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GOSSIP.

HARDWI CKE'S

SCI ENCE-GOSSI P:

1888.

HARDWICKE'S

4ip4£=©rr?SM£:

AN ILLUSTRATED MEDIUM OF INTERCHANGE AND GOSSIP

FOR STUDENTS AND

LOVERS OF NATURE.

EDITED BY

Dr. J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.I.,

HON. MEMBER OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY CLUB, OF THE NORWICH GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, OF THE

MARYPORT SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, OF THE ROTHERHAM LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

OF THE NORWICH SCIENCE-GOSSIP CLUB, OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF

AUSTRALASIA, OF THE VICTORIAN FIELD NATURALISTS' CLUB,

ETC. ETC.

VOLUME XXIV

Uon&on :
CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY.

1888.

[All rights reserved.)

LONDON :
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

10

L> 0 lJ~

PREFACE.

TWENTY-FOUR years have elapsed since this Magazine was
founded by the genial publisher whose name it still bears.
It is a long life for so popular a serial as SCIENCE-GOSSIP, but has
there been any flagging in its vitality ? Many -honoured names, both
in amateur and professional science, have helped to build up its world-
wide reputation. It has been the ladder by which many dis-
tinguished men have climbed to fame. Scores of others who have
helped our Magazine have passed away. Though they rest from
their labours, their works follow them ; and not a few of their articles
are sought out in back volumes for the wisdom and experience they
generously placed at the service of the public, and especially at that
of the young naturalists who were to succeed them.

In spite of the little bickerings and breezes we experience, even in
scientific circles — the accumulated heritage from ancestors who knew
not science — is there a single profession or calling in which men are
so willing to help each other as in natural science ? Our columns
bear evidence to the prompt readiness with which young beginners,
and even more advanced students, obtain assistance as soon as they
ask for it.

The spheres of science are ever widening, like those of a disturbed
lake. There is little fear the function of Science-Gossip will die out
for lack of fresh information. Every new discovery opens out fresh
vistas, and calls forth additional comment and criticism. We claim
that, from the popular point of view, our twenty-four volumes give
as complete and even a more continuous History of recent Science
than can be found anywhere else. Our severest critics will admit that
the present Volume is in no wise inferior in variety, interest, and

PREFACE,

information to its predecessors. Our generous contributors of articles
are quite as enthusiastic as their forbears.

The increased demand on our " Exchange Columns " is a good
indication of the rapidity with which Natural History has spread.
That term is now more comprehensive than ever. It embraces
sections and sub-sections of research which, a quarter of a century
ago, were hardly thought of. Now, every one of them is engaging
the attention of men and women, and sweetening their lives, as the
eager interest shown for Collecting manifests.

We would do more if we could. The low price of SciENCE-
GOSSIP makes it imperative that its circulation shall be increased,
so as to enable Editor and Publisher to carry out their desires.
Every reader can assist us by joining our enthusiastic corps of
" recruiting sergeants," and getting another enlisted in our large ranks
of Subscribers. An increase of another five thousand per month in
our circulation would strengthen our hands for good.

We thank kind friends all round (and there is not a part of the
globe where our Magazine has not friends) for help, sympathy — even
criticism. The Preface enables the Editor once more figuratively to
shake hands with all, and to wish them a Happy New Year !

*

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Ai.der, Stem of Common, showing

Bulges caused by Woodbine, 275
Anterior Antennae, 32
Anvil Clouds, 5
Asplanchna myrmclco, \tz

Bass [Labrax lupus), 61
Branch of Manihot utilissima, 84
Branch of Piper mctliysticam, 85

Catching Turtles, 104

Cavity of Scale of Toothwort, 13

Cavity of Young Scale, with Spores, of

Toothwort, 13
Centipedes, Group of, 272
Cocoon of Argyroneta aqnatica, 227
Common Flying-Fish, 244
Cristatella mucedo, 108

Dactylopterus volitans, 244

Development within the Egg of the Gnat
[Tipula plumosa), 132, 133

Diagrammatical Figure of Young Larva
{Tipida plumosa), 156

Diagram of Light reflected by Green
Leaves, 8

Diagram of Light reflected from Green
Pigment, 8

Diagram of Three Primary Colour Sensa-
tions, 29

Digestive System of Tipula plumosa, 156

Ecdysis of Pediculus capitis, 220

Ertemias tetrathrix, 28

Extension Diagram, showing the Position

of the Muscles of the Body of Tipula

plumosa, 157
External and Internal Terminal Claws of

Phthirius inguinalis, 1S1

Female of Watek-Spider, 227

Floscularia aunulata, 9

Flower of Garcinia mangostana, 197

Flower Spike, 13

Fossil Freshwater Shells, 57

b'redericella sultana, 108, 109

Front View of Daphnia, 36

Fruit of Garcinia, 197

Gcophilus electricus, 273
Gonium pectorale, 248

Head of Bass, 61

Head of Male Tipula plumosa, 150

Head of Vinegar Eel, 52

Imago, 160

jf/tlus tcrrcstris, 273

Larch, having Six Aftergrowths, 205

Larch, showing Natural Engrafting, 204

Lathyrus tuhcrosus, 225

Lichomolpus sabellce, 32

Longitudinal Section of Fully-developed
Scales, showing the Connection of the
Small Cavities with one another in
Toothwort, 13

Longitudinal Section of Scale of Tooth-
wort, 12

Male of Asplanchna myrmeleo, 156
Male of Water-Spider, 227
Marigold, 148
Mature Female, 52
Melon Seedling, 165

Middle and Posterior Parts of Balauo-
glossus saruiensis, 124

Nervous System of Tipula plumosa,
Nymph, 150

Ovum of Phthirius inguinalis, 181

Pair of Swimming Feet, 32
Part-Section of complete Flower, the

Marigold, 148
Posterior Antennae of Lichomolpus sa-

bclhe, 32
Probosc's as disrupted from Body, 101
Proboscis exserted, 100

Reproductive Organs of Female [An-
guillula aceti), 53

Section at St. Ekth, 129
Side View of Daphnia, 36
Spider, Natural Size, 159
Spider with Parasite, 159
Stomata and Glandular Hairs in Cavity
of Scale of Toothwort, 13

Terminal Claw of Second Pair of

Legs of Phthirius inguinalis, 182
Transverse Section of a Fully-developed

Scale of Toothwort, 12
Transverse Section of Underground Stein

near the Base of Toothwort, 13
Tree-Stem, showing direction taken by

Ivy Stems and Branches, 275
Trifolhun stcllatum, 149

vorticella, 252

Wing of Termite, 229
Vorm, as usually seen crawling, 100
Worm under Compression, 100

Young Anguillula escaping, 53

SECTION-CUTTING APPLIED TO INSECTS.

By H. M. J. UNDERIIILL.

4.ITHIN the last few
years the art of
section-cutting has
been greatly im-
proved, but ac-
counts of the
methods in use
have as yet hardly
found their way
into ordinary mi-
croscopic hand-
books, and to the
amateur, who mo-
destly restricts his
dissections to in-
sects, they are, I
believe, almost un-
know n. The
general principles
of the methods are
in all cases the
same, but the application of them to various sorts of
tissues is frequently different ; so, in working out
the details for insects, although I write chiefly for
the amateur, I may possibly contribute something of
use to the student.

Most microscopists find that a great deal of the
interest of their microscopy lies in preparing speci-
mens. If there be any one of these who has never
tried section-cutting, let him buy a microtome and
set to work at once. It is quite a fascinating amuse-
ment, a kind of refined " whittling a stick " — that
pleasure so dear to youth.

After a few remarks on microtomes, I propose to
divide my observations into four parts ; Preparing
the specimens ; cutting, mounting, and staining them.
I would premise that, if I recommend a process for
insects, it does not follow that it will do for anything
else.

The most important thing in getting perfect
sections is the proper preparation of the insect,
previous to cutting it. If an object be well prepared,
No. 277.— January 1888.

good sections may be obtained with the commonest
of microtomes ; of course, the better the microtome,
the better the sections : yet the best of microtomes is
useless, if the specimens be not rightly prepared.
Section machines seem to vary in price from 8s. to
j£8. As far as I know, the cheapest are practically as
good as those of medium price, for when cutting is
effected by holding the razor in the hand, one can
never be sure to the 355th of an inch where its edge
will come, in consequence of the elasticity of the steel.
This is the arrangement in all the moderate priced
instruments I have seen, so that a £2 machine is not
essentially better than an 8s. one. In the more
expensive forms this uncertainty is eliminated by the
motion of the razor (or object) being effected mechani-
cally. The best of these is said to be the Cambridge
"Rocking Microtome," price ^5 $s. I have got
very good sections with a section machine of the
cheapest kind, and I have seen most excellent vege-
table sections which were cut without a microtome at
all. So the student need not lay aside section-
cutting for lack of an expensive machine. A good
razor, however, is a necessity.

Preparing Specimens.

A great many fluids have been compounded for
hardening tissues previous to cutting them. Some do
very well for insects, but any which contain chromic
acid are totally destructive. This reagent renders
chitine extremely friable, and in fact, makes the whole
section so brittle, that it is ihardly possible to mount
it unbroken. Moreover, in spite of all said to the
contrary, it prevents proper staining. But the fluid
readiest to hand is common methylated spirits, and
this answers every purpose. Soak the insects in it
for a week or two, or as much longer as you like.
Soft bodied insects may shrink if put into methylated
spirits at once. A day's previous soaking in dilute
picro-sulphuric acid solution will prevent this. Then
let them have three or four days in absolute alcohol,
changing the alcohol once. Transfer them to oil of

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

cloves, in which let them stay for a day ; and, after
the oil of cloves, let them be in turpentine another
day. For some reason that I do not understand,
soaking first in oil of cloves and then in turpentine
prevents tissues from shrinking when they are put
into wax. If oil of cloves, turpentine, or chloroform
be used alone, shrinking can hardly be avoided. For
this " wrinkle " I am indebted to Dr. Schonland, of
the Botanic Gardens, Oxford.

Now melt some paraffin wax before a gas-stove or
over a water bath. Be very careful to have it only
just above its melting-point. Warm the bottle of
turpentine containing the specimens, pick them out,
and drop them into the melted wax. This must be
maintained at the same temperature for about ten
hours. Great care must be taken not to let it get too
hot, or the insects will shrink. If you put the speci-
mens in at night, they will be ready by morning.
By this time the wax should have penetrated every
part of the insect, and the excellence of the sections
depends upon this being done completely. No
perfection of microtome will compensate for imper-
fectly imbedded specimens ; but, as I have said, you
can cut good sections of a well-imbedded insect in a
common machine. This method of imbedding
answers for most insects, but very soft ones need yet
more care to avoid shrinkage. Either of the two
following methods will do. Put the insects into a
small open vessel with enough turpentine to cover
them, add a good many chips of wax. Or this : melt
some wax in the vessel and let it get cold ; put the
insects with enough turpentine to cover them on the
top of this. Then (in either case) gradually bring the
wax to the melting-point before the stove or in a hot-
air box, and keep it just melted for hours until the
turpentine is all evaporated. The penetration of the
wax is so gradual, that there is no danger of the
insect shrinking.

The vessel in which the wax is allowed to get cold
must be flat bottomed ; and the objects should be
arranged in it at intervals in such positions that the
bottom of the vessel is at right angles to the plane of
the sections which you intend to cut. When the
wax is quite hard, the specimens may be carefully
cut out in little cubes of wax, and kept for any length
of time until wanted.

The wax used must be pure paraffin. I have tried
all sorts of mixtures and different waxes, but nothing
does so well as pure paraffin. It is of great import-
ance to have it of the right melting-point. The
Cambridge people say that with their microtome this
does not matter, but my experience with the machine
is different. If the temperature of your room be 560
to 6o° Fahr., the proper melting-point of the wax is
no°. You should have a thermometer, and, when-
ever you want to cut sections, you must bring the
temperature to this point. In summer, when you
cannot cool the air to 6o°, you must use harder wax,
preserving the difference of 500 between the tempera-

ture of the room and the melting-point of the wax..
The reason for this particularity is that, if the wax be
too hard, the sections will curl up as you cut them,
and frequently break. On the other hand, if it be
too soft, it gives way under the pressure of the razor.
Any grocer will get you paraffin through Price's (or
some other) candle company. It is made of four
degrees of hardness, melting at uo°, 1150, 1200, ami
1250. The probable price will be 6d. per pound.

Cutting the Sections.

If you have a microtome of the common sort, with
a well, fill the well with melted wax, and let it get
quite cold. Then screw it up until about half an-inch
of wax appears above the cutting plate of the instru-
ment. Remove this with the razor, and if the block
of wax seem at all loose in the well, thrust a thin
splinter of lucifer match between the wax and the
side of the well. Take now one of the cubes of wax
containing an insect to be cut ; square it roughly
with a pen-knife ; fasten it to the wax in the well by
means of the heated blade of an old knife. When it
is cold and hard again, finish off the squaring process-
accurately, taking care that the opposite sides are-
parallel. Screw down the machine until the top of
the little cube is level with the surface of the cutting
plate, and the specimen is ready for cutting. Take
off a few preliminary slices, and when you have cut
down to the object, place the razor with its edge
parallel to and almost touching one of the sides of
the cube. Draw it sharply towards you without any
motion sideways, but in a direction exactly at right
angles to that side of the block with which its edec-
is parallel. Let the section remain on the razor
blade, and after again turning up the screw of the-
microtome, repeat the cut, using exactly the same-
portion of the razor edge to cut with by placing the-
section already cut precisely behind the little squire
block of wax. The new section will stick to the edge
of the first one and push it across the razor blade.
The same process, indefinitely repeated, will produce
a ribbon of sections almost as neatly as a rocking
microtome will do it. Success depends on the melt-
ing-point of the wax, and the temperature of the
room, being properly adjusted, as before explained.

After a little practice, I could readily get unbroken-
ribbons of 20 to 40 sections. After this, they became
too long to be manageable. The advantages of
ribbons over single sections I consider to be two : —
they are much easier to manipulate ; and they
facilitate getting a series of sections in their proper-
order. This is an important point when you arc
cutting up an insect. Besides, having all the sections
cut before any are put upon the slide, you are able
to count them, and so calculate the space they will
occupy. You can, therefore, arrange them with
proper regard to the middle of the slide — a great
thine; to all who love neatness.

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

Mounting.

In the ordinary way of mounting sections, they are
loose, and must be transferred with a " section
lifter" of some kind from fluid to fluid, "as they are
washed and stained. This is very troublesome and
risky with any sections, and impossible with insects,
because they always break up. The safe way, and at
the same time the way which produces the best
results and is also the least trouble, is to fasten them
to the slide as soon as they are cut, and then there
is no risk of breaking them. This is done by brush-
ing the face of the slide with a mixture of four or
five parts oil of cloves to one part collodion, spreading
it thinly and evenly, and covering a little larger
space than the section will occupy. Some people
prefer glycerine and white of egg, spread very thinly.
I lay my slides on a card, the size of a slide, ruled in
the middle into squares T\, of an inch in diameter.
Take up a length of ribbon by placing the blade of a
scalpel underneath it, and, guided by the card, put
the end section down at the right place on the slide,
gently draw away the scalpel, and flatten down the
ribbon on to the slide with the back of the blade.
See that every part of every section touches the
glass and is held by the cement. When all the
sections are arranged, take hold of one end of the
slide with a clip, and hold it over a flame for a few
moments until the wax is melted. The melted wax
and the oil of cloves draw away from the sections
and form a ring of drops round them. These should
be wiped off, because they take the colour when the
slide is stained. Plunge the slide into turpentine.
A few seconds suffice to dissolve the wax and oil of
■cloves, and the sections remain on the slide, held fast
by the collodion. If staining be unnecessary, or if
the object has been stained whole, the turpentine
should be washed off with benzine, and the slide
mounted in balsam thinned with benzine. If the
objects are to be stained on the slide — and this
method, I think, gives the best results — proceed as
follows. Remove the slide from the turpentine, and
wipe off as much of it as possible ; pour a few drops
•of absolute alcohol on the sections ; and, when this
has dissolved out the turpentine, put the slide into
methylated spirits. It is best to let it soak in this
for a quarter of an hour at any rate, in order to extract
all the turpentine. Transfer it to clean water, and
soak it in that another ten minutes or so. Now
stain, leaving it as long as is necessary in the colour.
But, if you wish to remove pigment to show the
structure of eyes or other pigmented parts, the slide
must be left in eau dejavelle until all the pigment is
dissolved, and then well washed in water, before
being stained. The time needed for staining is
generally fifteen minutes, but the slide should be
examined frequently to see how it is getting on.
The sections must not be overstained if hematoxylin
.be used ; for, although overstain can be washed out

with acidulated spirit, or aqueous alum solution, the
sharpness of outline given by the colour is decidedly
impaired. After staining, the slides must be brought
back to balsam by a reverse process ; viz., by passing
them through (i) water ; (2) methylated spirits; (3)
absolute alcohol ; (4) benzine ; (5) mount in balsam
and benzine. Turpentine and oil of cloves should
not be used for No. 4 (benzine), because they cause
many colours to fade, which benzine will fix.
Glycerine is not a good mounting medium, for my
experience of it is that all stains fade in it.

All these directions may sound very complicated
to the tyro, but the method of mounting is really
very easy, because the sections are fixed to the slide.
There is, therefore, no danger of their floating away
when the cover is let down on them, and no trouble
with air-bubbles.

Staining.

A few words on staining may be useful. As I
have already said, specimens may be stained whole,
before they are imbedded in wax, or stained on the
slide after they are cut. Some like one way, some
the other. I find it difficult to stain the object whole
to just the right tinge of colour ; I either get it too
dark or only partially stained, and it is specially
difficult with insects because of their impervious
shells. If you make holes in them with needles,
you damage the internal anatomy. Therefore, I
prefer staining the sections on the slide, in the way
that I have described.

All sorts of colours have been recommended.
Aniline dyes are in great favour with some people,
and very nice double stains of vegetable sections
may be made with them. Borax, carmine, and
picro-carmine are much used. These colours are
much better than aniline dyes, in that they stain less
diffusely and more " selectively," as it is called.
But I reject them, because with any objective higher
than a quarter-inch, they give no sharpness of out-
line.

I use hematoxylin, and hematoxylin would be
the perfection of stains, if — it is a great pity, that
"if!" — it did not labour under the suspicion that
it fades in a year or two. That it fades sometimes
there is no doubt ; but it is doubtful if the fading be
due to the fault of the colour, or to the reagents used
in preparing the specimen. It certainly fades if the
specimens have been hardened in chromic acid, or
any chromate ; and I know that turpentine causes
it to fade. I have great hopes, however, that,
when the specimens have been hardened in simple
spirit, washed finally with benzine, and mounted in
balsam and benzine, the colour will keep. Some
slides that I mounted six months ago in this way show
no sign of turning colour as yet ; but six months,
of course, is a test not long enough.

A friend of mine, who is very skilful in mounting,
says that he considers the cause of the fading of

B 2

HA RD WICK& S SCTENCE- G OS SIP.

hematoxylin to be, not in any reagents used in
preparing the specimens, but in the presence of
tannin in the ordinary hematoxylin stains. His
recipe for preparing the stain so as to get rid of the
tannin may be found in the " Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science," 1S85, at the end of an
article on the " Eyes of Insects."

Perhaps tannin, chromates, acids, and turpentine
all contribute to make it fade. My own recipe is as
follows ; it gives as good results as any hematoxylin

1 have ever seen ; but if fading be because of the
presence of the tannin in the logwood, my slides will
fade in time.

Crush ordinary extract of logwood to powder, and
dissolve a saltspoonful of it in hot water ; add about

2 oz. of methylated spirit ; dissolve a teaspoonful of
alum in some more hot water, and mix the two
solutions ; add more water (if necessary) until the
bulk equals three ounces. Allow the fluid to stand
for some hours ; then filter. Keep it a week before
you use it, and then filter it a second time.

I have lately stained a few slides with " Carters'"
blue-black ink, diluted with water and spirits. It
gives very good results, and colours specimens either
a pleasant blue-black, or (if you leave the slide a
couple of hours in water or spirit after staining), a
gray, like the tone of a photogravure. The definition
is not quite so sharp as that given by hematoxylin,
but I have a retina of a spider excellently well stained
by it. As I have only used it for a very short time,
I should not venture to recommend it as anything
very first-rate, but I think it decidedly worth trying.
On the other hand, nothing can beat hematoxylin
if it will only not fade.

I keep my fluids— turpentine, spirits, and the
stains — in three-ounce, wide-mouthed, corked bottles.
These are tall enough, and the mouths wide enough
to take a slide. And so, by dipping the slides first
in the one bottle, then in another, as required, the
trouble of mounting is greatly reduced. It is a clean
process ; there is no waste ; and yet you always have
ample quantities of fluids. If you have two bottle-
fuls of each kind in use, you can have six or eight
slides in the course of preparation at once.

In conclusion, a hint or two as to the sort of
insects to choose for cutting into sections will not be
amiss. Those with hard chitine should be avoided,
for, not only do their shells notch the razor terribly,
but they also crush into the softer parts while the
section is being cut, and so spoil it. Small insects
are much more easily cut than large ; long and cross
sections of whole insects are very instructive. Eyes
are very interesting, and spiders are particularly good
subjects. And, as comparatively little has been done
in " sectionising " insects as yet, there is room for
the enthusiastic entomologist to discover new facts,
and so do a little original work.

Oxford.

FORMS OF CLOUD IN RELATION TO
THEIR COMPONENT PARTICLES.

:wE::

7"E shall have stormy weather, sir ; those
imal clouds have been about again to-

day." Such was the remark made to me by a
country woman in Kent, and this observation was
true enough to nature : it agreed also with my own
notes at the time on the appearance of "Anvil cloud,'
oxfracto-cumulus. The " Ram's-head" cloud might
not inappropriately be the term used to describe this
drifting bank of hail or rain, which often marks the
sky with such striking and fantastic outlines. Observe
these dark rolling masses at sunset on an autumn
afternoon, and see what kind of weather the night
brings with it— driving sleet, and sudden gust of
wind, with "bursts " of hail rising often to a furious
and full-blown nor'wester, such as makes one thankful
for a good roof overhead.

The general form and type of the "Hail cloud"
is pretty well known to observers of atmospheric
phenomena. In most cases it greatly resembles the
snow-cumulus, though generally more craggy in
outline, harder in its edges, and more attended by
stratus * at its base. There are, however, several types
of snow-cloud. When drifting against a clear sky,
the latter presents a more fleecy and softer edging,
though in its general form it must be grouped, like
that which originates hail-showers, with the class of
"Animal" cloud, i.e. condensed t Fracto-cumuhis.
Both of these are again closely akin to the Electric
cumulus, or Cone-cloud (see Science-Gossip for
July, 1879). This is natural enough when we recollect
the frequent connection existing between the hail-
shower and electrical discharges, and the part that
electricity is known to play in the condensation
and cohesion of the watery particles.

Let us notice now that a "law" seems to hold
good in regard to the origin of the different forms of
cloud, and that this law is the real principle by virtue
of which it is possible to forecast weather from the
observation of clouds. This relation, which we may
term a "law of correspondence," between the
particles composing a cloud and the general form of
the mass, varies its manifestations with the tem-
perature and other physical conditions of the medium
in which the vapoury particles are floating : yet the
principle involved in the connection between the form
of the body and the molecules which compose it is

constant.

It is a physical or chemical question to deter-
mine the special forms that will be originated by
given component particles under given physical con-
ditions. To determine such resultant forms, in the
case of previously unknown substances, is a problem

* This indicates a closer affinity with the rain cloud or

n"f This is the term adopted by Professor Po'ey, and indicates
a mass broken by wind.

HARBWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

•difficult in the highest degree, and I suppose practi-
cally insoluble in the generality of instances, except
where an approximating form may be guessed at, by
witnessing the evolutions that result from analogous
substances.

To forecast, for example, the general form which
would be assumed by an aggregation of the crystals
of some hitherto uncompounded chemical, would be
an impossibility, except by examining the effect of
known combinations almost similar in composition.

Still more difficult would it be to suggest the form
likely to be taken by a tree, from an examination of
the seed, though even here analogy might suggest
something. But it could suggest nothing as to the
method of development with regard to the arrange-
ment of particles, nor as to the reason of their

An Owen may rebuild, from the fragments pre-
sented to him, the frame of a being long extinct,
whose remains lie imbedded in the bowels of the
earth, and we accept his construction because we
believe it to be based on the order of Nature shown
by the exact observation of analogous forms. But
even Owen's efforts to reconstruct would be simply
abortive, and the result a falsity, were it not for the
permanence and continuity of law in Nature. With-
out the operation of such law within the component
particles, no species either in the animal or vegetable
world could possibly possess " continuity" of form.

It is sufficient for our present purpose to direct
attention to the relation existing between "mass"
and "particle." But it is also necessary to point
out that there must always be a great defect in the

Fig. i. — Anvil Clouds.

taking the particular form under observation. The
seeds of two different plants may be exceedingly
alike in general structure and composition, yet the
form of their leaves and stem will present the widest
possible diversity.

Yet in considering the process of growth, we must
not overlook the variety of elements which may be
absorbed from the earth and atmosphere. It is not
a question of the simple evolution of a given material
into an organism from a given embryo, but of the
drawing into a focus or vortex a great variety of
elements, operated on by an almost equal variety
of forces. The laws which regulate the operation
of those forces are the laws which originate the
various forms that meet our eyes, and produce a
resulting structure characterised by permanence and
beauty.

value of illustrations from the mixing of liquids ot
differing density, such as those adduced by the late
Professor Jevons. The movements and elasticity of
the atmosphere vary too greatly from ordinary
"liquids" to allow of experiments in mixing being
of much practical value in regard to known forms of
cloud. And in addition to mechanical movements
we have earth magnetism to deal with, which, from
its known connection with auroral manifestations,
may not unreasonably be thought to influence the
aggregation of vapour.

Samuel Barber.

One of the last new things out is a watch whose
face can be lit up at night by a small electric lamp.
This will prove a useful watch for seafaring men.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

CHAPTERS ON COLOUR;

By S. A. Notcutt, jun., B.A., B.Sc.

No. I.

THE natural starting-point in this subject is the
colour of ordinary bodies and pigments which
we see by the aid of external light, usually white
light. This light, on passing through a prism is, we
know, split up into the prismatic colours, forming
what is called the spectrum ; and thus we learn that
sunlight is composed of rays of light of almost every
different colour. On holding a piece of red glass in
the path of the rays as they issue from the prism, the
green and blue portions of the spectrum disappear,
leaving little else than red, for the red glass absorbs
the green and blue rays.

Similarly, blue glass would absorb the yellow and
other rays, and, in fact, with various glasses and
coloured solutions, we can absorb any particular set
of rays we like, and in each case the rays that
remain after this process of absorption constitute the
particular colour of the glass or solution.

This is the case with transparent coloured bodies.
In the case of an opaque body, such as a pigment, a
portion of the light falling on it is reflected at the
surface, and as a rule is not changed in colour ; but
another portion penetrates the substance, and since
the internal structure of such a substance is always
irregular, this portion of the light is soon reflected
back ; however, in passing and repassing through the
superficial layer of the substance, it suffers absorp-
tion, and hence issues forth as coloured light, the
colour being what we recognise as the colour of the
body.

In a leaf a very thin layer of the colouring matter,
chlorophyl, is sufficient to absorb all the orange, blue
and violet rays contained in the incident light; hence
the light reflected back from the interior of the leaf is
without these rays, and since the remaining rays
together constitute a green light the leaf looks green.

" Thus," says Tyndall, " natural bodies have
showered upon them, in the white light of the sun,
the sum total of all possible colours ; and their action
is limited to the sifting of that total, the appropriating
from it of the colours which really belong to them,
and the rejecting of those^ which do not. We may
therefore say that it is the portion of light which
they reject, and not that which belongs to them, that
gives bodies their colours."

It is sometimes convenient to be able to compare
by means of a diagram the light transmitted by two
different media. This is usually accomplished by
taking a rectangle to represent the solar spectrum,
and in it drawing a curve, the ordinates or distances
measured upwards for any point of the curve repre-
senting the amount of light which is transmitted of
that particular part of the spectrum.

On comparing the diagram of the light reflected by
green pigment with that of the green light from
vegetation, we find a considerable difference (Figs. 2
and 3). We see that besides a quantity of yellow
and green being transmitted by the foliage green,
a portion of the extreme red is also transmitted.
If we therefore cut off the yellow and green light
coming from foliage, we should expect it to appear
red, and this is seen to be the case on viewing
a garden or field through 'glass stained a deep blue
with cobalt. In sunlight a piece of yellow glass
should be added, to cut off the extreme blue and
violet.

A sunny landscape viewed through these two
glasses presents a curious appearance : green trees
and plants are a red colour, the sky is greenish-blue,
the clouds purplish -violet, and anything orange
appears blood-red. The absorption diagram of these
two glasses shows that they cut off almost all the green
light furnished by leaves, but transmit the bluish-green
rays which leaves do not furnish.

An interesting phenomenon depending on absorp-
tion is that known as dichromatism, which is the
variation in the apparent colour of an absorbing
medium when different thicknesses are used. Thus
the colour of a solution of litmus enclosed ;in a
wedge-shaped glass vessel, varies from blue at the
thinnest part to red at the thickest. Chromium
chloride varies from green to red ; potassium perman-
ganate from purple to blue ; reduced haemoglobin
from green to purple. Several thicknesses of yellow
glass appear red.

This phenomenon depends on the principle that if
a certain thickness, say one centimetre, of a medium
absorbs a certain proportion of the rays, then the
same proportion of the remainder of the rays will be
absorbed on passing through another centimetre of
the medium. In the case of litmus, suppose that in
the incident light there are one hundred blue rays to
every ten rays of such wave length, that they are
partially transmitted by the solution, whilst rays of
any other refrangibility are completely absorbed ;
then after passing through an extremely thin layer,
the emergent light will be a deep blue, the proportion
of blue to red being ten to one, and the red being
thereupon scarcely noticeable. Now suppose that
each millimetre of the solution absorbs one-tenth of
the red and one-half of the blue rays, then after
passing through 1 mm., the light will contain nine red
rays to every fifty blue, and after passing through
successive millimetres of the solution, the proportion
of red to blue rays will be as the table below (taken
from Glazebrook's " Physical Optics "), from which it
is apparent that the relative intensity of red to blue in
the emergent light has altered from a proportion of
1 to 10 to one of more than 3 to 1 as the thickness,
has been increased to 6 mms., and the light is finally
a reddish-purple, which may be made quite red by
increasing the thickness sufficiently.

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G O SSI P.

Thickness.

Red.

Blue.

mm.

O

IO

IOO

I

9

50

2

8-1

25

3

7-29

12-5

4

6-56

6-25

5

5*9

3"I2

6

5'3

I-56

In the case of most natural bodies, we have seen
that the colour is due to an absorption of portions of
the light in traversing a small thickness of the
substance, and in the subsequent reflection from the
•interior. In these cases the portion of the light
•reflected from the surface itself is of the same colour
as the incident light. With metals and allied bodies,
this is not always the case. In the act of reflection
at the surface of a metal, a partial selection takes
place with regard to the rays. In the light reflected
from a sovereign, yellow rays predominate, whilst
the interior of a gold-plated vessel shines with a still
deeper orange-yellow, owing to the selection exercised
by each successive reflection.

Some metals only exhibit colour on such often-
a-epeated reflections. Light thus reflected from
.steel becomes blue ; from silver, yellow.

Another remarkable feature about metallic re-
flection, is the amoujit of light reflected ; whereas
white paper only reflects 40 per cent., polished
silver reflects 92 per cent, of the incident light.

It is these peculiarities in the nature of metallic
surface which render a gilt frame so suitable for
■enclosing a painting, since it isolates it from
surrounding objects, and does not intrude its own
■ colour upon the painting, since that colour is of a
different character to the colour of the pigments
msed in the painting.

The ordinary colour of metals is then due to the
components of white light, which are entirely re-
flected . If we obtain a sufficiently thin sheet of a
.metal, we can examine the light transmitted through
it ; and this, as we should expect, will be of a
different colour to the ordinary colour of the metal.
In the case of gold, the light at the first surface is
.robbed of its yellow rays, which are completely
reflected, and the transmitted portion consists of blue
or bluish-green rays. Gold can be easily precipitated
i 1 the metallic state from its solutions, and being
then in a very fine state of division, is capable of
transmitting light. Such solutions containing pre-
• cipitated gold, appear bluish-green by transmitted
li^ht, and orange-red by reflected light.

There are many other bodies which display similar
■colour phenomena to metals. In the case of a
.crystal of permanganate of potash, the light reflected

from the surface is green. The crystal itself is almost
opaque, so that it is not easy to observe the colour of
light transmitted through it ;, but we find that the
colour of a solution of it is a deep purple, well-known
as Condy's fluid. Solutions of the aniline dyes when
spread on glass and allowed to dry — so as to leave a
thin film of colour — display one colour when we look
through them, and another when we observe the
light reflected from their surface.

The ordinary aniline ink (used for writing on
graphs) is of a violet colour ; but light reflected
obliquely from the surface of such writing is apple-
green. Light reflected from the surface of a film of
blue aniline is bronze.

There is another phenomenon attendant on the
reflection of light from metallic bodies, which is that
the reflected beam is at no angle completely plane-
polarised ; i.e. it always consists of two parts, one
plane-polarised, and one not ; whereas, with most
surfaces, at some particular angle the incident beam
is completely polarised.

So far we have dealt with questions of colour
involving absorption. Let us now examine the results
obtained by the mixture of coloured lights which is
quite distinct from the mixture of pigments on the
painter's palette. Various methods have been adopted
for this purpose. Lambert and Heluiholtz used a verti-
cal plate of glass, with a piece of coloured paper placed
horizontally on each side, and observed the union
of the reflected and transmitted colours. When one
of the pieces of paper is yellow and the other red,
their superimposed image is orange. With blue and
yellow papers the image is grey. Maxwell's colour-
top is one of the most convenient methods of making
colour mixtures. It consists of a spindle capable of
making rapid revolutions, on one end of which
coloured discs of cardboard, seven or eight inches
in diameter, are placed. Each disc has a radial
slit to allow of other discs being combined with it, so
that a composite disc can be formed with several
sectors of different colours. When such a disc is
rotated at from twenty-five to fifty revolutions a
second, the sensation aroused in the eye by one
sector has not time to disappear before the images
of the other sectors are brought to bear, and con-
sequently a complete fusion of the colours takes
place. When a yellow and blue disc are combined
and rotated, the whole appears a dull grey ; vermilion
and a bluish-green also yield a grey, as do purple
and emerald green. Now a surface is grey which,
while it reflects white light, does not reflect so much
as white paper or chalk does. Therefore we may
say, that these pairs of colours produce by their
mixture the sensation of white light of a low
intensity. Two colours which do this are said to be
complementary. Other colours when combined may
produce the sensation of some intermediate colour in
the spectrum. For instance, a disc half red and
half yellow, when rotated looks orange. A green

8

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

and violet disc looks blue ; a red and blue, purple.
Considering the formation of the sensation of orange
in this way : the colour produced is indistinguish-
able by the eye from the same colour in the spectrum,
but whilst the orange beam in the spectrum consists
of rays of definite wave-lengths, and is not split up
into further colours by passing through another
spectroscope, the composite orange beam formed
by the mixture of red and yellow rays, consists
of rays of quite different wave-length (those corre-
sponding to red and yellow), and is again split up
into the original colours that formed it on traversing

the large one. When the colour is a bright and
intense one, the white or black must be combined
with it, that is, must be subtracted from the other
three. The amount of the several colours used can
be determined numerically by measuring the angle-
included in each coloured sector, and in this way
Maxwell obtained his colour equations.

Maxwell's colour-box is an apparatus by which any
two or three portions of the spectrum can be made to-
overlap, and the resulting light examined. This is
by far the most accurate means of determining colour
mixtures.

ABC

Re::!. Yel. Gr= Blue. Violet.

Fig. 2.— Diagram of light reflected from green pigment. (O. N. Rood.1

A B C

Red.

Yel.

Gr,1.4

Bi

Fig. 3. — Diagram of light relected by green leaves. (O. N. Rood.)

a spectroscope. In fact it is only the sensation of
orange, which is the same as the sensation of red and
yellow combined ; or, the mixture of red and yellow
rays to form an orange sensation is a physiological
and not a physical one. Hence we are led to
conclude (in the words of Professor M. Foster), "That
an orange ray awakens either a simple sensory
impulse which developes into a complex sensation, or
a complex impulse (formed of impulses corresponding
to red and yellow) becoming converted into a mixed
or complex sensation."

In this respect the eye differs strikingly from the
ear ; for two notes, when sounded together, do not
give rise to an intermediate note. The ear is able to
analyse such complex sounds more or less.

The facts gathered from the above experiments
with the colour-top, are included in a more general
statement in regard to colour mixture which Max-
well proved to be true ; namely, that by combining
white or black with any other three colours, which
were sufficiently dissimilar, any other colour could
be matched. To assist in the comparison a smaller
disc of the colour to be matched is set on the face of

FLOSCULARIA ANNULATA.

ALTHOUGH this flosculehas not been described,
it was found (for the first time) in the summer
of 1882, in a marsh pool on Tent's Muir, Fifeshire ;
but only two individuals were found at that time. I
sent both of them to Dr. Hudson, of Clifton. One of
them died on the long journey ; the other survived,
but, unfortunately, arrived in a sickly condition. It
exhibited itself often enough, however, to enable Dr.
Hudson to draw a very good sketch of it ; but it was
in so laneuishine: a condition that it died before he
could make a satisfactory diagnosis of it. In the
summer of 1886, I found a few more specimens in the
Black Loch, Perthshire, and this summer (1887) I
have again fished a number of specimens out of the
same loch ; and these have afforded me ample
opportunity for studying the creature's habits.

Its corona is a hemispherical cup, whose edge is
cut into three lobes of unequal size, the lobe on the
dorsal side being the largest. It differs from F.
trilobata and F. Hoodii (whose coronne also bear three
lobes), not only in the form of the lobes, but in th e

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G 0 SSI P.

fact that the tips of the lobes only are crowned with
short setae (Fig. 4 /) ; whereas, with F. Hoodii and
F. trilobata, there are double rows of setse that run
round the whole margin of their corona, a little below
which are three bands or rings (Fig. 4 r) of a brown
colour. The colour is due to granules floating in the
fluid between the outer and inner membranes when
viewed with transmitted light ; but if examined as an
opaque object, with reflected light, the colour of the
rings is white. (Hence the reason it has been called
F. anmilata.)

At the bottom of the corona, just under the third
ring, is the vestibule (Fig. 4 %<), where is visible (in a
good light) a contractile collar, with a horse-shoe-
shaped rim, clothed with vibratile cilia (Fig. 4 cc),

lips of the buccal orifice dart forward with a snap, and
the prey is forced down, one by one, through the tube
into the crop. The little victims may be observed
wriggling about within the crop until they are caught
by a pair of curved jaws which are situated at the
bottom of the crop, and the entrance to the stomach
(Fig. 4 /), which is called the maxillary process.

The action of the jaws is an upward motion, and
at the same time they open out to seize the food and
drag it into the stomach. It is indeed interesting to
witness the operation. Sometimes the jaws close on
the spherical body of a monad a little below its
centre ; and when it so happens that the jaws fail to
clutch it, the spherical body rebounds back into the
crop, just as a person grasping at an indiarubber

'

,

Fit. 4. — Floscularia anmilata, side view.

Fig. 5. — Floscularia anmilata, ventral \ie\v.

whose motion generates an inward current, which
carries with it infusorians within the expanded mouth-
funnel. When once a monad has entered into the
vestibule corona, there is no escape, for if it please
the palate of the floscule, its doom is sealed ; for,
although the creature will suffer at times one or two
monads to swim about in its large mouth, yet at any
attempt to pass out over the margin, the lobes are
drawn together, and the passage is closed. At the
bottom of the vestibule there is a slit with two lips,
called the buccal orifice (Fig. 4 bo), to which is
attached a tube that hangs into a chamber called the
crop (Fig. 4 c), which moves with an undulating
motion.

When the floscule has got one or two monads
within the vestibule, the collar contracts quickly, the

ball with finger and thumb a little below its centre,
produces the same result. This rebound shows the
toughness and elasticity of the cuticula of these
minute monads.

The jaws assist very little in the mastication of the
food, as their function seems to be simply to drag it
into the stomach. Digestion seems to be performed
wholly in the stomach and alimentary canal, and
these organs are lined with vigorous vibratile cilia
whose operation serves to triturate the food. The
ovary is an oblong sac with spherical transparent
germs, but when an egg is well developed (Fig. 4,°-) it
is opaque and fills a large portion of the body cavity
(Fig. 4 e), and when ready for expulsion the creature
retires into its tube. The egg is at first forced half
out of the vent, the animal then moves slowly out of

IO

HARD WICKE' S S CIENCE- G OS SIP.

its tube and comes to an erect position with its corona
fully expanded. It then remains in that way (if not
disturbed) for nearly an hour, and then again retires
into its tube to finish the operation of depositing the
egg- With some apparent exertion the creature lays
the egg well down into its transparent gelatinous tube
close to its long foot. The foot itself (Fig. 4/) is long
and flexible, and is capable of great expansion and
very swift contraction, for on the least alarm the
creature retreats into its tube with lightning speed.
A longitudinal muscle runs down the whole length of
the foot and is strengthened by numerous fine
muscular transverse rings from its junction with the
trunk to its extremity, where there is attached a short
non-contractile peduncle (Fig. 4 c) which terminates
in a disk which is fastened to a leaf of sphagnum,
or other aquatic plant, by a viscous fluid secreted by
a gland at the extremity of the foot for the purpose.
The respiratory or water vascular system in F.
anmdata is not easily traced, as its trunk is rendered
rather opaque by whitish granules that float in the
fluid between the outer and inner membranes. But
when the creature is kept for two days in clear water
without proper food, the creature is so starved that it
becomes very transparent, 'so that the details of the
internal organs can be traced with less difficulty.
The slender tortuous vessels can be observed leading
down to the contracting bladder, situated near the
junction of the foot with the trunk (Fig. 4 c b). The
F. annulata, like. all the other species of the same
genus, inhabits a transparent tube secreted by the
animal itself, which not only serves to protect the
creature'itself from its natural enemies, but also serves
as a protection for its eggs from the ravages of
aquatic worms and larvae, for although the material
of the tube is tough enough to resist the attacks of a
large number of worms and larvce, yet there are some,
especially of the larva; of the dragon-fly, with their
powerful mandibles, which cut through the tube and
devour both parent and eggs. The material of the
tube is so transparent that the observation of its
contents is comparatively easy.

The F. anmdata deposits from three to six female
eggs in its tube, which take about five to six days to
hatch. Six or eight hours before the embryo bursts
its shell, two red eye-spots are very conspicuous ;
also a ciliary motion, and a twitching of the whole
contents of the egg, are observed. The twitching
becomes yet more vigorous, until at last the embryo
bursts through its shell and, propelled by a wreath of
delicate frontal vibratile cilia, it soon finds its way
out of its mother domicile, and swims rapidly round
its parent ; then strikes out with a graceful motion
through the water, poking amongst the weeds in
quest of a fitting place to start housekeeping on its
own account.

It seems to be rather particular in selecting a site
to build its future residence. I have seen one alight
on the leaves and axil of a plant in a dozen places,

before it made a final selection of a spot to fix its foot ;
and a few hours after the young floscule was encased
in a thin gelatinous tube, with its foot, trunk, and
corona (although smaller in size) developed in the
same form as its parent.

I have not yet met with the male of F. annulata,
nor even the male of the other three-lobed species.
There are sixteen known species of the genus Flos-
cularia ; the males in eight of them only have yet
been found, leaving the males of eight species to be
discovered.

The males of those that have not yet been found
are F. rcgalis, F. Mira, F. longicaudata, F. Algicola,
F. trdobata, F. Hoodii, F. annulata, F. edentata.

The males of those species that have been discovered
are F. coronctta, F. ornata, F. cornuta, F. cydops, F.
catnpamdata, F. ambigua, F. calva, F. mutabdis.

The whole sixteen species of the genus Floscularia
are inhabitants of fresh water, with the single ex-
ception of F. ornata, which is now known to inhabit
both fresh and salt water. I had the good fortune to
find the F. ornata very plentiful in tide pools at the
mouth of the Firth of Tay in the summers of 1885
and 1886.

The length of full-grown specimens of F. anmdata
is from B?T to 35 of an inch.

John Hood, F.R.M.S.

Dundee.

FURTHER NOTES ON THE TOOTHWORT
{LATHRsEA SQUAMARIA).

EACH year, since 1883, when I first found L.
squamaria in the locality indicated by G. E.
Smith, in his " Plants of South Kent," published in
1829, I have visited the place, and on each occasion
have found the plants all bearing the characters I
described in Science-Gossip, January, 1884. In
connection with my notes of that date, I would
remark that it has been thought that Smith's plant
was an old one, gone to seed, and that mine was a
young, imperfectly developed plant. The editor's
note, page 143, vol. xx. was in reference to specimens
I .sent him in full seed, and which were quite as
crowded as the plant photographed by me. I have
not yet found any plant in the least approaching that
described and figured by Smith.

The plants I gathered in 1S83 were growing in a
section of the copse, which I will call for reference
No. 1, and which had remained undisturbed for, I
should say, from fifteen to eighteen years. There was
but little undergrowth; the hazels, &c, being well up.
In an adjoining section of the same copse (No. 2) of
about two years' growth, I, together with several
others, searched most assiduously for the plant, but
without success. During the winter of that year,
No. 1 section was cut down, and in 18S4 there were

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

IT

comparatively few specimens to be found, and none
in No. 2 section. In 1SS5, I found but three specimens
in No. 1 section, and again none in No. 2.

In 1886, I could not find a single plant in No. I
section, although I paid several visits, and took with
me several good searchers ; but in No. 2 section I
found two plants.

In 1S87 I was still unable to find any plants in
No. r, while in No. 2, which is now about six years
old, I found the plant in comparative abundance. Of
course, during the first few years following the cutting
down of a copse, the undergrowth is very considerable,
and the difficulties of finding so small a plant as
L. squamaria are great. But I feel convinced, from
my experience, that its appearance is influenced (like
that of some other woodland plants) by the condition
of the copse with regard to its undergrowth.

That it has a most remarkable vitality, the following
(communicated to me by G. B. Wollaston, Esq., of
Chislehurst) will show. He informs me that he had
a plant of Z. squamaria in a flower-pot for about
twenty years, during which time it never appeared
above ground, but that at the end of the twenty years
it was as sound and fresh as when first put into the
pot. Its not appearing above ground was of course
due to its want of food supply, it being parasitic.

Plants that have acquired the habit of parasitism —
whether partial or complete — may naturally be
expected to afford evidences of the time when they
lived free and independent lives, in the retention or
partial retention of organs or peculiarities of structure,
which were absolutely necessary for them in their free
and independent condition, but which are now of no
further service to them, the host performing the
function for the plant which its own structure enabled
it then to perform for itself.

• The animal world affords numberless instances of
useless and aborted organs, evidently remnants of a
■previous condition of existence requiring a different
organization ; and in the vegetable world, no doubt,
the instances will be found as numerous when the
same amount of attention has been given to it. We
already know of many modified leaves, aborted and
imperfectly developed styles, &c. &c., and as cur
knowledge of the physiology of plant-life increases, it
may reasonably be assumed that many remnants of a
past condition will be discovered. That they will be
so marked and diverse as in the animal world we
should not expect ; the functions and surroundings of
the one being so many and various in comparison with
those of the other.

Z. squamaria affords us several remarkable and
interesting features, illustrating "adaptation to
environment " and the modification of organs to
perform functions other than those primarily per-
formed.

The peculiar fleshy scales of the plant under con-
sideration I believe to be an excellent illustration of
the retention of organs no longer of service to the

plant for their original function, and of the modifica-
tion of those organs, adapting them to the performance
of a new and totally different one. If a transverse
section be made of one of these scales, it will be found
to possess several irregularly-shaped cavities (Fig. 6),
and on the walls of these cavities will be found
numerous little gland-like bodies.

These little bodies have been noticed by many
observers ; but what special function they perform
has not (so far as I can learn) been hitherto discovered.
In addition to these gland-like bodies, and scattered
between them on the surface of the cavities will be
seen numerous symmetrically arranged cells, reminding
one of stomata. What function, however, could
stomata possibly perform in this enclosed cavity ?
Certainly not the ordinary function of respiration.
But that they are stomata, although perhaps useless
and aborted, I think I have sufficient evidence to
prove. Also that the little gland-like bodies are
really glandular hairs, which, together with the
stomata, occupied their usual position on the inferior
side of the leaf of the plant before it acquired its
parasitic habit.

How, why, and when Z. squamaria took upon itself
the habit of parasitism, are questions that can be
answered by speculation only. That the habit was
acquired gradually, we infer from observation — since
changes in habit, and still more in structure, can take
place but slowly.

Probably the first act towards parasitism was the
developing of cells, which, coming into contact with
some other growing vegetable substance, had the
power of attaching themselves to it ; and as Z.
squamaria is a succulent, rapidly-growing plant, it
helped itself to the nutriment of its neighbour through
these attached cells. This habit gradually grew
until the plant became, as we now find it, wholly
dependent for its existence on some strong and
vigorous host.

Probably this proclivity to parasitism was brought
about by the circumstances of its environment. What
these were we cannot know ; but that the habit
became necessary to its existence we may be sure,
and also that the cells possessing the function of
attachment and absorption must be considered as a
development or adaptation for this special function.
As the habit of parasitism developed, the leaves and
roots would gradually give up their own special
functions, and, if suitably positioned, would adapt
themselves to the new order of things ; the plant
either losing them entirely or partially, or modifying
them to new functions. Thus the leaves of Z. squa-
maria appear to have become modified.

An examination of the very young scales will
reveal the fact, that they have apparently started
life as ordinary leaves ; instead, however, of develop-
ing a flat blade, as in an ordinary leaf, the young
leaf takes a sharp bend downwards, and folds back
upon itself, as in Fig. 7. The cells of the leaf

12

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G 0 SSI P.

which come into contact, clue to this folding back,
are apparently possessed of the power of uniting, and
thus forming the cavities seen in a longitudinal
section. The formation of these cavities is due to
the linear growth of the aborted leaf; the bending
back of the leaf first takes place, as just remarked,
when very young and small. Points, probably of
the raised ribs near the apex, are brought into
contact with other points near the base ; attachment
takes place, thus forming the first cavity ; the leaf,
by growth, increases in length, both between the
points of attachment and the apex, and the same
points and the base, which, afier proceeding a
certain distance, again come into contact and unite,
forming a second cavity, and so on (Fig. 7). A
transverse section reveals cavities that radiate from
the stem. These are probably caused by the uniting
of the underneath ribs of the leaf; for through each
partition wall, between the cavities, may be traced
the vascular bundles which ran through the ribs of
the leaf in its earlier history, and which are
continued through the base of the leaf into the
stem, as seen in the transverse and longitudinal
sections (Figs. 6 and 9).

