago I was
passing by a large stagnant pool, when my attention
was arrested by a curious creature just beneath the
surface of the water, which after some trouble I suc-
ceeded in capturing. As I have never read of any
fresh-water inhabitant resembling it, I thought some
of your correspondents might be able to inform me
what it was. As nearly as I can recollect, it closely
resembled the common green crab of the seashore,
excepting that its “ legs ” were longer and thinner,
and the carapace was circular and serrated at the
edges. I brought it home in safety, but whilst I
went for the necessary appliances for the examination,
it mysteriously disappeared. Subsequently I dis-
covered another and smaller one, which was also
lost by an accident before I could study it. The
locality whese these crustaceans (?) were found, was
in the middle of Berkshire, in a large pond close to
a wood. The month was July. The creatures were

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE - G OSSIE.

69

•both apparently basking in the sun at the surface of
the water ; neither made any effort to escape. They
appeared to have no power of swimming nor diving.
I hope some of your correspondents may be able to
inform me what they were. — Junior.

Hydrophilus piceus. — Can any of the readers of
Science-Gossip inform me whether the above-men-
tioned insect can be reared in captivity ; if it can, is
•there any locality near London where I can look for
the beetle or eggs with any chance of success ; or
can I buy a supply of the eggs of any aquarium
dealer? The Rev. J. G. Wood, in his “Fresh and
Salt Water Aquarium,” gives some information about
this beetle, but he neither mentions the time of year
when the egg is to be found, nor the food of the larva.
On Plate x. he depicts two specimens, one twice the
size of the other ; are these the different sexes, or
extreme variations of size ? — F. Crosbie , Barnet.

The Doubleday Collection. — I was very
pleased to see the note in your last number from Mr.
James English stating that the above collection is in
such good condition, it would however have been of
far gi'eater use if published earlier. When Mr.
Farn’s letter appeared in the “ Entomologist,” I
waited for a month to see if any one would contradict
it, but as no one seemed to trouble about it I took
the matter up myself — my letter was published in the
“ Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine ” for December,
and drew from Mr. Farn (the gentleman who had
alleged the collection to be in such bad condition) a
reply evidently intended to cast ridicule upon myself.
I again wrote to the editors of the “ Entomologists’
Monthly Magazine ” with a reply to Mr. Farn, fully
refuting all his accusations and remarks, but had my
letter returned, with a note from the editors to the
effect that as they were then satisfied that the collec-
tion was in good condition the correspondence would
be stopped. I certainly thought that a short note
from the editors to that effect would have appeared
in the next number, but this was not done, thus
entomologists are left to believe that I am totally
disconcerted by Mr. Farn’s letter, which is by no
means the case. I think under these circumstances
I am fully justified in making these remarks to correct
50 great a misconception with regard to myself.
Mr. English’s note in last month’s Science-Gossip
settles the matter in a most satisfactory manner. —
IV. y. Vandenbergh , Jim., Hornsey , Middlesex.

Glyciphagus Plumiger. — In the July number of
Science-Gossip, Mr. A. D. Michael announced the
capture of a single specimen of this acarus, and after
remarking on one in the possession of Mr. George, of
Kirton Lindsay, says, “We may, I think, fairly
claim this as a British species, although only a single
individual has been detected in each instance.” I
have been fortunate in capturing a large number,
.male and female, of this interesting mite : and as in
the former case, they were found among the fodder
in a stable in this city. As there is a considerable
quantity of foreign hay used in this place, it is quite
probable it may have been introduced ; but the fact
of its being alive and active, in the middle of De-
cember, during a very severe frost, shows that it is
hardy enough for our northern climate. — J. Lambert ,
Edinburgh.

Yews in Churchyards.— In reply to E. Straker’s
desire to obtain information respecting the various
traditions relative to the planting of the yew in
churchyards, &c., the following extracts may not be
uninteresting to him, or other readers of “ Science-
Gossip ; ” they have been carefully searched out by

a friend living in North Wales, and are well authen-
ticated. The yew ( Taxus baccata), so celebrated in
our own country for its churchyard associations, and
for its being employed in the manufacture of bows,
the weapon principally used by our warrior ancestors
before the introduction of fire-arms, has fewer
legends connected with it than might be supposed.
The custom of planting yew-trees in churchyards has
never been satisfactorily explained. Some have sup-
posed that these trees were placed near the churches,
for the purpose of affording branches on Palm Sun-
day ; others, that they might be safe there from
cattle, on account of their value for making bows ;
others, that they were emblematical of silence and
death ; some, that they were useful for the purpose
of affording shade or shelter to those places of wor-
ship when in their primitive form. Different writers
have entered more philosophically into this question,
and presume that the yew was one of those evergreens
which, from its shade and shelter, was especially
cultivated by the Druids in their sacred groves, and
around their sacrificial circles ; that when Christianity
superseded Druidism, the same places were chosen as
the sites of the new worship, and that in this arose
the association of the yew-tree with our churches and
churchyards. It was also employed in funerals,
(“by shroud of white, stuck all with yew;”) in
some parts of England dead bodies were rubbed over
with an infusion of its leaves, to preserve them from
putrefaction ; and many of our poets allude to its
connection with ideas of death. According to
Pennant’s Scotland, vol. iii., page 25, 5 4th edition,
the yew, by our ancestors, for a classical reason,
seems to have been planted among the repositories
of the dead ; and they had also a political one, for
placing them about their houses : in the first instance
they were the substitutes of the Incisa Cupressus ; in
the other, they were the designed provision of
materials for the sturdy bows of our warlike an-
cestors. Nature, who speaks to our eye as well as
to our ear, paints the yew with gloom ; and we see
at a glance, the propriety of planting it in church-
yards, with respect to poetic sentiments, as well as to
its former warlike utility. Tennyson imagines man’s
last foe, death, as “ walking all alone beneath a yew.”
The “In Memoriam” of Tennyson describes the
yew at the “ lychgate : ”

“ Old yew, which graspest at the stones
That name the under-lying dead,

Thy fibres net the dreamless head,

Thy roots are wrapt about the bones,” &c.

Various other poetical allusions might be mentioned,
from Wordsworth and others, in reference to these
dismal trees, which are very beautiful, but perhaps
others may contribute further remarks on the interest-
ing subject of the yew-tree. — E. Edwards.

Yew-Trees in Churchyards. — As to the reason
why yew-trees are so often found in churchyards. I
was walking with a clergyman three or four years
ago in a churchyard in Kent, and he pointed out to
me the four yew-trees which grew, one at each corner
of the sacred inclosure. He told me that the reason
why these trees are so often found in old churchyards
is that there used to be a law that every parish was to
grow yew to be made into bows for the use of the
parishioners. As the foliage is very injurious to
cattle (cows which have eaten of it frequently die)
the yew-trees were planted in the churchyards, in
order that there might be no danger of the cattle
having access to it. —C.

Tasmanian Land Shells. — Mr. Pettes, in an ar-
ticle on “ Sea Goings,” gives me credit for having

7o

BARB WICKE’S S CIENCE- G OSSIP.

published a catalogue of Tasmanian Land Shells
containing a list of all discovered up to date of
publication, 1871. He, however, omits to say that
this catalogue, as he terms it, contains over forty
descriptions of species nowhere else to be found. In
my humble opinion this is something more than a
catalogue. I regret that the book has been long out
of print, so am unable to send you a Copy. Mr. P.
is in error when he states that H. vitrinaformis was j
described from a specimen found by him on Mount !
Wellington. That shell came from a place forty or
fifty miles further south, and the type shell is in my
possession. It was found by a Mr. Longley. — IV.
Legrand.

The Birds and the Weather. — We have been
diligently feeding the poor little birds here as usual,
as in duty bound, during this most trying winter, and
a very constant and amusing clientele we have had,
furnishing us with a few incidents which may interest
your readers. Amongst other provisions for them,
we have been in the habit of tying up lumps of fat
on a neighbouring bough. At first the tom-tits were
left in sole and undisputed possession of this appetising
morsel. The robins, however, soon began to cast a
longing eye upon it ; and, for some time, could not
succeed in reaching it, save by a rapid series of hops
and flying bites, which must have been very tedious,
and anything but satisfying. At last, by astounding
perseverance, they mastered the difficulty, and became
almost as expert as the tits themselves in perching
upon or near their prey and making a meal from it.
We did not observe any other birds that arrived so
completely at this result ; though certain blackbirds
and sparrows made many attempts in that direction.
On one occasion the lump of fat was disengaged and
fell to the ground, but an astute tit managed to
restore it to its place, and to impale it upon a
thorn, by way of larder. The visitors to our ban-
quet were not altogether confined to bipeds. For a
few days a wretched, scrubby-looking half-starved rat
made his appearance on the scene, from which we
had not the heart to banish him. Blackbirds, thrushes,
house and hedge-sparrows, chaffinches, tits in abund-
ance, robins, etc. ; one starling and one wagtail were
our ordinary company. — C. IV Bingham , Bingham's
Melcombe.

The Water Shrew a Destroyer of the
Spawn of Fish. — It may not be generally known
that the water shrew is a great enemy to the
preservers of fish. My cousin, Mr. Masefield, of
Ellerton Hall, Salop, annually rears a large number
of trout by artificial hatching. For some time it was
observed that depredations were committed by some
unknown visitor on the troughs containing the
spawn ; traps were set, and while I was visiting my
cousin the culprit was discovered by the capture of
Sorex fodiens. If this fact has not been observed j
before, it adds one more to the numerous obstacles j
which the spawn of fish has to contend against in
arriving at maturity in its natural state. — W. B. !
Masefield , Tittenson Barsonage, Stoke-upon- Trent.

_ Holes in Oolitic Rocks. — The explanation
given by your correspondent H. P. M., in Science-
GOSSIP for January, to F. N. D.’s question, asked in
Science-Gossip for November, 1878, “Why holes
are found in oolite beneath sand,” I think cannot be
the correct one, because “water percolating through a
superstructure of sand ” could not, from the super-
incumbent mass, move these sand particles about, and
if there is no motion there can be no friction, conse-
quently no wearing away. May not these holes have j
been made by the Lithodomi, or boring mollusca, |

previous to, or about the time of, the upheaval of,
(or receding of the sea from) the formation in which
these holes are found ? for it is well known these
delicate little creatures have the power of perforating
this and similar kinds of rocks. — J. IV., Rotherham.

Folk Lore. — Have we a saying in England,
similar to the one frequently made use of in Rome,
viz.: “St. Catherine’s (November 25) weather is
Christmas weather.” There the peasants look for the
same weather on Christmas Day as on November 2K.
— C. F.

Interesting Plants in the Royal Gardens,
Kew. — On the shelf devoted to Asiatic plants in the
Palm House we notice Carica papaya, the Papaw,
introduced into this country from India in 1690.
Linnaeus supposed it to be a native of Caria, but
although now cultivated generally through the tropics,
it is considered as originally a native of South
America. It has been lately assigned to the natural
order Passifloreae, tribe Papayaceae. A dioecious
tree with a soft unbranched stem about twenty feet
high, slightly swollen at the base, the palmatifid
leaves with long petioles being clustered at the sum-
mit. The fruit, when ripe, is yellow, and somewhat
resembles a melon, it contains an acrid, milky juice,
in which Vauquelin found by analysis the albuminoid
fibrine, a substance until then believed to be peculiar
to the animal kingdom. The whole plant has the
remarkable quality of rendering fresh or tough meat
tender, by causing a separation of the muscular fibres,
and the same effect is said to be produced by merely
suspending it among the leaves. At the corner of
the central path we find Strychnos potatorum , the
“ clearing nut,” which abounds in the forests of
India. Natural order Loganiaceae. It forms a small
tree bearing opposite ovate leaves, with two in-
teraxillary spines. The hard wood is applied to a
variety of domestic uses. The fruit is black, about
the size of a cherry, and contains one seed. The
natives of India employ the dried seeds to clarify
muddy or impure water, and as they will never drink
spring water if they can obtain any from ponds or
rivers, the “ clearing nut ” must be simply invaluable.
The inside of the vessel is rubbed round with a seed,
for a short time, the water to be cleared is poured in
and all its impurities quickly sink to the bottom.
Dr. Pereira states that this result is due to the fining
action of the albumen and casein, and that many
other seeds might be used for the same purpose. On
the African shelf is Tanghinia venenifiua, the
tanghin or ordeal-tree. This is an apocynaceous
tree, with alternate elliptical leaves, and long ter-
minal cymes of pale pink flowers. There is a double
ovary, but only one usually comes to perfection,,
forming an ellipsoid fruit about the size of a plum
containing a hard stone which incloses the seed. It
is this seed which once had so great a reputation
among the natives of Madagascar as a detector of
guilt ; but whatever doubt we might feel concerning
its efficacy in that respect, it certainly possesses such
extremely virulent qualities that it has been described
as “ the most poisonous of plants.” A kernel no
larger than an almond would be, if equally divided,
sufficient to destroy twenty persons in less than half
an hour. In the year 1830 the Queen of Madagascar
determined to rid the country of sorcerers and decided
upon a trial by ordeal as the most effectual means of
doing so. Great numbers of persons were tried, and
it is recorded that while the “unknown plebeians ”
succumbed to its deadly influence all the “ nobility ”
recovered. Happily such trials are now things of the
past. A short distance from the last plant on the

IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

71

same side is another ordeal-tree, not quite so well
known, but included in the same order, Texicaphlaa
Thunbergi a native of South Africa. Its leaves are
opposite, elliptical, and of a very dark green colour ;
it is now showing an abundance of small white flowers
in axillary clusters. A decoction of the bark is used
by the Hottentots as an ordeal. — Lewis Castle , West
Kensington Park.

Metropolitan Association. — At the monthly
meeting held on January 28, the following papers
were read — “ On the Dissection of the Cockroach,”
by T. J. Briant. The main object of this paper was
to show the proper method to be adopted in micro-
scopic dissection, more especially by those who could
not afford time for technical investigations. — “On
Micro-photography,” by C. W. Stidstone. Examples
•of the author’s work were shown upon the screen,
some of them being very creditable. — “The Cuticles
of Flowers,” by Sidney Ireland. — “ On Reproduction
in the Lesser Celandine,” by Henry T. Vivian. The
author remarked that in the spring of last year he
brought for examination from the neighbourhood of
Isleworth a few flowers of this plant ; they were
placed in water exposed to the light, and he was
enabled to observe the very interesting mode in which
the young plants of this species were produced. The
flowers, to the stalks of which one or two leaves were
attached, soon decayed, but singularly enough there
were produced what appeared white grains at the
axils of the leaves which increased in size as the
plant decayed and then fell off and remained at the
bottom of the jar. At the end of the year they
appeared to be budding and at present had become
the tuberous roots of young plants, such as were then
exhibited on the table. This circumstance did not
appear to be noticed in the botanical works to which
the author had access, but he found the process
described in a book just published by Shirley Hibbert.
It appeared this plant never produced seeds in this
climate, though perfectly fitted to do so, as all the
organs of fructification were complete. The fact of
the plant flowering in the wet weather might perhaps
account for the non-production of seed, but it was
interesting to note that another form of reproduction
took place when it could not be accomplished in the
usual mode. — “On the Horse-Bot,” by J. W.
Goodinge, F.R.M.S. This paper was simply a
general introduction to the noble series of slides
which were exhibited under several microscopes.

Bougainvilleas. Bugainvillea. — The apparent
inconsistency in the orthography of the above word,
observed by Mr. John Gibbs, admits of an easy ex-
planation. The latter was adopted by Lindley as the
best Latin rendering of the French name. The long
ii nearly represents the sound of the French diphthong
mi, pronounced 00, which does not occur in the
Latin language. As regards the first and generally
accepted orthography, we find in “Laws of Nomen-
clature,” by M. Alphonse de Candolle, received by
the International Botanical Congress, 1867, as “the
best guide for nomenclature* in the vegetable king-
dom,” that article 27 states, “when the name of a
genus and sub-genus or section is taken from the
name of a person the spelling of the syllables is pre-
served without alteration even with letters or diphthongs
now employed in certain languages, but not in Latin.”
Mr. Gibbs will find some excellent remarks on this
subject in Science-Gossip, 1877, page 193. — L.
Castle.

Curious effect with the Microphone. — I do
not know whether any one has observed the following
curious effect with the microphone. Placing the

receiving telephone on the stand of the microphone,
so that the vibrating disk is near the carbon pencil,
I find that a slight touch on the microphone produces
a continuous musical note, which sounds on till stopped
by a rougher touch, or by tapping the table. I used
an upright carbon microphone. — F. R.

Laburnum. — In this town there is a laburnum
which flowers regularly twice a year, at the usual
time and again in the autumn ; the flower pendants
are shorter, and the flowers closer together than in
the ordinary laburnum, a specimen of which grows in
the same garden. Would B. H. Nesbit Browne state
whether the same peculiarity exists or not in the
specimen he has seen ? — W. G. Tuxford.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

R. Beer. — The stories of vipers swallowing their young, are
to be found in every work on natural history. In years past,
our Notes and Queries columns have chronicled many such.

J. W. T. — Your papers will certainly appear on the first
opportunity. We should be glad to accept that you now refer to.

K. E. Gamp. — “ Blue John” is a fluate of lime, not manga-
nese. Oxide of manganese is the violet colouring matter of it.
The mineral is very soft, and can be easily polished after cutting
and rubbing down. The method of polishing fossil wood depends
on how the latter is mineralised. If silicified, it is first cut and
ground down, and then polished with emery, the finest kind
being used last.

C. R. S. — We cannot tell you how to get an assistant-curator-
ship in a colonial or other museum, except by advertising for
such a situation.

B. C. J. (Leeds). — See the Rev. J. C. Crombie’s article on
lichens, in “ Collecting and Preserving Natural History Objects,”
price 3-r. 6d. Hardwicke & Bogue, 192 Piccadilly, London, W.

R. Ratcld fe. — The brown objects found underneath the
beetle are the beetle-mite (Gamasus coleoptratoruni).

Micro. — The anchor-shaped spicules mounted on slides are
undoubtedly those of sponges. The coloured spicules appear
to belong to some Alcyonidium. Please send us one or two
other slides when you mount them, that we may investigate
them further.

J. A. Sanford (Toledo, Ohio, U.S.) — Wishes botanists who
are desirous of exchanging rare British for American plants, to
communicate with him as per above address.

H. J. Livett. — The grubs which attacked your celery were
evidently the larvse of some beetle, but they reached us in such
a dried-up and shrivelled condition, that it was quite impossible
to make out the species. Watering growing celery with chamber
lye is a capital stimulant to the plant, and an equally bad one
for grubs of all kinds.

W. E. M. — The article on “Collecting and Preserving ” is
the best one we know of on the subject of cleaning and preparing
bones. There is a great dearth of information on the subject,
and we should be glad if some of our readers who have worked
at it would contribute a good practical paper on the subject.

J. C. Rave. — The articles on “,Our Common British Fossils,
and where to find them,” will be resumed in our May number,
and continued. Press of literary work has delayed their issue.

Dr. M. — The objects on the piece of sea-weed were a colony
of polyzoa, called Membrattipora membranacea.

C. W. L. — The New Cross Microscopical and Natural
History Society, meets at the New Public Hall, Lewisham
High Road.

R. Humphrey. — Our correspondence is too extensive to
permit us acknowledging by letter the receipt and acceptance
of every MS. sent. If accepted, we insert it in the order of its
date, as far as we possibly can. No apology is needed on your
part.

J. E. M. — Wishes to know if “ Heywood's Register of Facts
and Occurrences relating to Literature, Science and Art” is still
in existence. Perhaps some of our correspondents can answer
him.

H. Sissons.— We are obliged, in the general interests of other

72

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

“ exchangers,” whose advertisements are crushed out, not to 1
allow an “ exchange” to exceed three lines, unless it is paid for
as an advertisement. Yours would make eight lines.

B. — A good specimen of Euplectella might be purchased at
any natural history dealer’s in London, say Henson’s in the
Strand ; T. D. Russell, or Bryce Wright, for about 7 s. 6 d. or 1
ioj. (2) As to preserving crustaceans, see note on this subject
by a capital authority, Mr. T. D. Russell, in September number
of Science-Gossip for 1877. (3) There is no book or even

exhaustive article on the latter subject. One is much needed.

Gregorius. — The occurrence of starlings in flocks, especially
in the southern counties, is very common during hard winters.
Many of them leave the northern parts of Britain. The starling
has a sweet, twittering kind of note, but we should hardly rank
it among our song-birds.

W. Bennet. — Bat received. Will examine it and let you
know.

J. E. Stephens. — The object is part of the cluster of eggs
laid by the common whelk ( Buccinum undatum ). See “ Half
Hours by the Sea-side,” by J. E. Taylor (page 203), published
by Hardwicke & Bogue, price 4J.

H. G. Wheeler. — We believe the diatom you found in the
mussel is undescribed. It is a Cocconeis, and might be called
Cocconeis umbonata, or Cocconeis crucifcra. — K.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted to exchange lichens for some desiderata in Parmeliae,
Ramalinae, Stictae, &c. — J. McAndrew, New Galloway, N.B.

Rissoa lactea, H ojnalo.gyra rota , and other rare British
shells, offered for minerals. Lists exchanged. — E. Duprey,
Jersey.

Wanted, in exchange for good typical specimens of Cornish
rocks, and some minerals, a good collection of fossils represent-
ing the new red sandstone, or the permian or the old red for-
mations.— S. Tressider, Jun., Marlborough Road, Falmouth.

I have a quantity of shells, mostly small, from east and west
coasts of Africa, which I should be glad to exchange for micro
slides or good material. — G. W. Brady, Carrow Works, Norwich.

Duplicates of forty species of British marine shells for others
or birds’ eggs. — Thomas H. Hedworth, Dunston, Gateshead.

Wanted, named algae, zoophytes, &c., exchange. — 3 Belmont
Villas, New Brompton, Kent.

For a fine spray of Plumularia fatcata or Sertularia abie-
tina, each loaded with Crisa eburtiea , and Cellepora pumicosa,
send well-mounted slides to E. W. Burgess, 35 Langham Street,
London. Pollens and rock sections preferred.

Wanted, tooth of labyrinthodon, for microscopical purposes ;
will give interesting slide or material in exchange. W. H. Harris,
44 Partridge Road, Cardiff.

Wanted, a copy of the last edition of the “ Micrographic
Dictionary ” ; anyone having one for disposal, at a reasonable
price, will oblige by addressing H. G. Wheeler, 24 Knowsley
Street, Bury.

Good British shells given in exchange for the shell stoppers
of foreign shells (Operculums) of various sorts. Also slabs
of polish of madrepores for good Silurian fossils. Will also
exchange thin down specimens of corals for the microscope for
good foreign Pinnae, Mediterranean sorts preferred. — A. J. R.
Sclater, 4 Bank Street, Teignmouth, Devon.

“ Conchology,” by W. Wood, vol. i., 59 hand-coloured
plates, in good condition. Wanted, Nicholson’s “ Palaeontology,”
or offers. — J. Carpenter, Cheshunt, Herts.

Wanted, a few amateurs to join an ever-circulator, devoted
to botany, which has been in' circulation since 1877 . For

further particulars, address “Conductor,” 233 Upper Brook
Street, Chorlton-on-Medlock, (Manchester.

Wanted, “ L. C.” 7th edition, Nos. 5, 13b, 18c and d, 23, 25,
32, 37» 65, 90. 10 3 , 106, 148, 153 (?), 214, 215, 221, 309, 367b, 395,
for others. Send lists. Also 100 named mosses, offered for
same number from another locality, or for an equivalent. —
R. V. Tellam, Bore Street, Bodmin.

“L. C.,” 7th edition, Nos. 41, 45, 107, 124, 172, 209, 366,667,
814, 822, 824, 831, 858, 875, 906, 932, 1040, 1135, 1264, 1271,
1401, 1447. Send lists to H. R. Moiser, F.G.S., 2 South View,
Haworth, near York.

Wanted, objects of marine zoology. Agates, minerals, See.
offered in exchange. — J. P. Wright, Sunnybank Terrace,
Undercliffe Lane, Bradford, Yorkshire.

Wanted, a good second-hand microscope ; write, staling
full particulars, to C. McIntosh, no Dalling Road, Hammer-
smith, W.

Well-mounted slides of portions of pigeon post, used during
siege of Paris, in exchange for two slides of interest, also well-
mounted. — L. Hawkins, Hillside, Hastings.

Three skulls, lemur, porcupine, and another, also a good
scorpion, and a small flying-fish, to exchange for British birds’
eggs, side-blown, named fossils, or offers in natural history
objects. Science-Gossip for 1877, wanted, unbound preferred.
— W. B. R., 165 White Ladies Road, Bristol.

Authenticated, side-blown eggs, 300 species, including
European, British, and African, clutches, broad-billed sandpipers,
parrot crossbills, hawk, owl, red-foot falcons, and most of the

birds of prey, collected 1878 ; exchange arranged by letter. —
Sissons, Sharrow, Sheffield.

Wanted, living specimens of Doris, Trochus, Nassa, &c. in
exchange for good micro slides, all well-mounted.— Apply Henry
Insley, 1 Back of Chester Place, Gerrard Street, Birmingham.

To exchange, sixteen three-shilling parts of “ British Wild
Flowers,” by J. E. Sowerby, for Cox’s “British Coleoptera”
and natural history specimens ; also, British plants for fossils. —
G. Robson, 92 Cranbourne Street, Leicester.

Duplicates, pairs of fine well-set local Lepidoptera from
cabinet. Desiderata, skins of birds, squirrels, &c.

“ Nature ’’for 1876 (fournumbers missing), offered for foreign
or British Algae. — E. C. J., Monson Nursery, Red Hill, Surrey.

One hundred silkworms’ eggs {Bombyx Yama Mori), on.
receipt of stamped envelope or object of interest. — Mrs. Skilton,
London Road, Brentford, Middlesex.

Cassell’s “ Wild Flowers,” 24 numbers ; “ European Butter-
flies and Moths,” 12 numbers; a West Indian centipede and
two lizards in spirits. Will exchange all or any of these for
“Popular Science Review,” geological works, or fossils. —
J. A. Floyd, Mission House, Alcester, Warwickshire.

Slide of Glyciphagus plumiger, in exchange for other acarus
(rare) or animal parasite. — J. Lambert, 12 Glen Street, Edin-
burgh.

Foraminiferous sand from Barmouth, very rich, contain'ng
many rare forms, in exchange for slides, material, or shells. —
J. J. Colton, Barmouth.

Duplicates of British land and fresh-water shells offered,
and the localities of each recorded. Succinea oblonga, Lim.
Burnetti, Lim. uivoluta, V. pusilla , T. antivertigo, V. sub-
striata, V. alpestris, V. minutissima, V. angustior, Pupa
ringens. Desiderata, named foreign land and marine shells,
which, if not in stock of any collector, are readily obtainable
from dealers. — W. Sutton, High Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Wanted, to borrow for a short time a flora of South Devon.
Address, with terms, A. D. Melvin, North Malvern.

For well-mounted flea from mole, hedgehog, rabbit or hare,
also cattle tick, send good slides, marine diatoms, diatomaceous
earth, or good micro-fungi particularly wanted. — George Turvill,
East Worldham, Alton, Hants.

Well-rooted plants of exotic ferns, blooming, greenhouse
plants (not bedding) and many species of the Cacti tribe, several
producing magnificent flowers, in exchange for rare British
shells, foreign shells, polished stones, books on natural history,
or offers. — E. R. F., 82 Abbey Street, Faversham.

Crystals of Zeolite from the Giant’s Causeway, good polari-
scopic object ; also Foraminifera from Antrim and Down beach
floatings, and diatomaceous earth from Toome bridge, for any
good slides. Lists exchanged. — William Gray, Mount Charles,
Belfast.

BOOKS, ETC. RECEIVED.

“ Notes by a Naturalist on the ‘ Challenger.’ ” By H. N„
Moseley, F.R.S. London: Macmillan & Co.

“The Study of Rocks.” By F. Rutley, F.G.S. London:
Longman & Co.

“Practical Geology.” By W. J. Harrison, F.G.S. London :
W. Stewart & Co.

“ Geological and Geographical Survey of Colorado, &c.,”
1878. Washington : Government Printing Office.

“ Birds of the Colorado Valley.” By Dr. Coues : Washington :
Government Printing Office.

“Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society.” February.
“American Quarterly Microscopical Journal.” January.
“Journal de Micrographie.” January.

“ Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes.” February.
“LesMondes.” February.

“Revue Mycologique.” January.

“ Midland Naturalist.” February.

“ Land and Water.” February.

“ Brierley’s Journal.” February.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to 12TH ult. from : —
\ K.— T. S.— C. P. O.— J. McG. — E. D.— W. B.— W. H. D.
— J C W.— S. T.— T. P.— F. T. F.— T. W.— W. L. B.— H. B.
-E. E.— G. W. B.— W. E. M.— C. W. B.— A. J. R. S.—
V. L. G.-F. M.-C. R. S.-H. G. W.— J. C.-H. D. B.—
V. L. D.— E. W. B.— I. C. T.— Dr. M.— T. H. H.— J. A. S.
X M. D.— G. L. B.— H. P. M.— H. W. L.-W. H. H.— R. R.
-J. O. Dr. P. Q. K.— M. M. B.— J. E. M.— R. S.— G. R.—
1. E.— J. W. S— J. C. R.-H. I.— J. S.— W. J. H.— A. B.—
1. c.— w. B. R — J. S.— E. M.— Dr. De C.— R. H.— A. D. M.
-C. McL— J. P. W.— j. W. C-— R- V. T.— R. B.— T. F. U.—
L C. C.— W. J. V. -H. R. M.— F. I. W.— L. C.— J. T.-G. N.
— J. R.— V. W. M.— B. E. S.— C. F.— W. B. M— J. U.—
V. S.— J. J. C.— J. W. T.— H. E. G.— J. L.— J. A. F— H. S.
-Professor T. — J. F. T. D. — S. C. H. — W. W. G. R. G.

,1. S.— E. C. j.—W. H. H.— W. S.— E. R. F.— G. T.— R. P. P.
-C. R. L.— A. D. M.— W. B.— G. C. D.— W. G.— W. E.;B.—
E. S.— &c.

HARDWICK E'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

73

A GOSSIP ABOUT NEW BOOKS.

have not been so
much delighted
with a book since
we read Darwin’s
“Journal of a
Naturalist,” as we
have with Mr. H.
N. Moseley’s
Notes by a Natura-
list on the “ Chal-
lenger.” (London :
Macmillan & Co.)
Si ngularly
enough, the book
is dedicated to
Darwin, in ac-
knowle dgement
of that authors’
“Journal.” We
cannot forbear
quoting the
“Dedication,” for although these literary vagaries
are “ survivals ” of a period, when they were unfortu-
nately necessary to a poor author, yet they afford
modern writers the opportunity of expressing their
genuine gratitude for services other than pecuniary
they have received. Mr. Moseley’s dedication is
moreover representative, for it expresses the feel-
ings of many grateful naturalists who have not the
opportunity of so practically acknowledging it as
Mr. Moseley has. “ To Charles Darwin, Esq., LL.D.,
F.R.S., &c. From the study of whose ‘Journal of
Researches,’ I mainly derived my desire to travel
round the world ; to the development of whose theory
I owe the principal pleasures and interests of my life,
and who has personally given me much kindly en-
couragement in the prosecution of my studies, this
book is, by permission, gratefully dedicated.”

Mr. Moseley has long been regarded as one of our
most promising young naturalists. He inherits the
scientific tendencies of his father, the distinguished and
lately deceased Rev. Canon Moseley. As a Fellow
of Exeter College, and the possessor of the Radcliffe
travelling fellowship, he has been fortunately enabled
to pursue studies for which he is so well fitted. His
No. 172.

researches in the natural history relations of the
Milleporidae and Stylasteridae, in which he has shown
that these abundant and so-called “Corals” are in
reality allied to the Hydroid polypes , rather than to
the Anthozoa, have opened out a new field of specula-
tion and classification. Although the “ Challenger”
expedition has already furnished us with abundant
literature, it is not invidious, but simply a justice to
the talented author of this book to say that none will be
so warmly or satisfactorily welcomed and read. In a
pleasant confidential manner, Mr. Moseley makes his
readers the companions of his voyage. We gradually
feel as he does the necessity to examine every object,
mineral, vegetable, or animal, and we are delighted
by finding these objects assuming a new importance,
when regarded in the light of Evolutionism. For the
author is an ardent evolutionist, and makes frequent
use of that philosophy to speculate on derivations,
relationships, and general embryology. We can but
faintly indicate the fresh and delightfully new avenues
of thought which Mr. Moseley’s book opens out.
Nothing is neglected — physics, physical geography,
geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, anthropology ;
in each of these departments the reader will find
abundant reflections. The “Challenger” expedition
has not been so successful in results as its friends
desired it, and all confess to a disappointment. We
cannot but think, however, that Mr. Moseley’s
“Notes” will do more than anything which has
yet publicly appeared to restore confidence in the
scientific results of the celebrated voyage.

Flozuers and their unbidden Guests , by Dr. A.
Kerner ; translated by Dr. W. Ogle (London : C.
Kegan Paul & Co.), is a well-known work, recently
translated from the German. We are glad that
English readers have now the opportunity of studying
one of the most delightful books that have yet appeared
on the mechanism and morphology of flowers. It is
a veritable romance of natural history ; it throws
a new and poetic glamour about the simplest flower
of the roadside. We have already learned how
flowers have been coloured and perfumed and dif-
ferently shaped, in order to attract useful insects to
the necessary work of cross-fertilisation, but here we
are introduced to numberless devices, by means of

E

74

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

which flowers (like conscious agents) are enabled to
repel and refuse admission to insects, such as ants,
which would rob the nectaries whilst rendering no
useful services in return. The hairs and glands on
stems and calyx, the fibrils on petals like those of
the bog-bean (Menyanthes trifoliata ), &c., are all
intended against “ forbidden guests.” No one could
have been better intrusted with the editing of an
English edition of this remarkably original work than
Dr. Ogle. It is illustrated by lithographed details of
flowers whose structures are intended to repel insect
pests, and we have thus rather too closely packed to-
gether no fewer than one hundred and eighteen figures.

The Physical Geology and Geography of Great
Britain , by Professor Ramsay (London : Edward
Stanford), is a good illustrative book of the doctrine
of evolution, and “ The Survival of the Fittest.”
This is the fifth edition, and it has gradually grown
to its present remarkable bulk from a thin revised
copy of “ reporter’s notes ” of certain lectures on the
subject. It has now attained the dignity of a book ,
after additions to each edition of new matter and
fresh illustrations ; and it warrants us in saying that
it is the best and most readable book on the subject
in the English language. When a work has reached
its fifth edition, it has proved its amenity to ordinary
criticism. But the numerous additions to, and the
general revision of the present work have virtually
made it a new book. We have read it through from
back to back with fresh pleasure, although we had
experienced much delight with the perusal of the
more meagre third edition. We take it as a good
sign when men of Professor Ramsay’s position, as
head of the geological survey, and also examiner-in-
chief in geology at South Kensington, write books of
this broad and understandable character for geological
readers. W e hardly need say, after the above remarks,
that we cordially and earnestly recommend the work
to all students.

Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands ,

by Charles St. John. (London : John Murray.) This
is a new and illustrated edition of a work which
sportsmen - naturalists have long placed on their
shelves, side by side with Gilbert White’s “ Selborne.”
We are thankful that the publisher has issued such
an attractive edition as is likely to make this most
enjoyable book known to readers, who perhaps are
not aware of the treat in store for them on perusing
it. It is one of the “classics” of our zoological
works, full of mountain air, out-door adventures, and
observations, and in full sympathy with life of all kinds.
This edition is de luxe. Apart from the excellency
of the clear type, the woodcut illustrations are gems
of art, for among the artists are Harrison Weir,
Charles Whymper, A. C. Corbould, A. H. Collins,
A. T. Elwes, and J. W. Whymper. The reperusal
of this most delightsome book, under these advan-
tageous circumstances, has been as refreshingly
interesting as lovers’ quarrels.

Six Months in Ascension , by Mrs. Gill (London :
John Murray), gives a popular and very readable
description of the islands of that name, and of the
expedition thither to determine the correct distance
of the earth to the sun. There is a capital preface by
the husband of the authoress, Mr. David Gill, giving
the history of solar measurements. Some people
have complained that astronomers should differ to the
extent of a million or two of miles as to the correct
distance of the sun from us, but Mr. Gill well puts
this, when he tells us that if any one desires to form
an adequate idea of the difficulties of measuring the
sun’s distance to a million of miles, he can best do it
by trying to measure the thickness of a florin-piece
looked at, edge on, a mile off. We may regard Mrs.
Gill’s book as the best account of the history of, and
the reason for, the recent Venus’ Transit Expedition
yet published.

Geological students and others ought to. be thankful
that the best man in England for such a task has
been selected to write an elementary text-book of
Petrology, a subject too [little studied by English
mineralogists. The Study of Rocks, by Frank Rutley,
F.G.S. (London : Longmans, Green, & Co.), is the
name of this new and cheap little manual. It supplies
a great want ; one attempted very successfully in
Mr. G. H. Kinahan’s “ Handy Book of Rock Names,”
but still not properly met before. Petrology has been
gaining ground in England, and this text-book comes
in the very nick of time. In it the student will find
full instructions as to how to collect and arrange rock
specimens, and to cut and prepare sections for micro-
scopical examination.

Practical Geology , by W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S.
(London : W. Stewart & Co.), is a cheap little manual,
admirably adapted to teacher’s classes, and to young
and earnest students. The author is a well-known
geologist, who has had sufficient experience in
geological teaching to know exactly what a student
wants, and how those wants are to be supplied.
This little book deals a good deal with field geology,
and thus enables the reader to sally forth and intel-
ligibly understand what he sees.j] Once a lad has
done this, he is a geologist henceforth. There are
few of the numerous elementary text - books of
geology, that we can commend more than this of
Mr. Harrison’s.

Baths and Bathing , and Personal Appearance in
Health and Disease (London : Hardwicke & Bogue),
are two additional little volumes of the now well-
known “ Health Primers.” No family library ought
to be without these cheap, attractive, and well-
printed little volumes. Each is an authority on the
subject it treats upon, for the authors are among the
most eminent. We cannot wonder, therefore, at the
great success of this speculation. The prce of each
“ Primer ” is only one shilling, and as they deal with
almost every subject affecting health and disease, and
are written in a plain and intelligible manner, there

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

75

is no longer any excuse for being ignorant of what
ought most to concern us.

The volumes issued by the United States Geological
Survey, under Dr. Hayden, indicate as great industry
as their subject-matter does diligence in the field.
The Tenth Annual Report is just to hand, in a bulky
volume, well stored with maps, sections, and other
illustrations, of the geological and geographical survey
of Colorado and the adjacent territories. It is in
reality a report of the progress made by the survey in
the year 1876. In it we have laborious details of the
various strata and their physical condition, as well as
interesting generalisations. Among the geologists
who contribute to the “Reports,” are Dr. C. A.
White, Professor Endlich, Dr. A. C. Peale, W. H.
Holme, A. D. Wilson, H. Gaunett, Professor Les-
quereux, A. S. Packard, Dr. Hoffmann, and others.
The archaeology of the area surveyed is detailed, as
well as the geography, geology, botany, zoology, &c.
The Birds of the Colorado Valley , by Dr. Elliot
Coues, is another bulky volume of this survey series,
detailing the scientific and popular information con-
cerning North American ornithology, by the naturalist
best fitted for the task. Will the English govern-
ment ever learn to be less niggardly and mean with
the works published by the members of our own
geological survey? At present, by the high price
demanded for the volumes, and the stint with which
they are issued to scientific journals for review, they
appear to be doing their best to withhold the scientific
information from that public who have already been
taxed to pay for it.

ANOTHER FUNGUS RAMBLE IN EPPING
FOREST.

By Dr. De Crespigny, Author of “ A New London
Flora,” &c.

[j Continued from page 6.]

WE find no fungus in our collection referable to
the family of Hydnei : some of the stemless
and resupinate forms are common enough on dead
wood and fallen branches, but Hydnum repandum , an
edible species with the habit of an agaric, has to the
best of our knowledge not been reported as occurring
in Epping forest ; but, as we gathered a specimen in
Highgate wood a year or two ago, it may not im-
probably be met with also in the forest ; it will be
recognised by the close-set series of spinous processes
over which the hymenium is spread out. The pileus,
usuallydrregular (as in the figure), is of a pale ochre
colour.

Of fungi belonging to the Auricularini we have
Stereum hirsutum and purpureum, a Corticium,
and Thelephora laciniata. In this family there are
neither plates, tubes nor spinous processes : the
hymenium is spread over the smooth surface of the
hymenophorum, with which it is confluent. These

fungi are waxy or gelatinous or mostly coriaceous
expansions growing upon decayed wood or attached
to dead sticks, stems, &c., many of them resupinate.
Stereum hirsutum is very common and very variable ;
when young the hymenium is of a tawny yellow
colour; the pileus coriaceous, reflexed, strigoso-hirsute.
S. purpureum when fresh, has the hymenium of a
pale violet hue ; (on stumps of felled trees). All the
many recorded species of Stereum, Corticium and the
like, resemble each other ; they differ merely in colour
and substance, and are consequently difficult to
distinguish.

Thelephora laciniata is a very singular-looking
fungus ; it grows upon sticks, heath stalks, and at the
roots of old trees ; also on leaves (or their stalks) ; it
is of a madder brown colour, with a lighter shaded or
greyish border when fresh gathered : a fibroso-

squamose flat or foliaceous expansion without any
cuticle, the fibres projecting beyond the margin and
imparting that laciniated appearance to the plant to
which it owes its name ; the hymenium is inferior
flocculose and papillose : the spores, as we observed
them, were quaternate on sporophores.

Of the club-shaped fungi, Clavariei, are specimens
of three species : C. cristata, C. vermiculata , and
C. fusiformis ; the former in damp shady parts of the
forest ; the second on a grassy common at Woodford ;
the last mentioned in open parts of the forest behind
Loughton, — it has fascicled or subfascicled clavi of a
yellow colour, and resembles C. fastigia^. ^ C. in-
ccqualis; maybe we have mistaken it for the latter species.
In this family the hymenium is scarcely distinct from
the hymenophorum, and covers the whole surface of
the plant from the base to the apex.

In the second order of the spore-bearing fungi, the
Gasteromycetes, the hymenium consisting of closely
packed cells, is rolled up, in some cases, as it were
into a sac or ball called peridium, and not until the
rupture of this by decay or otherwise, are the cells
exposed and the spores liberated. Of the Trichogastres,
which contain the typical forms of the family, we have
examples in three kinds of puffballs : Lycoperdon
gemma turn, Scleroderma cepa and S. vcrrucosum. The
peridium of the former genus is membranous ; that
of the latter is hard and coriaceous : both genera
occasionally exhibit a warty character in the integu-
ments, L. gemmatum especially so (see fig. 68). “ The
hymenium occupies the surface of innumerable sinuses,
folds and cavities, all closely compacted into a
crumblike mass, the stem being a continuation of the
barren cells ” (Berkeley). In Scleroderma the hymen-
ium is traversed by veins, and the spores are larger
than they are in Lycoperdon.

In the Phalloideae family, the hymenium is also
confined at first in a peridium which differs from that
of the preceding family in that there is an intermediate
gelatinous layer between its coats. The stipe in its
undeveloped condition has the large cells or cavities
of its parenchyma compressed ; but they are obvious

E 2

7 6

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

enough when bursting through the volva : it attains a
growth of from four to six inches. The hymenium is
deliquescent when mature : — Phallus impudicus ; fre-
quent, and when not visible to the eye, sensible, by
the sickening odour which it diffuses, to the smell.

On a hedge bank at Chingford Hatch, near Wood-
ford, some years 'ago, we gathered specimens of a

curious plant belonging to another family of the
Gasteromycetes, viz., Nidularia striata (may be
there now) ; the peridium, or rather the receptacle,
in this tribe is open and cyathiform when fully deve-
loped, and the spores though produced on sporophores,
are compacted into little globose bodies, of which
there are several in each receptacle, and each of them

Fig. 63. — Smooth hymenium and strigoso-hirsute
pileus of Stereum hirsutum.

Fig. 64.— Papillose hy-
menium and spores of
the same, quaternate
on sporophores.

Fig. 65. — Thtlephora laciniata (upper and under surfaces).

Fig. 69. — Section of a Sclero-
1: derma, showing the central
purplish-black mass of cells.

attached by a filament to its base. These
plants are gregarious ; something of similar
growth may be observed on the fronds of certain
species of Marchantia.

Of the Ascomycetous order, also, we found
a few interesting fungi, viz., Xylaria hypoxylon ,
from the base of an old gate-post ; Peziza
vesicularis , from a dunghill ; and a Sphseria or
two from the dead branches of trees. The
fructification in plants of this order consists of
sporidia (compound spores) enclosed in cases
called asci, either free or immersed in the
substance (stroma) of the fungus.*

Peziza vesicularis is common : the matrix is
rotten hay or straw haulms. The sporidia are
eight in number, and, closely packed with the

* Similar to what obtains in lichens, except that no
shields are developed for the purpose.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

77

asci, which contains them, are barren or empty asci,
called paraphyses. * The cups are of a brownish
colour, not unlike very thin gutta perclia, brittle, the
hymenium soft and velvety from the compact layer of
asci with which it is covered. Xylaria hypoxylon has
the habit of Clavaria ; it is black, greyish at the
summit, hairy below. The horny receptacles in which
the asci are contained are called perithecia.

Sphaeria is something of a lichen in its habit of
growth. The genus has been of late years split into
several sub-genera : the distinctions are difficult to

Sapedonium, yellow boletus mould as it is called ; an
agency by which one fungus is converted into a mass
of spores produced by another ; frequent : and Tuber-
cularia (fam. Stilbacei), little excrescences on dead
wood ; they are composed of compacted threads ; also
frequent. In conclusion we would refer those of our
readers who may be interested in microscopic mycology
to the splendid work of the brothers Tulasne on the
subject, in which the growth of the reproductive
agency from the tissue, and various forms it assumes
are most admirably figured and described, while

Fig. 72. — Xylaria
hypoxylon.

Fig. 70. — Vertical section of Phallus impudicus,
in the young state, showing the hymenium,
gelatinous intermediate layer, and undeveloped
stipe.

Fig- 73- — Asci of Peziza vesicularls ; b, sporidia:
all magnified.

make out ; we refrain therefore from naming our
specimens, and confine ourselves to remarking that
they are black excrescences usually found on the bark
of dead branches of trees, with carbonaceous perithecia,
pierced at the apex and mostly papillate. The higher
forms of these Ascomycetous fungi are represented by
the truffle and morel. The types of other families
belonging to the'order are Hypoxylon and Pfiacidium.
Specimens of Phacidium we found upon the leaves of
a sycamore tree at Woodford. We would also observe
that the “ perithecia ” of the Ascomycetes proper must
not be confounded with the “ sporangia ” of a section
of moulds which comprise the family of the Physco-
mycetes associated with them. These growths are
forms which should occupy a position intermediate
with the Hymenomycetes : the contents of these
“ sporangia” are simple spores, not sporidia. Of the
rust, smut, mildew, mould (not physcomycetous) and
other microscopic growths found upon vegetable
matter of different kinds which compose the Conio-
mycetous and Hyphomycetous orders, we have also
two curious growths belonging to the latter, viz.,

* Besides these, simple cells, called gonidia, attached to simple
filaments, have been observed in these as in most kinds of fungi.

Epping Forest, well explored,

will afford abundant material Fif' 74 —Xylaria hypoxy-
lon; 0 vertical section

for Study. showing the perithecia ;

c an ascus of the same

P.S. — At page 254, No. 167, containing sporidia.
erratum. Pleurotus : add, “Stem, when present,
lateral or excentric.”

Note. — Pholiota aureus: said not to be the true
species known by this name and very rare, but an
allied form, P. spectabilis.

[Concluded.)

LIMESTONE AS AN INDEX OF GEO-
LOGICAL TIME.

THIS is the title of a paper recently read before
the Royal Society, by Mr. T. Mellard Reade,
C.E., F.G.S. The author showed that the geo-
logical history of the globe is written only in its
sedimentary strata, but if we trace its history back-
wards, unless we assume absolute uniformity, wes
arrive at a time when the first sediments resulted
from the degradation of the original crust of the
globe. There is no known rock to which a geologist

73

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

could point and say “ that is the material from which
all sedimentary rocks have been derived,” but analogy
leads us to suppose that if the earth had an igneous
origin, the original materials upon which the elements
first began to work were of the nature of granite or
basalt. From a variety of considerations drawn from
borings, mines, faults, natural gorges and proved
thicknesses of the strata of certain mountain chains,
the author arrives at the conclusion that the sedimen-
tary crust of the earth is at least of an average actual
thickness of one mile, and infers from the propor-
tionate amount of carbonates and sulphates of lime to
materials in suspension in various river waters flowing
from a variety of formations, that one- tenth of the
thickness of this crust is calcareous. Limestone rocks
have been, geology tells us, in process of formation
from the earliest known ages, but the extensive series
of analyses of water made by Dr. Frankland for the
Rivers Pollution Commission, shows that the later
strata in Great Britain are much more calcareous than
the earlier. The same holds true of the continent of
Europe, and the balance of evidence seems in favour
of the supposition that there has been on the whole a
gradual progressive increase or evolution of lime.
The “ Challenger ” soundings show that carbonate of
lime in the form of tests of organisms is a general
deposit characterising the greater part of the ocean
bottoms, while the materials in suspension are,
excepting in the case of transport by ice, deposited
within a distance of 200 miles of land. This wider
distribution in space of lime, the author thinks, must
also profoundly influence its distribution in time , and
he shows this by example and illustration. It can
also be proved to demonstration that the greater part
of the ocean bottom must at one time or another have
been land, else the rocks of the continents would
have become gradually less, instead of more, cal-
careous. Thus the arguments drawn from the geo-
graphical distribution of animals are reinforced by
physical considerations. The author goes on to show
that the area of granite and volcanic rocks in Europe
and the part of Asia between the Caspian and the
Black Sea, as shown in Murchison’s map of Europe,
is two-twenty-fifths [R) of the whole ; much of this
is probably remelted sediments and some of the
granites the product of metamorphism. From con-
siderations stated at length it is estimated that the
area of exposures of igneous to sedimentary rocks
would be for all geological time liberally averaged at
one-tenth (-/g) of the whole. These igneous rocks are
either the original materials of the globe protruded
upwards, or they are melted sediments] or a mixture
of the two. The only igneous rocks we know of are
of the nature of granites and traps. If these rocks do
not constitute the substratum of the earth, and all
known rocks, igneous as well as sedimentary, are
derivative, either geological time is infinite, or the
rock from which they are derived is, so far as we know,
annihilated geologically speaking, and we have no re-

cords of it left. If we assume the latter as true, the past
is immeasurable, but in order to arrive at a minimum
age of the earth, the author starts from the hypothesis
that the fundamental rocks were-granitic and trappean.
From eighteen analyses by Dr. Frankland, it is shown
that the water flowing from granitic and igneous rock
districts in Great Britain contains on an average 373
parts per 100,000 of sulphates and carbonates of lime.
The amount of water that runs off the ground is
given for several of the great continental river basins
in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. The annual
depth of rain running off the granitic and igneous
rock areas, taking into consideration the greater
height at which they usually lie and the possibility of
greater rainfall in earlier ages, is averaged at twenty-
eight inches, and the annual contribution of lime in
solution in the forms of carbonates and sulphates at
seventy tons per square mile. With these elements,
and giving due weight to certain physical considera-
tions that have been urged in limitation of the earth’s
age, the author proceeds to his calculations, arriving
at this result, that the elimination of the calcareous
matter contained in the sedimentary crust of the
earth must have occupied at least 600 millions of
years. The actual time occupied in the formation
of the groups of strata as divided into relative ages
by Professor Ramsay, is inferred as follows : —

Millions of years.

Laurentian, Cambrian, and Silurian . . . 200

Old Red, Carboniferous, Permian, and New

Red 200

Jurassic, Wealden, Cretaceous, Eocene, Mi-
ocene, Pliocene, and Post-pliocene . . 200

600

The concluding part of the paper consists of
answers to objections. The author contends that
the facts adduced prove geological time to be
enormously in excess of the limits urged by some
physicists, and ample to allow on the hypothesis of
evolution for all the changes which have taken place
in the organic world.

ON ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS.

THIS term — used in botanical works to express a
consecutive series of phases exhibited in a
marked manner by most flowerless plants before
reaching maturity — is a very unfortunate one, imply-
ing that each form in the series is an individual, which
is erroneous. The following description of the suc-
cessive stages in the growth of a fern shows what the
term “alternation of generations” is intended to
convey. The spore, under favourable conditions,
gives origin to a minute green leaf-like body called a
prothallium or proembryo , bearing antheridia and
archegonia (the former corresponding to the stamens,
the latter to the pistil in flowering plants), the last
containing a special cell, the oospore , which after

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

79

fertilisation with the antherozoids that have been
produced by the antheridia (corresponding functionally
with the pollen of flowering plants), germinates and
gives origin to a fern plant which produces spores,
each capable of giving origin to a similar cycle of
changes. In this case there are two so-called genera-
tions, the first commencing with the germination of
the spore and terminating with the production of the
fertilised oospore, at which period the prothallium
perishes, this is styled the sexual generation, because
the oospore — equivalent to the fertilised ovule in
flowering plants — is the direct result of fertilisation ;
the second generation commences with the germina-
tion of the oospore and ends with the production of
spores on the fern plant, this is the asexual generation,
because the spore is not the result of direct fertilisa-
tion, and when sown could not give origin to a fern
plant without previously producing the sexual pro-
thalloid form. In this instance we have clearly re-
presented only one generation, not two ; when once
growth has commenced with the spore it goes on un-
interruptedly until another spore is formed, the fer-
tilised oospore, which is said to terminate the first
generation, not possessing the power of remaining in
a state of dormant vitality, as is the case with the
seeds of flowering plants, and which marks the end
of the individual that gave origin to the seed, but
this property is possessed by the fern spore, therefore
one generation includes all the changes from the
germination of a spore until the production of another
similar one. The term “alternation of generations,”
so far as concerns the vegetable kingdom, simply
expresses the fact that when active life has commenced,
a series of changes in form and function must be
passed through before the starting-point can be again
reached, or in other words before a body capable of
giving origin to a similar cycle can be repeated. In
fungi the “generations” are frequently several in
number, but they do not always follow in the same
order, the appearance of any one appears to be deter-
mined by surrounding causes, so that the plant
possesses the property of repeating itself under widely
different conditions. In ferns we have seen that the
sexual generation is microscopic and disappears —
except the oosphere — before the appearance of the
large asexual form or fern proper ; in mosses, on the
contrary, the sexual generation — the leafy part of the
plant — is largest and frequently perennial, giving origin
to several asexual generations — the capsules. The terms
prothallus or pro-embryo are vaguely defined, the
latter signifying everything produced anterior to the
embryo, consequently when a bulbil of Lilium bulbi-
ferum developes into a plant the whole represents
a pro -embryo, as would also a potato plant origina-
ting from a tuber, both would also be examples
of asexual generations, whereas plants produced
from seeds of the above would constitute the sexual
generation.

G. E. Massee.

A CHAPTER ON FISH PARASITES.

Ey John Davies, F.R.M.S.

FISII parasites are a subdivision of the Entomo-
straca, and are divided into several species,
viz. : The Caligulus, having a sucking mouth and a
regular series of legs. They are sometimes called
“suctorial Crustacea.” The Argulidoe, which prin-
cipally infest fresh-water fish. The body is covered
with an oval shell, the abdomen is exposed. It has a
pair of sucking discs, or feet-jaws, and four pairs of
legs more or less articulated and generally plumose. »
These parasites undergo a number of remarkable
changes and cast their shells at frequent intervals. If
a limb is lost it is replaced at the next moult, same as
crabs, lobsters, &c. These castings take place at
intervals of two or three days during some periods of
the year. The Argulidae are mostly found on fish in
a weakly state, or on those that have met with some
accident, which causes them to be more than usually
sluggish i or on those that are by nature inert. The
carp offers a striking example of the latter class, and
the fact of its being more than usually infested has
given rise to a proverb. I do not think the fish suffer
in any way from the presence of these creatures — on the
contrary, if they feed on cutaneous secretions, it must
benefit their host, from a “ hygienic point of view.”
These parasitic Crustacea are very quick in their
movements over their hosts, being able to travel back-
wards and forwards with equal facility. Their peculiar
mode of swimming has been described as a “series of
tumblings over and over, and darts in a straight line
with great rapidity.” The fish seem to have a great
aversion to these messmates as an article of food, for
if by chance one gets down the throat of a fish it
immediately ejects it again, and would rather starve
than eat it. The female has generally two long
oviferous tubes for depositing her eggs (see Article
in Science-Gossip, page 33, vol. 1878).

When the young animal comes forth it resembles
the Cyclops, and by successive moultings attains the
adult form. These metamorphoses do not apply to
the males, as they scarcely alter in form and only
slightly increase in size.

It is a curious fact that most of these animals when
first hatched bear a great resemblance to the creatures
immediately below them in point of organisation. Their
cast-off shells, after being cleaned by the myriads of
minute scavengers (Monads) form most beautiful
objects for the microscope. They should be examined
with the half-inch objective in conjunction with the
spot lens, and as permanent objects can be preserved
in a solution of chloride of calcium, or glycerine-jelly.

There is a great difficulty in examining these small
Crustacea as they soon perish after leaving their native
element, and in fact they seem bent on committing
self-destruction, as they generally climb out of the
vessel in which they are placed, and soon end their
existence. The Caligulus was first-mentioned by

So

HAREWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Baldner, a self-taught naturalist (a fisherman) of
Strassburg, about 1700. In I74°> Frisch, in his
“ Insecten in Deutschland,” describes it as Fisch-laus.
Linnseus in his “ Systema Naturse,” mentions it as the
Monoculus foliaceus. The best description, however,
is given in “ Ann. et Mus. d’Hist. Nat.” for 1806, and
at the present time this article is largely quoted. The
Argulus was first noticed about fifty years after the
Caligulus, and several mistakes seem to have been
made, one author actually mistaking the tail for the
head. This was a pardonable blunder, as the use of
the microscope was little known in those days. It,
however, led to a great amount of confusion, as each
writer, copying the remarks of those before him,

six layers of bronchial lamellae finely marked, and are
used for sucking the juices of the fish, or from the
mucous products secreted by the skin. Between
these suckers is a round sinus, whose functions I do
not know ; from near this opening commences the
alimentary canal, which runs through the centre of the
parasite, throwing off “caecal prolongations,” and
terminating between the caudal appendages, where is
situated the cloaca.

The primary canal contains the oesophagus, stomach,
and intestines. Below the sucking discs is a pair of
foot-jaws serrated in their inner edges, which are used
for masticating the food. In the centre of these jaws
I is situated the mouth. Leydig describes the mouth

Fig. 75. — Parasite of wrasse (ventral view). Scale,
£ inch.

Fig. 76. — Sucker of
parasite of wrasse ;
X 310.

caused an accumulation of errors. Milne-Edwards’
“ Hist. Nat. des Crus.” gives a full and good descrip-
tion in 1840, and since that time several American
and Continental writers have greatly increased our
knowledge on the subject.

The following is a description of two minute para-
sitic Crustacea which were taken from living specimens,
and which differ in some particulars from any hitherto
recorded. They give but a vague idea of the wonder-
ful organisation and beauty of form of these minute
beings, which are so perfectly adapted to perform all
the functions designed by Providence for these lowly
creatures.

This parasite (fig. 75) is oval and slightly convexed.
It is divided into two parts, the thorax and the
abdomen ; the thorax coalesces with the hind part,
which is sometimes, but erroneously, called the tail.
The posterior part contains the swimming-legs. In
this individual the thorax is composed of a shelly
carapace strengthened by a series of bands diverging
from the centre. This shell extends to about three-
fourths of the length of the parasite. The remainder
consists of four segments of a soft sarcode interspersed
with small pink puncta.

The last pair of segments has a distinct band which
serves to divide it transversely. A pair of sternal
forks is placed at the termination of the abdomen.
The cephalo-thorax is composed of a shelly trans-
parent substance, and according to Pickering and
Dana, is formed of two layers or substances. The
head is blunted and contains a pair of antennse,
which in some individuals is at right-angles, and in
others is turned upwards. Between these antennae
and the centre of the head is a pair of lunules or
sucking-discs (see fig. 76) which are composed of about

Fig. 77. — Parasite of bass (ventral
view) ; X 25.

in the Argulus foliaceus as follows : “ The opening of
the mouth is placed in a club-shaped projection bent
downwards. It is divided posteriorly by a crescent-
shaped lower lip, anteriorly and laterally by two broad
gradually tapering plates, several disc-like pieces
inside representing the mandibles.”* M. T. Thowell
observed “ two small teeth.”

A little below the gullet is a pair of thoracic feet
graduating from the carapace to the termination, and
curved so as almost to meet at their extremities.
These legs are covered with a series of triangular
scales, which gives them the appearance of being
irregularly segmentated. Under these locomotive
appendages is another pair, much thinner and turned
towards the posterior. Between the shell and the
abdominal part is a pair of fan-shaped fins composed
of six cartilaginous ossicles and covered with a fine
membrane. These parasites have two simple oval
eyes. This Caligulus was taken from the Green
Wrasse ( Labrus lineatus ). Colour, opal white, with
dark crimson markings. Fig. 77 an individual of
the genus Argulidse ; there are only two or three
species known. It is of a pale green colour and
about -jL inch each way, being nearly round. The
membranous carapace is covered with a peculiar
V-shaped marking, and forms a shield over the whole
of the body. The fore-part is obtusely round, it has
a pair of perfect eyes, very dark and brilliant ;

* On the "Morphology of the Argulidae,” 1866.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

81

antennse above the eyes, short and pointed, and
are scarcely seen. Between the eyes commences the
alimentary canal, which leads to a long oval dark
mass, which is supposed to contain the mouth,
oesophagus, &c.

Situated on either side of the optic nerves is a pair
of remarkable organs which are both legs and
suckers, according to Dr. Baird* * they are: “The
anterior pair or second pair of foot-jaws, and of a
peculiar construction. They are in the form of short
hollow flexible cylinders .... having a membranous
margin and figured all round with membranous rays
.... by this organisation the animal can make use
of them as real suckers or cupping glasses and fasten
itself to the fish on which it lives, and also to walk
with when it wishes to change its position. By con-
tracting these muscles it can exhaust the cavity of the
sucking disc, producing a vacuum, and this enables
it to adhere firmly to the surface upon which it is
placed.” By Dana and Herrick they are called
“prehensile feet.” About midway are placed two
pairs of long and beautifully formed legs, and further
below are four more pairs also plumosed and carried
towards the posterior.

The abdomen consists of a pair of lobed oval
a23pendages, or perhaps egg- corpuscles, and are marked
with longitudinal lines about eight in number.

At the commencement of these ovate organs are
two bright crimson star-shaped markings which are
said not to be observable in the male. Between
these appendages terminates the intestine canal, and
here is situated the anal orifice.

This species was found on the gill of the Bass
( Labrax lupus).

ON THE MITE OF THE HUMBLE BEE
GAMASUS.

I SHOULD like to draw the attention of students
of the Arachnoida' to a minute mite, which
I have frequently found parasitic on the Gamasi
infesting queen humble bees. I first noticed it, I
think, in the spring of 1877. I suppose it must be
the Hypopus (whatever that may be) of Gamasus, but
it differs so remarkably from all other Hypopi that
I have seen, or indeed from all other mites with
which I am acquainted, that I should like to know
more about it. I have found as many as seven
specimens on a single Gamasus. The humble bee
on which I first found it in 1878 was the B ombus
virginalis of Kirby. It moves about on its host with
tolerable speed, giving one an idea of a pigmy tor-
toise ; it is covered with a shield of a brownish-yellow
colour, like some specimens of resin, shining, and very
evidently divided into an anterior or cephalic, and
posterior or dorsal portion. The legs are very re-

markable, the anterior pair being rather short, broad
and flattened, and each front leg is provided with a
peculiar and large single claw, like that found on the
three first pairs of legs of Trichodactylus O si nice, from
which mite it differs also, in having the chitinous
shield, instead of the corrugated skin so characteristic
of the Sarcoptidae. The second and third pair of
legs are much finer, rather longer, and furnished
with a double claw and large pad. The hind legs
terminate in a few long stiff hairs, somewhat like
Trichodactylus , only in that creature there is but a
single terminal hair to each hind leg. The mouth

Fig. 78. — Mite from Gamasus of Humble
bee ; X about 220.

Hg- 79* — Front leg (a) with claw, middle feet flja nd pad, and
hind leg (c) of Gamasus.

Fig. 80. — Scale, xooo inch.

parts I have not been able to make out satisfactorily,
but it appears to be furnished with two bristles, as in
Hypopus muscarum. The abdomen gives one an idea
of segmentation.

The readiest way of finding them, is, first to catch
the early queen humble bees when they frequent
the catkins of the sallow : these are almost invariably
invested with the desired Gamasus (which is exactly
like G. coleoptratorum). Place one of the bees
under a wine-glass, or tumbler, and introduce a
small piece of blotting paper moistened with hydro-
cyanic acid. This will speedily kill the bee, but

* Their structure is simple and fructification though vari ;us

* “ Natural History of British Entomostraca.” j in power, always sporiferous.

82

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

before it is quite dead, the Gamasi will leave it, and
run about in all directions ; as soon as they are
stupified, examine them one by one under the
microscope, when the hypopi if present, will be
found attached to some portion of the Gamasus, and
may be removed, with care and some trouble, by using
a dissecting needle. On placing one or more on a
glass slip, and waiting a little while, it will be found
that they are not dead (unless they have been exposed
to the vapour of the acid for too long a time) and
when they come round, they will walk with tolerable
ease on the glass, although the front pair of legs are
of very little use to them under such circumstances ;
and this is the most favourable time for observing
the large claw, for in walking on glass it is protruded
a little way beyond the shield. When alive on the
Gamasus they cling to it by means of these large claws,
and in this state, the claw oi\leg will often be torn off
in trying to remove them with the needle.

I have not the works of Dujardin or Claparede
on this subject ; but if any reader of Science-Gossip
possesses them, and would kindly lend them to me
for a short time, I would take great care of them,
and gladly pay the carriage of them both ways.

Kirton Lindsey. C. F. George.

THE HISTORY OF RHUBARB (. RHEUM ).
By H. G. Glasspoole.

RHUBARB is a plant belonging to the Poly-
gonacem, the same order as the common dock
and buckwheat, to the latter family of which it belongs.
The use of the roots of this plant for medicinal pur-
poses is of great antiquity, and it is uncertain to
whom mankind are indebted for the discoveries of
its virtues. Its valuable properties appear to have
been known to the Chinese long before the Christian
era, as it is stated in the Pharmacographic that this
drug is treated of in the herbal called Pen King,
which is attributed to the Emperor Shen-mung, the
father of Chinese agriculture and medicine, who
reigned about 2700 B.C. Dioscorides, physician to
Antony and Cleopatra, wrote on its qualities, and
recommended it against weakness of the stomach,
diseases of the liver ; and as an external remedy, he
mentions it as a cure for ringworm, if it be mixed
with vinegar and the place be anointed with it.
Dioscorides says the rha, by some called rheon, grows
in those countries which are beyond the Bosphorus,
and from which it is brought. It is a root which is
black externally, like the great centaury, but smaller,
redder, odourless, loose or spongy, and somewhat
smooth internally. The Greek physicians of a later
date, as Alexander of Tralles, and Paulus, of A£gina,
have written upon its virtues ; and Pliny gives a
similar account as that of Dioscorides to a plant
which he calls rhacoma. The ancient Arabs were
acquainted with this plant ; one of their authors,

Mesne the younger, mentions three kinds— the Indian,
the Barbarian, and the Turkish. The recommenda-
tions of the medicinal virtues of this root by later
practitioners would fill many volumes ; as an article
of commerce it has been of considerable importance
for many centuries. All the species of rhubarb are
natives of Asia, and grow spontaneously on the
elevated lands of Tartary, Tibet, India, &c., and
also on the banks of the Volga. We have no account
of this plant being cultivated in England before 1629,
although it is stated in some of our old works on
gardening that the leaves of rhubarb were commonly
used as a pot-herb in the reign of Elizabeth, and
considered superior to spinach. Tusser also men-
tions it as a medicinal plant for the “ Herbe garden ;”
this was no doubt monk’s rhubarb, mentioned by
Gerard as grown in his garden and others in London and
elsewhere for the use of “ phisick ” and “ chirurgerie.”
He calls it “ Rhubarb arum monachorum , Monks’
rhubarb.”. This plant did not belong to any species of
rheum, but appears to be Rumex alpimis, an Alpine
dock which grows in Switzerland and Germany, the
root being more astringent than purgative, is used by
the monks of the Alps to adulterate the true drug-
Although we have no account of the cultivation of
rhubarb before the date previously mentioned, the
seeds of the plant appear to have been sent to this
country as early as 1534, for in a postscript of a
letter of the above date, from that eccentric physician
Andrew Broide (or Brode) to Cromwell, secretary of
state to Henry VIII., he says, “ I have sent to your
Mastership the seeds of reuberbe, the which came out
of Barbary. In those parts it is considered a great
treasure.” He also gives directions for sowing and
transplanting the roots, at least two hundred years
before the cultivation of it was known in England.*

Rheum rhaponticum , the common garden rhubarb,
was first grown in this country in 1629 by Parkinson,
who informs us that the seeds were sent him from,
beyond the seas by a worthy gentleman named Dr-
Matt Lister, one of the king’s physicians, and first
grew with him before it was ever seen or known,
elsewhere in England, f but it was only grown as a
curiosity or for medicinal purposes, and was not
generally cultivated : as we find Professor Bradley, in
his “ Husbandry and Gardening,” published in 1724,
saying, “ I could wish that we could get some of the
true rhubarb, if possible, for this has not yet been
grown in Europe as I could ever find, though once I
remember the late ingenious Mr. Jacob Robart thought
he had got it.”

Rheum palmatum , another species grown in gardens,
was first introduced in 1763 by Dr. Mounsey, who
procured the seeds from Russia. The plants were
grown in the botanical gardens of Edinburgh and.
Cambridge, from thence they were quickly dispersed

* Ellis, “Original Letters,” 3 ser. vol. ii. p. 300.
t “Parad.” 484.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

S3

over the island. Pennant, in his second tour in
Scotland, 1769, mentions having seen large quantities
of rhubarb being cultivated on the wild tracts of
that country by way of trial to see if it would succeed
as well there as in manured soils.

Mr. Charles Bryant, of Norwich, gives an interesting
paper in the “Gentleman’s Magazine,” 1766, p. 444,
on a plant of R. palmatum , grown in his garden in
Magdalen Street. After giving a botanical description
of it, he proceeds to say that about the end of May
the flowers were almost all blown to the very top of
the flower-stem, and the whole consummated a
scene which not only merited the inspection of the
curious botanist, but gave delight to the delicate eye
of the most luxurious florist. The seed that pro-
duced this plant was sown in the open ground in the
botanic garden here (Norwich), April, 1763* where it
stood and flourished till November, 1765? when it
was taken up. A piece of its root came off, which
was copiously stored with a fine thickish saffron-
coloured juice of a very agreeable aroma to smell,
so volatile that it scented the whole garden. Half-
an-ounce of this fresh root, thinly sliced and steeped
twenty-four hours in half-a-pint of gin, made a most
agreeable sparkling saffron-coloured tincture, about
half a gill of which, taken upon an empty stomach,
was found a very good cordial.

R. rhaponticum was largely cultivated for me-
dicinal purposes at Banbury, Oxfordshire, in 1777,
by Mr. Hayward, who was rewarded by the Society
of Arts in 1 789 with a silver, and in 1 794 with a gold,
medal for the excellency of the drug he produced.
The same society also presented Sir W. Fordyce a
gold medal for raising rhubarb from seeds in 1792.

It was not, however, until the beginning of the
present century that the stalks of rhubarb became an
article of commercial importance in the London and
other vegetable markets in the kingdom. About
1810, Mr. Myatt, of Deptford, sent two of his sons to
the Borough market with five bunches of rhubarb
stalks, of which they only sold three, people not
liking what they called physic pies. Notwithstanding,
Myatt continued its cultivation. As he predicted, it
soon became a favourite ; and now hundreds of tons’
weight of rhubarb are sold in Covent Garden in the
course of the year, and what amount in other markets
all over the country it is impossible to calculate.

The various uses of this plant in the kitchen de-
partment is well known. The petioles in the spring
and early summer are employed in tarts, &c., and
when the leaf stalks are too old for cooking, the
express juice from them is manufactured into a wine
closely resembling champagne ; indeed, much of the
common champagne drunk in this country is often
nothing more than a preparation from the stalks of
rhubarb and the fruit of the gooseberry. The large
globular pouch of unopened flowers when cooked as
rhubarb form a dish of great delicacy. Its chemical
.composition is very complicated, and chemists have

failed to discover any peculiar principle in the drug
which fully accounts for its purgative properties.
The analyses of Schlossberger and Dopping discovered
a variety of new principles in it, among which was
chrysoplianic acid, a beautiful yellow substance emit-
ting yellow vapours when heated, soluble in alcohol,
its alkaline solution changing by evaporation to a
violet and then to a blue. Magnificent purples also
are obtained from the yellow colouring matter pro-
duced by heating rhubax-b with nitric acid and then
with alkalies, and it has been proposed to apply
these, called erythose in the arts, as a dry stuff.*
Bryant tells us a decoction made from the fresh roots
of rhubarb is an excellent antiscorbutic, and in this
respect is no way excelled, if equalled, by a decoction
of the so much celebrated water dock, Rumex^Jiy-
drolapathum , which is still in the present day taken
for scorbutic diseases by the rustics in the Broad
districts of the eastern counties. The poor in some
parts of Scotland are said to apply heated rhubarb
leaves to parts affected by rheumatism, which they say
gives ease to the pain. The leaves are said to be used
in the fabrication of fictitious cigars and tobacco.

To the botanical microscopist the rhubarb supplies
excellent specimens of spiral fibrous structures, as
spiral annular and reticulated vessels and ducts, the
petioles, leaves, and roots contain bundles of stellate
raphides, oxalate of lime (which gives a grittiness to
the drug), which make beautiful objects for polarized
light. The original species of R. rhaponticum , un-
dulatum , and R. palmatum have now been super-
seded in our gardens by hybrid varieties possessing
the merits of larger size, delicacy in texture, and
coming earlier into use.

Rheum officinale , from which the drug is obtained,
was first grown in this country by the late Daniel
Hanbury, F.R.S., who sent specimens to Mr. Usher,
of Banbury, where it is now being cultivated for
medicinal uses. This species is a native of the south-
east of Tibet. Some species of rhubarb are highly
ornamental in many situations in pleasure grounds,
&c., their luxuriant foliage and tall elegant spikes
and flowers contrasting so singularly with most of our
native plants. The generic name rheum is derived
from rha , the ancient name of the river Volga,
from which locality it is supposed the Greeks first
received it.

Field Mouse and Bees.— I keep several hives of
bees, and have placed pieces of perforated zinc about
three-quarters of an inch broad at the mouth or door of
each hive to prevent vermin, but the other day on
going to look after the bees, I found a field mouse had
entangled itself in the zinc in coming out of the hive ;
it was dead, and appears caught by its hind quarters,
and I suppose stung to death by the bees. Is not
this a very curious circumstance? — J. Lloyd Phelps.

* Sec Ripley and Dane, “American Cyclopaedia.'*

84

BAR '/) WICKEDS, SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

ON THE AMBULACRAL SUCKERS AND
PEDICELLARLE OF ECHINUS MILIARIS.

By Major Lang.

WHILST residing lately at Torquay, I carefully
studied the exterior organs of Echinus
miliaris , which is to be found there in considerable
abundance, under the stones at low water off Corbon
Head. I allude more especially to its ambulacral
suckers and those curious and little-understood
appendages, the pedicellariae.

If a dead and dry specimen of Echinus, popularly
called the sea-urchin or hedgehog, is examined by
a novice, he is at a loss to understand how the
little creature is enabled to creep, as it does, under
and over the rocks and stones in its native element.

Its calcareous shell is entirely covered and almost
hidden by sharp-pointed spines, whilst the mouth,

ambulacral perforations that the tubular sarcodic
tentacles, surmounted by their sucker-like disc, are
attached ; each of the five plates or segments of the
test are covered with tubercles arranged in longitu-
dinal rows, the summit of each tubercle being sur-
mounted with a polished nipple, on which the base
of the spine, which is slightly hollowed out for the
purpose, rests, so that they form together a perfect
ball and socket joint, employed therefore by nature
long before man had ever adopted it.

Having learnt thus much it will be well to go down
to the shore during low water, and obtain some living
specimens, which, as the creatures are tolerably
tenacious of life, can be brought home in some fresh
seaweed. A bottle of sea water must be also pro-
cured. On arriving at home, put the Echini in a
white soup plate and pour in the salt water. The
beautiful lilac and green tints of the spines, as they
languidly move in their sockets, will be first observed,

which is placed on the under side, is surrounded by a
naked membrane. But if he looks carefully with a
pocket lens he will perceive, between the bases of the
spines, and more especially between those nearest the
mouth and on the periphery of the buccal membrane,
a great number of very minute discs apparently
attached to or resting on the shell. These are in
reality the organs of locomotion, the ambulacral
suckers, which the animal can protrude far beyond
the extremities of the spines by a method which will
be explained presently. Now if he will rub off the
spines, which he can easily do, he will see that the
test or shell is composed of five wedge-shaped seg-
ments, the apices of which meet at the top, and that
dividing these, or joining them, if you please, are five
ribs, each of which is furnished with two rows of
puncta or holes completely perforating the shell, as
can be proved by simply holding it up to the light
and looking through its interior ; and it is on these

and then many of the ambulacral suckers will be
seen extended far beyond these by their diaphanous
sarcodic tubes. The slightest touch will cause them
to retract, but with a sharp pair of scissors that por-
tion of the tubes beyond the spines with its suckers
may be cut off, the tube however shrinking up into
almost nothing towards the suckers. Remove this to
a watch glass into which a few drops of water have
been placed, and examine it under the microscope,
when it will be seen that the sucker is strengthened
by an interior circular skeleton, and that the tube has
fallen into corrugated folds. Replace the water by
some liquor potassse, and let the specimen soak in it
for a day or two. The potass will act upon and
destroy the sarcode, and a beautifully reticulated
calcareous disc or rosette with a scolloped margin and
central orifice, like a delicate piece of network will be
revealed, composed of from three to seven wedge-
shaped segments, which, if the action of the potass be

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

85

much longer prolonged, will be separated from each
other. There are a vast number of these ambu-
lacral suckers on the entire test, and by their aid the
creature not only drags itself along, but anchors itself
to the rocks, and so tenaciously, that it requires con-
siderable force to detach it ; indeed, sooner than let
go its hold, I have found that it will 'allow the
suckers and tubes to be torn from it, and they have
been left on the bottom of the plate to which it had
been clinging. In fact this is the best way of obtain-
ing specimens for microscopic investigation. By
means of those on the upper portion of the shell the
animal is able to right itself if thrown on what we
may call its back, and by their aid also it can, and
does often, completely cover itself with pieces of sea-
weed, for the purpose, I presume, of concealment
from its enemies.

The method by which these suckers are extended
or retracted at the creature’s will is interesting. In the

muscular bag filled with fluid is attached to the same.
When the sucker is to be protruded the muscles of
the interior bag contract, whilst the longitudinal ones
of the tube are relaxed, and consequently the fluid
expelled from the bag passes through the two pores
and entering the tube extends it. When it is to be
retracted, the process is of course reversed ; the
longitudinal muscles of the tube contracting, whilst
those of the bag relax, so that the fluid can re-enter it.

I need scarcely remark that in the sucker of the
Echinus we have another example of a mechanical
power in nature that has existed for ages, and that it
has been unconsciously reproduced in the school-boys’
well-known leathern sucker.

Let us now turn our attention to those extraordinary
appendages, the pedicellariae, which have always been,
and still are, a puzzle to naturalists. What their
functions may be, and what use they are to the
animal, is still a question which will be alluded to

Fig. 84. — Pcdicellaria stcreophylla , open and closed.

first place it may be seen under the microscope that the
tubes are furnished with both longitudinal and annular
muscles, the former for lengthening and shortening
them, the latter for increasing or diminishing their
calibre. I have said that there are five pairs of
ambulacral rows of pores. Now if a portion of one of
these meridianal primary rows is carefully examined,
it will be found to consist of numerous subordinate
diagonal ones, each of which is made up of three
pairs of pores. The tube of the sucker covers and
embraces one of these pairs, and within the test a

presently. I will only remark
here that similar organs are
found in some of the star-
fishes, and in a few of the
polyzoa. The Echinus has no
less than four different kinds
of pedicellariae, distinguished
by the names of Triphylla, .
Tridens, Globifera, and Ste-
reophylla. I have found them
all, with the exception of
Globifera, on the naked mem-
brane surrounding the mouth,
the latter seems to be con-
fined to the bases of the spines, whilst Triphylla, by
far the most abundant, is also scattered generally over
every portion of the shell. Although the form and
size of the different species differ considerably, their
general plan and structmre are identical. A calcareous
and more or less fibrous stem, enlarged at either end
like a double drum-stick, is anchored at its base to the
naked membrane round the mouth, or to the shell by
its sarcodic envelope, which, clothing the entire length
of the stem, protrudes far beyond its free end, except
in the case of Globifera, forming an extensile flexible

Fig. 85. — Single blade of
Fig. 81. (Pedicellaria
triphylla.)

86

BARD WICKEDS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

neck on the top of which is perched the’head, consisting
of three beautifully reticulated forceps-like blades or
jaws, armed, except in the smallest kind, Stereophylla,
with strong sharp serrated teeth. In Globifera the
head is placed directly on the stem without any inter-
vening neck. In their natural state these calcareous
heads, as well as the stems, are clothed with a sarcodic
covering, especially abundant and dilated in Globifera.
But when treated with potass this is dissolved, and
the skeletons only left.

It is an interesting experiment to cut out with a pair
of scissors, which can be easily done, the membranous
portion surrounding the mouth of the Echinus, and
detaching it from the five prominent teeth protruding
through it, and familiarly known by the fanciful name
of Aristotle’s Lantern, to'place it in some sea-water on
a glass slip under the microscope. The animal must be
undoubtedly dead, but on the severed portion under
examination the pedicellariae will be seen still in a
lively condition, bending their extensile necks in every
direction, and opening and shutting their three-
bladed jaws.

I have now only to add a few words on the possible
functions of these pedicellariae, though nothing is
known conclusively on the subject. Their first dis-
coverers considered them to be parasites perfectly
independent of their hosts ; but this cannot be the
case for various reasons, as in the first place they are
invariably present in the same numbers and in the
same position, which would not be the case were they
adventitious ; and secondly their skeletons are formed
of precisely the same material and on exactly the same
structural plan as that of the creature’s test on which
they rest ; whilst the sarcodic envelope surrounding
them is a mere continuation of that which clothes the
entire shell as well as the spines upon it. Perhaps
the best suggestion as to their use is, that they catch
and hold in their grasp the small crustaceans swim-
ming past, and that these, dying and decaying, attract
around them clouds of minute infusoria, which event-
ually become the prey of the Echinus ; but this is a
mere theory which must be taken for what it is
worth.

MICROSCOPY.

Cement for Glycerine. — Every one who has
had much experience in microscopy recognises the
extreme value of glycerine as a mounting medium,
but the evil reputation it enjoys for “leaking” has
much restricted its use. The cements in common
use are not to be relied upon. Dammar varnish, so
strongly recommended by some, becomes so saturated
and softened that after a few months, cover, specimen
and cement may often be wiped off the slide with the
greatest ease. Even good gold size is not safe, and I
believe chiefly for the reason that many bad specimens
of this varnish are in the market. Having experienced

much inconvenience from the want of a reliable
cement, I am glad to believe that I have at length
succeeded in obtaining one. The description is to be
found in Dr. Marsh’s book on “ Section Cutting” (a
notice of which you gave recently), and as the in-
formation will doubtless be welcome to many besides
myself, I send you the following extract, which
perhaps you may consider worthy of preservation in
your pages. ‘ ‘ The great drawback to the use of
glycerine is the extreme difficulty experienced in
preventing its escape from beneath the covering-
glass, for it unfortunately possesses such great pene-
trating power that no cement hitherto devised can
be thoroughly depended upon for withstanding its
solvent action for any considerable length of time.
Attention to the instructions however presently
to be given will however reduce this risk of leak-
age to a minimum : after clearing away all super-
fluous glycerine from round the cover, with a
very small camel’s-hair pencil, charged with solu-
tion of gelatine, a ring must be made round the
margin of the cover of sufficient breadth to take in
both cover and slide. As this cement is perfectly
miscible with glycerine, it readily unites with any of
that fluid which may ooze from beneath the cover
and which in the case of any of the ordinary varnishes
would act as a fatal obstacle to perfect adhesion. To
make the cement, take \ oz. of Nelson’s opaque
gelatine, put it in a small beaker, add sufficient cold
water to cover it, and allow the mixture to remain
until the gelatine has become thoroughly soaked.
The water is now poured off and heat applied until
the gelatine becomes fluid, when three drops of
creosote should be well stirred in and the fluid
mixture transferred to a small bottle to solidify.
Before use this compound must be rendered liquid by
immersing the bottle containing it in a cup of warm
water. When the ring of gelatine has become quite
set and dry (which will not take long) every trace of
glycerine must be carefully removed from the cover
and its neighbourhood by gently swabbing these parts
with a large camel’s-hair pencil dipped in methylated
spirit. After drying the slide, a ring of Bell’s micro-
scopical cement may be applied over the gelatine, and
when this is dry another coat is to be laid on. If
it be desired to give to the slide a neat and tasteful
appearance it is a very easy matter by means of the
turntable to lay on a final ring of Brunswick black or
white zinc cement.” — William Briars , Hackney.

Microscope Improvements. — In an important
paper recently read before the Chichester National
History and Microscopical Society, on “Microscopes,”
Mr. F. J. Freeland reviewed the most noteworthy
improvements which have been made in objectives,
both at home and abroad, within the last five years.
Among other subjects, he said that “ a new eighth
and a twelfth, designed by Professor Abbe, for use
with oil of cedar, and, to obviate screw collar adjust-

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

87

ment, for varying thickness of cover glass, upon
objects, is very highly spoken of by leading English
observers. If this work without counterbalancing
objections, a revolution in the future of objectives
may be expected. The object must be somewhat
specially mounted. Danger that the fluids may inter-
mingle under necessary traversing when a living
object in water is examined with a water immersion
lens is not ) lessened by oil substituted, and Mr.
Dallinger rejoices that high power English dry
lenses, usually, suffice for investigation of minutest
living things, from the study of which, as he remarks,
so much may be anticipated.”^

Mounting Polyzoa, &c. — Mr. Thomas Lisle, of
Wolverhampton, gives in the “ Midland Naturalist ”
for March, the following process for mounting these
objects: — “Place the polyzoa in a deep cell with
some of the pond water ; let them remain undisturbed
until they have expanded their tentacles, then
suddenly let fall a drop of alcohol into the cell.
This Jdlls them instantly. The cell is then filled
with distilled water or glycerine, and sealed in the
usual way. Rotifers may be treated in the same
manner, but the cell may be shallow.”

. Cells for Dry Objects. — We have received from
Mr. H. P. Aylward, of Manchester, some prepared
cells, which we believe may be useful to those who
mount many dry objects. They are made, either of
paper, or cloth rings, well coated with, we believe,
a shellac varnish, which becomes hard and glossy, and
when the objects are to be mounted the application of
heat melts these rings to the slip and fastens on the
thin cover. Their use fs of course limited to those
objects which will bear heat, but most foraminifera
and other calcareous organisms and many microscopic
fossils can thus be rapidly mounted, for as soon as the
slide is cold the varnish' becomes quite hard and there
is no danger of the object becoming attached to the
edge, which sometimes happens when rings are
fastened on with gold size or other varnish. The thin
glass when it is being attached should not be touched
with a cold needle, or condensation takes place under
the point ; but if this is avoided we have found the
glass remains quite clear, and the object is in no way
obscured. It would seem as if the attachment is
likely to remain permanently hard and firm, but that
can only be proved by lengthened experience.

New Species of Rhizopods. — In the “American
Quarterly Microscopical Journal” for January,
Professor W. S. Barnard describes some new kinds
of American Rhizopods. As a rule, the American
species are of European genera, and it is very seldom
a new one is discovered. Our species {Euglypkia
tegulifera ), appears to be a very interesting form, on
account of its peculiar shell. It was found among
fresh-water algae near New York. We take advantage
of this opportunity to express our high opinion of this
well got up and excellently edited journal.

Removing Air-bubbles.— Mr. F. C. Clarke, in
the “American Naturalist,” gives the following
method as practised by Dr. Johnson : The apparatus
he employs is of very simple construction, being a
common dentist’s vulcaniser, the means — steam. The
preparations to be thus treated, especially those of
wood, are prepared in the usual way and made ready
for mounting. They are next placed in a small
vessel of any material which will resist a certain
amount of heat. Dr. Johnson uses a small glass
phial in his experiments : this is filled up with water
after all the specimens (as many as it can conveniently
hold) are placed within. A cork can be used, but
a slit must be cut in it to allow the escape of air and
the admission of steam and hot water. A little water
is now poured into the vulcaniser, the bottle of objects
placed within, and the lid of the machine screwed
down air-tight. The whole is now heated to a
temperature of about 300° Fahr. for a few minutes.
This temperature is sufficient for all practical purposes.
When sufficiently cooled the phial is removed, the
water drained from the bottle, and alcohol substituted.
The specimens are now ready for mounting. By this
process the specimens are made absolutely free from
air, for the steam penetrates and forces out the air
from the objects operated upon ; and the tissues
remain undestroyed.

ZOOLOGY.

Planorbis marginatus. — Professor Ralph Tate
in his work on “ British Mollusks,” says, Planorbis
marginatus is unknown in Scotland. Perhaps it may
interest some of the readers of Science-Gossip to
know that I have lately taken upwards of a dozen
specimens from Duddingston Lock, Edinburgh. Also
specimens of P. car hiatus ^ P. Nautileus, and P.
contortus , the last-named species is very numerous. —
John Adams.

The Echinus in Aquaria.— Would any of the
readers of Science-Gossip inform me of the cause of
the absence of the Echinus in our large aquaria ?
Is it that animals found in deep sea dredging, will
not flourish in these, or is it a difficulty as regards
supplying it with proper food ? I have never succeeded
in keeping them in small aquaria for more than
a short time ; the last brought me on December 7
lived for a month, the spines then began to fall off
quickly, and in a day or so it died. The Echinus is
such an interesting inhabitant of an aquarium, that I
should be very glad to know if it is possible to keep
it for any time in captivity. — M. D.

The Hooded or Royston Crow (Corvus cornix).
— These noble birds have been numerous in this
neighbourhood for some weeks, one or two will
occasionally perch on the rails of my garden fence,,

88

HAREWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

they seem less timid at the approach of man than
their congeners the rooks. — J. AT., New B romp ton,
Kent.

The Colour Sense in Cattle. — The degree in
which various species of animals are able to appreciate
colour has lately been the subject of discussion. It
seems to me that the displeasure shown by cattle at
scarlet or blood-red objects is presumptive evidence
that they can discriminate between these shades and
the dull brownish-red so common in their own species.
It might indeed be contended that like certain birds
they take offence at colours bordering upon their
own. But I have never heard that the dislike of red-
ness is at all confined to red cattle. On the contrary,
it is manifested by wild species of the ox tribe, which
are never red, and by the wild cattle of Chillingham
and Lyme park, which are uniformly white. Does
any correspondent of Science-Gossip know an in-
stance of any animal being excited to anger by blue,
yellow, or orange objects ? — J. IV. Slater , Aylesbury.

Mistakes made by Instinct. — It has struck me
that it would materially help to advance the new
study of comparative psychology, if our correspondents
would put on record good and well-authenticated
illustrations of the mistakes made by animals. We
hear much of their marvellous instincts, but not-
withstanding, there is a tendency to magnify their
character, and little or nothing is said of the mistakes
of instinct, whereby we might learn even more of
animal psychology. I refer to such mistakes as that
made by the humming-bird hawk-moth, fluttering
over the artificial flowers of a lady’s bonnet, or a
bee which buzzed into the grip of a sea-anemone, as
-recorded by Jonathan Couch— J. E. Taylor.

House-flies and their Parasites. — In reply
to the request of the Rev. W. Marston Beeby, con-
cerning the parasite described on page 21 column i
in Science-Gossip, I can unhesitatingly assure him
that it is the well-known fly-parasite called Chelifer,
the surname of which used to be Fasciatus ; but in a
slide I have (prepared by Mr. Cole, see the bottom
of the second page of your advertisement wrapper) it
is labelled Cancriodes. Mr. C. can, probably, supply
the object ; but he has added to the label the words
“ very rare.” In truth I have never seen but one in
life, and that was, as your correspondent describes,
adhering with wonderful tenacity to the leg of a
common house-fly, Afusca do?nestica. Mr. B. com-
pares the claws of this insect to those of the lobster,
but they are still more like those of the scorpion,
and, in fact, the common name is scorpion insect ; it
is a perfect scorpion all but the tail. Its having eight
legs shows it to belong to the great family of spiders,
and therefore, in strict definition, is not an “ insect ”
at all, as no insect proper has more than six. There
is another variety of this kind still more striking and
curious, the Obisium trombidioides , but which is still

more rare and hard to meet with, and is the true
lobster insect. I have two slides of it, but have never
seen it in life. But to return to the Chelifer, I will
transcribe a passage from that very useful and pleasing
little work entitled “Objects for the Microscope,”
by the Rev. L. Lane Clarke (London : Groom-
bridge & Sons : 5 Paternoster Row). “ Chelifer ; this
parasite attacks flies. I have seen a common fly
run wildly about the window-pane, shaking itself
violently, and apparently in great distress. Upon
catching it, I found a small scorpion-like creature
fixed upon one of its thighs by a pair of tremendous
claws. Hardly could it be detached for examination,
and then it ran quickly like a crab, sideways. The
Chelifer belongs to the Trachean Arachnida ; that is,
they breathe by means of trachea and spiracles, and
not as the higher order of spiders, by lungs, or
internal gills. They have eight legs, two long palpi,
armed with claws, the eyes are at the side of the
thorax, and the flat abdomen is jointed.” In conclu-
sion, I would add a few words upon the question
whether the Chelifer is a parasite, or merely an
occasional foe of the fly ? From its extreme rarity I
should undoubtingly say the latter ; that is to say, if
by “parasite” is meant something bred upon another
animal ; just as mites are upon apiece of stale cheese,
for example. The reason why the Chelifer, when
caught in the house, is usually found on the “ window-
fly ” is because, as every one knows, it is by far the
most common domestic insect, as its name of Afusca
domestica clearly indicates : but I have no doubt that
the Chelifer would make equally free with the leg of
a Tipula oleracea (Daddy Long-legs) if it happened
to come in his way. — H. U. J., Exeter.

Design in the Nests of Birds. — At a recent
meeting of the North Staffordshire Field Naturalists’
Club Dr. M‘Aldowie read an excellent paper on the
above subject. He said in no class was the special
design for the protection of offspring better seen than
in the bird class. The great majority, especially the
weak, trusted to concealment, which was effected
first by the location of the nest, usually of some in-
conspicuous material, in bushes, holes, trees, and
banks. A second method of concealment was by con-
structing the nests of material similar in appearance
to that which surrounds it. This was adopted by the
chaffinch, the common wren, and the martin. Thus
the chaffinch would place its nest in the fork of a tree,
and construct it so cunningly of mosses and lichens
that it had the appearance of an excrescence on the
branch. Dr. M‘Aldowie had noticed a striking
illustration of this method in the cliffs along the coast
of Kincardineshire, where the martins built their nests
in the granite or gneiss of material exactly similar in
appearance. The third form of concealment was in
the colour of the eggs being much like the soil on
which they are laid. This was seen in the lapwing
and skylark. They often choose the side of a small

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

89

mound for their nests, to be able the better to watch
those who would attack them. Their young were
also coloured to resemble the soil, and therefore could
not be easily seen by persons standing up. The
young, too, seemed to know that their greatest chance
of safety was in lying still. The fourth method was
that the parent bird was coloured to simulate the
surrounding herbage, and would not move from its
nest very often until forcibly pushed. The second
great form of protection was by situations in-
accessible to animals without wings. Those who
could drive off intruders singly built solitary nests,
such as the birds of prey, the larger gulls, and
swans. Others, such as rooks and herons, live in
colonies, and, when attacked, unite to repel the
enemy. Among small passerine birds adopting this
method were sand-martins, but in tropical countries
the smaller class used it more extensively. The most
remarkable examples were seen in the weaver-birds.
Captain Drayson had given an interesting description
of the habits of this class in countries infested by
monkeys and snakes, which of course could climb
trees. The nests were therefore so constructed that
these animals could enter only from below, and only
by passing along a branch which their weight would
cause to dip in water, making both snake and monkey
beat a speedy retreat. Although some had said that
there was an architectural principle regulating the
construction of birds’ nests, and though similarity
of structure of different groups was adduced in proof
of this, Dr. M‘Aldowie ventured to assert that there
was no such principle involved. The similarity of
structure might be explained by the fact that the
habits and surroundings of most birds of the same
genus are nearly alike, and their enemies almost
identical. But many differed remarkably in their nest
formation. The swallow family and the martin built
nests of mud and clay, the sand-martin tunnelled in
gravelly pits, while the swift deposited her eggs in
the hole of some old tower. Here there was no
architectural type. Neither would such a theory
explain the facts that the wren always built its nest of
material precisely the same as that which surrounded
it, making it, as it were, a part of the material ; that
the sparrow when it built in trees erected a large-
domed edifice, and when depositing its eggs in the
walls of houses merely lined the bottom of the cavity
with straw and feathers ; and that the hawk often
laid in the forsaken nests of crows and magpies.
Milne-Edwards said “birds’ nests which vary with
the species are yet, as it were, identical as regards
any species, and are uniformly constructed in the way
best fitting the young of that species.” In the last
.sentence was the key of the position ; it was a law
in ornithology, and demanded much attention at the
hands of the naturalist. These were Dr. M‘Aldowie’s
views, and they were the outcome of some years of
•study of nests and eggs in a northern district where
birds of almost every class abounded. No scientific

authority that he knew of had treated the subject in
a systematic manner. That some plan or design
regulated the nidification of birds was certain.

Sir John Lubbock’s “Ants.” — This indefatigable
naturalist has been communicating additional papers
on his insect-pets to the Linnean Society. In his
two last communications, one of which was devoted
to their anatomy, and the other to their habits, he
stated that, instead of using water as a means of
isolation, fur arranged with the hair points down-
wards answered the purpose better. He recommended
this plan to people who live in hot countries where
ants are troublesome. Sir John finds that, contrary
to what has been stated, the workers (besides the
queen) occasionally lay eggs, and these always pro-
duce males. Ants possess domestic servants ; a
curious blind beetle (Claviger) residing in some com-
munities, though the ants are not all on a level of
intelligence sufficient to keep clavigers. Sir John
said he had two queens of Formica fusca five years
old, and in good health, and also workers of different
species, some four years in his possession. Though
previously he has shown instances of ants using their
friends badly, yet to their credit it may be said that
ants of the same nest never quarrel or are ill-tempered
among themselves. An instance was given of an ant
without antennse losing her way, and being attacked
by an enemy, and afterwards tenderly relieved by a
good Samaritan. From the experiments recorded, it
would seem that ants recognise fellows of the same
nest, but where, as in some cases, there are one
hundred thousand individuals, it appears incredible
that they should recognise each other at sight ; nor is
it likely that peculiarities pertain to those of each nest.
Have they signs or pass words ? Sir John Lubbock
has endeavoured to throw light on this subject by
experimenting on the pupae. Although certain species
of ants are deadly enemies, yet their larvae if trans-
ferred to one another’s nests, will be taken care of as
if their own. In ant warfare, sex is no protection ;
but the young are spared. Now, if recognition were
effected by signal or password, the larvae or pupae
would not be intelligent enough to appreciate and
remember this, and afterwards in being returned to
the former nest, when full grown would carry the
signal of the wrong nest to their detriment. The
results of several experiments on Formica fusca and
Lasius nigcr were, among others, that thirty-two ants
transferred from their nests as pupae, and again when
older returned to their own nests, were all amiably
received, from which Sir John infers that they have
no pass words.

The late Mr. Frederick Smith, F.L.S. —
Entomologists throughout the world will hear with
regret of the death of this celebrated naturalist. He
was one of the assistant-keepers of the zoological
department of the British Museum, and our great
authority on matters appertaining to the^Hymenoptera.

90

HARD WICK E' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

White’s Thrush. — Mr. Harting states in the ]
“Zoologist,” that a specimen of this rare bird was
shot in September, 1878, at Hardacres in Berwick-
shire. Another specimen was seen in the same
neighbourhood in January last.

New Species of Chameleons. — At a recent
meeting of the Zoological Society of London, a com-
munication was read from Dr. A. Gunther, F.R.S.,
containing a description of four new species of
chameleons from Madagascar, proposed to be called
Ch. inalphe , Ch. brevicornis , Ch. gu laris and Ch.
globifer.

Mounting and Preserving Larvae. — I was
pleased with Mr. Brewster’s method of expelling the
internal tissues of caterpillars, and it may be interest-
ing to know that the best lepidopterists in this part
inflate their grubs with melted paraffin wax. This is
coloured to suit the colour of the larvae in hand, and
injected with a fine male syringe. There may be
some drawback in this plan, but it is, perhaps, the
best remedy against change of colour. — G. Robson,
Leicester.

Mimicry in Butterflies.— A paper has just been
read at the Entomological Society, by Dr. F. Muller,
recording a remarkable case of mimicry in the :
Brazilian butterfly, Eucides pavana , which mimics '
another insect called Acraea thalia. It is however,
in the male sex of E. pavana , that the greatest
resemblance to the Acraea is found.

Testacella Maugei in Jersey. — In Science-
Gossip for July last, there appeared a short notice
from me, announcing the occurrence of what was
supposed to be Testacella haliotoidea in this island.
Since that time I have found two more specimens.
Having sent one of them to John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq.,
the author of “ British Conchology,” that gentleman
informs me that the species is unquestionably Testa-
cella Mangei , not Testacella haliotoidea. I feel it right
to make this correction. — Martin M. Bull.

The Stings of Bees. — Professor Church describes
in “Nature” some experiments made sixteen years
ago with the poison from wasps’ stings, when he
found to his astonishment that it was invariably
alkaline instead of acid. A living wasp, duly held
in the cavity of a perforated cork, was easily induced
to sting a piece of turmeric paper ; when a brown-red
spot immediately appeared.

“The Plague as it concerns England.” — We
advise all our readers who are interested in this
momentous question to procure this well got up
pamphlet, published by Hardwicke Sc Bogue, at
one shilling. It gives an historical account of the
plague, and the methods to be adopted to prevent
its spread, and has been compiled from official and
other sources.

BOTANY.

Pyrola, the Winter Green.— During July last
I accidentally came across a small bed of the above
plant near Canterbury. I showed it to several
botanists, but had a difficulty in finding the name.
I thought it would interest some of your readers to
know it grows in Kent, and I shall be pleased to
furnish any one with specimens in the coming spring
who desires it. — G. Parry , St. Paul's, Canterbury.

Teratological Notes. — The curious form in the
flower of a calceolaria figured on page 41 is not un-
common, though I do not remember noticing it in
the small-flowered shrubby varieties. A similar

Fig. 86. — Malformation of flowers of Calceolaria.

Fig. 87.— Malformation of lips of ditto.

flower is figured in Masters’
“Vegetable Teratology,” page
230, where it is described as
an instance of perfect Peloria,
resembling that often found in
various species of Linaria, &c.
The herbaceous, greenhouse
calceolarias are very subject to
irregular development of dif-
ferent kinds, and in a collection

Fig. 88.— Calyx seen from twQ or three dozen a large
behind.

number of curious and interest-
ing malformations may be found. I inclose rough
sketches of two flowers which I found with various
other abnormal specimens last year. It will be seen
that in each case two flowers have apparently coal-
esced, though in different manners. In fig. 86 the
two flowers are nearly of normal size and form, but the
two upper lips are united. In fig. 87 the lower lips
are only about half the normal size, the lower pair
of stamens are abortive and there is only one pistil.

F. T. Warner, Winchester.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

9*

GEOLOGY.

The Royal Dublin Society. — We are much
pleased to note that Mr. G. H. Kinahan, M.R.I.A.,
the author of the “Geology of Ireland,” which
we had recently the opportunity of reviewing in our
pages, has been elected president of this society.

Pebbles with Upper-Ludlow Fossils in the
Lower Carboniferous Conglomerates of
North Wales. — At a recent meeting of the Geo-
logical Society, a very interesting paper on the above
subject was read by Aubrey Strahan, and Alfred O.
Walker. The authors described the mode of occur-
rence near Abergele of certain lower carboniferous
conglomerates, best exposed in Ffernant Dingle, and
especially of one containing numerous red and green
sandstone pebbles, which enclose fossils [of Upper
Ludlow forms, and lying above the so-called “ Bastard
Limestone.” From the arrangement of the beds the
authors believe that they may have been deposited
against a bank or sloping surface of Wenlock shale ;
and they state that the great majority of the pebbles
in the conglomerate are quite unlike any rock known
in the district, but closely resemble the Upper Lud-
low beds of Kendal and Central Wales. The
authors discuss the origin of the pebbles, and suggest
“the probable extension of the Ludlow beds under
Lancashire as the most likely source from which they
can have been derived.”

Preserving Fossils. — Prof. W. Boyd-Dawkins
in an appendix to his “Cave Hunting” gives the
following directions for the preservation of remains
from caves : “ The fossil bones and teeth, which have
very generally lost their gelatine and have a tendency
to crumble and split to pieces in drying, should be
gradually dried, and from time to time saturated with
a weak hot solution of gelatine or glue. Silicate of
soda, sometimes called “liquid glass,” or melted
paraffin (not the oil), may also be used for the same
purpose. If the bones are extremely soft, they may
be rescued from destruction by letting them dry in
the matrix, saturating them and the matrix with a
solution of gelatine, and then clearing off the latter.”
—C. R. L.

Preserving Fossils. — I always use a solution
made by the Indestructible Paint Co., 27 Cannon
Street, E.C. Some years ago it effectually water-
proofed (so to speak) some Portland stone columns
to which I applied it, making their surface as hard
as flint. Hence I have used it on fossils and find
that it renders even chalk perfectly hard. I recently
saturated some impressions of sponges, which we
all know will hardly bear touching, and find that
now they might almost be brushed without injury.
It is hardly necessary to add that the solution is
perfectly colourless, and that it leaves not the slightest
perceptible deposit. The cost is very trifling, and as
the company made me for this express purpose a pint
of solution for two or three shillings, I have no doubt

your correspondent could get what he wanted. He
will not be disappointed. — F. II.

Methods of Preserving Fossils. — In Science-
Gossip for February, a correspondent W. G., asks for
information as to the best method of preserving mam-
malian bones and other fossils, saying that he had
been advised to paint them over with a hot solution
of gelatine, but had not found the result very satis-
factoiy. In the March number, Mr. J. W. Carr re-
commends that they should be painted with thin gum.
Mr. Carr may have succeeded with this to a certain
extent, if by painting he really means soaking , for I
suspect that the reason why W. G. did not succeed
with the gelatine may have been that he did not soak
the fossils sufficiently ; if the bones were at all large
and were merely painted over with a thin solution of
gelatine, they certainly would not become very much
harder by such a process. For the bones of the
larger mammalia glue is the best material ; it should
be prepared in a vessel which is large enough to
admit the specimen, which should be lowered into it
on a sieve or a piece of perforated wire, and allowed
to remain in the solution for a few minutes, till it has
imbibed a sufficient amount of glue to replace the
lost animal matter, it may then be carefully taken out
and left to dry. If the bone is a perfect one, with
epiphyses, &c., the operation may have to be repeated,
and it is a good plan to remove a small portion of the
surface bone so as to admit the solution freely into
the interior ; when the specimen is taken out, the
fragment of bone can be carefully replaced. For all
the smaller bones and for mollusca extracted from
sands or loams, gelatine is preferable ; like the glue
it should be used while hot and in the manner above
described ; or it may be ladled over the fossil if it is
very delicate and tender. A thin solution of gum-
arabic or gum tragacanth is useful for painting over
the surface of fossils from the lias or coal measures to
prevent their scaling or chipping. As regards chalk
fossils my experience is that those from inland localities
seldom need any preservative process, but that those
collected from sea cliffs, being saturated with salt
water, generally effloresce and split up, unless they
have been well soaked in fresh water. As soon as
they are brought home they should be put in a basin
of fresh water and left there for a day or two ; then
they may be taken out, trimmed and cleaned, and
replaced in clean fresh water, where they should
remain for three or four weeks, the water being
changed at least once every week. I have always
found this plan effectual. In the “Geological
Magazine,” vol. ii. p. 239, your readers will find a
short article by Mr. Davies, of the British Museum,
in which instructions for preserving mammalian
remains are given. Some hints on trimming, cleaning,
and preserving fossils will be given in the new edition
of Penning’s “Field Geology,” now in the press. —
A. J. J tikes Browne , Ilighgate.

92

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Squirrel. — A few weeks ago, I saw, what at first
I was inclined to call a black squirrel, more correctly
I should say the colour was a very dark sable, it had
the usual white breast ; I have heard of a so-called
“yellow squirrel,” but never one of this colour. I
had a good view of the animal, which crossed the
road about thirty yards in front of me. — W. G. Tuxford.

Tenacity of Life in the Wasp. — Being engaged
in a drawing office connected with the Great
Western Railway in 1841, we were very much
pestered by wasps, attracted by some lime-trees then in
blossom outside, to the extent that one hundred were
killed during a single day. One of these individuals
I dispatched while crawling over my board, by
dividing the abdomen from the thorax with my pen-
knife. Seeing him buzzing about very actively, and
trying to fly, but unable to do so, being out of balance,
it occurred to me to make him a paper tail ; the first
I made about the length of his own was not heavy
enough, being of very thin paper, so I made one
three-quarters of an inch long, in shape like that of
the large Red Ichneumon fly. This I attached to the
thorax, for want of better cement, with a piece of
prepared ox-gall ; immediately he took wing and flew
about the room, apparently greatly to the terror and
annoyance of the other wasp, who attacked him
fiercely, apparently both by wing and sting, the
latter of course of no effect on his paper appendage.
He flew about for over two hours, when I lost him,
and therefore cannot tell you how long he continued
active ; he probably flew out at the open window. —
F. Z., Rotherham.

Yew-trees in Churchyards. — Your corres-
pondent, E. Straker, makes inquiry for any traditions
or reasons why yew-trees were planted in churchyards.
A learned antiquarian once provided me with infor-
mation as follows : ‘ 1 An act of parliament passed in
the reign of an early English monarch, made the
planting of a yew-tree in every parish churchyard
compulsory. Cross bows were made of this material ;
yew wood became scarce, and the God’s acre seemed
a suitable spot for the cultivation of such a necessary
material for the warlike requirements of that period.”
— H. P. Stock , Barnet.

Yew-trees in Churchyards. — In the church-
yards of Northamptonshire and neighbouring counties
fine old yew-trees may still occasionally be found, and
invariably, as far as my experience goes, on the
south side of the church. I have noticed that where
this occurs the most used entrance to the church is also
on the south, the north door in most country churches
having been blocked up to keep out the cold. The
trees being ornamental as well as useful were proba-
bly planted where they would be most seen. F or the
same reason the south-side was chosen for burials, so
that the congregation, coming to and leaving their
parish church, might see the graves, and be reminded
to pray for souls of departed friends. — W. H. Jones.

Yew-trees in Churchyards. — It may interest
E. Straker to learn that Sir Thomas Brown, in his
“ Urn Burial,” thinks it possible that the planting of
yews in churchyards arose from ancient funeral rites,
or as an emblem of the resurrection, from its perpetual
verdure. The yew-tree was an emblem of mourning
with the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, from whom
it was adopted in turn by the Britons. It appears
also to have been an ancient custom to place them
singly. Statius in his “ Thebaid ” calls it “the

solitary yew and it was at one time as common in
the churchyards of Italy as it is now in North and
South Wales. I have heard that in many Welsh
villages the yew-tree and the church are exactly the
same age, the one being planted when the other was
built. Another supposition is that yews were planted
to protect the church from storms. In statute 35 of
Edward I. it is stated that trees were often planted
to defend the church from high winds, and the clergy
were requested to cut them down for the repairs of
the chancel of the church whenever required. A
great deal has been said about yew-trees being planted
to supply bows, but is there really any record of this ?
— G. O. Howell , Shooters' Hill.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — Man
judges according to his capacity of the actions of his
fellow-men, by inferences drawn from a knowledge
of his own nature. The truth of this may be .seen in
the case of a man born blind, who cannot possibly be
made to understand what the sense of sight is. In
judging of the actions of the lower animals, whose
nature obviously differs from his own, he has not the
same means of comparison, and is liable to err, if in
actions which resemble his own, he rashly assumes
they are the result of reason. Those who credit the
lower animals with reason, if they are consistent, will
also credit them with conscience. This Mr. Darwin
does (see “ Descent of Man,” part i., chap, iii.,
p. 78). “ I agree with Agassiz, that dogs possess some-
thing very like a conscience.” In the same work
Mr. Darwin draws the usual distinction between
instinct and reason, and at p. 38, part i. says, “We
may easily underrate the mental powers of the higher
animals, and especially of man, when we compare
their actions founded on the memory of past events,
on foresight, reason, and imagination, with exactly
similar actions performed by the lower animals ; in
the latter case the capacity of performing such actions
having been gained, step by step through the variability
of the mental organs and natural selection without
any conscious intelligence on the part of the animal
during each successive generation.” Leave out the
words higher animal, and the observation is the same
in effect as that in my letter of January 1. The whole
gist of Mr. Darwin’s work, however, is to prove that
the intelligence of quadrupeds differs from that of
man only in degree. The point of agreement which
exists owing to their possession of the same senses as
man, are strongly insisted on, the points of difference
much less so. Mr. Darwin thinks (see “Origin of
Species ”) that the love of man may have become
instinctive in the dog, which seems highly probable,
and explains many of the actions in which observers
think they have discovered a guiding power of reason.
In the concluding chapter of the “Descent of Man,”
Mr. Darwin describes the natural feeling of abhorrence
with which he first saw the savage of Tierra del Fuego,
and compares them unfavourably with a monkey.
Low as these savages may be in the human scale they
have learned to barter (see Mrs. Brassey’s “ Voyage
of the ‘ Sunbeam,’ ”) and may yet prove capable of
systematic fraud. Take from man his reasoning
power, latent though it may be in many cases, yet
underlying all his conceptions, and we find the idiot
who would perish but for extraneous aid. Take from
the quadruped the modicum of reason, which Mr.
Darwin and others of his school attribute to it, and
we have an animal endowed with the same kind of
intelligence we do not understand, but name instinct.
In conclusion, I would point out to Mr. P. Q. Keegan,
that the metaphysical dispute respecting the “precise
nature or manner of the reasoning powers,” which he
concisely epitomises does not affect the question ;

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i

93

Does the intelligence of animals"differ from that of
man not only in degree but in kind ? which may be
affirmed or negatived whichever school of metaphysics
the writer belongs to. — H. Barclay.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — With re-
spect to this subject, a remarkable instance is mentioned
in “Nature,” February 20. Some rats gnawed
through leaden pipes to obtain water. Dr. Darwin
explained by saying that rats heard the water trick-
ling, and reasoned about it. They cut through the
pipe to obtain it. I think this explanation probable.
I agree with your correspondent, Mr. Rogers, who
contends that memory is an act of reasoning. Dr.
Darwin had a dog which recognised him after several
years’ absence. This is mentioned in his “Descent
of Man,” chap, ii., I believe, but I quote from
memory. This dog must have exercised some reason-
ing power in recognising Dr. Darwin. With respect
to reason being developed instinct, as Mr. Keegan
says, Huber thinks that in the lower animals there
are glimpses of reason, not merely instinct. Darwin
says that instinct is variable, and it might vary so
far as to produce some reasoning faculty. With
respect to man’s reason, some Evolutionists argue
that it may not have been merely developed, but that
some supernatural change may have taken place.
Henslow in his “ Evolution and Religion,” writes to
this effect : Certainly the gap between the apes and
man, in respect to cranial capacity is very great, and
not easily bridged over. Lopinard (L’Anthropologie)
gives 1500 cubic centimetres, as cranial capacity of
man ; 531 for gorilla. Making allowance for size of
body, the ratio of brains of chimpanzee and man is
given as 38 to 100. The fact of monkeys chattering,
apparently consulting, and then simultaneously acting,
is not, I think, explainable merely by instinct. The
reasoning might not be very acute, but that would
not be necessary. Of course much depends on the
way the facts are looked at. Those favouring the
view of animal reasoning, would naturally find argu-
ments where their opponents would question the
reasoning power. Our natural habit of regarding
ourselves as the most perfect beings, also militates
against the view of animals having reason, as we are
naturally loth to allow that they are of similar nature
to ourselves. But on the whole, I think that animals
have a somewhat higher faculty than mere instinct,
and therefore some reasoning power. — A. Wheatley.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — As a
small contribution to the consideration of the above-
named subject, permit me to refer to a fact which I
recorded in a paper that appeared in Science-Gossip
for November 1, 1876, entitled “Spiders and their
Webs.” The particular spider there mentioned, after
being bitten by a smaller spider of another species,
plucked the poisoned limb out of the socket, and
cast it from it, evidently, to save its life. Now, was
this conduct prompted by what we call reason, or by
what we call instinct? Further, what is reason and
what is instinct, more than names under which we
cloak mysteries, that we are all very far from com-
prehending? The voluntary act of this spider in
amputating its own poisoned limb, could scarcely be
attributed to “memory,” or “experience,” and it
suggests some deep reflections. Was it conscious,
for instance, that death would ensue, unless the
poisoned limb were immediately plucked out and cast
away? and, if so, does this show a knowledge of
physical right and wrong ? Again, was this small
creature acquainted with Harvey’s great discovery,
“the circulation of the blood,” and did it know that
an injected poison could be absorbed into the circula-

tion to the destruction of life ? Further, did it know
that in its case, Nature (or, for anything we know,
itself) could reproduce the amputated limb ? And,
lastly, who had been sent to its peculiar mental
world, to preach the Divine precept, “ If thy right
hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee?”
Man is too apt to arrogate to himself a peculiar or
special niche in the great temple of nature, and to
rely, too confidently, upon his own very finite powers
of observation. Before the telescope was invented,
the infinitude of the stellar system was, “the sun and
moon and eleven stars j” before the microscope was
invented, a drop of water was a drop of water, and
nothing more ; and should it ever be practicable to make
telescopes or microscopes that could increase our mental
vision as greatly as these instruments have increased our
physical vision, then we might be in a better position
to pierce the depth of the mystery that attaches to
the reasoning powers of the lower animals. It is
generally asserted that, so far, “man is the greatest
outcome of creative power but as we have only
man’s word for this, there may be more self-conceit
than infinite truth in the assertion. The larvae of the
blow-fly, when it is devouring the flesh of a living
animal, may conclude that they are the greatest out-
come of creative power, because they are unable to
comprehend any higher outcome of this power ; but
we know this would be a mistaken conclusion on
their part ; and for anything we know, the earth,
planets, sun and stars, may all be living, and intel-
ligent. outcomes of creative power, as much superior
to man, as man is to the blow-fly. And as regards
reason, why may it not be the universal concomitant
of all created being ? Scientifically as well as poeti-
cally, we may conclude, that the Creator will be
reflected in all His works ; and if so, His attributes
may be expected to be reflected by all His creatures
to the finite extent of the reflecting capacity which
has severally been bestowed upon them. Man, con-
sequently, may be in error, when he assumes that he,
alone, is the possessor of reasoning powers. — C. L. W.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — I have
read with pleasure the notes of your correspondents
on this interesting subject, and, although it has been
ably dealt with by Messrs. Keegan and Barclay, I
hope still to see a little more light thrown on the
matter, and a more intelligible distinction shown
between instinct and reason. Mr. Rogers, in your
February number, says: “ A little personal observa-
tion and reflection, would, I should have thought,
suggest to your correspondent, &c., that what is
called instinct in animals often passes under the name
of reason in man.” Now “personal observation and
reflection ” has convinced me, whether I am right or
wrong, that anything done by instinct is done with-
out reason, although the instinct which prompted the
action might have been, as Pope says, an “unerring
guide.” The words instinct and reason to me convey
a very wide and different meaning. Animals, I
believe, act by instinct, and man has had the higher
power of reason given him upon which to act, and
the only quality in man which I can compare to
instinct is impulse. That acting by instinct and
acting by reason are from two different causes, I think
there is ample evidence, although the action may be
the same.

Pope says :

“ Reason raise o’er instinct as you can
In this ’tis God directs, in that ’tis man ”

Mrs. Hale says :

“ The meaner creatures never feel control.

By glowing instinct guided to the goal.”v

94

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

With regard to Mr. Rogers’s remark that the
“difference which exists is chiefly one of develop-
ment,” I do not agree. I cannot comprehend
“developing instinct,” and the sentence seems
contradictory in itself. The same question arose at a
Debating Society, to which I belong, on a discussion
“Is conscience a true guide?” when the apparent
consciousness of wrong-doing in dogs was argued in
support of the affirmative. Mr. Keegan has, I think,
explained this, and the fact of dogs being endowed with
sufficient instinct to know that which gives them pain,
is not sufficient to convince me that the knowledge is
the result of reasoning. — Idea.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — The
following anecdote which came under my own
observation some years ago is a curious instance of
memory and reasoning in a cow, and can hardly be
relegated to mere instinct. My father had sold a
cow, which we had reared, to a neighbouring farmer,
who kept her three years and then sold her to a
miller four miles farther from our homestead. She
was with the miller three years, having been absent
from us six years, and never in the interim having
visited the spot ; but she had not forgotten its com-
forts, especially the scalded mashes of bran and
pollard mixed with home-brewed ale that were pro-
vided for her at the birth of her calves. One winter
day (January 12) when she was about to calve, her
master had to leave home, and put her in charge of
his man, who forgot her. At night she was looked
for in vain. She had at last found her opportunity
and escaped to flee to her old beloved home, and
actually reached our orchard fence, when she could
get no farther, and there her calf was born, and she
had the satisfaction after all her trials of being nursed
in her old cow-house. — S. Martin.

Position of the Mouth in Sharks. — The
peculiar position of the mouth in the sharks and some
of their allies, used to be a frequent theme of com-
ment among naturalists of the old school. It was
pointed out as nothing less than a special arrangement
to enable a destined victim to escape, while the shark
was turning on one side to bite. In other words it was
plainly seen to be a structural feature disadvantageous
to the species in which it occurs. Singularly enough,
I have seen no reference to this anomaly in any work,
either advocating or combating the Darwinian hypo-
thesis. It seems to me very difficult, if not incapable
of explanation on the view of natural selection. If
the position of the mouth which prevails in most
fishes be the original one, it would seem that any
variation from such position must be disadvantageous
to the individual, and would militate powerfully
against its survival. Or if, on the other hand, the
original position of the fish-mouth was that which it
now occupies in sharks, I fail to see why any varia-
tion which tended to bring it forwards, should not
have easily and completely superseded the primitive
type among sharks, &c., as well as among other
fishes. — C. R. Slater.

Egyptian Goose. — “The Shepton Mallet Journal”
announces that Mr. Padfield, of Pecking Mills, Ever-
creech, shot an Egyptian wild goose of beautiful
plumage, and weighing about 4J lb., near his mill-
pond, on February 27. There were two in company;
the other succeeded in making its escape, although
wounded. — W. Macmillan , Castle Cary , Somerset.

Query as to Flower. — Can any of your readers,
kindly inform me, what flower Shakspeare refers to

in the closing stanzas of “ Venus and Adonis ” ? where
he says —

“A purple flower sprung up, chequer’d with white,”
and ends his reference thus :

“There shall not be one minute in an hour.

Wherein I will not kiss my sweet love’s flower.”

J. IV. JVheldon, yun.

The Cuckoo’s Eggs. — Having read in a previous
number some questions and remarks on’ the cuckoo
and its eggs, I thought I would give my experience
of that bird. I have frequently found the eggs and
young, but never in a nest built on the ground, in
which some say they are most often found. In some
works on ornithology it is said that eggs are frequently
laid in wrens’ nests ; but surely that is a mistake, as
the young cuckoo would certainly be too large for
such a home. Those I have found were generally
either in robins’ or hedge-sparrows’ nests, and once
I found an egg in a half-built chaffinch’s. On no
occasion have I found nor heard of more than one
egg in the chosen nest. How strange it is, that the
maternal instinct of birds should be unable to distin-
guish between their own nestlings and the awkward
and big young of the cuckoo ! Some time ago I
found the young of the latter bird in a robin’s nest,
and as I wished, if possible, to keep it, I put it in a
large cage out-of-doors. It refused all nourishment,
and struggled fiercely when food was forced on it.
One day I was sitting a short distance from the cage,
when I saw a robin fly right up to the bars, and give
some food to the cuckoo, which received its, presum-
ably, foster-mother, with a deal of fluttering and ap-
parent joy. For several days two robins fed him
regularly, but after a time they discontinued their visits,
and in spite of all my efforts the bird died. It seems
very curious that the robin-parent should have found
out and fed the cuckoo for so long a time, especially
as the bird was brought from a long distance to
my home. — yunior.

On the Development of the House-Fly and
its Parasite. — If Mr. Holmes will again glance
over this paper, he will see that I had not the subject
of the sketches under observation at all, but that
these “were made by Mr. G. Harkus from the
microscope, with the aid of a Beale’s reflector,” and
that the size of the egg as given by him is there stated
to be Jjj inch in diameter, while that of the maggot
on emergence was inch. The discrepancy noted
may have arisen from the reduction of the original
drawings in engraving. It appeared to me that while
the egg and larva shown by Mr. Harkus were identical
with those matured in my experiment, the chrysalis
and fly were, as I stated, “undersized and im-
poverished this I attributed to want of sufficient
nourishment while in the larval stage, the extra-
ordinary part of this matter being the wonderful
rapidity of the insect’s metamorphosis. I cannot
agree with Mr. Holmes “that Musca domestica never
lays its eggs on meat,” much stranger places of deposi-
tion have been noted, amongst snuff, for instance, the
ammoniacal odour being the probable inducement ;
while, on the other hand, according to Cuvier, Musca
vomitoria sometimes selects a plant for the purpose,
“deceived by the cadaverous odour arising from
Arum Dracunculus when in flower, it also leaves its
eggs there.” If Mr. Harkus can recover the subject
from which the sketches were made, and which he
thinks is preserved, I will pass it through for the
editor’s determination. — M. H. Robson.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

95

Ventriloquism in Birds. — In a former Science-
Gossip of last year is a paper about “Ventriloquism
in Birds ” which solicited the experience of the same.
While paying a visit to a station in Westland or
Kakitika (Middle Island, New Zealand), in 1876,
while walking in the bush I heard a very sharp clear
note, and my host informed me it was the “ventri-
loquist bird,” of which I had often heard, and asked
me to look for it. I did so, but wherever I went the
voice seemed to be at one side or behind me, till by
chance I disturbed the bird, when it flew off before I
could see it plainly. From what I could gather it
resembles much in appearance the English blackbird ;
is often heard and seldom seen, owing to its natural
shyness and peculiar habit of disguising its voice.
This was in the centre of the Southern Alps, just
below the line of perpetual snow, and during the
autumn of our year. — IV. E. Barker , Jesus College ,
Cambridge.

The Moa. — On page 40 of No. 170 Science-
Gossip, February 1, 1879 is an article “The Moa
not yet Extinct (?)” The bird is said to have been
seen in the “province of Nelson, near lake Rotorua
and Cannibal Gorges,” the latter I have not heard
of nor can I find them on the map. The only lake
of that name is in the province of Auckland (North
Island) latitude 38°io' south, longitude I76°I7' east.
I fancy it must be a hoax, as nearly every year false
reports are spread of them having been seen, very
often turning out to be tame emus, escaped into the
bush. Also, as yet very few bones, only two or three
I believe, have ever been found in the North Island,
while in the Middle Island we plough them up wher-
ever new ground is broken up. The only lakes in
Nelson (Middle Island) are lakes Pakerua, Brunnern,
Hochstetter, and Hawick. So I think there must
be some mistake. — IV. E. Barker , Jesus College ,
Cambridge.

Caterpillars and Onion-crops. — For several
years past the onion-crops in this neighbourhood have
suffered severely from the ravages of the caterpillars
and some insect. Can any of your readers suggest
a remedy ? — B., Haslemere.

London University, First B.A. Pass Exami-
nation.— Can any of the readers of Science-Gossip
inform me what are the best works to read on the
following subjects as required in the above examina-
tion— algebra, geometry plane and solid, trigono-
metry, mensuration, and co-ordinate geometry ? The
information would doubtless be useful to many, as
the difficulty in selecting from so many works as exist
on these subjects is considerable. — IV. J. B.

The Colours of Twigs, Branches, &c. — Trees
appear purplish-red during the winter, because the
greater number have brown, grey, or purple twigs,
and the scales covering the leaf-buds are usually of
the same, or some brighter and warmer colour. I
believe that this will be found to be the case with our
principal trees, the oak, birch, elm, beech, alder, and
willow. The oak- twigs are occasionally grey, but
generally the same colour as the buds, which, as far
as I know, are always brown. The ash has grey
stems and black buds. The smaller trees and shrubs
are often very richly coloured ; the cornel justifies its
specific name by its blood coloured twigs ; the members
of the Rosaceae are red, orange, and purple, in thorn,
bud, and leaf, with much grey on the bark of some
species, as the dog-rose and black-thorn. In speak-
ing of leaves, I refer to the blackberry, which retains
its foliage in many places till the spring, but the
leaves are nearly always « bronzed-like veterans. The
stems of the blackberry are also very purple in hue.

The various willows bear purple branches, and often
very brilliantly tinted buds. The colours enumerated
are not of course perfectly pure ; they are shades of
every degree, from orange or crimson in the willow-
buds just noticed, to dull brown or purplish grey.
The reason for mentioning so many instances is to
prove that the local colour of the masses of branchlets
is purple or brown, and to show that the colours of
the various twigs, buds, and thorns are such as would
produce a purplish-red or russet effect when massed
together, and crossed in every direction as they always
are. It was the practice, we know, of many great
colonists, to get a tint by “hatching and driving to-
gether loosely,” a number of different harmonies,
which give, by that means, a colour which could not
have been formed so well in any other way. This is
the method of N ature. The variously tinted branchlets,
their light and shade, with the bluish haze of the
atmosphere, combined, will account, in my opinion,
for the hue of trees and shrubs during the winter
months. — M. Snape.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

} ITo Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

W. Martin. — Get Stark’s “ British Mosses,” with coloured
plates, published by Routledge & Co., at 7 s. 6d.

W. A. Watts (Manchester). — Your fossils are the univalve,
Lumtea longiscata, from Eocene strata ; the bivalve, a Brachio-
pod, Producta striata, Carb. Limestone.

C. McIntosh — Inquires the best method of mounting
butterflies’ eggs for the microscope. Perhaps some of our
readers will answer him.

B. B. Scott. — See article on “ How to Prepare Skeleton
Leaves,” in vol. of Science-Gossip for 1872.

W. H. Littleton (Bristol). — The best and cheapest book
on British Coleoptera, is Rye’s “British Beetles” (coloured
illustrations), published by Routledge, at ioj. 6d.

W. H. Newberry. — It is not at all uncommon to see specimens
of peacocks, tortoise-shell, and one or two other species of
butterfly, which lie up or hybernate during the winter, coming
forth on warm days in February and March, having been
stimulated into activity by the warmth.

T. Workman. — Ask for the British Museum Catalogues of
the insects you mention.

George Turvill. — Are you quite sure the “gigantic fleas”
on the mole are not ticks (Ixodes) ?

T. W. Dealy. — Press of matter has hitherto prevented the
publication of your paper, which is in hand.

W. S. (Edinburgh). — You will find full and ample instructions
how to proceed in staining vegetable tissues, in the late Dr.
Beatty’s admirable articles on “Decolouring and Staining
Vegetable Tissues” in Science-Gossip, vol. for 1875.

B. Hobson. — The “London Catalogue” is merely a well-
verified list of indigenous British plants. You will find specific
descriptions of all our British plants in Hayward’s “ Botanist’s
Pocket Book published by Bell & Daldy, at 4T. This latter
is the best book of the kind we know of.

H. Crowther. — The specimen labelled “greensand,” un-
doubtedly belongs to that formation. We are not so sure of the
numerous small specimens queried “gault,” in the absence of
characteristic fossils, although they strongly resemble “ gault,”
still we have seen clays of other formations much like them.
The red specimen labelled W. looks like altered gault, and
very likely it is so, as we found remains of a small decapod
crustacean in it. The reddish-coloured sandstone belongs to
the lower greensand as the fragment of fossil pecten it contains
sufficiently shows.

James Lowther. — We dare say you will be able to get a
good specimen of living Plumatella or Fredericella from Mr.
Thomas Bolton, naturalists’ studio, 17 Ann Street, Birmingham.
He regularly supplies naturalists all over Europe every week
with living organisms.

G. R. B. (Shoreham). — The “seed-like objects adhering to
orange-peel,” are the pupa cases of Ceratites citriperda. Slack’s
“Pond Life” could very likely be obtained from W. Wesley,
the natural history bookseller, 28 Essex Street, Strand.

9<5

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

W. H. J. (Uppingham). — The articles named will probably
be continued during the summer months. Names of the species
inclosed were as follows : — a. Scirpus carinattis (Sm.) ; by
Hooker made a subspecies of .S'. Incustris ; we believe it to be
distinct, c. Panicum Crus-galli (Linn.) d. We think this is
a melilot, one not seen before, but will tell you next month.
e. Setaria viridis (Beauv.) f. Ononis arvensis, (Linn.) g.
Eleocharis uniglumis (Link), h. Glycerin aqtiatica (Sm.) b.
A pretty viviparous form of Cynosurtts cristatus (L.) ; a valuable
specimen. Note. — Your observation, amongst botanical notes.
We wish all our correspondents would send us good specimens ;
yours are excellent.