The cavities in the scale are sometimes separate
and distinct from each other, but more generally
several, or even all, are united, forming one large
cavity with deep recesses.

The apex of the leaf or scale, folded back upon
the base, is never attached cell to cell, the tissue
here never being continuous. It is, however, in-
variably pressed quite close ; so close indeed, that
in the cavity of a fully-developed scale I have never
found any extraneous matter (I shall, however, refer
to a younger scale later on). Fig. 9 is a fair example
of the numerous scales I have examined. Hence,
though these cavities are not hermetically sealed by
cell-fusion, they may be considered practically air-
tight, and may thus be correctly termed enclosed
cavities, and, as such, they will render the stomata
useless. It must not, however, be forgotten that the
united cavities converge to the apex, which suggests
that some time in the past they were in communication
through an opening here, with the outer air ; and
also the probability of the stomata carrying on their
function in a gradually lessening degree, until the
opening was finally closed.

With regard to the method of development of the
scales, I am at a loss to determine whether it is due
to a folding back, and attachment taking place as
described, or whether, after the folding back, caused
by the cells of the ribs not being developed at the
same speed as those of the lamina, has taken place,
these former are (subsequently) developed with a
speed equal to the growth of the lamina cells, and
continuity is thus preserved. This appears to me to
be a question presenting great difficulties, ss it is
highly probable that both methods obtain ; the first
in order being the method by attachment, gradually

superseded by the continuous method, which latter
may be replaced in course of time, if needed, by the
production of the thick fleshy scale, without any
break in the continuity of its tissue from the stem.

From these observations it will be seen that, which-
ever way the development of the scales may take
place, it is such that the stomata and glandular hairs
of a previous condition are enclosed in cavities, which
may, in the course of development, altogether dis-
appear, cell tissue taking their place.

If it be true, that the leaves of L. squamaria
have become aborted as leaves, and developed into

Fig. 6. — Transverse section of a fully-developed scale, showing
arrangement of cavities and vascular tissue. X 4.

Fig. 7. — Longitudinal section of scale, illustrating the method
of the folding back of the lamina, and the formation thereby
of the longitudinal cavities. X 12.

thick fleshy scales, it then follows that these scales
must have a definite function to perform, for it does
not appear feasible that such large and numerous
appendages should be retained and developed without
serving some purpose in the economy of the plant.
The primary function of these scales I believe to be
one of food-storage ; the attachments of the plant to
its host, as we shall presently see, while perhaps
numerous, and in some cases very complete, do not
seem sufficient to maintain the rapid growth of the
thick succulent stem, the comparatively large flowers,
and the production of the numerous seeds. The

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

13

period of the year in which L. squamaria blossoms
(viz. April) is, of course, one in which great activity of
growth is going on in the host, and food supply
.-hould be abundant. But, however complete the
attachment may be to the host, there must be some
limit to the speed at which food materials can be
supplied, especially when it is considered that at this

host's activity, during which, when not appearing
above ground, it was storing up material in its
scales for its next flowering. In August, 1886, I dug
up a plant (previously marked) on which the scales
were about half-grown, and with the flower-spikes
about half an inch long. (Shown exact size in Fig. 10.)
This points to conditions such as obtain in the

Fig. 8. — Stomata and glandular hairs in cavity or scale, (a) stomata ;
(i) a stoma, with guard cells removed ; [c) glandular hairs ; [d) stem cells
of glandular hairs. X 220. _,_ t-Li . ,

Fig. 11.— Cavity of young scale with spores and
mycelium of a fungus enclosed. X 50.

Fig. 9.— Longitudinal section of fully-developed scales, show-
ing the connection of the small cavities with one another, also
the unattached apex. X 4.

Fig. 10. — Flower spike, as found in August, 18S6.

Fig. 12. — Transverse section of underground stem near the base, showing
attachments to the host (hazel), [a) Hazel root : (b) vascular tissue of host ;
(c) vascular tissue of parasite ; [d) parenchyma of parasite ; (e) parenchyma
of host; (/)two small rootlets of the hosts attached ; (.r) sections of young
scales. X 7.

time the host is needing all its resources on its own
account. It certainly would be strange if, during the
seven months' activity of the host, a period of only
five or 'six weeks was utilised by the parasite. The
most natural act (if I may so describe such an un-
natural proceeding) would appear to be, that the
parasite took advantage of the whole time of the

Orobanches, which remain under ground for several
years, occupying the time in storing up food-material
in the large scaly bulbous base of the stem ; so in all
probability does L. squamaria store up in these
fleshy scales the necessary supplies for the period of
flowering.

The cellular tissue of fully developed scales is

14

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

crowded with starch granules ; and, after flowering,
many of the scales may be found in a half-decomposed
state, quite black and exhausted.

In addition to this function of food-storage, I am
inclined to think (but of this I have at present but
little evidence), that the epidermal cells of the scales
have the power of attaching themselves to any
suitable root with which they may come into contact.
But although I have searched very diligently, and
washed very carefully, I have not yet succeeded in
securing any example showing such attachment.

In the first place, the attachment, if any, is but
very slight, and in the next, the soil in which I find
the plant is very clayey and difficult to remove ; but,
from several specimens I possess, exhibiting an
altered or abnormal condition of some few of the
epidermal cells, I am strongly of opinion that they
possess this power.

This leads me to the consideration of the mode in
which L. squamaria attaches itself to its host. Dr.
Trimen, in his very interesting article on " Parasitism
of Flowering Plants," in the " Popular Science
Review," July, 1873, mentions, "... thick tooth-hkc
scales, from the axils of some of which slender rootlets
are given off. The observations of Mr. Bowman, in
1829, first showed that upon these rootlets were
borne the absorbent tubercules. Carefully washing
away the soil will show these attached to the rootlets
of the supporting plant, and a section through both
displays a perforating cone penetrating the bark at
least, and, as I am informed by Mr. Stratton,
actually pushing its way into the very wood."

"Without questioning the accuracy of these obser-
vations, I must confess that I have been unable, so
far, to discover any such rootlets. I have found
many rootlets of the host and of other plants —
growing near — interwoven, as it were, between the
scales and stem ; and when it is considered that the
soil in which the plant grows is invariably dense
with these rootlets, it is not surprising that they
should be found so interwoven.

The only attachment that I have been able to
discover and fix with certainty, is that which the
parasite makes to its host, at and near the extremity
of its underground stem. Here it seizes upon, and
absorbs into itself, the rootlets of its host, the union
usually being so complete that it cannot be deter-
mined where the one begins or the other leaves off.
Not only the parenchyma, but the vascular tissues
also unite, so that the one is continuous with the
other. Near the end of the stem the number of
host-rootlets absorbed is sometimes very great, a
thin transverse section frequently showing four or
five attachments ; the rootlets seized are sometimes
very large.

It is beyond these attached rootlets that the
branching of the underground stem takes place. I
have found as many as fourteen branches upon one
such stem ; and on none of these have I been able

to discover any other attachment, with the exception
of the doubtful one mentioned in connection with
the scales. If, then, this is the only attachment,
weight is added to my conclusion that the function
of the scales is that of food-storage.

In a previous paragraph I have mentioned the fact
of not having found any extraneous matter in the
cavities of fully-developed scales. In several young
ones (gathered in 1885 and 1886), I have, however,
found the mycelium of a fungus in great abundance,
and have been fortunate in getting sections showing the
spores of this fungus developing. As these spores
are a considerable size (too large to get in after the
closing of the cavity), I am of opinion that they are
enclosed by the folding back of the leaf. Fig. 11
represents a cavity with spores and mycelium en-
closed.

I am not acquainted with L. clandestina, the
other European species, or with any other foreign
ones ; but it would be interesting to know whether
they resemble L. squamaria in the several charac-
teristics mentioned, or whether the modification of
the scales, if any, is at a different stage.

With regard to the allied genus Orobanche — O.
picris, O. caryophyllaceiT, O. major, and O. minor —
the only species of which I have any knowledge —
the method of attachment is very similar, the tissues
of host and parasite so coalescing that it is very
difficult to trace the connection.

In Cuscuta the haustoria are distinct cells, pene-
trating the tissues of the host. So in Pedicularis,
Rhinanthus, and Melampyrum ; but in these the
attachment is very slight indeed, and quite different
from that which obtains in the Orobanchaceae.

W. T. Haydon.

Dover.

RUDIMENTS AND VESTIGES.

IN an article which appeared in the October
issue of Science-Gossip, I remarked that,
" In the sense in which the term Rudimentary is
repeatedly to be found in ' The Descent of Man '
(i.e. to express the supposed 'vestiges of structures
existing in early types'), it is a contradiction to the
theory of evolution."

Your correspondent, Mr. F. G. Fenn, defends Mr.
Darwin's use of it, and confidently asserts that there
is a "double meaning" for " the word." He gives
two explanations, the exact opposite of one another ;
the first expressing, " vestiges of structures existing
in early types" — i.e. something left behind from a
once fully developed organ, at the very end of its
existence ; and the second expressing " the fore-
shadowings or beginnings of structures in process of
devolopment."

How these two contrary meanings can be given to
the same word requires explanation.

That Mr. Darwin employed the term in the former

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE - G O SSI P.

i5

sense is evident, as " vestige " and " rudiment " are
used by him interchangeably, and his own explanation
of the word " rudimentary" is as follows. He says,
" In order to understand the existence of rudimentary
organs, we have only to suppose that a former pro-
genitor possessed the parts in question in a perfect
state, and that under changed habits of life they
became greatly reduced." But he especially contra-
dicts the latter meaning attributed to him by Mr.
Fenn.

Far from stating that rudimentary organs are
"beginnings of structures in process of development,"
Mr. Darwin explains that they "are either absolutely
useless," or "tending in this direction," and that
they must be distinguished from "nascent organs,"
which, he says, " on the other hand, though not fully
developed, &c, are capable of further development."

From this it is plain that in the one sense only
does Mr. Darwin allow that the word is used by him ;
and to show the confusion of ideas that the retention
of the terms in this sense is bound to involve, was the
object of my paper.

Mr. Fenn's statement that " many able anatomists
and naturalists would now use ' vestiges ' in the place
of 'rudimentary,' " only tends to suggest a doubt of
its correct application. Why should vestigial be
substituted, unless rudimentary appeared unsuitable ?
And we have only to refer to its derivation, and to
the authority of numerous writers, to perceive at once
that it is eminently unsuitable. Dryden, Addison,
Bacon — all used the word rudimentary in its true
sense of "first, inaccurate, unshapen, beginning or
original of anything."

With Shakspeare, Locke, Milton, and others, it
also meant "first principles and first elements" ; and
many authors of repute might be quoted to confirm
this as the rightful use of the word. Only, I believe,
among modern scientists would the strange perversion
of the word be found.

Mr. Fenn is of opinion that I have read Mr.
Darwin's works with a "preconceived idea" of
their teaching ; but I am bound to acknowledge
that if I had any bias at all, it was strongly in favour
of the honest, painstaking scientist ; and if Mr.
Darwin, by his persistent accuracy, has taught his
readers to submit terms as well as facts to a strict
investigation, he would have been the last to
complain of the jealous regard for truth which
cannot sanction the misuse of a single word, even
were that word misapplied by himself.

To Mr. Fenn's question, "Why should we claim
perfection for ourselves, and deny it to all other
organisms ? " I reply, that, arguing upon evolution
grounds, we are bound to look upon anything lower
than the ideal form as an arrested development ; and,
for the sake of the argument, I adopted that position.

The subject being a very wide one, and requiring
more room than may be claimed for mere corre-
spondence, I should be glad at any future time to

answer the query in full in an article, could space be
afforded me to do so.

I cannot quite reconcile Mr. Fenn's question with
the two following statements in his paper. He says,
" Perfect as all our organs are at the present, we
have no reason for supposing that evolution has
reached a limit," &c. Are all our organs perfect at
the present time ? Then why does your correspondent
object that " Miss Layard would take man as per-
fection " ? It seems that we are agreed in this
particular. But the next sentence is perplexing.
Mr. Fenn continues, "Of all our organs which we
have handed down to us, &c, som have been
developed, &c. ; others, falling into disuse, have
become partially degenerate." Here are two state-
ments hard to reconcile.

"All our organs," we are told, are "perfect at
the present time," but some of our organs "have
become partially degenerate " ! As it is impossible
here to enter at any length into the vast subject of
evolution, I would return to the special point at
issue — namely, the advisability of retaining or re-
jecting the word "rudimentary" in the sense in
which it is used by Mr. Darwin.

Unless abetter excuse can be made for its retention,
it would still appear to be misleading and incorrect.

Nina F. Layard.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

THE observations made at the Royal Observatory
of the Collegio Romano during April, May,
and June, give particulars of the distributions of the
solar spots, faculre, and protuberances, and a table of
the numbers and comparative extent of the spots and
faculce observed from July to September. A great
diminution took place in both spots and faculse
towards the end of August, and in the intervals
between the 23rd of August and the 2nd of Sep-
tember, and the 51I1 to the 12th of September, no
spots or faculae were seen.

At the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society,
held on the nth of November, a letter from Mr.
Roberts was read, in which he offered to place at
the disposal of Fellows of the Society photographic
negatives of stellar groups which will enable them,
by using a proper microscope and micrometer, to
obtain, by measurement, results that may be useful
to astronomy.

Professor Pritchard read a paper on Further
Researches in Stellar Parallax by Photographic
Methods.

Mr. Creswick exhibited some photographs of star-
groups which had been taken at Greenwich with
the Sheepshanks Equatorial on curved plates, to
determine the extent of the field that would be made
use of for purposes of measurement. The result

i6

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

obtained was that for purposes of accurate measure-
ment, a field of 4 deg. might be used, and a field
°f 5 deg. where only approximately accurate results
are required.

On January 28th, there will be visible a total
eclipse of the moon, beginning at 9.30 p.m.

Meteorology— Ax the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, the highest reading of the barometer for the
week ending 19th November, was 30-22 in. on
Wednesday morning, and the lowest 29-11 in. on
Saturday morning. The mean temperature of the
air was 34-1 deg., and 7-6 deg. below the average.
The general direction of the wind was east and
north-east. Rain fell on two days of the week, to
the aggregate amount of 0-53 of an inch. The
duration of registered bright sunshine in the week
was 11 -o hours, against 13-7 hours at Glynde-place,
Lewes.

For the week ending 26th November, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29-17 in. at the
beginning of the week, and the highest 29-84 in. on
Wednesday evening. The mean temperature of the
air was 38-7 deg., and 2-3 deg. below the average.
The general direction of the wind was north-east.
Rain fell on four days of the week, to the aggregate
amount of 0-31 of an inch. The duration of
registered bright sunshine in the week was o-2 of
an hour, against 2*7 hours at Glynde-place, Lewes.

For the week ending 3rd December, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29-47 in. on Tuesday
morning, and the highest 30-31 in. on Friday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was
43 '3 deg., and 1-9 deg. above the average. The
general direction of the wind was south-west. Rain
fell on three days of the week, to the aggregate
amount of 0-48 of an inch. The duration of
registered sunshine was 7-4 hours, against 11 • 1
hours at Glynde-place, Lewes.

For the week ending 10th December, the highest
reading of the barometer was 29*86 in. at the
beginning of the week, and the lowest 29-13 in. on
Thursday evening. The mean temperature of the
air was 40*4 deg. and 2-2 deg. below the average.
The general direction of the wind was westerly. Rain
fell on four days of the week, to the aggregate amount
of 0*47 of an inch. The duration of registered bright
sunshine in the week was 2-9 hours, against 9-1
hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

January is the coldest month in the year. The
mean temperature at the Land's End is 45 deg.,
while in the plain of York it is only 38 deg., the
difference being due to the influence of the Atlantic.
Travelling from south-east to north-west, the mean
temperature of some of the principal towns is
approximately as follows :— Truro, 44 deg. ; Ply-
mouth, 43 deg. ; Exeter, 42 deg. ; Dorchester, 41
deg. ; Portsmouth, 40 deg. ; and London, 39 deg.

The average rainfall in January is 5 inches from

the Land's End nearly to Exeter ; 4 inches in Devon
and Dorset ; 3 inches along the South Coast and
through the greater part of the south of England,
from Bristol to Canterbury ; 2 inches through
Cheshire and the Midlands to the Essex coast ; and
only 1 inch along the East coast from Newcastle to
Ipswich.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

BUYS-BALLOT— On the 16th of November last,
the University of Utrecht worthily instituted a
festival in honour of the fortieth anniversary of the
"doyen des meteorologistes," M. Buys-Ballot, at the
same time founding a prize of a gold medal to be
given every ten years for memorable work in meteor-
ology, the first, of course, being then given to the
venerable professor.

This is not the place for a sketch of Buys-Ballot's
life-work, and if it were, it should be drawn by some
one knowing more of the subject than I do. But
there is one simple and important generalisation to
which his name is attached that should be better
known than it is among us here. I allude to "Buys-
Ballot's law " concerning the winds and barometric
gradient. This gradient has more to do with weather
prediction than the height of the barometer at any
particular place. If the barometer be either high or
low or medium at such place, and of nearly the same
height at other places all around, immediate change
may be expected ; but if that place be in a steep
barometric gradient, i.e. if the barometer is much
higher or lower at other places beyond it, a change
is imminent.

If the barometer at a given time stands one-tenth
of an inch higher at Edinburgh than at London (both
corrected to sea-level), there is a moderate gradient ;
with a difference of half an inch there is a steep
gradient, indicating unsettled and stormy weather.
These gradients may be easily traced on the weather
charts published by some of the newspapers. The
curved lines, usually dotted, are isobars, or lines of
equal pressure, against which are marked the height
of barometer all along that line ; the direction of the
wind is marked by arrows.

Buys-Ballot's law, in the northern hemisphere, is
that, if you stand with your right hand towards the
region of higher barometer, and your left hand
towards lower barometer, the wind will blow against
your back ; or vice versa, if you stand with your back
to the wind, the barometer gradient is ascending on
your right and descending on your left, or the
opposite if you face the wind. You may test this
law by taking such imaginary positions on one of the
weather charts, and observing the relations of the
arrows and isobars to yourself.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

n

The African-Mediterranean project.— Among
the grand projects of M. de Lesseps'was one for cutting
a canal from the Mediterranean on the coast of the
Gulf of Gabes, in order to flood that neighbouring
part of the desert, a large area of which is supposed
to be below the sea-level. There appears to be a
hitch somewhere ; either the depression proves, on
further survey, to be much less than was originally
supposed, or there are difficulties in the cutting,
which was at first described as very easy. The
project, however, is not to be abandoned. Com-
mandant Landas, who is there apparently as the
agent or representative of M. de Lesseps, has ascer-
tained the existence of underground waters in the
region in question, and is at work sinking wells,
one of which yields 1S00 gallons per minute, another
2000 gallons per minute. These wells are sunk for
the purpose of fertilising the district, and thus afford-
ing support to the labourers who are to work upon
the canal which is to supply the projected inland sea.

Carbonic acid in School-rooms. — Experi-
ments have been recently made by W. Fossek
on the quantity of carbonic acid in an unven-
tilated school-room before and after the meeting
of the class. In three determinations made before
the pupils entered, he found the air to contain
respectively 0*078, o,OQ2, and o-oS8 per cent, by
volume. After three hours' occupation by the class
of fifty-eight scholars, it contained o-620, 0*637, and
°'557 Per cent., or between seven and eight times as
much. Besides this there are the bodily exhalations,
which are still worse than the carbonic acid. The
practical lesson taught by these facts is, that wherever
school accommodation is at all limited, the pupils
should clear out for a run between each lesson.

Basic Cinder as Manure. — Further study of
the manurial efficiency of the cinder obtained by
applying the Thomas-Gilchrist, or basic process, in
Bessemer steel-making from very bad pig-iron, ^brings
out higher estimates of its value. Many such in-
vestigations have been made on the Continent
during some years past, and quite recently Aitken
has published his results in the " Transactions of
the Highland and Agricultural Society " for 1887,
p. 245. He compared basic cinder containing 40
per cent, of phosphate of lime with Curacoa phos-
phate containing 87 per cent., Canadian phosphate,
59 per cent., and Carolina phosphate, 57 per cent. ;
and found that when applied to the soil under cor-
responding conditions, it was about as effective as
the above-named phosphates. He attributes this
superiority, in proportion to its constituent phos-
phorus, to its finely-ground condition as supplied in
the market ; but Dr. J. M. H. Munro ascribes it to
the great relative solubility of the phosphate of lime
contained in it. There is but little difference between
these explanations, so far as practical application is

concerned. The important fact is that the basic
process brings forth a vast quantity of buried phos-
phates that may be laid upon the surface to increase
the food supplies of the world, and that it does this
at a smaller expense than such phosphates are other-
wise obtainable.

Manure from Granite. — Intimately connected
with the above in its economic bearings is the use
of felspar as a manure. It contains potash, one
of the absolutely indispensable constituents of
fertile soil, and that particular one which is the
most liable to be wastefully washed away, owing
to the free solubility of the nitrates, chlorides,
sulphates, and carbonates of this alkali. But the
silicate that exists in the felspar is the one excep-
tional salt of potash that is not freely soluble. It
is slowly decomposed in the presence of water and
carbonic acid, and is thus gradually supplied to the
plant-roots as they require it. If, however, the fel-
spar were added to the soil in lumps like the natural
crystals, the process of solution would, on the other
hand, be too slow ; but by grinding it to a certain
degree of fineness the just medium is attainable.

Mr. Aitken describes, in the " Transactions of the
Highland Agricultural Society," some experiments
made at Pumphuston on turnips, and at Boon on
peas, with felspar ground sufficiently fine to pass
through a sieve of 120 meshes to the linear inch. On
the turnips the felspar did better than an equivalent
quantity of sulphate of potash, on the peas not
so well.

Seeing that we have mountains of granite and
porphyry largely composed of felspar, and these in
sterile regions, the fact that we can produce valuable
manure by simply crushing the boulders and other
rock fragments that cumber the ground, and adding
to the powder some phosphates of lime, such as the
waste cinder of ironworks above described, opens a
wide field for agricultural enterprise. We hear much
about the emigration of the London "unemployed."
They need not be transported across the Atlantic,
nor to the Antipodes ; there is work enough for
them in the reclamation of Dartmoor and the
granitic wastes of Cornwall, and they would do
the work well and cheerfully under arrangements
that would ultimately render them the owners of
the land they had rendered fertile.

The Rabbit Plague in Australasia. — The
magnitude of this scourge is not yet sufficiently
appreciated in our hemisphere. It it remains un-
checked, it practically amounts to the ruin of the
otherwise most hopeful region of the world. But
there is now some hope. Pasteur has come to the
rescue, and science is to be applied. Most of my
readers will have learned how, ere this will be
published. Chicken-cholera broth is to be sprinkled
on tempting herbage, the rabbits are to eat this, and,

i8

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

'"having done so, they are to propagate an infection
that will wholly or partially exterminate them. "A
consummation most devoutly to be wished for ! "

So far the project is most promising, but the
danger to the poultry and game of the country is
rather serious. Pasteur answers for the sheep. He
has tried, and finds that they are not liable to this
particular infection.

Among the birds of New Zealand is one vile luxurious
beast whose extirpation is most earnestly demanded.
It is that epicurean parrot, that feathered gourmet,
which has discovered in the kidney suet of the living
sheep a food more dainty than the vegetable oil of its
natural seed-food. The hateful bird accordingly fixes
its claws in the wool of its victim, and tears away its
i-kin with cruel beak ; then dives amidst the warm
blood and quivering flesh into the fat surrounding
the kidneys, while the tortured sheep struggles in
vain to shake off its tormentor, and dies after
suffering the most dreadful agonies that are possible
to such an animal.

If Pasteur's remedy fails, there is anolh :r direction
open for research. May we not find some herb that
will poison rabbits ? If so, it could easily be planted
in small patches, carefully enclosed with wooden
stakes at about six inches apart, too close for sheep
or lambs to pass, but free to rabbits. In dry weather
they will eagerly devour almost anything that is
succulent, and these little plantations might be
watered, if necessary, during Australian droughts.

Wolves in France. — It is a curious fact that,
■while Pasteur is coming forward to rescue the
Austrabans from their four-footed pest, the ancient
and classical quadruped scourge of France is in-
creasing so seriously that, only five years ago, the
French Government found it necessary to raise the
head-money on wolves. They now offer 200 francs
for killing a wolf that has attacked human beings,
350 francs for one in young, 100 francs for a male
wolf, and 40 francs for a cub.

In 18S2, 423 wolves were killed; in 1883, 1316;
in 1884, 1035 ; in 1885, 900; and in 1886, 760.

When living in Flintshire, I paid a rate of two-
pence per acre as mole-catchers' tax, the result being
■that at certain times a mysterious personage groped
mysteriously in the fields ; and on the following
•morning two or three black objects were seen hanging
to wires. These were moles, and the wires were
parts of traps which were supposed to have caught
the moles. Libellous persons asserted that the same
moles were exhibited again and again in different
fields, and that the mole-catcher was a mole-preserver,
as extermination of the moles would ruin his trade.
With such high awards for the killing of French
wolves, the like may occur in France, if wolf-catching
is a profession. A pair of wolves and family might
be carefully fed until the cubs reached the 100 francs
or 200 francs stage of life, and the enterprise would

probably yield a good profit to the peasant on whose
land they were reared, and who, knowing their
habits, would gather his wolf harvest at the proper
season.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

A capital new illustrated monthly has been
brought out in the United States, under the editorship
of Dr. Manton and others, entitled " The Micro-
scope." The London agent for it is Mr. W. P.
Collins, 157 Great Portland Street, W.

We have received a copy of Mr. J. G. Goodchild's
elaborate paper on " Ice-work in Edenside, and some
of the adjoining parts of North-Western England,"
reprinted from the Transactions of the Cumberland
and Westmoreland Association.

In last month's number of " The Welcome " is a
lengthy, well-written, and elaborately-illustrated
article, by Mr. II. M. J. Underhill on " The Beautiful
Floscule."

The account of the Microscopical and Natural
History Soiree of the Croydon Club, on Nov. 19th,
reached us too late for notice in our last. It appears
to have been highly successful, in spite of a foggy
night. The list of objects of science was enormous.

The Ipswich Scientific Society held their three
years' Conversazione in the Public Hall, on Nov. 29th ;
about 800 people were present. The hall was lit by
electricity conveyed by wires over the house-tops from
the office of the "East Anglian Daily Times," more
than a quarter of a mile away, and the same electric
energy was also utilised to work the machinery.

A new book by Dr. J. E. Taylor, editor of
Science-Gossip, is announced under the title of
" The Playtime Naturalist." It is to be copiously
illustrated.

The Swiss "Journal of Ornithology " announces
the extinction of the last Alpine Vulture or Lammer-
geyer. The last specimen believed to be remaining
is now in the Museum at Lausanne.

Mr. Norman Lockver's articles on Meteorites,
now weekly appearing in "Nature," have attracted
much attention, asbeing original contributions to the
theories of Cosmogony.

A KEEN controversy has been going on in the
same journal between the Duke of Argyll and
Professor Bonney, relative to Darwin's theory of the
" Origin of Coral Reefs."

The district Calabria was again visited by a
terrible earthquake on December 1st.

The National Association for the Promotion of
Technical Education, recently held a most successful
meeting in Manchester, at which Sir Henry Roscoe,

HA RD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSI P.

*9

Professor Huxley and others made powerful speeches.
The association is about to extend its sphere of
agitation to Liverpool, Glasgow, Newcastle, and
other large towns.

Mr. Goschen's Presidential Address to the Statis-
tical Society on December 6th, obtained much public
attention. His statistical inferences are most valu-
able at the present time.

The Howietoun Fishery records the successful
exportation of salmon ova to New Zealand, viz. :
One hundred and thirty-five thousand in the S.S.
Kaikoura, three hundred and sixteen thousand in
the S.S. Doric, and one hundred and twenty-five
thousand in the S.S. Tongariro, making five hundred
and seventy-six thousand salmon ova, which were
obtained from the Forth, Tay, and Tweed Districts.
The whole of the consignments arrived in good
condition. The American land-locked salmon {S.
sebago) and the rainbow trout (S. irideus) have done
well during the past season, but did not spawn last
spring. It is hoped, however, they will do so next.
The cross between S. levenensis and S. salar $ proved
fertile last winter and has been re-crossed with
levenensis — thus : S. levenensis has been crossed by
(S. levenensis X S. salar g) <j, and produced the
largest fry at present in the Fishery ; and (S. levenensis
X S. salar parr <$ ) has been crossed by S. levenensis <$ ,
the produce being fair fry. Thus it now appears
probable that trout may be improved in size by the in-
troduction of salmon blood without sacrificing fertility.

A "Flora of Hertfordshire " is announced. It
is by the late A. R. Pryor, and will be edited for the
Hertfordshire Nat. Hist. [Society, by Mr. B. D.
Jackson, Secretary of the Linnean Society, with an
Introduction on the geology, climate, botanical
history, &c, of the county, by Mr. John Hopkinson,
F.G.S., and the editor.

MICROSCOPY.

Nobert's BANDS. — Ihavea slide of Nobert's bands,
and I find it is ruled to fifteen bands. Can any
reader tell me the distance between the lines of the
fifteen band slides ? — Micro.

Knock's Slides. — We have received sketch 17 of
Mr. Enoch's famous Entomological Studies. It is
the only authentic drawing of the notable Hessian
Fly, from exact measurement. Accompanying it is
sketch 18 of the "Fairy Fly " {Camptoptera papaveris),
an exquisite object under the microscope.

Another Evening at the Royal Micro-
scopical Society.— The " Scientific Evening" of
the Royal Microscopical Society, held on the 23rd
November, in the Library of King's College, was a
great success. The most important exhibit was the
display, by Dr. Crookshank, of a series of micropho-

tographs of many kinds of Bacteria. These were-
shown in the Doctor's Laboratory, by means of the
Oxyhydrogen lantern. Dr. Crookshank was very
successful in his demonstration, which had a two-fold
object. Firstly, to show how capable photography
is, to depict these delicate organisms ; and the value
such results possess, in the facility for demonstrating
their portraits to numerous students in a class, with
absolute fidelity ; and, secondly, to show, that,
although many persons believe the various Bacterio-
logical forms to be all alike, more or less ; yet, the
fact is, when sufficiently high magnification is em-
ployed, as in the case of these photographs : it is
clearly seen that each bacteriological form is quite
specifically distinct ; and no two forms seem to be
quite alike. The various species seem to possess
almost as much individuality of character as the
various seeds of plants, when placed under the
microscope. The lecture, and the examination of the
objects and apparatus, in the Doctor's laboratory,
proved most instructive and interesting. In the
library a great number of most interesting displays
were made. Mr. Michael, the much-loved President
of the Quekett Club, exhibited a rare species of
Phalangium. The cyclosis in vallisneria was well
shown by Mr. Ingpen, under an Apochromatic quarter-
inch objective. Messrs. Beck had a good display.
Powell and Lealand's exhibit, as usual, was superb.
In one microscope they were giving results upon
Ampliipleura pellueida, with the analyser of the
Polariscope placed over the eye-piece. There was
a collection of Polyzoa shown by Mr. Hardy :
Mr. Hailes was showing objects, chiefly Foraminifera,
under a Stephenson's binocular. Mr. Dadswell was
showing the cyclosis in a bulblet of Chara (a mar-
vellous sight, one I had never before seen) : also,
some splendid specimens of " Pond Life," notably a
very large Amceba prineeps, of unusual activity. Mr.
E. T. Browne made quite a sensation with an
abundant collection of his new find, Orthesia insignis^
of all sizes and ages, alive in a cork cell under a four-
inch object-glass. These insects were the admiration of
everybody. To most persons present, they were the.
greatest novelty in the room. Then there was an<
exhibition by another gentleman of a living house-fly,
regaling itself with sugar. Mr. Rousselet had a fine
Floscularia ornata. Messrs. Watson had some re-
markably beautiful slides of insects' eggs, diatoms, &c.
Mr. Freeman showed a collection of consecutive
sections of insects, prepared by Mr. Underhill, whose
skill in this direction is wonderful. Mr. Fitch had a
lot of clever dissections of spiders. Mr. Nelson was
showing Ampliipleura pellueida in the manner in
which he only can. Mr. Enock exhibited the Hessian
Fly, and a lot of his clever sketches of many minute
Hymenopterous insects. Baker's table, as usual, had
a fine display. The new apochromatic lenses, and
what they can be made to show, were well illustrated.
The well-known podura scale was splendidly shown.

20

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

There was also some new apparatus by Zeiss. Mr.
Badcock exhibited " Pond Life," some rare finds.
Our old friend, the larva of Tiresias scrra— memorable
for the settlement, many years ago, of the question,
" Whence is obtained the object, figured in all the
microscopical works as ' Hair of Dermestes ' " (vide
Science-Gossip, October 1865, and the early dis-
cussions reported in the journal of the Quekett Club),
— put in an appearance, to remind one of old errors
cleared away ; lor the object, so well known, is not
got from Dermestes at all. Mr. Groves displayed
-the structure of a glandular hair of Drosera, an
insect-eating plant ; and Mr. Grove illustrated the
recent botanical discoveries as regards the continuity
of protoplasm in the medullary rays of certain plants.
The beautiful microscopic drawings made by the late
Mr. Draper were on view. The readers of Science-
■Gossip have seen a few of these, associated with the
chapters on " Graphic Microscopy," which appeared
two or three years ago ; and from these specimens,
will be able to judge of the quality of the whole
collection, which will probably become the property
of the Royal Microscopical Society. The genial Mr.
Charters White was in good form, with his capital
album of microphotographs. That man is always
" to the front; " and so is Professor Stewart, who
showed a very pretty object from a Crustacean, never
seen before. He told me it had no scientific interest,
though I and others found it to be very, very curious.
There were several interesting mineralogical slides,
and many other exhibits worthy of special notice.
Many old friends turned up ; and there were many
joyful recognitions of old microscopists whom we
have not seen for years. On a former occasion
(Science-Gossip, 1875, page 16), I thought it worth
while to record a most interesting Scientific Evening
on 9th December, 1874; and this latter display is
equal to it. It shows that the old society is as
vigorous as ever, although so many of its then
energetic Fellows have "joined the majority." — S. J.
Mc I nt ire.

ZOOLOGY.

IIyalina glabra, var. eicolor. — This variety
is mentioned in the "Journal of Conchology," 1886,
p. 86, but has never been described. It differs from
the type in having a whitish or pale umbilical region,
which is more or less sharply defined from the brown
colour of the rest of the shell. The interest of this
form, which was taken at Bromley, Kent, lies in its
being apparently a case of atavism. According to
the theory that the brown colour represents the dark
bands of other Helicidae suffused over the shell, this
variety bicolor is a case in which the suffusion has
not taken place lower than the edge of the fourth
band, leaving the original ground-colour in the
umbilical region. It may be well to state that the

H. glabra is Zonites glabcr of Jeffreys, and the H.
alliaria of some Continental authors, though not of
Kobelt.— T. D. A. Cockerel I, West Cliff, Custer Co.,
Colorado.

H. arbustorum, M. sinistrorsum.— In the
last number of the "Journal of Conchology"
(Q. J. C, s. 225), Mr. J. W. Taylor records the only
two sinistral specimens of Helix arbustorum, L.,
which he knows. A third specimen was recorded in
the May-June number of the " Nachrichtsblatt d. d.
Mai. Ges.," for this year (p. 76), by Herr Tschapeck.
He found it in Styria, near Mittendorf, in the
meadows of the Salza. The specimen was perfect
and mature, with a curiously-depressed spire, colour-
ing not mentioned. The specimen figured in
Ferussac belonged to M. Charpentier, and was
found near Gryon, in Canton Vaud. — Brockton
Tomlin, B.A.

Scarcity of V. atalanta in 1887. — I wonder
if Lepidopterists in general have noticed a scarcity of
V. atalanta during the past season ? Though I have
been in the country all the summer and autumn, and
have been constantly in the open air, generally for
five or six hours every day, I have only met with a
single individual of this species. I can hardly think
that this was owing to any want of observation on
my part, especially as I could only find two caterpillars,
though I must have searched several hundred nettle-
beds for them. Last year I got fourteen caterpillars
without making any careful search for them, and in
due course I saw several dozens of the perfect insect.
— R. B. P., Eastbourne.

The Zoological Society of Glasgow. — The
third meeting of this society for the session was held
on Monday, 14th November, the Rev. E. Walters,
president, in the chair. One new member was
elected. Mr. J. MacNaught Campbell showed a
black racer (Coluber alleghaniensis, Hoi.), and a blue
racer snake (C. constrictor), from North America,
both exceeding five feet in length. The same gentle-
man exhibited several garter snakes (Tropidonotus
saurita, Linn.), and a small rattlesnake (Crotalo-
pJiorus tergemimis, Hoi.), which, although only a few
inches in length, was quite capable of defending
itself. Mr. G. G. McKenzie exhibited several diving
spiders (Argyroneta aquatica) with their nests from
his aquaria. The secretary showed skins of an old
female and young male " Old English " black rat
(Mus raltus, Linn.), caught recently in Glasgow.
This species — which is now almost extinct in Britain
— is hardly ever found now in this district, having
given way before its larger and more powerful
relative, the common brown rat. — IV. Hannau
Watson.

Colours of Cocoon Silk. — At a recent meeting
of the Entomological Society, Mr. E. B. Poulton
exhibited the cocoons of three species of Lepidoptera,

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

21

in which the colour of the silk had been controlled
by the use of appropriate colours in the larval
environment at the time of spinning up. lie said
this colour-susceptibilty had been previously proved
by him in 18S6, in the case of Satitniia carpini, and
the experiments on the subject has been described in
the Proc. Royal Society, 18S7. It appeared from
these experiments that the cocoons were dark brown
when the larva; had been placed in a black bag ;
white when they had been freely exposed to light,
with white surfaces in the immediate neighbourhood.
Mr. Poulton stated that other species subjected to
experiments during the past season, afforded con-
firmatory results. Thus the larvre of Eriogaster
lacustris had been exposed to white surroundings by
the Rev. W. J. H. Newman, and cream-coloured
cocoons were produced in all cases, whilst two or
three hundred larvae from the same company shun
the ordinary dark brown cocoons among the leaves
of the food-plant. In the latter case, the green
surroundings appeared to act as a stimulus to the
production of a colour which corresponded with that
which the leaves would subsequently assume. Mr.
Stainton suggested that larvae should be placed in
green boxes, with the view of ascertaining whether
the cocoons would be green. It had been suggested
that the cocoons formed amongst leaves became
brown because the larvae knew what colour the leaves
would ultimately become.

BOTANY.

Tree-growing after Girdling. —In May, 1879,
I attempted to kill by girdling a tremulous poplar-
tree, which, by its position and the numerous suckers
it threw up from its wide-extending roots, interfered
with my orchard. I cut off a strip of bark twelve
inches wide entirely around the tree, at a spot about
a foot from the surface of the earth. The part left
bare seasoned over that year, but the tree did not
die ; however, it shed its leaves earlier than others of
the same species. It grew on the next year, as if
nothing were the matter till the autumn, when the
foliage assumed unusually brilliant colours of red
and yellow a full month before there was any change
on the other trees. It continued growing during
the third year subsequent to the girdling, but with
diminished energy, and the leaves changed their hue
at the close of summer, and fell very early in autumn ;
and next spring, 1881, the tree was quite dead. I
should mention that it did not put out its leaves just
so early in the spring after being girdled, as it would
otherwise have done. I have read in the " Scientific
American " of a somewhat similar experiment, with
the difference, however, that the Vermont tree kept
growing on above the ring, and increased in three
years five inches in circumference above, while it

remained of the same girth below. There was no
such exceptional phenomenon in the tree with which
I dealt in co. Armagh.—//. W. Lett, M.A.
Flowers and Fruits.— At pp. 11 and 12 of Dr.
. Taylor's most interesting and suggestive " Sagacity
and Morality of Hants," I find, " A leaf is a much
more highly-organised vegetable production than a
petal. . . . Flowers are frequently terminal . . .
borne . . . where the uprising sap . . . must be
poorest and thinnest." This, of course, I quite
understand. On pp. 14 and 15 there are descriptions
of flowers of the gentians, etc., being produced "at
great physiological expense " to the plant ; added to
this, of course, it is well known that plants expend a
great deal of energy on the all-important process of
ripening their seeds." I should be glad if any one will
explain how fruits obtain the amount of nourishment
they require for this purpose, placed as they are in
the same position on the plant as the flowers, which
are, to a great extent, because of their position
"aborted and degraded" and starved leaves. — A. G.
Tansley.

Yew-Trees, their Size and" Age. — I have been,
with my friends, measuring several big yew-trees in
the south-east corner of Hampshire. Will you allow
me to state the result in Science-Gossip, with a-
view to learning about other big yews, and with a
view to description as to their age ? I give the cir-
cumference— the smallest circumference of each of
four trees in three neighbouring churchyards.

ft. in.

1. In Warblington Churchyard . 18 4

2. ,, Redhampton ,, . 20 o

3. „ do. ,, . 20 5

4. ,, S. Hayling „ . 33 o

Reckoning a year for every line of diameter, or
twelve years for every inch, this would give to the
Hayling tree, with a diameter, say, of 11 feet, or 132
inches, an age of 1584 years. Will any of your
readers contribute any information as to big yews ;
their size, and the mode of ascertaining the age ? —
P. J., Emsivorth.

Campanula glomerata. — I was very much sur-
prised to find a number of plants of this species in
full flower in the first week of the present month of
November. They were on the Downs, near Beachy
Head. I suppose this unseasonable blossoming is to
be attributed to the plants having been kept back by
the extraordinary drought of the past summer. I
found, too, on the loth of November, plants of
Gentiana campestris in flower ; these, too, I suppose,,
had been delayed by the drought. Those botanists
who have only seen C. glomerata in localities where
it attains its normal development, would scarcely
recognise it as it is found here, where it does not
exceed an inch or an inch and a half in height, and
where it usually has only one flower, which looks
like a little blue star, as it peeps out of the short
grass. — R. B. P., Eastbourne.

22

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G 0SS1P.

Fungus Crop of 1887.— I can fully corroborate
your correspondent, Mr. Waddell, in his note of
last month, as to the remarkable scarcity of fungi
during the past season. As he has remarked, this
is more particularly noticeable with regard to the
pasture species, always excepting the common mush-
room {Agariats campestris), which seemed to be
peculiarly abundant. In fields where last year I
could have gathered basketfuls of the various species
of Hygrophorus, scarcely a single specimen was to
be found this year, and many of the species I have
•entirely failed to notice. In localities where for
years I have never missed a supply of Lepiota rachodes
and L. procerus, not a single specimen appeared this
year. Woodland species do not seem to have been
so scarce, although they too have been erratic. I
never remember seeing such a general profusion
of Faxillus involutes, and Boletus edutis was also
wonderfully prolific ; one small patch never failed
to supply me with a luscious dish three times a
week for a couple of months. The Lactarii also
seemed to be more than usually abundant, but the
Russulse appeared to be scarcer than common. Species
which grow upon either dead or living trees were
■comparatively plentiful ; and I was fortunate in find-
ing several rich supplies of Tricholoma pcrsonata,
which I have hitherto found to be scarce in this
district. — J. P. Soulier, Bishop Auckland.

"The Annals of Botany."— No. 2 of this
serial is published, containing papers by Sir J. D.
Hooker, on " Hydrothrix, a New Genus of Ponte-
deracere," by F. W. Oliver, " On the Obliteration
of the Sieve-tubes in Laminaria ; " ' "The Life-
history of Lycopods," by F. O. Bower; "On the
Terms Phyllome and Caulome," by F. O. Bower ;
"On the Absorption of Water, and its Relation to
the Cell-wall in Mosses," by J. R. Vaizey ; "On the
History of Certain Plants, as Alexipharmics, or
Snake-bite Antidotes," by D. Morris ; " Notes on the
Genus Taphrina," by B. L. Robinson; and a host
of various Botanical Notes, by S. H. Vines, Schon-
land, Bower, Isaac Bayley Balfour, etc. ; altogether
making up a magnificent series of contributions to
practical botany.

GEOLOGY, &c.

Encroachments of the Sea. — For some time
past, the sea has been encroaching on the pretty little
town of Cromer (Norfolk), which is situated on the
top of an extensive range of cliffs, and, during the sea's
encroachment, it has exposed a forest bed. During
the last month or two the sea has been " hard at
work," and has shown extensive beds of clay,
pebbles, cakes of lignite, blue clay, and numerous
fragments of wood, including two large trees, supposed
to_be fir. The following Mammalian remains, with

many others, have been found : — Tarsal bones of
Elephas, distal joints of Bos, calcareum of Cervus
libra, joints of cervus, portions of -lower incisor of
Trogontherium, astragalus of Cervus, portion of
hyaena's jaw, with teeth missing ; several fish vertebrae,
a few bones of Platax Woodivardi ; also several root-
stocks of Ostnunda rcgalis which have not been pre-
viously found near Cromer. This interesting section
is now filling up with sand, and in a little time will
no doubt disappear. — J. B. B.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Yellow (or Ray's) Wagtail. — For two or three
days during the past week, my garden was visited by
this pretty little bird, which I had never before
observed here. I counted ten at one time on quite a
small lawn, which had been newly mown, and they
had evidently pounced upon some dainty insect, as
they were not at all discomposed by a cat which
eagerly watched, and tried to spring on them, but
when disturbed, soon flew back again. The sun
shining at the time displayed the brilliant yellow ot
the breasts of some to great advantage. Is it not
unusual for them to come so near a town ? — S. J\I. P.,
Weymouth.

Munchausen Science. — (Science-Gossip, page
226). — Paragraphs under the heading of Popular
Science are worse than useless when facts are not
strictly adhered to, and any one who tries to prevent
erroneous statements being perpetuated does good
service to science. The statement that 20 or 30 feet
is no uncommon length for a specimen of the marine
worm Nemertes Borlasci appears to Mr. Williams an
exaggerated magnification, and he refers to the
subject under the above title. Is, however, the
statement wrong, in fact, and should it be ascribed to
the Baron ? I express no opinion whether Kingsley's
" Glaucus," published in 1859, may or not be re-
garded as containing "pretty stories founded on
fact ; " but, as to the size of the worm, I would refer
your readers to Dr. Mcintosh's monograph of the
British Nemerteans, published by the Ray Society
in 1874. He says (p. 183) in his description of it,
" Body 15 to 30 feet, to as many yards in length, and
from I to 4 lines in breadth. . . . even now I am not
quite satisfied about the limit of its growth, for after
a severe storm in the spring of 1864, a specimen was
thrown on shore at St. Andrews which half filled a
dissecting jar 8 inches wide and 5 inches deep —
30 yards were measured without rupture, and yet
the mass was not half uncoiled." — H. Bamsden,
M.A., F.E.S.

Lacuna pallidula. — Can' any correspondents
tell me why, though Lacuna pallidula and Lacuna
vincta are described as " plentiful on our shores," we
so seldom find even an empty shell, especially of L.
pa/lidulat Which kind of sea-weed is it the animal
feeds on ? I have not yet succeeded in getting a
living specimen of any Lacuna. — C. E. Gubbins.

Lapidary Work. — In answer to F. Hay ward
rarrott's enquiry on " Lapidary work " I beg to send
the following extract from "English Mechanic,"
August 5th, in answer to any enquiry on " Polishing
Pebbles." "Here are a few hints which may be
useful, and if the querist should happen to be at the
seaside next autumn, he may see the work done.

HA RD W1CKE S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

The apparatus which the lapidaries, who abound at
every seaside town, use for cutting and polishing
pebbles, is usually of the roughest kind. The tools
required are : a lathe of the most simple description,
a piece of sheet- iron or tin-plate about four inches in
diameter, rounded and fitted to the lathe like a
circular saw, a tool like a butcher's steel, with a
square point tempered hard, a slab of Bath stone
(flag), and a small piece of Water-of-Ayr stone
(known in lithography as snake-stone, or the latest
name given it is Tam-o'-Shanter stone). The
circular plate dips into a trough containing a mixture
of emery, quartz, sand, and water. With it the
pebbles may readily be sawn into slices. The slices
must then be affixed to a wooden face-plate by means
of a cement composed of resin, shellac, and Venice-
turpentine. You will thus be enabled to turn them
to the desired shape. They are polished by rubbing
on a flag of Bath stone with a little fine emery. This
will make them pretty smooth. To get a fine polish
rub them in the same manner, using putty powder
instead of emery, or you may rub with Water-of-Ayr
stone. To give the operator a command of the stone
he is polishing, it is usual to fix it in the centre of a
flat piece of wood, about two feet long, with the
cement before mentioned. The stone must be kept
wet whilst being operated upon. Many of the
pebbles found on the sea-shore contain fossil remains,
which are brought out in a striking manner by
polishing, and as the substance in which the fossils
are imbedded is frequently semi-transparent, the
pebbles may be dried and used as photographic
negatives." — 6". Mason, Gloucester.

Poisonous Fungi.— Could any of your botanical
readers supply me with the names of the fungi eaten
in the two fatal cases of poisoning which occurred in
Northumberland, and at Bexley, Kent, in September ;
also in any other fatal case ? — JP. F. G.

Types of Storm Clouds. — I do not know
whether Mr. Barber is really serious in proposing
the fantastic names for clouds which he gives, but it
really seems that if we go into the classification of
clouds after his fashion, we shall have a list as long
as a "main t' gallant bowline." What is wanted is
a simple classification for ordinary observers, and a
complex scientific one for those more advanced ; a
classification of clouds into two families of Strati-
forius and Cumuliforius meets the former case, and
an extension of this, as proposed by the Rev. Clement
Ley, the latter. A knowledge of forecasting can
never be gained if simply the forms of clouds are to
be noted : a meteorologist must understand the con-
ditions on which the clouds are formed first, then de-
duce his forecast from this. — David Wilson Barker,
R.N.R.

Badges worn in Time of War. — I have had in
my possession for a great number of years, for it was
given to me by the daughter of an English officer
who served in the American War of Independence — ■
a seed-ball of the American "button-tree," which I
was told had been worn in the button-hole of an
officer of the American party at the Battle of Bunker's
Hill, as a " distinguishing badge." My specimen
presents the appearance of having been so worn —
the fruit-stalk has been twisted until it has been
reduced to a bundle of fibres, which together are so
strong and tough that there would be much difficulty
in breaking them. Is there any record of these
curious "button-balls" having been so worn by the
soldiers who took the American side in the War of
Independence ? — Francis Brent, F.S.A., Plymouth.