W. K. (Leeds). — The seeds you so kindly send are niger
seeds, so called in commerce ; but they are obtained from
Guizotia oleifera , cultivated in India chiefly for the sake of a
bland_oil, not unlike sesamum oil, which burns in small hand-
lamps, without smoking. This product is known as ram-til oil in
Mysore. We are puzzled by your other question. Do you mean
the olden lentil [Ervum Lefts, L.) ? Could you let me see a small
sample ?

W. F. (Shaw Hall, Botanical Society, Greenfield.) — We believe
the specimens are Erigeron bonariensis and Escallonia rubra.

H. B. (Prestbury). — The ferns are Adiafitum caudatum,
Cheilanthes fragrans, and No thochlcena vellea.

D. R. B. (Picton, Bunbury, West Australia). — Only one
specimen we suppose to be named came to hand. It was a
pretty mounted flower, a Thysanotus, probably T. proliferus.

B. Sharpe. — The example sent, was not in a good state for
examination. Try Dysoxylon.

W. H. J. (Uppingham). — The plant labelled d, is Medicago
ffiilcata.

R. A. B. (Glasgow). — Pardon our overlooking the specimens
so long. They are as follows: — No. i. Equisetuvi talmnteia ;
No. 2. Hieracium vulgatum ; No. 3. Briza media ; No. '4.
Poa alpina ; No. 5. A viviparous specimen, probably Poa sp.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, the following dried grasses for Herbarium, the
numbers in the London Catalogue (7th edition) are 1485, i486,
1487, 1563, 1575. A list of duplicate grasses and plants would
be sent to select from for exchange. — G. Garrett, Harland
House, Wherstead Road, Ipswich.

About twenty specimens of Helix Pisana, from Tenby, in
exchange for a few chalk or other fossils. — Rev. K. Deakin,
Almondsbury, Gloucestershire.

Science-Gossip for 1875, 1876, unbound, having duplicates
will exchange for a good Coddington or Stanhope lens. — Jas.
Thompson, Mersy Mills, Hadfield, near Manchester.

Wanted, a vase, or any example of ancient British pottery;
large or small, from a tumulus, earth-work or other position ; or
a Romano or Roman-British pot. Will give in exchange a good
collection of correctly-named lichens from the Scottish mountains,
or a collection of well-mounted and named slides of microscopic
fungi for the microscope. — Worthington G. Smith, 15 Mildmay
Grove, London.

Wanted, Menge’s Preuss. Spin'nen, ThorelFs “ Remarks on
Synonyms of European Spiders,” or Walckenaer et Gervais,
Hist. Natur. des Apteres.” — Thos. Workman, Belfast.

Well-mounted micro slides, in exchange for side-blown
eggs, works on ornithology, or bound volumes of Science-
Gossip. — Laing, 71 Shobnall Street, Burton-on-Trent.

Wanted, spawn of natterjack toad for Nitella translucens,
or select from Mr. Bolton’s list. — M. H. Robson, 18 Albion
Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Wanted, fossils, in exchange for fossils from Rhaetic, Inf.
Oolite, Dundry, Red Crag. — Rev. H. B. Capel, Great Eastern
Rectory, Dunmow.

Mounted slides of Foraminifera, &c., and good material, for
rare British and foreign shells, or offers. Lists exchanged. —
E. R. F., 82 Abbey Street, Faversham.

Authenticated, side - blown eggs : lamageier, levant

sparrow-hawk, lanner, saker, Greenland, Iceland, jer, eleonora
falcons, golden, spotted, booted, imperial, tawny, bonellis
eagles, and 500 other species offered in exchange. Specially
wanted, swallow-tail, kite. — Sissons, Sharrow, Sheffield.

H . pygmea, H. rupestris, H. lapicida, L. glaber, L.fulvus ,
C. tridens, C. minimum, in exchange for Succineae or Clausilise,
except rugosa. — George Taylor, Mold, North Wales.

Wanted, a small portion of glass- rope sponge, “ Hyalonema
mirabile.” Good micro slides given in exchange. — Albert Firth,
Ballymurphy, Belfast.

Duplicates of any of the following British land and fresh-
water shells offered, and localities recorded where found. Succinea
oblonga, Lim. involuta, Lim. Burnetti, Pupa ringens, Vertigo
pusilla, V. substriata, V. alpestris, V. minutissima, V.
angustior ,' V. moulinsiana. Desiderata, numerous foreign
land, fresh-water and marine shells, as well as many of the
varieties of our British land and fresh-water shells, such as
Limnaceae, Planorbis, Succinea, and Physa. — W. Sutton, High
Claremont, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Flowers of Sparmannia Africana for other microscopic
objects, or Zoophytes, Australian Zoophytes for others. Foreign
correspondence wanted. — B. B. Scott, 24 Seldon Street, Ken-
sington, Liverpool.

Hair of English bat, unmounted, for unmounted parasite or
weevil. — C. Bradley, Oxford Street, Marlborough.

Synapta from Belfast harbour, and skin of eel from Lough
Neagh, with other objects mounted and unmounted, for good
slides; send lists. — W. Gray, Mount Charles, Be’fast.

“ Bibliotheca Historica, Naturalis,” “ Bibliotheca
Medico-Chirurgeia,” and “ Anatomico-Physiologica,” Leipzig,
half calf, new, in exchange for sea-weeds. Zoophytes (un-
mounted) chalk fossils or foreign butterflies. — M. Cattrell, 58
Berwick Street, Liverpool.

Wish to exchange Hooker’s “ Student’s Flora,” for work on
Zoophytes. — A. Thomson, 17 Wynne Street, Liverpool.

British birds’ eggs, sixty varieties. British birds in cases,
sparrow-hawk, red grouse, water-hens, green woodpecker, &c.,
in exchange, good micro slides. — J. R. Murdoch, Horsforth,
near Leeds.

Gosse’s “Omphalos,” “Vestiges of the Natural History of
Creation,” W. Phillips’ “Mineralogy,” Heath’s “Fern Para-
dise,” M. Plues’ “Rambles in Search of Flowerless Plants,” all
in good condition. Exchange British or foreign mosses, lichens,
or good micro slides. — J. R. Murdoch, Horsforth, near Leeds.

Wanted, foreign land shells, chiefly Asiatic Clausilias, and
Philippine species, offered many shells, British and foreign, in
exchange. Address, Miss F. M. Hele, Fairlight, Elmgrove
Road, Cotham, Bristol.

Fine slides of decolorised and stained leaves, showing crystals,
hairs, stomates ; also picked diatoms from Bermuda deposits,
and others ; offered in exchange for good material, only, such as
diatomaceous gatherings, fresh-water algse, zoophytes, desmids,
&c. Send lists to J. Tempere, 12 Cecil Street, Manchester.

F or well-finished slides of Xenodochus carbonarius, Puccinia
Adoxce, P. Betonicce, Ustilago longissima , hairs of mouse, or
living Hydra viridis, send good named slides (physiological
preferred) to William West, 15 Horton Lane, Bradford.

Sections of the following woods, in exchange for microscopic
slides or shells. 1. Palm; 2. Robinia pseudo-acacia; 3. Barr
wood ; 4. Partridge wood ; 5. Satin wood ; 6. Pollard oak ; 7.
Walnut ; 8. Iron wood ; 9. Bay wood ; 10. Queen wood ;

11. Rio rosewood ; 12. Zebra wood ; 13. Bahama lignum vitae ;
14. Purple wood: 15. Turkey boxwood; 16. Crocus wood;
17. Dantzic oak; 18. Mexican lignum vitae; 19. Mahogany.
— J. J. Cotton, Ael-y-don, Barmouth.

For living specimens of Melicerta ringens, send well-
mounted slide to — George Sampson, 14 Market Place, Chester-
field.

Slide of calcareous plates of Holothuria for well-mounted
slide. — J. B., 36 Windsor Terrace, Glasgow.

Fragillaria virescens, a pure gathering, in exchange for
guanos, recent material, &c. — W. M. Paterson, Loftus.

Wanted, Hypericum dubium, Carex rupestris, Cynoglossum
sylvaticum, Anchusa officinalis, &c., for other rare plants. —
G. C. Druce, Northampton.

London Catalogue, 7th edition. Wanted Nos. 41, 43, 44,
151, 182, 212, 235, 251, 284b, 284c, 321, 588, 590, 613, 1060, and
others. Many good specimens to offer in exchange. Send lists
of duplicates and desiderata to A. W. Preston, Marple Bridge,
Cheshire.

BOOKS, ETC. RECEIVED.

“The Haematite Deposits of West Cumberland.” By J. D.
Kendall, F.G.S.

“ North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club Report for
1878.”

“Proceedings of the Chester Society of Natural Science,”
No. 2.

“Is Diphtheria Preventible ?” By E. T. Blake, M.D.
London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

“ Midland Naturalist.” March.

“ Land and Water.” March.

“American Quarterly Microscopical Journal.” January.

“ Science News.” February.

“ American Journal of Microscopy.” January.

“ Bibliography of North American Invertebrate Palaeonto-
logy.” By Dr. C. A. White and Professor H. A. Nicholson.

“ Le Monde de la Science et de l’lndustrie.” February.

“ Botanische Zeitung.” February.

“Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society cf
Liverpool,” Vol. xxxii.

&c. &c. &c. »

Communications received up to qth ult. from: —
E. E.— M. H. R — J. T.— W. G. S.— G. S.— S. M.— C. R. S.
— J. W. S.— W. M.— F. H.— G. G.-J. L. P.— F. J. W. O.—
J. H.— J. A. W— G. T— C. F. G— L. C.— T. H. G.— G. T.—
J. W. D.— W. H. J.-G. R.— J. L.— E. R. F.— T. R. I.--
H. B. C.— T. W.— H. L. B.— R. H. N. B.— M. S.— Dr. M.

M. B.— A. F G. O. H.— F. M. H.— W. H. L.— M. C.—

J. R. M.— C. L. W.— A. W.— A. T.— W. G.— W. H. N.—

C. B. C. McL— C- R. B.— B. B.S.— E. M.— T. W. H.-—W. M.
-I. W. Jun. C. P.-Dr. G. A. S.-J. J. C.-W. K.-J. F M.
— W. S.— A. J. J. B.— C. J. A. C.— B. H.— J. T.— W. W —
H. M. H.— W. B. F.— W. J. B.— T. M. R G. S.— A. M —

D. H.— J. J. B.— J. B.— J. H. W.— Dr. P. C. Q.— W. M.,P.—
R. L.— A. W. P.— G. G. P.— G. C. D.— D. P— &c.

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

97

THE NEW FOREST.

By E. D. MARQUAND.

OUGHLY speaking
the New Forest
may be said to
comprise that por-
tion of Hampshire
which lies between
the Southampton
Water on the east
and the Avon on
the west, extend-
ing from the coast
line as far north as
Braemore, Bram-
shaw, and Totton ;
or, in other words,
the whole of the
south-western cor-
ner of the county
as far as the Avon.
Strictly, however,
the forest only
touches the sea for five miles or so near Lymington,
while its western limit falls short of the river by some
three or four miles. Though it includes the largest
and finest tract of wild unenclosed woodland in the
kingdom, there is actually within its borders less of
wooded than open country. “ Within equal limits,”
says Gilpin, in his “Forest Scenery,” “perhaps few
parts of England afford a greater variety of beautiful
landscape than the New Forest.” The northern
portion consists chiefly of wild rugged woods, many
presenting the same aspects and features as they did
in the days of the Red King : below this is a zone
of undulating moorland, breezy heaths all aglow in
spring and summer with golden gorse and purple
heather, with little rivulets winding and turning until
lost among the emerald sphagnum and snowy cotton-
grass — unfailing indicators of spongy and often
dangerous bogs : and further southward we come to
the cultivated district, a fair region of ploughed fields,
meadows and shady lanes, dotted over with detached
farms and little villages, each possessing its three
proverbially necessary constituents, a church, a smithy,
and an inn.

No. 173.

Within this territory nature has scattered her gifts
with no sparing hand ; and yet, though perhaps no
portion of the United Kingdom of equal area is more
interesting from a naturalist’s point of view, the New
Forest is still to a very large extent, a terra incognita.
Year after year it produces new insects and plants,
and it is a matter of regret that, notwithstanding the
number of diligent and careful observers who annually
spend a few weeks or months here, so very few are
willing to impart their knowledge by writing an odd
paper now and then for publication in such a widely-
read journal as Science-Gossip. Flowering plants
and lepidoptera seem everywhere to have received
considerably more than their share of attention —
perhaps because books upon these subjects are
always readily accessible ; but there are other
branches of entomology and botany, equally inter-
esting, but sadly neglected from the scarceness of
information about them ; and if those who make
special studies of these would occasionally take the
trouble to pen a few dozen lines showing the most im-
portant characters of genera and species, they would
confer a great boon on a large section of students
to whom large and costly works or voluminous
“Transactions” are beyond reach. The papers on
the diptera, for instance, in the eleventh and
twelfth volumes of Science-Gossip, are an excellent
example, and the authors deserve sincere thanks for
their labour ; so also are the articles on diatoms,
desmids, and foraminifera in the earlier volumes.
Papers of this kind are of more practical value
than ' discussions about the correct pronunciation
of scientific names, or lengthy quotations from the
works of tenth-century naturalists, however good
these may be — and they undoubtedly are — in them-
selves.

If any one will look through the fourteen volumes
of Science-Gossip in the hopes of gleaning informa-
tion upon the natural history of the New Forest, he
will find two or three papers on lepidoptera, perhaps
a couple of very meagre ones on phanerogams, and
possibly an odd note or two recording a rare capture
or discovery. This is not very much certainly, so
with a view of adding somewhat to the general know-

F

98

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

ledge of this interesting district, I have strung to-
gether a few notes from my own observations on the
fauna and flora during a residence of three years in
the heart of the forest ; they may be suggestive, and
if they possess any merit, it is that of accuracy. But
it is necessary for me to state in limine , that I have
had nothing to do with a large portion of the forest
proper ; my observations have been confined to an
area about a dozen miles square, that is to say, from
Beaulieu and Marchwood to the Avon, and from
Stoney Cross to the sea, and even this is rather out-
side the mark, for the north-western section I have
scarcely even walked through.

Among the mammalia, force natures , which inhabit
the forest, the most worthy of consideration is the
deer. A quarter of a century ago they were very
numerous, and old inhabitants speak of it as then an
ordinary thing to see a dozen or more wild deer in a
walk from Brockenhurst to Lyndhurst, but about
twenty years ago they were nearly all killed off
owing to the injury they caused to the young trees.
Now they are seldom seen, and thrice only have I
come upon them in their native haunts. Foxes are
more plentiful, but it is more usual to see sly Reynard
with a pack of yelping hounds at his heels than to
catch him a sang froid. An animal which is now
almost extinct in the forest is the badger. I once got
within sight of a singular beast which puzzled me
extremely, he was neither a dog nor a cat, that was
evident ; but I could not get a clear view of him on
account both of his distance and of the thick furze
and heather which intervened. But away I went in
hot pursuit : when he ran I ran, and when he stopped
to look round, as he often did, I stood still ; however
I made but little advance on him, perhaps rather the
reverse, when suddenly the animal disappeared and
refused to show himself again. Some time afterwards,
on describing this creature and its movements as well
as the locality to a gamekeeper, the man said : “ Oh
it was a badger, there’s no doubt — but they are very
rare.” Otters also are not often heard of, but their
excreta -may occasionally be met with near streams.
A year or two ago a pair of old ones and two whelps
were found in the forest by a woodman, and he,
hoping to secure at least the young ones alive,
hastened off for assistance, but on his return they
were gone, and no one could discover their where-
abouts. Squirrels of course abound, and so do
moles ; stoats and weasels are seldom seen alive, but a
“ keeper’s tree ” always shows a goodly number. One
of the most amusing scenes I ever witnessed was a
kind of serio-comic race between a stoat and a
rabbit. The latter might easily have got clear away
from his pursuer, but he evidently preferred running
round and round within a dozen paces of where I
stood and eventually succeeded in fairly tiring out the
stoat. What surprised me was the utter absence of
any sign of fear on the part of the rabbit— and while
the stoat displayed the most bloodthirsty determina-

tion and savage ferocity, the other, it was clear, treated
the whole affair as altogether a capital bit of fun, and
seemed particularly pleased to find that a featherless
biped was present to witness the humiliating defeat
of his mortal foe.

At least three species of bats inhabit the forest :
the Noctule, or Great Bat ( Vesp . noctula), the Long-
eared Bat ( Plecotus auritus ), and the Pipistrelle ( Vesp.
pipistrellus). Of the second I have seen but one
example sufficiently near to identify it with certainty.
Gilbert White, who gave the name Vespertilio
altivolans to the noctule, says, “The little bat
appears almost every month in the year, but I have
never seen the large ones till the end of April.” In
this neighbourhood, where they are more numerous
than at Selborne a century ago, I have seen the
Great Bat on the wing on April 6th, and once as
early as the 18th of March.

That the bite of the adder ( Pelias berus) is under
certain circumstances fatal is probably true enough,
though I know of no well-authenticated record of a
thoroughly healthy person dying from its direct
effects. But one thing is beyond question — its bite
has very unpleasant results, sometimes even necessi-
tating the amputation of the limb. A man here was
bitten in the hand and lost the use of his arm for four
months. Adders are found in these parts in consider-
able numbers, and in hot weather it is very imprudent
to ramble about in the woods without wearing
gaiters, or, failing these, the best thing is to tie the
trousers tightly around the ankle ; the danger being
less of a bite through the trousers, than that the
reptile in its fright may take refuge inside them, an
occurrence which once happened to a forest keeper I
know, and this so terrified him, though he shook off
the brute and escaped unharmed, that he never goes
into the wood now without having his understandings
encased in stout leather. The dread of all creeping
things extends here to the pretty little brown lizard
and the slow worm, both of which are invariably cut
to pieces as mortally dangerous vermin. A bright
reddish -purple variety of the latter known as the
“red adder” is regarded with the utmost terror,
because it is supposed to be more venomous than
the viper itself.

One or two words as to the birds. As might be
expected their number both of species and individuals
is large ^ a good list is given in Mr. Wise’s book of
the New Forest, enumerating no less than 230 out of
354 recognised British species. I am told that at
present there is but a single pair of honey buzzards in
the forest, and their eggs are so greedily sought after
that there is but scant chance of the number in-
creasing, except when they happen to build where the
nest may be effectually protected, as was -the case
two years ago, when the honey buzzards built in a tall
tree on a gentleman’s estate, and the proprietor, with
rare good sense, ordered his keepers to watch the
nest day and night, and gave them strict injunctions

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

99

not to lean on tlie side of tenderness in dealing with
would-be intruders. An osprey was shot on the
coast last year. I saw it in the hands of a taxider-
mist at Lymington. Snipes and woodcocks remain
here in small numbers throughout the year, and their
eggs are found every season. Peewits breed in great
numbers among the bogs. During the months of
March and April the heronry at Vinney Ridge
presents an animated appearance. There on the top-
most branches of some of the tallest and finest
beeches in the forest the herons may be seen sitting
on their broad flat nests, or engaged in feeding their
young. The trunks of these splendid trees are four
or five feet in diameter, smooth and branchless up to
a height of some twenty feet, and one would suppose
the nests were inaccessible — even to the proverbial
nesting boy — yet many of the eggs are taken. For
this purpose large iron spikes are securely attached
to the legs, and the climber makes the ascent by
sticking these' into the tree step by step : but it is
a perilous feat, and one which requires a steady nerve
and a cool head. The herons always lay twice and
frequently three times in each season, beginning
early : by the second week in April the young are
already half grown. In May or June they leave their
nesting haunts and retire to the coast. I have seen
three of the woodpeckers : the green, the greater
spotted, and lesser spotted, but the first is by far the
most common, indeed, although the shrill squeak-
ing laugh-like note of the two last is not an un-
familiar sound it is not often that the birds them-
selves are seen. Nut-hatches are pretty common
and are known by the euphonious name of “mud
dabbers ” from their habit of plastering mud around
the holes which lead to their nests. Kingfishers are
scarce, and I have rarely seen two at once. Speak-
ing of these birds, perhaps it is not generally known
that they can and do procure their food from the
sea as well as fresh water. I recollect observing
this in Sark, one of the Channel Islands, where king-
fishers are numerous, though there is not in the
island a stream or (with one exception, I think) a
pond big enough to sustain a minnow. More than
once I have seen them among the rocks at low tide.
The wryneck arrives here about the ist or 2nd of
April, and the cuckoo about the 20th. Nightingales
are very plentiful, and usually begin to sing towards
the middle of April. Swallows, house and sand
martins arrive the second or third week in April, and
swifts during the first days of May. Our latest
summer visitant is the night-jar, which begins its
singular churring note usually on the 16th or 17th of
May ; last year however I heard one as early as the
7th. These birds breed commonly on heaths, and
lay their eggs— never more than two — on the bare
ground. On one occasion I found a pair of night-
jar’s eggs as late as the 5 th of August, this I noted in
Science-Gossip, vol. xiii. p. 259.

(To be continued.)

SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF CARDIFF
AND SURROUNDING DISTRICT.

"T'O those interested in geological pursuits there

-L are few localities possessing so many advantages
and at the same time offering such a varied field
for research, as the neighbourhood of Cardiff. Such
being the case, a brief outline of the leading features
of the district may not prove uninteresting to some of
your readers.

The town of Cardiff is built upon the western
portion of a large plain, the surface of which is not
much above high-water mark, in fact, some parts of
the surrounding moors are periodically covered with
tidal water at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes ; geo-
logically speaking, it cannot have been long since
the waters of the Severn flowed regularly over, and
indeed far inland, to where Cardiff now stands.
The surface soil consists of a foot or two of stiff clay,
resting upon rolled blocks and pebbles brought by
the action of water from the older rocks of the
district ; these in turn rest upon the Keuper marl of
the Triassic formation.

Cardiff boasts the possession of splendid dock
accommodation, and is visited by the mercantile
fleets of all nations for that important article of
commerce, steam coal, for which South Wales is
justly famous.

The geological map of Great Britain defines a
large district in the neighbourhood of Cardiff as being
occupied by Old Red Sandstone deposits. This to a
great extent is correct, but a careful re-survey of the
district would very materially alter the boundary of
this formation, and cause the introduction of a con-
siderable tract of Silurian to be substituted. It is to
be hoped these alterations will be made at no ve y
distant period.

The Silurian deposits are well exhibited in a section
on the river Rumney, about two miles from Cardiff,
where a total thickness of rock exceeding 700 feet is
exposed. These beds are replete with the customary
fossils of the upper or Ludlow series, and at present
it is a moot point whether deposits representative of
the Wenlock series may not also exist here.

The only rising ground of any importance in the
immediate neighbourhood of Cardiff is Pen-y-lan.
This is a low hill composed entirely of Silurian
deposits ; a small quarry nearly at the top of the
hill has furnished the writer with a typical collection
of the interesting fossils of this formation. This spot
will repay the visitor for the walk, as a commanding
view of the British Channel, the flat and steep
Holmes, the coast of Somersetshire, and the Liassic
plateau of Penarth, and Leckwith can be obtained
from here.

From the Silurian to the Lias represents an enor-
mous thickness of deposits, yet, if we except the
Permian and Lower Lias, the entire sequence may
be obtained within a radius of about a dozen miles

F 2

IOO

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

from Cardiff. Caerphilly, with the ruins of its
ancient castle, lies to the north of, and is distant
from Cardiff about seven 'miles. A walk over the
Rhymney Railway reveals the following section :
After passing over the alluvial deposits at Cardiff, we
enter a cutting through a bed of river gravels ; this

8 feet.

10 feet.

9 feet.

Ammonites planorbis beds.

Lima beds.

Ostrea liassica beds.

IliiiilLdL"

- , - 1 i i ) 'j.

18 feet. w White Lias series

24 feet.

Black Shales.

* j i/i 1 j 1 i > 1
, 1 •> i 1 ) j 1 > i f

eM Green Marls.

30 feet.

/////// ////// //mn/f\

NS

*\^ t-

A

Red

Marl.

Fig. 89. — Section of Rhseticbeds at Penarth.

is immediately followed by a cutting in the Silurian,
and is the most westwardly exposure hitherto dis-
covered in this district ; it is, in fact, a prolongation
of the base of Pen-y-lan referred to above. A heavy
embankment occurs for about a mile, which brings
us near Llanishen, where we enter a fine section of
the Old Red Sandstone, consisting of conglomerate
pebble beds, beds of grey and red sandstone alternat-
ing with beds of similar coloured marls ; these are
succeeded by the carboniferous limestone, millstone
grit, and lower coal measures.

These rocks at once mark a significant change in
the features of the landscape ; rising to over 850
feet above sea level, they form the Caerphilly
mountain, under which the Rhymney Railway is
carried by a tunnel 1760 yards in length. In walking
over the mountain we pass over the denuded and up-
turned edges of the Old Red Sandstone, carboniferous
limestone, millstone grit, and, on the northern slope,
between the summit and the town of Caerphilly,
twelve seams of coal, alternating with beds of sand-
stone and shale, crop out. About two miles further
to the north, the great anticlinal axis which divides
the South Wales coal basin into two unequal troughs
is met with. It is composed of Pennant sandstones ;
these furnish good building material, and from some
of the beds an excellent paving-stone is obtained.
The thickness of these sandstones, as ascertained
from sinkings, is over 480 feet.

The currents which brought the material for the
formation of these rocks also brought large portions of
the vegetation of the period, which have been well
preserved in a quarry at Pwll-y-pant ; some of the
beds are literally crowded with such remains. When
first exposed the external portion of the wood is
found converted into pure coal having a cubical
fracture inside, the wood has been fossilized, and an
excellent idea of its structure may be obtained by
preparing thin sections for microscopical examination.
By far the larger portion of these remains consist of
Sigillaria , but from the fact of Dadoxylon antiquus ,
Pinites, Lepidodcndron and Psaronius having been dis-
covered, a careful examination would doubtless reveal
to an investigator of fossil botany many other descrip-
tions of the flora of the coal age.

That these remains have been subjected to consider-
able attrition is indicated by the ends of each piece of
wood terminating in a blunt point, while not un-
frequently patches of fossilised vegetable matter may
be found. These are undoubtedly the comminuted
fragments worn from the stems and branches during
the turbulent state of the water, and held in suspen-
sion until it became more tranquil, when they were
finally deposited in the slight inequalities of the sea
bottom.

The general arrangement of the beds in this section
is briefly as follows : when the Silurian is first met with
the dip is about 23 degrees to the N.E. The embank-
ment referred to occupies a depression where the beds

HARDWICKE'S SCI ENC E-G 0 SSIP.

IOI

become horizontal ; at Llanishen the clip is about 22
degrees to the S.W., gradually increasing in angle of
dip as the tunnel is approached, where the beds are
seen to fold over an anticlinal axis and again dip to
the N.E. at an angle of 33 degrees.

A trip by the steam ferry, occupying about ten
minutes, lands you at Penarth, where one of the best
sections of the Rhoetic series in this country is exposed
in the cliff. Penarth Head, about 160 feet high, con-
tains the following series of beds. The base consists of
red and pale green marls, enclosing large lenticular
masses of gypsum. Beds of impure limestone succeed
the surface of one of these beds presents a very uneven

ing the site of the coast line of the Triassic Sea, it
consists of angular, subangular, and water-worn blocks
of the older rocks of the districts cemented in a
matrix of a rich red colour ; the stone can be wrought
in blocks of almost any dimensions, and is much used
when substantial masonry is required. Hitherto it
has not furnished the writer with any fossils other
than those found in the contained blocks of older
rocks.

The amount of denudation which has taken place
in this district is enormous. Abundant evidence re-
mains to convince any one the coal strata must have
been continuous from South Wales to the Bristol and

Fig. 90. — Section from Cardiff to Caerphilly. 1. Coal measures; 2. Millstone grit; 3. Carboniferous limestone; 4. Old Red

Sandstone; 5. Silurian; 6. Gravels; 7. Trias.

surface when exposed, in the depressions of which
large quantities of fish remains occur, consisting of
teeth, spines, and scales of various species, prominently
among which may be mentioned Nemcicanthus filifer ,
N. monilifer, Hybodus reticula tus,' A crodus minimus ,
Sargodon Tomicus, Gyrolepis Alberti , Saurichthys
apicalis , and S. acuminatus. Then follow a series of
black shales, with occasional beds of impure lime-
stone but exceedingly fossiliferous, containing Axinus,
Pullastra , Peden Valoniensis , Cardium Rhceticum ,
Avicula contorta, Myophoria poster a, Gervillia,
See. These beds are succeeded by the White
Lias series, commencing with sandy shales, passing
into beds of limestone containing Litna precursor,
Modiola minima , Anatina Suessi, and still ascend-
ing we met with the Ostrea beds containing Ostrea
liassica, PlicaUila , Lima shales, with Lima precursor,
and lastly the Ammonites Planorbis beds with the
fossil giving them their title. Reptilian bones are
not unfrequently met with, consisting of Ichthyosaurus ,
Plesiosaurus , &c.

Following the cliff along to Lavernock, about two
miles in a southwardly direction, the various beds
may be examined in detail, as their undulations bring
them within easy reach for observing more minutely.

At Lavernock the coast suddenly trends to the west
and a very fine exposure of the Lias opens up. The
beach from low water to the base of the cliff is covered
with some of the beds, the natural fracture of which
gives the beach the appearance of having been
artificially paved. From this point the flat and steep
Holmes (two islands of carboniferous limestone) are
prominent objects standing off in the channel about
three or four miles from the mainland.

At Radyr and at the junction of the Penarth line
with the Taff Vale Railway near Llandaff, excellent
exposures of the dolomitic conglomerate occur, mark-

Somerset coal-field, as also the underlying Old Red
Sandstone. The vertical thickness of these rocks
added to those exposed in the cliffs from Penarth to
Southern-down amounts to between one and two
miles, a mass of rock which only a corresponding
immensity of time would be sufficient to remove.

W. H. Harris.

THE PREPARATION OF INSECTS FOR
MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION.

By H. M. J. Underhill.

THERE is a great deal of literature on the subject
of “ microscopical mounting,” and I hesitated
much before I decided to contribute yet another
paper to the amount Notwithstanding, I believe
that the particular branch of “mounting ” of which
this article treats, is but imperfectly understood.
When I was a member of the Postal Microscopical
Society, I used to see the slides of some hundred
and twenty microscopists, among which were a great
many of what the club calls “professional slides.”
It seemed to me that the majority of the entomological
specimens, both those by “amateurs” and “pro-
fessionals ” were badly set up, and that, with a few
agreeable exceptions, even those which might be
called good slides were mounted upon principles
radically faulty. This being a fairly large circle
from which to judge, I suppose that most entomo-
logists who use a microscope set up their preparations
after the same fashion, and therefore I have written a
paper on a well-worn theme.

A man commencing the study of insect-anatomy
reads a few “ hints on mounting ” in some book ; the

102

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

remarks treat of mounting in general, and the beginner
applies to insects methods suitable to histological,
vegetable, or mineral objects. His principles are at
fault, and his productions are more or less failures.
This paper is not about mounting in general, and,
although many of the methods detailed may be good
for other classes of objects, it is only for the prepara-
tion of insects and similar things that they are here
recommended.

In preparing any object, one’s aim should be to
obtain an absolutely correct idea of it. One should
therefore endeavour firstly to set it up in a natural
manner and position, and secondly to display every
detail. It is always to be borne in mind that details
shown by distortion give an incorrect idea of the
object, and that the knowledge thus gained being in-
accurate, is therefore nearly useless.

By the ordinary method of preparing insects, every-
thing is sacrificed to the display of minute details,
and preparers are ambitious of doing on one slide
what can only be properly done on two, three, or
four. This ambition results in a radical fault, namely
the use of undue pressure, in order to bring all parts
of the object to one level. Again, a wish to mount
slides rapidly induces the employment of heat in order
to harden the balsam quickly. F or mounting diatoms,
a skilful manipulator tells me- that hardening the
balsam thus brings out the markings. His slides
fully bear out his words. But for insects, nothing
can be worse than heat, for it produces an opalescent
transparency, which makes markings partially invisible,
and this effect is aided by the increased density given
to the balsam.

The methods which I venture to recommend avoid
the use of undue pressure and of heat, while, at the
same time, not only will they give a better general
idea of an object than the methods ordinarily in use,
but also will bring out details much more distinctly.

Insects cannot all be mounted in the same way,
and, according to the points which it is desired to
show, so must the method of mounting vary. I will
first describe the various media and processes of
mounting, and then say something of the different
insects for which they are suited.

The media I employ may be divided into two
classes : A, those which are aqueous, and B, those
which are resinous.

Class A. Medium i. — To every fluid ounce of
glycerine add ten drops of ordinary acetic acid.
Almost everything may be mounted in this medium.
Medium 2. — Glycerine jelly. For details of its manu-
facture I refer readers to Science-Gossip 1874, P- 54-
Carbolic acid should be used to prevent the growth
of fungi, instead of Baric chloride as there stated.
I do not recommend glycerine jelly, except in a
very few instances, and therefore I do not trouble
the reader with what I said at a former time.
Medium 3. — Distilled water. To every fluid ounce
of water add 20 drops of carbolic acid ; boil until

the acid be dissolved, and filter through blotting-
paper. This medium is solely for mounting specimens
of opaque objects.

Class B. Medium 1. — Canada balsam. I consider
test-tubes by far the most convenient vessels in which
to keep this resin. Fill a test-tube with two-thirds of
old balsam and one-third of benzine. A friend tells me
that new balsam does just as well, but of that I have
no experience. The mixture should be of the con-
sistency of cream. Medium 2. — Gum dammar. Take
two parts of gum dammar and one part of gum mastic :
pound them in a mortar, and fill a test-tube quite full
of the powder, but do not ram it down : now pour in
benzine until the test-tube will hold no more. Cork
the tube tightly, and let it stand in an oven for a few
hours, until the solution be quite clear and all
sediment has sunk to the bottom. Filtering is quite
unnecessary. Gum dammar by itself dries very brittle,
and besides, I have never been able to clarify it.
These mixtures of Canada balsam and of gum dammar
may be used indifferently for unstained specimens.
I do not know that one is better than the other, but
for stained specimens it is better to use only gum
dammar, because the natural oils in the balsam cause
some colours to fade.

Process i. To mount an object in glycerine. — A
cell is necessary for all but the very thinnest objects.
Fixing a cell is some trouble, but it is seldom that
anything deeper is required than a glass slip with a
countersunk cell. As some people are always com-
plaining (quite needlessly) of the difficulty of “seal-
ing cells,” I describe my method : fill the cell with
glycerine ; pick out all air bubbles with a pair of
forceps, put the object in the cell ; take up the thin
glass cover with the forceps, breathe on its underside,
and place it carefully (do not drop it) on the cell ;
press the cover down, taking care to keep the object
in the middle, and secure it with a clip. Leave the
slide for an hour in order that all superfluous
glycerine may be pressed out ; then take it up and
wash it in clean water by dipping it in, and moving
it gently backwards and forwards. Wipe the ends of
the slide with a towel ; absorb all the water about
the cover with blotting-paper, and then varnish it
very thinly with ‘ Bell’s cement.’ Knotting varnish,
such as is sold in ordinary oil shops will answer the
purpose, but slides sealed with this are apt to leak.
Therefore I prefer Bell’s cement, which can be bought
at C. Baker’s, High Holborn. Three coats of varnish
should be put on before the clip is taken off, and the
slide may then be “ ringed ” on the turn-table in any
way that suits the mounter’s fancy.

For mounting in jelly I again refer readers to the
back number of Science-Gossip. Objects may be
mounted in water in the same way as in glycerine ;
washing the slide after putting on the clip, however,
is unnecessary.

Process II. To mount in balsam or dammar. —
With a turn-table draw a ring of water-colour paint

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

103

in the middle of the slide. If the object be very thin
put- a small drop of the medium on the slide, place
the object in it, and put on the cover, wetted with
benzine, and press it down only very lightly indeed.
It is but seldom that entomological objects are thin
enough for this, so, in an ordinary way, proceed as
follows. On the ring of paint at equal distances apart,
place three small chips of cover-glass of a thickness
just slightly less than that of the object to be mounted ;
arrange the object which should be quite wet with
benzine, in the middle ; put on the cover, secure it with
a clip, and let the medium run under by capillary attrac-
tion. All bubbles not inside the object will ultimately
disappear, but sometimes they need “coaxing ” to make
them go. The clip must be left on for half a day or
a week, according to the nature of the object. Any
shrinkage of balsam from the edge of the cover must
be carefully filled up. Slides mounted in this way
should be left at least six weeks to dry. The super-
fluous balsam may be scraped off neatly by placing
the slide in the turn-table, and using a sharp bradawl
to cut the balsam. A good margin of balsam must
be left round the edge of the cover. The slide must
be first varnished with balsam, but it may be finished
according to individual fancy.

If the object be too thick for any bits of cover-
glass, I generally use a slip with a countersunk cell.
Nothing is easier than to mount with these. I should
use them almost always, if they were not twice the
price of smooth-edged slips.

I will now speak of the processes for preparing
insects for mounting. It is on the proper carrying
out of these that the worth and beauty of one’s slides
depends.

To prepare an insect for being mounted in glycerine.
First process : Simply soak it for a week in glycerine.
Second process [to be used if the insect be curled
up] : soak it for a day or two in acetic acid, then
for half a day in distilled water ; this makes the legs
spread out. Soak it in weak glycerine ; then in
stronger, and finally in pure glycerine, then mount
it. Third process : For this refer to the first process
for Canada balsam. Insects are prepared for glycerine
jelly in the same way as for glycerine ; for carbolated
water they are prepared by simply soaking them in it
for some time.

To prepare insects for balsam or dammar. — First
process : After partial dissection, soak the specimens in
liquor potassse in the usual manner ; when they are
sufficiently transparent, complete the dissection, and
boil them in clean liquor potassoe for ten seconds : wash
them in distilled water, soak them for at least half an
hour in acetic acid. [It does no injury to leave them
in this for a week, but an hour or so is all that is
needful.] This gets rid of all potash. Wash them
well in distilled water, and then in methylated spirit.
[If they are to be mounted in glycerine instead of in
balsam, they should be transferred to that medium
without being put into spirits at all, but only well

washed in water.] Soak them for a quarter of an
hour in absolute alcohol, and then in oil of cloves for
a short time. The oil of cloves is not absolutely
necessary, but it is safer to employ it. Objects should
not be left for more than a week in oil of cloves,
since they are made hard and brittle by it. They
may now be mounted in balsam or dammar, but it is
better to wash them first in benzine, in which they
may be kept for any length of time. Second process :
For displaying muscles [applicable to naturally trans-
parent objects only]. Soak for three or four days in
ether, transfer at once to oil of cloves. Or, if the
object be curled up, soak it in water to expand it,
and transfer it to the oil by methylated spirits and
alcohol, as described in the first process. Third
process : For the same purpose and with the same
limitations as process two. Soak for a very short
time in potash ; be very careful not to press the
object at all, and proceed as in the first process, but
without any boiling.

For soaking in potash I use half-drachm stoppered
bottles ; for acetic acid, staining fluids, &c., little glass
pots, which I buy at Baker’s for 2d. each. For
boiling I use little porcelain evaporating dishes with
handles, which I buy at Griffin & Sons’, 22 Garrick
Street, Covent Garden.

(To be continued.)

A NEW METHOD OF PREPARING A DIS-
SECTED MODEL OF AN INSECT’S BRAIN
FROM MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS.

By E. T. Newton, F.G.S.

(Read before the Quekett Microscopical Club ,
January 24, 1879.)

THE structure of the nervous centres of Inverte-
brate Animals is a subject which is attracting
some attention at the present time, and I have myself
been much interested in the study of the insect’s
brain ; but have found some difficulty in clearly
comprehending the forms of certain of the internal
parts. In order to get a better knowledge of these
forms, I was led to construct a model, on a principle
which I believe to be entirely new. Knowing the
interest which our honoured president and the mem-
bers of this club always take in new methods of
working, I felt constrained to bring the matter before
you, and it is the purpose of the present paper to
describe the manner in which this model has been
constructed. Whether the method will prove avail-
able for other objects, time alone will show.

It will perhaps be desirable, before commencing
the description, for us to call to mind the general
form of an insect’s brain. Some of us endeavoured
1 on our last “Gossip night” to get a general know-

104

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

ledge of the anatomy of an insect, and, with regard
to the nervous system, we noticed that the most
anterior pair of ganglia, which is placed in the fore
part of the head, is joined by two large commissures
to the second pair, which is placed lower down, and
towards the back part of the head. Through the
ring thus formed the gullet or oesophagus passes, and
hence the anterior ganglia, being above, are termed

Fig. 91.— Brain of mole-cricket, after Died. — ub, upper division
of the brain, or supra-cesophageal ganglia ; lb, lower division
of brain, or infra-oesophageal ganglia ; cm, commissures be-
tween upper and lower divisions of brain ; x, a cross-band of
fibres peculiar to mole-cricket and some other insects; an,
antennary nerve ; op, optic ganglion ; o, ocelli ; fg, frontal
ganglion of stomato-gastric nerve ; 1, 2, 3, nerves to mouth
organs.

the supra-cesopkageal ganglia , and the second being
below, are called the infra-oesophageal ganglia. The
positions of these parts is
very well shown in the
diagram of these ganglia,
taken from a mole-cricket
(fig. 91). The upper ganglia
present two rounded pro-
minences above, from the
sides of which the optic
nerves are given off [op),
while at the top are seen
two ocelli. Somewhat lower
down, and towards the front,
are two other prominences,
from which the antennary
nerves pass off (an). A little
lower down a nerve is given
off from each side, the two
joining in the middle line to
form the frontal ganglion
(fg) ; from this a single

From the lower pair of ganglia the nerves are given
off which supply the mouth appendages. The re-
searches of Faivre, in 1857 (“Du Cerveau des
Dytisques dans ses rapports avec la locomotion,”
“Ann. d. Sci. Naturelles Zool.” tome viii. p. 245)
seem to show that the power of co-ordinating the
movements of the body is lodged in the infra-oeso-
phageal ganglia, and, therefore, it is not without
reason that some authors regard these as a part of
the brain. What follows in this communication refers
only to supra-cesophageal ganglia, or, as I should
prefer to call them, the upper division of the
brain.

The general arrangement of the internal structures
will, perhaps, be best understood by reference to the
figure given by Leydig, of the brain of Formica rufa
(fig. 92). (“ Tafeln zur vergleichenden Anatomie,”

1864, t. viii.) Upon each side there is a large
central ovoid mass (pi), which has been termed the
primary lobe , and this abuts in the middle line upon
its fellow of the opposite side, while the optic nerve,
with its ganglion (op), is given off from the outer or
opposite end. The optic ganglion itself is a very
complex structure. The antennary lobes (al) consist
of a number of large rounded masses, which have
been called cells, but are really made up of a network
of fine fibres. Above the primary lobe are seen the
peculiar bodies, having the appearance of half-rings
(mb), which have been called convolutions, by
Dujardin. (“Sur le systeme nerveux des Insectes,”
1850, “Ann. Sci. Naturelles Zool.” ser. 3, tome xiv.
p. 195), and have been compared to mushrooms.

1 -i 1 , “ Fig. 92. — Brain of Formica rnfa, adapted from Leydig.—// primary lobe ; al, antennary lobe ;

nerve passes DaCKwaruS along an ( nerve to antenna ; op, optic ganglion ; pe, facetted eye ; o, ocelli ; mb, mushroom-bodies ;

the upper surface of the
alimentary canal. Below and
behind the large commissures (cm) pass to the lower
ganglia (lb), and, being long in the mole-cricket, the
two pairs of ganglia are well separated. In some
insects they are much closer together.

si, stems of mushroom-bodies ; c, cap of cells covering the mushroom-bodies ; ma, optical
section of the anterior mass of nervous matter.

Each of these mushroom-bodies is supported upon
a stem (si) which passes downwards into the primary
lobe, where the two lie close to each other, if they
do not join.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, .

io5

The exact form of these mushroom-bodies is not
easy to be made out from preparations such as that
figured by Leydig, and, indeed, the appearance pre-
sented by sections does not convey a very clear idea
of their form.

In the middle of the primary lobe, as figured by
Leydig, there is a rounded mass, which he describes

Fig. 93. — Diagrammatic outlines of sections of the upper part of the brain of a Cockroach. Only
one side of the brain is here represented. The numbers indicate the position in the series
of 34 sections into which this brain was cut. mb, mushroom-bodies, with their cellular cover-
ing ; c, and their stems, si ; a, anterior nervous mass ; m, median nervous mass.

as a “giant nucleus ” {ma), but more recent researches
have shown that Leydig was mistaken, and that this
appearance is really the optical section of a cylinder
of nervous matter, which passes forwards, to end
abruptly upon the front surface of the brain. The
structure was correctly described by Dujardin, in
1850, but does not seem to have been recognised by
Leydig ; this was, no doubt, due to the method of
investigation employed by the latter, which consisted

in clarifying the brain (previously hardened in alcohol)
in potash solution, or glycerine.

With regard to the origin of the nerves of the
ocelli (0), it is desirable that Leydig’s figure should
be verified, for it seems very improbable that they
should arise from the heads of the mushroom-bodies
in the ant, and from a different part of the brain in

other insects.*

Insects’ .brains vary very
considerably as regards the
development of the mush-
room-bodies. In ants, bees,
and wasps they are propor-
tionately large, and double
on each side. In the cock-
roach they are double, and
moderately well developed,
and in the mole-cricket there
is said to be only one on each
side. Dujardin could not
detect these mushroom-bodies
in the diptera ; but recent in-
vestigations (E. Berger,
“ Untersuchungen fiber den
Bau des Gehirns und der
Retina der Arthropoden,”
“Arbeiten des zoolog. In-
stituts zu Wien,” Bd. i. Heft
ii. p. 173) show that certain
bodies exist in the blow-fly
( Muse a vomitoria ), and the
house-fly (M, domestic a),

which, most probably, are
correctly regarded as the
homologues of mushroom-
bodies.

I had already prepared
sections of the heads of several
insects, some of which have
been exhibited at our meet-
ings, before I saw the paper
by Dr. Dietl (“ Zeitsch. f*
wissenschaft. Zool.” 1876,
vol. xxvii. p. 488), in which
some beautiful sections of
insect brains are figured and
described. When I saw them
I determined to try the method
he had used for hardening the
brains, namely, with hyper-
osmic acid. The insect which I selected to work upon
was the cockroach ( Blatta onentalis). In the first place
it was necessary to remove the brain from the head
in a perfectly fresh condition, and this required some
care, because the organ itself is extremely delicate,

* I find, since this paper was written, that according to Flugel,
these nerves pass down beside the mushroom-bodies to the
middle of the brain. (“Zeitsch. f. wissenschaft. Zool.” 1878,
vol. xxx. suppl. p. 556.)

io6

HARDWICKE' S SC IE NC E- G O S SIP.

and if the investing membrane be injured the internal
parts are apt to be squeezed out in the hardening
process. The fresh brain, cleared from the surround-
ing parts, was placed for a few hours (6 or 8) in
an aqueous solution of hyperosmic acid [\ to ^ per
cent.) It was then washed and laid in spirits of
wine. The hyperosmic acid seems to me to be some-
what uncertain in its action, for sometimes the brains
remained soft and unstained' in the interior, while at
other times the hardening and staining was most
successful throughout.

The next point was to cut up the brain in a definite
direction into consecutive sections of a known thick-
ness.

So much has been said in this club lately about
section cutting, that it would only be wearisome to
attempt to describe the process fully. It may, how-
ever, be mentioned that a microtome was used, in
which the screw for raising the object was divided,
so as to register a thickness of about inch.
The brain was embedded in wax, in the usual manner,
and each slice, as it was cut off, was placed directly
upon a glass slip in a drop of glycerine, and numbered.
When the entire brain had been disposed of in this
way, the sections were cleared of the pieces of wax
adhering to them, covered with thin glass, and
cemented down.

The sections which appear to me the most instruc-
tive are those cut in a direction as nearly as possible
parallel to the front of the brain. "One brain, cut
in this direction, gave me thirty-four slices, each
about inch thick, and as no intermediate pieces
were lost — although some were subsequently in-
jured in the process of mounting — I had the whole
of this upper division of the brain in a consecutive
series of slices, and, therefore, in a very satisfactory
condition for work. Any one who, in working out
structures by means of sections, has endeavoured to
trace the various parts through a series of slices, will
understand how difficult it is to keep in mind the
structures seen in each, so as to picture to himself the
form of any part when entire. And still more difficult
is it to convey to others the knowledge which one has
gained by the examination of such a series.

Now it seemed to me that, if a drawing of each
section of the series were made, and the corresponding
portions in each coloured some definite tint, then the
structures presented would be much more easily
understood, inasmuch as they could all be laid before
the eye at one time. I determined, therefore, to
prepare such a series of drawings with the camera
lucida, and the diagrams numbered 2, 4, 6, 10, 13,
17, 20, 25 (fig. 93), represent the most typical sec-
tions of this series ; only one-half of each section
being here represented.

In section No. 2 may be seen, at the lower part, a
portion of the antennary lobe (a/). In the middle is
a mass of nervous matter, here distinguished by
vertical lines, and marked (a). Above this is a cap-

like portion, distinguished by horizontal lines (r).
These are the portions which should be borne in mind
in passing through the series.

In No. 4 we find that while the parts noticed in
No. 2 remain much the same, two dark masses {mb)
have appeared in the upper portion, close to the mass
(a), but definitely separated from it.

In No. 6 the dark masses have increased in size
and become somewhat curved, but the most obvious
difference is that the mass {a) has suddenly extended
inwards and downwards to the middle line of the
brain (///.).

In No. 10 the dark masses are much more deeply
curved, the upper portion of the mass {a) is rather
less, and another process has begun to extend upwards
and outwards {si).

In No. 13 the most important point to notice is
that, while the inner mass (a) has almost disappeared,
the outer one {si) has extended upwards, and may be
seen to join th’e outer dark mass.

In the 14th section the outer mass {si) joins the
inner dark mass also, and this junction extends as far
as the 1 8th or 19th section.

In No. 17 the outer mass {si) may be seen joining
both the dark masses, which are here very deeply
hollowed out.

In No. 20 the outer mass has entirely disappeared,
and we have simply a small portion of the lower
mass {m) left close to the middle line, the dark masses
are somewhat smaller. The extension {com) seen just
below the antennary lobe is the commencement of the
commissure to the lower division of the brain.

In the sections which follow, all the parts above
mentioned, excepting the commissure {com), get
gradually less, and the dark ones are seen, for the
last time, in section No. 25. The median portion (m),
however, may be traced to the 28th section.

The next step in the process was this : It occurred
to me that, if the card, upon which these outlines
were made, were of a thickness proportionate to the
enlargement of the drawings, and if each were cut
out, and the whole piled together, one ought to have
a model of the exterior of the brain. I set to work,
therefore, to do this, but in order to lessen the labour
as much as possible, it being merely an experiment,
it seemed desirable to make one half first, and instead
of making models of the whole series, the thickness
of each slice was doubled, so that it was only necessary
to make seventeen, taking, as a pattern, every alternate
drawing.

The material used was soft pine -wood, each
piece being about ^ inch in thickness. Having cut
out each model slice with a fine saw, the whole
were piled together in their relative places and
temporarily fixed, so that the corners might be
trimmed off, and the result was the form which is
seen in the model of one half of the upper brain
(fig. 94). The different slices, however, were not left
fixed together, but were separated and arranged so

HARD W I CKE ’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

that they might be taken to pieces, as in the process
of cutting sections, and the surfaces thus exposed
were coloured to represent the sections as they appear
under the microscope.

This method of modelling was capable of still
further development. Having modelled the opposite
half of the brain upon the same plan, I drew upon
■each of the model sections, thus produced, the out-
lines of the more important parts, as shown in the

diagrams (fig. 93), and these were then cut out in the
same manner as a child’s dissected map-puzzle. Now
it will be obvious that by taking from each of these
“ dissected” sections, the part, for instance, which is
in the diagrams (fig. 93), markQfl (tr),’and joining them
together in their relative places, we shall have a
model of that particular part ; and by joining, in like
manner, the dark masses, and those marked (a), (m) ,
(st), we shall obtain models of the mushroom-bodies,
with their stems, etc. In this manner the dissected
portions of this side of the brain were joined together,
and, after some little trouble in adjustment, one was
enabled to make the parts fit together in their
relative places. We have now, therefore, upon the
left side, a model which may, so to speak, be cut up
in slices, to show the microscopic appearance of the
sections (fig. 94), and on the right side, a model of the
more important internal structures, which may, as
it were, be dissected out before a class of students
(fig- 95)-

I was in hopes that, before reading this paper, I
should have been able to construct a similar model of
the brain of a bee, in order to verify the descriptions
of Dujardin, Diet!, and others, who have worked at

107

this insect, but have not yet had the opportunity.
This, I may say, however, that an examination of
this model goes far to prove the correctness of their
descriptions, for we see here a mass of nervous matter
ending abruptly on the front surface of the brain,
this extending backwards, and being joined by the
stems of the mushroom -bodies, and reaching nearly
to the back of the brain, after being gradually reduced
in size. The heads of the mushrooms are seen to be,

as described originally by
Dujardin, discs folded upon
themselves, and bent down-
wards before and behind.
No doubt the forms of these
parts differ in the bee and
the blatta, but still, in their
principal features, they are
much alike.

I cannot help thinking
that a model such as this
gives a far better idea of the
true form of the internal
parts, than it is possible to
obtain from a study of sec-
tions alone, and, indeed,
even if these minute struc-
tures are dissected out, there
is great fear of their being
distorted in the process.
But, after all, the great use
of such models is to enable
the lecturer, or demonstrator,
to convey to his students a
correct knowledge of the
parts under consideration,
and I trust that this model may be the means of
enabling some of us to comprehend, more easily
than we otherwise should, the complex structures of
an insect’s brain.

BOTANICAL WORK FOR MAY.
British Batrachian Ranunculi.

SOME ten years ago we could not (perhaps being
a little prejudiced) believe that all Babington’s
water ranunculi were specifically distinct ; however,
time has wrought a wonderful change in our opinions ;
we now look upon them as a beautiful series of
examples, all differing in some degree, yet linked
together to form one harmonious whole ; we hope to
carry this conviction home to all our readers. We
have often been surprised to find so few of our
botanists who seemed to care to study these plants,
and yet they all confess they should like to know
more about them ; now let us endeavour during the
1 present month, to search anew every pond and ditch
in our neighbourhood, and carefully compare speci-
men with specimen : we shall all be astonished at the

Fig. 94. — View from the outer side of the
left half of model of upper part of brain of
Cockroach. The oblique lines in this and
fig. 95 indicate the successive slices of
which each is composed, op, cut end of
optic nerve ; an, cut end of antennary
nerve.

Fig. 95. — Right half of model-brain seen from
the inner side, with the parts dissected
away, so as to show the anterior nervous
mass, a ; the median mass, m ; the mush-
room-bodies, mb ; and their stems st. The
cellular cap, c, has been raised, so as to
display the parts below ; com, is a part of
the commissure to the lower portion of
brain, or infra-oesophageal ganglia.

io8

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Fig. 96. The Water Crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis).

result. To many of our
readers this will add a new
study to one which is get-
ting threadbare.

Our space being neces-
sarily limited, we may be
pardoned by passing over
the history of the Batra-
chian ranunculi, without
any remarks ; our object is
to make them simple and
plain to every botanist, for
so far as our flowering
plants are concerned, they
ought to be recognised at
a glance.

First, looking at the
whole of our aquatic ranun-
culi, we readily perceive
they naturally divide into
two sections :

(A.) Found growing
only in muddy or boggy
places, and devoid of
submersed leaves.

9 7 . — Ran unc ulus heterophyllus .

(B.) Floating water plants.

Section I.

1. Ranunculus ' hederaceus (Linn.). Leaves
spotted, small. Flowers very small’; pets.
3-veined. The point of the style, on the carpel
(seed-vessel) always at the side.

2. R . Lenorinandi (E. B. S.). Leaves much
larger than above, not spotted. Flowers large ;
pets. 5 -veined. The obovate carpel with a
terminal point ; syn. R. canosus, (Guss.)

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

109

Section II.

Div. I. Without floating leaves.

3. R. trichophyllus (Chaix). Submersed leaves
dark green ; segments short, rigid, apiculate. Flowers

very small. Easily
known by its
short, pointed,
dark green leaf-
segments.

4. R. Drouettii
(F. Schultz). Sub-
mersed leaves
bright green, seg-
ments collapsing
(i.e. when taken
from the water
they are like a
camel’s-hair pen-
cil when in use),
not apiculate.

5. R. fluitans
(Lam.). Sub-
mersed leaves very
long, linear.
Flowers very
large. Generally
found in shallow
rivers, abundant
in the Severn.

6. R. circinatus
(Sibth.). Segments
all in one plane,
rigid, in a round-
ish outline, forming a flat, rigid disk. Flowers very
small.

Div. II. With floating tripartite leaves.

Note. — All the species comprised in this division
may be recognised better from the illustrations, the
characters bear such a strong resemblance or simi-
larity, except to those who have studied them long
and carefully,

7. R. heterophyllus (Sibth.). The submersed leaves
of this species have long filiform collapsing segments.
Floating leaves nearly circular in outline, and with
long petioles ; style hooked.

8. R. confusus (Godr.). Leaf segments not collaps-

ing, rigid. Floating leaves semicircular, flat ; style

recurved. The stem of this species rises out of the
water.

9. R. Baudothi (Godr.). Floating leaves tripartite.
Leaf-segments olive-green, apiculate, not collapsing.
Flower stalks often exceed the leaves in length.
Carpels inflated at the end.

10. R. peltatus (Fr.). We combine R. floribundus
(Bab.) with this species, being unable to detect any
difference. Flowers numerous, sweetly-scented, large.
Floating leaves almost circular in outline.

11. R. tripartihis (DC.). St. rising out of the water.
Pets, very small, often slightly tinged with pink. The

submersed leaves often absent, then it has a close re-
semblance to R. Lenormandi. It is a very distinct
species.

12. R. pseudo fluitans. — Submersed leaves long.

with flat segments resembling R. fluitans. Floating
leaves tripartite. Flowers (rarely seen) about as large
as heterophyllus. This is a very variable plant, some-
times the segments are collapsing, but more frequently
long and rigid.

no

BARD WICKEDS SCIENCE-GOSSJE.

The following characters are most reliable :

No. 3. Known at a glance by its dark green leaf-
segments ; No. 4. Leaf-segments light-green, filiform
and collapsing ; No. 5. Leaf-segments very long, linear ;
No. 6. Segments of leaves having a roundish outline,
and all in same plane ; No. 7. Floating leaves almost

circular ; No. 8. Floating leaves flat, semicircular ;
No. 9. Floating leaves tripartite ; No. 10. Flowering
abundantly, and with delicate perfume; No. 11.
Flowers exceedingly small, submersed leaves very rare ;
No. 12. Differs from No. 5 chiefly, by having floating
leaves.

MAY FLOWERS IN WALES AND
SHROPSHIRE.

IN Hertfordshire the primroses were over,
hyacinths run to seed and later summer flowers
coming into blossom, when in the middle of May we
left that county for Shropshire, and stayed at Bucknell,
on the borders of Wales. Herethe early spring and
the summer flowers were all in blossom together.
We climbed a high hill and passed through an oak
wood, where the ground was covered with primroses
and anemones, side by side with Geranium sylva-
ticum and Lychnis. Masses of beautiful broom grew
011 these hills, Chelidonium in the hedgerows and
meadows full of Orchis morio. We walked one day
from the Craven Arms Junction, where the rail to
Ludlow branches off, to Norton Camp on the top of
the hill. Close to the camp is a wood, where we found
Saxifraga granulata growing as thickly as Stellaria
Holostea does in Flertfordshire. It looked very pretty
in the long grass on the ledges of the steep rocks
which overhang the valley where Stokesay Castle lies.
From Craven Arms Junction it is but a short distance
by train to Church Stretton, which looks so charming
lying close under the range of wild hills.

1 he Longmynd is windy and treeless, but there is

[ plenty of beauty and colour about it. Along the top
! is a broad turf track, smooth as a racecourse, along
which we walked. We could see the Wrekin and
Malvern Hills as we climbed upwards from Church
Stretton, afterwards on the left the Ludlow Hills and
Clee Hills ; on the right we looked across those
, strange Stiper stones, and out to the Welsh hills over
I the fertile valley, where we could see Bishop’s Castle.

The colour of the foreground to these distant blues
and pale greens was very remarkable, owing to the
splendid tints of the _ whortleberry leaves. On the
Longmynd they grew in spreading tracts over the
1 turf, shading from a deep crimson to brilliant orange.
The plants were full of light pink blossoms, and our
feet were covered with honey as we passed through
them. When nearly at the end of the Longmynd
range, we descended to the left into the valley near
1 the branch line that runs to Bishop’s Castle. This
railway is certainly very rural and unsophisticated ; it
is grown with grass and weeds, and as we came up a
flock of sheep which had just been washed in the
river close by, was driven slowly along the rails with
much baa-ing and barking of dogs. Children played
on the line and strolled hand in hand under the gay
broom bushes which hung in the cutting, oak boughs
and firs drooped over the fences on either side, and
almost hid the signal-post. We walked along the
line also ; the sheep turned off at the little shed which
served as a station. I sat down to sketch on a heap of
old sleepers until in course of time a short train came
slowly up ; the children disappeared, the shepherd
with his dog under his arm stood to watch us start,
the broom came in at the windows as we passed
along.

On the rocks above the Teme, when on our way
along the hills to Ludlow, we found Lithospermum
arvense. Wild garlic spread like a carpet over some
of the woods.

The month of May was a very wet one, even for
Wales. We went to Rhayader by the Builth railway
in pouring rain, past dreary Llandrindod with its
miserable attempt at modern streets and smart hotels,
in the midst of what was once a pretty common enough
if uninteresting. At Builth Road we saw the name
of that station very neatly written Jn fine thrift, which
can be recommended to station-masters. The letters
are bright green all the winter and covered with pink
blossoms in the summer. We drove from Rhayader
up the Nantgwyth valley, beside the Elan, which
was like a winter torrent, and saw at the edge of the
oak woods the pale yellow flowers of the Globe
Flower ( Trollius Europecus). Later on we walked
through ‘meadows full of Trollius near Rhayader and
Builth. Close to Cwm-Elan is the “Lily Bank,”
of rocks and oak-trees, with lilies-of-the-valley growing
thickly in beds along the ledges ; the blossoms were
just coming out.

We found plenty of Pinguicula in blossom on the
hills, looking like large bright violets, also Gnapha-

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

hi

Hum dioicum. Bird-cherry grew in the hedges. In
one place was plenty of buckbean (Menyanthes
trifoliate i). Oak-fern grew near the Elan, and beech-
fern almost under the little mountain waterfalls. Some
of the old walls were full of common spleenwort and
Cystopteris fragilis.

We went to Aberedw, near Builth, and walked over
thehillto see Llewellyn’s Cave, a little three-cornered
hole with a wooden door. On our way we found
Saxifraga hypnoides amongst the rocks, and some tall
specimens of Meconopsis Cambrica.

Pinner's Hill. M. A. Tooke.

MICROSCOPY.

Pollen. — It is pleasant, if only for a moment, to
turn away from the bloodshed of Zululand to the
calm possibilities of scientific research and induction.
This is suggested to us by a capitally-printed paper
we have received on “Pollen,” read before the
Natal Microscopical Society in November last by Mr.
Maurice S. Evans. This paper is a valuable one, and
gives us a good deal of original research. In the dis-
cussion which followed, Mr. Adams (the hon. secretary)
referred to Taylor’s “Flowers; their origin, shapes,
perfumes, and colours,” in which it was stated that
ants never assisted in fertilising plants, the hairs of
which the author thought were intended to keep the
ants off. Mr. Adams said he had himself seen ants
not only carrying off pollen, but entire anthers. This,
however, only proves that ants are unwelcome visitors
to flowers. What is meant by the author of
‘ ‘ Flowers ” is not that ants were unable to carry
off pollen, but that they were unable to beneficially
effect cross-fertilisation, and that they are insects to
be guarded against by flowers, rather than welcomed.

Quekett Microscopical Club.— A conversa-
zione of this society took place at University College
on March 14, and was attended by upwards of a
thousand visitors. The guests on arrival were received
by the President, Professor T. H. Huxley, who was
supported by the Vice-Presidents and Secretary.
Microscopes to the number of 185 were exhibited in
the museum and libraries by members and their
friends from kindred societies, in addition to which a
large number of instruments and objects were dis-
played by the principal opticians. An interesting
lecture “On Curious Houses and Queer Tenants,”
was delivered by Mr. May in the Mathematical
Theatre, and frequent exhibitions of polariscope and
other beautiful objects and preparations took place in
dark rooms by means of oxyhydrogen microscopes ;
whilst an excellent band discoursed sweet music in
the famous Flaxman Hall. The general arrangements
were such as to call forth much praise, and the great
scientific interest and admirable manner in which the
greater part of the microscopic objects were shown

| could not fail to be remarked. In addition to the
microscopes there was a good display of stereoscopes
and objects of interest, including a number of scien-
tific diagrams contributed for the occasion by Messrs.
Hardwicke & Bogue.

A New Method of Preserving Infusoria. —
The development of minute animalcules in infusions
of animal and vegetable substances when undergoing
decay has excited much interest amongst the medical
profession, on account of the light which recent
researches have shed upon the mode which bacteria
have of spreading disease. For the study of these
minute forms it is very desirable that we should
possess some means of obtaining a permanent pre-
paration of them which would facilitate their examina-
tion. As regards bacteria and vibriones, especially
those on which M. Pasteur’s researches have shed
so much light, and also those of Professor Tyndall, I
have been experimenting upon a method by which
this could be done ; and after some years of patient
research I have at last been rewarded with a very
excellent method, and for the benefit of the readers
of Science-Gossip I now send it you. The follow-
ing things will be necessary : — A bottle of thin
Canada balsam diluted with chloroform, a hot-water
plate and a few glass dishes, and the fixing solution,
which is made in the following manner : to 25 cc.
of chromic oxydichloride acid is added 50 cc. of
water with 5 cc. permanganate of potash. First
draw a large' ring of white wax upon the slide
much larger than the covering glass, then place the
vorticellas which you wish to preserve in the ring
with some water. When they have attached themselves
to the slide some of the chromic oxydichloride solution
must be added, which will instantly fix the specimen
in the position. After remaining about three minutes
the water may be poured out, and a few drops of
chloroform added and poured off, the covering glass,
placed carefully on, and a few drops of dilute Canada
balsam added so as to flow under the cover, which is
then placed upon the hot-water plate to dry. Speci-
mens preserved in this manner retain all the freshness
of the living animal. — T. C.

ZOOLOGY.

Japanese Deer. — At a recent meeting of the
Zoological Society, the secretary called the attention
of the meeting to the herd of Japanese deer ( Cervus
sika) in the park of Viscount Powerscourt, at Powers-
court, in Ireland, now about eighty in number, and
gave an account of their introduction and history,
from particulars supplied to him by Lord Powerscourt.

Female Deer with Antlers. — This was the
subject of a paper by Mr. Edward R. Alston, read
before the Zoological Society, showing that these

I 12

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

weapons are not unfrequently abnormally developed
in fertile females of certain species of Capreolus and
Cariacus, and giving reasons for believing that in the
ancestral forms of deer, they were probably common
to both sexes.

The Death of the Manatee. — Mr. Reeves
Smith, of the Brighton Aquarium, writes : “ Will
you allow me to supplement the interesting observa-
tions which have already appeared in your contem-
poraries on the above subject with the following facts ?
The sirens were formerly no strangers to the shores
of Britain, for the near relative of the manatee, the
halitherium, occurs as a fossil in the red crag forma-
tion of Suffolk. The fossils, though found in the
Red Crag of Suffolk, are yet generally considered by
geologists as derived from much earlier beds of the
Miocene age, which once occupied a large area of
what is now the German Ocean, whence they have
been washed out and redeposited, on the coast of
Suffolk. Similar remains are also found in the
miocene of Belgium and Germany. The discovery
of the British species formed the subject of a paper
by Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S., Hunterian Pro-
fessor of the Royal College of Surgeons, and now
President of the Zoological Society, published in the
quarterly journal of the Geological Society for
February (vol. xxx.), in which further details will be
found.” Two skulls of this fossil Swenian (called
Halitherium Canhami) are known, one of which (that
described by Professor Flower) is in the Ipswich
Museum.

Mistakes made by Instinct. — In answer to
J. E. Taylor’s suggestion under this heading I send
the following instances of mistakes on the part of
the humming-bird hawkmoth. While staying at
Aigle one summer, I occupied a room hung with a
light paper on which dark green diamonds of about
an inch square frequently occurred. I observed a
humming-bird moth apparently attempt to strike its
proboscis into a number of these squares in succession,
and as far as I could see choosing the centre of each
for its attack. I may mention a similar occurrence
which I noticed last winter at Mentone, but in this
case the pattern of the paper was wreaths of flowers,
but curious to say the moth selected one flower of
rather a dark colour, and hovered from one example
of it to another without apparently observing the
intervening patterns. I may mention that this moth
is called in the south of France “ good news,” as it
is supposed to be an omen of future happiness. — Ebba ,
Cotford , Sidmouth.

Zeus Aper, or Boar-fish. — A specimen of
this rare visitant of British waters was obtained from
a French trawler at Exmouth, on the 19th ultimo.
It was caught in the Channel, off the Devonshire
coast, and was still alive when brought ashore.
Although common in the Mediterranean, Yarrell in

his “History of British Fishes” (vol. i. pp. 169-170)
mentions only two instances of this fish being caught
on the English coast, one in October, 1825, in Mount’s
Bay, and another (locality of capture not stated)
obtained in Bridgewater fish-market in April, 1833.
Probably others may have since been captured. The
Exmouth specimen measured exactly 5J inches in
length, and corresponded in almost every particular
with the excellent description and figure given by
Yarrell. No transverse bands, however, were ob-
servable on the sides. A lateral line was distinctly
visible when the fish was first seen, but in a few days
thereafter it had entirely disappeared. The foregoing
notes had just been written when another specimen
was brought to me this afternoon. It had been
caught in the morning in the Channel, about sixteen
miles off the coast, and was landed at Budleigh-
Salterton. It was nearly an inch longer than the
Exmouth specimen, and the transverse bands, al-
though faint, could be distinctly made out. This
specimen was forwarded to the Editor of Science-
Gossip. — D. S., Exmouth.

[We have received one of these specimens of Zeus
aper , in excellent condition from D. S., and beg to
thank him for it very sincei'ely. — Ed. S.-G.]

Boar-fish (Zeus aper). — Six or seven specimens
of the boar-fish have been washed on shore here
during the last fortnight, only two having been seexi
before within the last twenty years. I can only
account for their appearance by supposing that the
prevalence of north-east winds has driven them in
from soxne station in deep water, such as Couch
mentions off the Runnel Stone. These saxne winds
have driven on shore still more unusual visitors in
the shape of three large vessels, one of them the
celebrated Axnerican frigate “Constitution.” — Julia
Colson , Sivanage , Dorset.

Marine Zoology. — I feel certain that much
valuable inforxnation in reference to marine dredging
might accrue if the various readers of Science-
Gossip would give their local knowledge and experi-
ence for the benefit of other naturalists. Dredging,
as a rule, is not successful, unless the locality is
thoroughly well known and familiar ; indeed, at many
places along our coast, if the dredge is not placed
over the exact spot, the haul would be profitless in
its results. Whilst on a dredging cruise last year, I
always made notes of those places where the dredge
had been used, so that at any future time I could
return to the same locality. I did this by roughly
marking the position on the chart, and where it was
possible I made use of land marks, such as, for instance,
a church or a windmill in a line with a large tree
bearing N.E. A side mark, or, technically speaking,
a thwart-mark was then noted, such as the headland
just clearing the light-house ; this object should be at
a right angle to the first observation, or as much so
as is practicable. In returning to the same position,

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

it is only necessary to sail until the two lines cross
each other. As I hope shortly to commence dredging
operations, visiting Weymouth, Torquay, Plymouth,
Falmouth, Penzance, and the Irish Channel, any
information relative to the dredging of these places,
would be to me of great service. — C. P. Ogilvie,
Leiston , Suffolk.

“ The Popular Science Review.” — The last
number of this excellently edited and old-established
quarterly journal is a capital one. It contains articles
on “ The Sources and Uses of Iron Pyrites,” by
J. A. Phillips, F.G.S. ; on “The Evolution of the
Elements,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A. ; “The
Structure and Origin of Limestones,” by H. C.
Sorby, F.R.S. ; “The Supposed New Crater in the
Moon,” by E. Neison, F.R.A.S. ; “Entomology,”
by the Editor (W. S. Dallas, F.L.S.) ; “The Col-
lapse of the Electric Light,” by W. H. Stone ;
“The Ferae Naturae of the London Parks,” by
J. E. Harting ; &c.

Notes on the Colour, and on Mounting
“Noctiluca Miliaris.” — It is well known that
to the Noctiluca miliaris , the phosphorescence of the
sea is due, at all events, in our own temperate waters.
Now, although like many of my brother naturalists,
I occasionally go to the sea-side, on botanical and
zoological thoughts intent, yet, strange to say, I never
saw the phenomenon until last summer, and have
always thought that the descriptions I have read in
books have been very much overdrawn. For instance,
in “ Le Monde de la Mer,” by Mons. Moquin-
Tandon, there is a particularly graphic description.
It must be confessed that this account is very much
like the phenomenon in one particular, it is both
luminous and glowing ; but at the same time it is
accurate. Myself and Dr. Worrall had been in a
yacht to a place some miles from Bangor, North Wales,
for zoological purposes. It was evening before we
returned, as the tide was against us, and the wind,
which had favoured us going, had at last utterly
failed us. The sea was placid, and it was when we
had fairly got into Beaumaris Bay, that the full
beauty of the phenomenon was apparent. The de-
scription was, as far as we could test it, true to
nature. We collected in vials numbers of the little
Noctilucse for examination when we arrived at home
(the hotel). When we had pretty well exhausted its
points of interest, we set about mounting some for
future examination. We mounted them in shallow
cells, with various preservative media, that we might
compare the results. We tried balsam, glycerine,
water (marine and fresh), glycerine jelly, Dean’s
medium, and several others. One or two of the
slides rapidly deteroriated, others held out for a longer
period, but the specimens mounted in sea-water,
retained all their freshness to this date. As the animals
retain their shape, it would appear that there has
been no endosmose or exosmose action going on.

Ix3

The morning following our excursion, our boatman
(himself a collector) brought us a two-quart bottle
rather more than half-full of a red-lead, or rather
orange-lead coloured substance which he called spawn
of some kind, and he had brought it to us for micro-
scopical examination. On placing a small portion
under the microscope, we found it to consist solely of
dead Noctilucse. Shortly afterwards we took a stroll
along the shore, accompanied by our friend the boat-
man, and he showed us all along the shore an orange-
red line consisting of the dead bodies of the Noctilucie,
just as they had been left by the receding tide.
Having seen no account of the animal possessing
colour, I thought it might interest the readers of
Science-Gossip to be made acquainted with this
peculiar fact. — John E. Lord , Rawtenstall.

BOTANY.

Teratological Notes. — Noticing in your late
numbers various accounts of malformation of plants
and flowers accompanied by sketches, I am induced
to trouble you upon the subject. With regard to the
sketch of a “monstrous calceolaria,” in your February
number, it is of the most common occurrence, especially
in the “ Prince of Orange ” variety, as I have had year
by year many identically similar malformed flowers,
both in the red and yellow varieties, blooming in my
garden, but have noticed that the plant producing
them, although apparently vigorous, soon withered
and died. I send you with this communication a
synanthic cyclamen, which I believe to be very un-
usual, but this also is the produce of a weakly-grown
bulb. May not these abortions be traced rather to a
last effort of expiring nature than to any variations of
soil or climate, just as dying fruit trees often pour
forth an abundant bloom which never matures, and
the tree shortly dies ? — J. I.

Rare species found in Jersey. — I found Diotis
maritima and Ccntaurca paniculata in large quantities
on the hillside at St. Ouen’s Bay, Jersey, during the
past season. I thought our readers would like to
know that they still exist in their old localities. —
W. H. Jones.

Echium Anglicum (Ray). — Upon looking over
an old edition of Hudson’s “ Flora Anglica ” I saw
this species described, also there are a few notes
upon it, made by myself from actual specimens,
collected in 1871 at Homer, Shropshire. It is
evidently first described by Ray (vide Synopsis,
p. 35), so that it is not a species made to-day upon
insufficient grounds. Hudson (“Flora Anglica,”
ed. 1762), has three species, distinguished as follows :

1. E. vulgar e, caule simplici erecto, foliis caulinis
lanceolatis hispidis, floribus spicatis, staminibus cor 0 Ham
cequantibus. Viper’s Bugloss.

HARDWICK E’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. .

114

2. E. cinglicum : Staminibiis corolla longioribus.
English Viper’s Bugloss.

3. E. it all cum : Corollis subaequalibus vix calyce?n
excedentibus , margine villosis. Wall Viper’s Bugloss.

The habitat of No. I is in fields frequent ; No. 2,
pasture fields and waysides frequent ; No. 3, Jersey.
We think it a pity this species should be lost sight
of, not that we believe the character, depending alone
upon the length of the stamens, is very valuable as a
specific distinction. But the Homer examples have
a widely different habit. Stem procumbent at the
base, the leaves are linear, and with a soft pubescence,
and the petals are not more than half the size of
No. 1. Stamens always exserted.

Note. — This species (English Viper’s Bugloss)
occurs frequently, both in Staffordshire and Shrop-
shire. In the above year we could easily detect it
from E. vulgar e ; when riding along the highways
we could with ease tell the difference. Would our
readers give it their attention, during the coming
season, and let us know the result ? for it is not
pleasant for a species bearing such an honoured name,
to be overlooked.

Salicornia. — Hudson, again following his earnest
predecessor Ray, makes out five distinct forms from
S. herbacca ; probably they are merely varieties of a
lax type ; however, we mention them to invite the
study of our enthusiastic amateurs. It requires a
little courage to face mud flats on the banks of our
tidal rivers — this may partly account for our limited
knowledge of these plants. We shall again shortly
refer to, and describe the forms in our herbarium.

University College, London': Ladies’ Botany
Class. — The Rev. George Henslow, M.A., F.L.S.,
&c., lecturer on botany to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital,
is about to deliver a course of twenty lectures on
botany to ladies. We are glad the authorities have
been so public-spirited as to throw their classes open
to women as well as men.

GEOLOGY.

Carboniferous Fenestellid^e. — On Feb. 26,
Mr. G. W. Shrubsole read before the Geological
Society an important paper, entitled “ A Review
of the British Carboniferous Fenestellidae,” and all
who have made any attempt to determine species of
Fenestella must have felt how much a revision was
required, and in what an unsatisfactory state our
knowledge of the Fenestellae has been. That Mr.
Shrubsole should reduce the number of species very
materially was only what those acquainted with the
subject would expect, and who would not be much sur-
prised at his reducing the nineteen so-called species
which have come under his notice to five.

Mr. Shrubsole has had splendid material to work

at from Halkin mountain in Flintshire, and in this
locality he has seen a specimen of Fenestella plebeia
having a circumference of two feet, and this shows that
the variations of different parts of the colony are very
great, so that ‘ ‘ the young, the mature, and aged con-
dition of the same Rolyzoan have been described as
distinct species ; a similar honour being sometimes
conferred upon the base and the upper growth.” In
the paper it is maintained that the true type is Ac-
! tinosoma, which has eight denticles set round the
margin of the aperture. This structure however seems
only to have been as yet discovered on three species,
and we shall look forward to future papers from the
same author, to explain how far he would hold this
to be the case ; for Polypora and Glauconome must
certainly be considered as belonging to the Fenes-
tellidse, even if they may not have in part to be united
in the genus, and the covers already pointed out by
Professor and Mr. Young as covering the aperture of
Polypora and the tuberculated margins of Glaiiconome
flexicarinata make it difficult to understand how these
cells, at any rate, could have^had raised peristomes
with denticles like Actinosoma. We may add that
though there is so much resemblance to the bryozoa,
or polyzoa, yet that their connection with more recent
forms has never been worked out ; and that although
there are some points of affinity with Cheilostomata
and some with Cyclostomata, proofs as to their exact
position are yet wanting, and we may therefore be
allowed to point out to Mr. Shrubsole, that if he can
bring forward any points of shell structure, to eluci-
date the question, he will be adding much to the great
importance of this first communication.

The Rainfall of the World. — This is the
title of a pamphlet by Mr. E. D. Archibald, in which
an ingenious attempt is made to simplify the general
question of a connection between sun-spots and rain-
fall ; and in it our readers will find a full statement of
the supposed relation between famines and sun-spots.

The Geologists’ Association. — We have re-
ceived Nos. 7 and 8 of the Proceedings of this vigorous
society, in which Mr. W. H. Hudleston continues his
invaluable papers on the Yorkshire oolites.

The Post-Tertiary Deposits of Cambridge-
shire.— This was the subject of the Sedgwick Prize
Essay for 1876, and was awarded to Mr. A. J. Jukes
Browne, B.A., F.G.S. It is now published by Deigh-
ton, Bell, & Co., of Cambridge, at half-a-crown. As
might be expected from Mr. Jukes Browne’s known
repute as a writer and geologist, it is a most ably-
written and attractive essay on the subject, present-
ing us with an account of the physical features of the
county, and a description of the glacial deposits,
the hill-gravels, the valley-gravels of the early river
system and of the present river system ; and also a
general correlation of the drift beds of Cambridge-
shire with those of East Anglia.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The Late Professor David Page. — We regret
to have to announce the death of this well-known
geologist, on Sunday, March 9, at the age of sixty-
five. Although not distinguished for discoveries in
the field, few men have done more to make English
geology so popular and extensively studied as Pro-
fessor Page did by the numerous admirable books of
which he was the author, and many readers will hear
of his death with unfeigned regret.

The Geology of Northumberland. — Professor
G. A. Lebour, of the Newcastle College of Physical
Science, has just published a neatly got up brochure
having the above title. It was intended originally
for use in his own geological class, but there cannot
be a doubt that it admirably fills a want, for we know
of no trustworthy description of the geology of that
part of England. The glacial beds are especially
interesting, and the Permian, Carboniferous, Silurian,
and Igneous rocks frequently occur under peculiar
circumstances. On all these Mr. Lebour has written
in a style at once accurate and readable. The book
may be obtained of H. Sotheran & Co., 78 Queen
Street, London, E.C.

CONODONTS FROM CAMBRO-SlLURIAN, AND DE-
VONIAN Strata in Canada and the United
States. — A paper on this subject was recently read
before the Geological Society, by Mr. G. Jennings
Hinde, F.G.S. After a sketch of the bibliography of
the subject, the author described the occurrence of
Conodonts. In the Chazy beds they are associated
with numerous Leperditiae, some Trilobites, and
Gasteropods ; in the Cincinnati group with various
fossils ; and in the Devonian strata principally with
fish-remains : but there is no clue to their nature
from these associated fossils. They possess the same
microscopic lamellar structure as the Russian Cono-
donts described by Pander. The various affinities
exhibited by the fossil Conolonts were discussed ; and
the author is of opinion that though they most re-
semble the teeth of Myxinoid fishes, their true
zoological relationship is very uncertain.

Annelid Jaws from the Cambro-Silurian,
Silurian, and Devonian Formations in Canada,

AND FROM THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS IN SCOT-
LAND.— This was another paper read by the same
author. After, referring to the very few recorded
instances of the discovery of any portions of the
organisms of errant Annelids, as distinct from their
trails and impressions in the rocks, Mr. Hinde
noticed the characters of the strata, principally
shallow-water deposits, in which the Annelid jaws
described by him are embedded. A description was
given of the principal varieties of form, and of the
structure of the jaws. They were classified from
their resemblances to existing forms under seven
genera, five of which are included in the family
Eunicea, one in the family Lycoridea, and one among

1 15

the Glycerea. The author enumerated fifty-five dif-
ferent forms, the greater proportion of which are
from the Cincinnati group.

Geology of Essex, &c. — We have received one
of the “Memoirs of the Geological Survey,’’ giving
an explanation of sheet 27 of the one-inch map of the
Survey of England and Wales. It deals with the
Geology of the north-west part of Essex and the
north-east part of Herts; with parts of Cambridgeshire
and Suffolk. The survey is under the direction of
Mr. W. Whitaker, with whom are associated Messrs.
W. IP. Penning, W. H. Dalton, and F. J. Bennett.
Not one word of commendation on our part is needed
to introduce this brochitre to our readers, but we are
glad to call attention to its issue, nevertheless.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — Your
correspondent, Mr. H. D. Barclay, in the January
number very truly and properly remarked that “ the
great difficulty in the investigation of the minds of
animals appears to be that man, instinctively and un-
consciously, unless checked by reflection, explains
their actions by his own modes and laws of thought.”
This appears to me to contain the whole gist and
difficulty of the subject, if he means, as I understand
it, that the unguided impulse of man is to draw
instant conclusions (if I may say so) of the cause of
actions in animals by analogy to the cause which
would have actuated him under like circumstances.
If it could be proved that we were justified in so
concluding, the hypothesis that instinct and reason
are different only in degree would be sufficiently sub-
stantiated, but as yet nothing worth the name of proof
| has been offered, and I believe it to be incapable of
proof for the simple reason that the opposite propo-
sition, viz. that we cannot judge by such analogy, is
abundantly proved to every one having the most
rudimentary knowledge of the actions of animals.
We know that animals can and do do highly “reason-
able ” things intuitively and without reason and
reflection, and that it is necessary to the order of
their existence, but the very opposite of this holds
good with reference to man ; he cannot do reasonably
anything without reasoning and reflection, and these
faculties are just as necessary in him to the order of
| his existence,- as they are unnecessary in animals to
the order of theirs.

Take for instance such actions of animals, as birds
building their nests, young birds opening their mouths
j to be fed, the admirable way in which they keep
their nests clean, the hen warning her chicks of the
presence of the hawk, the chicks flying to their
mother for protection, young ducks taking to water,
&c. These instances are sufficient to effectually
negative the proposition that we are to judge of the
actions of animals by analogy with the same laws
that govern the actions of man. If not, where is the
analogy in these cases, and if in these cases we cannot
so judge why are we to do so in others ? Or, in other
words, if we are to judge of some of the actions of
animals by the law of pure instinct as differing in
kind from reason, where are we to commence to
judge of them by a law of instinct not so differing ;
or again, the above instances proving, as I believe
they do, that there is an instinct differing in kind
from reason, are we to believe that animals are

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

1 16

endowed with both faculties, whilst we know man is
not ; and again, if the difference is only in degree,
how is it that as animals have been born in the
higher degree, i.e. with power to act “reasonably”
from the beginning of their birth, and thus having an
immense advantage over man at the starting of life, they
are so immensely inferior to man, who in comparison ;
is born into the lowest degree? Taking the difference :
as being in degree, then comparing man with monkey, !
the highest degree is in the monkey. The uncul- :
tured man is shown by Darwin’s savage to have less ;
reason than the uncultured monkey ; this theory there- i
fore would compel us to trace the degree in man j
dcnvnward from the monkey, though this is hardly in 1
conformity with the theory of evolution.

As it is capable of proof that animals can act in- '
tuitively with sufficient apparent “reason ’’for their
wants, and, as compared with man, are incapable of j
tuition, and that man cannot act at all intuitively, but,
as compared with animals, is capable of tuition to an
unlimited degree, it appears to me to be a fair deduc- 1
tion that the respective powers of “reason” as actu-
ating man and animals are of so totally different a
nature as to be no more the same in kind than a man
is a species of duck because he can learn to swim.

The incident of Darwin looking with abhorrence on
the savage of Tierra del Fuego, and comparing him
(the savage) unfavourably to a monkey, rather than
being a proof of the sameness of mind and instinct, is
a good illustration of the difference of those faculties.
Look on this picture : Darwin, a man, born with
no instinct, as far beyond the monkey (who was born
a thousand times cleverer than he was) as the stars
from the earth. Then look on that : the savage, a man
beneath the monkey, simply because he was born
without instinct, but with a mind, which from degra-
dation of his race he had not exercised. But he bears ■
every impress of the aptitude and attributes of man,
and as to mind, only differs in degree from Darwin.
Compare them, and then compare the savage and
the monkey, and then see if we cannot get a true
perception of what constitutes a difference in degree
and in kind ; if not, let us imagine a young savage and
a young monkey put through a course of instruction,
say in arithmetic, it would be an interesting study to
watch which would learn the “tables” first; but I
would back the savage. Yet, if we are to take the
inferiority of state of the particular savage which
Darwin looked on, as an instance of reason being of
the same nature as the instinct of monkey, I should
be backing at long odds. — Robert S. Gilliard.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — I should
like to make a few remarks on the above subject in
reply to some of your correspondents, if you can
afford me the necessary space. Mr. Barclay in his
first communication, says: “If it could be proved J
that a dog deliberately chose one of two courses of ■
action, the case of reason would be established.”
Now it seems to me that in their every-day actions,
animals frequently choose one of two courses of action.
For instance, if a cat is left alone in a room with a j
bird, its natural instinct would impel it to kill the
bird and eat it, but it has reason enough to know
that such a course of action would be followed by a
certain punishment, the fear of which deters it from
doing that which mere instinct would certainly prompt
it to do. A dog knows very well when it has done
wrong, and the old saying “Like a dog with his tail
between his legs ” is a very expressive one. It may,
perhaps, be said, that the animal is simply restrained
from doing a certain action by the fear of consequences.
Is it not so with man ? What would become of our
boasted morality, the rights of property, &c., were it

not for the fear of consequences, here or hereafter ?
Mr. Barclay admits that animals possess what are
called moral qualities in man, but denies to the
unfortunate brute any praise for their possession, as
they are simply a part of its nature, “ primal impulses.”
If such be the case, how can the difference in the
disposition of animals, be accounted for ? Some
animals are born without those “moral qualities of
fidelity, attachment, and courage,” which, when
found in the lower animals, Mr. Barclay designates
“primal impulses,” and seem to be actuated simply
by an unconquerable animosity to mankind in
general. I do not quite understand your corre-
spondent, Mr. P. Q. Keegan, when he says : “that
memory is an act of the intellect, but certainly not an
act of reasoning in the sense of inferring one proposi-
tion from another.” Memory is the power reason has
of retaining and arranging facts which come under
our observation, so that they may be used when
required, but I certainly do not see how memory
could possibly exist without reason, or reason without
memory. Mr. Barclay admits that animals have some
intelligence and memory, but questions their power of
reasoning, which he says is the root of man’s civilisa-
tion, and makes him a responsible being. Alas ! that
the power should be so perverted as it sometimes is !
Has Mr. Barclay forgotten that there are various
races of mankind, and that all are not quite so highly
civilised as we are in this favoured country ? Again,
Mr. Barclay says: “Those who credit the lower
animals with reason, if they are consistent, will also
credit them with conscience.” Why should they not
be credited with conscience ? As I have said before,
most domesticated animals know very well when they
have done wrong, and prepare to suffer for it, just as
a naughty child would do. In conclusion Mr. Barclay
says: “Take from man his reasoning power, latent
though it may be in many cases, yet underlying all his
conceptions, and we find the idiot who would perish
but for extraneous aid. Take from the quadruped the
modicum of reason which Mr. Darwin and others of
his school attribute to it, and we have an animal
endowed with some kind of intelligence we do not
understand, but name instinct.” Of course, just as
the feeling of cold is produced by the absence of heat,
so if you take away a man’s reasoning power, you
leave him a helpless idiot, without even instinct, and
if you take away the modicum of reason from the
quadruped (which Mr. Barclay denies it) you leave
what may be called simple instinct. Mr. Barclay
seems to contradict himself in his last sentence. The
remarks of your correspondents A. Wheatley and
C. L. W. are very good, and much to the point, but
“Idea” seems to take a poetical rather than a
scientific view of the subject under discussion. The
idea that animals really possess something more than
mere instinct, and are deserving of more consideration
than they generally receive, is certainly gaining ground
amongst the thinking portion of the community, and
to use the words of Mr. P. Q. Keegan, is seriously
entertained “by men of the highest culture and
sanity.” — A. C. Rogers, Southampton.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — Allow
me to correct two slight errors in my note in your
April issue. After the word “effect,” the colon
should be changed to a full stop, as the words “ to
this effect” refer to the “supernatural change”
previously mentioned. Also “ Lopinard ” should be
“ Topinard.” Your correspondent, Mr. Barclay,
says that the nature of the lower animals obviously
differed from ours. But this is not certain, excepting
that ours is perhaps more perfect. Animals show joy,
fear, hunger, pain, will, choose larger of two pieces

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

117

of food, &c. These are also parts of our nature ; we
have not the privilege of folly even ; nor of language,
for animals certainly have some kind of language of
their own. I will however return to this point after-
wards. Even morals are but the rules of society
adopted by certain people, and are not everywhere
the same. But “ le chien sait que pour ne pas etre
mordu il ne doit pas mordre, et agit en consequence ;
il a aussi sa morale” (Topinard). Now in the above
and similar cases, if our actions are supposed to result
from reason, why not those of animals ? The effects
in animals are much the same as in ourselves, why
not the causes ? If in similar actions in each case,
we adjudge reason to be exercised in ourselves, we
cannot, I think, consistently deny such power to
animals. Again, Mr. Barclay says that if we take
from man his reason, we leave him an idiot, but if we
take from the quadruped the modicum of reason
attributed to it, we leave it endowed with the same
intelligence, which we do not understand but call
instinct. Now memory cannot be called instinct. If
we take memory from man we certainly detract from
his intellect ; if we take it from animals do not we
lower their intellectual powers also ? Some savage
tribes have very little intellect ; there are some who
cannot count more than two, while a magpie has
been known to count three. I do not mean merely
to repeat the numbers, but to understand them.
Monkeys will organise bands, appoint sentinels,
listen to speeches from their leaders for a very long
time, and have been found to execute, occasionally,
careless sentinels ; is there no reason about this ? It
is absolutely necessary to keep poetry, sentiment, &c.
out of such questions as this, and to reason merely
from known facts. It is often supposed that man
alone had reasoning power given to him, and it may
be very pleasing to our vanity to think so. The older
naturalists imagined that man and animals were
totally different, but has it not been shown that they
are really only different branches of the animal
creation? Philology may throw some light on this
question. It is usually admitted by philologists that
man invented language. Now, beyond all doubt,
the earliest languages were very rudimentary and
imperfect, consisting of mere ejaculations. The great
reasoning power of men of the present time is in part
due to language, a medium in which to think. But
when language was so imperfect, thought must also
have been rudimentary. Now is it beyond prob-
ability that the first inventors of articulate speech had
not much more reasoning power than that shown by
apes ? Apes have the vocal organs of man, but have
not yet learned to use them as we have. Conse-
quently one of the greatest aids to thought is un-
developed in them. It has only arrived at its present
state of perfection in man during many thousands of
years. — A. Wheatley.

Intelligence in Animals. — When I was a young
man I lived in chambers on the ground floor of No. 1,
King’s Bench Walk. As the ante-room was dark,
glass had been let into the upper part of the front
door. This made it necessary to place the knocker
lower than is usual. A fine tom-cat was my constant
companion. As a knock at the door was a very
welcome sound to me, from the hope it excited of a
possible client, I was very prompt in answering the
summons, for I had not then a clerk. My cat had
thus the opportunity of observing (whether he did so
in fact is of course the question) that the opening of
the door immediately followed as a consequence on
the agitation of the knocker. Certain it is that tom
on returning from his nocturnal rambles would stand
on his hind legs and with his fore paws raise the

knocker and produce as decided a succession of raps
as a human being could have given. I was generally
in bed when this occurred and was often unwilling to
get up to let the truant in. If I remained long
obdurate he would go round by Whitefriars (how he
left the Temple I do not know, as the high gates
were closed) and passing down a lane would climb
a wall into a garden. By this circuitous and difficult
route he obtained access to my bedroom window.
There he would make such a mewing and scratching
on the glass that I was compelled for peace’ sake to
rise and admit him. I am afraid that I did not
always receive him with the welcome which his in-
telligence and perseverance deserved, but we were
soon good friends again, and it was with great regret
that I found on my return from a long vacation trip
that my cat had disappeared. It must be admitted
that the behaviour of the animal was as if he had
reasoned thus. “ My master does not hear the knock-
ing because he is in bed ; I must therefore go round
and rouse him by making a noise at his window.”
Some years ago I told this story to a very eminent
judge. With a twinkle in his eye he said, “ I also
had a remarkable cat, she would sit on my table as I
read my briefs and play with the paper, and when my
eye approached the bottom of a page I could almost
fancy that she tried to turn it over for me with her
paw.” This satire on my story and the inference I
was disposed to draw from it, has made me hesitate
to tell the anecdote except to a sympathising audience,
but as you are receiving contributions to the subject
of intelligence in animals, I think it due to the cats
to put it on record in your columns, as one for the
exact truth of which I am willing to be responsible ;
with this object I give my name. — James Hannen.

Intelligence in the Dog. — I have read various
notes under the head of “ Intelligence in Animals,”
which have appeared in Science-Gossip, and am
induced to jot down a few particulars respecting a
sheep-dog of mine, leaving your readers to determine
the motive power that influences the animal, for I will
not offer an opinion as to whether instinct or reason
guides him. He is very fond of a long walk, and
when I first came to live here used to accompany me
to the post office, but the distance being trifling, he
soon refused to go with me whenever he saw any
letters or papers in my hand, and it is quite sufficient
now to say, “I am going to the post,” to prevent
his showing any desire to accompany me when I
leave the house. He goes every morning into the
lower end of the village with an elderly gentleman to
fetch the daily papers, and having discovered that a
young lady, a friend of mine, takes her morning’s walk
about eleven ; he now returns from the village,
leaving Mr. B. at the stationer’s in time to meet Miss
R., thus securing for himself two walks. He never
tries to accompany any of the family who are going
to church ; it is quite sufficient to say “ Sunday,” or
“church” (he was once turned out of church) ; but
if I am at home, and happen to go for a walk during
the hours of service, his delight is excessive. He barks
invariably as we pass the church. — I cannot break him
of the habit — as if to say to the others who are in
church : “I am going out, though you would not let
me come with you.” He sleeps in an unused coach-
house, is fed once in twenty-four hours. When he is
locked-up for the night, all the larger bones which he
is unable to eat, he, after picking clean, carries off to a
corner of the building far away from his bed and lays
in a tidy heap. — Mrs. Alfred Watney.

Pride of a Cow. — It is tolerably well known
that when milch cows kept on a farm are being
driven out to grass, and when brought home to milk,

1 18

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the oldest cow always places herself at the head of
the herd, and so on, according to their ages, when
the youngest comes last. But I think it will rarely
occur that this assertion of pre-eminence over the
herd is ever carried to such an extent as appears in
the following instance. A person states that when on
a visit to a country house where cows are kept, it
one day happened that he was passing the cow-house
just at the time when the dairymaid was driving
home the cows to be milked. They all passed in
quietly enough, with the exception of one, which
stood lowing at the door, and resisted every effort of
the dairymaid to induce her to enter. When the maid
was interrogated as to the cause of this obstinacy, she
attributed it to pride ; and when surprise was expressed
at this, she explained that whenever any other of the
cows happened to get in before her, this particular
cow would seem quite offended, and would not enter
at all, unless all the others were turned out again,
and she had an opportunity of walking in before them.
This statement having excited curiosity, and a wish
to ascertain its accuracy, the maid was desired to
redouble her exertions to induce the cow to enter ; on
which she chased the animal through every corner of
the yard, but without success, until she at last desisted
for want of breath, declaring there was no other
remedy than to turn out the other cows. She was
then permitted to make the experiment ; and no
sooner were the others driven out, than in walked the
gratified cow, with a stately air, her more humble-
mindecl companions following meekly in her train. —
Dipt on Burn.

Laburnum in Autumn. — There are several
laburnums here which exhibit the peculiarity men-
tioned by W. G. I am not botanist enough to say
whether they differ from the ordinary variety, but do
not think so, as they exhibit no other mark of
difference. The second flowering occurs every year
in the autumn. — J. Forbes Mitchell , Thainstozu, N.B.

Laburnum in Autumn. — I noticed that the flower
pendants of the laburnum blossoming in September
were smaller than usual, and it may probably have
been the variety referred to by your correspondent. —

R. H. Nisbett. Browne.

Query as to Flower. — It seems obvious that in
the lines from “Venus and Adonis,” referred to by
Mr. J. Wheldon, jun., the poet had in his mind the
mythological story concerning the death of Adonis.
Cynaras juvenis (Adonis) having died from a wound
received from a boar, the flower anemone sprang
from his blood. It is not likely that Shakespeare
here refers to any other flower. Buchanan, in his
“ Dictionary of Science and Technical Terms,”
points to Adonis autumnalis as the plant deriving its
name from Adonis. This plant being of the same
order (Ranunculacese) and somewhat resembling the
anemone, might have easily been called in common
with it. — Charles F. W. T. Williams , Bath.

Query about Flower. — In Bell’s edition of
Cowley’s Poems (1778), book iii. of Plants, p. 147,
stanza 610, the purple anemone is spoken of as the
flower stained by the blood of Adonis.

“ Anemone her station took

* * He * *

The purple, with its large and spreading leaf.

Was chosen, by consent, to be their chief;

Of fair Adonis’ blood undoubted strain,

And to this hour it shows the dying stain.”

I have also seen this legend mentioned in another
book. — F. L. St. A.

Query as to Flower.— Mr. J. W. Wheldon,
jun., asks what flower does Shakespeare refer to in
the closing stanzas of “ Venus and Adonis.”

“A purple flower sprung up, chequered with white.”

I think he means the Pansy, and if he will refer to
“A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” and read the
exquisite passage descriptive of Love in Idleness,
beginning,

“ I remember

That very time I said, but thou couldst not,”

he will see the reason for my opinion. In Singer’s
“ Shakespeare,” the editor says in a footnote, “ The
tricoloured violet, commonly called pansy, or
hearts-ease, is here meant.” It has other fanciful
and expressive names, such as “ Cuddle me to you,”
“Three faces under a hood,” “Herb Trinity,” &c.
Is there a description in all literature that can
compare with this of a simple flower ? — H. D.
Barclay.

Query as to Flower. — With refence to Mr.
Wheldon’s query as to Flower, I would remark that
anemone is supposed to be the name of the flower as
the one into which Venus was said to have changed
Adonis. See Ovid. Metamorph. 1. 10, p. 735 ; but
classical authorities might here render some solu-
tion. There is Anemone Pulsatilla , or Pasque Flower,
with fine purple flowers — and other species of Adonis,
all belonging to the Ranunculus family — these latter
have, according to Mr. Bentham, mostly red or straw-
coloured flowers ; then the pheasant’s-eye comes under
this head ; the same author states that a variety was
formerly much cultivated in gardens under the name
of Flos Adonis. During a residence of some weeks in
Rome in the spring of 1865, I noticed thousands of
anemones with red flowers in the extensive grounds of
the nobility, forming a carpet of scarlet colours. Dean
Stanley in his work on “ Sinai and Palestine,” writes,

‘ ‘ that in the spring the hills and valleys of Palestine
are covered with thin grass and aromatic shrubs which
clothe, more or less, all Syria ; they also glow with a
blaze of scarlet, of all kinds, chiefly anemones. Of
all the ordinary aspects of the country, he writes, the
blaze of scarlet colour is perhaps the most peculiar,
and to those who first enter the Holy Land it is no
wonder that it has suggested the touching and signi-
ficant name of “ the Saviour’s blood drops.”— John
Colebrooke.

“ Honey-Stalks ?” — In Shakespeare’s “ Titus
Andronicus ” occur the words :

“Words more sweet, and yet more dangerous,

Than baits to fish, or honey-stalks to sheep.”

Query, what are “ honey stalks ? ” Perhaps some of
your readers may be able to inform me. — C. For an.

Dogs affected by the Sound of Music. —
What is the explanation of the curious effect that
music (played upon a piano, &c.), has upon some
dogs ? I have a skye terrier about four months old,
who, when the piano is played, seems to be curiously
fascinated by the sound, and comes towards it, but
then howls in a most plaintive way with his nose in
the air, as if protesting against the sound. — W.
Stavenhagen Jones.

Cossus at Sugar. — In the month of September,
1877, while at Somersham (Hants) a specimen of
Cossus ligniperda came to sugar. It rather surprised
me, as I thought this species did not come to sugar.
If any reader of Science-Gossip can answer this for
me, I shall be much obliged. — W. H. Newberry.

HAREWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

119

Feeding Bullfinches with Hempseed (p. 66).
— Having had several of these birds in keeping, I am
able to testify that hempseed has no very notable
effect in darkening the plumage, nor does it appear
to shorten their lives, as has also been insinuated ;
not that it is advisable to confine them solely to
hempseed, I have generally mixed equal proportions
of crushed hempseed and canary-seed, adding each
day a little millet or maw-seed. Rape would pro-
bably be unwholesome to them. It is difficult to
break them from the hempseed if they have once
been allowed to have it as part of their diet, I have
seen them pine under such an attempt. As the bull-
finch is naturally rather a greedy bird, it is well to
check caged birds if inclined to over-feed, especially
when green food cannot be got as a corrective. —
J. R. S. C.

Parrots and their Eggs. — I have been advised
to write and tell you of a very interesting and un-
common occurrence. My old parrot was bought at
Norwich in the year 1872 ; I believe she was then
three or four years old. She was quite ill last week,
and thinking she was moulting I kept her very warm,
and when I left the room I covered her cage over ;
on my return from church last Friday morning, I
found an egg in the cage ; still she did not get better,
and yesterday morning another was laid. The bird-
fanciers assure me it was a very rare occurrence for
two eggs to be thus laid, and that it ought to be put
on record. — E. J ’. B. W.

Yew-trees and Cattle. — With reference to the
remarks in the March number of Science-Gossip as
to the injurious effects of the foliage of the yew-tree
on cattle, the following extract from the “ Globe ” of
March 21 may be interesting: “Eighteen valuable
beasts have died at Willingdon, near Eastbourne, in
consequence of eating branches of yew-tree, probably
through scarcity of ordinary green food.” — E. Lovett ,
Croydon.

Gossamer. — A gentleman, a farmer in this neigh-
bourhood, told me that while coursing last week he
saw several fields of wheat and sainfoin that were
smothered with gossamer. I myself saw a good deal
floating about in the town, and noticed that instead
of the clotted appearance it assumes in the autumn, it
was in long fine threads. Would you kindly tell
whether this is a usual occurrence in spring, and the
cause ? — Arthur G. Wright.

The Name “ Primrose.” — The editor of a
scholastic journal has recently stated, in answer to a
query, that the word “primrose” is a corruption of
primerolle , a French word, introduced by our early
authors. I should be glad to know if this is probable,
for I have heard also the assertion that our forefathers
called this flower of spring the “ prime-rosy,” because
it was one of the first to appear in the season, “rose ”
being by them used with some latitude, and applied
to various flowers besides the rose proper. — J. R. S. C.

Can Worms crawl Backwards ? — Mr. J. G.
Wood, in a recent article on the common earthworm
written in a popular periodical, states that the worm
is so formed that it is impossible for it to crawl back-
wards. I am sorry to contradict so distinguished a
naturalist, but scientific facts do not bend to great
names, and I beg to say that worms can and do crawl
backwards. It is an unusual method of progression
or retrogression I allow, and is not to be confounded
with the sudden jerk by which they start backwards
into their holes, but that worms can strictly and
literally crawl backwards when excited by circum-
stances so to do, I have had ocular demonstration
on two particular occasions — once when attempting

to induce a large worm to crawl into a small glass
tube, which I persistently placed just in front of it
when it began to crawl ; irritated apparently by a
foreign substance being so frequently brought into
contact with its attenuated head, all at once the
worm began to crawl backward on the ground for
a space of four or five feet and at a rate equal to
about two-thirds of its ordinary forward pace when
progressing. On another occasion I was attempting
to make a worm crawl along a path in order to
calculate the time-rate at which a worm can crawl
in a mile. The worm persistently attempted to crawl
to the side grass instead of along the path and to
prevent it I continually touched its head with a little
stick, when this worm also apparently annoyed by
such constant tappings on its head, began to crawl
backwards a short distance on the path. Perhaps
some of your readers can confirm this statement. —
W. Bud den, Ipswich.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

D. B. (Dudley). — It is very difficult to speak only from leaves,
they are so much alike, but we believe it is a Musa, perhaps
M.sapientum. Berkeley’s * Cryptogamic Botany ’ is published
by H. Bailliere, 219, Regent Street, London.

T. 0. Braithwaite. — We do not remember receiving the
larvae of which you speak. Can you send us other specimens ?

W. A. Durnford (Barrow). — You will find full details as to
aquarium management, and the manufacture of artificial sea-
water in “The Aquarium: its history, structure, and manage-
ment,” by J. E. Taylor. London : Hardwicke & Bogue, price
6s.

E. B. de M. — See reply concerning marine aquaria above.
We have no doubt you can get materials for making artificial
sea-water, gravity-beads, &c., at Mr. King’s, Sea Horse House,
Portland Road, London.

W. E. Milner. — The last edition of White’s “ Selborne,” in
2 vols., edited by Professor Bell, who lives in White’s old house,
is by far the best yet issued.

A. Bennett. — We believe yours is the only parcel which got
wrong out of all our Botanical Exchange Club deliveries. We
will see that you are righted.

M. H. Robson. — We do not remember having seen the
flagellum of Eugle?ia viridis terminating in a bulb before. The
specimens you sent reached us alive, and we observed that the
bulb was used occasionally as a kind of sucker against the glass
sides of the zoophyte trough.

E. Dickson. — One of the best books we can recommend to
you is Penning’s “Field Geology,” published by Bailliere, at
(we believe) 5s. We are afraid there is no other way of naming
your fossils than by comparing them with some museum speci-
mens, or else borrowing the volumes of the Palaeontographical
Society, or such works as Professor Phillips’ “Geology of
Yorkshire.”

T. G. H. — See reply to query as to the nature of the specks
on the Seville oranges in April number of Science-Gossip under
Notices to Correspondents, p. 95, in answer to “ G. R. B.
(Shoreham).” Get Oliver’s “ Botany,” published by Macmillan,
at 4-r. 6 d., and work well at it. All will come right. Thanks
for your interesting specimens.

W. G. (Tuxford). — The specimens sent are all sulphate of
barytes, or “heavy spar.” Get Rutley’s “Study of Rocks,”
price 4-r. 6 d.

George Hast well. — The fungus is Peziza acetabulum.
We have carefully examined your fossil from the Millstone Grit,
but do not think it is an organic remain, but possibly one of the
numerous surface-markings we often get in beds deposited in
shallow water.

J. M. Campbell. — Your zoophyte is Sertularia opcradata.

George Turvill. — We have received the slide. The speci-
men mounted is the flea of the mole, the largest known to affect
any animal in Great Britain. Its name is Pule x talpa, derived
from the animal on which it is parasitic.

George Linton. — Your specimen is an echinoderm, shorn
of its spines, known as the common heart urchin (Aviphidottis
cordatus).

120

HARBWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

EXCHANGES.

Well-mounted slides of pigeon despatch, used during the
siege of Paris, in exchange for two slides of interest, also well-
mounted. — L. Hawkins, Hillside, Hastings.

Wanted, good slides, in exchange for well-mounted slides of
“Challenger” sounding. — H. R. 85 Worcester Street, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

Wanted, the second volume of ‘ Recreative Science.’ Any
one having a copy for disposal will oblige by addressing (stating
price) as above. — Charles Butterworth, 88 Sandy Lane, Shaw.

Wanted, named teeth of fish from Old Red Sandstone of
Scotland ; interesting objects given in exchange. — W. H. Harris,
44 Partridge Road, Cardiff.

Dredging. A gentleman who is going on a dredging cruise
round the British Isles during the ensuing summer will be glad
to hear from any one willing to accompany him. — C. P. Ogilvie,
Sizewell House, Leiston.

Correspondence and exchange invited during season with
collectors having duplicate eggs of nightjar, less-spotted wood-
pecker, dotterel, hawfinch, twite, &c., by R. Standen, Goos-
nargh, Preston, Lancashire.

Wanted, a good clean copy of the “ Student’s Manual of
Geology,” by J. B. Jukes, 3rd ed., edited by A. Geikie,
Edinburgh, 1872 ; also Nos. 15 and 17 for October and December,
1876, of the “ Naturalists’ Tour of the West Riding, Consolidated
Naturalists’ Society,” full price will be given in each case. —
H. Crowther, the Museum, Leeds.

A gentleman slightly acquainted with geology, would be
glad to correspond with another for their mutual benefit. —
Address “ J.” care of Mr. Powell, stationer. Corporation Street,
Manchester.

Wanted, Phillips’ “Geology of Yorkshire.” Send particulars
of price to Harry Muller, Rawdon, near Leeds.

Good slides of diatom and globigerine ooze (“Challenger”
dredging) ; also parasite from the gill of salmon, in exchange
for other good slides. — Nicholas Wright, 8 Duke Street, Lower
Broughton, Manchester.

Shells of Haliotis tuberculata for reptiles or aquarium objects.
— Charles Foran, Marshfield House, Eastbourne.

For sections of tamus root, showing starch granules and
raphides in sihi , send really well-mounted slides to Thomas
Shipton, Chesterfield. Lists exchanged.

Furze mite ( Tetranychus nlicis ) a good supply of living
specimens in exchange for one or two well-mounted slides of the
same. — E. D. Marquand, Brockenhurst, Hants.

Wanted to exchange Roscoe and Schorlemmer’s “Che-
mistry,” for either of the following; Fownes’ “Manual,” or
Gregory’s “Handbook of Chemistry,” Hooker’s “Student’s
Flora,” or a powerful pocket lens, lens not to be worth less than
1 5s. — J. Pywell, 50 Wellington Street, Leicester.

A valuable collection of British mosses (120 specimens) with
notes, from herbarium of late W. Valentine, (offered for Cooke’s
“ Handbook of Fungi.” — G. E. Massee, 8 West Grove Terrace,
Scarborough.

Asarum Europzeum, or Asarabaca (1x29). Living specimens
of this rare old British plant in exchange for native living
plants of any of the following : 1610, 1611, 1613, 1615, 1621,
1622, 1624, 1625, 1626, 1630, 1631, 1636, 1641, 1642, 1643. —
James W. Lloyd, Kington, Herefordshire.

Wanted, 52a, 78var, 129, 175, 250^251, 251b, 418a and b,
492, 501b, 503b, 630b, 651b, 675, 747b, 839, 486b, 853b, 861b,
927b, 966, 992b, 1020, 1026, 1046, 1139, 1139b, 1147b, 1237, 1312,
1484, 1520b, 1530b, 1535b and c, 1555, 1569a, 1582b, 1631,

1632, for other rare plants, or exchange lists. — G. C. Druce,
Northampton.

Duplicates of fossils from Oolite and others for other fossils.
— J. Purdue, Ridgeway, Plympton, Devon.

Dried fronds of C. fragilis, C. ojficinarum, P. vulgare, P.
Dry op ter is, P. calcnreum, in exchange for P. alpestre, P.
Lonchitis, L. cristata , L. amula, A. septentrionale, A. ger-
manicum, A. marinum , A.fontanum, A. la.7iceola.tuni, varieties
or exotic. — John J. Morgan, Tredegar.

Wanted, Smith and Beck’s “Popular Microscope,” in
exchange for first-class transparent sections of coal, plant or
cash. — James Spencer, Salisbury Place, Halifax.

Wanted, a low microscope stand, with or without objectives.
Continental model, Smith & Beck’s “ Economic,” or Universal,
or similar form ; will give in exchange a triple-nose piece, slides,
slide cabinets, dissecting instruments, an air pump and other
microscopic requirements, and a little cash. Must be sent on
approval, to J. A. Harrison, F.R.M.S., The Laboratory, 31
Scale Lane, Hull.

Spines of ophiocoma, and plates of holothuria : two balsam-
mounted slides for exchange. Send lists to J. B., 36 Windsor
Terrace, Glasgow.

Botanical specimens and aid offered in exchange for ento-
mological.— 3 Belmont Villas, New Brompton, Kent.

The following unmounted objects for exchange ; British and
foreign zoophytes, flowers of Spar7)ia7mia Africa7ia, seeds of
Libertia ixioides (a beautiful object), &c. Wanted, well-mounted
micro slides, also British and foreign zoophytes, and alga for
herbarium. Foreign correspondence wanted. — B. B. Scott, 24
Seldon Street, Kensington, Liverpool.

Draba aizoides from Pennard Castle ; fossil ferns from Dean

Forest coalfields, in exchange for zoophytes and Chalk fossils.
Wanted, book on British zoophytes.— A. Thomson, 17 Wynne
Street, Liverpool.

Wanted, fossil clausiliae and pupae from Isle of Wight and
Essex ; also small ammonites and fossil shells from different
localities. Recent shells given in exchange.— F. M. Hele, Fair-
light, Elmgrove Road, Cotham, Bristol.

Offers in exchange (either in foreign land, or foreign marine
shells, the former most acceptable) for any of the following
British land and fresh-water shells, which I have duplicate speci-
mens of at present — namely, S. oblonga, Lim. involuta, L.
Burnetti, P. rwgens, V. pus ilia, V. substriata, V. alpestris,
V. minutissima, V. angustior, V. Motilinsiana. — W. Sutton,
High Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Authenticated side-blown eggs, swallow-tailed kite, 1am-
mergeier, African buzzard, Waseen chatterer, and several hun-
dred Indian species. Wanted, birds of Europe (Bree), or eggs
in exchange. — Sissons, Sharrow, Sheffield.

Vols. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7/8, unbound (clean) of the “Entomologists’
Monthly Magazine” (Van Voorst) for Newman’s “British
Moths,” microscope, or offers.— R. Colbridge, 57 New Brook
Street, Hull.

Interesting unmounted material, mostly marine, such as
zoophytes, foraminifera, diatoms hi situ, and otherwise, algae,
entomostraca, tadpoles of crustaceans, holothurian plates, sponge
spicula, molluscan palates, &c. Wanted, class slides, photo
lens, books on mollusca and fishes or cash if preferable. — T.
McGann, Burrin, Ireland.

Wanted, standard works on natural history, in exchange for
fossils and algae. A good copy of Goldsmith’s “Animated
Nature,” coloured plates, 2 vols., well-bound for four dozen good
micro slides. — 165 Well Street, Birmingham.

Auchomenus puellus, in exchange for other good local
coleoptera. Address, J. W. Pickering, 161 Belgrave Street,
Birmingham.

For piece of Chinese rice paper (pith of tree), send object of
interest, to Mrs. Skilton, London Road, Brentford, Middlesex.

Foreign land and fresh-water shells wanted, in exchange for
American or the rarer British species and varieties. Continental
exchanges desired. — Edward Collier, 7 Dale Street, Manchester.

BOOKS, ETC. RECEIVED.

“The Chemistry of Common Life.” By Professor Johnston.
New edition by Professor Church. London : W. Blackwood &
Sons.

“ The Flowers of the Sky.” By R. A. Proctor. London :
Strahan & Co.

“Life and Habit.” By Samuel Butler. London : .Hardwick
& Bogue.

“Microscopic Organisms found in the Blood of Man and
Animals, &c.” By T. R. Lewis, M.B. Calcutta.

“Certain Effects of Starvation on Vegetable and Animal
Tissues.” By D. D. Cunningham, M.B. Calcutta.

“ The Science Index.” January.

“Proceedings of the Chester Society of Natural Science.”
No. 2.

“Report of the North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club,
1878.”

“The Forester. Nottingham High School Magazine.”
Easter, 1879.

“Entomological Papers.” By C. V. Riley, M.A.

“Journal of Proceedings of the Winchester and Hampshire
Scientific and Literary Society.” Vol. iii. part i. 1878.

“ Midland Naturalist.” April.

“American Naturalist.” March.

“ Revue Mycologique.” January.

“ Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.” April.

“Guide du Naturaliste.” January.

“ Le Monde de la Science et de 1’ Industrie.” February.

“Canadian Entomologist.” February.

“Boston Journal of Chemistry.” April.

“ Land and Water.” April.

“ Journal of Quekett Microscopical Club.” No. 39.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to 12TH ult. from : —
E. J. B. W.— W. W. H.— H. R.— D. B.— L. H.— E. D.—
J. F. R.— T. B. W.— T. W. H.— W. B.— H. M. J. U.— J. C.
— E. J. B. W.— E. L.-W. H. H.— C. P. O.— W. H. J.—
C. B — J. R. S. C.— T. J.— Dr. P. Q K.— J. F. M.— J. H. W.
— H. W. R.— A. G. W.— M. H. R.— B. R. P.— A. W.-T.G. H.
— F. L. St. A.— J. M. C.— W. G. T.— G. H.— J. C.— H. C.—
J. F. U.— J. P. G— M. M — T. B. L.— J. O. B.— W. A. D.—
W. E. M— S. T.— C. F.— E. B. de M.— C. B.— T. S.— W. K —
R. S. G— J. S.— H. M.— J. P.— E. D. M.— R. S.— W. H. H.—
G. E. M.— J. W. L.-G. C. D.— J. J. M.— J. C.— F. K.—
Sir J. H— W. S. J.— J. B.— F. W. M.— Dr. M.— G. H.—
T. W. D.— M. L. T. W.— J. W. P.— B. M. W.— Dr. D. S.—
G. M.— T. B. L.— T. McG. — R. C.— J. W. S.— W. S.— F. M.H.
— A. T.— B. B. S.— H. P. M.— J. S. H.— &c.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

12 I

THE PREPARATION OF INSECTS FOR MICROSCOPICAL

EXAMINATION.

[ Continued from p. 103.]

ND now as to the
question of stain-
ing. Some have
strong objections
to staining speci-
mens, for they say
that it merely makes
the object prettier,
and that the natural
colour is destroyed.
These objections
are quite sufficiently
answered by the
consideration that
staining does more
than beautify an ob-
ject,— details visible
with difficulty or
not at all in an un-
stained specimen,
are easily seen in
one that is properly stained ; and why, after all, should
a slide not be made as beautiful as possible ? As for
destroying the natural colour, that is generally done
in the ordinary process of mounting. I am therefore
in favour of staining, if it be properly done.

The following are the stains which I use : — Dr.
Beale’s carmine fluid. The recipe for this may be
found in so many books, that it is unnecessary to
give it again. Aquseous anilin blue. — Dissolve ten
grains of anilin blue in one drachm of spirits ; add
half an ounce of distilled water, and half an ounce of
glycerine, and filter : let the mixture stand for a week
or a fortnight, and then pour off the clear fluid for use.
Anilin blue in oil of cloves. — Dissolve five grains of
anilin blue in half a drachm of absolute alcohol. Mix
the solution with an ounce of oil of cloves, and filter it
through blotting paper. Magentafluid. — 1. A few drops
of Judson’s magenta dye in water, to which a little
glycerine has been added. This is chiefly for staining
chitine. 2. A very weak solution of the dye in
methylated spirit. This is for staining muscles.
No. 174.

Hsematoxyline. — Boil some logwood in water until a
strong infusion is made ; filter ; dissolve a quarter of an
ounce of alum in an ounce of water ; mix, say twenty
drops of the logwood infusion with about an ounce
and a half of distilled water, and add enough of the
alum solution to make the fluid a bright purple ;

1 filter, and the stain is ready for use. With the
exception of anilin blue in oil of cloves, which is
rather expensive, all these fluids cost next to nothing.

No precise directions can be given for staining,
because the process requires to be varied a little for

1 almost every object, but a little information as to the
various properties of the different fluids will be useful.
Carmine fluid does not stain chitine in the least, but
it is excellent for internal organs and muscular tissue.
The only objection to it is that it will not keep more
than a month. A solution of hsematoxyline, of about
one-fourth of the strength of the recipe given above,
answers every purpose of carmine fluid. It is not
such a pretty colour, but it will keep very much
longer. Muscular tissue needs about half an hour’s
immersion in this fluid to stain it a nice colour.
Hcematoxyline, according to the recipe, stains chitine
very nicely. The time required to colour the object
properly varies from half a day to forty-eight hours.

Specimens stained with carmine or haematoxyline
may be mounted in either glycerine or balsam, but
those stained by any of the other fluids can be mounted
in balsam only. Aqueous anilin blue is a very useful
stain. It will stain chitine fairly well, but not when
it is very hard, as in the barbs of a wasp’s sting. It is
good for such things as mites, flies’ mouths, and
especially for Crustacea, such as entomostraca, wood-
lice, &c. Magenta will stain anything, but it has a
special affinity for chitine. It is very soluble in
alcohol, and specimens stained with it must be
hurried through the alcohol into oil of cloves in a few
minutes, or all the colour will be washed out. By
taking advantage of its special affinity for hard
chitine, a very beautiful and instructive double stain-
ing may be effected in this way. Use a watch glass
for soaking the specimens in absolute alcohol : pour

G

122

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the alcohol away and drop on a little of the oil of
cloves anilin blue stain, and leave it not more than
five minutes. The specimens must then be washed
two or three times in benzine. The blue drives out
the magenta from the membranous parts of the
insect, leaving it in the chitinous portion : a red and
blue specimen is the result. If the specimen be left
in the fluid too long, the blue will be precipitated on
its hairs. The specimen is not spoilt, for the pre-
cipitate may be immediately dissolved, by dipping
the object into absolute alcohol. After this it can
be replaced in benzine directly. It is magenta, and
especially the oil of cloves anilin blue stain, that the
natural oil of Canada balsam causes to fade ; but, as far
as I can see, after about fifteen months’ trial, dammar
has no effect on them, the benzine fixing them per-
manently. It is therefore better, as precautionary
measures, not to use balsam for any stained specimens
whatever, and to thoroughly wash them all in benzine
before mounting them in dammar.

When it is desirable that any insect should be
stained, in almost every case, the proper time or part
of the mounting process at which to stain it is after
the soaking in acetic acid.

None of the numerous soakings and washings in
the processes described above is without its reason.
To give the why and the wherefore of everything
would take too much space, but, if any important
washing be omitted, the slide will not turn out so
well as it ought to do. It is a much less complicated
matter to mount a specimen in reality than to read
about it ; but, to make the description as clear as
possible, I give an abstract of the way in which three-
fourths of insects may be mounted. The time needed
for each stage of the process is noted.

No. I. Soak the insect, or part of it, in liquor
potassae until transparent enough. Boil in clean liquor
potassae, ten seconds. Wash in distilled water.

No. 2. Soak in acetic acid, half an hour. Wash
in distilled water.

No. 3. Stain, when necessary.

No. 4. Wash in spirits. Soak in absolute alcohol,
three to ten minutes.

No. 5. Soak in pure oil of cloves, five minutes, or
in anilin blue oil of cloves three to five minutes.

No. 6. Wash in benzine. Wash in perfectly clean
benzine [if stained].

[Specimens may be kept in benzine for a long time
without injury.]

No. 7. Mount in dammar or balsam.

None of the other processes have so many stages as
this.

I will now briefly detail for what kinds of insects
the various processes are suited, but it is obvious that
under this head only the most general directions can
be given.

Whole insects look best in cells in glycerine, or, if
opaque, in water, and some may be mounted dry ;
these media, as I have said above, are not intended to

display every detail, but only to give a general idea
of the object. If the insect be rare, so that the
mounter has no specimens for dissection, some of its
beauty must needs be sacrificed by the potash and
balsam process, supposing that it is particularly
desired to make out some detail, and at the same
time, to mount the specimen whole. I venture to
think that no insect larger than a house fly should be
mounted whole. Those wretchedly flat things, which
are only fit for magic-lantern slides, such as whole
garden spiders, butterflies, or even humble-bees, are
my peculiar abomination. I have seen a great many
of these “whole insect slides,” some by [so-called]
“ first-rate mounters,” but in none of them yet have I
seen the features which make an insect beautiful on the
one hand and interesting on the other, at all nicely
shown. In attempting too much everything is lost.

Almost all dissected parts of insects may be mounted
in balsam by process I. Only transparent specimens
should be stained. Double staining is especially
suited for the following sorts of objects. Bees’ and
wasps’ mouths and stings ; gizzards (these doubly
stained are extremely beautiful) ; spiders’ feet ; the
mouths of most insects ; mites of the family Trombi-
dium ; in fact, all parts of insects in which there is
much soft membrane and a little hard chitine. For
transparent ants and flies, and for such mites as cheese
mites, soaking in ether (process 2) is suitable. When
small Crustacea are prepared for mounting [if it is
wished that the shells be softened], they must be
soaked for a longer time in acetic acid than is neces-
sary for insects. I find anilin blue the best stain for
some, and haematoxyline for others.

I have endeavoured to describe as clearly as I know
how my methods of preparing insects, and I am told
that some of my slides are rather successful. I do
not In the least pretend to entire originality. Some
of the “dodges,” to use a current phrase, “are my
own invention, ” but very many of them are the ideas
of others (as I consider) improved on. Those wlio
wish to make good slides should aim to improve on
the methods here given, and it is only by trying
different processes and varying them on the same
object that success is likely to be achieved.

Oxford. H. M. J. Underhill.

MY HEDGEHOGS.

IN May of last year, having become possessed of
two hedgehogs, and as the hedgehog is an
animal that I had heard so many idle stories about,
and wishing to learn something about their history
and habits, &c., I determined to keep them.

The first experiment that I made, was to duck
them in a pail of water, in order that self-preserva-
tion might compel them to unravel themselves, so
that I could inspect them properly.

My next move was to provide a suitable residence
for them ; this was done in the shape of an old box,

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

123

some wire being put in the front, and some hay
placed in the bottom, which answered, although a
little cramped for room, admirably.

About their food I was in great doubt. It would
be impossible for me to provide a regular supply of
frogs, snails, & c. However, as a substitute, I tried
bread and milk, and as they did not eat during the
day, I was in great fears lest they had died, or would
not eat at all, and it was with a troubled mind that
I took my departure from them that night. The
next morning my fears and doubts were agreeably
dissipated, by finding the tin empty. I then found
that my charges were nocturnal in their habits.

Their staple food was a tin of bread and sweet
milk, supplied every evening.

After a short time they left off their shyness, and
I could handle them comfortably. One morning I
brought home a handful of snails, which I had met
with in my rambles and supplied these to them, when
immediately they commenced to eat them, shells and
all, from which I augured that they had excellent
teeth. I next managed to supply them with a few
frogs, which they relished exceedingly. I noticed
that whenever the frog was put into their cage,
the hedgehogs remained perfectly motionless until
they got a favourable chance, when they made for one
of the frog’s hind legs.

One morning they were near killing a tame black-
bird which had inadvertently hopped into their cage,
but which was rescued in the very nick of time.

The place where I kept them was a small loft used
by tinsmiths, and I was wont in the summer nights
to allow them to ramble about, and the noise that
they made scrambling over the cans, &c., after the
mice was astonishing.

Some people suppose that their pace is slow ; the
pace of mine was quite the reverse, and they could
run along pretty quickly.

They never hesitated about jumping from a height,
in fact one of them deliberately and coolly threw itself
down a twelve-foot ladder, bouncing off the steps
like an india-rubber ball, and when it reached the
bottom was making off, a proceeding which was
promptly stopped on my part.

They were thirsty animals, always drinking when-
ever they could, so that I placed water in their cage
every morning for their benefit.

As regards those old-woman stories circulated
about the animal, it is needless for me to state that
they are all fabrications. One night I gave them
apple slices for the express purpose of trying them,
and in the morning there was not a tooth print on
them, in fact the only fruit mine ate were cherries.

Another calumny is their eating game birds’ eggs.
Now, one night I starved mine, giving them only a
whole hen egg, and in the morning the egg was
perfectly whole, not a bruise or crack on it.

Mine continued thus in the “even tenor of their
way” till the latter end of October, when a change

was apparent. They got very fat and ate less, and
finally went to sleep about November 1. I packed
them in a box with hay. However one of them
escaped and was not found till February 27. They
both awoke on March 1, and I may safely say, that
the one in the box did not receive a pick of food
during the whole four months of hybernation. When
they awoke they were very emaciated.

Their weights before the hybernation were respec-
tively, 2lbs. 6oz. and 2lbs. ; after, ilb. 90Z. and
1 lb. 8oz. ; having lost 130Z. and 8oz. respectively.
During the hybernation they remained rolled up in
a ball, and their breathing was very loud and
distinct.

But in a short time they regained their original
plumpness, and are now fatter than ever. I am in
hopes they will breed this year.

THE NEW FOREST.

By E. D. Marquand.

[Contimted from ft. 99.]

IT is not necessary to speak of the productiveness
of the New Forest as an insect-collector’s hunt-
ing-ground, since it is probably better known to
entomologists than to any other class of naturalists.
In a given area of country— say twenty miles square
— the entomologist has decidedly an advantage over
the botanist : the former may work the same district
for a lifetime and every year find something new —
while the latter has a definite , however extensive ,
number of plants to discover. Insects move ; plants
do not. A dozen close observers possessing the
requisite knowledge might catalogue the entire flora
of a district — phanerogamic and cryptogamic — in a
few years, while the insect fauna would continually
be receiving fresh additions from the neighbouring
country, and so be practically inexhaustible. Of
course, on an island — Guernsey or Jersey, for instance
— both classes of naturalists would be on a par.

About fifty species of butterflies, out of a total of
sixty-four for Great Britain, have been taken here,
and I am happy to be able to record the occurrence
of a very rare species which, as far as my knowledge
goes, has not hitherto been taken in the Forest, or in-
cluded among its indigenous species. This is the Bath
White ( Pieris daplidice ), a fine specimen of which I
captured on June 12, 1876, in an open wood not far
from Lyndhurst ; it is now in my cabinet. Singu-
larly enough, four days afterwards I saw another
specimen in my garden flying to heliotrope ; it
alighted two or three times, but as I had no net it
escaped. C. ednsa was out in great force here in
1877 ; they first appeared on June 4, the date on
which they seem to have occurred nearly all over the
country. In July they disappeared, and the second
brood came out on August 10, continuing till after
the middle of October. C. hyale is rare, and so is

G 2

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

1 24

A. cratccgi. L. sinapis may always be had by those
who know where to go for them, for they do not j
wander far from their haunts, though less strictly
local than A. Galathea , for which I know two stations,
widely apart. The little Duke of Burgundy Fritillary
(N. lucina ) I have seen and taken, but not in such
numbers as I did some years ago at Selborne.
G. c-album occasionally appears, but I never saw it.
The large Fritillaries and L. Sybilla are very abun-
dant in all the large woods.