Fish Culture in France. — M. Jousset de-
Bellesme, Director of the Trocadcro Aquarium, who-
for the past two years has been endeavouring to
acclimatise American salmon in France, has just
given a lecture on the subject, explaining the results
achieved so far. In June last year, he deposited,
22,000 salmon fry of the American species hatched in
the Aquarium at eleven points of the basin of the Seine
from Rouen to Les Andelys, in batches of 2000.
The fish were then a trifle over four inches in length.
In October following a few of the fish caught in the
Loing and the Iton were found to have increased to
nine inches. Owing to the great mortality among
the small fry hatched this year, which M. de Bellesme
attributes to the substitution of Seine water for the-
pure water from the Vanne, he has succeeded in.
rearing only 10,000 salmon fry and 40,000 trout.

Munchausen Science. — When sending you a
paragraph a few days ago, in reference to this
heading, I had not noticed that Mr. Bolton had
already (p. 237) called the attention of your readers-
to MTntosh's British Annelids. — H. Ramsden.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

R. C. C— Get Stark's "British Mosses," coloured plates,
price -]s. 6d.

W. Hannan Watson. — Apply to Mr. Henry Laver, F.L.I. ,
Trinity Street, Colchester, for information concerning the
black rat, etc.

H. W. Lett. — Your paper on the " Sunflower" shall appear
shortly.

Colonel. — Saliicus tardigrarfus'is not an uncommon species
of spider. You will find a full account of it in Staveley's
'^British Spiders," and also in Dr. Blackwall's work on British
spiders.

G. W. Bulmer. — We shall be pleased to receive any paper
you may send us.

A. Bennett (Croydon). — Unfortunately your paper arrived
too late lor the January number, as we had to go to press very
early on account of the holida) s.

G. E. East. — There formerly existed a " British Natural
History Society," but it was in reality for the purpose of dis-
tributing sets of specimens to subscribers. We believe it has.
ceased to exist.

EXCHANGES.

For exchange, back vols, of" Entomologist," "Young Natu-
ralist," "Union Jack," "Naturalist," also odd numbers of
" Entomologists' Monthly Magazine," and other periodicals ;
full list sent on application. Dragonflies wanted in exchange.
— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Skins of weasel, hedgehog, and long-eared bat, etc.; speci-
mens of Sirex gigas, Gonepleryx rhamni, Lyaena argwlus,
and scores of other Lepidoptera. Wanted, dragonflies in good
condition.— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Uirmingham.

Collection of British land and freshwater shells, all mounted
and named, also minerals, fossils, marine shells, etc., offered
for dragonflies, either British or foreign.— W. Harcourt Bath,
Ladywood, Birmingham.

Wanted, foreign frogs and toads, alive, preserved in spirits,
or otherwise.— W. Hannan Watson,; 219 St. Vincent Street,.
Glasgow, N.B.

24

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Offeked, Indian pappoose-holder, doll, redstone fipe bowl,
tow and arrows, buckskin tobacco-pouch, mocassins, land,
freshwater, and marine shells. Wanted, land, freshwater, and
marine shells, especially from southern countries. Send lists. —
Thomas E. Addy, 54 North Franklin Street, Janesville, Rock
Co., Wisconsin, U.S.A.

Wanted, British ferns and grasses in exchange for flowering
plants or books. — J. W. B., 56 Vine Street, Liverpool.

An herbarium of British plants and mosses for what offers? —
J. H. Lewis, F.L.S., 145 Windsor Street, Liverpool.

A collection of botanical books and others for other books
of general interest. — J. H. Lewis, F.L.S., 145 Windsor Street,
Liverpool.

Wanted, a genuine clutch, with full data, of eggs of golden
eagle, must be Scotch. — G. T. Phillips, Wokingham, Berks.

Wanted, Pisidium roseum, Bytkiiiia Leachii, Limnaa glu-
tinosa and involuta, Testacella haliotidca, Helix laincllata,
ffelix pyg)ii<ra, Helix obvoluta, Bulimus moktanus, Clansilia
biplicata, and Acme lineata. Good exchange. — F. R. Fitz-
gerald, Clifford House, Harrogate.

Wanted, vol. i. of Dr. Jeffreys' "British Conchology " and
Hartings' " Rambles in Search of Shells." — F. Fitzgerald, Har-
rogate.

Wanted, fossil land and freshwater shells. Good exchange.
— Fit7gerald, Harrogate.

Wanted, eggs of barn and long-eared owls, jay, chough,
Dartford warbler, green woodpecker, red grouse ; also nests of
British and foreign birds. Good exchange. — Fitzgerald, Harro-
gate.

For exchange: — Coins. — Silver: Elizabeth. Copper: Jas. II.,
Wm. III. & Mary, Wm. III. Copper: Guernsey (8 doubles
and 4 doubles), St. Helena (halfpenny), Nova Scotia (halfpenny),
Columbia, Sierra Leone Company li anna). Silver: Hong
Kong (10 cents). Copper : Belgium (5 cents and 2 cents), Nor-
way : Carolus XIV. (2 shillings), Carolus XV. {2 ores), Oscar
(5 skilling). Canton Schwyz (2 rappen). Eggs. — Wild duck,
moorhen, plover, red-backed shrike, great tit. — F. R. Arundel,
Friends' School, Saffron Walden.

Nevada diatom deposit, clean, i oz., for four good diatom or
foraminifera slides, or for equal quantity of other cleaned diatom
deposit. — Hutton, Mottram, Manchester.

Microscope, in good condition, monocular body, A and C
eye-pieces, three objectives forming one, frog plate, animalctila
cage, condenser, &c. ; will exchange for J-objective or offers.
Wanted, stage micrometer ; will exchange live or dead speci-
mens of Hydropkilus piceus (beetle). — W. Turner, 89 Terminus
Road, Eastbourne.

Wanted, Science-Gossip for Feb. 1884, having a coloured
plate, in exchange for that of Jan. 1884, with coloured plate, or
-one mounted parasite micro slide. — T. S.Morten, 28 Haverstock
Hill, L .ndon, N.W.

Wanted, eighteenth or nineteenth century tokens or coins,
or medals ; exchange, fossils from chalk, Thar.et sands, etc. —
Fred. Stanley, Margate.

Has any reader a superannuated rain gauge to dispose of?
Required for class illustration, not for actual rain measurement :
its being defective for latter purpose will not matter, if perfect
enough to illustrate the principle. — Wm. Jacobs, 12 Selwyn
Villas, Munster Road, Fulham, S.W.

Any reader of Science-Gossip possessing a catalogue to one
of the £$ $s- collections of minerals and fossils by the late Mr.
T. Tennant (149 Strand), is requested to communicate with —
H. J. Torpey, 120 Gower Street, W.C.

For exchange, scales of roach and black snake of Australia
for microscopical purposes. Minerals: sylvanite (telluride of
gold), auriferous quartz, Labradonte. Shells : Tapes virgiuea,
Cyprtea pantherina, Pentunculus glycimeris. All kinds of
natural history objects wanted in exchange ; also books on
natural history. — E. O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow,
W.

Wanted, to exchange a number of good dried specimens of
North American plants for continental or other foreign species.
Will also exchange with N. American collectors, giving British
and Continental in exchange. — A. E. Lomax, 56 Vauxhall
Road, Liverpool.

I .itmenes coarctata, some splendid cells containing live grub
of this rare insect, all British. What offers ? — F. Dolamore,
Avenue Road, Bournemouth.

Wanted, live or dead specimens of Vitrina pellucida and
varieties ; exchange given in freshwater shells. — W. E. Collinge,
Springfield Place, Leeds.

Liassic and magnesian limestone fossils offered in exchange
for mountain limestone fossils. — John Hawell, M.A., In^leby
Vicarage, Northallerton.

Micro Slides.— Pollen of Salvia patens, in glycerine jelly ;
Sphcerocrystals of cactus, dry; i liragmidium bulbosum, in
C. B. ; and Phragmidittm gracile, in C. B. ; to exchange for
other mounts. Mutual approval.— Rev. H. W. Lett, M.A.,
Aghaderg Glebe, Loughbrick'and, co. Down.

Mosses. — Wanted, to exchange mosses from north of Ireland
with former or new correspondents. I have Climacium den-
droides in fruit. — Rev. H. W. Lett, M.A., Aghaderg Glebe,
Loughbrickland, co. Down.

For exchange, Dilatatus and others for other land and water
shells. — Sam. Cluugh, 21 Abingdon Street, Blackpool.

Wanted, British marine shells in exchange for Vaccaria
" 'ggh'i, Dudrcsnaia coccinea, and other rare algae. — Mrs.
Hodgson, Chalgrave Vicarage, Leighton Buzzard, Beds.

First-class lantern slides, 3i X 3i, consisting of photo-mi-
crographs of insects (whole and part), insects and vegetable
parasites, diatoms, botanical subjects, etc. ; list sent. Wanted,
good micro slides, microtome, J-inch or i-inch objective, or
offers.— W. D. Stewart, 2 Gilmore Terrace, Edinburgh.

For exchange, " History of British India," by Edward
Thornton,_ 184s, 6 vols., cloth 8vo, in good condition; "The
Law relating to India and the East India Company," 1841,
cloth 4to., published at £3 3s. Books on natural history taken
in exchange. — E. O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

A few good slides of spread diatoms in Tolu in exchange for
other slides of Diatomaceae — spread preferred. Send list. —
E. B. L. Brayley, Rockdeane, Hughenden Road, Clifton,
Bristol.

Ammonites, British and foreign, wanted ; exchange in fos-
sils, etc.— John Hawell, M. A., Ingleby Vicarage, Northallerton.

Large collection of foreign shells offered in exchange for
British. — Miss Linter, Arragon Close, Twickenham.

Good collections of minerals, including many fine and rare
cabinet specimens; also collections of Echinodern s. Will ex-
change for good shelis ; list on application. — Miss Linter,
Arragon Close, Twickenham.

Unio margaritifer {{xom the only known Lancashire locality)
and A. cygnca and vars. for specimens of same species, or
U. tumidus and U.pictorum from other localities. — R. Standen,
Swinton, near Manchester.

Wanted, tropical marine mollusca. Offered, "Popular
Conchology," by Agnes Catlow, 1843, describing families and
genera, with 312 woodcuts ; also " Common Objects of the Sea
Shore,'' by Rev. J. G. Wood ; "Geology for the Million," by
M. Plues ; and "Insect Transformations," part 2, 1810. — W. J.
Jones, jun., 27 Mayton Street, Holloway, London, N.

Well-mounted slides of Foraminifera, Echinodermata, Po-
lyzoa, Diatomacese, fish scales, crystals, and spicula, in ex-
change for other well-mounted slides ; lists exchanged. — W. M.
Ranson, The Cottage, Priory Road, Anfield, Liverpool.

British and foreign specimens of marine and land shells
offered for others not in collection. — J. T. T. Reed, Ryhope,
Sunderland.

Harting's " Rambles in Search of Land and Freshwater
Shells," coloured plates, and "Reign of Law" (Argyll), for
continental Anodons or Unios, or good figures or tracings of
same. — George Roberts, Lofthouse, Wakefield.

Engravings of varieties of Anodons and Unios for specimens
of shells of various forms of British or continental anodons or
Unios. — George Roberts, Lofthouse, Wakefield.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

"Bees and Bee-keeping," vol. ii., by Frank R. Cheshire
(London : Upcott Gill). — " Living Lights," by Charles F. Holder
(London : Sampson Low & Co.). — " The Creator and Creation,"
by W. H. Dallinger (London: T. Woolmer). — "The Micro-
scope," translated from the German of Professor Carl Naegeli
and Professor S. Schwendener (London: Swan Sonnenschein,
Lowrey, & Co.). — " Elements of Mineralogy," by F. Rutley
(London: Thomas Murby).— "The Young Collector Series:
Ants, Bees, Dragonflies, Earwigs, Crickets, and Flies," by
W. H. Bath (London: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey, & Co.). —
"The Photographer's Indispensable Handbook," by Henry
Sturrhey (London: Iliffe & SonK — "An Elementary Treatise
on Light!and Heat," by Rev. F. Wilkins Aveling, M.A., B.Sc.
(London: Relfe Bros.). — " Elementary Microscopical Manipu-
lation," by T. Charters White (London : Roper & Drowley). —
"Proceedings Folkestone Nat. Hist. Soc." — "Geology of
Portland Promontory, W. Victoria," by G. S. Griffiths. —
"Ottawa Naturalist" — "Journal of Conchology." — "The
Microscope." — "The Naturalist's Monthly." — "Annals of
Botany," No. 2. — "Journal Quekett Micro. Club," Dec. —
" Feuille des Jeunes NatiTalistes." — "Essex Naturalist" —
"American Monthly Microscopic Journal." — "Journal of
Microscopy" — "Century." — "Gentleman's Mag." — " Bel-
gravia." — "Midland Naturalist." — "Wesley Naturalist." —
"American Naturalist." — "Victoria Naturalist." — " Garner."
— " Amateur Photographer." — " British Dogs," No. 13.—" The
Naturalist." — &C, &c, &c.

Communications received up to the 8th ult. from :
J. S.— F. M.— C. P.— H. D. G.— C. P.— Rev. H. W. L.—
A. G. T.— F. R. A.— H.— F. R. F— J.— W. B.— C. W. D.—
J. E.— P. J— T. D. A. C— R. G. W.— L. N.— G. A. P. C—
J. J. M. I. -A. G. T.— J. H. L.— J. E.— W. H. W.-F. S.—
X. H.— W. J.— R. P.— F. C. G.— H. J. T.— E. C. M.—
A. H. A.— J. B.— W. T.— E. A. H.— A. R.-T. S. M.—
A. E. L.— W. A. C— H. H.— E. O. M.— B. T.— Dr. S.— G. R.
—P. F. G.—J. T. T. R.-W. M. R.— G. E. E., jun.— T. W.—
W. J. J., jun.— T. W. C. -R. S.— L.— J. H.— W. E. C—
E. B. L. B.-E. C. M.— E. C— T. S.— W. D. S— T. C— E. S.
— C. P. L.— J. B. B.— S. C— F. E.— J. E. F.-Rev. J. E. W.
—J. C.-C— A. T— H. P. S.— J. E.-B. T.— C. L. L.—
R. D. P.-T. H. -A. R I. W.-&C

HA RD WICKE' S S CIENCE- G OS SIP.

25

NOTES ON GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

By T. D. A. COCKERELL.

S year by year
Science becomes
more complicated,
and the array of
ascertained facts so
vast as to be far
beyond the grasp
of any single brain,
specialism must of
necessity exist, and
not only this, but
to know anything
thoroughly one
must be more cr
less a specialist.

Nor is this to
be regretted, since
nearly all the
knowledge of later
days has been
gained from work-
ers in particular groups, and it is certainly true,
that the man who knows one group well knows the
principles of life, heredity, variation and distribution,
so far as they can be known, and is able to apply
these principles with nearly equal facility to other
groups. Yet there is one kind of specialism very rife
that I do protest against, as being productive of
inconceivable misconception and narrowness of mind ;
that specialism which studies a group only as it occurs
in a particular country or district, and cares nothing
for its distribution or variation without that limit.
And in thus protesting, I do not wish to say anything
against local lists, which to me have the greatest
value, or against those who give most attention to
the fauna of their own district, for it is most natural
and right that each should study what comes most
directly under his observation, but against the feeling
of contempt for all foreign species, and that ignorance
which knows that Vanessa antiopa is a very rare
butterfly which used formerly to be found at Camber-
well, and thinks there is nothing more to know.
No. 278.— February 1888.

My object, therefore, in this paper, is to rouse up
some measure of interest in the foreign distribution of
our British species among those who have hitherto
regarded them from the British standpoint alone, and
to show how we owe much of our native fauna to
immigration, and on the other hand have from time
to time sent forth emigrants to people other lands.

In a former note I attempted to divide up the
British Mollusca into three sections, the Northern,
Eastern, and Western ; or otherwise, the Boreal,
Germanic, and Lusitanic, and asked for adverse
criticisms upon this arrangement, so that it might be
put to the test. Dr. Kobelt, in an article published
in Germany, took exception to the classification of a
few species, but agreed with it in the main, and
beyond this nobody seems to have disputed my
division of our fauna, which is based upon that
proposed by Forbes many years ago.

The circumpolar region it maybe supposed, was at
one time temperate in climate, and possessed a fairly
uniform fauna and flora. Cold coming on, drove all
forms of life southward, and hence the same species
appeared simultaneously in Central Europe and Central
North America, meeting and mingling with the"
fauna of the south — and thus was formed our British
boreal fauna and flora.

Next, the question arises, how are the boreal types
to be distinguished from the eastern and western ?
Their distribution in Britain is certainly some guide
to this ; the northern forms being mainly prevalent in
Scotland and the North and West of Ireland, in which
last district they mingle with the western ; but
Planorbis parvus — certainly a boreal type, is found in
Devonshire and Surrey, and Cochlicopa lubrica is
universal. One test alone seems to me a sure one,
and that is by comparison with the North American
fauna : — Whatever form in Britain is represented in
North America by an identical or very nearly allied
species belongs to the boreal type, except such as have been
introduced by human agency, and perhaps certain
migratory species.

Possibly, it does not always exclude a species from

c

26

HAREU'ICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the boreal fauna that it has no representative in
North America, since there are forms peculiar to
Northern Europe and Asia which are not American ;
yet I myself should be disposed to regard these as
belonging rather to the Germanic than boreal type —
as for instance, Li max cinereo-niger, which I had
formerly considered boreal.

Another difficulty, and this a more serious one
than might be supposed, is that of distinguishing
which are the imported species in America.

One might think that there was no doubt that
Vanessa atalanta was indigenous to America, yet
Harris asserts that it was introduced from Europe
with the common nettle, and considering that Pieris
rapa- was only introduced into Canada about 1S57,
and now occurs abundantly even to the Rocky
Mountains and Georgia, doing damage to the cabbage
crop estimated at thousands of dollars annually, it is
hard to prove the nationality of a species by its
present distribution.

So much for the specific forms, but how is it in the
case of certain genera, such as Apatura ? The
European species of this genus are few, and the
several species in America are decidedly southern in
their distribution, A. alieia occurring from Texas to
Florida, A. celtis not farther north than Virginia, and
so on. This undoubtedly requires some explanation
other than that of boreal origin, especially as it is by
no means an isolated case, and the only one I have
to offer is the following. In the Isle of Wight there
are found fossil land-shells more nearly allied to
West Indian than any European forms, and from
this and other evidence it seems certain that ages ago
there was some connection between Southern-Europe
and what is now the West India region (Southern
Africa being at the time probably cut off by the
submergence of the central region) and a similar
fauna existed throughout. The glacial period
destroyed this fauna in Europe almost entirely —
Central Africa being under water it could not migrate
southward, and the American connection was cut off.
But a few species survived in the Mediterranean
region, and were the origin of Apatura in Europe,
and such shells as the Mediterranean Ttidora ferru-
ginea, allied to common West Indian forms.*

I am at present situated in a district, the Rocky
Mountains of Colorado, peculiarly interesting from a
geographical distribution point of view. The high
mountain peaks, rising to over 14,000 feet, and
continuous to the Arctic regions of British America,
have been an easy pathway for the migration of
boreal species southward, while a very different and
un-European fauna occupies the lower regions, and
mingles with the others on the mountain-side.

Of the forty-eight species of Mollusca ascertained
to occur in Colorado, no less than fifteen may be

* And it is probable that the European genus ClausiHa mi-
grated to the West Indian and South American region during
the same period.

considered specifically identical with British forms,
and nine others are very closely allied, while the
remainder belong to the peculiarly American fauna.

The fifteen European species, besides being found
in Colorado, have a wide distribution and are doubt-
less native in America : J'itriua limpida (petluada)
is found in Massachusetts and Manitoba ; and its
variety angelicx, in Greenland ; Hyalina nitida occurs
in Michigan and Massachusetts ; H. viridula (radta-
tula) as far north as Alaska (W. H. Dall), and east as
Mass. ; Conulus chersinus (fulvus) is found in Ontario
and many other localities ; Helix pulchetla, var.
costata, ranges to Anticosti Islands, and the type
{hxvigata) is common in Canada ; Cochlicopasubcylin-
drica [lubrica) is abundant from Alaska to Mass. ;
Pupa marginata is found in Mass., where there also
occurs its variety edentula ; Succinea ovalis (pfeiffen)
is common in the eastern states and Canada ; Limnaa
stagnalis occurs in Manitoba, Ohio, &c, and there is
an American variety, speciosa, Zgk, of which I have
seen English specimens collected in Yorkshire ; *
Limiiaa palustris is universally abundant in the
Eastern States and Canada, and very variable ;
L. humilis (truneatuia, var.), is also generally dis-
tributed and common ; Physa hypnorum occurs in
Illinois, Ohio, Manitoba, &c. ; Planorbis parvus
(glaber) is a well-known eastern and Canadian species ;
as are also Pisidium abditum (pusillum) and P. variabilc
{fontinale, subsp.).

There are, however, several species of European
mollusca which have been introduced into America,
and must on no account be confounded with the
boreal fauna, such as Helix Cantiana in Canada, and
Li max maximus (cinereus) in the northern, and Helix
terrains in the southern states.

{To be continued.)

THE WEATHER.f

THIS is an excellent book which was greatly
needed. For many years observers have been
noting their observations of barometers and ther-
mometers, yet the "great mass of these observations
have been practically of but little use.

A few years since we heard a great deal about " the
gay science." Most persons have mistakenly con-
sidered meteorology as the dismal science. Those
who carefully peruse Mr. Abercromby's book will
have no good excuse for still holding that opinion.

The first three chapters, which form Tart I. of the
book, are elementary, being weather-science and
forecasting the weather. These chapters refer to

* This variety differs from the type in its invariable tawny
colour, its decided, almost regular striation, narrower aperture,
outer lip less curved and not prominent, and its delicate clobely-
adherent white columellar callus.

f " A Popular Exposition of the Nature of Weather Changes
from Day to Day," by the Hon. Ralph Abercromby, F.R.M.S.,
etc. etc. (London : Kegan Paul & Co.)

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

27

observations of instruments and observations of the
clouds.

Part II. of the book is advanced, and contains
fifteen chapters. The headings of a few of these
chapters will give some idea of their contents : Wind
and Calm, Heat and Cold, Squalls and Thunder-
storms, Whirlwinds and Tornadoes, Types and Spells
of Weather.

After describing very clearly how isobars are
formed, the author shows the relation of the velocity
and direction of the wind to them, and the influence
of different shapes of isobars in modifying the distri-
bution of heat and cold from day to day in various
parts of the world. Then the supposed relation
between sunspots and rainfall is considered, and it
is pretty clearly shown that no connection can be
traced between them. For instance, in the year
1S72 — a year when there was a maximum of sun-
spots — Buchan plotted the rainfall of Scotland, and
found that while near Aberdeen the rainfall was
seventy-five per cent, above the average, the amount
of rain at Cape Wrath, about one hundred miles
distant, was below the average. The author justly
inquires why we should take the returns of one
station more than another to compare with sun-spots,
seeing that they should affect the whole world
simultaneously.

In a book on weather prediction so complete, it is
curious to find no reference to the use of the Rain
Band Spectroscope for predicting rain locally. Those
who have tried the instrument know that it is of the
highest value for this purpose.

Writing now on the evening of December 4th, the
barometer has been falling steadily since mid-day on
the 1st instant — that is, successively night and day
for three days. This morning, about 8 A.M., the
clouds were very low and threatening, the atmosphere
near the earth clear, so that hills six miles off were
seen sharply defined ; every appearance would have
induced one to believe that rain was imminent. On
observing the spectrum with the spectroscope, I
found an almost total absence of the rain band ;
indeed, there was so little that only a well-trained
eye could have detected it. No rain has fallen
throughout the whole day.

I have in my mind a case of positive prediction
instead of negative, perhaps to many still more
convincing. On the eve of a Bank Holiday recently,
one of my friends, who had come into the country to
stay with me for several days, said to me, "We are
going to have a glorious day to-morrow." My reply
was, " I am sorry to say we shall have a wet day to-
morrow." "Nonsense," said my friend, who is
something of a meteorologist, "the barometer has
been rising for the last day or two, and we had a
beautiful pink sunset." My answer was, " There is
a strong rain band in the spectrum." The next
morning, soon after 8 o'clock, it began to drizzle ;
by 9 o'clock it was raining pretty fast, and it pouied

almost continuously during the whole day. It would
be easy to multiply such instances to almost any
extent.

Few persons are aware that a barometer rises very
quickly an hour or two before a thunderstorm. This
can seldom be observed, excepting on the diagrams
taken with a self-registering barometer. A capital
illustration is given in " Weather," by means of
photography, from one of these diagrams. This
sudden rise is mostly followed by two or three V's,
resembling several reversed W's, with the V's be-
coming smaller and smaller, thus — MM.> but the V's
irregular in size.

It is pretty well known to my friends that I sleep
so soundly that no thunderstorm will wake me. On
one occasion recently, at the breakfast table, I was
told there had been a thunderstorm in the night. I
immediately replied there had been two, about three
hours apart. ' ' How can you know that, when they
never wake you ? " was the inquiry. I told them
that before I dressed I had consulted my self-
registering barometer. As no one in the house had
heard the two storms, my information was evidently
doubted. Shortly afterwards a friend came in, who re-
ferred to the two storms, and said they were about
three hours apart.

Considerations of space will not permit me to give
an adequate idea of the matter in the volume, which
consists of about five hundred pages, and contains
nearly one hundred illustrations. It not only brings
together all the knowledge we at present have on the
subject of the weather, but it gives also the results
of the author's original and unpublished researches,
which are of great interest and value.

Mr. Abereromby's book is indispensable to all
who wish to understand the present position of
applied meteorology, as exemplified in weather
forecasts.

John Browning.

CHATS ABOUT ROTIFERS.
(Ertemias tetrathrix.)

THIS singular and rare rotiferon has been classified
as belonging to the family Anurcedse, genus
Ertemia (Gosse).

The lorica is smooth, and shaped like a deep
obconic wine-glass, of which the foot is represented
by a long attenuated rigid bristle. Three similar
bristles project from the front edge of the lorica.
The centre bristle (the longest of the three frontal
ones) springs from the dorsal margin, and is about
one-fifth longer than the two side bristles.

The head is projected a short distance from the
mouth of the lorica, and crowned with a wreath of
closely set vibratile cilia.

C 2

28

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Its eye is large and of bright red colour, and is
situated a short distance down from the mouth, and
just above the mastax.

The water vascular organs are conspicuous. The

Fig. 13. — Ertemias tctrathrlx.

tortuous tubes, with vibratile tags (three on each
side), are distinctly discernible with a power of 500
diameters. The contractile vesicle is large, and
situated below the digestive organs, at the contracted
posterior end^of the lorica.

It was in August, 18S5, that I had the good fortune
to discover this remarkable creature in Stormont
Loch, Blairgowrie. On examining a fragment of
milfoil, which I had dredged from the bottom of the
loch, in a zoophyte trough, with the water, I
observed the E. tetrathrix busy nibbling at a colony
stock of Codosiga umbel hit a. This beautifully
pedicled and collared Flagellata, as well as a number
of other forms of Pedicled Infusorians were thickly
attached to the leaves of the milfoil, which seemed to
form the chief article of food of the E. tetrathrix.
It did not leave the colony of C. iimbellata until it
had eaten most of the zooids from their foot-stalks, then
left the colony stock a complete wreck, to attack a
fine specimen of Acineta grandis. But the zooid
quickly retired to the bottom of its cup-shaped lorica,
and there baffled the efforts of the E. tetrathrix to
extract it, which left the A. grandis little the worse
for the assault.

Its manner of swimming is unique. It swims quite
as easily and gracefully backwards as forwards. It is
the only species of the whole Rotifera I have met
with that can voluntarily reverse its motion.

It will swim forwards amongst the leaves of the
plants and confervoid filaments, then shift its quarters
by swimming backwards quite as swiftly as by the
forward motion. I have seen many examples of this
creature, both in the summer of 1885 and 1886.
This voluntary reversing of the motion was a phe-
nomenon in every individual specimen.

Its egg is oblong, and after extrusion is fixed by a
gelatinous matter to the posterior of the lorica on the
ventral side, and there carried until hatched.

Length from tip of the centre frontal bristle to the
tip of posterior bristle, ^ of an inch. Length of
lorica, ^ of an inch.

John Hood, F.R.M.S.

Dundee.

SECTION-CUTTING.

THE following remarks, supplementary to Mr.
Underbill's admirable paper in the last issue,
may be of some interest. In preparing specimens
for mounting, the guiding principle in all the
necessary manipulations should be to avoid any
sudden change of density. For instance, it would
not do to transfer such delicate tissue as that of a
Medusa from 30 per cent, alcohol to 70 per cent,
without first placing it for a few minutes in 50 per
cent. As a rough rule, in passing a tissue which has
been treated with some such hardening substance as
corrosive sublimate up from water to absolute alcohol,
the strength of the solution should be increased 10
per cent, each time, and the substance should average
ten minutes in each, the time being slightly longer in
the earlier stages. Corrosive sublimate is by far the
best agent for first killing or fixing specimens, which

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

29

may remain in a saturated solution for three or four
hours. To kill animals in an expanded condition it
may be used hot, and immediately replaced by cold
solution. As an instance of its use, suppose one is
dealing with the contents of a surface net, all animals
of the most extreme delicacy. To the sea water in
which these are swimming about add a small quantity
of solution of ferric chloride, which will kill the
organisms most effectually. They will now sink to
the bottom and form a sediment, from which the sea
water may be poured off. Fill up with saturated
solution of corrosive sublimate,* and leave for three or
four hours. Then thoroughly wash with distilled
water, by decantation, until all traces of sublimate
have disappeared, and pass up into 70 per cent,
spirit in the way mentioned above. Specimens may
be now labelled and laid aside, for they will remain
unaltered for an apparently indefinite time.

Now a few words as to staining. In the Cambridge
Morphological Laboratory, all the preparations are
stained before cutting, and the beautiful results ob-
tained there quite dispose of the theory that staining
in mass does not give definiteness of outline. There
the block of tissue, or the animal, as the case may be,
is left in an alum and calcic chloride solution of hema-
toxylin for twenty-four hours. It is then washed as
rapidly as possible in a solution of '25 per cent, nitric
acid in 70 per cent, spirit. This dissolves out
superfluous stain, removing it in part from those
portions of the tissue which have no great attraction
for it, and thus gives differential staining and great
definiteness of outline. The time for leaving in the
hematoxylin is not of vast importance ; all that is
necessary is that the block should have time to
become thoroughly filled with the stain.

Definiteness of outline appears to be much more
dependent on perfect dehydration than on staining.
The nitric acid solution may be replaced by 70 per
cent, spirit, this by 90, and this by absolute.

By far the most delicate method of imbedding is
the following. The stained specimen is left in
the absolute alcohol until it is thoroughly permeated
(a matter of a few minutes only) ; then, with a pipette,
place a quantity of chloroform sufficient to cover the
specimen, at the bottom of the small bottle in which
it and the absolute alcohol already are, where it will
form a lower stratum. The specimen will float in
the upper layer of alcohol, and will only gradually
sink into the chloroform, the alcohol with which the
tissue is soaked being very slowly replaced. When
this is accomplished, the upper stratum of alcohol
and the chloroform may be drawn off with the pipette,
and a little fresh chloroform added. Now shred
some paraffin into the bottle, cork loosely, and leave
for a short time at a temperature of about 300 C.
The paraffin will be slowly dissolved by the chloro-

* It is found best to make the solution with sea-water when
jt is to be used for marine organisms.

form, the density of the fluid equally slowly changing,
and permeate the tissue. Raise the 'temperature to
6o° C, and the chloroform will be driven off, and
when this is completed, as determined by smell,
transfer to a larger quantity of melted paraffin, and
imbed in the usual way.

I am inclined to endorse Mr. Underwood's dictum,
that the hardness of the paraffin should be varied
according to the surrounding temperature. The
temperature of the Cambridge laboratory is tolerably
constant, from the method of heating, so I cannot
speak from experience. There we use two kinds of
paraffin, " hard " and "soft," the latter being of such
a low melting-point that it can be moulded in the
fingers at the ordinary temperature. The soft paraffin
is used first, before passing into hard paraffin. It is
also extremely important as an aid to obtaining
" ribbons," serving, from its pliable nature, as a
cement to unite the different sections together. To
this end the little cubes are coated on only two sides
with this soft paraffin, in the line in which the ribbons
are intended to run. They are generally dipped
bodily into some hard melted at a low temperature,
and then the soft paraffin is carefully removed with a
knife, except where wanted. I find it easiest myself
to melt a little on the blade of an old scalpel,
and apply as thin a layer as possible in that way,
and on the two sides of the cube only on which it is
needed.

None of these statements are intended to traverse
Mr. Underbill's remarks, since he was dealing only
with insects, and I have had no experience of them.

W. B. H.

Cambridge,

CHAPTERS ON COLOUR.

By S. A. Notcutt, jun., B.A., B.Sc.

No. II.

T

URNING to the mixture of pigments, we find
results entirely different from those arrived at

Red.

Or. Yel.

Gr?.

Bl.

Viol.

Fig. 14.— Diagram of the Three Primary Colour Sensations
(1, red ; 2, green ; 3, blue or violet) showing the extent to
which they are affected by rays belonging to different parts
of the spectrum. (Helmholtz.)

ty mixing coloured lights. We know that blue and

3°

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

yellow light form white, whereas blue and yellow
pigments form green. Now we have seen that the
colour of a pigment is clue to the absorption which
light undergoes in passing through the surface layers,
and in being reflected back from the interior. We
may represent the surface layer of a blue pigment
by a piece of blue glass placed on white paper ; if
we now place a piece of yellow glass over it, what
will be the colour of the paper ? The blue glass
transmits violet, blue, and green rays ; the yellow
glass transmits green, yellow, orange, and red rays ;
hence the only rays which the two glasses transmit
in common are green rays. Therefore the paper will
look green when covered by both glasses.

This is a model of what takes place when a mixture
of blue and yellow pigment is spread over a white
surface ; green is the only colour which is not
absorbed by either of them.

Dove devised a simple piece of apparatus for
comparing coloured light mixtures with pigment
mixtures. He covered an aperture in a piece of
card, half with one coloured glass and half with
another, and caused the images of the two halves to
overlap by examining the aperture through a piece of
doubly-refracting spar. In the overlapping of the
"ordinary" image of the one half by the "extra-
ordinary " image of the other, a true mixture of the
lights was obtained. He afterwards observed the
colour of the two pieces of glass placed one over the
other. Dove's results show that coloured light
mixtures of red and green are yellow, whilst pigment
mixtures of the same colours are black, or very dark
green. Blue-green and dark purple light form a pale
blue-green, whereas the same colours in pigments
form a dark violet. In fact, pigments are always
darkened by mixture on the palette, for by each
successive mixture the absorption of some further
rays is effected, and thus we have a continual process
of subtraction ; each admixture is a stride towards
blackness.

There are two accepted theories of coloured
vision — the Young - Helmholtz theory, and the
Hering theory. The former, which was published
by Young in 1802, supposes that there are three
colour sensations which are called forth in different
degrees by rays belonging to different regions of the
spectrum. One of these sensations is a red sensation,
which is excited most by certain red rays, but is
nevertheless affected in a certain varying degree by
other rays, the effect being less the farther the rays
arc from the red, until in the blue region of the
spectrum it is scarcely appreciable. Besides the
fundamental red sensation, Young supposed there to
be two other primary sensations, one being aroused
to a maximum by certain green rays, and the other
by certain blue or violet rays, but both, like the red
sensation, being more or less affected by rays of
every refrangibility. Helmholtz represented this
varying capacity possessed by rays in different

regions of the spectrum for awakening any one of
the three sensations, by three curves (Fig. 14), the
height of any point in any of the curves representing
the extent to which the particular sensation is aroused
by a ray belonging to that part of the spectrum.
When the three sensations are aroused in equal
proportions, we experience the sensation of white
light ; this is shown to be the case by rotating a
disc with red, green, and blue sectors on Maxwell's
colour-top, when the whole will appear grey. We
have seen that yellow and blue light, when mixed,
makes a white or grey ; the reason for this is easily
understood on referring to the diagram (Fig. 14), for
there it is seen that a yellow ray affects both red and
green primary sensations, whilst a blue ray affects
both green and blue sensations, so that between the
two we have the three factors required for giving rise
to the sensation of white. By the diagram it is seen,
too, that a yellow ray awakens the red and green
sensations in about equal degrees. Now when a
disc, half green and half red, is rotated, a dull yellow
is the result ; when the disc is made up of more red
than green, the tone of the combination approaches
orange, as might be expected. In the same way,
other intermediate colour sensations are produced, the
resultant sensation produced by any ray or number of
rays being determined by the relative extent to which
each of the three primary or fundamental sensations
is affected. According to this theory, black is the
absence of all sensation.

The Hering theory, which is more generally
accepted by*1 physiologists, is partly based on the
fact that we can pick out six different colours,
each of which appears to us to be quite distinct from,
and have nothing in common with, any other ; these
six naturally fall into three pairs, which are black and
white, green and red, blue and yellow. Each pair
then comprises two correlative and complementary
colours. The theory also depends on the existence of
what are known as "visual substances." One such
substance, which is of a purple colour, is found in
portions of the retina of most eyes. This is called
"visual purple," and is peculiar from the fact that,
under the influence of light, it loses its colour, but
regains it if kept in the dark. Hering's theory, on
analogy with the phenomenon of visual purple, supposes
there to be three such visual substances in the retina
which are acted upon by light, and which in their
changed chemical state in turn act on the fibres of the
optic nerve, giving rise altogether to six colour sensa-
tions. These substances are colourless, and are con-
stantly undergoing either a constructive or destructive
metabolism. One substance awakens the sensation of
white when it is breaking up or undergoing dissimila-
tion, and of black when it is being built up or undergoing
assimilation. Similarly the second substance gives rise
to a sensation of red or green, and the third substance
to a yellow or blue sensation, according as dissimila-
tion or assimilation prevails in the respective sub-

HARD JVICXE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P.

3r

stances. Further these substances are such that in the
red-green substance, red rays falling on it cause dis-
similation, and green assimilation ; whilst in the yellow-
blue substance yellow rays cause dissimilation, and
blue assimilation ; but all rays alike arouse dissimila-
tion in the white-black substance. Consequently,
when yellow and blue light falls on the eye, dissimila-
tion and assimilation in the yellow-blue substance is in
equilibrium ; neither process goes on, and neither the
sensation of yellow nor of blue is perceived, but since
both rays act on the white-black substance, causing
dissimilation, we perceive the sensation of white light.
This has been shown above to be actually the case.
An orange sensation is aroused by dissimilation of both
the red-green and yellow-blue substances, purple by
assimilation of the yellow-blue substance, and dissimi-
lation of the red-green substance, and other inter-
mediate colours by other variations in the dissimilation
or assimilation of the substances.

About the beginning of the present century it was
discovered that many persons are born with a
deficient perception of colour, being what is called
" colour-blind," and it was noticed that this deficiency,
though found more or less in one out of every eighteen
men in England, was very rare in women, even when
belonging to a family hereditarily colour-blind. Mr.
Hugo Magnus supposes that our sense of colour has
been developed during the last four or five thousand
years, and that the savages before that period could
only distinguish a dark from a light shade. He
bases this theory of the evolution of colour on philo-
logical researches, but the evident colour perception
found in lower animals tends to contradict it.

To be what is called "red-blind," is the commonest
form of colour blindness. A person so afflicted fails
to distinguish between rose-red and bluish-green : he
sees little more than two colours in the spectrum,
which he calls yellow and blue, the yellow including
the red, orange, yellow and green spaces. He
classes all these tints as yellows, though they are
really greens, because yellow being more luminous
than green, excites a green sensation even more
than green does itself, hence yellows are more con-
spicuous than greens to the colour-blind, but only
by virtue of the green they contain. The extreme
red, if at all faint, is invisible to a red-blind person.

Maxwell found that, for a colour-blind person, it
was only necessary to choose two colours (instead of
three), and to combine them, by the aid of his discs,
with the addition of black and white, in order to
match any other colour ; whereas, for the normal
eye, we have seen that the] combination of three
colours, with black and white, was required. By
comparing the colour equations obtained from his
colour top, as adjusted by a colour-blind person, with
the equations obtained when the experiment was
conducted by a person of normal vision, Maxwell
calculated the exact colour-sensation which was
wanting in the colour-blind person.

On the Young-Helmholtz theory, a colour-blind
person lacks one of the primary colour sensations ;
thus, if he is red-blind, his colour sensations are
composed of the green and blue alone.

On the Hering theory, a red-blind person lacks the
red-green visual substance ; hence all his colour-
sensations must be made up of blue and yellow.
According to this theory, green-blindness cannot exist
apart from red-blindness ; indeed, it has not been
satisfactorily proved that this is ever really the case.

The peripheral portions of the normal retina are
red-blind, and these parts form a large and increasing
proportion in cases of excessive tobacco-smoking.

A certain shoemaker, named Harris, is recorded to
have had scarcely any perception of colour at all, and
must therefore have resembled Mr. Magnus's primeval
savages.

In gas-light, we are all in much the same condition
as if we were partially violet colour-blind, and by the
light of a sodium flame we can place ourselves in a
condition somewhat like that of Harris. The light
from this flame contains only yellow rays of a par-
ticular wave length ; hence yellow objects look white,
and all other colours look black, or a pale yellow, if
they happen to reflect a modicum of yellow with their
normal colour — in other words, we can only distin-
guish light and shade effect.

In all practical questions of colour, we find it
necessary, not only to consider the colour of the body
or surface itself, but also the colour of the adjacent
medium, since the colour of the body will apparently
change with alterations in the colour of such medium.
This is known as Contrast. Thus, a red object looks
brighter on a green than on a red surface.

All contrast phenomena are the result of one of two
distinct causes, being due either to fatigue of portions
of the retina, or to fluctuations or error in our visual
judgment. Effects produced by fatigue of part of the
retina, or negative after-images, as they are generally
called, have been so freely published in certain well-
known advertisements, that it is scarcely necessary
to mention them.

After staring steadily at a bright red object and
then turning the eyes on to a grey wall, we seem to
see the object again, but its colour is green instead of
red ; the reason being that the grey light reflected
into the eye from the grey wall contains all the
constituent rays of the spectrum, but the visual
substance or nerves capable of awakening a red
sensation having been wearied, the other colour
sensations predominate, giving rise to a sensation of
bluish-green, corresponding to that part of the retina
which has been so wearied. The after image is
necessarily of a complementary colour to the object,
since whenever a colour is subtracted from white
light the remaining colour is complementary to it.

These experiments can be variously modified. By
looking at a green object on a sheet of yellow paper
and then removing the object, jwe see its after image

32

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

of an orange colour. Here the yellow paper reflects
red, yellow, and green rays into the eyes ; but the
sensation of green is worn out and we perceive only
the red and yellow rays, and these we know give
rise together to the sensation of orange. Or, placing
a slip of black or green paper on red paper, so as to
shield part of the retina from the red rays, then on
removing the slip an image of it is seen on the red
ground, the image being of a brighter and more
intense red.

The greatest contrast is obtained when the two
colours are complementary to each other. Somewhat
prolonged observation of such colours gives rise to a
glimmering or lustrous appearance, which is the
leading feature of another common advertisement.

An experiment of Helmholtz furnishes an example
of the deception to which our visual judgment is

liable. He directed two
beams of light, one ordinary
daylight, and one candle-
light, on to a white screen,

A NEW PARASITIC COPEPOD.

I LATE BY received from Mr. H. Chad wick, of
Manchester, a specimen of Sabella, from the
sandy shore at Beaumaris, N.W., which appeared to
be infested with Copepoda. They were found at-
tached to the gill filaments, to which they clung so
tenaciously that it was difficult to remove them for
examination without injuring the filament of the
worm their host. The worm occurs in large numbers
on the beach at Beaumaris, and several specimens
taken were all found to be infested with the little
Crustacean.

Microscopical examination clearly shows it to
belong to the genus Lichomolgus, family Sap-
phirinidse (Thorell), but it differs in many important
points from any hitherto known species. I propose
to name it Lichomolpus sabella (Fig. 15).

Its length is about T'5 inch, and with even a pocket
lens it is readily distinguishable by its long narrow
ovisacs and remarkable antennae. The body is

Fig. 15- — Lichomolpus sahellce Q.

and interposed an upright rod, so that two shadows
were cast on the screen, one in each beam. After
adjusting the lights till the shadows were of the same
depth, he found that one appeared yellow, namely
that cast in the beam of daylight, and the other blue.
In this experiment the whole screen is really a pale
yellow, being illuminated by a mixture of white light
and yellow candle-light, but we accept it as white ; the
consequence is that the shadow of the rod in the beam
from the candle, which shadow is really pure white
or grey since it is illuminated by daylight only, looks
blue by comparison.

Another experiment which depends on our mis-
taken visual judgment consists in placing a small strip
of grey paper on a brightly coloured paper and
covering them with a sheet of tissue paper. The
grey strip seen through the tissue paper appears of a
complementary colour to the ground colour, and
sometimes even more intense. This is a case of
contrast between two greys, and the contrast effects
are more marked than in the case of more intense
colours.

Fig. 16. — Posterior antenna;
of Lichomolpus sabella.

Fig. 17. — Anterior antenna;. Fig. iS.

-Pair of Swimming
Feet.

elongated ; the first segment being about half the
entire length of the cephalothorax which is of ovate
form. The abdomen is composed of five joints : the
first joint being in length equal to the remaining
four joints, and proportionately broad. In the male,
its lower angles are produced into two sharp narrow
spines. Rostrum short and beak-shaped. Anterior
antennas (Fig. 17) seven-jointed, the two basal joints
much longer and broader than the rest, and roundly
serrated on the outer margin. All the joints are
clothed with strong spinous setae.

Posterior antenna; (Fig. 16) four-jointed, and very
powerful ; the second joint is provided with four small
curved hooks placed longitudinally, and the apical
segment has four large strong curved hooks, in shape
much like shepherds' crooks.

The posterior foot jaws vary in the two sexes. One
of the first four pairs of swimming feet is shown in
Fig. 18. The fifth pair are alike in both sexes, and are
composed of one joint, with a long and short strong
spinous seta at apex. The animal is of a greyish-
brown colour.

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

33

Since the establishment of the Biological Labora-
tory on Puffin Island, near to Beaumaris, under the
directorship of Professor Herdman, systematic collec-
tions of material are made by tow-net day and night,
and several new and rare free-swimming copepoda
nre already recorded ; but the above new parasitic
species seemed of such special interest that I ventured
10 describe it in your pages.

Isaac C. Thompson.

Liverpool.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

REMARKABLE ADULTERATION. — The
following is from the columns of a popular
periodical : "Materials, often largely ferruginous, are
employed in the manufacture of glass for bottles, and
the acids in wine act very powerfully upon these
constituents, the consequence being that the liquid
gets thoroughly impregnated with a solution of
magnesia, or something very detrimental to the juice
of the grape. When the wine thus affected, is drunk,
it is found to be a sour, more or less nasty concoction."
The chemistry of this is very wonderful. The
impregnation of the wine with a solution of magnesia
as a consequence of the action of its acid upon ferru-
ginous materials presents a clear case of the transmu-
tation of metals, and the souring of the wine by the
using up of its acid is another blow to modern
chemistry, one of its fundamental doctrines being
that an acid cannot exert its solvent or combining
energies without becoming proportionally neutralised.

Electric Fishing. — One of Tiedmand's pictures
in the Norwegian Summer Palace of the King of
Sweden and Norway (Oscar's Hall, near Christiania),
represents a peasant family spearing salmon at night
in one of the fjords. A blazing fire of pine knots,
or other resinous wood, is made on an overhanging
cage at the prow of the boat. This light is an object
of interest to the fish. While they are engaged in
their investigations of the unusual phenomenon, the
fatal blow is struck and they share the fate of Archi-
medes.

The " Scotsman " tells us that experiments are in
progress in the Firth of Forth, in which the electric
light is to be substituted for the glare of the wood
fire as a means of piscatorial seduction. Electric
lamps were sunk to a depth of forty or fifty fathoms,
but the pressure of water was too great for the glass
globes, which although very thick were broken by
the pressure of the water. The account I have states
that the glass was \ of an inch thick, but the size of
the globes is not stated. An arc light of six thousand
candle-power is described as having been used, and
that further trials with stronger globes are to be made.
If I dared to make a suggestion it would be to

proceed more modestly at moderate depths. The
Norwegians work on the surface for the lake trout
and salmon. I have caught cod-fish as fast as I
could haul them up by bottom fishing at five or six
fathoms, and see no good reason whatever for trying
such depths as forty or fifty.

The Propagation of Cholera. —Certain
Frenchmen have accused us of carrying cholera from
India to Europe through the Suez Canal, in spite of
the fact that it visited this part of the world long
before the canal was made. The last visitation has
been singularly fatal to this theory, according to
which the cholera should follow the course of the
East India ships, and therefore should make its
European debut in London. Instead of this, London
has escaped altogether, while Paris, and other large
towns of France, Italy, &c, have suffered severely.

Herr Pettenkofer referred to this in his address to
the International Hygienic Congress at Vienna, and
asked the question : " Why do the English, in spite of
their enormous traffic with India, where cholera is
never extinct, not transfer the disease to their own
country?" He replies that England's immunity
from cholera is not owing to quarantines and other
expensive obstructions to international traffic, such as
vainly exist in Italy, France, Spain, Russia, &c, but
to superior cleanliness, and attention to the removal
of sewage. He adds that the general statistics of
the mortality of London show that our proverb
"cleanliness is next to godliness" is well founded,
and that hygienic piety has been rewarded by the
heavens.

Aluminium. — We may hope that, ere long, useful
alloys of this metal will become cheaper. In spite
of the difficulty of obtaining the metal itself, M. G.
A. Faurie has devised an easy and inexpensive
method of obtaining it in alloy with other metals.
Two parts of finely powdered alumina with one of
petroleum, or other hydrocarbon, are worked into a
paste well kneaded, and one part of sulphuric acid
added. When the mass becomes homogeneous, with
a uniform yellow colour and begins to liberate
sulphuric acid, it is put into a paper bag and raised
to a good red heat in a crucible. The reduced pro-
duct thus obtained is finely powdered and mixed with
about its own weight of the metal (also in powder)
with which it is to be alloyed and raised to a white
heat in a crucible. We are told that on cooling
after this, more or less rich grains of aluminium alloy
will be found in the middle of a black metallic
powder. I have not learned whether this black
powder can be fully reduced and utilised by further
treatment with carbon or hydro-carbon. If so the
whole process is simple enough, and cheap enough,
to afford good supplies.

The Universal Solvent. — The old alchemists
sought for three great arcana, the philosopher's stone,

HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIP.

the elixir of life, and the universal solvent ; the
latter being required to make gold drinkable and
thus endue the body with its characteristic imperish-
ability ; drinkable gold — aurum potabilc — being the
theoretical composition of the elixir of life.