As every one knows, these are the headquarters of
the two splendid Red Underwings C. impta and
C. promissa , perhaps the most beautiful moths which

Fig. 102. — Marbled white (Melanagria Galathea).

Fig. 103. — Marbled white (Melanagria Galathea).
Upper side.

the collector can hope to take away, unless they yield
the palm of beauty to the lovely green D. Orion or
the fine black and yellow A. villica , of which I once
netted a variety with almost spotless hind-wings.
Two years ago I captured a female E. russula : the
males are tolerably common, but the other sex is, I
believe, usually considered a great rarity. S. fuci-
f or mis is usually abundant just for a short season,
frequenting rhododendrons. The splendid Emperor
Moth {S. pavonia) occurs in plenty, but is easier to
rear from the larva than to catch on the wing. I
have seen the perfect insect as early as April 18 ;
and I once collected in a thorn hedge, and subse-
quently reared the large smoke-coloured caterpillars
of the odd-looking Lappet {G. querc if olid). E. Jacobcece
is a perfect pest, especially in the larva state, swarm-
ing in masses on Ragwort. F. piniaria abounds in
the fir plantations, together with the speckled V. via-
culata. It would be a needless occupation of space
to enumerate even a tithe of the good moths that
occur. Suffice it to say that at least three-fourths of
the British macro-lepidoptera have been taken here.

If the New Forest is a favourite hunting-ground

with lepidopterists, it is scarcely less known to
beetle collectors, and the coleopterist must possess a
very fair collection indeed who can spend a week
here without adding something to it. Carabus nitens
is occasionally found on moist heaths, but by no
means so plentifully as one would be led to suppose
from books ; much more common is the brilliant
Poecilus cuprous , which it somewhat resembles. The
great stagbeetle abounds, and now and again one
comes across its smaller relative, Dorcus parallelopi -
pedus. Once it was my good fortune to come upon
a dead specimen of the giant longicorn ( Prionus
coriarius ), a most noble fellow, formidable even in
death. The Rhynchophora are probably very nume-
rous here ; Hylobius abietis was extremely abundant
two years ago. I used to find them in all sorts of
odd corners in and out of the house ; since then I
have not seen more than a couple. The large and
handsome Cleonus nebulosus has come under my
notice once or twice, together with the little grey
Gronops lunatics. Cryptocephalus serieeus — brilliant
silky green — occurs in the flowers of Hieracium

Fig. 104. — Duke of Burgundy Fig. 105. — Duke of Burgundy
F ritillary ( Nemeobhts lucina). F ritillary ( Nenieobius lucina).

Underside. Upper side.

pilo sella ; Coccinella 12-punctata, abounds on the
coast, and so does Opatrum sabulosum ; and among
young oaks in the forest I have occasionally seen the
handsome scarlet Skipjack, Elater sanguineus , flying
in the hot sunshine.

We have two very elegant members of the cer-
copidse : Cercopis sanguinolenta , with black and

crimson elytra, and a smaller bright green, and I
fancy local, species — a fassus, perhaps — which I
found in abundance in sweeping the marshy border
of a wood. Dragon-flies are numerous, both in
species and individuals. By-the-by, if some one
acquainted with our British neuroptera — the Libellula
section — would send to Science-Gossip a synopsis
of genera and species, I am sure it would be regarded
as an act of kindness.

The Forest-fly ( Hippobosca equina) is one of the
features of the district. Thick, black masses of these
repulsive insects may be seen on every horse and
cow ; and while the native cattle, ‘ ‘ to the manner
born,” treat them with supreme indifference, a strange
animal is driven frantic at the approach of one. Can
any one tell me why ? It is generally supposed that
their food is the blood of the cattle they infest, but
the organs of the mouth, which are of extreme sim-
plicity, seem singularly incompetent to pierce the
hide of a horse or cow. The impression among some
of the people here is that they pull out the hairs and

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

125

suck the root bulbs. In favour of this view it may be
noted that no wound or blood is ever observed where
these flies have congregated. Perhaps some of the
readers of this may be able to throw light on the
subject. By the way, these flies are exceedingly
difficult to catch, and cannot be killed by a blow.
I have seen a man’s fist brought down on one with
a force almost sufficient to crush a stagbeetle ; the
fly gave a little buzz of contempt, and flew to the
window. In flying their hum is scarcely audible,
and they alight on the face or hands without being
felt. They walk sideways, like crabs. Much hand-

Fig. 106. — Scarce Merveil-du-Jour (Diphthera
orion).

Fig. 107. — Variety of Merveil-du-Jour (Diph-
thera orion). See Newman’s “ British
Moths,” page 248.

Fig. 108. — The Cream-spot Tiger-moth (Chelotiia villica).

Fie. 109. — The Clouded Bufif-moth
( Euthemofiia russula). Female.

somer insects, though certainly more ferocious and
formidable, are the Tabani , of which we have several
species. Collectors are well aware of their blood-
thirsty propensities ; the bite of the little grey Hcema -
topota pluvialis is sharp enough, but woe betide any
one who gets a nip from that sanguinary monster,
Tabanus bovinus. His loud, booming hum is not
to be mistaken, but his bite is something to be re-
membered. I captured a couple while they were

busy driving their lancets into the nether garments
(fortunately thick ones) of a companion.

During last summer I took on the flowers of a
water-mint a very curious insect — apparently a bee or
ichneumon-fly — but it was remarkable by the entire
absence of even the rudiments of wings. A brief
description, abridged from my journal, may enable
some one to identify it, in which case I shall be
thankful for the name and any information about it,
as I have never heard of apterous bees. Length,
half an inch ; head, antennae, and legs, black ; eyes,
small ; ocelli, none ; thorax, bright chestnut-brown,
with parallel sides, sloping beneath, without traces of
wings ; abdomen wasp-like, black, with three narrow
bands of pale golden silky hairs : apex of abdomen
acute and incurved.

Before passing on to the botany of this district I
wish to say just a few words on two sections to which
I have not been able to give much attention, though
I have collected and noted a good number of species.
First, the arachnida — or rather, I should say, the
araneidse. Atypus Sulzeri , our British My gale, is
probably a rare spider in the Forest, at least in those
parts with which I am familiar, for only one speci-
men, a male, has come under my notice. Lycosa
andrenivora is very common on our heaths, and so
is Tetragnatha extensa , with its long legs stretched
out in a straight line in the centre of its web above
a little stream or pool. Epeira umbratica , ‘ ‘ a spider
of most villanous aspect,” I have found in old posts,
and a pretty variety of Thomisus cibbreviatus , of a pale
rose-pink colour, without a shade of yellow ; this
took on heath blossom, the hue of which it closely
approached — another instance of insect mimicry.

Among the mollusca I have to record Clausilia
dubia — at least, such I take it to be. It measures
eight lines, while our C. rugosa only averages five ;
besides which, it is very much larger in every respect.
Helicella excavata is generally distributed, and, in some
woods, as Wilverley, very common. Hi fulva, also,

I have found, and Planorbis contortus in some places
abundantly. The minute bivalve ( Pisidium pusillum )
is very numerous, often in company with the delicate
little Carychium minimum — a shell so tiny that one
almost requires a lens to see it at all.

(To be continued.)

THE LOVES OF THE FISHES.

COLD-BLOODED creatures are commonly not
credited with any great degree of moral ex-
cellence. The affections of parent and lover are
usually supposed to be wanting, and the emotion of
gratitude is probably never dreamed of in connection
with creatures so low in the scale of creation. Nor
probably is it right to invest them with any great
degree of eminence in this particular. Nevertheless,
however, it is areal fact that some fishes not only exhibit

126

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

unmistakable signs of the affections alluded to, but in
one case — the pike — even gratitude seems to be mani-
fested. My readers may possible smile incredulously
at the suggestion that any excellence of feeling can
be associated with the “ fresh- water wolf,” over
whose cruel and remorseless jaws the Dantean epi-
graph, “ All hope abandon, ye who enter here,”
might fitly be written. Such, however, is the case.

As the warm spring weather approaches, and sum-
mer hastens to ensue, the pike seeks the convenient
tributaries of the river, or the shallow and weeded
parts of the lake wherein to spawn. At this time
the males and females may be presumed to be sepa-
rate and unmated. Guided by the reproductive
instinct, however, they more or less quickly pair ;
and it is just prior to spawning that the delight
which they experience with each other’s society is
most apparent. The female is generally larger than
the male, and piscine caresses are mutually indulged
in. I have frequently seen the male rub his mottled
sides against his partner, and gambol and dash about
as if to show off his glee and his prowess as a water
athlete ; and on one occasion I remember the caresses
of a two-pound fish were so energetic as to completely
force the female up on the sloping bank. I captured
the fish and replaced her in the water at considerable
distance, but the remorseful widower was in the
neighbourhood where I had first seen them on my
return, evidently waiting the return of his mate.
Whether his patience was ultimately rewarded de-
ponent saith not.

The pike is for the most part monogamous. An
example of this is interestingly given by Mr. Manley
in his “ Fish and Fishing.” He says, “I was jack-
fishing in the lake in Earl Fitzhardinge’s park, and
had left a paternoster for perch baited with gudgeon in
the sluggish stream above the small bridge. On my
return from a walk round trolling, I found I had to
encounter a fine jack which had attached herself to
the paternoster, and after no little trouble I landed
my fish, which scaled over 14 lbs. In the same
manner, and exactly at the same spot, just a week
afterwards I took another — the gentleman fish this
time weighing 13 lbs. I have no doubt that these
were an engaged or rather married pair just at the
commencement of their honeymoon, and that after
the cruel (I have often thought since that it was very
cruel) capture of his bride, the bridegroom, dis-
consolate, hung about the spot, and so came also to a
miserable end within a few days of the decease of his
wife.” That it is a very customary occurrence to
secure a pair of fish from one spot no angler will
deny. In fact, on taking a good fish from any par-
ticular spot it is a recognised plan amongst the
brothers of the craft to try for the other fish. In
lakes the pairing is certainly more noticeable than in
rivers. Whether the fishes hunt their food in pairs
as a rule I cannot say, but that they reside in con-
tiguity. is an indisputable fact. The ruff also will not

live singly in aquaria, but die off — at least this is my
experience. Unhappily the jack does not exhibit
much parental affection, for it is an indiscriminate
cannibal, and perhaps the best bait for a large pike is
a small jack.

Having thus shown that the character of this
voracious fish of prey is of a somewhat lighter hue
than generally supposed, perhaps the reader will be
prepared to hear a further good trait, the existence of
which is however indubitably more questionable than
the former. I refer to the exhibition of that rarest of
virtues in the genus homo , namely, gratitude. In
order to justify the idea that Esox Lucius exhibits this
noble quality, I must refer at some little length to
another fish of widely different family — the tench.
Now this fish is covered with a thick glutinous slime,
which is supposed to be of such medicinal worth to
the piscine tribes that at the “touch of tenches”
wounds and other disorders that fish is heir to are
instantly bettered, and if the contiguity of the fishes
be preserved, are ultimately healed. It is a certain
fact that trout are rendered healthier by the intro-
duction of a tench or two amongst them, and I have
known several instances of the growth of byssus
being arrested on the advent of this “physician of
fishes.” Camden asserts that this is the case with
pike, and his language is pronounced with no air of
hesitation, though he was probably not a naturalist.
Speaking of Southwark he says, “ Here have I seen
the bellies of pikes which have been rent open have
their gaping wounds presently closed by the touch of
tenches, and by their glutinous slime perfectly healed
up.” Of course this assertion may be taken with
caution, but the concurrent testimony of many
observers as to the healing power manifested by this
fish must be in some sort accepted.

Now here comes in the gratitude of the pike, if the
idea is not too pretty to be true. Be he ever so
hungry he never takes a tench. Carp and all other
fish he will eat incontinently, in fact nothing else
from a red cork float to a baby, or from a Polish
damsel’s foot to a mule’s nose, comes amiss to him,
but a tench he will not touch. The following admir-
able verses state the matter better than I can :

“ The pike, fell tyrant of the liquid plain,

With ravenous haste devours his fellow train.

Yet howsoe’er by raging famine pined.

The tench he spares — a medicinal kind ;

For when by wounds distrest or sore diseased,

He courts the salutary fish for ease,

Close to his scales the kind physician glides.

And sweats a healing balsam from his sides.”

Who will now deny his pikeship the virtues I claim
for him — conjugal constancy and affection and grati-
tude ? By-the-by, speaking of tench reminds me that
this fish is especially tumultuous in its affection and
movements during the spawning season, and frolics
and jostles right lovingly. So much is this the case,
that I have repeatedly taken them by hand when they
have been too absorbed in their pursuit of each other
to be aware of danger.

127

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The chivalrous courage of the salmonidse in this
particular is well known. Especially is it so with
the “lordly” salmon. A Guinevere awaiting her
victorious Lancelot might emblem a sheeny female
salmon awaiting her lord as he wages fierce war against
perhaps four or five other fish all equal to himself in
size. But shame on female fickleness ; if her champion
succumbs in the conquest, she is quite prepared, like
another Queen of Denmark, to receive a new lord
from amongst the victors. A battle of peculiar fierce-
ness of this kind is ably detailed by Mr. Newman in
the “Zoologist” for 1847, page 1650: “While
several gentlemen,” he says, “ of the Preventive ser-
vice were on their rounds the other day and patrolling
along the Findhorn between Glenferness and Dalcie
Bridge, they observed an unusual commotion among
the spawning-beds of the ford. On approaching the
spot two large male salmon were seen engaged in
mortal combat for a female. Never did chivalrous
knights do battle for the hand of a lady fair more
fiercely than these lords of the flood. The tranquil
bosom of the stream was lashed into foam by the
struggles of the finny antagonists, the object of the
fray meantime beating silently about, ‘spectatress
of the fight.’ From the appearance of the stream
dyed with blood, and gradually assuming its former
smooth surface, it was evident that the contest was
over. One of the salmon at last floundered on the
surface dead, and the victor, it may be conjectured,
exhaustedly bore off his prize.” From this it would
certainly appear that this prince of all fishes tastes to
some extent the vinum dcemonum of love. I cannot
say much for his parental affection, seeing that some
of the older male-fish are most inveterate devourers
of the ova and embryo fish.

Trout are also as fierce and plucky in their love
affairs, and I have witnessed some magnificent tussles
in which, like bull dogs, they have torn the flesh from
each other with unrelenting ferocity.

For domestic attachments however the stickleback
stands far above all other freshwater fishes. Towards
early summer time the male increases in beauty,
putting on the most gorgeous dress of green and
silver, whilst his movements become inconceivably
elegant and swift and full of vivacity. Presently he
casts his eyes about him for a suitable locality for his
nest, and having selected a site, perhaps in some tiny
eddy, he commences to build. The operation of
building is a work of time, but it is done in a very
workmanlike manner and carefully. First a foundation
is laid and cemented with a sort of gluten secreted by
the fish himself. Against this currents of water are
projected by the fins of the builder, and sometimes, to
render certainty doubly certain, he hurls himself
repeatedly against the structure. His materials are
pieces of stick and other suitable debris collected in
the neighbourhood. Having securely built the
foundation he commences to erect the walls. This is
effected in the same style, and finally a nest is com-

1 *

pleted, with holes for ingress and egress opposite each
other. The whole fabric is repeatedly tested as above
described, and when everything seems firm and stable
the building is ready for the ova.

Watching the laborious operations of the industrious
little gentleman at a respectful distance, behold four
or five females of decidedly less brilliant appearance.
When he is ready he with sidelong glances and
coquettish movements approaches them, and com-
municates in some inaudible language his wishes and
desires. Presently a female, responsive to his invita-
tion, leaves her sisters and follows Sir Stickleback to
the nest he has prepared. After entering himself and
passing through he indicates that all is in readiness.
Lady Stickleback accordingly enters without com-
punction, and remains hidden for some time. After
depositing the ova she passes out the other side, and
he enters to complete the process of impregnation.
When this is done her ladyship is dismissed, and a
layer of sand is strewn over the eggs. This accom-
plished, another female is invited, and the same opera-
tion ensues, again and again, till four or five layers of
ova are deposited. Now comes the anxious time for
Papa Stickleback. The females are very inquisitive,
and have to be kept back most unceremoniously from
poking their noses into the nest. They are of a
decidedly cannibalistic turn of mind also, and would
devour the objects of their lord’s solicitude if allowed.
So they are sometimes hurled right and left by this
piscine Paladin in his twinkling armour of many
colours.

After an interval of lesser or greater duration, ac-
cording to the temperature, the tiny sticklebacks make
their appearance. The trouble they are now to their
faithful parent transcends all conception. To keep
them together and guard them from enemies of all
kinds becomes his task, and right valiantly does he
perform it. Combat after combat engages him, both
females and males are against him, and like a famous
historical personage his hand is against every one in
the interests of his tiny family. Now and then one
little rascal will stray, but only to be brought back
in its father’s powerful jaws, and to receive an
admonitory shake. At last they are disbanded,
and “love’s labour” for the nonce becomes a thing
of the past.

Though not a nest-builder the Miller’s Thumb
exhibits like chax-acteristics to the Stickleback, and
guards its ova and young with a constancy of
purpose and ferocity of temper alike amusing and
instructive.

I think I have said enough to justify the title of
this paper. With salt-water fishes I have not meddled,
but doubtless many instances of constancy and affec-
tion might be cited in refex'ence to them. The
variety of fish-life is marvellous, and in the scale of
being oxxe is sometixnes disposed to elevate them
highly.

John H. Keene.

128

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

BOTANICAL WORK FOR JUNE.

THE lateness of the present botanical season
will enable us somewhat to mitigate the con-
fusion which prevails about Cardamine hirsuta and
C. sylvatica; perhaps a few words will make them
more easily understood. It is very likely that only
one plant {C. hirsuta) has been examined by many
workers, hence the confusion.

I. C. sylvatica (Link). Biennial, radical. Leaves
very few. Leaflets large, light green. Lower leaflets
only on short petioles distinctly lobed.

2. C. hirsuta (Linn.). Annual, radical. Leaves in a
dense rosette. Leaflets all on short petioles, small,
dark green.

No. i is our common species, No. 2 is frequently
seen by waysides.

Herb Robert, or Stinking Crane’s Bill, now makes
many a shady lane gay with its fern-like leaves and
elegant blossoms. Let us spend a few hours during
the present season in looking over its many pecu-
liarities : first, we shall find it can adapt itself to all
kinds of conceivable situations, then we shall observe
it differs widely in appearance and habit : thus, at
least, three distinct varieties are met with.

1. Geranium Robertianum { Linn.), (proper). A large
straggling plant covered with glandular hairs. Claw
of pets, equal in length to the blade. Carpels hairy.

2. G. modestum (Jord.). A smaller plant, with
more tufted habit, nearly or quite glabrous (smooth).

Fig. iio. — Leaflet of Cardamine
sylvatica.

The illustrations are of the natural size.

Vegetation of every kind is backward ; this is the
latest spring we have ever known, but we shall find
the silver-weed plentiful during the present month.
The name Potentilla anserina (Linn.) is made to
cover two very dissimilar forms in our English Floras ;
having met with them in many counties, we have the
more confidence in bringing them before our readers,
and for this purpose have adopted the names in FI.
des Environs de Paris.

1. Potentilla incana (Cuss, et Germ.). A large plant.
Leaves densely covered with silvery down on both sides.

2. P. pusilla (Cuss, et Germ.). A smaller species,
known by its compact rosette of radical leaves,
which lie close to the ground, seldom, or with but
few hairs on upper surface.

Fig. 1X2. — Herb-Robert (Geraniimi Robertianum).

Claw of pet. much longer than the blade. Carpels
glabrous.

3. G. purpureum (Jord.). A beautiful plant, veins
of leaves and internodes tinged with pink. Pets,
purple. Leaves finely cut and divided.

Nos. 1 and 3 are our lowland species ; the smooth
plant, No. 2, is found on hills; we generally expect
to find it in gravel pits.

The common Stork’s-bill is now worthy of notice,
although it is an unpleasant plant to handle.

4. Erodium cicutarium (Linn.) wherever it occurs, is
generally seen in abundance, and probably the varieties
named below are not uncommon in most districts.

5. E. cicutarium (proper) has flowers whose pets,
are not spotted, and carpels furrowed. Leaves small,
not much divided.

6. E. commixtum (Jord.), a larger and coarser-
looking plant. Leaves not unlike E. moschatum.
Upper pets, distinctly spotted at the base.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP,

129

7. E. pilosum (Bor.). Upper pets, not spotted at
the base. Leaves much cut and divided, with long
hairs over the whole plant.

During the past few years, our rambles have chiefly
been over gravelly and sandy fields ; these, although
in a great measure barren to the farmer, have yielded

Fig. 1 1 3 . — Filago
catiescens (Jord.).

Fig. 1x4. — Filago spathulata (Presl).

us a rich harvest ; amongst the rest, the cud-weeds
have received a thorough investigation, so that now
we number probably fifty sheets in our British her-
baria, containing specimens of the Gnaphalia and
Filago ; the latter are not so numerous, and vary but
little, but we lay before our readers the British section
of this genus, because we do not regard F. gallica (L.)
as a native species — it is now by all our best botanists
looked upon as a colonist only.

Filago. — Section 1. Procumbent ; section 2. Erect.

Section 1. — In “ Student’s Flora,” F. germanica
{L.) covers all the following forms, viz. :

1. Filago canescens (Jord.), (species according to con-
tinental authorities) leaves linear, tomentose. Heads
of flowers leafless, tips of bracts yellow ; common in
sandy pastures. Fig. 1 1 3.

2. Filago apiculata (G. E. Sm.), much larger than
the last ; bracts purple. Keel-shaped, tips deep
pink. Rare.

3. Filago spathidata (Presl) (species). A short
tufted plant. Leaves spathulate. Bracts, keel-shaped,
tips pale yellow. Frequent on gravelly soils. Fig. 1 14.

Section 2. — 4. Filago minima (Fries). Leaves
-J-inch, very small, lanceolate. A small, slender, and
erect species, from 6 to 10 inches. Frequent on dry
•sandyjbanks.

A Fishing Rat. — While standing by a stream
the other day I saw a large grey rat swimming about
with unusual activity, and observing its movements
for awhile I saw it dive below a bank, reappear and
dive again, and so continue for some time ; but at
last to my surprise it reappeared with a fine trout in
its mouth, four or five inches in length, and struggling
in vain for its life, while the rat made quickly for its
hole apparently elevated with success. — T. Sim, Fyvie .

THE BEAR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
By John Wager.

Part I.

THE writer, though not a sportsman, has indulged
in many wild and solitary wanderings through
Swedish forests and over Norwegian fjelds ; several
times he has been benighted amid such scenes, yet
never chanced to make personal acquaintance with
Bruin in his native resorts, though he frequently heard
of his proximity, and once saw the remains of a bear
that had been shot by a peasant on the previous day ;
he has also collected sundry ursine anecdotes, which
naturalists inclined for gossip may be willing to hear.
First, however, it will perhaps be well, for the benefit
of readers not familiar with the subject, to prefix a brief
account, from Scandinavian sources, of the natural
history of the northern bear.

The peasants of Norway and Sweden distinguish
several kinds of bears, such as the grass-bear, the
ant-bear, and the horse-bear ; but these are mere
varieties, or individuals in different stages of develop-
ment, of one and the same species. Its colour is
dark brown or nearly black ; sometimes lighter, and
especially valued when the fur is tipped with silver-
grey. A full-grown bear will measure six feet, or
even more in length* by three feet in height ; and
weigh from five to six, and occasionally eight, hun-
dred pounds. Bruin has a sweet tooth in his head,
and while young at least, usually contents himself
with a vegetable diet ; — grass, roots, the juicy stem
and leaves of angelica, whortleberries, cloud-berries,
and other berries which abound in the forests, in-
cluding those of the rowan tree ; ants, also, and their
eggs vary his diet, whence certain bears which habitu-
ally eat them are called ant-bears ; and the more
delectable honey, with the comb and larva, which he
devours with keen zest, quite regardless, in his thick
coat, of the infuriated bees. During the very dry,
hot summer of 1868, when bruin’s favourite feast of
whortleberries failed him, he was constrained, said
Norwegian papers, to quit his customary solitudes,
and betake himself like a sturdy beggar or downright
thief, to the vicinage of human dwellings, and there
lay violent hands on anything devourable that came
in his way ; yet without doing bodily harm to man.
When, however, the bear gets older, and once gains a
taste of flesh, he thenceforth prefers it ; and has
doubtless a regal share of the six or seven thousand
sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and horned cattle that are
annually destroyed by wild beasts in Sweden alone.
A bear may remain a considerable time upon a tract
without its presence being particularly marked ; but
should it chance, either from spontaneous impulse, or
outward irritation, once to kill a domestic animal, it
is sure, unless prevented, to attack others in quick
succession ; lurking in the neighbourhood of the spot
where the cattle graze, and watching its opportunity
to start from its hiding-place upon any luckless cow

13°

HARD WI CKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

or heifer that strays from the herd, and striking it to
the ground with a blow of its heavy paws, or clinging
to its throat till it falls exhausted from loss of blood.
The cattle, however, not unfrequently begin the attack,
and receive the death-blow by rushing, with a loud
bellow, upon the enemy whom one of them has
chanced suddenly to espy.

The prodigious strength popularly ascribed to the
bear is scarcely exaggerated ; in reference to this,
bear’s sinew formed a constituent of the chain or cord
by which the terrible Fenri wolf of Norse mythology
was sought to be bound ; and the Swedish proverb
which asserts that Nalle (Bruin) does not smite with a
twig, is true indeed. For with one blow of its massive
club — its fore-paw — it can strike a heifer to the
ground ; and a bear, walking upright, has been
known to carry a horse in his fore-paws across a
timber-log placed over a rushing stream. The north-
ern horse is not however so large as our own. In
attacking animals it rears on its hind legs and striking
with its chief weapons send their terrible claws deep
into the ilesh ; but against man it more rarely assumes
this position ; creeping towards him, more usually,
on all fours, as if awed by his glance, and making
use of its teeth. When it would make prey of a
horse, encountered on open ground, it usually fixes
the claws of one paw in the horse’s neck or breast,
and allows itself to be dragged away till it can seize
a tree to hold by with the other, or till the exhausted
animal succumbs.

The bear has a good appetite ; in the course of a
day and night he can eat the most of a young heifer,
beginning his repast even before the victim is quite
dead. After satisfying his hunger he either buries
the remainder of the meal or leaves it on the spot and
returns soon. He will not, Pontoppidan states, like
the sneaking wolf, feed on any dead carcase he chances
to meet with, but likes meat of his killing, nice and
fresh. Inwards, especially the kidneys, he seems to
relish most ; cow’s-udder too is one of his choice bits,
and it has often happened that a cow has come home
to the seater in the evening with her udder torn off.
Now and then, when it can surprise the vigilance of
the wild reindeer it indulges in venison ; and on the
other hand, though not partial to fast-clays,

“The grim, taciturn bear, the anchorite monk of the forest,”
partakes, for a change, when he can get it, of a dinner
of fish. Sometimes he becomes unusually exorbitant
in his demands ; savage and surly beyond his wont.
A peasant of Transtrand, the northernmost part of
the wild province of West Dalecarlia, informed the
present writer that in 1850 a monstrous bear infested
the neighbourhood ; tearing the roofs from byres and
making sad havoc with the cattle within. Nor were
the attempts to get rid of this violent marauder at all
successful, till a peasant at length caught him red-
handed, and having no weapon more effective than
his tongue, conjured him with these awesome words :
“ If thou comest to me, thou Satan, I will dash thee

against the wall j” whereupon the terror-stricken
brute “no Christian bear” hurried away, and was
not seen or heard of in the neighbourhood again.
W hen a bear thus breaks into a cattle-shed, after
slaughtering what he deems sufficient, if undisturbed,
he always returns the same way, dragging with him,
usually, a portion or the- whole of his victim.

The bear, if let alone, is not greatly dangerous to
man ; who, under ordinary circumstances, may gener-
ally pass within view of him in the forest without
serious occasion for alarm. But such an interview,
during summer at least, is not often obtained ; for
the bear’s acute senses — his quick hearing, sight, and
scent give him timely notice of human approach, and
he usually keeps out of the way. Even when wounded
by the hunter’s shot he more frequently flies than
hazards a close fight. If, however, on such occasions,,
the bear does turn upon his foe, the hunter has the
utmost need of cool nerve and a sure aim, or of a
sharp weapon, wielded by a strong arm. Such en-
counters are most frequent with she-bears whose
young have been s*hot or taken ; but there are old,
experienced he-bears also equally ready for a passage-
of arms. Heavy and clumsy as the bear appears
when tamed, it is agile enough in the wild state -r
running more quickly than any man, and clambering
up trees with facility, though it descends them, rear
foremost, with great caution. It can swim with speed,,
but not very enduringly ; its thick, shaggy, absorbing
coat being necessarily an encumbrance in the water.

The bear, like the jettes, a giant brood of old saga,
retreats before advancing cultivation, but is yet toler-
ably numerous in the more northerly parts of Sweden,
where continuous forests cover hundreds of square
miles ; especially in the wilder parts of Wermland,
Dalecarlia, and that vast, most northern, division of
the kingdom called Norrland, which includes Lapland..
When in Norra, Finskogen, Wermland, a few years-
since, the writer heard of a peasant hunter there who
during one winter had shot ten bears in the forest
tract. They are still more frequent in Norway, being
found to some extent all over the country, right up to
the Russian frontier ; though very rarely and inci-
dentally ill the southern lowlands, and not very
numerously in Finmarken, the northern extreme of
the land, corresponding with the Swedish Lappmark,
or Lapland. The foi'est and hill tracts of Thelemark,
the whole province of Throndhjem, Osterdalen, and
Norrland, the most northerly province except Fin-
marken, are the localities in which he is now most
extensively found. His favourite haunts are desert
regions where pine-forested hills interchange with
cloven rocks, wide stretches of moss, and mire, and
grassy, herbaceous plots. From these elevated soli-
tudes the northern king of beasts often takes a tour of
longer or shorter duration over the open tracts of the
higher mountains ; but his proper domains are the
dusky pine forests that stretch wide over the sub-
ordinate hills.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

r3i

About the end of October, when the stringent
winter of the North, with its attendant scarcity of
food, begins to be felt in his high-lying and dreary
realm, the bear altogether ceases to eat, and prepares
•a dormitory in which to sleep over the season of cold
and dearth. This lair, ide or hide* is usually in the
deep cleft of a rock, under an old tree root, or in a
pit which he digs for himself. Into such sheltered
recess he gathers abundance of moss, ling, and spruce-
twigs ; and in November, with an empty stomach,
lies down on this soft bed, rolled up usually in his
thick, furry cloak, with his head between his hind
feet, and resigns himself to a deep, oblivious sleep
till the return of milder days. It is believed by the
peasants that before commencing his long slumber he
makes a two days’ trial of the chosen site, to see that
it is undisturbed and secure. Nor is sleep afterwards
always unbroken ; for though he sleeps hard while
the cold continues extreme, and is quite sluggish if
then disturbed, yet as spring approaches his slumbers
are often so light that he awakes and takes to flight
on the occurrence of the slightest noise, even when
otherwise he would have enjoyed a long continuance
of repose. If the prevalence of rainy or foggy
weather has rendered his dormitory uncomfortably
wet he will generally turn out for fresh twigs, or in
quest of a drier site.

Eating nothing during the whole period of hyber-
nation the bear wastes the flesh and fat previously
accumulated ; and though he continues in good con-
dition till after Yule, is necessarily very lean and
weak when, in April or May, he leaves his retreat.
He then at first contents himself with lighter diet,
such as ants and insect larvse, but gradually taking
more nutritious food, soon regains his normal weight
and strength.

A month after the bear has left his winter lair he
seeks a mate and the pair associate till into July.
The female brings forth her young, in the lair, to-
wards the end of January ; she has from one to three,
rarely four, at a birth, and though sometimes she eats
nothing, she gives them suck. They give no early
promise of future greatness and prowess, being only
about eight inches long, blind and toothless ; but
they wax apace, and have already assumed importance
when they quit their nursery in spring. The dam
and cubs keep company till autumn; but if the
former again becomes pregnant she will not allow
the cubs to share her winter’s retreat, and though
far from full-grown they must learn to make a bed
for themselves. In other cases the whole family lie
together and continue to associate after again emerg-
ing fiom the lair ; and sometimes do not entirely
separate before the young are from three to four years
■old, and have founded families themselves.

(To be continued.)

* Related to the English hithe, a small haven.

ON MOUNTING SEEDS.

I SHOULD advise every possessor of a microscope,
who has not already turned his attention to the
examination of various seeds, to do so at the earliest
opportunity, and he will readily admit, after careful
study, how amply his labours have been rewarded.

It is my intention in this short paper to give a few
hints which may be useful to the young microscopist,
as to the easiest way of preparing seeds as permanent
objects for the microscope, and also a list of the most
curious and interesting.

Some seeds may be mounted dry, whilst others
require to be put up in balsam ; the first method
being more simple than the latter, and may be used
in all cases where the seeds are to be viewed as
opaque objects, or are very transparent in them-
selves.

Before commencing you will require the following
apparatus :

i. Wooden slides with hole in the centre.

2. Glass slips 3x1.

3. Thin glass in circles.

4. Small glass tubes.

5. Camel’s-hair brushes.

6. Coloured paper for covering object slips.

7. Bottle of Canada balsam.

8. Bottle of turpentine.

9. Bottle of gum mucilage thickened with starch.

10. Bottle of cement made by dissolving shellac
in naphtha.

II. Spirit-lamp.

Having these requisites at hand, you may at once
proceed.

Suppose for example, you wish to mount some
seeds as opaque objects. First take one of the
wooden slides and gum a piece of cardboard over the
hole in the centre, you will then have a kind of cell ;
in the middle of this cell paste a small square piece
of cardboard, then paint the inside with Indian ink.
When the paint is dry, brush over the square in the
middle of the cell with gum, and place the seeds in
various positions on it, and if placed near together,
you will have a perfect square of seeds.

Wait then until the gum is dry : and I may here
mention the advisability of having two or three slides
in hand at once, so that time may not be wasted.
After the gum is quite dry, proceed to lay on one of
the circles of thin glass, which, of course, must be
larger than the cell. Then dip a camel’s-hair brush
into the shellac fluid, and go round the edge, touching
the glass and the slide at the same time. If this be
done properly, the glass (when the shellac is dry)
will be quite hard and fast to the slide. Some
people, I know, fasten theirs down with small strips
of paper ; but I have always found the shellac to be
just as easy, and to my mind more serviceable.

Nothing then remains but to finish off with orna-
mental paper, taking care to label it.

1 32

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

You will then have a very presentable and interest-
ing object.

If the seeds are transparent enough to be viewed
by transmitted light without being mounted in
balsam, merely lay them on one of the glass slips,
cover them with thin glass and cement down with
the shellac as before. Finish off with coloured paper,
or if you have a turn-table, run a ring of white lead
varnish over the shellac ; when this is quite dry add
another : label and put away in your cabinet.

Mounting in balsam is somewhat more difficult to
manage ; but practice makes perfect, and we must
not be disheartened by failure, but try again. The
great difficulty seems to be in laying the covering
glass down without the object shooting to the side,
or air bubbles making their appearance. However,
with a little care these difficulties will be overcome.
The seeds should be allowed to remain for some time
in turpentine previous to mounting.

Whilst they are soaking, clean one of the glass slips,
and with one of the tubes transfer a drop of balsam
to the centre of it. Then take the seeds from the
turpentine and lay them in the drop of balsam on the
slide. Hold the slide for a minute over the flame of
the spirit-lamp until the balsam runs towards the edge,
taking care that you do not boil it or spill it.

Have one of the covering slips ready ; lay it on the
balsam and lower very carefully. When you have it
down quite level, and seen that no air bubbles have
made their appearance, put it between the jaws of an
American clothes’ peg filed flat down for the purpose,
and set it by to dry. I may hei'e mention that it is
necessary to keep the slips in a warm place, or else
it will be weeks before the balsam is quite hard.

After waiting until the balsam is quite hard set,
the slide may be cleaned with a rag dipped in spirits
of wine and finally labelled.

The following are seeds easily obtained and worth
mounting as opaque objects :

Anagallis , Anethum graveolens , Begonia , Carnm
carui, Datura , Digitalis , Elatine , Erica , Gentiaua,
Hyoscyamus , Hypericum , Linaria, Lychnis , Mesem-
bryanthemum , Nicotiana , Campanula , Petunia.

The following as transparent objects in Canada
Balsam :

Drosera , Hydrangea , Monotropa , Orchis , IJar-
nassia , Pyrola, Saxifraga.

There are scores of others which are both beautiful
and interesting, and I trust that many will be in-
clined this summer to add most of these to their
cabinets.

Devonport. Charles H. Dymond.

Caterpillars and Onion-crops. — For several
years past the onion crops in this neighbourhood have
suffered severely from the ravages of the caterpillar of
some insect. Can any of your readers suggest a
remedy? — B, Haslemere.

NOTES ON IIYDROPHIL US PICE US.

By James Fullagar.

A CORRESPONDENT asks whether the Hydro-
philus piceus can be reared in captivity. It is
my opinion that it cannot, as I do not think that the
proper food of the larva is known. Perhaps the
following remarks, with the sketches, will help him in
obtaining the information he needs. On one very
bright sunny morning in March, 1872, while searching
for some subjects of natural history, I saw, basking in
the sun, on some weeds at the surface of a pond, a very
fine specimen of the female Hydrophilus, which I
soon, by the aid of my net, transferred to n.y bottle.
As soon as I reached home, I placed her in a glass
vase, holding a gallon or more of water, in which
was growing a quantity of duckweed, and other pond

weeds. She went directly to the bottom and hid
herself under the weeds. I often noticed her as I
passed the vase, and on April 20, I observed that she
had a quantity of wdiite matter at the posterior end of
her body, and I concluded, as she was at the surface
of the water, that she was either dying or dead, but?
on examining her closely, I found that she was
spinning a silken nest, or cocoon, and depositing
therein her eggs. The nest was held firmly between^
the hind legs, as shown in the sketch (fig. 1 1 5 ). After
the whole of the eggs were deposited, she covered them
up, rendering the top gradually smaller and smaller,
forming a sort of shaft, which, when the cocoon was-
disengaged from between her legs, floated at the-
top of the water, slightly attached to a piece of
anacharis, with the shaft, or tube, in an upright
position (fig. 1 16). When the cocoon was complete I
removed it to a smaller glass of clear water, so that
I could have a better view of the young when hatched..
This I watched from day to clay until May 15, whea

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i33

I saw the young escaping from the cocoon. I counted
twenty-five of them. They lived over a month, but I
had not the proper food for them. From the form of
the head and the formidable tusks, &c., I concluded
that they were carnivorous, like the voracious larvae of

Fig. 116.— Nest or cocoon of Hydrophilus.

the circulation was visible. I ma le a large sketch of
the larva, to enable me to show its form, and omitted
the middle sections of the body, so that the head and
tail only are shown (figs. 1 17, 1 18). I have now by me
the empty cocoon. The sketch of the beetle and the
cocoon are of the natural size, that of the larva is, of
course, much magnified : the real length of the larva
at a week old was half an inch.

The following is from Maunder’ s “ Treasury of
Natural History,” and would, perhaps, be interesting
to your readers : “Hydrophilus, a remarkable genus
of aquatic insects, differing from that of Dytiscus
only in the structure of the antennae, which, instead
of being setaceous, are short, and furnished with a
clavated and perfoliated tip or knob. One large
species, common in our ponds and ditches, is an inch
and a half long, oval, and of a deep brown colour,
highly polished. The eggs are laid in a sort of
cocoon spun by the female, and coated with a gummy
matter which is impervious to water, on which it floats.
The larvae are observed to prey on the smaller kinds
of water snails, tadpoles, &c., and appear very
voracious ; and they remain about two years before

they change into pupae or chrysalides. When the larva
is arrived at its full growth, it secretes itself in the
bank of the water it inhabits, and, having formed a
convenient cell, lies dormant for some time, after
which it divests itself of its skin, and appears in the
form of a chrysalis ; in this state it remains some time
longer, when it again releases itself of its exuviae,
appears in its complete or beetle form, and as soon as
the elytra or wing-cases acquire a sufficient degree of
strength and colour, it comes forth from its retreat,
and commits itself in its new form to its native
element. It is a curious circumstance that some of
the species of Hydrophilidae found in this country
exceed in size those from tropical climates ; many of
the species are, however, very minute.”

Fig. 118. — Tail oflarva of Hydrophilus (mag.).

Dytiscus marginatus. The young larvae were very
transparent, and the circulation in every part of the
body was plainly seen, and formed a beautiful object
under the microscope when placed in a very shallow
cell ; even up to the end of the curved tail appendages

■34

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

MICROSCOPY.

Mounting in Canada Balsam. — Being an
amateur mounter I took an interest in Mr. Under-
hill’s article in last month’s number of Science-
Gossip on the “ Preparation of Insects for Micro-
scopical Examination,” and have no doubt that by
the time this series of articles is concluded I shall
have obtained many useful hints, but at the same
time I think I can myself give a few hints in return,
particularly with respect to mounting in Canada
Balsam. Mr. Underhill advises the use of test-tubes,
in which to keep the Canada balsam. I have never
used test-tubes myself, but cannot believe they are
■either so handy or cleanly as two-ounce wide-mouthed
capped bottles, to be obtained at lx. each. The
balsam is applied by means of a small brass rod
drawn to a point, and always kept in the bottle ready
for immediate use ; a knitting needle will also answer
this purpose, but will require cleaning occasionally.
If, however, very large covers are used, I would then
advise a glass syringe, as recommended by Dr.
Carpenter.

Then again, I cannot say I like the use of clips,
and never employ them if I can possibly help it. The
pressure of the clip causes the covering glass to
“dish,” and when the clip is eventually removed the
cover springs back to its original position, causing a
suction all round the edge, and in case of “fluid”
mounts a running in of the cement; an apparent
shrinkage taking place when balsam is used, but
this is easily remedied.

When mounting in fluid I prefer to have the cell
quite as deep as the object, and when the cover is
put on, if the superfluous fluid be removed by means
either of bibulous paper or a damped camel’s-hair
brush, it will be found that the cover is held down by
suction sufficiently firmly to enable a very thin coat of
cement on and just over the edge, to be dabbed on by
means of a brush ; when this cement is dry the slide can
be further washed, as directed by Mr. Underhill, and
■extra coats of cement applied by means of the turn-table.

I doubt if balsam would ever set without some
heat, but at the same time I think it very risky to
apply heat by means of a lamp. My own method is
to mount without heat, and after the lapse of a day
•or two to place the slide upon the top of a hot- water
cistern for a bath, the heat of which can be moderated
as desired by means of slips of wood placed under the
slide, which will have to remain there for a week or
even longer, according to the size of covering glass
and thickness of balsam.

I could say a little on “coaxing” air-bubbles out
■of Canada balsam ; there is a knack in getting rid of
these pests. In many cases, however, the bubbles are
merely vapour of benzole, and will disappear spon-
taneously in the course of half a day or so, being
xe -absorbed by the balsam. — H. M.

The Thallus of Diatoms. — In a recent number
of the “ Journal de Micrographie,” Dr. M. Lanzi has
a note on this subject, in which the thallus, or gela-
tinous stem or stipes, of certain species of diatoms
is carefully delineated. These gelatinous stems, he
says, are produced by the accumulation of plasma
within the cells, which takes place to such an extent
as to issue from the pustules. This plasma plays the
part of an organ of vegetation, and therefore does not
properly afford either by its presence or absence any
distinction of species. It may furnish nutriment to
the young diatoms, or even may serve to distribute
the species by dividing into parts, which are carried
off by the water. Dr. Lanzi thinks that all genera
founded upon the character of the thallus and its
form should be abolished.

Microscopic Organisms in Blood. — Under the
title of “The Microscopical Organisms found in the
Blood of Man and Animals, and their relation to
Disease,” Dr. T. R. Lewis, of the Army Medical
Department, and who is also Special Assistant to the
Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India,
has published another small quarto work of about
ninety pages. It describes the various vegetable
organisms found in blood during splenic fever.
Pneumo-enteris of the pig, recurrent fever, &c. ; the
relation of microphytes to disease ; vegetable organ-
isms in healthy blood ; spirilla and their supposed
relation to disease ; protozoa in blood, such as
flagellated organisms, nematoids and their embryos,
Filaria sanguinis- hominis, &c. This is one of the
most thoughtful of Dr. Lewis’s works.

Effects of Starvation. — From the office of the
Superintendent of Government printing, in Calcutta,
there has just been issued Dr. Cunningham’s report
on “ Certain effects of Starvation on Vegetable and
Animal Tissues,” in which we have detailed from
microscopical examination, and experiment, the full
effects of a deficient supply of nutritive material both
on animals and vegetables. In the latter this is
chiefly manifested by the growth of microscopic
fungi. The chapter on ‘ ‘ Phenomena observed in
the post-mortem examinations of cases of famine —
diarrhoea, and dysentery,” is a most valuable essay to
Indian pathologists particularly. We hope Dr.
Cunningham may be able to continue his important
researches with the same success as heretofore.

The Colour of St. Paul’s Cathedral, etc.
— Last year Professor Paley contributed an article to
Science-Gossip suggesting that the dark colour of
the stone- work of St. Paul’s and other churches
might be due to organic agency. No answer was
given to his queries. The “ American Quarterly
Microscopical Journal ” states that Professor Leidy
finds that the black or smoky colour found on old
walls in narrow shaded streets is caused by an alga
closely resembling Protococcus viridis. It may be
this plant in a particular stage, but Professor Lejjy

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i35

lias provisionally called it Protococcus lugubris. The
specific name suggests that even microscopists are not
deficient in humour.

“The American Quarterly Journal of
Microscopy.”- — Since the cessation of the publication
of the “ Lens,” until October, 1878, microscopy in
America was only represented by the unpretentious
little “ American Journal of Microscopy.” This, like
our own Science-Gossip, aimed at giving accurate
information, divested as far as possible of scientific
technicalities. It was, however, felt by the leading
microscopic workers in that country that a journal of a
higher scientific standard was desirable, and some nine
months ago the first part of the above-named journal
made its appearance. With the exception of a few
typographical errors it was well printed and illustrated,
and contained much valuable original matter. We
have just received the third part and perused its con-
tents with much pleasure. The various papers are
the productions of men who are well acquainted with
the subjects on which they have written. The con-
tents may be thus enumerated : — two histological
papers : “The Ampulla and Pancreatic Ducts in the
Domestic Cat ” (continued), by S. H. Gaze ; a case
of “ Tubercular Meningitis,” by P. J. N. Danforth.
Two botanical : “The Structure of Ophioglossum,” by
Prof. M. Harrington; “Dubious Forms of Freshwater
Algae,” by the Rev. Francis Wolle. Three
mechanical: “The Formation of the Paraboloid as an
Illuminator ” (in which he tells us “ How it is Done ”),
by F. H. Wenham; “A few Remarks on Angular
Aperture and Description of a Universal Aperto-
meter,” by Prof. H. L. Smith; Two forms of
“ Comparators for Measures of Length,” by Prof. W.
A. Rogers. One on mounting : “Practical Hints on
the Preparing and Mounting of Animal Tissues,” by
Dr. Carl Seiler (continued). One infusorial : “The
Simplest Forms of Life,” by E. Eyfurth. The two
first are perhaps too technical for the general reader ;
the remaining papers will, however, be found interest-
ing to the microscopical student. Mr. Wenham’s
paper on the “Formations of the Paraboloid ” contains
minute directions for the construction of that very
valuable accessory. The article commences with a
reference to a paper read before the Microscopical
Society (now the R. M. S.) in 1856, in which he
proposed a right-angled prism, connected to the
under surface of the slide by a fluid intermedium
which transferred the total reflecting surface from the
prism to the top plane of the cover. We quote the
following paragraph (p. 187), with which our readers
will cordially agree : “It is to be regretted that in
this country the noble art of mechanical construction
should be held in such low esteem as not to be con-
sidered a worthy element of education enabling
persons to carry their own ideas into practice without
being stopped by heavy artisan's bills.” We supple-
ment this by remarking that it is also to be regretted
that but few will take the trouble to learn, even

theoretically, the principles upon which the micro-
scope and its accessories are constructed. Professor
Smith’s paper will commend itself to those who are
interested in the possible angle of aperture of
objectives. Those who have turned their attention to-
micrometric measurements can appreciate the difficulty
of subdividing a unit accurately ; we have also the
difficulty of obtaining some trustworthy division of'
the inch, or the centimetre, with which to compare the
micrometric divisions, but supposing this obtained
we rarely find that divisions on the micrometer are of
equal value. Professor Rogers gives a table of
measurement of 50 spaces made with the most
accurate appliances obtainable, and only in one
instance do the errors correct each other, the largest
average amount of error was found to) be x
inch. For ordinary work the slight errors in the
division of the micrometer are not of more importance
than an error of inch in the length of a
carpenter’s rule, but when the value of important
evidence (as in ascertaining the source of blood-stains
by the average diameter of the discs) depends upon,
perfect accuracy, our readers will see how necessary it
is that our measuring instrument should be absolutely
free from error. Dr. Carl Seiler’s paper is continued
from the previous number, and contains some valuable
hints on the preparation, staining, and mounting of
animal' tissues. For the purpose of staining, the
writer recommends the sulphindigotate of soda, “ the
effect of this mode of staining is to leave the nuclei
bright red, while the formed material of the cell is-
slightly tinged with blue. The connective tissue
fibres become stained with a deep blue cover, while
the blood vessels are purplish and mapped out with,
surprising distinctness ; epithelium and hair take
this staining in a very curious manner, inasmuch as-
the cells of different ages take different colours,
varying from a brilliant emerald-green to purple,
violet and olive-green.” Excepting in a few
special cases, Dr. Seiler prefers a solution of Canada
balsam, prepared according to Dr. J. T. Woodward’s
formula, as follows: “A clear sample of Canada
balsam is evaporated either in a water bath by
artificial heat, or better by placing it in a shallow
dish and exposing it to the heat of the sun until it
becomes hard and brittle throughout when cold, and
until all odour of turpentine has disappeared when,
warm. This resinous balsam is then dissolved in
warm absolute alcohol to the consistency of thin
syrup and filtered through flannel. If by accident
the balsam has become brown during exposure, the
alcoholic solution may be bleached by exposure to
sunlight.

“The advantages of this material are that it soon
becomes hard round the edges of the cover, and can
be scraped off to finish the slide ; that it never
crystallises, as other resinous mounting media fre-
quently do, and that it improves the appearance of
the object by age.

1 36

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

“ The author gives the following recipe for a cement
to be used for fixing the covers on glycerine-mounted
slides, and which he says is glycerine proof.

“Cox’s gelatine, 3ii ; acetic acid, fl. jji ; gum
ammoniac, gr. x. Dissolve in a water bath, and
filter through cotton while warm. This cement
remains fluid when cold and dries quickly. After the
ring has become set or stiff, the whole slide is
immersed for a minute or so in a 10-grain solution of
bichromate of potash, and is then allowed to dry,
exposed to the light, which makes the bichromated
gelatine perfectly insoluble even in boiling water, and
thoroughly prevents the escape of any glycerine.”

This very ingenious method of employing bichro-
mated gelatine can be used for most fluid-mounted
preparations, and we have no doubt that where soft
balsam is used, it would form a very good foundation
for the coloured cements now so generally employed,
and effectually prevent their “running on.” We
cordially recommend this journal to those interested
in microscopical studies, and advise all microscopical
societies to add it to their libraries. This work in
conjunction with the Transactions of our own Royal
Microscopical Society will keep the members posted
up in the latest microscopic news. — F. K, F.r.m.s.

Euglena viridis and Hydratina Senta.—
Your answer to M. H. Robson anent the Euglena
viridis leads me to mention the following circum-
stance. A little while ago, I obtained a sample of
water from a pond literally green with swarms of
what was, to all appearance, the Euglena viridis.
Careful examination of them, however, engendered
a doubt in my mind as to their identity with the true
Euglena, for I discovered that the flagellum was in
each case bulbed. I put the water aside for about a
week ; on again examining the objects, I was rather
surprised to find that the Euglena (?) had nearly all
disappeared, their place being taken by the common
Funnel Rotifer ( Hydratina senta ) in various stages
of development. This circumstance seemed to con-
firm my previous suspicion, and favoured the notion
that the objects first observed were not the true
Euglena viridis , but were the larvae of the Hydratina
senta. Has Mr. Robson or others noticed any such
metamorphosis in the specimens ? If so, will not
the bulb serve as a feature whereby to distinguish the
true Euglena from other objects of similar shape and
colour ? — F. las. George.

The Fur on the Tongue. — A singularly in-
teresting paper has been read before the Royal
Society, by Mr. H. Trentham Butlin, F.R.C.S., on
the above subject, in which he showed that the so-
called “ fur ” is in a great measure due to the gloea of
certain forms of microscopical fungi. In order to
ascertain the true nature of gloea, and to obtain it in
a purer form, it was cultivated upon a warm stage.
Several fungi were then discovered, but only two
kinds were present in every experiment, viz., Micro-

coccus and Bacillus subtilis. As the gloea produced
artificially was similar to that existing naturally in the
tongue fur, Mr. Butlin believes that “fur” is com-
posed essentially of these two fungi. Micrococcus
developed freely and abundantly, forming large
masses of yellow or brownish-yellow colour. Bacillus
did not develop, but existed in greater or less abun-
dance in all the cases examined. Mr. Butlin thinks
that one cause of its artificial non-development may
be the presence of other developing organisms, and
that development takes place freely upon the tongue.
Its habitual occurrence there, and the presence ot
spore-bearing filaments favour this view. Besides
the above, other fungi were present, as Bacterium
termo , Sarcina ventriculi , Spirochceta plicatilis ,
Spirillum , etc.

On Cleaning old Slides mounted in Balsam.
— Having seen a great deal lately about cleaning old
slides in your columns, it has occurred to me that
the method I use might be serviceable to some. The
process is as follows : I first heat the slide over a
spirit-lamp until the balsam is soft, then I scrape the
covering glass off, and as much balsam as possible.
I let it dry and chip off all I can with an old knife ;
and when I have taken it off, I soak a rag; in tur-
pentine and rub the slide well with it (renewing the
turpentine when necessary) until all the balsam is
removed, which it is in a very short time. — H. C.
Bristowe.

ZOOLOGY.

Nocturnal Song of Birds. — There have
appeared from time to time in Science-Gossip
inquiries concerning birds singing by night. On the
third of last month (May) a thrush was heard singing
long and loud after 10 p.m. a little way out of this
town, on the Tring Road. — J. W. Slater , Aylesbury.

Aerating Aquaria. — Dr. Lenz, of Lubeck, has
devised a method of aerating the water in an aquarium.
A tube conducting the air to the bottom is expanded
at the end and stuffed with fine sponge, which causes
the air to rise through the water in very minute
bubbles.

The “Science Index.”— We have received the
first part of a new publication bearing the above
name. It is edited by Mr. A. Hildebrandt, and pub-
lished in Manchester, and professes to be a “ monthly
guide to the contents of the scientific periodicals.”
Such a work is much needed, and the “Science
Index ” promises to fulfil the duty well, in spite of
some errors in the first part, which are evidently due
to the haste with which it has been got out.

Male Eels. — In the “ American Naturalist” for
May, Professor Packard announces the discovery of
male eels. At first they were supposed to be imma-
ture females, but the question is now finally settled,

IIARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i37

for out of one hundred and ninety-three eels supplied
by the United States Fish Commission three have
been found to be males. Professor Packard found the
nucleated spermatozoa in the cells.

Boar-fish ( Capros aper, Lacep.). — Numbers of
these fish have been thrown up on the beach here
during the present month (April) ; I have had thirteen
specimens brought to me, all of which are very
uniform in length, viz. 5 to 5^ inches. No transverse
bands were visible in any of them, but the general
rosy-pink colour was very vivid in most. I observe
that some of your correspondents refer this fish to the
genus Zeus (Linn.), but there are very marked dis-
tinctions between the genera Zeus (Linn.) and Capros
(Lacep.). : e.g. in the former the body is without scales,
and the first dorsal carries a series of long filaments ;
there is also a row of spinous scales at each side of
the base of the dorsal and anal ; whilst in Capros , the
body is clad with scales, and there are no filaments to
the dorsal and no spines at its base. I wish one
could discover some preservative fluid that would con-
serve the colour in fish ; few would realise, in looking
at the pale specimens in the jars the exquisite rosy
tint of the living fish. For the benefit of fellow-
readers of Science-Gossip who preserve fish, I may
mention that after trial of many preservative fluids,
the one I find handiest and most useful is Burnett’s
fluid (chloride of zinc) largely diluted : i. e. 1 part of
fluid to 20 of water. This solution is slow in evapora-
tion, and of course does not crystallize about the
mouth of the jar or bottle. I believe it is the fluid
used in the British Museum for preserving fish. —
E. B. Kemp- Welch , Bournemouth.

Mistakes of Instinct. — I desire most cordially
to support the suggestion in your April number, to
study the aberrations of instinct, as a means of arriving
at a more intimate knowledge of the normal workings
of that faculty. It is in fact the proper application of
the philosophical axiom “ Exceptio probat regulam”
in its true sense. It is analogous to the study of
monstrous forms in animal or vegetable structures
(Teratology) in order to arrive at a knowledge of
the mode in which the ordinary forms are produced.

I would instance the Arum Dracunculus (the dragon
flower) the flower's of which when fully expanded
have a smell very much resembling that of putrid
meat, and I have often noticed the multitude of flesh-
flies that buzz and hover about the plant when in
flower ; attracted, as is very obvious, by the odour of
the blossom. I learn from a notice in your April
number, that Cuvier has stated that flies are so far
deceived by it, that they actually lay their eggs in
the floral envelope.* I have never yet observed this
myself, but I have a plant in my garden, which in a
short time will be in flower. And I will carefully

* See Taylor’s “ Flowers : their origin, shapes, perfumes, and
colours, page 261.

watch it, and if I find that any of the multitude of
flies that visit it have laid their eggs in it, I will send
the piece so operated upon to you, as a tangible proof
of a decided mistake of instinct, in a matter of the
utmost importance to the creature, and conclusively
shewing that in this particular instance the animal is
guided by the sense of smell alone, and does not
correct its inferences by the application of sight or
touch or any other sense to the object.

Probably anglers could do good service in this
direction, if they would carefully observe, and note,
under what circumstances fishes are most readily
deceived by, or reject the allurements of artificial
flies. Is there any reason to believe that they are
guided by any other sense than sight, in snapping at
the sometimes not very close semblance of a dainty
morsel ? Another instance that occurs to one is the
common case of a hen being induced to sit upon a
chalk egg ; where sight and touch appear to combine
to delude the poor creature. The point requiring
observation, I think is — do not all the observed aber-
rations of instinct arise from mistaken sense ? Is there
any observed instance shewing that the creature is
able to correct a mistake of sense, by the application
of any other faculty, and if so, what is that corrective
faculty ? — C. B.

BOTANY.

Function of Nectaries in Plants. — It is
stated in the “Times” of April 8, that the theory
of the functions of the nectary has recently been
called in question by M. Bonnier, in support of
which he gives various arguments. I was so much
pleased with the (to me) convincing proofs adduced
in “Flowers,” by the Editor of Science-Gossip,
that I hope his opinions, which are in accordance with
those of Darwin, Muller, and others, will be confirmed
by the discussions that will no doubt take place,
refuting M. Bonnier’s difficulties and objections, by
botanists who have given attention to the subject ;
and I trust that some of them may appear in SCIENCE-
Gossip. — T. B. W, Brighton.

Corn Cockle ( Lychnis or Agrostemma Githago).
In January 1878, I received a few specimens of this
plant from my friend Mr. J. Leighton, so much
smaller than the ordinary form that I was not sure
whether to consider them a new variety or merely
starved specimens. So I sent one or two to Dr. J.
T. Boswell for his opinion, and he kindly informed me
that they were probably starved plants of L. Githago ,
and that if their seeds were sown in good soil they
would doubtless produce the typical form. So I
labelled my mounted specimens as a “ starved form of
L. GithagoB But as Mr. Leighton in November last
again forwarded me precisely similar examples from
the same locality gathered last season, I wrote to
him that the plant might perhaps be a new variety,

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

133

and suggested the provisional name of parvula , to
distinguish it in the meantime from the common form.
Dried specimens differ in the following particulars : —
L. Githago : stem branched 2 to 3 feet high ; calyx
segments nearly twice the length of the petals ; flowers
purple, whitish within the throat. L. Githago var.
parvula : stem simple, 3 to 5 inches high, calyx
segments equalling or shorter than the petals, flowers
bright red. The difference in the colour of the
flowers may have occurred in drying. The locality
given for the plant is “near the Grand Stand, Epsom
Downs, Surrey,” and it might be worth while for
some of our southern botanists to try and procure its
seeds during the ensuing summer, see if it retains its
characteristics when cultivated, and give the result of
their experiments in the pages of Science-Gossip.
— D. Douglass.

Teratological Notes. — From observations made
in my own garden, I am far from thinking synanthy
commonly the accompaniment of decaying vital energy
in the plants on which it occurs. Last spring I had
a polyanthus which, after bearing a profusion of
bloom, produced a flower with two pistils, each of
them having a distinct style and stigma. This plant
is now alive and vigorous in full bloom, many of its
flowers being on long pedicels, growing singly like
those of the primrose, others being in umbels on erect
peduncles, as is usual in the polyanthus; and with
nothing at present like that exceptional flower of last
year. I have, however, now in bloom, several
healthy, vigorous plants of polyanthus bearing synan-
thic flowers of which all the organs are double the
number found in nominal flowers : from the calyx
with ten teeth to the two long styles with well-
developed stigmas, of which I enclose a specimen.
All these flowers are pin-eyed, and most of them such
as a florist would destroy. Indeed, I think that if
botanists would pick up what gardeners throw away,
and cultivate worthless varieties of popular flowers,
they might know much more of teratology than
many of them do. — John Gibbs.

A Shower of Pollen. — A remarkable shower of
pollen grains fell in the north-eastern part of Pennsyl-
vania on the morning of March 17, which covered an
area of more than 2500 square miles. It is believed
to be chiefly the pollen of Pinus Australis of the
Southern States, and that it had been carried by the
wind a distance of 5°o miles. The country people
took it for a “shower of sulphur.”

Yew-trees and Cattle. — With reference to this
matter I beg to state that two stirks, the property of
the Rev. D. Bonallo, Blackford, were found dead in
the byre one day last week (end of April). It was dis-
covered that they had devoured some cuttings of yew,
which had been carelessly thrown out of the shrubbery
into the meadow in which the cattle were grazing. —
P. Donaldson , Glasgcnv.

GEOLOGY.

The Silurian District of Rhymney and Pen-
y-lan, Cardiff. — This is the subject of a paper
recently read before the Geological Society, by W. J.
Sollas, F.G.S.

The paper commences with a history of the previous
observations on the district ; a description of the
geographical distribution, geological structure, and
vertical succession of the Silurian rocks is next given.
They comprise beds belonging to the Wenlock and
Ludlow groups, and pass conformably upwards into-
the Old Red Sandstone. The district affords a good
base for a measurement of the thickness of the Old Red
Sandstone on the south of the South- Wales coalfield.
This was found to be a little over 4000 feet. The
thinning out of the Old Red Sandstone and Silurian
strata, together with the marked change which takes
place correspondingly in the lithological characters
of the latter formation on passing from the north to
the south side of the coalfield, were taken to indicate
an approach to a shore-line. The shore-line belonged
to land which, as shown by the great thickness of the
Devonian beds, could not have extended far south.
It corresponded to Mr. Etheridge’s barrier between
the Old Red Sandstone and Devonian seas. The
sandstones with Old- Red characters, such as the
Hangman Grit and the Pickwell-Down Sandstones,
occurring in the Devonian formation, were deposited
at intervals when this barrier was submerged to a.
greater depth than usual. The Cornstones were
stated to thin out to the south along with the other
sedimentary beds of the Old Red Sandstone, and
were regarded as derived from the denudation of
previously upheaved limestones, such as the Bala and
Hirnant.

An Indian Miocene Ape. — The skull of an
anthropoid ape, an adult female, which must have
been as large as a female gorilla or orang, has been
found in the Siwalik rocks of the Punjab by Mr..
Theobald, of the Indian Geological Survey. It is-
the first of its kind found in India which bears a
resemblance to existing apes ; and this animal must
have been as distinct as the gorilla and the chim-
panzee, or any other two types of ape. It is proposed
to call it Palceopithecus.

Post-glacial Animals in London. — Fossil re-
mains of various extinct animals have been recently
found in London, in making the excavations for Messrs...
Drummond’s new bank at Charing Cross. They
include elephant tusks and molars, probably the mam-
moth Elephas primigenhis , teeth and numerous bones
of the gigantic extinct ox (Bos primigenius ), a portion
of what appears to be the horn of the great extinct Irish
deer (Megaceros Hibernicus ), along with various other
remains of ruminating animals not yet identified. All
the remains are those of herbivorous quadrupeds, but

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i39

there is among them no bone or tooth of hippopotamus
■or rhinoceros, though these animals are known, from
"discoveries made at Brentford, Crayford, and other
localities in the Thames Valley, to have been in post-
glacial times the companions of the Thames Valley
Mammoths.

“Conodonts,” etc. — At a recent meeting of the
Natural History Society of Glasgow, Mr. John
Young, F.G.S., exhibited a series of conodont re-
mains and sponge spicules from the Silurian and
Devonian limestone strata of England, forwarded by
Mr. John Smith, Kilwinning. Mr. Young stated
that at a former meeting Mr. Smith had sent for
exhibition an interesting series of conodonts and
'various forms of sponge spicules, which he had found
in the limestone strata around Dairy, Ayrshire. Since
that time he had visited several districts in England,
and had been successful in discovering the remains
■of conodonts in some of the weathered shales and
limestones of the localities he had visited, these not
having been formerly noted as occurring either in
the Silurian or Devonian formations of England.
Very little is yet known of the nature of the organisms
that have yielded these conodont remains, which
■consist of small teeth, joints, &c., of many different
forms, one party referring them to the jaws of Anne-
lids, another to that of Myxinoid fishes, to the
lingual armature of certain forms of Molluscs or the
maxillipeds of Crustacea. As new localities are
turning up where these interesting though obscure
forms are being found, it is to be hoped that more
light will soon be thrown upon the true nature of the
organisms to which they formerly belonged.

History of Mineral Veins. — Mr. John Arthur
Phillips, F.G.S., in a paper on this important subject,
read before the Geological Society, described the
phenomena of the deposition of minerals from the
water and steam of hot springs, as illustrated in the
Californian region, referring especially to a great
■“sulphur bank” in Lake county, to the steamboat
.springs in the State of Nevada, and to the great
'Comstock lode. He noticed the formation of de-
posits of silica, both amorphous and crystalline, en-
closing other minerals, especially cinnabar and gold,
.and in some cases forming true mineral veins. The
crystalline silica iormed contains liquid-cavities, and
exhibits the usual characteristics of ordinary quartz.
In the great Comstock lode, which is worked for
gold and silver, the mines have now reached a con-
siderable depth, some as much as 2660 feet. The
water in these mines was always at a high tempera-
ture, but now in the deepest mines it issues at a
temperature of 1570 Fahr. It is estimated that at
least 4,200,000 tons of water are now annually
pumped from the workings ; and the author dis-
cussed the probable source of this heat, which he
was inclined to regard as a last trace of volcanic
activity.

Ancient Prawns. — Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun.,
F.G.S., has announced the discovery in the Lower
Carboniferous bed of the south of Scotland, of a
long-tailed decayed crustacean, or prawn, which he
has very properly named after Dr. Henry Woodward,
Anthrapalccmon IVoodzvardi. Another species of
Anthrapalcemoii was named Macconochii, after its
discoverer.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — “Idea”
hopes to see a more intelligible distinction shown
between instinct and reason, though by the context he
evidently appreciates that there is a difference, and
compares instinct in animals with impulse in man. By
instinct I understand that intelligence with which
animals are endowed, which causes them to act in a uni-
form manner without experience. Thus, for example,
the beaver, the ant, ’and the bee, build their homes on a
regular, and, so to speak, systematic plan, without, as
far as can be learned, being taught by their progenitors.
They have also an innate dread of their enemies,
which appears to exist independently of experience.
The origin of reason, as has been pointed out by
Mr. P. Q. Keegan, is the subject of dispute by different
schools of metaphysicians, which will apparently
always be the case. We all, however, possess the
faculty in some degree, and its practical workings are
therefore pretty well understood. Even if it be
granted that animals reason to a limited extent, the
question arises, Is there no difference between man’s
reasoning power and that of the lower animals ? The
arguments of those who maintain that the intelligence
of animals differs from that of man only in degree, are
summed up in an assertion Darwin makes in “ The
Descent of Man : ” “ Since animals possess the same
senses, it follows they must possess the same funda-
mental intuitions as man.” That man derives all his
ideas from the senses has been disputed by so many
writers of great capacity, that it would argue some
presumption to consider it an axiom. As the concise
proposition cannot be proved, it may, however, be
true, and, if so, it follows, if Mr. Darwin’s argument
is sound, that all animals, without exception, which
possess the same senses as man, are possessed of the
fundamental intuitions. Why, then, does he draw a
distinction between instinct and reason ? and between
conscious and unconscious intelligence ? for proof of
which see my letter of March, with quotation ; and
why, moreover, does he draw a distinction between
the primates and the lower animals ? The accounts of
the actions of ants, as described in the “ Origin of
Species,” and more recently by Sir John Lubbock,
are more extraordinary than those of an ape. The
brain of the ant is said to be large in proportion to its
body, but it is infinitesimally small when compared
with that of the ape. With regard to the anecdotes
of animals in Mr. Darwin’s work, and those which
have lately been discussed in “Nature,” we arrive
with certainty at one conclusion, viz., that more than
one explanation may be given of them. Those who
argue that the intelligences of man and animals differ
only in degree, have to prove, not only that animals
agree in some parts of their mental powers with man,
but in all ; and here the distinction drawn by Mr.
Henslow in “Nature,” February 27, has to be ex-
plained between man’s abstract reasoning powers
and the reasoning of animals from objects present to
the senses, which, it appears to me, has not been
controverted. Here is one difficulty. Then with

140

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

regard to the imagination. Mr. Darwin derives the
faculty from dreams, and observe that animals dream.
Dreams are explainable by the theory generally
accepted, that when we are asleep our intellect is
partly awake, and when we are awake it is partially
dormant. Doubtless the savage may occasionally
mistake dreams for realities, though one would
suppose their constant occurrence would familiarise
him with the phenomenon. Surely this is a very
slight basis on which to establish the origin of the
faculty so marvellous as the imagination. That animals
possess memory, attention, and sympathy, cannot be
disputed. Will Mr. Rogers or Mr. Wheatley explain
why they think “ memory an act of reason ?” How
do they reconcile the assertion with the fact that
idiots often possess marvellous memories ? J. E. Taylor
remarks on the mistakes made by animals, which he
thinks may throw much light on animal psychology,
and his letter suggests to me that the favourite method
of illustration with the Darwinians is to compare the
lowest savage that can be found with the most intelli-
gent quadruped, and then remark that there is little
or no difference between them, overlooking the fact
that one is capable of development to an immense
extent, and the other but to a limited degree. With
regard to these cases of mistakes by animals, many
swimmers must be aware that, when in the water, it
is often difficult for them to keep their dogs off, they
appear to wish to rescue their masters, and they do
not always know their own masters when naked. I
have known instances of naked persons being in danger
from a dog and a cat, and I am informed that the
maternal yearning of a cow that has lost its calf may
be entirely satisfied by a skin stuffed with straw.
There are also many instincts to which we have no
clue whatever. All these must be explained before
it can be conceded that the minds of animals and
man differ only in degree. Turning for a moment
from the mental to the physical question, which
inevitably suggests itself, we find that Mr. Darwin
compares the foetus of a man, a monkey, and a dog,
and remarks that at an early stage of development
they are apparently the same, and argues from this
resemblance that they must have had a common
progenitor. Despite this seeming resemblance, how-
ever, there is the indisputable fact that they develope
into a man, a monkey, and a dog. Surely, if this
proves anything, it proves the danger of reasoning by
analogy, and Mr. Darwin’s arguments are of this
nature. The appearances explained by the law of
reason may be as fallacious. I am not in the least
prejudiced against the Darwinian hypothesis ; what-
ever the conditions of our existence we must perforce
submit to them ; the question for me is, Can it be
confirmed by facts ? but no thinker can disregard the
instinctive disgust with which it is regarded by many
persons of all degrees of cultivation.

What do the evolutionists, who argue that some
supernatural change may have taken place in the
reason of man, mean by the word supernatural ? If
they mean some law not as yet discovered, why do
they not suspend their judgment ? If they mean a
direct interference of the Deity, it is a purely specula-
tive idea, without proof of any kind. We are not
bound to explain the origin of species, or of man, but
we are bound to examine any explanation that may be
offered under penalty of being led on a delusive
voyage of discovery. Much first-rate talent is being
spent on deductions from the Darwinian hypothesis.
What if the premisses are false ? The finite cannot
comprehend the infinite ; so far I agree with your
correspondent, C. L. W., but when he deduces from
this fact that “ man may consequently be in error
when he assumes that he alone is the possessor of

reasoning powers,” he suggests on this basis an asser-
tion that may or may not be true. In my letter, in
the April number, the words “ the same kind of
intelligence ” are a misprint for “ some kind of intel-
ligence,” the reverse of my meaning. — H. D. Barclay.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — Mr.
Wheatley quotes (from “Nature”) a “remarkable
instance of rats gnawing leaden pipes in order to
obtain water, and which Dr. Darwin explained by
saying that the rats heard the water trickling, and
reasoned about it, and cut through the pipe to obtain
it. I think this explanation probable.” I believe it
to be in the highest degree improbable. In this city
the pipes are always full, and consequently no sounds
of “trickling” could be heard ; yet I know of more
than one instance of pipes being gnawed by rats and
mice , even the pipes conveying gas are sometimes
bitten through, of which an instance came under my
notice a few days ago. I think a much simpler ex-
planation can be given than that the rats detected
the presence of water and reasoned upon it, viz., that
the pipes happened to be in their way. — F. Killon.

Intelligence in Animals.— -“ It is quite clear”
(says Dr. Whately) “that if such acts were done by
man they would be regarded as an exercise of reason,
and I do not know why, when performed by brutes,
evidently by a similar process so far as can be judged ,
they should not bear the same name. To talk of a
cat having instinct to pull a bell when desirous of
going out at the door .... would be to use words
at random.” And I think many would agree with
the learned archbishop if they would carefully read the
testimony and researches of such eminent naturalists
and thinkers as Lockslie, Bacon, Burns, poet ; Pro-
fessors Darwin, Iluber, Brehm, Rengger and Kirby ;
Cuvier, the naturalist ; J. K. Lord, Lubbock, and the
lately recognised genius, Edward, of Banff, &c. As
an example, of which so many can be adduced, let
us take the incident related by Mr. Edward. He
saw two birds vainly trying to turn over a large fish
on the sands, to get the vermin beneath. After many
futile attempts, extending over half an hour or more,
and after attracting a third bird who helped them to no
purpose, they stood together, and apparently by their
noise were engaged in some mysterious process of
conversation and reasoning. They again set to work
and dug a large hole in the sands from one side of the
fish, even to undermining a certain distance, and then
with evident expressions of triumph, rolled it over
with ease and commenced the feast they had worked
for. That fish measured 3J feet, being a fine cod,
and those birds undoubtedly used their reason to
elaborate a scheme to accomplish their object. With-
out running off into Darwinian theories, I would
remind Dr. Keegan, as he lays so much stress on the
capacity of the brain, that one of our great physiolo-
gists tells us “ that every chief fissure and fold of the
brain of man has its analogy in that of the ourang,”
whilst Huxley adds “ whilst in those things in which
the brains of men and apes do differ, there is also a
great difference amongst various men.” It is true
structure is not all— the machinery may be perfect in
every detail, yet if it lack the motive power of what
avail is it ? Still is it not reasonable to suppose
that structure being so similar, God intended the
ape to use her brain like man’s but in a less
degree ? The chief obstacle to belief in reason in
animals lies in the fear of what the admission may
lead to, but surely we need not grudge these poor
brutes the possession of a feeble development of
reason, when man, and man alone, can thank his
Creator for giving him a hope of a future which no
animal is destined to enjoy.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENC E-G O SSIP.

141

Birds and the Hard Weather. — The various
notes which have appeared on this subject have been
read with much interest by us, especially Mr.
Bingham’s paper, Science-Gossip, page 70. We
also, during the long severe winter, just experienced,
have diligently fed twice a day our poor feathered
friends ; very delightful and pleasant it has been to
watch the instinctive knowledge, almost amounting to
reason, which appeared to bring them at the exact
time their food was regularly put out for them. At
the first appearance of the frost and snow, about the
end of November, we had not only large numbers of
sparrows, robins, and tom-tits, but also a good gather-
ing of blackbirds, male chaffinches, and thrushes ;
eagerly they assembled on the trees to watch for the
first crumbs thrown out, their bright, intelligent eyes
quickly detecting the breakfast or dinner on the table.
Soon, however, the cold of our northern climate was
too severe for the thrushes, and about the middle of
December they quite left us, but not before two of
their number came to an untimely end : one was
caught by the cat, its poor wings being too much
frozen to fly away from pussy’s reach, the second
came into the house, as if to ask for help, but before
it could be given it fell down dead. Both were evi-
dently not only frozen, but starved to death. As
the cold weather continued, we had, about Christmas,
the magpies and rooks, in addition to our other birds.
The rooks gradually increased in numbers each day,
until on one occasion thirty-one were counted on the
trees. Their favourite food appeared to be meat ; we
threw out some fowls’ bones one morning, which
seemed to be a great treat to them, for they carried
away both the flesh and the bones. In the early part
of December we had the starlings, but they soon left
us, and have only recently (March 2) returned to us.
Also on that day four thrushes again appeared, and
regaled us with their sweet, thrilling song. It may
not be without interest here to remark that we believe
the thrushes do not leave England, but the late
severe winter has driven them south. A lady friend
living in Buckingham, who has been feeding the
birds this winter, told us in a letter that she had
twelve thrushes each morning. The blackbirds have
remained pretty much with us, though they have
been, with other small birds, greatly thinned by our
neighbours, during the frost and snow, amusing them-
selves by shooting our valued feathered friends. And
most cruel it appears, so to take advantage of their
half-starved state, especially as they have come to us
in confiding trust to have their unspoken wants re-
lieved ! The fieldfares have been numerous, and the
heron has been seen flying over this neighbourhood,
rather an unusual circumstance. We also were
visited by a rat, which not only partook of the food
thrown out for the birds, but burrowed close to the
window. We were not quite so kind to him as was
Mr. Bingham to his rat, for we set a trap, which,
though it was not strong enough to secure him, had
the effect of driving the poor fellow to seek a home
elsewhere. — Elizabeth Edwards , Stoke, Stafford.

Cuckoo’s Visits. — It may be interesting to know
that during the last summer and for the preceding
four or five years, I have noticed a cuckoo frequenting
this locality (a suburb of London). I have seen it
repeatedly upon the trees overhanging and adjoining
my small garden, and upon one occasion it remained
perched upon a rail in front of my fowl-house for
more than half an hour. I cannot say positively that
it was the same bird, but it was (or they were) always
small, and as cuckoos vary considerably in size (I
have shot many) I have no doubt that such was
the case. — J. /., Brixton.

The Cuckoo’s Eggs. — Having had a good deal
of experience with regard to cuckoos and their eggs,
perhaps the following remarks, the result of my own
observations, may not be without interest to “ Junior ”
and others of your correspondents. My experience
agrees with that of the writer in the April number,
p. 95, for out of all the numbers I have discovered I
never took one from a nest built on the ground. With
one exception, to be mentioned presently, I found
them all in the nests of the hedge-sparrow and wag-
tail. Those from the latter were generally similar to
the eggs in the nest (but larger of course), and had
streaks, and not spots. The exception to which I
have referred just above was one taken from a common
wren’s nest, which was built in furze placed in hurdles
in order to make jumps for horses. This egg was
smaller than any other cuckoo’s which I have seen.
There were six wren’s eggs in the nests with it. I
have never found more than one egg in the same nest.
— F. Anderson , Chichester.

Black Bullfinches. — Hemp seed will, I know
from experience, darken the plumage of most birds,
and bullfinches are especially liable to change colour
if much of this seed is given to them, although they
are particularly fond of it. I had a bullfinch that
turned black in the same way as “St. Austell” de-
scribes his to have done, but my bird did not lose his
vocal powers, and was in perfect health. I saw a
black bullfinch not long since in a cottage window,
and went in to ask the mistress, who keeps a village
shop, if she gave the bird hemp seed, but she said it
had grown up black. She had taken it, I discovered,
from the nest, and its plumage had from the first
been black. — Mrs. Alfred Watney.

Tree Sparrow. — In looking over some odd
numbers of an old periodical, I saw a short account
of this bird. Amongst other particulars, it stated
that it had only been found breeding in seven English
counties ; and as I have frequently found it nesting
here (North Yorkshire), I thought the following
notes concerning it might not prove uninteresting to
the ornithological readers of Science-Gossip. It
most usually constructs its nest in the hollow parts
of trees, especially where a hole has been formed by
the breaking away of a branch. But this is not in-
variably the case, for in the year 1876 I found a
perfect colony of them nesting in the roof of an
implement shed attached to a farm. There had been
a heap of thorns laid upon a few cross beams, and
upon these the usual thatch of straw had been laid.
It was in the thorns that the nests were found. There
were over a dozen of them, besides several of those
of the house sparrow ; and all of them contained
either eggs or young. On revisiting the place again
last year, I only found one or two nests, all the
“good holes” being apparently occupied by the
house sparrow, to the exclusion of its smaller relative.
— f. A. IVheldon , North Allerton.

Curious Sites for Birds’ Nests. — Your corres-
pondent on the above subject does not mention the
prolific site that an old magpie’s nest affords, and the
number of birds that make use of it after the original
builders have done with it ; from my own experience
as a “ birds’-nester,” I have taken the eggs ofkestrel,
sparrow, hawk, brown owl, blackbird, thrush, starling,
stock-dove, pied wagtail, redstark, nuthatch, creeper,
great tit, blue tit, and once, built in the cross sticks
of the dome, the nest of the long-tailed tit ; when
magpies were more plentiful than they are here now,
their old nests were an almost certain find for stock
doves, and many a pair of eggs and young have I
taken from them. — G. T.

142

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Plates of Birds’ Eggs. —Could any reader of
Science-Gossip inform me whether there are any
tolerably cheap, but good coloured plates of British
birds and eggs, or eggs separately, and if so where
obtainable? — T. J. IV. Oakley , Stoney Cross , Bourne-
mouth.

A Strange Place for Marsh Plants. — Had
not Mr. A. Craig-Christie’s remarks (p. 16) appeared
to require some comment, I would not have reverted
to this subject. But as he says all the plants in the
list “ are to be found all along the coast from Bowness
to North Berwick (in damp and marshy places),” and
as this includes Leith and its neighbourhood, any one
who has not an opportunity of examining the place,
will naturally infer that they have sprung up from the
seeds of plants in the immediate vicinity, and that,
far from being unusual, their speedy appearance is
only a natural sequence of the exclusion of the salt
water. But this is not the case. The Leith and Porto-
bello branch of the North British Railway runs close
to the shore for about a mile east of the town, and is
bounded on the north by a sloping sea-wall, that was
formerly washed by every tide, and on the south by
the turnpike road between Leith and Portobello ; this
again being bounded by dwelling-houses, gardens,
and fields. So it will be seen that hardly any vegeta-
tion, other than marine, could or did grow there.
Again, Mr. Christie says: — “ Most of them used to
grow at the Figgat Whins, between Leith and Porto-
bello.” It may be so ; but both they and the Figgat
Whins have long disappeared, and of fifteen species
observed, only three, namely, Ranunculus sceleratus ,
Veronica beccabunga, and Catabrosa aquatica are
now found between the two towns, a distance of
three miles ; so far as I can see, after a careful
examination of the coast ; while between Leith and
Granton, about an equal distance in the opposite
direction, none of them are found at all. As my
previous note was forwarded in July, a few additional
species were subsequently observed before their growth
was finally stopped by autumnal frost. And several
littoral species, not recently found near Leith, also
made their appearance. Among these I may men-
tion Aster trip o lium, Salicornia herbacea, Triglochin
maritimum , J uncus Gerardi , and Scirpus maritimus.
All these were probably at one time common here,
till their gradual extinction from alterations made on
the coast, through the exigencies of trade and com-
merce. In conclusion, I have recently received infor-
mation that appears to afford a satisfactory explanation
of the matter. A native of Leith tells me that the
overflow water from Lochend Loch at one time
entered the Firth at the place where the plants now
grow, but that several years ago it was drained away
in another direction, and now runs into the Firth
much farther eastward. — D. Douglas.

Interesting Plants in the Royal Gardens,
Kew. — On the west-side of the Economic house is
Schmus Molle, the Peruvian Mastic, introduced into
this country about 1597, and included in the natural
order Terebinthaceae, tribe Anacardiese, of Hooker’s
“ Genera Plantarum.” It is a small dioecious shrub
with unequally pinnate leaves, and white flowers in
panicles. The cells in the leaves contain a great
quantity of volatile oil or resinous matter, which is
violently expelled if the leaves be placed in water, the
recoil causing a motion that appears to be spontane-
ous. In Italy, where this plant succeeds well in the
open air, a shower of rain renders the air fragrant
with the discharged oil. The young leaves of several
species of Rhus exhibit the same phenomena when
immersed in water. The Peruvians employ the roots

as an astringent medicine, and in Chili a kind of wine
is prepared from the fruits. Schmus is the Greek term
for Pistacia Lent is c us, and was applied to the present
plant from the similarity in their medicinal properties.
The specific name Molle is not the neuter form of
mollis, as might be supposed, but an adaptation of the
native term Mulli. On the same side is the notable
manchineel {Hippoma?ie Ma?icmella) found on the sandy
shores of tropical South America and some islands in
the West Indies — a Euphorbiaceous tree, with ovate-
elliptical shining leaves, and inconspicuous unisexual
flowers. The milk-white juice of this plant has a
volatile poisonous principle ; which, however, is not
sufficiently virulent to render credible the innumerable
marvels related concerning its effects. The man-
chineel is said to rival the upas-tree of Java in the
number of wonderful tales with which it is connected.
We have reliable evidence of one property in the
works of Dr. Leeman, who states that he and some
sailors were affected by temporary blindness through
getting some of the juice in their eyes, when on shore
at Veraguas. The statement that persons have died
through sleeping under the tree, was doubted by
Jacquin, who judged from his own experience ; but
Ad. de Jussieu thought, very reasonably, that its effects
might vary on differently constituted persons. The
fruit is fleshy, and closely resembles an apple in shape
and colour, but as it contains the same noxious
principle as other parts of the plant, we can readily
imagine what an extremely disagreeable surprise
would greet the unfortunate individual who might
attempt to eat it. The name Hippomajte, from hippos
and mania, was given by the Greeks to a plant that
grew in Arcadia, which had the reputation of render-
ing horses furious. At the other side of the house
we have Physostigma venenosum, the “ordeal bean”
of Old Calabar ; a leguminous plant included in the
PhaseoleDe. It has a climbing stem with alternate,
pinnately trifoliate, stipulate leaves ; the leaflets
acuminate, and base of the common petiole swollen ;
the purplish flowers are borne on pendulous axillary
racemes. The style is very long, bearded, and taper-
ing, to near the apex, where it is broadly dilated into a
triangular hood above the stigma ; from this peculi-
arity the generic name and character are derived.
Although valuable nutritive qualities characterise
leguminous plants generally, yet a deleterious principle
occurs in several species, and in none is it more
strongly marked than in Physostigma, which is certainly
the most poisonous of this vast order. The active *
properties are concentrated in the seeds, and are
found to be owing to the presence of the alkaloids
eserine and physostigmine. The seeds are used by
the natives of west tropical Africa as an ordeal,
similarly to the Tanghin described in the last paper.
The extract and alkaloids have a peculiar effect upon
the eye, causing contraction of the pupil ; hence, of
late years they have become valuable ophthalmic
medicines. — Lewis Castle , West Kensington Park.

“Stock-Frost,” &c. — What are the phenomena
which go, in the Norfolk district at least, by the
name of “stock-frost,” “stock-ice?” I have heard men
whose veracity is unimpeachable, and not unintelli-
gent men either, assert that in certain frosts the
bottoms of streams and “broads ” will freeze, and at the
giving of the frost, a substance something like ice-
cream in appearance will come to the surface, this
substance having imbedded in it the weeds that grew
near the bottom of the water, and often the stones
and brickbats that might be resting on the mud. I
don’t understand the phenomena, but if those who
know would kindly insert an answer to my query,
they would much oblige — Ignoramus.

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i43

“ Honey-Stalks.” — It is generally supposed that
the writer of “ Titus Andronicus ” referred to clover
flowers in the lines quoted by C. Foran. The long
tubes of the corolla in the flowers of Trifolium pratense
abound in honey. It is, I believe, an error to suppose
that the clover flower produces rot in sheep, though
the author of “ Titus Andronicus ” leads us to suppose
so, as the lines concerning the “honey-stalks” seem
to show :

“With words more sweet, and yet more dangerous,

Than baits to fish, or honey-stalks to sheep ;

When as the one is wounded with the bait,

The other rotted with delicious feed.”

I may here remark that the play “ Titus Andronicus ”
is very generally believed not to have been written by
Shakespeare at all. I think I am right in asserting
that in modern editions of Shakespeare this play
is omitted as spurious. — Charles F. W. T. Williams ,
Bath.

“Honey-Stalks.” — (No. 173, p. 118) : the flowers
of white clover ( Trifolium repens , L.). It is an in-
teresting fact that this is still the local name of the
plant in Shakespeare’s native country. — Robert
Holland.

“ Honey-Stalks.” — Nares in his Glossary quoting
the passage from Shakespeare’s “ Titus Andronicus ”
referred to by your correspondent, C. Foran, says
“ honey-stalks ” are clover flowers, which contain a
sweet juice, and that it is common for cattle to over-
charge themselves with clover and die. I may add
that country children often suck the flowers for their
sweet juice, which they call honey. — W. Thompson ,
Sedbergh.

“ Honey-Stalks.” — I find under this head in
Nares’ “ Glossary of Shakespeare,” “ Clover flowers,
which contain a sweet juice ; it is common for cattle
to overcharge themselves with clover and die.” I
hope that this explanation will satisfy your corres-
pondent.— F. A. Bather.

Cossus at Sugar. — In answer to the query in
May number of Science-Gossip, I may say that in
July 1876 I saw a specimen of the above insect on
sugar at Willans, near Lea Bridge, Hackney, but it
flew off the tree immediately the light came upon it.
The same incident occurred last year, but I was un-
successful in bottling the insect, which was a very
shabby specimen. However, the next night he paid
us another visit, and we captured him, but owing to
bad condition gave him his freedom. I also met a
collector who had a freshly-emerged specimen which
he assured me he took at sugar, at the same locality.
— Arthur J. Rose.

Cossus at Sugar. — Your correspondent, W. H.
Newberry, inquires for instances of Cossus ligni-
perda coming to sugar. A few summers ago I took
a specimen near Semley, Wilts, in an oak-tree which
I had painted with a mixture of treacle and beer, it
crawled up from the ground to the first drop down
the base of trunk ; this, however, is the only occasion
I have noticed the species attracted by sweet fluid. —
II. P. Stock.

Abnormal character of the Season. — It may
be worth putting on record that this year the palm-
tree, and the blackthorn, only began to blossom in this
neighbourhood on May 2. According to the Rev. L.
Jenyns, the flowering of the former tree ranges from
March 17 to April 19, as that of the blackthorn from
March 15 to April 20. The return of birds of passage
has been little affected. Swallows were first seen
here on April 20, and the cuckoo was first heard on
April 25, dates by no means exceptionally late. This

fact disproves the old notion that migratory birds
have a mysterious foreknowledge of the state of the
weather in the country to which they are going, and
time their movements accordingly. — f. W. Slater ,
Aylesbury.

Sleep of Ants. — I should be obliged if any of
your correspondents could give me the following in-
formation. Mr. Emerson in chapter iv. (entitled “Lan-
guage ”) of his essay on “ Nature ” says : “ The in-
stincts of the ant are very unimportant, considered as
the ant’s, but a moment a ray of relation is seen to
extend from it to man, and the little drudge is seen
to be a monitor, a ‘ little body with a mighty heart,’
then all its habits, even that said to be recently ob-
served that it never sleeps, become sublime.” What
I wish to know is whether there is any evidence to
prove that the ant never sleeps ? I should be much
obliged if any correspondent can give me this informa-
tion.— A. T.

The Thermal Sources of Carlsbad. — I am
very glad to see in the Science-Gossip recently,
that a local cause for hot water has been discovered
at Carlsbad. Will, you allow me to offer you a quo-
tation from my “ Interior of the Earth,” 1870, “ Hot
Springs” p. 51 ? “It is sufficiently proved by the
analysis of the waters, that the materials carried with
them are conducive to heat. As then these trickling
subterraneous waters work downwards, they come to
the materials which had long ago been subjected to
the natural heating causes ; these materials gathered
over, and upon the faces of the harder strata, offer
themselves to the perpetual erosion of every trickle,
so that the alluvial valley is kept perpetually supplied
with the bases of the metallic alkalies, with water to
create the heat, and with the acids to modify that
heat.” The cause of heat in all hot springs is local
It has suited science to assign the cause to a hot
interior, founded on tire nebular hypothesis of Laplace,
but this is not proved, while the local cause for hot
springs is proved. — II . P. Malet , Florence.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

E. J. Ockenden. — See chapter in “ Collecting and Preserving
Natural History Specimens” (London: Hardwicke & Bogue,
price 3-y. 6 d.) It is written by Professor Ralph Tate, and gives
you full instructions for removing mollusca from their shells.
Gwyn Jeffrey’s “ British Conchology,” published by Van
Voorst, is the best work we have on this subject.

A. Seinad (Colchester). — Get Taylor’s “Aquarium: its
history, principles, and management,” price 6s. London :
Hardwicke & Bogue ; where you will find full instructions as to
the details you enquire about.

L. Hawkins. — We have forwarded your specimens to be
named, but you could easily identify and name them for yourself,
by getting Cooke’s “ Microscopic Fungi,” price 6j., from Hard-
wicke & Bogue, 192 Piccadilly, W.

J. R. Corder. — The common cray-fish (Astacus ftuviatilis)
can be kept in aquaria. Its food consists of aquatic mollusca,
insect larvae, &c., and the cray-fish would even be useful in a
large aquarium, in consuming and removing dead garbage.
See an account of a domesticated cray-fish in Bell’s “ British
Stalk-eyed Crustacea.” The smooth newt ( Lissotriton punc-
tatus) is soonest adapted to an aquarium. Mr. King, Sea Horse
House, Portland Road, London, could supply you with material
and objects for aquaria.

E. Viles. — The “slimy Substance” on the gravel paths was
no doubt the Nostoc commune.

144

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-G OSSIE.

M. W. T. (Cardiff}. — Get “Notes on Collecting and Pre-
serving Natural History Specimens,” price 3 s. 6 d. published by
Hardwicke & Bogue, 192 Piccadilly, London, and study chapter
on “Botanical Specimens,” by James Britten, F.L.S.

G. C. D. — You do not say what kind of objects you wish to
mount. Canada balsam can be used in India, but requires
hardening by heat before putting on the cover glass.

Edward Ward. — Your fresh-water algae are — 1. Zygnema
rivulare, Hassall ; 2. Zygnema (? sp.) ; 3. Z. nitidum ; 4. V esi-
ciilifera Ca?idollii, Hassall.

J. B. — Your mounted specimens are, — 1. Lyngbia (? sp.) ; 2.
Rivularia gramtlifera ; 3. R ivularia.

F. S. St. A. — If our correspondent will send us isolated
specimens of the algae she wishes to have named, we will en-
deavour to get it done, but we cannot ask those gentlemen to
whom we are indebted for the identification of specimens, to
search over a quantity of crude material, in order to find some
particular form, and to which no clue has been given.

J. Severs. — Our “Exchange column” is open gratuitously
to subscribers of Science-Gossip for their mutual advantage,
but we limit the length of the exchanges to about three lines of
letter-press.

J. S. Dickin. — Pritchard’s “ History of Infusoria ” is an old
and antiquated book, but the only one in our language before
the public. It is rare, and can only be obtained through a
secondhand bookseller. Mr. Saville Kent is, we believe, pre-
paring a revised manual of “ British Infusoria,” a work long
wanted. Slack’s “ Pond Life,” and Gosse’s “ Evening’s at the
Microscope,” are both good books for a young amateur.

W. Roberts. — Your specimens of weevil are Otiorhynchus
picipes. O. sulcatus is a distinct species, easily distinguished
from the former. Both are destructive foes to gardeners, al-
though the larvae of the latter have a peculiar predilection for
potted plants.

Botanical Exchange Club. — Rules of membership, &c.,
may be obtained by application to 192 Piccadilly, W. It is time
that intending workers should send in their names, addresses,
and subscriptions, with a view to work this summer.

William Bennett (Clehonger). — Your bat is a remarkable
earless specimen of the common flitter-mouse f Vespertilio pipis-
trellus).

EXCHANGES.

A specimen of the rare shining moss ( ScJiistostega pennata) ,
containing many diatoms, sent for really well-mounted slide. —
T. Watson, Bank Parade, Burnley.

Stephen’s “ British Insects,” with coloured illustrations. I
have the first four volumes of part i. (i.e. Mandibulata) and the
first three volumes of part ii. (i.e. Haustellata) of the above work.
Want remainder. Apply to George T. Baker, Hagley Road,
Birmingham.

Microscope (Baker) in case with condenser, polariscope, &c.
complete. For ^15 or smaller instrument and cash. Also
“ Beale on the Microscope.” — Rev. C. L. Williams, Aston,
Birmingham.

Authenticated British, European, Asiatic, Indian, American,
African, Labrador species bird’s eggs. Lists forwarded. Ex-
change offers requested. Foreign correspondence specially
wished for. — John William, 11 Priory Road, Sheffield.

Fine slidesof the rare Sphczroploa anmdina , showing fructifi-
cation, in exchange for other authentically named freshwater
algse, or first class material, diatomaceous preferred. — J. Tem-
pere, 249 Moss Lane East, Manchester.

Wanted, fossils, in exchange for sponges and fossils from the
white and red chalk of Yorkshire ; also recent shells, in exchange
for British land, fresh-water, and marine species. Send lists to
Rev. George Bailey, Seaham Harbour.

For unmounted palates of L. litorea, and B. undattim ; send
unmounted objects to J. M., 12 Porchester Street, near Clifford
Street, Birmingham.

Well-mounted slides of Aulacodiscus littoris, Azilac. mar-
garitaceus, H eliopelta mollis, Trinacria regina, several species
of Hemiantus and Isthmia, and a large number of diatomaceous
deposits from all countries for slides or gatherings of rare diato-
macese. — Otto A. Witt, 2 Gunnersbury Terrace, Turnham
Green, London.

Good slides offered in return for insects, living or freshly
killed, in spirit. More especially the less common Diptera,
gadflies, sawflies, mole crickets, and other orthoptera and
neuroptera. — G. N. W., 10 Edinburgh Place, Weston-super-
Mare.

Well-mounted slides of anchor, and plates of Synapta gal-
licrena, in exchange for good unmounted material. — W. E. C.,
Mr. Greasley, White Cottage, Gregory Street, Old Lenton,
Nottingham.

Numbers of “Astronomical Register,” “Microscopical
Journal,” “Nature,” and others, to exchange for British bird’s
eggs. — George W. Coultas, High Street, Bridlington, Yorkshire.

Am breaking up my noted collection of exquisite and rare
exotic butterflies and moths. Also British coleoptera, 8000
specimens, 4000 species, mounted on cardboard without pins.
Also bird’s eggs. Full particulars sent. Wanted in exchange,
European eggs. No post cards. — Henry Sissons, Brincliffe,
Sheffield.

Wanted, unmounted material of all kinds, in exchange for
microscopic or lantern slides, or cash. — Joseph Severs, Aireth-
waite, Kendal.

In exchange for mounted sections of “Golden Osier ” and
holly-stems, double-stained, send good slides to A. Alletsee
11 Foley Street, London, W.

“The Microscope,” by Hon. Mrs. Ward, new cloth gilt, for
Suffolk on “ Microscopical Manipulation,” or Gosse’s “ Evenings
with the Microscope,” or Martin’s “Manual of Microscopic
Mounting,” or Cook’s “Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould.” —
A. C. King, South Parade, Ledbury.

Offers in exchange (either in foreign land, or foreign marine
shells, the former most acceptable) for any of the following
British land and freshwater shells, which I have duplicate speci-
mens of at present — namely, A. oblonga, L. involuta, L.
Burnetti, P. ritigens, V. pusilla, V. substriala, V. alpestris,
V.' minutissima, V. angustior, V. M oitlmsia?ia.—W. Sutton,
High Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Exotic insects of every description from India, Peru, China,
America, Java, Africa, Ceylon, &c., exchange arranged by
letter.' Foreign correspondence specially requested. Selections
forwarded on approval, before exchanging. — Sissens, Sharrow,
Sheffield.

Living water newt ( Lissotriton palmipes) in exchange for
living polyzoa, &c. — J. B., 36 Windsor Terrace, Glasgow.

Wanted, in exchange for fossils, seaweeds, and other natural
objects, any old MSS. deeds, books, prints, &c., relating to
Kent, Thanet, or Margate. — F. Stanley, Margate.

Pathological crystals, cystin, leucin, tyrosin, &c., in
exchange for good mounted or unmounted objects. — J. W., 10
Evering Villas, Clapton, E.

Small packet of diatomaceous earth (Stoneyford, Ireland)
sent upon receipt of stamped envelope ; any object of interest
will be thankfully accepted. I have some very fine selected slides
of diatoms, some arranged in pattern, that I will exchange for
fragments of Hyalonema mirabilis, or other good spicula bear-
ing sponges. — W. White, 18 Convent Street, Nottingham.

Offered Hooker and Baker’s “ Synopsis Filicum,” 2nd ed.,
coloured plates. Wanted, Sach’s “Text Book of Botany.” —
Jephthah Makin, Pendlebury, near Manchester.

Wanted to exchange for rare plants, the Gagea lutea, and
Chrysosplenium alternifolium. — George Hastwell, Darlington.

Coral sections, British and foreign shells, fossils, minerals,
and polished sections of madrepores ; will take fossils, rough
corals, and foreign shells in exchange. — A. J. R. Sclater, Teign-
mouth.

Nevvt’s eggs (living) in exchange for living polyzoa, melicerta,
and similar objects. Send to J. B., 36 Windsor Terrace,
Glasgow.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

“Evolution, Old and New.” By the author of “Erewhon.*
London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

“Electric Lighting, and its Practical Application.” By
J. W. Shoolbred, B.A. London. Hardwicke & Bogue.

“ Organic Chemistry.” By Hugh Clements. London: Blackie
& Son.

Noad’s “Student’s Text Book of Electricity.” Revised by
W. H. Preece. London : Crosby, Lockwood & Co.

“ Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Liverpool,” vol. xxxii., 1877-78.

“ Entomological Papers.” By C. V. Riley.

“The Silkworm:” being a brief manual of instructions for
the production of silk. Washington : Government Printing
Office.

“ Midland Naturalist.” May.,

“ Land and Water.” May.

“ Ben Brierley’s Journal.” May.

“Journal of Applied Science.” May.

“ Animal World.” May.

“American Quarterly Microscopical Journal.” April.

“American Naturalist.” April.

“ American Journal of Microscopy.” April.

“Characese Americanse.” By Timothy F. Allen, LL.D.
Part I.

“ Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.” March.

“ Bulletin de la Societe Beige de Microscopie.” February.

“ Marine Engineering News.” May.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to 12TH ult. from :—
E. D. M.— C. H. D.— T. B. W.— D. D.— A. B. F.— E. E.—
W. H. W.— W. K.— C. F. W. T. W.— D. W.— E. M.— E. V.—
H. P. S.— J. W. S.— C. L. W.— G. T. B.— R. D.— M. W. T.—
G. B.— W. B.— L. H.— C. J. W.— J. R. C.— F. A. B.— J. B.—
J. M.— J. G.— E. J. O.— O. N. W.— C. P.— H. W. S.-J.W.-
T. W. D.— H. J. G.— W. N.— T. S.— A. J. R.— W. G.— W. T.—
E. B. K. W.— F. A.— J. P. G.— H. M. J. S.— J. H. G.— W. E. C.
— G. W. C.— S. J. I. A.— H. M. H.— H. S W. B. S.— A. M.
-G. C.— A. A.— A. C. K.— J. S. D.— W. S.— R. M.— H. C. B.
— W. L.— J. B.— F. C.-C. W. B.— W. B.— F. S.-H. J. W.—
J. M.— F. J. G.-A. M. P.— C. B.— W. D. S.— Dr. P. Q. K —
r. H.— W. R.— E. E. E.— G. H.— J. H.— J. O. B— H. W. H.
— A. J. R. S. — J. W. jun. — &c.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i45

HOLIDAY RAMBLES.

GLEN CALLATER.

By G. C. Druce, F.L.S.

R.Y different was
the scenery and
atmosphere of
Deeside from that
of Jersey, but the
same attractive
spell of botanical
rarities hung round
each, although the
flora was as dif-
ferent as the at-
mosphere and
scenery. Here,
instead of head-
lands shining like
opals from the
profusion of Sedum
anglicum , we had
hills of dusky
brown, in places
flushing into ame-
thystine tints from the half opened heather, or
darkened into sombre olive-green where the pines of
Mar and Invercauld grew in rich luxuriance. But
the point of most attraction, as we lingered about the
gardens of the Fife Arms, or strayed by the Cluny
side, was the road leading to Glen Callater, although
such mighty rivals as Ben na Bourd, Ben A’an and
Ben McDhu, all celebrated for their rarities, were
around. So it was towards Glen Callater we first
started, following for a time the river Cluny, gathering
close to the hotel Hieracmm prenanthoides — and
admiring the little stream as it fell in tiny rapids
down to the Dee, but after proceeding some couple
of miles, the glimpse of snow on McDhu, now
appearing over Braemar, gave new object for our
admiration, till this gave place to the pleasure of
seeing Pyrola rotundifolia and Listera cordata grow-
ing within a few feet of each other. The common
plant of this portion of our walk was Alchemilla
alpina ; E7npetrum Tiigrum later on, however, dis-
puted its claim. Leaving the Cluny for its tributary,
No. 175.

the Callater, after some little time we noticed right
ahead precipitous cliffs, down one of which was
pouring a tiny stream, the far-famed “Break Neck
waterfall ” of Glen Callater, where some elderly
botanist got into such a dangerous place that he
dared not go down and could not go back, and was
thus imprisoned for more than a day. The Hiercichwi
vnlgatu77i was common by the steep sides of the
stream till shortly before reaching the loch ; on more
level ground, where the stream only slowly crept, it
became bordered with bog plants, such as Drosera,
Pinguicula, while in some of the more stagnant pools
Chara sy7icarpci occurred, the quicker running stream
yielding Chara pulchella.

The lake itself contained Isoetes echmospora and
Lobelia Dortmamia. Here, six miles from Braemar, we
commenced the ascent of Loch na Gar, gathering Poly-
go 71H771 'vivipariun and Carex bhiervis , and then were
brought to a standstill by the abundance of Trie7italis
europcca , dwarfed to an inch or two in height, but with
lovely large flowers. The ascent of the mountain is
not particularly interesting, the best views being the
corrie of Loch Kander and the waterfall, but several
good plants were picked, among them being dLieraciiwi
C(zsiii77i and chrysanthicm, Caltha 7nmor , Sibbaldia
procumbe7is , and Saxifraga aizoides and stellar is, the
two latter very common. At still higher elevation
L7iztila spicata , Carex rigida , and Ju7icus trijidus
occurred, a great abundance growing among the stony
debris, and then appeared the tiny Salix herbacea
with its bright chestnut-red fruit, which with the
three former continued nearly to the summit, from
whence a splendid view was obtained over Deeside
to Balmoral and Ballater, with the Scotch Alps
Ben McDhu, Ben A’an, Cairntone, rather uninteresting
in outline, being rounded and dumpy in appearance,
and wanting the sharp peaks and fantastic outlines of
Arran or Snowdonia ; but still very beautiful were
the snow patches appearing now a blue grey as some
passing cloud obscured the sun and now shining with
dazzling brilliancy ; down below us was Loch Muick,
while over by Glen Callater could be discerned the

H

146

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

black Loch Kander with its precipitous corries, the
rocks, at the head of Glen Callater, and above these
appeared the hill forming the watershed of the Clova
mountains. Descending to the snow corrie, where in
the water running from the snow we got some
saxifrages, we soon came to Azalea procumbens and
Epilobium alpinum , and coming down by some
roughish descent the ground near Loch Callater was
covered with Arbutus Uva-ursi.

Another day was spent in walking from Braemar
to Loch Callater, and following the western side of
the lake, near the head of which we came upon
Veronica becca’ounga , dwarfed to a couple of inches,
and with' bright blue flowers contrasting beautifully
with Saxifraga aizoides , with which it occurred.

On the moorland leading up to Loch Kander, Carex
paucijlorus and RubusChamcemorus, the latter in flower,
were gathered ; by the stream issuing from the loch
Salix arenana and Lapponum occur, and in the
lake itself grew Callitriche hamulata. The corries
round the lake were rich with rarities, Polypodium
alpestre being especially fine. Rhodiola rosea , Saxi-
fraga l lypnoides , with the varieties gemmipara and
sponhemica, Epilobium anagallidifolium , Alsine
•verna , Polygala vulgaris approaching grandiflora,
J uncus trifidus , triglumis , Carex pulicaris , pilulifera ,
and strange dwarfed specimens of Carex flava , and
some fine Asplenium viride , were soon gathered. At
some elevation on the precipitous rocks were gathered
Salix reticulata , lanata , and herbacea, Carex capil-
lar is, and abundance of Cochlearia alpina , Saussurea
alpina , not quite in flower, and Hieracium pallidum ,
chrysanthum, nigrescens , and cccsium. This dark lake
Kander, like so many of our British mountain lakes,
is situated on the east side of the mountain, and it is
probable that their position may be owing to glacial
action, the great amount of snow and ice remaining on
the colder side. Lakes in this position are to be
seen on Ben Nevis, Cairngorm, Loch na Gar, and in
many of the Welsh mountains. In the Lake District
the difference between the south-western and north-
eastern sides of the mountains is very marked, and
High Street, Helvellyn, Scawfell have also these
mountain tarns on the eastern side.

To return, however, to the cliffs about Loch
Kander, where some good scrambling was enjoyed in
getting on to the rocks about the Break Neck water-
fall, where magnificent y uncus triglumis and Carex
atrata occurred. Then came a grassy place of a less
steep inclination, where Aspidiumlonchitisg rew almost
by hundreds ; here too were found Leontodon pratense ,
Carex alpicola and speirostachya. By the waterfall
grew Veronica alpina , not in flower but with a
bluish purple about the capsule ; the variety mon-
tana of A lehemilla vulgaris ; the cudweeds G. supinum
in both its states pusillum and fuscum; a form of
Carex bmervis , which at first looked like frigida , and
Salix nigricans, phylicifolia, and pseudo-glauca; Hiera-
cium anghcum , Vaccinium uliginosum, Air a montana.

Silene acaulis and Saxifraga oppositifolia both occurred
in flower, although very sparingly. At the boggy head
of the lake Carex vesicama , Potamogeton polvgonif 0 lius ,
and other common plants occurred, but after such
a feast of rarities our botanical ardour required stronger
stimulus than these to linger on our homeward walk.

THE HYPOTHETICAL PLANET.

By J. J. Plummer, M.A., F.R.A.S.

THERE are few pages in the history of astronomy
that will read more strangely in the future
than the belief which has been entertained so firmly
during the last twenty years in the existence of a
planet interior to Mercury, and which is generally
known by the name of “Vulcan.” No doubt much
of the tenacity that has been shown in this matter is
attributable to the respect due to the genius of the
late M. Leverrier, who had a profound belief in the
reality of its existence, and than whom there was
none other more capable of estimating the value of
the evidence in its favour. He subjected, one after
another, the motions of all the major planets to the
test of the most refined analysis, and had shown in
every case how accurately the law of gravitation
accounted for all the minor disturbances (technically
called perturbations) which the several planets produce
upon each other by their mutual attractions. One,
and one only, appeared to defy his treatment and
the Newtonian law alike, and this, the planet Mercury,
the smallest of the larger planets, and the nearest to
the sun. The direction of its elliptical orbit is
certainly shifting slowly, and the attractions of the
neighbouring planets were by him deemed insuffi-
cient to account for the fact. No one had better
reason to remember than Leverrier, how similar
outstanding perturbations had been reduced to order
by the discovery of the planet Neptune at the other
extremity of the solar system, and it is, therefore, not
surprising to find him confident that a like result
would be achieved in this case. Indeed, so far as the
theoretical side of the question is concerned, the case
appears to be completely in favour of an undiscovered
planet interior to Mercury, and the full weight of this
evidence was doubtless not only felt, but exaggerated
in the mind of the great French astronomer.

The difficulty of verifying practically these conclu-
sions by the actual discovery of a planet is very con-
siderable, owing chiefly to the close proximity to the
sun which such an object would constantly maintain,
and the only hope of bringing the telescope to bear
upon the actual body would necessarily be during an
eclipse of the sun, or on the occasions when the planet
might project itself on the solar disc. There are not
wanting records, more or less definite and precise, of
the appearance of minute spots upon the solar orb
unlike the well-known sunspots, but unluckily no
practised astronomer has yet succeeded in securing a

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i47

glimpse of these strange objects, so very like planets in
transitu. A number of them, some five or six, group
themselves round a particular day in the month of
March or October, in such a manner as to render it
possible, at least, that they might be transits of the
same body, for it is to be remarked that a transit of a
planet can only be seen when the object is near one
of the nodes of its orbit, that is, when it is crossing
the ecliptic, and thus can only have place when the
earth is in the same longitude as the node, or twice a
year at an interval of six months. But now the diffi-
culties begin to accumulate. If these five or six obser-
vations of spots be really transits of a single planet, it
should be possible to predict the recurrence of like
transits, and Leverrier, believing in the trustworthi-
ness of five of them, did predict a transit of Vulcan for
the month of March 1877. The supposed planet,
however, failed to put in an appearance, and Leverrier
died while the question was still unsettled.

Somewhat later M. Oppolzer has taken up the
subject, and using eight observations of spots made at
various times during the present century as bond fide
transits of Vulcan, found that these could be reconciled
by a second hypothesis differing considerably from
Leverrier’s, and which could readily be tested, as
transits must occur very frequently, and he fixed the
18th March of the present year as one of these crucial
occasions. Just as previously, however, astronomers
in all parts of the world anxiously scanned the sun
upon the day named, and met with the same ill-success.
Frobably this would have been the last attempt of the
kind, and astronomers would have remained content
with this negative evidence as proving the non-exist-
ence of Vulcan, but the question in the meantime had
assumed a new phase.

We have stated that Vulcan should be visible in
all probability to the naked eye, and certainly with
the aid of small telescopic power during a total
eclipse of the sun. Frequently as these phenomena
have been observed of late years by the most ex-
perienced astronomers, none have glimpsed the
doubtful Vulcan, although in justice it must be said
that these precious moments have generally been
fully occupied by the investigation of a variety of
other important questions. As these, however, have
gradually neared to a solution, the last total eclipse
visible in America in July 1878 was devoted by several
able astronomers to this task, and the search for
Vulcan was perhaps the most prominent feature of
the observation. Two of the observers alone claim
to have seen planetary bodies near the sun, though
perhaps in consequence of the haste in which their
respective positions were noted it has not been found
possible to identify and reconcile the remarks of the
two discoverers, so that whether there were one or
two or three or four Vulcans seen during the eclipse
is regarded by some as an open question. One point,
however, is conceded, viz., that none of the four can
possibly be the theoretical Vulcan of Leverrier, nor

the inferred planet of Oppolzer, and we are thus
afforded valuable evidence that the cause of the
erratic movements of Mercury has not been discovered,
and in all probability is not discoverable in the shape
of a planet nearer to the sun than it.

It would be useless, however, to deny that much
interest attaches to what was actually seen in America
last year, and it is with a certain amount of relief
that we find the examination of the observations then
made has been taken in hand by so eminently able a
mathematician as Dr. C. Id. F. Peters, and a result
evolved that admits of no cavil. He has shown to
the satisfaction doubtless of all unprejudiced persons
that the discoverers were themselves mistaken, and
had fallen into the error of taking conspicuous stars
to be minute planetary bodies, and without impugning
either their ability or their honesty, the excitement
and hurry of the moment are amply sufficient to
account for the erroneous announcement which startled
the world a few months since. At the very moment
when the believers in Vulcan thought they had their
hands on the object of their search, have their hopes
been dashed to the ground ; and as if to crush the
last lingering remains of life entirely out of this hope-
ful hypothesis the same astronomer has been able to
show incontrovertibly that the most trusted observa-
tion of the supposed planet on the solar disk is utterly
unreliable. It is seldom that so fatal a stroke has
been aimed at a long-cherished scientific fallacy.

But it must not be forgotten that the change of
position of the axis of Mercury’s orbit is an ascertained
fact and needs explanation. We require continually
to improve by observation the data upon which our
theoretical results are based, and should it be found,
as there is already some ground for believing it may
be, that the planet Venus is a denser and more
powerfully attracting body than it has hitherto had
the credit of being, the difficulty will be solved, and
the theory of gravitation will stand in as proud a
position as it could have done had the conjectures of
Leverrier been confirmed by the discovery he so
ardently longed for.

ON THE STUDY OF INFLORESCENCE.

By H. W. Syers, B.A. Cantab.

THE consideration of the manner in which flowers
are arranged on the axis which bears them is
a very interesting and a very important division of
botanical study. Not only do we find that flowers, in
their position and arrangements, are far from occupy-
ing merely haphazard and chance positions, but, on
the contrary, in all cases the arrangement follows
such simple and definite forms, that systematic
botanists have found the inflorescence or antitaxis a
most valuable assistance and guide in classification.
The study of inflorescence teaches us not only the
relative positions of the flowers to each other and to

H 2

148

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the axis, but also the order in which they open, and
this is called their evolution. We must remember
that in all cases a flower-bud is like a leaf-bud ; and
that the flowers, like the leaves, arise from the axis in
one of two ways : that is to say, the buds are either
produced in the angle formed by the inclination of a
leaf to the stem (axillary), or else they arise from the
termination of the axis (terminal). But in the axillary
mode of inflorescence the leaf which forms the angle
with the axis is called a bract. In many cases these
bracts are not to be distinguished from leaves, and
their structure is similar. Such instances occur in the

from below upwards — those situated lowest expanding
first, the axis itself being carried on indefinitely. Thus
the expansion of the flower is centripetal — centre-
seeking. The simplest form of the inflorescence is
seen in the currant, fumitory, &c. In this the pedicels
(secondary axes) are of equal length, and each has a
bractlet at its base. The corymb is simply a slight
modification of the raceme — the lower pedicels being
longer than the upper ones, and thus forming a more
or less flattened surface. It should be noticed that an
inflorescence which at first appears to be corymbose,
may ultimately become racemose — e.g. in Cruciferse.

periwinkle [Vinca), pimpernel [A nagallis) &c. But
in other cases these bracts assume a very different
appearance, so that even the most superficial observer
would notice the want of resemblance to true leaves.
Spathes, glumes, the involucre of Compositse and
scales are all so many modifications of bracts, and it
should be borne in mind that all these are but
different forms and arrangements of leaves — the leaf
being the morphological type on which the whole
structure of the flower is founded. It is noticeable,
in passing, that the presence or absence of bracts
constitutes a valuable classificatory medium. Now, as
has been mentioned above, flowers are either axillary
or terminal in their relation to the axis. And it is this
relation which gives origin to the two great divisions
of inflorescence : indefinite and definite. In the former
division the axis gives off axillary buds, which expands

Fig. 120. — Comfrey (Symphytum officinale), showing scorpioid
inflorescence.

The umbel is another form of this inflorescence, the
primary axis being shortened, and the secondary axes
coming off from the same points (radii), so as to be
nearly equal in length.

Notice also the bracts forming the involucre and
involucel in Umbelliferse. There is a term to which
different meanings have been attached by different
writers — the panicle. Perhaps the best definition of
a panicle would be an inflorescence in which the
secondary axes give rise to tertiary ones which bear the
flowers. But it is frequently used to express a totally
different kind of inflorescence (the definite), and, like
all terms which are ambiguous, has become unsuited
to the requirements of true science. The spike is simply
a sessile raceme, and the spadix a succulent spike.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

x49

We now pass on to the second great division of
inflorescences, the determinate or definite. Here the
primary axis ends in a solitary bud ; and if but a
single floral axis is formed the inflorescence is of the
simplest possible description. Should there be more
than one axis, the others arise from the first in an
axillary manner, but lower down and farther away
from the central axis. The flowers expand in a
centrifugal manner (centre-flying) and later, as

secondary axes are three in number, and the arrange-
ment is three-divided. It should be noticed that the
cymose inflorescence is frequently associated with
opposite leaves, though this is not always the case.
A very interesting and most curious modification of
the cyme is seen in the scorpioidal cyme. This is
simply a dichotomous cyme, in which the buds on one
side are not developed, thus becoming unilateral. A
study of this mode of inflorescence, as seen in the Bora-

l1 ig. 121. White Dead-nettle ( 'Laminin album), with cymose inflorescence.

regards time, than the flower terminating the pri-
mary axis. The best example of a definite inflores-
cence is the cyme, and can be well studied in the
order Caryophyllaceoe. This cymose inflorescence
may be either dichotomus or trichotomous. In the
former, the primary axis gives rise by axillary buds to
two secondary axes, and each of these again to two
others. Thus there is a sort of division by pairs ;
hence the term (St'xa, by twos). In the latter the

122. — Centaury ( Erythrcea Ce7itaurea),
showing trichotomous cymes.

ginaceae ( Myosotis , &c. (figs. 1 19 and
120), will be found most interesting
and instructive. Should any one feel
doubtful as to his correct apprecia-
tion of the term cyme, let him at
once examine this form of the in-
florescence, and his power of inter-
preting the mode in which the
flowers come off will afford a sure
test of his accuracy in this respect.
The last form of definite inflorescence
that we shall notice is the verticil-
1 aster. Here a pardonable mistake
is easily made by the tyro in botany.

For to all appearance the flowers
are simply arranged in a circle or whorl around the
axis. But more prolonged observation shows that this
is not the case. In point of fact the inflorescence is
cymose — though withal the cymes are nearly sessile —
and, of course, the expansion of the flowers is centri-
fugal. F or this mode of inflorescence the common Dead-
nettle (Lamium album , fig. 121) and other Labiatae may
be studied. And now we must just touch on the
subject of mixed inflorescence. In some cases the

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

!5°

two kinds of inflorescence, definite and indefinite,
may be observed on the same plant. For the inflores-
cence, taken as a whole, may be definite, and the
individual inflorescences may be indefinite, and vice
versd. An example of this occurs in the genus
Senecio, and in other genera of Compositse. If a head
of groundsel be examined it will be noticed that the
aggregation of florets forming the capitula or heads,
taken together, have a centripetal expansion, the
general inflorescence being indefinite. But if the
expansion of the individual heads be observed, it will
at once become clear that the inflorescence is centri-
fugal, and therefore definite. Here, then, in the
same plant are found two distinct forms of inflores-
cence, hence the inflorescence is said to be mixed.
Another instance may be cited, that of the verticillaster
of Labiatae. As explained above, the partial inflores-
cence is definite and centrifugal ; but the general
inflorescence is centripetal. There are many other
examples of these mixed inflorescences, all of which
are well worthy of careful study. The names of a
few genera with mixed inflorescences are subjoined :
horse-chestnut (yEsculus), flowering-rush (Butomus),
Sparmannia, Veronica, & c.

A review has now been taken of all the chief forms
of inflorescence, and to one or other of these nearly all
the inflorescences of the British orders may be referred.
There are, however, some irregular forms which
cannot be classified under any of these heads ; but
they are comparatively few and unimportant. A
noticeable form is that occurring in the butcher’s
broom (Ruscus aculeatus). Here the flowers are
borne on those curiously modified stems to which the
name of cladodes has been applied. On taking a
survey of some of the natural orders, we see in how
many a certain marked form of inflorescence obtains.
For example : the prevailing form in Cruciferse is the
raceme or corymb ; in that interesting order Caryo-
phyllacese, or Clovewort order, the cyme is the typical
mode of inflorescence, and in no order can the di- and
tri-chotomous cyme be studied in greater perfection.
In Linaceae the inflorescence is cymose, and the genus
Linum is peculiar in having this mode of inflorescence
associated with alternate leaves, not opposite, as is
usually the case. It is hardly necessary to refer to
the inflorescence of the Umbelliferse, for it is so
characteristic that it is impossible to mistake it. In
Rubiacese (the Madder family) the flowers are often
arranged in sessile or peduncled cymes. The in-
florescence of Composite has been already explained
— as affording an instance of a union of the two great
types. The cyme is again seen in great perfection in
Gentianese — the Gentian order — and the beautiful little
flowers and delicate trichotomous cymes of the Centaury
(Erytkraa Centaur ea , fig. 122) must be familiar to
all. It is not necessary to describe the inflorescence of
the Labiate, as it has already been referred to.
Other orders worthy of notice are Primulacese,
Lentibulariacese (containing the curious genus Utri-

cularia, supposed to be carnivorous) Plantaginaceoe,
Urticacece, etc. A study of inflorescence in these
and kindred orders, is of the highest interest and
importance, giving not only enlarged and comprehen-
sive views of the different flower-arrangements ob-
taining in the different groups, but also training the
mind to exact and precise methods of observation and
comparison. And the writer has endeavoured, by
drawing attention to this subject, to point out to all
lovers of nature in general and of flowers in particular,
how far preferable it is to start from the very first in
a truly scientific and accurate spirit of enquiry. For
in this single instance of flower-arrangement, an im-
mense amount of mischief has been wrought to true
botany by the ambiguous, loose, and inaccurate use
of such terms as raceme, thyrsus, panicle, &c., so
that since the time of MM. Roper and Bravais (to
whom the first accurate observations of flower-ar-
rangement are due) an immense vocabulary, totally
meaningless and useless, has arisen on the subject of
inflorescence. The writer hopes that some readers
of Science-Gossip at all events will turn their
attention to this most interesting subject, the study of
which, in an intelligent and comprehensive manner
must be attended with the best results.

THE NEW FOREST.

By E. D. Marquand.

[ Continued from p. 125.]

AND now as to the flora of the New Forest. In
richness and variety it yields to no other spot
of equal area in the kingdom, though it is possible
that a few specially-favoured localities may slightly
exceed it in the number of species. Within the limits
defined at the outset of this paper, I have found and
catalogued very close upon seven hundred and fifty
phanerogams ; besides these there are several which
I know on excellent authority to exist, but have not
as yet come upon them — and not to speak of those
given in books as occurring, but which have not been
traced, we have a total which does not fall far short
of eight hundred ; that is, one half of the entire
British flora as enumerated in the “London Catalogue.”
This is a goodly number for a district something
under fifteen miles square.

Some of the rarer and most interesting species
which have come under my observation deserve a
passing note, and it will facilitate reference and at
the same time be more methodical, to follow the
order adopted in the “ London Catalogue.”

Number 1 first calls for notice : Clematis Vitalba ,
a plant common enough on the chalk, but one would
scarcely expect to find it here, yet it flourishes in the
hedges of a lane on the coast, a few miles from
Lymington. Among the Cruciferse only two need be
mentioned : Diplotaxis muralis and Draba verna ;
the latter (usually so jabundant) being exceedingly

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

rare in these parts ; I searched for it in vain during
three seasons, and at last found it on a wall in the
vicinity of Ringwood. Viola lactea occurs on many
heaths, and I fancy I once found V. stagnina , but
am not certain. Another generally common plant is
here of great rarity : Malachium aquaticum. Claylonia
pcrfoliata grows in profusion in the sand at Mudeford
and its neighbourhood, where in the salt marshes may
be seen A ItJuca officinal is, and occasionally in the
hedges (but always introduced, of course) Lavatera.
The Legumini ferae include some rare species : no one
walking across any of the forest heaths and moorlands
in the month of August can fail to notice the trailing
golden-blossomed Ulex nanus , which in some places
attains a height of three feet or more. On the coast
we get that very small plant with a very long name,
Trigonella ornithopodioid.es, and Medicago maculata.
Trifolium glomeratum I discovered here last summer,
and Vicia orobus, a northern plant, was pointed out
to me ; as far as I know it only occurs in one spot,
not easily discoverable, but when once seen its deli-
cate pale green fern-like leaves are not to be mistaken.
Though it is miles from any habitation I cannot, for
various reasons, consider it truly indigenous. Agri -
monia odorata I discovered two years ago ; it is a
much larger plant than its congener, and may always
be recognised by its lemon-like fragrance. I almost
believe now that Isnardia palustris is extinct, in this
part of the county at least. Tillcea muscosa is
frequent on sandy heaths.

The Umbelliferae do not furnish anything very
good, as far as my experience goes, except, perhaps,
CEnanthe pimpinelloidcs , a rather common plant in
this neighbourhood, Fceniculum , about Christchurch,
and Crithmum maritimum on the sea wall. Rubia
peregriva seems only to occur under the shade of the
clematis before alluded to, so both may possibly have
been introduced from the Isle of Wight. Tanacetum
vulgar e is rare ; Inula crithmoides grows here and
there all along the sea wall, and Crepis biennis I
have found on the coast. The delicate little Wahlen-
bergia hederacea grows profusely in some boggy
ground not far from Lyndhurst ; almost all over the
Forest the tiny golden stars of Cicendia filiformis peep
among the turf ; and the splendid large blue corollas
of Gentiana Pneumonanthe gleam among the heather
on a few moist heaths. Lisiaria repens is common in
hedges at Marchwood, and near Brockenhurst, and,
in a few other places, Bartsia viscosa. Orobanche
minor also grows near here, though sparingly, while
O. major seems peculiar to Beaulieu.

As every one knows, Pulmonaria angustifolia is one
of the great botanical features, and is so widely and
plentifully distributed throughout the forest that
there is not much fear of its eradication. The lovely
little Pinguicula lusitanica is common enough in the
bogs, where may be seen the delicate threadlike
branches of Utricularia minor , but U. intermedia ,
though abundant where it exists, is rare. In a few

*5*

bog pools I have met with Sparganium minimum,
and in one locality only the singular Actinocarpus
damasonium. Of orchids we have a good number :
Orchis incarnata I have seen growing with O.
latifolia and O. maculata in the bogs at Holmsley.
Since writing my note in Science-Gossip, vol. xiv.
p. 138 on Spirant hes aestivalis, I have been so fortu-
nate as to discover it in another part of the forest,
well established and in great plenty. It is quite
unnecessary here to specify the locality. The tiny
Malaxis paludosa I find pretty widely distributed,
though doubtless it frequently escapes observation.
The habitat of Gladiolus illyricus is in the heart of the
Forest, apparently flowering only once in two years —
at any rate in some seasons not a single flower is to
be seen. Luzula Forsteri , a handsome woodrush,
grows both near Brockenhurst, and very abundantly
in a wood near Beaulieu.

The Cyperacese include some very interesting
plants: Rhynchospora fusca grows in almost all wet
bogs, Scirpus uniglumis on many heaths, and Sc.
Savii commonly in roadside ditches. The Carices
are well represented : I have found thirty-three
species, and know of three or four more. Among
the best I have seen are Carex limosa , C. GEderi, and
C. montajia. The last flowers very early and was
almost past when I discovered it last year. It is a
rare sedge, and a good addition to the county flora.

Lastly, the grasses. Among the best I know
are : Leerzia oryzoides, in two or three parts,
always on river-banks ; Phalaris canariensis, ap-
parently wild on the sandy shore at Mudeford ;
Gastridium lendigerum , frequent, mostly near the
coast ; Agrostis setacea , on heaths near Brockenhurst ;
Calamagrostis lanceolaia, at Holmsley and Ringwood;
Aira setacea ( A . uliginosa “Lon. Cat.’’) in several of
the bogs near Brockenhurst ; Sclerochloa procumbens
near the sea ; Briza minor, occasional, and nearly
always in cultivated fields ; Bromus madritensis,
not far from the shore, and Triticum acutum at
Mudeford.

Twenty species of ferns are said to occur, but I
cannot say whether quite as many are to be had
within the district about which I am writing ; I know
of sixteen only. The stately Osmunda rcgalis is well
distributed ; I have seen it in half-a-dozen places
within a couple of miles of Brockenhurst, sometimes
forming large clumps, with fronds three or four feet
long, sometimes helping to make the hedge of a field.
Lastrea oreopteris is frequent in old woods, and so is
L. spinulosa. In most hedgebanks in the south grows
Scolopetidrium vulgare frequently side by side with
Asplenium trichomanes , which here luxuriates in dry
shady banks rather than old walls, for one simple
reason — old walls are exceedingly scarce. Asp.
ruta-muraria grows sparingly on the ruins of
Beaulieu Abbey, and Ophioglossum vulgatum on
Ashley Common. Lastrcea thelypteris grows some-
where in the vicinity of Lyndhurst j the exact spot I

HARDWICK E'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

T52

have not hitherto been able to discover. The Fir
Club-moss ( Lycopodium selago) occurs on Setley
Heath and near the old Beaulieu Road station.

Of mosses I have collected many fine and interest-
ing species. Anomodon viticulosus is frequent on
trees, and so is Neckera pumila , which fruits at
Knyghtwood. Campylopus brevipiltis is common on
the borders of some woods ; near the sea we have
Orthotrichum phyllanthum , and at Sway Leptodon
Smithii. About fifty species of Hypnum have come
under my notice, and probably several others occur.
Among these are H. ccespitosum , IP. glareomm ,
H. megapolitanum , H. illecebrum , and H. chryso-
phyllum. In some of the woods near Brockenhurst
II. triquetrum fruits abundantly, and H. scorpioides
grows to a very large size ; I have seen it nearly a
foot in length. Splachnum ampullaceum occurs in
the bogs, and the Sphagnums include some very
curious forms, which it will probably be less difficult
to identify when Dr. Braithwaite’s new work is
published.

The New Forest may perhaps be regarded as the
metropolis of corticolous lichens, while the saxicolous
sections are either very poorly represented or alto-
gether absent. The Graphidei are very abundant,
and in this tribe I have collected such species as
Graphis dendritica , Opegrapha lentiginosa , O. viridis ,
and Arthonia punctiformis , some of which are common,
and I have found many of the rarer Calicia generally
distributed. At Knyghtwood, not far from the famous
Knyghtwood Oak, the largest oak in the Forest, may
be seen within a few yards of each other three interest-
ing cryptogams : Pannaria rubiginosa , Stictina limb at a,
and Hypnum loreum , and at no great distance Ricasolia
hetevirens fruits abundantly. On Roydon Common,
near Brockenhurst, grows the curious Pycnothelia
papillaria with inflated podetia, and in the Hinchelsea
woods the delicate little Normandina pulchella , which
has something of the appearance of a pale blue scale-
moss. The species of Lecidea , Lecanora and Verrucaria
are “ too numerous to mention.”

And now in conclusion I have just two words to
say as to the Diatomaceae, of which I have collected a
considerable number of species in this neighbourhood.
I find my notes have already stretched to such a
length that I cannot even mention the names of many
interesting forms ; three species, however, on account
of their rarity, deserve brief mention. The first is the
pentagonal variety of Amphitetras antediluviana ; the
discovery of which I recorded in Science-Gossip in
January, 1877. It is rare, and always accompanies
the more common form, the var j8. All those who
have seen it will, I am sure, agree that it is one of
the most striking and beautiful of British diatoms.
The next is Surirella elegans , figured in Science-
Gossip, vol. iv. p. 132, a diatom identical with the
Stir, sclesvicensis of American deposits, but which as a
British species appears to be very little known among
diatomists. It has occurred in almost all my bog

gatherings, sometimes in abundance and of very large
size ; indeed I look upon it as about the commonest
of our Surirella: , excepting perhaps A. biseriata. Lastly,
another of the same genus described and figured as a
new British diatom in Science-Gossip, vol. v. p. 61,
under the name of Surirella Capronii, a species differing
from all others of the genus by the possession of two
hornlike processes springing from the median line.
I found it in small numbers in a salt-marsh gathering,
and my specimens are very much larger and finer
than the ordinary forms of S. splendida. The only
British locality for it then given was Shere, in Surrey.

This brings my remarks on the fauna and flora of the
New Forest to a close. Very imperfect they cannot
fail to be, since only a few species have been selected
to illustrate each section ; and even my own lists,
compiled from personal observation and comprising
some thousands of names, are in almost every
department still far from approaching completeness.
But there are many naturalists devoted to special
branches who might add largely to our knowledge
of the rich natural resources of one of the most
delightful, interesting, and exhaustless districts in the
United Kingdom.

NET LIGHTNING.

By the Rev. S. Barber, F.M.S.

HOW glorious and awe-inspiring a spectacle is
presented to the student of nature’s mysteries,
when, flashed in an instant through the impenetrable
gloom of night there stands out before his unsuspect-
ing sight a varied and sublime expanse of cloud
scenery, distinctly revealed ; towering crags, dark
abysses, and every lineament of its gorgeous struc-
ture, traced sharply out by the dazzling and unearthly
splendour of the lightning.

By daylight, in such a condition of the atmosphere,
when the electrical tension of the individual cloud
masses towards each other and between these and
the earth is unusually strong, we cannot fail to observe
the sharpness of definition, apparent solidity and
great volume which the cumuli exhibit. There is,
however, no more remarkable characteristic observ-
able at these times of electrical disturbance than the
individuality of structure, if I may so express it,
which they present to view j an individuality of form
which appears to be intimately related to the electrical
tension of each mass of vapour. This may be well
seen when two highly condensed and vertically posed
peaks rise aloft, and drawing into close proximity to
one another, leave a long narrow interstice with
jagged edges between them. (See fig. 123.)

Such an appearance is probably never seen in settled
weather, being, in fact, one of the most striking in-
dications of electrical excitement. Ihe forms illus-
trated in the sketch are perhaps rather evidences of
repulsion than attraction between the masses.

HARDWICK E'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

T53

Sir W. Snow Harris, in his treatise on electricity,*
suggests the following as a brief explanation of the
discharge between the clouds and the earth: “If,”
says this writer, “we consider attentively the elec-
trical conditions of a thunderstorm, we may observe
in them all the elements of the Leyden experiment :
the atmosphere in fact becomes a great coated pane,

regard to the air which forms their base. Thus one
large, leading cumulus may become a centre of
force ready to operate, not only on the earth beneath,
but on various collateral masses of the surrounding
vapour, when the general equilibrium is disturbed.

The tension, then, becoming too great, and the
balance of forces being disturbed, the discharge

Fig. 123. — Approach of Electrical Cloud-masses.

Fig. 124. Approach of Electrical Cloud-masses, seen in perspective.

or fulminating square, of which the charged cloud is
the insulated and the surface of the earth the unin-
sulated, terminating conducting planes ; the phenomena
of thunder and lightning are neither more nor less than
disruptive discharges through the intervening air.”

In explaining the thunderstorm by reference to the
principles of electrical induction, and of the disruptive
discharge, the reader will observe that much depends
upon the condition of the air contiguous to the earth and
subjacent to the cloud — in regard to conductive power.

And it may well happen that large masses of cloud,
separated, perhaps by intervals of several miles, may
be very differently situated in this respect, with

* Sixth ed. Virtue & Co.

ensuing would connect together the different points — -
centres of the masses — and these again with the earth.
The instantaneous dissolution of a polygon of forces
in this way, would, through the electric current,
darting from point to point, involve an interlacing or
net-work pattern in the lightning flash.

Vast, however, as is the force which the lightning
wields, an apparently slight circumstance may direct
its course. The configuration of the earth beneath
as affecting the upward vapour currents ; the presence
of smoke or metallic dust might be responsible for
effects most disastrous to man ; so delicately balanced
are the forces of nature.

Such atmospheric conditions may perhaps be

!54

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

suggested as the origin of that rare and magnificent
phenomenon which we have here denominated
“ Net ” * lightning — one of the most glorious
evidences of the power and majesty of Him who
creates and upholds the universe ; every atom in the
dust of the balance being, as Charles Kingsley
beautifully puts it, “ distinctly and deliberately
divine.” Each particle is, indeed, if we but knew one
half of the laws by which it is actuated, as much a
witness to the science and the “ Art of God,'’f as
the Kosmos itself; as distinctly the handiwork of
the Great Artificer as is the majestic expanse of the
starlit sky.

THE HISTORY OF THE CUCUMBER
{CUCUMIS SATIVUS).

By H. G. Glasspoole.

THE cucumber is known to have been cultivated
for more than three thousand years. In ancient
Egypt it was extensively grown, and is so at the
present day ; the succulent nature of the plant en-
abling it to resist the drought of the sandy plains,
while it flourishes well in the richer soils watered by
the Nile. The want of this vegetable was one of the
grievances complained of to Moses by the Israelites
in the wilderness ; we also find it mentioned in other
parts of Scripture. The cucumber is mentioned in
a particular manner by some of the early Greek
writers on plants. Theophrastus, writing on the
cucumber, enumerates three varieties — the Boeotian,
Scytalic, and Laconican ; the last, he states, thrives
better with watering than the others. Diodes, of
Carystus, an ancient town of Greece, tells us that
the cucumber eaten with sium at the first course of a
meal makes the eater uncomfortable, for it gets into
the head as the radish does, but that if eaten at the
end of supper it causes no uncomfortable feeling and
is more digestible. We are told that the farmers of
those days considered that if their seed was steeped
in the juice from the root of the cucumber it would
be protected from the ravages of insects.

Cucumbers grown in the neighbourhood of Antioch
were considered by the ancient Greeks the finest.
Columella, one of the oldest Roman writers on
agriculture, mentions that the inhabitants of Mendes
in Egypt were accustomed to take the largest bramble-
bush they could find, transplant it to a warm, sunny
spot, cut it down at about the time of the vernal
equinox to within a couple of fingers of the ground,
then insert a seed of the cucumber into the pith of the
bramble, the roots of which were well covered over
with fine earth and manure to withstand the cold.
By this plan they were enabled to have cucumbers all
the year round. This same author states that cucum-
bers ought to be propagated from seed that has been

* A reticulated pattern, instantaneously impressed upon a
large expanse of sky. %

f Such is the term applied to Nature by Sir Thomas Browne.

steeped in milk and honey for a couple of days, this
method having the effect of rendering them sweeter
and pleasanter to the taste. He also gives directions
to his own countrymen for forcing this plant by
artificial means. Those who wish to have them
early, he says, should plant the seed in well-dunged
earth, put into osier baskets, that they may be carried
out of the house and planted in warm situations when
the weather permits. The baskets may be put upon
wheels so that they may be brought in and out with less
labour, and as soon as the season advances the baskets
may be sunk in the earth. Pliny states that in Italy
the cucumbei'S are small, but in some countries are re-
markably large and of a wax colour or black. Those
from Africa are most prolific. He mentions that by
nature the cucumber has a wonderful hatred of oil,
but has a great affection for water. Of this fact, he
says, we may be satisfactorily convinced in a single
night, for if a vessel filled with water is placed four
fingers distant from a cucumber it will have descended
into it by the following morning — but if the same is
done with oil it will assume the curved form of a
hook by the next day. This same author tells us
that the Emperor Tiberius was so fond of cucumbers,
and took such pleasure and delight in them, that they
were served up at his table every day all the year
round. The beds and gardens wherein they grew
were made upon frames so as to be removed every
way with wheels, and in winter during the cold
frosty days they would be drawn into certain high-
covered buildings exposed to the sun, which was
admitted through frames or lights covered with lapis
specularis, probably talc or some transparent mineral,
which the Romans knew well how to split into thin
lamime, so that light might be transmitted through
it. This appears to be the earliest account of forcing
plants which we read of in ancient times (Phillips,
“ Pomarium Britannicum ”).

The Romans, from the remains of their villas found
in this country, appear to have been acquainted with
the art of heating their rooms with flues and hot
watei*, and from this we are led to believe that cu-
cumbers and other vegetables were extensively forced
during the days of Roman splendour. Pliny men-
tions that a new variety of this plant had accidentally
been produced in his time in Campania, the fruit of
which was of the form of a quince ; it did not grow
hanging, but assumed its round shape as it lay on
the ground ; the seeds from this produced similar
plants. The name given to this variety was Melopepo
(Fee says that this is the melon, the Cucumis vielo of
Linnaeus). Pliny appears to have considered this
vegetable unwholesome in an uncooked state, as he
tells us it will live in the stomach until the next day,
and cannot be reduced to food, but when boiled and
served up with oil, vinegar, and honey they make
a delicate salad ; he also recommends a pinch of the
seed beaten up with cummin and taken with wine
as a good remedy for a cough.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GfiSSIR.

!5S

We have no precise date when the cucumber was
iirst cultivated in England. It may have been intro-
duced with other fruits and vegetables at the time
the Romans were masters of this country. According
to a note in Gough’s “British Topography,” vol. i.
p. 134, it was, with the melon, commonly cultivated
in the reign of Edward III. (1327), but in consequence
•of the wars between the Houses of York and Lancaster
the cultivation of them, like other plants, became
neglected, and at last entirely lost. It was introduced
again at the later part of the reign of Henry VIII.

Our old friend Gerard mentions them thus in his
Herbal (1596) : “There be divers sorts of cucum-
bers, some great, others lesser, some of the garden,
some wild, some of one fashion and some of another.
There be also certain long cucumbers which were
first made (as it is said) by art and manuring, which
nature afterwards did preserve, for at first when the
fruit was very little it is put into some hollow cane,
or other thing made for the purpose, in which the
cucumber groweth very long by reason of that narrow
hollowness, which, being filled up, the cucumber in-
creaseth in length. The seed of this kind being sown
bringeth forth not such as were before, but such as
art has framed which of their own growth are found
long and ofttimes very crookedly turned, and therefore
they have been called Anguine, or long cucumber.”
Gerard extols the cucumber “mixed with oatmeal
pottage and eaten at every meal for three weeks as
a perfect cure for persons afflicted with flegme and
copper faces, red and shining fierie noses (as red
as roses) with pimples, pumples rubuse and such-
like precious faces ; but at the same time they are to
be sure to wash their faces with a decoction of vinegar,
orris root, camphor,” etc. This old author also gives
the earliest direction in this country for making hot-
beds for cucumbers. He directs that they should
be covered with mats over hoops, as glasses were
not known at that time.

Lord Francis Bacon, who wrote about 1598, says
cucumbers “will prove more tender and dainty if
their seeds be steeped in milk. The cause may be
for that the seeds being mollified in milk, will be too
weak to draw the grosser juices of the earth, but only
the finer.” He adds, “cucumbers will be less
watery if the pit where you set them be filled half
way with chaff or small sticks, and then pour earth
upon them ; for cucumbers, as it seemeth, do
exceedingly affect moisture, and over-drinketh them-
selves, which this chaff or chips forbiddeth.” He
also states that in his day “ it was the practice to cut
off the stalks of cucumbers immediately after bearing,
close by the earth, and then to cast a pretty quantity
of earth upon the plant that remaineth, and they
would bear fruit the next year, long before the
ordinary time. The cause may be for that the sap
goeth down sooner, and is not spent in the stalk or
leaf, which remaineth after the fruit ; where note,
that the dying in winter of the roots of plants that are

annual, seemeth to be partly caused by the over-
expense of the sap into stalks and leaves, which being
prevented, they will superannuate, if they stand warm.”
Parkinson, in his “Paradisus,” 1656, tells us that
in many countries they do eat cucumbers as we do
apples and pears, paring and giving slices of them as
we would to our friends of some dainty apple or pear.
The cucumber was not generally cultivated till almost
the middle of the seventeenth century, and it is stated
that the first successful forcer of this plant in England
was Thomas Fowler, gardener to Sir Nicholas
Gould, of Stoke Newington, who presented a brace
of well-grown fruit to King George I. on New Year’s
Day, 1721 ; the seeds from which they were raised
were sown on the 25th of September. Some years
ago the cucumber was cultivated in large quantities in
the outskirts of London, and it is stated in Dr.
Wynter’s “Curiosities of Civilisation,” page 229, that
fourteen acres might be seen under hand-glasses in a
single domain, and that it has been known that

200.000 gherkins have been cut in a morning for the
pickle merchants. It is also stated that cucumbers
have refused to grow well around London ever since
the outbreak of the potato disease. In Loudon’s
time large quantities were grown in the fields of
Hertfordshire without the aid of glass for the London
markets during the summer months. The village of
Sandy in Bedfordshire has been known to furnish

10.000 bushels of gherkins in one week for pickling
purposes. The cucumber, notwithstanding its
extensive use among all classes in this country, is
considered unwholesome by most medical practi-
tioners. Dr. Doran, in his “ Table Traits,” mentions
that in the days of Evelyn (1699) the cucumber was
looked upon as only one remove from poison, and
adds that it had better be eaten and enjoyed with that
opinion in memory. Abernethy also gave a quaint
recipe for its use, which was to peel the cucumber,
slice it, pepper it, put vinegar to it, then throw it out
of the window. The extent to which the cucumber
is consumed by the inhabitants of Egypt and the
South-west of Asia, but also in European Russia
and Germany would scarcely seem credible in this
country. A correspondent of the “Daily News,” in
the summer of 1874, returning from the fair of Nijni-
Novgorod, was struck with the [profusion of water
melons and cucumbers everywhere offered for sale.
Pyramids of melon and water-melons, like cannon-
balls in an arsenal, were heaped up in every direction,
and as for cucumbers, you could not help fancying
that a plague of them, like locusts, had descended
upon the earth. You never see a Russian peasant at
dinner but you see the lump of black bread and a
cucumber. The cucumber seems certainly a singular
dish to be so national in a country with a climate
like Russia. It is the last that one would have
selected a priori for the post ; but this is only one of
the great many singularities one meets with. The
cucumber costs about the thirtieth part of a penny about

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i5c

the Volga ; perhaps this fact will explain the anomaly.
(See “Gardener’s Chronicle,” 24th Oct. 1874).
Some writer says there used to be a great annual fair
at Leipzig for cucumbers, when the streets were heaped
up a story high with that precious element of German
cookery. In Germany barrels of half and also full-
grown cucumbers are preserved from one year to the
other by immersion in deep wells, where the uniform
temperature and exclusion from air seem to be the
preserving agents.

Nothing can be more agreeable to our olfactory
nerves on a hot summer’s day than the refreshing and
cooling scent of a fresh-sliced cucumber, but perhaps
it is not generally known that in the art of perfuming
it finds its way to the toilet-table under the form of
cold cream and milk of cucumbers. The large seeds
of this tribe are employed instead of almonds in
making cheap sugar-plums. The word cucumber is
derived from the Latin cucuinis , meaning the same
thing. Some time since there was a controversy
carried on in “ Notes and Queries ” as to the proper
pronunciation of the first syllable, whether it should be
cozv or cu. Parkinson (1656) writes it “cowcumber,”
by which name it is called by the uneducated, but
people with any education would never think of
writing or pronouncing it otherwise than “cucumber.”
Tartary has been assigned to this species of cucumber
as its native country, but upon what authority is
equally questionable with that of the melon. No
modern traveller appears to have found it wild.

OUR COMMON BRITISH FOSSILS, AND
WHERE TO FIND THEM.

No. VII.

By J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.

IT is with a sense of delighted relief that we once
more resume this series

of articles ; which have been

Fig. 125. — Extinct kind of Free
Crinoids (Marsupites Milleri),
from White Chalk.

C

unavoidably interrupted by a
too prolonged pressure and
strain of other literary work.
We propose in the present
article to call attention to the
commonest fossils belonging
to the Star-fish and Sea-
urchin family. Few fossils

Fig. 126. — Pentremites fJo-
realis, one of the Blastoi-
dea , from Carboniferous
Limestone, a, Profile ; b,
summit ; c, base or pelvis.

have a prettier or more attractive aspect than they,
and none exceed them in the singular beauty of their
structures, and their marvellous adaptation to their
ancient habits of life.

Now that we have got rid of the useless term
“Radiata,” and are beginning to arrange animals in
their natural relationship to each other, we have

Fig. 127. — Asterias tcssellata , one of the Cushion-stars.

begun to learn comparative zoology. To this most
interesting study the whole science of palaeontology —
or that which deals with the extinct life of our globe —
contributes equally with zoology. In surveying such
a large natural group as that formed by the annuloid
animals, we are frequently surprised by the singular
way in which otherwise extreme types spring from
almost common or neutral ground. Thus, the extinct
groups of Cystideans and Pentremites, peculiar to
the Palaeozoic rocks, and which severally represent two
different orders, in some measure come as near to the
Encrinite family on one side as the Pouch Encrinite
(Marsupites) of the chalk formation does both to them

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i57

ancl the Echini on the other. The Cushion-stars
(Goniasters), run very near to the Cake-urchins or
Clypeasters, although the former are star-fishes and
the latter sea-urchins, and perhaps both these touch
as nearly as any of their class to the Cystideans,
Pentremites, and Marsupites.

Both star-fishes and sea-urchins are, geologically

Fig. 129. — Portion of one of the arms of “Brittle Star”
(Ophiocoma rosnla), showing the claws or hooks.

Fig. 130. — Separate hooks of “Brittle Star” (Ophiocoma
rosnla), much magnified.

speaking, exceedingly ancient. With the exception
of certain Brachiopoda, we know of no other group of
animals which have maintained their peculiar shapes
for a longer time than the star-fishes. As far back as
the Cambrian period we find two well-differentiated
orders in existence, one represented by the modern
“five-fingers ” (Uraster) and the other by the brittle-
stars (Ophiura). Evidently these two types have

been in existence throughout all the silent revolu-
tions, physical and biological, which have so often
taken place on the surface of the globe, and our
modern star-fishes are as lineal and directly uninter-
rupted descendants of these early Cambrian fossil
forms, as mankind are from their “ first parents.”

The upper part of the skin of such star-fishes as the

Fig. 131. — Fossil “ Brittle Star ’’-fish (ProtasterMiltoni). Upper
Ludlow Rocks, Leintwardine.

Ludlow Rocks.

Fig. 133. — Fossil Star-fish ( Palcrocoma Marstoni), Lower
Ludlow Rocks.

“five-fingers” [Uraster rubens) is thickened and
roughened and strengthened by the presence of grains
or irregular spicules of carbonate of lime. If each
of these grains had gone on increasing in size by
addition to its margin, they would have grown until
they touched each other, but would not have fused,
and then we should have had regular plates instead of
grains, and the wrhole body would have been covered
by a kind of tessellated pavement. This is exactly

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

158

how the arms of the Brittle-stars (Ophiuridce) and the
margins of the arms and body of the Cushion- stars
(Goniaster and Asterias) have been so regularly and
beautifully armed, the former even more effectually
than a mediteval mail-clad knight. The two groups
so anciently separated, are easily recognised. Thus
the “five-fingers” and “sun-stars” (Solasters) so
abundant on our British coasts have the under
surfaces of their arms grooved. In and out of these
grooves we perceive rows of small, white, grub-like
objects which slowly wriggle to and fro if we turn
a star-fish on its back, and finally end by bending
over and attaching their tips to the rock by means
of suckers. Then by an united exertion they pull
over the star-fish to its proper position. A young
observer has not long to experiment on living star-
fishes before he finds that these grub -like objects
serve all the purposes of feet — that the star-fishes can
glide along even perpendicular surfaces by their
means. They are hundreds in number, but all are
fashioned alike, and the mechanism which renders
them locomotive organs is of the most wonderful
character. These feet are termed by naturalists
ambulacral, but we defer a detailed description of
them until we come to speak of the Sea-urchins. The
stomach of this kind of star-fish is continued up each
arm, and this fact naturally groups together genera
which may have a greater number of arms than five,
as the “sun-stars” (Solaster) which have twelve.

In the “brittle-stars” (Ophiuridae), on the con-
trary, the stomach does not extend to the arms,
although the nervous branches of the ganglion sur-
rounding the mouth do. The “sun-stars” have only
two rows of suckers, whilst the “five-fingers” possess
four. In the ‘ ‘ brittle-stars ” we have the central
disc covered with jointed calcareous plates, and the
arms defended by four rows of the same. There are
no sucking feet, however, but the arms are employed
as organs of locomotion, in which they are aided, as
Mr. Fred. Kitton has shown, by short hooks which
take hold of the surface and thus obviate the
necessity of sucking-feet. Nature has usually more
than one way of meeting a difficulty, and this is a case
in point with the progression of the star-fishes.

Many star-fishes are characteristically deep-sea
animals, and perhaps the Echinodermata, to which
both star-fishes and sea-urchins belong, range to and
continue over deep parts of the ocean-bed, more
than any other group of marine animals. Thus,
during the deep-sea dredgings of the “ Challenger”
we find such genera as Ophiomusium , Archaster , &c.,
dredged up, the latter from more than a mile and a
half depth of sea water. A large star-fish, called
Leptychaster, allied to our Luidia, was brought up off
Cape Maclear, Kerguelen’s Island, in very deep water.
Another genus, Hymenaster, was found to be very
widely distributed over the sea-floor, and at depths
ranging from about half a mile to more than three
miles. Star-fishes and their allies, sea-urchins, are

usually the commonest fossils of the Chalk formation,
which we know was an oceanic deposit formed under
very similar circumstances to the “ globigerina ooze ”
of the mid- Atlantic. Dr. Wallich showed, when sound-
ing in the “Bull Dog” for the first Atlantic cable,
that the ocean floor was occupied by star-fishes, for
these animals came up attached to the sounding-lead,
and this incident first broke people’s faith in the old-
received notion that absence of light in the deep sea
rendered it a desert for all bottom animals except the
Protozoa.

The Aster idee (represented by our common “ five-
fingers ”), and the Ophiuridae or “ brittle-stars,” as
we have said, are found in Cambrian rocks. We
have seen specimens better preserved in the fossil
state than dried recent specimens usually are in
museums. Sea-urchins also lived in the Palaeozoic
epoch, but they do not appear to have thriven well.
Only two genera are known, and these are represented
by but few species during periods long enough to form
strata thicker than all the Secondary deposits taken
together. But when we come to the Secondary period
we find the Sea-urchins gaining ground. By-and-
by, as in the Chalk formation, they are wonderfully
common, and of multitudinous shapes and types. But
by this time the Encrinites, which we have seen were
so plentiful on the floors of primaeval seas, had begun
to decline. Broadly, therefore, it may be stated that
the Sea-urchins begin to flourish just when the Encri-
nites commenced to decline.

The fossil star-fishes are not as a rule abundant,
unless perhaps, we except a particular stratum in the
Middle Lias, where they are so plentiful that the
seam is called the “ star-fish bed.” At Leintwardine,
where the Lower Ludlow rocks crop up and are
quarried, we meet with both the kinds of fossil star-
fishes of which we have been speaking. Speaking of
Protaster Miltoni (one of the ancient “ brittle stars ”),
Mr. Salter says it is “ abundant, and of all sizes,”
meaning, we suppose, in various stages of growth.
Few localities are better worth a geological pilgrimage
than this part of Shropshire. It is only six miles
from Ludlow, where the celebrated “Bone-bed” of
the upper Silurian rocks may be advantageously
studied. The Lower Ludlow rocks at Leintwardine
are not much quarried, for they are a kind of “ mud-
stone,” of little commercial value. Otherwise there
is no doubt the number of fossil star-fishes which would
be exhumed would be immense. U nfortunately, since
Mr. Salter’s time, the quarry where the fossil star-
fishes were once so abundantly found has been either
worked out, or excavation has been discontinued.
Mr. Marston, of Ludlow, has a splendid series of these
fossils, among them Protaster Marstoni. Shepherd’s
Quarry, near Ludlow, is another good hunting-ground.
In some respects, one species, perhaps the most
beautiful of the entire group, named after Professor
Sedgwick (P. Sedgwickii) , is allied to the “Feather-
stars” (or rather to one division of them called Euryale

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

T59

on account of the peculiar spines on the plates of its
arms. This species is found only in the older rocks,
such as the Caradoc beds at Bala, on the west side of
the beautiful lake. At Benson’s Knot, Docker Park,
and other places near Kendal, in Westmoreland,
where the upper Ludlow rocks crop out and quarries
are opened in them, a student may expect to find
Palasterina prhmcva , and Uraster Ruthveni , the
latter named after one of the most diligent and devoted
of amateur geologists that ever lived. Both the latter
fossils belong to the same group as our modern ‘ ‘ five-
fingers,” and they have been beautifully preserved
(as any one may see, who pays a visit to the Kendal
Museum), in spite of the skin being only thickened
and not plated, with calcareous spicules. Two
species of fossil star-fishes have been found rather
plentifully in the Cambrian rocks at Welshpool,
Meifod, and Corwen. Next we come to the Lias
strata for abundant star-fishes, and we have seen
that one bed is especially rich in them. The Liassic
species usually belong to the “brittle-stars,” and the
commonest of these fossils is Ophiolepis Egcrtoni ,
found at Staithe, near Whitby ; and also abundantly
in various places in Dorsetshire, especially at
Seaborne. Specimens of this star-fish may be seen
in nearly every museum in England.

The marginal plates or ossicles of star-fishes allied
to the cushion-stars (Goniaster), are not uncommon
in the Chalk, and in the flints which come from that
deposit. In the chalk quarries at Gravesend, Charlton,
many places in Kent and Sussex, as well as Norfolk
(particularly about Norwich) remains of these Echino-
derms may be found, but only by practised eyes.
We have seen perfect specimens imbedded in the flint
nodules obtained from Ipswich and Norwich. In the
London Clay of the Isle of Sheppey we find similar
remains of Goniasters ; ossicles, plates, &c., in a more
or less perfectly preserved condition.

We should be glad to hear from any of our geo-
logical correspondents further details respecting the
“ star-fish bed ” in the Lias — its locality, extension,
species, &c. ; and, indeed, concerning any fossil star-
fish locality.

MICROSCOPY.

Euglena viridis and its Sucker-bulb. — I am
glad to note further confirmatory evidence in your
columns with reference to the existence of a bulb or
sucker at the extremity of flagellum in Euglena viridis ,
and may further remark that Mr. George Harkus
notes a central darkening or marking, indicating a
tubular structure in this organ (this gentleman’s
sketches were enclosed to the Editor with original
query, and no doubt their accuracy would be observed).
Will Mr. F. Jas. George say if he has detected the
bulbous termination in all examples, or only in those
obtained from special localities ? In some quarters the

statement of its existence has been received somewhat
dubiously, but this may arise from the certain fact
that only an objective of the best defining and re-
solving power will determine it. We (Mr. Harkus
and I) found a Ross quarter inch, and a Swift’s eighth
to work well upon it, an immersion sixteenth had not
sufficient penetration, but still revealed the bulbs
coarsely. Perhaps the following observation may
explain to your correspondent how the Euglena
became metamorphosed into rotifers. Last autumn
I obtained from a pond Euglena sanguinea in pro-
fusion. Griffiths and Henfrey regard this as the
perfect form of Euglena viridis : the gathering was
placed in a vessel covered with a sheet of glass, and
in a few weeks assumed the still or protococcoid form,
gradually in this interval changing in colour from
red to green, the whole mass sunk to the bottom of
the vessel, and during the winter continued to
segment and increase by division, until now a portion
has reverted to the Euglena viridis in its motile form,
this confirms the opinion of authorities named above.
I can substantiate Mr. F. Jas. George’s remark,
that the place of the Euglena “was taken by the
common Funnel Rotifer.” In my experiment, I find
a fine and most interesting variety of rotifers, but
I also invariably see the internal cavity of these
individuals well stocked with what may be regarded
as the zoospores, into which Euglena in its still con-
dition segments, divides, and then breaks up. In
fact these rotifers subsist upon Euglena. Could it be
shown that Euglena was the larva of anything, the
question of its animalism would of course be settled ;
will the existence of the bulb siphon, sucker, or what-
ever it is, assist in determining it ? — M. ET. Robson ,
Neivcastle-upon- Tyne.

A New Method of Preserving Infusoria.
— Would T. C. kindly furnish more particulars of the
mixing solutions ? I do not understand what he means
by chromic oxydichloride acid. Is it dichloride of
chromium ? I have some of this in solution saturated
and slightly acid ; but he does not state the strength
or percentage either of this or of the permanganate
of potash, so that I am puzzled to know how to mix
it.— T. B.

Microscopic Cleanliness. — Amongst the many
difficulties with which the working microscopist is
surrounded, none (in a small way) is more general
and annoying than the difficulty he experiences in
keeping his hands perfectly clean. Let him be as
particular and careful as he may, stains of balsam,
pigments and varnishes, and smears of the thousand
and one sticky and discolouring materials with which
he has to deal will get upon his fingers, and to
remove them he often finds to be a matter involving
much time and trouble. Soap and water won’t touch
them, ether is expensive, and turpentine or benzole
is dirty and offensive in smell. Mr. Archer, of
Liverpool, has recently patented a small slab or block

i6o

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

of pumice stone, the surface of which is chased into
quadrangular facets or dice, and which has been
christened the Patent Chequered Pumice Tablet.
In this little article the practical microscopist will
find a true friend. All he has to do, whilst washing
the hands, is to use this little scrubber with its
faceted surface well covered with soap, and he will
find all stains and smears vanish under its action, as
if by magic. Such, at any rate, is my experience,
and I have been so well pleased with it that I have
thought it worth while thus to bring it under the
notice of my fellow-workers, in order that they may
share the satisfaction which I have experienced from
its use. — Dr. M.

Another Method of Staining Microscopical
Specimens. — Dr. G. Brosicke, of Berlin, recom-
mends a combination of osmic acid and oxalic acid
for staining the tissues, instead of osmic acid alone.
Small pieces of the tissue, or prepared sections, are
placed for an hour in one per cent, osmic acid solu-
tion, and then carefully washed to remove all super-
fluous acid. They are then immersed for twenty-four
hours or longer in a cold saturated aqueous solution
of oxalic acid (one to fifteen), and are ready for
examination in water or glycerine. The result is that
while certain substances, such as mucin, cellulose,
starch, bacteria, the outer coat of certain fungi, &c.,
are scarcely at all coloured, other tissues, such as the
vitreous humour, the substratum of the cornea, the
walls of the capillaries, and various intercellular con-
nective tissues, appear of a bright carmine ; and
muscular fibres, tendon, hyaline cartilage, the inter-
fibrillary substance of decalcified bone, and most of
the tissues rich in albumen are stained a darker
carmine. The grey substance of the central nervous
system, most nuclei, and many cells assume a dark
Burgundy red tint. In all these cases, however, each
particular tissue is stained a slightly different shade,
so that it can be readily distinguished from its neigh-
bours. None of the objects treated by this method
swell up, or exhibit signs of internal coagulation.
The oxalic acid produces darker or lighter shades in
proportion to the length of time the specimen had
previously been immersed in osmic acid, and if the
latter has once completely blackened the tissue, the
oxalic acid is powerless afterwards to redden it.
Mixed solutions of osmic and oxalic acids stain pro-
portionally to the relative strength of each. The
chief drawback to this method is the small penetrating
power of osmic acid, which prevents the whole thick-
ness of a specimen from being equally stained.

“Centerer” for Slides. — In your September
number, 1875, you inserted a sketch of my “ centerer.”
As I have altered and, I believe, improved it, I enclose
a sketch of what I now use. The shaded part is a piece
of wood about inch thick, screwed on the bed,
which is about J inch thick ; sycamore is a good
wood for it. I use a piece of paper about 2 inches

long, and can thus have two different-sized holes
punched, which I place under the centre of the
slip. Under this I have a similar piece with two
colours on each side, so that I can use either. I find
black, white, blue, and red useful. The advantages

Fig- *34. — Improved Centerer for Slides.

of these alterations are that from the narrow neck
and the shortness of the paper the glass is more easily
handled, whilst we have more varieties on the same
paper of colours or holes. I use a round button,
putting the screw about | inch from the centre. —
IV. Locock , Clifton.

Lead Cells. — Mr. M. A. Veeder, of Lyons, New
York, recommends cells made from the thin sheets
of lead with which tea boxes are usually lined. The
depth of the cell may be increased, by placing several
lead rings one upon another. Shallow cells may be
formed with the greatest ease in this manner.

ZOOLOGY.

Mistakes of Instinct. — As a contribution to
this subject, I may mention a failure of instinct in
Anthocharis Cardamines , which has just come under
my observation. I always find the eggs here laid on
Cardamine pratensis , and always on the pedicel of the
flower. When the flower-bud is very small, it is
almost sessile ; but still the egg will be found so
placed as to avoid the floral envelopes, which being
very caducous will have fallen before the egg is
hatched, while it is the growing seed-pod which the
young larva wants to get at. I had some A. Carda-
mines this year which were bred and laid eggs in a
gauze cage upon cut flowers of Cardamine, and in
one instance the egg was deposited upon the sepal of
the flower, where in the natural course of things it
must have perished. — J. A. Osborne , Af.D. , Milford ,
Letter Penny.

H Simulation of Death by Insects. — In an
interesting paper read not long ago before the Ento-
mological Society, the simulation of death so frequently
observed among insects was regarded not as an in-
tentional stratagem to escape danger, but as a species
of catalepsy due to terror, and was, if I mistake not,
compared to the so-called fascination which certain
birds and small mammals experience in presence of a
serpent. It seems to me that the tendency to such
simulation in different species is, roughly speaking,

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

161

inversely as their locomotive powers. Thus as far as
the true insects are concerned, shamming death is
most common among the Coleoptera, the order
whose locomotive faculties are upon the whole lowest.
Looking again at the different groups of Coleoptera,
we find the tendency to simulate death absent, or at
least very rare, among the tiger-beetles, carabs, and the
Geodephaga generally ; among the long-horns, which,
when alarmed, rise in the air almost as readily as do
bees or Diptera ; among the Staphylini, which both
fly, run, and fight well, and among the Elateridae,
which escape danger by a sudden leap. On the
other hand, the semblance of death is often put on by
the Lamellicornes, which are slow crawlers, blunder-
ing flyers, and are incapable of taking wing without
some time for preparation. All these properties are
still more decided in the genus Byrrhus, and here
accordingly we find simulation at its height. At the
mere sound or vibration caused by an approaching
footstep, human or brute, a Byrrhus draws in its legs
and assumes very effectively the appearance of a small
stone or rounded clod of earth. Has a Byrrhus ever
been taken on the wing, or recognised when flying ?
Among spiders the same distinction may be traced.
The slower and more sedentary forms, if in presence
of a powerful enemy, roll themselves up in a ball, and
may easily pass unobserved. On the contrary, the
wandering ground spiders, such as the Lycosse, which
in warm weather bound with such rapidity that they
are sometimes by careless observers supposed to fly,
rarely resort to this stratagem except when very
persistently teased and intercepted. — C. R. Slater.

Pearls in Pecten maximus. — Lately my friend,
the Rev. H. F. Edge, was indulging in a dish of
scallops, when he found something which he con-
sidered extraneous and improper in his food, but
which on examination proved to be two perfectly
spherical pearls, one considerably larger than the
other, in fact as large as a small green pea, the other
smaller, in colour milky white, similar to what I
have from Ostrea edulis. Never remembering to
have met with a similar case in Pecten maximus ,
nor of the circumstance being mentioned in Jeffrey’s
“British Conchology,” I thought it would be of
interest to Science-Gossip. — John E. Daniel , 6 The
Terrace , Epsom.

Helix lapicida, var. minor. — My young friends,
the Misses, are again to the fore ; they were anxious
to find Helix lapicida; they were successful, and more
than so, for they brought me a number of the variety
H. 1. minor. Personally I do not remember having
ever seen it before. The type, as most of your
readers are aware, is, although not rare, very local.
The locality is a wall in Downside, Epsom. I have
no doubt they would gladly supply other collectors
in exchange for other British land and fresh-water
shells. — John E. Daniel , 6 The Terrace , Epsom.

Capros aper, or Boar-fish. — In last month’s
number of Science-Gossip you have a record of
specimens of Capros aper having been taken at Exmouth
and Swanage, and I can now add to these Eastbourne,
as two of my children found a fine specimen about
inches in length, on the beach close to the town,
which was alive when caught, and retained its
brilliancy of colour until put in spirits on the following
Monday. I believe it is the first time it has occurred
here. — F. C. S. Roper , F.L.S. ITc., Eastbourne.

Boar-fishes at tpie Brighton Aquarium. —
Perhaps the following brief notes on the boar-fish
( Capros aper) may interest some of the readers of
Science-Gossip, as the subject has recently attracted
attention in your columns. Its occurrence in the
British Channel seems to be hardly so rare an event
as supposed by your correspondent in the May number.
In vol. ii. of Dr. Gunther’s “Catalogue of the
Acanthopterygian Fishes in the British Museum,” the
Mediterranean is given as the usual habitat of the
boar-fish, which is further stated to occur occasionally
off Weymouth, Plymouth, and Brighton, and more
rarely on the Irish coast. Its appearance on the
Sussex coast is noted in Mrs. Merrifield’s “Natural
History of Brighton,” and I believe Dr. A. Gunther,
F.R.S., caught the first specimen obtained off that
town. There are at present two healthy boar- fishes
in the Brighton Aquarium, captured about a month
ago. In the summer months, the tank generally
occupied by several beautiful specimens of varieties of
the wrasse is rendered additionally attractive by the
presence of this pretty little bright-coloured genus,
which is by no means a bad show fish, despite an
occasional preference for rocky corners. Its habits
seem to resemble those of the dorys (Zeus), for, like
them, it often remains nearly motionless in the water
about halfway from the surface, and swims in the
same stately manner. The boar-fishes once acclima-
tised are tolerably hardy in captivity, thriving well
on a shrimp diet, but, as might be expected, they are
very sensible to cold. They seem to have been more
than usually plentiful this season, for Mr. Lawler, the
curator of the Aquarium, informs me that twenty were
caught together a short time back. The occurrence
of the “poisson sanglier,” according to M. Eugene
Deslongchamps, is a much rarer event on the
Normandy coast. — Agues Crane, Brighton.

“A Wonderful Discovery.” — Under this title,
the “ Brisbane Courier ” published a long and
matter-of-fact-looking account of suspended anima-
tion, which has been republished in the English
newspapers, and given rise to no small amount of
comment. The “Courier” now acknowledges it
has been the victim of a hoax, and all those people
who have been contending for the possibility of sus-
pending animation for months and years at will have
been “sold.”

162

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Plates of Birds’ Eggs. — An excellent coloured
plate (27 inches by 16 inches, on sheet 29 by 21
inches) of European birds’ eggs is published by
Bouasse-Lebel, 29 Rue St. Sulpice, Paris, at two
and a half francs. It contains 184 figures, natural
sizes. Any French bookseller would supply it in
London for about half-a-crown. The plate in question
is No. 141 of the “Tableaux Synoptiques.” The
series comprises nearly 200 plates illustrative of almost
every branch of scientific, mechanical, historical,
social and domestic inquiry — which, so far as I know,
are not equalled for quality and price. — R. T. Lavis.

Birds singing at Night. — On Monday, May 13,

I heard several birds singing in the park here as late
as half-past ten, the night being quite dark. On
Tuesday, May 14, I also heard one or two about the
same time. As there were (on the first night) several
singing, I was unable to distinguish any but the
thrush. — F. IV. J., Reigatc.

Birds singing at Night. — Having seen several
notices of birds singing at night in Science-Gossip,

I thought this might be worth mentioning. While
staying at Maidstone last month (May), I heard a
cuckoo distinctly at about 10.30 or 11 p.M. ; the night
was fine, and the nightingales were singing loudly. —
J. M. Ward.

Birds of India. — At a recent meeting of the
Zoological Society, the secretary exhibited and made
remarks upon two volumes of original drawings of
the birds in Inglia, which had been deposited in
the Society’s library by Brigadier-General A. C.
McMaster. The volumes contained about 270
figures of the birds of India, most of which had been
drawn by soldiers in General McMaster’s house at
Secunderabad.

“Nature cared for, and Nature uncared
for,” is the title of a shilling pamphlet published
by West, Newman, & Co., London. It is in reality
a lecture by Mr. H. B. Hewetson, M.R.C.S., on
“ Ornithology,” and is a thoughtful and reverent and
well-expressed series of utterances on the mode in
which natural phenomena impress the hearts of
men. We have much enjoyed its perusal, although
we do not always commit ourselves to the opinions
of the author.

The Great Atlas Moth. — We have received a
copy of a monograph by P. H. Gosse, F.R. S., on 1
the “ Life-History of the Great Atlas Moth of Asia”
[Attacus Atlas , Linn.), the largest known species of
Lepidoptera, containing a beautifully finished coloured
plate of its transformation. The work is published
by West, Newman, & Co., London. The monograph
is a careful study of the moth from specimens
reared by Mr. Gosse from the egg to the adult
stage.

The teaching of Natural PIistory. — In a
recent address Mr. Gladstone spoke as follows in

favour of natural history teaching in schools : — I can-
not help saying one word upon that subject which I
think, on the whole, has been worse used in the
schools of this country than all the other branches of
knowledge. I mean that which is called Natural
History. I speak of natural history, such as is open
to you both by the study and by the observation of
living objects and of dead objects in nature, such as
continually come around and solicit your attention.
I do not myself believe that natural history has had
quite fair play, and I have always felt it most grievous
among the many blanks of our early training that we
were totally ignorant of it. I will just give you these
four points in connection with natural history. In
the first place, it is a continual lesson — a lesson at
once easy and profound — of the wisdom and bene-
ficence of Providence, a continual confirmation and
belief, when you find the wonderful hand of that
Workman descending to the smallest objects with
the same care with which He mounts to the greatest.
The religious use of natural history is one that all
must delight in. The next point is this. Learning
is an admirable thing, but it does not always make
itself agreeable at the first introduction, at least that
was my experience ; I don’t know whether it is yours.
Much has been done, I believe, to improve these
initial stages. It certainly is a marked advantage in
the study of natural history that it leads you on by
the hand ; it inveigles you, if I may say so, into
learning what is good and what is useful. Many a
one might have his mind first opened to the attractions
of natural history, which mind, if once opened, might
perhaps be capable of applying itself beneficially to
harder and more repulsive studies. Another point is
this, natural history is one of the best and most
efficient means for the education of the senses. Some
may perhaps tell us that our senses are educated well
enough already, and claim quite large enough a
portion of our existence. Of course that is perfectly
true so far as the grosser forms of enjoyment are
concerned ; but so far as the senses are concerned as
organs for the acquisition of knowledge, they are
very indifferently educated indeed. This habit of
minute, careful, and accurate observation, which is
inseparable from natural history studies, gives to the
senses that habit of accurate distinction which is
invaluable as an assistant in the pursuit of every
branch of knowledge. Lastly, let me say that these
analogies of natural history are invaluable ; they
have a most gracious effect in developing the finer
faculties of the mind ; they establish a connection
between the different portions of creation.

Plow to establish a Rookery. — We wish to
establish a rookery in the churchyard garden of St.
John’s, Waterloo Road, Lambeth. Will any of
your readers kindly assist us by telling us the best
plan to pursue ? — Arthur J. Robinson.

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163

GEOLOGY.

The Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Caernarvon. —
A paper on this subject has just been read by Professor
T. M ‘Kenny Hughes, in which the author divides
these rocks into (1) the volcanic series, (2) the felsitic
series, (3) the granitoid series. He traces the former
of these, consisting of coarser and finer varieties, from
Caernarvon to near Port Dinorwig. Beyond these
comes the felsite series, which is overlapped by grits
and conglomerates as far as the Bangor road, north-
east of Brithdir. Above the latter comes the “ volcanic
series,” well developed in the neighbourhood of
Bangor. The author is of opinion that the Cambrian
conglomerate, with associated grits, may be traced in
the edge of the older massif from Twt Hill, Caer-
narvon, to Garth Point, Bangor, and that the beds in
each of these places and near Brithdir, recently de-
scribed as separate, are identical ; also that the bed
with purple fragments near Tairffynnon and the
Bangor Poorhouse are only Cambrian conglomerate
faulted down. Further, he considers that the strata
of the above three series are fairly parallel throughout,
and that they only form three subdivisions of one
great series.

The Geological Society. — The following were
among papers recently read at the monthly meeting :
“ On a fossil Squilla from the London Clay of High-
gate, part of the Wetherell Collection in the British
Museum.” By H. Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
The specimen described is preserved, as usual, in a
phosphatic nodule, and exhibits five well-preserved
abdominal segments (xiv.-xviil), a portion of the
carapace, traces of the thoracic appendages, and the
appendages of the twentieth segment preceding the
telson. The abdominal segments increase in breadth
posteriorly as in modern Squill®. The species is most
nearly allied to a recent Australian Squilla (unnamed)
related to S. Desviarestii. The author proposed the
name of Squilla Wetherclli for the London-clay fossil.

“On Necroscilla IVilsoni , a supposed Stomatopod
Crustacean from the Middle Coal-measures, Cossall,
near Ilkeston, Derbyshire.” By H. Woodward, Esq.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. The specimen described was
found by Mr. E. Wilson, of Nottingham, in a nodule
of clay-ironstone. It consists of the four posterior
abdominal somites and the telson. The author dis-
cussed its zoological characters, which led him to
regard it as approaching the Stomatopoda rather
than the Isopoda. He thought it probable that Dr.
Dawson’s Diplostylus is allied to this newly discovered
form, for which he proposed the name of Necroscilla
IVilsoni.

“On the Discovery of a fossil Squilla in the
Cretaceous Deposits of Hakel, in the Lebanon.” By
H. Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. This fossil
Squilla occurs in a collection, chiefly consisting of

fossil-fish, but also including several Crustacea and
some beautifully preserved Cephalopods, obtained in
the Lebanon by Professor E. R. Lewis, of Beirut.
The specimens are in a compact cream-coloured lime-
stone, most of the slabs of which contain examples of
Clupea brevissima and C. Bottic , fragments of Eury-
pholis Boissieri, and other fishes. Like the London-
clay form, the species seems to be most nearly allied
to the Australian species collected by Professor Jukes,
and the segments are not ornamented with spines and
ridges. The author proposed for it the name of
Squilla Lewisii.

“On the Occurrence of a Fossil King-Crab
(Limulus) in the Cretaceous Formation of the
Lebanon.” By H. Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S. This was another of Professor Lewis’s
discoveries, and was of much interest as helping to
bridge over the interval between the Jurassic Limuli
of Solenhofen and those now living. . The author
described the characters presented by the single
specimen, for which he proposed the name of Limulus
syriacus.

Gigantic Reptiles of Colorado. — Professor
Cope describes the bones of a species of Camarasaurus,
which he says represent a most gigantic animal. The
transverse diameter of the neck vertebrae is fifty-six
inches, and the diameter of the distal end of the
femur is twenty-one inches. This reptile is found in
the Oolitic formation of Colorado.

The Midland Union of Natural History
Society, held their second meeting at Leicester, on
May the 20th and 21st, and the proceedings were of
a most satisfactory character. The societies in the
union number about 3000 members. An address was
delivered by Mr. George Stevenson ; field excursions
were conducted under the able leadership of Mr. W. J.
Harrison, F.G.S., the energetic curator of Leicester
Museum, and Mr. F. J. Mott ; and conversaziones
were held in the evenings. Next year the annual
gathering will take place at Northampton.

Remains of Iguanodon in the Kimmeridge
Clay. — Professor Prestwich has just described the
occurrence of part of the skeleton of an Iguanodon
found in the Kimmeridge clay near Oxford. The
remains are evidently those of a young animal. The
occurrence in this stratum proves that the Iguanodon
was not confined to the lower Cretaceous and Wealden
period as has been supposed, but that it existed
during Oolitic times.

The Physical History of the English Lake
District. — When the fittest man can be got to do
required. work, the result must be satisfactory. The
Rev. J. Clifton-Ward, F.G.S., has just concluded a
series of articles on the above subject in the “ Geo-
logical Magazine,” and they unquestionably form the
best geological history of the Lake District which has
yet been written.

164

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The Geology of Northumberland. — Pro-
fessor Lebour, F.G.S., of the College of Physical
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, has prepared an ex-
cellent geological map of the county of Northumber-
land, which is published by Andrew Reid, Newcastle.
This map will be of great service to geological students.

The Royal School of Mines.— The appoint-
ment of Professor F. W. Rudler, of the University
College of Wales, to be curator of the Museum of
Practical Geology, and registrar of the Royal School
of Mines, Jermyn Street, in succession to the late
Mr. Trenham Reeks, will give great satisfaction to
all geologists throughout the United Kingdom.

Underground Geology. — In a deep well-boring
at Ware, Herts, the chalk and the gault were passed
through, but the lower greensand was absent, and
the boring tool at once struck upon upper Silurian
rocks, lying at an angle of forty degrees, although
unfortunately the direction of the dip is unknown.
These rocks were found to be rich in characteristic
fossils, twenty-eight species of which have been
properly catalogued.

BOTANY.

Orchis Morio. — In an upland meadow in South
Beds, I have just obtained about a dozen spikes of this
Orchis, showing every gradation of colour, from dark
purple, through various shades of red and pink, to a
pure white, with the exception of the characteristic
green lines on the side sepals. The higher the
general hue, the brighter was the green of these lines.
The pollinia also varied with the colour of the flower.
Those in the darkest varieties were tinged with
purple, and those in the white one were a rich golden
yellow. Very few insects had apparently visited
these flowers, for in most of the spikes none of the
pollinia had been removed, in others only two or
three, and in no case were both removed from the
same blossom. The visits of insects may have been
prevented by the excessive rains of the last few days.
— y. Saunders, Luton.

Nutrition in relation to Flowers.— At
a recent meeting of the Linnean Society, a paper
by Mr. Thomas Meehan, the well-known American
botanist, was read, in which the author’s observations
on Wistaria sinensis, W. frutcscens, Catalpa syrmgce-
folia, and Limina perenne were given. Mr. Meehan
thinks that the struggle for power between the vege-
tative and the reproductive forces decides fertility,
and suggests that the perfection of the polliniferous
organs, and the consequent potency of pollen, is
dependent on phases of nutrition involved in this
struggle. Thus, in the above mentioned plants, it is
seen that potency in pollen, the main element in
reproductive force, operates only when there has been
some check given to the force of vegetative growths.

Insects destroyed by Flowers. — At a recent
meeting of the Entomological Society, Mr. J. M. Slater
sent a short paper on the above subject, in which he
stated that, whilst it is generally admitted that the
gay colours of flowers are mainly subservient to the
purpose of attracting bees and other winged insects,
whose visits play so important a part in the process
of fertilisation, one important fact had scarcely received
due attention. Certain gay-coloured or conspicuous
flowers are avoided by bees, or, if visited, have an
injurious and even fatal effect upon the insects.
Among these are the dahlia, passion-flower, crown-
imperial, and especially the oleander. That the
flowers of the dahlia have a narcotic effect, was first
pointed out by the Rev. L. Jenyns, who mentions
that bees which visit these flowers are soon seized
with a sort of torpor, and often die unless speedily
removed. Mr. Jenyns also quotes a writer in the
“Gardener’s Chronicle,” who pronounces the culti-
vation of the dahlia incompatible with the success of
the bee-keeper. The passion-flower also stultifies
bees, and bees of all kinds avoid the crown-imperial
and the oleander, for the honey of the latter is fatal
to flies. Mr. Slater did not remember ever seeing a
butterfly or moth settling on the flowers of this shrub
in Hungary and Dalmatia, and he thinks it important
that observers should ascertain whether the above-
mentioned phenomena be true, and, whether any
insects in such cases undertake the functions generally
exercised by bees, and whether flowers have a simi-
larly noxious or deadly action upon insects.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Slow Worm. — Mr. E. D. Marquand in his interest-
ing article on “The New Forest,” mentions “a
bright reddish-purple variety ” of the slow worm. A
few particulars respecting this variety as to its rarity
or otherwise, whether found in any other locality,
&c., would, I think, be interesting toother readers of
Science-Gossip as well as for myself. No mention
is made of it by Bell in his work on British reptiles.
Has Mr. Marquand met with Coluber (or Coronella )
law is ? I find the New Forest mentioned as one of
its localities in the volume of Science-Gossip for
1872. — W. G. Ticxford.

Cat rearing a Rat. — Even a more extraordinary
thing than a cat bringing up rabbits, is the following
case of a cat taking care of a rat for a month, when
the rat escaped. Last summer, a cat, a famous
hunter, was kept in a grocer’s shop in Helensburgh.
She had a litter of kittens, of which three or four
were drowned. A day or two after this the cat came
upon a nest of young rats, six of which she killed, while
she carried off two, and put them in a basket beside her
remaining kittens. Her owner then put the kittens and
rats in a long barrel to prevent their getting out. For a
fortnight or so they all lived happily together, the
rats getting no food, so they must have been suckled
by the cat. One of the rats being a weakly one was
I overlaid. A shopman took the remaining rat out of
I the barrel when it ran away, but the cat found it,
and took it back to the barrel. Getting annoyed by
people who came to inspect the happy family, the cat

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

'65

moved them all, rat included, to a corner of the shop,
and a board was put up to keep them in. The rat
several times tried to escape by either climbing over
or making holes in the board. One night after it had
been about a month under the care of its natural
enemy, a piece of curtain having been left hanging
over the board, the rat which had now grown pretty
large escaped, and was never seen again. I pass
through Helensburgh nearly every day, and saw the
rat lying in the nest with the kittens. — E. L . F.

Under what Circumstances is the Yew
Poisonous to Horses and Cows? — In my garden
there are some yew-trees, planted forty or fifty years
ago, which hang over a wall into an adjoining yard,
where van-horses have constantly been in the habit of
standing while the vans were loaded and unloaded,
and I have never known any of the horses to have
suffered. There is also in a park in this neighbour-
hood a long row of yew-trees exposed to the deer,
cows, and horses, which graze there, but I have never
heard of any harm having resulted. On the other
hand, I understand that in a gentleman’s grounds near
here, two valuable cows last year got access to, and
ate some cut branches of yew, and died in consequence ;
and I am told that in the case of a horse which died
from eating yew, a post mortem examination shewed
that death resulted from irritation of the intestines,
caused by the sharp prickly points of the leaves, rather
than from any poisonous property in their juices. I
shall be much obliged by any information on the
subject. — T. H. G. , Kettering.

The Natterjack Toad. — I am glad to hear from
Mr. J. Campbell in your issue of January, that the
malodorous charge against our little friend, the
natterjack, is a calumny. I was deterred from trying
to obtain a specimen on account of what I had read.
Mr. M. C. Cooke gives him a bad character in his
book on “ British Reptiles,” and the late Mr. Harland
Coultas in a work entitled “The Home Naturalist”
says, “ When pursued, the cross (or natterjack) toad
draws itself together, so that the glands of its skin
empty themselves, and its body becomes covered
with a whitish moisture, giving out an intolerable
stench which has been aptly compared to the smell
of an old tobacco pipe ; this is undoubtedly a means
of defence with which the animal has been provided
by the Creator.” No wonder then after reading this
description of the reptile, I did not attempt to obtain
a specimen, but addressed a query to the editor, who
transferred the question to the Notes and Queries
column, where a reply appeared from Mr. W. R.
Tate to the effect that the reptile gave off a strong
sulphurous scent when frightened. Mr. Campbell’s
experience of the animal is still more favourable,
which would lead one to suppose that some only are
able to give off this smell, whilst others do not possess
the power to do so. I beg to thank Mr. Tate and
Mr. Campbell for their kindness in answering my
question, and as the latter gentleman has actually
kept the animal, he would greatly add to his kindness
if he could give me some particulars with regard to
its food, &c. As very little seems to be known about
this species of toad, such information would, I think,
be of general interest. — J. Perrycap.

Dogs affected by Sound of Music. — A black -
and-tan terrier that we kept for some time was par-
ticularly sensitive to music. Although scales played
on the piano made her yell piteously it was by the
concertina’s sweet influences that she was most affected,
flying before it and if unable to leave the room, whin-
ing until the tune was stopped. A Spitzbergen dog-
friend of ours is much excited by music, but when

one tune is played its excitement is more marked — the
tune is “ Bonny Dundee.” Dogs are not peculiar in
their feeling for music, witness the fact that retired
cavalry horses obey the call of the bugle when acci-
dentally heard. — C. y. W.

Blackcap in December. — On December 17 last
I was surprised and interested by seeing a blackcap
busily engaged searching for insects among the
bare branches of a vine trained against my house.
There had been a hard, I should say unusually
severe, frost for more than a week, and many even
of our winter birds seemed to be pinched and sadly
in want of food. The frost was then beginning to
give, but I little expected to see so thoroughly a
summer visitant able to endure such unusually wintry
weather. I watched it for some minutes, and, as it
was not three yards from my face, I had no doubt
of its being a veritable blackcap. During the months
of November and December last a hawfinch was
seen nearly every day upon my lawn. — H. M. M
Badgzuorth , Weston -super-Mare.

Cornus Sanguinea. — I think it is not unusual for
this plant to flower in autumn. I noticed one of our
hedges quite gay with its blossoms at that season in
last year. — y. A/., New Brompton , Kent.

Tea Stains. — Can you tell me why tea produces a
blue stain when coming in contact with steel ? A
little black tea dropped from the tea-pot on a table-
knife has this effect. — R. H. N. B.

Nuthatch. — I observed on Friday, March 28, a
Nuthatch ( Sitta europcea) on Barnes Common. Is
this not rather a rare bird so near London ? — E. V.
Seebohm , Nassau School , Barnes , S. W.

Parrots and their Eggs. — The note in May
number on this subject has attracted the attention of
a gentleman resident in this neighbourhood, whose
parrakeet has lately laid three eggs, with an interval
of a day or two between each laying — the dates
of the events being April 18, 21, 25, of this present
year. Thinking that possibly some Manchester
naturalists might be glad to see them, he has kindly
placed them in my hands to show. — E. Ward , 29 Bur-
lington Street , Manchester.

Intelligence of Animals. — A very worthy and
candid old clergyman of my acquaintance used to tell
the following story about some sagacious little dogs
of his, in proof, as he was wont to admit, that
“they knew, better than himself, how to observe
Sunday.” In the doctrine of his life he was in the
habit of taking a constitutional ride daily ; but on
Sundays, when he went to perform the service in a
neighbouring church, his little dogs, who were his
faithful companions on the other days of the week,
were not allowed to accompany him. On one
special Sunday, having a clerical son staying with
him, he gave himself a holiday, and instead of going
to serve his church, indulged himself with his ordi-
nary ride. No invitations, however, could persuade
the little dogs to go with him. In vain he called ; in
vain he whistled. They would not break through
their good habits, at the cost probably of some little
self-denial, and in defiance of the lax example of their
master. — C. W. Bingham.

Instinct or Reason. — I am not a little sur-
prised that so many of your correspondents question
the reasoning powers of animals, or treat as a moot
point that on which nearly all the best authorities are
agreed. In Professor Huxley’s admirable little volume
on Hume, recently published, we find the following :
“ We must admit that Hume does not express him-
self too strongly when he says, ‘ no truth appears to

1 66

HARDW1CKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

me more evident than that the beasts are endowed
with thought and reason as well as men. The argu-
ments are in this case so obvious, that they never escape
the most stupid and ignorant.’ In fact this is one of
the few cases in which the conviction which forces
itself upon the stupid and the ignorant, is fortified
by the reasonings of the intelligent, and has its
foundation deepened by every increase of knowledge.”
(Huxley’s “Hume,” p. 104.) From the same
volume I must quote another very amusing and
suggestive passage. “One of the most curious
peculiarities of the dog mind is its inherent snobbish-
ness, shown by the regard paid to external respect-
ability. The dog who barks furiously at a beggar
will let a well-dressed man pass him without opposi-
tion. bias he not then a ‘generic idea’ of rags and
dirt associated with the idea of aversion, and that of
sleek broadcloth associated with the idea of liking ? ”
(Ibid. p. 106.) Probably this trait of canine character
has struck most persons who have any dog friends :
it is very noticeable what an ineradicable hatred of
uniforms dogs show, and very few postmen of any
ength of service can be found who will not testify
to the doggish detestation which is manifested
towards them, however friendly their bearing. In
this connection it is interesting to notice how Miss
Cobbe finds elevation of character where Professor
Huxley finds “snobbishness;” here is her verdict,
“ A clever dog is one of the best discriminators of
character in the world. He distinguishes at a glance
a tramp or swell-mobsman from a gentleman, even in
the most soiled attire. He has also a keen sense of
the relative importance of persons, and never fails to
know who is the master of the house.” (“False
Beasts and True,” p. 158.) Although, as all the
world knows, Miss Cobbe is an ultra-enthusiastic
pleader for the brute-world, the little work just
quoted from affords a storehouse of arguments for
the existence of reason in brutes ; certainly it is
hard to deny them this attribute when we even find
them giving way to superstition. “ Superstition,
or the awe of the unknown, has been treated by some
thinkers as the primary germ of religion, and by
others, far more justly as its shadow. This shadow
certainly falls on the dog no less than on man.
The bravest dog will continually show signs of terror
at the sight of an object which he does not under-
stand, such as the skin of a dead animal, the snake of
a hookah, a pair of bellows, or a rattle. That the
brute fancies there is something uncanny and preter-
natural about such things, is apparent from his
behaviour, which in a real case of danger is
aggressively daring, and in that of imaginary peril
abjectly timorous.” (Ibid. p. 146.) Turn we to Mr.
Darwin, his opinion is very clear, and will have
with many the weight of a decision. “Of all the
faculties of the human mind,” he says, “it will,
I presume, be admitted that reason stands at
the summit. Only a few persons now dispute that
animals possess some power of reasoning. Animals
may constantly be seen to pause, deliberate, and re-
solve. It is a significant fact that the more the habits
of any particular animal are studied by a naturalist,
the more he attributes to reason, and the less to un-
learnt instincts.” (“ Descent of Man,” 2nd ed. p. 75-)
Does not Mr. Wheatley hit on the true distinction
between man and the brute-world, when he assigns
it to language ? And does not Mr. Gilliard venture
on a very rash assertion when he says, “ it is capable
of proof that man cannot act at all intuitively ? ” It
is well known that Professor Max. Muller has urged
with his usual eloquence that language will yet prove
the hard and fast barrier between spirit and matter,
between man and brute ; let us note then what he

says on the almost settled case of Reason versus
Instinct. “Some philosophers imagine they have
explained everything if they ascribe to brutes instinct
instead of intellect. But, if we take these two words
in their usual acceptations, they surely do not exclude
each other. There are instincts in man as well as in
brutes. A child takes his mother’s breast by instinct,
the spider weaves his net by instinct ; the bee builds
her cell by instinct. . . . But what if we tear a
spider’s web and see the spider examining the mis-
chief that is done, and either giving up his 'work in
despair, or endeavouring to mend it as well as may
be ? Surely here we have the instinct of weaving
controlled by observation, by comparison, by reflec-
tion, by judgment. Instinct, whether mechanical or
moral, is more prominent in brutes than in man, but
it exists in both, as much as intellect is shared by
both.” (“Lectures on the Science ofLanguage,” 9th ed.
vol. i. p. 402.) Perhaps the latest and most startling
theory, stated with a grotesque naivete which has a
bewildering charm, is that of Mr. Samuel Butler, who,
in his powerful book called “Life and Habit,” boldly
says that “instinct is inherited memory.” It is unfair
to tear from the texture of his ingenious argument
and elaborate illustration isolated passages, but the
following samples will perhaps whet the appetites of
those interested in the subject. Touching on the
inveteracy of habit, and the difficulty of breaking
away from “ The grey nurses Use and Wont,” he
says, “In our own case, the habit of breathing like
a fish through gills may serve as an example. We
have now left off this habit, yet we did it formerly,
for so many generations, that we still do it a little,
it still crosses our embryological existence like a faint
memory or dream, for not easily is an inveterate
habit broken.” (“Life and Habit,” p. 70.) Again,
“The action of embryo making its way up in the
world from a simple cell to a baby, developing for
itself eyes, ears, hands, and feet while yet unborn,
proves to be exactly of one and the same kind as that
of a man of fifty who goes into the city and tells his
broker to buy him so many Great Northern A shares.”
And this, “ The duckling hatched by the hen makes
straight for water. In what conceivable way can we
account for this, except on the supposition that the
duckling knows perfectly well what it can and what
it cannot do with water, owing to its recollection of
what it did when it was still one individuality with
its parents, and hence when it was a duckling before.”
Taking such passages as this by themselves we might
be tempted to doubt with the “ Saturday Review,”
whether Mr. Butler was not palming off a big joke
on the public, but carefully read, the impression is
more likely to be that of Mr. Wallace, and this
distinguished naturalist sees in “Life and Habit”
much sound speculation and vital truth. — James
Hooper , Denmark Hill , S.E.

Intelligence in Animals. — “It is quite clear”
(says Dr. Whately) “that if such acts were done by
man they would be regarded as an exercise of reason,
and I do not know why, when performed by brutes,
evidently by a similar process, so far as can be jiidged ,
they should not bear the same name. To talk of
a cat’s having instinct to pull a bell when desirous of
going out at the door .... would be to use words
at random.” And I think many would agree with
the learned archbishop if they would carefully consider
the testimonies and researches of such eminent
naturalists and thinkers as Locke, the philosopher,
Bacon and Burns, Professors Darwin, Huber, Brehm,
Rengger, Kirby and Lord, F.Z.S., Rev. F .0. Morris,
Lubbock, and the lately recognised genius Edward,
of Banff, &c. As an example, of which so many can

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

167

he adduced, let us take an incident related by Mr.
Edward : he saw two birds vainly trying to turn over
a large fish on the sands to get the vermin beneath ;
after many futile attempts, extending over half an
hour or more, and after attracting a third bird who
helped them to no purpose, they stood together and
apparently by their noise were engaged in some
mysterious process of conversation and reasoning, 1
they again set to work eagerly, and dug a hole in the ;
sands from one side of the fish, even to undermining
a certain distance, and then, with evident expres-
sions of triumph, rolled it over with ease, and com-
menced the feast they had worked for. That fish
measured 3^ feet, being a fine cod, and those birds
undoubtedly used their reason to elaborate a scheme
to accomplish their object. Without running off into
Darwinian theories, I would remind Dr. Keegan,
seeing he lays so much stress on the capacity of the
brain, that one of our great physiologists tells us —

‘ ‘ That every chief fissure and fold of the brain of
man has its analogy in that of the ourang and
Huxley adds, “Whilst in those things in which the
brains of men and apes do differ, there is also a great
difference among various men.” It is true structure is
not all — the machinery may be perfect in every detail,
yet, if it lack the motive power, of what avail is it ?
Still, is it not reasonable to suppose that structure
being so similar, God intended the ape to use his
brain like man’s, but in a less degree ? The chief
obstacle to belief in the reasoning power of animals
lies in the fear of what the admission may lead to, but
surely we need not grudge to these poor brutes the
possession of a feeble development of reason, when
man, and man alone, can thank his Creator for giving
him a hope of a future which no animal seems destined
to enjoy. — John H. Wilson.

Intelligence in Animals. — I heard a singular
story of a Skye terrier, which was told me by a lady-
friend who knows the dog well ; it was a great
pet with its master. On one occasion its master
brought home a puppy of another breed. On its intro-
duction into the house, the Skye terrier appeared to
take no notice of it whatever. After a few days the
puppy could nowhere be found, and on making
inquiry, the gardener said he remembered seeing the
Skye terrier smoothing some earth down on the top
of a rubbish heap in the garden, and on examining the
said heap, the body of the puppy was found buried
some depth. The Skye terrier, being jealous of the
notice the puppy received from its master, had enticed
the puppy to the heap, killed and then buried it. —
Edmund Durrant.

Sagacity of a Tree-creeper. — Anecdotes tend-
ing to show some sort of reasoning power in the
more sagacious quadrupeds are not uncommon, but
the following having reference to that diminutive
bird the common creeper ( Certhia familiaris) is in-
teresting as proving these faculties to be possessed
by others than dogs, horses, and animals of com-
paratively complicated brain-structure. Within the
last few days we have seen the nest of one of these
creatures very snugly placed within a hole in a wall
caused by the removal of an entire brick, the breach
being partially and to all appearance almost entirely
filled up by a portion of the same placed loosely in
front. As the movements of the small parents were
a source of interest to the proprietor, the loose piece
had frequently been removed, and the privacy of the
hen bird had been invaded by more than one pair of
curious eyes, until she was so far familiarised to the
intrusion as to remain undisturbed on her eggs while
under inspection. Her mate, however, does not
seem to have shared her confidence and determined

to put an end, if possible, to these unwelcome visits.
He would fasten the half brick as other bricks were
fastened, and, failing mortar, placed in the crack as
much well-kneaded clay as he could accumulate.
This is the more remarkable as the bird uses no
cement of any kind in making its nest. The work
though small in extent was as well executed as though
a swallow had been the engineer. But alas ! it was
easily broken by human hands, and the work of the
architect must be recommenced. I grieve to add
that, after a second earthwork had in like manner
been constructed, the ingenuity and perseverance of
the bird could no longer be tried, for at this stage
some unknown person robbed the birds of the eggs.
y. y. Plummer.

Can Worms crawl Backwards ? — My atten-
tion having been drawn to this subject by a note in
the May number of this valuable magazine, I have
experimented with the result that they can crawl
backwards, though very reluctantly. When experi-
menting, I tried to make a worm crawl along a narrow
path, and every time it turned its head from the
straight course, I gave it a gentle reminder on the
head with a piece of stick. After sundry knocks, it
came to the wise conclusion that it would rather
crawl backwards than be hit in this way. It then
crawled backwards about three feet. I have experi-
mented on other worms, and in different ways, always
with the same result, viz. : that they can crawl
backwards. — Percy A. Ramage , Stoneclough , near
Manchester.

Snakes. — I caught an ordinary brown snake in
Epping Forest lately, and as it was rather longer
than ordinary (2 feet 6 inches) I determined to stuff
it. As I could not get any ordinary naturalist to
undertake it (!) I did it myself. After skinning it, I
threw the skin into some hot water with some wash-
ing soda in it to get off some of the fat adhering to it ;
immediately it was immersed, all the brown scales
changed to a bright light blue and the darker shades
to a beautiful black. How is this to be accounted
for ? It was not the new skin, but a perfect change
of colour. — y. D. Hardy , Clapton.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the gth of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the “ exchanges ” offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
“exchanges” which cannot be tolerated.

G. H. Steward. — You will find an outline of all the great
changes which our planet has experienced, physical and vital,
in Taylor’s “ Geological Stories,” 4th edition, published by
Hardwicke & Bogue, 192 Piccadilly, W., price 4s.

J. C. Glough. — Your plant is the beautiful Water avens
( Geuin rivale).

J. W. and others. — Egg-drills, &c., may be procured of
Mr. R. B. Spalding, 46 High Street, Notting Hill, London, W.

R. T. Lewis. — Many thanks for your generous and prompt
answers.

L. Hawkins. — We are always willing to assist students in
naming specimens, and it is a genuine pleasure to do so. The
remarks made were those of the gentleman to whom your speci-
mens were forwarded.

1 68

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

W. A. Firth. — Your seaweed is Ptilota plumosa.

F. H. Arnold. — We do not think it “hopeless” to secure
you the sedges you require.

To Botanical Exchange Club Members. — The former
list of desiderata will remain open for the present year.

W. M. H. — The “knots” in the straw of wheat are the solid
nodes which are common to all the grass family throughout the
world.

E. Pritchard. — Dr. Carpenter’s “Animal Physiology ” (last
edition) ; Huxley & Martin’s “ Text-Book of Physiology Dr.
Nicholson’s “Manual of Zoology;” Huxley’s “Lessons in
Elementary Physiology,” and Wilson’s “Zoology” (published
by Chambers) are all good books for the object you seek.

H. K. Moiser. — The list of desiderata for the Botanical
Exchange Club has not been sent out this year, as it was thought
that of last summer might stand.

T. W. Harris. — Your shells are Clausilia rugosa. Get
Tate’s “British Mollusks,” coloured illustrations, price 6j.
London : Hardwicke & Bogue.

J. Elkington. — The specimens are (i) the round sea-urchin
( Echinus sphccra), and (2) the purple-tipped sea-urchin (Echinus
miliaris).

P. R. V. — Your flower is Fritillaria meleagris.

J. J. T. — The only place where coralline crag fossils can be
obtained is Orford in Suffolk.

R. Bro vvn. — Get Dr. Cooke’s “Microscopic Fungi,” published
by Hardwicke & Bogue, with coloured plates, &c., at 6j.

W. B. Scott (Chudleigh). — Wishes some reader of Science-
Gossip to send him specimens of the natterjack toad and the
crested newt (Triton cristatus).

B. M. W. — Your specimen is not a lichen, but the mycelia
of a fungus which is common on the walls of wine-cellars.

Mrs. Edwards and Rev. C. F. W. T. Williams. — Accept
our best thanks for the botanical specimens forwarded to us.

Mr. J. G. Osborne, who is engaged in some observations
on the development of the embryo in invertebrate ova, wishes
to know of some preparation which would render the structures
more transparent, and arrest and preserve them at different
stages (see article in our March number on “ Preserving delicate
Organisms,” and paragraph in this number under head of
“ Microscopy”).

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, unset specimens of British Spiculiferous Hymenop-
tera, especially the Chalcididse. Well-mounted slides of vege-
table tissues stained in two colours, offered in exchange. — Charles
Vance Smith, Carmarthen.

For specimen of Peridermium Pini (rare in England), send
stamped addressed envelope and object of interest to Charles
F. W. T. Williams, 4 Darlington Place, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

Fine American Lower Silurian and Devonian fossils, in ex-
change for British Mesozoic fossils. — A. B. Baker, 2 College
Ave, Rochester, New York, U.S.A.

The “ Dictionary of Mechanics ” (E. H. Knight), 29 numbers
to date, offered in exchange for 1874, 1875, and i876of Science-
Gossip, or work on natural history. — R. L. Hawkins, Hastings.

Liberal exchange in first-class objects, offered for a pure
gathering of Volvox globator. Communicate before sending. —
E. Wheeler, 48 Tollington Road, Holloway, N.

Wanted, freshly-collected insects for microscopic purposes,
in exchange for unmounted objects, curiosities, &c.; four varieties,
Japanese cloth, for one well-mounted slide, curious structure. —
Tylar, 165 Well Street, Birmingham.

Wanted, Turton’s “Linnaeus,” vol. i. 1806. — W. E. Milner,
47 Park Road, Haverstock Hill, N.W.

Duplicate eggs of capercaille, common sandpiper, common
snipe, blue-tailed godwit, spoonbill, heron, little bittern, moorhen,
coot sheldrake, razor-bill, guillemot, and black-headed gull, all
side-blown. _ List of what is required in exchange, will be sent
on application to R. Davenport, 124 Georgiana Street, Bury,
Lancashire.

For micro slides, saloon pistol, by Hollis & Sons, with
ammunition, new in February. — J. G. Johnson, 93 St. James’
Street, Newport, Isle of Wight.

British Shells. Duplicates for exchanged. List sent on
application to J. W. Cundall, Carrville, Alexandra Park, Redland,
Bristol.

Wanted, Sciopticon, or other good form of lantern, also
Darwin’s “ Insectivorous Plants,” loan or otherwise. Have
many things to offer, such as micro slides, first-class, unmounted
prepared material, mostly marine organisms in great variety.
Marine algse for balsam or herbarium specimens, living plants,
alpines, ferns, Drosera, &c. State wants ; will take cash or other
exchanges.— T. McGann, Burren, Ireland.

Wan 1 ed, Devonian corals, named or unnamed. Fossils from
other formations given in exchange.— William Quarterman,
2 King Street, Borough, S.E.

Splendid specimens of Marcasite var, cockscomb, for other
minerals (cabinet specimens) or fossils. A few fine large speci-
mens of flexible corals ( Pterogorgonia pinnata). Want fossils or
minerals. — J. McKenzie, Nursery Cottage, Berkby, Hudders-
fie'd.

For well-mounted slide, I will send diatomaceous mud from
peat, very rich.— W. Sim, Gourdas, Fyvie, N.B.

Live moles wanted.— J. E. Palmer, 35 James Street, Dublin.

Good specimens (side blown) of the following eggs, in exchange
for other good eggs or Lepidoptera. Eider duck, guillemot,
lesser B. B. gull, herring gull, cormorant and sandwich, Arctic
and common tern. — Adamson Rhagg, 21 Grainger Street, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

Pollen of Calla AEthiopica, Amaryllis, &c., mounted in
balsam. Also several hundred silkworms (B. mori), to exchange
for algse, herbarium, zoophyte, shells, or any unmounted
objects of interest. — Mrs. Skilton, 21 Londoh Road, Brentford
Middlesex.

^ Morris’ “British Birds,” and “Nests and Eggs,” wanted
in numbers. Books or cash in exchange. — G., 44 Hillmarten
Road, Holloway, N.

For specimen of C. hastafa (Australian zoophyte) for mount-
ing, send well-mounted slide. Having means of sending parcels
to, and receiving from, foreign countries free of charge , I am
anxious for foreign correspondence. — B. B. Scott, 24 Seldon
Street, Kensington, Liverpool.

Very fine slides of anchors, and plates of Synaptce Gallienica,
selected and arranged in various symmetrical patterns, likewise
a few diatom slides arranged in different designs, in exchange
for really good unmounted microscopic material. Would like to
correspond with some microscopist in the locality of Torquay,
with a view to mutual exchanges. — W. White, 18 Convent Street,
Nottingham.

Nicely-finished slide of A cilius sulcatus, dissected (several
pieces under cover) offered for first-class slide of picked diatoms,
or rock sections. — J. Neville, Wellington Road, Houndsworth,
Birmingham.

Part of a jaw of an Ichthyosaurus from Lyme Regis. Will
take exchange in fossils. Write for particulars. — W. T. Ord,
13 Royal Park, Clifton, Bristol.

For /Ecidium tragopogonis (goats’ beard cluster cap), send
stamped envelope to T. Brittam, 52 Park Street, Green Heys,
Manchester. No exchange required.

Well-mounted slides, good unmounted material, and British
shells, offered in exchange for shells, British and foreign, and
books (on plants and natural history subjects preferred). —
E. R. F., 82 Abbey Street, Faversham.

British Birds’ Eggs. — Guillemot, razor-bill, kittiwake,
oyster-catcher, redshank, carrion crow, magpie, red-backed
shrike, &c., to exchange for owl, plover, tern, woodpecker, or
any not in collection. Only side-blown eggs required. Lists
to J. Wrangham, 93 Tyrwhitt Road, New Cross, London, S.E.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

“ Outlines of Field Geology.” By Professor Geikie. London :
Macmillan.

“Practical Photography.” By O. E. Wheeler. London:
Bazaar Office.

“ Greenhouse Flowers.” Part i.

“ II Principio della Sapienza,” per A. P. Mauro. Naples.'

“ Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences.” Philadelphia.
“ New Remedies,” 3 and 4, vol. viii. New York.

“ Science News.” New York.

“ Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.”

“ Bulletin de la Societe Beige de Micrographie.”

“ Journal of Forestry.” No. 26.

“ American Naturalist.” June.

“ Canadian Entomologist.” June.

“ Land and Water.” June.

Natural History Rambles.

“ Lane and Field.” By the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A.

“The Woodlands.” By M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D.
“Lakes and Rivers.” By. C. O. Groom Napier, F.G.S.
“Mountain and Moor.” By J. E. Taylor, Esq., F.L.S.,
F.G.S. , Editor of Science-Gossip.

“Underground.” By J. E. Taylor, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Editor of Science-Gossip.

“ The Sea-shore.” By Professor P. Martin Duncan, M.B.
(London), F.R.S.

Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge 77 Great Queen
Street, London.

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to ioth ult. from
\ W. D.-G. C. D.— E. E. E.— J. W., jun.— J. O. B— Dr.
>. Q. K.— F. I. G.— J. H. W.— W. L.— J. D.— W. R.— J. H.
-W. T. — A. C.— E. D.— C. R. S— F.W. R.— G. H. S.— C. B.
-E. W.— J. G. B.— J. G. D.— A. B. B.— H. R. M.— G. C.—
. W. T.— Dr. J. A. O.— P. A. R.— E. M — W. B. S.— A. J. R.
-I. C. T.— R. L. H.— H. M.— J. J. P.— W. W.— J. H. A. J.—
l. W.— E. V. S.— J. D. H.— F. W. I.— W. M. T.-J. C. C.—
1. D. S.— T. W.— T. B.— J. H.— A. H. H.— W. E. M.—
L. T. L.- J. R H.— A. T.-S. B — J. G. J.— R. S. G.— R. D.—
I. H. R.— A. W — H. D. B.— T. McG— J. W. C — G. O. H.
-R. L. H.— L. C.— W. A. F.— J. N.— W. T. O— W. W.—
1. H. G.— B. B. S — W. S— B. M. W.—W. W. T.— M. S.—
.. R.-G. S. D.— J. M. W — J. E. P.— J. S.- J. McK.-J.W. S.
_W. Q.— T. B.— F. H.A.— Dr. M.— W. B.— E. P— K. M. J.—
;. R. F.— J. C., jun.— F. W. H.— &c.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

1 69

THE. GEOLOGY OF SHEFFIELD.

By T. V. HOLMES, F.G.S., H.M.’s Geological Surveyy

HEFFIELD is se-
lected this year as
the meeting-place
of the British
Association, and
as geological
excursions always
form one of the
pleasantest parts
of the Associa-
tion’s programme
to the majority of
members, the fol-
lowing notes on
the geology of
the district may
possibly be of
service.

It is true that
the recently-pub-
lished Memoir of
the Geological Survey on the Yorkshire coalfield
leaves little to be desired by the mining engineer or
colliery proprietor, to whom full and accurate informa-
tion on all points connected with the coalfield is the
one thing needed. But its size and price must ever
deter persons simply desirous of making the most of
their week at Sheffield with the British Association
from attempting to acquire information from such a
source. In addition, the geology of the Ordnance
quarter sheet (82 N.W.) in which Sheffield stands, is
not explained in a brief memoir of thirty or forty
pages, on account of the Derbyshire part of it not
having yet been mapped by the Ordnance Survey on
the scale of six inches to a mile.

A glance at a general geological map of England
and Wales, such as that of Professor Ramsay, shows
Sheffield standing not far from the centre of the great
Yorkshire and Derbyshire coalfield. This coalfield,
measured along a line ranging north and south from a
point about ten miles west of Nottingham to the eastern
suburbs of Leeds, is about sixty-five miles in length.
Its breadth at the northern end, immediately south of

No. 176.

Leeds and Bradford, is twenty-one or twenty-two
miles. It gradually narrows southward, being at
Sheffield about thirteen miles wide (due east and west),
and varying in Derbyshire from seven to ten miles.
On its eastern margin it is overlaid unconformably by
the magnesian limestone (Permian). On the west the
coal measures rest on the series of thick coarse sand-
stone with interbedded shales, and occasionally a
thin coal, known collectively as millstone grit.
This millstone giit forms the high bare moorland
which, from the Peak of Derbyshire northward, divides
the coalfields of Yorkshire and Lancashire. South of
the Peak the underlying Yoredale beds and carboni-
ferous limestone are exposed, but too far from
Sheffield to come within the scope of this paper. The
five great sandstones of the millstone grit here-
abouts are : the first (or highest) grit, or rough
rock ; the second, third, fourth, and fifth grits ; the
two last being also called the upper and lower
Kinderscout grits. The coal measures are divided
into the lower coal measures, or beds below the
Silkstone coal, and the middle coal measures, which
include almost all the coals of any importance. In
addition may be mentioned the only rocks classed as
upper coal measures, the red beds with coal plants
seen at Conisborough Pottery. Most of the upper
coal measures were removed from the coalfield by
denudation, previous to the unconformable deposition
of the magnesian limestone above the carboniferous
strata.

The lower coal measures are more remarkable for
massive sandstones forming well-marked escarpments
than for coals. Few of the coals are of more than
local importance. The Ganister and Whinmoor coals
are the only ones of this series worthy of notice about
Sheffield. In the middle coal measures the Silkstone
coal, the lowest of the important beds, is perhaps
the first in point of reputation, the Barnsley coal
being held in little less esteem. Other coals exist,
between these two and above the Barnsley, of fair
thickness and quality, but they are not worked in
this locality, from their inability to compete with the
Silkstone and Barnsley seams, which have no rivals

I

HARD W/CKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

170

about Sheffield and Barnsley. Coals with other
names, and on different horizons, are worked about
Wakefield and Leeds, Halifax and Bradford.

Then, above these measures rich in coal, we have,
towards the upper or eastern boundary of the coalfield,
a series of measures with few coals and few thick
or massive sandstones. The escarpments made by the
sandstones in this part of the coal measures are,
consequently, usually feeble and indefinite, giving
rise to a slightly undulating country in which no beds
are traceable for more than a short distance. Two
rocks, however, are not without a perceptible in-
fluence on the landscape east of Sheffield, and are
also largely quarried. These are the Wickersley
Rock, much used for grindstones, and the red rock of
Rotherham. The last is a sandstone of Carboniferous,
and not, as used to be supposed, of Permian age,
which rests unconformably on the beds below, and is
altogether perhaps the most singular geological phe-
nomenon in the district. A more detailed account
will shortly be given of it.

The lowest beds of the district, the millstone grit,
may easily be reached from Sheffield, as the lower
coal measure belt of country is much narrower than
usual due west of that town. Leaving Sheffield in a
westerly direction by the Glossop road, the outcrop
of the Silkstone coal is passed near the spot at which
Gell Street crosses, and we are on lower coal measures.
A gradual ascent in the same direction brings us to
Stephen Hill, near which the fault, ranging north-
east and south-west, crosses the road, which here
divides the lower coal measures from the millstone
grit. The road hitherto has been a gradual ascent,
and is here about 774 feet above the level of the sea,
the height of the alluvial flat of the Don at the
Wicker being 150 feet. Hence a gentle descent of
half a mile brings us to the edge of the Rivelin
valley, and the brow of the fine escarpment of the
Third Grit, which here is conspicuous on both sides
of the valley, and which, though west of Bell Hagg,
and a corresponding point on the north side, has its
base 200 or 300 feet above the stream, soon descends
to its level eastward at Little London Wheel. The
nature of this coarse, massive grit and conglomerate
is shown in Bell Hagg quarry. The view from this
point is very wild and romantic. Few spots, if any,
excel the Rivelin valley as an example of the influence
of subaerial denudation in the erosion of river valleys,
as we now see them, and the production of escarp-
ments. I may here also remark, by the way, that
few influences are likely to be more efficient in
removing any notion that may linger in the mind as
to the influence of faults in the production of river
valleys than an inspection of the Geological Survey
maps of coal measure districts, especially those of
six inches to a mile. Of course, I do not mean that
it will be found that faults never coincide with river
valleys, but that they show no preference for them,
and that the number of faults ranging along them is

not, on the average, greater than in other parts of
the map.

The millstone grit is, about Sheffield, generally
divided from the lower coal measures by faults.
These lower coal measures are somewhat intermediate
in character between the millstone grit and the
middle coal measures. South of the Don and west
of the Sheaf, the middle coal measures occupy less
than a square mile of ground, this being the area
between the Don, Sheaf, and Porter Brook, on which
the chief business streets and buildings are situated.
The lower coal measures occupy all the ground
around the above area. On the south, west of Norfolk
Park, about Heeley and Bannercross ; west, about
Crookes and Crookes Moor, and, crossing the Don,
a large area west of Pitsmoor is all lower coal
measure ground. A short distance south-west of
Sheffield, and north-east of Ecclesall Bierlow, may
be seen the fine escarpment of Brincliffe Edge, the
most striking of those of the lower coal measures in
the immediate vicinity of Sheffield. Parallel to it,
but nearer Sheffield, and consequently above it, is a
sandstone, the escarpment of which, though clearly
defined, is comparatively feeble. These two rocks
are worth noting here, as they are the representatives
of the two most important and persistent sandstones
of the lower coal measures. The Brincliffe Edge
sandstone is known, north-west of Sheffield, as the
Greenmoor Rock, and further north, again, as the
Elland Flagstone. It is compact and fine-grained.
The uppermost of the two sandstones (which forms
Machon Bank) is known north-west of Sheffield as
the Grenoside Rock. It is a rough gritty stone, and
though not so persistent as the Greenmoor Rock,
makes a much bolder escarpment, and covers much
more ground, about Grenoside and Wortley. East
of the Sheaf at Heeley it rapidly dies away. The
variations in the relative preponderance of these two
rocks in the landscape, and in the heights of the bases
of their escarpments are very remarkable.

North-west of Sheffield few excursions will repay
the lover of geology and scenery better than one to
Wharncliffe Crags. These crags are the escarpment
of a rock of lower coal measure age lying below the
Greenmoor and Grenoside rocks, which are a few
hundred yards east of it, and may be seen at the same
time. Unlike them, however, the Wharncliffe rock
sinks into insignificance a very short distance north
and south of the crags, though at the crags it is a
hard, massive, thick-bedded sandstone. The view
westward from near Wharncliffe Lodge is very fine,
and will not readily be forgotten. The Don runs
several hundred feet below, but its course is almost
invisible on account of the mass of verdure which fills
the river valley as high as the foot of the crags, and
contrasts with the high bare moorland beyond. It
is also worth while to take a short walk eastward
from the crags, and, crossing the Greenmoor Rock,
here insignificant in appearance compared with the

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Grenoside beyond, to enjoy the view from the crest
of the Grenoside escarpment over the rich but flatter
country on the east towards Rotherham.

Though at Wharncliffe Crags we are at the abode
of the “Dragon of Wantley,” the tale of whose
destruction by More of More Hall, is familiar to
readers of Percy’s “ Reliques,” the geologically in-
structed visitor will not expect to find a magnificent
cavern in the sandstone at the spot where the words
“Dragon’s Den” appear on the map. All that
exists is an open joint in the crag, large enough for
the accommodation of a serpent, but not for that of
an animal of any size provided with legs. The line of
the ballad describing the locality

“ In Yorkshire, near fair Rotherham,”
gives us a glimpse of the relative importance of
Sheffield and Rotherham at the time it was written,
the distance of the “ Dragon’s Den ” from Rotherham
being rather greater than that from Sheffield ; it is
the more noticeable as Sheffield was then, as now, a
seat of the hardware manufacture :

“ But first he went, new armour to
Bespeak at Sheffield town.”

No other lower coal measure rocks deserve notice in
a sketch like this ; it will therefore be best now to
proceed to consider the middle coal measures.

A glance at the map (one inch) of the Geological
Survey (82 N. W.) shows the strike (that is the
direction of the lines of outcrop) of the middle coal
measures, south of Sheffield, to be from north-west
to south-east. But from Sheffield northward two
great faults, throwing down the measures between
them, alter the strike of the beds so much that their
outcrops are at right angles to their direction imme-
diately south of Sheffield, viz. south-west and north-
east, which is also the direction of the lines of fault.
These two faults are known as the northerly and
southerly Don faults. The northerly fault ranges
from half to two-thirds of a mile west of the alluvium
of the Don. The southerly fault is, roughly speaking,
parallel to the northerly fault, and for some distance
keeps on or close to the river and its alluvial flats.
The Silkstone and Parkgate coals recover their former
line of strike about three miles north of Sheffield, but
some of the higher beds retain the strike induced by
the faults for a much greater distance. The Parkgate
coal lately mentioned is the first coal of any import-
ance met with above the Silkstone, which is about
300 feet below it. The Silkstone and Parkgate
rocks, which overlie the coals so named, form, with
the measures between them, the steep hillside east of
the Sheaf, on top of which St. John’s church stands,
and may be traced in a south-easterly direction,
towards Norfolk Park and Intake. From the top of
this hillside, which is capped by the Parkgate rock, a
fine view may be had both eastward and westward.
From this point there is a gradual decrease, on the
whole, in the average height of the sandstone ridges
eastward, which continues till the magnesian lime-

171

stone escarpment bounding the coalfield is reached.
The red rock of Rotherham, however, imparts a
more than average height to the strip of ground
covered by it, and forms a more or less picturesque
ingredient in the landscape, though it never attains
a height that would be thought considerable in the
lower coal measures.

To reach the red rock from Sheffield it will be
necessary to cross the outcrops of all the more im-
portant coals lying above the Silkstone, among which
may be mentioned, in ascending order, the Swallow
Wood, Barnsley, and High Hazles coals, whose out-
crops range north-west and south-east, in the tract of
country between the Parkgate rock and the Rother.

The red rock, as already mentioned, rests uncon-
formably on the beds below, and is distinguished also
from almost all other coal measure sandstones by its red
or reddish colour. The only other exceptions to the
uniformly buff, or whitish-brown tint of carboniferous
sandstones, are found in a rock lying above the
Wickersley Rock, in the neighbourhood of Brampton-
en-le-Morthen, and in the Wickersley sandstone in
Ravensfield Park. The Brampton Rock maybe seen
at Sawn Moors and Pickles quarries. This red colour
has never, I believe, been seen except, as in these
cases, in rocks high up in the series.

The red rock covers a strip of country of very
variable width, though seldom more than a mile,
between Rotherham and Hartliill, south of Kiveton
Park railway station. It is sometimes found in two
beds, sometimes as one mass of sandstone. In the
excavations made for the Rotherham water-works,
near Ulley, irregular bands of red and purple shales
were seen interstratified with it. Its total thickness
must vary exceedingly. Its carboniferous age is
shown in the cutting on the Midland railway, between
Masborough and Eclcington, about one and a half
miles south of the former place. There a coal five
inches thick, lying on twelve feet of sandstone of the
ordinary coal measure type is seen resting on the
red rock ; while, on the other hand, near Harthill,
the Permian beds are seen lying unconformably above
it. At Whiston a coal underlies the red rock, which
is in all probability the Herringthorpe coal. But a
mile north of Whiston the red rock, in two beds, is
seen, judging from the dip, to underlie the Herring-
thorpe coal. The probable explanation of this anomaly
is given in the “ Memoir” on the Yorkshire coalfield
before alluded to. The red rock may “abut under-
ground against the slope of a denuded hollow,” about
Herringthorpe. At Whiston, however, “ the bottom
of the trough is at a higher level than to the north of
Herringthorpe, and the red rock is above the coal.”
At Aston the rock on which Treeton stands, and
which may be called the Treeton rock, abuts against
the red rock, having been gradually approaching it
between Treeton and Aston.

The general conclusion to which we are led by the
above facts, and others which might be adduced, is

172

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

that the Red Rock fills up a great hollow excavated
by denudation ; this hollow having a very variable
and uneven bottom, and that it lies high in the coal
measures, and is unconformable to the rocks below
and above it. The Whitehaven sandstone of the
Cumberland coalfield occupies probably an analogous
position in its locality, and is also, compared with the
other carboniferous sandstones about Whitehaven, a
red or reddish rock.

The red rock may be visited profitably either
about Rotherham or at its southern end, near
Kiveton Park railway station, at Harthill. From
Kiveton Park station, the villages of north and south
Anston with their magnesian limestone quarries,
which supplied the stone for the Houses of Parlia-
ment’and the Jermyn Street Museum, may be easily
visited. North of North Anston the spire of Laughton-
en-le-Morthen is conspicuous on an outlier of
magnesian limestone. A mile north-east of Laughton 1

concerned — as it did when first erected. How much
of this result is due to purity of air, and how much to
careful selection of the stone, can hardly be ascer-
tained by us now.

South of Sheffield, the Midland Railway cuttings,
both north and south of Dronfield, showed some very
interesting coal measure sections ten years ago, when
the line was first opened, and I had the advantage of
visiting them while new, in the company of Professor
A. H. Green. Should any railway- cutting excursion
be practicable, those about Dronfield seem to me to
deserve the first choice, though there is no want of
interesting sections in the railways on other sides of
the town.

Once, some years ago, while waiting in a train
outside the M. S. and L. railway station, and above
the broad street called the Wicker, a fellow-passenger
remarked, as he gazed down upon the street, “That
would be a fine street if there were any fine buildings

Millstone Grit Fault Coal measures (Lower and middle).

Fig* i35- — Section from a point a little west of Sheffield to the magnesian limestone escarpment.

Red rock.

Ordinary coal measures.

Millstone grit.

Shales.

Magnesian limestone.

brings us to the junction of the two beautiful glens at
which the remains of Roche Abbey appear. Here
two little streams unite and traverse the magnesian
limestone escarpment. For the rivers in this part of
Yorkshire, the Don, Went, Aire, and Wharfe, all
show that apparent fondness for crossing escarpments
characteristic of the streams taking their rise in the
Wealden area, and doubtless their course has been
similarly influenced.

On approaching Rotherham, the visitor will not
fail to notice the tree-clad hill at, and southward of,
the town. It is crowned by red rock. The places
near at which it may be profitably studied have been
already mentioned. Continuing our journey towards
Conisborough for the purpose of inspecting the upper
coal measure plant beds, we again find ourselves close
to the magnesian limestone escarpment, which is
well seen for some miles at Conisborough, on the right
hand, looking northward, and forms a part of one of
the most beautiful views in the district. Besides a
sight of the magnesian limestone in situ we have here
a remarkable instance of its excellence as a building
stone under favourable conditions. The venerable
keep of Conisborough Castle, which is built of it, and
is now about 800 years old, looks almost as fresh
now — so far as absence of decay in the stone is

in it ” — an odd though true remark. A somewhat
similar reflection will probably pass through the
mind of almost every person who visits Sheffield for
the first time ; he will think, “ This would be a very
fine town if there were any fine buildings in it.” For
the natural picturesqueness of the site of Sheffield is
very great — second only perhaps to that of Edinburgh
among British towns. Unfortunately its smokiness,
the meanness of its public buildings, and indeed of
the whole business part of the town, are still more
difficult to parallel. The suburbs, however, are
extremely pleasant, especially those to the west and
south-west, and afford an abundance of fine prospects.
A good view of the busy part of the town may be
obtained from the neighbourhood of the M. S. and
L. Station, looking, of course, southward. On the
right is seen the main part of the town surrounding
the old parish church, and standing mainly on the
Silkstone rock which overlies the Silkstone coal.
Farther westward, towards Crookes, are the lower
coal measures, which at Crookes attain a height of
about 800 feet above the sea, or about 650 feet above
the alluvial flats of the Don and Sheaf. Looking, as
we do, on the dip slopes of the various beds (the
dip being from Crookes to the Sheaf) the fall is
gradual and gentle. East of the Sheaf, however, we
look not on a dip slope but on the escarpments made
by the outcrops of the Silkstone and Parkgate rock,
with the measures between them. Hence the contrast
which must strike every visitor to Sheffield who sees it
from this point of view, between the steepness of the
eastern, and the easy slope of the western hillside.

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HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i73

BOTANICAL WORK FOR AUGUST.

UNNOTICED DIFFERENCES IN OUR COMMON
PLANTS.

WITH the exception of chickweed, we have few
plants so common as the groundsel [Senecio)
and the dandelion ( Taraxacum ). These are our
favourites, at least favourites for all bird fanciers, for
they can be met with at every season of the year, but,
like most other things which are of frequent occur-
rence, they are liable to be overlooked by the busy
student. Let us, however, bestow a passing thought
on these universal species ; they assume so many
forms and shapes as sometimes to be unrecognis-
able, except to the prying botanist who has often cast
a scrutinising glance upon them.

Common groundsel ( Senecio vulgaris (L.). We
think it not needful to enter into a full description of
this well-known species. Many of our readers must
have noticed several well-marked forms ; it is to these
we wish to direct attention.

The type “ vulgaris — proper I is about 1 foot high,
often much branched, withpinnatifid, coarsely-toothed,
and succulent leaves.

Sir J. E. Smith describes a species, S. lividus , as
closely allied to another species, S. sylvaticus (Linn.).
This, however, never has auricles with the leaves ; our
first variation from the above type should bear this
name :

Var. 1. Senecio lividus (Sm.). A much smaller plant
than the type, with slender stem, and narrow leaves ;
very often the flowers are solitary, although we
commonly find it with about five.

2. S. vulgaris (var. if/). This is a remarkable plant,
which appears to have escaped the attention of the
authors of our “ Floras.” The leaves are all entire,
lanceolate and with linear auricles. The plant has
the resemblance of .S', sylvaticus at a distance. It
occurs near Penrith, also in several places along the
banks of the river Eden.

3. S. vulgaris (var. /3). A very luxuriant form of
the groundsel, occurs on rich loamy soils ; the leaver
are broad, dark green, sometimes almost pinnate ; we
however, believe this is not permanent. The variety
is certainly reliable, for it comes true from seed. May
we beg our botanical collectors to keep one eye open
during their rambles for the Senecio.

The poor dandelion has been more highly honoured,
for it has had as many names almost as a Spanish
grandee ; here it is known as Taraxacum, there we
see it Leontodon. In the “ Student’s Flora ” the older
name is used, Taraxaatm officinale (Wig.). No
common species yields so many varieties as this ;
for example we find :

1. T. Dens-leonis (Desf.). Leaves bright green,
broadly runcinate, outer bracts of the involucre
recurved.

2. T. erythrospermum (Andr.). Leaves dark green,
often glaucous , outer bracts spreading.

3. T. Icevigatum (DC.). Leaves dull green, pinnatifid,
or cut up into linear segments, generally small, or
about 3 or 4 inches in length.

4. T.palustre (DC.). Leaves, when in rich soil, entire
and deeply- toothed.

The above are all easily recognised ; nay, speaking
with a learned botanist from Narbonne, he pointedly
declared his conviction that Nos. 2 and 3 were good
species. The flowers differ so little from the normal
form that I do not think they are reliable as charac-
ters, although Babington seems to depend much
upon the outer bracts ; however, flowers can be
found where the bracts vary widely on the same plant.
The leaves preserve the same peculiar shape under all
circumstances ; I can with every confidence rely upon
them. T. Icevigatum are very peculiar, being cut to
the midrib into long linear leaflets. The opposite
extreme is seen in T. palustre ; here the leaves are in
some examples quite entire, whilst the rich emerald-
green tint of T. Dens-leonis can seldom be equalled.
Taking it all in all, I know no species so full of in-
terest. In my British herbarium I have about ten
sheets filled with this species.

J. F. R.

THE DERBYSHIRE CAVERNS.

UNDOUBTEDLY many visitors to the British
Association meeting at Sheffield will avail
themselves of the neighbourhood of the Peak (only
some twenty miles away) to explore its wonderfully
lovely dales and caverns. We extract the following
account of the “Speedwell Cavern,” at Castleton,
from “Geological Essays, and Sketch of the Geology
of Manchester and the Neighbourhood,” by J. E.
Taylor (published in 1864).

The entrance to the “Speedwell” mine is by a
door in the hillside, strongly reminding one of that
which Bunyan mentions in his “ Pilgrim’s Progress,”
as shown to Christian by the shepherds. In at this
door one starlight night in February, some four or
five of us entered, each laden with a wardrobe of
miners’ clothing wherewith to bedeck ourselves.
Entering at the cottage by the side of the cavern, in
which the guide usually lives, we found a cheerful fire
burning. We speedily converted this into a dressing
room, and then turned out in anything but a photo-
graphicable condition. I may, observe, however,
that the cavern itself, the “Speedwell” mine, does
not require this trouble at the hands of ordinary
visitors. It is, as the handbills advertise, “ quite
clean and fit for ladies to visit.” There is also an
intelligent guide to accompany them, and to point
out various objects worthy of remark. Entering in
at the door by the hillside, we descended a flight of
upwards of a hundred steps, and at the bottom, to
our astonishment, found a boat ready to row us along
a subterranean passage in which was about three feet
of water. There was just sufficient room to sit upright

174

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP ,

in the boat without knocking our heads against the
top ; and along this passage we were rowed for a
distance of nearly half a mile, lighting the way as we
went by sticking candles against the wall. When
we had gone some distance from the place of embark-
ation we looked behind us and the reflection of the
lights in the still water was beautiful, reminding one
more than anything else of a long street lit up by gas.
This is the passage which was literally hewn, out by
the muscle and sinews of the miners in their search
after lead ; and we could see one or two thin veins of
that metal crossing the cavern transversely. The
stillness, at first, seemed almost unearthly, especially
when we coupled with its effect the remembrance
that it was night. But, by-and-by, we could hear a
faint droning sound. On asking whence it came, we
were told to our astonishment, that it was caused by
the water upon which we were sailing falling over a
cataract into what is called the “bottomless pit.”
As we proceeded, the noise increased until at length
we had to speak in a different note in order to hear
each other. We were so completely interested with
the uproar that we did not notice the boat had
stopped, until one of the company drew our attention
to it. A large rock had impeded our course, and to
it we moored the boat when we had landed. Raising
our candles over our heads we perceived a mighty
cavern, whose darkness our feeble lights only seemed to
render more obscure. On each side, high as we could
look up, huge rocks hung over, as though ready to
topple on our heads with the least disturbance.

But the sight was inexpressibly grand when, after
lighting a rocket, the hissing and blazing torch mounted
upwards for more than three hundred feet without
reaching the top. As it ascended, the darkness below
became more and more palpable, and the dazzling
light above our heads revealed a similar arrangement
of rock masses to those which we could see below by
the faint light of our candles. The whole effect was
most striking, and had much of the character which
Martin has thrown into his wonderful picture of the
“ Great Day of His Wrath.” I shall never forget it ;
that sight has haunted my imagination scores of
times since. But we now turn our attention to the
falling volumes of water as they dashed over the
precipice. This is protected by a strong iron “rail-
ing;” and a dazzling “Roman light” held over
showed us a yawning chasm, into which the seething
waters hurried themselves. We could not see the
bottom, although it is known that a communication
exists between this and the “ Peak cavern,” a mile
away, for sawdust thrown into this stream has been
carried out by the rivulet which flows from the latter
cavern. These sights are those usually shown to
visitors, and well are they worthy of visitation ; for
it is seldom that such great natural phenomena are to
be found within so short a distance. But, as we
passed along by the tunnel to the cavern I have
mentioned, we had noticed several small passages

branching out on our right hand, and now we returned
to make our explorations in them.

Nobody had entered them for years, and we were
making the experiment for the sake of obtaining some
rare minerals, which, we had been told, were found
on the walls. Each of us was armed with hammers,
and with our “toilette” of miner’s clothing, were
well prepared to “rough” it. So, in returning, we
stopped at the mouth of the right-hand passage,
called the “ Half-way House,” and fastened the boat
firmly to the rock — for had it chanced to drift away
we should have had a quarter of a mile to wade
through a stream three or four feet deep, whilst the
owner would have had to perform the same feat
right to the other end to bring it back. As we got
out of the boat we had about a foot of water to wade
through, along a narrow and dripping passage, for
about a hundred yards, cramping our backs with the
constant bending. We were relieved at the end by
being able to stand erect in a vast rent in the rocks,
extending so far above our heads that the dim light
of our candles could not enable us even to guess its
height. Between the walls of this fissure, which was
three or four feet across, there were bars of wood
placed to serve as staves, and fastening our hammers
in our belts and sticking our lights in our hats, we
mounted up one after the other. It was a somewhat
dangerous task, for the bars of wood had been placed
there for more than thirty years, and were now rotten
from the constant moisture to which they had been
subjected, so that if the leading man had made a false
step and tumbled down, he would have sent us all
before him like a set of skittles. At last, after
mounting some hundred feet or more, we reached the
top, and found a passage similar to the one along
which we had waded, extending in a westerly direc-
tion. Along this we made our way with bended
backs, with the danger of breaking our shins over an
old waggon, which had been left by the miners years
ago. Here we could see the lead vein crossing the
path, the matrix in which it occurred being filled with
cawk or sulphate of barytes in an uncrystallised
form.

Farther on, the passage was so narrow that we had
to crawl on our knees among mud and debris ; all
this labour being abundantly recompensed by dis-
covering that, a little further, the masses of rock were
covered with crystals of carbonate of lime of various
sizes and forms, but chiefly of the “ dog-tooth ” shape.
These presented the appearance of having been
dusted with loaf sugar, owing to smaller crystals
having been formed upon them. Here we obtained
some magnificent specimens, the most curious being
a dog-tooth crystal of calcite, with a cubic one of fluor,
perfectly blue, mounted on the very apex. Standing
out in relief were numerous fossils, long jointed stems
of Encrinites, shells of Spirifera, Orthocera, and a
host of others. Already the weight behind had
bulged out the front part, and the whole seemed as

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

*75

though it only needed one of the foot-stones to be
loosened for it to come thundering down. But if
nothing else had repaid our labours, certainly the
sight of the magnificent cavern into which we now
entered, did so most amply. When we had all got
together, we looked around us, and the surrounding
scenery was most impressive. The wide vault, hid
by the blackest darkness above our heads, the masses
of rock at our feet, made us feel like pigmies when
gazing upon this work of nature. The effect was
more striking when we burnt a Bengal light, which
threw out the light and shade of the overhanging
masses into splendid relief : the thousands of crystals
of various shapes and colours, which reflected the
dazzling light in a thousand coruscations, left us
almost speechless with astonishment and delight.
After attempting to make our way in other directions
we had to give up, owing to the passages narrowing
so much as to prevent us even from crawling along.
In fact, all the hills hereabout are quite hollow, and
the subterranean passages extend for miles, widening
and narrowing alternately as they run along. De-
scending in safety we found the boat moored as we
had left it, and another quarter of an hour brought
us into the clear starlight.

HOW TO FOUND A ROOKERY.

By Mrs. Tilt.

IN answer to the question that has been asked in
your columns as to the best means of founding a
rookery, I can mention an instance in which a large
one was established by the kindness shown to a
solitary rook one severe winter. For many years it
had been our great ambition to have a rookery ; there
were several large ones in other parts of Cheshire,
and what was considered to be the mother-rookery
was about two miles from us. The keeper had
obtained rooks’ eggs, placed them in nests in tall
trees thought likely to attract them, but all to no
purpose. But one severe winter there came regularly
every day, with some pet bantams that were fed by the
house-keeper out of the window, a solitary rook and fed
with them, becoming at last so tame as to hop on the
window-sill. In the spring this tame rook brought a
mate, and together they began to build in a small
Spanish chestnut tree, so close to the house that from
the upper windows we could see quite into the nest.
It made great excitement watching the progress of
this nest, as it is considered to bring good luck to a
house when rooks build near it. The nest was about
half finished, when, one morning, a great noise was
heard, and we saw about a dozen strange rooks
violently attacking the old pair, and tearing the nest
to pieces. They did not attempt to build again that
year, but the next spring the same thing occurred.
They got so far as to lay their eggs, when the female
bird was suddenly attacked one morning when she

was sitting by a dozen and more of rooks, and the
noise was such as to collect the whole household to
watch the battle. She made a stout defence, and it
was some time before they beat her off the nest,
dashing it with its contents to the ground. This was
repeated a third year, when we began to despair of
having our rookery, but on consulting a book on
natural history we found it stated that it was generally
four years before a pair were allowed to establish
themselves independently from the mother rookery.
At all events it was so in this case, for the following
year they not only brought up a brood of young birds
without being molested, but each year after the nests
in the same tree increased in number, and eventually
they spread to other trees close by. It was so far
satisfactory to have established our rookery, but un-
fortunately, the grateful rook had chosen the nearest
tree to the window where he had been fed, and their
close vicinity to the house proved at last so objection-
able that it was found necessary to drive them further
off, by gradually cutting down the trees they had
chosen. With the curious instinct that rooks are
supposed to have with regard to trees that are
destined to come down, though they were left in
peaceful possession of the original tree they had
chosen, and which had nine nests in it, they wisely
left it, and established themselves in a clump of large
trees at a more convenient distance. Every year after
this the rookery increased in size, and in the space of
ten years, from the time the parent birds made their
first attempt to build, the rookery has grown so large
that we have been advised to shoot some of them in
the spring, for fear the rooks, “becoming too nume-
rous,” should fight and break up the colony.

This is only one more instance of the power of man
over animals, and shows that the secret of that power
is kindness.

ODDITIES AMONG SEA-BIRDS.

By P. Q. Keegan, LL.D.

A STRANGE, odd, fantastic, eccentric appear-
ance or deportment exhibited on the part of a
human being, or by one of the lower animals, is,
under ordinary circumstances, if not pitifully, at least
ludicrously interesting. We are deeply conscious
that something is wrong somewhere or somehow,
that the ordinary rules and dispensations of nature
are, in this instance, violated or replaced, their pro-
visions unduly restricted, or inordinately and ab-
surdly overstrained, and the contrast thus furnished,
being generally striking, our risible faculties are
excited, and we indulge in a burst of laughter.
Sometimes in the midst of an accompaniment of
differences, we perceive a strange resemblance to
some external object. Thus, for instance, when we
witness the pranks, gambols, and extravagances of a
monkey, we all the while perceive, therein a certain

HA R D WI CKE ’ S *S Cl E NCE- G O SSIP.

176

resemblance to the human face, hands, and facial
expression, but qualifying this, we observe, at the
same time, fundamental diversities in respect of
shape, colouring, speech, posture, etc.

But independently of such resemblances and other
relations to foreign objects, sundry animals possess
certain curious appendages which, either by reason of
their excessive and disproportionate size, or of their
uncommon shape, colouring, etc., inevitably excite
our laughter. Just in the same manner as we jeer
and laugh at the drolleries, comicalities, and eccen-
tricities of a clown in the circus, or of a comedian on
the stage, so do we feel amused and exhilarated with
certain extraordinary appearances, etc., on the part
of animals ; the extraordinary-looking beaks of the

Fig. 136. — The Puffin ( Fratercula arctica).

toucans, the hornbills, curlews, etc., seem out of all
proportion to the size and apparent requirements of
these birds. So likewise the long, lank necks and
shanks of the cranes, herons, etc., are provocative of
merriment, especially when we observe them erect on
some desolate sea-shore, as if fixed in thought — in a
“brown study,” with the head poked out forwards in
a curious “contemplative” attitude.

Some singular fidgety deportment, some extra-
ordinary aspect of eye or countenance, denoting in
either case an unnatural, unhealthy excitement, or
even an abnormal suppression of animal force, is
often very ludicrous to behold. A bird performs
some operation (such as that of incubating) with an
amount of gravity and an air of importance utterly
disproportionate to the consequence or influence
thereof in the economy of nature. During the breed-
ing season the Common Guillemot may be observed
upon the extremity of some protuberant ledge of rock
perched upon a single egg, in such a manner as if the

whole economy of the world depended upon the
issue of the process. There is a knowing look, too,
about certain animals which is equally interesting.
Thus we often say of a certain cat or dog, that he is
very wise or knowing-looking. Certain attitudes
assumed, or certain movements executed are also
irresistibly funny. A young kangaroo popping its
head and tail out of its mother’s pouch, or vaulting
nimbly therein from the ground, furnishes an un-
doubtedly ludicrous spectacle.

Within the necessarily restricted limits of a paper
of this description, it would be idle to endeavour to

/

Fig. 137. — The Common Guillemots (Uria troile).

investigate the primary or fundamental cause of the
aforesaid eccentricities. Nevertheless, in a general
way we declare, that just in the same manner as a
violent disturbance, or an undue depression of animal
or nerve force occasions the extravagant deportment,
opinions, and feelings of insanity, so this same excite-
ment and depression, when manifested in a less marked
degree, induces the less momentous and intense form
of oddity now adverted to. Sea-birds, as a rule, are
not particularly odd or funny-looking, either as re-
spects their appearance or their conduct. Neverthe-
less, there occur very odd and singular creatures
amongst them, some of which, and in the first place,

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

177

the Puffin ( Fratercula arc tied), I shall now proceed to
describe.

Shortly after the occurrence of the vernal equinox,
when azure skies and exhilarating gales betoken the
advent of spring, away, far out upon the deep, where
some desolate, wave-worn islet or islanded cliff towers
above the waves, or fast by some dreary sea-shore,
Hanked by a tall, beetling armoury of inaccessible
rocks, vast bands of sea-birds assiduously prosecute
their breeding duties. Not surmounting all the seats
of the assembled congeners, but ranged in a modest
position about the middle of the cliff, there may

Fig. 138. — The Black Guillemots ( Uria gryllc).

readily be discerned a lengthy array of curious
perforations, somewhat resembling an extensive
rabbit warren. These are the breeding resorts of the
comical little Puffin. Externally everything would
seem to be in comparative repose ; but just let anybody
try the experiment of thrusting his bare hand into one
of these holes, and he will have ample reason to
repent of the proceeding, for assuredly he will receive
a sharp bite from a most formidable, eccentrically-
shaped bird beak. Presently the body of the bird to
which this curious appendage belongs, will appear
and assume a threatening attitude towards the
invader of its chosen haunt.

The Puffin is about a foot in length, with black

I wings and back ; a black collar round the throat ;

! white cheeks, chin and breast ; orange legs, blackish-
’ brown claws, and a very comical expression of
countenance. The aforesaid beak is sharp at the
point, compressed laterally, and bears three grooves
on the upper mandible and two on the lower. The
colouring of this beak is as fantastic as its shape.
The lateral ridge of the upper mandible is greyish-
yellow, and that of the lower mandible orange-red,
the triangular space in front of both being orange-
red and bluish-gray. When inspected from a short
distance, it would appear as if somebody out of sport
had clapped a glued and horny mask upon
the bird’s face, so extraordinary does this
beak-like appendage appear. An utter incon-
gruity is perceptible somewhere or other ;
the face and top of the head are curiously
projected, and, at the same time, flattened
laterally, a circumstance which imparts to the
former an unequivocally ludicrous expression.
The appendage, moreover, imparts a species
of domineering pomposity to the bird, which
seems manifestly incongruous with the size
and combative capacities thereof.

But although not particularly handsome, at
least so far as form extends, the bill is, never-
theless, eminently useful to the puffin in three
ways. In the first place, it is thereby enabled
to capture fish. The bird dives expertly, and
swims under water by means of the conjoint
action of feet and wings, until a desired morsel
is securely grasped in its mouth. This is
commonly a sprat, or other such fish, and
frequently some six or seven (eleven have been
seen) of these choice morsels are observed
hanging in a row dangling free along the
bird’s beak, all doomed soon to pass through
“ red lane.” Again, the burrows or breeding
holes, already adverted to, are often originally
constructed by the male puffin digging and
tunnelling with resolute zeal and invincible
perseverance, into the sand, until a winding
aperture is hollowed out, in some cases eighteen
inches, in others, three feet or more in depth.
Frequently, however, the rights of property
and of prescriptive possession are not at all respected
by this impudent little sea-bird ; for when an al-
ready constructed rabbit-hole happens to be fixed
in a suitable situation, it will take forcible and im-
mediate possession thereof. Nor will it allow its
tenure to be disturbed ; for after sundry combats with
the former denizen, in which, by the way, the sharp
beak proves of eminent service, it will violently eject
the poor rabbit out of house and home ; and, upon
the principle that might is right, forthwith and with-
out scruple, instal itself in the vacated seat.

The prodigality of animal life inherent in the sea-
birds now under review, is exhibited under the form
of great liveliness, smartness of movement, pugnacity,

I7S

HARDIVICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

courage, and general activity (they sometimes travel
twenty or thirty miles for food). Amongst human
beings we do not commonly encounter displays of
oddity amongst the gay and effervescent spirits. On
the contrary, peculiarities of manner, opinion, conduct,
etc., generally originate in severe, taciturn, grave
dispositions, or rather in these when placed in easy
circumstances, or when following a career in life
(such as that of a sailor) which involves no cankering
care, no heart-shaking anxieties, fears, and appre-
hensions.

The Puffin, too, notwithstanding the apparently
malevolent disposition involved in the aforesaid viola-
tion of the rights of property vested in rabbits and
other animals, manifests at times great kindhearted-
ness and sympathy towards members of its own species.
When a flock of these birds happens to be assailed
by the fire of the sportsman, and one of them falls
wounded or dead into the water, its mate, or even a
stranger, is frequently observed to alight and swim
round it, vainly endeavouring, by means of pushing
and coaxing, to arouse it from that last long sleep
that will endure for ever.

An unequivocal oddity of appearance is also ex-
hibited amongst sea-birds in the case of the Black
Guillemot ( Uria grylle ), with its long sharp beak,
elongated body, legs sticking out behind, and singu-
lar white patch upon the wings. In the breeding
apparel, the plumage of this bird is entirely tinged
with a deep brownish-black shade, which on the
upper surface is beautifully glossed with bronze and
purplish-red. The quills and secondary feathers of
the wings are tipped with grey, and there is an oval
patch of pure white upon the wings. The bill is
black ; the legs and feet are vermilion tinged with
carmine, and the claws black. This curious, fantastic
distribution of colouring conspires with the peculiarly-
shaped, “smart-looking” bill to impart to the bird
a ludicrously self-complacent, eminently self-satisfied
appearance.

When the breeding duties of this sable sea-bird
have terminated, i.e., about the 1st of September or
rather earlier, it cheerily betakes itself to a career
upon the ocean. Frequently during the autumn and
winter months, towards the centre of or impending
over Scottish bays, creeks, estuaries, rocky islets, etc.,
a very oblong, darkly-painted figure may be dis-
cerned careering over the surface of the waves. It is
of a bird-like shape, with long protruding beak, and
legs sticking out prominently behind, and seems flying
away in hot haste and with anxious precipitation.
Presently, however, this eccentric specimen of animal
life alights complacently upon the crest of some break-
ing wave, and after indulging in a little lively swim-
ming exercise (probably by way of digestive prepara-
tion, or appetite sharpening), it suddenly, and ap-
parently for no cogent reason in the world, makes
a great splashing with its wings, and then heels over
and disappears from view. The bird has descended

into the watery chambers of the ocean in quest of a
fish, or some other equally nutritive substance that
may serve to quell the ragings of hunger, and to
furnish bodily sustenance. As the creature proceeds
under water a number of air bubbles cling to its
oily plumage ; and provided only that the liquid
medium be sufficiently quiet and transparent, the
spectacle furnished by the moving bird beneath is
marvellously beautiful. An oblong, beautifully-
modelled, blackly-painted animal form, studded, as
it were, with brilliant stars and diamonds, and execut-
ing a series of graceful manoeuvres down in the sea-
green depths, is a spectacle of rare aesthetic interest*
But the deportment of this charming little bird upon
the surface is none the less interesting. In the wildest
sea, when each wave was embossed with a creamy
foam, we have seen this bird, with its attendant
troupe of young, riding buoyantly and paddling about
as if beyond all measure charmed with life and its
enjoyments.

The flight of the bird now under review is rapid
and continuous, and is characterised, moreover, by a
curious revolving, or rather oscillating motion effected
in such a manner as to occasion a curious alternation
of form and colour. The black painting of the lower
parts of the bird is, at one time, exposed to view,
and one would think a completely sable animal was
being observed. Presently, however, the flying body
oscillates slightly, and then the ludicrous wings, with
their large, oval-shaped, whitish-coloured patch, come
prominently under notice.

{To be continued.)

NOTES ON BLUE FLOWERS.

SIR JOHN LUBBOCK makes the remark that
the Bees with which he experimented with a view
to obtaining a knowledge of their colour-sense,
seemed to have great difficulty in determining between
artificial bine and green colours. It is generally
regarded that gamopetalous flowers, or flowers whose
petals are united into a single piece, are better adapted
for the visits of butterflies and moths than bees. I
have been particularly struck with the much greater
proportion of blue flowers among gamopetalous plants
than among polypetalous, which would be compre-
hensible on the ground that bees could not effectively
determine the colour of blue so well as butterflies*
In that case we might reasonably expect that blue
flowers would have more butterfly than bee visitors,
and would have been gradually adapted to the latter
rather than to the former. Taking a rough census of
the colours of our British flowers, we find that only
ten species are marked as “blue” among the poly-
petalous kinds, and of these some are very doubtfully
“ blue,” such as the Vetches ( Vicia cracca, V. sepiiun ,
V. hirsuta , V tetrasperma, etc.); for red has been
called in as an auxiliary (and red is a very luminous

IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

179

and far-seen colour) in order to make up some tone of
purple. Among the violets, also, we have a tendency
to purple and even white varieties, instead of a fixed
determination to stick to blue; as if the latter colour
had been found not to answer. Those polypetalous
flowers which have most faithfully adhered to a blue
colour (as regards our British flora) are included in
Linaceoe. The milkwort is usually called blue, and its
blue is of a dark and lovely colour ; but every one
knows that this plant bears pink and white varieties,
in some places quite as commonly as the normal blue
flowers. On the other hand, we find that among the
gamopetalous division of our British flowering plants,
no fewer than fifty-seven species (against ten of the
polypetalous) are decidedly blue. In addition, there is
quite a host of which I have taken no statistical heed,
marked “lilac,” “purplish,” etc., in which blue is
a colouring agent. Of the gamopetalous orders Bor-
aginacese and Campanulacese are the most conspicuous,
the latter bearing little besides blue flowers and
possessing corollas of the most typically gamope-
talous character. Of course polypetalous flowers are
visited by butterflies as well as bees, and it would be
interesting to note if the former, rather than the
latter, picked out the blue kinds. I only offer these
remarks as tentative. Is there anything in them ? —
J. E. Taylor.

OUR COMMON BRITISH FOSSILS, AND
WHERE TO FIND THEM.

No. VIII.

By J. E. Taylor, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.

WE have already seen that, to a great extent,
Encrinites occupy the place in the rocks of
the Palaeozoic epoch which sea-urchins and their
allies do in the Secondary strata, and in the seas of
the present day. The sea-urchins proper are more
abundant now than at any previous period in the
world’s history. They inhabit every sea, and almost
every shallow and depth in the seas. More than at
any other time one modern group of them (the Echini)
merit the name of Echinodermata, . or “spiny-
skinned,” given to the entire order. The common
sea-urchins, such as Echinus esculenta or E. miliar is ^
are covered with what are not inaptly called “spines.”
The Echinodermata are doubly important, on
account of their numerical abundance and wide distri-
bution in the seas of the present day, and their
great geological antiquity. We have already noted
their general persistence in the rocks of every geological
epoch since the Silurian up to our own, and that we
find their species and types increasing in number in
proportion as we approach the present epoch. The
common Sea-urchin (Echinus miliar is ) is a familiar
example. It well deserves its name, for, when alive,
it is so thickly covered with spines, as to greatly

resemble the common hedgehog ; when dead, these
spines peel off, and then the surface is seen covered
with minute knobs or tubercles, to each of which a
moveable spine was attached, on the principle of the
ball-and-socket joint. The shell is composed of car-
bonate of lime, and is made up of an innumerable
number of separate pieces, all of which are mosaicked
together. No fewer than six hundred of these go
to make up the entire “ test,” as the shell is techni-
cally called. And yet, although in the adult state
it may be several inches in diameter, the shell has
not been moulted since the animal was no bigger
than a pea ! There is a membrane lining the ex-
terior of the test or shell, and this has the power of
secreting the carbonate of lime diffused through sea-
water. As the membrane is inserted between every
one of the six hundred and more plates, it is able to
add lime along the edges of each, and thus the whole
structure grows out uniformly and symmetrically,
almost like the expanding of a bubble when blown
out. A more beautiful architectural contrivance could
not be imagined than is thus furnished to us by this
insignificant creature !

Take one of the rounded tests you may have
picked up at the sea-side, out of which the animal
has been removed, and hold it up so that the
light may be seen through it. Besides the large
apertures at the top and the bottom (anus and mouth)
you perceive rows of minute punctures radiating down
from the summit to the base. These punctures are
called “ambulacral pores,” and the plates (of which
there are five rows) in which the pores occur are
termed “ambulacral plates,” for a reason that will
shortly be seen. In addition to these, there is a
plate specially perforated, called the ‘ 1 madreporiform
tubercle ” (on account of its being as porous and
spongy as the common Madrepore coral), and its
office seems to be to admit the sea-water as a
filter. From this a sort of canal proceeds internally
to a tube which surrounds the gullet at the base
of the shell or test like a ring. From this
circular canal there radiate, like the arms of a
star-fish, certain other canals which pass in front
of the rows of perforated plates, and meet together
at the top. Each of these five canals gives off in its
course innumerable tubes, which can be protruded
through the little punctures at the will of the animal.
At the base of each little water-tube, on the other
side of the canal, is a little water-bag, and when
this is compressed (as when a boy squeezes a
hollow indiarubber ball he has first filled with water)
the minute water-tubes, or “ambulacra,” are
lengthened even beyond the spines of the animal.
Myriads of them can thus be protruded whenever the
sea-urchin thinks fit, and they may then be seen
wriggling and moving about like so many worms.
At the base of each is a sucker, and so, when a few
scores of the “ambulacra” are thrust forth, and have
attached themselves to any object, they are enabled to

i8o

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

warp the entire shell along (fig. 139). It is in this way,
in fact, that most of the true Echinodermata crawl
along the bottom of the sea. The reverent reader can-
not fail to be struck with such a beautiful piece of con-
struction, and a hint might here be furnished to our best
hydraulic engineers. That this principle has been in
vogue for myriads of years is evident by the similar
construction of the ancient sea-urchins. Thus in the

Fig. 140. — Echinus esculenta; on left-hand side is a fragment of
test denuded of spines, and showing plates.

“ Fairy loaves,” as they are called in the Eastern
counties, where they literally abound (the chalk
fossils known to geologists as Ananchytes ovata ),
you see five similar rows of perforations ; and even
the somewhat differently fashioned tests of the
earliest genera of sea-urchins (Pakeechinus), dating
from Carboniferous if not from Silurian times, possess
perforated ambulacral plates, showing that these very

ancient fossils were already in possession of the
hydraulic principle which has been of such inestimable
value to their race. The Ananchytes of the Chalk,
however, has very small tubercles, and the spines
formerly attached to them must have been very small
and bristle-like, as is now the case with those of the
living cake-urchin, Bryssus lyrifer , not uncommon
in the muddy bottoms of the Kyles of Bute, the

Spatangus , A mphidotus, and
many others. This is not
the case with the Cidarids
found fossilised in the Chalk
with them. The very large
knobs or tubercles on the tests
of the latter animals (which
are especially abundant in
tropical seas at the present
time) give support to large
spines, of a club-shape gene-
rally, and often ornamented
by various devices. Their
ball-and-socket principle of
jointing, however, was in
use in, and has been ever
since, the geological epoch
termed the Silurian, when
the Echini were first intro-
duced. In the Oolitic strata
we meet with some of the
handsomest specimens of
Cidarids, and what is very
peculiar is that, like the
fossil Oolitic corals, the fossil
Cidaridae resemble species
now living in tropical and

Fig. 141. — Test or shell of Cidaris coronata, showing the
tubercles to which the bases of spines are attached ; Oolitic
formation.

subtropical seas. The “cake-urchins,” of which
our recent British species of Spatangus is a well-
known example, date from the Cretaceous, or chalk
period, for the fossils are so common as to have
obtained the popular name of “hearts” in chalk
districts. These include both Spatangus, and a
genus called Micraster. In number of species, how-
ever, and variety of external form, these Echini

Fig. 139. — Echinus climbing glass side of aquarium, and showing mode of attachment^ '

of ambulacral sucking feet.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

181

are most abundant in Tertiary strata. It is a peculiar
law in the history of a race of organic beings — that
they have a period of introduction, one when they
reach their maximum, both numerically and in
variety of species, and another when these drop
off one by one, and the race becomes extinct. We
then find that the functions they performed are
taken up by some other kindred group of animals,
which, as a rule, are more highly endowed
and specialised, and so have been able to thrust
aside and extinguish their older comrades ; just as
British weeds are now supplanting the native weeds
of New Zealand and elsewhere.

Fig. 142 .—Cidaris coronata , showing" mode of attachment
of the club-shaped spines.

Fig. 143.— A nanchytes ovata, or “ Fairy loaf” — a common
Cretaceous echinoderm ; a, base, showing position of mouth
and anus.