Modern chemistry has done no more than alchemy
towards revealing the first two arcana, but has
accomplished the third. The universal solvent has
been long known, but not until lately separated,
and now cannot be retained simply because it attacks
everything ; nothing can hold that which dissolves
or destroys everything. This fury of the chemical
world is the element fluorine ; it exists peacefully in
company with calcium in fiuor spar and also in a
few other compounds, but when isolated, as it
recently has been by M. Henri Moissan, is a rabid
gas that nothing can resist. It combines with all the
metals, explosively with some, or if they are already
combined with some other non-metallic element, it
tears them from it and takes them to itself.

In uniting with sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and aluminium, the metals become heated
even to redness by the fervour of its embrace. Iron
filings, slightly warmed, burst into brilliant
scintillations when exposed to it, manganese the
same. Even the noble metals, which even at a melting
heat proudly resist the fascinations of oxygen,
succumb to this chemical siren at moderate tempera-
tures. Glass is devoured at once, and water ceases
to be water by contact with this gas, which combining
with its hydrogen, at the same moment forms the
acrid glass-dissolving hydro-fluoric acid, and liberates
ozone.

Oyster Cultivation. — The victim of an ill-spent
life, whose remorse on the remembrance of neglected
opportunities, was lately pictured in "Punch,"
may yet find some consolation and opportunities of
amendment. Though he may still regret that he did
not eat more oysters in the irrevocable past when
they ^were eightpence a dozen, the future is bright
and hopeful. Oyster cultivation has been eminently
successful in France. The exports in 1885 were 30
millions, and in 1887 they reached to about 52 millions,
and the imports from Portugal to France have
declined from 154,657 kilogrammes in 1S83 to 1500
kilogrammes in 1887. In Tasmania, Mr. Saville
Kent is equally successful. In his report for 1886,
presented to the Tasmanian parliament, he shows
good reason for concluding that, by extending the
system he has adopted in the government reserves,
and by its adoption by private enterprise, the colony
may ere long establish a lucrative oyster trade. Of
course we may do the same in Britain, the classic
fatherland of oysters, provided the enterprise is
placed in the hands of such a man as Mr. Saville
Kent, i.e. a naturalist who is not too much inflated
with professional or other official dignity, nor endowed
with too large a salary to work practically himself.

A savant with a salary of ^1000 to ,£1250 per annum
cannot descend to menial work ; one with three or
four hundred is more likely to work for his bread,
even though the work demands daily wading waist-
deep, in salt water. Even the plodding Chinaman
has beaten us in this branch of industry. He culti-
vates oysters successfully, abundantly, and cheaply.

Science in China. — The irresistible march of
science is striding over even the ultra conservatism
of China. Imperial sanction has been given to a
profound innovation, to the introduction of mathe-
matics and modern physics, also of civil and military
engineering, and still more startling, of international
law and the history of the outer barbarians. All of
these have now become subjects of Chinese National
Education in all the provinces of the empire, and
of the examinations upon the results of which the
social status and the whole career of the best men
of the empire depend. If this is fully carried
out, some of the weary, useless, and degrading rote
work connected with the old-established examina-
tions in the ancient Chinese classics, the exercises in
prose and poetical composition, Chinese history,
&c, must be pushed aside. When the thin
end of this education wedge is fairly inserted, we may
hope that the rotten old system will soon be reft
asunder. On a people who have already acknow-
ledged so fully the supremacy of the intellect ; whose
old-established aristocracy is so largely built on the
basis of intellectual competition, the effect of such
reform must be enormous. It may even occur in the
course of another generation that educational mission-
aries from China will visit Oxford and Cambridge to
promote the modernisation of our ancient Universities,
basing their advocacy on the splendid results of the
pioneer efforts successfully carried forward in the
Celestial Empire.

Science on Mont Blanc. — Some of the older
accounts of electric displays on the summits of high
mountains have been rather discredited of late ; even
those of de Saussure have been treated rather dis-
respectfully, chiefly, I suppose, because modern
Alpine climbers have not confirmed them. My own
experience among such climbers, especially in
making an ascent of Mont Blanc so far back as the
autumn of 1842, explains the negative results. The
whole business of such climbing consists in reaching
a certain peak, resting thereon for a few minutes to
drink champagne or Kirschwasser, and take breath,
then galloping and glissading down with helter-
skelter pell-mell rapidity. Deliberate observation of
anything beyond the reading of a barometer is out
of the question in such expeditions. Last summer,
however, MM. J. Vallot and Richard did some
genuine work on the summit of Mont Blanc, where
they erected a tent and remained for three days and
three nights with the ability and appliances for
making meteorological and other observations. One

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

35

of these I may quote, as it confirms some of the old
and disreputed statements above alluded to. After
a severe storm that imperilled their tent, M. Vallot
on going out at about 9 P.M. found himself an in-
teresting object. His clothes and his head were in
the condition of the prime conductor of a working
electrical machine. The rock on which he stood was
in an opposite electric state to the mist around him,
and his body thus became a crepitating sparkling
discharger.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

ON February the nth, there will be a partial
eclipse of the sun, not visible at Greenwich.

On February the 20th, Aldebaran will be very
close to the moon.

Mercury will be an evening star in the west, near
the horizon, about an hour after sunset.

Venus will be a morning star throughout the
month.

Mars will be in Virgo.

Jupiter will be visible early in the morning in
Scorpio.

Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at interz'als of Seven Days in February.

Rises.

Souths.

Sets.

D.

h. m.

h. m.

h. m.

5

8 9M

i 6a

6 3A

12

7 5SM

1 19A

6 43A

Mercury 5 .

19

7 3°M

1 17A

7 44*

'

26

6 54M

0 50A

6 46A

/

5

5 29M

9 32M

1 35*

Venus $ . . I

12

5 36m

9 41M

1 46A

'

19

5 38m

9 49M

2 OA

26

5 3§M

9 58m

2 i8a

t

5

n 14A

4 41 M

IO 5M

Mars & . . j

12

10 56A

4 20M

9 41M

19

10 34A

3 58m

9 1 8m

'

26

IO I2A

3 33M

8 51M

(

5

2 49M

7 6m

n 23M

Jupiter %. .1

12

2 26il

6 42M

10 58M

19

2 3M

6 i8m

10 33M

'

26

I 39M

5 53M

IO 7M

(

5

3 21A

11 15A

7 14M

Saturn T?. J

12

2 51A

IO 46 A

6 45M

19

2 19A

10 i6a

6 17M

26

1 50A

9 47A

5 48m

Meteorology. — There being nothing of popular
interest to record as regards Astronomy this month,
I shall devote my space to a summary of the Meteor-
ology of 1887.

From the observations published in the daily
weather report of the Meteorological Office, it appears
that the temperature rose in July to a maximum of

88 deg. and fell to a minimum'of 15 deg. in January,
which was the lowest reading observed for six years.

The extreme range for the year of 73 deg., was the
largest observed for many years.

The mean temperature was below the average in
every month, excepting June and July, and very
considerably below the average in March, April,
May, September, and October. The mean tempera-
ture for the year showed a deficiency of 2 deg., and,
with the exception of 1879, was the coldest that we
have experienced for at least twenty-five years.

Respecting rainfall, we find that rain fell on twenty-
four days fewer than the average, and that the amount
which fell was less than the average in every month,
excepting August and November. In January, June,
and July, it was about half, and in October it was less
than half, while in February it was only one-third of
the average.

The total rainfall for the year was 20 per cent, below
the average. For some of the midland and south-
western counties, and for parts of Ireland, the year
1887 was the driest on record.

In the neighbourhood of London the number of
warm and very warm days was the smallest we have
experienced for eight years. The number of cool
days exceeded any year since 1879, and to find an
equally great number of frosty nights we must go
back at least twenty-five years. Owing to the
deficient temperature- having occurred mostly in the
spring and summer months, the death-rate from
diseases of the respiratory organs was not abnormally
low.

The two features of the most striking interest in
the meteorology of last winter were the great gale
on the 8th and 9th of December, 1886, and the
heavy snowstorms in the south of England on the
26th of the same month. During the gale on the 9th
of December, the barometer sank in London to 28*30,
the lowest level recorded in the Metropolis for forty-
five years.

Over the greater part of England, including
London, the spring was the coldest on record.

The summer of 1887 was remarkable for its bril-
liancy. From the 5tft °f June to the middle of
August there was an almost unprecedented drought.
Long spells of heat were experienced in London
during July and August. The amount of bright
sunshine recorded at Greenwich was greater than in
most years, and nearly double that of the summer of

1879.

The autumn of 18S7 was cold, changeable and
unsettled. Snow fell as early as the loth of October.
The mean temperature was greatly below the average
in England, but not in Scotland.

The rainfall in the autumn was less than the
average in most places, the deficiency in London
being 7 per cent.

The present winter, so far, has been very change-
able and unsettled. There have been no very severe

36

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G 0SS1P.

frosts in England, but on the Continent the cold just
at the end of December has been intense. Since
then we have had high winds, rains, and several
alternations of temperature.

At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the highest
reading of the barometer for the week ending 17th
December, was 29 '95 in. on Monday morning,
and the lowest 29*13 in. on Thursday morning.
The mean temperature of the air was 40*7 cleg.,
and 0*2 deg. above the average. The general direc-
tion of the wind was south-westerly. Rain fell on
six days of the week, to the aggregate amount of
o*8i of an inch. The duration of registered bright
sunshine in the week was 5 "8 hours against 5*3
hours at Glynde-place, Lewes.

For the week ending 24th December, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*34 in. on Monday
morning, and the highest 29*88 in. on Thursday
evening. The mean temperature of the air was
34*9 deg., and 4*7 deg. below the average. The
general direction of the wind was north-westerly.
Rain or melted snow was measured on four days of
the week, to the aggregate amount of 0*17 of an
inch. The duration of registered bright sunshine in
the week was 1*9 hour, against 5*7 hours at Glynde-
place, Lewes.

For the week ending 31st December, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*65 in. on Sunday
evening, and the highest 30*07 in. on Friday evening.
The mean temperature of the air was 32*1 deg., and
6*7 deg. below the average. The general direction
of the wind was north. Rain fell on two days of the
week, to the aggregate amount of 0*02 of an inch.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 6 * 2 hours, against 1 1 * 1 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 7th January, 1888, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*15 in. on Monday
afternoon, and the highest 30*26 in. at the end of the
week. The mean temperature of the air was 40*2
deg., and 2*4 deg. above the average. The general
direction of the wind was southerly. Rain fell on
five days of the week, to the aggregate amount of
0*40 of an inch. The duration of registered bright
sunshine in the week was 4*1 hours, against 4*5
hours at Glynde-place, Lewes.

In February the temperature remains as in January
near the Land's End, but North and East it is higher
than in January, the average in London being nearly
2 deg. warmer. The average for the Land's End is
45 deg. ; for Devonport, 44 deg. ; Exeter, 43 * Ports-
mouth, 42 deg. ; on a line drawn from Liverpool
to London, 41 deg. ; and from the Sol way Firth to
the East Coast at Norfolk and Suffolk 40 deg.

The average rainfall for February is 1 inch on the
East Coast, 2 inches on the South Coast, 3 inches on
the greater part of the West Coast, and from 4 to 5
inches inland at Dartmoor, and in some parts of
North Wales.

I

UNRECORDED DAPHNIA.
SEND herewith a drawing of a Daphnia— found
in the autumn of last year in a pond near Rye-

Fig, ig. — Side view of Daphnia.

Fig. 20. — Front view of Daphnia. Size, inch.

House, of which I can find no mention in any of the

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

37

books available to me, and which I think is un-
recorded, at least in England — in the hope that
some one better acquainted with this family may be
able to name it.

It will be observed that it has five filaments to each
of the branches of the inferior or swimming antenna,
and belongs therefore probably to a genus other than
Daphnia. The superior antennae are long and ap-
parently three-jointed ; the large single eye is
accompanied by a black spot in front of it. Its
mode of swimming is in long jerks, resembling more
Tida crystalina in this respect than the common
Daphnia. The internal organs appear to be normal.
I have seen a number of individuals, but they were
by no means plentiful. Size of body, T'B inch.

C. ROUSSELET.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

A COMPLETE history of the Vertebrates of Leices-
tershire and Rutlandshire will shortly appear,
compiled from notes by Dr. Macaulay and others,
and edited by Mr. Montague Browne, of the
Leicester Museum. The Rutlandshire part will be
edited by Lord Gainsborough.

The Rev. A. C. Waghorne is publishing a series
of excellent papers in "The Colonist" on "The
Berries and Fruits of Newfoundland."

Mr. Francis Galton has delivered three im-
portant lectures at South Kensington on " Heredity

and Nurture."

A lecture was recently delivered by Mr. W.
August Carter, of the National Fish Culture Associ-
ation, at Foresters' Hall, Forest Hill, upon the
"Denizens of the Aqueous Kingdom." After com-
paring the habits and instincts of fish with terrestrial
animals, the lecturer commented upon the question
of migration, and considered that we ought not to
attribute the cause of fishing grounds being depleted
to the temporary absence of migratory fish. The
barren condition of many fishing grounds was due to
over-fishing and the devastation wrought in reaping
the products of the ocean. The question of migration
was a mysterious one, but probably it would be found
that fish merely alternated their movements between
their spawning and feeding grounds. He considered
it was high time that the Government supported a
system of fish culture, not only in regard to fluviatile
but also marine forms ; also a system for providing
technical education to fishermen.

Dr. F. P. Venables has given in the " Chemical
News," the results of a series of experiments on the
degree of dilution at which different substances can
be tasted. Known weights of the substances were
dissolved in water, diluted to known extents with

water, and one cubic centimetre of the solution was
tasted by each of two persons. The results were : —
sugar, three ten-thousandths of a gramme barely
tasted ; salt, one-thousandth barely tasted ; tannin,
two ten-thousandths tasted, one ten-thousandth failed
to taste ; hydrochloric acid, one ten-thousandth
barely tasted ; strychnine, one two-millionth barely
tasted. Thus the sensitiveness of taste is inferior to
that of smell.

The monks of St. Bernard have established the
highest-lying telephone connection in Europe, in
order to facilitate their famous work of charity.
Their well-known hospice is now in telephonic
communication with the towns of Proz and St.
Pierre in Switzerland and those of Fontine and St.
Remy, on the Italian side of the mountain.

The borings now being carried on in the Nile
Delta by the Royal Society have been temporarily
stopped by the breaking of the pipe. The depth
reached is over 324 ft., but no solid rock has been
arrived at.

Experiments have been recently made in St.
Petersburg with the idea of slaughtering cattle by
electricity, the results of which have been highly
satisfactory — death being in all cases instantaneous.

The Selborne Society has issued the first monthly
part of the " Selborne Magazine," as the accredited
organ of their society.

We are sorry to record the death of Professor
Balfour Stewart, of Victoria University, Manchester,
at the comparatively early age of 59.

The name of the "Youth Library and Scientific
Society " his been changed to that of the " Universal
Society of Science, Literature, and Art," and its
official organ henceforth will be the "Junior
Review," a copy of which we have received, and
which promises well. The fifth annual meeting was
held on the 10th ult. at Exeter Hall. We wish the
Society every deserved success.

A General Meeting of the " Practical Naturalists'
Society " was lately held in London, where the
Society was judiciously strengthened by the recon-
struction of some departments. Full details of the
meeting appear in the pages of the " Garner " for
January.

Peculiar Sunflowers. — No. 1 had its outer
row of florets, tubular instead of ligulate ; each floret
was about one inch long, with five teeth and a slit
about half-way down one side. The ilower head of
No. 2 had its centre occupied by a number of
involucral bracts, with a ring of ligulate florets
surrounding them, giving the flower a most curious
appearance. — J. E. C.

33

HARD WICKE' S S CIENCE- G OSSIP.

MICROSCOPY.

The "Journal of Morphology." — It is singular
how long American morphologists have been content
to send many of their memoirs to England for publi-
cation, from the want of an authoritative journal,
dealing specially with Morphology, in their own
country. Several such magazines have been started
from time to time in the United States, which were
fondly expected to play the same part there that the
" Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science " does
in England, but all lamentably failed. Their editors
did not succeed in gaining the confidence and support
of the best American workers. A new venture has
just appeared, under the title of the "Journal of
Morphology," and the first number is now before
us. It is edited by Mr. L. O. Whitman, the prestige
of whose name will go far to ensure its success, and
the seven memoirs included in its first issue are
remarkable both for the importance of the subjects
and from the fact, that they are contributed by men
who stand in the first rank of American science.
The plates and style of printing are of that high class
familiar to readers of the English journal. The
English agent is Mr. W. P. Collins, 157 Great
Portland Street, London.

Microscopical Society of Calcutta. — An in-
teresting meeting of the Microscopical Society of
Calcutta was held on the 5th of December last, when
Mr. H. H. Anderson read a paper on a new Infu-
sorian discovered by him. It is parasitic in the
alimentary canal of JEolosoma chlorosHctum, W. M.
mss., and has been named Anoplophrya ccolosomaiis.
In some cases seven or eight of the parasites have
been found in a single worm. The Infusorian some-
times disintegrates while under observation in a
curious way, releasing a swarm of ciliated cells. It
divides by fusion, and in some instances two septa
have formed in a single organism. At the same
meeting, Mr. E. J. Jones, A.R.S.M., described some
nodular stones which have recently been dredged up
off Colombo, in the island of Ceylon, from a depth
of 625 fathoms. They possess a specific gravity of
3*77, and it was supposed their great weight was due
to an excess of manganese, as was the case in the
nodules of the "Challenger" expedition. Only a
small trace of manganese is, however, present ; but
as much as 75 per cent, of sulphate of barium is
found. Sections made for microscopic examination
indicate a volcanic origin. The splierulites show
black crosses, with the nicols crossed ; and when the
prisms are rotated, the orientation of the crosses re-
mains fixed. The sections also show indications of
foraminiferce, though from the crystalline texture of
the nodules, it is clear they have been subjected to
great heat. — A. E. Simmons.

ZOOLOGY.

Scarcity of V. Atalanta in 1887. — My ex-
perience with regard to the scarcity of V. atalanta
during the past season coincides exactly with that of
your correspondent, R. B. P. In the country round
Malvern, where I spent August and September, and
where Atalanta is usually common enough, I only
saw one specimen at the end of August. — A. G.
Tan shy.

Odostomias at Herm. — During a visit to the
Channel Isles in September last, I took the follow-
ing species of Odostomia at Herm : — O. unidentata,
Mont., of occasional occurrence ; O. dolioliformis,
Jeff., a single specimen ; O. spiralis, Mont., com-
mon ; O. fcnestrata, Forbes, one beautiful specimen
— this species is recorded for Jersey only by Dr.
Jeffreys ; O. scalaris, Ph., of occasional occurrence ;
O. lac tea, L., common ; O. acicula, Ph., rare. I
may also mention amongst the Rissoids that occurred
to me this year in Herm, the following : striatnla,
Mont., lactca, Mich., cancellata, da C, calathus,
F. and H., reticulata, Mont., Zetlandica, Mont.,
violacea, Des M., costulata, Aid., punctura, Mont.,
and semistriata, Mont. — B. Tomlin.

Insects, &c, at Gibraltar. — Mr. James J.
Walker contributed to the " Entomologists' Magazine "
a paper on " A Year's Insect-Hunting at Gibraltar ; "
it appears that the insects that swarm about the rock
are of wonderful interest. There is scarcely a day
throughout the year on which butterflies may not be
found, and Mr. Walker enumerates fifty-five species
for the limited district, thirty of which have occurred
on the rock itself. He has found nine hundred species
of beetles, and is daily adding to the number. The
rock is the sole European locality in which the
Barbary ape is found in a wild state. These animals,
reduced a few years ago to less than a dozen indi-
viduals, have of late greatly increased in numbers,
and, being strictly protected, are very bold and
fearless. The fig-trees in the gardens suffer so much
from their depredations when the fruit is ripening
that it is found necessary to employ men to scare them
away. The Barbary partridge, though numerous
on the rock, as well as on the opposite African
coast, is, like the monkey, found nowhere else on the
European continent.

Mr. William Burgess, proprietor of the Midland
Counties Fish Culture Establishment, states that a
pond constructed by him last March, measuring fifty
feet by thirty feet, which was entirely isolated from
other similar ponds, was shortly after its formation
found to be populated with trout fry in their alevin
stao-e. No fish of any kind had been placed in the
pond, and none could have entered it, the inlet and

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE - G 0 SSIP.

39

outlet being blocked with perforated zinc of a very
fine mesh. The soil of the pond in question was
excavated from a brook where trout must have
previously spawned, and the ova although buried in
mud and flung heedlessly about, survived, and the
fry came to life when water had been let into the
pond. This is another proof of the enduring capacity
of Salmonidge ova.

Autumnal Migration of Birds. — An article
appears in the January number of the " Zoologist,"
by Mr. Allan Ellison, on the "Autumnal Migration
of Birds in Ireland." Mr. Ellison says that the
migration movement of last autumn in Ireland was
in all respects a most exceptional one. Some of the
migrants appeared unusually early, and all in much
larger numbers than he had ever before observed.
On October 8th he saw the first flocks, both starlings
and redwings. On the same day, and for about a
week after, immense numbers of golden plovers were
passing over, flying towards the west and south-west
in large V-shaped strings. This was about the
usual time for starlings and redwings, but early for
golden plover. On the nth, again, both redwings
and starlings were constantly passing. On the 16th,
he observed a great host of fieldfares, many thousands
in number, winging their way across the sky towards
the south-west. From October 17th to the beginning
of November, the starling migration was at its height,
the flocks being much larger and more numerous
than he had ever observed in former years. He saw
within a quarter of an hour on the afternoon of the
1 8th. At 4 p.m. on the 22nd the largest flock he
ever saw passed over. It was in the form of a column,
perhaps nearly a mile long, and must have numbered
thousands, spanning the sky from horizon to horizon,
for more than half a minute, and was followed in a
short time by two smaller flocks. All the latter part
of October skylarks were from time to time flying
over, generally large straggling flocks or scattered
individuals, flying nearly out of sight, but their call-
note being distinctly audible. Mr. Ellison hopes
that those who are favourably situated for observing
the arrival of winter birds will report whether they
have noticed a corresponding abundance of migrants
this season.

ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY.

Mister Pup. — She is a sftiid lady of seven years,
but such is her name, is a half-bred Bedlington, of
undeniable mental acuteness, which is proved, I
think, by the following acquired habit. She always
drinks from a saucer placed beneath the stone filter
in a corner of the dining-room. Finding the saucer
frequently empty, she has learned to turn the tap for
herself by licking vigorously. She has taught another
dog the same habit, but, unfortunately, they forget to

turn the water off when thirst is assuaged ; con-
sequently a pool too often stands on the carpet. A
new and firm tap has had to be placed on the filter,
much to Mister Pup's indignation and wrath.

Shag and Gull. — Mr. Winwood Reade, in his
" Martyrdom of Man," speaking of morality in
animals, says : " If they have human virtues, they also
certainly have human vices." The following incident,
vouched for by a scientific friend of mine in Guernsey,
shows that some of our feathered friends are about on
a par with humanity, in, at least, the matter of " lex
talionis." Near Guernsey harbour, a few days ago, a
shag (Cormoranus cristatus) was diving for smelts,
which, when captured, he came to the surface to
dispose of. Having caught one that was too large
to bolt, he cut it in halves, and while he was swallowing
the first of these, a gull, that was swimming near by,
"annexed" the other. The shag, after a moment's
deliberation, commenced proceedings in swordfish
versus whale fashion ; taking a dive, he came up with
great force below the gull, giving it such a thrust with
his strong bill as to knock it right out of the water,
following up the onslaught by seizing the gull's leg,
and for some seconds striving hard to drag the loudly
expostulating, or, perhaps, apologising, culprit under
the surface. Instinct ? — J. Sine!.

BOTANY.

Campanula glomerata and Gentiana cam-
pestris. — The note by R. B. P. on these plants on
page 21 of January Science-Gossip, must be my
excuse for mentioning the fact, that the former plant
is frequent in S. Beds, on the chalk hills, and often
assumes the unifloral diminutive form described by
your correspondent as characterising it on Beachy
Head. The Gentiana campestris does not appear to
grow in S. Beds, at least, I have searched for it
diligently for six or seven years, but without success.
Gentiana amarella is abundant here, and it frequently
occurs with tetramerous flowers, so that at first sight
it is easy to mistake it for G. campestris : in fact, the
numerical arrangement of the floral organs is of little
use in distinguishing the species, the only safe guide
being the deeply-divided calyx of the latter. Not
having ever found G. campestris, an exchange of
specimens with R. B. P. would be acceptable to
J. Saunders, Rothesay Road, Luton.

Flowers and Fruits.— The question put by
A. G. Tansley is one which has engaged my thoughts
a good deal, as I have always believed that botanists
had not been happy in their choice of words to describe
the relations between foliar and floral organs. On
reading that a leaf is much more highly organised
than a petal, it is well to remember that a petal is not
an essential organ ; that is, not an organ of repro-

4o

HARD IV J CKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIP.

duction. That the uppermost leaves on a stem should
be starved, aborted, or degraded is not indeed what
one would expect, considering that leaves are organs
of nutrition each of which makes the plant that bears
it richer as it grows. Look at a young plant of the
scarlet-runner, the second pair of leaves is larger than
the first. So it is with peas and other plants raised
from seed, that the leaves are larger as they are in-
creased in number, the later leaves having an ad-
vantage in the nutriment elaborated by those that
came before. We might therefore expect that a
plant having no definite limit to its power of growth,
an exogenous tree, would go on lengthening upwards
till it should reach the height at which its leaves
would be starved by reason of the rarefaction of the
atmosphere. Such however is not found to be the
case. The length of a branch bearing leaves is
evidently determined by some other principle than
the nourishment which the leaves afford and which is
not all spent in provision for the leaves which come
immediately after, but stored up in bulb, come, tuber
or rhizome, or it may be in a woody stem. Thus it is
that the upper leaves upon a stem may be starved,
aborted, or degraded at the same time that the plant
is laying up a store of nourishment. This procedure
of a plant may be compared to the conduct of a man
whose bodily strength is exhausted by work till he
is no longer able to stand up long enough to earn
fourpence by manual labour, but who has laid up so
much of what he had already earned as to have
capital at his disposal which he may use to gain a
profit. By such an expenditure of capital, a plant
produces flowers, fruit, and seed, as we may some-
times notice in an old apple-tree covered with blossom
and afterwards with fruit though so weak from age
that it can hardly form a leafy twig as long as your
little finger. — JoJui Gibbs.

Dielytra spectabilis. — As the naturalisation of
foreign species ought always to be placed on record,
it may be mentioned that near Coates, Sussex, this
pretty flower, doubtless a garden outcast, has become
well established during the last few years in woods in
the neighbourhood, and will doubtless attract the
attention of future observers. It may also be noted
that, both as to foliage and flowers, it has so deterio-
rated that it has a very different aspect from the
cultivated plant. Like other of the Fumariacere,
such as Corydalis hitca, it may possibly become a
recognised alien in our flora. — F. II. Arnold.

Raphides. — At a recent meeting of the Jena
Naturalists' Society, Frof. Saahl read a paper on the
meaning of those excreta of plants called Raphides, i.e.
crystalline needles often found in the cells in large
quantity. From experiment he inferred that they
were a protection to plants against being eaten by
animals. Many animals avoid plants with raphides,
or eat them reluctantly ; and some animal, e.g. snail

species, in eating plants that have raphides select
those parts that are without the crystals. Many
plants held for poisonous, e.g. Arum maculatum, owe
their burning taste simply to the very numerous
raphides, which, forced out of their cells, enter the
tongue and palate. The juice obtained by filtration
has quite a mild taste.

GEOLOGY, &c.

The Discovery of a Gigantic Turtle by Dr.
Donnezan. — This specimen was found, with numer-
ous other fossils, in the middle Pliocene of Perpignan
during the recent excavations connected with the
erection of the fortress of Serrat in the Eastern
Pyrenees. The carapace, 1*20 metre long, was ex-
tracted with great difficulty from the hard rock in
which it was completely imbedded, the innumerable
fragments being carefully put together by Dr.
Donnezan, by means of about a thousand brackets.
This turtle, which he has presented to the Paris
Museum, considerably exceeds its living congeners,
being equal in size to the T. gra?ididier, a sub-fossil
species found in Madagascar. Its survival down to
the close of the Middle Pliocene is important for the
study of the glacial period, tending to show that the
South of France even then still enjoyed a warm
climate.

The Correlation of some of the Eocene
Strata in the Tertiary Basins of England,
Belgium, and the North of France. — Prof.
Joseph Trestwich has recently read a paper on this
subject before the Geological Society. Although
the relations of the several series have been for the
most part established, there are still differences of
opinion as to the exact relation of the Sable de
Bracheux and of the Soissonnais to the English series ;
of the Oldhaven Beds to the Woolwich series ; and
of the London Clay and Lower and Upper Bagshots to
equivalent strata in the Paris basin. The author
referred to the usual classification of the Eocene Series,
and proceeded to deal with each group in ascending
order. The Calcaire de Mons is not represented in
England, but may be in France by the Strontianiferous
marls of Meudon. It contains a rich molluscan fauna,
including 300 species of Gasteropods, many of which
are peculiar, but all the genera are Tertiary forms.
The Heersian are beds of local occurrence, and Prof.
Prestwich sees no good reason for separating them
from the Lower Landenian or Thanet Sands. He
gave reasons for excluding the Sands of Bracheux
from this group. Out of twenty-eight Pegwell-bay
species, ten are common to the Lower Landenian, and
five to the Bracheux Sands, which present a marked
analogy with the Woolwich Series. These Sands of
Bracheux are replaced in the neighbourhood of Paris

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

4i

by red and mottled clays. Out of forty-five species
at Beauvais only six are common to the Thanet Sands
and ten to the Woolwich Series. Out of seventy-
five species in the Woolwich and Reading Beds
nineteen occur in the Bracheux Beds, if we add
to these latter the Sands of Chalons-sur-Vesles.
Respecting the Basement Bed of the London Clay
(Oldhaven Beds in part), Prof. Prestwich would
exclude the Sundridge and Charlton fossils, which
should be placed on a level with the Upper Marine
Beds of Woolwich. He allowed that the former
were deposited on an eroded surface, but this involves
no real unconformity, whilst the palceontological
evidence is in favour of this view, since out of fifty-
seven species in the Sundridge and associated beds,
only sixteen are common to the London Clay. He
therefore objected to the quadruple division. Either
the Oldhaven should go with the Woolwich or
with the Basement Bed. He admitted that the term
" Basement Bed" is objectionable, and preferred Mr.
Whitaker's term for the series, as he would limit it.
The Lower Bagshot Sands, Prof. Prestwich would
call "London Sands," whose Belgian equivalent
is the Upper Ypresian, and the French the
Sands of Cuise-la-Motte, forming the uppermost
series of the Lower Eocene. A group of fossils has
been discovered in the Upper Ypresian sands of
Belgium, which leaves no doubt of their being of
Lower Eocene age, and consequently the Lower
Bagshots must be placed upon the same horizon.
There is no separating line of erosion between the
London Clay and the Lower Bagshots, the upper
part of the former is sandy, and the lower part of the
latter frequently argillaceous. Similarly no definite
line can be drawn between the Upper and Lower
Ypresian ; but in both countries this series is separated
from overlying beds by a well-marked line of erosion.
So also in France the base of the Calcaire Grossier
(Bracklesham Beds) is a pebbly 'greensand resting on
an eroded surface of the Sands of the Cuise-de-la-
Motte. In Belgium, in Whitecliff Bay, and in the
Bagshot district the Upper Eocene rests upon an
eroded surface of the Lower Eocene.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Green Tree Frogs. — While staying at Mentone
some eighteen months ago, I sent a parcel, containing
twelve or fourteen green tree-frogs, to a friend in
Brighton who wished to see some, as he had heard
a great deal about them ; but, on their arrival, not
knowing what to do, as they were so lively after their
journey, he released some in the garden among the
shrubs, but from that moment he saw no more of
them ; the remainder he gave to two friends to keep
in their greenhouses. A few weeks after, I happened
to be at his house, when he told me that he had
searched everywhere, but cDuld find no signs of the

frogs which he had liberated, and in the course of
conversation informed me that his next-door neigh-
bour had a duck, which quacked in a very peculiar
manner, different to any that he had ever heard
before. On his mentioning this, I suspected that,
instead of a duck, it was one of the frogs which had
clambered over the wall, and taken up his quarters
there. Later on, my attention was called to the sound,
which, on being localised, was found to proceed from
the upper part of a large bush growing against the
wall, but no frog could be found, the foliage being so
thick. During the summer months, the frogs strayed
from garden to garden of an evening after sunset, or
whenever it came on to rain : one would commence
croaking, and directly afterwards another would
answer from perhaps six or eight gardens away, and
then a third, until it almost reminded me of an
evening in the Riviera. When the cold weather
commenced, they evidently perished, for they were
heard no more. Wishing to study a little the habits
of these most interesting creatures, I obtained (some
sixteen months ago) eleven from the same locality,
which I placed in a small fern-case ; they seemed to
like their quarters much, especially one corner which
I arranged to form a pool of mud ; but, as regards
feeding them, they disposed of blow-flies, houseflies,
spiders, or, in fact, any insect which showed signs of
life — dead ones they would never touch — in such
quantities that they seemed to be never satisfied,
their favourite diet apparently being blow-flies, bees
or wasps, the stings not disturbing them in the least,
and the more they buzz the better they like them.
During the winter three of the smallest died, and the
surviving eight, evidently owing to the liberal supply
of food, have grown considerably. It is astonishing,
considering the size of them, what a quantity they
can manage to eat or rather swallow. I have seen
them tackle and successfully put out of sight, three
and four large cockroaches, legs, elytra, and all, and
then quietly retire to some obscure corner to go to
sleep for a week or ten days, and digest their hearty
meal. Since their confinement, they have become
very tame, and afford an endless source of amusement
to my friends, who, when they happen to hear one
croak, express their astonishment that such small
creatures should be able to produce a sound almost
as loud as a duck. The approach of winter is
already very perceptible in their behaviour ; they are
very sleepy, and have but little appetite for the
dainties with which I tempt them, soon they will
search out secluded corners, and prepare for their
winter sleep.— M. R.

The Term " Rudimentary " as used ey
Darwin. — The writer of the article on this
subject resents in strong terms the use which Mr.
Darwin makes of the term "rudimentary" in his
" Descent of Man," as an insult to the human race.
I cannot help thinking that this is rather far fetched,
and surely it is far better, and requires no very great
stretch of generosity or magnanimity to look in this
case more to the spirit than the letter. No one of

42

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

course will deny that the strict and literal sense of
the word " rudimentary " is "rude and unwrought"
or undeveloped, but it is equally certain that Darwin
would have been the last man in the world to tell
us that our organs have never reached perfection.
So far from leaving me " impressed with the
appalling fact that, after all, our much-admired
human form, with its boasted superiority, is but a
bundle of rudimentary organs, which have never
reached perfection," the works of Darwin teach me
in a most unmistakable manner that we are so
wonderfully made that our organs are in the highest
state of perfection for the existing circumstances, and
that we are so constructed that when the conditions
alter, our organs do likewise, and thus we remain
perfectly adapted to our surroundings, and this should
immeasurably increase one's awe of the Power which,
in the first instance, created a creature at once suited,
admirably suited, to the conditions by which our
primaeval ancestors wrere surrounded, provided with
the means of bettering his condition and of raising
himself to a high state of civilisation, and at the
same time enabled to adapt his organs to this higher
environment. Surrounded as they were by all sorts
of wild animals with whom they were compelled to
fight for life and for food, it was essential that the
senses of sight, smell, and hearing, should be highly
developed in our ancestors ; but in this nineteenth
century we no longer require such keen perception in
these lines, and our senses are consequently modified:
on the other hand, the brain which in primitive man
was probably less complicated than nowadays, has
reached a much more complex stage of development
to suit the altered conditions, when men fight in the
struggle for existence with their heads instead of
their limbs ; and this higher state of development in
the brain must react on the senses in a manner
immensely advantageous when considered in relation
to the environment ; thus, though we can no longer
hear sounds, which were clearly audible to our
primitive ancestors, we are enabled to diagnose the
sounds we do hear, and appreciate beauties in music
to which the savage is still dead. Surely we owe
too much to the great name of Charles Darwin — to
the man who revolutionised modern science, and set
things on a firm, because true, basis, to the man who
devoted his whole life to the discovery of truth, in
the face of enormous difficulties, who would cheer-
fully have given up his pet theories one by one, could
any one have convinced him that they were false ;
surely, I say, we owe too much to him to accuse him
of offering an insult to the human race because his
use of the word rudimentary is not sufficiently
nattering to our dignity or our pride. That our
senses of hearing, etc., are comparatively rudimentary
in some ways to what they once were is to me beyond
doubt, nor can I doubt that it is best so, or that
what we lose — if it can be called a loss — in one
direction, we gain a hundredfold in another. But,
since the desire to have the word altered seems to
exist, and since the alternative offered— viz. vestiges
— does not meet with approval, may I venture to
suggest that the word "modified" be mentally
substituted when the word "rudimentary" is found
to be objectionable. I cannot however believe for
one moment that primitive man was made up of
"excrescences and deficiencies;" and to hint even
that " abnormal " development of the organs of sight
or anything else exists as a rule in nature is to me
illogical, and more insulting to the dignity of the
Creator than is Darwin's application of the word
"rudimentary" to our organs to the dignity of the
creature that was made in the image of God. —
T. Alfred Dymes.

Rudiments and Vestiges. — A writer in your
last number seems to take somewhat vehement ex-
ception to Mr. Darwin's term of "rudimentary," as
applied to certain structures found in the human
body, and deems it a slight upon mankind to speak
of "vestiges." I confess I cannot see where the
objection lies. In speaking of structures as "rudi-
mentary," we use the term in comparison with
structures of the same kind in a higher state of
development. For example, the "down" covering a
man's body is certainly in a more rudimentary con-
dition as regards the hair on the lower animals, which
is in a more advanced stage of development. Again,
if we grant that man is descended from some lower
form, the external ear and its muscles are but
"vestiges" of the earlier form, which has gradually
atrophied and become changed, as it was no longer
necessary. We cannot say that they are in a higher
stage of development, as the highest development of
the sense of hearing is found in the lower animals.
Then why is it not right to call them "vestiges,"
they are but the altered remains of our progenitors,
and are undoubtedly in a " rudimentary " condition
compared with the highest standard ? As for the os
coccyx being a rudimentary tail, I imagine that most
people sit down under the insult, with the greatest
composure, and I do not see anything more com-
forting to the mind, or more correct in science, in
calling it an " excrescence." The teeth and jaws of
the ape are surely superior to man in strength and
biting power, and these are their only use, and I can
see no reason why these structures in man should not
be considered vestiges, and to be in a rudimentary
condition as compared with the ape. Why should
these structures be called abnormal in the ape ? They
are perfectly natural and necessary. We might just
as well say that man has an abnormal amount of
brain, which would spoil the idea of harmony which
exists to perfection, in every organism ? In every
animal we look at, we find that all its organs are
beautifully adapted to perform their various functions,
and make up a harmonious whole. It is only the
natural conceit of man that causes him to consider
certain structures in the lower animals as unsightly.
He compares them with his own, but looked at with
regard to their anatomy, &c, they become beautiful.
There is nothing in anything that Mr. Darwin has
said, which must not strike us with increased awe
and admiration for the marvellous changes and
developments which Nature has brought about. —
G. D. Trevor-Roper, Surgeon, R.N.

Fox Eggars. — I have got some fox eggars, which
I have had since the beginning of September. I
have been feeding them on bramble ; now they have
stopped eating it, and lie curled up in the bottom of
the box. Could you tell me if they are hibernating,
or if some disease has attacked them ?

Nest of Australian Fly (p. 239). — From the
particulars given by Mr. Browne's friend, it is
impossible to identify this insect. I have little doubt,
however, that it has four wings (flies have only two),
and that it is one of the fossorial hymenoptera.
Many of the English species, especially those of the
genera Fompilus and Crabro, provision their cells
with spiders. Some store up for their young other
insects, such as flies, aphides, beetles, and lepidop-
terous larvre. Towards the end of July last, I came
across a large colony of Ccrceris arenaria, near
Weybridge, and it was interesting to watch the
females arriving on the wing at, and entering their
burrows on the upright face of a sandbank, each
carrying between her legs a beetle, always the same

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

43

species, Stiorhynchus siilcatus, one of the weevils, and
forthwith depositing it within as food for the larvae to
be born from the eggs of the cerceris. On opening
a burrow, moreover, there was a cluster of twenty or
more beetles, neatly packed, each beetle being
paralysed by the sting of the cerceris, and, while
thus prevented from moving, still alive, so as to
afford fresh food for the larvae, as and when required.
Again, in August, I met with numbers of Odynerus
sfinifies busy at a colony they had formed on the face
of a cliff at Swanage, each female frequently arriving
with a small green lepidopterous larva, with which it
clambered up the curved mud funnel, forming the
entrance to the cell, adding it to the heap of similar
larvae which were found on opening a nest. Al-
together the habits of this group of insects are very
interesting, and are well worth investigation. —
H. Ramsden.

Ornithological Voracity. — On the 28th of
November, Mr. Thomas Whitfield had the peculiar
luck to find a dead kingfisher on the banks of the
stream in Weasdale. Strange to say, it had appa-
rently been choked in the action of swallowing a
bull-head, the latter part of whose body was hanging
out of its mandibles. — T/ios. Hexvetson, The Lane,
Weasdale, Ravenstonedale, Westmoreland.

Albino Rook. — This bird was shot at Newport,
Monmouthshire, it being pure white or cream colour.
— William Shakespeare, Naturalist, Cardiff.

Bees and Lime-trees.— Your correspondent on
this subject in last month's issue of Science-Gossip
is quite correct in thinking that the juices contained
in the flowers of the lime-tree {Tilia Europira) are
possessed of poisonous properties, which prove fatal
to bees that frequent this tree when in bloom. Hive-
bees, humble-bees, and even wasps provide innumer-
able victims to the intoxicating poison which they
so eagerly imbibe from the flowers of the lime, and
the numbers of dead insects which strew the ground
underneath the trees testify to the fatal nature of the
nectar which they imbibe. Some of them, after
falling to the ground in an intoxicated manner, may
escape the utmost consequences of their death-dealing
repast, but to the great majority of them a short
carouse amongst the blossoms proves fatal. I have
not noticed that the thorax of the poisoned insect has
been scooped out, but I have often found the head,
thorax, and part of the body — one part of the body
being gone, and the other part having the inside
apparently scooped out. This I set down as being
due to the dead insects having been blown about by
the wind, the body, which soon gets to be stiff and
dry, being easily broken at one of the joints. Then
the spiders and earwigs take possession of the cavity.
— J. Bowman, Havelock House, Sunderland.

Names of Fishes. — Could any one tell me what
is the correct name of a fish, of the carp species,
having an arched back like a bream, but the true
carp dorsal fin and plumpness of body ; the back a
darkish colour, and the sides a beautiful gold, and
a silvery gold lower, but when not catching the
light, of a bronzy colour? Could this be the fish
mentioned in Shirley Hibberd's " Fresh-Water
Aquarium," as the Crucian or German Carp (Cy-
prinus carrassius), of which he says, it "is easily
distinguished from its compeers by its bream-shaped
back, which rises from the nape into a high arch
along the line of the dorsal fin. It is found in the
Thames between Hammersmith and Windsor," etc.

And also what is the name of another carp, back
dark, slightly tinged with dark red, and two reddish
marks on the head, and the sides of a very brilliant
gold bronze, and preserving the true carp outline
and fins ? Also of one exactly like the last, but
without any red tinge ; and another the same as that
but having the dorsal tin on the centre of the back,
like a tench's ? — A. G. Whishaw.

Convolvulus Hawk Moth.— On August 31st
last, I had a very fine specimen of the convolvulus
hawk moth brought to me alive ; the wings were
slightly rubbed. It is the first living specimen I have
met with, but some years ago a woman showed me
a chrysalis, which, from the projecting proboscis,
something like the handle of a pitcher, and its large
size, I believe was the chrysalis of this moth. —
C. F. George.

Cuckoo. — In answer to Mr. Wallis's question in
November " Gossip," whether I really saw the bird,
I can assure him it was even as I stated in my
previous note. I saw the bird, and saw the move-
ment of the throat during the utterance of the sounds,
and the bird flew away still crying cuckoo-koo. I
have frequently heard the bird since in the same
locality uttering the same three syllables. — F. J.
George, Charley, Lane.

Cuckoo's-Mate. — Mr. W. E. Windus says (page
259) of the wry-neck (Yunx Tonpiilla) : " It is, I
should think, of insectivorous habits." I find that
Gilbert White, of Selborne, says of it in his
"Observations on Birds : " " These birds appear on
the grass plots and.walks. They walk a little as well as
hop, and thrust their bills into the turf, in quest, I
conclude, of ants, which are their food. While they
hold their bills in the grass, they draw out their prey
with their tongues, which are so long as to be coiled
round their heads." — Thomas Winder, C.E., Sheffield.

Feeding Frogs and Newts. — In "Notes and
Queries " for October, a correspondent asks for in-
formation respecting the feeding of the above.
During the summer months, I give my little
batrachians a plentiful supply of small insects, cater-
pillars, house and meat-flies and their larvre, and
small garden worms. For winter's use, I always keep
a number of the latter in earth in flower-pots or
boxes, so as to be able to feed my pets when hungry,
and when food outside is not easy to obtain. _ It is a
common mistake to keep newts continually in water
as if they were fish and not amphibians. I have a
number of newts, salamanders, and green-tree frogs
in a large fern-case, with a small earthenware pan
for water, to be used as a bath. By paying attention
to their habits, and giving them a constant supply of
food, I have been able to keep some of my newts
in captivity for four and five years. My warty newts
are very partial to raw beef cut into small shreds, but
the smaller species and the frogs will seldom touch it.
The latter are especially fond of small earth-worms
(and the warty newts also), and it is very amusing to
watch the antics of froggie busily engaged in swallow-
ing a worm, in which proceeding he is greatly
assisted by his fore-feet, which are used to brush
away the superfluous earth, and to stow the ends of the
worm quickly and snugly into his mouth.— A. J.
Jenkins, New Cross.

Educational Collections of Insects.— It
may interest Mr. Bath to know that, in conjunction with
Professor Westwood, I have had the honour to fit up

44

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

such a collection as he names (S.-G. p. 253) for the
Agricultural Department at S. Kensington. I have
also fitted up collections on somewhat different lines
for the Royal Gardens, Kew ; Liverpool Free
Museum, and other places, and am now appointed
by the S. Kensington authorities to fit up collections
for any institution receiving government support,
that may require them. — S. L. Mosky, Beaumont
Park Museum, Iluddersfield.

Sphinx Convolvuli. — This fine species seems to
have been not uncommon in the neighbourhood of
Birmingham last season. I have heard of three
captures, one in Moseley, and the others in adjoining
parishes. — K. D., Co/ton.

Temminck's Stint. — During the autumn migra-
tion a specimen of this bird was shot on the edge of
a large piece of water in this part of Worcestershire.
— K. D., Co/ton.

The Ivy. — It appears to me that Mr. Williams
has wandered a little from the point in his reply
(p. 257) to C. C.'s remarks (p. 236), the case of the
flower-stem which he quotes not being quite a
parallel one. The stem of the flower is the channel
through which it receives its main nourishment, and
is equivalent to the main stem of the ivy, whereas
the rootlet of the ivy is evidently not the main
channel of its nourishment, but only at best a minor
one, if even that. It does not follow that C. C. is
correct, however. Cut through the main ground-
root of the ivy, and the plant dies, as he remarks ;
but this does not at all prove that the rootlet conveys
no nourishment or moisture whatever to the plant.
I take it the chief function of the rootlet is similar to
that filled by the tendril of the pea, viz. to cling.
Most walls are more or less damp externally, and
that being so, why should not the rootlet in course
of time evolve some process by which it could
absorb this ready-to-hand moisture, and so aid the
main stem in its work of sustaining the plant? Ivied
walls have had the reputation of being damp, and
the question seems to be whether the damp attracts
the ivy, or the ivy attracts the damp. It ought not
to be difficult to ascertain whether ivied walls really
are damp or not. — F. M.

The Singing of the Kettle. — The explanation
of this familiar phenomenon, given in Science-
Gossip for December, pp. 275-6, by Mr. Williams,
is the correct one. The air dissolved in water is
expelled in boiling, and if the singing depended on
the elimination of air, no recurrence of it would
take place by replacing the kettle on the fire. Yet
every boy who has experimented with a kettle knows
how readily the kettle will sing by alternately heating
and cooling the water. — D. S.

Flies and Ants. — I shall feel much obliged if
any of your readers can give me a clue as to what
was going on in the incident detailed at foot hereof.
I was staying at Sandovvn, I.W., last summer, and
one Sunday afternoon (7th August), about four
o'clock in the afternoon, I observed an enormous
number of black ants running about all over a con-
crete path, up some short iron railings, and over the
bed and grass adjacent to their nest. Besides the
ants were a great number of a peculiar-looking fly,
which I do not remember having noticed before.
They were about .', in. long, dark sepia bodies
(almost black), with the segments distinctly marked,
moniliform antennre, short plump abdomens, which
did not extend to the end of the wings when the

latter were folded on their backs. Their movements
were slow and deliberate. The number of their
wings was four, consisting of a thin transparent sub-
stance like the house-flies'. Query name ? Besides
those of the above-mentioned size, there were about
an equal number of smaller ones, not much more
than half the size of the others ; but I think of the
same species. Both flies and ants were running
about in a distracted sort of way, and to all ap-
pearance having no object in their movements. The
larger of the flies were collected at the tops of the
railings, over whose rounded summits they moved in
much the same manner as a bee over a ball-shaped
flower. Neither flies nor ants attacked one another,
but rather the reverse, for when they met both
seemed to try and get out of the way of the other,
and went off in different directions. — Amator Natures.

Vanessa C- album. — During September last year,
this butterfly was common along the west side of the
Malvern Hills. I caught several specimens during
the month, but only one in August, on the 9th,
which seemed as if it might be a lingering specimen
of a July brood. Is it certain whether C-album has
two distinct broods or not ? I find in Newman's
"British Butterflies": — "An idea seems prevalent
that there are two broods in the year. ... I think
this is a mistake ; I have been able to obtain no
satisfactory evidence of any caterpillars prior to those
so abundant in the autumn months about the season
of hop-picking." Now the butterfly I caught on
August 9th (and Newman admits he has seen it in
June, July, and August), certainly cannot have been
a hibernated specimen, or the imago of a cater-
pillar feeding "about the season of hop-picking."
C-atbum's favourite flower seems to be bramble ;
indeed I tried a long while on the 20th of September
after three or four which were settling on a clump of
brambles. Every time I struck at one or other of
them my net got caught and torn, while the butterfly
took a few turns in the air and then re-settled. I
noticed that when a cloud passed over the sun, they
would fly into a high tree near, and close their wings
till the cloud had passed. Another flower these
butterflies seem attached to is Scabiosa suecisa ; in-
deed these two were the only flowers I saw them on.
Although usually a comparatively shy insect, I saw
several flying about the high road on two warm
sunshiny days, September 19th and 20th. Is it
known whether the curious and beautiful variation
of the underside is merely individual ? I caught
several specimens with the dull brown underside,
and several others of the variegated, green, and
different shades of brown variety. I should be very
interested to get information on these points. —
A. G. T.