The nervous system in modern sea-urchins is placed
round the mouth, which is furnished with five hard
calcareous teeth, to enable it to triturate its food.
These teeth are worked by muscles, through loops,
and the whole can be removed as easily as an
artificial set of teeth. In this state the mechanism
goes by the name of “Aristotle’s Lantern,” and the
seaside picker-up of “unconsidered trifles” frequently
finds it lying by itself after the more fragile test has
been broken to pieces. We have seen silicified
specimens of Echini in Chalk flints near Norwich,
which have had these teeth fossilised, but such
examples are exceedingly rare. Nevertheless it affords
another instance of the persistency of a plan. Gene-
rally speaking, the larger number of the Echini of
the Chalk seas had the mouth and anal aperture at
the base, and such genera as Ananchytes, Holaster,
Micraster, Galerites, etc., are grouped according to
the position of these apertures, which is always con-
stant in the same species. In the recent Echinus, as

well as in the fossil Cidarids, the mouth is at the base
and the anal orifice at the summit.

The modern Bryssus (as we have already noted)
buries itself in very fine mud, on the organic matter
of which it appears to feed, just as earthworms do on
the black soils. The Micrasters and Spatangi of the
Cretaceous period, which approach the Bryssus very
nearly, both as to shape and structure, undoubtedly
buried themselves in the chalky mud of the ancient sea
in a similar manner. Some of the modern Echini, on
the other hand, appear to have the power of hollowing
for themselves holes in the rocks by the sea, especially
in limestone rocks, which are not unfrequently found

Fig. 144. — Natural flint cast of interior of Ananchytes, showing
the perforations (in relief) for ambulacral or sucking-feet.

Fig. 145. — Micraster, a common Fig. 146.— Galerites albo'

Cretaceous echinoderm, show- galerus, a common Cre-
ing the petaloid arrangement taceous echinoderm.
of the ambulacral areas.

riddled by them, just as they are by Pholas and other
boring molluscs. A pretty little sea-urchin, not quite
so big as a threepenny piece, which we find not
uncommonly fossilised in the Red Crag beds, is the
Echinocyamus. In some respects it is a connecting link
between the Echini, or sea-urchins, and the “ Heart-
urchins,” or Spatangi. The common “ Sea-egg” (as
fishermen call it), or Echinus sphcera , is as old as
the Pliocene period, for we have found it in the Coral-
line Crag beds. The common “Sea-egg” however,
is not the type with which we ought to compare the
very abundant “Fairy-loaves” (Ananchytes) found in
the Chalk, and which are so plentiful about Norwich.
The mouth and anus of Ananchytes are both at the
base, whereas in the sea- egg they are relatively at the-

IS2

HARDW1CKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

base and the summit. In the Ananchytidse must be
included the extinct genera, more or less common in
the Chalk, of Holaster, Galerites, &c., in which the
basal position of mouth and anus is slightly different.
The nearest living type of sea-urchin, allied to the
Ananchytes, or “Fairy-loaves,” was dredged up in
the North Atlantic during the “Challenger” expedi-
tion, from a depth of nearly three miles, and it is known
by the name of Calymne relicta. The bottom of the
Atlantic is remarkable for the number of creatures
living there which are allied to those found in the
fossil state in the Chalk formation. The family of
sea-urchins called Pourtalesia is of this character, for
it is allied to the extinct Ananchytes in many respects.
But perhaps the most remarkable living Atlantic
sea-urchin is Salenia varispina , dredged off Cape
St. Vincent at a depth of nearly two miles. A few
years ago this genus was believed to have been
extinct for ages, for it was not found outside the
Chalk, except the Acrosalenia of the London Clay,
at Sheppey. Now it has turned up in the living
state in the Atlantic. It is common in the Chalk
near Norwich, and internal flint casts are also found
there so abundantly that they go by the popular name
of “ Pick-cheeses ” — “Pick-cheese” being the name
given to the ripened seed-vessels of the common
Mallow, which the flint casts of Salenia very closely
resemble. Internal flint casts of Ananchytes, or
“ Fairy-loaves,” are abundant wherever the Upper
Chalk crops out, and they are often remarkable for
possessing the clearest and most distinct relics, in
relief, of the ambulacral pores. Salenia are especially
numerous in the Greensand beds in the neighbourhood
of Warminster, in Wiltshire, one of the pleasantest
spots for geologising about that the student could
desire.

In the oldest known type of Sea-urchin ( Pa he -
echinus ) the test or shell was composed of more than
twenty rows of plates, and the entire test was of a
remarkable egg-like shape. Archoeocidaris is the
oldest known Cidaris, or Knobbed Sea-Urchin, and
it occurs in the Devonian rocks ; but one species
(A. Urii ) is not uncommon in the Carboniferous
Limestone of the Derbyshire Peak district, and we
have found its spines somewhat plentifully in the
queer little limestone quarry at Hafod, near Corwen,
in North Wales. Palaeechinus seems to occur most
plentifully in the Carboniferous Limestone of Ireland.
Some beds of the Inferior Oolite literally swarm
with fossil Cidarids and Cake-urchins. The slabs of
Oolitic limestone found in the quarries about Caine
may be seen containing a dozen Cidarids, many of
them with their spines still attached, just as when
they were alive. Leckhampton Hill, near Chelten-
ham (from the summit of which the tourist can
obtain a magnificent view of the Severn valley),
is composed of rocks belonging to this formation,
in which the Cake-urchin Clypeus is abundant,
as well as various species of Cidaris. Hartwell, in

Buckinghamshire, is another good hunting-ground for
fossil echinodenns. Clypeus sinuata is a fine, large,
well-known fossil, well distributed in the Lower Oolitic
rocks ; it is, perhaps, most abundant in Wiltshire ;
the Cotswold Hills have numerous outcrops where
quarries are opened in their Oolitic rocks, in which
Nucleolites, Cidaris, and Hemicidaris are frequently
very abundant. These fossil Cidarids are very beau-
tiful objects when denuded of their thick, club-shaped
spines (fig. 141) ; the test is seen ornamented with and
composed of a series of polygonal plates, each with a
large round tubercle in its centre, and a pearl-like
setting of a ring of smaller ones around it. Even the
club-like spines are frequently beautifully sculptured,
and the student can plainly see in their hollow bases
how they were attached to the round tubercles, after
the mechanical fashion known as a “ball-and-socket
joint.” The quarries at Caine and Chippenham, in
Wiltshire, are especially famous for their abundant yield
of fossil Cidarids. Various species of Cidaris are also
found in the Kentish and Norfolk Chalk, either whole
or as detached plates ; and sometimes we find^ the
impression of one of the latter on a flint, when it
presents a very pretty appearance. Solitary club-
shaped spines and impressions of the same in flint, are
not uncommon in the Chalk formation generally. In
the Greensand at Warminster, which crops out from
under the escarpment of the Downs, the geological
student may find a good assortment of fossil echino-
derms, such as Nucleolites, Caratomus, Cidaris pusio,
Goniophorus favosus and G. lunulatus , Holaster
granulosus , Micraster lacunosus, Salenia clathrata , S.
geometrica, S. ornata, S. umbrella , etc. Faringdon,
in Berkshire, is another rich Greensand abounding
in fossil Cidarids where Salenia petalifera is espe-
cially plentiful. Charlton, near Woolwich, is a
good place for Chalk Cidarids ; and the well- worked
pit near the railway station will afford the student
good specimens of many other Cretaceous fossils
besides, whilst the Tertiary sands overlying the chalk
sections are in places rich in peculiar fossils.

The rambler can hardly go into the wrong quarry in
the Upper Chalk for Ananchytes, Micraster, Galerites,
etc. They are especially numerous in the large chalk-
pits which nearly surround the city of Norwich. The
white-surfaced chalk-flints, which lie in heaps in the
quarries ready for breaking up into road metal, should
be carefully examined — if possible one by one. We
have found many “ fairy-loaves ” and their kind half-
imbedded in these hard flints, plainly showing that
the latter must have been soft when the fossils were
thus buried. Many of these chalk-pits are in lonely
localities — just in the very places a man would select
for quiet walks, or for their attractive scenery ; and,
indeed, the tourist finds that the fossiliferous rocks
usually crop out where nature is apparelled in her
most attractive garb.

( To be continued.)

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

183

AIDS TO THE CHOICE OF BOOKS ON
BOTANY.*

By Bernard Hobson.

AS I have learnt by experience that those who
are commencing the study of any important
subject are often at a loss to know what are the best
books for the purpose, I hope that the following
remarks may be of use to such persons, premising
that though the prices given are the published ones
some of the works are only to be had second-hand.

The best book for beginners (without depreciating
other works) and all who wish to obtain a practical
knowledge of Botany is the extremely lucid “ Lessons
in Elementary Botany,” by Prof. D. Oliver, F.R.S.,
F.L.S., i8mo. 4j. 6d. ; Macmillan & Co. It contains
nearly 200 clear illustrations, the only fault of which
is, that they never represent complete plants, but
only parts. Typical plants of the chief British
natural orders are described, together with the most
important exotics, as bamboos, rice, cotton, tobacco,
&c., and there is a very good index.

Another good work, excellently illustrated, is the
“ Vegetable World,” by Louis Figuier, 471 illustra-
tions, published by Cassell, Petter, & Galpin, at
7s. 6d. It describes, more or less fully, all the natural
orders of plants.

The two following, published by Bradbury & Co.,
are clearly written and well illustrated. “School
Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” with descriptions
of the chief European natural orders, by Dr. John
Lindley, F.R.S., F.L.S. ; and “ Botany for Be-
ginners,” by Dr. M. T. Masters, F.R.S. (with very
little on systematic botany). Other similar works
are Henfrey’s “ Rudiments of Botany,” foolscap 8vo.,

3 s. 6d., Van Voorst, and “Elements of Botany for
Families and Schools,” Tenth edition, revised by
Thomas Moore, F.L.S., 154 woodcuts, 2 s. 6d. ;
Longmans.

Those who wish for cheaper books may buy
“Outlines of Elementary Botany,” by G. Bentham,
F.R.S. , P.L.S., Fourth edition, 121110., is., Lovell
Reeve & Co. ; a clear summary of facts without a
useless word, but no illustrations or descriptions of
natural orders. “Primer of Botany,” by Sir J. D.
Hooker, C.B., P.R.S., i8mo., cloth, u., Macmillan,
68 illustrations, but not nearly so complete as Prof.
Oliver’s “Lessons,” and containing next to nothing
on systematic botany; Prof. Balfour’s “Vegetable
Anatomy and Physiology,” is. ; “ Systematic and
Economic Botany,” is. (elementary) ; and two works
under the same titles (advanced), 2s. 6d. each;
Collins & Sons (illustrated). Prof. J. H. Balfour,
M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., is also author of “Elements
of Botany,” foolscap 8vo., cloth, 427 woodcuts, 3,5-. 6d.,
and “Outlines of Botany,” foolscap 8vo., cloth,

* Any of the books referred to in this article may be obtained
from Mr. David Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s Place, Trafalgar
Square, W.C.

nearly 600 woodcuts, 5-f. ; A. & C. Black,
Edinburgh.

More advanced works than any of the foregoing
are : Prof. Balfour’s “ Manual of Botany ” (structure,
physiology, classification), Fifth edition, 963 wood-
cuts, crown 8vo., 12 s. 6d. ; also his very complete
“Class Book of Botany” (structure, morphology,
physiology, classification, geography, fossil botany,
glossary), one large volume, 8vo., with 1800 illustra-
tions, 2 is., (can, or could, be had in two parts),
A. & C. Black, Edinburgh.

The splendidly illustrated “General System of
Descriptive and Analytical Botany,” by Le Maout
and Decaisne, translated by Mrs. Hooker, with de-
scriptions of every natural order, and 5500 woodcuts,
imp. 8vo., 52 s. 6d. ; Longmans.

On special branches of botany are : “A Manual
of Structural Botany,” by M. C. Cooke, M.A.,
LL.D., twentieth thousand, 200 cuts, is. ; David
Bogue. .“The Anatomy and Physiology of the
Vegetable Cell,” by Mohl, 8vo., 7 s. 6d. ; Van Voorst.
“Botany, Structural, and Physiological,” by O. W.
Thome, translated by A. W. Bennett, M.A., F.L.S. ,
600 woodcuts, 6s., Longmans ; a text-book which
may be considered as introductory to Julius Sachs’
“Text-Book of Botany, Morphological and Physio-
logical,” translated by Bennett & Dyer, 500 illustra-
tions, 848 pages and index, royal 8vo., half-morocco,
3IJ-. 6d., Macmillan ; a first-class work for those who
wish to go deeply into the subject, and are not afraid
of technical terms ; it also contains outlines of classi-
fication.

“A Manual of Botany, Anatomical and Physio-
logical,” by Robert Brown, M.A., F.R.G.S., crown
8vo., many illustrations, 12 s. 6d. ; W. Blackwood
& Sons.

“Pollen,” by M. P. Edgeworth, several hundred
cuts, 8vo., 7 s. 6 d. ; David Bogue.

On systematic botany (description of all the natural
orders) Dr. Lindley’s “ Natural System of Botany,”
with a complete list of genera and synonyms, but no
illustrations, cloth, i8x. ; Longmans.

Lindley’s “Vegetable Kingdom,” a large 8vo.
volume with very numerous and good illustrations
and excellent index ; a work containing avast amount
of information (price unknown to me).

For those who wish to master the art of description
nothing can be better than Dr. Lindley’s “ Descriptive
Botany,” is., with illustration ; Bradbury & Co.

On Cryptogamic Botany one of the best works is
Berkeley’s “Introduction;” 2 is. ; Bailliere & Co.

“ Introduction to the Study of Palaeontological
Botany,” demy 8vo., illustrated with four plates and
100 woodcuts, by Professor Balfour, 7s. 6d. ; A. & C.
Black.

Plaving mastered the principles of botany we pro-
ceed to collect British plants and determine their
species. All the following contain the flowering
plants and ferns only. Sowerby’s “ English Botany,”

184

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP ,

in eleven volumes, £22 8s., in cloth £24. 12 s., half-
morocco, £28 3s. 6d., whole morocco, is the greatest
work, containing life-size illustrations, beautifully
coloured, of every species, with descriptions. It is so 1
costly that few will buy it, but it can be borrowed
from any Public Library, and here I cannot do better
than advise learners to borrow from a library books
they wish to read (not merely keep for reference) one
being ashamed to return them unread, whereas if one
buys them they are stored up untouched or unfinished.

A rather cheaper work is “The Flowering Plants,
Grasses and Ferns of Great Britain,” by Anne Pratt,
with more than 300 coloured plates, medium 8vo.,
cloth, gilt edges, ^3 13^ 6d., F. ^Warne & Co. ;
but for beginners the clearest and best work of the
kind is the “Handbook of the British Flora,” by
Geo. Bentham, F.R.S., P.L.S., in two vols., 8vo.,
together 1062 pages with illustrations (each about
2\ by ij inch) of every species (1295 in all) with 51
pages. Outlines of Botany at the beginning and
good index, Lovell Reeve & Co., £3 ioj\ ; now
to be obtained at a reduced price. Those who
wish for one book only cannot do better than buy this,
recommended by Professors Oliver and Stanley Jevons,
and excellent as a work of reference. ' With a little
patience no one can fail to discover the name of a
plant by its means.

The most portable “Flora” is Hayward’s
“Botanist’s Pocket-Book” containing botanical and
common name, soil, situation, growth and seasons,
Jimp cover, /4s. 6d., no illustrations and very short
descriptions ; G. Bell & Sons.

More strictly scientific than the two last, and much
more complete than “Hayward’s,” is, Hooker’s
“ Student’s Flora of the British Islands,” crown
8vo., ior. 6 d. ; Macmillan. No illustrations. Owing
perhaps to prejudice, it does not seem to me so easy
to determine species by its aid as by Bentham’s.

Dr. Lindley’s “ Synopsis of the British Flora,”
no figures, foolscap 8vo., 6.r. ; Longmans.

Those who delight in numerous species may buy
Prof. Babington’s “Manual of British Botany,” no
illustrations, i2mo., ioj. 6d., Sixth edition, Van
Voorst ; and lovers of the Linmean system, Wither-
ing’s “British Botany,” icxr. 6 d., 155 figures, Scott,
Webster, & Geary — only, I am afraid, to be had
secondhand, as no one thinks of teaching the Linnsean
system, although easier and perhaps better for this
particular purpose only.

Works paying special attention to the uses of plants
are “Botany,” by Prof. Robert Bentley, F.L.S.,
with 1138 engravings, 14L, Third edition, J. & A.
Churchill, a good manual of Botany in general. Dr.
Pereira’s “ Elements of Materia Medica and Thera-
peutics,” a very celebrated book, 75J., Longmans.
Barton & Castle’s “ British Flora Medica,” 1 vol.,
8vo., more than 200 figures coloured by hand,
revised by J. Jackson, A.L.S., 30.?. ; Longmans.
Xl Popular Economic Botany,” by T. C. Archer,

20 well-coloured and excellent plates, 7 s. 6d., Rout-
ledge ; gives little description of the plants themselves,
but can be understood by any one, botanical or not.

On Botanical Geography cheap works are : “ Popular
Geography of Plants,” edited by Dr. Daubeny, 20
plates coloured (but not worth much), Js. 6 d. Routledge
& Henfrey’s “ Vegetation of Europe,” foolscap, 8vo.
5j-., with map, but no illustrations ; Van Voorst.

N.B. — Information respecting any really good works
of an inexpensive character which have been omitted
above is solicited, in order that they may be mentioned
in the concluding part of this paper.

Tapton Elms , Sheffield.

( To be continued.)

MICROSCOPY.

Cells for Dry Objects. — At a recent meeting
of the Manchester Science Association a new method
of preparing cells for dry microscopic objects was
described and illustrated. A ring of shellac having
been traced upon the slide, a piece of paper was
placed upon it. Having been allowed to dry, the cell
was cut out of the paper by means of the turntable
and a sharp knife. The rings produced by this
method are very narrow, but extremely neat ; the
writer saw the palate of a mollusc mounted in this
way. — Ma ncestrian.

EUGLENA (?) VIRIDIS AND ITS BULBED FLAGELLUM.
— It is with pleasure that I supply the information
desired by Mr. Robson in last month’s Science-
Gossip. Every specimen of the Euglena that I have
hitherto examined has been furnished with the bulbed
flagellum, irrespective of the locality whence it was
obtained. Indeed, the fact that Mr. Robson has seen

them at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and that I find a quan-
tity of them in the neighbourhood of Preston, seems
to indicate that they are not confined to any special
locality ; at least in so far as the bulbed flagellum is
concerned. The Euglenae, however, are not to be
found in every stagnant pond : I examined, recently,
samples of water drawn from four different pools
without discovering a single Euglena. Your corres-
pondent’s theory of the metamorphosis mentioned by

HARDWICKE' S SC I ENC E-G O SSI P.

i»S

me in my last letter, is certainly ingenious, but is
scarcely satisfactory in all points. In my “ gather-
ing ” the most searching scrutiny failed to reveal the
presence of the funnel rotifer in the first instance.
Neither was there any other sufficiently large to
attack the full-grown Euglenae with which the water
teemed. These gradually disappeared until scarcely
more than one could be drawn from the vessel con-
taining the water, whilst a whole army of funnel
rotifers were sporting away their short life. My
suspicion is, at present, that these bulbed Euglense will
ultimately prove to be the larvae of Hydratina lent a,
or common funnel rotifer. I enclose a rough pencil
sketch of three forms of the Euglena observed by me.
At the first, No. I was the shape of most of those
I gathered ; these subsequently became fewer, and
No. 2 was then the predominating form. A short time
afterwards, the flagellum of the No. 2 disappeared,
and a wreath of very delicate cilia (No. 3) was clearly
discernible. [The objective used by me is a Beck
Jin. with No. 3 eyepiece, giving an enlargement of
nearly seven hundred diameters.] — F Jas. George ,
Chorley , Lane.

How to Make a Compressorium. — Cut a couple
of pieces of wood the size of a glass slide, with two
small arms projecting from the middle on each side,

qoy

Fig. 147. — Sketch showing details of Compressorium.

with a hole bored through each. Get two screw
paper-binders, the largest size : and some glass slides.
The object to be compressed is placed
between the two glass slides ; these are
placed between the pieces of wood, and the
whole screwed together with the binders
which pass through the whole. The only
caution needed is to place the holes suffi-
ciently near the edge to admit of the ring of the
binder standing out beyond it. Any number of
slides, and therefore of objects, can be put in it, and
the pressure regulated on either side without moving
the object. The outside may be of brass lined with
baize. — II. Field , Blackett , Cambridge Mission, Delhi.

ZOOLOGY.

Birds in London. — To lovers of nature compelled
to spend the best part of the year in London, it is
very pleasant to get a glimpse, however occasional, of
the birds, and I think their appearance is not so
exceptional as might at first be imagined, for during
the three years I have been living on and off in
London, I have seen as many as twenty-four species.
The inevitable house sparrow of course would head
the list as regards frequency of occurrence ; starlings
and rooks are tolerably common ; and I have once
or twice seen jackdaws. Blackbirds and song
thrushes may be seen in all the parks ; the missel-
thrush is rather rarer ; and during the late severe
winter I once saw a redwing thrush so busily search-
ing for something eatable on the frost-bound earth
that I was able to approach within a couple of yards
of it. Of the warbler family I have seen the white-
throat -hedgewarbler, the robin, the wren, the willow
warbler, and on one occasion the blackcap. The linnet
and the chaffinch, the skylark, the pied wagtail, the
blue tit, are, as far as I have observed, the only
London representatives of their respective families. In
Battersea Park a happy little family of moorhens may
be seen. I have once or twice noticed the common
gull, once, the tern, flying over the river between
Vauxhall and Chelsea Bridges, and on one occasion I
have seen the great black-backed gull flying slowly
down the river, near Lambeth Bridge. Swallows are
sometimes to be seen, especially in Battersea Park ;
twice lately I have seen swifts circling about, on one
occasion over the Horse Guards, on the other over
the river near Chelsea Bridge. I should be inclined
to attribute their appearance to their having had to
extend their hunting grounds, on account of insect
life being comparatively scarce, by reason of the
long-continued unfavourable weather. — W. H. Legge.

Influence of the Wet Season on Butter-
flies.— Not for several years have I observed the
summer brood or flight of butterflies (the emergence
of which usually occurs about the end of May or the
beginning of June) to be so deficient in numbers. The
species that have suffered most from the unfavourable
spring are those which are single brooded, and con-
fined to a special habitat. In some of these, we may
suspect there will be even more scarceness noticeable
in 1880, through the deficiency of parents this year.
Thus, take such an example as some Fritillary
furnishes, say Argynnis Etiphrosyne. If some wood
in which it breeds furnishes in average years a thousand
perfect insects, and this year only two or three
hundred came out, owing to the death of many larvae,
the number of eggs deposited will perhaps be 25
per cent, less than in 1878. We can easily understand
how it is that some species disappear for long periods,
or die out, when they had had to endure a succession
of unpropitious seasons. — J. R. S. C.

1 86

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-G OSSIP.'

The British Association meets at Sheffield on
Wednesday, August 20, under the presidency of
Professor Allman. The contiguity of Sheffield to the
Peak district makes that town peculiarly desirable for a
meeting of this sort, in which excursions form one of
the most attractive part of the week’s programme.
Among other places to which excursions are appointed
are Chatsworth, Thoresby, Darley Dale, Stanton-in-
Peak, Arbor Lowe, &c.

The Popular Science Review. — The July
number of this most valuable and ably-edited quarterly
is one of the best and strongest we have had for some
time. It contains the following articles : “ Facts
and thoughts about light-emitting animals,” by
Professor Duncan, F.R.S. : “The life, birth, and
death of a storm,” by Robert H. Scott, F.R.S. : “ On
the extinct animals of the Colonies of Great Britain,”
by Professor Owen, F.R.S. : “Is nest-building
an instinct in birds ?” by B. T. Lowne, F.L.S. :
and “The position of the Silurian, Devonian, and
Carboniferous rocks in the London area,” by
Robert Etheridge, F.R.S.

Capture of a Whale in Lough Foyle. — It
may interest some of your readers to hear that early
in June a male of the species known as Sibbald’s
Rorqual ( Balcenoptera Sibbaldii ) was captured in this
locality. I readily identified it by the description
given by Mr. Thomas Southwell, F.Z.S., in Science-
Gossip a short time ago. It was injured by coming
into collision near the entrance to the lough with a
steamer bound for Londonderry. During the day it
was observed spouting opposite Moville, and was at
once pursued by a large number of people in boats,
who by firing, and otherwise frightening it, succeeded
in driving it into shallow water, where it was soon
left stranded by the receding tide. It was auctioned
by order of the Receiver of Wreck, and purchased for
^18 by a local gentleman, who has had the blubber
removed and boiled down. Its length was about sixty-
two feet. Two years ago a grampus in an advanced
stage of decomposition was washed ashore at Termone
in this neighbourhood. — John Anderson, Moville.

Occurrence of Lophinus palmatus near
Eastbourne. — I recently found four males and two
females of this species near here, and as Sussex is not
mentioned as a habitat by Cooke in his “ British
Reptiles,” I thought it might interest other readers
of Science-Gossip to know that they do occur here.

I may add that I do not find them as hardy as the
other British newts, both of which are also to be found
in this neighbourhood. — Charles Foran.

The Manatee. — At a recent meeting of the
Zoological Society, Dr. J. Murie read a paper on the
Manatee, containing the results of his examination of
the specimen which was lately living in the West-
minster Aquarium. The peculiar attitudes assumed

by the animal in life, the great mobility of the upper
lip, and the occasional use of the limbs in feeding
were noted. As regards the anatomy, the chief
points dwelt on were the shape of the brain and its
suppressed convolutions. The vexed question of the
number of the cervical nerves and their distribution
was also discussed.

The Nightingale.— It would be interesting to
receive well-verified notes on the latest date up to
which (perhaps on account of the delayed summer)
the nightingale’s song has been heard this year. I
heard the bird in full song about four o’clock on the
afternoon of July 2nd — the latest date I remember
to have heard of. — J. E. Taylor.

BOTANY.

Abnormal Development of Cardamine pra-
tensis. — In the chapter on Heterotaxy of Dr. Masters’
work on “Vegetable Teratology,” is an account of
an abnormal development in Cardamine pratensis
quoted from Bromfield’s “ Flora Vectensis.” A form
of Cardamine pratensis, somewhat similar to that de-
scribed, has been growing in a field in the parish of
Widford near Chelmsford for many years. It was first
observed by me in 1859, and is to be found there to
this day ; which seems to prove that, monstrous as it
is, it may be regarded as a permanent variety. The
flower opens first like any other of the same species,
sepals, petals, and stamens occupying their proper
places and falling as in cruciferous plants they com-
monly do. Then the ovary acquires a stalk and
swells into a flower-bud, which finally opens into a
second flower that is perfectly double, like that of a
double stock or wallflower. When transplanted into
a garden, the plant retains its character and may be
readily propagated by division, so that if it gain favour
with botanists or amateur gardeners it may become as
common as anybody could wish it to be. — John Gibbs .

Fly-catching Plants. — My attention has been
directed to an interesting passage in which the carni-
vorous properties of the Drosera (sun-dew) are affirmed,
though I believe the discovery that the plant not only
catches, but digests, and is nourished by insects, is
also, and mainly, due to the independent researches of
Dr. Darwin. The passage occurs in a note on p. 13
of a small book entitled ‘ ‘ Arran ; a poem in six
Cantos.” By the Rev. David Landsborough, Minister
of Stevenston, Ayrshire (Edinburgh, W. Blackwood,
1828). The author writes :

“ Should a fly

Rashly presume to sip the sparkling dew,

Or leaflet fresh to crop, she dies the death.

The viscous dew soon clogs her wings and feet ;

And soon her mouldering form strengthens the plant.
Which thus, when persecuted, better thrives.”

To this the following note is appended : “ What I
have said respecting the sun-dew being nourished

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

187

by the dead bodies of the flies which it entangles,
is a theory of my own, in so far as it relates to
the sun-dew, but I have little doubt that it is a
correct one.” He adds that Sir J. E. Smith was
aware that the American plant Dioncca muscipula is
“ to a certain extent nourished by the insects which it
catches.” The “viscous dew” of the Drosera is
simply vegetable pepsine. The author made one
curious mistake respecting it, that he supposed its
purpose was “ to prevent small insects from infesting
the leaves.” It is more likely that they are attracted
by it, as the aphis is by the “honey-dew” on the
leaves of the lime-tree. One of the best examples
of a fly-trap is furnished by Arum maculatum. If
the spathe is cut open, the ball at the lower part will
generally be found full of flies. They creep in, at-
tracted by the strong scent of the spadix, and are
prevented from returning by the fringe of deflexed
hairs which fill the constricted part, or neck of the
spathe. — F. A. Paley.

Cardamine and Matthiola. — It may interest
your readers to hear that a quantity of the common
cuckoo flower ( Cardamine pratensis) has been found
growing double near Chichester, in a paddock
adjoining Mundham House, the residence of Mr.
Hillier, who has kindly forwarded me several fine
plants, a specimen of which I enclose. When staying
near Freshwater a week or two ago, I gathered some
enormous specimens of Orchis morio near the fort at
Colwell Bay ; some of the flowers are deep purple,
others salmon colour, some pure white, destitute of
spots ; the flowers were so thickly crowded together
all round the stem, that I had to pick many off before
I could succeed in drying a specimen. Dr. Bromfield,
in his “Flora Vectensis,” states that the Morio is
scentless ; these were, however, very fragrant, in fact,
so overpowering was the scent I had to turn them
out of my room. I may also add that the cliffs from
Freshwater Gate to Compton Bay, a distance of about
two miles, abounded with remarkably fine plants of
Matthiola incana — most of which, however, were grow-
ing in inaccessible places. The flowers were much
darker and smaller than those I gathered last year
at Ventnor, and the plants much more bushy. As
Freshwater is supposed to be its only bond fide habitat
in a wild state, it is satisfactory to know that there
is thus no danger of its being extirpated. — F. A. Brent ,
Pellhurst Villa , Ryde.

Monstrosity of Geum rivale. — Allow me to
draw attention to a monstrosity of Geum rivale. The
plant grew by the side of a brook. It was about
eighteen inches high, with several flowers, each having
the following peculiarities, more or less developed
according to the aestivation of each flower. Instead
of drooping (as is usually the case), each flower stood
erect ; the calyx consisted of five unequal sepals,
having all the appearance of true leaves, with five
minute brown sepals alternating with the larger ones.

Of the corolla nothing can be said, only that it was
double, each petal being of the usual form and colour.
The stamens were much less in number than in an
ordinary specimen. The carpels formed the usual
globular head, but instead of being on the same level
as the stamens, were borne on an elongation of the
pedicel, which passed through the centre of the flower,
so that they were situated fully two inches above the
other parts. At their base were five lanceolate green
bracts. — f. T. C. Williams.

Science-Gossip Botanical Exchange Club.—
We are glad to be able to inform our members that
we have a large parcel of excellently-dried specimens
of British Rubi, all localised, and best of all, they
are all trustworthy examples of this intricate genus.
We hope this valuable gift will bring us many more
members ; a parcel will also be sent to those who,
although unable to contribute specimens for the
year’s distribution, send the London Catalogue with
the nominal subscription.

Shower of Pollen. — Being at Windsor on
Sunday, June 8, my attention was taken by a
yellowish scum floating on the surface of the puddles
during a sharp shower about 6 p.m. On putting it
under the microscope it turns out to be pollen of some
kind : see sketch at three hundred diameters. Is it the

Fig. 148. — Magnified pollen-grains which fell in the “ Pollen-

shower.”

Finns australis mentioned by your correspondent in
p. 138? The fall was pretty general, having been
noticed at Eton, Slough, and Frogmore; has any one
else noticed it ? — H. G. Wheeler.

Vegetable “ Commensalism.” — I wonder
whether botanists will ultimately discover that
certain plants are “commensal,” as well as certain
animals such as Professor van Beneden has told
us of in his “Animal Messmates.” For several
years past, I have been particularly struck by the
occurrence in the eastern counties of the Yellow-
wort ( Chlora perfoliata ) so constantly in company
with the Bee-orchis ( Ophrys apifera ), that when I
have found one plant I have almost instinctively
looked for the other. Has this association been noted
elsewhere ? It seems possible to imagine that flowers
generally obscure should reap some advantage by
growing in the neighbourhood of more attractive

i88

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

kinds (although the bright yellow-wort hardly needs to
associate with the Bee-orchis on that account), just as
you see little confectioners’ booths springing up by
the side of some itinerant circus, in order to profit by
the greater attraction of the noisy exhibition. Again,

I conceive it possible that other flowers may be
advantaged in quite a different way, by growing in
company with plants possessing some poisonous
stinging,’ or other defensive property. Thus, it is j
noticeable how certain kinds of umbelliferous flowers j
are always found growing in the midst of dense patches j
of nettles, or amid the thorny brambles and hedge- j
rows. Have any of our botanical readers noticed
anything approaching such a “commensalism” as ,
is here suggested ? — y. E. Taylor.

GEOLOGY.

Further Discoveries in the Cresswell
Caves. — Professor Boyd Dawkins and the Rev. J.
M. Mello, F.G.S., have communicated to the
Geological Society an account of digging-operations
carried on in one of the smaller caves of the Cresswell
Crags, known as Mother Grundy’s Parlour. They
described the occurrence in the red clay and ferruginous
sand of this cave of bones of hippopotamus and the
Leptorhine Rhinoceros, proving the existence of
these animals in the wooded valleys of the basin of
the Upper Trent at the time of the accumulation of
those deposits ; while at the same time, so far as the
evidence goes, there was an absence of Palaeolithic
man, of the reindeer, and of horses, while hyaenas
were abundant. In a subsequent period, represented
in all the caves by the red sand, the mammoth, woolly
rhinoceros, the horse, and reindeer inhabited the
vicinity, and were subject to the attacks both of
hyaenas and of human hunters, whose quartzite im-
plements prove them to belong to the same people
whose traces are found in the river-deposits. In the
breccia and upper cave- earth of the larger caves the
existence of the Palaeolithic hunter is evidenced by
flint implements, resembling those of Solutre, accom-
panied by implements of bone and antler. Associated
with these was the incised figure of a horse described
in a former paper. The authors finally dwelt briefly
upon the characteristics of the caves in prehistoric
and historic times, and indicated some of the anthro-
pological points of interest connected therewith.

Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys has communicated to the
Zoological Society the second part of his work on the
Mollusca of the Lightning and Porcupine expeditions,
embracing the families from Anomiidae to Arcidse. The
number of species noticed was ioo, of which 4 were
new to science, and 15 were hitherto unfigured. Par-
ticulars were given of the geographical and geological
distribution of all the species, and their synonymy
was discussed. Some species of Leda and Malletia
were Sicilian fossils of the Pliocene formation, and had

not been previously known as recent or living. These
species occurred at great depths, a fact which showed
that the sea-bed in that part of the Mediterranean had
been considerably raised since the Tertiary epoch.

Faults in the London Clay. — Dr. J. E. Taylor
has forwarded to the “Geological Magazine” an
account of nine faults or dislocations seen in the
newly-made sections of the London clay near Harwich,
which have been laid bare by the excavations for the
construction of the new docks. These “faults” are
as plainly visible as in a geological diagram, and the
most important of them indicated a vertical disloca-
tion of more than twelve feet. With one exception,
the faults dipped at an angle of about fifty degrees,

A Mammaliferous Deposit at Barrington,
near Cambridge. — The Rev. O. Fisher, F.G.S.,
has just communicated a note to the Geological
Society on this subject. The gravel in which the
remains were found is about twenty feet above the
alluvial flat by the river Rhee, and is evidently post-
glacial. The gravel contains some of the ordinary
land and fresh-water shells, but not Cyrena or Unio.
Remains of the following mammalia have been found :
Ursus spelceus , Meles taxus , Hycena spelcea , Felis
spelcc a, Cervus megaceros, elaphus , and another, Bos
primigenius , Bison prisons , Hippopotamus major ,
Rhinoceros leptorhinus , Elephas antiquus and primi-
genius, with a worked flint, almost certainly from the
same deposit. Mr. Fisher considers the abundance
and admixture of these remains due to the locality
having been a sort of eddy or pool in the old river.

Viviparous Ichthyosauria. — At the last meet-
ing of the Geological Society, a paper on the evidence
that certain species of Ichthyosaurus were viviparous
was read by Professor Seeley. The author described
certain specimens of Ichthyosaurs in which the remains
of one or more small individuals have been preserved
within the body-cavity of larger ones. One was
noticed in 1846 by Dr. Chaning-Pearce, who sug-
gested that it furnished evidence in favour of the
viviparity of the Ichthyosaurs. Other examples are
preserved in museums in Germany, and one in Madrid,
and most of them have been examined by the author,
who adduces the state of preservation of the small
individuals, in contrast with that of the traces of fish
and Cephalopoda, the remains of food, which are
found in the stomachal region of the larger individuals,
in advance of the position occupied by the smaller
ones, as a proof that we have not here to do with a
case of cannibalism. The position of the smaller
skeletons, with the head generally turned towards the
pelvic region of the larger ones, is also regarded as
indicative of their standing in the relation of parent
and offspring. As some of the young specimens
possess limbs, it would seem that the supposition that
Ichthyosaurus passed through a sort of tadpole stage
is erroneous.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Samuel Woodward, the Norfolk Geologist.
— In these clays, when it has become fashionable to
glorify naturalists in humble life, we are glad to see
that Mr. H. B. Woodward has contributed to the
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society a “ Memoir
of Samuel Woodward.” This veteran geologist and
antiquary, who so enthusiastically worked at the
geology of Norfolk fifty years ago, when there were
plenty of suspicions and social persecutions prepared
for those who dared to follow the “stony science,”
was the honoured father of “ the Woodwards,” who
have done so much for palaeontology, and the grand-
father of the writer of this capital and much required
memoir, himself a young geologist, who has already
“ won his spurs.”

The Geological Survey and its Relations
to Agriculture. — We are glad to see that Mr.
F. J. Bennett, F.G.S., has reprinted the address on the
above subject, recently delivered before the Ixworth
Farmers’ Club, in the pamphlet form. It is a well-
considered essay, and should be read by all those
interested in agriculture.

Fossils at Folkestone. — While spending a short
holiday at Folkestone, I enjoyed a very pleasant
time in searching for fossils in the gault, and found
the following specimens very abundant : — Ammonites
tuberculatus , A. splendens , Inoceramus sulc at us,
I. concentricus , Hamit es, Nucula pectinata , Belemnites
Listera , Rostellaria , and many other rare but at
present unnamed specimens. I write this to
encourage any fond of collecting fossils to give
F olkestone a trial. There is a small local museum
and a capital free reading-room. On the Warren
may be found many rare species of plants, and in
the chalk there are also many interesting objects
for the microscopist. — E. E.

Localities for Fossil Starfish. — Permit me to
add a note to the reference to Leintwardine in your
article (No. VII) on “ Common British Fossils.” Im-
primis, that village is nine (not six) miles from Ludlow.
The only locality where the starfish have been found
was a quarry on the top of Church Hill ; but the
stratum, or band, in which they occurred was very
thin ; about 9 inches, if I remember rightly ; and
it has been worked out as far as it could, without
encroaching on the fields. There is a large quarry
on Mocktree Hill, where the Lower Ludlow beds
join the Aymestry limestone, but only a small trace
of the starfish band has been found there. — E. B.
Kemp Welch.

Localities for Fossil Starfish. — As you have
invited your geological correspondents to inform you
of localities where fossil starfish have been found, I
have much pleasure in placing upon record a quarry
at Rumney, about two miles from Cardiff, as a locality
where I have been fortunate enough to discover one

189

of Pahvaster. The fossil is well preserved in a fine
grained yellowish sandstone belonging to the Upper
Silurian. I have only found this one specimen, nor
have I heard of other searchers being so fortunate as
myself, but I have no doubt careful searching would
be rewarded. — W. //. Harris.

Localities for Fossil Starfish, &c.— In
your last article on “Common British Fossils,” &c.,
(one of a series which I am very glad to see re-
commenced, and which I have read with much
interest) you ask for information concerning “ any
fossil starfish locality.” In the upper greensand
beds of Blackdown, in my immediate neighbourhood,
starfish have been found. Two such specimens are
to be seen in the Bristol Museum. They are, I think,
unnamed, but they are in good preservation. The
matrix in each case is a half prepared whetstone, for
which article the Blackdown beds have been exten-
sively quarried. The workmen tell me of several
such finds, which they have sold to private collectors.
They describe them as being “ like a cart-wheel,”
a description not accurate enough to warrant me in
saying whether they belong to the asteroid or ophiu-
roid order, though those in the Bristol Museum,
unless my memory greatly misleads me, belong to
the former. Starfish are by no means common in
the Blackdown beds, nor have I ever myself found
them there. — W. Downes.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — Mr.
A. C. Rogers has retorted on me that my remarks on
this subject in your May number are more poetical
than scientific. I admit this, and my excuse is simply
that I considered the scientific part of this good-
natured “gossip” was safe in the hands of himself
and Messrs. Barclay, Wheatley, and Co., but thought
the impressions the correspondence had given to an
outsider, and a reminder of what some intellectual
(though I admit unscientific) minds had thought on
the subject, would not be out of place. Will you
kindly allow me now to mention what seems to me
difficult to understand in Mr. Wheatley’s last letter.
He points out that monkeys, among other wonderful
things, listen to speeches from their leaders, and
attributes the reasoning power of man in part to
language. How is it that with this power of speech
in monkeys, added to all their wonderful primal im-
pulses (which Mr. Barclay mentions, and which
cannot be denied, and which enable them to act so
reasonably according to the necessities of their exist-
ence) they have not, and apparently never will for-
mulate the first rudiments of the science of language;
and if they have a language sufficient to “ speechify ”
for a long time, how do they get it without having in
some way formulated it ; except, as Mr. Barclay
says, from primal impulse ? It appears to me that
the difference in monkeys and men cannot in this
respect be attributed to the many thousands of years
Mr. Wheatley speaks of, in which man had the
opportunity of developing his powers, for I have yet
[ to learn that man appeared on the scene before

190

HARLWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

monkeys. We are told that monkeys occasionally
“execute careless sentinels,” thus (if we judge of
them by comparison with our own thoughts and
motives) they have a conception of retributive justice;
the carrying out of conception denotes contemplation,
mental conception and contemplation denotes mind —
but as Mr. Barclay (I think) has put it, are we sure
we are safe in so judging? Let it be proved that
a monkey’s idea of capital punishment comes from
the same kind of reasoning as that of man, that it is
acquired in the same manner, then I can believe that
monkeys have mind ; but let it be proved (and the
thing seems to me to be self-evident) that it is not so
acquired, and that probably it comes from the pure
instinct of revenge, then I can only believe that
however “reasonable” the actions may appear, they
are the result of primal impulse. Mr. Rogers says
he cannot see how memory can exist without reason,
nor reason without memory. Is not the difficulty
rather how instinct can possibly exist without memory,
its necessary incident ? What would be the use of
an instinct of locality unless an animal remembered
the particular locality its instinct prompted it to find ?
What would be the use of its instinct of appetite
without the memory to know where it had found food
and thence where to look for it ? What would be
the use of the instinct to avoid pain unless the animal
remembered what gave it pain ? What would be the
use of the instinct of the dog to become attached to its
master unless through the instinct of scent or other-
wise it remembered its master, and so on in all cases
of instinct ? Without memory in these cases the
instinct could not and would not exist. It may be
said so it is with mind ; without memory that would
have no existence, but it by no means makes the
two faculties (mind and instinct) alike. The difference
seems to me to consist in this, man is able to remem-
ber and to think, and from thonght to act inde-
pendently of primal impulse. Animals are able to
remember, and from memory to act in accordance
with some given primal impulse. The one constitutes
mind, the other instinct. So far as either faculty
depends upon memory for its development or com-
pletion, it differs only in degree from the other. So
far as the one does not depend, and the other does
depend for its development or completion upon primal
impulse, they differ in kind, the one stamping the
creature as an intellectual, the other an unintellectual
being — at least, such is my idea. — Idea.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — The little
discussion on the above subject, now appearing in
Science-Gossip, is in danger of becoming confused,
unless the several disputants at once define clearly
and precisely what they mean by the terms “instinct ”
and “reason.” Exact definitions are at all times
valuable ; but in the present instance they are
absolutely necessary, to show the points of agreement
and of difference subsisting between the parties to the
discussion. How far is an “instinctive” act auto-
matic, and how far is it the outcome of volition ? I
have long held the opinion, that what is termed
instinct, is identical in essence with what we call
reason ; and that this peculiar “faculty” is possessed,
in some degree, by all animal organisms at least.
Whether any sections of the vegetable kingdom are
similarly endowed, I do not pretend to say ; but
certainly, the actions of some of them are remarkable.
I shall watch the progress of the discussion with great
interest. — F. James George.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — There
were two or three misprints in my letter of June,
which, as they alter the sense, I should be greatly

obliged if you would grant me a line to correct. They
are as follows: For “concise proposition,” read
“ converse proposition.” For “ law of reason,” read
“ supposed law of reversion.” — II. D. Barclay.

Devotion of a Dog to a Cat.— When staying
near Lausanne this spring, I met some Swiss friends
of my host’s, who told us a remarkable instance of
attachment on the part of their Saint Bernard dog to
a kitten. Their next door neighbours threw some
newly-born kittens over the garden wall that the dog
might make away with them. He caught and bit one
kitten as intended, and one was killed by the fall.
Bernard now seems to have undergone a revulsion
of feeling, for the two remaining kittens became the
objects of his attention and care. Carrying them off
in his mouth to his kennel he tried to revive them by
licking and warming them. One soon died, but the
other responded to the care bestowed on it by its huge
nurse, which was supplemented by the kindness and
feeding of Bernard’s owners. It throve in its kennel
home, where the pair were constantly to be seen to-
gether, the soft little black cat lying cuddled in
Bernard’s protecting arm, whence its bright eyes
peeped out at passers-by. Pussy returned the dog’s
good-nature by the devotions of a daughter, and when
in the course of time she became the proud mother of
a family, she was impatient to introduce her kittens
and adopted father. Mewing and skipping before him
she conducted Bernard from his kennel to her cosy
nest, rolling over and over with delight on the grass
near, while he solemnly inspected his favourite’s
family ; thus showing the strongest proof possible in
an animal of confidence and affection, and one
certainly at variance with the instincts usual in cats
towards dogs. The regard which existed between the
two friends lasted through life ; what is very remark-
able is that Monsieur Gaulis says Bernard, ever after
his adoption of the kittens, showed the greatest
disinclination to hunt any black cat. — D. Hoskyns.

Shrew Mice (Sorsx araneus). — Rambling in June
last on the Welsh hills, on and around a block of
millstone grit rock, I noticed the remains of a
great number of shrew mice. The rock was situated
at the top of a mountain, the highest ground in the
district. The remains consisted of the heads and
hinder quarters of at least thirty animals all in various
states of decay. The heads appeared to have been
severed from the body very much in the same place ;
indeed, so much so that one might almost have
imagined the bodies to have been placed in a line and
then to have had their heads cut off with a knife.
The hind quarters were also severed precisely in the
same manner above the hind legs. I also noticed that
the livers had also been carefully rejected, and a few,
quite fresh, were still sticking to the rock. I con-
cluded the shrews must have been brought there by
some bird of prey. Taking into consideration the fact
of the rock being lofty and more or less isolated, I
thought the bird might possibly have been a kestrel
(Falco peregrinus). Being unable, however, to find
the remains of birds or other animals, I was led to
suppose it might be an owl. Can any of your readers
inform me if either of these birds or any others are
in the habit of choosing one particular spot whereon
to eat their food ? And also as to their having eaten
it so daintily? — A. A.

How to destroy Beetles. — Can any of your
readers inform me the best plan to get rid of the
Otiorynchns sulcatus (or Picipes), which does great
damage to raspberry plants? — IV. Roberts , 9 Chapel
; Street , Penzance.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-G OSSIE.

191

Sturgeon at Maidstone. — I saw a splendid
royal sturgeon shot to-day while endeavouring to pass
over the locks here. I suppose it came up during
the floods we have had lately. The fish was shot by
Messrs. Whiteman and Russell, and measured 7 ft.
9 in. in length, weighing 148 lb. It is a very unusual
occurrence here. — R. F. Osborne.

Birds and Fruit. — Mr. G. J. Lowe, of the High-
field House Observatory, says : “No birds or birds’
nests have been destroyed here for many years, and
yet we have fruit. No doubt the birds help them-
selves (as wages), but without their labours there
would be no fruit for anyone. Several times birds
have saved me a crop of apples. On one occasion an
examination of hundreds of bunches of blooms dis-
closed caterpillars feeding in every bunch ; next day
the birds had found them, and in a few hours there
was not a caterpillar to be seen. A grass field here
was so infested with the grub of the cockchafer, that
the grass could be rolled up ; soon the birds began
their work, and the grubs vanished. Some years ago
the farmers killed all the rooks in a particular district,
and the crops in consequence were destroyed by
grubs, and it was only on the reintroduction of these
birds (at a great cost to the farmers) that good crops
were again obtained. Thirty-five years ago a nursery-
man left here for Australia, taking with him all our
popular hardy fruits and vegetables, but the produce
was yearly destroyed until the English sparrow was
introduced, after which there was plenty of fruit.”

Waterton calculated that a single pair of sparrows
destroyed as many grubs in one day as would have
eaten up half an acre of corn in a week, and that
instead of giving a reward of sixpence a dozen for
dead sparrows, more would have been gained by
paying many times as much to preserve them from
injury.

Pike taking Tench. — I am afraid that Mr. John
H. Keene’s assertion that the pike, be he ever so hungry,
never takes a tench is, as he says, ‘ ‘ too pretty to be
true.” On June 4th, fishing in a canal reservoir in
Shropshire, I caught a jack of ten pounds’ weight
with a small tench as a bait. The exact spot where
this fish was taken had the same day been trolled over
by a friend and myself, using respectively a gudgeon,
and a perch. We may therefore reasonably presume
that “ Esox ” prefers a tench as a dainty morsel to
either of these fishes. Moreover, my friend, than
whom a more successful angler for pike does not
exist, tells me that he prefers a tench as a bait for
pike to almost any other kind of fish. — IV. B. N.,
Asefield.

Insect-Blights. — Will you allow me to make
inquiry through your columns as to the title of any
book or books which will give some general informa-
tion on the very interesting subject of insect-blights,
aphides, or plant- lice? I have the “Letters of
Rusticus,” which little volume, so far as it goes, is
admirable : but what Mr. Newman has done for the
gooseberry-grub, the hop-fly, and the turnip-fly, I do
not doubt has been done by some author (if I only
knew his name) for the innumerable species of fly or
aphis, which in some form or other, infests (I believe)
almost every plant. I think that some such inquiry
as this was made a year or two back in the pages of
Science-Gossip, by some other correspondent, but
elicited no reply. I trust, however, that I may be
more fortunate, and shall be truly grateful if any of
your Entomological readers will help to enlighten my
ignorance on this interesting subject, by guiding me
to the right channel for information. — Alfred Charles
Smith , Yatesbury Rectory , Caine.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
j cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
| cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
1 month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
1 ground as amateurs, in so far as the “ exchanges ” offered are fair
I exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
! advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
“exchanges” which cannot be tolerated.

Carex (Fishbourne). — There cannot be any doubt about its
being C. pafiicea (L.). The list for Exchange Club stands as
last year. We should imagine the three carices could still be
gathered ; two at least have been recorded recently in Ireland.

G. C. (Highfield). — They are too young to decide with
certainty; we believe they are 1. Carex panice a ; 2. C. stricta ;

3. C. ampullacea ; 4. C. muricata ; 5. C. ovalis ; 6. C. vul-
pina. Could you let us see more advanced specimens ?

C. E. S. (Jersey). — They are 1. Asplenium lanceotatum ;
2. The same (we think), but a small stunted frond.

W. J. X. (Ely). — The examples of Bat7-achian ranunculi
are. Nos. 1 and 2 R. trichophyllus (Chaix) ; 3. R .heterophytlus ;

4. R. heterophytlus ; a variety approaching R. Jloribundus,
(Bab.).

B. L. B. S. (Bolton). — We could not tell from a single leaf:
no doubt flowers will soon be seen, then let us see it.

J JO’Meara (St. Omer). — Thanks for your kind letter; the
specimen enclosed was a variety of beech, named in nursery
catalogues Fagus sylvatica laciniata ; the upper part is pro-
bably growing out. You will find it explained in “ Trees of Old
England,” by Grindon.

F. L. S. — The beetles are Ptinus fur, allied to the Death-
watch beetle, and very common in houses.

G. P. Johnson. — The insect attacking the wine corks is not
a beetle but a small moth, CEtiophila v-ftava. The larvae are in
the corks in May and June. Thoroughly dipping in hot wax,
so that the coating reaches the glass, leaving no room for the
female moth to get at the substance of the cork to lay her eggs
in, would be effectual.

S. J. L’Anson. — We duly received your very beautiful sketch
of Calla AEthiopica, showing double spathe. It is a phenomenon
of frequent occurrence among the Aracece. Dr. Masters has
shown that the presence of an increased number of spathes in
Calla palustris is associated with the development of a side
shoot from the axil of the last leaf, where no shoots usually
issue. Your specimen is remarkable for having both spathes on
the same level, and evidently of the same size.

B. H. — The Devon and Cornish coasts, and the shores of the
Isle of Man, are the best places we know of for collecting
coloured sea-weeds. The neighbourhood of Douglas, Isle of
Man, is perhaps unequalled in the British Isles.

T. Meare (Burnley). — Add some used tea-leaves to the soil
where your oak-leaved geranium is growing. We do not think
the buds will then wither away as you describe.

Z. — As far as we can judge from your outline sketch, the
creature is the aquatic larva of a dipterous insect (allied to the
crane-flies, or “ Daddy Longlegs ”) called Corethra plumicornis.

E. Viles. — The alga found on the carriage drive is Lyngbya
muralis (Ag.), usually found on the ground in early spring, in
all damp situations.

J. W. Harvey. — Please inform us of the locality and habitat
of the sponge you sent to be named last January.

A. Schreiber. — We cannot undertake to name sponges from
such small portions as those you sent us. The last specimen
sent was evidently a species of Chalonia.

C- Parkinson (Ventnor). — The “monstrosity” in the species
of Ranunculus sent us is due to “ fasciation,” one of the com-
monest of vegetable malformations. It is usually met with
when an unusual number of buds are formed in close apposition,
when they are liable to be compressed during their growth, so
that union takes place among the soft tissues.

H. Heines. — The “monstrous” condition of the specimen
of the water-avens (Gezan rivale ) you kindly sent us, was due
to medial floral prolification. It is of most common occurrence
among pinks. See Masters’ “ Teratology,” p. 1 19. Could you
send us a few more flowers and leaves of the sapindaceous plant
you enquired the name of? Many thanks for the interesting
malformed specimens of Arum maculatum.

R. J. Ward (Lincoln). — Your specimen of Calceolaria, show-
ing the three different kinds of malformation of flower, are very
interesting.

Robert M. Christy. — 1. The grub is the caterpillar of a

192

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

small moth, Retinia Buoliana, one of the family Tortricidce,
common wherever pine-trees grow. There are particulars in
Loudon’s translation of Kollar’s “ Treatise on Injurious I nsects
and a paper by Westwood on the allied species, R . tiirionana,
of similar habits, in the “Gardener’s Chronicle” for 1850,
No. 44, would also be of interest. Nothing short of cutting off
and burning the infected shoots while the grub is in them, could
be of any use. 2. As to getting rid of Goat-moths. Picking the
larvae by hand would be easy, as they are so large ; it would do
little harm to cut away the outer wall of their galleries, if not
too deep. Injecting the carbolic acid with a strong syringe
would certainly bring them out.

E. Duprey. — The “ dark purple mineral in small veins of
syenite ” is the violet-coloured variety of fluor spar, which in
Derbyshire is found in large nodular masses, and locally de-
nominated “Blue John.”

H. D. — Your fungi were so withered and dry when they
reached us, through not being properly packed, that it was
utterly impossible to make them out.

R. A. Bullen. — The banana (Musa sapientum) belongs to
the order Musacese. “ Brazilian tea” is composed of the leaves
of Stachytarpha jainaicensis, a member of the Verbenaceae.

W. H. L. — Your specimens are (1) one of the lime-secreting
sea-weeds (Corallina officinalis) ; (2) a Bryozoan (Membrani-
pora pilosa). The form of “cup-moss” (C. pixidata) you
mention is not uncommon. Try a little benzine for removing
the mould.

C. H. Gastrel. — Thanks for your interesting specimen.

J. A. — We will see to the insects being named in due course.
The best book is Rye’s “ British Beetles,” published by
L. Reeve & Co., price ioj. 6 d.

E. W. A. — Get Lindsay’s “British Lichens.” There is a
work now issuing on “ American Characeae,” but we are not
aware of any special work on British species.

T. S. Smithson. — Your plant is the white variety of the
common milk-wort (Polygala vulgaris). Lindley & Hutton’s
“Fossil Flora” contains the best figures of coal plants. The
chapter on “ Coal ” in the work just published by Macmillan on
that subject, will give you a capital account of the structures
and affinities of coal plants.

H. Pearce. — Botanical mounting paper may be obtained of
J. Gardner, 426 Oxford Street. Did you see the advertisement
notice of the “Botanist’s Portable Collecting Press” in last
number of Science-Gossip?

J. A. Wheldon. — Your mosses are : 1. Polytrichum junipe-
rinum ; 2. Hypmnn cuspidatum ; 3. Hypnum rutabulum ;
4. Funaria hygrometrica ; 5. Leptobryum pyriforme .

A. P. — Your moss is Campylopus tur/aceus.

W. E. Green. — The mosses sent in are as follows: 1. Bryum
pallens ; 2. Trichostomum flavo-virens ; 3. Dichodontium
pcllucidum ; Bryum (young, probably nutans); 5. Hypnum
confertum ; 6. H. cupressiforme, var. resupinatum. — R. B.

M. Medhurst. — The specimens belong to a species of water-
mite ( Acarina), but they are in too fragmentary a state to tell
which species. Could you send us a clean mounted specimen?

L. C. 7th ed., in exchange for an equal number of any of the
following:— 185, 206, 560, 634, 858, 1190, 1383,1387, 1418, 1462,
iS35; 1537, 1538, 1556, 1639, 1640, 1641, 1657, 1661, and 1667.
William West, 15 Horton Lane, Bradford.

Transparent sections from the coal formation showing
macrospores, microspores, and other fossil vegetable tissues, in
exchange for well-mounted recent vegetable tissues, sections
of leaves stained or otherwise. — John Butterworth, Goats, Shaw,
near Oldham.

Will exchange slides of fossil fish remains, for good pocket
lens, section cutter, frog plate, live cage ; correspondents invited.
— Joseph Taylor, Shire Moor, via Earsdon, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

Wanted to purchase second-hand copies of vols. vi. and vii.
of Science-Gossip, bound or unbound. — H. Crowther, The
Museum, Leeds.

I shall be glad to receive lists of foreign Unios from any one
having them for sale or exchange. — G. Sherriff Tye, 62 Villa
Road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

Wanted to complete Science-Gossip volumes for 1874, 1875,
1876, and 1877. Will give cash or state wants. — T. F. U.,
233 Upper Brook Street, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester.

Pupa ringens for good British shells. — Rev. W. C. Hey,
Clifton, York.

Duplicates of the undernamed good British land and fresh-
water shells, offered in exchange for numerous desiderata—
LimncBUS Burnetti —same, Yar. lacustris (Loch Skene speci-
mens taken this season). L. involutus, Succinea oblonga.
Vertigo pusilla, V. substriata, V. alpestris, V. minutissima,
V. moulinsiana, V. venetzii. — W. Sutton, High Claremont,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Fresh collected cluster-cups on Rumex acetosa (common
Sorrel) all mounted. Offered for well-mounted slides. Send
list to select from. — G. Garret, Harland House, Wherstead Road,
Ipswich.

Packets of foreign stamps offered in exchange for any good
object of natural history. — F. S. L., 2 Oakland Villas, Redland,
Bristol.

“London Catalogue,” 7th ed. — 59, 140, 158, 179, 245, 295,
297, 3?i. 333. 41}, I239> I274. 1401, *595. 1601,. for exchange;
send lists of duplicates to R. H. Hawkins, Hillside, Hastings.

Eggs of the kestrel in exchange for eggs of the cuckoo, side-
blown. — J. B. Pilley, 2 High Town, Hereford.

For Uromyces intrusa (lady’s mantle brand) or Pucciniaglo-
merata (ragwort brand), send stamped envelope to T. Brittain,
52 Park Street, Green Heys, Manchester. No exchange
required.

Shells, miscellaneous collection, land, fresh-water, and
marine (named and unnamed), in exchange for natural history
books. — Henry Hyde, 2 Ellesmere Street, Regent Road, Man-
chester.

Wanted, Lyell’s “Student’s Manual,” and “Principles of
Geology” for “ Palaeontographical Monographs,” Wright’s
“ Cretaceous Echinoderms,” parts 1, 4, 8, part 2 “Fossil Shells
London Clay,” “Fossil Radiaria of Crag and London Clay,”
&c. — E. A. Walford, 72 High Street, Banbury.

EXCHANGES.

For leaf of Elceagnus Japonicus variegata send other un-
mounted material ; some duplicate slides to exchange. — The
Lindens, New Brompton, Kent.

A collector, who has some duplicates, will send twenty
specimens of rocks and minerals on receipt of fourteen pence ;
carriage paid to Manchester. Apply to E. Jones, Poplar Grove,
Sale, near Manchester.

Prepared tubes and packets of very interesting material,
mostly marine, on approval ; exchange in good slides, photo
lens, camera telescope, books, &c. — T. McGann, Burren, Ireland.

Eggs of bird parasites, a set of about twenty different kinds,
to include those figured in Science-Gossip of June 1, 1870, |
required in exchange for purely Indian slides, mounted or
for unmounted material. — C. Liddell, “ Englishman ” Office,
Calcutta.

Wanted, the following medals : — xst Burmese medal, Cabul,
Candahar, distinguished conduct, Hyderabad, Jellalabad
(crown), Jellalabad (victory), Chuznee— Cabul, . Meeanee, Hy-
derabad, meritorious service, Meeanee, Pemniar Star, Serin-
gapatam, Victoria Cross. Fossils, minerals, British or foreign
shells, or money for the same ; state price, to A. J. R. Sclater,
Bank Street, Teignmouth.

Wanted, a (few fine specimens of crystallised minerals and
ores. Offered upwards of a hundred species of British marine
shells, from Jersey; some very rare. Lists exchanged. —
E. Duprey, Jersey.

Seven-guinea electric machine for fossils, micro slides, or
books on natural history. — W. Tylar, 165 Well Street,
Birmingham.

Well-finished slides offered of Batrachospermum monili-
forme, Scytonema myochrous, Volvox globator, Coleochaete
scutata, various micro-fungi, wood sections, &c., in exchange
for the following materials : — cleaned Polycistina, cleaned and
named diatoms, or micro-photographs of any kind. — William
West, 15 Horton Lane, Bradford.

Wanted, twelve typical specimens, each of Nos. 128 and 145

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

“The Solar Illumination of the Solar System.” By Collyns
Simon, LL.D. London: Williams and Norgate.

“ Popular Science Review.” July.

“ Midland Naturalist.” July.

“ Scottish Naturalist.” July.

“ Canadian Entomologist.” June.

“ American Naturalist.” June.

“ Boston Journal of Chemistry.” June.

“ Botanische Zeitung.” June.

“Potter’s American Monthly.” June.

“ Science News.” June.

“ Greenhouse Flowers.” Part ii.

“Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.”
Part iv., vol. ii.

“ Ben Brierly’s Journal.”

“ Land and Water.”

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to 12TH ult. from :—

C. P.— J. H. K.— A. J. R. S— Dr. J. M — H. G. W.— J. L.-

E. D.— C. L.— H. D. B.— H. F. B.— W. C. K— E. Y. L.—
J. T. C. W.— T. W.— A. R. G.— J. A. A.— Prof. P.— T. G. H.
— J. G.— T. B. L.— C. F. W. T. W.— R. F. O.— D. H.—

F. A. B.— W. J. M.— W. B. N.— C. P.— J. P.— A. H. H —
H. M. H.-G. S. D.— J. F. R.— G. G.— J. A.— F. H. A.-
E. E.— E. D. M.— G. C.— E. W. A.— F. S. L.— R. R.— T. S. S.
— J. H. H.— J. P. B.— W. R.— H. P.— H. H.— S. D. T.—

R. A. B.— J. E. D.-C. J. W.— W. C. H— C. V. G.— G. E. M.
— W. J.— H. E. W.— W. S.— G. P.— J. F. G.— T. B.—
E. B. K. W— W. H. H.— T. F. U.— W. W.— A. C. S —

S. I. O. O’M.— J. B.— W. B. R.— G. A. S.— W. H. L.— E. M.
— W. H. M.— J. T.— H. C — G. S. T — T. C.— W. H. L.— J. M.
— E. A. W.— R. F. Z.— W. D.— J. G.— M. M— H. H. B.—
H.H.-G. F.— R. E. C. S.— W. H. C— J. F.-&C.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

193

LIFE BELOW THE ICE.

CH has been writ-
ten of late on the
destruction of
birds and the larvae
of insects by the
long continued
frost of the past
winter. Can any
of your scientific
readers give a
satisfactory expla-
nation of how it
is that fish can
exist below the ice
for lengthened
periods, and how,
under such cir-
cumstances, their
respiration is main-
tained ? Many of
our mountain tarns
in this neighbourhood have been completely covered
with ice, in some instances of more than two feet in
thickness, for a period of not less than three months.
The fish do not appear, however, to have diminished
in numbers, and those captured shortly after the ice
broke up were in excellent condition.

We know that fish are dependent for their respira-
tion on the oxygen which water holds loosely in
solution. By a movement of deglutition the water
taken in by the mouth is passed from the pharynx
into the gills, and, while escaping posteriorly through
the membranous laminae of the latter, gives off its
loose oxygen, which purifies the venous blood con-
tained in the delicate vessels by which the laminae
are traversed. It is a generally accepted fact that
this admixture of oxygen with water is principally
brought about by the perpetual agitation of the latter
by storms, currents, &c. In the tanks of our public
aquaria it is necessary to have a continual circulation
of fresh water, or a rush of air into each tank, to
prevent the fish being suffocated. In the Brighton
Aquarium air is pumped into the tanks. In streams,
in lochs, partially frozen over, in lochs entirely
covered with ice, but supplied with large and in-

No. 177.

exhaustible feeders, it is not difficult to understand
how the supply of air is kept up. Many tarns, how-
ever, in our lakeland, Smallwater, for instance, have
no stream falling into them. Completely sealed by
ice for months, their waters have had no agitation in
contact with the air. Their supply of water is
drawn from subterranean springs, and that it was
very scanty, owing to the absence of rain and low
temperature, is proved by the fact that no water
escaped from the tarns by these outlets. Many of
those tarns teem with fish, which must surely, sooner
or later, absorb all the loose oxygen with which the
water was charged previous to its being locked by
ice. The demand for oxygen is unceasing, and if the
usually accepted theory of aquatic existence is correct,
what is the source of this supply which the experience
of the late frost would almost lead us to believe to be
inexhaustible ?

I am aware of the exquisite balance which is
maintained between land animal and plant life, and
which equally exists between aquatic animal and
vegetable life, by which the latter decomposes the
carbonic acid given off by animals, and produces
oxygen, which in its turn aerates the water. This
process, however, can only take place under the
influence of light, so that in the circumstances we are
considering it must be to a large extent in abeyance,
for in addition to two feet of ice covering the tarns,
there have been six or eight inches of snow, which
must have robbed plant life below of nearly, if not of
all, sun light. Arctic travellers have told us that
when a hole is made in the ice, fish congregate in
large numbers in its vicinity, and come to the surface
for air ; but is it not more likely that they are
attracted by the light thus admitted, just in the
same manner as salmon and other fish, fascinated by
the light of a torch, will lie close under it and suffer
themselves to be captured by the unscrupulous poacher ?
Were they pining for air, it is difficult to believe that
life could be maintained. In the northern latitudes,
moreover, there are vast tracts of open water in com-
munication with that which is ice-bound. There are
great ocean currents, just as there are atmospheric
currents, and by the former no doubt an unfailing
supply of oxygenated water is being constantly carried

K

194

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

to those regions shut out by ice from atmospheric
contact. No such conditions, however, exist with
regard to our mountain tarns, and yet certain it is
that the fish have not suffered in any way. This is a
problem I have not seen explained, and it would be
interesting to have a solution of it from some one
who has examined it.

A mbleside. Piscator.

THE SHEATFISH ( SILURUS GLANIS).

AT a recent meeting of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, Mr. John Plant, F.G.S.,
read apaper upon “The Great Sheatfish {Silurus glanis)
in Loch Bad-a-Luacradh,” and gave a sketch of the
natural history of the family of the Siluridce, which
includes about a dozen known species, one of which,
the S. glanis , inhabits some of the great rivers of
Europe and a few of the lakes. It is most abundant
in the Danube, Volga, and the Rhine, and is known
in the largest streams which fall into the Baltic, being
also at times caught in the upper regions of the Baltic,
where the water is but slightly brackish. It has been
obtained from Lakes Neuchatel, Brienne, and Morat ;
the species is also found in North American lakes and
some rivers. The Sheatfish grows to an enormous
size in water favourable to its mode of life. Speci-
mens weighing seven hundred pounds are recorded
from the Danube, and in America the average size
of the adult fish is about three hundred pounds. The
bulk of the fishes caught in the season is of less
weight. The length of exceptional specimens will
reach to twenty or twenty-two feet ; but eight or ten
feet is the length of large specimens. The general
appeai'ance of the Sheatfish is like that of a bulky
eel ; the eyes are large and frog-like. The head
is unpleasant to look at, and the mouth wide ; the
upper lip is armed with two long worm-like feelers, or
barbules, which are kept in active motion, either as
sensitive organs of feeling, or to seize frogs and small
fish which come within their reach. Its habits are to
hide in the muddy bottoms or amongst the roots of
aquatic vegetation — only coming to the surface on
hot sunny days, after thunderstorms or when the
water is frozen over — to keep an air-hole open for
occasional fresh-air breathing. It has been attempted
twice to introduce its spawn or young fish in English
rivers ; both trials have failed, although it is a hardy
fish and very tenacious of life. The flesh of the
Sheatfish is largely eaten in the countries where it
abounds, but accounts differ as to its flavour and
qualities. At one time in season it resembles fine
fresh salmon in flavour, at another time white, fat,
soft, luscious and not easy to digest. In the restaurants
in the towns along the Danube, the Sheatfish is
cooked in so many ways that a traveller may dine
altogether upon this fish, and fancy he has been
served with a variety of soups and meats. Whether

the Silurus was ever, or is now, native to British
rivers and lakes is as yet an open question ; the
peculiar spine which supports the pectoral fin has
been dug from deposits in the London clay, i.e.
Eocene, and Mr. Higgins, of Liverpool, found one of
these spines in clay under a bed of peat at Leasowes,
on the banks of the river Dee. So far it may have
lived in English rivers at more remote times. In
1828 a fish was caught in a river at Florence Court,
Ireland, which was satisfactorily proved a long time
afterwards by the Earl Enniskillen and Professor
Louis Agassiz to be a Silurus glanis ; not a fragment
of the fish or its skeleton was preserved, which was
unfortunate, as its identification depended upon
memory alone and its resemblance to a drawing of
Silurus. Dr. Fleming notices a remark by Sibbald,
that the Silurus may have been seen in the Scotch
rivers in his day. The author then stated : “ Several
years ago I received a letter from a gentleman re-
siding in the highlands of Ross describing an extra-
ordinary monster which had been occasionally seen
by his servants and tenants floating on the waters of
Loch Bad-a-Luacradh ‘ Lake of the Rushes ’ near
the coast about Loch Eu. The people called the
monster a snail whale ; it seemed about twenty-two
feet in length, and had two flexible horns on its
mouth ; it was fond of basking on the surface of the
water, particularly after great storms, and looked very
much like a herring boat turned keel upwards. In
reply I sent a drawing and description of Silurus
glanis , which was at once recognised by all the people
who had seen the big monster as a capital portrait of
it. Efforts were repeatedly taken to capture the
monster by nets, by baiting, by shooting, but with-
out success, and for three winters similar endeavours
to capture it equally failed. It was ascertained by
strict inquiry amongst the native residents, that the
fish had been seen as far back as sixty years ago,
when it was much smaller. An old shepherd had
seen it first, a very old dame saw it thirty years ago, a
smuggler or illicit whisky distiller who had a bothy
hard by the loch often saw the monster in the quiet
hours of morn ; he did not like the uncanny beast as a
neighbour at all.” Many other witnesses who gave
similar evidence were mentioned by the author, who
as well described the methods adopted to capture the
monster, but after much trouble and expense it
proved too wary and alert to be captured or even
to be shot, and the enterprise had to be abandoned.
Probably the monster died, or escaped from the loch.

How to restore Microphotographs. — Having
among my collection of microscopic objects some
badly mounted microphotographs, I shall be glad
to know if they can be remounted without injuring
the photographs. If this is possible, perhaps some
of your readers may know, and kindly describe the
process by which it may be done. — W. H. Heasman.

HARD Wf CKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

195

ODDITIES AMONG SEA-BIRDS.

By P. Q. Keegan, LL.D.

IN low estuaries, by the margin of extensive bogs,
when the tidal waters have receded far into the
ocean, upon some long stripe of sandbank, or where
some stakes, posts, buoys, or outlying rocks have
been established, an imposing ornithological spectacle
may not unfrequently be observed. A muster of long,
lanky, long-billed, protruding-necked sea birds is
there drawn up in solemn state, not steady or im-
movable, but rather “standing at ease” in various
attitudes. Some of the birds seem to be lazily
reclining upon their breasts, in the manner of a great
black-backed gull ; others stand erect upon their
feet, supported by their stiff tail, and stare about
them on every side with suspicious, half-timorous,
ever- watchful eyes. Two or three members of the
flock, however, are engaged in more useful occupa-
tions than these, for they busily and assiduously
preen their plumage, arranging it in proper order
with their beaks, and now and then giving their
wings a good shake, fanning them backwards and
forwards, and then stick them out “anglewise ” from
their flanks, in a curiously ludicrous fashion.

These feathered waifs of the sea are cormorants
(. Phalacrocorax carbo). No sooner has the receding
tide exposed the more elevated shingles, sandbanks,
&c., to view, than a long, spare bird, suspended on
powerful pinions, may be observed to alight thereon.
Another cormorant follows suit, and then another,
until about twenty or so, finding the quarters suitable
and safe, elect to occupy them for a brief season.
Sometimes some single, solitary, wave-tossed buoy,
situated in mid-channel, is obseiwed to be surmounted
by a curious bird-like organism in the shape of a sable
cormorant, with ever-moving neck, white throat, and
expanded or moving wings.

At certain periods of the tidal flow, a flock of
cormorants, in response to the demands of appetite,
resort readily to certain favourite fishing grounds —
places, it may be presumed, that abound lavishly
with the finny tribe. Great havoc is committed
amongst the fish. It would never answer, however,
if the whole of the assembled band of fishing-birds
were to give way to their gluttonous propensities
simultaneously ; for in that case an alert and ever-
watchful enemy (such as a human sea-fowler) might
possibly take advantage of this temporary blindness
of the cormorants, and, rushing down upon the spot,
post himself at convenient range for destructive
purposes, when the birds again appeared above the
surface of the water. A sentinel or two is, therefore,
in this case deemed indispensable ; and accordingly
it is observed, that one or two of the fishing flock
remain above, in order to warn their co-mates who
are taking their dinner below stairs, of the advent of
all dangerous and suspicious characters. Frequently

when one of the cormorants has been unusually suc-
cessful in his fishing expedition, having captured a fish
which is rather too bulky and troublesome to manage
whilst afloat, he retires to some rock or adjacent
sandy beach, where the process of killing, dissecting,
and devouring, may be conducted with greater facility.
The wandering lover of cliff and shore scenery may
frequently encounter, in some quiet retired recess
or inlet of the rocks, one or two cormorants busily
engaged in the operation of gorging their maws and
stomachs with fishy food, the product of the sea.

The birds now under review, in addition to the
clownish or ludicrous spectacle they furnish in the
aforesaid method of preening their feathers, and of
expanding and hanging out their wings to dry,
exhibit also juggling or acrobatic talents of no mean
order. Observe cormorants while engaged in their
favourite occupation of fishing. A bird, after remain-
ing in the depths of the sea perhaps for half a minute,
and descending, it may be, over one hundred feet,
appears upon the surface, triumphantly bearing in his
long, hooked bill, a large fish (say an eel) grasped by
the tail. Now, this fish being a slippery customer,
the tail end thereof is not the most secure part
whereby to retain it. Accordingly, the hapless finny
creature is tossed upwards in the air, about a foot or
so, in the manner followed by a circus juggler or
acrobat, neatly caught head foremost as it descends,
and forthwith discharged into the capacious gullet of
the ravenous, all-devouring sea bird.

Let us now suppose that a sea- fowler of more than
ordinary astuteness and perseverance, has approached
within gunshot range of a locality or post, such as a
wreck, a waste of surfy sand, a wave-lashed reef of
rocks, etc., where a company of cormorants (either of
the common or the crested species) is ranged for the
combined purpose of reposing, digesting, and drying.
He fires, when, lo and behold ! what a dismal havoc
has been apparently committed ! The whole band,
comprising, perhaps, some nine or ten fine birds, fall
heavily, and apparently lifelessly, downwards into
the water, and forthwith disappear as if into a watery
grave. “Ah ! what a pity it is to have slain so many
beautiful and innocent creatures ! ” the green-hearted
sportsman thinks, and perhaps also exclaims ; ‘ ‘ but
then I have done well, very well indeed. I think I
had better write to the Field forthwith,” &c. This
grateful elation of sporting pride is doomed, however,
to be but momentary ; for presently, in the vicinity
of the spot where the “poor slaughtered” cormorants
sunk, a curious array of beak-like protuberances
appear above the sea. The extreme end of a hooked
appendage, succeeded perhaps also by a small portion
of a snake-like neck, is cautiously thrust above the
tide with a sort of a knowing toss, a jeering look, and
a general aspect sufficiently indicative of the general
fact that the bird to which it appertains is yet “alive
and kicking.” Another and another head and neck
appear in the same mysterious manner from the

k 2

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

196

depths of the sea, and again are as mysteriously and
stealthily withdrawn ; and such is the effect thereof,
that the “clever” sportsman at last becomes con-
vinced that he has been made the dupe of the wily
birds ; for when the shot was fired, they dropped in
a prompt and nimble manner from off their snug

way. A French naturalist has observed, that the
“nature of the cormorant is gentle [douce) and he
lives in harmony with the birds who frequent the
same waters. It is only gulls to whose pursuit he is
disposed when they have captured a fish ; but the
covetousness ceases when they have swallowed it,

perches, and leaped, not “ dead as mutton,
but “ all alive ’’into the opaque and shelter-
ing recesses of the ocean.

Viewed in a general way, cormorants may
be regarded as birds of eminent strength
and endurance, of unshakable tenacity of
life, of marvellous vigilance and cunning, of
insatiable voracity, and of excessively rapid
digestion. Some naturalists aver that their
nature is gentle and pleasant, but we have
never seen any indication about them of any
special amiability. They may be pronounced
“vulgar” birds. There is a coarseness, a
roughness about their build, plumage, and
general aspect, that certainly does not excite
the aesthetic sensibilities ; and the horrible
odour that emanates from their breeding
places would be alone sufficient to identify
them with loathsome filth and abomination.

They constitute the democracy, or we might
rather say the mobocracy of sea-birds ; and it is
certainly true that you seldom or never see a respect-
able-looking bird consorting with them in any

Fig> l5o.— The Crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax cristatus).

and he abandons all pursuit.” The well-known pet
cormorant of Colonel Montagu is described as
beautiful, intelligent, and even troublesomely tame.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

197

Their power of locomotion when on land being
exceedingly limited (we have never seen one walking),
their sociable disposition, such as it is, could hardly
be exhibited to any great advantage. On various
occasions we have seen numerous oyster-catchers, and
even a black-backed gull or two, in the immediate
vicinity of a wing-drying band of cormorants ; but
we never saw any hostility or discourtesy displayed
on either side, each species seeming invariably
disposed to mind its own business. Cormorants,
moreover, being as regards sight, hearing, build, &c.,
and every other respect, specially adapted for a sea
life, their appearance on shore may be regarded as
merely for the purposes of repose and relaxation, and
not, as with gulls, ducks, &c., for conjoint and
harmonious consumption of shell-fish, &c.

THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION
OF SPONGES.

By the Rev. H. Walter Syen, M.A. Cantab.

THE nature of sponges, whether animal or
vegetable, was long a disputed point with
naturalists. But it is now placed beyond dispute
that the sponges are really animals, and animals
endowed with a very interesting and somewhat
complex organisation. The general structure of a
sponge is familiar to all, but it must not be supposed
that the domestic “sponge” constitutes the whole or
the most important portion of the animal. In fact,
the part of the sponge which is used in every-day
life, is little more than the skeleton forming the
foundation of the animal structure. Every one is
acquainted with the nature of this skeleton, consisting
as it does of horny fibres interlacing and crossing in
every direction, and in this manner forming a loose
yet tough and strong mass of cells and passages. To
this fibrous material the name “keratode” (/cepas,
horn ; elSos, form ) has been applied, from its horny
nature. The essential portion of the animal consists
of a soft, more or less gelatinous substance, con-
tained within and supported by this horny framework.
This substance pervades all parts of the sponge, and
in some cases forms the entire structure ; the horny
framework being entirely absent. Both the keratode
and sarcode substance ( cap £, flesh ; 656s, way) are
generally abundantly provided with calcareous or
siliceous spicules, which assume various shapes and
sizes. The spicules found in the sarcode are fre-
quently radiate or star-shaped, and are hence named
“stellate.” Closer examination reveals the fact that
the sarcode, or sponge-flesh, is not homogeneous.
For, on being submitted to the microscope, it is seen
that this sarcode is made up by the aggregation of a
number of minute bodies, rounded in form and with
a general resemblance to an Amoeba. These bodies
are the sponge-particles, or sarcoids, and are the
ultimate constituents of the animal. Some of them

are provided with cilia, by which they are enabled to
create currents in the surrounding water, the object
of which is doubtless to bring food within reach of
the animal. These, then, are the three portions of the
bodily structure of a sponge — sarcoid matter, keratric
or horny framework, and spicules. It should be noticed
that the only portion which is invariably present is
the flesh-substance, this being the truly essential
portion of the animal. In some sponges both kera-
tode and spicules are absent. If an ordinary
“ sponge ” be examined, it will be noticed that the
surface is provided with a great number of orifices ;
and some of these are, comparatively speaking, few in
number and project a little from the surface. The
remaining orifices are infinitely more numerous and
much smaller. To the larger of these orifices the
name “oscula”has been given, and to the smaller
that of “pores.” It is by means of the “oscula”
and “pores” combined with the circulatory system
connected with them that the constant passage of
water through the sponge is effected. For it will be
found on careful examination (which may be effected
by examining a small portion of living sponge in a
glass under the microscope) that currents set in at
the pores, traverse the system of canals permeating
the sponge, and finally escape through the oscula. It
has been mentioned above that some of the sarcode
particles are provided vidth cilia, and it is by the
movements of these cilia in the main that the circu-
lation is carried on. For it has been ascertained that
within the external wall, or dermal membrane (dermis,
the skin), there exist a number of chambers, the
walls of which are lined with these ciliated particles,
and into these chambers the pores open. The reason
of this circulation is obvious. By its agency nutri-
tious particles are brought from a distance for the use
of the sponge, and effete matters are removed. It
should also be noticed that this apparatus may like-
wise be looked upon as a mode of respiration,
presenting us thus early, as it were, with an example
of an aerating process in the animal kingdom. It is
very possible that each particle of sarcode matter
appropriates for itself, and by itself, whatever food
may be thus brought in its way, much in the same
manner as does the Amoeba. And indeed there seems
much consistency in the view which is held by some
that in reality the sponge is made up of amoebae, kept
together by the fibrous framework, so that each sponge
is in reality a colony of amaebae every one of which
lives independently of the rest. Be this as it may, the
resemblance both in structure and in function between
the ultimate sponge-particles and the amoebae, is at
the same time suggestive and striking. The develop-
ment of sponges has not been quite satisfactorily
worked out as yet. But it has been clearly shown
that there are two distinct modes of reproduction.
The first is a true sexual process, the second asexual.
Examples of the first can be studied in Tethya and in
other genera. In these cases it is found that some

HARDWICK E'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

19S

of the sarcode particles take on the structure of ova,
each of these being provided with a yolk and ger-
minal vesicle. Other particles have their contents
converted into spermatozoa, and by contact of these
with the ova, a free-swimming embryo is produced,
which, after a time, becomes attached and developes
into the sponge.

The phenomena of asexual reproduction have been
worked out in the freshwater sponge (Spongilla), and
are very interesting and curious. The more central
portion of the sponge gets occupied with small round
bodies which have been called “gemmules.” Each
of these is made up of a leathery integument, and is
provided with an aperture at one end.

The gemmule is invested with a layer of spicules
of a peculiar shape, resembling two wheels united
by an axle. Each wheel is provided with teeth.
These spicules are so arranged that one “wheel” is
in contact with the surface of the gemmule, the other
being free. The interior of the gemmule is occupied
by a number of cells, the central ones containing
each a germ, and by the escape of these cells through
the aperture in the gemmule, the spongilla is pro-
pagated— for each one of these germs, on reaching a
suitable habitat, developes into a spongilla.

It may be mentioned that this asexual mode of
reproduction in spongilla only takes place in the
winter-time. Before leaving the subject of the develop-
ment of sponges, it may be well to observe that
recent researches render it probable that the sponges
will have to be taken from their present position in the
animal kingdom, and be more closely allied to the
sea anemones and fresh and salt water polypes, certain
discoveries in relation to the phenomena of their
development making this change of position abso-
lutely necessary by approximating them more closely
to the hydrozoa and actinozoa which constitute the
sub-kingdom Caelenterata. Until recently the sponges
have been regarded as forming one of the groups of
the sub-kingdom Protozoa, a sub-kingdom which
includes a large number of animals low down in the
scale of organisation. Two specimens of this sub-
kingdom may be mentioned (in addition to the
sponges), Amoeba and Vorticella. These animals are
good representatives of the limits of the Protozoa in
each direction, viz., of greatest simplicity and of
greatest complexity, for the amoeba is one of the
simplest of all known animals, being strictly com-
parable to any one of the sponge, or sarcoid, par-
ticles already mentioned. In this creature no part of
the body is differentiated, that is to say, is set aside
for any one function. There is no division of labour.
But the bodily functions of absorption, assimilation,
digestion, and motion, are performed by any portion
of the body indifferently. Such an animal is indeed
of a simple organisation, and much resembles a
portion of animated jelly. On the other hand the
vorticella is, comparatively speaking, of a complex
organisation, possessing considerable differentiation

of tissues and organs, and being provided with a
mouth and short digestive canal. The beautiful
appearance presented by the graceful vorticella, with
its spiral stalk passing through different stages of
compression and extension, must be well known to
all microscopical observers.

The affinities of sponges have long been disputed
points with comparative anatomists ; some endeavour-
ing to show that the sponges are closely allied to the
Infusoria. Others, again, as has been mentioned
above, from recent observations think, and with
much probability, that the sponges would be removed
to the Ccelenterata. It is not, however, the purpose
of this paper to enter into the question, which to be
adequately understood, requires a considerable
acquaintance with the formal facts of comparative
anatomy and of embryology.

Having thus given in brief outline some of the
leading facts concerning the structure and physiology
of the sponges, it will be necessary to say a few words
on the distribution, both in space and time, of this
interesting group of animals. As regards distribution
in space, the sponges are almost entirely confined to
salt water, the genus Spongilla comprising the only
fresh- water sponges. They occur almost universally ;
but those whose structure especially fits them fox-
domestic use are obtained chiefly from the islands of
the Gi-ecian Archipelago, and from the Bahamas. It
will, of course, be perceived that the species provided
with a horny skeleton, and comparatively devoid of
spicules, are those which are most valuable as a com-
mercial article. Other things being equal, the utility
of the sponge will vary inversely as the density of
the skeleton and the number and hardness of the
spicules. Sponges joccur chiefly between high and
low water marks, and are found in most luxuriance
and abundance in ti-opical seas. It has been shown
that the siliceous sponges mostly occur at great depths
in the ocean. There is one genus which is worthy of
notice from its habit of boring cavities in shells — this
genus is Cliona. Fossil-shells from the Silurian are
found bored in this manner, excavated doubtless by a
boring-sponge. Sponges are vex-y widely distributed
in time. Indeed, from the Palaeozoic strata upwards,
sponges occur in many formations. The maximum of
abundance is reached in the chalk. And it is worthy
of notice that the flints of the upper chalk are formed
round sponges, forming the nucleus, as it were, or
centre of deposition. On sections being made of
certain flints, minute spherical bodies, pi‘ovided with
spines, have been discovered, and to these the name
Xanthidia has been applied. Some observers regard
these as the gemmules of sponges ; but on this point
there is considerable difference of opinion, as there is
some reason for regarding them as members of the
vegetable kingdom, namely, the spore cases of
Desmids. (?) It is obvious that the only trace left by
the horny sponges can be owing to their spicules, and
consequently remains of these sponges are rare.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

199

The chief group of fossil-sponges is called Petro-
spongiadae (71 Prpos, stone). Of this group, Spar si-
spongia is found in the Devonian, and Ventriculites in
the chalk formations.

Lower Silurian sponges are Pahcospongia and
Acanthospongia ; Sparsispongia is found frequently in
the Devonian. As already observed, the chalk is
richest in sponges, and the most important genera
there occurring are Siphonia and the aforenamed
Ventriculites. It is a curious fact that the fauna of the
Cretaceous epoch is reproduced, as it were, at great
depths in the ocean ; for at these great depths Fora-
minifera, Crinoidea (Echinoderms), and Spongidae
are associated in a manner highly characteristic of
the chalk formation.

A few words must be added on the classification
of sponges. And it must be confessed that this part
of the subject is far from being satisfactorily worked
out. The arrangement of Dr. Bowerbank is the
one generally adopted. In this classification three
orders are formed ; the nature of the skeleton being
used as the classificatory medium. The first order
Keratosa, comprises the horny sponges, whose
skeletons are furnished in a greater or less degree
with spicula. This order is generally regarded as
the lowest. The second order, Calcarea , includes the
sponges whose skeleton is composed of lime, and the
third order, Silicea, comprises the siliceous or flinty
sponges. In these last the skeleton is made up either
of continuous interlacing siliceous fibres, or else of
siliceous spicules. The form of the spicules is subject
to great modifications ; though in the same part of the
animal they are constant for a particular species.
They form interesting microscopical objects, the
different forms being so well marked and manifold
in number.

In conclusion, it may be noticed that fossil sponges
are more intimately allied to the forms which now
flourish in tropical countries than to other kinds.
And hence we see one proof of the fact, which is also
deducible from other phenomena, that at the epoch
when these sponges existed as living beings, a climate
prevailed over a great portion of the globe which
must have been very conformable to that now existing
in tropical countries. So that, from the study of the
life-history of such humble creatures as the sponges,
we are led to infer that the climate of the earth was
not always as we now find it, but that tropical heat
once called forth a luxuriant flora and fauna in
districts where now arid sterility and desolation pre-
vail, and that icy seas and inhospitable shores now
exist where formerly sponges flourished, and the
ocean teemed with animal life in a manner somewhat
similar to what we now see in the tropical oceans of
the world. Considerations such as these would cer-
tainly point out to us the advisability of carefully
attending to the anatomy and functions of the lower
orders of animals and plants ; for it has been in the
past, and will be in the future, that observations on

these points, carried out on strictly inductive prin-
ciples, have led to some of the most magnificent and
comprehensive discoveries and generalisations by
which the progress of science has been advanced.

INTERESTING PLANTS IN THE ROYAL
GARDENS, KEW.

ONE of the greatest curiosities of the vegetable
world is now growing in these gardens, viz.
Welwitschia mirahilis.. and although dried specimens
of this remarkable plant are frequently seen, it has
never been the good fortune of any person to see a
living plant of moderate size in this country before*
Seeds have been received at Kew which have
germinated, but, from unknown causes, they have
invariably died shortly afterwards. The specimen
under consideration was imported a few months since,
and after being carefully attended for some time has
lately commenced a somewhat uncertain growth.
This wonderful plant was discovered by the late
Dr. Welwitsch on the elevated dry sandy plateau,
near the Benguela coast of West Tropical Africa,
where it forms a peculiar feature in the landscape
The stems rarely exceed one foot in height, but
frequently attain a diameter of three feet, and the two
cotyledons are, with the exception of the flowers, the
only appendages produced, and these remain attached
to the stems and continue to increase in length during
the whole life of the plant, which in its native country
exceeds a hundred years. On old plants the coty-
ledons are more than six feet long, and about two or
three in width, and they are torn by the wind into
long strips which trail on the ground, and flutter
about in every gust that blows. From the margin of
the stem above the cotyledons rises the dichotomous
inflorescence on the divisions of which are borne
terminal cones composed of imbricated scarlet bracts
in four rows, each bract enclosing an extremely simple
flower. After flowering, the cones increase to about
two inches in length. It can readily be imagined how
strange these stunted stems must appear dotted about
over a level country, but we can scarcely realise the
feelings of Dr. Welwitsch when he first beheld this
abnormal member of the vegetable kingdom. The
specimen growing at Kew was recently exhibited at a
meeting of the Linnean Society, when it attracted
considerable attention, as it was the first living plant
ever exhibited before the society, and more especially
as the plant is not in very vigorous health, and therefore
the duration of its life may be rather short. From
observations made at Kew the growth of the cotyledon
appears to be entirely basal, and to proceed at the
rate of about 5-10 mm. per month. We might
mention that considerable doubt existed at one time
concerning the classification of the Welwitschia, but
Dr. Hooker some time since definitely referred it
to Gnetaceae, a tribe of Coniferae.

Lewis Castle.

200

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

HINTS FOR YOUNG MICROSCOPISTS.
No. 2.

IN my last paper I referred to a steady head as a
requisite to correct drawing with the camera. I
would now direct attention to the necessity of a
steady hand in dissection under the compound micro-
scope. For ordinary purposes, no doubt, a single
convex lens is quite sufficient. But when delicate
dissections are required, one has only to transfer the
object supposed to be distinctly seen to the stage of
the compound microscope to perceive at once that
much had not been noticed. Supposing then that a
small compound microscope with B eye-piece, one
inch objective and an erector be used, the following
arrangement for a dissecting table will be found most

A strong low table of the dimensions now given,
and standing on four substantial legs, should be ob-
tained. Height twenty-two inches, top nineteen
inches by fifteen, the narrower width being from
right to left. Upon this table are placed two arm
supports, a side view of which is here given. Length
from a to b twelve inches ; width four inches, and
height five inches. These are so placed as to admit
the microscope to stand between them, and the
height of the arm rests should correspond with the
height of the stage when the microscope is placed
perpendicularly. The portion of the rest from o to b
comes over the edge of the table upon the thighs, so
as to afford a complete support for half the forearm.
These rests are attached to the table only at s, where 1
a screw passes from under the table upwards into the
middle of the piece of wood a s, and so enables the
rest to be moved as on a pivot, inwards or outwards,
as desired. The top of the table will be then repre-
sented by the figure B, where M is the microscope
RR the rests, L the lamp. The dissector then places
himself on an ordinary chair, draws himself to the
table so that his thighs pass under the rests, and goes
to work. The height of the table and of the rests
can easily be varied a little to suit the operator.

The writer has tried various forms of dissecting
tables and rests, but has found none so completely
steady as the above.

Codicote Vicarage. T. R. I.

A NEW ROTIFER.

I SEND you a sketch of a rotifer new to me, which
I have found on some "weeds in one of my glass
aquariums. It has only one wheel or ciliated disk ; it is
very small, and when first observed I took it for a
young Tubicolaria Najas, as like them it has an
irregular case of a gelatinous substance and was
surrounded with brownish filaments which are con-
tinually added to the case, and in time renders it so
thick that the motion of the creature within the case
is very imperfectly seen. I concluded that it was not
a young najas, as there were two eggs at the bottom
of the case, which had passed out of the body and
lodged there ; this proved to me that the creature was

a matured one. The eggs I carefully watched, hoping
to see the development of them, but the case
becoming so thick prevented this. I have found several
of them. I make them out to be about T^j inch in
length when fully exserted. Some of them display
two eyes (at a) of a very brilliant red colour.

The jaws (at b) are large in proportion to its size,
and the cilia are also long, and produce by their action
a powerful current or vortex in the water. I have
observed some young ones swimming at a swift rate
through the water previously to their becoming fixed.
When first fixed down they are very transparent, and
the action of the circlet of cilia at the head is plainly
seen, and also the jaws in motion ; indeed, at this
time, scarcely any other parts of the body are visible

HARDWICK E' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

201

with the exception of the outline of the creature ; but
very soon the gelatinous case begins to form round the
lower part of the body : at this stage the animal
measured about -,^5 inch in length. The name of this
rotifer (if it has one) I do not know, perhaps some
one of the many readers of Science-Gossip may
recognise it. J. Fullager.

AIDS TO THE CHOICE OF BOOKS ON
BOTANY.*

By Bernard Hobson.

[ Continued from p. 183.]

SINCE writing the former part of this paper, I
have obtained such a mass of particulars as to
rather embarrass me ; this must be my excuse for in-
voluntary omissions and want of clear arrangement.

The Third edition of Lindley’s “ Vegetable King-
dom ” was published by Bradbury & Evans, in 1853,
at 3 6s. It contains 908 pages, 98 pages of index, and
526 illustrations, with list of all species then known.

I have received four letters recommending
“ Botany, Outlines of Morphology and Physiology,”
42 diagrams; and “Botany, Outlines of the Classifi-
cation of Plants,” 1 18 diagrams, both by Prof. W.
R. McNab, M.D., foolscap 8vo., is. 6d. each ; Long-
mans. The cheapest books I have ever seen are W.
Bland’s “ Elementary Botany,” Pt. I. (Organography)
140 cuts, Pt. II. (Physiology) 100 cuts, 6d. each ;
Bemrose. “ Botany,” by Robert Bentley, F.L.S.,
foolscap 8vo., cloth, 128 pages, with illustrations,
u., published by the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, is a very good little book ; the same
Society are the publishers of the astonishingly cheap
“Flowers of the Field,” by the Rev. C. A. Johns,
B.A., F.L.S., 663 pages, with 413 really excellent
woodcuts, being, as far as I can judge from cursory
examination, a complete Flora of phanerogamous
plants, on the natural system, with 59 additional
pages, enabling it to be used on the Linnaean system,
Thirteenth edition (1878), i2mo., 5j. The same
publishers issue “Wild Flowers,” by Anne Pratt,

2 vols., each 4 by 5! inches, 16 s., with 192 full-page
plates of as many species beautifully printed in colours,
a book_ for children, quite unscientific, but excellent
for promoting the love of flowers.

H. Baillon’s “Natural History of Plants,” not
finished yet, 5 vols., 1800 engravings, 253-. each;
Reeves.

“ Introduction to Structural and Systematic
Botany,” with over 1300 woodcuts, post 8vo., fifth
edition, an American book, by the celebrated Dr. Asa
Gray, costs i8.r. ; his “First Lessons,” with 360
engravings, post 8vo., 7 s. 6 d., both nett.

The “ Elementary Course of Botany,” of Prof.
A. Henfrey, F.R.S., F.L.S., Third edition, by Dr.

* Any of the books referred to in this article may be obtained
from Mr. David Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s Place, Trafalgar
Square, W.C.

Masters, with over 600 woodcuts, post 8vo., is priced
15^. ; Van Voorst.

“ Vegetable Physiology and Botany,” by the
illustrious Dr. W. B. Carpenter, new edition, several
hundred illustrations, is 6s. ; Bell & Daldy.

“ Vegetable Teratology ” (or monstrosities), by Dr.
M. T. Masters, 216 woodcuts, 8vo. Ray Society,
about 15^-. 6d. The following are “ British Floras” not
already mentioned: — “ Florigraphia Britannica,” by
R. Deakin, M.D., 4 vols. 8vo., illustrations, 2\ by 2
inches (rather old-fashioned) of every species (1625),
Linnaean and natural system, plates coloured
(not too well) ; or £3 10s. plates plain. Groombridge.

Hooker and Arnott’s “British Flora,” £1 is.,
Longmans, is a standard work.

“British Wild Flowers,” including ferns, horse-
tails, and club-mosses, by C. Pierpoint Johnson, with
1780 coloured illustrations, by J. E. Sowerby, large
8 vo., Rs 3 s. ; Van Voorst. “ Tourist’s Flora of
British Isles, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland,”
by J. Woods, F.L.S., demy 8vo., 504 pp., i8j. ;
Reeve.

Babington’s “ Manual ” may be had on thin paper
for the pocket at 1 2s., roan ; Van Voorst. Bentham’s
Handbook is published at 12s., without illustrations;
680 pp.

“ British and Garden Botany,” by Leo H. Grindon,
describes native flowering plants and ferns, and all
garden plants commonly cultivated, with introduction
to botany, 232 engravings, 12 s. ; F. Pitman, London.

“Handbook of British Plants,” by W. Lowndes
Notcutt, with index, &c., by Robert Hogg, LL.D.,
F.L.S. ; 2s- ; Journal of Horticulture Office.

“School Flora,” by W. M. Watts, D.Sc. Lon., a
general Flora with special reference to Giggleswick
(West Riding of Yorkshire), several cuts, crown 8vo.,
2s. 6d. ; F. Warne & Co.

“ Handbook of British Plants,” A. Irvine, 7 s. 6d. ;
Nelson, 1858 (recommended by a practical botanist).
New edition of Withering’s “British Plants,”
los.6d. ; Low, 1863. “Key to British Wild Plants,”
T. Baxter, is. ; Simpkin, 1871. M. J. Berkeley’s
“British Flora,” (cryptogamic) mosses, lichens, algae,
&c., 8vo., 1844, 12s • “ London Catalogue of British

Plants,” seventh edition, 8vo., sewn 6d. ; Bogue (a
list without specific characters or any descriptions).
Out of print, no descriptions, but lists of localities.
H. C. Watson’s “ Cybele Britannica,” 4 vols., 53-.
each. “Compendium” of same, io.r., 651 pp. ;
Longmans. On Economic Botany, is ‘ ‘ Domestic
Botany ” (structure, classification, uses of plants), by
J. Smith, A.L.S., 16 coloured plates, demy 8vo.,
16s. ; Lovell Reeve. F. J. Meyen’s “ Outlines of the
Geography of Plants ” (also culture and uses), 8vo.,
12s., Ray Society, 1846, is a very celebrated work.

Sir Joseph Paxton’s “Botanical Dictionary ” con-
tains all species known up to time of publication,
with colour of flowers, season, temperature, habitude,
duration, height, native country, year of introduction,

202

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

but no description or diagnoses (being, in fact, a book
for gardeners), imp. 8vo., 623 pages, no illustrations,
25J. ; Bradbury & Evans. “Dictionary of Dichla-
mydeous Dicotyledons ” (characters of genera and
species, culture, uses, &c.), by George Don, F.L.S.,

4 vols. 4to., 3468 pages, strictly scientific (natural
system) woodcuts, ,£14 8.r. ; Rivington, &c., now
to be had at about 1 5 s.

Loudon’s “Encyclopaedia of Plants” (is, or was,
on Linnaean system) specific character, description,
culture, history of all plants known in Britain, with
small and crowded but good cuts of 12,000 species, a
standard work, 8vo., 42 J-. ; Longmans. Dr. Lindley
and Moore’s “Treasury (or Dictionary) of Botany,”
with glossary, 274 cuts, 20 steel plates, two parts,
foolscap 8vo., 1 2s. ; Longmans. “ Dictionnaire Uni-
versel et Manuel de Botanique et Horticulture,” Dr.
Hoefer, 4 francs ; Firmin Didot, Paris.

Miscellaneous works relating to fertilisation, &c. :

“Flowers, their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and
Colours,” by Dr. Taylor, editor of this “ Science-
GossiP,” 32 coloured figs., 16 1 cuts, crown 8vo.,

7 s. 6d. ; David Bogue. A very interesting book, re-
quiring no previous knowledge of botany.

Sir John Lubbock, in his excellent little book “ On
British Wild Flowers, considered in relation to
Insects,” goes systematically through the British
Flora, giving numerous illustrative cuts, crown 8vo.,
4s. 6d. ; Macmillan. The great Mr. Charles Darwin,
F.R.S., is author of “Effects of Cross and Self-
Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom,” 12 s. ;
“Various Contrivances by which Orchids are
Fertilised by Insects,” 9^. ; “Different Forms of
Flowers on Plants of the Same Species,” icm 6d. ;
“Insectivorous Plants,” 14s.; “Movements and
Habits of Climbing Plants,” 6s. ; “Variation of
Animals and Plants under Domestication,” 2 vols., i8j\,
mostly illustrated, all crown 8vo. ; John Murray.

On ferns there are innumerable books, eg. “ Sy-
nopis Filicum,” all known ferns, figures of characters
of each genus, by Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S., and
J. G. Baker, 8vo., £1 2 s. 6d. plain, £1 8j. coloured ;
David Bogue. “ Species Filicum ” of all known ferns,
with 304 uncoloured plates, each 7J by 4J inches,
by Sir W. J. Hooker, 5 vols., 8vo. (1846-64); £7 &s.;
W. Pamplin. “ Historia Filicum,” organography,
characters of genera, list of species, &c., 30 plates of
characters, demy 8vo., 12 s. 6d. ; Macmillan. “Euro-
pean Ferns,” by James Britten, F.L.S., with
coloured plates painted from nature by D. Blair,
F.L.S., and numerous wood engravings, in monthly
parts 7 d. ; Cassell. “ Natural History of British and
Exotic Ferns,” 479 coloured plates, 8 vols., £6 6s. ;
“New and Rare Ferns” (not in the preceding), 72
coloured plates and cuts, £1 is.; “Our Native
Ferns,” 50 species, 1300 varieties, 79 coloured plates,
900 engravings, £2 2 s., all by E. J. Lowe ; Bell &
Daldy. “Ferns, British and Foreign” (history,
organography, classification, culture, list of species j

of garden ferns, index of genera and species), third
edition, woodcuts, by J. Smith, A.L.S., crown 8vo.,
7 s. 6d. ; David Bogue. “ Ferns of the British Isles,”
described and photographed by Sy. C., 20 plates,
giving all species, woodcuts and glossary, 8vo.,
ioj. 6d ; Van Voorst. “ Ferns of Great Britain and
Ireland, nature printed,” imp. folio, 51 large coloured
plates, about £$ 5-r. net; Bradbury. “Octavo na-
ture printed British Ferns,” 169 plates, 500 pages,
2 vols., £4 4s. ; Bradbury. “ History of British
Ferns,” 22 plates, coloured, 5^. ; “ British Ferns and
their Allies,” 12 coloured plates, Third edition, 5^. j
the same in boards, plates plain, is. (a good little
book) ; Routledge. “kHandbook of British Ferns,”
5 j. ; Groombridge. All by Thomas Moore, F.L.S.
Sir J. W. Hooker’s “ British Ferns,” analysis of
fructification ; 66 coloured plates ; royal 8vo., £2 2s. ;
Reeve. M. Plues* “British Ferns” (and lycopods,
equiseta) ; structure, cultivation, diseases, uses, pre-
servation, distribution ; 16 coloured plates, 55 cuts,
ioj. 6d. ; Reeve. Seemann’s “ British Ferns at one
View,” 8vo., coloured, 6s. ; Van Voorst. “Fern
Paradise ” (a Plea, &c.) ; 4 photographs, 8 views,
8 plates, Fourth edition, 8vo., 12 s. 6d. “Fern

World,” 4 views, 12 coloured nature printed plates,
third edition, 8vo., 12 s. 6d., both by F. G. Heath;
Low. “ The Fern Garden,” beautiful coloured plates,
by Shirley Hibberd, y. 6d. ; Groombridge. “Fern
Book for Everybody,” cuts and plates, M. C. Cooke,
foolscap 8 vo., cloth, is. ; Warne.

“British Mosses,” every species figured on 39
coloured plates, and described, 2 vols. royal 8vo., by
F. E. Tripp, £2 10s. ; Bell. Wilson’s “ Bryologia
Britannica ” (mosses), a new edition of Plooker &
Taylor’s “ Muscologia Britannica,” 61 plates, plain
£ 2 2s., coloured £4 4-r. ; Longmans (is still the only
complete standard). Rev. M. J. Berkeley’s “ Hand-
book of all British Mosses,” 24 coloured plates, 8vo.,
21s. ; Reeve. Hobkirk’s “Synopsis,” ioj\ 6d. ;
Reeve (no cuts, unsuited for beginners) ; and R. M.
Stark’s “History of British Mosses,” 20 coloured
plates, “js. 6d. ; Routledge. “The Lichen Flora of
Great Britain, Ireland, &c.,” by Rev. W. A. Leighton,
F.L.S. , second edition, foolscap 8vo., i6j-. ; David
Bogue; third edition, 21s. 10 %d. “History of

British Lichens,” by W. L. Lindsay, M.D., 22 coloured
plates, 5^. ; Routledge (which see for List of liclieno-
logical works). “ Lichenes Britannici,” in Latin,
Crombie, 2s. 6d. ; Reeve. “London Catalogue of
British Mosses,” 4 d.; Blow, Welwyn, Hertfordshire*
“ Easy Guide to British Hepaticce;” M. C. Cooke j
figures of 136 species, 200 cuts in all, 4 d. ; Bogue.

“ Phycologia Britannica” (sea-weeds) generic and
specific characters and descriptions, 360 splendid
coloured plates, 4 vols., royal 8vo., £j 10s. ; Reeve.
“British Marine Algoe ” (all species), 27 plates of
genera ; coloured £1 IIJ. 6 d. ; plain 2Ij\, 8vo., both
by W. H. Harvey ; Van Voorst ; also, by the same,
“British Sea-weeds,” 5-y. ; Reeve, 1857. “British

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

203

Sea-weeds,” drawn from the above “ Phycologia,”
with 80 plates, or 380 beautifully coloured illustra-
tions, by Mrs. A. Gatty ; 2 vols., £ 2 ioj-. ; Bell.
“British Sea-weeds,” nature printed by Johnstone
Croall, 4 vols., royal 8vo., 210 plates beautifully
coloured, with magnified dissections of all species,
j£5 5^. ; Bradbury. “British Sea-weeds,” by S. O.
Gray (all species) ; 16 coloured plates by Fitch,

ios.6d.; Reeve. Grattan’s “British Marine Algae,”
205 capital engravings, but not well arranged, 5 s.6d. ;
Bazaar Office, Wellington Street. “History of
British Sea-weeds,” Dr. Landsborough, 20 plates,
coloured, 5^. ; Routledge. “ Sea-weeds,” by Mrs.
Lane Clarke, 10 original tinted lithographic plates,
Is. ; Warne. Christian Knowledge Society’s “Sea-
weeds,” coloured plates, is. 8d. Dr. Hassall’s
“History of British Freshwater Algae, Desmidce,
Diatomacese,” 2 vols. 8vo., 103 plates, £1 1 5^. ;
Longmans.

“ Outlines of British Fungology,” by Rev. M. J
Berkeley, F.L.S., characters of over 1000 species, and
list of all indigenous, 8vo., 24 coloured plates,
2)Os. ; Reeve. “ Handbook of British Fungi,” 2 vols.,
cuts and tinted plates, 24^. ; Macmillan (entirely
technical and unintelligible to tyros) ; “A Plain and
Easy Account of the British Fungi,” Third edition,

# coloured plates of 40 species, foolscap 8vo., 6s. ;
D. Bogue ; “Fungi, their Nature, Influences, Uses,
&c.,” edited by Berkeley, profusely illustrated, 8vo,
5^. •, King & Co., all by M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D.
By the same, “Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould,”
(microscopic fungi) 16 plates, or 269 beautiful
coloured figs., 238 pages, foolscap 8vo. 6s. ; D. Bogue.

Dr. Badham’s “Esculent Funguses of England,”
(history, uses, characters, structures, cooking) 12
coloured plates, 8vo., 12s. ; Reeve. “ Mushrooms and
Toadstools,” Worthington Smith, F.L.S., two large
sheets, coloured figs., natural size, 29 edible, 31
poisonous species, with description, 6s. ; D. Bogue.
“ Grevillea,” a periodical on Cryptogamic Botany
and its literature, edited by M. C. Cooke ; Williams
& Norgate, 14 Henrietta Street.

“The Journal of Botany, British and Foreign”
annual subs., I2.r. in advance, published monthly by
West, Newman, & Co., 54 Platton Garden, E.C.

NOTES ON INFLORESCENCE.

HAVING for some years paid considerable atten-
tion to the study of Inflorescence, I cannot but
be pleased to find it recommended to your readers,
as it is in your July number. It is indeed to be
regretted that “an immense amount of mischief
has been wrought to true botany by the ambiguous,
loose, and inaccurate use of terms.” To begin with
the term axillary, which has been applied alike to
the flowers of the periwinkle and the pimpernel.
The resemblance between the flower arrangement
of these two plants is apparent — the difference is

real. Flowers of the pimpernel appear in the axils
of opposite leaves and are themselves opposite.
Nobody has ever seen two flowers opposite each
other in the periwinkle. Its leaves are opposite,
its flowers are unilateral, as those of the forget-
me-not. When it happens, as it sometimes does,
that a solitary leaf appears in connection with a
flower, the flower is opposite the leaf, not axillary to
it. The best botanists affirm that when a flower is
opposite a leaf it is truly terminal. Then as to the
corymb and the umbel being forms of indefinite
inflorescence. I suppose the best example of a
corymb is to be found in the pear, which regularly has
a terminal flower. Such a flower is also to be found
in the umbel of the carrot, and many other plants of
the same order, which ought no longer to be called
Umbelliferae, if vre are to restrict the term umbel to
those cases in which it is indefinite, as in the cowslip
and polyanthus. The spike of agrimony is termi-
nated by a flower which expands before that next
below it. The staminate flowers of Mercurialis
perennis are in a pendulous spike with a flower at
the end, which is the first to open. The spike of
plantago is indefinite. Thus we find several words
used in describing forms of inflorescence in a sense as
vague as that of panicle. It is to be desired that the
use of the term panicle should be discontinued by
those who regard it as a form of indefinite inflores-
cence. It is not easy to say why there should be a
special name for a compound raceme, as there is not
for a compound umbel. Indeed there are few instances
in which such a name would be applicable. Perhaps
one may be found in Yucca, where the flowers are
large and numerous enough to attract attention. The
inflorescence of the cauliflower might be also called a
panicle, in the same sense, but it is not often. An
abnormal form of inflorescence in a plantain affords
another instance. But in almost, if not quite every
instance in which British botanists mention a panicle,
it is in the sense in which I have ventured to describe
it in my “ First Catechism of Botany” as a “compound
corymb or raceme in which the branches of the
peduncle branch again as in the London pride or the
great broad-leaved saxifrage.” Whoever will examine
either of these plants in flower, may find a flower
crowning the peduncle and one at the end of every
branch, as well as on the tertiary branches. It is
likewise in the lilac of which Professor Lindley
describes the inflorescence as a panicle, so that in these
familiar instances, the panicle is as truly a form of
definite inflorescence as is the forked panicle of
Stellaria. It would indeed be better in using such
terms as corymb, spike, and umbel, which were in-
vented and defined before the difference between
definite and indefinite inflorescence was made out,
to add the adjective definite or indefinite, so as to
say, for instance, that flowers of the cowslip are in an
indefinite simple umbel, those of the carrot in a
compound definite umbel. John Gibbs.

204

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

THE CEPHALOPODA OF THE CHALK
MARL AND UPPER GREENSAND, ISLE
OF WIGHT.

DURING the past winter I have carefully searched
the quarries and sections of cliff in the neigh-
bourhood of Ventnor for some of the better fossils of
the chalk marl and upper greensand, and I heartily
recommend this locality to the notice of collectors.
A deserted quarry behind Bonchurch, which is called
“ St. Boniface Quarry,” will yield a great variety of
good fossils, provided a diligent search is made. In
the three feet of fossiliferous marl, which is here
exposed, I have obtained Turrilites tuber culatus
(fig. 154), but, as in the case of all the turrilites, it will
be found difficult to extract anything like perfect
specimens ; the reason of this difficulty is that
invariably the turrilites will be found at right angles
to the stratification, consequently the fossil is more
liable to get broken, unless great care has been taken
in breaking the marl. Turrilites (No. 158), of which I
only succeeded in preserving three coils, appears to me
a variety of “ tuberculata,” having three rows of

in my cabinet, was found in the chalk marl on the
Ventnor beach ; it differs from undulatus in having
the ridges on each coil divided into two distinct parts
instead of one long and rather curved line. Turrilites
Bergerii (fig. 1 59), I found in the chloritic marl between

Fig. 155. — Turrilites T7. . .

undulatus. >S- *57» — Ammonites falcatus .

Fig. 158. — Turrilites (sp.)

Fig. 154.— Turrilites tuberculatus.

Fig. 159 . — Turrilites Bergerii.

tubercles on each coil instead of five, as in the larger
specimen. Turrilites undulatus (fig. 1 55) is the one most
frequently to be met with in the lower chalk of the
Isle of Wight, but we consider it a rare prize if a
specimen is obtained having the upper coils perfect.
Turrilites costatus (fig. 153), perhaps the best specimen

Ventnor and St. Lawrence ; this fossil is peculiar to
the formation, imperfect specimens being exceedingly
common. In Sir Charles Lyell’s “Elements of
Geology,” (page 282) the chloritic marl will be found
classified with the upper greensand, whereas local
geologists have been inclined to place it distinct

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

205

between the chalk marl and the greensand ; in either
case the formation is a curious debris of former rocks,
occasionally even oolitic fossils being found associated
with mollusca peculiar to the greensand. In the Isle
of Wight the upper greensand is about fifty feet in
thickness, the chloritic marl formimg about the upper
four feet of this series of rocks. Haviitis attenuahis
(fig. 160), derived from hamus, a hook , is a rare fossil

Nautilus expansus being common in the chloritic marl
at St. Lawrence. The ammonites are well represented
in lower chalk, chalk marl, and greensand. I figure
three of the best specimens, A . Cooper ii (fig. 164),
chloritic marl; A. falcatus (fig. 157), A. Mantellii
(fig. 163) lower chalk and chalk marl.

In this short article I have confined myself to the
Cephalopoda, but all the characteristic fossils of the

Fie. 161. — Fragments of H. attenuatus. _. .

Fig. 164. — Avt7Homtes Cooperu.

Fig. 162. — Baculitis anceps.

which I obtained with great difficulty from the lower
chalk beds ; this is a fine specimen, showing the
separate courses. The fragments (fig. 161) were all
from the chloritic marl, and are of various species ;
in Woodward’s “Mollusca,” fifty-eight species of
Hamites are mentioned. Baculites anceps (fig. 162)
also comes from the lower chalk, from the St. Boniface
Quarry ; the valve and four chambers are in this speci-
men distinctly marked. Scaphites cequalis (fig. 156),
occurs in one particular band of the chalk marl, a few
inches only in depth ; once hit on the exact line, and
several specimens may be obtained. Nautilus elegans
is to be found in St. Boniface Quarry occasionally,

three formations are to be found. In my
cabinet I have teeth and vertebrae of sharks
and fish ; shells of the various families, Tri-
gonia, Natica, Cucullus, Venus, Pecten,.
Ostrea, Actaeon, Trochus, Pleurotomaria,
Pa nopaea, Lima, Cardium, Terebratula, &c.
also the various Echinites.

C. Parkinson.

Parasites on Hedgehogs. — Have hedgehogs
parasites, and, if any, have they ever fleas, and have
they any means of ridding themselves of them ? I read
the article last July “My Hedgehogs.” I have a
hedgehog, and a friend of mine tells me they have
fleas. I have never noticed it, and rather doubt the
probability of nature having allowed an animal of
that peculiar growth to be afflicted in such a manner*
— Singer Barclay.

206

HARDIVICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

MICROSCOPY.

Quekett Microscopical Club. — The fourteenth
aunual meeting was held at University College on
July 25, Professor T. IP. Huxley, F.R.S., D.C.L.,
president, in the chair. The report of the committee
referred with satisfaction to the continued prosperity
and usefulness of the club, the present number of
members being stated as five hundred and eighty.
Five members had died during the past year, of two of
whom — Mr. P. Le Neve Foster and Dr. W. Tilbury
F ox — brief obituary notices were given. The report
stated that the attendance at the meetings had been
greater than during any previous year, many valuable
papers had been read, numerous additions to the library
and cabinets had been made, and a new catalogue of
the slides in the latter had been issued. The field ex-
cursions during the year had to some extent been
interfered with by the unfavourable weather ; cordial
relations had been maintained with kindred societies,
and the report concluded with an acknowledgment
of the value of the services rendered by the honorary
officers of the society. The treasurer’s annual statement
of account was also submitted to the meeting, and
showed that the total receipts had amounted to
£Z12> ioa 7^* °f which there remained a balance in
hand of ^87 9 s. 3 d. The president then delivered the
customary annual address, in the course of which he
pointed out such lines of study as might be followed
out by the members of the club with great advantage
to themselves and to the interests of science at large,
and showed them that they were in the possession of
facilities for carrying such inquiries to successful
issues ; whilst for the reasons stated, men who had
taken up science as the business of their lives were
placed at great comparative disadvantage. Votes of
thanks to the president for his admirable address, to
the Council of University College for their continued
permission to meet in that building, and to the
officers and committee for their services during the
year brought the proceedings to a close. The result
of the ballot for officers and committee for the ensuing
year was as follows : President, Dr. T. Spencer

Cobbold, F.R.S. ; Vice-presidents, Professor Huxley,
Dr. Matthews, Mr. Michael, Mr. C. Stewart ;
Treasurer, Mr. F. W. Gay ; Hon. Sec., Mr. J. E.
Ingpen ; Plon. Foreign Sec., Dr. M. C. Cooke; to
fill seven vacancies on the committee, Messrs. F.
Coles, A. Cottam, E. Dadswell, J. W. Groves, J.
W. Reed, J. C. Sigsworth, and T. C. White.

The Diatomace^e of New Forest. — Mr. Mar-
quand in his interesting paper on the flora of the
New Forest, alludes to the Diatomacese found in that
neighbourhood ; among others the pentagonal variety
of A mphitetras antedihiviana. I do not quite understand
whether he means that it occurs in or near the forest,
or on the Hampshire coast ; if the former it is very

remarkable, as, so far as I know, the genus is purely
marine. I first detected it in a gathering from
Hayling Island, and which I described and figured
in Science-Gossip 1867, p. 271, as var. 7. Some
years afterwards it occurred more plentifully in the
stomach contents of Ascidia from Kirkwall ; this
form may be the same as Greville’s A . nobilis ,
T. M. S. vol. xiii. p. 10, pi. 9, fig. 27. Surirella
clegans (Ehr.) is by no means uncommon, and I have
it from several English localities, and it is very
frequently found in fresh-water gatherings from
Scotland ; it is also common in the Toome Bridge
deposit. It is somewhat remarkable that Smith did
not figure it in the “ Synopsis,” as I have it on a slide
of his mounting, mixed with S. biseriata. I can only
suppose he overlooked it. A very good figure of it
is given in Schmidt’s Atlas. Surirella capronii is, I
believe, only a state of S. splendida , the presence
or absence of a spine being of no specific value.
My late friend M. de Brebrisson sent me a gathering,
in which S. capronii occurred with one spine only,
and sometimes without, in which condition it was
not distinguishable from S. splendida. Donkin’s S.
subalpina , Q. M. J. vol. ix. N. S. pi. 18. f. 2, is probably
only a small state of S. elegans ; this he remarks
“bears a close resemblance to S. limosa, Bailey
(Q. M. J. vol. vii. p. 179 pi. 9, f. 5).” This form is
not S. limosa of Bailey, as Brightwell supposed, but
S. elegans. I speak this with certainty, having seen
the original specimen. S. limosa , Bailey = S. cardi-
nalis, Kitton = S. ovata, Ehrenberg (not Kiitzing).
—F. K.

Habershaw’s Catalogue of the Diatomace/e.
— Mr. F. Habirshaw, of New York, reproduced by
the Edison electric pen fifty copies of his catalogue,
which he generously distributed amongst the diato-
mists of Europe and America. This catalogue (with
the sanction of the author) Dr. J. Pelletan, editor of
the “Journal de Micrographie,” proposes to publish
in ordinary type, and for this purpose Mr. Habirshaw
has corrected and rewritten the entire work. The
proofs are to be revised by Mr. F. Kitton, of Norwich.
The volume will be an 8vo., and is to appear in
three parts, in intervals as short as possible. The
subscription price is to be ten francs ; the price after
publication will be advanced to fifteen francs. This
catalogue not only gives a list of genera and species,
but references to the pages, plates and figures in the
papers of the more important writers who may have
written upon them ; it also gives the synonymy as
far as it is possible to do so.

The American Quarterly Microscopical
Journal. — We regret to see an editorial announce-
ment, that the existence of this journal ceases with
the volume, the editor finding that it would be
impossible for him to give the necessary supervision
[ during the coming year.

HARDWICK E’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

207

ZOOLOGY.

Repetitive Generic Names — A New Field op
Work. — There are, I doubt not, many among your
readers who, besides acquiring knowledge themselves,
would be glad to assist in the general advance of
science, but are deterred from attempting anything by
diffidence as to their powers, and ignorance as to the
direction in which they can best render service. To
such I would point out that there is an immensity
of work of the highest value to science, that only
requires time, intelligence, and perseverance. For
example, there are some 50,000 or 60,000 genera of
animals (recent and fossil), a dictionary of the names
of which, giving author, date, and class, is im-
peratively needed to prevent names now occupied
being attached to new, and it may be widely separated,
genera. The need of this may be shown by a few
examples (I could fill an entire number of Science-
Gossip with such) : —

Aspis (Lawr.), 1768, Reptilia.

Aspis (Germ.), 18 — , Coleoptera.

Aspis (Treitschke), 1829, Lepidoptera.

Axia (Hiibn.), 1816, Lepidoptera.

Axia (M. Edw.), 1837, Crustacea.

Axia (Eschsch.), 1825, Acephalse.

Axia (Lour.) is a plant-genus belonging to the
Valerianese.

Lists of genera up to 1868 have been published ;
these require to be combined into a single alphabetical
arrangement, and brought up to the present date, or,
say 1880, inclusive. Funds for publication would
doubtless be forthcoming when the time arrived.
Any one willing to assist in the work of copying and
arranging is hereby requested to communicate with
IV. H. Dalton, H. AI. Geological Survey , Weybread ,
Ha r lest on.

Establishing A Rookery. — In your July
number, Mr. A. J. Robinson wishes to know how to
establish a rookery. Without wishing to dishearten
him, I fear he will find it rather a difficult problem.
Two gentlemen in this neighbourhood tried all kinds
of ways to induce the rooks to build, but without
success. In one case nests were made in the trees,
but the rooks still refused to come. The trees were
also covered with netting, and the rooks fed and kept
there ; still there was no result. In the other case,
the gentleman (a solicitor) tried all the means he could
to induce the rooks to build, but in vain. Fie left the
house some time afterwards, and the next tenant was
a clergyman ; then the rooks came at once and estab-
lished a fine rookery which increases every year. If it
is a likely place, Mr. Robinson and his friends might
get some young rooks and tame them, and clip one
wing to prevent them gettingaway — let them get well
accustomed to the place and they might build the follow-
ing season. I shall be glad to hear of any one having
succeeded. — J . Goodyear , Worsbrough, Barnsley.

Simulation of Death by Insects. — What-
ever may be the case amongst the Coleoptera and
Arachnida, Mr. Slater’s deductions, that the simula-
tion of death is as a rule confined pretty much to
those insects whose flight is weak and movements
slow, will not hold good as regards the Lepidoptera.
In no insect is the habit of feigning death more con-
spicuous than in that interesting little family of moths
— the Hepialidse, all of them characterised by a very
rapid flight, and on account of which the English name
of “ swift ” has been attached to them. I cannot
agree with the writer of the paper to which Mr.
Slater refers, that the practice of shamming death is
not to be regarded as a stratagem to escape danger,
all my observations tending to prove to my own mind
that it is. I have frequently amused myself by
catching numbers of swifts Jn order to watch their
actions, and have from time to time taken all the five
species commonly. There was no trouble in ‘ ‘ boxing ”
them when once you had caught them, as their in-
variable habit is to adopt the “ death dodge ” and fall
helplessly to the bottom of the net ; but take them
out and place in the palm of the hand, or put them
into the chip box, and leave the lid off, and you will
not have to wait many seconds before the little
impostors are “ off like a shot,” laughing, perhaps like
some begging human impostors afflicted with tempo-
rary lameness, blindness, and other maladies, at your
credulity. All the IFepialidae emit a peculiar odour
which clings to the boxes in which they have been
confined for some few minutes after they have been
turned out ; probably it acts as a further protection
against certain foes. — Joseph Anderson , Chichester.

Mimicry in Insects. — The following case of
protective mimicry in Pyrameis Cardui may be of
interest to your readers. The paths of my garden are
covered with fine shingle from the beach, and recently
I noticed a number of painted lady butterflies
[Pyratneis Cardui) hovering over one of the paths, occa-
sionally settling on it. In order to notice them more
closely, I moved up close to where I had seen one settle,
but could not distinguish it until I almost trod on it,
when it rose and flew a short distance, and again settled
on the path with the wings closed, in which position,
from the mottled underside of the wings so closely
resembling the colour of the shingle, it was not easy
to detect. After remaining quiet for a few minutes it
slowly opened its wings, and then sat fanning itself
after the fashion of the Vanessidse. — Charles Foran.

Ancylus Lacustris Floating. — The British
Ancyli or fresh-water limpets do not as yet appear to
have been seen floating, for Jeffreys, in his “British
Conchology ” mentions that they “ have never been,
observed in a floating position ” (vol. i. page 1 19) . But
I am able to assert that I have watched two, out of
fourteen specimens, making their way in such a
position on the under-surface of the water, with shell
downwards, as is the case with other Limnaead^.

20 8

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

These molluscs, which I procured last spring plenti-
fully in an almost stagnant dyke near Lewes, Sussex,
on the decayed leaves of Iris pseudacorus, are still
thriving in my aquarium. This evening (July 22nd)
I first noticed two of the ancyli floating, very slowly,
but surely, making their way from one piece of duck-
weed to another ; the greatest distance between the
fronds of duckweed being about three-quarters of an
inch in width. They appear to float in the same way
as other Limnaeadse with the exception that every now
and then they swayed from one side to the other the
forepart of their bodies, apparently in quest of a frond
nearer to them than the one in a direct line : they
also continually opened and shut their mouths, and
generally carried the hind of their shell closer to the
tail, than the forepart to the head, so that the shell
appeared to have an oblique direction. It was inter-
esting to watch them as they progressed from one frond
of duckweed to another, for sometimes on coming
to two stems which proximated so closely as not to
allow of a passage between them, the little creatures
would cleverly turn their shell in a slanting position,
and so manoeuvre their onward course. — S. S. Pearce.

Sphinx pinastri. — I have just received a fine
specimen of this very rare moth, taken on August 3,
by Mr. A. W. Waller, in the gardens of Waldringfield
rectory, on an Austrian pine. This makes the fourth
specimen taken in the neighbourhood of Ipswich
within the last three years. — J. E. Taylor.

BOTANY.

Viper’s Bugloss ( Echhwi vulgare). — Whilst
walking on the South Downs, about a mile west of
Shoreham, my attention was attracted by a mass of
blue flowers growing in such luxuriance as to be
visible at a considerable distance. On proceeding to
the spot I found them to be the common viper’s
bugloss, which had spread themselves over about a
quarter of an acre of land, and although there were
no other of the same plants visible in the neighbour-
hood, yet at this particular spot there must have
been several thousand plants, the flowery spike
measuring from fifteen to eighteen inches in length.
I may mention that Echium vulgare grows somewhat
freely at a spot on the seashore some four miles
distant, and I have occasionally met with it growing
scantily on the Downs, but the plants have been
usually much smaller. I thought its occurrence in
such profusion is at least unusual in Sussex, and as
such might deserve a note in the pages of Science-
Gossip. — T. Co?nlidge.

Vegetable “Commensalism.” — The association
of Chlora perfoliata and bee orchis is certainly fre-
quent, although not invariable. During the present
summer I have seen them growing together on the

cliffs near Beachy Head, and also a few days ago on
the Chiltern Hills in South Beds. Last season I
noticed them growing in company at another spot in
the Chilterns, about two miles from the last-named
locality. The bee orchis also occurs in a field at the
base of the Chilterns near Barton, Beds, where it
sometimes appears in great profusion ; but the Chlora
is never to be seen there, possibly because the field is
occasionally mown. In this district (South Beds)
Geranium pratense always grows associated with the
stinging-nettle, and as I have never seen it, except
in grazing fields, it occurred to me the latter pre-
vented animals from browsing on the former. At any
rate, the two grow in the closest companionship. —
J . Saunders , Luton.

Bernard Hobson, Tapton Elms, Sheffield, will
be glad to receive, not later than November 3, 1879,
for publication, carefully arranged under respective
counties, post-cards giving Christian and surname,
full address, and subject of special study, of all
persons (ladies included) who are willing to gratui-
tously assist in determining species, and otherwise
personally helping with advice, &c. — or through the
post, on receipt of two stamps for reply — all lovers,
learners, or beginners of botany, zoology, geology,
and microscopy.

The “Student’s Catalogue of British
Plants.” — We have received a copy of this excellent
pamphlet, compiled by the Rev. George Henslow,
F.L.S., according to Hooker’s “ Student’s Flora
of British Islands.” It is published by Bateman,
High Street, Portland Town, London, at is. 6d.f
post-free.

Wild Geum Rivale rivalling cultivated
Monstrosities. — Last July I gathered near Malham,
Yorkshire, a most interesting specimen of Geum
rivale. The plant was twenty- two inches in height ;
there were three stem leaves, the highest of which was
situated three inches from the root-stock, and then the
stem was naked up to the leafy calyx for seventeen
inches. Instead of the usual drooping flower, there
was an erect monstrous flower, the calyx segments of
which had become transformed into petioled leaves,
varying from an inch and a half to two inches in length \
four of the bracteoles were also transformed into petioled
leaves about eight or nine lines in length, the other
was an ordinary large but double bracteole. Inside
this monstrous calyx, there were about thirty petals
fully twice the usual size, their prevailing colour being
red ; there were also about ten objects which were
neither imperfect stamens nor petals, also one perfect
stamen. Instead of the female part of the flower the
axis was continued for an inch and then produced a
perfect normal flower, save that one of its bracteoles
was double, and it had the addition of another small
calyx segment within the calyx. On this continued
axis about three lines from its base were situated five

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

209

or six of the petals and imperfect stamens first
described, though they evidently belonged to the forty
petalled flower, as it would not have had a symme-
trical appearance but for them. On this continued
axis, about three lines from the base of the perfect
normal flower was an imperfect flower containing two
perfect stamens and one imperfect one, which were
surrounded by about eight bodies, some of which
resembled petals, others bracts, and others bracteoles.
I may add that in the same district I saw about
twenty specimens of Geum intermedium , some of
which were near urbanum though more were nearer
rivale ; about half the number seemed to be exactly
intermediate, on comparing all three in the field. I
have often found intermedium , though only where both
rivale and urbanum occur together. — William West ,
Bradford,

Singular variety of Hartstongue. — This
excellent specimen was gathered by Mr. P. Thomp-
son, at Milnthorpe. It shows the heteromorphic
condition of some leaves, when placed in a posi-
tion favourable to their growth. First, the midrib
splits into two parts, then, instead of the ordinary

bifurcated frond, we have the Scolopendrium vulgar e ,
perafero-cornutum of Moore’s “Nature Printed Ferns.”
This heteromorphic change is far from frequent ;
in the present state, we find it in the shape of horn-
like projections, or to be better understood “pitchers,”
for example, the cuplike ending of the midrib, in the
Nepenthes — arising, where it has prominent midribs,
in the cohesion of the margin of the leaf. The
example here figured is peculiar, because after being

partially joined, it again separates, with a flattened
frond. Our correspondent does not state the con-
dition of the remaining fronds in the plant, probably
this was the only one found.

The Powers of Vegetation. — Trees have the
power of adapting themselves to suit the locality in
which they grow. Waterton tells us of a nut-tree
which grew through the axle-hole of a millstone,
which happened to be lying on the ground (some
nut-eating animal had stored its nuts beneath the
stone and one of them had escaped destruction). The
tree increased in size till at length the trunk quite
filled the hole. It could not then grow any thicker,
owing to its millstone collar, and so it grew taller and
raised the stone with it from the ground. I noticed
the other day a Jasmine tree which was growing up
one side of a brick wall. When, having become too
large for the wall, it had no place on which to climb,
it sent its branches in several places underneath the
coping stone of the wall through holes, I suppose,
made by the crumbling away of the mortar. These
then grew down the wall on the other side, there
being quite as much of the tree on this side as on the
other. — W. H. Cobb, Winchester College.

GEOLOGY.

“An Ornithosaurian from the Stonesfield
Slate.” — This is the subject of a paper by Pro-
fessor Seeley, in which the author described the
characters presented by the impression of the skull of
an Ornithosaur in a slab of Stonesfield slate from
Kineton, near Stow-on-the-Wold, the peculiarities of
which are such as to induce him to found for it a new
genus, to which he thinks it probable that most, if
not all, the known Stonesfield slate Pterodactyles
may belong. It is distinguished especially by the
great length of the roof of the skull posterior to the
orbits, by the presence of a very deep constriction of
the frontal region between the orbits, by the strongly
marked sutures between the bones, and the curiously
crocodilian character of the plan of structure of the roof
of the skull, which suggests the existence of a lower
grade of Ornithosaurian animals than has hitherto
been suspected. The genus appears to be allied to
some forms of Rhamphorhynchus. The author names
the species, which is in the Oxford Museum, Rham-
phocephalus Prestwichi, and considers that the other
bones of Ornithosauria discovered in the Stonesfield
slate support the generic separation of the group.

Localities for Fossil Starfish. — With refer-
ence, to your wish that any information respecting the
fossil starfish localities might be given you, I am
happy to mention that I have found the feathery star-
fish ( Ophiocoma ) in the calc grit which lies immediately
under the Kimmeridge clay situated between Sandsfoot
Castle, near Weymouth, and the Portland ferry
bridge. — //. W. F., Weymouth.

210

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The Ancient River Deposit of the Amazon.
— Mr. Barrington Brown has contributed a paper on
this important subject to the Geological Society.
The author described a series of alluvial deposits,
varying in thickness from 10 to 160 feet, which have
been cut through by the river, and form a series of
cliffs, giving rise to striking and characteristic
scenery. The succession of beds exposed in these
cliffs was illustrated by a number of sections, and it
was shown that the strata in question must have been
deposited by river action. It was then pointed out
that the river is performing two classes of work,
namely, cutting away the older sheets of alluvial
matter, and depositing the materials derived from
them at a much lower level. The interesting phe-
nomena of the cutting of curves by the river, and the
abandonment by the river of parts of these curves,
giving rise to the formation of lakes, was fully ex-
plained ; and in conclusion the author showed by a
map what vast areas in South America have thus
been covered by these alluvial deposits.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — Instinct
may be described as a blind adaptation of means to
ends ; reason, as a conscious adaptation of means to
ends. The principal features of instinctive actions
may be enumerated as follows : They are performed
in early life, are reflex and of much complexity,
rhythmical, performed without any guidance from
experience, they are executed in precisely the same
manner by all the individuals of a species, they carry
out a design which is formed for the animal operator
by it, they are prompted by an organic sense of need,
and are directly adapted thereto ; and finally, they
correspond with the sensori motor actions of man.
Even in certain remarkable cases (as in the well-
known instance of a pair of jackdaws erecting a cone
of sticks six feet high as a support for their nest
which had previously slid down several times from
a sloping window-sill) where animals appear to have
actually profited by experience, it has been considered
that the business of mental analysis and abstraction
is here performed for them, and that they do not here
act with a conscious view to consequences. Some of
your correspondents have asked whether the intelli-
gence of animals differs from that of man in kind ?
If we consider intelligence as the faculty of know-
ledge, it is difficult to understand what is meant by
different kinds of intelligence. We either know more
or less about an object ; but as for different kinds of
knowledge (except it be the question of mediate and
immediate, perceptive and comparative), that is a
peculiarity not easily discernible. The simple ques-
tion is, what faculties of knowledge do animals
possess, and does man possess the same or different ?
No one seems to dispute that sense-perception and
memory (as distinguished from reminiscence) and
perhaps also a rough faculty of comparison are
possessed by animals in a degree by no means lower
than that of man. But as for voluntary reminiscence,
imagination, the powers of abstraction and com-
parison involved in the formation of general notions,
or in a complicated deductive or inductive reasoning
process, and the various moral faculties, all of which
men more or less possess, no one, not even the

mighty Darwin himself, has ascribed to animals.
As we can judge of the animal mind only by its
bodily actions, and as, consequently, it is only in
reference to action that animals can be shown to
possess reason, the only difficulty to be solved is, da
animals possess ingenuity and conscious foresight
sufficient to forestall their wants, and ingenuity and
constructive skill sufficient to take the measures
necessary for the supply of those wants? Now,
there does not seem to be a shadow of evidence that
they do possess such qualities. Their method of
working without a trace of hesitation, confusion, or
interruption, the circumstances under which they
work, the identity of motive in almost every case —
all unequivocally suggest the idea of an automaton
mechanically operating, rather than that of a rational
being working by the light of originally conceived
aims and ends. Moreover, there are several well-
authenticated instances of the irrationality of instinct
(as in the case of a beaver building a dam where there
was no water, &c.) which strongly tend to demon-
strate the existence of a species of uncontrollable
impulse on the part of the animal, that must (like
a clock set a-going) as it were inevitably perform
certain actions, no matter what the circumstances or
the consequences may be. But besides acting with
a conscious view to certain ends, animals may act
from impulse, i.e., from strong special sensibilities
inevitably directing as it were the native life-energy,
which is always extremely vigorous amongst the
lower animals. A powerful development of the
sensori motor ganglia would amply account for this
acting from impulse ; and in fact, an anatomical de-
monstration of the brain of insects (in which instinct
is most powerfully exhibited) exhibits this peculiarity
in a very remarkable degree. Now, be it observed,
that the sensation which produces this motio?i may be
that of a mental image called up by the association
of ideas ; and this important fact will amply elucidate
many of the instances of apparent reason or reasoning
on the part of animals which have been adduced by
some of your correspondents. For example, consider
the case of the cat rapping at the door, and then
scratching at the window in order to gain admit-
tance to certain chambers. The cat knowing the two
entrances, when one was closed up, the image of the
other was immediately suggested by association, and
this idea of the chamber window immediately operated
upon pussy’s legs, and caused the circumambulating
movement described. There was no explicit or im-
plicit reasoning process involved ; the act was the
result of pure impulse. — P. Q. Keegan , LL.D.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — I have
read with much interest the discussions in Science-
Gossip upon this subject, and it appears to me that
in this, as in most controversies, a very considerable
amount of the difference between the adverse views
expressed arises from the want of a definition at the
commencement of the controversy of the subject of
discussion. What do your correspondents mean by
“ reason ” ; and what by “instinct ” ? Is it not plain
that instead of disputing about the same thing, they
are in fact only disputing about the same word ? If it
were not discourteous, I would venture to submit
that the whole discussion, so far as it has as yet gone,
may be summarised thus : A. says, “ I am convinced
that brute animals do possess reason, because I mean
by * reason ’ something which brute animals show
that they possess.” B. says, “ I maintain that brute
animals do not possess reason. For I mean by ‘ reason ’
something that it is obvious that brute animals do not
possess.” Do not all the observed facts lead to this
that if by “ reason” you mean the power of inferring

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

21 I

one proposition from another, then brute animals do
possess reason ? Thus, a horse has impressed upon
his mind (whatever his mind may be) the proposition
that “ Inside this stable door I have found rest, and
warmth, and food.” And he infers from that, that by
stopping at that door he will again find rest, and
warmth, and food. But does not all observation lead
us to conclude that here the inferential powers of
brute animals stop, and that they are unable to follow
out a train of reasoning, and, from one proposition
known to them only by inference from another
proposition, and not by direct sense, to infer a second
and from that a third, and so on ? And is not that
the essential distinction between the inferential facul-
ties, call them what you please, of brute animals and
men ? In other words, is it not the case that the
highest efforts of brute animals in the way of inference
reach only to association of ideas ; whereas, in man,
association of ideas, which is the foundation of induc-
tion, is the ground and starting-point of all the know-
ledge which he acquires by those long-continued
trains of deductive inference which we call ‘ ‘ reason-
ing ? ”—C. B.

Intelligence inMan and Animals. — Your cor-
respondent, Mr. Barclay, writes in the June number :
“They (animals) have also an innate dread of their
enemies.” Without intending to take apart in the
discussion, I wish to relate one experiment that I
made some time ago expressly to ascertain if the
statement quoted was the fact or not. I had a young
canary bird and bright young kitten. I brought the
kitten into the room where the bird was on the floor,
and placed the kitten also on the floor a few yards
distant. They discovered each other at once, and the
first symptom of each seemed to be curiosity and
desire for more intimate acquaintance. Each com-
menced approaching the other. The bird advanced
farthest fearlessly — no instinct of an enemy there ; but
as the bird moved, the instinct of the cat that there
was prey was aroused, and the usual manifestation
and passion of the cat tribe was shown. That
alarmed the bird, and it at once retreated. This ex-
periment proved that there was no innate dread of an
enemy on the part of the bird ; and on the part of
the cat no anticipation of a good meal at first sight.
The conclusions that each appeared to arrive at were
“after thoughts,” whether they are to be called
instinct or reason. The two explanations of why rats
gnaw leaden water pipes (page 140) are both im-
probable. It is a common trouble in this place, and
the remedy is to substitute brass or iron pipes for
lead. The true explanation most likely is, that when
the temperature of the water in the pipe is below the
dew point, water is condensed on the exterior of the
pipe. Rats and mice need water, finding it there
they try to get it, and their mouths and teeth not
being adapted to lapping, the teeth cut into the soft
material of the lead. That is all. They do not
gnaw iron pipes, for the material is too hard. —
Charles Stodder, Boston , U. S.

Intelligence in Animals. — I have a large smooth-
coated dog, of no particular breed that I am aware of,
which (I had almost written who), has a decided per-
ception of Sunday from the other days of the week.
To him the only difference is that on Sundays I am in
the habit of taking him for a run after morning church.
On each morning as I leave home for my business my
dog sees me out, and when the door is shut he goes
quietly and takes his customary morning nap ; but on
Sunday nothing of the sort takes place ; he certainly
sees me out, but not with the like composure ; his
features are anxious and expectant, and though quiet
there is an evident latent excitement. No sooner is the

street door shut than he bounds upstairs to my bed-
room and gets his fore feet and head out of the
window and watches me out of sight, and no induce-
ment can entice him from his vigils until my return.
In the place of his morning sleep there is constant
watching. Should his patience become exhausted he
will make a rush to the street door, but this is
apparently only as a diversion, for he is back again at
once to the window, watching and waiting, at times
giving way to distressed moans. And when he sights
me on my return his frantic joy goes to the extreme
of ecstasy. The mystery to me is how he can dis-
tinguish one day from the others. My movements at
home on Sunday morning are similar to other days :
I do not even make any perceptible change in my
dress ; I go down to breakfast in the same manner,
and occupy about the same time at it ; I return to
my bed-room afterwards as on other days, and yet
this dog knows one day from the others as well as I
do. The only difference that I am aware of is that
on Sunday I do not rise so early, but as the whole of
my household observe a similar indulgence the same
order of events is preserved. As there is cooking
going on in the kitchen, the dog has been given to
understand that he is not wanted there at such times,
and on two or three occasions after our Sunday’s
ramble, he has been kept waiting on the door steps
while the kitchen door was shut ; he now waits
without any reminder, whatever the weather may be,
and he makes no attempt to enter the house until he
is bid, and neither will he attempt, as a rule, to go
into the kitchen until the cooking is over. But I am
bound to say that I do not claim for him a higher
degree of rectitude than belongs to the ordinary run
of the “superior animal,” and I am not certain that
the savoury smell from the lower apartments would not
be a strong inducement to disobey orders if a little
watch were not kept over him. However, there is in
him the certain knowledge of good and evil, for when
he is detected in an attempt to infringe the rule,
which, [to give him his due, is very seldom, he exhibits
certain evidences of a guilty conscience and profound
penitence, unless the subdued look and dropped ears
are but the veriest hypocrisy ; but we soon forgive
him, being well aware of his infirmity for tasty
morsels. I may observe that when I take my friend
for a run on other days than Sundays, which is of
rare occurrence, he adheres to the rule of waiting at
the door until told to enter the house, but this is
observed only in the early part of the day, as on the
evening of all days he does not wait for any bidding.

- — J. R. Hayes , Barnsbury.

Intelligence in Sea-gulls. — Perhaps some of
your readers may be interested in the following
incident. For the last four years we have kept a pair
of herring gulls, which we have allowed to roam
about the garden fields. The other day, as some
little chickens were going to be led out into the field,
it was necessary to shut the gulls up, of which they
are very fond ; so they were put into the fowls’ yard ;
upon which one of them (the male) began to chase the
fowls, and at length succeeded in securing them in
a corner of the yard, then all of a sudden he made a
dart right into the midst of them ; scattering them
right and left, after which he chased the cock round the
yard, and then repeated his chase amongst the fowls ;
but still he was not satisfied till he had driven every
one of them into the hen-house (at 3.30 P. m.), where
they stayed for the rest of the afternoon. Probably
the sea-gulls did not approve of being shut out from
the garden, so they thought they would make the
best of it by having the yard all to themselves. —
Horace Livens , IV. Croydon.

212

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

The Sagacity of a Thrush (a Cage-bird).—
My interest in this bird has been roused within the
last day or two, and it may interest some of your
readers if I describe the facts which have come under
my notice. My attention was called by the owner of
the thrush, who had received from a boy a nest of
five young thrushes, which were put into the cage
with the old pet, nest and all. Worms were thrown
into the cage for the old bird, upon which an attack
was made as usual, and after breaking them in pieces
it began to feed the young ones, as if they were its
own family. Now, considering that this bird has
never been at liberty, it appears to me that a most
wonderful amount of sagacity has been shown by this
act, and it is clearly instinct and sagacity, and not
practical experience, which has taught the bird how to
look after and tend upon the thrushlings. And surely
in this act is reflected the care of the Provider, the
Maker, and the Guider of all. I should be glad to
know if any of your readers have ever noticed this act
before on the part of a cage-bird. — A. H. Hulley.

Sagacity of a Cat.— We have a very interesting
cat at home. She is a fine Angora and a capital
mouser, though now getting rather old for such work.
In her earlier days she would go anywhere after a
mouse. I remember that once she ran up the curtain
and caught a mouse at the top, and another time she
rushed up the chimney while a red-hot fire was in the
grate and returned with a mouse, covered with soot ;
where the mouse was caught I cannot say, but it is
perfectly true that the cat went up the chimney. It
is not, however, of her mousing exploits that I wish
now to speak. She grew very fond of a housemaid
who was with us when first she came, and used to
follow her all over the house. Whenever the cat
caught a mouse or a bird she would, before she ate it,
lay it down at the housemaid’s feet. If the maid took
it away, she never attempted to get it again and eat it,
but let it lie there. As the housemaid always threw
the birds away it stopped her from catching them,
but afterwards when the housemaid left she again
took to her old habits, and we missed many birds out
of their aviary, finding their feathers alone stuck in
the bars ; the cat must have pulled the birds through
the wires, which are only a quarter of an inch apart.
When the housemaid left us the cat also disappeared
for some weeks, and when she did come back, moped
about in the garden all day, for a long time. When
the house was painted the cat went away till the men
had left, when she immediately returned and now sits
almost all day before the kitchen fire. — F. A. Bather ,
Roehampton.

Flies and Pedestrians. — Can any of your con-
tributors suggest a remedy against being followed, for
miles I may say, by a troop of flies, who, taking
advantage of the warm summer atmosphere, attach
themselves more particularly to the head of the
pedestrian, and cause much annoyance by settling
upon the face, neck, ears, &c. ? I am under the
impression that the leaves of a particular tree or
shrub, rubbed upon the face of the clothes and hat,
act as a preventive, and I think that this fact was
conveyed in a former number of Science-Gossip.
Probably the circumstance alluded to will bear
repetition. — W. W. Ingall.

Slow Worm. — In answer to W. G. T.’s question
in last month’s Science-Gossip as to the reddish-
purple variety mentioned by Mr. E. D. Marquand,
I have had four of this colour among a dozen sent
from Y orkshire. They were about ten inches long, and
of a bright copper colour, with black lines running
down the sides from head to tail. I have seen some
scores of slow worms, but have only noticed these four.

I have now a slow worm measuring eighteen inches
long, which is rather an unusual length for this
reptile. They will live a long time in an ordinary
fern case, and may be fed on white slugs, which they
seem to prefer before anything else ; a small pot of
water should be placed in the case with them, as they
are rather thirsty souls, immersing nearly the whole
of the head while drinking. They are altogether very
interesting to keep. — G. Currie.

Robert Mudie. — Is there any biographical account
of this pleasing writer? His work, the “British
Naturalist,” delighted the world sixty years ago. His
“ Feathered Tribes of Great Britain,” “Guide to the
Observations of Nature,” “Seasons,” “The Earth,”
&c., did much to promote the study of natural
history. He was a man for an age not for all time ;
but we have attained to our present advanced state of
general interest in the grand operations of Nature,
because Mudie and others like him well lived and
wrote. Perhaps some of your readers can supply an
article on this matter. — Robert B. Botwell, King's
Langley, Herts.

Palm in Full Bloom. — We have on our lawn a
dwarf palm, which will shortly be in full bloom, and
thinking it unusual to see such in England, I write to
ask if you or any of your readers know of another.
The plant is about seven years’ growth, and has never
been protected by any covering during the winter.
Last year it bore four spathes of bloom, and this year
six. Our gardener has given me the following dimen-
sions of the plant : “ Height of plant, 5 feet 4 inches ;
width, 6 feet 8 inches ; circumference, 20 feet ;
height of trunk, 2 feet 10 inches ; circumference of
trunk at base, 2 feet 10 inches.” It may interest
your readers to know we have also a Paulownia
which has blossomed several times, and some seed
ripened from which we have raised a fine young tree.
We have too a plant of Phormium tenax , which the
year before last had two flower spikes, one being nine,
the other ten feet high, which bore respectively 22
and 28 seed pods, which ripened ; and we have now
some young plants raised from them and growing
nicely. — E. D ., East Cosham , Hants.

Can Worms crawl Backwards? — Having read
the Rev. J. G. Wood’s statement that “it is im-
possible for the common earthworm to crawl back-
wards,” and also Mr. W. Budden’s note thereon in the
May number of Science-Gossip, I was induced the
other evening to experiment with a large worm in
the garden. It was proceeding along the path at a
quick rate, when I interrupted it by giving it several
gentle taps on the head with a small stick. At first
it seemed inclined to push on, but after repeated taps
from the stick it suddenly began to move backwards,
and continued to pursue its way in this manner until
it got out of sight. This incident confirms Mr.
Budden’s statement, that 1 ‘ worms can and do crawl
backwards.” — G. O. Howell, Shooter's Hill.

Worms crawling Backwards. — I can readily
confirm the statement of your correspondent, W.
Budden, that worms can and do crawl backwards ;
especially when, as he describes, they are touched on
the head by a small stick or any other substance.
Only a day or two since I saw two worms crawling
on the wet road, and by gently touching the head of
one it began to alter its course, with its head, to one
side, I again touched it and it immediately began
crawling backwards. The other one I wanted to get
to crawl on a piece of writing paper, but whichever
way I presented the paper to it, it would endeavour
to avoid it and crawl the reverse way. — J. G. B .,
Wrotham, Kent.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

213

Sparrow-hawk’s Nest and Eggs. — On the 8th
of May last I found a sparrow-hawk’s nest in a small
fir-tree, containing one egg only. As I very much
wanted a good specimen, and yet did not wish the
birds to forsake their nest, as they would in all pro-
bability have done had I left it empty, I took the one
egg and left in its place a blown one of the same sort,
which was rather an indifferent specimen. On the
10th I again visited the nest ; the old bird flew from
it, but it contained only the blown egg I had left.
On the 13th I went again to see it, and found two fresh
eggs laid, and the blown one thrown from the nest on
the ground below. Thus for two days following the
day on which the first egg was laid no other was pro-
duced, and during the next three days two only were
laid. This seems directly opposite to the opinion held
by the best authorities, that the eggs follow each other
day after day, and that when they are matured it is
beyond the power of the bird to abstain from laying
them. Could any one explain these apparent diffi-
culties ? — T. L. S.

Plates of Bird’s Eggs. — Since replying to a
question in Science-Gossip a few days ago relative
to diagrams of birds’ eggs, I have ascertained that
Messrs. Hachette and Co., the French publishers, of
King William Street, Strand, will undertake to procure
these or any other diagrams of the series to order. If
you think it worth while to append this information
to my former note, please do so at your discretion. I
have many of the series ; can furnish lists of the whole
if required. — Richard Lewis.

Cuckoo’s Eggs. — Your correspondent F. Ander-
son, in the June number, remarks on the rareness of
the cuckoo’s egg being found in nests, on, or near the
ground. A friend of mine found the egg of the
cuckoo in a skylark’s nest, and in the grey wagtail’s.
— E. V. Seebohm , Barnes , S. W.

Extraordinary situation for a Thrush’s
Nest. — On the outside wall of a beer-shop called
the “Gladstone Arms,” in the town of Wrotham,
directly under the sign-board, over the front door, a
thrush has built her nest, and is now sitting quite
closed ; the nest is only about two or three feet from
persons’ heads as they enter the door, and slightly
screened by a few branches of a monthly rose and
tea-trees. The landlord is very proud of his neigh-
bour, and affords her every protection as a reward for
the confidence she has placed in him. — J. G. B .,
Wrotham , Kent.

Removing Shells from Brood. — Can any of
your readers inform me how most birds so effectually
remove the shells of their eggs when their brood is
hatched, and what they do with them ? — J. M. W.

Query as to Nest. — In the early part of June,
1878, I was botanising in Berkshire, when I acci-
dentally discovered a bird’s nest, and being unable
to find what it might be, I thought some of Science-
Gossip readers might be able to tell me. The nest
was built in a tall bramble-bush, about four feet from
the ground, composed of twigs, with a lining of hair.
The size was about that of a greenfinch’s, but there
was scarcely any cavity for the eggs, which were five
in number, and exactly the size of the house-swallow’s ;
they were a pure white, but thickly spotted at the
large end only with red. The bird was sitting on
the eggs, and as far as I could see closely resembled
a whitethroat. The locality was a piece of waste
ground close to a large pond, and on the borders of
a wood. — Junior.

Curious Sites for Birds’ Nests. — Remarks by
“ G. T. ” at page 141 recall doubts formerly often felt,
and since revived at intervals, as to who might have
been the original architect of some particular nest.
Being again reminded of the subject, and without
reliable book, readily accessible, to tell what really
distinguishes the home of hawk, magpie, jay, crow,
or wood-pigeon, I am under the impression the nest
of the latter is flat and smaller in proportion to size
of owner ; one found, seven or nine feet up in
underwood, was a mere plate of wicker-work. The
plump featherless spinous squabs, with disproportionate
beak and head and distended crop, were passed down,
panting and palpitating, to close their eyes and die,
as my young fellow-marauder asserted, from the heat
of our hands and of fright. Other nests referred to
are often protected by the fork of a stout limb, or are
placed in an outer fringe of twigs incapable of support-
ing the lightest climber, yet so matted and interlaced
as, together with the height and structure, to afford
considerable immunity from missiles. Those who have
clambered and closely observed, may be aware of
differences in arrangement and construction that I
should be glad to be made acquainted with. From
the ground the nests seem to be much alike : those
of crows and hawks being perhaps more roughly put
together and made of thicker materials, whilst the
nests of magpies and jays are somewhat better finished,
deeper and of slighter and more pliant sticks. The
strong straight beaks and the feet of the two last-named
genera are, no doubt, handier tools for nest-making
than the corresponding members of hawks. When
the former birds were more abundant, they were
bold, establishing themselves near the haunts of man,
whilst wild pigeons and wary hawks sought the
deeper and more secluded recesses of woods. A crow
occupied an oak at the verge of a spinney close to a
poultry wife’s back door. It overshadowed the re-
creation-ground of her feathered charges. A small
cluster of oaks, enclosed between thick double hedges,
with tall fir-trees, formed the termination of a pleasure-
garden and orchard, and separated the crow’s oak and
spinney from a kitchen-garden flanked by another
and larger copse on the far side. A pair of jays
located themselves in a huge tree overhanging the
kitchen-garden with its prospective currants and rows
of green peas. A hundred yards farther within the
copse and the same distance from young poultry and
laying hens, a magpie selected an oak placed almost
singly where the underwood was cut. Beyond
where this remained untouched, a hawk built on a
similar tree, tall, of moderate size, and without
branches below a spreading head. The birds men-
tioned oppose appropriate cunning to the evil inten-
tions of numerous enemies. A concealed, or open
watcher may wait in vain for hours expecting
ingress or egress ; sticks and stones are hurled, and
shouting tried without result to dislodge the occupant
of an almost bullet-proof citadel, yet, when, for an
instant, vigilance relaxes or patience wanes, the artful
bird drops, like a stone, perpendicularly to the earth ;
almost brushing the face and breast of the stalker it
dives through the long grass and fern to be imme-
diately lost to sight ; or, possibly, turning away for
a moment, on looking back we see her slipping off
noiselessly on the other side, passing behind a faggot
pile or through the shelter of intervening trees, and
thus getting quickly out of range. Few birds are
more sly than the perky jay, hopping from bough to
bough, jerking its long tail ; crest and buff coat and
blue and black barrings of wing glistening in early sun-
light. ’ Twere as easy to “lure the wild vulture from
the heavens ” as get him in hand, but if the parents be
killed, fliers continue to hover about or soon fall

HARDIVICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

2 14

victims to the old gardener or keeper — thus some-
what discrediting the theory that impressions strongly
implanted on the brain of a parent are transmitted ;
so as to act without supplementary teaching — the
instinct of swallows for example. — F. F.

Tea Stains. — If a strong decoction of tea is added
to a solution of iron sulphate, a black coloration is
immediately given. It is formed owing to the action
of an organic astringent acid present in tea, and is
very analogous to the formation of ink, by mixing
together tincture of galls, and sulphate of iron.
Attempts have been made to utilise spent tea-leaves
for a like purpose. — C. j. W.

Tea Stains. — Dry tea-leaves contain from thirteen
to eighteen per cent, of an astringent principle, which
is a modification of tannin. This, in contact with iron,
produces a blackish-blue precipitate, in fact, a kind
of ink. — IV. AT. Holmes.

Tea Stains. — Most teas contain tannic acid in
greater or less quantity, and when tannic acid comes
in contact with steel, tannate of iron is formed, which
is of a bluish-black colour. Tannate of iron is of
course the colouring material of ordinary black ink.
R. N. B. will find ample information on tannic acid in
any work on organic chemistry. — Rev. S. D. Tit mas,
Godaiming.

Under what circumstances is the Yew
Poisonous to Horses and Cows ? — Youatt states
in his work on “Cattle” on the authority of M.
Husard, that “in Hanover and Plesse cattle are
partly fed upon leaves of the yew. The quantity of
yew is small at first, but it is gradually increased
until it constitutes the greater part of the food. The
inhabitants of Hanover and Hesse are nevertheless
perfectly aware of the poisonous properties of the
leaves of this tree, and are sometimes taught, by dear
experience, that it will destroy their cattle, unless it
is managed with this degree of caution.” The
poisonous properties are due to a substance called
“taxine,” which has not yet, as far as I am aware,
been thoroughly examined. Most' authorities have
agreed that yew leaves in all conditions are poisonous
both to man and cattle ; and it would not be difficult
to furnish overwhelming proof of this. Is your cor-
respondent J. H. G. quite sure that the van-horses
ate any of the yew from the garden ? If not, the fact
that they have never suffered, may be easily accounted
for. — W. AT. Holmes.

Cossus at Sugar. — With reference to this subject
I may mention a similar instance of this insect coming
to sugar some two seasons ago ; when going on to
the field rather later than usual, and not considering
it agood locality, I put the mixture on rather sparingly,
so this individual must have been possessed of very
keen senses. It was a fine female, and came on at
about dusk, almost before anything else. Is there any
satisfactory reason why the Nocturni so seldom seem
attracted by the sugar ? If any of your correspondents
could suggest such, I should be glad to receive the
information. — A. Horsley Hinton.

Cossus on Sugar. — While sugaring with a friend
in Highgate Woods in the summer of 1876, I was
surprised to find a fine male specimen of cossus,
seated on the higher part of the “sugar streak,”
evidently enjoying his unexpected luxury. My friend
succeeded in capturing him, and now has him in his
collection. On mentioning this capture to another
entomologist in the wood, I was told that they are to
be caught by sugaring on the willows on the banks of
the Lea in Essex. — J. O. B.

Leaves of Rhubarb. — I learn from PI. G. Glass-
poole’s interesting paper on “The History of
Rhubarb,” that the leaves of that plant were formerly
eaten as a vegetable. Will one of the readers of
Science-Gossip kindly tell me of a good mode of
preparing and cooking them as such ? — A. AT. P.

Notes of Frogs. — We have been passing the
winter at Biarritz, and often in our walks in the
neighbourhood we have heard a noise like the
tinkling of many sheep bells. This noise, some people
told us, was produced by a toad, and others by a
frog ; as both these reptiles abounded in the hedges,
it was difficult to ascertain from which the noise
really proceeded. Can any reader of the Science-
Gossip inform us if the pretty, cheerful sound was
made by a frog, or a toad, and how the noise was
produced ? — V. G.

Indigenous Medicinal Plants. — I should be
grateful for any information regarding localities
of the Indigenous Medicinal Plants, in the ancient
district Cumbria ; for identification only, none will
be removed. — J . Foster.

Stock-Ice. — In Science-Gossip for June a corre-
spondent states that in certain frosts the bottom of
streams and “ broads ” in Norfolk will freeze, and at
the giving of the frost a substance something like ice-
cream in appearance will come to the surface, to which
the local name of “Stock-Ice” is given. During a
severe winter which I spent many years ago in
Germany, I observed the phenomenon of water be-
ginning to freeze at the bottom instead of the top —
this occurred in one of the mountain-streams flowing
into the Neckar. I have not witnessed it since, nor
have I met with any explanation or mention of it,
but I thought at the time, and have since assumed,
that I had hit upon the true solution. Water, when
in a state of agitation, does not freeze so readily as
when it is still. The stream at its surface was in rapid
motion, but at the bottom there were recesses where the
water was nearly, if not entirely quiescent. Here, as
the temperature of all the water, and the containing
channel was far below the freezing-point, crystallisa-
tion was able to begin. The process was possibly
assisted by the presence of objects serving as a nucleus,
but I did not observe this, nor am I aware whether
the formation of ice is promoted by such means, but
the ice remained at the bottom in flocculent masses,
and may have been attached to the channel by some-
thing round which it had formed. I should add that
lower down the valley an overshot mill was completely
draped with curtains of icicle, which had accumulated
till the wheel was completely stopped. It may be
said that there the water, though in motion, had
frozen. I imagine, however, that where water is
already below 320 Fahr., and is only kept from freez-
ing by motion, some very slight change of conditions
is sufficient to turn the scale and to cause the process
of crystallisation to set in. I shall be glad if some of
your scientific readers will give their views on the
facts stated, and my suggested explanation of them. —
y. Hannen , Offham, Leivcs.

Dutch Clover. — In our neighbourhood, Cleve-
don, Somerset, I find this year an abundance of the
Dutch clover (71 repens ), with flower heads in
various stages of transformation or reversion to leaves.
The petals, and sometimes the carpels, are quite
green and trifoliate shaped, exactly like miniature
specimens of the ordinary leaves. Trilolium hybridum
shows the same tendency to monstrous growth this
year. The excessive rainfall is suggested as a cause.
— W. E. Green.

215

HARD IV I CKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

Arum maculatum. — A little girl, six years of
age, died this week in the neighbourhood of Liss,
from the effects produced by eating the spadix of the
arum. The child’s mother was working in a hop
field, and took the little girl to help her, as she ex-
pressed it, “ out of harm.” The child went to
wild flowers, and finding some “lords and ladies
ate several. She became ill, and after lingering for
some days died in great agony, medical aid not
having (I believe) been sought. I did not hear of the
case until after the little poor sufferer’s death, and then
it was only incidentally mentioned, that “a child had
died from eating arum flowers.” Country people are
so sadly ignorant of the poisonous properties of our
native wild plants, that I am surprised more deaths
do not occur. — Airs. Alfred Watney.

Natterjack Toad.— In reply to Mr. Perrycap’s
query, I found the natterjack quite an interesting pet
and easily kept. I had him in a small fern case, in a
corner of which he took up his abode, scratching a
hole in the soil, in which he sat with his bright eyes
on the look-out for any insect or worm thrown to
him. When a worm was given to him he stood over
it much like a terrier over a rat, and with a snap
soon made an end of lumbricus. If the worm was
large and struggled violently, he assisted it into his
mouth with his hands (or hand, as he had at an
early age lost one). Insects he generally caught by
a rapid stroke of the tongue, but he declined any
that were dead ; in the winter, when insect food was
scarce, I fed him on little pieces of raw meat, which
he readily took if they were gently moved as if
endowed with life. When in the possession of his
former owner he once made a meal of a young snake,
eight inches long (see Science-Gossip for 1873,
page 93). He was also fond of a bath, and would
sit for hours at a time in a little pan of water placed
in the case beside him. He got so tame that he
would come to my hand, into which he would crawl
to be taken for an airing through the house, catching
the flies from off the walls. Last year “ Diabolus ”
(a name given him by a lady friend of mine) did not
seem so lively after his winter nap, and his tongue
seemed to have lost its cunning, and he with diffi-
culty took any food, till one morning I found him
dead in his corner. He was about ten years in con-
finement, and probably died of old age. If Mr. Perrycap
wishes any further information I shall be glad to give
it if he sends me his address. — J. M. Campbell.

Books on Botany. — In the article on “Books on
Botany” in the August issue I find two mistakes.
According to the latest catalogues that I have seen,
the two volumes in Collins’s Advanced Series by
Prof. Balfour are not yet published, and the transla-
tion of Le Maout and Decaisne is 31L 6d. not 52s. 6d.
Thorne’s “Botany,” also, is not a book on a special
branch, but a general text-book, though not on the
usual plan. I think the idea of lists of suitable books
for students a good one. Brief lists, more compressed
on account of space, might guide students in their
choice. — A. Wheatley.

Register of Working Field Botanists. — It
has often occurred to me what a useful thing would
be a register of working field botanists, similar to
that of entomologists, published some years ago by
Mr. Stainton. There must be in every place at least
one working botanist who would be glad to place his
name on such a register as willing to help strangers
by affording information as to the local flora. I have
just again been reminded of this by a botanical visitor
to this town, whose acquaintance, to our mutual
regret, I only made a day or two before he left. Had
there been such a register, we might have had many

pleasant rambles together. If I might suggest such
a thing, I should think a list, alphabetically
arranged as to towns, and published annually, say as
a supplement to Science-Gossip, and for which
some small fee could be charged, would meet what is
required. — Arthur D. Melvm.

Robberies of Kestrels. — Many readers of
Science-Gossip must lately have noticed a series of
letters in the newspapers in which the amount of
good and evil done by our birds of prey is made the
object of discussion. Much of the correspondence
consists of examinations into the kestrel’s claims to
a good character, and it must be confessed that the
bird has not come out of the affair quite so honourably
as we would have wished. It is certainly ungracious
in the kestrel, while his friends are defending his
reputation for good behaviour, to frustrate their kind
endeavours by carrying off young chickens and
pheasants to his nest, where the remains must be
discovered by the first unfeathered biped who chooses
to pay him a domiciliary visit. But the reports of
these discoveries in the Standard are only too con-
clusive, even if we had not evidence nearer home.
In this neighbourhood many chickens lately dis-
appeared. A hawk’s nest close at hand, being fired
into on suspicion, was brought bodily to the ground,
and proved to contain two young kestrels and a
dead chicken. This is only a unit added to the list
of misdemeanours decisively “brought home” to the
kestrel during the present season. Unusual events
have not been scarce this summer, and in few cases
have attempts been made to account for them,
somehow or other, by the “lateness of the season.”
It is worth inquiring whether the windhover may not
fairly claim this excuse for his singular violation of
the trust which naturalists have always placed in
him. The fieldmouse being the staple food of the
kestrels, it is presumably the chief diet in ordinary
seasons of the young birds in the nest, and as the
cornfields are the usual habitat of this animal, it
must be on these that the young kestrels depend in
great measure for their subsistence. In this county
(Wexford) where the bird is very common, I have
observed that it seems to take complete possession of
the fields as soon as they are reaped, scarcely a stubble
being not daily visited by it. It then presents a noble
contrast to the sparrow-hawk, which hardly ever
shows himself in such localities. When the young
kestrels are fledged, which does not take place till the
harvest has made considerable progress, the families
repair en masse to the stubbles, and must then do an
incalculable amount of good. But this year the bird
is in a predicament. The young are in the nest, and
must be fed ; but though August has begun, the corn
scarcely shows signs of ripening, and reaping is as yet
out of the question. Even the sharp eye of the
kestrel is unable to detect its prey among the green
waving fields of oats and barley, which everywhere
greet the eye, and it is not wonderful after all that it
should turn elsewhere to seek its food. In such a
state of things it occurs to me that our friend must be
even a worse depredator than that notorious robber
the sparrow-hawk. For the mouse-hunting instinct
of the former teaches it to seek its prey only on the
ground, and thus, in the absence of mice, the number
of pheasants, partridges, and chickens, which fall into
its grasp, would probably be much greater than would
be carried off by the sparrow-hawk, which seizes its
victims indiscriminately from the ground or from the
branches of trees, and often chases them on the wing
for considerable distances. If these conjectures are
right, the general character of Tinnunculus remains
unimpaired, and only for the present summer can he
be considered a public enemy. — C. B. M.

2 I 6

HARDIVICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the yth of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the “ exchanges ” offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
“exchanges” which cannot be tolerated.

H. H. (W. Ashling). — Your mint is a form of M. arveusis ;
it approaches M. agrestis very closely. The other is Cala-
mintha sylvatica, it is too diffuse for C. menthifolia.

M. M. C. C. S. (Somerset). — The specimen you enclose is
the snowberry (Symphoria racemosa), a North American
shrub, not uncommon in cottage gardens. We have no doubt
whatever it is the plant called snowdrop tree by your Welsh
correspondent ; we have heard it named snowball, snowdrop,
and snowberry.

J. G. G. (Chipperfield). — We have done our best by micro-
scopical examination, to find out the cause of the discoloration ;
the cells are devoid of chlorophyll, still the leaf is uninjured,
and has evidently not suffered either from insect or fungoid
growth.

C. Vance Smith. — You can get living marine zoophytes, &c.,
from Mr. T. McGann, Gortaclare, Burren, Ireland ; and weekly
supplies of living microscopical animals from the excellent studio
of Mr. Thomas Bolton, 17 Ann Street, Birmingham. Many
thanks for your beautiful slides.

John Platt (Nantwich). — We have received the shell you
say was one of several which came from a girl’s ear. It is the
upper part of an empty clausilia — a common shell on hedge-
banks and moss. The girl must have been lying on the grass, or
else have put the shells in her ear, as children often do put such
things. It is utterly impossible the shells could have lived in the
girl’s head, and they certainly had not been in her ears long
before they came out.

E. D. Bayley. — Thanks for your specimen of rose in which
two buds are growing together by their calyces.

J. A. W. — Lindsay’s “ British Lichens,” published by Rout-
ledge, at 7 s. 6 d., with coloured plates, is a good introductory
book.

W. Purves (Callander). — See articles on “The Preparation
of Insects for Microscopical Examination,” in Science-Gossip
for May and June of the present year. Also chapter in “ Collect-
ing and Preserving Natural History Objects,” published by
D. Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s Square, London, price 2s- 6d.

R. A. Buller. — The “crystalline cases” attached to sea-
weeds, are the egg-cases of some mollusc, perhaps of a species
of Natica. The “ growth ” attached to underside of walnut leaf
are the stalked eggs of some insect. In many respects they
resemble those of the lace-wing.

H. H. Browne. — We have not as yet received any box con-
taining the wild flower you mention.

W. K. (Leeds). — We sent off your specimens to a gentleman to
be named, and he has unfortunately mislaid them. Please send
us others.

J. VT. Wilson. — You will find details of the genus acarus, in
Boisduval’s “ L’Entomologie Horticole,” also a good synopsis
in the “ Micrographic Dictionary.” Westwood’s “Entomologist’s
Text-Book,” will supply you with details of the genus Atropos.

S. Boxford. — See note on “Reptile Vivaria” in Science-
Gossip for 1878, page 38 ; also details as to reptiles in confine-
ment, in Science-Gossip, vol. iv. page 272. A description of
a “ Reptile Vivarium ” is contained in Science-Gossip for 1876,
page 266.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, a little sand or dredgings containing globigerina.
A liberal exchange in double-stained vegetable tissues in return.
—Charles Vance Smith, Carmarthen.

Wanted, well-mounted slides (dry) of all the Pleurosigmata,
in exchange for physiological and others. Lists to M. Fowler,
Burn Row, Slamannan, IN .B.

A good triple nosepiece and a pair of stage forceps, in ex-
change for a really good one inch and a fair quarter inch
objective. — T. S. Harrison, The Laboratory, 31 Scale Lane,
Hull.

For mounted slides of Podura curvicollis or Degeiria ;
send other slides of interest. — T. Forty, Buckingham.

Three and a half volumes of the “Intellectual Observer,”

unbound, and all the Lepidoptera I take this year for fossils or
books. — J. A. Floyd, Alcester, Warwickshire.

Wanted, microscopic apparatus or books, for a complete set
of “ Grevillea.” — C. Weeks, Torquay.

Teeth, cartilage, &c. (unmounted), from Slamannan coal
measures, make good slides, showing structure, for other un-
mounted material. Send lists to M. Fowler, Burn Row,
Slamannan, N.B.

Land and fresh-water shells, taken in Yorkshire for those of
other counties. Address, H. Pollard, Philosophical Hall, Leeds.

Fine specimens of Batis, Derasa, Diluta, Hepatica, Brunnea,
Nebulosa, Ziczac, Jota, Albicillata, and others. Wanted good
British eggs, or marine shells. — Thomas H. Hedworth, Dunston,
Gateshead.

Silurian corals and brachiopods, good specimens named and
unnamed, in exchange for other fossils. — F. Ashton, 46 Lingard
Street, Moss Side, Manchester.

Wanted, the “Gamekeeper at Home,” by the author of
“ Wild Life in a Southern County,” in exchange for Hayward’s
“ Botanist’s Pocket-book.” — Indus Villa, Livingstone Road,
Havelock Park, Southsea, Hants.

Slides of Phthirius pubis (human crab louse), in exchange
for other parasites. Send lists to A. W. Stokes, Laboratory,
Guy’s Hospital, S.E.

Wanted, 46, 103, 119, 170b, 511, 559b, 678b, 730, 757c, 828,
933, 992b, 1057b, 1081, 1139b, 1222, 1227b, 1228, 1266, 1279,
1286, 1298, 1347, 1410, 1457, 1582b, 1669, 1670, 1671, 1673, 1674,
and 1678, for Potamogetou Zizii, M and K. — Andrew Brotherston,
Shedden Park Road, Kelso, N.B.

Larvae of Bucephala, Filipendula, Salicis, and Chrysorrhoea,
also British plants for larvae and pupae. — Tunley, 7 Albert Road,
Southsea.

Wanted, Kentish books, deeds, and guides— or rubbings of
monumental brasses, from any county. Exchange natural
objects, fossils, ferns, seaweeds, &c. — F. Stanley, Margate.

“ Nature,” complete, 19 volumes, beautifully half-bound,
rest of numbers up to date, in exchange for binocular microscope.
Address, Alfred Tozer, Jackson Row, Manchester.

Wanted, for a consideration, live reptiles, British or Foreign.
— J. M. Campbell, Kelvin Grove Park, Glasgow.

Fine collection of well-preserved U. S. plants, about 1000
species, including grasses and ferns. Wanted, works on
Entomology, botany (specially cryptogamic), or offers. — Address,
care of Editor.

Wanted, good micro material, prepared or in the rough —
Foraminifera, Polycystina, Spicula, Diatoms, E. spines, &c., for
first-class slides. — James Green, the Cross, March.

Hornets and Wasps (living ones preferred) wanted in ex-
change for first-rate insect preparations. Please write, before
sending any insects, to E. S., 24 Grummant Road, Peckham, S.E.

S. lacustke, P. nitidum , P. pusillnm, N . Jluviatilis, L.
glabra, P. iuvolutus, L. involutus, and other shells, in exchange
for numerous desiderata. — Henry Laver, F.L.S., 1 Trinity
Street, Colchester.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

“Smithsonian Report, 1877.” Washington: Government
Printing Office.

“Wild Flowers worth Notice” (new edition). By Mrs. Lan-
kester. London : D. Bogue.

“ Manual of Bee Keeping.” By John Hunter (3rd edition).
London : D. Bogue.

“ Greenhouse Favourites.” Part iii. London : Groombridge.
“Proceedings of Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club, 1878-9.”

“ Journal of Quekett Microscopical Club.” No. 40. London:
D. Bogue.

“ Midland Naturalist.” August.

“Land and Water.”

“ Ben Brierley’s Journal.”

“Journal of Applied Science.”

“Feuille des Jeunes Naturalisbes.”

“ Science News.” July, August.

“American Quarterly Microscopical Journal.” No. iv.

“ American Naturalist.” August.

“ Bulletin of the Essex Institution.” Vol. ii. nos. 4, 5, 6.

“ Bulletin de la Societe Beige de Microscopie.” No. ix.
“Annual Report of the Goole Scientific Society, for 1878-9.”
&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to ioth ult. from
J. F. R.— J. S.— T. F.— B. H.— G. N.— D. K. B.— C. W.—

T. V. D.— F. V. P.— J. W. S.— W. W. I.— S. B.— H. W. F.—
W. H. D— J. B. B.— J. S. S— J. C.— W. W.— R. B. B.—
C. F. W. T. W.— J. S. H.— C. V. S.— G. H— C. B.-J. P.—
J. H. W.— A. W.— W. J.— C. H. D.-W. M. P.— E. D. B.—
R. H. W.— F. A.— W. W.— H. P.— C. B. M.— T. H. H —

R. A. B.— W. A. K.— M. F.— A. W. S.— E. G. H.— J. F.—
A. B.— S. M.— B. H.— J. A. W.— H. B.— E. S.— D. H.—

S. B.— R. T.— W. P.— F. S.— W. S.— F. C. K.— W. E. G.—
W. H. T.— J. M. C— J. S. H.— H. B.— B. B. S.— G. H.—
M. H. R.— C. D. S.— J. T. M.— T. H. A.— A. P.-A. T.—
W. H. N.— &c.

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

217

LICHENS, AND A POLLUTED ATMOSPHERE.

IJRING the spring
ofthe present year,
I was very much
struck with the
disastrous effects
of a deleterious
atmosphere on the
growth of lichens.
At the same time,
I felt very forcibly
the confirmation
of the fact that
these humble
plants, so beauti-
fully covering na-
ture’s less graceful
parts, as well as
pioneering a
higher vegetable
growth, are them-
selves aerial plants.
What the water with its solutions is to the Algoe, so
the air with its chemical substances is to the lichen.

If the latter fed and nourished its growth through
its rhizinse or from the matrix, we should be at a
loss to understand the utter obliteration of plants
in the same circumstances which once flourished
in fruited luxuriance. Growing with other plants in
the same place, if it nourished itself in the same way,
we should naturally expect the lichen to hold its own
with its fellows, subject, of course, to those changes
which come alike to all vegetable life ; but it is not
so. The lichen will entirely disappear from a spot
without any observable change in the other vegeta-
tion around, and that from a pollution of the air
which is not sufficient to affect those plants which
nourish themselves from the soil or matrix of growth.

In Winch’s “ Flora of Northumberland,” published
in the Trans. Nat. Hist. Society of Northumberland
and Durham, 1832, mention is made of a number of
lichens growing in the woods at Gibside, Durham.
Amongst the plants enumerated is Evernia prunastri
(L), said to be in fructification in Gibside Woods.
As I have never had the pleasure of gathering this
species in fruit in any part of North Durham, or the
No. 178.

west and south of Northumberland (which I have
more or less searched), I went out to Gibside in the
spring to see if I could find the above lichen. Gibside
is some seven miles from Newcastle to the south-
west. The hall is beautifully placed on the Derwent.
The surrounding woods run back on to Whickham
Fell. On the latter I found one or two forms of
Callema, and what seemed to be Peltigera malacea ,
but it was not in fruit, and a few of the commoner
forms of Lecanora and Lecidea. Gibside Woods,
barring the atmosphere, are favourable enough for the
growth of fructiculose and foliaceous lichens, but for
any of these forms I searched them in vain. Not a
trace of the series Ramalodei could I find. The trees
were as barren of Usnea, Ramalina, and Evernia as if
they had never known them, and I might say of
almost every other form. I found here and there on
an old fir a few barren patches of the thallus of some
Calicium, and I noticed a few forms of Lecanora and
Lecidea by the river side.

The lichens which flourished here in the fine
condition spoken of by Winch have perished, and
this evidently from the pollution of the atmosphere
by the smoke and fumes from the Tyneside, and the
collieries of the surrounding district. Though these
are a considerable distance from Gibside, yet the
deleterious elements travel on the wind, for the trees
have that dusky coating on their trunks and branches
which is peculiar to trees bordering a town, and
which is fatal to lichen -growth.

Gateshead-on-Tyne. W. Johnson.

SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF HAYES
COMMON, KENT.

By George Clinch.

HAYES COMMON is pleasantly situated in one
of the most beautiful parts of West Kent,
about two miles from Bromley. It is bounded on the
south and west by valleys, and forms a gently
inclined plane dipping to the north and north-west.
The subsoil mostly consists of pebble beds, which are
composed of light brown quartz sand and well-rolled
flint pebbles of various shapes and sizes. These beds

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HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

form the lower part of what is geologically known as
the “Woolwich and Reading beds,” and they rest
upon the chalk.

Their thickness at Hayes Common is perhaps
from thirty to forty feet, but, owing to the absence of
any sections in the central parts of the common
reaching to the chalk, the exact thickness cannot be
definitely ascertained. Most, if not all, of these
pebbles are undoubtedly flints derived from the chalk,
rolled and ground down into the form of pebbles.
But the sand, which occurs with the pebbles, could
not have been derived from the same source. Neither
could it have resulted from the attrition of the chalk
flints. The absence, moreover, of any chalky matter
indicates that the sand was obtained from some other
rock. My own opinion is this : during the Lower
Eocene period the London basin may have received
material resulting from the destruction of rocks in the
Wealden area. This would easily explain the origin
of the sand on Hayes Common ; and I am the more
inclined to believe in this theory from having fre-
quently observed in the immediate neighbourhood
small pieces of worn ferruginous sandstone, such as is
very abundant in the upper greensand at Sevenoaks
and other places. Sir Charles Lyell, in his
“Elements,” expresses it as his opinion, that “con-
tiguous parts of the sea were sufficiently deep to
receive and retain the matter derived from that
waste,” (i.e. the denudation of the weald).

The water by which these beds were deposited,
appears to have been subject to a variety of currents,
giving rise to what is known as irregular bedding ;
and from the general character of the beds, it seems
probable that they were thrown down upon a kind of
beach which was continually rising. In one or two
instances, however, I have met with diagonal bedding ,
and the dip of the laminae in these cases was toward
the east.

I may note here that the “ Thanet sand,” which
is the lowest member of the Lower Eocene rocks, is
not present in this part of Kent, although it occurs in
considerable thickness in Mid and East Kent.

At the base of the pebble beds a thin stratum of
clay occurs, inclosing unworn green-coated chalk
flints. Upon the surface a thin band of peat, of from
two to eight inches thick, has been formed by the
dense vegetation of furze and heath.

No fossil remains of any kind have been found in
the pebble-beds proper of Hayes Common ; but the
writer has frequently found shells characteristic of the
“Woolwich and Reading beds,” in a bed of clay
situated at the south-eastern extremity of Hayes
Common, and exposed in section at Coney Hall Hill.
Some time since, a skull (in a rather perfect condition)
of the Bos primigenius was found in the gravel
occupying the bottom of a valley in the immediate
vicinity.

Perhaps I ought to mention, as an interesting fact
in connection with Hayes Common, that recently a

large number of pits have been noticed which are
supposed to be the remains of British “pit dwellings.”
The writer, having found worked flints on the common,
was led to open one of these pits (December, 1878),
but nothing of importance was found. Before long,
it is hoped, other pits will be opened, and thus some
knowledge gained of these interesting remains.

Deposits of pebble-beds, similar to that at Hayes,
are frequently met with in West Kent and Surrey ;
and their presence is usually betrayed by the peculiar
vegetation which they support. We must not, how-
ever, infer that these deposits were once spread over
the entire surface of the country. There is good
reason to believe that the general features of the
country in this neighbourhood remain the same now
as when originally deposited and left by the retiring
sea.

It will be seen, therefore, that the geological
features of Hayes Common, although lacking in
anything of an unusual nature, are not, at least,
destitute of some interest, and may, after all, teach
the young student of nature some facts worth
knowing.

ORNITHOLOGICAL ESSAYS.

No. II. — Sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus).

By Tom Wm. Dealy.

BIRDS of prey form so conspicuous a position
in our mountain landscape, that it is no wonder
they do not thrive. Shot at, and entrapped by
keepers, who have every incentive to wage war
a ontrance against these bold depredators, who
wonders at their decreasing numbers? Any winged
“vermin” which darkens the zealous keeper’s path
has but small chance of safety. Rewards are offered
him for their heads and limbs ; collectors and dealers
tempt him to risk his huge form in clambering over
precipitous rocks, and gaining dizzy eminences, that
he may approach their well-nigh inaccessible eyries.
Indeed, when we enumerate the numberless diffi-
culties ’this tribe of birds has to contend with, our
astonishment is that any remain.

Conspicuous among this persecuted family is the
subject of this essay. It is one of the short-winged
hawks. Most of the members constituting the family
Falconidae may be termed courageous, and are
particularly eminent for their bravery and noble
carriage ; but the sparrowhawk carries with this a
degree of impudence and daring which makes it the
universal terror of the smaller of the feathered tribe.
Many are the stories current of the bold, fearless
daring of this hawk— of dashing through glass in
impetuous pursuit of its intended victims ; of chasing
them into rooms, compelling them to take refuge in
unlooked-for places, such as flying to man, claiming
from him that protection which they cannot find else-
where. One poor bird, I remember, “ took sanctuary ”

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

219

in the bosom of a lady. When giving chase to its
prey, it has been known to clash itself against material
objects with such impulsive force as to occasion
instant death. I must crave the reader’s indulgence
in relating the following incident. It shows the
remarkable audacity of this bird, and as it is taken
from a paper which few of your readers see, I think
I am not wrong in introducing it here. “ A hawk
must live, and many strange tales are told of its
powers of flight in chase of its prey. A little incident
was witnessed by some gentlemen who were driving
through Bickerton lately, which well illustrates its
daring when goaded by hunger. The bird was
observed for some time. For a period it steadied
itself in the air, with imperceptible motion, and then
with swift descent darted down upon a rook ( Corvus
frugilegus ) which had alighted on a tree. The rook,
which was quite as heavy as the hawk, was carried
some distance in the talons of the latter, but its
weight dragged it to the ground, where the struggle
for supremacy was continued; but not for long, as
with sharp strokes of the bill the hawk proved itself
the victor, and gorged itself with its hardly earned
meal.”

Yet with all this impudent courage, the sparrow-
hawk is sometimes — nay, often — ignominiously put to
flight. When it appears in any neighbourhood, the
little birds give each other timely warning of the
enemy’s approach ; and, as we think that “ unity
and combination are strength,” so think the little
birds, for under this impulse they unite in one body
and with loudly iterated twitterings of rage and
vengeance drive this pert, audacious hawk in grace-
less retreat from their domains. It is only by calling
into full requisition its power of wing that it can
make good its escape from its relentless pursuers.
Even then the swiftest of them, such as swallows
and others, are foremost in the attack, flying round
it, uttering shrill cries of vengeance, buffeting it,
and tormenting it in various ways, until they are
satiated and return to more peaceful duties. Some-
times, however, the hawk will suddenly turn round
on its pursuers, scattering them as a whirlwind, and
with a loud shriek of blended rage and fury seize one
of the bolder of its assailants and carry it off in its
sharp talons for its temerity.

Should there be any starling roosts within its radii
of exploration, it is sure to pay them frequent
periodical visits. Charles Waterton had a starling
Star mis vulgaris) tower, which was occasionally
visited by this daring bird. He says “ His unwel-
come visit causes a tremendous uproar. An universal
shriek of terror announces his detested presence ; and
scarcely have I time to fix my eyes upon the tower
ere the intruder is off with a starling in his talons.”

All the farmyards within a certain distance of its
eyrie are well known. It knows to a near guess
where a morning’s meal is to be procured. It knows
which farmyards are well stocked with poultry, and

which are not. If there be any preserves of partridges
or pheasants in its vicinage, it will acquaint them
with its presence. It levies frequent contributions
on all — farmyard and preserve, poultry and game —
with a degree of regularity which demonstrates con-
clusively its effrontery.

This hawk is more abundant than it would appear
to be, owing to its shy, wary, restless disposition,
which necessitates it to shun man’s society, and seek
rather the deep solitudes and quiet seclusion of the
most tangled retreats of the forest. As the hobby
( Falco subbuteo) has been called a miniature peregrine
( Falco peregrinus), so in like manner has the sparrow-
hawk been not inaptly termed a diminutive goshawk
( Astur palumbarius ), to which in form it bears some
resemblance.

It sometimes perches on the top of a decayed tree
or a hedge stake, alighting very suddenly. Its
position is very erect, its mien determined and active,
and its small head is continually moving about,
directing, with searching vigilance, its small keen eyes
on all sides in eager search for prey. Its power of
sight is very great. It often soars to a great altitude.
This cannot be to look for food, the height being
such as to preclude the possibility of prey being
discerned — keen though its sight — from the elevations
often attained. It is doubtless a sense of exuberant
happiness and unconcealed joy. Its aerial evolutions,
notwithstanding the comparative shortness of its
wings, are not altogether devoid of graceful move-
ment as it glides through the higher regions, making
circles of more than ordinary diameter with great
beauty and effect. It often takes protracted and
extended flights, which are apparently executed with
every facility, The interior of dark, thick woods of
fir or pine appears most suitable to the temperament
of this impulsive bird.

A fir forest, on a rugged fell-side, with a stream
running through in tortuous passage, is a sure haunt
of this bird. It sweeps over the canopy of rustling
leaves with quick motion, and, suddenly shutting its
wings, drops on some decayed tree ; there to rest, or
to wait with expectant, vigilant eye and patient
perseverance the appearance of some unwary bird,
upon which it flies up from its resting-place and gives
instant chase. The figure of this hawk is very slim
and elegant ; its whole contour fitting it for a bold,
daring, freebooting existence. In fact, its life is
essentially one of continued action and exertion, of
marauding expeditions, of ceaseless plunder, and
deeds of piracy. Indeed, this bird is a pirate among
feathered creatures, the tyrannical despot of the
woods, a rover, a pillager, and a plunderer. It shoots
through the air like a passing meteor — dark and
mysterious— and, as a flash of heavenly light, dashes
itself upon its poor, luckless victim, which, by varied
intricacies of flight and ever variant manoeuvres, en-
deavours to evade the sharp talons and mortal clutch
of its savage pursuer. One moment, and we behold

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HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

it hovering in beautiful flight near the surface of the
earth, while in the next we see it, with increasing
rapidity of wing, ascending higher and higher, until
it arrives at a di zzy height, and there circling with
varied and beautiful curves, its piercing eye beholds
the illimitable expanse below. But suddenly, with
closed wings, as a thunderbolt from the quiver of
mighty Jove, as the passage of light through space,
it descends with inconceivable velocity, down to the
less pure regions below, until it seems that it is about
to precipitate itself to certain death on the earth ; but
no ! with expanded wings and broad tail, with a
shrill, rapturous cry of exultation, it dashes into
the interior depths of the wood. What more fine
than the bold flight and wild freedom of this bird !

Let us examine the sternum of this hawk. Look
at it, and mark the depth of the keel, and we see
clearly indicated great power and extension of flight.
Those who have frequented the haunts of this bird
must have observed how suddenly it stops in its
rapid onward course, and how instantly it alights.
Its lofty, protracted evolutions in atmospheric regions
and its almost untiring wing evince its buoyancy and
lightness, while the impetus with which we have
often observed it descend denotes plainly that it
likewise possesses an amount of density. However
inconsistent and illogical this may sound, it is never-
theless true. It is no illusory theory. It is a well-
known established fact, and facts are stubborn
obstacles to overcome.

It is pleasant to think of this bird in conjunction
with the wild localities it frequents. Our rambles
through the dark, gloomy fir forest, or on the rocky
slopes of the North, give us abundant opportunities
of observing it in all its wild and distinctive character-
istics.

Gamekeepers see no beauty in the flight of hawks,
or in their wonderful instinctive passages to other
climes, or in the rapidity and grace of their heaven-
ward movements. Their sole object, their only
desire, is to see their preserves well stocked, and to
know that they have rid the neighbouring woods of
all “vermin ’’—for such they designate all birds and

Fig. 167. -Head of Sparrowhawk.

Fig. 168. — Foot of Sparrowhawk.

animals which stand in the way of their darling projects.
The sparrowhawk’s supply of food involves a question
of great import to the keeper, and is worthy of more
than passing consideration. All look upon this bird,
as well as all other birds bearing the appellation of
“hawk,” as an enemy, and a hindrance to their
object of rearing game, and thus exert every influence
to exterminate it. And yet, were it possible to write
an exact account of this bird’s sustenance, say for a
month, and elucidate the results, the rough owner of
velveteen, little though he may know about the arts
of ratiocination, would be surprised. But it is useless
arguing with such, it is an unnecessary waste of so
much vital force and energy. If, however, they were
to study more deeply, and examine more carefully,
the habits of this and other birds, they would find all

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-G OSSIE.

221

their reputed arguments fly as chaff before the winds,
melt away into nought as the mist before the genial
rays of the sun, in the light of the incontrovertible
facts they would obtain. They would illumine the
prejudices of their darkened illiterate minds. Their
“ museums ” would be empty, and they would become
practical ornithologists, then enabled to behold with
delight the combined grace and elegance of the
movement in mid-air of the birds which before they
saw but to shoot. And what is more, their pre-
serves would be stocked with healthier birds.

Were keepers to proceed in a proper manner, they
need experience no fear from hawks, and their woods
would be filled with finer game. Farmers would not
have to employ lads to frighten away sparrows
[Passer domesticus) and other birds from destroying
the ripening grain. The sparrowhawk, nature’s own
gift, would more effectually do this. Why is it that
such birds as sparrows (not, indeed, that I proclaim
the ban of extermination against them, because,
without doubt, in reasonable numbers they are bene-
ficial in their way) are so superabundant ? We need
not look far for a reply. The balance of nature is dis-
turbed, nay, her equilibrium is upset, and behold the
consequence, witness the result. Granted that the
sparrowhawk does occasionally feast on game, that
it sometimes makes a meal off a chicken. Frighten
it with a blank charge, restrain it in this habit. If
you leave your house unguarded, will not the burglars
enter? Watch it, and it will soon cease to reiterate
its visits. Or, if it does come, it will confine itself
to the hosts of noisy sparrows which usually con-
gregate in the stackyard. And what if it does on
rare occasions feed on a partridge [Perdrix cinerea ) ?
What if it flies off with a young pheasant ? Who is
there who will shoot the wary fox, even though he
steals a whole tribe of geese and ducks ? All that is
required is watchful care and vigilant attention.
Keepers of the woods, divest yourselves of selfish
prejudice, or the wrong will recoil on your own heads.
Learn to study the economy of this bird, and you
will find that most of the stolen game you attribute to
a winged thief has been taken by a weasel or a fox,
or other of the four-legged tribe which inhabit the
recesses of your domains.

[To be continued.)

THE HISTORY OF THE APPLE-TREE.

By H. G. Glasspoole.

THE early history of the apple-tree is veiy ancient,
connected as it is with so many legends of
remote antiquity. In former days this tree was sup-
posed to have been the tree of knowledge, to whose
fruit may be traced all the miseries of mankind, and
our first mother, Eve, is generally represented, in the
pictures of the temptation, holding an apple in her
hand ; this is not, however, particularised in the

Bible. The apple is only mentioned five times in the
Scriptures, and it is a disputed point if the fruit
referred to was the same as the apple of the present
day. The climate of Palestine is unfitted for the
cultivation of this tree except in the higher regions.
In the mythologies of the Greeks, the Scandinavians
and Druids, we find the apple-tree mentioned. The
golden fruit of the Iiesperides, which it was one of
the labours of Hercules to procure, in spite of the
fierce dragon that guarded them and never slept,
were said to be apples, though modern waiters suppose
them to be oranges.

The Thebans used to offer apples on the altars
dedicated to Hercules, a custom derived from the
following circumstance : on one occasion the river
Asopus overflowed its banks to such an extent that
it was found impossible to bring a sheep for sacrifice
across it, when some youths, recollecting that the
Greek word ‘ 1 melon ” signified both sheep and an apple,
stuck four wooden pegs into the fruit to represent legs,
and brought this vegetable quadruped as a substitute
for the usual offering, after which, the apple was
always considered as especially devoted to Hercules.
The late Mrs. Bayle Bernard, in her work on our
common fruits, gives the following amusing de-
scription of the Scandinavian legend of the apple ;
after having spoken of the Eastern story of the for-
bidden fruit, she says : “When we come to the cold
Norse regions, far from the land where the citron
blows, we can have no doubts as to the real pippinism
of those apples of immortality kept by the fair Iduma,
by regaling on which, the gods of the Edda were
wont to renew their youth ; the wicked Loke stole
and hid away both the maiden and her fruit, leaving
the bereaved divinities to pine away, losing their
vigour both of body and mind, and neglecting the
affairs of heaven and earth until mortals deprived of
celestial supervision, fell into all manner of evil ; and
it almost happened that for the want of an apple the
world was lost.” Well was it, that at last, summoning
all that remained of their expiring energies, they
succeeded in forcing the robber to restore those
precious pomes on which the welfare of both realms
depended.

Leaving the realms of fiction, and the mythological
tales of the ancients, let us turn to those accounts
which prove that this fruit is one of the most ancient
on record. Dr. Ileer states that carbonised apples and
pears have been found in the Lake dwellings dis-
covered at Concise in Lake Neufchatel and other
similar localities in Switzerland. Apples were more
numerous than pears ; both are of a small kind, but
resemble those which still grow wild in the Swiss
forests. However, specimens have occurred which
are of a larger size, these were probably cultivated.
(Sir John Lubbock, “ Prehistoric Times.”)

Greece in ancient days, we are told, produced most
excellent apples, the island of Euboea enjoyed an
extraordinary reputation for this fruit (see “ Athen.”

2 2 2

HARD WI CKE' S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

i. 2). Philip of Macedon and his son, Alexander the
Great, were so fond of apples that these were placed
on their tables at every meal.

Whether the Greeks used to indulge in eating too
many apples at their marriage feasts, or that a rare
and expensive kind graced the table, cannot now be
determined ; but it is certain from Strabo that the
Athenian lawgiver, Solon, made a decree pro-
hibiting the bridegroom at any rate eating more
than one, on such an occasion. Whenever the
Romans extended their arms, they availed themselves
of the choice fruits of the conquered countries, and
the great generals who brought them to Rome, took
pride in giving them their own names, as in memory
of some great event or service they had done for their
country. Thus the apple-tree met with a favourable
reception, and was cultivated with great care, for
Pliny states that there were many apple orchards near
Rome that let for the yearly sum of 2000 sesterces,
which is equal to ^12 ioj-. of our money, and some
of them, says this author, yielded more profit to the
owner than a small farm. The art of grafting, in
whatever way it may have originated, was known and
practised by gardeners at a very early period. Pliny
particularises the quince apple that came from a quince
grafted upon an apple stock, which, he says, smells
like a quince, and were called’ Appian, after Appius,
who was of the house of Claudian, and the first who
practised this kind of grafting. “Some apples,” says
Pliny, “are so red that they resemble blood, which is
caused by their being grafted on a mulberry stock.”
Indeed, he considered that the cultivation and graft-
ing of fruit had reached the highest perfection in his
days, for after having mentioned some extraordinary
production in the art of grafting, such as the above,
and also as having seen grapes, nuts, figs, &c.,
flourishing all on one stock (which is well known to
be a physiological impossibility), he says, “I cannot
see how men can devise to proceed further, and for
some time no new kind of apple or any other fruit
has been heard of.”

The Romans possessed in Plinian days about
twenty-two varieties of this fruit, known as Manlian,
Claudian, Pompeian, Tiberian, and several others by
such noble names, who had introduced, or produced,
them by grafting. Pliny not only mentions apples of
different kinds, but also crabs and wildings, which are
small and sour, and for that reason have many a
foul word and shrewd curse given them.

The apple appears to have been cultivated in some
parts of Britain at a very early period. Whitaker
conjectures it to have been introduced by the first
colonies of natives, and by the Haedui of Somerset-
shire in particular, hence Glastonbury was named by
the ancient Britons Ynys A valla, which signifies
an apple orchard, and from this the Roman name
“ Avalloun ” of the place was derived.

The Druids, we are told, paid particular reverence
to the apple-tree, because the mistletoe was supposed

to grow only on that and the oak, and also on account
of the great usefulness of the fruit. There is no
doubt that the Romans introduced new varieties from
their own country into Britain, and that they con-
tinued to exist during the Saxon period, for William
of Malmesbury, an English historian who flourished
in the twelfth century, mentions that King Edgar, in
9 73, lay down to sleep under an ould apple-tree, which
would seem to imply the existence of cultivated kinds
also.

The ancient Welsh bards were rewarded for excel-
ling in song by “ the token of the apple spray,” and
Gwaichmal thus sings : — “The point of the apple-
tree, supporting blossoms proud covering of the
woods, declares every one’s desire tends to the
place of his affections.” (Daines’s “ Welsh Bards.”)
After the establishment of Christianity and the
Norman Conquest, the monks and heads of religious
houses planted orchards, and we find in the reign
of Henry II. a bull of Pope Alexander, date 1175,
conferring the property of the monastery of Winch-
combe in Gloucestershire, and their claim on the town
of Twining, with all its orchards, meadows, &c., and
in a charter of King John granting property to the
priory of Lanthony in the same county, is mentioned
the church of Herdesley with twelve acres of land and
an orchard. In the beginning of the thirteenth
century Worcester had become famous for its fruit
trees and the cultivation of the apple had spread over
the land. Many varieties were no doubt introduced
from Normandy and other parts of the continent.
The oldest existing variety on record is the pearmain.
In the sixth year of King John, 1205, Robert de Ever-
mere was found to hold his lordship of Runham and
Stokesby in Norfolk by petty sergeanty, the paying
of 200 pearmains and 4 hogsheads (modios) of wine
made of pearmains into the exchequer at the feast
of St. Michael yearly.*

Mrs. Barnard tells us that the costard, an apple not
often met with now, appears to have been extensively
grown in the reign of Edward I., and it is mentioned
in the fruiterer’s bills of that monarch as pome costard.
It is supposed that the itinerant venders who hawked
this fruit about ancient London were first called cos-
termongers, from this circumstance. We do not find
any account of the cultivation of apples during the
reigns of the monarchs of the houses of York and
Lancaster, the country being in an unsettled state and
so distracted by civil wars that both agriculture and
horticulture were quite neglected until the time of
the Tudors, when it is stated that, by the industry of
one Harris, a fruiterer to Henry VIII., the fields and
environs of about thirty towns of Kent were planted
with fruit trees brought from Flanders to the univer-
sal and general improvement of the country. Fuller
states that one Leonard Maschal, in the sixteenth year
of the same monarch, brought pippins from over the
sea and planted them at Plumstead in Sussex. Pip-

* See Bloomfield’s “ History of Norfolk,” vol. xi.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

223

pins were so called because the trees were raised
from pips or seeds, and bore apples which gave them
celebrity without grafting.

So important had the cultivation of this fruit
become in the reign of Henry VIII., that barking
of apple-trees was declared to be felony. The Non-
pareil, according to the old herbalists, was brought
from France by a Jesuit in the reign of Queen Mary,
and first planted in the gardens of Oxfordshire.

Tusser, in his list of fruits published in 1573,
states apples of all sorts are grown in this country.
The best apples in Gerard’s time were the queenings
and pearmains, both summer and winter, with some
other kinds, amounting in all to seven ; but he says
there are a great many others, adding that Kent “doth
abound with apples of most sorts.” He afterwards
mentions that he has “seen in the pastures and
hedgerows, about the grounds of a worshipful gentle-
man dwelling two miles from Hereford, called Mr.
Roger Bodnome, so many trees of all sorts, that the
servants drank for the most part no other drink but
that which is made of apples.” The quantity is such,
that by the report of the gentleman himself, the
parson hath for tithe many hogsheads of cider.

Gerard was a warm advocate for the cultivation
of this fruit, for in his account of the apple he says,
“Gentlemen that have land and living put forward,
in the name of God, graffe, set, plant, and nourish
up trees in every corner of your grounds ; the labour
is small, the cost is nothing, the commoditie is great,
yourselves shall have plentie, the poor shall have
somewhat in time of want to relieve their necessities,
and God shall reward your good minds and diligence.”
The golden pippin, although not mentioned by
Gerard, is perhaps one of the oldest of our native
apples. It is said to have been first reared at Parham
Park, which is situated on the north side of the
South Downs, Sussex. The Dutch, in one of their
oldest catalogues of fruits, acknowledged it to be an
English apple, for they call it the “ Engelsche goud
pepping.” Pippins were, in the time of Shakespeare,
delicacies for dessert. Sir Hugh Evans in the “ Merry
Wives of Windsor” says, “ I will make an end of
my dinner ; there’s pippins and cheese to come ; ”
and, again, Justice Shallow, in his invitation to
Falstaff, says: “You shall see mine orchard, where
in an arbour we will eat last year’s pippins of my own
grafting.” In the valuations of the fruit trees in the
gardens at Wimbleton, belonging to the queen of
Charles I., there is only one pippin-tree mentioned,
so it does not appear to have been very generally cul-
tivated at that period. Phillips states that Catherine,
Empress of Russia, was so fond of this apple that
she was regularly supplied with it from England ;
and, in order that she might have it in the greatest
perfection, each apple was separately enveloped in
silver paper before it was packed. The beginning
of the seventeenth century may be looked upon as
the golden age of apples, and “ orcharding,” as it was

then called, became general throughout the country.
Lord Scudamore, ambassador to the court of France
in the reign of Charles I., collected in Normandy
scions of cider apple-trees, and on his return to
England encouraged the grafting of them throughout
Herefordshire, by which means the county was said
to become one entire orchard.

The Scudamore crab, afterwards known as the
redstreak, was introduced at this time, and created,
we are told, quite a sensation amongst the pomologists
of the period. It was a great favourite of Evelyn’s,
who mentions it in his “ Pomona,” published in 1664,
as an appendix to his “ Sylva.” Cider was the drink
in Normandy at a very early period, from which
country it was introduced into England. During
the reign of William III. and Anne, when there was
a constant succession of wars with France, the use
of cider was generally inculcated as tending to the
permanent exclusion of the wines of our great rival,
so that this drink became one of the chief beverages
of the nation. The cider countries principally lie in
the form of a horse-shoe around the Bristol Channel.

(To be contimied.)

THE BEAR IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
By John Wager.

Part II.

\C011tinuedfrom p. 131.]

THE surliness of the bear is proverbial ; yet gruff
as he is accounted, it is also an article of
faith in the north that he will never do harm to a
child. A remarkable instance of this good-natured
forbearance was related to the present writer by a
pastor of East Dalecarlia, in which locality it oc-
curred, at a seater to which a she-bear had rambled
with her two young cubs, and where the latter where
joined in play by two children, to the satisfaction,
apparently, of their indulgent dam. Not so, how-
ever, to the herd-girl, an older sister of the children,
who, on discovering their associates, was seized with
alarm, though needlessly ; for as soon as she made
her appearance, and the youngest child, with an ac-
companying movement of the hand, bid them “go
away now,” Mother Bruin and her little ones trotted
peaceably and slowly off.

Dr. Berlin, a Swedish author, in his “Laseboki
Naturlaran,” tells of a bear that .intruded amongst

o

some cows that were grazing in a forest of Angerman-
land, but was driven away by the little herd-girl ;
who, mistrusting its intention, and too inexperienced
to apprehend the danger incurred, beat it with a
stick. Similar cases, it is said, have often occurred
in Norway ; and the author adds, that such tractable
bears have probably never tasted flesh. When at
Transtrand, West Dalecarlia, in June 1866, we were
informed by the pastor there, that two weeks pre-
viously, as a brave little girl was herding goats in the
neighbourhood, a bear, despite her vigorous outcry }

224

HARDVVICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

seized one of her flock, and had quietly devoured its
head and part of the body, when some men arriving
drove him off, and shared the remainder of his meal.

The same pastor also related that during the preced-
ing autumn, a bear, on receiving a shot which only
slightly wounded him, had rushed furiously at the
hunter, and rearing upon his hind legs grasped him
in his fore-paws and carried him about two hundred
feet, during which transit the man’s toes only here
and there touched the ground. The bear then laid
his burden down, and as the man held his breath and
feigned to be dead, his adversary presently left him
with an angry growl. The hunter had sustained no
injury beyond a superficial bite in the arm, and was
soon ready to renew the pursuit. Some years before
another Transtrand hunter had a close fight with a
bear ; the two combatants having for a while hold of

Fig. 169. — The Brown Bear ( Ursus nrctos).

the opposite ends of a gun, but at length the bear
was defeated, with the loss of his life. A militiaman,
as recorded by Berlin, did not escape so scathless
from his contest with a bear. Contrary to orders he
had taken his musket with him to a hunt in which
several joined ; and as it happened the bear rushed
towards the spot where he stood, at a distance from
the rest of the party. The man attempted to fire,
but the priming was wet, and the musket having no
bayonet attached proved inadequate to repel the onset
of the bear, which struck him to the ground. There
he lay, holding his breath, and the bear, after several
investigating sniffs, believed him dead, but sought
revenge also on the musket. The soldier, thereupon,
being anxious to save his weapon from injury, made a
movement, but was instantly bit behind the head, so
that the scalp was drawn quite over his face. He
then again feigned death ; whereupon the bear lay
down alongside him, but other hunters arriving, the
bear was presently despatched. The rescued prisoner
eventually recovered from his wounds.

Man is not quite the sole subjugator of the bear ;
the marauding savage sometimes receives a death-
blow where he only expected to dine. A Trondhjem

newspaper records that during the summer of 1872,
two bears came upon a herd that was grazing at a
seater, in the parish of Flaa ; but just at the moment
when one of the brutes rose to seize a heifer that
stood somewhat apart from the other cattle, a two-
years' ox suddenly started from the herd, rushed with
an awful bellow at the bear, and with one thrust
gored him to death — ripping him open from the
stomach to the neck, so that a portion of the intestines
hung out. A young herd-boy, who had witnessed
the fray, hastily collected the cattle and drove them
to the seater-hut, where he related the adventure to
the dairymaid ; adding that though the bear had
received a death-wound, its head was still alive.
When the woman had counted her cattle and secured
them in the shed, she armed herself with an axe and
a staff, and bidding the lad follow with a large knife,
went in quest of the bears. They found the wounded
bear lying dead ; but the other had departed, having
first, however, almost completely covered his .un-
fortunate companion with moss. The dairymaid,
who was sixty years of age, and had spent thirty-five
summers at the seaters, then stripped bruin of his
shaggy coat. Perhaps it would serve to keep her
warm at nights in her old age ; or perhaps be pre-
sented to the church to comfort the pastor’s toes in
the pulpit on cold Sunday mornings ; a use to which
bears’ skins are yet applied in Scandinavia, as they
were three hundred years ago, when Olaus Magnus,
Archbishop of Upsala, wrote his venerable history of
the Goths, Vandals, and Swedes.

In exposing the rapacity of bruin we must not
forget that he is a king, with certain divine rights
within his forest domain, and therefore not without
excuse in doing occasionally with tooth and nail what
the lords of creation do daily with knife and fork.
Pie has also in common with those lords, besides
rapacious tendencies and herbivorous- carnivorous
appetite, a trace of good- nature hid beneath his
heavy, demure, and solid aspect. We have already
given some proof of this assertion, and as it is but
fair to look fully on both sides of a character, and to
give even the blackest of bears his due, we conclude
with an incident that shows bruin to be, sometimes
at least, better behaved, and even more humane,
than his neighbour, man. The account is derived
from the “Falun Tidninger ” for February 1865.

It is customary for the Laplanders with their
reindeer to remove, every autumn, from their summer
haunts on the mountains to the lower lands adjacent
to the coast ; where less snow falls, and better
pasturage is found for the herds. Thus, a few years
since, several Lapp families had descended with their
peculiar breed of long-horns from the Sorsele fjelds,
and pitched their tents on the uppermost forest-
pastures in the parish of Burtrack. Within this tract
a bear had fondly hoped to pass his winter days in
peace and quietness ; and had indeed for awhile en-
joyed repose in his lair under a bosky hill. Then

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

225

•came the Lapps, with their dogs and deer ; often
pattering over his dormitory, so that he got no sound
sleep night or day, and at length roused himself up
and ventured out to investigate the cause of such com-
motion. While quietly making his observations he
caught sight in the distance of a Lapp dame, in long
snow-shoes, rapidly circling round her herd. She
also soon became aware of some unusual object within
the dusky skirts of the forest, and at length, after

Fig. 170.— Bear dragging carcase of horse. (See page 130.)

keen scrutiny, discovered that the dark mass really
moved, and was no bush, but a bear. It evidently
also had an eye upon herself ; and being far away
from the mountains, the bear’s proper resort, this was
a very unexpected sight ; the woman being moreover
in that condition which, according to superstitious
belief, renders her sex peculiarly liable to the most
furious and voracious attack of the bear, was seized
with such sudden terror that she fainted, and fell
upon the ground, where she remained insensible long
after the reindeer had dispersed on the hills. The

bear being less alarmed than herself, and quite as
inquisitive, came forward and made close inspection
: of the unconscious housewife ; then loosed the snow-
j shoes from her feet, and grasping her in his supple
arms, bore her in the direction of the tent, which
stood remotely, out of sight, in a dense grove of
trees. He disburdened himself, however, at a con-
! siderable distance from it ; and as the woman who
| had regained consciousness in his warm embrace
remained perfectly still on the ground, the bear, after
| regarding her awhile, wended back to his repose.
As soon as she supposed he was out of sight the woman
rose, returned home, and related her wonderful ad-
venture. Her hearers accredited bruin with great
sagacity and forethought in regard to his conduct.
He conveyed the woman homewards, they said,
because she had approached too near his lair, an
intrusion fraught with danger to himself ; and he had
sagely refrained from bringing her nearer to the tent
lest he should be seen or heard by the men, of whose
hostilities he was well aware. His wisdom and for-
bearance, however, availed him nothing ; for the
ungrateful Lapps, immediately after hearing the story,
tracked him to his den, and thrust a spear into his
kindly and considerate heart. They sold his hide
to the proprietor of neighbouring saw-mills, who
preserved it in memory of the singular occurrence.

ON PAL.EOCORYNE, AND THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF FENESTELLA.

By George Robert Vine.

THE following paper was written more than
twelve months since, but as the points raised
in discussing the4 merits of Dr. Duncan’s papers on
Palaeocoryne were so opposite in character to those
already propounded in the “Philosophical Transac-
tions ” and in the “Journal ” of the Geological Society
I thought that it would be wiser on my part to wait
further investigations rather than rush headlong into
print, thoughtlessly or ambiguously. In the meantime
: I have submitted the paper to the calm judgment of
the Rev. Thomas ITincks, so that I might obtain his
opinion on the appendages of recent polyzoa, and
also to the experimental scrutiny of Mr. G. W.
Shrubsole. Other authorities have been consulted on
certain points, and the amended essay on Palaeocoryne
is my final contribution to this journal on Fenestella.
I am glad that these humble contributions have been
the means of helping students of the palaeozoic fauna
1 to lay before a wider and more scientific range of
readers than I could reach, the carefully collated facts,
which will be of real service to future palaeontologists.
It is not only the polyzoa of the palaeozoic seas that
have been neglected, the other microzoa also deserve
the careful consideration of thoughtful students.

Within the last ten years the attention of Palaeon-
tologists has been directed to certain fragments of

226

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Fenestella, called by Professor Duncan Palaeocoryne. j
Many of these so-called organisms were common j
enough, I believe, in the local collections of Scotland,
but undescribed. In the year 1869, Mr. James
Thomson, of Glasgow, took a fine series of these
fragments to the School of Mines, in Jermyn Street,
London. Being unable to obtain any information
respecting them there, he took them to the Geological
Society. Here they were examined by members, and
ultimately they passed into the hands of Professor
Duncan, who, with the assistance of Mr. Jenkins,
undertook the labour of describing and delineating
them. In due time an elaborate paper was read by
the chief author before the Royal Society, and after-
wards published in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1869.

These “ organisms” were called by the Professor,
Palaeocoryne, and an unquestionably unique classifi-
cation was created for their reception.

Class Hydrozoa.

Order Tubularidae.

Family Palaeocorynidae.

Genus Palseocoryne.

Their palaeontological relationship or affinities were
thus established for the time with the Hydrozoa —
a class singularly unhappy to place them among.
Being satisfied that the fossils should be admitted
among the hydrozoa, its anatomical structure must
assume the following names :

The dactylose base = the hydrorhiza.

The stem = the hydrocaulus.

The tentacular body = the polypide.

The ornamented hard tissue = the periderm, or

polyzoary.

The faintly-traced genitive structures = the gonosome.

The rest is embraced under the “ trophosome.” The
term “ hydrozome ” refers to the whole.*

In his great work on the “ Hydrozoa,” published by
the Ray Society, 1872, Prof. Allman refused to
admit Palseocoryne among that class in his mono-
graph. In his criticism on the zoological position
assigned to the fossils — and relying upon the accuracy
of the figures— he suggested, also most unhappily,
foraminiferous relations. Some of his reasons for
its rejection were given by Prof. Allman, but these
had been, to some extent, anticipated by Dr. Duncan
himself, for he says, “Were it not for the calcareous
investment, there would be no difficulty in admitting
the fossils among the hydrozoa : and had we not
been able to avail ourselves of the affinities of the
very anomalous genus Bimeria (Wright) the difficulty
could hardly have been overcome.” f

In May 1873, another paper was read before the
Geological Society, and ultimately published in their
journal. J In this paper Prof. Duncan re-states his
former opinions, not more clearly, but still more
positively than in the “Phil. Transactions”; and in

* Dr. Duncan, “Phil. Transactions,” 1869.

+ Ibid.

X “Quart. Journ. of the Geo. Soc.” 1873..

a letter to me (Nov. 1877) he stated that he desired
to hold his originally-formed opinions respecting the
hydroid character of Palseocoryne till other and
better evidence were furnished to prove that he was
wrong.

In one of the “ Memoirs of the Geological Survey
of Scotland,” Mr. Robert Etheredge, jun., says that
the “Survey specimens clearly demonstrate that
the base was not cellular, as originally stated by the
describers, but that the appearance was caused by
the growth of the organism over its object of attach-
ment, a species of Fenestella.” * This error of judg-
ment, as well as of observation, on the part of Mr.
Etheredge — for Palaeocoryne is not a parasite — failed
to convince Dr. Duncan of his error.

In December 1874, Prof. J. Young and Mr. John
Young, of the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, fur-
nished jointly two very excellent papers on “New
Carboniferous Polyzoa,” and on “Palseocoryne and
other Polyzoa appendages.” f In the last of these
papers the Messrs. Young gave fresh and original
evidence, showing, by figures drawn with the camera
lucida , the probable relationship of all the species and
varieties of Palseocoryne as appendages of the fene-
strate polyzoa. The discussion which followed the
reading of this paper was sufficiently characteristic
to prove that Prof. Duncan was not convinced, either
by the logic or by the figures of the Messrs. Young.
Generally speaking I can indorse the whole of the
reasoning founded upon the results of the investiga-
tions of the professor and Mr. John Young; but
there are two remarks — the first and fifteenth — to
which I wish particularly to draw the attention of
the reader. ‘ ‘ The structures named Palaeocoryne
are organically connected with the polyzoa on which
they occur ; the tissue of the one is continuous with
that of the other, the cells of the base of Palaeocoryne
being the cells of the polyzoon from which it springs;
these so-called organisms are only one type of the
processes which are given off by certain Palaeozoic
polyzoa. The stellate processes called Palaeocoryne
(radiata) are given off chiefly, if not exclusively, from
the poriferous — more rarely from the non-poriferous —
faces.” X

I am sorry that the opposition of Dr. Duncan so
far dwarfed his judgment as to allow him to assert
that the Messrs. Young — whose figures proved the
contrary — had mistaken pieces of Fenestella for
Palaeocoryne. This inappreciation of the special
evidence furnished in the reading of the paper must
have given a comic, rather than a scientific, interest
to the discussion ; and Mr. Jenkins also failed to
comprehend the whole value of the facts, when he
asserted that the recent polyzoa Bicellaria tuba
“possesses an appendage superficially resembling
Palaeocoryne, but without its definite form and struc-
ture. This appendage is very small in comparison

* Explanation 23. Scotch Survey. ^

t “ Quart. Journ. of the Geo. Soc.” vol. xxx., 1874.

X Ibid. vol. xxx.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

227

with the individual polyzoon to which it is attached,
whilst the base of Palseocoryne covers a large number
of the individual cells of Fenestella.”*

With all due respect for the observations of Mr.
Jenkins on the appendages of Bicellaria tuba , I must
differ from him entirely as to the value of his evi-
dence. Through the kindness of Miss Gatty I have
carefully examined the polyzoaries of this and other
species, and also several of the hydrozoa in her
splendid collection, and after the most careful
scrutiny — and Mr. Hincks by his silence on this
point seems to confirm my view — I cannot find any-
thing having the least similarity to Palseocoryne.
“ The fossil appendages in no way resemble those of
recent polyzoa or hydrozoa, either in structure,
function, or use.” f

With regard to Pakeocoryne being parasitic on
Fenestella, the statement of Mr. Jenkins seems to me
to be equally unscientific. I have during the last
two years examined hundreds of these so-called
organisms, and in no case have I ever witnessed a
single specimen, isolated or in situ , that would in
any way substantiate the morphological view of
either Dr. Duncan or Mr. Jenkins as to the parasitic
character of Palseocoryne. In some of the best
specimens of Mr. Young, in some of my own speci-
mens, in those that I have examined of the late Mr.
Harker of Richmond, and in many of the specimens
of Mr. Shrubsole, these processes spring at right-
angles from the celluliferous face of the polyzoon ;
they in no way interfere nor interrupt the cell arrange-
ment of the fenestrules in any other sense than that
which I shall give farther on. The cells are continued
along the base of the process on both sides, as shown in
the diagram sketch of Palseocoryne, Fig. 47 (Science-
Gossip, March 1879). Sometimes these processes
are crushed down upon, and they may by this means
conceal, the cells, when apparently the P. radiata of
Duncan seems to be seated upon the Fenestella;
and I do not fear to hazard the statement that in
no case is there a separate identity in Palseocoryne,
and in no case have I found a specimen that would
indicate a parasitic attachment similar to the attach-
ment of Diastopora megastoma (M‘Coy), one of the
commonest of the parasites found upon Fenestella.
Furthermore, every correspondent who has sent me
specimens of Palseocoryne from his own locality,
has prefaced his remarks upon the species with a
doubt respecting the hydroid character of the
organisms.

Such is the historical sketch of Palseocoryne. All
the papers referred to are easily accessible to the
student, and are well worth the attention of the
general reader, who may be interested in Palseonto-
logical questions.

It must be assumed that the whole polyzoary of the
Fenestella originated from some fixed spot on which

* Ibid. vol. xxx.

f Rev. Thomas Hindis’ corrections of my own reading.

an embryo had rested. The first process in the
development would be a prolongation of the attach-
ment, but what this prolongation was I am unable
to say. If I call it a root, any reference to ordinary
roots would be fallacious — for of primary roots I
know but little. Nearly all that pass by that name
are processes developed from the matured, or partially-
matured frond. A primary root there must be, but
this can only be studied in well-preserved specimens
of F frutesc. In a figure of F. membranacea before
me the “rootlets” are processes springing from the
lower and lateral portion of the conical expansion,
some of which bifurcate in a most peculiar way, but
at the part of the frond where we should naturally
look for the primary root it is absent. There is,
however, a great difference in the development of
Fenestella from the root over that of the processes.
Just above the true root, the formation of the
fenestrules are very lax, so much so, that Phillips
was often deceived by this laxness of fenestrule in his
diagnosis of species. In the more general develop-
ment of the polyzoary of even the same species, there
is an almost perfect uniformity of fenestrule. Several
of my specimens show this laxness and uniformity of
fenestrule in a most beautiful manner, but many
of Mr. Shrubsole’s specimens that have passed
through my hands show it more perfectly than any
that I possess, and these remarks are founded upon
the study of his rather than my own.

The polyzoary once established, the development
of the colony would be carried on by ordinary pro-
cesses, or by budding.

From a section of a beautiful fragment of F. plehei a
in my possession I have been able to give an exact
outline of several of the cells * and fenestrules of this
species. (Fig. 202, Science-Gossip, p. 248, 1878.)
On this particular part of the polyzoary a colony of
Diastopora megastoma had taken up their home, and
the cells were well preserved in consequence. In
this specimen, the cells (or zooecia) and fenestrules
are of a regular and definite shape. On the borders
of some of the fenestrules of this specimen, but not
in the figured part, there are five pores on one side,
and four on the other. The cells are opposite on
the borders, and alternate on the whole length of the
branch. Here development is by budding, and the
dissepiments are originated by the lateral expansion
of the zocecium (a), Fig. 202. In fact, the dis-
sepiment is nothing more than a portion of the
zocecium budding to originate another cell in an
opposite direction. I want the reader to note this
fact — one that I give the more prominence to now
since Professor Allman has stated his views to the
Linnean Society, on the perfect zooidal individuality
of both the cell and the polypide : “ This compound
animal is composed of two zooidal individuals :

* Since this was written, I have been able to confirm my
originally-formed views by sections of Fenestella, wonderfully
preserved in the form of casts in sandstone, from the sandstones
of Kirkcaldy, kindly furnished by Mr. Shrubsole.

228

HARDWICKS' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

zooecium and polypide : on the zocecium (or cell)
devolving the functions of sexual and non-sexual
reproduction ; and on the polypide that of nutrition.” * *
AVhat are called bifurcations of the branches originate
in the same way as ordinary fenestrules, with this
difference only: the “budding cell” — if I may be
allowed the term— instead of originating a lateral

The formation of some of the forms of Pakcocoryne
scotica (Duncan) is by a lateral expansion of what I
will call “ infertile ” dissepiments. In some cases, as-
in Figs. 1 7 1 to 174, these occur on the outer branches
of the Polyzoary without any disarrangement of the
cells. The ornamentation of the branch is carried
into the prolongation, and in Fig. 174 this seems to be

Specimens of Palasocoryne in situ.

Fig. 171. — From Richmond, in
Yorkshire.

Fig. 172.— From Hairmyres, in Scot-
land.

The whole of the figures in this part of my communication are pen-and-ink
sketches, but all are highly magnified.

Fig. 173. — Lateral Palaeo-
coryne, from Richmond.

Fig. 175. — Trophosome radiatum
(Duncan), Richmond, a, portion
of tentacular capitulum ; b, tro-
phosome.

Fig. 176. — Palaocoryne radiatum (Duncan), very much crushed and broken ; Halkyn, North Wales.

(See text for description.)'

dissepiment, buds at a slightly different angle, by
this means causing a fork-like fenestrule instead of
a rectangular one ; and it is the bifurcations that
help to increase the lateral expansion of the polyzoary.

- — — — - - I

* In the published address of the Professor in the “Trans- \
actions of the Linnean Society,” I regret that I do not find the
above admission ; but I am assured that Dr. Allman gave it as 1
reported in the “Zoologist ” for July 1878.

the product of two cells. These “infertile ” dissepi-
ments are solid ; there is no porosity in any of them
to indicate that they were once hollow. Their exist-
ence was, from all appearance, for the purpose of
reproduction, and so long as they remained unbroken,
and attached to the branch, the zo.oecium had the power
of moulding the form of this branch-like projection into-

HARDWICKS' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

229

many shapes. There is no difficulty in tracing all the
forms of the hydrocaulus of P. scotica up to the varied
shapes which these branchlets assume. In their
natural state — that is, when attached to the side
branches — these appear somewhat different to the
figures given by Dr. Duncan in the “Philosophical
Transactions but whenever they are broken away
from the branches, a small portion of the poriferous
face of the branch is broken off with them, and then,
when found unattached in the shale, they present the
same characters as the hydrocaulus and trophosome
given by Duncan — except the hollow character shown
in one of his figures. On looking at the figs. 1 7 1 to
174, all the branchlets seem to be thrown off without
any expense to the colony. But this is a false idea. In
the study of Fig. 205, Science-Gossip, Nov. 1878,
it will be seen that there has been general disarrange-
ment in several branches ; and the formation of the
fenestrules has suffered in consequence of the forma-
tion of these branchlets. This specimen has been
slightly rubbed down* for the purpose of tracing the
connection between the branch and the branchlets.
At (a) the bases of the cells are somewdiat exposed,
and at (b) there is an immature fenestrule, and on the
reverse side there are the remains of P. scotica , as
figured in 205-6. It is not only on the zooecium that
the “ non-sexual ” reproduction devolves, but appa-
rently, from what is shown here, upon the zoarium
also. This is no solitary example of the production
of Palaeocoryne. I have many of a similar character ;
and I have found, generally, that wherever there is a
disarrangement of the ordinary shape of the fenestrule,
Palaeocoryne in some of its forms is the disturbing
agent. On the face there is a contraction, or some-
times a cohesion of branches, while on the reverse
there are the bases apparently, but apices in reality,
of P. scotica. In one of my specimens (Fig. 176) from
the Halkyn carboniferous shales, the character of
both P. scotica and P. radiata are preserved. To
show this with more truthfulness, I have drawn a
portion of the reverse of the Fenestella, and several of
the fenestrules. At (tf) a portion of the branch is
withered, but this part of the trophosome is appa-
rently in situ ; at (b) also the base of the hydrocaulus
is broken away from what Dr. Duncan calls the
tentacular surface of P. radiatum. In Figure 203,
Science-Gossip, 1878, we have an organism
altogether different from anything that has been
figured or described, and I have striven to give the
general as well as the true character of the specimen.
The apparent organism is seated astride a fragment of
Fenestella. But this hitherto undescribed form is not
Palaeocoryne.

In Fig. 175, a specimen from Richmond in York-
shire, I have given the hydrocaulus of P. scotica ,
similar in some respects to the figure of Dr. Duncan
in the “Philosophical Transactions.” I give these,

* “ Rubbed down,” not “ upside down ” as in description.

not because they are rare, but as species that are very
plentiful. Of these I have several score, and I have
studied them in all the gradations from one form up
to another, and although my cabinet is enriched by
specimens from Yorkshire, Northumberland, Belston-
burn, Gare, and Hairmyres, in fact, from nearly
everywdiere where Fenestella is found, still the whole
present the same type — the character of the Belston-
burn and Gare series coming nearest to the Yorkshire
series, and those from Hairmyres comparing favour-
ably with those from Northumberland.

( To be continued.)

THE ARCHED CROWN ; MOTION OF
CLOUDS; SPIRAL CURRENTS.

By the Rev. S. Barber, F.M.S.

THE phenomenon of repulsion between cloud-
masses of apparently different composition, to
which we drew attention in Science-Gossip for
January 1879, as instanced in the case of the
“arched crown” over the summit of cumulus, sug-
gests to us this inquiry : how does it happen that in
an apparently homogeneous state of the surrounding
air, the visible vapour or cloud can assume such
varieties of form, and develope new physical pro-
perties ?

In order to facilitate our conception of cloud
phenomena, and to help 11s to understand the laws
which affect them, it is well perhaps to regard the
watery atmosphere as distinct from the composition of
oxygen and nitrogen by which it is surrounded, and
in which it passes through its protean metamorphoses.
To consider a cloud as a thing isolated and distinct
from the air which encloses and to a great extent
permeates it, may not be altogether a philosophical
method of regarding the subject ; but undoubtedly
it has a basis of truth, and is useful in respect to
weather study. And inasmuch as various species of
cloud possess peculiar thermal and electrical proper-
ties, it is not entirely unscientific.

We are therefore justified probably in regarding
the principal forms of cloud as organisms , actuated
by certain laws and exercising peculiar forces ; playing
in fact, an important rble in the economy of Nature.
Thus we may realise the conception of the poet, as
embodying not only the ideal beauty, but also some-
thing of the physical truth of his subject, when he
represents to us the cloud as a beneficent angel :

“ I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.”

And again,

“ I wield the flail of the lashing hail.”

To give a satisfactory explanation of such electrical
phenomena as the “ capped cumulus ” is, indeed, no
easy task ; but a better account might perhaps be given
of them if aeronauts would provide themselves with
instruments of sufficient delicacy : yet the appear-
ance of the sky alters so much with distance that

230

HARD WI CHE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

the results, even then, would be far from satisfactory.
The same may be said, with double force, of the
extraordinary varieties of form presented by cirrus ;
lines crossing and curving in almost every conceiv-
able direction. But what we aim at is this — to obtain
such general laws as may agree with the analogy of
the subject and be of some use, as prognostics, and
also to depict and to classify those varieties which
are decidedly significant of weather change.

It may be thought, indeed, that classification is
very much a matter of theory : accurate delineation
of separate phenomena has, however, a very practical
bearing ; and the readers of Science-Gossip will,
perhaps, endorse the expression recently used by a
writer in the “ Examiner,” who speaks of our present
subject as “highly interesting, intimately connected

may be well observed on the coast of East Kent
when a north-east wind is setting in. It is curious
to notice how these vapour masses advance in regular
line to some far distant point with a steady onward
march, like vultures scenting their prey afar off.

Some writers seem to regard the clouds themselves
as the origin of the aerial currents, and not mere
attendants upon them. One fact, however, ap-
pears evident, viz., that masses of cumulus moving
in this way, are generally accompanied by subor-
dinate and complicated eddies and currents — rotary,
spiral, &c., which whirl about them without altering
the direct line of advance.

Thus two masses of cloud moving with but a
slight interval between them will be attended by
their own peculiar, and sometimes opposite , currents,

Fig. 177.— Electrical stratus, with capped cumulus in distance.

with, and absolutely necessary to, the science of
weather forecasts.”

We now draw our readers’ attention to the manner
in which banks and masses of grey and highly con-
densed cumulus drift over the sky, chiefly in the
spring and winter months, in breezy weather, especially
when this is accompanied by heavy rain. This ap-
pearance may be contrasted with the phenomenon of
the “ calling of the sea,” the noise caused by the swell
of the waves reaching the shore before the wind
comes up. In the latter case we have undulations
radiating from a centre of disturbance ; in the
former we have vapour masses advancing to a centre
of attraction.

Fracto-cumulus,* as Prof. Poey lias termed it, has
often a resemblance to an undulating sea of vapour,
in the manner in which the masses arrange themselves
in banks above each other — an appearance which

* In the case of this cloud, the arrangement in banks and
strata is mainly the effect of perspective.

while they are both moving on with the general drift,
in a steady and regular line.

We will not at present enter upon the inquiry here
suggested, as to the extent to which a sudden change
in the molecular arrangement may originate move-
ments of the surrounding air ; we desire, now, to
draw the readers’ attention to the manner in which
the eddies and spiral currents above mentioned may
affect the form of the mass. To take one instance,
such a spiral current, varying in its radius would be
a very probable cause of the lateral compression or
characteristic “ anvil ” form.*

In confirmation of this view, it may be remarked
that previous to the gale which these clouds so often
portend, we may sometimes observe small cyclones
whirlwinds moving upon the surface of the earth,
where this spiral motion is more evident from the

* There are several varieties, however, of this cloud, about
which we hope to say more at a future time. See a paper of
mine in “ Popular Science Review,” October 1873.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

231

attendant particles of dust which are absorbed in,
and which mark its outline and course. A remark-
able instance occurred recently, May, 1879, in which
such a whirlwind, formed almost instantaneously,
ripped away the entire roof of a house, the surround-
ing air being quite still at the time.

I have watched from a distance of a few yards
a small cyclone of this character, in which the
dust, so absorbed, revolved with intense rapidity,
while the atmosphere around was perfectly calm.
This was on a hot summer day. The presence of
such currents of air among the clouds may account
for some of the more remarkable forms which these
occasionally assume.

MICROSCOPY.

Euglena viridis and its Bulbed Flagellum.
— In Mr. F. Jas. George’s communication of August
1st, number one sketch certainly resembles a
Euglena of some sort, but does not show flagellum
with bulbous termination. The second and third
sketches represent a widely different organism.
Unless the transitional stages are watched unre-
mittingly, the mere fact of one organism succeeding

Fig. 178. — Euglena viridis, showing the bulbed flagellum.

or taking the place of another cannot be accepted as
a veritable metamorphosis, and Euglena viridis still
remains on the border line between the animal and
vegetable kingdom. I enclose sketch by Mr. G.
Harkus, showing three of the protean forms commonly
assumed by E. viridis , and swelling or bulb with which
the flagellum ends (Ross 5 -in. B eyepiece +380). These
may be of interest, as I at all events have not met an
observer who has previously noted this peculiarity.
— M. II. Robson , Nezucastle-upon-Tyne.

Mandibles of, Ants worn by Use. — An as-
sertion having been made at the Boston Natural
History Society by the Rev. H. C. McCook that the
mandibles of ants become blunted, and are even
worn off by use, a microscopical examination of about
one hundred specimens of Pasimachus has taken
place before the society, when it was seen that all the
fresh specimens had perfectly shaped and sharp
mandibles, whilst those specimens which were old
and worn-looking presented every gradation of
bluntness of the mandibles.

The Quekett Microscopical Club.— No. 40
of the Journal of this well-known Microscopical
Society contains the following papers : — “ On the
Urticating threads of Actinia parasitica A by F. A.
Bedwell ; “On the Rotifers, by dark field illumina-
tion,” by C. T. Pludson ; “ On the Micro-Megascope,”
by Dr. John Matthews ; and on “The Dual-Lichen
Hypothesis,” Dr. M. C. Cooke. The last paper is a
thorough and unanswerable demolition of the theory
of Schwendener that lichens are only so many algo-
fungi. Nobody was so capable of dealing with this
subject as Dr. Cooke, and nobody could have done it
so well.

New Species of Entomostraca. — At the recent
meeting of the British Association, Sir John Lubbock
called attention to the occurrence in England of
Leptodora hyalina , a very interesting crustacean
found in the deep Swiss lakes, subsequently in those
of Switzerland, Russia, and Italy, and recently found
by Messrs. T. Bolton and H. E. Forrest in the Olton
reservoir, near Birmingham, though not in any
streams or shallow waters. Like many marine
organisms it is as transparent as glass — a peculiarity
which is of advantage to vegetable feeders, as
rendering them less conspicuous to their foes, and to
predaceous species by enabling them to steal un-
suspected on their victims. The anterior antennae
are peculiarly developed in the males, but quite small
in the female. It has been a question whether these
organs are for hearing or smelling. The latter seems
most probable ; where one sex attracts the other by
sound, both sexes have the ear well developed. Of
course the sex attracted must have a good ear in
order to distinguish the sound ; but so also must the
singing sex, in order to regulate the sound. Hence
in such cases we do not find any marked difference
between the auditory organ in the male and female.
But with smell the case is different. The scent is a
specific characteristic, and is not regulated or modified
by the will of the individual. Hence, when one sex
attracts the other, it is not necessary that the attract-
ive sex should have well-developed organs of smell.
Hence Weismann concludes that in leptodora the
anterior antennae, being much more highly developed
in the male than in the female, are organs of smell.
After describing some other curious points in its
anatomy, Sir John observed that like other animals
of the same group, leptodora lay two kinds of eggs —
one sort in summer, which hatch rapidly, and a
second in autumn which are provided with a thick
coat and remain undeveloped through the winter,
hatching only when the warm weather returns. It is
a most curious and interesting fact that, as Muller
observed, these two eggs produce young which are
quite unlike one another. In our common Daphnia
the young at first are quite unlike their parents,
having only three pairs of appendages, and being in
what is called the “nauplius” stage. Such young

232

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

Crustacea were at first supposed to be distinct animals
and were called nauplius, but subsequent observa-
tions have shown that many, he might say most,
Crustacea, however dissimilar they may be when
mature, for instance, the lobster, cyclops, &c.,
commence life as a small oval being with three pairs
of appendages, whence some naturalists following
Fritz Muller, are of opinion that all our Crustacea are
descended from an animal of this form. But leptodora
during the summer, even in its earliest days, is said
to resemble the mature form, differing only in size
and some details. It is therefore very interesting
that the young when developing from winter eggs
should commence life in the nauplius form. Curiously
enough, the same reservoir has yielded to Messrs.
Bolton and Forrest a new species of Entomostraca
which has been provisionally named Daphnia Bairdii
and which is described by Mr. Forrest in the last
number of “The Midland Naturalist.” Mr. Bolton
has sent out both these interesting animals, in the
living state to his subscribers ; and he also exhibited
them together with many other living microscopical
animals with great success at the conversazione in
the Cutlers’ Hall, Sheffield, during the Association
meeting. We are glad to draw fresh attention to Mr.
Bolton’s scheme, and to express our high satisfaction
with the illustrated descriptive portfolio of all the
objects he has hitherto sent out, and which can be
obtained for one shilling from David Bogue, 3, St.
Martin’s Place, W.C.

ZOOLOGY.

Urticating Hairs of Caterpillars.— At a
recent meeting of the Entomological Society of
London, Mr. Swinton maintained that the urticating
property of the hairs of the well-known caterpillars of
the Liparis aitrijhia was not merely mechanical in its
origin, as has hitherto been supposed, but that the
hairs were poisoned by a caustic liquid issuing from
the scarlet tubercles on the hinder segments.

New Species of British Spiders. — The Rev.
O. P. Cambridge in an article on this subject which
appeared in the last number of the ‘ ‘ Annals and
Magazine of Natural History,” saysThat he has been
enabled to add thirty-nine species to the list of spiders
known in great Britain and Ireland, since February,
1878. One of the spiders described forms a new
genus (Theridiosoma), and Mr. Cambridge states that
it forms a link between Theridion and Epeira. The
number of known species of British spiders is 519.

Watford Natural History Society. — Part 5
of the Transactions of this vigorous society has just
appeared (published by David Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s
Place), containing the anniversary address of the
president (Dr. A. T. Brett), a capital paper on “The
Study of Geology,” by J. L. Lobley, F.G.S., one on
“Bees and Bee-keeping,” by the Rev. H. R. Peel,
M.A., &c.

Parasites on Hedgehogs. — In reply to Mr.
Singer Barclay’s query, p. 205 of present volume, as
to hedgehogs having parasites, it may be noted that
the common tick, Ixodes erinaceus , found on dogs,
derives its specific name from being found also on
hedgehogs. — X.

A two-tailed Lizard. — A few days since I was
•shown by Master Attwood of this town, a specimen
of viviparous lizard ( Zootoca vivipara) with a double
tail. The duplication commences at about the lower
third, the natural tail is about the same size and tapers
as usual, and has the proper directions ; but the j
sprout, if one may so term it, stands out at an acute
angle, and is about the same size as the normal tail.
There is no mark of injury to account for this
abnormality, of which I have never seen a similar
example. — Henry Laver , F.L.S., Colchester.

Coronella lzevis in Hampshire. — lam unable
to answer Mr. Tuxford’s query (page 164), as to the
occurrence of Coronella Icevis in the New Forest
paper ; but it may be worth recording that a specimen
was killed on the cliffs, west of Bournemouth, in the
summer of 1877, by one of my sons. It was supposed
at first sight to be an adder, and was hastily struck j
at and killed. — IV. II. Groser.

The British Association has been invited to
visit Leicester in 1882, a town in which it has never
yet held its meetings, and there is reason to believe
the invitation will be accepted.

Rare Cetaceans. — I am very pleased to find
that by means of my papers on whales, Mr. Anderson
was enabled to identify the whale killed off Moville
with the giant Sibbald’s rorqual. Nobody but a
student of this interesting order knows how dis-
appointing it is to see announced in the papers that a
whale or whales have been seen or captured on such
a part of the coast, not the slightest clue being given
as to the species — this has been the case more than
once in the past few months — when a very slight
acquaintance with the subject would enable the
observer in most instances to recognise the species,
or at least to note the specific peculiarities which
would enable others to do so. My object in writing
the papers referred to was to supply in as popular a
way as possible such information as would be useful
for that purpose. I wish I could reprint it and
send a copy to every coastguard station and sailors’
home in the kingdom. I have no doubt it would be
the means of placing on record the occurrence of
of many a rare individual which now passes un-
recognised. At this season of the year many of the
smaller cetaceans, dolphins, &c., follow the shoals ot
herrings along the coast, and occasionally one gets
entangled in the nets of the fishermen, who are too

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

233

busy to give it much attention, and pass it by as a
porpoise or a “queer fish,” good to make into oil,
and nothing more is heard of what may in reality be
a most interesting occurrence. Such an event
occurred the other day at Yarmouth, where I chanced
to see in the possession of some long-shore men a
very handsome specimen of the white-scaled dolphin
(Science-Gossip, xiv. page 87). Nobody had the
slightest idea of the species, nor of what variety
they were looking at ; of course it was a large
porpoise. I hope your readers along the coast will
keep a good look-out for cetaceans, and satisfy them-
selves as to the species of every individual which
comes under their notice. I shall at all times be most
happy to assist them if it be in my power. — Thomas
Southwell , Norwich .

Insect Swarms. — This summer will be entomo-
logically memorable for the vast swarms of the
painted lady butterfly ( Vanessa cardin'), which have
appeared over so large a part of Europe, including
Great Britain. Swarms of the gamma moth (P.
gamma ) have also been seen along various parts of
the coast, including Devonshire and Norfolk. They
were very abundant at Cromer during the earlier part
of September.

BOTANY.

For further particulars on botanical works see
“Natural History Book Circular,” No. 39, on
botany only, 44 pages, post-free on receipt of one
stamp, by William Wesley, 28 Essex Street, Strand,
London.

An alphabetical list (which I unfortunately do not
possess) of 15,000 works on botany, from the earliest
to present time, is G. A. Pritzel’s “Thesaurus
Literature Botanicse omnium gentium,” &c., new
edition, 577 pages 4to., Leipzig, 1877, £2 53-.

Lest any one should be deterred by their costliness
from purchasing some of the above works, I may say
that some of them, especially the older ones, may be
had at very greatly reduced prices. — B. Hobson ,
Tapton Elms , Sheffield.

Vegetable “ Commensalism.” — I have frequently
noticed the association of commensalism between
butterbur, Petasites vulgaris , and one of the most
delicious of our edible fungi, I mean Peziza venosa,
locally known here as the “Jew’s ear.” It grows
at the time when the butterbur is in flower, and as a
rule, where you find the peziza, you find the flowers
of petasites accompanying it. I have found this so
often the case, that now, in examining any fresh
locality for “Jew’s ears,” I generally content myself
with looking for butterbur first, one is so much easier
seen than the other. The above, like all rules, has its
exceptions ; still there is no doubt that there is some-
thing more than chance in the association of the two

plants. It may be only that the same kind of light
sandy soil suits them both, or it may be something
more. — IV. D., Carlisle.

Vegetable “ Commensalism.” — Like Dr. Taylor,
I have noticed the C. perfoliata and O. apifera growing
together, in a field at Ewias Harold, Herefordshire,
and lately in a field at the foot of the Cotswold Hills,
Gloucestershire. On the Cotswolds I found several
plants not frequently met with : Anthyllis Vulneraria ,
Centaurea Scabiosa, Orchis pyramidalis, Campanula
Rapunculus , Echium vulgare , Scabiosa columbaria ,
Carduus nutans ; also albino specimens of Campanula
rotundifolia. It may interest you to know that I
have found albino specimens of Pedicularis sylva-
ticus and Geranium Robertianum. — T. G. Harris ,
Cheltenham.

Catoscopium Nigritum. — Wilson, in his “Bryo-
logica,” gives this moss as fruiting in the month of
March, while Mr. Hobkirk mentions specimens
collected at Fife, fruiting in August. It may interest
your readers to know that I found this plant on
August 6 in good fructification, on the sand hills at
Formby, thus confirming Mr. Hobkirk’s statement.
I shall be happy to supply any readers with a speci-
men.— Benjamin B. Scott , 24 Scldon Street , Kensing-
ton, Liverpool.

Dipsacus Sylvestris. — This plant grows plenti-
fully on some parts of the Crumbles, Eastbourne,
and during the present season it has illustrated in a
striking manner the use of the connate bases of its
leaves. The excessive rains of the month of June
filled the whole of the connate cups with water, and,
notwithstanding the boisterous winds, the stems were
sufficiently rigid to resist their action to such an
extent as to preserve a good supply of the fluid,
especially in the lowest pairs of leaves. On examining
them, it appeared that every cup had caused the
death of a goodly number of the enemies of the plant,
such as ants, caterpillars, earwigs, and such like
small deer. There were at least ten or a dozen
creatures drowned in the lowest cup of each plant.
A few were to be found in some of the higher cups,
and in such cases nearly all of the leaves forming the
receptacles had contact with adjacent plants. The
inference seemed perfectly sound that the leaves
were so modified as to collect the rainwater in
which small creatures would be drowned, whose
visits would be detrimental to the reproductive organs
of the plant. — J. Saunders.

Register of Field Botanists. — I gladly hail
Mr. Melvin’s proposition. I have myself, when
wandering in a solitary fashion over Westmoreland
and North Wales, felt the want sorely. Although it
is seldom a month passes away but that I am
called away from home, to go with other naturalists
over my part of the country ; somehow, they find me
out. — R.

234

HARD WICKEDS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Hypericum Calycinum (St. John's wort). — This
plant, though said in Sir James Edward Smith’s
“ English Botany” to be frequently seen ornamenting
shady gardens and shrubberies, I do not remember
having observed in gardens, since the days of my
boyhood, in a damp sunless corner of a rectory in
Essex, upwards of sixty years ago, except at Folke-
stone, where I saw it growing at the edge of a very
small clean running streamlet in the garden of the
Pavilion Hotel. Being desirous of obtaining the
plant for cultivation in a most shady spot, I applied
to Mr. Balchin at his nursery, Cliftonville, when I
found he had recently introduced it ; it was then
(September i) in full flower. It is admirably adapted
for damp spots shut out from the sun’s rays, where
nothing else will grow, and would be a great
ornament under the trees in the Pavilion Gardens at
Brighton, and especially in a place called the Level,
where has lately been planted ivy, as also the
evonymus, which latter shrub, though it will live,
will never thrive under the trees as in the open air ;
it is a very low evergreen shrub, with very large
bright gold coloured flowers. It is noticed in Sir S. E.
Smith’s “ English Botany ” as follows : “Few plants
flourish so well under drip of trees, but its creeping
habit renders it better adapted to the shrubbery than
the garden.” Flowers from June to October. It needs
no other recommendation to those who wish for
pretty and cheerful flowers interspersed in shrubberies
and among evergreens. The “ Treasury of Botany ”
says this is commonly planted in shrubberies or
extensive rookeries, where it is valued not only on
account of its handsome flowers, but because it affords
excellent shelter for game. — T. B. IV, Brighton.

Spartina stricta. — It may interest lovers of the
gramineae to know that this grass, which was thought
to have disappeared from this neighbourhood, has
been again found ; but although now early in
September, it has scarcely begun to flower. — F. H.
Arnold, Fishbourne.

GEOLOGY.

The Metamorphic Rocks of Scotland. —Mr.
James Thomson, F.G.S., at a recent meeting of the
Glasgow Geological Society, exhibited a series of
metamorphic rocks from Harris and Loch Maddy,
North Uist, and read notes on their stratigraphical
aspect, and briefly referred to the opinions of Dr.
McCulloch, Sir Roderick Murchison and others who
had described the rocks of these islands as belonging
to the “Fundamental Gneiss,” the oldest series of
rocks in Scotland. By some observers these crystalline
metamorphic rocks have been regarded as the oldest
in the world. Mr. Thomson then described the series
in the neighbourhood of Harris in their geological
sequence, and referred to some varieties of “ granite,”

“granitoid” “gneiss,” and to an extensive body of
conglomerate he had discovered interstratified with
the granite and granitoid gneiss, which consists
of fragments and boulders of gneiss, hornblendic
gneiss, and granitoid rocks, varying in size from
small particles not larger than a small pea, to
boulders eight feet in diameter, all more or less
different from the rocks that immediately surround
the section, and which are embedded in a more or less
felspathic matrix, in some places of a dull bluish-
gray colour in others of a creamy colour. He then
described the rocks in the neighbourhood of Loch
Maddy, North Uist, beginning with those exposed on
the shore line near the pier, all of which dip to the
north-west. About two hundred yards from the pier
he found interstratified with the gneissic rocks of the
district a bed of conglomerate two hundred and
forty feet thick, extending from the shore inland for
fully one mile, it may extend further inland, but the
section was lost in the banks of one of the fresh-water
lochs which occur so frequently in the North Uist,
but his time would not permit him to trace further the
conglomerate mass. There is an excellent section
exposed opposite the inn door. The matrix is fel-
spathic, and is of a dull bluish-gray colour, but in
some parts it passes into a somewhat greenish colour.
The embedded erratics consist of gneiss, hornblendic
gneiss, granitoid gneiss, with some numerous particles
of vitreous quartz, varying in size from minute
fragments to boulders of considerable dimensions.
They did not resemble pebbles and boulders which had
been exposed to the action of water upon a coast-line ;
some were angular, subangular, or rounded, and had
all the appearance of having been transported and
dropped into a soft plastic matter. Indeed the section
is more like some of the sections of boulder drift of
more recent times. It had been suggested that the
conglomerate might belong to that series described
by Dr. Hicks as Pebidian and Dimetian, but a careful
examination of the rocks these erratics are inter-
stratified with, led the author to believe that neither
the Pebidian nor Dimetian beds are found in the
locality. He had seen what he believed to be the
Pebidian beds in Loch Carron, and also in Skye, to
the south of the Bay of Lucey, near Broadford, where
the Cambrian conglomerate is seen reposing upon
the Pebidian beds, and which in turn repose upon the
Dimetian series. The latter extend to, and are well
exposed in the Isle of Ornsay, in the Sound of Sleet,
but he had failed to discover rocks of either of the
latter series in Harris or Loch Maddy, North Uist.
Mr. Thomson referred to the able paper of Mr. James
Geikie, F.R.S., and was surprised that no mention
was made therein of this section of conglomerate, and
more especially as there is one of the best exposed
sections opposite the hotel door at Loch Maddy.
He then stated that he inferred from the presence of
these erratics embedded in the felspathic matrix and
interstratified with a series of metamorphic rocks,

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

235

which have been regarded as the fundamental gneisses,
that we have yet much to learn before any satisfactory
solution can be given regarding the true position of
the rocks of that district. The presence of these
conglomerates interstratified with the so-called funda-
mental gneisses, is a clear proof that there must have
been a pre-existing land from which these erratics have
been derived, and another proof that we are not yet in
a position to draw the hard-and-fast line between one
period and another, nor can we dogmatise as to which
are the oldest rocks, or even say which is the oldest
form in the life-history of the globe. Mr. Thomson
then referred to the striking similarity which existed
between some varieties of the graphic granite that
had been discovered in the above locality and some
varieties considered to be of organic origin. It seems
highly improbable that such an extensive series of
metamorphic rocks should be destitute of the remains
of organic life. There is abundant evidence that
during the period they were being desposited there
were great sheets of both marine and fresh water. Mr.
Thomson said that he merely meant to record the
discovery of conglomerate, and reserved the describing
of it in a more detailed manner till some future
occasion.

Collectors of prehistoric antiquities are warned
against fabricated specimens of articles purporting to
belong to the age of bronze, and to have been among
the remains of lake-dwellings, and in the beds of
rivers. There is a regular manufactory of these things
near the lake of Bienne, and bronze swords are being
offered at a hundred francs each which are not worth
as many centimes.

The Musk-Ox in England. — In a recent number
of the “Geological Magazine,” Mr.W. Davies, F.G.S.,
announces the discovery of the teeth of the musk-
ox ( Ovibus moschatus ) in the brick-earth, at Cray-
ford in Kent. The specimens belonged to an indi-
vidual of large size. The distribution of the existing
musk-ox is now limited to the barren land of Polar
America, between the 60th and 83rd parallels of
latitude.

Micro-Paleontology. — We have received the
catalogue of species, sections, and material, supplied
by Messrs. G. R. Vine & Son, of Attercliffe, Sheffield.
The gradually increasing desire on the part of
students to know more of the micro-palaeontology
of our rocks has induced these gentlemen to master
all the details of this intricate study. Mr. Vine, jun.,
has devoted his attention to the foraminifera and
entomostraca, and Mr. Vine, sen., has devoted much
time and labour to the polyzoa and other organisms.
We were much pleased to notice the importance
attached by the general committee of the British
Association to Mr. G. R. Vine’s labours, by their
making him a grant of £10 to enable him to continue
them.

Glaciers in Saxony. — Prof. Credner has just
discovered polishings and groovings on the surface of
porphyritic rocks in Western Saxony, and concludes
from these and other facts that the Scandinavian ice
reached as far as the neighbourhood of Leipzig,
and to the southern border of the North German
plain.

“Chemical Denudation in relation to
Geological Time.” — Under this heading Mr. T. M.
Reade, F.G.S., has published three thoughtful and sug-
gestive papers. One of them, ‘ ‘ Geological Time, ” was
his presidential address to the Geological Society of
Liverpool ; another a paper read before the Royal
Society, on “ Limestone, as an Index of Geological
Time ” (which we thought so highly of as to reprint a
lengthy abstract thereof in our columns) ; and a third
on “The Geological significance of the Challenger
discoveries.” We are glad that Mr. Reade has been
prevailed upon to issue these most interesting
essays in their present attractive shape. They are
published by David Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s Place,
London.

The United States Geological Survey. —
We have received from Dr. Hayden all the publi-
cations of this survey from its commencement. What
a vast mass of labour and research is here represented !
In one of the “ Bulletins,” Mr. W. H. Holmes
describes a remarkable geological phenomenon which
occurs on the slopes of Amethyst Mountain, in the
now well-known “Yellowstone Park.” On the
mountainside, which rises to between 2000 to 3000
feet above the river valley, there are exposed at
different levels, a series of silicified trees, many rooted
in position as they grew, and from twenty to thirty
feet in height, while others, broken and worn, are
lying at length. Some of the latter are of great size,
the fragments measuring as much as eighty-two feet
in diameter. The series of sandstone and conglomer-
ates in which the trees are imbedded is more than
5000 feet thick, forming a vertical mile of fossil
forests. The woody structure is for the best part
well preserved, but where cavities have been formed
in the trunks by the rotting of the wood, they are
lined with crystals of amethyst, smoky and other
varieties of quartz.

The Miocene Flora oftheNorth of Ireland.
— At the recent meeting of the British Association,
Mr. W. H. Baily, F.G.S., Palaeontologist to the Irish
Geological Survey, reported on this subject. He
stated that the fossil plants occur in a deposit of
brown and red matter lying between two sheets of
basalt. Twenty-five species of plants have been
determined. They are most closely allied to the
fossil flora of North Greenland, although some of
the species occur in the Bovey Tracey deposit, in
Devonshire.

236

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

NOTES AN.D QUERIES.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — Is it
memory that causes a newly hatched chick to distin-
guish between a pebble and a grain of rice, or a full-
grown bird to distinguish between a poisonous berry
and a non-poisonous one ? If in these cases a negative
reply can be given, and I think it must, and we are
to consider animals as being actuated by the same
motive powers as man, this certainly goes to prove
that reason does exist without memory, inasmuch as :
reasonable things are done where memory cannot I
come into play. I speak here of memory as we !
ordinarily understand the term. Evolutionists would
probably say that in the two cases I have mentioned
memory, or the effects of memory, are not altogether J
absent, but by the law of heredity the acts are the
results of the memory in ancestors. If we grant this,
we have to admit a kind of memory different from
that in man. We have, on the one hand, man
having the power of acting and thinking freely from
his own individual memory, and, on the other, animals
impelled by inherited results of memory of their
ancestors. Now can it be otherwise, if both animals
and man denote intelligence from such different
fundamental sources, than that the intelligence of
the one must be fundamentally and essentially dif-
ferent from that of the other ? It is contended that
besides the power of instinct, we are to give animals
credit for a degree of reason of the same kind as
that displayed by man ; but it is difficult to see how
it can be possible if a man were born with the
instincts of a cat, a dog, or of any other animal, that
he could be the same kind of intellectual being he
is (or, indeed, an intellectual being at all) that is
capable of the same kind of reason. If we can
see this would be impossible with man, I think
we may fairly conclude that it is not possible with
animals. Reason is the result of the exercise of the
power of arranging facts, drawing deductions from
them, and acting from those deductions uninfluenced
by the impelling force of instinct. This kind of
reason, I take it, is only possible in man, as he is,
so far as we know, the only being who is so unin-
fluenced. From being so, he is able to act from his
own understanding, which, I contend, he would be
unable to do were he controlled by any inherent natural
motives called instincts, and that instincts, if he had
them, would entirely subvert his understanding.
From this point of view it would seem that instinct
and reason are not only alike, but the one is opposed
to and inconsistent with the other, so that where we
admit instinct, we preclude reason. It may afford a
good illustration of this to consider how man acts
when he has acquired strong habits, which become
very much like instinct. We see in cases of drunkards,
and others addicted to injurious habits, the power to
act reasonably with regard to those habits almost,
and in some cases entirely, gone. Although it may
be known to those addicted that even death may be
the early result of persisting in the habits, that know-
ledge is not sufficient to cause them to exercise
reason. We may suppose that instinct being a part
of the very nature of animals, and not being subject
to the checking influence of the understanding, has a
very much stronger force than habit, and therefore, if
the above instance is true as to the force of habit
acquired by man, and in opposition to his knowledge
(and the case is stronger if we bear in mind that some-
times very intellectual persons become hopelessly 1
addicted to injurious habits, after living, it may be,
twenty or thirty years an intelligent life), we may
easily imagine how instincts of greater force inherent

in the constitution, and capable of being exercised
from birth, would preclude the possibility of man ac-
quiring reason, as we understand the term. — Robert
S. Gil/iard.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — In my
letter of June I showed that Mr. Darwin’s arguments
respecting the origin of man are based on reasoning
by analogy. Now, if the intelligence of animals
differs from that of man only in degree, I am at a loss
to see why this method of reasoning is necessary,
because in that case, whatever is true of man must be
true, in a minor degree, of animals ; but many
passages in Mr. Darwin’s works prove that he feels
he would not be justified in thus reasoning.. That
reasoning by analogy is not a safe method, I can
illustrate by the mode in which it has misled me.
Some time ago I lost a diamond from a ring, and,
after some search, found it, and strange to say,
close to it an object which I supposed was another
diamond, as it closely resembled it in appearance.
Reasoning by analogy, I exclaimed, “Since these
objects closely resemble each other, they must have
had a common origin.” Picture my chagrin when a
goldsmith informed me that the one I had lost was a
diamond of the purest water from the mines of
Golconda, and my newly found treasure a piece of
glass from Birmingham. The Darwinian hypothesis
is not only unsupported by facts, but it is in flagrant
contradiction to them. There are some 20,000
species of animals, and not one instance is known of
different species being crossed without sterility en-
suing in the animal thus begot. It seems a law of
nature to keep species apart. Darwin, to support his
hypothesis has to assume that there may have been
a time when this law was reversed. What would be
thought of an astronomer, if he were to argue that
though the attraction of gravitation is true now, there
may have been a time when an apple thrown into the
air would travel for ever in space ? Darwin’s argu-
ment is precisely similar, though its fallacy is not so
obvious at first sight. If the theory of evolution be
true, a multitude of animals should be discovered in
various stages of physical change, which would defy
the efforts of naturalists to classify. As is well known,
the reverse of this is true. A skilled naturalist finds no
difficulty in placing each newly discovered animal
in its proper order. Mr. James George asks in the
August number, Plow far is an instinctive act auto-
matic, and how far is it the outcome of volition ?
The cpiestion, if it could be answered, would close this
discussion, but I am convinced that it cannot be
answered for the following reasons. We perceive
that animals have some faculties in common with
man, we see too that they have some primal impulses
that man does not possess. On the other hand, we
see that man has certain faculties, powers of abstract
thought, imagination, introspection, and a moral sense
unpossessed as far as can be judged by brutes. Some
writers consider the moral sense an independent
principle, but I am inclined to believe that, if not
the result of the above named faculties, it cannot
possibly exist without them. The consequence of
these differences of nature is this, that in attempting
to make a perfect analysis of the brute mind we are
confronted with an insoluble metaphysical problem.
Let the reader compare what is said on the subject
by Darwin, Haeckel, Dr. Carpenter, Henslow, Mr.
S. Butler, the letters in “ Nature ” and in this
journal, and I think he will conclude with me that
the diversities of opinion expressed are the conse-
quence of the writers overlooking the enforced limita-
tion of thought involved in the subject. For example,
in the July number, Mr. James Hooper says : “ The

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

237

spider weaves its net by instinct. But what if we
tear a spider’s web, and see the spider examining the
mischief that is done, and either giving up its work
in despair, or endeavouring to mend it as well as
may be ? Surely, here we have the instinct of weaving
controlled by observation, by comparison, by reflec-
tion, judgment.” In short, by reason. Now Mr.
Hooper here supposes that the web is spun by in-
stinct, but that, when broken, a different set of faculties
comes into play. Surely, the primal impulse that
causes the spider to spin its web can also repair it.
Or, if reason is called into play for the repair of the
web, why not for spinning it in the first instance ? If
so, why talk of instinct ? Thus there is always a
danger, as I pointed out in my letter of January, of
man attributing to animals his own modes and laws
of thought. Mr. Samuel Butler, whose works Mr.
Hooper quotes, has been recently giving the world
a new revelation in the “Examiner,” which proves
to be a species of polytheism. He thinks that all
living beings form part of one great animal, which he
calls God, and that the inorganic world was created
by another God, and reasoning, by analogy, he thinks
that the planets are, to use his own expression, simi-
larly begodded. His argument, he adds, is a corollary
of his previous writings. It should be remarked that
the truth of his revelation (other considerations apart),
depends entirely on the acceptance of the theory of
evolution. Such is the result of the wild speculations
of this very able writer. I quite agree with “Idea”
that a reminder of what some intellectual minds (even
if not scientific) have thought on the subject is of the
greatest interest. No one disputes the facts la-
boriously collected by our great naturalists, but the
inferences they draw from the facts are open to dis-
pute, and can be discussed by those who are obliged
for lack of opportunity to obtain their information
from books rather than from direct observation. —
II. D. Barclay.