Yew-Tree poisoning Cattle. — The question of
cattle being poisoned by eating the leaves, etc., of
the common yew-tree (Taxus baceata), was discussed
at some length in Science-Gossip for the years 1879
and 1880. Many instances were brought forward in
proof of the poisonous nature of the plant. Yet at
the very close of the correspondence on the subject,
a writer hailing from the co. Tyrone, asserted that
cattle could feed with impunity on the yew, and
cited a case he had met with. Now for the satisfac-
tion of those who consider the yew to be poisonous
eating for cattle, and for the conviction of those who
do not, I ask room to record a case that occurred on
the 1 6th of November, 18S7, in the demesne of the
Earl of Caledon, co. Tyrone. A number of cattle
were taken violently ill, and eight bullocks and one
sheep died with every sign of having been poisoned.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

45

A veterinary surgeon, Mr. Moir, of the city of
Armagh, was sent for, and he made a post-mortem
examination of the dead beasts, and found in all
their paunches a quantity of yew-leaves, and to them
and nothing else could be attributed their death.
The cases have been reported at full length in the
Belfast newspapers of the 17th of November, 1887.
— H. W. Lett, M.A.

Cats and Violata. — In our garden, we had a good
many roots of Viola scmperfloreiis which seemed to be
eaten by snails and caterpillars. But one day, to our
surprise, we found a cat contentedly munching the
leaves. This happpened more than once afterwards.
The cat never seemed to suffer in the least from the
effects of its curious meal. Can any reader account
for this extraordinary feast ? — A. Verinder.

Popular Science. — A Suggestion. — One pro-
minent feature in Science Gossip, rendering it a
welcome visitor to the homes of many English
naturalists, doubtless is that it is constantly
endeavouring to foster a love of nature in those
with whom it comes in contact, and most especi-
ally in those just entering upon mature life. The
facilities its pages offer for recording facts of interest ;
the excellent medium, it is so well recognised as
being, whereby specimens may be exchanged, or
mutual sympathy and help secured, each combine
to render it a great promoter of those pure pleasures
the observation of nature so invariably gives to
those who practise it. There are many who, with
sympathies keen as our own to appreciate the
beautiful in things around them, yet pass through
life apparently unconscious of much in their sur-
roundings which excites the admiration of, and
affords pleasure to, their fellow-men. Let us take as
an instance the case of young men engaged in
business in our large towns. How many of them
are there who know practically nothing of the
wonderful facts revealed by the microscope ! A
chance paper here or there, or an occasional peep
through its secret-revealing tube, bounds their
knowledge, and, alas ! also their interest in the
great world of little things. For these persons of
little opportunity let me bespeak the sympathy of
"our readers," and ask each one having the oppor-
tunity to seek to increase and extend the knowledge
to others their training and experience has rendered
so pleasurable to themselves. Particularly available
is this suggestion to persons united with associations
formed for the purpose of mutual culture and
improvement ; such as are to be met with in most of
our large towns and in not a few of our villages.
An experiment to this end has recently been made
by the writer of this article, with most encouraging
results. Our course of proceeding was simplicity
itself. We first secured the aid of a few friends by
asking them to place their microscopes at our
disposal for an evening. We (that is my friend Mr.
Wooller and myself) then gave two short addresses,
announcing as a principal feature that the objects
chiefly referred to in our remarks would be exhibited
for inspection, and further that we were willing to
give all information in our power to reasonable
querists. Cnoosing as my subject the past influences
of minute organisms, such as foraminifers, diatoms,
&c, in building up the hills and rocks around us ; and
also referring to their unobtrusive but important
functions still going forward, I emphasised my
remarks by exhibiting a series of slides under the
microscopes, illustrative of the subject. After a
short interval for general conversation and refresh-
ment, Mr. Wooller spoke upon the revelations

of the microscope regarding our immediate sur-
roundings, referring particularly to the light it has
thrown upon the germ-origin of disease, and also
upon the question of spontaneous generation. After
which a number of living diatoms and other minute
forms of vegetable and animal life were introduced
for inspection. I have frequently given my services
as an exhibitor of microscopic objects to the pro-
moters of social evenings and similar gatherings, but
nothing approaching the interest evidenced at the
meeting referred to have I before witnessed. And
this fact I attribute entirely to the circumstance that,
by reason of our explanatory remarks, the friends
present were able to understand somewhat the
nature of the objects at which they were invited to
gaze. Feeling there must be many readers of
Science-Gossip acquainted with these societies and
similar associations, I make bold to plead that an
experiment, so satisfactory to its promoters, should
be repeated by those located in other districts who
possess kindred sympathies and like opportunities.
The numerous queries, as to the cost and amplifying
powers of the various microscopes employed, point
hopefully forward to a time when some whose
interest was thus cursorily aroused may adopt a
more permanent pursuit after the knowledge of those
beauties and marvels of nature so lavishly distributed
around them. — T. Corlidge.

Pond Dredging and Collecting. — Will some
reader be good enough to give a few hints on
collecting Infusoria, Rotifera, Polyzoa, &c, stating
best description of net to use and how to use it ?
The information would, no doubt, be interesting to
others besides myself. — L.

Yew-Trees, their Size and Age. — With refer-
ence to your correspondent P. J.'s query, the late
Mr. Edwin Lees, in his "Botany of Malvern"
(p. 100), says : " The two finest yews in the Malvern
country are in Cradley churchyard — the largest is
26 feet in circumference at a yard from the ground.
These may be calculated at about 800 years old."
Now taking tr as 3|, 26 feet circumference gives
8T3T feet diameter, and about 50 inches radius. And
if the tree is 800 years old, it has added a ring of
the breadth of T'6 of" an inch each year. Surely P. J.
is wrong in calculating the age of the tree by the
length of the diameter. — A. G. Tanslcy.

Yew-Trees, their Size and Age.— In the in-
teresting note by P. J., p. 21 of the current number
of Science-Gossip, there appears to be an omission
of one item in making the calculation. Instead of
the whole diameter, should it not be the half of it,
and hence the age reduced in the same proportion ?
By the method adopted each annual ring is reckoned
twice over, that is, on the opposite sides of the
centre. In the case quoted, the circumference of
33 feet would give a diameter of about 11 feet, and a
radius of 5.^ feet. Then, taking a line as the average
thickness of a year's growth, we have 5^x12x12
= 792 years, which is probably nearer the truth.
We have a few yew-trees in churchyards in South
Beds, and hope to have opportunities to measure
them, when the results will be forwarded. —J.
Saunders, Lutou.

Yellow (or Ray's) Wagtail. — The note under
this heading, page 22, is rather vague. S. M. C. does
not give the date when the wagtails were seen, nor
does he say how near his garden is to the town of
Weymouth. If they were observed later than
September, it is not likely they were Ray's wagtail

46

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

but more probably the Gray Wagtail [Jlf. loarula),
which has some bright yellow about it, though it is
unusual to see so many as ten together. There is
nothing improbable in Ray's wagtail dropping into
a garden near a town when on passage. In Sussex
Ray's wagtail is seldom seen after the middle of
September. — William Jeffcry.

V. Atalanta in Dundee. — During the past
season, insects have been in abundance in this district ;
it has been one of the best, during the last four years
to my knowledge. As regards V. ata/anta, I may say
it has been scarce. I spent a good deal of time
searching for the larvae, and got about two dozen ;
three of them as late as the end of October, when
the last of them emerged from pupae as late as
December 8th. They have been very scarce here the
last three years. During the autumn of 1884 they
were in hundreds, scarcely a plot of nettles escaped
them. — Peter Kirk.

Ancient Yews. — Through the courtesy of the
Rector, the Rev. H. Hawkins, I am enabled to give
P. J., Emsworth, particulars of a yew-tree, growing
in Crowhurst Churchyard, Battle, Sussex. It measures
thirty-three feet in circumference, and is supposed to
be about 800 years old. A seedling yew has rooted
itself in a crevice of the church tower. It is now a
small bush about 70 years old, and, apparently,
neither increases nor diminishes in size. If P. J.,
Emsworth, will send me address, I shall be pleased to
forward for his acceptance a photo of the tree. — W.
E. Windus.

A Note on Philodina citrina. — In Science-
Gossip for March, 1887, appeared a short note of
mine on a variety of this species, which I found in
the summer of 1886, in a stream near Cheadle,
Staffordshire. This variety is very abundant on the
moss covering some stones over which the water falls.
More recently — namely in the summer, autumn, and
winter of 1887 — I have found a few other races which
certainly approach the variety very closely, though,
perhaps, none of them differs quite so remarkably
from the recognised form of the species. The most
numerous of these lately found colonies is in a very
similar situation to that in which the variety flourishes,
the main difference being that the waterfall in this
case is at the foot of a large pond. There is a more
luxuriant growth of moss here than in the stream.
The particular form of the species which I found
here differs from the variety described last year in its
smaller size and in the greater conspicuousness of the
eyes, which, however, are still very small. The
brown colour also is less marked, though it seems
almost constant in the larger specimens. This race,
however, has that uniform slenderness which Mr.
Gosse found to be characteristic of the variety. On
the whole, it may be said to be considerably less
abnormal than the latter, but at the same time to
differ markedly from the type of the species which
must be familiar to students of the class from Mr.
Gosse's figure in Hudson and Gosse's " Rotifera "
(plate ix. fig. 6). The "strongly social manners"
which Mr. Gosse, in a letter to me, ascribed to my
variety seem equally characteristic of this race. I
have seen a piece of moss in the live-box completely
fringed with the protruded heads and necks of these
Philodinae. Up to the present time, unfortunately,
I have not been able to keep many specimens from
this locality alive for more than a day or two. A few
specimens generally maintained a lethargic existence
amid the corpses of their fellows. The race which
I propose to mention next, lives in close proximity to

what I call the variety; that is, the form briefly
described in Science-Gossip for March last year.
The variety itself flourishes in a small waterfall ; this
other race I have found in water dipped from
immediately above the fall. It departs less widely
than the form last described from the ordinary type
of the species, for it has not the brown colour, and
the colour is in this form, as in the ordinary type,
confined to the central parts of the animal. But this
also has the slenderness of the variety, and there is no
abrupt transition from the body to the foot. There
is here a tinge of green in the yellow colouring of the
trunk. All the specimens of this race that I have
seen are very much smaller than the variety, which
indeed is one of the largest of the Rotifera with
which I am acquainted. I have found quite recently
in a small spring, the sides of which are covered with
moss, a number of examples of P. citrina scarcely
distinguishable from the variety, except by the fact
that the eyes are less inconspicuous. These organs
have here the oblong shape characteristic of the
species ; but they are placed very far back, almost
behind the masiax, even when the animal is fully
extended. They are exceedingly small. I have also
met with a race, on moss growing near the outlet of
a large pond, which is not easily distinguished from
the variety, though the brown hue seems less decided ;
but I have hardly seen this often enough to be able
to say much about it. The foregoing remarks seem
to show that this pretty and interesting species is
very variable. Mr. Gosse has stated, in Hudson and
Gosse's "Rotifera," that the colour varies; but it
will be seen that the form of the animal and the
distribution of the colour also vary considerably. My
experience also goes to show that the species is much
commoner than has been supposed ; but it may be
that it is common only in certain districts. It would
be interesting to know whether other observers have
found P. citrina in abundance on moss, especially in
waterfalls ; and, if so, whether they have found the
species to depart in any marked degree under such
circumstances from the normal type. I have found
examples agreeing well with Mr. Gosse's descriptions
and figures (in " Rotifera " and in "Tenby") in several
places near Cheadle, but never in any great abundance.
In conclusion, I should like to express my great
obligations to Mr. Gosse, who has most kindly
answered letters of mine from time to time, and
identified several species for me. — J. W. Plagg,
F.P.M.S.

Rudiments and Vestiges.— I fear the authority
quoted a little depreciates Doctor Darwin as an
expounder of Divine Providence, and considers the
p/iusis kcrata taurois somewhat unsound. It will,
however, be palpable that the reasoning requires the
"image of God" in" man should be mental, neither
can the distinct theological proposition of a physical
"ideal form" be established in regard to the most
helpless of animals, without a consideration of his
surroundings, where we see adaptation as a portion
of the operation. The difficulty as regards the
theistical aspect of this question is the danger of
making over to society perhaps, what was intended
for philosophy. Preoccupied with such ideas, I put
my elbow through a well-ordered case of beetles in a
continental museum. Madame hastened to the scene
in consternation. I offered to pay the damage.
Madame must ask Monsieur. Madame suggested a
franc, the sworded concierge demanded three — three
were paid. A little after, Madame and a friend were
observed to issue from a crockery ware shop, each with
a basket in hand containing about a franc's worth of
household requisites. — A. If. Sivinton.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

47

The Flora of Newfoundland and Labrador.
— I am engaged in investigating the subject of the
flora of Newfoundland and Labrador, of which very
little is known, especially here in the country itself.
For our knowledge we are mainly indebted to those
few naturalists who from time to time have visited
Newfoundland. I am now compiling a complete
list of our flora, as far as it is known, and this appears
at intervals in our St. John's " Colonist." I am also
preparing for that paper, and ultimately for separate
publication, articles on our "Wild Fruits and
Berries." I should feel much obliged for help in
the matter, especially in following heads : —

1. In what books or magazines (English or Ame-
rican) can I find information as to our flora ?

2. To what societies or institutions (Linnrean), and
to what papers could I apply for help, and which
will feel an interest in my work ?

3. What magazines and papers would afford me
most help as to botanical matters ?

4. Where could I obtain good coloured engravings
of wild flowers and fruits ?

5. What books are available on the subjects of
wild fruits, especially of England and North Ame-
rica?

6. What are the cheapest and best books (with
coloured plates) on North American and British
ferns, mosses, lichens and seaweeds?

I send you some local papers containing some of
my articles, and, if you care for a complete set, will
gladly send them ; they may be worth a notice in
your magazine. I shall be glad to send, by parcel
post, roots of some of our Newfoundland ferns and
flowers, which are unknown or rare in England, in
return for useful books and articles on botany. —
Arthur C. Waghornc.

Prolific Pond. — Since the foregoing (Science-
Gossip, No. 272, Aug. 1887, page 1S5) was written,
I have been fortunate in finding the following, which
being added to the previous list brings up the number
of species to forty-four, and so making my pond
equal to the best recorded instance — I. Dinocharis
tctractis ; 2. Notommata aurita ; 3. Furcularia ensi-
fcra ; 4. F. mrfandricus ; 5. RIonostyla bulla ; 6. Di-
gkua graudis. Nos. 4 and 6 are Mr. Gosse's
identification, from a tube I sent him. No. 4 I do
not know, but presume it is one of the new species
which has to appear in the "Journal of the Royal
Microscopical Society." — J. E. L.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of ovx gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

R. P., jun. (Airdrie). — The flat zoophyte is Membranipora
tnembranacea, the other Scrtularia jalcuta. The little round
objects are the cases of a marine worm (Spirorbis). The
objects from Macassar Straits are a species of the larger
tropical foraminifera.

C. C. Dallas. — Judging from your rough sketch and de-
scription, we believe cup-shaped object attached to a twig is
the empty pupa case of one of the saw-flies.

J- H.— See Maund's " Botanic Garden." Capital illustra-
tions of the tea-plant may be seen and studied at Kew, where
all information might be obtained.

Miss W. — There is no doubt your shell is a cowrie [Cyprea.
caurica or C. lynx, but it is impossible to be certain from a
verbal description only.

A. R. T. Winchlev. — "Up the River from Westminster to
Windsor" was published by Hardwicke and Bogue in 1876.
Apply for information concerning it to Messrs. W. H. Allen
and Co., Waterloo Place, London.

C. D. — Your lichen is Cladonia cornucoj>ioides. Get the
"Young Collector" series on "Lichens and Mosses," price is.
(Swan Sonnenschein and Co.) ; afterwards Lindsay's " British
Lichens," price 10s. 6d., coloured plates.

F. Lannon. — Get Coleman's "Our Woodlands, Heaths and
Hedges," illustrated, price 2s- 6d. Mount your sections of
woods in Canada balsam.

I. Bowman. — We shall be very pleased to receive your
ornithological papers.

T. B. G. — Your mineral is a crystal of selenite from the
London clay.

X. R. — You will find a full description of fossil encrinites
(with illustrations) in Taylor's "Common British Fossils, and
where to find them," price 7s. 6.1. (Chatto and Windus).

C. T. H. — One good method of mounting the smaller fossils
of the Bartar clay is on black paper within glass-topped
boxes.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, skins of British mammals, particulirly pole-cat,
water-.'hrew, badger, otter, martins and chiroptera. Many
valuable works on natural history offered in exchange. List on
application. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, B.rmingham.

Wanted, Star-fishes and sea-urchins ; must be in good
condition. Books and specimens of natural history offered in
exchange. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Wanted, stalk-eyed Crustacea (British). Good return made.
— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Wanted, small serviceable microscope ; will give in ex-
change a solid silver verge hunter. — A. G. H., 10 St. John's
Hill, New Wandsworth, S.W.

Will give a small collection of mounted seaweeds, 2 vols.
"Family Friend," several numbers of " Cassell's Popular
Recreator," in cover with leather backs, few fossils, &c,
for "Dana's Mineralogy," or Lyell's "Geology." — A. G. H.,
10 St. John's Hill, S.W.

Offered, British coleoptera, for insects of other orders to
illustrate mimicry, or pairs in which the sexes show great
difference of form or colour. — C. H. Goodman, 9 Dorlcote
Road, Wandsworth Common.

Wanted, copies of Schuckard's "British Bees," and of
Newman's " Butterflies and Moths." — R. B. Postans, 14 Enys
Road, Eastbourne.

Should be obliged if conchologists would send L. peregra
and vars. from any localities. Good exchange. — F. K. Fitz-
gerald, Harrogate.

Wanted, British and foreign clausilia. Good exchange.—
Fitzgerald, Harrogate.

Lyell's "Travels in North America," 2 vols., and " Second
Visit to the States," 2 vols. What offers? — C. L. Lord, 34
Burlington Crescent, Goole.

Wanted, some common frogs (preferably in their winter
torpor). Good exchange in books, etc.— J. Eyre, 4 Render
Street, New Cross Road, London, S.E.

Wanted, in exchange for fossils, flint or bone implements,
from any locality.— A. T. Tichborne, Lodge, Oakfield Park,
Croydon.

Wanted, Annals and Magazine of Natural History ; books
on spiders, sponges, gorgonias, etc., or material. In exchange
I will give other books, very superior microscopical slides, etc.
—Rev. J. E. Vize, Forden Vicarage, Welshpool.

Full-grown frog wanted. Will give micro-slide in exchange
or pay postage.— J. M. Bain, n Bothwell Street, Glasgow.

Lantern views only once used ; about 2 dozen fine Sco:ch
views in exchange for apparatus or books. — J. M. Bain, 11
Bothwell Street, Glasgow.

43

HARD WICKE ' .S S CIE NCE- G 0 SSI P.

Wanted, specimens of British bees; will give in exchange
Lepidoplera, Co'eoptera or Diptera (the latter well set on
cards, but unnamed). — A. E. J. Carter, 9 Argyle Crescent,
Portobe'.lo, N.B.

Wanted, birds' nests and eggs from all parts of the world ;
British specimens offered in exchange. — J. T. T. Reed, Ryhope,
Sunderland.

Science-Gossip fur Sept. 1881 to March 18S2: ditto for
June 1885 to Dec. 1885; "Out of Doors," by Rev. J. G.
Wood ; " Manual of Injurious Insects," by Miss Ormerod ; and
" Practical Biology," by Huxley, in exchange for Shuckard's
"British Bees," Darwin's "Cross- and Self-fertilization of
Plants," or specimens of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. —
A. E. J. Carter, 9 Argyle Crescent, Portobello, N.B.

Wanted, Rocking, Roy's or other good microtomes ; will
s;ive large quantity of first-class slides for them. — Fred. Lee
Carter, Gosforth.

Wanted, mounted or unmounted parasites ; will give others
in exchange — 160 to select from. Send lists. — Fred. Lee Carter,
25 Lansdowne Terrace, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Wanted, a good microscope and accessories, in exchange
for a collection, in album, of about 1200 foreign stamps in
perfect condition; catalogue value, {,11. — P., 80 Leathwaite
Road, Clapham Common, London, S.W.

Good object for the polariscope — horn, bone, whalebone,
chemical crystals, &c, also micro photographs ; good exchange
in slides. Write first. — J. Boggush, Alton, Hants.

Wanted, good dissecting microscope ; offered, well-mounted
slides of rare objects, collection of echinoderms or other zoo-
logical objects. — Charlotte Sinel, Peel Villas, Jerse}'.

Micro Slii es. — A series of fern slides and others in ex-
change for first-class micro and magic lantern slides. — Walter
Henshall, The Hollies, Bredbury, near Stockport.

For exchange: — Science Gossip for 1884, with eleven
coloured plates ; what offers ? — John T. Foster, Little Driffield,
East Yorkshire.

Wanted, live or dead specimens of Vitrliia pelhtcida and
varieties; exchange given in freshwater shells. — W. E. Co'.linge,
Springfield Place, Leeds.

In exchange for well-mounted micro slides, bound or un-
bound vols, of Science-Gossip, a polished mahogany box to
hold 104 microscopic slides. — Herbert Spencer, Masboro' House,
Balham, S.W.

A quantity of well-mounted and interesting slides and
land and freshwater shells, Desiderata, Newman's " British
Moths and Butterflies," Cooke's "Ponds and Ditches," and
books on Coleoptera, pond life and micro natural history. —
James C. Blackshaw, 4 Ranelagh Road, Wolverhampton.

Wanted, foreign shells and corals, in exchange for fossils,
books or cash. — J. W. E., 145 Milnrow Road, Rochdale.

British and Australian marine zoophytes wanted. — J. W. E.,
145 Milnrow Road, Rochdale.

Science-Gossip complete for first twenty years, bound in
double volumes, nearly new ; also large number of good micro-
scopical slides, animal and vegetable —what offers? — Micro,
10 Belmont, Bath.

Mouillefarine, 46 rue Sainte-Annes, Paris, wishes to do
extensive changes with a botanist of the New World ; offers
references. — Ch. Copineau, juge, Tribunal civil de Doullens
(Somme).

"Tomlinson's Cyclopaedia of useful Arts, &c. " (Virtue),
9 vols., cloth, numerous fine steel plates, &c. ; also "Know-
ledge," Nos. 1-56, in thirteen monthly parts, as published,
both clean and good, exchanged ; i-plate photo Iensjor magic
lantern preferred. — Hughes, Assistant Overseer, Bangor, N.
Wales.

Wanted, named and localised English land, marine and
freshwater shells, or foreign ditto ; exchange fossils, coins, &c.
— F. Stanley, Margate.

Wanted, named British or foreign birds' eggs, or preserved
skins ; exchange coins, meda's, fossils or shells. — F. Stanley,
Margate.

Rotifcra. — Wanted, a few correspondents for occasional
exchanges. — David Bryce, 37 Brooke Road, Stoke Newington
Common, N.

Wanted, continental, American and foreign plants and
micro-fungi, in exchange for indigenous (British) species. Cur-
rest ondence u'hh students of foreign micro-fungi invited. — Rev.
Hilderic Friend, F.L.S., Carlisle.

Lei idoptera. — Duplicates: Sambucata, Tiliaria, Comit .ta,
Megacephala, Ruberata, Rhomboidaria, Phragmitidis, Iota,
Umbratica, S. Ligustri (1). Desiderata: numerous. — George
Balding, Ruby Street, WUbech.

For exchange, Planorlis glabcr, etc., for other shells. — John
Clegg, 5 Derby Street, Millwood, Todmorden.

For exchange, Plan, dilatatus and glabcr exchanged for
other land and freshwater shells. — S. Clough, 20 Abingdon
Street, Blaclqool.

Wanted, recent editions of "Carpenter on Microscope,"
Eeale's " How to Work with Microscope," and Lankester's
"Half-hour with Microscope," will exchange numbers of
Science-Gossip. — W. T. Porter, 19 Otley Road, Headingley,
Leeds.

Good carboniferous fossils offered for other fossils, micro-
slides, or electrical apparatus. — J. A. Hargreaves, Charlestown,
Saipley, Yorkshire.

Morpho cypris, Morpho menelaus, Morpho e?ga, the most
dazzlingly beautiful of exotic lepidoptera ; what offers? —
Joseph Anderson, jun., Aire Villa, Chichester.

"Knowledge," in parts, 4 vols.; what offers? — Joseph
Anderson, jun., Aire Villa, Chichester.

Offered, first-rate slides of marine alga;, illustrating struc-
ture and reproductive organs ; many species. Wanted, Kiitz-
ing's "Species Algarum," and other works on alga;. — T. H.
Buffham, Comely Bank Road, Walthamstow.

For exchange, Helix serieea, Helix hortensis, var. olivacea.
W anted, Limnea glutinosa, Limned invohita, Helix lamcllat.i,
Helix pomatia, all vars. of Helix aspersa, except minor; all
vars. of Helix capcrata, Bulimus acutus and its vars., and
vars. albina of Pupa wnbilicata and Pupa marginata, and
many others. — A. Hartley, 15 Croft Street, Idle, near Bradford.

What offers for the following ? — 6 vols, of Lardner's " Science
and Art;" 2 vols. "Handbook of British Fungi," by M. C.
Cojke, M.A. ; 2 vol-. "Food and its Adulteration,'' by Hassall;
1 vol. "Materia Medica;" "How to Work with the Micro-
scope," by Beale ; "Mounting Microscopic Object-'," by
Davis ; a microscope preferred. — J. H. Morgan, St. Arvans,
Chepstow, Mun.

Fossils from all formations desired in exchange for other
fossils from li s, magnesian limestone, &c. — Juhn Hawell
M.A., Ingleby-Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton.

Ammon.tes and belemnites desired in exchange for fossils,
minerals, shells, &c. — John Hawell, M.A., Ingleby-Greenhow
Vicarage, Northallerton.

Berg-meal, or mountain-meal, from Norway, slides, and a
small quantity of material, both prepared and unprepared, in
exchange ; good diatoms preferred. Send lists. — Rev. A. C.
Smith, 3 Park Crescent, Brighton.

Offered, complete clutches, with full data, of dipper, mag-
pie, long-eared owl, tawny owl, black grouse, re 1 grouse,
snipe, curlew, kittiwake and others. Wanted, over a hundred
species of British eggs, in clutches, many of them not un-
common.— B. A., Clifton House, Uxbridge.

A lot of land, freshwater, and marine shells to name ; would
any of your readers name these for me (true name required),
and ii\ return would send two of e:ich species, if possible, for
their trouble ? — John Jos. Holstead, 19 Millholme Terrace,
Upperby Road, Carlisle.

Wanted, Isocardia cor and other British shells ; exchange
Cardium aculeatum and a variety of other kinds of marine and
freshwater shells. — Mrs. Heitland, The Priory, Shrewsbury.

:|

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

" A Flora of Hertfordshire," by the late A. R. Pryor (London :
Gurney & Jackson). " Mineralogy," by Frank Rutley, third
ed. (London : Thos. Murby). — " Elementary Text-book of
Physiography," by W. Mawer (London : J. Marshall & Co.).
" Report of the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries fur
1885" (Washington: Government Printing Offices). — "British
Frogs and Toads," by Linnaeus Greening. — " Butanical Record
Club, Rept. for 1884, 1885, 1886."— " Trans. Royal Sue. U. S.
Wales." — " Journal of Conchology." — " Book Chat." — " Scrib-
ner's Monthly." — "The Amateur Photographer." — "The
Garner." — "The Naturalist." — "The Botanical Gazette." —
"Journal of the New York Microscopical Society." — " Bal-
gravia." — " The Gentleman's Magazine." — "American Monthly
Aiicroscopical Journal." — "The Essex Naturalist." — " Tne
Midland Naturalist." — " Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." —
"The American Naturalist." — "Journal of Microscopy and
Nat. Sci " — "Scientific News." — "Wesley Naturalist.' —
"Naturalists' Monthly." — "La Science Illustre'e. — "Junior
Review, Science, Lit. & Art."

Communications received up to the 13TH ult. from:
A. G. T.— W. B. G.—W. R. W.— P. B— C. R.— I. S.—
J. T. T. R— T. H.— J. G.— G. K. G.— F. H. A.— A. H.—
T. H. B.— J. A., jun— J. A. H.— W. T. P.— J. C.-G. B.—
J. 11.— J. H.— A. C. S.— Rev. H. F.— B. A. C.—J. J. H.— If.
— S. C— H. B.— F. S.— D. B.— H. O. H.— W. W.— J. H. G.
J. W. E.-G. E. E., jun. -J. E. B.— J. W.— B.— F. L. C—
\V. H.— W. E. C.-R. T.— C. R.— W. J.— J. T. F.— P. K.—
C. D.— F. L.— W. E. W.— C. L.— I. B.— R. F. G.—W. E. W.
— C. L W.-M. A. B.— F. R. F.-Z. W.— A. G. H.—
G. E. E., jun.— E. W.-N. L.-&C.

RARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

49

NOTES ON GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

By T. D. A. COCKERELL.

[Continued from page 26.]

S regards the avi-
fauna of the Colo-
rado region, the
Mexican and Ame-
rican element is
much more in the
ascendant, and up
to the present I
have only observed
four which are spe-
cifically identical
with those in the
British list, and of
these Ageltzus fhoz-
niceus and Ceryk
alcyon, are only
occasional and cer-
tainly not native in
Britain, while Pica
rustica is repre-
sented by the va-
riety Hudsonica only, and Anas boscas alone is quite
identical with a native British bird.

At present I have only two Colorado Crustacea on
record, and of these Gamm&rus robustus is allied to
our English G. pulex.

The Arachnida have not yet been worked out, but
they have a decidedly European stamp, and most
belong to English genera ; the same may be said of
the Myriapoda, the genera Julus, Lithobius and
Geophilus having abundant species closely allied to
their British representatives.

The Coleoptera, with certain conspicuous excep-
tions, are very like the British species, such genera
as Amara, Bembidium, Cicindela, Pterostichus,
Coccinella, Aphodius, &c., being well represented,
while a Pcederus, very like littoralis, is common in
certain districts, and I have found European-looking
species of Meloe and Quedius.

Many of the Hymenoptera are peculiar, yet there
No. 279. — March 1888.

are species of Bombus, Vespa, Odynerus, Chrysis,
&c, resembling British forms.

The Neuroptera are to a great extent European in
general character.

The Lepidoptera are also many of them of Euro-
pean type, an Alucita resembling polydactyla (hexa-
dactyla) is frequent on windows, and many other
European genera abound. Of the sixty Rhopalocera
I have on record, as inhabiting Colorado, only two,
Vanessa antiopa and Dana'is plexippus, have been
taken in England, and we know the last to be a
recent introduction, but forty-nine belong to British
genera, and Picris oleracea represents P. napi,
modified by changed conditions, as does Vanessa
milbertii, V. urticce, and several others are closely
allied to European species.

The Diptera are similarly for the most part of
British genera, Tabanus, Tipula, Lucilia, and Muxa
being abundant, and among the Hemiptera we find
representatives of such genera as Leptocoris, Lygams,
Miris, Calocoris, Notonecta, Corixa, Cimex, Cicada
(5 species) and Jassus.

The only two leeches' I have note of belong to the
genera Aulostomum and Clepsine ; earthworms
(Lumbricus) are rare, I am told that a few exist in
Wet Mountain Valley, but I have not been able to
secure an example.

The flowering plants of Colorado have been ably
described by Dr. J. M. Coulter, and present many
features of interest.

In the RanunculaceEe all the genera are British, as
well as the following species :—Myosurus minimus,
Ranunculus flammu la (represented by var. reptans),
R. sceleratus, and R. trichophyUus. The only species
of Papaver is P. nudicaule. Among the Cruciferaj
are Draba incana, var. confusa, Cardamine hirsuta,
Erysimum cheiranthoides, Nasturtium palustre, N.
officinale (but this is an introduction, it has been found
near Denver, and I found it on Saguache Creek,
above Rock Cliff), Camclina sativa, and Lepidium

D

5o

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G O SSI P.

sativum. The seven species of Viola include J'.
faluslris and V. canina, var. sylvestris. Cerastium
alpinum (var. behringianuni) and C. arvensc occur,
as well as Arenaria verna. Hypericum, so prominent
in England, is represented by only a single species,
II. scouleri. Astragalus is a huge genus, with forty-
six species, including alpinus and hypoglottis. Fra-
garia vesca is abundant. Six species of Saxifraga,
hirculus, caespitosa, cernua, rivularis, stellaris (var.
comosa), and nivalis are also British (Saxifraga is an
essentially boreal genus. Lieut. Greely found S.
rivularis (var. hyperbored), S. cernua, S. oppositifolia,
S. nivalis, and S. c<rspitosa in the Arctic region of
Grinnel Land). The six species of Epilobium include
angustifolium, alpinum, and palustre (var. lineare).
F. angustifolium is excessively abundant ; on Sept.
5th, I passed through a burnt-up spruce-forest on
Pottery Pass,* between Wheeler and Red Cliff, and
the charred trunks no longer shading the ground, a
dense growth of this species had sprung up, together
with species of Aster, &c, completely covering the
soil. Adoxa moschatdlina is found, and Linntza
borcalis and Galium borcale (this last I found on the
Grand Mesa, at an elevation of about S900 feet).
Erigeron is a large genus, and includes E. acris.

Senecio has 16 species, but none are British ; the
genus is probably boreal, but the species are unstable,
and soon vary under new conditions. Hieracium, a
large English genus, has only three species and a
variety in Colorado ; but H. umbellatum is given as
"from Lake Superior to the Rocky Mountains."
Taraxacum officinale has the varieties alpinum and
scopulorum, and I found an ordinary-looking dande-
lion by Swift Creek, Custer Co. The three species
of Primula are farinosa, parryi, and angustifolia.
Parryi I found abundant on the Sangre de Cristo
Range. Gentiana is represented by ten species — as
might be expected of such a typically Alpine genus.
Polemonium has four species, including cseruleum.
Myosotis sylvatica appears as the var. alpestris, a
forget-me-not of the most vivid blue, which I found
growing in little compact bunches on the top of the
Sangre de Cristo Range on August 4th, right above
timber line, with Tarnassius (near to Apollo) and an
Alpine Colias to keep it company. Chenopodium
hybridum, glaucum and rubrum are found — I picked
the last near Surface Creek, Delta Co. Poly-
gonum has several species, but the only two British
ones, P. aviculare (Pikeview, El Paso Co., July 13th)
and P. convolvulus (Salida, Chaffee Co., Oct. 19th),
are probably not indigenous. Humulus lupulus is
common. The only species of Orchid common to
Britain are Corallorhiza innata and Spiran/lies roman-
zoviana (this last an example of the migration of
boreal species into Ireland). The Juncaceae include
Luzula campestris and spicata, and Juncus Jiliformis,

* Tliis pass has no name on the map ; we named it so,
because we found some fragmen's of ancient pottery and a stone
arrow-head there.

triglumis, castaueus, and tenuis var. congestus. The
three Naiadaceae are Zannichellia palustris, Pofamo-
geton rufescens (a Middlesex and Surrey Fplant) and
P. marinus var. occidentalis. The representatives of
Scirpus are ccespitostts, lacustris var. occidentalis, and
sylvaticus var. digynus. Carex has forty-nine species,
mostly European, or allied thereto, and includes C.
pyrcndica, rupestris, capillaris, ampultacca, vulgaris,
atrata, alpina, muricata, fcctida, vuipinoidea, disfidia,
echinata, &c. The Graminese are to some extent
peculiar, but the list includes Atopecurus alpinus,
Calamagrostis stricla, Festuca ovina, &c. The twenty-
two Pteridophyta have the following common to
Britain -.—Isoetes lacustris (var. paupercula), Lycopo-
dium annotinum, Botrychium lunaria (and also the
doubtfully British B. lanceotatum), Asplenium septen-
trionale, Phegopteris dryopteris, Lastrcea filix-mas (var.
incisa, Mett.) Equisetum pratense and E. variegatum.
The fungi have not yet been worked out, but there is
no doubt that most of the species are also European.
I have myself found Agaricus (Psaliota) campestris in
more than one locality. Cases of poisoning, sup-
posed to be due to Ergot {Claviceps purpurea) are
reported by Professor Wm, Trelease.

Farther north, the evidences of the boreal fauna
and flora become even more apparent. I was much
interested in examining the collection of the Ento-
mological Society of Ontario, Canada,* and noticed
therein specimens of the following British species
from the immediate ^neighbourhood of London,
Ontario : — Syritta pipicns, Apis mellifica, Metrocampa
margaritata, Ennomos alniaria, Euplexia lucipara,
Noctua ptecta, AT. c-nigrum, Agrotis saucia, Chelonia
caia (var.), Nomophila noctuella (this a migratory
species), Galleria cereana, Eupithecia absynthiata,
Vanessa antiopa, V. cardui (this species is said to have
occurred in millions in some parts of Canada in 18S5),
Danais plexippus, Ptinus fur, and Chrywmela
[Gastrophysa) polygon!. It is very probable that
some of these species were introduced by human
agency, but some are doubtless boreal. One feature
in the collection was the presence of no less than
twelve species of Plusia, none of them British. In
the extreme north, where all the species are boreal,
the proportion of species common to Europe becomes
overwhelming. Greely gives a list of species found
on the expedition to Grinnel Land ; of the nine birds
eight are British, and of the twenty-five flowering-
plants, sixteen belong to British species. 1 1 is list of
Cryptogamia also includes Equisetum variegatum, E.
arvense, Barbula alpina and Cladonia rangiferina.

So much for the boreal fauna and flora of Britain.
I will not now deal with the Eastern and Western
groups, nor the Asiatic distribution of certain species.
As regards Africa, it may be said that the portion
south of the Sahara has no relation to the British
fauna, and, perhaps with a few exceptions, alt the

* Exhibited at the Colonial Exhibition; South Kensington.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

5*

British species found in Africa, south of the Sahara,
are either migratory or were imported by human agency.

Certain European Lepidoptera are conspicuous in
all African collections, and these I regard as belong-
ing to the migratory group *— such are Achcrontia
airopos (from Natal to Gambia and Kilimanjaro),
Sterrha sacraria (Kilimanjaro), Chcerocampa nerii
(Natal and Gambia), and the following species in a
collection from Gambia — Dciopeia pulchclla, Heliothis
peltigera, Plusia ni, Chcerocampa celcrio (a species
wandering even to New Caledonia), Sphinx convol-
vuli, and Lyccena Bietica.

T. D. A. COCKERELL.

West Cliff, Custer Co., Colorado.

A CHAPTER ON BENZOYLSULPHONICIO-
NIDE, OR SACCHARINE.

By Dr. Alfred Crespi.

SUCH is the somewhat uncouth and unfamiliar
name that will soon be known to every one.
It is the scientific designation of that singular
sweetening agent which, though known to scientific
men for some little time, came prominently before
the public in the presidential address of Sir Henry
Roscoe, at Manchester, six months ago. Such a
name ought to cover properties quite cut of the
common run, and when we inform the reader that
saccharine— the name it will popularly be known by
—is 250, or, it may be, 300 times as sweetening as
cane sugar, his curiosity will be aroused.

Unfortunately, the medical and scientific papers
often contain reports, framed in all fairness and
goodwill, of marvellous discoveries in electricity,
chemistry, agriculture, and medicine, that it is con-
fidently promised will revolutionise modern life ;
and while we remain on the qui vive, looking out for
more information, and hoping soon to profit by the
discovery proclaimed in such warm terms, we wait
in vain, and the world goes on in its humdrum way
much as usual, neither the better nor the worse for
the march of scientific discovery.

It is reassuring to be told that saccharine will not
drive cane and beetroot sugar from the field, for those
familiar objects of daily use there will still continue
some demand; but it will be useful in culinary
operations, and as medicine, and as a flavouring
agent, and perhaps in other ways.

Its sweetening properties are remarkable. One
grain of the ammoniacal hypo- sulphite of silver will
render 32,000 grains of water distinctly sweet ; but
one grain of saccharine, according to Professor
Stutzer, of Bonn, will sweeten 70,000 grains of
water.

* Vide "Entomologist's Monthly Magazine," March, 1885,
p. 233.

Saccharine is one of the many derivatives of coal-
tar, and was very fairly described by Sir Henry
Roscoe, in a lecture at the Royal Institution, as "the
most remarkable of all the marvellous products of the
coal-tar industry." Now when all is remembered
that coal-tar has done for mankind in the shape of
providing colours, essences, and flavours, in the past
thirty years, this is strong praise.

Saccharine is a white amorphous powder, and when
examined under the microscope, is found to have a
crystalline appearance. It melts, or fuses, rather, at
a temperature of 4240 Fahr., and then undergoes
partial decomposition, while it gives off a powerful
and easily recognisable odour. Placed upon the
tongue, in its pure state, it is rather disappointing,
as its sweetness is less marked than one would
expect. Two explanations offer themselves : in the
first place, it is not, in its pure state (nor will even
the saliva thoroughly dissolve it) highly soluble in
water; and in the second, its strength is so great
that it deadens, by its very intensity, the nerves of
taste, much in the same way as when we enter a
brilliantly-lighted room, on a dark night, we are
dazzled from the pupil being widely dilated, or,
better still, much as a beam of electric Heht falling
from a short distance upon the retina causes confusion
of vision and dizziness.

Saccharine must, therefore, be regarded as an
essence, as par excellence the concentration of sweet-
ness, and to get its full power needs free and in-
telligent dilution. Vanellin, another of the many
wonderful products of coal-tar, which is rapidly dis-
placing the older and better-known vegetable flavour
vanilla, is also overpoweringly pungent, and far
pleasanter in a less concentrated form. In cold
water saccharine is hardly at all soluble, and although
it is more soluble in warm water, it is not till it is
mixed with boiling water that it becomes very
soluble. The completeness of the solubility is greatly
increased by neutralising the fluid in which it is
placed, and this can be done most readily by adding
carbonate of soda or carbonate of potash, two suffi-
ciently familiar articles in most well-to-do households.
Saccharine expels the carbonic acid present in the
solution, and soda or potash salts of saccharine are
formed that taste almost as sweet as pure saccharine
itself. Probably for commercial and domestic pur-
poses saccharine will soon come into common use in
the form of an alkaline powder. Messrs. Burroughs,
Wellcome & Co. sent us some tabloids containinjr
half a grain of saccharine, and equivalent roughly to
a large lump of loaf sugar. We find that it is better
to put the tabloid in the cup, and then pour in hot
tea, coffee, or cocoa, and after stirring a few time?,
adding the milk or cream. The flavour is in no
way peculiar, but scarcely as agreeable as cane
sugar, though use would soon remove that little
objection.

Alcohol, that powerful solvent of many alkaloids

5'

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS IP.

and strong chemical agents, takes up saccharine
freely. One gallon of a 40 per cent, mixture of
alcohol and water will hold 1391*6 grains ; a gallon
of 80 per cent, alcohol takes up 2250" 5, while absolute
alcohol — that is to say, alcohol perfectly free of any
admixture of water — only takes up 2llS"9 grains.
This great solubility of saccharine in alcohol will
be of much service to manufacturers of pure British
wines, liqueurs, cordials, and essences. In practice,
it is found more convenient to dissolve the sweeten-
ing agent in warm solutions of alcohol and water.
Warm glycerine also dissolves it well, but the pre-
sence of glycerine would unfit the solution for domestic
purposes.

Saccharine promises to have three great fields before
it, if not more. Its culinary uses may not be very
great — though opinions are divided on that point —
except for the preparation of sweetmeats and con-
fectionery ; and as it has already been found possible
to manufacture pure and wholesome sweets flavoured
with it, and not containing cane sugar, it can hardly
fail to give a decided impetus to the sweetmeat trade.
Unfortunately it must not be forgotten that sugar is a
valuable and cheap food, agreeing well enough with
most people, and the substitution of minute quantities
of saccharine for common sugar will diminish the
nutritive properties of the foods to "which it is added.
Again, it can be used to cover the sickening taste of
many strong drugs, at any rate, the medical papers
promise, in their usual hopeful spirit, great things in
that direction. Every practical physician soon learns,
however, that tasteless and so-called palatable prepara-
tions of strong modern medicines are often, after two
or three doses, most repulsive to the patient, and it may
be found that after the first wonder is over, people
will prefer the drug in its ordinary form to taking it
mixed with saccharine. Time will show ; and we
cordially wish the enterprising chemists who have
taken up this part of the work all the success their
good intentions merit.

Lastly, saccharine is not changed in its passage
through the body, and does not ferment like cane-
sagar. It is also said to have powerful antiseptic
properties ; in many cases, therefore, in which the
aged sufferer craves for sweets, but cannot, without
pain indulge in that, to him, dangerous luxury — cane-
sugar — he will now, we must hope, be able to fall
back upon saccharine, which, again, in many familiar,
but not the less loathsome and destructive diseases,
is found to be an invaluable help to the skilful
physician.

We have, we think, said enough to show that,
much though the world owes to chemistry and to
coal-tar, it is not often that a discovery like that of
saccharine gives promise of greater things to come in
the days, not perhaps far distant, when the chemist
will, in his laboratory, manufacture many of the
commoner and more useful foods.

]Vinibor;u\

THE VINEGAR EEL {ANGUILLULA ACETI).

OWING to the fact, that vinegar is now usually
freed from its mucilaginous impurities (on
which this creature feeds), the vinegar eel is not
such a common object for the microscope as it used
to be.

The mature female anguillula (Fig. 21) is about

7JI

w "

}—

Fig. 22. — Head of vinegar eel,
female. (*«) mouth ; {p/i)
pharynx ; [oc) oesophagus ; (g)
gizzard ; {*) intestine. X 250.

Fig. 21. — Mature female. (w)
mouth ; [ph) pharynx ; («) posi-
tion of nervous ganglion ; (g)
gizzard ; (z) intestine ; (z') lower
portion of intestine ; [a] rectum ;
\r) anus; (s) style.

one-tenth of an inch in length, the mature male,
one-fifteenth. Both sexes seem to vary in size.

The body is long and filiform, of nearly uniform
thickness, but tapering gently towards the head and
less gradually towards the tail, which ends in a long,
fine spine. The transparent body permits a close
examination of the internal structure.

HAEBWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

53

The females are viviparous, and the young may
be seen in a mature female inside the body. In

r j

Fig. 24.— Young anguillula
escaping.

v.cl/.
a,

Fig. 23.

outward form the sexes are very similar, the only
difference being that the tail of the male bears three
small processes (Fig. 23, /;-).

broad testis, bent upon itself at its upper portion ;
it opens by a very short vas deferens by the anus
(Fig. 23). Two conspicuous spicula, shaped like the
letter S and contained in sacs, are situated at each
side of the vas deferens and open into it ; they act
as claspers during the sexual process.

In the female the generative opening is situated a
little behind the middle of the body. This opening
leads into an oval chamber and into the broad
pouch. The large uterus, or broad pouch, seems
more a cavity hollowed out in the body than a
chamber with definite walls ; it passes forwards and
ends in a long protoplasmic cord or ovary (?) which
bends and passes over the intestine. The uterus is
perhaps continued posteriorly, for I have found young
sometimes in that region of the body, when the
female contained many embryos. Young vinegar
eels may be observed in the broad pouch in various
stages of development. The youngest embryos are
situated at the extreme end of the uterus ; the older
ones nearer the generative opening. Some of the
youngest may be seen, invested in a delicate shell,
undergoing segmentation. The older ones exhibit a
slow rotatory movement, which I believe is due to
their rapid growth in length. The oldest of all have
evidently escaped from the shell and move about
uneasily. When the vinegar eel has finished its
early stages of development inside the mother it
escapes by the generative opening, wriggling its way
through the somewhat narrow passage (Fig. 24, u).
Soon after its escape it becomes very lively.

Fig. 25. — Reproductive organs of female.
\t) portion containing small nuclei ; (1-
The intestine is not represented.

(p) generative organ ; (c) chamber ; (s) portion of ovary containing large nuclei ;
young eels in various stages of development; (A) interior end; (P) posterior end.

The alimentary canal is a straight tube, traversing
the whole length of the body cavity. The small
mouth which opens anteriorly is surrounded by a
horny capsule (Fig. 21, m). The pharynx (ph) has
muscular walls with transverse strice, it leads into a
narrow oesophagus (a?). The gizzard is round and
very thick walled ; the muscular strise radiate from
the small central cavity. The rest of the digestive
tube consists of a long hind-gut or intestine (/)
occupying the greater portion of the body. The
anterior portion of this organ is broad and much
serrulated ; near the reproductive system it becomes
narrower and passes to one side. A short rectum
(if it can be so called) leads to the anus, which
opens near the root of the tail.

The reproductive organ of the male is a long,

The long ovary contains numerous nuclei im-
bedded in a protoplasmic matrix. These nuclei are
more crowded within a short distance of its extremity,
where they disappear.

I was not able to observe the excretary system. I
believe it consists of long unbranched canals parallel
to the long axis of the body, and opening near the
middle. I do not know whether it is possible to see
the nervous system without previous preparation.

I have drawn (Fig. 22) a small round body (not
easily discernible) lying above the gizzard ; but I
cannot say whether this is the nervous system or a
gland. Owing to the presence of fat globules
scattered all over the body, it is difficult to observe
many details of structure.

Bernard Thomas.

54

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

POND DREDGING AND COLLECTING.

REPLYING to this query in the February
number, I have much pleasure in giving some
hints on collecting Infusoria, Rotifera, and Polyzoa,
the result of my experience in this interesting pursuit.

The necessary apparatus are : a collecting stick, a
flat bottle, a pocket magnifier, and a handbag with
bottles.

Of all the various collecting sticks I have seen, I
like none so well as the pattern supplied by Baker's,
of High Holborn ; it consists of a hollow walking-
stick, with an inner rod which can be drawn out to
increase its length, a small bottle, a hook, and a ring
for the net, all of which can be screwed on to the
stick.

The net should be made of dense muslin, with
meshes small enough to prevent Rotifera and
Infusoria going through, and yet allowing the water
to run out freely. It is of some importance to have
exactly the right material ; as a guidance, I may
mention that on holding my net to the window I can
see the light through it, but no object with any
degree of distinctness, nor can I read through it ;
when taking a dip the water runs through in about
5 to 10 seconds. The net should not be too long,
nor too short ; 5 in. is a proper length, by 6 in.
across the ring ; at the end is tied a small rimmed
tube bottle of thin, clear glass, 3 in. long by I in. in
diameter ; a common bottle of thick glass would be
of very little use, because minute objects cannot be
seen through such a bottle.