Intelligence in Animals. — It appears to me
that, in the interesting discussion which has been
going on for several months in Science-Gossip,
sufficient prominence has not been given to habit in
animals. We all agree in the fact of instinct ; but
as to the power or faculty which seems to go beyond
instinct, and override it — in olden times it was called
sagacity, by way of distinction — there is a consider-
able diversity of opinion. Doubtless there is in
animals something akin to reason, using the term in
a vague and general sense, something that looks very
much like a process of reasoning, in the facts observed
and recorded of them ; but after all, is there really
anything more than can be fairly explained by the
principle of association, by observation, and especially
by habit ? Does not what may be called the routine
of habit, sufficiently account for many of these facts ?
and do not the mistakes of habit continually occurring
lead to the suspicion at least, that there is no act of
reasoning properly so called? My dog looks for a
run about the time I take the letters to our village post
office, and waits quietly outside the door of my dress-
ing room, where I generally am before going ; but he
does this whether I go to the post or not, it is a habit
of his ; but he often blunders about the time, and the
road I take, when it sometimes varies from the usual
one. The baker’s horse knows from habit at what
houses to stop ; but he would, if left to himself, stop
at the same houses on going the same road on a day
when not carrying bread. We know that horses
wish to turn at a given road leading to their home,
though their driver wishes to go straight on. It
seems to me that these and many similar mistakes of
jiabit, go far to disprove careful thought and processes

of strict, intellectual reasoning in the brute creation.
Without entering into nice points of intellectuality or
metaphysical operation, I am convinced that the
apparently-reasoning actions of animals may easily be
accounted for as before stated. Association of ideas
from association with man ; daily habits, and impulse
often arising from these, are surely sufficient to account
for the remarkable facts of which we read, and which
we personally witness in relation to animals, without
seeking to ally them with the intellectual and spiritual
parts of man’s wonderfully composite nature. In
reading the remarks on this subject in Science-
Gossip, I have been reminded of the words of the
wise man (Eccles. iii. 21) “ Who knoweth the spirit
of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of the beast
that goeth downward to the earth?” — J. S. B.,
Bentney , Norfolk.

Intelligence inMan and Animals. — From the
many instances recorded in your journal and elsewhere,
and the numerous others which must occur to the mind
of every observer of the habits of animals, I cannot
imagine how it is possible to deny to other animals
than ourselves the power which we call reason.
Define the word as we will, let the cloud of words be
ever so delightfully obscure, I do not think the im-
pression which presents itself to one’s mind when the
word reason is used, will be at all the clearer. I will
therefore leave the attempt to those who have more
leisure than myself. I wish to give you an instance
of what I cannot but regard as reason in an animal.
Some two or three years ago I had a very powerful
tom-cat called “ Muff,” a great favourite with every-
body, which favour he returned with evident signs
of affection. But, alas ! Muff was a great poacher, and
has more than once come home in a sad plight. On
one occasion I was called by my little girl to come
and look at Muff, who was lying on the hearth-rug
in the breakfast-room evidently suffering intensely.
On passing my hand over his side, I found a bunch of
wire just level with his fur, and of course saw at once
that he was snared ; he had bitten the twisted strands
of copper wire through close to his body, and thus
made his escape, but the snare was still round his
loins so tightly drawn as to be deeply imbedded in
his flesh, and only to be got at where the wire had
passed over his backbone. At this point a pair of
cutting-pliars soon relieved him from the painful
ligature. Now although I touched the cat as tenderly
as possible, the examination must have been extremely
painful, but in spite of language which was dreadful to
hear, not the slightest attempt to retaliate was made
by puss, but rather, by the way in which he resigned
himself to my hands, and by the disposal of his limbs,
he seemed to, and I have no doubt did, render me
every assistance in his power. Let the reader call to
mind what occurred the last time he had a tooth
extracted, how he screwed up his (what he called)
moral courage, and went through the operation. Can
I doubt that Muff showed moral courage, and that he
reasoned thus? “ I am in great pain, my master has
never showed me anything but kindness, he can
relieve me, and I am sure he will do so. I will there-
fore submit myself to his hands.” If ever cat looked
grateful, the expression on poor Muffs intelligent
features was that of intense gratitude for the reward
of his faith. — T. Southwell , Norwich.

Intelligence in Animals. — In answer to Mr.
Barclay, I briefly state my opinion on this point. If
we meet a friend, something enables us to recognise
him, some power of distinction (i.e. reasoning in
some form, though very simple, perhaps) is called
into play. It may not take the form of a distinct

238

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

proposition, but I think it exists, although perhaps
almost unconsciously. Similarly with animals. Again,
occasionally we cannot at once call to mind some fact
we wish to use ; but a related fact may occur to us,
and suggest the one we originally wanted. There is,
I think, some reasoning in this act of memory. I admit
that in all cases memory may not involve reasoning,
but in many it does, although sometimes very slightly
and all but unconsciously. I do not think memory is
instinctive, though it may sometimes become nearly
so. The converse proposition, that reasoning cannot
take place without memory, is, I think, true. With
respect to Mr. Kitton’s suggestion, that the pipes
were in the way of the rats, it is certainly a simple
explanation. It may be so at times, but it does not
follow that the rat could not open a pipe with the
intention of obtaining water. The water may some-
times be heard trickling, if not in Mr. Kitton’s case,
and rats might have more than one motive for cutting
the pipes. But in the supposition that the pipes
were in the way, the animals might reason about
cutting them. If anything were in our way, we
should think that, to pass on, we must remove it.
Might not the animals do the same ? I do not think that
it is impossible. In a recent number of “ Nature,” I
see that some reasons are given for thinking that in
some instances the memory of localities may be
hereditary. If so, this does not make the subject of
memory easier to explain. Whether this may favour
or oppose my line of thought, it ought to be mentioned,
as leading, perhaps, one step nearer to what we are
in search of, that is, light and truth. — A. Wheatley.

Harvesting Ants. — While residing at Mentone
during the spring of 1878, I noticed a most curious
fact connected with the harvesting ants. When
passing through an avenue of plane-trees, I observed
some of their seeds apparently walking along, but on
closer examination found them to be borne by ants
(Atta barbara'), which were carrying them to their
nests. Everyone who has broken up one of the
round balls of the plane-tree knows it to consist of
wedge-shaped seeds tapering to a point, from whence
springs a parachute of long reflexed hairs. The ants
were carrying these seeds along by the broader end,
and on arriving at the nest attempted to pull them
down. But the hairs naturally stuck in the entrance
of the nest and rendered it difficult or nearly impos-
sible to draw in the seeds. Several times I took out
the seed and placed it with the narrower end — the
end from which the hairs spring — downwards, in
which case there would have been little difficulty for
the ants to get them in. But they almost invariably
took the seeds out and put them in the other way.
Thus it took a long time to take down each seed, and
before they had dragged in many, a great number
were accumulated outside ; the ground round some
of the nests being thickly strewn with them in all
directions, for the distance of three or four inches.
After laboriously bringing the seeds into their nests,
the ants nip off the hairs and throw them out into
a rubbish heap or midden. If they were to nip off
the hairs before dragging them down, or turn them
the reverse way, they would, one would naturally
suppose, save much time and trouble. I have en-
quired of several friends, but none of them seem to
have noticed this peculiarity ; nor does Moggridge
mention it in his work on “ Harvesting Ants and
Trapdoor Spiders.” Can you or any of your readers
throw a light on this apparent stupidity in insects
usually so sagacious? — G. H. Bryan.

The “ Griding ” of Trees. — Our Poet-Laureate,
in his “In Memoriam,” has referred to the aspect

! of a wood in winter, saying that it “grides and
I clangs ” its many branches, and the distinction be-
tween the words is, I find, missed by some readers
of the poem. “ Gride ” is a word of good antiquity ;
we have a derivative from it in the familiar word
“gridiron.” Milton has the word “gride” in the
sense of “cut,” which does not suit Tennyson’s
application of it here. Seemingly he means the
stridulous or creaking sound that the boughs of some
species produce as they sway in the wind, contrasting
with the deeper sound that is indicated by the word
“ clang.”— J. R. S. C.

Shower of Pollen. — In reference to the notice
of a “shower of pollen” at Windsor in Science-
Gossip, I would say that a similar phenomenon was
noticed by a friend of mine in the same town towards
the end of June, especially covering the surface of
a fountain and some water butts standing in the
garden. — E. G. H.

Leaves of Rhubarb. — Ever since I tasted in
Brussels, seven years ago, the delicious dish which
can be made from rhubarb leaves, I have urged upon
all my friends to try it, and it has been almost uni-
versally appreciated by those who like spinach, as,
when properly prepared, rhubarb leaves resemble that
delicate vegetable very closely, only possessing a
slightly more acid flavour, which, however, is most
refreshing. To prepare the leaves for the table, the
younger ones only should be used ; after taking out
the ribs and coarser parts, the leaves should be treated
similarly to spinach. After boiling, they must be
passed through a fine sieve, and then served up
either with a little butter on toast or with rich brown
gravy. — Hastings C. Dent.

Under what Circumstances is the Yew
Foliage poisonous to Cattle? — A diversity of
opinions has, within the last few months, been
offered on this subject, and your correspondent
“ J. H. G. Kettering,” who has asked this question
in the July number of Science-Gossip, may like to
hear some of them. Many persons have affirmed
that the yew is only hurtful in a dry or withered
state, that the fresh foliage was eaten with impunity
by cattle, but that the lopped, dying branches invari-
ably proved injurious. Most poisonous plants lose
a portion, if not all, their poisonous properties by
dying, but not so the yew, according to old-fashioned
notions. The number of deaths that have occurred
lately in consequence of cattle having partaken of
fresh yew leaves led to inquiries which resulted in an
opinion to the following effect, namely, that the female
yew-tree is poisonous, the male not. But this idea
has been set aside by the fact that in several instances
horses have eaten yew foliage and escaped injury,
when other horses, on another occasion having de-
voured the same trees, have died. An old gentle-
man, a friend of mine, assures me that “drinking
does the mischief.” Cattle may, he says, eat fresh yew
leaves, and escape if they do not drink water for a few
hours after their dangerous meal, and I feel very much
inclined to think he is right, for a gentleman farmer,
living near Less, lost two valuable cart horses lately
from the effect of yew poisoning. The animals had
been left standing under the tree while the carters
were loading, and had, unfortunately, been allowed
to drink very shortly afterwards at a stream on their
way home ; both horses died in the course of three
hours to the great astonishment of their owner, who
said that “his cattle had browsed those very trees
for the last ten years, and he had never known one of
them injured before.” — H. E. Watjiey.

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

239

“Black Coral,” &c. — Can any reader of the
Science-Gossip give me any information concerning
the so-called “ black coral,” sold to visitors at Capri ?
I have a specimen, but feel great doubts as to its being
coral at all. I saw in the August number of Science-
Gossip (p. 187) a mention of double Cardamine
pratensis. A quantity of this plant was growing with
double flowers last spring on the south-west side of
Shotover hill, near Oxford. Is this a peculiar pheno-
menon ? Can any one tell me if Gilbert White was
the author of the twenty-six letters on the “ Antiquities
of Selborne,” published in the edition of White’s
Selborne, with notes by Frank Buckland (Macmillan
and Co., 1875)?—^. M. C. T.

Relaxing Lepidoptera. — I have for some years
had in my possession a fine specimen of the death’s
head moth ( Acheronta Atropos ), which was captured
at Northallerton many years ago. It had never been
set out, and so its wings were folded over its back,
the upper ones alone being visible. I succeeded last
week in making a very fine cabinet specimen of it, by
floating it on a piece of cork, in a basin of boiling
water, covered at the top, for a few hours. I was
then able to pin it out almost as easily as a fresh
specimen, and it has kept its position ever since. —
J. A. Wheldon.

Works on Aphides. — In reply to Mr. A. C.
Smith’s inquiry for a work on aphides or plant-lice,
let me strongly recommend Buckton’s “Monograph
of British Aphides,” with excellent coloured plates,
drawn under the camera lucida. It is published by
the Ray Society, and will be completed in three
volumes, the two first of which have been published.
By applying to Mr. Wm. Wesley, Natural History
Bookseller, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, who
purchased the work for me, I have no doubt Mr.
Smith will be able to obtain it. The coloured
drawings comprise not only several forms of each
species, but also many of the insects which relate to
the aphis, such as the ants, sylphidae, aphidivorous
ichneumonidse, &c. It is however a pity that the
leaves of this and some other works on Natural
History are not even cut before being issued for sale.
Much time is thereby lost in turning over one by one
the uneven edges to find any particular plate. Surely
the expense of cutting them by machine must be very
insignificant, and it would be a great boon to readers
to purchase them evenly cut. — William C. Tait.

Dutch Clover. — The abnormal state of the
flowers of Trifolium repens , as described by Mr. W. E.
Green, has been a very common phenomenon at
Darlington this year. I have also found several plants
in a viviparous condition. Professor Henfrey, in his
“Elementary Course of Botany,” states — “In wet
seasons it is not uncommon to find flowers of the
white clover, with more or less of the organs modified
in this way ; the pistils, one or more of the stamens,
&c., appearing in the form of green leaves, occasion-
ally compound or ternate, as in the stem below.”
Although I have examined a large number of
specimens in this condition, I have not as yet found
one in which all the floral organs were converted into
leaves ; there invariably being portions of the petals
and stamens of the normal shape and colour. — J. A.
Wheldon.

Our Singing Mouse.— Some little time since we
had a mouse which made its home in a little cup-
board adjoining our kitchen firegrate. At first it was
remarkably shy, but in a few weeks I tamed it, so
that it would come to my hand for its evening
supper ; then it would sit up on its hind legs on the

hearthrug and sing. The song was very like the low
warbling of a thrush. In time I came to look regularly
for my visitor, for I often sit up alone for about an
hour after all my family have retired to rest. If
any of the household stayed with me to see my little
singer, it would not make its appearance ; the only
way to hear it was by keeping out of sight, and being
very quiet in the lobby. I am sorry to relate it fell
a victim to our Manx cat, who, one evening, unknown
to myself, had not been turned out of the house — thus
ended the life of our songster. — R.

Shells of Brood Eggs. — In reply to F. M. W.’s
query as to what birds do with the shells of their eggs
after the young brood is hatched. Some swallows
returned to their nests in the eaves of our cottage at
Clevedon, Somerset, this year, and have also added two
nests since they came back. Our children take great
interest in their movements while hawking flies and
returning to the gaping mouths of the little ones. My
little girl showed me the shells lying amongst theplanfs
just under the nests ; they had evidently been thrown
out as soon as hatched. This the birds would have no
difficulty about ; the little beaks, which make such an
excellent trowel, would serve admirably as a forceps.
— W G. G.

Shower of Pollen. — In reply to H. G. Wheeler,
in the August number of Science-Gossip, I beg to
say I also noticed the shower of pollen at Windsor,
on June 8th. — A. Davis.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the “ exchanges ” offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
“exchanges” which cannot be tolerated.

H. — The notion that hedgehogs sucked cows has long since
been exploded. It is utterly impossible, from the structure of
their mouth and teeth, for hedgehogs to do anything of the
kind.

F. Crosbie. — Your sketch is evidently a figure of the bee-
louse (Brazila caeca), a singularly degraded dipterous insect.
The commoner parasite of the honey-bee is a tick, and possesses
eight legs. M

D. D. — The proceedings of the British Association can be
purchased each year for one guinea, from the secretary. But
the best lectures, addresses, and papers usually appear in
“Nature.”

J. W. J. — The tree which produces the well-known Brazil-nut
of commerce, is called Bertholettia excelsa. The so-called
“ nuts ” are in reality seeds.

J. W. Ward. — The “projections” on the leaf are monothala-
mous or single-chambered galls, produced by a species of aphis,
probably A . bursaries. Yes. Jackdaws will eat the eggs of other
birds if they have the chance.

T. G. Harris. — Get the pamphlet “How to Choose a
Microscope,” price is., published by D. Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s
Place, Trafalgar Square, London. It will give you full in-
structions as to terms, &c. Beck’s economic microscope is an
excellent instrument. Davis’s “ Preparation and Mounting of
Microscopical Objects,” price 2s. 6 d. (same publisher), will give
you full instructions as to that department.

Miss F. — The leaves on which the “ singular growth” occur,
are those of the ground ivy (Glechomahederacea). The nipple-
like “growth” is caused by a species of aphis, puncturing the
skin of the leaf, and depositing its eggs therein.

240

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

R. Renton. — Accept our best thanks for specimen of Pota-

mogeton zizis.

Medicus. — As you will have seen, the “American Quarterly
Journal of Microscopy” is unfortunately to be discontinued at
the end of the present year. The back numbers might be
obtained through Messrs. Triibner, Ludgate Hill.

W. H. Littleton. — The labels for geological specimens are
usually written out ; we are not aware of any printed ones.
Lists of British coleoptera for labelling may be had of E. W.
Janson, 28 Museum Street, London, W.C.

W. A. K. (Salford). — It is the hemp nettle (Galeopsis versi-
color), often found in potato fields, abundant about Warrington.

E. D. B. (Sidmouth). — It would be difficult to name the plant
with certainty from your short description, but we should
imagine it would be the privet ( Ligustrum vulgare) you saw.

T. L. (Heywood). — The specimen sent is a common British
plant, yarrow (Achillea millefolium), though the pretty variety
you enclose is rare.

J. B. B. (Dudley). — We never met with the Symphytum with
pink flowers, although the petals, soon after the ovules are
fertilised, often assume a pinky tinge ; it is probably S. patens
(Sibth.).

C. H. G. (Clifton). — The flower is the sea lavender (Statice
caspia, Willd.). The leaves of the tree were too much withered
to identify. Could you send a dried specimen ?

F. B. (Cambridge). — Your specimen is the Pliyteuma pauci-
flora. It is rare ; on the higher hills it becomes more frequent.
Vide “ Holiday Rambles on High Lands.”

R. F. Z. — Some of the leaves were attacked by the Aregma
obtusatum, a small microscopic fungus, called a brand.

F. C. K. (Aberdeen). — The species enclosed is the hound’s
tongue (Cynoglossum officifiale), not very common.

F. H A. (Fishbourne). — We are not sufficiently acquainted
with Chenopodiwn paganum to venture an opinion ; we should
name it C. viride (L.).

T. G. H. — We believe it is a very rare species, the spider
orchis (Ophrys ficifera, Sm.), at all events it is not the frog
orchis ( Habenaria) as you have been led to suppose ; it is worth
looking for ; try to find good specimens next year.

Erythr^ea. — A very luxuriant example of E. pulchella (Fr.).

EXCHANGES.

A few beautiful plant hairs, and other slides. Also Pepper’s
“ Cyclopaedic Science,” in exchange’for Davies’ “On Mounting,”
Slack’s, or other good work on pond life. — Jas. Blackshaw,
57 Cross Street, South Blakenhall, Wolverhampton.

Wanted, mammalian skulls. Offered recent shells, serpents
in spirit, fossils, or osteological help. — T. Stock, 16 Colville
Place, Edinburgh.

Wanted, a good micrometer, in exchange for pair of nearly
new stage forceps, with objects (approval). — E. Clover, Spring-
field Lodge, Sudbury, Suffolk.

Wanted, Irish and European Potamogetons ; and European
Orobanches, for rare British plants. — A. B., 107 High Street,
Croydon, Surrey.

Eggs of the lesser black-backed and black-headed gulls for
exchange. Unaccepted offers not answered. — E. F. Bell, n
James Terrace, Tait Street, Carlisle.

Clean specimens of soundings, containing “ orbulina,” &c.
(with localities), mounted ; also slides of fossils, foraminifera,
&c. : to exchange for marine deposits or geological material,
not necessarily microscropic. — E. Lovett, Holly Mount, Croy-
don.

For cuticle of Yucca send a stamped directed envelope to
W. H. Gomm, Waltham Abbey, Essex.

Full and easy directions to extract jaw and teeth of blow-
fly in exchange for any well-mounted slide of insect dissections
— sections of coal or spines, Foraminifera or Polycistina. —

G. H. Wrapson, Albert Road, Southsea.

British shells, plants, and mosses (correctly named), or
living plants of Trichomajies radicans, and fine specimen of
Todea superba, in exchange for foreign shells. — T. Rogers,
27 Oldham Road,. Manchester.

Well-mounted slides of Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergii,
“selected,” for other well-mounted slides: diatoms, para-

sites, or geological sections preferred.— H. Morland, Cranford,
Middlesex.

Wanted, Bentham’s “Illustrated British Flora,” in fair
condition, in exchange for Cook’s “ Fungi,” 2 vols., uncut. —
J. C. White, Montpellier, B. Salterton, Devon.

Have Science-Gossip for 1872 and 1878, unbound, to ex-
change for diatomaceous material or slides. — A. Alletsee, 11
Foley Street, Langham Place, W.

“London Catalogue” offered. Nos. 12, 33, 49, 79, 93, 96,
in, XI3> a6S. 266, 277, 316, 591, 714, 727, 809, 1003, 1020, 1036,
1129, 1259, 13x0, 1323, 1504, in exchange for any of the following :
180, 197, 204, 374, 411, 421, 518, 598, 529, 538, 864, 907, 913,
928, 929, 1236, 1282, 1292, 1299, 1431, 1522, 1545, 1610, 1611,
1621, 1622, 1631, 1632. — W. Jones, 32 Manchester Street,
Oldham.

Wanted, a copy of Stark’s “Popular History of British
Mosses.” Reply, statingprice, to S. M. P., 2 Westerhall Villas,
Weymouth.

Mosses, about 100 Somersetshire species in exchange for
others. Lists exchanged. — W. E. Green, 24 Triangle, Bristol.

Wanted, common objects for the microscope, mounted or
unmounted, in exchange for mounted objects. Send list to
Amateur, care of W. H. Symons, 2 Queen’s Terrace, St. John’s
Wood, N.W.

One or two works on entomology, list sent. Desiderata,
“Duncan’s British Moths,” or “Wild Flowers,” by Shirley
Hibberd, published by Routledge. — W. Thomas, care of
Bayley, Esq., Billing Road, Northampton.

I have a few slides of Japanese bibulous paper, splendid
polariscope object, to exchange for other well-mounted micro-
scopic slides. — W. G. Daish, Melville Street, Ryde, I.W.

Lyell’s “Principles of Geology,” 9th ed., and Darwin’s
“ Descent of Man,” 2nd ed., for standard works on geology,
biology, &c. — J. A. Lee, Todmorden, Lane.

Foraminiferous deposit from the west coast of Ireland, in
exchange for good micro objects (mounted) of any description. —
Henry Hyde, 2 Ellesmere Street, Regent Road, Salford.

A great variety of sections of wood, pith, and other vegetable
structures, in exchange for mosses, etc. Exchange lists. —

H. J. R., 184 High Street, Brentford.

Wanted, 20, 33, 79, 97, 131, 133, 165, 206, 218, 277, 452,
476, 515, 615, 841b, 846, 868, 1057, 1057b, 1058, 1084, 1092, 1160,
1169, 1468, 1537, in “ London Catalogue of British Plants,” for
other plants. — H. Searll, no Old Street, Ashton-under-Lyne.

Haldon greensand, and other fossils ; also several hundred
polished specimens of madrepores ; 1000 sections of corals for
microscopists, and shell sections. Wanted a variety of good
foreign cones, no matter if the lips of cones are a little broken.
Shells must not be too small. — A. J. R. Sclater, Mineralogist,
4 Bank Street, Teignmouth, Devon.

Wanted, English and foreign colepotera and lepidoptera, as
English pupae of moths and butterflies, in exchange for foreign
stamps and named British plants. — F. S. L., 2 Oakland Villas,
Redland, Bristol.

Works now publishing ; 51 parts of Chambers’s “ Encyclo-
paedia,” 30 of “Familiar Wild Flowers,” 22 of “Science for
All,” 18 of “ European Butterflies,” for good microscope, or
dissolving views lantern, or chemical or electrical apparatus.—
J. S. Ilsby, 6 Trevethen Terrace, Falmouth, Cornwall.

Cornish minerals, and crystals, for magic lantern slides, or
chemical or electrical apparatus. — J. S. Ilsby, 6 Trevethen
Terrace, Falmouth, Cornwall.

Palates of shell fish, well-mounted and stained, in exchange
for shells, moths, butterflies, birds’ eggs, and minerals named
and localised. — A. D. Innes, 10 Canon Street, Edinburgh.

“London Catalogue,” 7th ed., 85, 626. Potamogeton
zizis, M and K, and others, in exchange for plants or mosses. —
R. Renton, Fans, Earlston, N.B.

Will send a number of caterpillars, Bombyx rnbi, by sending
box and stamps for return. — R. Renton, Fans, Earlston, N.B.

Beautiful groups of preserved ferns and flowers, quite art
gems, which I wish to exchange for micro slides, lepidoptera,
zoophytes, seaweeds, or other natural history objects of interest.
— M. Medhurst, 1 Gladstone Road, Liverpool

Fine series of igneous and metamorphic rocks of Charnwood
Forest ; also various minerals and fossils, in exchange for similar
specimens from other localities. — F. G. S., 3 Melbourne Road,
Leicester.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

“A Dictionary of Plant Names.” By James Britten and
Robert Holland. Part i. London : Triibner & Co.

“ Lectures on the Geology of Leighton Buzzard.” By E. W.
Lewis. A. P. Muddiman, Leighton Buzzard.

“Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, 1877-78.”
“Transactions of the Norwich Naturalists’ Society,” Vol. iii.,
Part 5-

“Proceedings of the Norwich Geological Society,” Vol.
Part 3-

“Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society
Vol. ii., part 5.

“Midland Naturalist.” September.

“ Land and Water.” September.

“Journal of Applied Science.” September.

“American Naturalist.” September.

“ Botanische Zeitung.”

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to ioth ult. from
H. L.— F. K.— A. A.— W. R.— J. F. R.— E. C. R.— W. E. G.
— C. U.— T. B. W.— T. E. J.— C. P.— G. H. W.— T. R.—
B. L.— H. M.— A. D.— W. J. H.— J. C. W.— F. C.— D. D.—
W. H. G.— G. R. V.— W. D.— F. B.— E. E.— W. D.— W. H. G.
—A. B.— E. F. B.— E. C.— G. M. L.— A. M. C. T.-C. Mcl.
— J. A. W— J. P.— E. L.— J. B.— Y. M.— T. S.— W. I.—
J. P. T.— J. H. A. J.— W. H. L.— W. H. S.— S. M. P.—
W. G. D.— A. J. R. S.— J. M. J.— T. G. H.— J. A. L.— H. H.
— H. S.— J. S. B.— H. J. R.— W. M.— H. C. D.— J. S.— W. T
— J. S. I.— F. S. L.— R. R.— W. S.— J. W. O— C. H. D.—
A. D. I.— H. P. M.— M. M.— J. W. W. B.— G. R. V.—
H. W. S.-&C.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

241

A GOSSIP ABOUT NEW BOOKS.

TNG to the pres-
sure of other ar-
ticles, we have
been unable to
give attention to
many new books
and new editions
which have been
sent us for notice,
until quite a small
library has col-
lected on our
table. First among
them calling for
attention is a new
edition of that well
known and most
readable of books,
Professor John-
ston’s “ Chemistry
of Common Life ”
(London : W. Blackwood & Sons). It is edited by
a chemist upon whose shoulders in a great measure
Professor Johnston’s mantle has descended, Professor
Church, who has caught up the spirit of the original
author in his revisions and eliminations, no less than
in the additional new knowledge which has brought
the book abreast of modern discoveries. To revise
and edit a book like this is no thankful task, and we
know of nobody who durst have adventured it with
any chance of success, except Professor Church. As
now given to the world, “ The Chemistry of Common
Life ” is a most valuable work.

Dr. Noad’s “Student’s Text-Book of Electricity ”
(London : Crosby, Lockwood, & Co.) is the other
widely known book which now appears in a revised
and enlarged form. It is a work which needs no
criticism, for its character as a text-book has long
been gained. But no modern science has been such
an enormous gainer, either in its facts or the philo-
sophical explanation of them, as electricity. To
refurbish an excellent but old established manual,
with all the new matter and new views, is both a
delicate and an important task. But the work has
been entrusted to Mr. W. H. Preece, and it is un-
No. 179.

necessaiy to add that it is admirably done. The
student now possesses a compendious and clearly
drawn up manual of modern electricity. “The
Manual of Bee-keeping,” by John Hunter (London :
D. Bogue), has gained a third edition, which sufficiently
proves that the public have taken it under their
protection. This new edition is thoroughly revised
and greatly enlarged, and, both as regards type and
general appearance, has gained in its attraction.
The same may be said of an older and even more
general favourite, Mrs. Lankester’s “ Wild Flowers
worth Notice ” (London : D. Bogue), which never
before appeared in such a glory of coloured plates and
gold as it does in this new edition just issued. This
book is also revised throughout, and the coloured
plates have been greatly improved, both from
artistic and botanical points of view.

Two volumes which have caused great discussion
among philosophical naturalists during the past twelve
months are “Life and Habit” (London : D. Bogue),
and “ Evolution, Old and New ” (London : D. Bogue),
both by the same author, Samuel Butler, whose
“ Erewhon ” has its authorship now acknowledged.
Those who have read the latter most delightful and
cleverly written book, in which picturesque de-
scriptions worthy of Defoe, humour resembling that
of Swift, and trenchant satire not excelled by any
author in our language, are blended in the most
surprising fashion, will naturally turn towards these
two volumes from the same author with high ex-
pectations. We therefore think it savoured of the
greatest temerity for Mr. Butler to enter into a dis-
cussion for which he had not been prepared by any
scientific training. All that can make a book lively
in point of style is present in both the works under
notice, and particularly in “ Life and Habit,” which
we like by far the better of the two. It is often
pregnant with large and novel suggestions, and will
always be a valuable contribution to speculative
literature. Mr. Butler’s freedom from restraints of
any kind gives his books a breeziness which is very
enjoyable. In his “ Evolution, Old and New,” there
are many capital ‘ ‘ hits ” at the weaker places in
Darwinism ; but the author seems to us never to have
quite risen to the position of thoroughly acquiring

M

242

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

a clear knowledge of the doctrine and bearing
of natural selection. This is unfortunate to the
Darwinians, for we feel certain that if Mr. Butler
had been a convert, he would have been a most
valuable one. Again, in his “ History of the Doctrine
of Evolution,” his lack of special knowledge is very
manifest, when compared with the article on the same
subject in the new edition of the “ Encyclopaedia
Britannica.”

Mr. Butler’s genius prompts him to adopt an evo-
lutional philosophy of his own. This is significant,
for “Evolutions” have become rather plentiful of
late, and have been evolved by men of such extremely
opposite modes of thought as Professor Mivart and
Mr. Samuel Butler. But the fact shows that an
evolutional hypothesis of some kind is felt to be
necessary in both formulating and explaining the
material phenomena of the universe. Notwith-
standing these remarks, Mr. Butler’s “Evolution,
Old and New,” is a charming book, very thoughtful,
wonderfully clever, candid, even to a boldness we
have hardly yet learned to recognise as we always
ought to recognise the simple telling of what a man
firmly believes to be the truth ; and the fact that men
like Wallace and others have thought fit to earnestly
enter the lists with Mr. Butler, in defence of their
own theories against his attacks, is one of the best
proofs we could adduce of the fertile cleverness of the
volume.

“Natural History Rambles Underground,” by
J. E. Taylor; “ Mountain and Moor,” by J. E. Taylor ;
“ The Seaside,” by Professor Martin Duncan, F.R.S. ;
“The Woodlands,” by Dr. M. C. Cooke; “Lane
and Field,” by the Rev. J. G. Wood, F.L.S., and
“ Lakes and Rivers,” by C. G. Napier, F.G.S.
These six volumes have recently been published by the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and are
intended to serve as cheap and popular handbooks to
the fauna and flora of the British Islands. Dr. Cooke’s
book is, as might be expected, most clearly and
attractively written ; Professor Duncan gives a good
deal of new information respecting marine animals,
and discourses agreeably also on maritime plants and
seaside geography ; the Rev. J. G. Wood is a natural
history companion who needs no introduction, and
his little book is therefore in no need of recommenda-
tion. Altogether, we think the Christian Knowledge
Society have acted wisely in thus endeavouring to
keep pace with the times. It is not long since geology
was deemed too dangerous a subject for the Society to
take up, but we are glad it is now seen that the
Christian faith need stand in no petty or jealous fear
of the advancement of true science.

“Organic Chemistry, Practical and Theoretical,”
by Hugh Clements (London : Blackie & Son), is
intended as a handbook for colleges and schools,
medical and civil service examinations, and especially
for the honours students at the classes of the Science
and Art Department, South Kensington. But if the

“ honours students ” were to repeat in their papers
some of the blunders and statements to be found in
this little volume, we feel positively certain they
would never “pass.” “A Treatise in Popular
Language on the Solar Illumination of the Solar
System, or the Law and Theory of the Inverse Squares ;
being an analysis of the two received laws relating to
the Diminution of Light by Distance, wherein it is
shown that, according to undisputed facts of Nature
and of Science, the Solar Illumination is equal through-
out the whole system, and the Law of the Inverse
Squares Physically Impossible,” by Collyns Simon,
Hon. LL.D. Edin. (London : Williams & Norgate),
is a book we do not understand.

The “ Outlines of Field Geology,” by Archibald
Geikie, LL.D. ; F.R.S., &c. (London : Macmillan
& Co.), is a small — too small — volume, ablyand clearly
written, and which cannot fail to take its place as
one of the best introductions to the study of geology.
It is gratifying to find that such distinguished
men of science as Professor Geikie do not think it
derogatory to their position to write elementary
manuals. The “Flowers of the Sky,” by Richard
A. Proctor (London : Strahan & Co.), is another
clever and well written book by this indefatigable
author and lecturer ; and it puts the general reader
pleasantly in possession of the newest and grandest
views relating to astronomical science. “Electrical
Lighting, and its Practical Applications,” by J. M.
Shoolbred, B.A., &c. (London : D. Bogue), gives a
well written and illustrated account of all that is
known concerning electrical lighting, with the results
of recent examples. The “ Annual Record of Science
and Industry, for 1878,” is an American work, ably
edited by Spencer F. Baird, and published in London
by Triibner & Co. The recording of the most important
discoveries in the different branches of science has
been entrusted to distinguished specialists, so that the
results are valuable from their trustworthiness.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE LINCOLNSHIRE
MARSHLAND.

By A. J. Jukes-Brown, B.A., F.G.S., &c.

\C07nmunicated by permission of the Director-General of
H.M. Geological Survey. ]

MOST people are sufficiently acquainted with
the physical geography of Lincolnshire to
be aware that the eastern border of the country is
formed by a narrow strip of low-lying land known as
the Marshes , or the Marshland. Stretching south-
wards from the mouth of the Humber, between the
sea-margin and the eastern slope of the Wolds, it
extends as far as Gibraltar Point and Wainfleet,
where it opens upon the broader level of the great
Fenland.

The greater part of this district is below the level
of the spring tides, and would be constantly under

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

243

water, were it not for the long ridge of sand hills
which form a wall of defence, and are sufficient to
protect the marshes from the influx of ordinary tides
or storms ; in some places, where the natural earth-
work is low and narrow, supplemental banks have
been constructed, to provide against the more violent
inroads of the sea. Thus protected, the land is now
so well drained as no longer to merit its old designa-
tion of the marshland, though it is not always secure
from inundation by inland floods.

Any one landing on the Lincolnshire coast, opposite
Louth or Alford, would find himself on a sandy shore ,
in front of the sand-ridge, which rises in many places
to a height of fifty or sixty feet above low-water mark,
and is thickly overgrown with the marram grass and
sea-buckthorn (. Hippophde rhamnoides ). Climbing over
this he would descend on to a level, cultivated plain,
varying in width from three to five miles, and exhibit-
ing some of the best land in Lincolnshire. Crossing
this flat country, our explorer would observe its sea-
like expanse stretching away to the north and south
in unbroken monotony, but passing westward, he
would eventually find himself among low mounds
resembling islands and promontories, between which
the level surface of the plain is prolonged in bay-like
inlets ; every contour forcibly recalling the time when
the marshland was yet in process of formation, and
when the tide ebbed and flowed round the muddy
shores of these slight elevations.

The older land, of which these mounds and spurs
are the outlying portions, extends thence to the foot
of the Chalk Wolds, it presents a more diversified
surface than that of the outer plain, as indicated in
the accompanying sketch-map ; and forms a kind of
border land between the Wold and the Marsh. In-
stead of the brown silty clay which constitutes the soil
of the marsh, this strip of hummocky and undulating
ground includes a variety of soils — boulder-clays,
loams, sands, and gravels, with occasional hollows
and interspaces, where the black peaty soil attests
the former presence of fenny pools and lakelets. It
is only, indeed, within the last fifty years that these
hollows have been thoroughly drained, and old
inhabitants can well remember the time when they
rowed their punts and hunted wild fowl over the spots
that now present such a different aspect, for the
dark waters and the rustling rushes of the olden time
have given place to acres of ploughed land and fields
of waving corn.

Such a country would not at first sight appear to
promise much of geological interest, but the numerous
deep wells which have been sunk in this part of
Lincolnshire, afford excellent sections of the deposits
which underlie its surface, and disclose some
facts of interest and importance. Many of these
wells are bored completely through all the more
recent deposits into the solid chalk which lies below
them, and from the data thus obtained it is possible
to construct something like a comprehensive outline

of the geological history of the district. I propose,
therefore, to take two instances in which the total
thickness of material between the chalk and the
present surface wras thus ascertained ; and will
endeavour to show by what agencies, and under what
conditions the successive members of the series have
been accumulated.

Subjoined are the particulars of two borings selected
from the many which have been communicated ; both
places are on the coast, the find about six miles north-
east of Alford, and the second about the same distance
due east of that town.

I. — Boring at Mablethorpe.

Feet.

Post-

glacial.

Soft “ buttery ” clay

| Soft brown clay or silt, with black
| matter in places

peaty

Glacial. *

Stiff clay with a few stones .

Sandy clay

Stiff clay with small chalk debris .

Chalk rubble

Solid chalk

• • 7

95

II. — Boring at Anderby.

Feet.

Post-

glacial.

Soft brown clay, with marine shells

A bed of turf or peat

. Sand and silt

. . 20

Glacial. -

Stiff marly clay, with bits of chalk .

, Sand and chalk rubble

L Solid chalk

. . 52

99

It will be noticed, that though the distance from
the surface of the chalk to the surface of the ground
is nearly the same in both instances, yet the terms of
the intervening series of beds differ considerably.
It will also be seen that these deposits are capable of
being separated into two groups, and that the chief
point of difference consists in the greater thickness of
the lower group in the latter boring ; the explana-
tion of this fact will be found in the sequel. It will
be obvious, even to non-geological readers, that in
deciphering the history of these deposits, we must
read the record from below upwards, beginning with
the period when the oldest were formed, and trace the
succession of events from that time to the present.

As we are not now concerned with the formation
of the chalk, we need only remark that it is con-
tinuous under all the newer deposits, and forms the
base or floor upon which they rest. Commencing,
therefore, with the newer beds which were laid down
on this floor, we find first a rubble of chalk and sand,
and then a thick mass of a peculiar kind of clay,
which is distinguished from all others by the fact of
its containing numerous small pieces of chalk. Near
the coast these beds are buried under a newer forma-
tion, but westward they come to the surface, and form
the undulating ground between the flat marshes and
the steep slope of the chalk wolds.

* If we enter any brickyard where the clay is being
dug, we shall find it to be stiff brown clay, often mottled

* The greater part of the following description is reprinted
from an article published in the Louth Times of June 21.

M 2

244

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

with bluish-grey, not arranged in regular layers, but
forming a massive deposit full of chalk debris, together
with some larger stones and boulders.

This kind of material is known to geologists by
the name of “boulder clay,” and this particular
deposit is known as the “ Hessle boulder clay,” from
the name of the place where it was first studied and
described. Fifty years ago all such deposits exhibit-
ing signs of tumultuous arrangement used to be
attributed to the agency of Noah’s flood, but
subsequent inquiries showed that this was a mistake,
and that moving ice was the real agent concerned in

along over the rocky bottom with resistless power ;
they have seen also that the rocks over which the ice
passes, are likewise deeply grooved and scratched by
the same means. When therefore we find a deposit
full of such ice-scratched stmes, we know that ice
must once have moved over the ground which it
occupies, and it is now an ascertained fact in geology
that there was a time when the British Isles were
surrounded and smothered with ice ; this time has
received the appropriate name of the Glacial Period,
and it is to the later part of this period that the Hessle
boulder clay belongs.

Fig. 179. — Map of the Lincolnshire Marsh Land. Scale about five miles to one inch. 1. Marsh and Fen ;
2. Hessle clay ; 3. Sandbanks ; 4. Gravel and sand ; 5. Chalky clay ; 6. Cretaceous rocks.

the formation of such clays. But how, it may
naturally be asked, can geologists be sure of this?
The answer is simple, because the stonzs and boulders
in the clay exhibit marks which can only be made by
the action of moving ice. These stones are to the
geologist what coins are to the antiquary — they bear
inscriptions which are records of the times to which
they belong. Men who have seen ice at work on
Arctic shores, or who have been into ice-caves under
the glaciers in Switzerland, have seen how such marks
are made, — how the blocks an I stones, frozen into
the ice, are scratched and ground as they are forced

A mere inspection of the clay itself, however, will
not tell us all that we want to know. There are
several different forms of moving ice on the surface
of the globe. The glacier which sweeps down a
mountain valley ; the iceberg, or ice-floe, which
grounds in shallow water j the ice-foot, or coast-ice,
which surrounds all shores in the northern regions ;
all these forms of ice are supposed to be capable of
producing boulder clay, and further inquiry is
necessary before we can discover which has been the
agent in the formation of this Hessle clay.

Now there are several remarkable points connected

HARD WICKE' S SCIENC E-G 0 SSIP.

245

with its mode of occurrence, which help us in forming
an opinion regarding its mode of origin. In the
first place, it only occurs on the seaward side of
the wolds, entering the Steeping valley and the east
fens as if it would if it were a coast deposit, and these
were bays in the coast-line of the period. Again,
the beds of sand and gravel which occur in and
underneath the clay frequently contain sea shells like
those now living on the coast. Finally, it would
appear that the boulder clay is banked up against the
chalk hills to a depth of 40 or 50 feet in some places,
and that if we could strip it all away we should find
a steep scarp or cliff of solid chalk, like the cliffs of
Flamborough Head, only not quite so lofty. These
buried cliffs begin at Welton-le-marsh, and pass a
little west of the following places — Well, Rigsby,
Belleau, Muckton, Cawthorpe, and Louth (see map) ;
and probably northward to the Humber.

F or these and other reasons it is believed
that the Hessle boulder clay has been pro-
duced by the action of coast-ice against the
Lincolnshire shore. In order therefore to
realise the physical conditions which pre-
vailed at the time when it was being formed,
we must read the descriptions given by
those who have sailed in Arctic seas, or
have visited the northern shores of the
American continent. They tell us that the
freezing of the sea round the coast produces
a shelf of ice, many feet high and sometimes
a hundred feet broad, which is called the
ice-foot, this clings to the coast all the
winter, and from the steeper parts of the
shore tons of rock rubbish fall upon its
surface, while outside its edge icebergs and
loose sheets of ice float in the sea. When
spring time comes great storms arise which
loosen the ice-foot and break up the floes
outside, driving the latter against and on
to the former ; in this way great masses of
ice are often piled up against the coast, and
where the shore is sloping these are often
driven far into the land, crashing and
grinding over the rocks of which it is com-
posed. After the storms comes a brief but
warm summer, the masses of ice begin to melt under
the sun’s rays and the mud and stones with which
they are loaded are left in the shallows along the
shore ; the upper portion of this material is drifted
and sifted by the tidal currents, but the greater part
probably remains as an unstratified boulder clay.

( To be continued.)

A PECULIAR AMCEBA.

TWO years ago I obtained some water from a
pond, in which, among other things, I found a
very beautifully coloured Amoeba, a copy of which *1
enclose. Having never seen any before like it, nor
any description of such an one, I drew a sketch of it
at the time. The general colour of the creature was of
a very light bluish tint, very transparent, and the
granules, of which there was a great number, were of
a brilliant gold colour, the contrast of colour render-
ing it a very beautiful object. On reading Professor
Allman’s address, delivered May 24, 1876, at the
anniversary of the Linnean Society, the subject of
which was “On recent researches among some of
the more simple sarcode organisms,” I there find
the following description of an Amoeba, illustrated
by a drawing, which appears to answer to the one

Why Flowers turn White.— Could any of
your readers explain the reason of some flowers
turning white, such as the foxglove, when brought
into a garden ? — M. F.

Fig. 180. — Peculiar Amoeba ( DactylospJuerium vitreum ?).

mentioned : — “ Under the name of Dactylosphccrium
vitreum , Hertwig and Lesser describe a freshwater
rhizopod which but slightly differs from Amoeba. It
has a roundish body composed of homogeneous
hyaline protoplasm with a multitude of yellow or
green strongly refrangent granules, which fill the
whole of the interior of the body as far as a narrow
hyaline margin. The pseudopodia are blunt finger-
shaped processes which radiate in all directions from
the surface, and consist of a perfectly homogeneous
hyaline protoplasm. The mode in which the pseu-
dopodia are withdrawn is peculiar. When one of
these is about to disappear, it seems suddenly to
change its form ; its smooth surface becomes nodular

246

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

and irregularly sinuous, it conveys the impression of
having suddenly lost its turgescence, and then it
rapidly flows back into the body. Numerous non-
contractible vacuoles exist ; but the multitude of
coloured corpuscles so interfered with the trans-
parency of the protoplasm, that it was impossible to
decide with certainty as to the presence of a nucleus.
In a variety in which the yellow corpuscles are replaced
by green, the whole, or part, of the surface is seen to
be in most cases covered with fine villi-like processes,
a condition very similar to one which has been
frequently described as occurring in Amoeba. To-
wards the centre of the protoplasm were numerous
pellets composed of foreign matter, evidently the
remains of nutriment derived from plants and in-
gested as in other amoeboid organisms.”

In the specimen I had, the rich yellow granules
not only filled the body, but were thinly scattered
through all the pseudopodia.

Canterbury. J. Fuli.agar.

ORNITHOLOGICAL ESSAYS.

No. II. — The Sparrowhawk ( continued ).

By Tom Wm. Dealy.

^piIE sparrowhawk is a great destroyer of bird-life.

X In fact, birds constitute its exclusive food.
Gamekeepers wrongly imagine that every bird which
is lost out of their woods has been eaten by this
hawk, which on these fallacious grounds is subjected
to a rigorous persecution, and, as a consequent result,
it becomes rare, and more rare every year. It is a
great error that this bird, as well as all others com-
prised under the head Raptores, were not included
in the Wild Birds Protection Act, because the birds
they kill to support themselves are necessarily the
weak and diseased ones in the flock, which cannot fly
away quickly enough to elude the deadly grasp of
the hawk ; and which, if left behind, would in all
likelihood sow more widely the germs of disease, and
thus lead to a far heavier mortality than the hawks
cause. Of course, my allusions now apply to game ;
for hawks are surely not begrudged any sparrows
they may destroy. In mediaeval ages both game and
hawks were to be found in profusion. Then the
sickly birds of a flock fell a prey to some hovering
hawk. Why should not the same proportion exist
now ? In a few years hence the sparrowhawk will
become like most of the genus — rare. It cannot but
give pain to the feeling of every true ornithologist,
to behold the rows of hawks which are nailed on the
gable end of the keeper’s house.

While spending my Midsummer vacations, I became
acquainted with a keeper who inherited with his title
all the inveterate hatred of his “ caste ” to hawks. I
talked with him, but he would not be convinced. In
the midst of a futile effort to wean him from his per-
verted opinion, I said, “ Then bring me the next pair

you shoot ; we will examine them, and you will then
see that I am right ! ” He smiled superciliously as he
answered, “ Well, I will, and I’ll be bound to say,
you’ll find ’em stuffed with young game.” I made no
reply, because I saw that he was steeped in ignorance,
and that anything I said would be of no avail.

He brought me a pair at noon next day, which he
had shot that morning. I opened them in his presence
that he might see the result himself. In the stomach
of the first — a matured male — were the partly digested
remains of a pigeon, species irrecognisable, but the
presence of a foot told it was a pigeon. I made no
comment, but proceeded to the stomach of the
second. I found the undigested parts of some small
bird, probably a robin or a linnet. Here was some-
thing for him ! He was rather less decided, but with
the most perfect nonchalance he extenuated his argu-
ment by attributing the absence of game from their
stomachs to the constant watch he exercised over his
young birds. However, I asked him to bring me the
next hawks he killed. I chanced to be with him
when he shot a pair — male and female. I again
dissected in his presence. He expressed his un-
bounded confidence that we should find game
in these, because he had lost a couple of young
pheasants from his covers that very morning. He was
mistaken. The male contained the several parts of a
sparrow not yet so sufficiently digested as to be past
recognition. I extracted both legs and claws quite
uninjured from the mass of food. From the female I
took the totally unrecognisable body of some large
bird ; which from fragmentary evidence we concluded
must be a thrush. He promised to think about it,
and examine for himself, and should he find his doubts
still further strengthened, he would refrain from
destroying them.

It may probably be of interest to many to read the
following curious calculation, relative to the birds
destroyed by the sparrowhawk.

Suppose there is one pair of sparrowhawks to every
twenty square miles of the British Isles — which is a
very moderate calculation far below the number. There
would then be no less than 6075 pairs of hawks, in all
12,150 birds. Again, suppose each of these to con-
sume three birds — sparrows we will say — per day.
They would destroy 36,450 sparrows per diem,
255, 15° per week, and 13,304,250 per year of 365
days ! Let us suppose this immense number of birds
to be in a flock, flying. We will allow each bird a
square foot for freedom of movement. There would
then be a compact mass of flying birds nearly a mile
long and half a mile wide. What a mass of birds !
And yet this is the amount which would be actu-
ally destroyed by the sparrowhawks of the United
Kingdom in one year if left unmolested. Again, if
the victims were placed in a cubical mass, say that
each bird is five inches long, two wide, and one in
depth, they would form a cubical mass which would
completely fill a box a little over sixteen and a half

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

247

feet cubed ; that is, a box sixteen and a half feet long,
sixteen and a half feet wide, and sixteen and a half
feet in depth. What a holocaust offered up at the
shrine of agriculture ! and yet it is rejected.

Again, were each bird to average two ounces, there
would be a weight of 1,663,031^ pounds, or about
742J5 tons. Endeavour to imagine the number of
railway trucks they would fill. Farmers, Agri-
culturists, cannot you see the benefit which you
would gain if the country were rid of all this ? And
yet we wantonly destroy the means which Nature has
given you to obtain it.

Suppose each victim were to eat — we will not be
extravagant — say 100 grains of corn (or its equivalent
from the produce of the land) in a season ; we will
ignore that which they destroy and do not eat ; they
would eat 1,330,425,000 grains. If 8000 grains fill
a pint measure, there would be 166,303^ pints of
grain, or about 65 loads. I leave it to others to esti-
mate what this is worth, as I think I have carried the
calculation far enough to show that it is altogether
to the detriment of farmers and agriculturists to
destroy hawks. In other manners I have demonstrated
how they are of value to keepers. Enlist the services
of hawks and they will reap benefit everywhere.

One is often surprised when passing through plan-
tations in our country rambles, at seeing a sparrow, or
other similar bird fly past us, with great haste and
precipitation, the while uttering piteous, plaintive
cries. The astonishment, however, diminishes as we
see a dark form glide quickly by and turn round the
moss-grown rock past which the doomed bird flew.
The dark form is the much dreaded sparrowhawk ;
and no doubt were we to extend our walk a short
distance in the proper direction, we should disturb
the sylvan tyrant enjoying its sanguinary meal with
evident satisfaction.

The female is a stronger, larger, and more cou-
rageous bird than her mate, and such birds as thrushes
(Merulidoe) and even larger birds, as lapwings and
pigeons — find in her a very powerful foe. She will
not hesitate in attacking a plover and will bear it off
in her talons. The derivation of its local name of
“Pigeonhawk” needs no explanation. She is also
a swifter bird than the male, and may be seen at one
moment flying along a hedgerow, or by the edge of a
grove of trees, while immediately after we see her dart-
ing madly through the woods, quickly threading the
labyrinth of branches in quick chase after her fright-
ened prey, which, however, seldom escapes, so deftly
are the numerous twistings and turnings executed. I
have ofttimes wondered how this bird could proceed
at such a tremendous speed. In its passage it makes
a loud disturbance in the air, as of a loud wind, and
is lost to view behind the screen of some outjutting
rock, or is hid by a clump of dark green foliage.

The sparrowhawk loves to feed off a fine plump
chicken, and will venture much to procure one. If a
farmyard be situate in the vicinity of its site of niclifi-

cation, it does not scruple to pay its visits at intervals
— particularly in the grey dawn of morn, or in the
growing dusk of evening. It dashes over the inter-
vening hedge, sails across the yard on outspread
pinions, snatches up one of the heaviest chickens,
glides stealthily round the barn, and darts across the
adjacent meadows, away to some sequestered nook in
the woods, there at leisure to eat its stolen morsel.
The goodwife, on coming out to see the cause of all
the noisy cackling occasioned by the recent visit, only
sees the old white hen, clucking vociferously and col-
lecting all her young fry around her. If not checked
in the habit, the sparrowhawk will soon learn to
repeat its visits, until at last it has robbed the yard of
all its chickens.

An old, grey-headed keeper recounted to me a
wonderful instance of this bird’s daring. He was
feeding some young partridges, and his hat was actually
swept off his head by some passing object, at the same
time he heard a noise as of a body passing rapidly
through the air. The next thing he saw was one of
the young birds he was attending, being borne off by
an audacious female sparrowhawk. The partridges
were at the time not two yards distant from him.

I have known a bird of this species attack a hen
sitting on eggs under a hedge, and to pluck a quantity
of feathers out of its tail and back.

Like other European birds of prey, this bird has a
representative in Australia, the collared sparrowhawk
[Accipiter torquatus). We read that this bird is
similar in most respects to our own. Gould says it
“ has all the characteristics of its European ally.” In
North America it is represented by the American
sparrowhawk (Fa/co sparverius , Wils.) which, accord-
ing to Wilson, appears to possess all the inherent
wild courage and audacious manner of our own bird.

( To be continued.)

ON PAL^EOCORYNE, AND THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF FENESTELLA.

[ Concluded ' from p. 229.]

By George Robert Vine.

I COME now to what are called the spiniferous
processes of Fenestella, the most peculiar of the
whole group. Several figures of species of these are
given by the Messrs. Young in their paper on Palaeo-
coryne, Vol. 30 of the “ Quarterly Journal of the
Geological Society some are in situ , others are
detached. The Messrs. Young give figures of dif-
ferent species of Fenestella, with the spiniferous
prolongations attached, and they also give figures of
specimens found in the shales of Hairmyres and
elsewhere in detached fragments. Dr. Duncan does
not take these processes into consideration in his
papers on Palaeocoryne, and in the discussion which
followed the reading of Messrs. Young’s paper both
Dr. Duncan and Mr. Jenkins failed to comprehend

HARD WICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

248

the value, or even the bearing of the illustrations
furnished by the authors. I have said before that
the processes — fertile or sterile — Palseocorynse, are
unique in character and type, and it is only folly
to seek for similar processes in any of the modern
species of Polyzoa.

In these papers I have endeavoured to give illus-
trations only of specimens of polyzonal processes from
my own cabinet, or from specimens that have
actually passed through my hands ; but as I have
been supplied with sketches of processes from the
sabinets of others, I could not resist the temptation

Fig. 181. — Spiniferous processes of Fenestella plebeia (M'Coy)
1 Halkyn, North Wales ; a1. Basal origin of spine cfi ; a3.

\ Fenestrules of the polyzoary ; bb. Imperfect fenestrules ;
1 c. The way the spines rose up in the undisturbed shale.

of reproducing some, kindly furnished by Mr. John
Young. Fig. 46 (Science-Gossip, March 1879), is a
sketch of a branching spiniferous process in situ , on
a frond of Fenestella from Cragenglen Campsie. It
is four times the natural size, and it is one of the
most beautiful processes from the poriferous face
that I have ever seen. In Mr. Shrubsole’s collection
there is another fine specimen of spiniferous process
springing from the back of the frond, altogether

different from the one here figured. The specimen
from which fig. 181 is given, is a perfect study of this
particular process. It is from the Halkyn series of
Fenestella, and the drawing is made from a section
of the shale only partially rendered transparent.
The figure represents the outer portion of the frond
of F. plebeia , and the spiniferous processes are unlike
any of those given by the Messrs. Young. The
branch (a) originates in the dissepiment marked a1 in
the fig. 181. It passes on then to a dissepiment
higher up, then into another, until it reaches the
outer branch, the continuation of which is spiniferous
until it reaches the extremity shown in my section.
Mark the character of this branch. There are regular
dissepiments part of the way up until at last the two
branches coalesce, and continue then, apparently, as
one solid spine. The two lower spiniferous branches

Fig. 185. — Palaocoryne radiata.

are of a different character to the others. I have
given all that my section now shows. Before I rubbed
it down these branches were prolonged consider-
ably, not on the same plane as the part that is
shown in the fig. 181, but they penetrated through
the shale something like what is shown at {e), and
they bent from the poriferous face upwards. At
(bb) two partially developed fenestrules are shown.
I cannot trace any remains of zooecia in these
branches and there is no hollowness. The character
is that of a solid spiniferous shoot. The figs. 182 and
183 are from specimens from Richmond, and fig. 184
is enlarged to show the special character of the hook.

There is a specific value belonging to these spines,
which in all future diagnoses of species will have to

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP .

249

be considered. In F. plebeia the recurved spines
have double characters, one thickly, and the other
sparsely set. In some doubtful species of Fenestella,

' both in Scotland and in Hurst, the recurved spines

• are strongly fluted. In F. inembranacea the fluting is
finely beaded, and in F. nodulosa the spine is
distinctly characteristic. I have used the typical
character of the spine as given by the Messrs. Y oung
most effectually in my investigations, and although
in some parts these may vary, the differences are

• perceptible when closely examined.

It may now be asked, since there is no analogy to
guide us, what were the purposes the processes (Palae-
corynse and spiniferous) were intended to serve ? The
answer is not an easy one. I have attempted in my
^ essay to unfold a mystery, but as this part of my
writing has created opposition from several able
specialists to whose decision I for the present bow,
I withhold my speculations till others, abler than my-

• self, will take the hint now furnished, and give a more
philosophic view than it lies in my power to do.
The conclusions I arrived at will have to be faced by
specialists, and no one will be more pleased than my-

- self, if my views are proved to be crude or erroneous.

I now leave the question as to the mode of
development of the whole of the Fenestrate Polyzoa of
■the Palaeozoic era to the unprejudiced judgment of
the palaeontologist. When I began the study, I
never thought that the investigation would have

* taken me into so many of the by-ways of life ; but,
bit by bit, the great mystery which had hitherto

' enveloped these forms began to unfold itself, and for
months past my mind and thoughts have been
•' occupied, and my leisure time devoted to an en-
deavour to comprehend the secret of this particular
1 life.

Many of my specimens I have been obliged to
'prepare in a very novel way. In reducing to trans-
parency many of these sections of shale, I came
across peculiar aspects of the spines and Palaeocorynoe,
these I had to draw before I reduced the section

- further ; so, bit by bit, I was able to piece in as it
were the whole idea of the spine. Then this would
follow the fate of the other views, and so on, till I
could trace right into the heart of the branches and

' dissepiments, the ramifications of the spiniferous
process. This was the case with fig. 18 1, but I have
' faithfully followed the processes and the Palaeocorynae,
neither putting down less nor more than what I saw.
Every figure therefore is true to nature, and if they

• be not so artistic as I could wish, they have in their
unartistic roughness all the truth as it appeared

i to me.

Note. — I shall be happy to communicate with any
students of the palaeozoic polyzoa who desire exchanges
for study, and I should also be glad to examine any
•Fenestella they may entrust to me if sent direct by

■post.

Attevcliffe , Sheffield.

History” for 1875. The description is minute, and
very good, excepting where he says that the upper
surface is “ very convex .” As his specimens were not

250

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

living ones, I attribute this convexity to endosmose,
due to the preservative solution in which they were
probably kept. During the present year I have found
three or four living specimens, and all these were rather
flat and wrinkled, just like Trombidium holosericeum.
Mr. Cambridge says that the “mouth parts are

apparently very mi-
nute, and concealed
in a deepish circular
cavity at the extremity
of the forepart.” He
also says that the
structure could not
be ascertained by the
magnifying power at
his disposal. I there-
fore thought that it

, would be acceptable

rig. 150.— Didactyle tarsus of

mature mite (.highly magnified). to some of your

readers to have a
sketch of these mouth parts, which are indeed very
remarkable, beautiful, and entirely different from
any other mite, whose mouth I have had the op-
portunity to examine. At first sight the creature
appears to have no mouth organs ; there is, how-
ever, on the under side of the forepart, a pit, or
depression, and when the mite is placed in a com-
pressorium, and graduated compression applied, the
pi'oboscis emerges by degrees. Fig. 187 is a drawing
of these parts when partially protruded ; and fig. 188
the same after sufficient pressure has been applied,
not only to completely evert the organs, but also to
separate the component parts ; the figures are suffi-
ciently clear without description. I found the mites
whilst searching for beetle-mites amongst moss, and
rubbish taken from the decaying roots of trees in a
fir plantation.

In March 1878, I found what I now believe to be
the nymph of this creature ; it has six legs, and each
tarsus is supplied with three claws, the central one
being much larger than the other two. When I first
found it, I took it to be the nymph of a Trombidium,
and did not examine it sufficiently whilst it was alive.
It is a very curious circumstance that these mites
should have tridactyle tarsi when in the nymph stage,
and didactyle ones when fully developed ; whereas,
in many of the beetle mites, the nymphs have but a
single claw, and the perfect creature possesses three.
I send an outline sketch of the nymph, from one of
my mounts ; also the claws of nymph and perfect
mite, highly but equally magnified.

Kir ton Lindsey. C. F. George.

Cossus Ligniperda and Lithosia Quadra. —
I took two cossus at sugar here on the 9th of August
last, and one rather battered female quadra, while
flying round a lamp-post, on the 14th of same month.
The latter is, I believe, generally considered a New
Forest specie?.— J. R. Edwards, Streatham.

ON THE SCIENTIFIC VALUE OF
MICROSCOPIC PREPARATIONS.

THE following remarks in a letter of Dr. Pelletan
(“Journal de Micrographie,” 3® annee, No. 3,
p. 139) on microscopic preparations will be appreciated
by those who use the microscope as an instrument of
scientific research rather than a superior kind of toy re-
quiring the aid of pretty objects to make it interesting ;
and it may moreover console those who have neither the
leisure nor the manipulative skill to arrange diatoms,
butterfly scales, sponge spicules, &c., in elegant
patterns. The selection of Diatoms, Polycystins or
Foraminifera, when very scarce in a gathering is
perhaps desirable, and the preparer may always
learn more of the structure and contour of the objects
by selecting and transferring them to a clean slide
than by merely mounting them with the extraneous
matter contained in the gathering, but there is no
advantage in arranging them in elaborate patterns.
We will now hear what Dr. Pelletan says about them.

“You complain, in your letter, of the little
scientific value of the majority of microscopic objects
prepared for sale, and you have good reason for
doing so. With the exception of a few these pre-
parations are insignificant. They are often very
beautiful in appearance, mounted on the choicest
glass in an irreproachable cell, with varnishes of all
colours, the labels of every shade, and are very
elegant to look at ; but the object they contain is
worthless. The preparations of diatoms are alone,
for the most part, satisfactory, often excellent, and
sometimes marvellous. All the world is acquainted
with the preparations of diatoms of E. Wheeler,
A. C. Cole & Son, and above all of J. D. M oiler,
whose ‘ Typenplatte 5 is a veritable chef -di1 oeuvre of
patience and manipulation. Certain preparations of
cryptogamic botany are also of some value, as sections,
dissections, &c., of vegetable anatomy, thin cuttings
of dense substances, animal, vegetable, and mineral,
and particularly sections of wood are all very in-
structive, but of all other classes of preparations
whose nomenclature fills the catalogue, it is only by
chance one meets with an interesting slide.

“ From what you have said I perceive that you
are occupied with microscopic anatomy, and more
especially that of insects. But histological prepar-
ations, whether normal or pathological, whether of
man and other vertebrates, or of the invertebrates,
are precisely those of the least value.

“Of the Arthropoda, among others, the preparers
limit themselves to amputated feet, heads, antennae,
tongues, stings, &c., mounted in balsam, and behold
the result. Others, more ingenious, mount large
insects or immense spiders entire, after having
emptied them of their contents, and these prepara-
tions have really a magnificent appearance. But,
alas ! the integument is all that has been preserved,
and the little that remains of the internal organs is-

HARE W/CKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

25I

represented by a uniform transparent mass in which
the microscopist finds nothing to study, and in all
the smaller kinds of insects they are also in a more
or less transparent condition containing more or less
opaque masses, covered with a well-preserved integu-
ment and to this state they are reduced by the
preserver.

“In England we sometimes find preparations that
are mounted without pressure ; in these the insect is
placed in the middle of a thick mass of balsan;
after having been impregnated with some essential
oil to render them transparent, and not being pressed
they are not deformed.

“ Some of these preparations are very successful,
particularly those of spiders ; we can also perceive
the remains of the internal organs, the muscular
system, for example. I have also made a good many
of them, but although they possess some advantages,
their thickness (sometimes several millimetres) prevents
their being studied with objectives of a short focus.

“ I would not say that all preparations which I call
trivial are useless : most certainly not. If they are
not satisfactory to savants, they interest amateurs,
and they teach many things that otherwise would ;
not have been known. They are also useful in
England, where they are sold in large numbers,
because among our neighbours the microscope is
more used for amusement and as an object of luxury
than for working purposes.

“The young ‘misses’ in the drawing-room are
better amused with, and, I believe, more usefully em-
ployed, in admiring the delicate little comb that forms
the claw of a spider’s foot, or the elegant little scales
that enamel the wing of a butterfly, than in examining
the insipid portraits in a keepsake.

“These slides, that for us have little interest, are
therefore in this point of view of real utility. They
give to ordinary people the taste for natural objects,
and they furnish a thousand little instructions acquired
without labour, and are also amusing. We must,
therefore, not too much despise them.

“How is it that preparations of diatoms are
always satisfactory ? Primarily, because they are
in reality the most easy to make. The diatoms
relatively require but little manipulation to prepare
them for mounting, and in consequence of their
beauty the study of these little organisms has largely
increased. The preparers are, therefore, all more or
less, diatomists ; they know what to do, they know
how the object ought to be mounted. Certain vege-
table organs are also well displayed, as there the
preparer also knows how best to mount them as
trachea, stomata, ovules, spores, organs of fructifica-
tion, &c. But when they attempt animal anatomy, !
whether that of the vertebrates or invertebrates,
whether normal or pathological histology, the pre-
parers, with very rare exceptions, have not sufficient
knowledge to know what is necessary to make visible,
what is the characteristic detail he should render

evident in order to make the preparation instructive.
They imagine it to be sufficient to take a piece of
tissue, injected or otherwise, harden it, make longi-
tudinal and transverse sections, then steep it in
carmine, mount it in a beautiful cell, and by these
means obtain a slide useful for something. This is
a grave error. For example, I have before me
various “commercial” histological preparations,
disassociated muscular fibre, a torn nerve filament,
a slice of conjunctive tissue, the nerve terminations
on a muscular fibre. What do I learn ? The muscular
fibres have not been stretched. I do not see sarco-
lemna made evident, nor the nodes, nor the least
detail of the striae, discs, and transparent spaces.

“The nerve filament shows me some little clotted
threads scattered in the midst of a small cloud of
conjunctive tissue, but of the myaline sheath, the
cylindrical axis, the annular constrictions of the
nodule of the segments of the endothelial cells (I do
not speak of sections) I see nothing of all these.

“ In the connective tissue I look in vain for a distinct
element, the connecting fascia, and the elastic fibres,
all is confusion, and the conjunctive cells are absent.
In the nerve terminations on muscular fibre, I see a
small yellow patch on the fibre ; this is the motor
plate, but the sheath, the ramifications, the nodules
of various kinds, are all invisible.

“You will tell me that of all specimens, histological
are the most difficult and tedious to prepare, and that
j it is generally impossible to show all these details
in one preparation. This is- true, but it is only a
secondary reason. These difficulties are overcome
by the facility given by practice.

“If one wishes to see all the details of structure in
any particular organ, it is necessary to make many
preparations. Alas ! as I before remarked, preparers,
with very few exceptions, have not sufficient histo-
; logical knowledge, and are ignorant of the necessary
technical methods, or even the will, because they
are tedious and delicate, and they moreover fear that
the increased cost of these preparations would frighten
those who might wish to acquire them. I believe there
is no foundation for this last reason, and I judge from
the daily demands for preparations made on these
principles, even at an increased cost, when they are
really instructive, and I cannot doubt it when I see
the most common specimens of Pediculus pubis, sold
in America for 5 fr. 75 c., in which country it is not
rarer than in France.”

Eciiium vitlgare is not so uncommon in our
neighbourhood as your correspondent T. Comlidge
supposes. It grows in large masses on the beach
between Portslade and Cliftonville, on the road from
Bramber to Shoreham, and many other spots, but it
does not generally make its appearance on the Downs,
except in basin-shaped holes, where it sometimes
attains considerable dimensions. — Benjamin Lomax.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

252

THE HISTORY OF RANATRA LINEARIS.

ON the excursion of the Hackney Microscopical
and Natural History Society, held June 28,
I captured a pair of that interesting aquatic insect the
Rcinatra linearis , and having since had the good
fortune to breed from them, I venture to submit to
you the following short observations. To watch
these insects feed, and their mode of taking their
food, I placed them in an upright glass aquarium
with plants of Vallisneria spiralis and common frog-
bit — this was on June 28. On July 7, I was much
surprised to find the leaf of frog-bit exhibiting a
most unusual appearance — as shown in fig. 19 1. The

Fig. 191. — Eggs deposited on leaf of Frog-bit.

best verbal description I can give of this appearance is,
that the floating leaf appeared on the top to possess
the antennae of some moth, to which underneath was
attached a small substance, something in shape like
a canary-seed, but more rounded at the extremities,
especially at the end from which these antennae or ap-
panages sprung. The leaf had evidently been pierced,
the appanages thrust through when they opening
into a V-like shape, kept the underneath substance
from falling. I was much puzzled by these appear-
ances, and being quite ignorant of what they were,
called in one or two friends to see them, in the hope
of acquiring information ; but being unable to get
any I the more anxiously watched and almost came
to the conclusion that they were the germs of some
botanical production. The leaf of the frog-bit from
some cause or other decaying they gradually sank, the
same V-like appanage which had kept them in their
position now keeping them from falling too fast or
from sinking in the soft mud at the bottom of the
aquarium ; here they remained in a perpendicular
position and were watched from time to time. On
August 4, I was delighted to find four young Ranatra
swimming freely about (see fig. 192). They were about
half an inch in length, and in form so like the parents
it was impossible to be deceived. On the 5th another
was added to the number, which the elder ones

instantly devoured while it was yet in a helpless
condition. I should think the first must have been
hatched on August 3, although I did not see them
until the 4th, they were so strong and well-grown
when first observed, whereas the fifth, which must
have been seen directly after its development, was a
poor little pink thing with large black eyes, and soon
became a prey to those of yesterday. The appearance
of these young Ranatra led to the discovery that the
objects on leaf of the frog-bit which had so puzzled
me were the ova of this insect, for I found them all
on the bottom of the aquarium quite empty, with am
opening in the end between the antennae or appan-
ages, so I come to the conclusion that when I took

the adult Ranatra on June 28, they were in copula-
tion, that the ova were deposited on July 6 or 7, and
the puny insect developed on August 4 and 5.
These times may of course vary according to circum- -
stances, I only speak from personal observation. I ..
cannot help thinking what an interesting sight it
must have been to have watched the insect depositing .
the ova, how the leaf must have been pierced, the
ova extruded, the antennae — if they may be so called
— being thrust through the perforated opening, on
which they must have immediately sprung into a
wedge-like shape — opening wide at the top — to keep
the ova in position. How long it takes the young.,
insect to acquire maturity I cannot say, probably
some twelvemonths ; unfortunately all mine perished, .
the greater part being devoured by their brethren. ,

HARDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

253

the remainder I am afraid from lack of proper food. '
When first hatched the young ones are perfect, with
the exception of the ova depositor which is not fully
developed, when this is acquired is a subject for further
investigation. The full-grown insect, as shown in fig.
i93> is some three and a half inches in extreme length, j
it is furnished with four legs and two front feelers ;
these cannot be called legs, for they seem to be used
for no other purpose than catching the prey ; they
are furnished with two hard horny joints at the end,
with which they seize their food (see fig. 194) ; in this
respect nothing seems to come amiss, the young ones
I have seen as well as the old, feeding on various
daphnia, cyclops, &c. I am sorry to say they de-
voured all my Adinophrys sol , bred in the same

Fig. 194. — Ranatra linearis in the act of catching insects.

aquarium, while one of the old ones seized and de-
stroyed a full-grown tadpole of the frog ; they will
really devour anything. As my readers are well aware,
the Ranatra belongs to the Nepidse, and is closely
allied to the water-scorpion. It appears, like that
insect, to have wings, but from fear of hurting my
specimens, I have not been able clearly to make this
out, and shall be glad of any information ; if so they
are very hard to unfold and can be but little used.
It feeds on suction — the prey being seized by the
strong claspers, attached to the front feelers or legs,
and drawn up close for the horny and beak-like
proboscis to be thrust into it, with which the life of
the victim is sucked away. When handled, the insect
often feigns death ; when it crawls, as before observed,
the four legs are only used, although I have seen the
front feelers thrown round a plant or stem to assist

as it were the progress. These feelers or legs consist
of two joints, the firs! can only be moved upward
(see fig. 194) the second joint can only be moved
downward and is often folded directly under the
second joint, so much so that there then appear
only two joints — the whole is capable of being thrown
out in quite a horizontal position, as fig. 193. So in.
this front leg or feeler we have two joints, each with
quite a separate action, but both moving in unison to
the desired object. I hope these few remarks, made
from personal observation, will be the means of ex-
citing further research into the life-history of this
extremely interesting insect, relative to which I shall,
be glad to receive any information.

COLLIS WlLMOTT.

THE HISTORY OF THE APPLE-TREE.

By H. G. Glasspoole.

\_C0ntinnedpr01n p. 223.]

THE varieties of apples are so many, and several*
have interesting histories attached to them, that
it would be impossible within the limits of this paper
to give an account of them. I will only mention one
or two of our most well-known kinds. The earliest
apple that ripens in our country is the jounneting, or
gennetting, a small, pale yellow, sweet tasting fruit
it is a very old variety, and is mentioned by Evelyn
in 1660, and described by Ray, 168S. There are
various opinions as to the etymology of the name.
Dr. Johnson has written it gineting ; while some
country people and the Americans call them juneating.
apples. In the old Latin writings they are termed
joannina, no doubt from their becoming ripe about
St. John’s Day (June 24th). One of our best eating,
apples is the ribstone pippin, which an American
writer says stands as high in Britain as the Bank of
England, and to say that an apple has a ribstone
flavour is there the highest praise that can be
bestowed upon it. (A. J. Downing’s “Fruit and
Fruit Trees of America.”)

The original tree sprang from some apple-pips
brought from Normandy at the close of the seven-
teenth century ; they were sown at Ribstone in
Yorkshire, five of the pips grew, two producing
crabs, the other apples, one of which was the famous
pippin. The original tree is supposed to have been,
planted in 1688 and stood till 1810, when it was
blown down, but being supported by stakes in a
horizontal position, continued to produce fruit until
1835, when it lingered and died. This apple was
some years before it attained its popularity, for at the
end of the last century it was little known, as is
shown by the fact that in 1785, and for some years
afterwards, no more than twenty-five plants per annum
of this tree were grown at the celebrated Brompton-.
Park Nursery, whereas, in 1851, about 2500 plants
were annually sent out thence (see Mrs. Burnand’s-

254

HARjDWICKE’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Common Fruits). It is generally to be met with in
almost every large orchard ir. the kingdom. Norfolk
has long been famous for apples ; some account of the
best varieties peculiar to or cultivated in that county
by Mr. Lindley, will be found in the Horticultural
Transactions, vol. iv. p. 65, The Norfolk Beaufin, or
Beefin, Lindley tells us, is undoubtedly a Norfolk
apple. Independently of its general use in the kitchen,
it furnishes a luxury for the table as a sweetmeat ;
great numbers used to be prepared at Norwich by
drying them slowly in baker’s ovens after the bread
had been drawn, and pressing them with the hand to
flatten them till they are perfectly soft and are of a
deep, rich brown colour ; they were then packed in
boxes and sent to London and other parts of the
kingdom, where they were considered a great delicacy.
The Horsham russet is another Norfolk apple, and
raised from the pip of a Nonpareil by a Mrs. Goose,
of Horsham, St. Faith’s, Norwich, many years ago.
The apple, as an article of food, is probably unsur-
passed for its agreeable and nutritive properties.
Our forefathers believed the fruit to be something
more than to fill an empty stomach ; they also com-
mended it in “splenatick” and melancholy disorders.
John Key, better known as John Caius, the Court
physician to Mary and Elizabeth, had a high opinion
of the fragrance of apples in a sick-room, for
he recommends them in one of his works to patients
recovering from a “ sweatynge sickness,” if they
found their strength wasted, “for,” adds the doctor,

“ there is nothing more comfortable to the spirits
than good sweet odours.” Another old English
writer of 1657 tells us that those pleasanter kinds of
pippins and pearmanes being roasted and eaten with
rose-water and sugar, are helpful to dissolve melancholy
humours, and to expel heaviness and promote mirth.

Pomatum owes its name to apples. In a work
called “Secret! d’AlessioPiemontees,”by W.Ruscelli,
an Italian, published in the sixteenth century, there
are several formulae for making pomatum, in which
pippins form the principal ingredient. Gerard, in his
herbal, states that the pomatum in his time was
composed of the pulp of apples beat up with swine-
grease (lard), and rose-water. The wassail cup our
forefathers used to indulge in on All Hallow eve,
and the eves of church festivals, called lambswool, was
composed of apples toasted on a string until they
dropped into a bowl of hot spiced ale, placed ready
to receive them, and they gave great softness to the
beverage. Lambswool is thus etymologised by
Vallancey. “ The first day of November was dedi-
cated to the angel presiding over fruits, seeds, &c.,
and was therefore named La Mas Ubhal, that is the
day of apple fruits, and being pronounced lamasvel,
the English have corrupted the name to lambswool.”
The various ways in which apples are cooked is well
known. “ A Hundred ways of Cooking Apples ” was
one of the cheap popular books one used to see on the
bookstalls not many years ago. Perhaps the most

staple form in which it appears in this land of solids
is the apple dumpling. Coleridge said that no man
has lost all simplicity of character who retains his
fondness for apple dumplings ; let us hope this doctrine
is still true, for in some countries an apple dumpling
with a piece of bacon or pickled pork in it, forms the
staple of the mid-day and evening meal of the agri-
cultural labourer. It is said that King George III.
was once greatly puzzled to know how the apple got
into the dumpling. Most of the old-fashioned farm
and manor houses in this country possess large
orchards, which contain more of these fruit trees than
any other. Dr. Johnson gave the following advice to
one of his friends. “ If possible,” said he, “have a
good orchard. I know a clergyman of small income
who brought up a family very respectably, whom he
chiefly fed on apple dumplings.”

Hogg remarks, in his work on apples, that it has
existed as an indigenous tree throughout all ages, and
that the most ancient varieties were accidental variations
of the original species with which the forests abound.
In its wild and uncultivated state, the apple is known
in this country as the crab ; by some authors it has
been supposed that the garden apple is not an im-
proved crab, but rather the crab is a degenerate apple,
and that it has an Eastern origin (See Prior’s “Popular
Names of British Plants”). As to the Eastern origin
of this tree, Professor Koch spent much time between
1836 and 1844 in Armenia and the adjacent countries
investigating the subject, and the results of his studies
and inquiries led him to believe that the apple never
grew wild anywhere south of the Caucasus. The
celebrated traveller V an Buck, remarks that the apple
will grow in the open air wherever the oak thrives,
thus it is found as far north as lat. 6o° in western
Russia. The crab of Europe is wanting in Siberia, but
the Siberian form of the species is widely distributed
over the country.

The people of Lapland showed Linnaeus what they
called an apple-tree, which they said bore no fruit
because it had been cursed by a beggar woman to whom
the owner of the tree had refused some of its produce.
The naturalist found that it was the common elm, a
tree also rare in that severe climate. The apple is
stated by Royle to be cultivated in the southern parts
of India, also in the Himalayas, and in China and
Japan, but it is not indigenous to the warmer parts
of these countries. As an instance of the difficulties
attendant on the introduction of European plants into
the north of India in former days, it is stated by
Mr. Royle, that an apple-tree from Liverpool, in
consequence of being the only one that survived,
cost upwards of Rjo before it was planted in the
nursery at Mossuree. Apple-trees were introduced
into America by the early settlers, and were first
planted on an island in Boston Harbour, which still
bears the name of Apple Island. The Indian tribes
helped to spread this fruit through the country, and
nowhere does it flourish better than in the land of

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

255

its adoption, the United States, from which large
quantities packed in barrels and preserved in tins are
sent to England every year. Some years so plentiful
is the crop in many parts, that it has become a practice
to employ the surplus of sweet apples in fattening
pigs, &c. Perhaps one of the most delicious of the
dessert apples which stands at the head of the list of
American-grown fruit is the Newtown pippin, and
which certainly fetches a higher value in Covent
Garden market than any other kind. One of the
finest orchards in the New World on the banks of the
Hudson contains more than 2000 of these trees. The
Siberian crab apple was not cultivated in Britain until
1758, and the small fruited variety was introduced in
1784 ; this tree is often planted as an ornament in our
shrubberies.

( To be continued.)

MICROSCOPY.

How to Remove Air-Bubbles. — Air-bubbles,
whether in balsam, glycerine jelly, or fluid mounts,
are a constant source of annoyance to the amateur
mounter. I will endeavour to show how these pests
can be avoided. Firstly, with respect to balsam.
Mr. Stokes, some months since, gave a plan which
will answer in very many instances ; but there are
objects which will not stand the boiling recom-
mended by Mr. Stokes, in such case the air can be
got rid of by immersing the object in boiled water
still lukewarm, and changing the water every two or
three hours until the air is wholly displaced (boiled
water absorbs air most greedily). The object is
then transferred from the water into alcohol, absolute
alcohol and oil of cloves in succession, allowing it
to remain a sufficient time in each to displace the
water or other fluid ; the object can be mounted in
balsam direct from the oil of cloves. The difficulty
with glycerine jelly is that it begins to thicken imme-
diately it is put on a cold slide, and when the cover
is put on, air-bubbles are almost sure to be enclosed.
The way to obviate this difficulty is to have the glass
slip lying upon something heated to 150° or there-
abouts, such as a hot-water plate or block of iron
taken out of an oven ; by these means the jelly is
kept fluid whilst the object is being mounted ; the
cover must be breathed upon on its under surface
previously to being lowered in its place ; as soon as
this is done the slide can be removed from the heated
plate or iron, and the jelly allowed to set. It merely
requires ordinary dexterity to mount an object in
fluid in accordance with instructions given in works
on this subject, but it certainly is an annoyance to
an amateur mounter to find bubbles making their
appearance when he knows that none were to be
seen when the object was first mounted, and that the
cement was good and reliable and properly applied.
The question naturally arises, where do the air-

bubbles come from ? I have seen this attempted
to be accounted for in several ways, but not to my
satisfaction. The true explanation is that the pre-
servative fluid itself contains “free” air; expel the
air before using the fluid, and no bubbles will after-
wards make their appearance providing the other
part of the mounting be properly carried out. To
expel the air from the preservative fluid, all that is
necessary is first to fill the cell well with fluid and
to place the slip upon a hot-water plate or heated
iron ; minute bubbles will shortly appear and can be
detached from the bottom and sides of the cell by
means of a bristle ; they will collect at the top of
the fluid and can be removed by just touching it with
a little blotting paper ; the slide must then be taken
off the heated surface, the object immersed in the
fluid and the cover put on and fastened in the
ordinary way. If all be done properly no bubbles
will afterwards be seen ; on the contrary, I have at
times actually enclosed a little air by accident when
putting on the cover, which air has afterwards been
absorbed by the fluid. — //. M.

Staining Fluids for Vegetable Tissues. —
For some time past I have thought it rather “hard
lines ” upon the microscopical botanists that but one
staining fluid has been used at a time. I have, there-
fore, tried several experiments with different fluids,
and I am glad to say I have at last found out a most
successful method of staining one section with two
fluids. The way I now stain all my sections prepara-
tory to mounting them is this : the section is first
immersed in an aqueous solution of Crawshaw’s
aniline blue dye (strength, 1 per cent.). It is then
removed into strong acetic acid, which seems to
fix the colour in certain tissues, remove it from
others and prepare that not stained for the reception
of another colouring fluid. It is then again removed
and put into a weak solution of magenta (Judson’s
dye), also made strong with acetic acid ; then
mounted in glycerine jelly. I find this such a beau-
tiful and instructive method of staining (as it com-
pletely shows the “ differentiation ” of parts, both by
the different colours and also the various intensity
of colour) that I venture to ask room in your paper
for its insertion, in order that others may be made
acquainted with a system so simple, yet, which has
cost me much trouble and many failures. The
following are the colours with which the tissues of
a section of Burdock are stained : —

Pith Very pale magenta.

Cellular tissue Deep magenta.

Spiral vessels of medullary sheath Deep blue.

Pitted vessels Blue.

Cambium Deep blue.

Liber cells Dark magenta.

Latiferous vessels Deep blue.

Cuticle parenchyma .... Pale blue.

Epidermis Deep blue.

Hairs Pale magenta.

— Albert Henry Barrett.

How to Restore Microphotographs. — In
reply to Mr. H. Heasman’s inquiry I beg to inform

256

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

him nothing is easier. They are mounted in balsam.
All he has to do is to heat the slide on both plates
just sufficiently to remove the covering glass. If by
chance the photograph comes up with it apply a
'little turpentine or benzole (I forget which I used) to
free it ; transfer to clean slide and remount in fluid
!fcalsam. — Fred. FT. Lang.

New Rotifers, &c. — In addition to the two
.Entomostraca found at Olton, new to this country,
a rotifer only recorded lately in America has been
found there, and a Peridinium (ceratium), only found
previously in salt water. I made a rich gathering
.recently of Lacinularia socialis and Cristatella mucedo ,
&c., and send you a specimen of the former. — Thomas
Poitou .

Euglena viridis and its Bulbed Flagellum.

- — It may, perhaps, interest Mr. Robson, to learn
That I have seen all the forms of Euglena sketched by
Mr. Harkus in October issue of Science-Gossip,
Though I do not, of course, claim to be the first
observer of the peculiarity of the bulbed flagellum.
Neither do I claim to have settled the question of the
^metamorphosis of the Euglena. Nevertheless, it is a
very singular coincidence, that two observers, alto-
gether unknown to each other, should witness in-
dependently a precisely similar phenomenon ; par-
ticularly so, if the suspicion at which I hinted in
my letter of August last have no foundation in fact,
and be erroneous. Ehrenberg studied the life history
of Hydatina scuta very fully ; would not a reference
to his work tend to throw some light on this point ?
From a circumstance I observed a few months ago,
I am led to believe that the bulbed flagellum is not a
.necessary appendage to the Egleuna. On one occasion,
whilst closely watching the contortive movements of
.a full-grown specimen, I was much surprised to see
the little animal “bite off,” if I may so term it, the
flagellum, which immediately floated away. Its
absence did not appear to cause the Euglena to suffer
.any inconvenience, for it still continued to disport
itself with as much activity as previously. Mr. Robson
mentions the absence of the bulb from the flagellum
of No. 1 sketch of mine in the August number of
Science-Gossip. I noticed the same omission, but
suspecting it to be the result of the block having been
damaged, I did not consider it of sufficient importance
.to need any remark from me in the September number
correcting it, as I stated so plainly that all specimens
which had come under my observation possessed the
bulbed flagellum. If Mr. Robson has a few speci-
mens of the Euglena gathered by him, and would
send them to me I would willingly defray cost of
postage ; and as I expect shortly to be in the neigh-
bourhood of Preston, I will endeavour to obtain
and send to him a sample of Euglena, similar to those
I originally examined ; such exchange, if practicable,
will serve either to establish the identity or dissimi-
.larity of the two gatherings. — F. y. George.

Cleaning Old Slides. — The easiest way I find
is to warm slide and push cover into sulphuric acid,
then put slide into a strong solution of common wash-
ing soda and boil for an hour or so. All varnish or
cement may then be scraped off with an old knife
with ease. Then wash all traces of soda away in
clean water.

Leptodora Hyalina. — It is with much pleasure
that we put ourselves and our readers right on a
matter of fact. Mr. H. E. Forrest (to whom we
ascribed the honour of first finding Leptodora in
England), with characteristic fairness, writes to us
stating that it is not to himself, but to Mr. J. Levick,
a member of the Birmingham Natural History and
Microscopical Society, that the honour of its dis-
covery is due.

ZOOLOGY.

The Iceland Falcon ( Falco islandicus). — A fine
young bird of this species in beautiful plumage was
captured in the Queen’s Park, Edinburgh, about the
end of August last, under the following circumstances :
While Mr. R. B. Gilroy was walking there with some
friends, he saw some lads striking at an object in a
furze bush, and, on approaching, found it to be a bird
of prey ; stepping forward, he, with the assistance of
his friends, secured it. As the Queen’s Park is largely
taken advantage of as a pleasure resort, they were soon
surrounded by a curious crowd conjecturing what
kind of a bird it was. One thought it was a hawk,
another knew it was a falcon, a third declared em-
phatically it was an eagle, while a fourth was equally
certain it was a parrot. Mr. Gilroy now procured a
cab and drove home with his captive, for which he
soon extemporised a convenient cage. But the bird
looked dull and would not eat, and Mr. Gilroy thought
it must either be exhausted by a long flight, or
seriously ill, as it made no attempt to fly when
captured ; accordingly he called in a doctor, who
forthwith administered a dose of castor oil, which had
a wonderful effect in reviving the drooping spirits of
the bird. It soon began to eat greedily, and was so
tame when I saw it twelve days after capture as to
eat meat out of the hand. So far as I am aware, there
is no record of this species having been previously
captured or shot near Edinburgh. — David Douglas ,
Leith.

How to Preserve Larvae. — Having seen in your
journal an article on preserving larvse, I thought a few
hints as to the plan followed by myself might be of
use. The larvse are killed, and the intestines removed
in the same manner as described in your paper, but,
before killing, I keep the larvse without food for a
couple of days, as if operated upon whilst full of
vegetable matter, it leaves a black stain just behind
the head, which spoils the look of the larvse. In

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

257

preserving the skins, I use a glass tube bent as
•shown, and drawn to a fine point, the upper side of
the point being straight. The skins are held upon the
tube by means of a fine steel spring, tied to the tube ;
they are then blown out with the breath and dried
•over the flame of a common paraffin lamp, care being
taken to keep them distended with the breath whilst
drying. The bend in the tube is to prevent any
moisture from the mouth entering the skin ; when

Fig. 195. — Tube for preserving Larvae, length about 18 inches.

■quite dry they are easily detached from the tube and
mounted with gum upon stems of grass, or twigs.
The hairy larvm are soaked previous to drying in alum
and water to keep the hair from falling off. To test
when properly dried, the air has only to be exhausted
from the tube, and the part of the skin not dry
immediately doubles up. This is a simple method, and
necessitates the use only of the one tube. — T. IV.
Harris.

Urticating Moths. — It may not be generally
known that the imagines of Liparis anrijhca and
tchrysorrhcea possess the same urticating properties as
the larvse. One day last August I was conveying a
gold-tail, which had just emerged in my breeding-
■cage, to the poison-bottle, and in doing so let it fall
up my arm — between the flesh and my shirt-sleeve.
It remained there but a second, as I immediately
gave a shake and got it down again without any
■damage to the moth ; but in less than ten minutes my
arm looked as if stung with nettles, and the irritation,
which was almost unbearable, continued for nearly
two hours. About this time my brother, Mr. Arthur
Anderson, of Salisbury, captured a gold-tail, which
lie carried home in his hat. Like myself, being un-
acquainted with the poisonous nature of the perfect
insect, he was surprised to see his forehead covered
with little bumps, causing an intolerable itching. So
bad was it that he went to a medical man for advice,
who told him he must have checked the perspiration,
and accordingly gave him some medicine. Mention-
ing the circumstance one day to him of the moth
falling up my sleeve, and the effects, he exclaimed,
■“Then that accounts for my forehead.” In the
•summer of 1876 the hedges by the side of our canal
were absolutely swarming with the larvse of Liparis
< hrysorrhcea , and, strange to say, I experienced far
greater discomfort after the moths had left the
cocoons, as I could scarcely walk by the hedges with-
out face, neck, and hands suffering severely, and I
dared not beat them for moths for months afterwards.
The reason of this may possibly be, that as the moths
emerge the hairs which are so plentifully used in the
construction of the cocoons are set free. Surely there
must be some poisonous property in the hairs, the

simple penetration of the skin could not cause such
discomfort ; and again, many hairy caterpillars, such
as A crony eta Acer is, the Arctia lubricipeda and Men -
thastri , shed all their hairs, and with them line their
cocoons, and yet may be handled with impunity. In
the case of the imago I am inclined to believe that the
irritation is caused by the white hairs which fringe the
inner margins of the wings and not the golden tail-
tufts, as I have rubbed the latter over my hands with
no unpleasant results. I have bred specimens this
year of Liparis chrysorrhcea with spots on the fore-
wings much blacker than auriflna , more like Arctia
Menthastri , the insects in each case being males.
Newman says of chrysorrhcea , “all the wings white,”
and Stainton “ satiny white, spotless , F. W., rarely
with a black spot near the anal angle,” so that I
imagine the presence of spots is somewhat uncommon.
The beautiful larva of aztriflua is well known, that
of chrysorrhcea , though very abundant where it
does occur, is far more local ; singular it is that
caterpillars so dissimilar should produce imagines of
such close resemblance. — Joseph Anderson, jnn .,
Chichester.

A Superior Mode of Killing Insects. — Dr.
J. M. Eder has communicated to the Zool. Botan.
Verein at Vienna (Verhandl. 1878, Sitzungsb. p. 19),
a mode of killing insects, especially Coleoptera, which
he has used for many years, and finds superior to others,
inasmuch as its action is more rapid, and the colour,
hair, or scales of the insects are not affected by other
agencies. All that is required is a wide-mouthed
glass bottle, having a cork fitted tightly : into the
bottle are put some pieces of stout blotting paper,
and on these three or four drops of bisulphide of
carbon (Schwefelkohlenstoff) ; of this supply sufficient
for the service of a day or two may easily be carried
in a small bottle in the waistcoat pocket. When an
insect is put into the bottle and the cork quickly
replaced, death ensues instantly, or in the case of the
largest beetles, within a few seconds, and the bisul-
phide, by reason of its volatile nature, being immedi-
ately vaporised, the insect is dry, and its condition
in no way injured. Occasionally, if the bottle be often
opened, a drop or two of the bisulphide must be
added, in any case it is essential that the cork be
! replaced directly and firmly. The bisulphide is also
very effective in exterminating Ptinus fur and An-
threnus, and it is further recommended on account of
its being cheap and easily obtained.

Red Sea-weeds and Animalcula. — In the
October number of the “ Zoologist” (now one of the
liveliest and best edited of our scientific journals), there
is a capital abstracted translation of a remarkable
paper by Dr. Dodel-Port, entitled “ The Fertilisation
of Red Sea-weeds by Animalcula.” This paper is an
ingenious endeavour to show that the non-locomotive
spores of such red sea-weeds as the Florideie are

258

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-G OSS/D.

carried by currents much after the fashion that the
pollen-grains are conveyed by the wind, and that such
infusoria as Vorticella, by their attached positions on
the sea-weeds, cause the spores to be deflected on to
the female organs, and thus produce fertilisation. The
theory opens up another remarkable chapter in the
inter-relation of animals and plants, and shows that
animalcula thus do for red sea-weeds, what insects
perform for coloured and attractive flowers.

Parasites on Hedgehogs. — Hedgehogs are by
no means exempt from these parasites and some
forms of Acari — in addition to Ixodes (“ X ” of present
No.)— may not unfrequentlybe taken from their bodies.
Before me is one in my cabinet taken and prepared by
my own hands a long time since, to add to my collection
of animal parasites. The hedgehog had many, but I
never observed signs of discomfort. At a cursory
glance, Pulcx erinacei might be accepted for P. cam's.
They differ, however, the specific characters of
erinacei being — Head, naked. Mesothorax fringed.
Tarsi, anterior, 5. 2.1. 3 — 4; posterior, 1.2. 5. 3 — 4.
Considering the adaptability of means to ends, the
peculiarities of the animal, and the uses of the
flea in creation, I should consider it remarkably
strange that the hedgehog should be deprived the
benefit resulting from the habits of this parasite in
its larval state, which I apprehend must far out-
weigh any inconvenience from the suctorial habit
of its final condition, since hedgehogs are possibly
less acutely sensitive of cuticular irritants, while pain
and its effects seem modified by peculiarities of
structure. — J. Fedarb , B. C.

Rare Cetaceans. — In my note under the above
heading in Science-Gossip for October, p. 233, by
some error “ white-bea/eed” dolphin is printed “ wliite-
scaled dolphin.” — T. Southwell.

>

“ The Popular Science Review.” — Among the
leading articles which appear in the last number of
this popular serial are the following : — “ On Jade
and Kindred Stones,” by Prof. F. W. Rudler ;
“Report on American Dredgings in the Caribbean
Sea,” by A. Agassiz ; “ The most Powerful Telescope
in Existence” by E. Neison; “Flight and its
Imitation,” by F. W. Breary, &c.

BOTANY.

The Common Stinkhorn ( Phallus impudicus )
and Ants. — During the months of July and August,
I met with several specimens of this noisome fungus,
and became quite expert in discovering their where-
abouts by means of the peculiar fetid odour arising
from them, which, if once smelt, will not readily be
forgotten. One fine specimen, which measured seven-
teen inches from the base to the summit, had its
cap almost denuded of the dark slimy mucus which
covers it, and from which the powerful scent princi-

pally arises, by swarms of ants, which were busily
engaged upon what appeared to be to them a dainty
feast. The ant-hill was thrown up around the
bottom part of the stalk of the fungus, up which a
stream of eager little insects was continually climbing
to share in the banquet above, which they evidently
enjoyed. I have, on one or two occasions, seen the
cap of the stinkhorn covered with various species of
flies, but never before observed ants attracted by it.

I may observe that the stinkhorn is far from common
in this locality, but the damp summer appears to
have been favourable to its growth, for I have met
with more specimens this season than ever I did
before. — R. Stan den, Goosnargh , Lancashire.

Geum Rivale. — I was much interested on seeing
the notice of a monstrous form of this plant in a
recent number of Science-Gossip. Departures
from the normal form seem to be plentiful this
year. One I came across seems worthy of notice
as being useful to students of morphology. The
calyx consisted of five ternate divisions quite distinct,
having exactly the appearance of stem leaves, only
smaller ; the corolla had ten petals instead of five, the
stamens were rather less in number than usual, and
all perfect, carpophore long. The greatest change
was in the pistil, which may be best described as an
ordinary flower, with calyx, petals, stamens, and
carpels complete and normal, except that the latter
were sessile instead of on a carpophore, in fact it was
a flower within a flower. — W. Wise, Launceston.

Register of Field Botanists. — The sug-
gestion of Mr. Arthur D. Melvin, as to the formation
of a Register of Field Botanists, is a most excellent
one, and I should think calculated to increase the
interest of Science-Gossip. I should propose that
a sort of “Natural History Directory,” with list of
Natural History Societies, and the names and
addresses of naturalists, their branches of study, and
(as Mr. Bernard Hobson in another part of last
month’s number proposes) those willing to assist.
This might be given in an extra Christmas number of
Science-Gossip, and should meet with support,
unless you thought it advisable to make the Christ-
mas number always a double one, price 8d. —
y. Morton, President, Rochester Naturalists' Society.

Duration of Plant-Life. — The classification of
plants as annuals, biennials, and perennials, is con-
venient for nurserymen and practical gardeners, but
many observations have yet to be made before the
value of such characters can be ascertained with so
much precision as to be fairly considered scientific.
Canterbury bells are called biennials, but often do
not flower till their third year. Then they die after
flowering, and that they are plants with strictly limited
lives appears in general unquestionable ; at least I
thought so till the present year. Now, however,
I have several plants in flower, raised from seed

HARBWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

259

sown last year, and two of them have produced
offsets from the base of their stems, each forming a
tuft of leaves which is unquestionably such a growth
as may be expected to develope into a second flower
stem next year. So then I have raised from the seed
of the same plant (it may be from those of the same
capsule), some plants that have not yet flowered, but
will probably do so in the third year, some that are
flowering in the second year, and will probably die
after the fashion of biennials, and some also in flower
and only differing from the last in that each plant
has a lateral offset from the base of the stem, which
promise a second flowering next year, after the
fashion of perennial herbaceous plants. Thus we see
how difficult it is to speak with anything like
precision of plants as having limited lives, that
character being apparently as liable to variation as
any other of those which have been deemed specific. I
know that the pimpernel survives the winter sometimes,
though everybody calls it annual. — John Gibbs.

“The Herefordshire Pomona.” — We have
received Part II. of this magnificent work, edited
by Robert Hogg, LL.D., and which is published by
D. Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s Place, Trafalgar Square,
on behalf of the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club.
The numerous chromolithographic plates of the chief
kinds of apples and pears are works of the very
highest art. Indeed, we may say, we have seen
nothing at all approaching them in this respect ; and,
highly as we felt ourselves obliged to speak of the
first part of the “Pomona,” this second part is
superior in every respect, literary as well as artistic.
We have a capitally written chapter on “Modern
Apple Lore,” by Dr. Bull ; “ The Life of Lord
Scudamore ” (with an admirable portrait), who was
famous for his experiments in apple grafting, and
his success in introducing various kinds of apples,
also written by Dr. Bull ; a paper on “ The Cordon
System of Growing Pears at Idolme Lacy” (illus-
trated), by Sir H. Scudamore Stanhope, and detailed
letter-press descriptions of the various kinds of apples
and pears figured in the present part.

Mushrooms. — There is, I believe, a very general
idea, that mushrooms are surely to be found in a wet
autumn. My own experience, however — fully con-
firmed in this present year — is, that the main condition
for their plentiful appearance is this : that the wet
autumn should be preceded by a hot summer. I live
in the immediate neighbourhood of downs, whence
we usually gather them in, considerable, though
varying, abundance ; but this year, strange to say,

I have not set eyes upon one of any sort or kind.
Even the ordinary fungi, which are usually so plen-
tiful,— e.g. the Fairy-ring Champignon, Amanita
muscaria, Agaricus melleus , and the Coprini, &c.,
are this year hardly represented. It is a fair pre-
sumption that this unprecedented scarcity must arise
from the remarkable wetness of the spring and

summer ; but it may be well to inquire in what way
it has hindered the germination of the spores,
whether by washing them deeply into the soil, or
otherwise. — C. W. Bingham.

Colour Blindness. — Many notices have lately
appeared on this subject ; they have all, however,
referred to a defect in the optic nerve ; but is it not
possible that some of the facts stated may be attributed
to an apparent change in colours caused by a change
in the light ? Certain flowers, for instance, show the
natural colour when seen by day, but will appear to
be of a totally different colour by candlelight ; the
change cannot be attributed to any defect in the optic
nerve. Does it depend on any peculiarity in the
flowers, or in the different decompositions of natural
and artificial light? — T. B. W.

Vegetable “Commensalism.” — I have often
noticed the “ commensalism ” of plants described by
Dr. Taylor a short time since in Science-Gossip.
When I knew very few mosses, I used to be puzzled
with one particular moss that I knew at sight as well
as I knew Boa annua , but I did not know its name.
It was always associated with Neckera complanata , a
moss I knew, and I therefore labelled my different
gatherings of the unnamed moss — “ always associated
with N. complanataB One day I received from a friend
a moss labelled Anomodon viticulosus , and before I
had fairly opened the packet I recognised it as the
companion of N. complanata. I could give instances
of other mosses, but if I mention a few of the flower-
ing plants often found together, it will be better for
the generality of readers. I have observed all the
following to be often together in West Yorkshire and
Derbyshire, and some of them are noticed by Dr.
Less, F.L.S., in the report of the Botanical Locality
Record Club for 1877, “1° fall naturally into groups,
the integers composing which agree in having an
almost identical horizontal distribution, and often
a very similar vertical range as well.”

t Rhamnus catharticus.

I Ligustrum vulgare.
(Taxus baccata.
f Carduus heterophyllus.
i Trollius europaeus.

( Rosa caerulea.

{Genista tinctoria.

Malva moschata.
Pimpinella magna.
Pimpinella saxifraga.

SRubus suberectus.
Crepis paludosa.
Myrrhis odorata.
Stellaria nemorum.

( Thalictrum montanum.
< Cochlearia alpina.
(Asplenium viride.
t Spergularia rubra.

J Ornithopus perpusillus.
(Jasione montana.

IThlaspi alpestre.

Alsine verna.

And not far away,

Hu tchinsia petrasa.

IDraba incana.
Geranium sanguineum.
Rubus saxatilis.

Galium sylvestre.

I could give many more instances, if necessary,
but I think the above will be familiar to all ex-
perienced field botanists. — Wm. West, Bradford.

English Plant Names. — We have received
Part I. of “ A Dictionary of English Plant Names,”
by James Britten, F.L.S., and Robert Holland, pub-
lished for the English Dialect Society by Triibner
and Co. With the exception of Dr. Prior, we do not
know of two men who are better able to undertake

260

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

this work than the two botanists with whose names it
is franked. A good deal of Dr. Prior’s philological
web-spinning is absent from the derivations here
given, all of which are characterised rather by shrewd
common sense, and an intimate knowledge of dialects
and the modes of thought of the peasantry, than by
philological learning. This will be a most valuable
and useful work to the botanical student.

GEOLOGY.

Adventures of a Geologist. — The geologists of
England, “who live at home at ease,” know little of
the perils under which some of their brethren of the
hammer pursue their arduous studies in other coun-
tries. The following letter from a young, but already
well-known and promising geologist, Mr. R. Lydek-
lcer, B.A., who is engaged as palaeontolgist on the
geological survey of India, will give some idea of
the duties which fall to the lot of Indian geologists : —
Leh , Laddk , Aug. 2, 1879 : — “I returned yesterday
from my trip to the Chinese frontier, near the Pan-
gong Lake, after a very rough and somewhat disagree-
able time. We were at an elevation of over 14,000
feet the whole time, and had to cross five passes close
on 19,000. Living so long at such an elevation, is of
course extremely trying ; I could not sleep at night,
and when I did doze off, soon woke up choking for
breath. The sun in the day was terrible in its power,
and has burnt the skin off my face ; so that I am
bleeding every minute, and have to keep it covered
with butter. At night we had hard frosts when at
the height of over 16,000 feet. This alternation of
temperature gave me fever. We could not halt, as
we should have been starved, and I had to do three
twenty-five mile marches in a fever, when I could
scarcely sit in the saddle, and yet, owing to the
badness of the roads, was obliged to walk a great
part of the way. To add to my misfortunes my cook
also fell ill, and I had great difficulty in getting him
along. I am, of course, a good deal knocked up
after such a rough time, and very thin, but I am
going to rest here for four or five days, which will, I
hope, pick me up, and then I start for Simla, which
I hope to reach early in October. At the end of the
Pangong Lake I tried to cross over into Chinese
Tibet, but was stopped by a party of Chinese soldiers,
who threatened to seize my baggage, and I was
obliged to make very significant signs with my
revolver before they let go. The Pangong Lake is
most lovely ; it is about sixty miles in length — half
of which is in Chinese territory, and consequently
inaccessible. The water is of the clearest blue,
highly impregnated with borax, which makes it unfit
to drink. Imagine this, bordered by a beach of most
dazzling white sand, and the whole surrounded by
towering mountains of all shades of' blue, red, and
purple. Not a sign of life in the water — which forms

a veritable dead sea — and not a blade of grass on the
hills. Most of the country we passed through was
totally uninhabited, and was indeed a “howling
wilderness.” Here and there, where there occur
more or less green “ oases” of grass, we came upon
encampments of Nomad Tartars, with their curious
dome-shaped black felt tents. Around these grassy
patches there were generally large colonies of the
yellow marmot, which set up a prodigious squeaking
and squealing at our approach, and soon dived down
into their burrows. Occasionally we found large
numbers of the blue-tailed Tibetan hare, which made
a pleasant addition to our larder. On the sandy
plains we here and there came across droves of wild
asses, which trotted round our caravan in distant
circles, snorting and braying, and making mine and
the Havildar’s pony very restive. The Tibetan wild
ass is a handsome animal, standing about 14*2,
generally of a chestnut colour, with a stripe on the
back and shoulder of a darker tint. In the Chang-
Cheumo (Great Plain) valley, which runs parallel
with the Pangong Lake, though separated by a lofty
mountain range, there occur wide grassy plains ; on
these plains there are numbers of the magnificent
Tibetan antelope ( Pantholops ITodgsonii), with their
long straight horns, which form has given rise (in all
probability) to the legend of the unicorn. The animals
stand as high as a large donkey, and have a deep red
coat. The two mornings I halted in the Chang-
Cheumo I saw heads of twelve or thirteen within a
quarter of a mile of my tent. Unfortunately there
was not cover for a cockroach on the plain, and
though I several times tried to get near them on hands
and knees, I was unable to get within 500 yards of
them, and bagging them was accordingly out of the
question, especially as my “ Westley Richards” is
only sighted up to 200 yards, point blank. I was,
therefore obliged to turn my back on these splendid
animals, as well as on the Chang-Cheumo Valley,
neither of which I shall probably ever see again. The
animals only inhabit that part of Kashmir territory,
though common enough in inaccessible Chinese Tibet.
Occasionally on our route, we met parties of Tartar
traders coming from Chinese Tibet, with borax. All
this borax is carried on the backs of large sheep and
goats. Each animal carries a long bag loaded with
about 5 lbs. at each end, and tied across its back.
At night, all the sheep are tied up to a long string,
like cavalry horses at a picket. The advantage of
this mode of transport is, that sheep and goats get
their own living, in the most barren regions. My
■ own baggage was carried on yaks (the hairy cattle of
Tibet) ; these beasts carry large loads, and can go up
to any elevation. The only difficulty with them is,
that they must have grass, for they will not eat grain.
This sometimes gave us considerable trouble, as we
found the yaks had broken loose, and we spent
several hours in sending out exploring parties in search
of them, with the result that we did not get under

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261

weigh until mid-day, and not into camp until night.
On another occasion, in crossing the Chang-Cheumo
river, we had a little adventure with the yaks. The
river, as is usual at this time of the year, was greatly
swollen by the melting snows, and running at an
enormous pace. My valet-boy (Behrer) was riding
one of the yaks when they were driven into the river.
Very soon they got out of their depth, and began to
swim, being partly carried down by the current.
The boy slipped off behind, and drifted down the
stream. Luckily I was on my pony, and galloping
down below, I pushed into the river and caught him as
he passed. My pony, however, got out of his depth
too, and I slipped off, fortunately managing to pull
the boy to shore. We both had a narrow escape.
We subsequently managed to cross the river with
some difficulty, by means of a rope, lower down.”

Sun-Cracks. — While on an excursion of the
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club recently, I observed a
striking illustration of how the cracks found in the
new red sandstone were formed. This was in one
of the Scrabo quarries near Newtownards, co. Down,
where we observed some clay, no doubt formed of the
debris of the sandstone, cracked by the sun, and lying
beside a large slab of sandstone beautifully marked in
exactly the same manner. The way in which the cracks
in both were formed strongly corroborate the general
supposition as to their formation. — J. M. Ward.

Localities for Fossil Star-fish. — Many years
ago I had the good fortune to obtain the rare and
elegant star-fish Protaster Salteri (Forbes), as well as
a species of Palaeaster, which I cannot find figured.
They, with an arm of Glyptocrinus basalis (McCoy),
were found near together on the eastern side of Bala
Lake, about a mile from Llangower, the locality being
easily determined by the oval patch of Bala limestone
which is marked on the geological map ; the exact
spot is shown by the arrow marking the dip at 30°.
Mr. Salter found his specimen of P. Salteri at Pen-y-
Gaer, near Cerrig-y-Druidion, eight miles north of
Bala ; I believe one surface only was obtained having
two rays perfect. I was more fortunate, inasmuch as
in mine both surfaces are quite perfect ; it is some-
what smaller than the figure in Memoirs of the Geo-
logical Survey — Geology of North Wales, plate 23.
Have any other examples of this beautiful little fossil
been procured ? — Charles Ricketts.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — In the
interesting notes in your journal for September on the
above subject, I am glad to see that two of your
correspondents have suggested distinct definitions of
“ instinct ” and “ reason.” For until the exact subject
of discussion is defined, the discussion itself must be
' more or less confused and cross-purposed. Both Dr.
Keegan and C. B. agree in the main idea of their
respective definitions ; and no doubt most would accept
the same distinction, viz. that in instinct there is

unconscious adaptation of means to ends, one direct
inference through association of ideas ; whilst in reason
there is conscious and voluntary adaptation, and often
a chain of inference in logical connection and order.
But still, supposing some such definition to be
accepted generally, it appears to me doubtful whether
the main question is settled thereby. A clear field is
gained ; but discussion, it seems to me, is still
possible. For instance, on one point in Dr. Keegan’s
note. He says about animals, “ their method of
working without a trace of hesitation, &c. . . .
the identity of motive in almost every case, all
unequivocally suggest the idea of an automaton
mechanically operating.” Now, if the former part of
this sentence be admitted as certain, then, of course,
the conclusion is correct and strong. But what if the
premisses here assumed be open to challenge or
doubt ? Is not the argument here robbed of its whole
force ? And I certainly think that two of these
assumptions are precarious at least: — the “working
without a trace of hesitation” and the “identity of
motive.” Take the case of the dog, an animal
admittedly the most “ reasonable” or gifted with the
highest instinct. Who has not over and over again
observed hesitation in his conduct, especially in cir-
cumstances where a choice of actions had to be made.
To all appearance the animal was considering
balancing the two sides of the question, and at last —
perhaps after some little time — choosing his course.
Did he not then voluntarily decide on one of two
purposes ? or on one of two means to accomplish a
purpose ? There was first hesitation, then choice :
two things, not generally attributed to any except
“reasonable” beings. Again as to “identity of
motive.” No doubt in most cases a dog, like other
animals (like his master, too often), is actuated by
purely selfish motives. But are there not reliable
instances recorded where a dog has shown clear self-
denial and even self -sacrifice, qualities, by the way,
hardly instinctive ? Here are two contrary motives,
selfish and unselfish : the “identity” is destroyed.
Indeed I notice Dr. Keegan writes “ identity . . in
almost every case,” which, though it evades objections,
weakens his case. To give his conclusion any practical
value and force the identity should be in every case.
To revert to the definitions for a moment. I cannot
subscribe all at once toC. B.’s conclusion that animals
are unable to follow out a train of inferences. On the
other hand, some actions of dogs seem to me very
difficult to account for without supposing some such
train to have actually passed (dare I say ?) through
their mind. The whole subject is most difficult, but
most interesting. I am afraid it will never be
absolutely settled until we know much more than we
do about the world of mind and spirit. — Y. M.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — Amongst
the many theories given by some of your correspon-
dents to account for the remarkable illustrations of
intelligence exhibited by many dumb creatures, I
fail to see one which will cover the entire ground.
It must not be foi'gotten that there is no medium
between matter and spirit. If the brain can secrete
thought, as the liver secretes bile, then there is an
end of all argument concerning the soul. But if not,
we must allow that brutes have souls just as humans.
The question of the soul’s existence after death
must be left to the theologian.'1 For myself, I do not,
acknowledge anything like instinct. “ The here-
ditary transmission of acquired aptitudes ” is a
scientific fact. The knowledge an animal possesses
when born is added to considerably as it grows older.
If the knowledge instinctive is all an animal has, how
must we explain its education ? If an animal cannot

262

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

think, how must we explain all the voluntary actions
which are so adapted to the occasion, and such as a
man similarly situated would perform ? I could
enumerate some highly interesting facts concerning
what I will call spontaneous intelligence ; but they
would occupy too much space. I will only say that
if brutes were able to communicate their thoughts
to one another as easily as humans, they would display
still higher intelligence. If I could not converse
with my fellow-man, I should be ignorant of much
that I have learnt. I believe that animals have
reasoning souls like men, but their powers of ex-
changing thoughts are inferior to ours, thus accounting
for their inferior intelligence ; but this inferiority is
one of degree and not kind. — A. IV. King , Blackburn.

Instinct and Reason. — To me it seems that any
one who knows the meaning of the word “reason,”
and denies to animals the thing, must be one of those
men who seeing, see not, and hearing, do not under-
stand. It is to me beyond belief that a man who has
kept a pet, or has walked about with his eyes open,
or has read or heard trustworthy tales of animals, if
he knows the meaning of the two words, holds that
animals have only “instinct,” and not “reason.”
— H.B. From the “ Rights of an Animal ; a New
Essay in Ethics,” by Edward Byron Nicholson, M.A.

Eye-bright (Euhkrasia officinalis). — This plant has
been very luxuriant this season in some districts. One
place in the neighbourhood of Park Place, Henley-on-
Thames, was completely covered in August with its
pretty white flowers. On the railway banks between
Pinner and Bushey, I gathered plants with stems from
10 to 14 inches, with unusually fine flowers. The
centaury ( Erythrcca Centaicrium), has also been very
fine and plentiful. Possibly the unprecedented wet
season may have been favourable to both plants.
Perhaps some of your numerous readers may have
noticed a similar condition of both plants in other
districts. — j. IV. Odelf Pinner.

Intelligence in Ants. — Whilst weeding in the
garden last August, I broke open the upper galleries
of a nest of small black ants, and in so doing scattered
a number of eggs, which had been carried up from
below, that they might be warmed by the sun, which
at the time was shining brightly. As I watched the
ants gathering them into the nest, I noticed a little
fellow dragging one, two or three times larger than
himself, up what must have seemed to him a very
steep hill ; at last he stuck fast, and, after a few
plucky efforts, he left the egg, made a few casts round
the ground to see how the “land lay,” and then
returned to the egg, which he pulled up an easy
ascent, of which he had been in search, and which
was in quite another direction to the one in which he
was going when he stuck fast. — Thomas Winder ,
Sheffield.

Sagacity of a Pony.— Having read with very
great interest the numerous papers which have lately
appeared in Science-Gossip and “Nature” upon
the “Intelligence in Man and Animals,” I venture to
add to the already large list on the subject, by sending
the following remarks upon a remarkable pony, which
some short time since might have been seen daily
grazing on the Cirencester College cricket-ground.
The principal of that college kindly furnished my
brother (one of the professors of the college) with
the previous history of this sagacious animal, known
by the name of Grimm, and it is as follows : Grimm
was born and bred on the estate of Mr. Mussel, of
Aden, near Aberdeen, Scotland, and sold by him, in

I 1852, to a gentleman who required a pony to carry
his wife during his walking expeditions in Perthshire,
with this caution, “Never drive him, or he will
break your neck,” as he had been notorious for
previous bad conduct, and had previously smashed a
pony- carriage. In the stable and in the field he was
gentleness itself, but was found to be very headstrong
and conceited (if one may attribute such a quality to
a pony), and the few misfortunes that befell him
during the thirty-four years of his life, his kind and
indulgent owners attributed to this defect in his
j character. During Grimm’s walking expeditions he
must have played his mistress some very odd tricks,
which she truly states must have cost thought and
preparation, for he apparently always made his Own
arrangements for the day. One hot afternoon his
mistress wished to ride some four miles to meet her
husband, who was returning from Edinburgh. Until
they arrived at a certain hill, Grimm was in all
respects a model pony, when suddenly at this point
he stopped, having decided that so far he would go,
and no farther. All his mistress’s endeavours to make
him descend the hill were fruitless. At last, tired out
with his rearing and jumping, she unadvisedly did,
what he had along intended she should do, dis-
mounted, and dragged him down the hill by the
bridle, and then hoping she had won the day, she put
her foot into the stirrup to spring into the saddle, but
he had been waiting for that moment, and before
she could accomplish her purpose, found herself flat
on the road, and on looking round, saw Grimm
merrily galloping home. His memory for places and
people is described as extraordinary, and on one
certain day, and that only, would he take his mistress-
in turn to each shop she was in the habit of visiting.
He learnt to open any kind of door, and would turn
handles and keys, also lift latches, so that unless care
was taken to lock him into his stable from the outside,
he was certain to walk out again when the coast was-
clear. Having a large stable-yard in which he walked
about in perfect freedom, his amusement was to open
the door of the scullery, and steal the greens the cook
was washing for dinner. She being quite deaf, was-
unconscious of his presence until she felt his warm-
nose on her shoulder, and saw her cabbage whisked
off. He hated solitude, and was always happy when
the dogs and their puppies were occupying the stall
next to him. Grimm never accidentally injured the
smallest puppy. The cat kept her kittens in his
manger, and the proceedings of the family gave him
much interest. This affectionate disposition was
further exemplified in several ways. He expected his
mistress to come and see him often, and once when
she had been prevented by illness, and had not seen
him for a fortnight, he determined upon reversing the
order of things, and went to see her, walking through
the hall to the drawing-room door, which he opened
as usual ; and great was her astonishment to see him
triumphantly nodding his head, as if relieved to find
she had not entirely disappeared. In 1862 Grimm
met with a serious accident, one of his fore-legs was
injured, and he ever afterwards lifted it up for inspec-
tion when his mistress appeared, and thus learnt to
shake hands. On his recovery a pony was bought to
drive with him, and he was placed in double harness.
He was devoted to his companion, and gnawed a
hole at once in the partition between the stalls to
improve the means of communication. Various other
anecdotes might be told of this remarkable and
intelligent pony, but he soon became unfit after this
period for work, and was received into the pastures
of the Agricultural College, Cirencester, where
he obtained a home and every comfort until death-
terminated his eventful career. — E. Edwards.

HARD WICKE ’S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

263

The Robin. — In the months of November and
December last year, I, after great perseverance and
coaxing, made friends with a robin in my garden. My
first introduction to my little redbreast was when
forking up some ground, he perched on a tree and
darted down for worms. After a few days he would
stop on the ground and wait for them, and allow me
to throw them to him. I then began to try him with
bread and biscuit, to take it from my hand, but to no
purpose ; he would allow me to come very near him,
but would fly away when I held out my hand with
food. I still coaxed him day after day with different
kinds of things, worms, &c., and at last succeeded
with some tempting pieces of cheese, in the following
manner, first by calling him from the shrubbery,
where he was generally to be found, and as his
favourite place was perching on a low boarded fence,
I used to hold out my hand with the cheese for his
inspection, then place my hand on the fence near
him, and it was very amusing to see the shy way in
which he would hop a little nearer and nearer, and
peck up a piece and fly off into the trees, then return
to my hand again until satisfied. After about a week
of this the little fellow had confidence in me, and
would come when called and perch on my hand and
feed. After a while he would also come to my father,
and we both took great interest in him and fed him
during the winter. In the spring, when nesting-time
came, we saw no more of him. However, at the
beginning of this month (September), I was talking 1o
the gardener, who was digging potatoes, when I
heard a robin singing in one of the apple-trees, and I
began telling him the story about the robin that used
to feed from my hand, and I said to him, I wonder
if this is my little friend ; I will try him. I happened
to have some biscuit in my pocket. I crumbled some
in my hand, and gave my usual call to him, and much
to our astonishment, he flew from the tree and took
the biscuit three or four times in succession, then flew
off into the trees, and I saw no more of him that day.
I at once came to the conclusion it must be the same
bird, who had not forgotten my past kindness to him.
This is a wonderful instance of memory in birds. —
S. Griffin , Salisbury.

Books on Entomology, &c. — Having read the
“ Aid to the Choice of Books on Botany,” I think it
very instructive and useful to those who wish to
study it. Such articles as those save the young
student a great deal of trouble and disappointment
through not knowing which are the best books. I
should esteem it a great favour if you or some of the
readers of Science-Gossip would write an article
similar to the one on the choice of books on botany,
by Bernard Hobson, only to aid in the choice of
books on entomology, geology, &c. I think it would
be very acceptable to many young entomologists and
others. — F. J. Francis.

Curious Sites for Birds’ Nests. — Your corre-
spondent F. F., referring to my note on curious sites
for birds’ nests, may throw aside any doubts he may
have with regard to the original architect of the nest
alluded to by me, as the magpie is the only bird that
builds that class of nest with a dome, and it is so
strongly built, that it will bear the blasts of five or
six winters in sheltered situations, and is then not
considered too dilapidated for the kestrel, that in my
experience never does build its own nest, and when
it lays in a hole in a tree or cleft of a broken limb,
makes about the same nest as an owl, nothing more
than a quantity of pellets of fur and feathers, that it
had thrown up while at roost or possibly sitting.
Our Selborne district used to be much troubled by
magpies a few years back, but the damage done by

them to pheasant and hen-coops, induced a war of ex-
termination, and where I have counted fifty at a time,
it is now rare to see a pair ; they are easily started
from the nest, by a sharp blow to the trunk of the tree.
Jays and magpies, though generally very wary and
shy, are very bold in defence of their young when
just fliers, are easily killed by imitating the cry of a
young one in trouble, which can be done by a split
stick and leaf, or a blade of grass between the thumbs,
and if a young one be caught alive or winged, you
are almost sure of the old birds. — G. T.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the “ exchanges ” offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
“exchanges” which cannot be tolerated.

F. H. Habpen. — The so-called “ Vegetable growth ” is not a
fungus, but the stalked eggs of the iace-wing fly (ChrysoJ>a
vulgaris).

John Slater. — The insects attacking the ears of corn are a
species of Aphis, or “ plant-louse,” and they have undoubtedly
appeared on the ears by reason of the continued wet weather.
It is not a “ new pest.”

S. Brenan. — We are sorry to say the box full of fungi reached
us in such an utterly smashed up condition, that there remained
nothing but pulpy fragments, which were quite undeterminable.
The smaller box contained, not a lichen, but a well-known alga,
which often appears on gravel walks at this time of the year,
Nostoc commune.

D. N. — The fragment of slate from the quarries at Llanberis
was impressed with the black dendritic crystallisation of oxide
of manganese. It is not a fossil.

W. Martin. — Any ordinary microscope would enable you to
examine the structure of the leaves and fruits of mosses. You
can purchase a capital instrument at any good maker’s for about
five guineas.

H. Miller (Accrington). — A capital book for the purpose you
require is Nicholson’s “Manual of Palaeontology” (publisher,
Blackwood). For characteristic tertiary fossils, we recommend
the Charts published by Tennant, Strand, London, at 7s. 6d.

J. J. Morgan. — It is difficult to pronounce on a plant from
so small a portion as that sent, but we have no doubt that it is
a variety of the orpine (Sedum Te’ephium).

W. Benner. — We should think you might be able to procure
any of the small species of living quadrupeds from London
dealers, or inquire in our “Exchange” column, stating what
species you want.

A. D. Melvin. — Will this gentleman (who mooted the idea
of a Register of Field Botanists) kindly send us his full address?

Dr. Morton. — There is a Postal Microscopical Society
already in existence. The idea was started in the pages of
Science-Gossip in 1872 and 1873, which please see for rules,
membership, &c. We understand this society is working in an
excellent manner.

Herbert Bishop. — We are always willing to help students,
but not to do for them what we know is best they should do for
themselves. For instance, in naming fossils, as you live in
London, it would be much better for you to take them to such
a museum as that of the School of Mines, Jermyn Street, and
name them yourself from the specimens there exhibited. Such
a plan would impress the names of the fossils much better upon
your memory than if they were named for you.

J. S. Ilsley. — Many thanks for your offer; we should much
like a little of the Sargasso-weed with the zoophytes on it.

T. G. Harris. — Taylor’s “ Half Hours at the Seaside,” and
Wood’s “Common Objects of the Seashore,” will enable you
to name nearly all the objects you are likely to pick up. Many
thanks for your kind offers. You could not get a more suitable
book on microscopic fungi than that by Dr. Cooke, nor indeed a
better work on the larger British fungi than the cheap popular
one by the same author (both published by D. Bogue). Smith’s
“ Ferns, British and Foreign” is the best and cheapest on that
subject ; and for sea-weeds, get Grattan’s book, published at
the Bazaar office, or Dr. Landsborough’s, both are cheap.

264

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

EXCHANGES.

Will exchange Murby’s photophysical wall map of the world,
for Sachs’ Botany, or Jukes and Geikie’s Geology, and a few
good fossils. — T. Tate, Thornbury, Bradford, Yorkshire.

Ancula crist ata, or well-mounted palate for Cylichna cylin-
drica or Scalaria communis (animal and shell). — J. Turner,
Davenport, Stockport.

Fossils in exchange for minerals. — Rev. H. B. Capel, Great
Eastern Rectory, Dunmow.

Bird eggs and lepidoptera, in exchange for other not in
collection. Many common butterflies wanted, also foreign ones.
— J. A. Wheldon, South Parade, Northallerton.

I have several duplicates of six spot Burnet moth ( A nthrocera
jdlipendulce), which I shall be glad to exchange for other
entomological specimens. — F. Carter, 1 Tollington Place, Tol-
lington Park, London, N.

British shells. List of desiderata on application. — Henry
Coates, Bridgend House, Perth.

Fine mounted scales cr insect of Podura curvicollis, in
exchange for other slides. — T. Forty, Buckingham.

Student’s compound monocular microscope in case, with
polariscope and condenser on stand. What offers? — J. Liddy,
6 Harrison Street, Kingsland.

Sand from estuary of Thames or from alluvial deposit in Isle
of Sheppey, containing foraminifera, entomostraca, and Tri-
ceratum javus, and several discoidal species of diatoms in
exchange for well-mounted slides. — W. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S.,
Sheerness-on-Sea.

Neatly finished slide of spider (E. diadema) mounted whole,
offered for good slide of selected diatoms or geological sections.
— J. Neville, Wellington Road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

Alg^:, zoophytes, and sponges, from the Firth of Forth, in
exchange for other algae, zoophytes, and sponges, principally
zoophytes named and localised. — Andrew Edmondsbone, 6
Huntly Street, Edinburgh.