The flat bottle was first introduced by Mr. Hardy,
with the object of placing it under the microscope to
examine its contents. I seldom use it in that way,
because it is too inconvenient ; the stages of micro-
scopes are not large enough to hold it, and so it is
mostly necessary to hold and move it with both hands,
leaving none free to focus the microscope ; I prefer
to remove the weeds to a smaller trough. For use
in the field and collecting, however, it is a most
excellent contrivance, and quite indispensable. Every
one knows how impossible it is to see an object
clearly in a round bottle with a lens, whilst the flat
bottle allows this to be done with the greatest ease.
To make these bottles, get a thick piece of india-
rubber, quite fiat, about 6 to 6h in. long and 2J to
3 in. broad, and -j or f in. thick, then cut out an
inner piece all round, except at the top, at \ in.
from the edge, the result will be a |j -shaped piece of
indiarubber, against each side of which cement, with
Miller's cement, a piece of thin plate glass, and the
llat bottle is complete. One or two more and smaller
bottles can be made with the remaining piece of
indiarubber. I strongly recommend the indiarubber
to be if in. thick, so as to make a deep bottle, other-
wise the weeds, such as Anacharis, when put in with
much difficulty, are pressed against the glass, which
seriously interferes with their examination.

The pocket lens should not be bi-convex, as is
usually the case, but plano-convex, and used with
the plane side towards the object.

Having described the apparatus, I will now briefly
mention how to use them.

For the purpose of collecting, the Infusoria and
Rotifera may be divided into two groups : the free
swimming and those that are attached to water plants.
For collecting the group of free swimming forms
there is no better device than the net ; pass it through
the water once or twice, and then hold it up and let
the water run out — the condensed animals will enter
the bottle quite at the last, like a cloud ; it is there-
fore wrong to take a second dip before all the water
has run out of the net. The ordinary dipping bottle,
without net, is also useful and sufficient when the
animals are abundant, but the net is certainly the
best way of condensing them. At the same time, it
is a mistake to condense pond-life too much, as the
animals soon exhaust the food supply and die.

Having ascertained with the pocket lens that the
dip contains something, the contents of the tube is
poured into another bottle. Some collectors take
with them a number of small bottles for this purpose,
but I prefer to have two or three large ones, with
only one or two small ones, to be able to isolate an
object on the spot when required.

The group of attached Infusoria and Rotifera are
best found with the flat bottle described above.
Drag up with the hook a quantity of weed, and,
selecting clean branches, but not the newest growth,
place one branch after another in the bottle, which
can then be carefully scrutinised with the lens. The
tubes of Melicerta and Polyzoa, groups of Vorticella,
etc., can at once be seen with the naked eye when
present, and the good branches can soon be picked
out. At the same time it must not be forgotten that
some minute and very transparent animals, such as
the Floscules, can rarely be seen even with the lens,
and only the microscope at home will reveal all the
captures. Experience alone can teach which of the
branches are most likely to be prolific. As a general
rule old-looking, but still sound and green, branches
are the best. The water milfoil (Myriophyllum) is
the best of water-plants to examine and collect, on
account of the ease with which it can subsequently
be placed under the microscope, Anacharis being a
very awkward plant in this respect.

In placing a weed in the flat bottle never put in
more than one branch at a time, otherwise the
branches will only obscure each other, and render
examination more difficult. For Polyzoa it is best to
dredge up weeds from the middle of the pond or
canal by means of a loaded hook and line.

Having selected the most promising branches out
of various ponds, I place them all in the large bottles
with the water to be taken home. Care must be
taken not to put too many weeds in the bottles ; in
the first place, no one has time to examine so much

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

55

material, and secondly, such crowded bottles very
quickly go wrong.

On arriving home, I turn out the contents of the
bottles into three or four small window aquaria having
flat and parallel sides. I would here strongly recom-
mend the use of these window aquaria for keeping
and examining pond-life ; they save a great deal of
time and trouble, and I find them quite indispensable.
Mr. Watson, glass cutter and aquarium maker, of
161, Great Portland Street, London, makes them ;
6 in. long by 5! in. high, and 8 in. by 6 in., are two
convenient sizes.

A number of objects escape notice in the ordinary
round aquaria and bottles, but in these flat aquaria,
which are not more than 1 or ij in. thick, every part
can be seen and examined with the pocket-lens with
great ease. On placing the aquarium in front of a
window or lamp the free swimming forms will collect
on the side nearest the light, and any one of them,
even the minutest, can be picked up with a dipping-
tube, provided with an indiarubber teat, acting as a
syphon.

I need hardly mention the necessity of examining
the objects as soon as possible, and not later than the
day after their having been collected, as many
organisms soon die in captivity, presumably from
want of proper food. The life of Rotifers can be
prolonged a little by feeding them twice a day with
a green soup, made by crushing some Anacharis, or
any other water weed, in a little water in a mortar.
That they really eat this, can be seen under the
microscope. After several days' captivity Rotifers
look very white and hungry, biting at each other and
trying to swallow each other's spines ; but when a
few drops of the soup are added to the trough, their
stomachs very soon assume a more comfortable green
appearance, becoming filled with little balls of
chlorophyll.

In conclusion I would recommend microscopists to
examine ponds and collect in winter as well as at the
other seasons, for in my experience Rotifera and
Infusoria are then, even under the ice, as abundant,
if not more so, than in the summer months.

I trust these few remarks will be found useful to
the younger collectors ; I have found the methods
described most efficient and time-saving, which is an
important consideration to most of us who pursue
this study as a recreation.

C. ROUSSELET.

RUDIMENTS.— A REPLY.

IN discussing the advisability of retaining Mr.
Darwin's use of the word "rudiment," it will
perhaps be well to consider first the right application
of the term. Either the organ so designated must be
in an early stage of a future development, or in an
inferior condition, compared with a higher standard.

Your correspondent Mr. Trevor-Roper attributes
the latter sense to Mr. Darwin.

Now, as the term "rudimentary" can only be
used in relation to a recognised standard of per-
fection, we are forced into the strange position of
seeking for the perfection of our so-called rudi-
mentary organs in the lower animals.

To those who have grasped the theory of develop-
ment, this cannot but appear an anomalous pro-
ceeding.

The brain of man, so undeniable in its superiority,
has perhaps alone escaped the stigma of being
"greatly reduced from a perfect state," and to it
is attributed solely the dominating position in which
man now finds himself.

We have been told that our sight, hearing, smell,
etc., are in a lower state of development than that of
our earlier progenitors severally, and we have ac-
cepted the statement with unquestioning reverence.
So with teeth, lungs, the down on the body, and
indeed, almost every part of the human structure.

But we must ask if these assertions will bear
examination, and whether our senses are inherited
" in an enfeebled and rudimentary condition," as Mr.
Darwin states of the sense of smell. I am inclined to
doubt it, and before deciding hastily which is rudi-
mentary and which is perfect, to weigh quality with
quantity, to consider the economy of material, to find,
if possible, the most comprehensive capacity in the
least space.

And where is it to be found ? Not in the compound
eye of the dragon-fly, though it sees " equally well in
all directions — before, behind, or laterally," nor yet
in the far-sighted eyes of certain birds, that may
excel in distance of vision, but in the organ of sight,
which, one of our greatest anatomists tells us,
" arrives" in man " at its highest perfection."

Put the dragon-fly or the bird into a gallery of
pictures, and it is clear that delicacy of colouring and
disposition of light and shade are lost upon them.
Even the beauty of a landscape, or a fine sunset,
excites no pleasurable recognition of harmonious tints.

Certainly, according to Mr. Darwin, wonderful
changes have been wrought by the preference of the
female Polyplectron for the ball and socket ocelli in
the plumage of the male bird, but this is a suppo-
sition to be weighed ; and even allowing this, no one,
I suppose, would venture to compare, for delicacy of
perception, the bird's eye with man's.

And again, with regard to the sense of smell. The
bloodhound can track out and discover a runaway
slave by the mere smelling of a garment, but has no
perception of, or delight in, the varied scents of
flowers, though carrion attracts him. The sense of
smell is keen, but not refined.

It is quantity versus quality. How, under these
circumstances, can the sense of smell be said to be
inherited by us "in an enfeebled and rudimentary
condition " ?

56

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P.

A dog will hear distant sounds, and prick up his
ears at the rolling of carriage-wheels, unperceived by
us, but musical harmonies are wasted on him, or
even disliked, and a new chord struck, or the song
of a bird, is apparently unrecognised.

Again it is quantity versus quality. And if we are
driven to defend the down on the human body, and
even the os coccyx, we shall find the same argument
to hold good. As a matter of fact, the fur of lower
animals corresponds strangely to the rudimentary
condition of our own liner covering. In a very early
stage of man's formation, " the whole surface " of the
body is "thickly clothed" with " wool- like hair,"
which Mr. Darwin himself recognises as "probably
representing the first permanent coat of hair in those
mammals which are born hairy."

What authority, then, has your correspondent for
stating that the "down covering a man's body is
certainly in a more rudimentary condition as regards
the hair on lower animals " ? Precisely the same
may be said with regard to the os coccyx, which is
known to project in an early stage.

Again, the tail is the rudimentary condition of the
more perfect shortened formation, and corresponds to
the appendage in lower animals.

While we are taught so carefully to trace in man's
own individual development the picture of the great
scheme of evolution — from the lowest of vertebrata to
man, the highest — it is curious that this simple
conclusion should have been overlooked. Are we
still to term organs rudimentary, though we know
that to increase them to dimensions of the lower
animals would be to return to our own embryological
condition, from which they had scarcely emerged?

The brain of an adult baboon, Mr. Darwin tells us,
corresponds in development to the human brain in its
early rudimentary condition. With these facts before
us, we may surely infer that the ape represents to us
a creature fashioned after the likeness of our own
rudimentary state, and the same could be said with
reference to other low forms.

Their structures are found to correspond to more
or less rudimentary stages in man's individual early
existence. If this be indisputable, the word "rudi-
mentary " when applied to any part of a fully-
developed human organism, is incorrect, and even
where traces of a lower condition may be found,
they should be regarded merely as an arrest of
proper development from its own rudimentaiy con-
dition.

A curious question arises from Mr. Darwin's
theory of the process through which organs have
passed in becoming rudimentary. He says, "Rudi-
mentary organs have been slowly formed through
continued disuse, acting by inheritance at a corre-
sponding age, aided by the principle of the economy
of growth, all under the control of Natural Selec-
tion." He explains the modification of an organ to
a rudimentary state, through Natural Selection, etc.,

by the same slow processes that were required for
its first development.

But the question is, Where are we to look for the
stages of its first progress to development ? If the
fur of an ape were down developed to perfection,
what is the history of its evolution, and on what
ancient animal did rudimentary down first appear ?
The answer is as startling as apparent.

Supposing the simple brain of a savage, through
use, inheritance, and Natural Selection, gradually
evolves into the fully-developed brain of a civilised
being, and then, in course of generations, through
disuse, acting by inheritance, gradually loses its
powers, the civilised man reverts to the savage.

Thus, if the down of the ape is found on man
in its undeveloped vestigial condition, we must
argue that man was originally the progenitor of the
ape, and his down the rudiment of the futuie fur.

I cannot close this article without explaining that
arguing on evolution ground only should I use such
terms as "excrescences" and " deficiencies " with
regard to organs in the lower animals, and I am
prepared to defend the position, but my paper has
already exceeded in length. To the non-evolutionist
every group is perfect in its kind, and for its environ-
ment. N. F. L.

NOTES ON FOSSIL CONCHOLOGY.

THE subject of these notes, is, I may say, a vast
and almost an inexhaustible one, and it is very
difficult to know where to begin ; therefore, I propose
to deal, in the first place, with the genus Planorbis.

The Planorbes are freshwater molluscs, and abound
principally in still water, although, occasionally found
in streams. The animal is elongated, slender, and
rolled up ; the head is furnished with two long
contractile tentacles, at the internal bases of which
eyes are placed ; the orifices are on the left side ; the
organs of generation distinct.

General character. — Shell discoidal ; spire de-
pressed ; volutions apparent above and below ; aper-
ture lunate, crescent-shaped or sub-quadrate, impinged
upon by preceding volution ; outer lip generally
thin, sharp-edged, columellar lip spreading over the
body whorls. No operculum. All fossil remains of
this genus are found in fresh water, or transition
formations.

Pl.ANORBis, Geoffroy.

Planorbis obtusus, Sowerby. (Fig. 26, 1, a, b.) —
This very pretty shell has a smooth, shining, nearly
polished surface ; it is depressed, nearly flat on the
upperside, and slightly concave beneath. Thevolutions
are four or five in number, separated by a deep suture,
slightly convex on both sides, but rather more com-
pressed on the under side than the upper, obtusely
rounded at the periphery, and each nearly half-

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

57

•concealed by the succeeding volution. The aperture
is very oblique and bluntly heart-shaped. In the
general form and rounded whorls, this species re-
sembles P. spamacensis, but the whorls are not so
numerous, and the aperture is more oblique. The
lenticular form and angulated margin of P. lens
will prevent its being confounded with that species.
Planorbis obtusus is found in the upper eocene forma-
tion, at Sconce and Headon Hill, Isle of Wight, and
at Hordwell, Hants.

Planorbis euomphalus, Sowerby. (Fig. 26, 2, a. b.)
— This well-known species, which appears to be con-

but as they approach maturity it becomes more and
more obtuse, and frequently disappears ; the whorls
then assume a transversely oval form, approaching
nearly to that presented by P. rotunda/us. On the
under surface, the inner margin of the whorls is
bent rather suddenly towards the preceding whorl,
and presents, in consequence, an obtuse angle, which
runs round and defines the umbilicus. Transverse
lines of growth are very conspicuous ; and frequently
the surface of the shell also presents more or less
numerous concentric raised lines, some of which are
larger and more prominent than the rest. The aper-

Fig. 26.-Fossil fresh-water shells. 1. (a and b) Planorbis obtusus; 2. (2) P. platystoma; 3. («) side view of adult shell ; (b) view

of upper disc of P. euomphalus; 4. P. discus; 5. P. lens; 6. P. elegaus.

fined to the] fresh-water formations, is equally dis-
tinguished from the other Planorbes. It is a large
discoidal shell, nearly Hat on the upper face, and
presenting a wide and "deep umbilical cavity beneath ;
the six or seven volutions of which the shell is formed
are fiat or nearly so above, concave below, and each
but slightly embracing the preceding volution ; the
apex is concealed by the volution of the whorls. A
clearly defined and rather acute angle, almost
forming a keel, runs round the periphery of.the shell,
and separates the upper from the under disc. This
angle is always very conspicuous in the young shells,

ture is subtrigonal, slightly impinged upon by the
preceding volution, and very oblique. This species
is found in the fresh-water limestone of the Upper
Eocene formation, at Headon Hill, Isle of Wight.

Planorbis rotundatus, Braid.— A rather large shell,
formed of six or seven nearly round volutions,
separated by a deep suture, and each slightly im-
pinged upon by the preceding one ; the volutions are
flatly convex on the upper side, convex beneath, and
(like those of P. euomphalus) present an angle
running round the inner margin near the umbilicus,
which as the shell matures becomes almost obsolete.

S3

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The upper face is nearly flat, while the under side
presents a moderately deep and wide concavity. The
aperture is transversely oval, and but slightly oblique.
The strice of growth are very conspicuous ; and
occasionally, although very rarely, the shells present
fine concentric lines, similar to those which char-
acterise P. euomphalus. In this species, however,
the lines are finer and more crowded, and seldom
extend beyond the first three or four volutions. The
fossil remains of this species abound in the Upper
Eocene beds at Sconce and Headon Hill, also at
Hordwell, Hants.

Planorbis discus, Edwards. (Fig. 26, 4, a. b.) —
This well-marked species appears to be peculiar to the
fresh-water formation at Sconce, Isle of Wight. It
is a much compressed discoidal shell, nearly flat on
the upper side and deeply hollowed out below. The
five or six whorls of which it is formed enlarge
rapidly, and each is slightly embraced by the suc-
ceeding one ; they are much flattened above, slightly
convex below, and obtusely rounded at the outer
edge. In the young shell, the inner margin is bent
rather abruptly towards the preceding whorl, and
presents an obtuse angle which defines the umbilicus,
similar to that presented by P. euomphahis and P.
rotiuidatus. As the shell becomes matured, the
under side assumes an almost regularly convex form,
and the angle becomes obsolete. The aperture is
oblique, and of an elongated heart-shape. Casts of
this shell occur in great abundance in the fresh-water
beds of the Upper Eocene formation at Sconce, Isle
of Wight.

Planorbis digyratns, Edwards. — The present, like
the preceding species, is apparently confined to the
fresh-water formation of Sconce, but is not so plenti-
ful as P. discus. It is a moderate-sized shell,
formed of four rapidly-increasing whorls, somewhat
convex above, and rather acutely angulated round
the inner margins on the under side, just above the
umbilicus. The periphery, near the upper surface,
presents an obtuse angle, from which the whorls
shape rather abruptly towards the umbilicus, assum-
ing in consequence a subtrigonal form. The aperture
is slightly oblique, and bluntly obcordate in conse-
quence of its being impinged upon by the preceding
whorl. The umbilical cavity is deep, but not very
wide.

This species is, in the fossil state, ordinarily
found as casts only, in the Upper Eocene beds of
Sconce, Isle of Wight.

Planorbis platy stoma, Wood. (Fig. 26, b, a. b.)— A
small smooth shell, formed of three rapidly enlarging
whorls, each embracing about one-half of the pre-
ceding one ; the whorls are rounded, equally convex
above and below, but slightly compressed on the
upper side. The apex is wholly concealed by the
involutions of the whorls. The aperture is wide,
oblique, and bluntly heart-shaped ; the upper side is
slightly concave, and the under presents a wide and

somewhat deep umbilicus. Planorbis platystoma is
found rather abundantly in the Upper Eocene beds at
Sconce, Headon Hill, and at Hordwell, Hants.

Planorbis lens, Brongniart. (Fig. 26, 5, a, b.) — This
species is a small lenticular shell, slightly concave on
each side, but more so on the upper ; the whorls are
four in number, each embracing nearly one-half of
the preceding one ; they are also slightly convex on
both sides, but more so above than beneath, and
angulated round the periphery, a little below the
middle of the whorl. The aperture is heart-shaped,
but not very oblique. The fossil remains of this
species are found at Headon Hill, Isle of Wight,
and Hordwell, Hants, in the Upper Eocene forma-
tion.

Planorbis tropis, Edward. — A minute shell, com-
pressed and polished, and slightly sunk round the
apex, and widely but not deeply umbilicated ; the
four or five volutions, of which it is composed, are
convex above and flat beneath, and compressed near
the outer margin so as to present a prominent keel,
which runs round the periphery a little below the
middle of the whorl. The whorls embrace one
another about one-half of the preceding one; the
aperture is very oblique, and of a longish heart-shape.

This species seems to be peculiar to the Eocene
beds at Hordwell, Hampshire.

Planorbis hemistoma, Sowerby. — P. kemistoma is a
minute, smooth, depressed shell, concave on the
upper side, almost flat beneath and compressed,
almost angulated at the periphery, above the middle
of the shell. The whorls do not exactly embrace one
another, although the upper surface is partly concealed
by the succeeding whorl ; the inner margin is bent
abruptly towards the apex, and presents a conspicuous
angle, which runs round the cavity. The aperture is
oblique and subtrigonal, having the lower margin
rounded. This species somewhat resembles P.
clegans, but is smaller and more compressed.

Fossils of this species are found in the Eocene
formation at Hordwell, Hants ; Plumstead, Sund-
ridge, and Rotherhithe.

Planorbis clegans, Edwards. (Fig. 26, 6, a, b.) —
This little planorbis is found in great abundance at
Headon Hill, Isle of Wight. It is a small polished
shell, deeply but not widely hollowed out on the
upper disc, and slightly concave, almost flat beneath.
It is composed of four or five volutions rounded on
the periphery, marked by conspicuous lines of growth
nearly perpendicular to the axis, very convex, and
presenting a sharpish angle running round the inner
margin on the upper surface, and but slightly convex
beneath ; each volution embraces a third of the
preceding one. The aperture is heart-shaped, and
slightly oblique. This species is found in the Eocene
beds at Headon Hill, Isle of Wight, and at Hord-
well, Hants.

Planorbis biangulatus, Edwards. — A depressed,
small shell, slightly and nearly equally hollowed out

BARBWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

59

on both sides, but rather more so above than beneath.
It is formed of four or five volutions, convex on the
upper side, and obtusely angulated round the cavity,
in consequence of the somewhat abrupt inflexion of
the inner margin towards the preceding volution.
The periphery presents two angles, one rather
obscure near the middle, the other more prominent,
runs round the margin of the lower disc. The
aperture is slightly oblique, and of a short heart-
shape, but irregular in its form, owing to the greater
convexity and the angulated inner margin of the
upper surface of the whorl. Planorbis biangulatus is
found in a fossil state, in the Eocene beds at Hord-
svell, Hants.

Planorbis Sowerbyi, Bronn. — This is a small
depressed shell, slightly and nearly equally hollowed
out on both sides ; but the umbilical cavity is deeper
of the two. The volutions are three or four in
number, enlarging rapidly, convex above and flat
beneath, and having a sharpish keel on the periphery.
The whorls are much concealed, each embracing
about half of the preceding one, and the aperture is
very oblique, and of an elongated heart-shape.

Found in the Upper Eocene beds at Sconce, Isle
of Wight. This species is believed to be very rare.

Geo. E. East, jun.

NOTES ON THE EIGHTH EDITION OF THE
LONDON CATALOGUE OF BRITISH
PLANTS.

By Arthur Bennett.

THESE notes are put together for the purpose of
aiding those botanists who have felt that the
changes introduced into the 8th ed. of the " London
Catalogue of British Plants " need some explanation
more than could be given in that list. I propose to
take the 7th and Sth editions and go through them
seriatim, noting the changes in name, and here and
there introducing such notes as seem needful. I
have awaited the completion of Mr. B. D. Jackson's
" Observations on the Nomenclature of the Sth ed.
of the London Catalogue," concluded in the November
number of the "Journal of Botany"; this will ex-
plain the somewhat late appearance of these notes.

Thalictrum majus a is sunk under minus c. flexuo-
sum in Sth ed. b. Kochii becomes a var. under
saxatile, but it is almost certain we have not the true
Kochii of Fries. What the T. saxatile of Cambridge-
shire is, I cannot yet ascertain ; I have grown it for
three years ; dried a series, and twice sent it to Con-
tinental authorities : in both cases they will not give
it a name. Probably the No. 4 and var. b are really
T. Jacquinianum.

The Batrachian Ranunculi are still far from satis-
factory, and yet need continuous study. No. 18, d.
Penicillatus, Hiern, should be taken out ; it is really
only pseudo-Jiuitaus, with floating leaves. I consider

that \dc should be taken out, as I do not believe the
Scotch plant is the confervoides of Fries, but would
rather place it under 15.

32, Ranunculus sardous, Crantz (not with a capital
S), is J?, hirsutus, Curtis, and an earlier name.

35, R. jlabdlatus var. represents 32, R. clncro-
pltyllus, of the 7th ; Nyman saying that our Jersey
plant is not the plant of Linnseus. The var. should
properly read " Europreus,'' though Nyman prints it
as the Sth.

50. At the time the Catalogue was printed, it was
uncertain whether our var. intermedium was the true
plant of Ledebour ; since then, Dr. Caspary has
pronounced plants, from several stations in Scotland
I sent him, to be the true plant; so " Led." should
be added, and "auct. angl." taken out.

59, Glaucium Jlavum, Crantz, takes the place of
G. luteum, Scop.

61, Rcemeria hybrida, DC, was accidentally omitted
from the 7th ed. It is the rare cornfield plant occur-
ring near Swaffham, in Cambridgeshire.

62 £ should have the authority " Mill," instead of
"DC."

76 c occurs but rarely, but is British.

S5 bis will be Arabis alpina, L., discovered in Scot-
land last year (1SS7).

SS, Arabis sagittata, is A. hirsuta, Br., of the 7th
ed. ; it has a var. b added, found in Ireland and
Sussex.

96, Cardamine bulbifera, is Dentaria bulbifera, of
the 7th ed.,but the authority should be " R. Brown,"
not " Syme."

105 should have the authority DC, not " Reich."

109 b. Hortii, Syme, is a var. found by the Rev. — ■
Hort ; in some parts it is the commoner form.

112, Thaliana should be Thalianum, Gay.

120 should bepe/folialum, Crantz.

135 b is a form often mistaken for D. tenuifolia.

143, Lepidium Smithii, will become L. hctcrostylum,
Benth., and b. canescens, Gren. et Godr.

153/; is a form gathered in Shetland and Fife,
probably elsewhere.

161 is H. canum, Dunal, of the 7th ed.

162 is H. vulgare, Gsertn., of the 7th ed.

165 b should have " auct." instead of " Besser," as
the authority.

172 is V. stagnina, Kitabel, of the 7th ed.

179 is Poly gala depressa of the 7th ed. b. ciliata is
a form gathered on the Gogmagog Hills, in Cambridge-
shire.

I Si, alter the authority to " Linn."

191 b is a form found in Lancashire and elsewhere.

192 is Silene iujlata, Sm., of the 7th ed.

196, the census of counties should be " 5S," and
added to " a. anglica."

209, authority should be "Scop."

211 is Mcenchia of the 7th ed.

217 c should be taken out and added o 21S, as var.
b. Edmonstoni, Beeby.

6o

HARDW1 CKE 'S SCIENCE-GO SS/P.

Cerastium arcticum, Lange, is certain for Snowdon !
Shetland ! Aberdeen !

226 should have '"' Retz " added as the authority,
not " Ehrh."

230 is Alsine rubella of the 7th ed.

231 is A. uliginosa of the 7th ed.

237 is Honkenya peploides of the 7th ed.

238 is Cheleria sedoidcs of the 7th ed.
243 is Sagina saxatilis of the 7th ed.

" Lepigonum" is used instead of " Spergularia " of
the 7th ed., the terminations of the specific names
being altered.

251 b is a rare var. found near Plymouth.

255, the var. should stand a. repens, Pers.

b. erectus, Pers.

264 is Hypericum dnbium of the 7th ed.

265 is H. tetrapterum of the 7th ed.

267 b is a var. found in the Channel Isles by Dr.
Boswell.

276 is a species found in the Scilly Isles of late
years.

281 should be M. pusilla, With., not borcalis,
Wallr.

282, alter authority to " Hudson."

286, alter authority to " Roth."

290/', alter authority to " Schiibl."

292, alter to G. versicolor, L.

299, alter authority to " Linn."

312, alter to biflora, Walt.

The census "99 "should be transferred from 327
to 32S/;.

335 c, alter authority to " Desv."

336 should be M. arabica, All.

Melilotus is a troublesome genus, " with name
alterations."

338 should be M. officinalis, Lam., 7th ed., No. 31S.

340, arvensis, Wallr., 7th ed., No. 320.

341, indica, All. ; 7th ed., M. parvijiora.
343 b is a var. for Scotland and Norfolk !

345 should be ochroleucum, Huds.

346 should be squamosum, Linn.

363 is T. minus, Relh., of the 7th eel.
368 is L. major of the 7th ed.
372, specific name with a small " h."
380 should be O. viciafolia, Scop.
392, alter authority to " Linn."
405 should be L. montanus, Bernh.
407 should be P. spinosa, Linn.
408, alter authority to " Huds."
The census " 112 " to " 413 " is an error.
4S6 is P. minor, Gilib.
487 is perhaps P. rubens, Vill. ?
48S should be P. silvestris, Necker.
495 should be P. palnstris, Scop.
497, alter authority to "Scop."
498 £ is hybrida, Willd.
500 should be A. argentea, Don.
504 should be P. polygamum, Waldstein and
Kitabel.

The roses need little explanation, but

510^ ought to be placed under 508 as var. d.

513, agrestis, Savi, is practically 467 of the 7th ed.

416 to 476, Rnbi, I make no comments on these
difficult plants, feeling assured that the arrangement
and nomenclature is only in a transition state.

528 represents 479 a and b of the 7th ed.

533 is 472, 7th ed.

534(5 and c are two vars. additional to 7th ed.

535) alter name to C. integcrrimns.

539. Here the name itself represents the 535 a of
the 7th ed. My own leaning would be to retain in
this case a. either as "crenata," or a. genuinus in all
cases where the type-form may cause confusion by
not so being represented. Still, it really amounts
to want of taking care to urge that any difficulty can
result from my writing and asking a correspondent for
539, Sth ed. ; naturally, if I wanted other than the
type, I should add b or c, as the case might be.

541. Here c may well represent 537 c of the 7th
ed. ; the alteration in name really means nothing, as
one might add a dozen varieties (if of any use) from
old books.

548 and 550. Professor Babington combines these
two plants ; the mistake in the 8th ed. is putting 549
between them ; the numbers really ought to be trans-
posed : 549 to 550, then 550 to 552 would represent
a graduated series.

562 should be S. roseum, Scop.

571, alter authority to " Linn."

576/; is a form with a decided stem, which I have
seen more developed in rotiuidifolia.

5S2. Here the 509 b of 7th ed. is omitted ; it is
really only a./, differing in the direction of the fruit-
lobes.

587^ (authority should be " Guss."), is a/, with
very short hairs closely packed over the surface.

593 has two vars. added — b and c. Hausknecht.
in his monograph of the genus, places them as
hybrids, giving several others as British ; this is a
genus that will repay collectors, if good specimens
with roots are gathered.

{To be continued.)

REVELATIONS CONCERNING THE BASS
{LAB RAX LUPUS).

By W. August Carter,
Of the National Fish Culture Association.

DURING the existence of the late South Ken-
sington x\quarium, I made some. observations
upon the bass {Labrax lupus), specimens of which
were exhibited there measuring two feet in length and
under. They were captured off Southwick, near the
shore. The larger specimens attracted considerable
attention from visitors to the late Colonial and Indian
Exhibition, where they were regarded by many
persons, uninitiated in things piscatorial, as salmon.

HARD WICKE ' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

Gi

This erroneous impression is commonly shared, and
can readily be accounted for by the fact of the tout
ensemble of the bass, resembling closely that of its
lordly confrere. On this account, I have known un-
scrupulous fishmongers to dispose of the former to
unwary customers in place of the latter.

The habits of bass afford a very interesting study.
Their dignified appearance when full grown earns
them the respect and admiration of all visitors to

Fig. 27. — The Bass (reduced).

aquaria where they locomote backwards and forwards,
unconscious of the admiring glances bestowed upon
their silvery forms. But, as we are well acquainted
with their characteristics, I shall proceed to record
the result of my observations upon their habits and
proclivities, which point conclusively to the extreme
hardihood of their constitutions.

In confinement bass are naturally not so voracious as

Fig. 2S. — Head of Bass.

in their normal sphere, but their appetites are neverthe-
less very keen when living under artificial conditions.
On first being admitted to the aquarium they abstain
from food entirely, as they also do at certain seasons
of the year. When once induced to feed at the out-
set, they exist many years in an artificial state, but if
at the end of eight days they reject their food, death
ensues shortly afterwards. They can be accustomed
to a varied diet, including meal, but mussels is the

best kind of food upon which to feed them in cap-
tivity, onisci and Crustacea, their natural sustenance,
being difficult to procure regularly. They are cap-
able of domesticating themselves to a variety of con-
ditions, and changing their nature and food as well as
the coloration of their body. In captivity the irides
become more silvery, and the bluish tints upon the
back lighter in hue.

It is stated that bass thrive under fluviatile con-
ditions. This, however, all depends upon circum-
stances. On several occasions I .turned a few fish
into fresh water, but did not succeed in maintaining
them longer than six days. They became languid
and thin in appearance, refusing to touch the various
foods that I placed in their tank. In brackish water
the case is different ; they frequently repair thither in
their natural state when following their prey. There is
no doubt that if the ova were hatched, and the fry reared
in fresh water, they might be permanently naturalised
thereto, in fact we are told by Columella that this was
done by the ancient Romans with success ; but on
the other hand, it would be extremely difficult to
acclimatise them to a fluviatile existence after being
reared in saline waters.

I find that bass possess extraordinary vitality and
powers of endurance. They are able to live more than
three weeks in stagnant water, unlike their relation
the Perca fluviatilis, which requires plenty of oxygen.
The respiratory organs of the bass are of a high order,
for until the last few days of their death under the con-
dition described, they did not rise to the surface of
the water to obtain air, which is the practice of most
fish when deprived of oxygen. The gill-openings of
bass are small, which may account for their being
able to support life so long upon a meagre amount of
oxygen. During their existence in stagnant water the
bass moved less actively, but otherwise there was no
indication of loss of vitality.

Another proof of their powers of endurance is forth-
coming in the following facts. I have noticed large
specimens of bass sicken for death eighteen days before
the event took place. An instance of this came before
me a short time since, upon the arrival of several of
these fish at South Kensington. Finding that
they abstained from food, I examined them carefully,
and by comparing their movements with other speci-
mens, I noticed they seemed very weak. Their motion
in the water was indefinite : they sometimes moped
in corners of the tank and did not disport themselves
upon the shingle at the bottom thereof, as their com-
geners do when in good health. At the end of the
first week they exhibited a tendency to change their
attitude in the water from horizontal to vertical, until
they rested upon their tail. This was a sure sign of
speedy death, but they lingered on, nevertheless,,
remaining stationary in the water, but on no occasion
partaking of food. I continued to watch them
closely for two weeks longer, thinking there might
be a possibility of their recovery, but my hopes were

62

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

not realised, one being found apparently in a lifeless
condition at the bottom of the tank one morning at
the end of the three weeks of its indisposition. On
examination, I found no signs of life in it, and as it
was required for the purpose of preservation in spirits,
I desired the attendant to place it in a dry receptacle
for six hours before operating upon it, in order to
preclude the possibility of the slightest particle of
animation being present. At the end of that time
the fish was removed, and having filled a glass jar
with spirits, I commenced to place the fish therein,
head foremost.

No sooner, however, did it come in contact with the
spirits than it revived and wriggled about violently in
the jar, insomuch that it upset the liquid. This incident
fully confirms the result of the experiment tried some
time since by Mr. W. Oldham Chambers, F.L.S., who
restored carp on the point of expiration by the means
of brandy. In the case before us we have a remarkable
evidence of the hardihood of fish, serving to show that,
although they may exhibit every sign of death upon
outward examination, there is still animation within
for some time after they grow stiff, which is capable of
revivification, by the potency of a stimulant. On this
account every effort ought to be made by anglers and
others to takesuddenand effective methods of depriving
them of animation, instead of allowing them tolinger in
the pains of death on being captured. The spark of life
that was accidentally kindled into a flame by means of
the spirits infused into the bass, must have indeed
been small, considering the length of time the fish
had been kept out of water.

In further support of my statement respecting the
hardihood of bass, I would mention that they are
capable of existing in water having a temperature of
300. This is noteworthy, as they disappear from view
in their natural state during the winter, retiring into
the deep water of warm locations. In the summer
they emerge from thence, and approach the mouths of
rivers where they usually deposit their ova. Aristotle,
who was doubtless a great authority on fish, mentions
that bass breed twice in one year ; this statement,
however, is not correct. Doubtless it was inspired by
the fact that bass sometimes yield their ova in two or
three instalments, which I have known them do
during a period covering two months. Again, con-
sidering the large number of ova extruded at one time,
it would seem impossible for them to repeat the
supply twice in a year ; besides they require a warm
temperature in which to spawn, therefore that they
could not breed in the winter as well as the summer.

It is to be regretted that the bass does not enter
more freely into our list of dietaries. Provided it is
quite fresh its quality is very good, but when three
days old its flavour becomes impaired, being extremely
oily. If, however, it was caught in larger numbers I
feel sure it would become popular as a food fish. In
the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans it was
highly esteemed as an article of food, and attracted

great attention in the writings of Aristotle, Ovid, and
Pliny, while in the mosaic group of fish disinterred at
Pompeii it is prominently depicted. One cause for
their scarcity in the market, is the difficulty that
exists in capturing them. There are few fish
more crafty than the bass, and few requiring more
elaborate fishing-engines or more skill in mani-
pulating them. Like the grey mullet, they can best be
taken by working the seine-net near the shore ; even
then they effect their escape in a most cunning man-
ner. They are evidently able to discern the presence
of the net and avoid it accordingly, judging by the
way which they dive beneath it to evade capture.
Bass, therefore, are not popular with fishermen, who
admit they are too wary for them, and cost more
trouble and expense in catching than they are
worth. Hence the paucity of the supply in the
market, and the glut in certain parts of the vasty deep.
For a marine game fish commend me to the bass,
which affords almost as much sport as its dusky
fluviatile congener of the United States. From rocks,
boats or pier-heads, they may be taken by the means
of rod and line, and I have, on various occasions,
witnessed them landed at flood tide by means of an
artificial dead or live bait.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

SNOW IN AUGUST— We had some curious
weather last year in England, but the meteoro-
logical bulletin of the Royal Observatory of Brussels
beats our record. On the 10th of August, at about
3.20 P.M., there was a fall of snow mixed with rain
at Turnhout, in Belgium, and on the 3rd and 4th
August there were white frosts at Maldegehm, in
Flanders. The same on 12th, in the south-east of
Belgium, There was a very severe frost on 7th July,
which did considerable damage to the crops over a
large area of country.

The Steering " Instinct." — The migration of
birds across the sea has suggested many specula-
tions, some of them rather wild. How do they
steer? Formerly there was no difficulty in solving
this or any other problem of the kind. They were
"guided by instinct." Instinct, like Mesopotamia,
was a " blessed word" among the old naturalists ; it
covered every difficulty. Subsequently " inherited
memory" was modestly suggested, and recently it
has become almost as blessed as instinct in settling
everything. In his day Jack Falstaff said, "instinct
is a great matter ; I was a coward upon instinct."
If he were living now he would say, " heredity is a
great matter ; I was a coward upon heredity."

I have already advocated a much simpler explana-
tion, viz. that the birds select narrow channels, and

HARD WICKE' S S CIENCE- G O SSI P.

63

having great powers of vision, and the means of
taking in a very large field of view, simply see the
sunward land on the other side, and fly towards it.
The difficulty here is merely a question of degree,
whether or not some of the channels actually crossed
are too wide for this. In " Nature," November 3rd,
of last year, is a letter from Mr. Warde Fowler,
describing the migration of swallows on the south
coast of England. This shows that they take long
journeys from west to east in search of a narrowing
part of the channel.

An officer of the German Navy, Captain Sebelier,
has recorded some facts that lessen this difficulty. The
islanders of the Marshall group in the North Pacific
Ocean make long voyages in their canoes towards
islets that are far beyond their vision-reach, and do
this without any astronomical aid. From twenty to
fifty canoes start together and keep within signal-
reach of each other, and thus a large extent of sea is
under survey. They advance until the islet is sighted
by one or the other of the canoes. When such is the
case, that one takes the lead, and the rest follow in
accordance with the signal.

That birds do signal each other is well established.
May not the migrating birds guide each other on this
principle ? The Marshall islanders rest at nightfall,
but the birds fly so rapidly that daylight is long
enough to serve them fully in covering the widest of
their transmarine journeys. Nevertheless they some-
times perish. I witnessed an example of this on the
coast of Greece, near Cape Matapan. Had sailed
from Malta in a small schooner in the spring, and
encountered a severe gale. A number of swallows
and martins settled in the rigging after the gale, and
were so exhausted that they made no attempt to
escape when we took them in our hands. They all
died in spite of our attempts to aid their recovery.
They appear to have been blown from their course
by the gale.

Caprices of Lightning. — We are told that an
electric discharge follows the line of least resistance,
and lightning conductors are placed accordingly to
entice the discharge to follow an easy and harmless
route. It does so usually, but not always. In the
"Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles " (No. 95), M. H. Dufour narrates some
remarkable exceptions. A storm coming from the
West passed over some gasworks and tall poplars
without any discharge, but wrecked a house lying
just below them on the leeward side. Again, at
Penthalaz, the spire of a church was spared, while a
house near to it was struck. It may be that in these
and similar cases the cause of the discharge was
nearer to the horizontal than to the vertical, not
from a cloud to the earth, or vice versd, but between
two beds of air or vapour lying at nearly the same
elevation. We may frequently see discharges taking
place between two clouds that are both at nearly the

same elevation, and it is therefore not improbable
that similar differences of potential may exist between
columns of air near the ground at times of violent
atmospheric disturbances.

The Raising of Egyptian Monoliths.— As
some of these reach a height of one hundred feet, and
weigh some hundreds of tons, the question of how
they were raised opens many speculations. One of
the most recent of these is by M. Arnaudeau, who
suggests that the obelisk being placed horizontally
with its base towards the pedestal, a circular water-
tight enclosure was raised equal in height to the
obelisk. Then blocks of wood or other floats were
fixed to the upper part of the obelisk and water was
let into the enclosure, whereupon the monolith rose
gradually to the upright position, and, being partly
sustained by the water, was easily handled for
adjustment on its intended base.

This reminds me of a contrivance attached to Lord
Rosse's great telescope at Parsonstown, with which I
was not acquainted until I saw it in operation, and
which may be equally new to most of my readers.
The speculum at the object end is of course very
massive, and demands a counterpoise. This is
obtained by hanging heavy weights from the eye end.
But the leverage at which these weights act neces-
sarily varies according to the inclination of the tele-
scope. When it is pointed nearly to the vertical this
leverage is very short, and it increases as the great
tube turns towards the horizontal. Therefore, in
this case, the counterpoising weight requires gradual
diminution. This is obtained by the aid of a deep
water-trough, into which the counterpoise weights
gradually dip as the eye end of the telescope descends,
and thus their weight is first partially sustained by
the water as they dip into it, and then fully sustained
when they rest on the bottom. One weight succeeds
another thus, and by skilful adjustment of this gradual
lightening, the balance of the great tube is maintained
at all inclinations.

Freezing Water-pipes. — "Nature" tells us
that the architect who designed the new Medical
School in Paris took so little pains about the distri-
bution of the water-pipes that in . very cold weather
the laboratories for physiology, bacteriology, experi-
mental pathology, &c, are wholly deprived of water.
It is by no means necessary to cross the Channel to
find examples of similar ignorance of the elementary
principles of science among architects and builders.
Now that there are so many empty houses in and
around London and other great towns, and the
competition for tenants is consequently very keen,
the remedy is in the hands of intending tenants. If
they firmly refuse to occupy any house the water-pipes
of which are imperfectly protected from exposure to
frost, and unprovided with the means of emptying
them when frost is threatened, a change will soon

64

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P.

come about. The expense, mischief, and annoyance
due to the bursting of water-pipes in a house is a
serious tax, and should therefore be appraised as a
heavy discount on the rental value of the house.

The Philosophy of Hair-curling. — According
to a contemporary, "it is not generally known that
the reason why hair curls when wound on a hot iron,
is that the moisture on the side next the iron being
evaporated by the heat, the cells in that part approach
each other more closely, and this shrinking of one
side causes the bend or curve." This explanation
affords presumptive evidence that the writer is a
young man, or at least young compared with myself.
He was not flourishing when I went to the dancing-
school, and under the mandate of imperative custom
had to go to the hair-dresser before presenting myself
at the "assembly-room." They did not enforce hair
curling on " breaking-up " day at his school as at the
"Academy for Young Gentlemen" where I was
taught to regard all books as instruments of torture,
and to hate them accordingly. Had he endured
such experience he would have known that each
particular hair was doubly or trebly twisted, and on
completion of the twisting a comb was inserted
between the curl and the scalp, and the hot tongs
held for some time with the twisted hair in position,
quite long enough for the heat to freely pass through
a hair's breadth. The force of the final twist which
I so painfully remember was a result of the operator's
belief, founded on much experience, that the whole
operation depended upon a certain degree of mere
mechanical rigidity of the material operated upon
which induced it to retain for a time any form into
which it was forcibly restrained and maintained while
hot. The recondite explanation above quoted does
not cover the action of cold curl papers.

The Mutability of Species. — In the Transac-
tions of the Manchester Microscopical Society of last
year is narrated (in the President's Address) an
interesting account of change of species. In the
neighbourhood of the Black Sea were a couple of
lakes separated by a dam. The larger and higher of
these contained 4 per cent, of salts, and in it Artcmia
salina were living there in great quantity. The
smaller and lower lake held in solution as much as
25 per cent, of salt and contained no artemioe.
The dam between the two lakes was accidentally
burst in 187 1, the lower lake was thereby greatly
increased in size, and its salinity reduced to about
S per cent. Many of the artemia; carried down
with it died and many survived. The lower lake
now began to evaporate, and the strength of the
solution to increase. In the summer of 1872 the
salinity had risen to 14 per cent., in the summer of
1873 to 18 per cent., in August 1874 to 23J per cent.,
and in September of the same year to 25 per cent.
A Russian naturalist, Schmankewitsch, fished out

and examined specimens of the artemia? at intervals
during the three years, and found that as the strength
of the solution increased, the artemise gradually lost
the specific characters of Artemia salina and acquired
those of Artemia Miilhauseni. The tail lobes gradually
became shorter, and the number of setse diminished,
until at the end of the third year all the artemiae were
converted into typical Artemia Mulhauseni. The
reverse experiment has been performed artificially.
By gradually diluting the water Artemia Mulhauseni
were reconverted into Artemia salina, and, by pushing
the dilution still further, not merely a specific, but a
generic change has been effected, the latter being
converted into the fresh-water genus Branchipus which
is of larger size and in many respects different.

I remember well when the immutability of species
was a sacred dogma, one of the articles of faith of
the orthodox naturalist. I had some warm debates
on the subject just after the publication of "The
Vestiges." If an instance like the above was brought
forward and could not be denied, the whole fabric
of previous specific definition was abandoned, and
the new species was described as a "variety." One
such instance which I remember was that of our
common wheat, which was shown to be derived from
another genus. Accordingly generic definition was
abandoned and specific differences bounded over in a
wide leap, the two genera were converted into mere
varieties. Thus the controversy became closed by
the verbal device of defining a species as that which
cannot be changed into another species, ergo species
are immutable.

What extraordinary change has since occurred
among naturalists ! They themselves are no longer
of the same species as formerly, and have even
changed their generic name to that of " biologists."
In contemplating this example of scientific evolution,
let us not lose sight of the moral it conveys. Let us
struggle to avoid all scientific dogmatism, and to fre-
ourselves from the fetters of mere fashion in science,
or what I have ventured, very impertinently, to
describe as " scientific millinery."

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

AT the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society,
held on the 13th of January, Father Perry
read a paper on the state of the solar surface during the
year 1887, and gave an account of observations which
he had made on 259 days at the Observatory of
Stonyhurst. The number of days he had been able
to observe the sun proved that the weather had been
exceedingly fine in that part of England.

From January to April, 1SS6, the solar surface was
free from sun-spots ; but at the beginning of May,

HA RD IVICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

65

Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at intervals of Seven Days in March.

Mercury 2 .'

D.

4
11
iS

25

Rises,
h. m.
6 15M
5 44M

5 23M
5 iom

Souths.

h. m.

O I A
II I3M
IO 42M
IO 27M

Sets,
h. m.

5 47A
4 42A

4 IA

3 44A

Venus $ . A

4
11
18

25

5 35M

5 29M
5 20M

5 I2M

IO SM
IO I2M
IO iS.M

10 24M

2 35A

2 55A

3 i6a
3 36a

Mars <? . J

4
11
18

25

9 45A
9 I5A
8 43A
8 6a

3 7M

2 39M

2 8m

1 34M

8 25M

7 5§m
7 28M
6 57M

Jupiter ¥. .]

4
11
18

25

1 13M

0 48M

0 21M

11 49A

5 27M
5 im
4 34M

4 2M

9 41 M

9 14M
8 47M
S 19M

Saturn I?. .]

4
11
iS
25

1 20A

0 51A

0 23A

11 54M

9 i8a

8 49A
8 21A
7 53A

5 20M

4 5iM
4 23M
3 56m

18S6 (which seemed at the time to mark the end of
minimum period), there was a sudden outbreak.

Since that date, however, there had been two
tranquil periods, one extending from September 22nd
to December 8th of 1S86, and another from January
to April, 1887. In December, 1887, the spot area
had been larger than in any month since May, 18S6.

Mr. E. J. Stone read a paper on observations of
the moon's place, made at the Radcliffe Observatory
in 1887. In this paper Mr. Stone showed that the
difference between the moon's observed and tabular
place now amounted to fifteen seconds and eight-
tenths. This difference is apparently due to a change
in the length of our day.

Mr. Bryant suggested that the opposition of the
small planet Sappho would afford an opportunity for
determining the solar parallax, by comparing photo-
graphs of the planet and the neighbouring stars taken
at different parts of the earth, or morning and evening
photographs of the stars taken at an equatorial ob-
servatory. The Astronomer Royal read a paper on
the spectroscopic observations of stars in the line of
sight. From a series of measurements of the position
of the F line in Sirius, he inferred that there was an
orbital motion of the star around some dark body in
its neighbourhood.

On March the 4th, Mars will be stationary at
2 hours after.

March 20th, the sun enters Aries, and Spring
commences at 4 hours morn.

In this month there will be no occultation of
interest.

In March Mercury is a morning star.

Venus is a morning star.

Mars is in Virgo and rises late in the evening.

Jupiter is nearly stationary in Scorpio near
Antares.

Saturn may be seen near the meridian from 8 hours
to 9 hours in the evening.

Meteorology. — At the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, the lowest reading of the barometer for the
week ending 14th January, was 30*26 in. at the
beginning of the week, and the highest 30*53 in. on
Tuesday morning. The mean temperature of the air
was 38*1 deg., and O'l deg. above the average. The
general direction of the wind was south-west and east.
Rain fell on Thursday to the amount of 0*02 of an
inch. The duration of registered bright sunshine in
the week was O'O hour, against 0*5 of an hour at
Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 21st January, the highest
reading of the barometer was 30-48 in., on Wednesday
evening, and the lowest, 29*68 in., at the end of the
week. The mean temperature of the air was 34*7
deg., and 4*1 deg. below the average. The general
direction of the wind was easterly, until Thursday
afternoon, after which it was south-westerly. Rain
fell on Saturday, to the amount of o*2i of an inch.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 2 "5 hours, against 12*3 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 28th January, the highest
reading of the barometer was 30*28 in. at noon on
Tuesday, and the lowest 29*66 in. on Thursday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was
407 deg., and 0*9 deg. above the average. The
general direction of the wind was north-westerly.
Rain fell on two days of the week, to the aggregate
amount of o*io of an inch. The duration of registered
bright sunshine in the week was 3*0 hours, against
17*6 hours at^Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 4th February, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*08 in. on Tuesday
afternoon, and the highest 30*15 in. at the end of the
week. The mean temperature of the air was 33*7
deg., and 6*8 deg. below the average. The direction
of the wind was variable. Rain or melted snow was
measured on three days of the week, to the aggregate
amount of 0*17 of an inch. The duration of registered
bright sunshine in the week was in hours, against
12*6 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending February nth, the highest
reading of the barometer was 30*15 in. at the begin-
ning, and the lowest 29*26 in. at the end of the week.
The mean temperature of the air was 43*6 deg., and
3 *8 deg. above the average. The general direction of
the wind was westerly. Rain fell on four days of the
week, to the aggregate amount of 0*26 of an inch.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the week
was 1*8 hours, against 5*5 hours at Glynde Place,
Lewes. The continued deficiency of rain is becoming
most serious.

66

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

In March the isotherms run across England in a
North-Westerly direction. The mean average tem-
perature for the month at Devonport and Plymouth
is 450. From Swansea to Dorchester it is 44°. On
a line drawn through Birkenhead, Warwick, Oxford,
London and Deal it is 430, while at Lancaster,
Burnley, Sheffield, Lincoln and Norwich it is 420.

The average rainfall in March, for the greater part
of the South Coast, varies between one and two inches.
On the East Coast it is only one inch, while on the
South-West and West coast it varies between two
and three inches.

PAPERS ON DRAGON-FLIES.

The Metamorphoses of the Odonata.

By W. Harcourt Bath, Author of "A Synopsis
of the British Odonata" etc.

Chapter I. — Introduction.

THERE is probably no group or section of
insects whose true position has given entomo-
logists more trouble to ascertain than the Odonata or
dragon-flies.

Under the old Linnean system of classification,
insects are arranged according to some structural
resemblance which they bear to one another in
common, thus the character of the wings represents
the principal factor. This method, though it un-
doubtedly holds good in the majority of cases, fails
entirely to assign a proper arrangement of that
composite order known as the Neuroptera or nerve-
winged insects.

Now the majority of the Neuroptera, it will be
admitted by all, resemble one another, so far as the
structure of their wings is concerned, but a criterion
of far greater importance is presented in the fact that
while two large sections of the order, namely, the
Planipennia (or true Neuroptera) and the Trichoptera
(or Caddis flies) possess complete or perfect metamor-
phoses, another large group, known as the Pseudo-
neuroptera (which includes the dragon-flies, day-flies,
stone-flies, and their allies), possesses incomplete or
imperfect metamorphoses.

This vast distinction just pointed_out applied to our
present knowledge of the laws of evolution, ought to
be sufficient to separate the two first-mentioned
groups from the last one by a wide chasm, without
any reference whatever to structural affinities or
superficial resemblances.

In order, however, to expel (as it were) the
Unionist party from its only stronghold, a very
powerful structural separatist doctrine has com-
paratively recently been promulgated by several
eminent entomologists (the Home Rule Party?) to
the effect that the formation of the mouth * in the

Pseudo-neuroptera, together with the very general
presence of pointed styles or filaments at the ex-
tremity of the abdomen,* bears a remarkable ana-
logical resemblance to the Orthoptera.

This, considered in conjunction with the much
more important fact, that the metamorphoses of the
Pseudo-neuroptera are similar to those of the
Orthoptera, effectually precludes the practicability of
the former ever again forming a natural alliance with
the Neuroptera.

These considerations have even induced some
modern writers f to unite the Pseudo-neuroptera with
the Orthoptera— promoting the former group to the
rank of a sub-order. Still more recently other writers
have again reverted to the former system, but they
offer no substantial reasons for the lines which they
have adopted. + Thus the Pseudo-neuroptera have
been enacting the typical bat in the amusing fable
of the battle between the beasts and the birds.

With the whole facts of the case now displayed
before us, it is not difficult for any one to determine
the true position of the Pseudo-neuroptera. They
may, without any hesitation, be proclaimed to be
connecting links between the Neuroptera and the
Orthoptera, for while they cannot be attached to
either group, by reason that they partake to a certain
extent of the structural characters of both, their
metamorphoses, which resemble those of the Orthop-
tera, point to their being more closely.connected with
the latter order.

But, except in so far as is consistent with the object
in view, it is not my intention to give an exposition
of the biological position of the Odonata. I have
written this and the succeeding papers to give a brief
but clear outline of their metamorphoses, in order to
act as a stimulus for further observation and inves-
tigation on their behalf, for hitherto comparatively
very little has been recorded in connection with
dragon-flies.

It will perhaps be necessary for me, in the first
instance, to give some of the most important struc-
tural characteristics by which the insects under our
consideration may be readily distinguished from
allied groups of the Pseudo-neuroptera.

The imago possesses a large head, which is armed
with a powerful and complicated mouth. It has a
pair of very large compound eyes (which are con-
tiguous in some groups and remote in others), con-
sisting of a great number of lenses or facets. And
in addition there are three simple eyes, called Ocelli
or stemmata, which are situated on the crown of the
head, and arranged either in a straight line or in the
shape of a triangle. The antennre are awl-shaped.

* See Brulle, M. Aug, "On the Mouth of Libellulida:," in
' Annates de la Societe" Entomologique de France." Paris, 1854.

* See Westwood, J. O., " An Introduction to the Modern
Classification of Insects," 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1840. Libellu-

Ut See Dales', Vs., « Cassell's Natural History," 6 vols.,
8vo. London, 1882. Odonata, vol. vi. pp. 143-146. „

t SeeKirby, W. F., " Elementary lext Book of Entomology.
8vo. London, 1885. Odonat.., pp. £8-91.

HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

67

The thorax is generally stout, and the abdomen
comparatively long, being extremely slender in
certain families. At the apex of the latter are situated
two pairs of forcipated, or leaf-shaped appendages,
varying considerably in form in the different species
and also to a less degree in the sexes.

The wings are elegantly veined or reticulated, and
both fore and hind pairs are equal in size. In repose
they either rest horizontal or erect, the posterior pair
never being folded.*

The metamorphoses of the Odonata, as has been
previously mentioned, are incomplete or imperfect ;
that is, the larva differs very slightly in structure from
the imago or perfect insect, and the pupa is lively
with the exception of a very brief period previous to
undergoing the final stage.

Dragon-flies are amphibious creatures, in all the
earlier stages of their existence they reside in the
water of streams, ponds, and lakes. No species has
hitherto been discovered to inhabit salt water, though
certain kinds have been found in brackish water, f a
very important fact indeed, since it may prove
eventually to be a valuable clue towards a solution of
the origin of the Odonata and likewise to the elucida-
tion of their evolution. One of the most wonderful
facts in connection with the economy of these highly
specialised insects is their mode of breathing in the
water, which is not (in the Libellulina) by means of
branchiae as is the case with many other aquatic
insects, but is internal — but we will reserve the
discussion of this for another chapter. In the next,
we will commence to consider the metamorphoses of
the Odonata in detail.

{To be continued.)

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

" My Telescope " is the title of a little astronomi-
cal work by "A Quekett Club-Man," whose kindred
volumes on the microscope have been so successful.
It will be published in a few days by Messrs. Roper
& Drowley.

Silk -worm Cocoons. — It would be interesting to
know whether the brown silk, exhibited by Mr. E. B.
Poulton and recorded on page 21, is liable to become
the usual bright yellow on exposure to light for a long
period.—^. C.D.B.

Death has been very busy lately in the ranks of the
foremost scientific men of all countries. Many names
will henceforth be removed from the lists of living,
to those of historic, celebrities. Among them are the

* For further and more complete particulars of structural
characteristics, see Westwood, J. O., "An Introduction to the
Modern Classification of Insects," 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1840.
Libellulida^, vol. ii. pp. 34_4°-

f See Kingsley, John Sterling, "The Standard Natural
History," 4 8vo. Boston, 1884. Odonata, vol. ii. p. 147 (Uhlers
quoted).

following : — Prof. Hayden, late director of the U. S.
Geological Survey, at the comparatively early age of
fifty-eight ; Dr. Asa Gray, the distinguished American
botanist, at the riper age of seventy-seven ; Mr.
Waterhouse, late keeper of the Geological Department
of the British Museum, in his seventy-eighth year ;
Professor De Bary, the celebrated botanist and fungo-
logist, at the age of fifty-seven j and others of less
note.

Dr. G. J. Romanes has been elected to the Chair
of Fullerian Professor at the Royal Institution, and
intends occupying the whole of his three years of
office delivering lectures on " Before and After
Darwin."

Mr. J. E. Harting has been appointed Assistant
Secretary to the Linnean Society in place of Dr.
Murie.

There is nothing new under the sun ! The other
day there was dug up among other long-buried curios
at Pompeii, a case containing a complete set of
surgical instruments, many of which are said to be
closely similar to those used at the present day.
The medical art is evidently both very ancient and
very conservative.

It was the last French war which originated the
beet-sugar manufacture in France. The sugar-loving
Frenchmen could not get it from the West Indies.
Within a very short period a sugar beet was
artificially selected, and in our time this beet has so
developed its saccharine qualities that it produces
nearly twice as much sugar as it did in Napoleon's
time. But the Germans also took up beet-sugar
manufacture, and they have beaten the French even
on this field of war. Thanks to their improved
methods of extracting the sugar and molasses from
the beet-root, they can now obtain nearly n|lb. from
100-lb. weight of beet, so that the cost of the sugar is
now reduced to id. per lb.

A well-KNOWN New York physician has just
published the sort of discovery which Lord Lytton
would have made a novel out of. An aged Polish
count, formerly professor of languages and a famous
Oriental scholar, died in the hospital, and Dr.
Rookwood had occasion, in conjunction with other
experts, to make a microscopical examination of a
certain part of the cerebrum. They noticed a
peculiar set of markings, which took the form of
Egyptian and Chinese hieroglyphics. These were
amplified to a magnitude of 3000 diameters, and
the results shown to another Oriental scholar, who
declared them to be true characters in the Ethiopic,
Syriac, and Egyptian languages. Dr. Rookwood
suggests that his discovery will lead to extracting
from the dead their literary achievements as well as
their "suppressed opinions."

68

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

The International Geological Congress of all the
nations employing geological surveys is fixed to meet
in London on September 17th of the present year,
under the presidency of Professor Huxley. This
congress assembles in a different country every three
years. This will be the first time it has met in
England.

A NOVEL and important invention for the manu-
facture of copper-tubing has just been made by
Mr. W. Elmore. He slowly deposits the copper by
electrolytic action in a bath upon an iron mandril,
which is kept rotating there. The copper is de-
posited in thin films, and as it is thrown down it is
compressed by an agate burnisher into a hard and
solid mass, of such great tensile strength that it has
sustained a breaking strain of forty tons to the square
inch.

An American inventor, Mr. A. P. Wade, has
brought out a combined potato-digging and harvest-
ing machine, which not only ploughs the potatoes
out of the ground, but also separates them from soil
and dirt, and either transfers them to a waggon or
arranges them in rows, as may be desired.

Hitherto it has been laid down by physicists
that the dull red rays of light are the first luminous
rays to appear, but Mr. Weber has just shown that
the filaments of solid carbon, gold, iron, and platinum
give a grey glow first, and at a temperature below
that of "red heat."

Some very suggestive and important experiments
to chemists have been made by Professor Meyer, of
Gottingen, on the ultimate atoms of carbon. He
thinks that the atoms of carbon are spheres, each
surrounded by an "ether shell," which latter forms
the seat of its well-known four-coupling (quadri-
valency) power. He imagines the "four-coupling"
powers have some electric centres of connection,
which he calls " electrules."

Our knowledge of the sun is increasing, thanks to
the new spectroscopes. Tire latest bit of scientific
information thus afforded is that platinum is a solar
element.

Mr. W. E. Case has recently read a paper before
the American Institute of Electric Engineers which
is causing much attention. It is on the possibility of
obtaining energy from carbon by electrical means
without heat.

Botanical Evercirculator about to be started.
Members wanted. No charge. Address J. Hamson,
editor, 19 Victoria Road, Bedford.

The members of the Woolhope Naturalists' Club
have contributed to the materials collected and
arranged by the late Dr. Bull, of Hereford, on the
birds of that district. The " Birds of Herefordshire "
is therefore announced, price 5.?.

The Natural History Society of Glasgow appears
to have recently taken out a new lease of vigorous
life, judging by the quality and character of the
papers read.

A Canadian naturalist says that the bee's sting is
by no means used for stinging only, but is utilised in
doing all manner of artistic work, in capping the
comb, and infusing formic acid, by means of which
honey receives its keeping properties. The sting is
in reality an exquisitely finished tiny trowel, with
which the bee rounds and caps the cells when they
are brimful of honey. This explains why honey
extracted before it is capped over does not keep
well ; the formic acid has not been injected into it.

We are sorry to have to record the death of the
well-known botanist, Dr. J. T. I. Boswell (an old
and valued contributor to SciENCE-Gossir). He is
best known to many people as the editor of
" Sowerby's Botany," to which he devoted twenty
years of his life.

The annual meeting of the Geological Society
awarded medals as follows, for distinguished services
in this special science : H. B. Medlicott, the
"Wollaston"; Professor Newberry (New York),
the " Murchison," and Professor H. AUeyn Nicholson
(the well-known author) the " Lyell."

During December and January Dr. J. E. Taylor
delivered popular science lectures on geological,
zoological, botanical and other subjects, to large
audiences in various parts of the country, at
Leigh ton Buzzard, Ipswich Museum, Wolver-
hampton Literary and Scientific Society, Hadleigh,
Southwold, Windsor, Lowestoft, Manningtree,
Chelmsford Museum, etc.

MICROSCOPY.

Notholca SCAPHA. — I may perhaps be allowed
to mention that I found these species in some abund-
ance in this neighbourhood in October last. For
some time after I met with it I did not know that it
had ever been found in fresh water ; and this fact,
together with the long oval shape described by Mr.
Lord, led me to doubt whether I had not had the
good fortune to light upon a new species. After a
time, however, I found that a dead specimen closely
resembled Mr. Gosse's second figure of N. scapha in
" The Rotifera." Till then I had thought my speci-
mens might belong to a species intermediate between
A7", scapha and N. thalassia (not thallasia, as mis-
printed in Mr. Lord's article). I sent some of the
water in which the Notholca occurred to Mr. Gosse.
In the first bottle sent he did not find any specimens
of Notholca, thougli he did find an undescribed
Furcularia, which was very numerous ; but in the

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

69

second bottle he found " a vigorous specimen," of
which he told me that he had had " capital protracted
observation." He then mentioned to me that Mr.
Lord had sent him specimens last May which were
indistinguishable from JV. scapha ; and he considered
my species also to be the same. The general aspect
of my specimens certainly agreed better with Mr.
Lord's figures than with Mr. Gosse's ; but I do not
understand Mr. Lord's suggestion, that N. scapha
might have been named from a dead specimen ;
surely it is clear that Mr. Gosse's first figure was
drawn from life. I did not find that the broad out-
line was constant in dead specimens, and on the other
hand I did find that the breadth of living examples
varied considerably. The length, both absolute and
relative, of the occipital spines also varies. I saw
one specimen in which they were all unequal ; that is
to say, they were not arranged in pairs, but each spine
differed perceptibly in length from all the others. Most
of my specimens came from a puddle at the foot of a
coal heap, near a disused colliery. This puddle con-
taineda number of lobster-pots, sardine-boxes, and old
boots, and other refuse of the same kind. A quantity of
floccose vegetation floated on the top ; and in the
little heaps formed by this weed the Notholca found
its food, which consisted chiefly, I think, of small
diatoms. The action of the jaws in a healthy speci-
men is remarkably energetic. My experience un-
fortunately agrees with Mr. Lord's as to the short
life of the species in captivity. It is curious that on
the nineteenth of September last I found what I
believe to be the same species in a 'shallow and rather
muddy stream near here. I then found only two
specimens, and have not been able to find any there
since. My only reason for doubting the identity of
this species is that I sometimes thought I saw a short,
slender spine projecting from one side. But this
spine, if it existed, was very much shorter than in
Mr. Hood"s figure of N. spinifera ; and I never saw
more than one spine at a time. The animals were
too restless for satisfactory examination. — J. W.
Blagg, Greenhill, Cheadlc, Staffordshire.

Mounting Perishable Crystals Sections. —
A mounting medium should be transparent and
colourless, if possible, of an index of refraction having
reference to the subject treated, and free from mois-
ture. It must not be a solvent of the matters that it
is employed to preserve. As media of this kind
especially worthy of attention for mounting perishable
crystals, or such as lose their polish or become opaque
in Canada balsam, as well as in the air, Professor
Johnstone of Johns Hopkins University, recommends
the following: — (1) Finest gum copal dissolved in
chemically pure absolute alcohol ; (2) Finest copal dis-
solved in chemically pure absolute alcohol ; (3) Dam-
mar resin dissolved in rectified spirits of turpentine.
No heat should be used in making these solutions,
and the resultant liquid should be very thick ; (4)

Dammar resin dissolved in well-boiled balsam
copaiba ; (5) Boiled Chian turpentine dissolved in
boiled balsam copaiba ; (6) Dammar resin boiled until
the rising scum becomes nearly dissipated, the remain-
ing scum to be removed with a spoon.

Section-Cutting.— The application of the terms
"hard " and "soft" paraffin, as employed by W. B. H.,
is likely to be a little misleading, especially as the
majority of microtomists are familiar with medical
literature. The term " soft paraffin," or Paraffinum
molle, is technically and officially applied in the
"British Pharmacopoeia," and consequently in all
works of Materia Medica, to a paraffin of a far
lower melting-point than that so designated by your
correspondent. It is the body popularly known as
Vaseline. A paraffin imbedding wax of any desired
melting-point below that of hard paraffin could
readily be prepared, by melting together varying
proportions of the official " Paraffinum durum " and
" Paraffinum molle." These could readily be obtained
from any pharmacist. — J. Oldham Braithivaite.

Pond Dredging and Collecting. — In reply
to your correspondent's query in the Science-Gossip
for February [p. 45] as to the net to be used in
collecting Rotifera, &c, I should advise him not to
use a net at all. The best appliance with which I
am acquainted is made by fastening a wide-mouthed
glass bottle (such as a pomatum pot) to the end of a
walking-stick, by means of a stout copper wire,
which should be tightly whipped with strong thread
and varnished. For more delicate work or for
use in ponds, &c, comparatively free from weeds,
a large sized test-tube might be substituted for the
bottle and should be fastened to a short thin length
of bamboo as follows : — Take a six-inch length of
caoutchouc tubing, and make a cross cut three-
quarters through, at about an inch from one end :
then another at right angles to the first along the
other five inches : the result is a short piece of tube
with a five-inch slip of gutta-percha. The tube is
slipped over the end of the rod, and the free end of
the flap is pushed between the rod and the tubing,
the test tube placed in the loop so formed and the slip
drawn tight and fastened off. — Jno. Eyre.

ZOOLOGY.

The Lesser White-Fronted Goose {Anser
erythropas, Linn.). — A goose identified as one of this
species, and apparently a wild one, was shot near
this town in January last. This bird not having been
admitted into the British list, the capture is an
interesting one, and I shall be pleased to give further
information on the subject to any one who will apply
tome. — W. Gyngell, Wellington, Somerset.

7o

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Yellow (or Ray's Wagtail). — S. M. T. in
Science-Gossip for January does not give the date
when he observed Ray's wagtails on his lawn. If
by "last month" he means November, it is possible
they may have been grey wagtails (Motacilla flavd)
and not the yellow species {M. rail). The latter is a
migratory bird, and generally leaves us in autumn,
whilst the former remains with us all the winter. I
generally see a pair of grey wagtails at Christmas in
Somersetshire (about thirty miles from Weymouth),
beside the little stream running through my brother's
farmyard. They are usually to be seen in the yard,
or at the drinking place for cattle in the adjoining
field. In the winter plumage the breast and under-
pays are a beautiful lemon-yellow merging into white
at the throat. In the summer plumage the male has
a conspicuous black throat, which it entirely loses in
winter. On the other hand, I must say that the
yellow wagtail is also a common bird in the same
district. This last summer one of my friends saved
me two nests which his men cut out of a vetch field,
and in the autumn they are exceedingly numerous
and tame, running about quite unconcernedly among
the sheep whilst the shepherd is pitching out the fold.
The yellow wagtail too has been observed by Dixon
to remain with us occasionally all through the winter,
and the fact of its being seen on a lawn is more in
accordance with its habits than with those of the
grey wagtail. There is a striking difference in the
species in the length of tail, that of the latter being
from three-quarters of an inch to an inch longer than
the former. As the lawn would probably not be
"newly mown " after the month of October, I think
it most likely that the ten birds observed by S. M. T.
were a party consisting of two broods from the same
parents making their way down to the sea preparatory
to migration. — Robert H. Read.

BOTANY.

Carex FRIGIDA, All. — Dr. Macfarlane has kindly
sent me for examination, the original specimens
gathered by Mr. Sadler in Glen Callater, and along
with them a sheet from Wight's collection, with two
specimens of undoubted C. frigida on it — from
" Clova Mountains ex herb. W. H. Campbell " —
doubtfully named C. binervis, Sm., but either Dr.
Greville or Professor Graham has written "I doubt
this." Both Mr. C. B. Clarke and Mr. N. E.
Browne consider these specimens C. frigida of
Allioni.— A. Bennett.

A Green Rose. — Last summer I came across a
curious rose, a brief description of which may interest
some of the many readers of your magazine. My
attention was drawn to this flower, owing to its petals,
as it then appeared, being unusually green, but it
soon turned out that these seemingly green petals

were the sepals of another and internal flower, which
stood after its pedicel had fully developed, about one
inch and a half above the lower flower. This lower
flower seemed to be quite sterile, for its stamens bore
no anthers, and they were unusually long and slender,
and they very soon withered away, but the higher
flower proved to be a good and healthy one, and
seems to have made good the failures of its lower
mate. — G. Rees.

GEOLOGY, &c.

A Relic of the Ages. — Discovery of Fossils.
— An extraordinary discovery of fossils has just been
made at Ilford. Some workmen who were at work
extracting clay in the Cauliflower Brickfields came
upon the bones of some large animal. When found,
the bones of the head were almost perfect, and
measured about seven feet round. The fossils were
firmly imbedded in the clay, resting on a bed of
sand, and from their appearance would lead one to
suppose that the animal — presumably an elephant —
had fallen head foremost to the earth and never again
moved. The property has been used as a brickfield
for about seven years, it having during that time been
excavated to a great extent. Bones of animals have fre-
quently been found, but a find of such an enormous
relic of bygone ages is an unprecedented event.

A New British Fossil Carnivore. — A curious
little object, a small fragment of jaw with three molar
teeth, was the subject of much interest at the last
meeting of the Geological Society. It was found in
the Red Crag of Suffolk, and Professor Boyd Dawkins
has christened it Ailurus Anglicus. The singular
thing is that the family of raccoons is Indian, and
previously the remains of a fossil Asiatic gazelle had
been found in the same deposit, showing a former
terrestrial connection with India. Did the raccoons
get to India from England, or did they come from the
former country to these latitudes ?

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Yews. — Of ancient yews many authentic cases
can be named. At Ankerwyke House, near Staines,
there is, or was, a yew older than the Magna Carta
itself, i.e. over 670 years old. This tree is stated to
measure at three fiet from the ground 9 ft. 3 in. in
diameter, and its branches overshadow a circle of
207 ft. in circumference. At Fountains Abbey, in
Yorkshire, there are some yews probably more than
1200 years old, and to others an age from 2500 to 3000
years has been assigned. The baobab tree of Africa
is estimated by Adanson at 5000 years, and the
deciduous cypresses of Chapultepec, in Mexico, are
considered to be even older. But it must be borne in
mind that, although in temperate climates trees shed
their leaves and renew them once a year, and
therefore one layer only is formed, whereas in

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

7i

tropical climates, where many kinds of trees have two
or three successions of leaves in a year, a correspond-
ing number of layers will be formed. The method
of ascertaining the age of an exogenous tree by
counting the number of concentric rings visible would
be absolutely correct, if one could be quite sure that
observers provided against all possible causes of error.
But it has been shown by Dr. Lindley that, in con-
sequence of the extreme inequality in thickness of
the annular layers of wood on the opposite sides of a
stem, a person who judged of the whole age of a
tree by the examination of the layers of the stunted
side only would commit errors to the amount of 60
per cent, or more. — F. C. D. B.

Castor. — I think Mr. Ingersoll has made a slip of
the pen (or else there has been a printer's error in the
brackets), in calling the secretion of the male of the
musk deer, "castor ; " and there has been a further
oversight in assigning to that animal a habitat in
Africa. Castor is the secretion of the ano-preputial
glands of the beaver {Castor fiber) of Europe, Asia,
and America, the American being the least esteemed.
If your contributor is referring to musk, that is the
secretion of the preputial glands of the musk deer
(Mosc/n/s moschifenis) of Central Asia. There is
a musky secretion from the inguinal follicles of certain
African antelopes, but this is not used as a drug.
Antelopes of South Africa, Abyssinia, Nubia, Tripoli,
Morocco and Senegal are known to emit this musky
or sub-musky odour. — Viator.

Croaking of Frogs. — Having kept tree-frogs
myself, I was much interested in the note by M. R.
in the February issue of Science-Gossip. My frogs
were kept in an old aquarium specially fitted up for
their requirements ; on no occasion, however, did I
hear my pets croak, and they never entered water
voluntarily. As they came from Germany, however,
no doubt they partook somewhat of the phlegmatic
seriousness of the proverbial German. I should
much like to possess specimens of the species M. R.
refers to, and would be exceedingly obliged if that
gentleman would kindly inform me where, and from
whom, they may be obtained. I always have under-
stood that tree-frogs passed the winter in a torpid
state, buried in the mud at the bottom of stagnant
pools ; and also, that they deposited their eggs
therein previously to leaving the water. My frogs
were quite as voracious as those possessed by M. R.,
and would take prodigious leaps after their prey and
alight upon it with unerring accuracy. My pets,
however, never attained to a greater size than an
inch in length, two of them were green and two
brown, and they never changed their colour, only
appearing a little brighter after a cast of skin. I had
an old frog once who used to croak dreadfully, he
lived in a conservatory adjoining the house, and his
croaking could be heard quite plainly in the house.
He never croaked, however, unless he could find a
pan of water to sit in, but so surely as water was left
about on the floor he would get into it, and laying his
throat quite flat on the surface of the water would
give forth such a series of croakings and gurglings as
made one's blood run cold. — W. Finch, jun., 158
Arkivright Street, Nottingham.

Ornithological Voracity. — It is not at all un-
usual for birds to be suffocated whilst endeavouring
to gorge food too large for them (Science-
Gossip, p. 43). Quite recently I saw an account
in a sporting paper of a heron which had choked
itself in an endeavour to swallow a trout over 2 lbs.
in weight. Mention was also made a short time
since in the " Field " newspaper of a young pheasant

being choked by swallowing a mouse. I once
dissected a young heron, in whose stomach I found
a very large water-rat, which occupied the whole of
the bird's stomach, so that its long tail remained in
the throat of the bird. How so young a bird had
managed to swallow such an enormous bolus was
truly a mystery.— IF. Finch, jun., Nottingham.

NOTICES TQ~CQRRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers.— As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists.— We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others.— We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of out gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

J. J. Wolfe.— Get Dr. Cooke's "Ponds and Ditches,"
published by S. P. C. K., price vs. 6d. ; also "A Thousand
Objects for the Microscope" (with illustrations), by same
author, price is. (Warne) ; also Rev. J. G. Wood's little book
on " Microscopic Objects." Newman's " British Butterflies and
Moths" contains capital figures of every species. You can
now get a decent student's microscope for about ,£3 10s.

Amator Natur/E. — A correspondent remarks that the
insects described with this subscription are the females of the
black ant.

R. C. C. — Dissolve a little of the best loaf sugar to saturation
in a little hot distilled water. Place a little on a glass slide
and gently heat the latter until the water is evaporated. The
sugar-crystals will remain behind on the slide. Flowers are
fertilised by minute insects getting inside when the myriads of
minute male and female flowers are collected together.

A. Ross.— The "Dutch Rush" to which Mr. M. Williams
alluded is a species of Equisetum, perhaps E. hyeniale, which
goes by the name of the "Scouring Rush."

J. Taylor. — We are sorry that the limits of space make it
impossible to admit your lists.

E. R. Fairleigh. — Coloured plates are not now issued with
the monthly parts of our Magazine. They ceased to be issued
at the end of 1885.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, pitchstone from Arran. Will give in exchange
rocks or fossils or coal-plant sections.— James Spencer, 8 Salis-
bury Place, Halifax.

Wanted, fossil wood from all formations. Will give in
exchange good transparent sections of coal-plants and spores. —
James Spencer, 8 Salisbury Place, Halifax.

For exchange : — " Popular British Entomology," " Student's
List of British Coleoptera," by Pascoe, new 1882; also " Dog
Fiend" and " Privateersman " (Marryat) ; "Saucy Arethusa"
(Chamier) ; "Sylvester Sound;" "The Count of Monte
Cristo" (Alexandre Dumas) ; "Windsor Castle" (Ainsworth) ;
"Young England" for 1886 (unbound), in good condition.
Wanted, natural history objects of all kinds. Send lists. —
E. O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

" Practical Histology," by Dr. Thiu (see " Hogg on the
Micro, "p. 224, nth ed.), in exchange for slides of an interesting
description. — Chas. Woods, 55I King Street, Jersey.

Anatomical slides (36), in exchange for others less scien-
tific.— W. Woods, Red House, Wheatley, Oxon.

What offers for Muspratt's " Chemistry as Applied and Re-
lating to the Arts and Manufactures," parts 7-1 1, 14-21, 23-44,
thirty-five parts in all ?— A. E. Fasnacht, Clayton, Manchester.

For exchange, a perfectly new and unsoiled copy of J. G.
Romaue's work on "Jelly-fish, Star-fish, and Sea-urchins,"
for a copy of White's " Natural History of Selborne," or a few
good fossils or foreign shells.— E. White, 3 Pixholm Grove,
Dorking.

Wanted, Tyndall's Belfast Address to the British Associa-
tion : also Darwin's " Variations of Animals and Plants,"
"Origin of Species." Cash or exchange (state desiderata). —
Mark L. Sykes, New Lane, Winton, near Manchester.

Wanted, Dana's "Mineralogy" (edition 1887), also a book
on the geology and mineralogy of the United States. — Thomas
W. Reader, 171 Hemingford Road, London, N.

Science-Gossip, back numbers for 14 years, in exchange for
books on Botany. — John Bracewell, 178 Jubilee Terrace,
Accrington.

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P.

American Lepidoptera pups in exchange — Cecropia, Atta-
cus, &c, also five bred specimens of Cecropia. Wanted,
English or other Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, &c. — Mark L. Sykes,
New Lane, Wyiton, near Manchester,
k Wanted, foraminiferous material in any quantity, British or

foreign, fossil or recent, in exchange for named forams or
marine specimens in any branch ; state requirements. — Edward
Halkyard, 2 Peel Villas, Cleveland Road, Jersey.

What offers for Turner's " Elements of Chemistry," and
Spencer and Kirby'e "European Butterflies and Moths"? —

A. W. Fry, 12 Winchester Street, Oreston, Brighton.

" British Beetles," by E. C. Rye, with 16 coloured plates ;
also "Manual of British Coleoptera," by J. F. Stephens,
F.L.S., pub. at 14s. 6d. Offers requested in foreign marine
shells. — W. J. Jones, jun., 27 May ton Street, Ho'.loway,
London, N.

Wanted, named and localised Diatomacese and Foraminifera.
Will give good exchange in mounted Algae, Polyzoa, and
Hydrozoa. — Geo. Merritt, 282 Commercial Road, London, E.

Dragon-flies wanted from all parts of the world for figuring ;
good exchange given. — W. Harcourt Bath, Birmingham.

Wanted, to correspond with all interested in the Isopoda
(wood lice) and Myriapoda, with view to working up the two
groups. — W. Harcourt Bath, Birmingham.

Wanted, Echinodermata and stalk-eyed Crustacea ; natural
history books and Lepidoptera given in exchange. — W. Har-
court West, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Exchange wanted. Science-Gossip from Jan. 1S83 to July
1883, also Oct. 1883.— Mrs. Bishop, The Platts, Watford.

Micro slides (good selection) and carboniferous fossils, also
some fine specimens of columnar coal, in exchange for rocks,
minerals and crystals (almost any). — Robt. Pettigrew, jun.,
06 Flowerhill Street, Airdrie, N.B.

Wanted, second-hand copy of Newman's "Butterflies and
Moths." — R. B. Postans, 14 Enys Road, Eastbourne.

Foreign shells exchanged for others not in collection.—
J. T. T. Reed, Ryhope, Sunderland.

Wanted, a good recent Manual of Geology (Lyell's
"Student's" preferred), in exchange for Cassell's "European
Ferns," 4to. ; the thirty numbers complete, coloured plates,
early impressions. — R. McCully, Albert Cottage, Winchester
Road, Romsey, Hants.

Offered, Science-Gossip: 7 parts for 1879, " parts for
1880 (March part wanting), 1881-83 complete. Wanted, Horace

B. Woodward's " Geology of England and Wales," 2nd ed. —
I. Smith, Monkridden, Kilwinning.

Planorbis glaber for other land and freshwater, also foreign
or marine shells.— John Clegg, 54 Canning Street, Burnley.

Wanted, good imbedding microtome, freezing microtome,
micrographic Dic:ionary. — W. D. Stewart, 2 Gilmore Terrace,
Edinburgh.

Photo-micrographic lantern slides, section spine of Echino-
metra hcteropora, cirrhi of barnacle, glass larva, Leptodora
hyalina (male and female), chara in fructification, series of
marine alga? with reproductive organs, new series whole and
part insects, diatoms, &c. Will exchange for equal numbers
first-class micro slides. Lists exchanged.' — W. D. Stewart,
2 Gilmore Terrace, Edinburgh.

Wanted, eggs of foreign birds in exchange for British. —
W. Gyngell, Wellington, Somerset.

I should be glad to correspond with students of lichens,
with a view to mutual assistance and interchange of specimens.
— William Smith, Ormiston Lodge, Arbroath, N.B.

The following micro- slides mounted by Watson & Sons: —
Group diatoms, Actinocyclus Ralfsii; ;anchors and plates of
Synapta (arranged) ; spicules of Gorgonia, Holothurea, &c.
(very pretty) ; Polycistina from Cambridge Estate, Barbadoes,
stained, opaque (very beautiful) ; a lovely slide of insects'
scales, hairs, &c, arranged as flowers and butterfly, composed
of 104 pieces (opaque) ; Polycistina, single Astromma aris-
iotclis, perfect specimen (opaque) ; foraminifera from Adriatic
Sea (transparent) ; selenite (blue and yellow).— Wanted in
exchange, original Jubilee sixpences; those having any for
disposal, please communicate with — M., c.o. Mrs. McMillan,
10 Queen Mary Avenue, Crosshill, Glasgow.

For exchange, three slides of spread diatoms, mounted by

C. L. Peticolas, Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A., from the follow-
ing localities : — Richmond, Virginia, Artesian Well, Cambridge,
U.S.A., and Puget's Sound. The Artesian Well slide is said
by the mounter to contain nearly 150 varieties, many very
rare and beautiful forms. The other two slides also contain
many splendid forms, and the three slides would form a rare
addition to any collection of slides. — M., c.o. Mrs. McMillan,
10 Queen Mary Avenue, Crosshill, Glasgow.

Wanted, English or foreign shells, fossils, star-fish or sea
urchins, in exchange for fossils, coins, medals, &c. — F. Stanley,
Margate.

Foreign butterflies. — Many important species of Papilio,
Morpho, Ornithoptera, &c, in duplicate. Parties having any
duplicates (exotic onV) should at once send lists. Also wings
of Morpho menelaus, &c, for microscopic purposes. — J. C.
Hudson, Railway Terrace, Cross Lane, Manchester.

Wanted, "Wesley Naturalist" for March, 18S7; will give
in exchange micro materials or objects. — C. J. Watkins, Pains-
wick, Gloucestershire.

\

Wanted, insect cabinet, six or eight drawers, with frames
to glasses. Will give in exchange hand-painted lantern slides
of micro objects, books on natural history, fine crystal and rock
micro slides, or mounting materials. — C. J. Watkins, Pains-
wick, Gloucestershire.

Offered, Science-Gossip for 1867, 1876-81, &c, and
British plants. Wanted, Science-Gossip for 1S70-75, and
British fossil*.— F. C. King, Bank Villa, Fulwood, Preston.

Wanted, Cooke's " Microscopic Fungi " (rust, smut, mildew
and mould). Will give good value in micro slides. — J. C,
23 Roland Road, Lozells, Birmingham.

Wanted, diatoms and polar, slides ; other slides given in
exchange. — A. Downes, 5 Royal Park Road, Clifton, Bristol.

A large quantity of whole insects in spirits, ready for
mounting or sectionizing ; will exchange for electrical, optical
or any scientific apparatus. — W. White, 17 York Street,.
Nottingham.

Wanted, clutches of eggs with full data. Offered, other
eggs and natural history specimens. — W. K. Mann, Wellington
Terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

Diatom deposit from Nevada or Loch Kinnord, i oz. for
two good diatom slides or for other material. — E. A. Hutton,
Motham, Manchester.

Sheep fluke, sheep tick, and louse of calf, unmounted, in
exchange for other objects of interest. — Rev. I. Stroud Williams,
Livingstone Villa, Iffley Road, Oxford.

Duplicates of P. glaber, P. dilatatus, and many others, in
exchange for Desiderata, Clausilia, Rolphii, or any of the
Vertigos. — Sam Clough, 20 and 22 Abingdon Street, Blackpool.

Wanted, Cariniaria and other nucleobranchs ; good ex-
change given. Also wanted, one species localized of the
following genera : — Nerita, Oliva, Harpa, and Columbelladi,
in exchange for several species of each unlocalized. — Wilfred
Mark Webb, 31 Aynha Road, Brook Green, W.

In return for half-a-dozen micro slides, I will send an assort-
ment of animal hair, unmounted — about forty varieties. — Arthur
H. Williams, Hythe.

Wanted, any of the vols, of the Paleontographical Society
containing papers on "Eocene Mollusca," either complete or
incomplete. — George E. East, jun., 10 Basinghall Street, E.C.

Wanted, Denny's "List and Nomenclature of British Ano-
plura," Fidget's "Anoplura," and other books on parasites;
also mounted or unmounted parasites. — Fred. Lee Carter,
Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Wanted, mahogany slide case to hold 48 or 72 microscopic
slides ; also double nose-piece, bent form. Will give in ex-
change unbound volumes of "Cassell's Saturday Journal,"
"Cassell's Family Magazine," "Leisure Hour," and "Young
England," strong netted hammock, or micro slides. — T. H.
Boorman, Tenterden.

Miscellaneous microscopic slides, well mounted, in ex-
change for others. Send lists. — T. H. Boorman, Tenterden.

Wanted, one or two small healthy roots, Vallisneria-
spiralis, in exchange for micro slides. Will send list. — S. R. P.,
—8 Halkin Street Weit, S.W.

Offered: — Pupa umbilicata, J'ertigo cdentula, Planorbis
eomplanata. Wanted: — Pupa ringens, Clausilia Rolphii,
Vertigo pusilla, Vertigo angustior. — Miss Eyre, Swarraton
Rectory, Alresford, Hants.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

"Holiday Letters of a Geologist," by J. SSipman. — "The
Story of Creation," by Edward C. Codd. — " The Micro-
scope."— "Journal of Conchology." — "Book Chat." — " Scrib-
ner's Monthlv-"— "The Amateur Photographer." — " The
Garner."— "The Naturalist."— "The Botanical Gazette."—
"Journal of the New York Microscopical Society." — " Bel-
gravia." — " The Gentleman's Magazine."—" American Monthly
Microscopical Journal." — "The Essex Naturalist." — "The
Midland Naturalist." — " Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." —
"The American Naturalist." — "Journal of Microscopy and
Nat. Science." — " Scientific News." — " Wesley Naturalist." —
" Naturalists' Monthly."—" La Science Illustree."— " Junior
Review, Science, Lit. & Art."

Communications received up to the 14TH ult. from :
W. J. S.— A. J. S.— A. J. H. C— T. S.— J. C.— I. M.— R. D.
— G. A.— S. 'B.— W. E. S.— W. H. T.— J. C. P.— B. B. \V —
A. B.— H. C. O.— F. D. B.— C. W.— B. T— Miss W.—
W. H. H.— E. H.— G. G. R.— T. H. G.— S. A. S— A. H. W.

F. S.— J. C. H.-U. S.-G. S.-I. S.— E. H.— A. W.—
T. W. R.— J. B.— J. F. R.— D. A. M.— M. L. S.— J. S.—
J. H.— A. E. F.— W. F., jun.— E. W.— T. W. K.-W. S—

]. O. B.— J. S— W. M.-M.— W. S. D.— W. D. S.— A. R.—

G. I. W. N.— W. G.— M. M— R. Mc C— F. M. C— J. E.—
J. T. T. R— R. T. P.— R. P.— J. T.— J. D.— Mrs. B.— G. R.
Rev. R. C. C— W. J. J.— G. M.— H. A.— W. H. B —J. J. W.
— F. F.— C. J. W.— A. H. W.— C. G.— C F.-C. Y.— R. H. R.
—J. H.— Rev. J. S. W.— F.— F. L. C.— W. M. W.— T. H. B.
-S. S.— A. D.— J. O— W. W.— C. B.— T. W.— S. C— E. A. H.
— G. E. E., jun.— C. S.— F. C. K.— C. R— S. R. P.— E. R. F.
— E. H. T.— W. L. W. E.-&C.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

73

IN THE ISLE OF MAN.

By Dr. P. Q. KEEGAN.

ANG ! went the
gun from Fort
Anne as we
steamed gallantly
into the imposing
harbour of Doug-
las, the beautiful
capital of the
Isle of Man. Far
out at sea, the
island had pre-
sented a far-
stretching array
of ridges and
knolls, towering
not very pictu-
resquely over the
blue crystal of
the ocean. Now,
on our arrival,
-we knew prospectively that a region was to be
visited not very eminent as regards scenic attrac-
tiveness, but one rather of pre-eminent scientific
interest. Considering, therefore, in the first in-
stance, that an adequate and satisfactory orogra-
phical review would be exceedingly serviceable,
we forthwith walked to Laxey. and thence on
the following day we climbed to the summit of
Snaefell (2034 feet above the sea), the highest
mountain in the island. The elements were suffi-
ciently propitious, so that from this, the most central
coigne of vantage in the British Islands, we were
enabled to see portions of England, Wales, Scotland
and Ireland, all in one vast visual circumference.
The island itself beneath our feet looked however
disproportionately small and humpy, something
indeed which the radical natives are rather ashamed
of. The old time-worn, force-shattered Silurian
hills rose into sharp picturesque peaks or into gentle
mounds terraced with earth and clothed with grass,
while the innumerable brown-burnt dips and valleys
between betokened a moorland bleakness of vegeta-
No. 280.— April 1888.

tion. So, too, from other points throughout the
island, such as by the seaboard, many choice gems
and bits of scenery were commanded. At Port Erin,
Niarbyl Point, Langness promontory, etc., the ocean
and the wave-shattered coast-line exhibited tints,
hues, forms, and motions that were fresh and
charming and worthy of a special niche in the
memory. The Manx mind is eminently capable of
discerning the weird power and fairy charm of
nature, so that every nook and corner is associated
with romantic legends and ghost tales. The general
route pursued during the visit was from Douglas to
Laxey, and over Snaefell to Ramsey, thence to Peel
and St. Johns, whence we visited Castletown,
Foxfield, Colby, and the adjacent coast, etc.

The physical conformation of the island is very
remarkable. From its most northern extremity, viz.
Point of Ayre, to about the distance of seven miles
southwards, there is a perfectly flat, triangular tract,
with only a few bosses or hills, the highest of which
is 323 feet above the sea-level. Over this level,
monotonous plain a lofty rampart of hills with
bastions and buttresses abruptly impends, extending
in an almost straight line from east to west. Thence
succeeds a round, rather flat-topped, green-clad
company of mountains which with their intersecting
valleys and ravines cover the remainder of the island,
except a few flattish tracts on the shore between
Ballaugh and Peel, and a flat triangular patch in the
extreme south in the immediate neighbourhood of
Castleton. The seaboard is flanked by a vertical
cliff-line, in some places only twenty feet high, but in
others, as at Spanish Head, Clay Head, it slopes
down for over three hundred feet in an almost sheer
descent. Brada Head (766 feet) descends perpendi-
cularly into the sea. There are many fine picturesque
rocks, pinnacles, sea-caves and clefts, outlying stacks,
natural arches, etc., along the coast. In some places
marshy tracts occur, but at present there is not a
single lake or tarn throughout the island. All round
the seaboard there is evidence that the sea is leaving
the land at a perceptible rate. It would seem that

74

HARD IV I CKE ' S S CIE NCE -GOSSIP.

immense lateral pressure emanates from the sea itself
tending to fold, elevate, and crush the portion of the
over-crust situated here.

Geology.

Our old familiar friend the metamorphic clay-slate
of the Silurian system here greets us as of yore.
The entire skeleton, so to speak, of the island and
all the highest mountains thereof are composed of it.
In fact, it may be regarded as the sine qua tion of the
territory, as doubtless a softer or a less matured or
worse tempered rock would have been swept away
long ago by the seas, or rather would not havs
endured the tremendous pressure from beneath and
laterally to which it has evidently been subjected,
It occurs in four forms, viz. as a sandstone or grit, a
grey flagstone, a black slate, and a soft black shale.
The Skiddaw slate of Cumberland is its nearest
analogue ; but the volcanic green slate and porphyry
of that period have not here been observed in
connection therewith. In places it is observed to be
very slaty and splintery, indeed almost shaly. Here
and there it is beautifully stratified, but sometimes it
is twisted, contorted, bent nearly double, and its
edges upturned (as at Little Ness and near Glen
Cam), so as to be almost or quite vertical. These
contortion phenomena are specially noticeable among
rocks which jut into the sea, or at the base of marine
precipices. Is it possible that the stupendous weight
and impetus of the sea-water on either side of the
strata may have exerted a mighty sideward pressure
thereon sufficient to upraise and bend them ? It is a
singular fact in geology that all the existing volcanoes
on the earth are near the sea or very large sheets of
water, and as earthquakes are intimately connected
with volcanic eruptions, it would appear that the
motions of the water are more concerned with the
folding and wrinkling of the earth's crust, etc., than
what is generally supposed. However that may be,
we must now remark that in the island we are now
reviewing, the old red sandstone appears next after
the Silurian slate resting unconformably thereon. It
has evidently been greatly denuded, as it now
appears in only a few places, such as for a mile and
a half along the shore to the north of Peel, and near
Ballasalla and Derby Haven in the south. On the
peninsula of Langness it is seen as a conglomerate
(supposed by Ward to be identical with the basement
conglomerate of the carboniferous formation), and
presents a beautiful and picturesque appearance,
being composed of quartzite pebbles and boulders im-
bedded in a limestone matrix resting on the upturned
edges of the slates, and chiselled by the waves into
numerous grottoes, arches, pillars, pinnacles, etc.
Next in order, and resting with complete conformity
on the old red or conglomerate (as is well seen at
Langness) come the well-known pinky-white, well-
stratified slabs and spreads of the carboniferous

limestone. It surrounds the bays in the neighbour-
hood of Castletown ; and occurs also at Port St.
Mary, Ballasalla, etc. To the north of the Peel
there are the remains of a bed, and boulders of it are
frequently washed up all along the north-west coast ;
so that it would appear that a sort of limestone reef
occurs under the sea in that quarter. Its texture is
for the most part finely granular, being fossiliferous
only in a few places. At Poolvash, doubtless owing
to the influence of the adjacent igneous rocks, it is
developed into a fine, black, softish marble suitable
for chimney-pieces, etc. After the limestone, there
is a great gap or break in the succession of the Manx
geological strata. The great formations of the
Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Eocene,
Miocene, and Pliocene are utterly unrepresented.
Not a particle of coal, millstone grit, new red
sandstone, lias clay, greensand, chalk, etc., has been
found in the island. While, according to our ultra-
speculative geologists, England, etc., has been
alternately and periodically "ducking" up and
down for so many thousands or millions of years in
order to receive these deposits and their fossils, the
Isle of Man has either remained stationary, or the
stuff has all been swept off it. However that may
be, it is certain that the Pleistocene formation is here
extremely well developed, "better, perhaps," as has-
been said, "than in any other part of Great
Britain." It covers all the lower tracts, i.e. to not
more than five hundred feet above the sea-level, and
is especially prominent in the great level plain on the
north, and in the valley between Douglas and Peel.
It consists of sand, gravel, shelly clay, rounded
pebbles and boulders of almost every kind of rock,
and forms as it were a sort of connecting link
between the high dry land and the oozy depths of
old ocean. Chalk flint, bluish clay (till), shell marl
have also been found. Where these boulders came
from, is a knotty problem. Geologists prate about
ice and glaciers and the glacial period, and what not ;
but the idea of these outlying, heterogeneous masses
of rocks being gradually pushed up from below by
some lateral or other pressure, seems never to have
tickled their heads. It may be observed, that in
general there is a conspicuous absence of boulders on
the Manx mountain sides, and there is little or no
evidence of local glaciers, or indeed of ice-chiselling
of any kind. The volcanic rocks of the island
consist of "ash and breccia intersected by dykes of
basalt," and form some very remarkable rugged and
jagged pinnacles of low elevation on the southern
shore.

Mineralogically considered, the island is extremely
interesting. The granite is the most beautiful ever
seen, being composed of flakes of glistening white
silvery mica, and of white felspar imbedded in a
pinky-white snowy quartz : frequently the felspar is
left out of the bargain, and there is nothing but
quartz and mica. Calcite and dolomite in very fine

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

75

crystals are plentiful, while graphite, witherite,
barytes, hornblende, stilbite, and chlorite have been
found in small quantities. There is a magnificent
development of the metallic minerals, more especially
of galena, which occurs in the largest crystals ever
found at the Laxey and Foxdale mines. It is worked
for at some twenty mines in the island, and is ex-
tremely rich in silver, containing in one spot as much
as iooo oz. thereof to the ton of lead ore : the average
for the whole Manx mines being about 20 oz. to the
ton of pure lead. Hsematite is found in three mines ;
iron pyrites is common in rather good crystals ; while
limnite, titaniferrite, and vivianite are found in small
quantities. Chrysocolla occurs in a massive incrust-
ing state, and chalcopyrite (sometimes in very beauti-
ful crystals) is yielded by four mines. Molybdenite,
antimonite, and pyromorphite have been found
sparingly. Blende is yielded by seven mines, and is
here occasionally of a slaty-blue colour, and very
beautifully crystallised. Umber and rottenstonehave
also been discovered in three different localities.
On the whole, considering its size (viz. 33 miles
long by 12 broad) the Isle of Man is extremely rich
in mineralogical and metalliferous products. The
earth's upper crust is here apparently thinner, and
nearer the inner crust, as it were, than in most
localities ; hence the lavish effluence, and the
superior beauty and purity of its constituent
materials, proceeding from the very heart and core,
so to speak, of the parental fountain of Nature
herself. The granite, merging as it does into the
quartz or quartzite, is here evidently an igneous rock,
a fresh, unadulterated portion of the clear, fire-
scathed contents of the very bowels of the earth.
Through the cracks and cavities of the crushed,
contorted slates the pure elemental metals, lead,
zinc, etc., charged with sulphur, etc., have won
their way, distilled from the adjacent beds, or more
probably ejected in jets and streams pure and fresh
from the subterranean reservoirs.