I have for exchange sets of forty specimens, seventeen species
of greensand fossils, including amongst others, teeth, vertebra,
and shells. Wanted specimens from other formations. —
J. Arthur Floyd, Alcester, Warwickshire.

A few specimens of 55, 367, 394, 539, 1040, offered in exchange
for plants peculiar to the south of England. Address, S. E. L.,

2 King Street, Penrith.

Exchange Spartina stricta for any of the following grasses :
1521, 1529, 1545, 1554, 1581, 1596, 1597.— Rev. F. H. Arnold,
Fishbourne, Chichester.

A great variety of most interesting unmounted material
mostly marine, list free ; also some really grand slides of marine
algse, with diatoms in situ, &c. Marine algae in variety, well-
mounted and named on suitable paper. Ditto, on glass for
lantern slides, really splendid. Wanted, first class micro, or
lantern slides, photo apparatus, stereoscope, &c., part cash if
desired. — J. McGann, Burren, co. Clare.

Wanted, Helix obvulata, //. sericea, H. gramilata, Clausilia
biplicata, &c. ; other British shells offered in exchange. Apply
to J. W. Cundall, Carrville, Alexandra Park, Redland, Bristol.

Wanted, a specimen or two of the British Comatula rosea
in its young stalked stage, a liberal exchange in micro slides or
cash. — F. Walker, Heywood, Tenby.

One and a half inch micro objective, micro slides, old English
coins, many in mint state, and proof engravings after Landseer,
Reynolds, and Lawrence, for the following desiderata : —
Allman’s “Freshwater Polyzoa,” Hooker’s “ Student’s Flora,”
Babington’s “ Manual of British Botany,” proof engravings
after Turner, or slate and plate glass aquarium. — W. T. Jones,
15 Fairbank Street, City Road, London.

Entomostraca, Teniora Finmarchica, mounted in balsam,
for any good slide ; Crustacea or echinodermata preferred. —
E. Lovett, Holly Mount, Croydon.

For hair of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus (unmounted), send
other object of interest to Mrs. Skilton, London Road, Brentford,
Middlesex.

WELL-finished slides offered of Chroolepus aurez/s, Lyngbya
vmralis , ascospores of Peziza, ascospores of Ascobulus, xEci-
dium tussilaginis , &c., for slides of polycistina, named diatoms,
in-ects, or animal tissues. — William West, 15 Horton Place,
Bradford.

Wanted, parasites and diatoms, named and mounted in
balsam, in exchange for other mounted objects ; send list to
W. H. Symons, 2 Queen’s Terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.

Wanted, “Hogg on the Microscope,” and Tait’s “Land
and Fresh-water Shells,” first-class insect slides in exchange.
Address, H. Insley, 150 Great King Street, Birmingham.

W 1 li any lady or gentleman abroad (any country) gather me
specimens of sea-weeds, zoophytes, and mosses? They need
not be mounted. British specimens of above offered in exchange,
also beautiful bouquets of natural flowers and flowers mounted
on cardboard. Butterflies also wanted from abroad. Send per
sample post, stating what exchange is required, to B. B. Scott,

24 Seldon Street, Kensington, Liverpool, England.

Wanted, living specimens of rare British plants (especially
critical species and varieties), in exchange for other rare (living)
British plants. Lists exchanged. — A. B., 107 High Street,
Croydon, Surrey.

Wanted, standard work on Entomology, or microscopic

marine objects (unmounted) ; offered French $ inch triplet
objective ; sketches of British insects by Houghton (quite new).
L. Clarke’s microscopic objects, slides, &c. — R. Brauer, Cress-
well Grove, Albert Park, Didsbury, Manchester.

Fine collection of chalk fossils and micro-slides in ex-'
change for minerals, especially fine crystals of fluor spar, calc
spar, quartz, galena, &c. — A. Butt, Vine Cottage, Perry Vale,
Forest Hill, S.E. 3

Wanted, skeletons of birds, reptiles, and small mammals,-
lepidoptera, and casts of fishes. Exchange micro objects, &c. —
J. P. Wright, 27 Sunnybank Terrace, Undercliffe ’ Lane,
Bradford, Yorkshire.

For exchange, a few specimens of Chrysomela distinguenda,
for other rare beetles ; also British plants. Lists exchanged.—
G. Robson, 92 Cranbourne Street, Leicester.

Macrocyclis concava, Zonitcs ligerus, Helix exoletar
elevata, thyroides, alternata, apprcssa, trident at a, striatella,
&*c., Sphcerium stamineum, l/nio crassidens, Pleurocera
canaliculcitnm and many other American land and fresh- water
shells, offered for Testacella Haliotidea, Succinea oblonga.
Helix lazziellata, revelata, obvoluta, Vertigo pusiPa, angustior.
Acme lineata, or foreign land and fresh-water shells. — Edward
Collier, 7 Dale Street, Manchester.

Kestrel, sparrow-hawk, golden crested wren, magpie,
pheasant, red grouse, golden plover, common snipe, landrail,,
coot, wild duck, guillemot, black-headed gull, and others,
desiderata, British birds’ eggs. — A. Smith, 8 South Mount
Street, Aberdeen.

“ London Catalogue,” 7th edition, offered 79, 135, 140, 174,
T77> 245. 26o, 293, 316, 369, 528, 567, 613, 627, 683, 692, 841b,
858, 913. 923. 934. 1057, 1072, 1141, 1142, 1565, 1641, 1665b.
Mentha crispa (L.), Sisymbrium pannonicum (Jacq.), and
Xanthimn spinosum and others, in exchange for 5. 7, 9, 10, 296,
758, 829, 1127, 1129, 1201, and others. — A. E. Lomax, Heath
Terrace, Woodchurch Road, Birkenhead.

Berkeley’s “ Cryptogamic Botany,” Quekett’s “ Histology,”
Roscoe’s “Spectrum Analysis,” Herschell’s “Astronomy,”
Knapp’s “Journal of a Naturalist,” Gosse’s “Devonshire
Coast,” and “ Tenby,” and the following Ray Society’s publica-
tions, viz. : — Burmeister’s “ Organisation of Trilobites,” Forbes’
“Naked-eyed Medusae,” Oken's “Elements of Physio-Philo-
sophy,” “Reports and Papers on Botany,” and “Zoology,”
Meyen’s “Botanical Geography,” “Correspondence of jno.
Ray.” For some of the foregoing, I want Allman’s “ Fresh-
water Polyzoa,” Pritchard’s “Infusoria,” Bowerbank’s “ Spon-
giadae.” Standard botanical works and some of Ruskin’s. —
B. G. Whiteman, 47 Belvedere Road, London, S.E.

P. hippocampus, pure, dry, and balsam slides. Also other
pure gatherings. Wanted a good sample of the Yarra deposit.
— W. M. Paterson, Loftus.

Duplicates of the following good British land and fresh-
water shells offered in exchange for other desiderata — L. Bur-
netti , same variety as lacustris (Loch Skeno specimens taken
this season), L. involuta , S. oblonga, Vertigo pusilla, V. sub-
striata, V. alpestris, V. minutissima, V. angustior, desiderata,
good foreign land shells or British birds’ eggs, numerous sorts
wanted. — W. Sutton, Upper Claremont, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Wanted, tropical beetles or butterflies, in exchange for a
barn owl in glass case, or very fine cocoons of the American
moth Cecropia. — Joseph Bates, High Street, Wellingborough.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

“Reports and Proceedings of the Manchester Field Natura-
lists’ Society, 1878.”

“ Report of the Entomologist.” C. V. Riley.

“Proceedings of the Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club,
1878-9.”

“ Report of the North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club,
1878.”

“Proceedings of Geologists’ Association.”

“ Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey,” vol. v.
“Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.”

“ Les Mondes.”

“ Scottish Naturalist.”

“Midland Naturalist.”

“Popular Science Review.”

“ Canadian Entomologist.”

“ Science News ” (New York).

&c. &c. &c.

Communications received up to ioth ult. from : —
E. E.— T. W. M.-A. J. B.— T. J. B.— T. G. H.— D. D.—
T. R. E.— C. F. G.— J. L.— R. F. O.— J. A. W.— W. H. S.—
J. J. M.— T. W.— T. H. H.— R. S.— F. J. F— J. F. — G. M. D.
— H. M.— H. B.— A. H. B.-Dr. M.— G. T.— H. C.—J. W.O.
— J. P. T.— H. B. C.— S. G.— F. C.— A. W. K.— J. A. jun.—
Dr. C. R.— F. H. L.— J. D. M.— J. M. C.— C. H. D.— J. T.—
H. M.— F. H. A.— T. S.— C. W. S.— D. N.— S. A. B.— W. T. J.
— M. F.— F. W.— A. E. L.— J. W. C.—J. A. F.— A. B.— W. S.
— H. I.— B. B. S.— T. B. W.— W. L.— W. H. S.— M. S.—
E. L.— J. F.— W. W.— H. S.— A. E.— A. B.— R. B.— E. C.—
J. IL— J. P. W.— G. R.— J. N.— W. A. L.— B. G. W.— C. W. B
— A. S.— S. E. L.— W. M.— T. H. P.— T. McG.— B. H.—
H. E. F.— &c.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

2C5

THE GEOLOGY OF THE LINCOLNSHIRE MARSHLAND.

By A. J. JUKES-BROWNE, B.A., F.G.S., etc.

[1 Continued from p. 245.]

T my readers ima-
gine all I men-
tioned in my last
article as taking
place on the Lin-
colnshire coast
before the marsh-
land was formed,
and when the edge
of the chalk wolds
was presented to
the sea as a bold
line of cliffs, from
which quantities
of chalk rubbish
fell on the ice-foot
below : outside

they must imagine
a sea full of ice-
bergs and ice-floes
borne southwards
from more northerly shores, and when driven by
storms upon the coast adding their foreign freights
of mud and stones to the local material out of which
the gravels and boulder clays were being made. By
picturing this state of things, they will understand
how these peculiar deposits came into existence, why
they are laid down so unevenly and irregularly, why
their surface presents so many mounds and hummocks,
why they are so full of pieces of chalk, and how the
large blocks and boulders of other rocks came to be
mixed up together in the same formation.

These glacial conditions lasted for a long time,
but gradually the winters became less severe and the
summers longer, if not warmer, the ice melted away
and left its last burden of mud and stones to form
the surface of the rolling hummocky ground which
now rose gradually from the waves and stretched far
eastward beyond its present limits over the ground
now occupied by the marshes and far out into the
German Ocean. But change, ceaseless change and
movement, is ever Nature’s order of the day, and
No. 180.

before long a reverse movement of depression set in
which enabled the sea-waves to attack this rolling
plain of boulder clay, and eventually to destroy the
greater part of it, gradually eating back its edge, till
only a narrow strip remained which now separates
the wold from the marshes.

Without stopping to inquire what prevented its
entire destruction, we content ourselves with observing
that some change occurred, possibly in the set of the
currents along the shore, which checked the process
of erosion and prevented the rapid removal of the
material gained from the land. The result of this
change would be to cause the formation of sandbanks,
and the silting up of the bays and inlets along the
coast line, and thus were formed the silts and
clays, which lie at the bottom of the marsh deposits
(or Post-glacial beds) shown in the section of the well
at Mablethorpe.

The reason of the greater thickness of the glacial
clays at Anderby can now be understood ; this place
is in close proximity to a promontory of boulder clay,
which for some reason did not suffer so much erosion
as other portions of the formation to the northward.
This district must therefore have continued to remain
above water, while the lower beds of the post-glacial
series were deposited at Mablethorpe ; and some parts
of it were never altogether submerged, but even now
form low mounds rising above the level of the
surrounding marsh.

The submergence above spoken of did not continue
without cessation, but there were probably pauses
during which the land was stationary for some time,
and when the silted up shore gradually passed into
the condition of a salt marsh just as such marshes are
being formed at the present time along the shores of
the Wash. The vegetation which would flourish and
decay in such places, furnished the black peaty matter
occurring in the upper part of these marsh clays ;
while the beds of turf or peat, with trunks of trees
which are found in many places, prove that large
forests grew and decayed on the higher parts of this
marshy land ; but the overlying beds of clay and silt

N

266

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

(often containing sea-shells) show that from time
to time the forests were inundated and destroyed by
the waters of the sea, and were buried beneath the
muddy deposits which resulted from the inundation.

Even in historical times, the sea has often broken
through the sandhills and has flooded large tracts of
the marsh behind them, and the result of such inun-
dations has always been to raise the surface of the
land, by warping it up with the silt deposited from
the muddy waters as they gradually evaporated.

The stiff brown clay which immediately underlies
the soil near Mablethorpe, and in most other parts
of the Wash, is probably the latest warp or sediment
deposited in this manner, and some of it has doubtless
been formed since the earliest banks and drains were
made.

Thus was gradually built up the thick mass of clays,
generally between thirty and fifty feet thick, which
lies below the Lincolnshire marshland. Many cen-
turies must have been occupied in its formation ; but
the climate does not seem to have differed much from
that which we now enjoy, the shells are of the same
species as those which now live on the Mablethorpe
shore, and the trees are chiefly oak, birch and willow,
like those which now exist on clay soils. It is possible,
however, that the greater height of the land and the
wider extent of forest growth, caused the rainfall to
be greater than it is at the present time. Modern
geology admits no great cataclysms or convulsions of
nature, except where volcanic action has come into
play, and of that there is no trace in Lincolnshire ;
All the changes above described have been produced
by a gradual change of climate, accompanied by
slow and comparatively slight movements of the land,
and by the constant operation of waves, tides and
currents.

The only other physical feature which remains to
be accounted for is the long line of sand-hills which
form a border to the marshes and protect them from
the inroads of the sea. The mode in which these and
similar dunes have been slowly built up to their
present height, has often been described — the growth
of grass and reeds along the margin of the shore, the
arrest of the drifting sand and its accumulation round
the patches of vegetation, shifting, yet ever rising
higher and becoming firmer with the matted growth
of reeds and other plants, till by degrees a barrier of
steep sand-hills is raised by the action of wind and
waves.

It is possible that the origin of these dates back to
the time when the area first began to silt up, and that
the marsh land has never been without a protecting
fringe of sand dunes. It is certain that they have
shifted their positions from time to time according as
storms and changing currents have caused the loss or
gain of land at different points ; of one such alteration
we have evidence in the low ridge called Croft Bank,
along which the Roman road is carried from Wain-
fleet to Skegness ; this appears to have been a sandy

beach at one time, and was probably backed by a line
of sandhills, but the shore in front gradually silted
up and formed the marsh which now intervenes
between Croft Bank and the present sea margin,
while a new line of sand hills began to be formed
along its edge.

There is one other feature of interest connected
with this part of the Lincolnshire coast, and that is
the ancient forest bed which is exposed for some dis-
tance along the shore at low water. Mr. T. W. Wallis
has recently given some account of this, as seen at
Mablethorpe on the occasion of an unusually low
tide (Sept. 28,1878) ; * the following may be quoted
from his description : —

“ At this low water the old partly-submerged forest
was well exposed, as far as the eye could reach, right
and left, and many miles beyond. The width of the
old forest exposed was great, but a succession of
points of tree stumps kept appearing, far into the sea,
so as to prove we saw only a portion of the old forest.
Some of these tree stumps at Mablethorpe are very
large, with large root arms branching out, but the
major part were small trees ; they are very numerous
and stand from one to three feet above the clay, they
are firm and sound, generally the upper end of each
stump tapers to a point, caused by the long continued
friction of the sea. I selected the most handsome
stump, one literally encrusted with small shell fish,
it stands about twenty inches high, and has been
about ten inches in diameter, though perhaps only
about a quarter of its original bulk remains. I had
about one half of it cut off by a cross-cut ; the wood
is fir, and by counting the layers of growth I make it
out to have been one hundred years old.”

The origin and date of this ancient forest bed has
not yet been fully investigated ; it may be the
termination of one of those which occur underground
in the marsh behind, or it may be a more recent
growth upon ground which has subsequently sunk
beneath the sea. I am strongly inclined however to
think that the former will prove to be the correct
view of the case.

We have now reached the end of the geological
record ; how long the land remained in an unre-
claimed state we have no means of knowing, but
the early British found food and shelter among its
woods and marshes, and are believed to have con-
structed certain banks and drains, but these are
matters which come rather within the province of
archaeology and we leave the antiquary and the
historian to take up the pen which the geologist
here lays down.

Localities for Fossil Star-fish. — I am glad to
inform Dr. Charles Ricketts, that I also obtained a
specimen of Protaster Salteri , near Llangower, about
two years ago ; both sides perfect.” — Owen Rees.

* In the Louth Times for May 3, 1873.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

267

FROZEN-OVER FISH-PONDS.

By W. A. Lloyd.

IN the September number of Science-Gossip,
pages 193, 194, there is an inquiry by a writer
signing “ Piscator,” respecting the manner in which
fish can breathe when the water they are in is
thickly and completely frozen-over for prolonged
periods. Water, of course, is valueless for respiratory
purposes, unless it contains a sufficient quantity of
atmospheric air, a large amount of which consists
of the oxygen which is necessary to revivify the blood
of the creatures which breathe such water, and thus,
in the manner which the writer correctly describes,
the carbonised blood enters the gills at one part,
and in a decarbonised, or purified state, leaves them
at another part. These gills are arranged, in most or
many water-breathing animals, like combs, the teeth
of which the water surrounds, and supposing each
tooth to be a tube through which the blood or other
vital fluid flows, the walls of the tooth, or tube,
are made so thin, that the blood within and the water
without, can touch each other freely without mixing,
one purifying the other, this being done in this beauti-
fully contrived apparatus, in a small bulk, packed, in
the case of fishes, just within the gill cover in the rear
and sides of the head. The blood is set in motion, or
circulated round and round in the creature’s body, by the
pulsations of the heart, while the surrounding water is
similarly caused to flow, and to circulate, by the constant
opening and closing of the mouth, these two pumps
(the mouth and the heart) thus continuously working
in conjunction with each other, and absolutely never
stopping, so long as the creature lives. And, to
serve both pumps, the water in which the fish lives
has the property of absorbing by contact a given
amount of air from the atmosphere at given tem-
peratures. When the temperature is high, the
quantity of air which water can take up and retain is
much less than when it is cold. Thus, in hot weather,
we often see a fish in a glass globe or other vessel,
gulping water from the very surface of the fluid, because
there it is in immediate contact with the atmosphere
where the aeration is greatest, and thus the instinct
of the fish teaches it to pass over its gills this fluid
which has thus been oxygenated, in preference to
going below for it, where the water is less aerated,
and therefore, in effect, less pure. But, at a colder
season, the same fish, in the same water, in the same
vessel, in the same spot, and under the same circum-
stances, in all respects except temperature, may be
observed less painfully (because in a less constrained
position demanding exertion all to one end) swimming
about below the surface, with the double pumps at work
as ceaselessly as ever. Certainly, therefore, it might be
supposed that the fish would die, if, on the one hand,
the water were to be so warm that it would not retain
enough air in solution, no matter how fast and well
the mouth-pump worked. And, on the other hand, it

might as truly be imagined that the fish would no
live — no matter how favourable the temperature
might be for the absorption and retention of air — if no
air could get to the water by its being for a consider-
able time closely covered over, as for example, by
ice. But, even though the water is thus fast sealed
up for a long time by a thick covering of ice, its
coolness, which the ice imparts, tends to cause it to
retain, the more easily, such air as it does already
contain in solution. And then, too, cold retards the
vital energies of the fish, and causes its respiration to
be slower, and the need for the air to be consequently
less, so that here are two favourable conjunctions —
greater supply and less demand.

But is it absolutely certain that such frozen-up
lakes have no communication with open water?
How, and with what streams, are these ponds or
tarns fed or supplied in summer ? Cannot they be
traced in winter, and, if so, is it quite sure that no
water runs through them, or beneath their ice, at
that time? It would be not very difficult for an
ingenious person to detect if any current exists beneath
the surface of any ice-bound pieces of water. I could
do so in the coming winter with an absolute certainty
of obtaining correct results. For example, vertical
holes might be bored in the ice, and in these orifices
might be firmly inserted wide glass tubes, say of an
inch and a half internal bore, with both ends open,
one in the water below, and one in the air above. And
in such tubes, supported or hung by light rods or wires,
could be placed various indexes, some for showing
vertical motion, others to point out horizontal currents,
and some to exhibit rotary or obliquely-running streams .
It would be a very cheap thing to have three, or even
more, of such tubes, each having its own office. There
come other considerations, too. Thus, if by reason
of a slower respiration caused by a lower temperature,
there be less energy, there is also a smaller consump-
tion of food to be thought of, and less excrement to
be voided, and less sullying of the water thereby,
accompanied by smaller demand for oxygen to consume
or get rid of the results of such voiding. Added to
this, the water is, because of its icy covering, much less
liable to receive excrementitious substances from land
animals at or near its margin, or from birds flying over
it, and indeed all dirt is hindered from entering by
such covering, every small prevention of impurity
being thus of consequence.

Certainly, a thick coating of ice would, especially
if covered with snow, also hinder the penetration of
light, and the growth would thus be partly debarred
of the influence of the subaquatic vegetation which so
much and indeed indispensably assists the purity and
decarbonisation of the water. But this would not
amount to actual darkness and complete hindrance
of the office of the plants. It would only be a retarda-
tion, and one, moreover, occurring when it could best
be afforded.

Connected with this subject is the wonderful pro-

N 2

268

HARD WICKE’ S S CIENCE-G O SSIP.

vision which^, is made by means of which, that, while
water obeys the same general law as that governing all
other substances, that of increasing in bulk by heat,
and decreasing by cold, yet, at the moment of actual
freezing it swells and becomes light. And thus it is
that ice swims on water. If, on the contrary, it sank,
more ice would form on the top of the water of a lake,
or pond, or river, and it would sink also, and then in a
short time accumulated masses of superincumbent ice
would be formed, so great, that no summer’s sun in this
country could melt them, while every creature in such
waters would perish, or rather, would never exist. And
our climate would be affected in a marked manner by the
omission of this other only apparently small matter,
namely, the inability of heat or cold to travel down-
wards in water as quickly as upwards. As it is, a limited
coating of ice, of thickness varying according to tem-
perature, forms on the surfaces of water, and nearly all
remains below it comfortably protected, because of the
feeble conduction of cold by the ice, till returning
spring. And it seems almost approaching a too great
presumption for a mere mortal to admire the framing of
the law which permits this slow travelling downwards
of heat in water, to compensate for the equally neces-
sary high specific heat, or great capacity for receiving
and retaining heat, which water possesses above all
other known substances, liquid or solid. As it is, the
slow downward progress of heat through water, pre-
vents the sun of summer from killing the plants and
cold-blooded animals in it.

Sea water requires a much greater cold to freeze it
than fresh water does ; hence (conjoined with the
motion of the ocean around England and many other
countries), we seldom have ice-bound marine coasts.
And hence animals of salt waters, which are in many
points different to those of fresh water, and more liable
from their structure and sedentary habit to be injured
mechanically by such ice, as well as by its cold, are not
so harmed, by reason of these wise modifications of laws.
And even when sea water does freeze, its ice is not
salt, but fresh, and thus, by its specific gravity being
much less than that of the water in which it floats,
it stands comparatively higher out of that fluid than
if the latter were fresh water, and thus winds un-
doubtedly get a greater hold on it, and its dispersion
is the speedier. And if sea water froze as readily as
fresh water does, so that our islands of Britain were sur-
rounded periodically by masses of ice, their presence
generally, and the increased coldness of the winds blow-
ing over them, would materially change our climate.

How amazingly wonderful is all this interdependence
of cause on cause, and law on law, no matter how
small or trifling they may appear to our dull wits : —

“ And if each system in gradation roll,

Alike essential to the amazing whole,

The least confusion, but in one, not all.

That system only, but the whole must fall.”*

Lorver Norwood.

* The above four lines I lately read in the Times newspaper
for 1831. No author’s name is given, but I should be glad to
know it.

ORNITHOLOGICAL ESSAYS.

No. III. — The Sparrowhawk ( concluded ).

By Tom Wm. Dealy.

NEXT to the kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ) the spar-
rowhawk is the commonest of the birds of prey
which inhabit the British Isles. Its favourite resorts
are among the wooded districts of mountainous regions,
or in extensive demesnes, also in various situations,
where, amid the savage repose of nature, it can bring
up its young in undisturbed tranquillity ; yet where it
is within easy access of places whence it can command
a sufficient supply of sustenance. Though this hawk
nestles in woods, it beats about in more open situations,

Fig. 196. — The Merlin (Falco cesalon).

such as along the borders of some well tended preserve.
See how stealthily, watch how warily, it flies in sub-
dued speed up the hedgerow, and down the side of
yonder plantation, on the alert for its morning meal.

In Scotland, according to Macgillivray, both the
merlin ( Falco cesalon ) and the kestrel are familiarly
known by the name of sparrowhawk. Like all
others of the Falconidse, it has to flee before the
unrelenting hand of agriculture. Some murmur at
this, and would fain see birds adapt themselves to
the alterations of the land’s surface. And yet, how
incongruous it would appear to behold the golden
eagle [Aquila chrysaetos ), in all its slow majesty of
wing over our meadow lands. Much as we regret

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP,

269

the disappearance of the more striking of our
feathered friends, we must visit their haunts ; a man
who goes to look for the eyrie of a golden eagle in a
flat dreary saltmarsh, would be as inconsistent as he
who eagerly inquires for the beautiful bearded tit
among the precipitous ranges of the Grampians.

The sparrowhawk may be said to be generally
•distributed over the United Kingdom. In Ireland
Mr. Thompson says it is “ common throughout
the enclosed and wooded parts.” In Scotland it is
no less abundant, breeding in the adjoining islands,
on the rocks which encircle them. This bird annually
rears its brood on the cliffs of the Isle of May (Firth
of Forth), or did so as recently as 1876. According to
different writers, it is found generally dispersed over
the whole of the continent of Europe. In Norway,
Sweden, and Denmark (vide “ Old Bushman”) it is
■commonly seen. He procured both eggs and birds of
this species, as far north as Quickiock, in Lapland.
According to the same writer, it is known by the
name of “ sparl hok ” in Sweden. It also extends its
range to Asia, as far east as Japan, from whence
specimens of this bird are said to have been received.
In Africa also has it been observed, in the countries
bordering the blue Mediterranean on the north, and
separated from the scorching, arid wastes of the
Sahara by the Atlas mountains and their continua-
tions. From the foregoing, it may be inferred that
the sparrowhawk has a very wide and extensive area
of distribution.

These birds commence to build their nests during
the month of April, at which time they may be seen
soaring high in the heaven over the site they have
chosen. It may be that a deserted nest of some
■magpie [C. pica), or other of the Corvidae is chosen.
If necessity demands it is repaired. The nest is
situate on some branch, midway up the tree, and is
formed by twigs and small parts of pine and larch,
often with the unopened buds still green and fresh, as
though recently broken off. It has a slight hollow in
the centre, lined perhaps with a few dead leaves, or
there may be no lining. Sometimes it is very large
and cumbrous ; while, on the contrary, others are so
small, and the twigs so scanty, that the blue sky
may be discerned through them, leading one to
suppose, that they at times take possession of the
nests of wood pigeons. If the wood be extensive,
there would probably be more than one pair of these
birds in it. I have known three different nests to be
within a distance of fifty yards. If not molested,
they will frequent the same neighbourhood year after
year. When it nidificates on the shore cliffs, it takes
possession of the nest of some Kittiwake or other
gull, and the nest will then consist of seaweeds and
such like material. The vicinity of this bird’s haunt
is apparent, the remains of birds, scattered feathers
and pellets being as a rule found in profusion, evident
tokens of its sanguinary meals.

The eggs are four or five in number, of a round

form, about the size of a large plum. They have a
bluish-white ground, spotted here and there with
reddish-brown spots ; in some very faint and in-
distinct, but in others the markings stand out clear,
and in well-defined relief. In some the spots become
large blotches of a rich reddish-brown, which gives
the egg an extremely fine appearance. There is also
a rare variety, which has a large blotch on either
end, covering it like a cap, and a still rarer variety is
that with a band or zone of richly coloured blotches
encircling the egg. I have one in my collection
which was taken out of Lancashire, in which the
ground colour cannot be perceived, the egg being
clouded with a light chestnut colour. This is the
nearest approach to a kestrel’s egg which I have ever
seen. When recently taken out of the nest, the
markings of this bird’s egg may be washed off when
water is applied. When the nest is robbed of its
eggs, it is not invariably forsaken. I myself took two
eggs out of a nest, and on visiting it during the
succeeding week, found three other eggs. A more
remarkable occurrence of the nature, I mentioned in
this periodical some time previous, when no less than
five different sets were taken from one nest.

When the eggs have been hatched, both birds
appear to increase in their savageness of disposition,
and show their emotions by flying round when the
intruder is sacking their home, uttering piercing
cries, and at times will not hesitate in attacking the
aggressor. It is at this period when so much
nutriment is required. Both birds are actively
employed during the day in reconnoitring the con-
tiguous country to supply their voracious family.
Many are the cries loudly uttered, proceeding from
the depths of the nest, as either of the parent birds
are descried sailing towards its hungry progeny with
a delicious morsel, the result of its forage. At this
period, the time of incubation, they become extremely
daring, and many are the incursions they make into
forbidden territories. In their eagerness to feed their
young, by their instinctive parental emotions, which
are strong within them, by their impulsion to provide
their family with food, they throw off for a time their
habitual retirement, and bring themselves into closer
intercourse with the abodes of men. Where vigilance
is lax, the loss of a young duckling, or the absence of
a chicken, informs the careless housewife that the
“ sparl hok ” has paid her a visit.

The unceasing exertions made by these birds to
supply their young with an adequate sufficiency of
food, testifies that, despite the naturally savage
tendency of their temperament, they lack not in their
innate, instinctive affection for their young.

Like other predatory birds, the “ pigeonhawk ”
has the power of ejecting, in pellets, indigestible
portions of its meals.

So familiar is this bird, that a brief description will
suffice. The female is between fourteen and fifteen
inches in length, while the male is but twelve. The

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HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

upper parts are brown, the wings being of a deeper
tint ; the tail is greyish-black, crossed by darker
bars. The neck and breast are almost an immaculate
white, becoming a dirty yellowish-white under the
belly, which is irregularly marked with dark arrow-
head like marks. The cere is yellow, the bill blue,
becoming black towards the point, the legs and feet
of a brilliant yellow, and the long talons are black.

“FRIENDS IN COUNCIL : ” A LIST OF
ASSISTING NATURALISTS.

THE persons mentioned below have signified
their willingness to gratuitously assist learners
of natural history and others, personally when prac-
ticable, otherwise through the post. It is, however,
to be distinctly understood that this list is not
intended to include professional naturalists only or
chiefly, but all lovers of nature who have any know-
ledge of the subject. Additional names will be gladly
received by me and inserted in a supplementary
list. This index will show a visitor to any of the
undermentioned places to whom he may apply for
assistance in studying its natural history. Any one
finding a specimen, of which he desires to know the
name, may forward it to one who makes such objects
his speciality, &c. In using the list it is suggested
that those who write for information should enclose
addressed post-card or stamps for reply. Before
sending specimens of any value, it will be well to
ascertain whether the correspondent is willing to return
them ; if so, sufficient stamps to prepay return should
be annexed. When sending fragile objects the address
may be written on a separate linen label, to obviate
their being crushed under the post-office stamp. As
Messrs. Kelly remark in the London Post-Office
Directory, “ ‘ Esquire ’ should be added to the name
of every gentleman to which no inconsistent addition
is affixed.” Please acquaint the Editor with any
change of address, in order that it may be notified in
Science-Gossip.

Tapton Elms , Sheffield. Bernard Hobson.

Bedfordshire.

Luton. J. Saunders, 47 Rothesay Road. Botany ,
Geology , particularly plants and fossils of Cretaceous
strata.

Cheshire.

Frodsham. James F. Robinson. Mosses , Fungi , or
other plants.

Cornwall.

Falmouth. J. S. Usley, 6 Trevethen Terrace. Botany ,
Geology ; local plants, marine animals, rocks and
fossils exchanged for non-local rocks and fossils.

Devonshire.

Kentisbeare, Cullompton. Rev. W. Downes, F.G.S

Geology.

Dorsetshire.

Blandford. Rev. O. P. Cambridge, Bloxworth Rec-
tory. Arachnida.

Durham.

Hartlepool. C. O. Trechmann, Ph. D. Rocks ,

minerals , especially crystals.

West Hartlepool. Robert Morton Middleton, jun.,
Fountain House. British and North American
Botany , Mammals , Birds and Reptiles. John E.
Robson, Bellerby Terrace, Entomology , especially
Macro-Lepidoptera.

Essex.

Colchester. Henry Laver, F.L.S., 1 Trinity Street.
Land and freshwater Shells, Cheiroptera , Mammalsy
(except Cetacea ), Reptiles , all British.

Kent.

Rochester and Chatham. Dr. J. Henry Morton,
Pres. Rochester Nat. Soc. British Flora , especially
Phanerogams , Microscopic mounting, General
Natural History.

Tonbridge. Miss Edith Thomson, Judde Place.
Botany , Conchology , Microscopy.

Lancashire.

Manchester. James Walkden, 183 Broad Street,
Pendleton. British Coleoptera.

Urmston, 5 miles from Manchester. Thomas Arm-
strong, F.R.M.S., Highfield Bank. Microscopy >.

Nottinghamshire.

Nottingham. C. J. A. Crawley, High School. Botany ,.
chiefly Phanerogams, Geology , Mineralogy.

Oxfordshire.

Oxford. G. C. Druce, F.L.S., 118 High Street..

Phanerogamic Botany.

Witney. W. H. Warner, Standlake. Zoology.
Shropshire.

Parville, Wellington. Robert Anslow. British Flower-
ing Plants , Mosses and Hepaticce.

Shrewsbury. William Phillips, Canonbury, Kings-
land. Hymenomycetes, Discomycetes, Myxogastres
(Ftmgi). Specimens to be freshly gathered, care-
fully packed, not to be returned.

Surrey.

London. Thomas B. Linley, 88 Blackfriars Road,
S.E. Geology.

London. B. Daydon Jackson, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.
Memb. Soc. Roy. Bot. de Belgique, 30 Stockwell1
Road, S.W. Botany, especially its early literature.

Sussex.

Eastbourne. Miss Annie Woodhouse, Rutland House..
Flowering plants.

HARD WICKE’ S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

271

Hastings. R. Leonard Hawkins, Hillside, Cornwallis
Gardens. Fresh-water Alga; will gratuitously
mount slides, i.e. , one of a specimen ; correspondent
to furnish material.

Westmoreland.

Kendal. J. S. Metcalfe, 55 Highgate. Botany ,
Ornithology.

Worcestershire.

Hales Owen, 7 miles by rail from Birmingham.
George T. Harris, Spring Villa. Botany.

Malvern Link. R. F. Towndrow, 2 Commercial
Buildings. Botany , Entomology.

North Malvern. Arthur D. Melvin, Ashford Cottage.
Botany.

Yorkshire.

Saltaire, 3 miles by rail from Bradford. Henry T.
Soppitt, 2 Bromley Street. Botany.

Scarborough. George Massee, Biological Laboratory,
Oak House, Oak Road. Flowering Plants , Micro-
scopic Ficngi.

Selby, 12 \ miles by rail S. of York. W. N. Cheesman,
Hon. Sec. Selby Nat. Soc., The Crescent. Botany ,
Microscopy.

Sheffield (2 miles from), George Robert Vine, 112
Hill Top, Attercliffe. Recent and fossil Polyzoa,
Microscopic structure of coal plants. G. R. Vine,
Jun. (same address). Recent and fossil Foraminifera.

Sheffield. James E. Westby, 42 Spooner Road,
Broomhill, Geology. Bernard Hobson, Tapton
Elms, Phanerogamic Botany ; will return specimens
if desired.

Thirsk, 9 miles S.S.E. Northallerton. William Fog-
gitt, Market Place. Phanerogamous Plants.

Wales.

Merionethshire, Dolgelly. Owen Reese, Meyrick
Square. Geology.

Scotland.

Co. Roxburgh, Kelso. Andrew Brotherston, Shedden
Park Road. Botany.

Ireland.

Co. Antrim, Belfast. Thomas Workman, Bedford
Street. Spiders.

Co. Clare. Gortaclare, Burren (nearest station Gort,
Co. Galway), Terence McGann. Botany , Micro-
scopy, mounts slides, supplies micro material, algse
and living plants on exchange, &c.

Co. Dublin. Lucan, 6f miles by rail from Dublin.
Joseph Edward Palmer. Ornithology.

Southern Germany.

Baden-Baden. Max Leichtlin, proprietor of Botanic
Garden , Station for introducing new and rare
plants. •—

A list of Entomologists by H. T. Stainton, F.R.S.,

occupies first fifty-five pages of “Entomologists’

Annual” for i860, pub. Van Voorst, 2s. 6d.

OUR COMMON BRITISH FOSSILS, AND
WHERE TO FIND THEM.

No. IX.

By J. E. Taylor, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.

PERHAPS no fossils have such a geological
value as corals. If the extinct species were
marked by the same habits as their modern repre-
sentatives (and in many cases the families of living
corals are so ancient, and the extinct forms glide so
imperceptibly into existing kinds that there is no
absolutely strongly-marked line of division), then
their value to the physical geolngist endeavours
to restore the conditions of primeval seas is immense.
For coral-animals can only flourish where the sea-
water is clear, and therefore where no muddy sedi-
ments are forming. And coral-animals are easily
separable into two groups — the single and simply
compound corals, which are usually inhabitants of
deep water ; and the reef-building corals which
cannot live and flourish beyond the depth of twenty-
five fathoms. Moreover, coral reefs indicate to the
physical geographer slowly subsiding areas of the
sea-floor. They are also indicative of a certain
degree of ocean temperature, for we do not find
them where the sea-water is cooler than 62°, and
therefore the sub-tropical belts of our globe now
roughly comprehend their distribution. But we find
fossil corals simple, compound, and reef-building.
They are characteristic of many thick limestone for-
mations, from the Silurian upwards. We have fossil
reef-building corals where their modern represen-
tatives could not now live. What climatal changes
do not these valuable fossils indicate ! Not less
important are the condition of the ancient seas they
lay before us. We carry our minds back to when
coral islands, fringing-reefs, and barrier-reefs were
in British seas. These reefs also tell the geologist
of the adjacency of land, and inform him of the fact
that the sea-floor was in a state of subsidence.

Moreover, few fossils are prettier, more easily
procurable, or look better in the cabinet, than corals.
They are found in nearly every limestone formation
which was originally deposited in the sea. No other
fossils can be so well studied, cut into sections and
examined under the microscope. And they are so
very abundant that the limestone walls in the hilly
districts where Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous,, or
Oolitic limestone crops up, are often composed of
little else than blocks of fossil coral.

We are beginning to understand the true relation-
ship of living and extinct corals better than we did,
thanks to the labours of Dr. Sorby and Mr. H. N.
Mosely. Formerly these animals (classified chiefly
by the stony or limy parts they leave behind),
were all grouped among that order of the Actinozoa
called “ Zoantharia,” of which the common sea-
anemone is the type. The order “Zoantharia”

272

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

was split up into three divisions, called Tabulata,
Rugosa, and Aporosa. It was thought that the two
former were Palaeozoic types of corals, and the third
of Neozoic and Recent corals. Let us examine the
fundamental difference of these three groups. The

many stories. They are compound corals, whose
shapes are modified by the manner in which they
grew, so that some are polygonal, or many-sided,
and others oval or round. The most remarkable of
these tabulate fossil corals are Ileliolites, Favosites,

Fig. 197. — Favosites Gothlandica. A Silurian and Devonian Coral (complete specimen) ; b, young specimen; c, section showing

the polygonal tubes.

Fig. 198. — Favosites Gothlandica , cluster of tubes of Favo-
sites ; d, tubes (magnified), showing tabulae and perforations
connecting the tubes.

Fig. 199. — Syrmgipora ramulosa. Carboniferous limestone
t formation.

tabulate corals are remarkable, and indeed obtain
the name which distinguishes them, for the floors
which seem to horizontally splits them up into so

Fig. 200. — Heliopora ccerulea. Recent Alcyonarian Coral.

the pretty “chain-coral” (Halysites), Syringiporar
&c. It will be seen from fig. 198, which shows a
magnified section of a very abundant Silurian coral
[Favosites Gothlandica ), that the coral-tubes — as we
may call them — are separated into horizontal chambers.
The walls are perforated, as they are in some of the
Alcyonaria, possibly for transverse canals. It will also
be seen that the interiors of the corals are not radiated
— that is, have not these vertical plates springing from
the walls which are called septa , or if they are present
in tabulate corals they are very feebly marked. This
general absence of septa is the leading distinction of
tabulate corals. Mr. Mosely thinks that most if not all
of this group are in reality not Zoantharians, or true
corals, but Alcyonarians, of which the common organ-
pipe coral ( Tubipora musica) is the best example. Some

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

273

Fig. 204. — Horizontal section across block
containing Lithostrotion junceum. Carboni-
ferous limestone.

Fig. 201. — hlillepora alcicornis. A recent Hydrozoan “ Coral,”
Bermudas.

Fig. 205. — Vertical section of Lithostrotion
junceum.

Fig. 202. — Section of “Chain-Coral” [Halysites catenulatus),
showing tubes. Upper Silurian formation.

Fig. 206. — A mplexus coral-
loides. Carboniferous lime-
stone.

Fig. 207. — Horizontal section of Lithos-
trotion Phillipsii. Carboniferous lime-
stone.

Fig. 208. — Vertical section of A mplexus
coralloidesy showing the tabulae.

Fig. 209. — Horizontal section of
Amplexus coralloides, showing
feebly developed septa.

Fig. 203. — “Chain-Coral” ( Haly sites catcnulatus).

Fig. 210. — Cyathaxiuia. Carboniferous
limestone. A, Horizontal section.

274

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

of the so-called corals, as the Millepores, he has proved
to be not corals at all, but that they actually belong to
the Hydrozoa. He has shown that there is a peculiar
division of labour in the polyps of modern Millepores,
some of the zoophytes catching the food and others
digesting it, after they have received it from the
catchers. This is the case in Stylaster, where the food-
catching zoophytes very much resemble the tentacles
arranged round the mouth of the common sea-
anemone.

a. surface of fossil ; b, vertical section : c, portion of Stroma -
topora concentrica magnified.

specific name comes from the bright blue colour of
the stony structure, which is usually white) is an
Alcyonarian, more nearly allied to some of the sea-
fans than to true corals. It is plentiful in equatorial
seas, and especially off the Bermudas. It has not in-
distinct traces of septa. The Heliolites so abundant
in the Silurian and Devonian limestones, do not differ
in any important particular from the living Heliopora,
and like it they no doubt belonged to the Alcyonaria.

The division called Rugosa, on the other hand, is
distinguished by well-marked septa , radiating from
the coral walls towards the centre, in the pretty star-
shaped fashion which caused Cuvier to group these
creatures along with other similarly star- rayed in
their shapes, into the sub-kingdom Radiata, now no
longer accepted by naturalists. In this radiated
structure, therefore, the Rugose corals resemble the
Aporose corals. But whereas the Tabulate and
Rugose corals (with few exceptions) are limited to
Palaeozoic rocks, the Aporose corals are peculiar to
those formed since then. Again, the septa, or
radiating ridges, of the Rugose corals are always in
multiples of fotir ; whilst those of Aporose corals are
in multiples of six. Besides this means of distin-
guishing the Aporose corals from any of the others,
the fact that they never have tabulae — that is, are
never divided into horizontal layers — is another im-
portant distinction. When the tabulate corals have
faint traces of septa, we can see they are also in
multiples of four, and they thus show their structural
relationship to the Rugosa. Dr. Sorby has shown that
the tabulate corals are built up of Calcite, whilst the
Neozoic and modern corals are formed of that limy
structure known as Arragonite. It may be that the
Rugosa are descended from the Tabulata, which would
at once make clear why the tabulate corals appear
in such numbers of species and in individuals in the
Silurian and Devonian seas. In the Carboniferous
rocks the most numerous corals are the Rugose kind,
in which the radiated structure is very plainly visible,
as in Lithostrotion junceum, &c., of which we give
illustrations of the transverse appearance they present
when cut and polished. For some of our illustrations
we are indebted to Mr. James Thomson, F.G.S., of
Glasgow — one of the most enthusiastic and diligent
students of Palaeozoic fossil corals in Europe. The
numerously represented fossils called Stromatopora
(fig. 21 1) — so abundant in our Silurian and Devonian
limestones (in the latter, about Plymouth and Torquay
so plentiful that rock-masses are composed of them
alone) — are now believed to be Calcareous sponges,
or sponges whose abundant limy spicules amal-
gamated into the concentric rings which are charac-
teristic of their structure. The student may study
this structure in any polished mantel-piece formed of
Devonian marble from the quarries of Newton- Abbot
and the neighbourhood. By far the prettiest of the
Palaeozoic fossil corals are those belonging to the
Rugosa, such as Strombodes, Cyathophyllum (per-
haps the most plentiful of them all), Cyathaxinia
(a simple coral), Lithostrotion, Lithodendron, &c.
Perhaps the true simple coral which may be regarded
as the simplest in structure is Amplexus, and there is
reason for believing that many more elaborate fossil
corals pass through a kind of Amplexus stage.

We shall have to devote separate articles to generic
descriptions of fossil corals, and localities where they
are most abundant.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

275

THE HISTORY OF THE APPLE-TREE.

By H. G. Glasspoole [concluded).

THE apple belongs to the natural order of the
Rosace3e> °f which the rose is the type or head
of the family.

In Britain it is found in a wild state in the hedges
and on the margins of woods as far north as Moray-
shire, and as high as the agricultural zone. Wherever
it occurs in a wild state, the tree when young is
generally furnished with thorns, but these disappear as
it advances in age. The tree is of moderate size and
spreading, the branches more horizontal than those
of the pear. It is stated that the apple-trees intro juced
into the Sandwich Islands have entirely changed
their habit of growth, and send up long vertical and
almost branchless shoots.

Apple-wood is fine grained, hard, and compacted.
It is used for turning and for many other purposes
where hardness and variegation of colour are objects.
The tree is very tenacious of life ; many are known to
bear fruit at the age of two hundred years. One of
the most beautiful sights in the country during a fine
May is to see an orchard filled with apple-trees
arrayed with white and rosy blossoms, the delicate
fragrance of which is “less than roses and more than
violets.” Mr. Ruskin, that great observer of nature’s
varying beauties, remarks in one of his works, “ that
of all the lovely things which grace the springtime
of this fair temperate zone, I am not sure but the
blossoming of the apple-tree is the fairest.”

The fruit of the apple contains sugar, malic acid,
mucilage, vegetable fibre and some aroma on which
their peculiar flavour depends ; the sugar is similar to
that found in the grape, and differs from the sugar of
commerce in not being crystallizable. Malic acid is
found in strawberries and other summer fruits ; it is
largely used in the art of dyeing cotton goods, &c.
When the fruit decays, the sugar is changed into a
bitter principle and the mucilage becomes mouldy
and offensive. Heat when in cooking tends to break
down the interstices of the cells of the pulp, diffuses
the acid and sugar more uniformly through the
mass, and renders the whole more easy of digestion.
The juice obtained from the wild crab is called verjuice
and is applied externally for sprains, cramps, &c.

The derivation of the word apple is curious. In Saxon,
apply appul ; German, Apfel; in Welsh, the aval ;
this word primarily signifies fruit in general, espe-
cially of a round form, as in Welsh not only apple but
plum and other fruits. Aval melynhir, a lemon ; aval
euraid, an orange. Dr. Prior remarks that in all Celtic
and Slavonic languages the word is (with the allow-
ance of dialect) the same, and it is the only one for
which we have a name that is not derived from the
Latin or French. Dr. Prior tells us the meaning of
the word is unknown. It is very possibly from Sans-
krit amby “eat,” and phuL , “fruit,” but as ap is in

Zend and Sanskrit “ water,” we might be tempted to
believe that it originally meant water-fruit or juice-fruit
with which the Latin pronoun from poto, “drink,”
exactly tallies. (See Prior’s “ Names of British
Plants.”)

In former days the apple occupied an important

place in the sports and superstitions of our forefathers,

some of which survive, even to the present day, among

the rural population of our villages. On St. James’s

Day, before the Reformation, the Catholic priests were

accustomed to bless the apple-trees and commend the

fruit to the saint’s protection in terms of a formal

prayer and benediction, still preserved in the Sarum

Manual. There is also an old saying that when it rains

on St. Swithin’s Day it is the saint christening the

apples. In Devon and Herefordshire it was the

custom on Twelfth Night to salute the apple-trees

in the orchards, hoping thereby to obtain a good crop

next season. The ceremony consisted of taking a

wassail bowl of cider with toast in it, and pouring the

liquor about the roots of the trees, and hanging bits

of toast on the branches of the most barren, the rustics

dancing round in a circle singing :

“ Health to thee, good apple-tree.

Well to bear, pockets full, hats full.

Pecks full, bushels bags full.”

Another custom is apple howling, which takes

place about Christmas. A troop of boys visit different

orchards blowing a cow’s horn, and encircling the

trees, rap them with their sticks, as they repeat the

following words :

“ Stand fast root, bare well top,

Pray God send us a good howling crop ;

Every twig, apple big.

Every bough, apples enow,

Hats full, caps full,

Good quarter sacks full.”

These ceremonies are supposed to be a relic of
heathenism, and were first instituted as a sacrifice to
Pomona. After the performance alluded to above,
the boys expected to be rewarded with halfpence from
the owners of the orchards.

That this custom was practised in Sussex we learn
from the Journal of the Rev. Giles Moore, who writes
“ 26 Dec. I gave the howling boys sixpence.” No
doubt the boys of the parish had been performing a
relic of a heathen custom in the parson’s orchard.
Amongst the popular customs in Nottinghamshire,
if a girl had two lovers, and wished to know which
would be the most constant, she procured two brown
apple-pips, and having named them after her lovers,
stuck one on each cheek, the first that fell off was
instantly discarded as being unfaithful. It is to this
custom that Gray alludes in his spell :

“ See from this core two kernels now I take,

This on my cheek for Lubberkin is worn.

And Booby-Clod on t’other side is born.

But Booby-Clod soon falls upon the ground,

A certain token that his love’s unsound ;

While Lubberkin sticks firmly to the last,

Oh were his lips to mine but joined as fast.”

See Brand’s “ Popular Antiquities” and Thiselton
Dyer’s “ Customs ” for further details on this subject.

276

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

In Servia when a person is suffering from consump-
tion and the efficacy of ordinary simples has failed,
the babas, or doctor, takes three apples which grew
upon the same branch to represent the Trinity ; a knife
is driven into one of these and left there twenty-four
hours, and then the apple is given to the patient to eat,
after which, in desperate cases, the patient is stretched
on his stomach on the ground, and the babas strews
salt around him, and then strides several times over
him from right to left, making mysterious signs and
muttering formulas that are reputed to be sovereign
remedies.

The saying “To have everything in apple pie
order” is supposed to have its origin from the follow-
ing circumstance. It was the custom many years ago
to take off the top crust of an apple pie and mash up
the fruit with sugar and cream, then cut the crust
into triangular pieces like soppits and stick them
end downwards into the fruit in various patterns, as
circles, crowns, stars, &c. (see “Notes and Queries,”
3rd s. vol. vii. p. 265).

In Scotland the apple-tree is the badge of the Clan
of Lamont.

MICROSCOPY.

Cleaning Old Slides.' — I have seen several ways
of cleaning turpentine or soft Canada balsam off
slides recommended, but have never seen methylated
spirit named. I have used it for some time, and like
it. It is clean and pleasant ; cleans fingers, knives,
needles, &c., and answers well to clean slides after
scraping off superfluous balsam. Thin circles, after
soaking in water, can be put on glass, scraped, and
finished up with spirit, being dipped in it if necessary.

I recommend at least a trial of it ; a very little is
enough, in many cases a drop or two. — W. Locock ,
Clifton.

Microscopical Society of Liverpool. — The
eighth ordinary meeting of the eleventh session of this
society was held at the Royal Institution on Friday
evening, November 7 ; the president, the Rev. W. H.
Dallinger, R.M.S., in the chair. The hon. sec., Mr.
I. C. Thompson, announced the following donations,
viz. Beale’s “How to work with the Microscope,”
from the president ; Pasteur’s “ Studies in Fermenta-
tion,” from Mr. Edmunds, The Limes, Birkdale, and
three slides of mineral crystals from W. H. Grattan,
honorary member. Mr. Charles Botterill exhibited
and explained a new form of life-slide devised by
him, adapted for the examination of a wide range of
objects. The advantages claimed for this slide are,
the facility with which it can be used and cleaned —
its reversibility, allowing either side of the object to
be examined through thin glass — the provision for
renewing the supply of water without disturbing any
part of the apparatus, thus enabling objects to be kept
under examination for an indefinite period, the same

arrangement also allowing of the introduction of
colouring matters, as carmine, indigo, &c. ; and lastly,
its moderate cost and durability. The president, the
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, made some valuable remarks,
entitled “Notes on Bathybius as an entity at the
base of the Organic Series,” holding that Bathybius,
as admitted by Huxley himself, has a very doubtful
existence, and that it is not wise to bolster up an
hypothesis quite capable of standing without
Bathybius as an argument in its favour, seeing that
the Foraminifera furnish an example of the simplest
form of granuleless protoplasm, and therefore stand
much lower in the scale of animal life than even the
Amoebae. The Rev. H. H. Higgins] made some
interesting observations on the “Plasmodium of the
Myxomycetes,” illustrated by diagrams. He de-
scribed some researches which he and the Rev.Williami
Banister had made upon this fungoid condition, and
from which he had, after considerable patient watching
succeeded in detaching a small speck which ex-
hibited under the microscope the true amoeboid form
showing curiously-shaped moving pseudapodia..
The Rev. William Banister followed with further
observations on the subject. The meeting concluded
with the usual conversazione.

Rules, &c., of Microscopical Societies. —
As a few microscopists in Manchester contemplate
forming themselves into a Microscopical Society,
perhaps some of your readers would be kind enough
to send us a copy of rules of similar societies for our
guidance. All information on the subject will be grate-
fully acknowledged. — Richard A. Bastow , 6 Dover
Street , Higher Crumpsall, near Manchester.

The Inhabitants of a Drop of Water. — It
may interest some of your readers to learn that in a
single drop of water obtained from pits in the south-
west corner of Hale-moss, Bowden, Cheshire we
obtained the following, Vorticella, Brachionus, Rotifer
vulgaris, Paramecium, Cyclops, Salpina, Volvox,
Stentors, Epistylia, Trachelhnn ovum. Vibrio, Spy-
rogyra, Closterium, Navicula, Diatoms various, and
a host of small animacula scarcely visible with the
one inch objective which we were using ; also some
larvee and other creatures which we could not name.
— R. A. B.

How to avoid Air Bubbles in preparing
Diatoms in situ. — Thinking the following mode
of preparing diatoms in situ perfectly exempt of air
bubbles might prove interesting to some readers of,
Science-Gossip, I asked of my friend Mr. Pauli
Petit, of Paris, permission to send you an extract,
of an article which appeared under his name in the
“ Brebissonia ” last February. The process is this :
Instead of burning at once the valves on the cover,
as proposed by Mr. de Brebisson, which does not
always destroy all organic matter, the gathering
(of marine after several washings in fresh water) is
placed in concentrated nitric acid for twelve hours

IIA RDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

277

the object of this immersion is to ensure the entire
destruction of the cellulose, when the valves after
repeated washing are then burnt on the cover at a
dull red heat until perfectly white. The cover being
allowed to get cold a drop of oil of lavender is
placed on it. Mr. Petit, after many experiments with
different mediums, has found that this oil is the only
one that penetrates thoroughly the valves, such as
Mclosira nwmnularia , M. arenaria , &c. A drop of
Canada balsam being then put on the glass slip,
the cover is placed on it and the whole warmed over
the lamp to evaporate the oil of lavender and partly
harden the balsam. In order to show on the same
slide the different views of the valves, Mr. Petit
adds to those in situ a little portion of the gathering
prepared in the ordinary way, viz., by boiling in acid.
The preparations thus obtained are perfect and most
interesting. — y. Tempers.

ZOOLOGY.

The Guinea Pig. — As I find that no work on
Natural History I have consulted gives the correct
period of gestation in the guinea pig, I think it might
be interesting for me to record my observations.
Eighteen instances I have carefully watched, and I
find, without any exception, that the time is sixty-six
days. As the guinea pig breeds again on the same
day that it brings forth its young, and also, as I can
testify, at the early age of eighty days, this no doubt ac-
counts for the reason why a less time for gestation has
been recorded in works on Natural History than is
the fact. In no instance have there been more than
four at a birth. — FredericJz Gull.

Butterflies and Coloured Nets. — At Men-
tone, in 1878, I was at first utterly unable to catch
any specimens of the beautiful Cleopatra butterfly. I
had a light net with a blue tarlatan bag and each
time I missed a specimen, it flew away to a great
distance. It was also very rarely that one came
within reach of my net. On mentioning this to a
friend, he told me he found them very easy to catch,
as they seemed to follow his net, the bag of which
was green. Upon hearing this, I adapted a green
bag to my insect net, and found it was only necessary
to wave it backwards and forwards, when one or
more Cleopatras would be sure to come and try and
settle on it, and were easily captured. After I had
thus procured plenty of specimens, I was one day
hunting for the beautiful Anthocharis Eupheno when
a Cleopatra fluttered after my net and could not be
got rid of. And yet this was in a hot lemon planta-
tion, with the green leaves of the lemon trees above
and below. Again when driving from Salerno to
Palestrina last spring, I had my net with the green
bag. I saw a Cleopatra flying towards the carriage,
and on waving my net behind, it followed for some
distance. Mr. W. S. Coleman states that Gonepteryx

Rhamni and Cleopatra have been proved identical,
since both have been reared from the same batch of
eggs. The female Cleopatra does not differ visibly
from G. Rhamni and was not attracted by green. This
insect has often been labelled as a distinct species,
Gonepteryx Cleopatra , and at the museum at Florence
was labelled “ Colias Cleopatra ,” while the ordinary
brimstone butterfly was labelled Gonepteryx Rhamni ,
thus erroneously putting two varieties of the same
species into separate genera ! The male only differs
from our British variety in having the fore wings
nearly entirely suffused with bright orange colour in-
stead of its being limited to a spot the size of a pin’s
head. Naturally therefore, as soon as possible, I
tried waving my green net in a field full of the ordi-
! nary Rhamni, but none of them took any notice of it.
Sometimes, when one settled, I waved my net close
to it, but it either remained where it was, or else
| invariably flew right away. Why one variety of a
butterfly is attracted by green, and the other with
which it is identical should pass it by unheeded,
seems to me wholly incomprehensible. It would
however be highly interesting if any of the readers of
Science-Gossip who had the opportunity were to try
whether this beautiful variety is attracted by any
other colour (say yellow), or to notice whether any
other insects are attracted by certain colours in a
similar manner. — G. H. Bryan.

The Fauna and Flora of the Cuckmere
District. — Mr. F. C. S. Roper’s last paper read at
I the Eastbourne Natural History Society was a very
important one, dealing with the additions to the Fauna
and Flora of the above district during the past year.

“The Fauna of Norfolk.” — This well-known
book, written thirty years ago by the Rev. Richard
Lubbock, M.A., now appears as a new edition pub-
lished by Jarrold & Co. : London and Norwich. In
addition to the intrinsic merits of the book, of which
we can personally speak in the superlative degree as
one of the most pleasantly written of the many
pleasant natural history books our language is so rich
in, describing as it does the “Broad District” — a
country unlike any other part of England, and a very
paradise to the botanist, entomologist, and orni-
thologist— this new edition is edited by Mr. Thomas
Southwell, the active secretary of the Norfolk and
Norwich Naturalists’ Society, whose full and
accurate knowledge of the natural history of Norfolk
better fits him for the task than any other man we
know of. The memoir of Mr. Lubbock is written by
Henry Stevenson, F.L.S., author of the “Birds of
Norfolk,” and Professor Alfred Newton contributes
an appendix on Hawking in Norfolk, &c. Many
other naturalists, such as Mr. J. H. Gurney, Mr.
C. G. Barrett, Dr. Lowe, of Lynn, Mr.-H. D. Gel-
dart, &c., have also contributed notes or other
assistance. We are glad to see an old and valued
friend appearing in such good company.

278

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

BOTANY.

The Tourist’s Flora. — In the September number
■of Science- Gossip, Bernard Hobson, in his enume-
ration of choice books on Botany, mentions the
“ Tourist’s Flora,” by Joseph Woods, F.A.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S. It is stated to be a descriptive catalogue of
the flowering plants and ferns of the British Islands,
France, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and the
Italian Islands. Reeve, Benham, & Reeve, 1850. This
book, until I ceased taking my annual botanical
excursions abroad, was for twenty years my constant
companion in the middle and south of Europe ; it
was most useful, as containing a brief, plain, and
concise description of all plants within the limits
above mentioned. In his introduction, the author
says the work has no pretensions to originality, but
gives a description from the works of different
botanists, making it clear and distinctive, and at
the same time, condensing the whole as much as
possible, so as to be comprised in a single volume,
of a bulk not inconvenient for the use of the
travellers. The first eighty-two pages give the genera
according to the Linnaean System. He says the
characters of the natural order are so little definite,
that it is almost impossible for the student to deter-
mine a plant by them. He has therefore thought it
best to give a clavis analytica of the Linnaean
system, and follow it in the arrangement of the
genera by giving a reference to the species in the
arrangement of the natural orders (containing 434
pages) with a copious index. The work is not elemen-
tary, but to a travelling tourist who has made some
proficiency in botany, will be found of the greatest
assistance, and quite portable. The book is, I
understand, out of print ; but I am assured that, from
the numerous applications, a new and improved
edition would meet with a ready sale to the con-
stantly increasing number of English travelling
botanists ; and especially if the authors’ names were
added. The two systems being comprised in the
same work, will enable the reader to select the one
he finds most convenient in finding the genera and
species. — T. B. IV, Brighton.

Daucus Carota. — As a geologist, I am rather out
of my element in botany, and hesitate to express an
opinion upon the latter subject; but to those who,
like myself, are but beginners, are not the descriptions
which we find of the above-named plant in elementary
books of botany, somewhat misleading ? According
to every book which I have yet seen, we are taught to
consider the central red floret a reliable distinction.
Yet surely this is not the case. Not only do the red
petals often early drop off — but often no red florets
are to be found on the plant when perfect. I have
compared a good many specimens lately. Once,
having pulled up a well-charactered specimen, I
turned it upside down to examine the root, and on

replacing it in a natural position all the red florets,
three in number, were gone. Other specimens,
differing in nothing else but the central floret, had
a single large white floret, in the centre of the side of
the outer florets of the outer umbels. Others had
single florets of every shade of pale pink, even so pale
as scarcely to be distinguished from white. Others had
partial umbels in the centre with two, three, or even
four small white florets. The roots of all had the same
carroty smell when bruised. The locality is sixteen
miles from the sea, so that I could not have found D.
maritimus. One half of these specimens were till lately
supposed by myself and others to be wild parsnip or
other umbellifers, from which they differ in growth,
foliage, inflorescence, and habitat. — W. Downes.

GEOLOGY.

A Museum for Stafford. — We hope the day is
not far distant when every town will have a museum
of natural history. Mr. C. L. Wragge, of Cheadle,
has just presented to the town of Stafford a fine col-
lection of geological, ethnological, and natural history
specimens, collected in various parts of the world, and
we hope it will prove the nucleus for a good museum .

Rhinoceros Tichorhinus. — A specimen of the
head of this extinct animal has just been placed in
the St. Petersburg museum. It is well preserved,
and still covered with patches of hair. It is part of
an almost complete carcase which has been preserved
in the frozen state, like that of the well-known mam-
moth, whose hair and eyeballs are in the same museum,
and it comes from the banks of a tributary of the Vena.

“The Carboniferous Limestone and Cefn-y-
Fedw sandstone of the country between Llanymynech
and Minera, North Wales.” Under this somewhat
uncouth title, Mr. George H. Morton, F.G.S. , the
Hon. Sec. of the Geological Society of Liverpool,
has written a capital monograph of the geology of
the most interesting part of the lower carboniferous
formation of North Wales. A good deal of the
matter has already appeared in the proceedings of
the Liverpool Geological Society, but it is very
pleasant to be able to read the description in the
present unbroken fashion. Mr. Morton has for years
past made the district in question the scene of his
summer rambles and investigations. This hand-
somely got-up little volume bears abundant marks
of good work. It is illustrated by an excellent large
photograph (as a frontispiece) of the outcrop of the
carboniferous limestone of Craig-yr-Ogof, and two
others of a smaller but full-page size, of the most
important natural sections, as well as thirteen wood-
cut illustrations of quarries and sections. We con-
gratulate Mr. Morton on the excellent way in which
he now presents his labours to the geological world.
The work is published by David Bogue, 3 St. Martin’s
Place, London.

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

279

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Intelligence in Animals. — The following may,
perhaps, be of interest, as affording another striking
instance of intelligence in animals. Last autumn a
friend of mine residing at Torrington, Devon, stored
away in a cupboard under a flight of stairs two dozen
strong glass bottles of “ home brewed ” ginger wine,
laying the whole of them on their sides. A few weeks
afterwards the family was alarmed, night after night,
by hearing strange and unaccountable sounds after all
had retired to rest. Long-forgotten stories of haunted
houses began to obtrude themselves on the recollec-
tions of the inmates, and, the noises continuing, the
whole family became seriously alarmed. At length
the mystery was cleared up. One of the family,
having to go to the cupboard in which had been
placed the bottles, discovered that all the wine, with
the exception of one bottle-full, had disappeared, the
thieves having broken most of the bottles and left
the fragments of the glass scattered about on the
scene of the debauch. On closer examination, all the
corks were found to be more or less gnawed, and a
rat-hole was discovered at the back of the cupboard.
A trap was at once set, and any doubts as to the
thieves were soon removed by the capture of a large
rat. How the animals could have broken the bottles,
all of them being laid on their sides on the floor, remains
a mystery. The only way seemingly to account for
it is, that on discovering the contents of the bottles,
the rats had the intelligence to roll one against
another, until they succeeded in effecting their object.
— George M. Doe , Torrington.

Intelligence in Man and Animals. — The
question is not whether reason and instinct are one
and the same thing ; but whether the intelligence of
animals is the same in kind, and differs only in
degree from the intelligence of man. There is a
very great difference between reason and instinct :
reason is a faculty dependent on instruction and
experience, and instinct a natural impulse independent
of instruction and experience, and I am driven to the
conclusion that reason, not only exists in animals,
but instinct in man ; in other words the same in-
telligence is common to both, the difference being
merely one of degree. The mind of a child has been
compared to a blank sheet of paper, and this is a fair
comparison : but he who invented the simile failed
to see traced in sympathetic ink upon the blank paper
a beautiful design, and so when circumstances and
those around trace upon it their design, the moist
colouring serves to reveal the latent colours too, and
the two designs become blended and inseparable : and
thus it is often difficult or even impossible to say if a
precise action is instinctive, or prompted by reason
(i.e. is the result of instruction or experience) ; but once
grant the existence of this latent tracing and instinct in
man is a necessary corollary. The passion for drink
need not be adduced. Are not genius and intuition
nearly akin to instinct ? Is not the boy poet, the child
who draws as soon as it can hold a pencil, but examples
of deep instinctive feeling ! “ Some men,” says the

writer of “ Ecce Homo,” “ seem to attain truth by an
intense stare,” and he instances Carlyle as an
illustration. The illustration becomes doubly instruc-
tive when Mill in his autobiography mentions the same
thing, how Carlyle as a poet saw things instantly,
while he (Mill) was obliged painfully to argue
up to them. Instances plainly showing animals are
endowed with reason are so common that I need not
cite any, but I would ask those of your correspondents
who disagree with my conclusions if they have never

seen a dog perplexed and cogitate for some time
before acting ? It affects the general question but
little to cite isolated cases ; animals may reason,
though chicken peck up as soon as they are hatched,
just as men reason, though as children they once
sucked their mothers’ breasts. Mr. H. D. Barclay
talks about moral faculties and abstract reasoning as
if he were comparing the intelligence of an average
Englishman with the intelligence of a spaniel or
water-hen. But the comparison must be a very
different one, and one would have thought no com-
parison necessary had the difference been merely one
of kind. The comparison must be made between the
lowest type of savage man and the highest type of
intelligent animal — between the savage, whose ideas
are limited, whose language is unknown, whose
moral faculties approve a meal of hot missionary,
whose abstract reasoning contrives to calculate his
four fingers and thumb, and the dog who rescues
his master’s child, or pines and sickens when his
master dies. This subject is so closely linked with
others which powerfully affect men’s minds that it is
difficult to approach it wholly free from prejudice.
Many hold as a matter beyond dispute that the vital
principle of animals is annihilated at death, and to
admit reason in the brute seems to doom all existence
to a like end. Again, the question affects and is
affected by the doctrine of evolution, and how is
it possible for those who think this doctrine sweeps
God from the universe and kills all hope of a future
life to judge the matter upon its bare merits ? How
few too possess that sympathy with animals which is
necessary to read and understand the mute signs
which express their feeling and thought! — T. H Powell.

Instinct or Reason. — It is not yet that the
question whether instinct and reason differ in kind
or in degree will be settled. C. B., in the September
number of Science-Gossip says very rightly that the
words instinct and reason should be defined before
we can discuss the matter justly. But here we are
met on the threshold by lions in the path, for if we
could agree on the true definitions of the terms there
would almost be an end of the whole matter. Dr.
Keegan’s definition of instinct as a blind adaptation of
means to ends, and reason as a conscious adaptation
of means to ends, is as good as many, though far from
accurately marking the distinction which some en-
deavour to prove. Such a definition of instinct would
mark no line between the animal and vegetable world,
for in the latter means are adapted to ends in a
thousand varying contrivances. For the old view of
instinct perhaps Paley’s definition is as good as any.
“An instinct is a propensity prior to experience and
independent of instruction.” And Julius Caesar
Scaliger, in his mordacious criticism on poor Cardan
calls instinct “impetus sine electione,” and says,
“ Bruta non dicuntur velle, sed instigari : unde in-
stinctus dicitur a natura : sicut a Diis afflatio apud M.
Tullium.” (Exercitatio cccvii.) These old-world
definitions are certainly not in accordance with facts,
if we admit that — as quoted from Mr. Darwin in my
letter in July Science-Gossip — “Animals may
constantly be seen to pause, deliberate, and resolve,”
until this can be disproved I think it may safely and
surely be said that instinct and reason are degrees in
development of one faculty, and shade off imper-
ceptibly the one into the other. I should not say
that, “thin partitions do their bounds divide,” but
rather that any chart which includes one must perforce
include the other. To what purpose is it that Dr.
Keegan tells of mistakes made by beavers ? If the
blind impulse of the castor drives him into an
occasional error, may we not share with him the

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

280

fallibility which centuries of vaunted reasoning have
not expelled from our prouder race ? The very fact
that animals make mistakes sometimes shows how
needful it is that their impulse or instinct should be
guided by intelligence or reason, by the experience of
life, the instruction and example of their elders, and,
perhaps, “inherited memory.” Day by day we are
laughing at the frailties, the errors, the weaknesses of
others, and, let us hope, at our own ; shall we then
exult that a beaver misplaces his dam ? The associa-
tion of ideas, on which so much stress is laid by
C. B., is the starting-point of our reasoning processes,
but tip and down the animal world we find the
relation to that starting-point very various, some
animals, including some men, having come short of it,
while many animals have passed beyond, or, as most
leading naturalists would maintain, the highest efforts
of the brutes have done so. It is interesting to note
that in Webster’s Dictionary the word instinct is
explained as, “ the natural unreasoning impulse in an
animal, by which it is guided to the performance of
any action without thought of improvement in the
method,” — while reason is said to be “ the faculty
or capacity of the human mind by which it is dis-
tinguished from the inferior animals.” It is needless,
after the numerous instances and the wide range of
facts on record, to insist that animals perform many
actions which cannot be attributed to an unreasoning
impulse. No one can touch these questions without
using the great name of Darwin, and it did occur to
me that in quoting his statement, that “only a few
persons now dispute that animals possess some power
of reasoning,” that opinion would have some weight.

It was therefore with a comical feeling of injured
innocence that j: I find Mr. H. D. Barclay stating that
“The Darwinian hypothesis is not only unsupported
by facts, but it is in flagrant contradiction to them ”
— and to support this marvellous ipse dixit adducing
one or two well-worn objections, the value of which is
well known. It is to be hoped that Mr. Barclay does
not wish to emulate the Edinburgh reviewer who
came forth to crush the fallacies of evolution, and
who has met with such condign punishment in the
“ Fortnightly Review” of October. We are told that,
as far as can be judged, brutes possess no power, of
abstract thought, imagination, introspection, nor any
moral sense : but will anyone who owns an intelligent
dog, or who has read the recent correspondence
in “ Nature,” to say nothing of any elementary work
of Natural History, admit this ? The passage con- j
cerning the spider in my note in the July number of
Science-Gossip was, as there stated, quoted from
Professor Max Muller, who himself drew the illustra-
tion from Flourens’ “ De la Raison ; ” my contention
would be that the spider when he finds his web broken
considers whether he shall repair it, or start afresh —
and that he exercises judgment and reflection in
coming to a decision. To whatever branch of
natural science we turn we find nearly all the leading
men evolutionists : as Sir John Fubbock has said,

“ the doctrine of evolution, in some form or other,
is accepted by most, if not by all, the greatest
naturalists of Europe.” And Dr. Allen Thomson,
who has followed the secret of life unto its inmost
recesses, said in his presidential address to the
British Association in 1877 : “I consider it impossible
for any one to be a faithful student of embryology, in
the present state of science, without at the same time
becoming an evolutionist.” I am far from saying, any
more than Mr. Darwin himself, that the whole theory
of evolution is complete and finally established ; it is
enough to know that the most competent students
have facts and to spare in support of that theory. But
1 arrest myself in so ludicrous an endeavour as that of

supporting the doctrine of evolution. One point
more. Mr. Gilliard suggests that “the power of
arranging facts, drawing deductions from them, and
acting from those deductions, uninfluenced by the
impelling force of instinct,” result from reason, and
that this kind of reason is only possible in man.
Without stopping to criticise the terminology, and
admitting that the suggestion has a limited appli-
cation, is it not obvious that in the millenniums during
which the human race has educated itself, mainly
through the power of speech, its advance beyond
the brute world is not to be wondered at ? Among
all the causes of melancholy, Aeriall Divels, Fiery
Divels, Fove, or any other in the black list of
Burton’s Anatomie, perhaps the one most calculated
to depress a philosophic thinker is the slow progress of
the human race to the goal of perfection prophesied
for it by Mr. Herbert Spencer and other hopeful spirits.
— James Hooper , Denmark Hill , S.F.

Instinct and Intelligence in Animals. — All
evidence seems to indicate that instinct and intelli-
gence are not two distinct forms or modes of mentality,
but a lower and higher development of one and the
same form or mode. Many instances have been given
in the pages of this journal and elsewhere of instinct
which has, under peculiar circumstances, diverged into
intelligent reasoning, and it is well known that many
of man’s thoughts and actions, which at some time or
other have needed the exercise of distinct and ap-
preciable mental energy, tend by continuance and
habit to develope into illustrations of unconscious
cerebration ; and this phase of intellectual activity
appears to be in many respects the counterpart of
instinct in the lower animals. A man who desires to
reach a certain spot, commences to walk thereto, but
does not consider the disposition of the members
necessary for this action, although, in the early period
of his life, it cost him considerable trouble and practice
to acquire this muscular harmony, of which now he
takes no heed. So on the part of birds building their
nests, or migrating by reason of instinct, or untaught
ability, or, better still, hereditary, as distinct from
acquired ability, have a motive. They feel a want,
and unconsciously know how to supply it, performing
all that is necessary without a consciousness or con-
sideration of their actions. Further, there must of
necessity exist certain primordial structures of an
instinctive or intuitive kind, upon which all that a
man is as a rational or intelligent being must be built.
The difference between these primordial structures
and the instinct of the lower animals appears to be
that the former is capable of great development, while
the latter, from the circumstances of the animal, needs
no higher development, and therefore receives none.
The calf, directly it is dropped, uses its legs and
walks, and never finds any other use for them. The
child is some time after birth before it exercises its
similar germ of volition, and masters the art of
walking, but subsequently it carries this to a much
higher development, and learns to use its legs in a
variety of ways, saltatory, gymnastic, and otherwise.
Yet, though the one walks instinctively, and the
other by intelligent effort, they have a similar voli-
tional germ, and when the human being comes in time
to walk, all unconscious of his effort, ‘ ‘ nescio quod
meditans nugarum , ct totus in Mis,” there does not
appear to be much difference between. This view
would indicate that instinct and intelligence are
identical in form, though not in degree ; and that
animals being allowed to possess instinct, may,
without any strain of the recognised facts of mental
science, be also allowed the possession of intelligence.
— F. H. IPabben, B.A.

HARPWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Intelligence in Animals. — A friend of mine
has a dog which is accustomed to run about loose.
One day my friend wished to drive out, and did not
wish to take the dog, and said so when the dog was
by her. She then ordered it to be tied up. Soon
after the dog disappeared, and when she was going
to start, was nowhere to be found. My friend then
started, but had not driven far before the dog appeared
from the side of the road, and followed the carriage
to the town. It then went away, not following the
carriage to the stables, where it was left ; but when
my friend was walking about the town, the dog came
to her and followed her till she returned. My friend
has also a terrier which is accustomed to roam about,
it is fond of going out through a gate at the end of
the garden. This gate always makes a rattling noise
when the dog gets through. But when this dog has
been doing anything which it has been forbidden to
do, instead of coming through the gate and to the
front door, the dog creeps through some bushes and
goes to the kitchen window. This dog is so fond of
fruit that it pulls down the branches of the raspberries
and eats of the fruit. — M. Fordham.

Anecdote of a Parrot. — Mr. R. Bowdler
Sharpe in his description of the parrots, gives a
capital anecdote of one of these birds, which may be
interesting to those readers of Science-Gossip who
are not acquainted with it. Mr. Sharpe says, just as
the monkeys have been placed at the head of the
Mammalia, on account of their high development, so
the parrots from their general cleverness, and especi-
ally on account of the facility with which they can
talk, have been considered the highest order of birds,
and placed at the beginning of the class. It is
impossible for some people to avoid the conclusion
that these birds think and reason, and the a propos or
sometimes mcil a propos way in which they introduce
speeches, coupled with the look of wisdom which
they assume while being spoken to, seems to show
that the brain is being employed in thinking. A
friend in Manchester told the writer of a parrot-show
in the north of England, where the talking powers of
each bird were made the subject of a prize competition.
Several of the birds had exhibited their powers, and
at last the cover was removed from the cage of a
grey parrot, who at once exclaimed on seeing the
company to which he was suddenly introduced,
“ By jove ! what a lot of parrots ! ” an observation
which gained him the prize at once. Instances of
famous talking birds might be multiplied by the
hundred, leaving no doubt on some minds that these
birds often possess the power of reason of a very
high order. Perhaps I may be allowed to record my
opinion in reference to the discussion now going on
in Science-Gossip on the intelligence of man and
animals (certainly not an appropriate heading since
both are animals), that there is no animal in existence,
or that ever did exist, which is not endowed with
reason either less or more just in accordance with
the development of its brain. — Dipton Burn.

Microscopical Analysis. — Will any of your
readers kindly inform me how to proceed in making a
microscopical examination for analysis of compound
cakes made from materials such as South African
ground nuts, palm nut kernels, cocoa nuts, and the
meals of same, in order to test their constituent
qualities ? Or, is there any treatise on the subject
published which you can recommend me to refer to
in carrying out such examination ? — Lynx.

Gordius Aquaticus.— An intelligent neighbour
who often consults me on doubtful points of natural
history writes me thus the folk-lore about it. “ It is

281

popularly supposed that a hair of an entire horse
falling into a pool of water becomes an eel. As you
are conversant with these and kindred subjects, will
you kindly say whether you recognise the statements
to be in accordance with the teachings of science.”
Of course my reply was that the animal in question
was never a horse-hair, and never could become an
eel. I recognise this animal as my old acquaintance,
Gordius aquaticus, which I used to see at Tallandsand,
near Polperro, in a pool where the farm horses were
accustomed to water : a brownish, rigid worm like a
piece of vivified copper wire. The notion there also,
was that it was originally a horse-hair dropped from
the mane or tail of the horse while drinking, and
becoming subsequently animated. These worms are
occasionally found in herbage and puddles. I had
heard it said that they inhabited the intestines of
some insects, especially the grasshopper. Dr. Spencer
Cobbold, our first authority on helminthology, kindly
informs me that the Gordii become parasitic in
insects, caterpillars, and infest fishes in their young
state ; also that the young of G. aquaticus are
found in water beetles. — T. Q. Couch , Bodmin.

Unripened Figs. — The Rev. Z. J. Edwards has
in his garden a fig-tree which bears fruit every year.
When the figs are full grown they turn yellow,
deluding us with the prospect of plenty of ripe figs,
and drop off : at this moment the ground is covered
with them. Can any of your readers help us as to
the cause and tell us of a remedy ? The tree is
planted in a corner with a high wall on the south and
east. But it is luxuriant in growth and looks healthy,
the upper branches which are above the wall are in
sunshine. The tree is about twenty years old. —
Mis ter ton Vicarage, Creivkerne.

Entomological Notes for 1879. — The follow-
ing notes, chiefly concerning common insects, may
not prove uninteresting to some of your readers. In
this district, during the past year, the small tortoise-
shell butterfly ( V. urticce) has been exceptionally
numerous, a fact which has been mentioned to me,
not only by those observant of natural objects, but
by some who were quite ignorant of such things.
The green-veined white has also been very abundant,
and the small cabbage and large cabbage whites have
been quite up to the average. The orange tip (A.
cardamines ) was very plentiful ; indeed, I never saw
it so abundant, and in such good condition before.
From some unaccountable reason, the peacock (V.

; Jo) appears to be disappearing altogether. Last year
I only saw three or four specimens, and this year I
have only heard of one being observed. One speci-
men only of the red admiral ( V. atalanta ) has come
under my notice. The blues and the common copper
have also been less frequent. Four specimens of
the painted lady ( V. cardui) have been observed ;
a rather unusual occurrence in this neighbourhood.

: None of them were captured. I have in my posses-

! sion some specimens of this insect which were
caught by my brother at some distance from the
coast, in the English Channel. The common wasp
has been very scarce, and the fishermen complain
very much of the lack of grub. The common house-
fly, and, indeed, all insect torments of the kind, have
been much fewer than in late years. — J. A. Weldon,
North a Her ton .

Sagacity of the Magpie. — Those who have
never watched the magpie as a pet, would scarce
give credence to the following. A portion of a
copse had been cut, and some faggots stacked on the
ground, under which, near the corner, a hen pheasant
was sitting on her eggs ; nothing is so sweet to a

282

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP ,

magpie’s tooth as an egg, but the pheasant had a
strong beak and knew how to use it. But a pair of
magpies who had a nest in the same copse were
equal to the occasion. Mag No. I quickly took a
position as near as possible to the nest, but just
round the corner of the faggot stack, Mag No. 2
alighted in front and in full view of the pheasant,
towards which he made noisy advances with distended
wings and ruffled feathers backwards and forwards in
mimic charges, until the exasperated bird left her
nest to drive off the marauder, when in dashed Mag
No. 1 and carried off an egg which they both retired
to enjoy, returning again in the same manner for a
second and a third, but a young pheasant being
considered of more value than a young magpie, one
was shot, and the other being unable single-handed
to cope with the pheasant she brought off the
remainder of her brood. — G. T.

Postage of Plants, &c., to Foreign
Countries. — Having occasion to send some speci-
mens of dried mosses and ferns abroad, and thinking
I could forward the same per book-post, I was much
surprised on inquiry at our post office to find that
the only way of transmiting them was per letter post.
I wrote to the Postmaster General in London, stating
the nature of the plants in question, asking if I could
not send them by some cheaper plan. His reply was
“ Your inquiry is under consideration.” After the
lapse of nearly three weeks I am pleased to say I
have received a further communication from him in
which he says, “ Specimens of dried plants and
mosses may be sent by sample post to places abroad.”
— Ben B . Scott.

Local distribution of Land Shells. — While
staying a short time this year at Ilfracombe, Devon,
I was considerably impressed by what appeared to me
a rather remarkable instance of local distribution of
Helix nemoralis and its variety H. hortensis. On the
western cliffs and about the Tors walks Helix
nemoralis occurred in great abundance, although I
failed to find one single specimen of H. hortensis.
But, on the eastern side of the town, upon Hillsborough
and the immediate neighbourhood, Hortensis was in
the ascendancy, and, although I did find one or two
Nemoralis, they appeared to be the exception and not
the rule. As far as I could see the physical conditions
of the two districts were the same. Perhaps this
or similar instances have been noticed by others. —
John L. Hawkins, jun., Reading.

Morbid Sensations. — Some time ago I went to
see the snakes fed at the Zoological Gardens, a very
interesting sight, which no lover of nature should
miss. I do not, however, write to describe a scene
the reader may witness for himself, but to remark on
the strange behaviour of many of the spectators.
“ How horrid ! ” “ How cruel ! ” “ Come away ! ”

“ Don’t look ! ” were the exclamations I heard around
me, and many persons left the house. Apart from the
inconsequence of the remarks of many of the specta-
tors, it struck me forcibly as passing strange that men
and women could not bear to witness the normal
workings of nature, without a display of that morbid
sensitiveness (so distinct from genuine feeling) which
seems so prevalent in these days. It is a curious
fact that persons afflicted with this moral malady are
far from being the most humane in their conduct to
their fellow-creatures and the brute creation.— A
Common Man.

Yew Poisoning. — I know of two Irish yews in a
paddock close to a farm-house in my parish where
horses, cows, calves and sheep are placed. The trees

are cropped as far as they could reach, and the
fanner told me he never lost an animal. I doubt the
alleged cases, as why should they not be poisoned in
this particular instance? — S. A. B., Allan , co.
Tyrone.

Fleas on Moles. — Last June I had several
freshly killed moles brought me, as I wanted their
fleas. I put them in a bowl of cold water and waited
for the fleas and acari to rise to the surface. I soon
saw something large for a flea crawling on one of the
moles, and at once secui'ed it in a bottle. I mounted
it with very little pressure ; it certainly is a mole’s
flea but very dark, and it measures from the forehead
to the end of the body quite ^ inch, very nearly |.
I have shown it to several microscopists and others,
and no one I have met has ever seen a flea nearly
so large. I have several fleas of a good size, but the
largest measures by a micrometer only | inch. The
difference between and ^ is no trifle. I should be
glad to know whether fleas so much above the usual
size are known. — IV. Locock , Clifton.

Parasites on Hedgehogs. — In reply to your cor-
respondent Singer Barclay, I should say few animals
are more infested with parasites than hedgehogs ; a
flea, two species of ticks, and an acarus being found
on them. The flea infests the whole body and may be
seen running amongst the spines. The acarus only
infests the under and hairy parts, while the ticks,
often in company, may be found sticking to the hind
legs and round the tail of an aged specimen, and
are with difficulty removed without the loss of either
head or lancets ; it is rather rare to find both fleas
and ticks on the same animal, and equally so to find
one without any, so that I should infer that they were
unable to clear themselves. I have never seen a
hedgehog voluntarily take to the water, but it is
instant death to immerse a tick. — George Turvill.

Bees v. Kalmia latifolia. — The following are
some observations on the effects of the flowers of
kalmia on bees : July 12th. During a brief paroxysm
of sunshine, the kalmia was visited by (1) a blue-
bottle fly ; (2) a butterfly who retreated after a short
flirtation ; (3) a bee, who remained some time at
work, and then crawling about languidly fell down to
the ground. July 15th : (1) a bee who set to work
steadily, but soon appeared to be stupefied and
powerless, I removed her (him) to a pink, where she
(or he) remained quietly a little while and then
departed ; (2) a bee ; (3) a humble bee who after
flirting with two or three flowers, departed, without
alighting ; (4) a bee who settled to work for some
time, and became almost helpless, was removed to
another flower and no more seen. July 18th : Several
bees and a humble visited the kalmia, but without
alighting. I put a bee into a flower, and after
working there some time, found her making feeble
efforts to get away. In gathering the bloom, for the
purpose of closer inspection, I lost the bee, and so
missed the opportunity. Query : Is there some
intoxicating substance in the kalmia ?

Without an Order for Admission. — Last
year a death’s head moth was picked up on a fine
old oak staircase, erected at West Hampnett House,
by Sir John Chapman, in 1617. This year, early in
October, another specimen was taken in an adjoin-
ing room. No chloroform being immediately avail-
able, the peculiar shrill squeak, characteristic of
Acherontia Atropos , was repeatedly heard. Within
the Union House no special attraction was apparent ;
but, a few yards distant, half of the large garden

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

283

was, as usual, planted with potatoes. The past
twelve months were sufficiently gloomy in every
respect for a purely agricultural district sown with
wide breadths of corn ; and visitation by such
“casuals” at the commencement of a period of
great trial and depression, and again later, though
it is to be feared not at the termination of it, might,
in Eastern Europe, have been interpreted as an evil
omen. Great average longevity of the pauper in-
mates has not, however, yet been perceptibly de-
creased by these heralds of the destroying angel.
One resident stood for the militia drawing some
eighty years since, and well remembers the bells
of Alresford and the surrounding village churches
being rung, night after night for a week, and then,
occasionally, in commemoration of the great victory
at the Nile in 1798; he continues hearty and well
in spite of Acherontia Atropos. — M. O.

History of the Apple-tree. — Having seen
myself quoted in a recent article “ On the Apple-
tree” in your magazine, as “the late Mrs. Bayle-
Bernard,” allow me to ask you to contradict the
statement implied, since I do not wish the world
to be told that I have quitted it while it is still in
my power to be, yours, &c. — E. G. Bayle- Bernard,
Author of“ Our Common Fruits .”

Harvest Mice reared in Captivity. — A
month ago, a mouse of this species was brought
to me, which I considered would shortly become
a mother. Knowing full well that to turn her into
the large cage with my other harvest mice would
mean death to her progeny, she was placed in a
cage by herself, with a good nest of dry grass and
straw. The same night she gave birth to some
young ones — how many was not discovered till they
emerged into public life. The next morning (wait-
ing, of course, till the mother was out of the nest in
the playground), I parted the straw — already gnawed
into shreds and woven into a covering — with a new
pen, as being an implement not likely to have any
smell about it that might rouse her anger, in order
to ascertain whether, in consequence of her recent
captivity and solicitude for her offspring, she had
become an infanticide. This contingency was the
more probable, because she had been roughly
handled by the boy who caught her. However,
there were some pink specks down at the bottom
of the nest, moving slightly. Then I at once shaded
the cage entirely with a cloth, which was only
removed for a few moments, once every day, when
a fresh supply of food, consisting of bread and butter,
meat, flies, wheat, &c., and clean water, was placed
in the playground — on which occasions I took a
hasty peep at the nest to see that all was going on
well. . When thirteen days old, the young mice,
three in number, and about the size of a cockchafer,
first popped their heads out of the nest, anxious to
test the strength of their incisors on anything they
could find to nibble at, and exercise their delicate
prehensile tails. They were then of a dull brown
above, and dusky white beneath ; and though now
three parts grown, have not yet assumed the red
colour peculiar to the upper parts of adult harvest
mice, the stomach and thighs of which are pure
white. It is worthy of record that through all their
thirteen days of babyhood, the youngsters, though
close at hand in my study, were not once heard to
squeak. 1 his is the first time with which I am
acquainted, that the young of the harvest mouse —
the smallest mammal in England, and probably in
the world— have been reared in captivity. — A. H.
Malan , A/. A., Per ran- A rworthal.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we
cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi-
cations which reach us later than the 9th of the previous
month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries
which do not bear the writers’ names that we are forced to
adhere to our rule of not noticing them.

To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the “ exchanges ” offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
“exchanges” which cannot be tolerated.

W. G. Daish. — The object you enclosed is a fungus called

Clavaria fusiformis.

A. J. Chamberlin. — The objects on the leaves are com-
monly called “ oak-spangles.” They are galls, formed by a
species’of Cynips. For an account of them, see Taylor’s “ Half-
hours in the Green Lanes,” page 197.

W. J. Colebrook. — It is not very common to find lilac leaves
growing in malformed pairs like those you sent us, and we are
much obliged to you for them. You can join the Quekett Club
without living in London. Write to the secretary for rules, &c.,
enclosing stamped and addressed envelope for reply.

J. A. Bather. — The following are excellent works on blow-
pipe analysis of minerals : — “ Determination of Minerals by the
Blowpipe,” by Dr. C. W. C. Fuchs (translated by T. W.
Danby, F.G.S.), price 5 s., London : Field & Tuer, 50 Leaden-
hall Street ; and “ Blowpipe Analysis,” by J. Landauer, price
43-. 6 d., London : Macmillan.

O. P. Cambridge. — The pretty diminutive red fungus is

Physarum rubigittosuin.

G. T. Harris. — There are some scholarships in botany, we
believe, in connection with the London hospitals. We do not
think the Science and Art Department can open out to you any
office. The “Journal of Botany,” price is. 3 d., is a monthly
serial devoted to botany, published by West, Newman, & Co.,
54 Hatton Garden, London.

E. E. Edwards. — The following are good books on British
zoology: — Yarrell’s “Fishes,” Couch’s “Fishes,” lYarrell’s
“ British Birds,” Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds,” Forbes’ “British
Starfishes,” Gwyn Jeffreys’ “British Conchology ” (5 vols.),
Gosse’s “Marine Zoology” (2 vols.). Bell’s “Stalk-eyed
Crustacea.” As to the rest, Carpenter’s “Animal Physiology,”
Huxley and Martin’s “ Physiology,” Flower’s “Osteology,” &c.

Miss E. C. (Woburn). — The specimens sent go by the name
of “ artichoke galls,” on account of their resemblance to those
vegetables. They are caused by a species of Cynips piercing
the young leaf-buds of the oak, so that they develop abnormally
fast, and assume the artichoke shape.

F. Hepburn. — You may get a capital student’s microscope
for about five pounds, from any of the makers whose advertise-
ments appear in our columns, and all of whom we can equally
recommend for good workmanship and reasonable prices.

A. Davidson. — Smith’s “Ferns, British and Foreign”
(fourth edition), is published at js. 6 d., London : David Bogue.

R. Oakeshott. — Newman’s “Insects,” Wood’s “ Insects
at Home,” Rye’s “ British Beetles,” are all good elementary
books. We hope to publish the article you mention before long.

J. A. C. (Rugby). — See an answer to your question about
damping pupae, &c., in a note by Mr. Henry Miller, entitled
“Keeping Pupae,” which appeared in Science-Gossip, vol. viii.
page 261.

W. H. Warner. — Your bat is the pipistrelle, or “flitter-
mouse” ( Vesper tilio pipistrellus).

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, fossils, for marine shells, from north-east coast of
Australia. Exchange in nine months if offer is accepted. —
George Martin, Market Street, Gainsborough, Lincolnshire.

Eggs of sparrow-hawk, landrail, moorhen, coot, common
snipe, common sandpiper, and mountain linnet for exchange.
Eggs of English birds preferred. Apply to W. M. L. Brown,
The Orchard, Carluke, N.B.

Young of swan-mussel, foraminifera, &c., in exchange for
other well-mounted objects, or good material. — William Low
Sarjeant, 6 Dagnall Park Terrace, Selhurst, S.E.

Mosses. — A few duplicates of Ceylon mosses (correctly named),
to exchange for rare British mosses. — T. W. N. Beckett, Tan-
y-Gop, Llanddulas, Abergele.

Carpenter on the Microscope, third edition, offered for the
“Leisure Hour,” for either of the years 1865, 1866, or 1867.
The latter to be in monthly parts, or in the publishers’ cloth
boards. — S. A. H., 17 Longton Grove, Sydenham.

Wanted, good works on natural-history subjects, sport, and
travel, in exchange for lepidoptera and good eggs, all in first-

2§4

HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

class condition. — J. D. \V., 60 Portland Road, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

Wanted (diatoms) Toxonidea Gregoriana and Biddulphia
regina, selected, or gatherings containing same. Rare selected
diatoms in exchange. — E. D. Marquand, Hea, Madron,
Penzance.

For unmounted sections of elder, tamus, nettle, black bryony,
dog-rose, lychnis, send unmounted object to J. M., 12 Porchester
Street, near Clifford Street, Birmingham.

Well-mounted slides of Zygonema cruciata. Zygonema qui-
ninutn, Lyngbya floccosa, and Chcetophora elegatis, offered in
exchange for other slides of interest. — R. L. Hawkins, Hillside,
Hastings.

Volumes of “Zoologist” and “ Entomologist,” also Sharp’s
list of Coleoptera, for Guenee’s “ Pyrales and Deltoides,” or
Babington’s “Manual,” and Stainton’s “Entomologist’s Com-
panion,” 1854. Particulars of books sent. — W. Thomas, St.
Andrew’s Hospital, Northampton.

Picked diatoms from Peruvian guano and deposits from
California, Bermuda, &c-, in exchange for June gatherings. —
J. Tempere, 269 Moss Lane, Manchester.

Acme lineata, H. lamellata, H. acideata, for Paludbia
vivipara, var. utiicolor, or for Anodonta cygncea, large speci-
mens 7 or 8 inches wide, or larger if can be got ; no other will
do. — T. Whitenham, Cross Lane Marsh, Huddersfield.

Wanted, microscope or magic lantern ; will give in exchange
collections of eggs, land and fresh-water shells, and fossils from
silurian, carboniferous, oolite, and chalk strata ; particulars
given. — James Ingleby, Eavestone, near Ripon.

Land and fresh-water shells in exchange for books on botany,
geology, and conchology. — C. T. Musson, 68 Goldsmith Street,
Nottingham.

Neatly finished entomological slides (balsam mounts), in
exchange for any good slides ; diatoms preferred. — G. P. Nevill,
2 James Street, Lozell’s Road, Birmingham.

Wanted, carboniferous crinoids, especially heads. Offered,
carboniferous fossils, viz. mollusca, fish-remains, & c. — T. Stock,
16 Colville Place, Edinburgh.

Wanted, British or foreign mosses, lepidoptera, or good
micro slides, in exchange for British stuffed birds in separate
cases ; green woodpecker, sparrow-hawk, red grouse, &c. —
J. R. Murdoch, 40 Leighton Lane, Leeds.

One hundred and fifty British mosses, offered for half the
number of seaweeds, or 400 British flowering plants for 150 sea-
weeds, or a proportionate number in either case. — William West,
15 Horton Lane, Bradford.

Atlanta, Io, Urticae, Aglaia, Alsus, Artaxerxes, Caja,
Velleda, Dictaea, Ziczac, Bucephala, Psi, V. aureum, Piniaria,
Csesiata, and others. Desiderata, many southern specimens. —

A. Smith, 10 Little Belmont Street, Aberdeen.

Several good gatherings of marine micro material, offered
for good slides. Lists to be exchanged. — W. H. Shrubsole,
F.G. S., Sheerness-on-Sea.

For two ounces of guano, containing forms of Ardacodiscus
Comberii, Coscinodiscus oculis iridis, Actinosphceria halyo?iyx ,
&c., send same amount of other diatomaceous material. —
J. Millins, 6 Brighton Place, Stretford, Manchester.

Wanted, correspondents for mutual improvement and ex-
changing Swedish natural objects for English and colonial. —
Address Alfred Beckman, Askersund, Sweden.

A variety of superior anatomical and pathological sections,
stained and ready for mounting, in exchange for cleaned diatoms,
polycistina, &c. Good slides of above for offers. — H. Vial,
Crediton.

For small portion of Tasmanian zoophytes ( Catenicella lorica),
send well-mounted slide. Few herbarium specimens of British
mosses for others. Send list of wants and duplicates. “ A
System of Vegetables, &c.,” by a botanical society at Lichfield,
1782 (2 vols.). Offers books, zoophytes, algae, mosses, &c. —

B. B. Scott, 24 Seldon Street, Kensington, Liverpool.

Silurian, upper and lower chalk, red crag, greensand

(Devon), carboniferous lime, gault, and other kinds of fossils,
also polished specimens of Devonshire madrepores, for good
sorts of British shells, and some large kinds of foreign shells,
such as cones, turbos, limpets, clams, pinnas, and other large
sorts. — Address A. J. R. Sclater, Bank Street, Teignmouth,
Devon.

British fossils, minerals, and rock specimens, offered in
exchange for micro slide cabinet for 500 or more, cardboard
slides, sediments, foraminifera, or rock sections. — E. Wilson,
18 Low Pavement, Nottingham.

Wanted, living specimens, male and female, of the hedgehog
and glow-worm, in exchange for northern plants, living or dried,
or cash. — A. Davidson, Plockton, Strome, Ross-shire, N.B.

Several well-mounted histological specimens, some stained,
others injected, for other well-mounted objects of interest, or
for unmounted material, such as sections of human skin, tongue
of cat, injected liver, human spleen, ovary, &c. — J. F. H.
Edwards, 116 Moseley Road, Birmingham.

A WELL-mounted slide of diatomaceous deposit from Llyn
Arennig Bach, North Wales (new deposit), for well-mounted
slide of foraminifera or named diatoms. — Address C. S. Patter-
son, 16 DevonshirejRoad, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

Small quantity of unmounted material offered for good slides.
— E. Clover, Springfield, Sudbury, Suffolk.

Pupaj of Cratsegi, Quercus, Carpini, Dictaea, Ziczac, and

Menyauthidis, for lepidoptera. — R. McAldowie, 82 Bonaccord
Street, Aberdeen.

A live box and stage forceps, in exchange for microscopic
slides. — F. S. L., 2 Oakland Villas, Redland, Bristol.

RiPPLE-mark gatherings from Barmouth, rich in foraminifera,
&c., exchange for unmounted material or slides. — Thomas Lisle,
Villiers Street, Wolverhampton.

Lepidoptera, birds’ eggs, and stuffed birds, for others not in
collection, or books on natural history. — Roland Green, Rainham,
Kent.

Wanted, Gosse’s “ Tenby,” “Manual of Marine Zoology,”
and any other good works on natural history, in exchange for
Hogg on the Microscope, 2nd edition, botanical works, &c. —

C. A. Grimes, 8 Trafford Street, Dover.

Wanted, sections — longitudinal and transverse — of the stems
and pinales of various species of ferns, mosses, Isoetes (quill-
wort), See. Will exchange mounted and named species of
carboniferous polyzoa for mounted specimens of above. —
G. R. Vine, Attercliffe, Sheffield.

WELL-finished slide of wing of day moth, Urania Rypheus,
offer for other good slide, parasite or diatoms preferred. —
W. H. Symons, 2 Queen’s Terrace, St.' John’s Wood.

Micro material, beautiful scale of fern, Lepicystis sepulta
(Brazils), leaf hair, Meconopsis Wallachi, leaf glands, Rhodo-
dendrofi Nuttalli, Tasmanian zoophyte, Cattenellica, and fora-
miniferous sand (Leghorn), in exchange for mounted object or
butterflies. — M. Medhurst, 1 Gladstone Road, Liverpool.

Fossils of various formations, and several minerals, in
exchange for a few good specimens of lower silurian (preferred)
or other fossils not in collection. List sent. — W. T. Wakefield,
Waltham Abbey, Essex.

For leaf with oak spangles, send other object of interest.—
J. Millins, 6 Brighton Place, Stretford, Manchester.

Offered, Centranthns Calcitrapa for Epimedium alpinum ,
Nos. 1265, 1280, 1282 for 1299, 1300, 1302; also Nos. 637, 928,
1140, 1381, 1402, 1403, 1479, 1504, 1505 for 377, 541, 762, 844,
93L 985. 99 7, 1195, 1220. Any of the above offers for 1621,
1622. Many other uncommon plants to exchange for Irish
potamogetons, eastern counties and N.B. rarities. Send lists. —
Eyre de Crespigny, 25 Oxford Road, Kilburn, N.W., London.

Duplicates of the following good British land and fresh-
water shells offered in exchange for'other desiderata : — Lint.
Burnetti, ditto var. lacustris, L. involuta, S. oblonga. Vertigo
pusilla, V. substriata, V. alpestris, V. minutissima, V. an -
gustior. Desiderata, good foreign land shells, British shells,
varieties principally albida, or British birds’ eggs ; numerous sorts
wanted. — W. Sutton, Upper Claremont, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

“ “ Illustrations of the British Flora : a Series of Wood
Engravings, with Dissections of British Plants.” By W. H.
Fitch, F.L.S., and W. G. Smith, F.L.S. London: L. Reeve
& Co.

“ Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey,” vol. v. No. 1.

“ Les Mondes.”

“Le Monde de la Science et de PIndustrie,” No. io.’’
“Extinct Species of Rhinoceridae of North America,” & c.
By E. D. Cope.

“ Notes on the Flora of Surrey.” By A. Bennett.

“ Journal of Forestry,” October.

“ Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes,” November.

“ Annual Report of the West London Scientific Association.”
“Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.”

“ Proceedings of the Norwich Geological Society.”

“Lectures on the Geology of Leighton Buzzard and its
Neighbourhood.” By E. W. Lewis, F.R.G.S.

“ Proceedings of the Liverpool Geological Society.”

“The Insect Fauna of the Mezozoic Period,” No. 2. By H.
Goss, F.L.S.

“ American Naturalist.”

“ Science News.”

“ Ben Brierley’s Journal.”

“ Land and Water.”

“Journal of Applied Science.”

&c. . &c. &c.

Communications received up to 12TH ult. from:—
E. G. B. B.— E. P.— S. A. H.— T. W. N. B.— G. H. B.— F. F.
— M. O.— F. G.— H. M.— W. L. S.— W. M. L. B.— G. C.—
J. G. T. L.— J. D. W.— A. H. M.— G. M.— J. E. P— J. D.—
R. A. B.— J. H.— W. A. L.— T. B. W.— A. H. M.— J. E. P.—
H. D. B.— J. D.— T. W.— J. T.— C.T. M.— T. S.— E. E. E.—
J. I.-W. W.— J. R. M.— T. S.— A. S.— W. H. S.— H. V.—
R. c.— VV. G. D.— D. B.— G. P. N.— J. A. B.— W. T.— R. O.—
J. M.— J. A. C.— F. H. H.— F. H.— R. L. H.— M. S. H. C.—
J. F.— J. M.— G. T. H.— T. Q. C.— A. B.— E. D. M.— A. J.
R. S.— W. L.— J. M.— E. W— A. D.— F. S. L.-O. R.-Dr. E.
de C.— J. E.— J. F. H. E.— G. C.— VV. S.— C. S. J. P.— E. C.—
R. Me A.— T. L.— R G.— J. L. H.— C. A. G.— G. R. V.—
R. W. C.— I. C. T.— R. A. B— W. H. S.— W. T. W.— M. M.—
J. W. S.— H. M.— W. A. I.. — R. O.— F. W. M.— T. C- W.—
1 R. A. B. — &c.

HARDWICK E’S SCIENCE GOSSIP.

285

INDEX TO VOL. XV.

K>*

A cherontia A tropos (Death’s Head Moth),
282

Adder ( Pelias berus), Bite of the, 98
Air Bubbles, How to Remove, 87, 255, 276
Amazon, Ancient River Deposit of the, 2x0
Amoeba, a peculiar, 245
Ancylus lacustris, 207
Anemones in Aquaria, 66
Animalcula and Red Seaweeds, 257
Animals, Geographical Distribution of, 14
Animals, Colours of, 36
Annelid Jaws in Canada and Scotland, 115
Ants of Sir John Lubbock, 89
Ants, Sleep of, 143
Ants, Mandibles of, 231
Ants, Harvesting of, 238
Ants, Intelligence in, 262
Ape of Sumatra (“ Ungka”), 26
Aphides, Works on, 239
Apple-tree, History of the, 221, 253, 275,
282

Aquaria, Sea Anemones in, 21, 66
Aquaria, Echinus in, 87
Aquaria, Method of Aerating, 136
Aquaria, Suitable Objects for, 143
Aquarium, Crystal Palace, 21
Aquarium, Brighton, Boar-fish at, 161
Arched Crown, the, 229
Argynnis Adippe, 38 ;

Arran Isle, Geology of, 65
“ Artichoke Galls ” on the Oak, 283
Arum maculatum, 215
Asclepias, Various, 50
Atlas Moth, 162

Bacterium, Measurement of Fla-
gella, 62

Baculites anceps, 205
Bats, Varieties of, in New Forest, 98
Bear, the, in Sweden and Norway, 129,
223

Bees, Stings of, 90
Bees and Field Mouse, 83
Bees and Kalmia latifolia, 282
Beetles, How to Kill, 190
Birds, Migration of, 38
Birds and Fruit, 39, 191
Birds and Weather, 39, 63, 70, 141
Birds, Use of Nests of Others by, 45
Birds’ Eggs, Colour of, 45
Birds’ Eggs, Plates of, 142, 213
Birds, Nocturnal Song of, 45, 136, 162
Birds, Rare, in North Wales, 64
Birds, Curious Sites of Nests, 66, 88, 141,
263

Birds, Ventriloquism in, 95
Birds, Varieties of, in New Forest, 98
Birds of India, 162
Birds in London, 185
Blackbirds, Migration of, 18
Blackbirds and Thrush, Nests of, 23
Blackcap, the, in December, 165
Blue Flowers, Notes on, 178
Boar-fish, 112, 137, 161
Boletus, 5, 6

Bones, How to Preserve, 65
Books, New, a Gossip about, 73, 241
Botanical Work for May, 107
Botanical Work for June, 128
Botanical Work for August, 173
Botanist, the Critical, 33

Botanist, Field Register of, 215, 233, 258
Botany, 15, 40, 64, 90, 113, 137, 164, 186,
208, 233, 258, 278

Botany, Books on, Aid to Choice of, 183,
201, 215

Botany, Classes for Ladies, 114
Botany, History of, 33
Bougainvilliers, on Spelling of, 46, 71
Boulder Clay at Leith, 33
Brachiopod Fossil, a peculiar, 43
Brain of Insects, Preparation for Micro-
scope, 103

British Batrachian Ranunculi, 107
British Plants, New Catalogue of, i5
British Snakes, 19
British Fossils (see Fossil).

Bullfinches, Piping, 21, 43
Bullfinches, Hemp-seed lor, 66, 119
Bullfinches, Black, 141
Bunodes gemmacea, 22
“Burrow,” the Geologist, 42
Butterflies and Moths, Larvae of, 58
Butterflies, Mimicry in, 90
Butterflies in New Forest, 123
Butterflies, Influence of Wet Season on,
18 5

Butterflies and Coloured Nets, 277
Butterflies, the Cleopatra, 277

Calyptostoma Hardyi, 249
Cambridge, Mammaliferous Deposit near,
188

Camera lucida, New Forms of, 62
Canada Balsam, How to Remove from
Slides, 6i\

Canada Balsam, Mounting in, 134
Canadian Plants, Notes on, 50
Cardamine pratensis, 186, 187
Cardiff, Geology of, 99
Cardiff, Silurian District of, 138
Carlsbad, Thermal Sources of, 17, 143
Carnarvon, Pre-Cambrian Rocks of, 163
Caterpillars and Onion Crops, 95
Caterpillars, Urticating Hairs of, 232
Catoscophtm nigritum , 233
Cats, Rabbits Suckled by, 19
Cats and Rats, 164
Cats, Sagacity of, 212
Cattle, Colour Sense in, 88
Cattle (see Yew Trees).

Caverns in Derbyshire, 173
Cells, Lead, 160

Cephalopoda in Isle of Wight, 204

Cetaceans, Rare, 232, 258

Chameleons, New Species of, 90

Chemical Action, Geological Aspects of, 6

Chiffonier, or Old Clo’ Insect, the, 19

Chlora perfoliata, 187

Clay, the London Faults in, 188

Clouds, Motion of, 229

Clover, Teratology of, 41

Clover, Dutch, 2x4, 239

Clubs (see Societies).

Coal, Diatoms in, 13
Colorado, Gigantic Reptiles of, 163
Colour Blindness, 259
Commensalism (see Plants).
Compressorium, How to make a, 185
Conglomerates, Lower Carboniferous, of
N. Wales, 91
Conodonts, 18, 115, 139

Coral, Black, Query as to, 239

Corn Cockle, the, 137

Cornish Coast, Pleistocene Deposits, 42

Cor mis sanguinea, 22, 165

Coronella Icevis, 232

Cossus at Sugar, 118, 143, 214, 250

Cow, Pride in a, 117

Crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis) in Aquaria,
143

Cresswell Caves, Discoveries in, 188
Crocodiles, Fossil Dwarf, 17
Crow, the Hooded, or Royston, 87
Crustacean, a curious, 68
Crystal Palace Aquarium, 31
Cuckmere District, Flora and Fauna of,
277

Cuckoo, Visits of the, 44, 141
Cuckoo, Eggs of, 44, 67, 94, 14X, 213
Cucumber, History of the, 154
Cumulus, the Capped, 1
Cyclostomata, 51

Cyperacese of the New Forest, 151

Dactylosphcerium vitreum, 245
Dccdalea qucrcina and unicolor, 4
Daisy, Chaucer on the, 45
Daucus Carota, 278
Deer, Japanese [Cervus sika), iix
Deer, Female, with antlers, iix
Deptford Pink (Dianthus A niter in ), 23
Derbyshire, Caverns of, 173
Dianthus plumosus, 22
Diatomacese of the New Forest, 152, 206
Diatomacese, Habershaw’s Catalogue of,
206

Diatoms, Thallus of, 134
Diatoms, How to avoid Air-bubbles in
preparing, 276
Digitalis purpurea, 16
Dipsacus sylvestris, 233
Dog and Kitten, 46
Dog, Intelligence in, 117, 281
Dog and Music, 118
Dog, Devotion of to a Cat, 190
Doubleday Collection, 43, 69
Dryas octopetala, 7
Dry Objects, Cells for, 87, 184
Dulcamara, Poisonous Action of, 45

Earthworm, the, 20
Echinus miliar is, Ambulacral Suckers, 84
Echinus, the, in Aquaria, 87
Echium Anglicum (Ray), 113
Echium vulgar e, 251
Eels, Male Discovered, 136
Eggs, Malformation in, 44
Eggs of Birds, Colours of, 45, 67
Eggs, Two Laid by an Old PaiTot, 119
Eggs of Birds, Plates of, 162, 213
Eggs of Sparrowhawk, 213
Eggs, Brood Shells of, 239
Egyptian Goose at Evercreech, 94
Empusa muscce, 8
Entomostraca, New Species of, 231
Entomology, Books on, 263
Entomological Notes for 1879, 281
Epipactis purpurata and latifolia, 15
Epping Forest, Fungus Ramble in, 4, 16,
75 .

Eugletta viridis, 136, 159, 184, 231, 256
Eye-bright (Euphrasia officinalis), 262

286

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Fagus, 19
Fagus, Caesar’s, 45
Falcon, Peregrine, the, 20
Falcon, Iceland, 256
Fauna, Coral of Upper Greensand, 17
Fauna of the Cuckmere District, 277
Fenestella, 50, 225, 247
Fenestellidae, Carboniferous, 1x4
Fermentation, Professor Lowe on, 65
Ferns, Fossil, 45
Field Mouse and Bees, 83
Figs, Unripened, 281
Fish, Longevity of, out of Water, 19
Fish, Parasites on, 79
Fishes, Loves of the, 125
Fish-Ponds Frozen-Over, 267
Fitchet (Polecat) the, 59
Fleas on Moles, 282
Flies and Pedestrians, 212
Flora of the New Forest, 150
Flora of the Cuckmere District, 277
Flower, a Query as to, 94, 118
Flowers, Insects Destroyed by, 164
Flowers, Nutrition in Relation to, 164
Flowers, Blue, Notes on, 178
Flowers, Why do they turn White ? 245
Flustra membranacea , 51
Folk-lore, Science-Gossip, 15
Fossils, Marine, in Gannister Beds, 17, 42
Fossils, Crocodile, a Dwarf, 17
Fossils, Entomology, 43
Fossils, Brachiopod, Peculiar, 43
Fossils, Silurian, in Girvan District, 43
Fossils, Ferns, 45
Fossils, Preservation of, 45
Fossils, Reptiles related to Mammals, 64
Fossils, Upper Ludlow, in Lower Carbon-
iferous Strata of North Wales, 91
Fossils, Common British, where to find,
156, 179, 271

Fossils at Folkestone, 189
Fossils, Starfish, Localities for, 189, 209,
261, 266

Fossils, Corals, Varieties of, 271
Fox Moth, the ( Bombyx rubi ) breeding of,
*9

Frog’s Spawn, Development of, 18
Frogs, Notes of, 214
“ Friends in Council,” 270
Fruit and Birds, 39

Fungus, a Ramble, in Epping Forest, 4
Fur on the Tongue, 136

Gamasus of Humble Bee, Mite on, 81
Gannister Beds, Marine Fossils in, 17, 42
Generations, Alternations of, 78
Generic Names, Repetitive, 207
Geologist, Adventures of a, 268
Geology, 17, 42, 64, 91, 114, 138, 163, 188,
209, 534, 260, 278
Geology of Arran, 65

Geology, Limestone, an Index of Time as
regards, 77

Geology of Cardiff, 99
Geology at Ware, 164
Geology of Sheffield, 169
Geology of Hayes Common, 217
Geology of Lincolnshire Marshland, 242,
265 .

Geranium pusillum, White, Varieties of, 41
Geum rivale, 187, 208, 258
Girvan District, Silurian Fossils in the, 43
Glaciers in Saxony, 235
Gladstone, Mr., on Teaching Natural
History, 162

Glen Callater, A Holiday Ramble in, 145
Glycerine, Cement for, 86
Glyciphagus plumiger, 47, 63, 69
Goose, Egyptian, at Evercreech, 94
Gossamer, 119
Gordius aquaticus, 281
Graphidei of the New Forest, 152
Grubs, How to get Rid of, 191, 192
Guinea Pig, The, 277

Halitherium, the, in British Waters,
112

Haldon (Devon), Coral Fauna in Upper
Greensand, 17

Hartstongue, Singular Variety of, 209
Harvest Mice, Rearing of, 283
Hayes Common, Geology of, 217
Health Primers, 15
Hedgehogs, Notes on, 122, 123
Hedgehogs, Parasites on, 205, 232, 258, 282

Helix lapicida, 161
Hemiptera, Rare Species of, 9, 39
Hempseed for Bullfinches, 66, 119
Hobson, Bernard, 208
Holiday Rambles, 145
Honey Stalks, 118, 143
il ornera frondiculata , 51
House Fly and Parasite, 7, 21, 39,46, 88, 94
Humble Bee, Mite on Gamasus of, 81
Hyalophora Cecropia (Bombycide Satur-
nia), 46, 66

Hydratina Senta and Euglena viridis,
136

Hydrophilus piceus, 69, 132
Hypericum calycinum (St. John’s Wort),
234

Iceland Falcon, The, 256
Ichthyosaurus, Viviparous Species of, 188
Iguanodon in Kimmeridge Clay, 163
India, Birds of, 162

Infectious Diseases, Germ Theory of, 12
Inflorescence, On the Study of, 147
Inflorescence, Notes on, 203
Infusoria, New Mode of Preserving, 111,

159

Insects, Pygidium of, 38
Insects, Preparation of, for Microscopic
Examination, 101, 121
Insects in New Forest, 123, 124, 125
Insects, Simulation of Death by, 160, 207
Insects Destroyed by Flowers, 164
Insects, Blight, 191
Insects, Mimicry in, 207
Insects, Swarms, 233
Insects, Mode of Killing, 257
Instinct, Mistakes made by, 88, 112, 137,

160

Intelligence in Animals and Men, com-
parison of, 19, 47, 68

Intelligence of Animals, 92, 93, 94, 115,
116, 117, 139, 140, 165, 166, 167, 189,
190, 210, 21 1, 236, 237, 261, 262, 279,
280, 281

Ireland, Geology of, 11
Ireland, North, Miocene Flora of, 235
Isle of Wight, Aphalopida in, 204
Isoetes, New Species of, 41
Ivory-Nut Palm, the, 31

Japanese Deer (Cervus sikci), hi
Jersey, Testacella Maugei in, 90
Jersey, Rare Plants in, 113

Kalmia latifolia and Bees, 282
Kentish Hills, Ramble on the, 2
Kestrel, Nest of, 20

Kestrel, Depredations committed by, 215

Kitten and Dog, 46

Knots in Straw of Wheat, 168

Laburnum, 1 Biennial Flowering at
Tuxford, 71
Laburnum in Autumn, 118
Larks and Starling, 22
Larvae of Butterflies and Moths, Mounting
of, 58

Larvae, How to Preserve, 256
Lead Cells, 160
Ledum palustre, 50
Ledum latifolium, 50
Leith, the Boulder Clay of, 32
Lenzites bctulina, 4
Lepidoptera, Mounting of, 239
Lepidosteus osseus (the Bony Pike), 15
Leptodora hyalina, 256
Lettuce, the Sea (Ulva latissima), 40
Lichens and a Polluted Atmosphere, 217
Life below the Ice, 193
Limestone, as an Index of Geological Time,
77

Lincolnshire Marshland, Geology of, 242,
265

Lizard, a Two-tailed, 232

Lophinus palmatus, near Eastbourne, 186

Magpie, Sagacity of the, 281
Mammals, Fossil Reptiles related to, 64
Mammaliferous Deposit near Cambridge,
188

Manatee, Death of the, 112
Manatee, The, i36

Mandrake, the (Podophyllum peltatum),
66

Marsh Plants, Strange Location of, 16, 142

Matter, the Ultra-Gaseous State of, 42
Matthiola incana, 187
Mayflowers in Wales and Salop, no
Micro-fungi, Mounting of, 3
Micro-palaeontology, 235
Microphone, Curious Effect with, 71
Micro-photographs, How to Restore, 194,
?55

Microscope, Improvements in, 86
Microscope, Preparation of Insect’s Brains
for, 103

Microscope, Cleanliness in Use of, 159
Microscopical Examination, Preparation
of Insects for, 101, 121
Microscopical Specimens, Mode of Stain-
ing, x6o

Microscopical Preparations, Scientific
Value of, 250

Microscopical Analysis, 281
Microscopist, the Young, Hints for, 32
Microscopy, 12, 13, 38, 61, 86, 111, 134,
}59y j84, 206, 231, 255, 276
Mineral Veins, History of, 139
Miocene Ape, an Indian (Palceopithecus),
?38

Miocene Flora of the North of Ireland, 235

Mistletoe, Cultivation of, 44, 64

Mistletoe on the Pear, 66

Moa, the, not yet Extinct, 40, 95

Moles, Fleas on, 282

Mollusca, Dr. Gwyn Jeffrey’s on, 188

Monstrosities in Plants, 191

Morbid Sensations, 282

Moss British, New Species of, 41

Moss, Exceptional Fruitfulness of, 41

Moth, the Death’s Head, 283

Moth-Trap, a Vegetable, 15

Moths, Urticating Properties of, 25

Mouse, a Singing, 239

Mouse, the Harvest, 283

Mudie, Robert, 212

Muse a vomitoria, 8

Mushrooms, 259

Music, Dog affected by, 165

Musk Ox, the, in England, 235

Names, Scientific Pronunciation of,
45

Natal, Microscopy in, 13
Natterjack Toad, the, 19, 165
Natural History, Mr . Gladstone on Teach-
ing, 162

Naturalists, a List of Assisting, 270
Nest, Query as to a, 213
Nests of Birds, Curious Sites for, 66, 67
Nests of Birds, Design in, 88
Nests of Sparrowhawk, 213
Nests of Thrush, a Curious Site for, 213
Nests, Curious Sites for, 213, 263
Net, Lightning, 152
New Forest, the, 97, 123, 150
New Forest, the, Slow Worm in, 164
New Forest, the Diatomaceae of, 206
Newt, the Smooth ( Lissotritonpunctatus ),
.J43 .

Nightingale, the, in Yorkshire, 44, 63, 186
Nociiluca miliaris, Colour and Mounting
of, 1 13

Notes and Queries, 18, 43, 65, 92, 115, 139
164, 189, 210, 236, 261, 279
Notices and Reviews: —

Health Primers, 15

Popular Science Review, 113, 186, 258
Rainfall of the World, 114
Cambridgeshire, Post-Tertiary Deposits
of, 1 14

Essex, Geology of, 115
Northumberland, Geology of, 115, 164
Blood, Microscopic Organisms in, 134
American Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopy, 135

The Science Index, 136

Nature, Cared for, and Uncared for,

162

Lake District, the English Physical
History of, 163

Geological Survey, and its Relations to
Agriculture, 189

Microscopical Quarterly Journal, 206
Students’ Catalogue of British Plants,

208

Geological Time, Chemical Denudation
in Relation to, 235

United States Geological Survey Report,

235

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

287

Notices and Reviews — continued.

The Herefordshire Pomona, 259
Dictionary of Plant Names, 259
Nuthatch, the, 165

Norfolk, the Fauna of (R. Lubbock),
277

The Tourists’ Flora (J. Woods), 278
Carboniferous Limestone, and Cefn-y-
Fedw Sandstone of North Wales
(Morton), 278

CEnophila v-flava and Corks, 191'
Onion Crops and Caterpillars, 95, 131
Oolitic Limestone Holes, 17, 70
Ophrys apifera, 1 87
Orange, a Double, 47
Orchis Morio, 164

Organisms, Delicate, Notes on Preserving,

49

Ornithological Essays, 218, 246
Ornithosaurian from Stonefield Slate, 209
Oscillatoria decorticatis, 9

Page, David, the late Professor, 115

Palaeocoryne, 225, 247

Palm in Full Bloom, a, 212

Parasites on Pigeons, 43

Parasites on House-fly, 46, 88, 94 *

Parasites on Fish, 79

Parasites (see Hedgehogs').

Parrot, an Old, Two Eggs laid by, 119
Parrot, Anecdote of a, 281
Parrots and their Eggs, 165
Parsnips, Stinging Properties of, 18
Pear, Mistletoe on the, 66
Pecten maximus , Pearls in, 161
Phyllactidium pulchellum, 16
Physalia pelagica (Portuguese Man-of-
war), 15

Pigeons, Parasites on, 43
Pigments, Arrangement of, in Lepidoptera,
36

Pike and Tench, 191
Piping Bullfinch, 21
Plague the, in England, 90
Planet, the Hypothetical, 146
Planorbis marginatus, 87
Plants, Marsh, Strange Places for, 16
Plants, British, 16
Plants, Second Growth of, 21
Plants, Monstrosities in, 40
Plants, Interesting at Kew, 43, 70, 199,
142

Plants, Functions of Nectaries in, 137
Plants, Canadian, Notes of an Amateur on
some, 50

Plants, Common, Unnoticed Differences
in, I73

Plants, Fly-catching, 186
Plants, Commensalism in, 187, 208, 333, 259
Plants, Medicinal Indigenous, 214
Plants, Life, Duration of, 258
Plants, Postage of, to Foreign Countries,
282

Pleistocene Deposits on the Cornish Coast,
42

Polecat, the (Mustela putorius), 59
Pollen, hi

Pollen, a Shower of, 138, 187, 238, 239
Polyporus, Varieties of, 5
Poly trichum undulatum, 21
Polyzoa, Mounting of, 87
Pony, Sagacity of a, 262
Post-glacial Animals in London, 138
Prawns, Ancient ( A?ithrapalceinon) , 139
Primrose, Derivation of Name, 119
Pteropoda, Divisions of, 63
Pygidium, the, in Insects, 36
Pyrola, the, Winter Green, 90

Quadra lithosia, 250
Quartz, Sections of, 13
Quartz, Cavities in, 61
Quillwort, the (Isoetes lacustris), 17

Rabbits Suckled by a Cat, 19
Ranatra linearis , 252
Ranunculus Jicaria, 41
Ranujiculus Jicaria, Plurality of Petals, 64
Ranunculus Jicaria, British Batrachian,
107

Raptores, British Marking, &c., of, 55
Rat, a f ishing, 129
Rat, Reared by a Cat, 164
Reptiles, How to Preserve, 18, 65
Reptiles, Gigantic, in Colorado, 163
R hamphoccphalus Prcstwichi, 209
Rhizopods, New Species of, 87
Rhinoceros tichoritius , 278
Rhubarb, History of, 82
Rhubarb, Leaves of, 214, 238
Rhytichopora Geinitziaua, 43
Rhyncltopora Youngii, 43
Robin, the, 263

Rocks, Effect of Chemical Action on, 6
Rocks, Oolitic Holes in, 70
Rocks, Pre-Cambrian, of Carnarvon, 163
Rocks, Metamorphic, of Scotland, 234
Rook, a White, 22

Rookery, How to Establish a, 162, 175,
207

Rotifer, a New, 200, 256

Saint Paul’s Cathedral, Colour of,

*34

Salicornia, 114
Salop, Mayflowers in, no
Sarracetiia purpurea, 50
Saxicola stapazina, 14
Saxicola ocnanthe, 14
Saxony, Glaciers in, 235
Science in the Provinces, 13
Science-Gossip, Folklore, 15
Scientific World Fifty Years Ago, the, 9
Scotland, Metamorphic Rocks in, 234
Sea-Anemones in Aquaria, 21
Sea-Birds, Oddities among, 175, 195
Sea-Gulls, Intelligence in, 211
Seaweeds, Best Localities for, 191
Seaweeds, Red, and Animalcula, 257
Season, Abnormal Character of the, 143
Section Cutting, 13
Seeds, On Mounting, 131
Shark, Position of Mouth in the, 94
Sheatfish (Silurus glanis), 194
Sheffield, Geology of, 169
Shells, Tasmanian Land, 69
Shells, Land, Local Distribution of, 282
Shrew Mice (Sorex araneus), 190
Skins, Preservation of, 14
Slides, Air-bubbles in, Pump for Removing,
61

Slides, How to Remove Canada Balsam
from, 61

Slides, Mounted in Balsam, How to Clean,
136

Slides, Centerer for, 160
Slides, Old, How to Clean, 256, 276
Slow-worm in the New Forest, 164, 212
Smith, the late Mr. Frederick, 89
Snakes, British, 19

Snakes, Change of Colour in Skin, 167
Societies and Clubs : —

Quekett Microscopical Club, 13, m, 206,
231

Folk-Lore Society, 15
Metropolitan Scientific Association, 22
Science-Gossip Botanical Exchange
Club. Report for 1878, 25, 187
Newcastle Microscopical, 38
Watford Natural History Society, 40,232
Royal Microscopical Society, Journal of,
62

Metropolitan Association, 71
Royal Dublin Geological, 91
Geologist’s Association, 114
Geological Society, 163, 188
Midland Union of Natural History, 163
Mines, Royal School of Appointments
in, 164

Manchester Science Association, 184
British Association, Meeting of, 186
Zoological Society, 188
Liverpool Microscopical Society, 276
Societies, Microscopical, Inquiry as to
Rules of, 276

Spa rmanuia A fricana. Stamens of, 60
Sparrowhawk, Eggs of, 213
Sparrowhawk, Nest of, 213
Sparrowhawk, ( Accipitcr nisus), the, 218,
268 246

: Spartina stricta, 234

Spawn, Frog’s, Development of, 18
Spectre on Mountain, a, 46
Spiders, Webs of, 20
Spiders, British, New Species of, 232
Spiral Currents, 229
Sphinx pinastri, 208

Sponges, Structure and Distribution of,
197

Squirrel, Dark, at Tux ford, 92
Stafford, a Museum for, 278
Starfish, Fossil Localities for, 189, 209,
261, 266

Starling and Larks, 22
Starvation, Effects of, in Animal and
Vegetable Tissues, 134
Stinkhorn, ‘ the Common ( Phallus im -
picdicus), 258
Stock-Frost, 142
Stock Ice, 214

Stonechat, the Black -Throated, 14
Stonesfield Slate, an Ornithosaurian from,
209

Sturgeon at Maidstone, 191
Sun-Cracks, 261

Suspended Animation, Hoax at Brisbane,
161

Swallows, Late, 19
Symphytum tuberosum, 64

Tadpole, 46

Tasmania, Land Shells in, 69
Tea Stains, 165, 214
Tealia crassicornis, 21
Teratological Notes, 41, 90, 113, 138
Teratology in a Moss, 21
Teratology of Clover, 41
Testacella haliotidca, 22 ^

Testacella Maugei in Jersey, 90
Thallus of Diatoms, the, 134
Thcriosuchus pusillus, 17
Thrushes and Blackbirds, Nests of, 23
Thrush, Sagacity in a, 21 1
Titanosaurus Jcrox, 65
Toad, the Natterjack, 19, 165, 215
Tree Creeper ( Serthia Jamiliaris), sa-
gacity of, 167
Tree-Sparrow, the, 141
Trees, Leafless, 43
Trees, “Griding” of, 238
Turrilites tuberculatus, 204
, Twigs, Branches, &c., Colours of, 95

Umbellifer^e of the New Forest, 151
“ Ungka,” the Ape of Sumatra, 26
Upper Greensand, Coral Fauna of, at
Haldon, 17

Vegetable Tissues, Staining Fluid
for, 255

Vegetation, Powers of, 209
| Viper’s Bugloss, 114, 208

Wales, North, Rare Birds in, 64
Wales, North, Lower Carboniferous Con-
glomerates, 91
Wales, Mayflowers in, no
Wales, Carboniferous Limestone of, 278
Wallflower, Malformation of, 16
Ware, Geology at, 164
Wasp, Tenacity of Life in a, 20, 92
Water, the Inhabitants of a Drop of, 276
Water Shrew, the ( Sorex Jodieus), 70
Whale, Capture of a, 186
White’s Thrush, 90

Woodward, Samuel, the Norfolk Geologist,
189

Worms, Can they Crawl Backwards? 119,
167, 212

Wren, the Superstitious Dislike of, 20

Yew-Trees and Cattle, 119, 138, 165,
214, 238, 282

Yews in Churchyards, 18, 69, 92
Yorkshire, the Nightingale in, 63

Ziyhius curvirostris, 14
Zoology, 13, 38, 63, 87, nr, 136, 160, 185,
207, 232, 256, 277
Zoology, Marine, 112
Zoology, Modern, 23
Zoology, Books on British, 283

r

LONDON:7

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,

STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

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