Botany.

But the crowning glory of the Isle of Man is its
Botany. In what is designated the mid-agrarian
zone, viz. that which extends from tide- level upwards
to some 900 feet, its treasury is specially rich.
From its splendid nurseries, its rich soil of pure sand
and gravel, intermixed in many places with calcareous
matter, springs forth a chaplet of pearls matchless
and unparalleled among our natural flowers. The
furze and broom, those brilliant tenants of the wastes
and wilds, are here magnificently developed, clothing
the hedges and lane-sides with festoons of yellow
drapery. The marsh marigold, the mallows, the
elder, heath and ling, the bog-bean, henbane, the
mullein, the foxglove, the yellow iris flourish in rich
and lavish luxuriance. The curraghs or sand-plains,
the rocky bluffs and headlands, the rifts and gullies

in the wild sea rocks nourish bouquets of plant
organisms rarely found in the neighbouring coasts
and islands. There may be found sea-kale {Cram be
maritima), sea rocket {Cakile maritima), tamarisk
{Tamarix Anglica), squill {Scilla verna), sea-holly
{Eryngium maritimum), kidney vetch {Anthyllis
vulneraria), dwarf furze [Ulex nanus), flax {Linum
angilstifolium), Isle of Man cabbage (Brassica
Mo it en sis), henbane {Hyoscyamus niger), cowbane
{Cicuta virosa), saltwort {Salsola Kali), sand-spurry
{Spergularia neglecta and peploides), etc.

At one spot in Poolvash Bay, near Castletown,
where some limestone rock seamed with basalt
underlies the lap of the sea meadow, its carpet was
gloriously enamelled with bright-painted sea-pink
interspersed with bladder-campion and bird's-foot
trefoil, the whole forming a motley company disposed
in waving ranks most beauteous to behold. That
familiar tenant of the time-shattered ruin, the rare
and interesting pellitory of the wall {Parietaria
officinalis), spread its pink wreaths lavishly over the
broken stones.

The common navelwort or wall pennywort {Coty-
ledon umbilicus) is extraordinarily abundant all over
the island, studding with its stiff stems, thick leaves,
and bell-shaped flowers, the old walls and ditches of
every road and lane. On the other hand, there is no
alpine flora upon the mountains, no dwarf willows,
alpine sedges, sorrels, rues, saxifrages, hawkweeds,
rock-cresses, chickweeds, etc., the highest summit,
viz. Snaefell (2034 ft.), not being sufficiently
elevated to furnish a garden suited for the culture of
such exquisite organisms.

The following plants were personally observed in
the island : — Pepperwort {Lepidium Smithii), bugle
{Ajuga reptans), spearwort {Ranunculus flammula),
marsh marigold {Caltlia palustris), horned poppy
(Glaucium lutcuul), scurvy grass {Cochlcaria offici-
nalis), milkwort {Polygala vulgaris), bladder campion
{Silcnc maritima), sea mallow {Lavatera arborea),
sandwort-spurry {Spergularia neglecta), cranesbill
{Geranium molle), hop trefoil {Trifolium procumbens),
kidney vetch {Anthyllis vulneraria), purple astragal
{Astragalus hypoglottis), wood vetch {Vicia sylvatica),
marsh cinquefoil {Potentilla comarium), wall penny-
wort {Cotyledon umbilicus), golden saxifrage {Chryso-
splenium oppositifolium), sundew {Drosera rotuudi-
folia), sea holly {Eryngium maritimum), bilberry
(Vaccinium myrtillus), cross-leaved heath {Erica
telralix), sea milkwort {Glaux maritima), bogbean
{Menyanthes trifoliata) , small bugloss (Lycopsis
arvensis), henbane {Hyoscyamus niger), foxglove
{Digitalis purpurea), yellow and red rattle, ragged
robin, ground ivy (Nepeta glechoma), red deadnettle,
figwort {Scrophularia nodosa), wood-sage, pellitory of
the wall {Parietaria officinalis), yellow iris, blue-bell,
purple and butterfly orchis {Habenaria bifolia), sea
pink {Armeria maritimi), pondweed {Potanwgeton
natans), horse-tail {Equisetum talmateja).

E 3

76

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

A PAGE OF THE LIFE-HISTORY OF

STEPHANOCERAS EICHORNH.

By W. H. Harris.

DURING the summer of 1887, I was fortunate
enough to become possessed of some specimens
of Stcphanoceras Eichornii. Often had I searched for
this king of animalcules in the numerous pools and
dykes of this neighbourhood, and which had from
time to time furnished specimens of rare forms ;
but never had I been able to take this creature. Now,
however, I had a large colony close at hand. A
tank which had stood in the slanting rays of light
coming through a window having a south-easterly
aspect was changed to another window facing the
north-east ; it had stood in the former position for two
or three years ; the results not being satisfactory, the
change of quarters was decided upon and carried
into effect in the early spring. In the following July
a few specimens appeared, became more numerous
during the ensuing three months, and continued in
gradually diminishing numbers until the close of the
year.

I had these creatures under observation for two
months, and I propose to place upon record some of
the phenomena which came under my notice, as an
instalment towards the entire life-history of this
exceedingly beautiful and interesting creature.

A word as to the method adopted for continuing
the observations may be useful to others similarly
employed. Simple means are frequently the best. The
outfit consisted of a few thin flattish watch-glasses
and a square of thin cover-glass. The specimen to
be observed was removed into a watch-glass, with a
small portion of the plant to which it was attached ;
a sufficient quantity of water given to cover the
specimen. The cover-glass was then floated on the
surface and observations made. When these were
completed, the cover-glass was removed, a liberal
supply of water given, and then placed aside under a
wine-glass to exclude dust, and retard, as far as
possible, the rapid evaporation caused by summer
temperature.

Experience taught me that the secret of successfully
preserving the specimens in good health, lay in
removing the cover-glass ; if this were not done,
symptoms of declining health soon manifested them-
selves, the verticillate setse lost their energy and
contour ; some dark spots collected in the main trunks
of the arms ; the whole organism languished, and if
not relieved, death soon ensued. Specimens far
advanced towards dissolution recovered under the
changed conditions and fulfilled the object of their
existence. Air, and plenty of it, was the key to success.

Until this conclusion was reached, my observations
were liable to be interrupted at a very interesting
point, and the labour expended lost to some extent.
Soon,however, certain questions suggested themselves,

answers to which could alone be given by the organ-
isms. It was with the view of extracting these answers
something like systematic obsevations were continued
over the greater portion of the time mentioned.

How are the young produced ? I had noticed that
adult specimens when taken from the tank contained
ova in different stages of development ; that these
decreased in number, but could not be found in the
tube, as is the case with many other tube-dwelling
rotifera ; that after a short time a young specimen
would be found in all respects, save one, like its
parent, the difference consisted of size alone. Soon it
was found they were ovoviviparous, the ovum being
excluded and remaining in contact with the parent ;
the young one shortly after made its escape, and for
a short time led a free life, roaming gracefully through
the water until it settled down to the stern realities
of its existence.

I was never fortunate enough to witness the actual
exclusion of the ovum, although many hours were
specially devoted to this end ; that the act is a rapid
one there is not the slightest doubt, as on several
occasions the withdrawal of the eye for occasional
relief was sufficient to thwart the object in view.

When the young first escape from the ova they are

Fig. 29. — Young Stephan-
oceros just emerged.

Fig. 30. — First formation of
Tube.

mere sac-like creatures with a fringe of cilia around
the anterior end, the posterior end contracts rapidly,
terminating in a rounded point. The following ex-
ample may be taken as fairly illustrative of the early
stages of the organism and the time occupied, but as
the season advanced and temperature fell the changes
took longer time to effect.

August 29th, an ovum was excluded at 9.30 A.M.,
remaining attached to the lower part of the body of
the parent, the young one emerged at 10.30, swam
freely until II A.M. ; it then settled down, and in
a few seconds attached itself permanently ; then
elongated and contracted itself to its utmost extent,
gave a few convulsive turns, and in three minutes
from the time of settling the first portion of its future
dwelling-place was distinctly visible. The idea con-
veyed to the mind by the series of movements I have
attempted to describe was that it had thus divested
itself of a very thin and hyaline pellicle, but whether
this was really the fact remained undecided : the
main bulk of the adult tube is considered to be a
secretion, but this would not necessarily clash with
the above idea ; on the contrary, it can be readily
conceived it would materially assist the flow of the
fluids in a proper direction for the purpose it has to

HARDWI CKE ' S S CIENCE - G O SSI P.

77

serve. These movements accomplished, it retreated
within the cup-like tube, assumed the form of a puff-
ball, and remained quiescent for some time ; changes,
however, were proceeding, but so leisurely and slight
they could be detected only by comparison from
time to time. 3.10 P.M. the organism was visibly
enlarged, the cilia had become arranged parallel to
each other and protruded like a small brush, these
were shortly afterwards absorbed, and at 4.30 P.M.,
the partly developed arms were plainly visible ;
progress contined to be made through the remainder
of the day, but full development had not taken place
when observations were suspended for the night. No
food had apparently been taken up to this time, but
the following morning the form was complete, feeding
and progressing rapidly, the development to full size
was shortly afterwards attained. These observations
were confirmed on many subsequent occasions, the
only difference being that of time occupied in the

Fig. 31. — Resting period.

Fig. 32. — Appearance at 3.10 p.m.

changes, sometimes one act would be prolonged and
another executed rapidly.

How soon will reproduction take place ? The
following table will supply roughly the answer to this
question. I was unable to reduce the time to hours,
as on some occasions the young emerged during my
absence.

One born August 23, reproduced August 28 = 5 days,
i! 25 » .> 3° = 5 »

„ 25 » » 31 = 6 „

,, 28 „ September 1 = 4 ,,

„ 28 „ ,, 6 = 9 „

„ 29 » » 7 = 9 .»

An average of 6\ days. In the case of the fourth
example the full time between the limits was con-
sumed, or in other words a very few more hours
would have made this one five days also. Repro-
duction went on at the rate of one per day, only on
one occasion was the second produced the same day,
and here again a slight increase in time would have
caused its record to be made the following day. The
largest number produced by one individual was five,

the smallest three, more frequently four completed
the progeny.

Messrs. Hudson and Gosse, in their monograph on
these organisms, say: "the male of Stephanocera
has not been discovered." Without positively laying
claim to have seen one, there was one individual
might reasonably be considered a suspect. From its
first emergence it was slightly larger than the
generality of young forms, one of its sides was
more deeply crenulated than usual, and small, dark,
globular bodies could be detected therein. A pear-
shaped cavity near the angle where the posterior
portion rapidly narrows was partly filled with bodies
of a similar nature, but these were in rapid motion —
spermatozoa? This creature, like many others to be
noted further on, was isolated from the first, it never
settled clown, but led a wandering life from first to
last ; its increase in size was very slight, and its
development was arrested at a very early age. It

Fig- 33. — Development at 4.30JMU

Ct.

Fig. 34. — Suspected Male,
shaped cavity.

[a] pear

Scale — ico3 inch.

lived for about thirty six-hours, and was never seen
to take any food.

How many generations are produced partheno-
genetically ? This question still requires an answer ;
until the male has been discovered, and observations
start from the congress of sexes, it must wait solution.
Young ones isolated immediately they emerged from
the ovum, and supplied with water from a source
when no other adult forms were present, were traced
through four generations. The last members of this
family contained ova, but from some cause they did
not develop ; and, notwithstanding the conditions
were the same as had prevailed all through the course
of observation, the creatures died without leaving
issue. It was not that their life was cut short by
any mishap ; they lived as long as the generality of
the tribe.

From thirteen to fourteen days appeared to be the
allotted span of a healthy individual's existence ;

7S

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G O SSI P.

they then appeared to die from sheer old age, a
passive waiting for the dissolution ; in other cases
accidental injury from some cause or other, not
known, heavily handicapped the individual and cut
its life short. A peculiar form of disease was noted
on several occasions. It commenced to exhibit itself
at the extreme limits of the arms ; a small contraction
would be the first indication. This continued until a
short length became detached, and by the movements
of the creature would be driven away. These
particles assumed a globular shape. In some in-
stances a slight movement of the seta; was imagined ;
but whether this was really the case, witness would
rather not say, but any one not knowing the source
from whence these particles came would have pro-
nounced them perfect organisms. This detachment
of particles would continue until the five arms were
reduced to mere stumps. Starvation terminated
existence in such cases. One had lost an entire
arm, but made a gallant fight with the remaining
four, and succeeded in fulfilling the object of its
existence.

Malformation or teratology is not unfrequent.
The creature would then present a very woebegone
appearance ; instead of the graceful form and beauti-
ful curves it would be shortened, thickened, angular :
sluggish in its movements, and a general don't-care-
about-anything style clearly portrayed. The term of
life was much shortened under such conditions.

Their appetite appears insatiable, they seem ever
on the alert for food. Animal organisms are pre-
ferred, but if these fail they will take vegetable.
One was observed with the empty lorica of a small
rotifer engulfed. This was too much for the digestive
powers ; it withstood disintegration, and Stephano-
ceras was the first to disappear. Another embraced
a Stentor within its arms and retained it for some
time, making decided attempts to appropriate it.
Its efforts were futile, and the meal had to be
abandoned.

Do they possess urticating power? From some
observations made, I am disposed to think they can
exercise this function. Having given a supply of
water which was teeming with monads, the arms of
Stephanoceras quickly enclosed a larger number than
it could conveniently make use of. They would
continue to dart about within the limits of the crown,
until, by a sudden retraction of the foot-stalk and
opening of the arms, the entire contents were ejected.
On emergence, many of the monads lay motionless,
some for ever ; others recovered, and went on their
way as usual. If my surmise is correct, as to their
possessing this power, I am disposed to think the
most potent effects were exercised towards the
extremities of the arms. The organisms would be
lively until they came in contact with the setce
located in these parts. Here the natural movement
of the organism ceased, and they were finally ejected
as described.

The subject was full of interest. The creatures
became almost acquaintances, and their welfare was
studied accordingly ; death caused regret, but birth
brought satisfaction. I can recommend their study to
all — a capital exercise to develop patience. Will
any follow on ?

Cardiff.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

SYNTHESIS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.
— Within my recollection one of the positive
dogmas of chemistry was that it is impossible by any
laboratory process to make organic compounds from
inorganic materials. That one organic compound
could be made from another by substitution of
elements, or by such actions as convert sugar into
alcohol or vinegar was understood, just as we now
understand the evolutions of new species from other
species, but the creation of organic materials from
mineral matter was regarded by chemists to be just
as impossible as biologists still regard the creation of
organised beings from anything but an organised
germ.

Gradually, however, the chemical chasm has been
narrowed and even bridged, and the supposed
chemical impossibility approximately achieved. At
first, the organic substances built up by inorganic
synthesis were only those of questionable class, such
as are formed in the later stages of organic
degeneration, by the so-called organic substances in
the course of their disintegration to form mineral
matter, but this is no longer the case. Substances
which according to the old definitions are strictly
organic, and which according to old theories can
only be built up by the intervention of " vital force,"
are now constructed from purely mineral materials
or from those of lower rank in the scale of organic
degradation.

One of the latest of these achievements is the
synthesis of glucose or "grape sugar," the substance
from which it is gradually built up by a series of
additions and subtractions of elements being acrolein,
a compound resulting from the partial combustion of
one of the alcohols. Year by year the achievements
in this direction become more and more pronounced,,
and no sound philosopher will now venture to define
the limits of such progress. I should, however,
explain to non-technical readers that, although the
sugars are all organic compounds, i.e. compounds
which only exist naturally as the results of organic
action, they are not organised, they exhibit no traces
of organic structure ; their structure is crystalline, and
in this respect they resemble minerals. We have not
yet reached the synthesis of the materials of organic
tissues, such as gelatin, chondrin, &c, but this glucose

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

79

approaches within one short step to cellulose, the
material of the cell-walls, or the general basis of the
organised structure of plants.

" The Gift of the Nile." — Sound geological
philosophy is profoundly indebted to Sir Charles
Lyell, who not only hammered at rocks, but,
hammered, hammered, ami hammered, most perti-
naciously at the heads of his contemporaries to insert
therein the fundamental geological principle, that
" causes similar in kind and energy to those now
acting, have produced the former changes of the
earth's surface." " The Principles of Geology " — his
main hammer — still remains, in my estimation, the
most fascinating scientific treatise that has ever been
■written. The multitude of facts, all intensely in-
teresting, and admirably arranged, is astonishingly
great ; the book is a monument of industry in their
collection. It is written with such simplicity and
clearness throughout that anybody may read and
understand every paragraph without any previous
technical training. If any of my readers have not
yet read it, I exhort them to commence at once at
Chapter I., and go steadily through to the end.
Whether they have read all the newer geological
treatises, or no geological treatise whatever, they will
be far wiser after reading Lyell's book than they were
before.

These remarks are suggested by a work which is
now in hand, viz. the Royal Society's borings in the
delta of the Nile, which have gone considerably
beyond 300 feet in depth without reaching the rock
which forms the bed of the marine valley which this
river has filled up with a deposit of almost continen-
tal magnitude, and has done it all during the present
geological epoch. Egypt is " the gift of the Nile,"
and in spite of its great magnitude all this deposit is,
geologically speaking, but the work of to-day. It is
demonstrable that the great river has flowed in its
present course with similar geological results, un-
disturbed by any great upheavals or other cata-
strophes, ever since it fell Niagara-like over the
rocks of a sea coast which are now more than one
hundred miles inland.

Snow Clothing.— Seventy to eighty degrees
below zero, i.e. thirty to forty degrees below the
freezing-point of mercury, is a temperature we can
scarcely contemplate without a shudder, yet such
was endured in Siberia by Captain Wiggins and his
crew last October.

It is in such a climate as this that the beneficence
of snow is fully manifested. The snow falls heavily
at the beginning of winter, while the surface of the
ground has not yet fallen below thirty-two degrees,
the snow itself being at about that temperature,
or say thirty degrees. The feathery crystals and the
air they entangle are nearly absolute non-conductors
of heat, and constitute the most effective of all
possible clothing. Thus the soil in such countries

never falls to so low a minimum temperature as it
occasionally reaches in England when we have a
temperature of fifteen to twenty degrees over naked
ground. Hence the paradox of Siberian vegetation,
which is so luxuriant in the summer, when the heat
of the long days is very intense.

Do Birds Sleep on the Wing?— This question
has been seriously propounded in the New York
National Academy of Sciences, where Professor
W. P. Trowbridge read a paper describing his son's
discovery, that birds of prey and some others have
the power of locking securely together those parts
of the wing which affect the extension of the
feathers, and correspond to the fingers of the human
hand. The wings are thus kept in the soaring
extension and position without any muscular effort.
At first thought, the idea that a bird should maintain
its delicate balance even during a few minutes' doze
appears extravagant, but the idea assumes a different
aspect after a little reflection. It is well known that
men have fallen asleep while walking, and have thus
walked some distance. I know a case of a farmer
who has fallen asleep on horseback without falling
off when returning home after market dinner. We
can all understand the possibility of sleeping while
standing upright or even walking, and those who
are accustomed to the saddle can understand the
farmer's exploit, but, on the other hand, there are
some among us who cannot keep the saddle even
when very wide awake. A dog that has just learned
to sit on its haunches and beg, would not be able to
sleep in that position.

These possibilities simply depend upon whether
the action in question, flying, walking, standing, or
riding, has become automatic. Regarded theoretically
the art of balancing the human body on so small a
base as the human feet is one of marvellous muscular
complexity, but practically it is so easy as to be per-
formed without any conscious effort. Theoretically
regarded by us the art of flying and soaring are
extremely difficult, but practically they are doubt-
less as easy to the bird as walking and standing are
to us, and therefore may be performed as automatically.
Admitting this, it is still very improbable that the
bird can do any more than " forty winks," a semi-
conscious after-dinner snooze while in mid-air.
Taking a night's rest, or even a fraction thereof, is
very different.

Energetic Ballast. — Electric accumulators are
subject to a serious objection. The plates in which
the latent energy is stored are of lead, and a great
surface of this being demanded they are very heavy :
their use is restricted accordingly. But there is one
case where a heavy weight is desirable, in fact
necessary; this is in the ballasting of ships. With
accumulator ballast and a little dynamo to charge if,
a yacht or other vessel may be supplied with a reserve
of energy available for lighting. It might even supply

So

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS J P.

mechanical power. In the paragraph where I found
the suggestion it is truly added that "it would be a
novelty to have the ballast weighing the anchor or
hauling at the ropes." The probability of this
however, is very remote, as the conversion of the
mechanical power of the engine that drives the
dynamo into electrical energy, and the reconversion of
this back to mechanical power is a roundabout and
costly proceeding The conversion of the engine
power into light is very different in places where
cheap gas is not obtainable. Paraffin lamps are
objectionable on board ship, and the ordinary colza
oil ship lamps are very costly in working, many times
more so than gas in town. The electric light on board
ship is a most desirable luxury, and compared with
other available sources of light, is the most economical.
It is rapidly coming into general use.

The Rings of Saturn. — There remains now
but little doubt concerning the nature of these
marvels of the heavens which so long have puzzled
astronomers. They cannot be the solid flat hoops
that they appear to be, as they are too thin in pro-
portion to their other dimensions to retain their
stability against the gravitation of their primary.
The idea that they are liquid comes to grief still
more hopelessly.

But they may be, and in all probability are, a
multitude of small satellites which, seen as we see
them with their interspaces foreshortened, need not
be very close together to appear continuous. To
understand this, place yourself at night on Constitution
Hill, Piccadilly, or on any other street where you
command the view of a row of gas lights half a mile
long in foreshortened perspective. It will then be
seen that the distant gas lights appear to touch each
other, to form a continuous line instead of a row of
luminous dots, as do those which are nearer, or are
viewed more athwart the line.

Further evidence in support of this view of the
constitution of the rings is continually coming forward
in observations of changes among the rings. Thus
the observations of Paul Stroobant (" Bulletin de
l'Academie Royale de Belgique," November, 1887),
extending from January 27th to April 20th, show
that the divisions known as Encke's and Struve's are
subject to considerable changes of position, and to
occasional disappearance of one, while the other
remains visible. The changes of the inner dusky
ring are still more remarkable, and indicate extreme
mobility of its constituents ; suggesting the idea that
it bears a relation to Saturn similar to that of the
zodiacal light to the sun.

C. Edusa. — Can any of your correspondents tell
me if this insect has been taken in this district during
the past season ? I have not heard of a single specimen
being seen for several seasons. — C. S., Penarth, near
Cardiff.

DRYING PLANTS ON A TOUR.

IN the November number of Science-Gossip there
is a paper by M. Copineau, " On Drying of Plants
on a Tour," in which he states that it is of the greatest
importance that they be dried quickly, and never
be allowed to remain in damp paper. Every one
I believe, will agree with this statement, but few, I
imagine, will admit that he has hit upon the best
means to attain this most desirable end. My idea
is that, for the speedy drying of papers, it is most
essential that every sheet should be separated, and
that no greater mistake can be made than by sewing
eight or ten thicknesses of paper together, and so
forming a pad. I do not either like the form of press
he recommends, so will proceed to describe the
methods I have adopted.

When I start on a fortnight's tour, I generally take
a supply of drying paper about ten inches in depth,
this I find amply sufficient for the first few days, and
it allows of changing the plants into fresh paper every
night ; my last performance before getting into bed
is to begin in one corner of the room and stand

Fig. 35-

all the damp papers up on end, and by morning I
find they are quite fit to use again. At first sight it
may appear rather difficult to stand up limp paper in
this manner, but there is really no difficulty about it,
by maintaining the fold in the middle of the paper
and curving back the edges so that the plan gives
somewhat the outline of the figure 3, one is made to
support another with the least amount of contact. Of
course, I will at once admit, it adds nothing to the
tidiness of one's bedroom, but after a long day's
tramp, I have never found this interfere in any way
with my slumbers, and I can guarantee its efficiency.

There is perhaps no better way of drying papers
than laying them out singly in the sun, as by the time
the last one is disposed of, the first is quite dry
enough to be taken up again. I confess, however,
when the sun is shining I want to be doing some-
thing else, and it is not always safe to delegate the
work to others.

I have made modifications in my presses from
time to time, and the one I use for travelling, to me
seems a very efficient one, and has been copied by
several of my friends. It consists of two boards

HARD J VI CKE 'S S CIE NCE-GOS SIP.

8t

made of American walnut 18 inches by 12 inches, and
f inch thick, well seasoned and French polished, with
two grooves sunk in each of the long sides, to take
two of the strongest portmanteau straps procurable.
Having arranged all the plants with as much paper
as possible between each layer, I put on the top
board and strap as tightly as I can. I next take a
stretcher, a piece of wood 12 inches long, i\ thick,
with both ends cut into a wedge. Inserting one end
of this under one of the straps, I force the strap up,
and then pull the other strap over the opposite end.
It is now pretty tight, but not tight enough for me,
and two wedges cut to the same angle are inserted
underneath the stretcher, one at either end, and
forcing these towards the centre the straps are
further tightened, and the pressure considerably in-
creased. It is absolutely essential that the straps
should be of the best, and kept well oiled, or they will
not stand this treatment long. This is the press I
take on my holiday excursions, it just drops into a
light deal box, which, when corded, is quite safe to
hand over to the tender mercies of a railway porter.
For home use I have a more substantial affair ; the

boards are made of birch two inches thick, but,
instead of using straps, I have had two squares made
of hoop iron twelve inches wide and eighteen inches
high, with the ends lapped over and riveted. The
upper part of each square is let into a shallow groove
in a strip of ash to keep it in shape, and this being
very springy, keeps up a good pressure when the
stretcher and wedges are introduced. This plan is
much cheaper than straps, being practically inde-
structible, and if it is thought desirable, the wedges
may be driven home with a mallet.

I have, however, a third form to suggest which
has several advantages, but involves a greater cost.
It is composed entirely of metal. Two gratings are
made on the principle of the gridiron, with the bars
one inch apart. The papers containing the plants
are placed between these gratings, and they are drawn
together on each of the longer sides by two screw
arrangements, similar to those used for tightening the
stays of telegraph posts. By turning round the
centre socket, which has a screw at each end, but the
threads cut in opposite directions, the opposite edges
are rapidly drawn together and maintained there
with a considerable pressure.

There is thus a slight economy in space and there
is nothing to wear out, but what particularly
recommends this method is, that it can be put into
the oven, before the fire, or other warm place,
without running any risk. Straps will not stand this-
treatment for any long time, and I have known cord
give way and do some damage to the surroundings.
It must also be borne in mind that, if the papers are
dried in the press in this manner, a vast amount o£
time is saved.

Those who are occupied more particularly with
water plants such as charas, potamogetons, etc., would
find great advantage in having a light tin or zinc
trough about three inches in depth into which the
press would just drop and which would fit easily
inside the box in which the press travels. I have
found this much more convenient than anything else
for floating such plants on to the papers, and believe
the results to be more satisfactory than any other.

Fig. 35 represents a section through the long
diameter of the first press, and Fig. 36 a perspective
view of the metal one.

Frederic H. Ward.

Springfield^ Tooting.

A NATURALIST OUTWARD BOUND.

AS an old contributor, I request that you will
publish this letter should it reach London
safely ; for the novel experiences of one unaccustomed
to the tropical wealth of Ceylon may entertain many
of your readers. I write far away from land, rushing
forward in a Peninsular and Oriental Mail towards
the Australian coast. To-day we cross the Line ;
the temperature in the shade at mid-day is 82°Fahr.,
but the rush of air created by the pace of the ship
apparently cools the atmosphere and renders heat
pleasant. The pole star and familiar Great Bear
have nearly, if not quite, disappeared from sight ;
the Southern Cross and constellation of the Ship are
gradually rising earlier each night above the horizon.
Two nights ago I watched the slow course of a large
meteor ; it fell from the zenith towards the north-east,
leaving a distinct trail of light and illuminating the
deck of our vessel as if with summer lightning —
thousands, of flying fish skim the waters ; to watch
their action is quite a fascination. By comparison
with the speed of the ship I reckon they attain a
flight of about twelve miles an hour, while seventy
seconds is the longest period that I have noted one to
remain out of water, during which it touched the
waves more than once. In the Red Sea the medusae
floated near the surface of the water in considerable
numbers. Some weie of an exquisite violet tinge;
others milky-white, with red organs within. At
night thousands of solitary phosphorescent lights
floated by, evolved, I think, from these jelly-fish.
One Portuguese man-of-war I noticed sailing grace-

82

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

fully with long streamers attached. In the Red Sea
and Indian Ocean birds seem few and far between.
Near isolated rocks one beautiful species prevails.
It has a rich chestnut back and wings ; body elongated
in flight ; head brilliant white, breast white ; under-
pays of wings white with dark rim. If any reader
will identify this bird I shall esteem it a favour. By
the side of the Suez Canal thousands of flamingoes
stood in the marshy lake immovable, and so like
reeds that one could hardly credit the assertion that
they were birds ; the illusion was perfect — suddenly,
however, the spirit moved them to flight, and long
lines of awkward birds fled away. Two Egyptian
vultures rested on sandy hillocks. A pelican and a
crane were chained to a floating house on the canal.
Lots of wagtails flitted by the shore, three species, as
figured by Dresser, I clearly identified with the aid of
field-glasses, viz. M.alba, the white wagtail, M.flava,
the blue-headed wagtail, and the grey wagtail, which
is sulphur-yellow breasted (the specific name escapes
my memory, it is not Ray's species). An anthus was
associated with these, probably either Richards' or
rock-pipit. We passed the wonderful Suez Canal in
the short time of nineteen hours.

Passing the coral reefs of the distant Lacadive
Islands the first glimpse of palms was visible standing
up apparently on nothing. Colombo was reached
after dark. Some passengers landed at once to pass
the night in the hotel. I remained on board ship,
but as coaling operations were in progress, and
consequently port-holes closed, the heat and noise
were great ; it was in fact very oppressive. Ashore
they suffered greatly from heat and mosquitoes.

It was daylight at six o'clock, and the ship was
timed to leave at 2 p.m. Our passage from London
had been a record, viz. twenty days ; to Australia
not an instant will be wasted, therefore our time
allowance on shore is not over-liberal. These fol-
lowing observations on tropical Ceylon must of
necessity be fragmentary and incomplete.

In the early morn the scene in the harbour was
animated. Scores of native boys crowded round us
in most primitive boats — simply bits of hollow trunk
fastened together and propelled by short sections of
bamboo. These lads shout and jabber in excited
style, clamouring for coins to be thrown into the
water, after which they dive with admirable skill
and graceful action. Their skin is a rich copper-
colour, the hair absolute black. I think they must
anoint a good deal with cocoanut-oil, so greatly do
their bodies and hair shine ; sharks are said to abound
in the waters, but there is no indication of fear. The
native catamarans are boats of singular construction
about eleven inches in width, but very long. On one
side two bamboos stretch over the surface of the
water, with a heavy log attached at the far ends. By
this contrivance the risk of capsizing is reduced to
nothing ; they carry sail and brave the open sea in
rough weather. Glancing from the shipping to the

land, I was at once struck with the enormous numbers
of cocoanut-palms with straight, bare trunks and
gracefully bent terminal foliage and clusters of green,
or yellow fruit ; for there were two kinds, one known
as the traveller's-tree having yellow fruit, and which
contains the most refreshing fluid. The coast line
here is low and flat, the mountains of the interior
were hidden in the early mists. First thing on
landing I engaged a rogue of a guide named Peter to
show us rapidly about, and keep other rogues and
beggars away. The first question he asked me was
if the three ladies of the party were all my wives ? He
received the negative with some incredulity, I believe.

As the heat was about 850 Fahr., I hired a
covered yet open carriage, at six rupees for the day,
to drive through the palm plantations and cinnamon
groves of the vicinity, to a finely situated hotel at
Mount Lavinia, for early breakfast. Here, by the
sea shore, we had most fragrant and perfect tea,
with good fried fish, a species of grey mullet caught
half an hour before among the rocks. Large prawns
also appeared abundant. Fresh-gathered green
oranges and delicately flavoured bananas were placed
on the table, and we enjoyed the novelty of our sur-
roundings. Little black fellows hovered round us
at every step out of doors. "Me hungry " (smacking
his stomach lustily); "Me no fader — he die yester-
day " (with broad grin) ; " Give money, master,"
and such remarks greeted us. Telling one he
ought to be at school, he at once recited the
English alphabet with conscious pride. Some were
handsome, all were interesting, but got wearisome,
and pestered sadly.

What can I say of the vegetation after such a
rapid glimpse ? It would be almost better to remain
silent ; yet I cannot resist writing these lines. The
spreading, ample foliage of the bananas and plantains,
most beautiful among green tints, flourished on all
sides, in forcible contrast to the lofty palms and the
rich chocolate soil. The variety of banana here most
esteemed has small, yellow-coated fruit, with some-
what of the pine flavour. It is most agreeable to the
taste, and melts away in the mouth.

It is most nutritious among articles of food, and is
capable of supporting a greater population than
anything known in the world. The tree bearing the
bread-fruit (is this the same as jack-fruit ?), was
plentiful, the oval, rough-skinned fruit being attached
to the trunk in irregular manner. Mangoes were
here and there, but not in full perfection at this
season ; the smooth, green fruit I did see on one
tree. Opuntia, or prickly pear, grew as a weed, but
they looked small, and had no fruit. Long and
narrow cacti, with angular growth, stood some
fifteen feet high. The hibiscus was in all its glory.
The single-flowered scarlet species formed regular
hedges — a veritable blaze of colour. It is called, I
think, the "shoe-plant," because a sort of black fluid
is obtained, used either for blacking boots or for ink.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The double variety was scarlet rose, or cream colour ;
but I usually regard single flowers as the most
beautiful, and certainly it is so in this instance.

Hard by this splendid hedge of single scarlet
hibiscus grew an English monthly rose ; we greeted
it with friendly gaze and real pleasure. Ancient-
looking banian-trees, with characteristic hanging
roots, are treasured almost as a sacred tree by the
Buddhist Cingalese. There is also a fine sacred
flower tree, gathered for offerings in the temples,
which has thick-petalled, white flowers with yellow
centres. But I think the finest of all was the lotus-
tree, with abundant silvery green foliage and large
yellow flowers, red in bud, and only expanding in
full sunlight. A scarlet acacia was also very
attractive, and allied genera had yellow, white and
mauve blossoms. They were leguminous plants, but
beyond that I am floundering in hopeless ignorance.

A rose-coloured creeper of the same order was
among the most brilliant flowers. A minute trefoil
with single lilac petals grew in the sand, with a large
pea-like lathyrus, and two other yellow leguminous
weeds. A large shrub with single rose-coloured
corollas looked exactly like a phlox. A crimson
trumpet-shaped, elongated flower must be of the
Loniceracece. A spiked blue veronica grew in
places like twitch. The varied brilliance of the
crotons, and a kind of coleus, cannot be described ;
they enliven every cottage plot in the native villages.
Creeping ferns lined the watercourses, and we
gathered seedlings of several other species.

On many bungalows the bougainvillea attained
great luxuriance. I believe the fine colour belongs to
strongly developed bracts rather than to the true
flower. This applies also to the Poinsettias, standing
with scarlet involucra many feet high in gardens, but
said to be introduced into Ceylon. I saw a single
sandal-wood tree in a garden. I should imagine it is
indigenous in the interior of the country. The castor-
oil plant of course abounded ; and we noted a caper.
The betel-nut is hawked about in a fresh state, for
staining the teeth, etc., so it doubtless grows at hand.
Pines are common enough, selling even to strangers
at fourpence apiece ; but they lack flavour, and are
woody in texture. I had never seen one green.

Two species of bamboo stood side by side. The
native kind has yellow stems, the introduced one
being all green. On the sandy shore a bright convol-
vulus-like flower spread in a manner suggestive of
our own bindweeds ; the ample corolla was rose to
puce colour, and the fleshy leaves were in pairs. A
most picturesque sheet of water, surrounded by palms,
had the surface covered with curious floating leaves,
barred with dark lines, evidently of the water,-lily
order ; but not a single flower was expanded. By
the edge of the water great aloes and other plants
flourished. Another weed I gathered was a pretty
composite flower with violet rays, perhaps nearly
akin to the European prenanthes. A shrub with

crimson blossoms had a calyx-like expansion, such as
the medlar, but smaller and more elongated. Near
this spot an imp of a boy exhibited a captive butterfly.
It was attached to a long string, and allowed short
flights every now and then for me to examine. It
was about the size of a Camberwell beauty, of a dull
brown-black, with lighter rims to each wing, and
slightly metallic in the sunlight. It was plentifully
distributed in the vicinity, and easily caught with
the hand as it settled on bright flowers. Two other
butterflies we saw — a small sulphur-coloured species,
flitting about in pairs, and a very large fellow, flying
like a humming-bird, with the prevailing colours and
shape of a swallow tail ; but this restless creature
would not alight for close examination. He was
attracted to the creeping ferns by the side of the
stream.

Among the birds I saw three or four small, entirely
red, crested, vivacious little creatures, flying together
from tree to tree, and a black and white bird, which
might be a shrike. Green parakeets, with red caps,
frequent the forests, but we had no time to investigate
a tithe of what was at hand. The domestic oxen
drawing the native carts are a small, patient-looking
race of buffalo, chiefly black or dun colour. Another
species, shaggy and rough, with long, dark horn
bending back over the head, was tethered here and
there ; this comes from the interior jungles. I have
often noticed confusion between the buffalo and
North American bison. I take it that a true buffalo
is a domestic animal, ox-like, with neck formed for
the yoke, and distinct hump above the shoulder. I
think they are distributed through Asia, parts of
Africa, and a limited portion of Southern Europe.

Returning on board ship in the afternoon, I was
interested for an hour in the traffic of precious and
non-precious stones diligently carried on. Merchants
dressed in picturesque costumes exhibited their goods
all over the decks. I could see at once that many
stones were sham ; on the other hand, real ones could
be bought by the initiated. A good many sapphires
set and unset were on sale, colour inferior, and hardly
an unflawed stone. Prices asked were three time;
the value, but by waiting until time was nearly up,
and by dint of hard bargain, cheap purchases can be
effected. The best sapphire I saw bought was large
enough for single-stone, gentleman's ring, pale in
colour, certainly flawed, but well cut ; price given
was £6. This could not be dear, yet I would not
have given the price myself. Opaque moonstones
and cat's-eyes, good and bad, were plentiful. Small
pearls in numbers, but all had been strung, I noticed.
Alexandrine, green in daylight, lighting up pink at
night, was offered me. It was true crystal, but more
than that I cannot say. What diamonds were real
appeared to have a yellow tinge. The topaz-cut
stones shown to me were all artificial. A chrysolite
(or is it chrysoprase?), clear olive-green in colour,
greatly attracted me. But amid these few gems there

34

HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

must have been hundreds of shams. I saw a would-
be moonstone ring offered for twenty-five shillings
afterwards sold for eighteen pence. One fellow
pestered me to buy "an unset turquoise" — it was a
bit of pale yellow glass, intended to represent a topaz;
he was a green hand in the trade. Half-hoop sapphire
rings I could have bought for £1, though they offered
originally at £4 ; but the stones were inferior, and
all flawed. Many passengers were most hopelessly
taken in, and without special knowledge or reliable
advice I recommend travellers to steer clear of the
Ceylon gem trade.

Alas ! too soon the time arrived for departure. In
a few days this will, I trust, be posted at Albany,
King George's Sound.

C. Parkinson, F.G.S.

Equator, Indian Ocean.

January 24///, 1888.

THE ECONOMICAL PRODUCTS OF
PLANTS.

KAVA ROOT.— This is the root of Piper methy-
sticnm, Forst. {Macropipermethystiatm, Miquel),
a native of the Society and South
Sea Islands, where it is largely
cultivated for the sake of its roots.
It is a trailing succulent species.
Leaves alternate on short petioles,
ovate-cordate, equal-sided, sub-
acute, 9-10-nerved. Flowers in
axillary catkins ; the males in soli-
tary, and the females in clustered
catkins. Root rhizinose, thick,
woody, rugged, with a slightly
pungent flavour, and narcotic pro-
perties. A tincture of it is pre-
pared and used in cases of chronic
rheumatism and other complaints.
But it is more highly appreciated
for the sake of an abominable and
stimulating beverage which it yields.
The most approved method of its
preparation is briefly described
below. Large quantities of women
and girls are employed to chew pieces of the
root, and, when well masticated and mixed with
saliva, it is ejected into large bowls called
kava, or ava bowls (similar in shape to a boat),
when it is mixed with coco juice, and allowed to
ferment, after which it forms a very intoxicating
beverage, which is largely consumed by the lower
strata of society, both native and European ; the
whites being especially fond of it. The upper and
more respectable part of the community entertain
very repugnant feelings towards it. According to
Dr. Lindley (" Veg. King." p. 518), "It is employed
by the Otaheitans to cure venereal diseases ; they
make themselves drunk, after which very copious

perspirations come on ; this lasts three days, at the
end of which time we are told the patient is
cured."

The natives generally, always partake of it before
they undertake any important business, or perform
religious ceremonies, thinking undoubtedly they are
thereby greatly assisted. In this respect, by the
way, their example is closely followed by many of
our highly-civilised whites at home, with material
which perhaps is even more prejudicial to the system
than kava. In the "Athenaeum" for 1861, some
excellent letters contributed by Dr. Seemann appeared
respecting this plant, and some most amusing anec-
dotes are related in reference to its uses ; he says,
" The Fijians pride themselves on the non-intoxi-
cating properties of kava, that it does not make the
partakers quarrelsome, and that drunk in moderation
it has no ill effect upon the system, but when used in
excess it produces numerous skin diseases." And
according to the same authority there is another
closely-allied species, the root of which is used in
the preparation of a beverage which Dr. Seemann
describes as having a flavour of soap-suds, combined
with jalap and magnesia, which is by no means a

0*

Fig- 37- — Branch of ManiJwt utilissima (reduced).

eulogistic description, the material itself is also un-
appreciated by Europeans.

Tapioca. — This important farinaceous food is ob-
tained chiefly from the root of Manihot utilissima,
Pohl {Janipha manihot, Humb., and Jatropha mani-
hot, Linn.), which is commonly called the Bitter
Cassava, or mandioca plant. The first mention is
made of tapioca, by Piso, in his " Natural History of
Brazil," p. 52 ; and the plant was introduced into this
country in 1739, and is still found in our botanical
collections. It exists at Kew, also in a dried state,
while the various preparations from the root are ex-
hibited in the No. I Museum there. It was originally
a native of tropical South America, but is now largely

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

§5

cultivated throughout all tropical countries for the
sake of the starchy root, which in various forms
constitutes a very important article of diet.

It is a small shrubby plant, growing from four to
eight feet high. Root large, tuberous, oblong, fleshy
and white, abounding in a milky, acrid, resinous juice,
sometimes weighing as much as thirty pounds. Leaves
palmately-partite, with from five to seven lanceolate
acute divisions, smooth, glossy, glaucous beneath.
Flowers in axillary racemes, monoecious. The root
is usually collected when weighing about six or eight
pounds, as the older it gets the greater is the amount
•of woody fibre developed ; this size is acquired under

Fig. 38. — Branch of Piper metkysticum (reduced)

good cultivation in about nine months after the young
plants are established ; although in some instances
they are allowed to stand for sixteen or eighteen
months.

As I have intimated above, the root abounds in a
peculiar poisonous juice, which is stated to be analo-
gous] to hydrocyanic acid, and yet in combination
with such a virulent substance a most wholesome
food exists, and is obtained free from it ; this is due
to the volatility of the principle, and the facility with
which it is destroyed by fermentation, while if any
remain after this process is undergone, it is easily
expelled by heat when the crude material is subjected

to roasting. The old method of manipulation is as
follows, and this is still largely practised now, although
enterprising firms have called in the aid of the en-
gineer, the result being that suitable machinery now
exists in many districts, which is not only a great
labour-saver, but the starch is more effectively and
quickly removed, and a better sample is secured.
After the roots are dug up, they are peeled and made
into a pulp, and thoroughly washed in cold water,
and when at rest the starch subsides, after which the
water is drawn off, and the starch is heated on hot
plants ; the pearl tapioca being granulated. To
obtain the cassava meal the roots are cleaned, grated,
pressed, dried, sifted, and then
slightly baked on an iron plate ;
thus prepared it swells considerably
in water or broth, and is called
" conaque." If, instead of drying
the grated pulp, it is spread upon
a hot iron plate, the starch and
mucilage, by mixing together, con-
solidate the pulp and form a biscuit
called cassava-bread, which is a
very important and nutritious food,
and is sold at a very cheap rate.
These cakes are also masticated in
the same way as the kava root, by
the women, and ejected into large
bowls, where it is allowed to fer-
ment for some days, after which it
is boiled and clarified, when it con-
stitutes a very agreeable, but intoxi-
cating, drink.

The following remarks upon the
improved method of manipulation
by machinery are taken from the
"Gardener's Chronicle," June 17th,
1882, where other details are given
respecting the cultivation of the
plant in the Straits Settlements.
"The roots being first divested of
their woody tops, are thrown into
a large revolving drum, in which
pipes are so arranged that jets of
water play on them as they are turned
over and over, and gradually they
reach the farther end of the drum perfectly clean, and
empty themselves into a rasping machine, whence they
emerge in the form of fine pulp, which is thrown
direct from the rasper into another cylinder covered
either with stout muslin or brass-wire gauze, through
the sides of which jets of water are continually passing.
By this process the starch is separated from the pulp,
the starch passing through the muslin or gauze into a
tank beneath, where further supplies of water send it
through gutters to vats prepared for its reception,
while the pulp is discharged from the drum into
baskets and thrown into heaps, either for cattle
feeding or manure. After the starch in the vats has

86

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

been allowed to subside, the water is gradually drawn
off", fresh water supplied, the whole stirred up and
again allowed to subside, and the water again drawn
off. The treatment of the starch in this stage depends
on the purity of the water used, as, unless the tapioca
when prepared is of the purest whiteness, it can
hardly be given away. After the starch has become
sufficiently pure it is allowed to dry in the vats,
whence it is cut out in cakes, and is then ready for
the last stages of preparation. If tapioca Hour is
required, it is placed first on racks to dry, then on
large, almost flat, tin sheets, which form the top of a
brick flue, where an extremely gentle fire is kept up.
If fluke tapioca is requisite, it is submitted to rather
stronger heat in concave pans at first, whence it is
moved to the previously-mentioned sheets, and kept
turned over with wooden rakes, etc., until it assumes
the fluke-like form so familiar to consumers in Europe.
The flukes are then sifted, to separate the various
sizes, and the prepared tapioca is ready for placing in
the bags for shipment."

The Sweet Cassava Root. — This is the root of
another plant named Manihot aipi, Pohl, which,
though regarded by Pohl as a distinct species, is,
without doubt, but a variety of the last species. The
chief difference is in the root, which is of a most
wholesome character, in contradistinction to the
acridity of the bitter cassava. This is very remarkable,
that such a difference should exist in different forms
of the same species, but such it is in this instance,
and the plant is largely grown, especially in tropical
America, as an esculent ; it is so harmless that it
may be eaten raw without any fear of injurious effect,
but it is usually boiled or roasted, and eaten as a
vegetable, the flavour somewhat resembling that of
fresh chestnuts. It is also employed in the prepara-
tion of an intoxicating beverage, called " Piwarrie,"
which is accomplished by scraping the roots into a
pulp, from which the juice is expressed, which is
allowed to ferment for a few days, when it is purified,
and forms a very agreeable beverage. Cassava meal
and tapioca are also obtained from the roots, but
only in limited quantities, being less productive than
the bitter root.

The dietetical value of tapioca is too well known
to require any notice in this paper, except to say
that, owing to its demulcent properties, it is especially
valuable as a diet for the sick room, and for infants
at the period of weaning.

J. T. Riches.

MY TELESCOPE.

Yellow (or Ray's) Wagtail.— I am much
obliged to Mr. Read for his remarks on the birds
which visited my garden. It was late in September
when I saw them ; they were undoubtedly yellow not
grey wagtails ; some of them remained about for
three days. I noticed they varied very much in size,
so were no doubt (as he observed) two broods ; some
pied wagtails were in company with them. — .S. M. P.

THIS little book is emphatically what it claims to
be by its sub-title, " A Simple Introduction to
the Glories of the Heavens."

In a preliminary chapter on the choice of a telescope,
after recommending those who are not provided with
a long purse to choose a reflector in preference to a
refractor, the writer describes the constellation of the
Great Bear, and shows how it may be used as an index
to the heavens ; then follows a chapter taken as a
type of a star. Then the planets and their position
in the solar system are very clearly explained. Next
comes a description of the moon and its relation to
the earth, and the work concludes with chapters on
the fixed stars, the double stars, coloured stars and
star clusters, and Nebulae.

The chapters are brief, but the matter is correct,
being distinguished throughout by accuracy and
simplicity. Those who go through it with the aid of
only a telescope of three-inches aperture will certainly
long for a bigger book and a larger telescope.

NOTES ON THE EIGHTH EDITION OF THE.
LONDON CATALOGUE OF BRITISH
PLANTS.

By Arthur Bennett, F.L.S.

600 b. Mr. Baker's plant was long ago commented
on in the " Phytologist," it occurs abundantly at
Flegg Burgh, near Filby, Norfolk, by some con-
sidered a hybrid between 600 and 598.

599 an added plant. Years ago reputed as British,,
denied, and fell out of notice. Mr. Toundrow gathered
what Mr. Ridley, of the British Museum, considered
the true plant near Malvern ; it is generally a smaller
plant than E. obscurum, and its leaves are different.

602 and 603 should be combined, as Mr. Watson
long ago held. Practically no two British botanists
separate them alike ; whether we have the true
alpinum {E. lactijlorum) of Hausknecht's Monograph
must hereafter be proved.

609, alter authority to " Jacq."

623, alter authority to "DC."

648 should be F. cafiillaccum, Gilib.

625 is 559, 7th ed.

626 is 560, 7th ed.
630 is 561, 7th ed.
636 is 573. 7th ed.

638 and 639. Three varieties are here added :
their characters will be found in Koch's "Synopsis-
of the German and Swiss Floras."

644 is 604, 7th ed.

* "My Telescope and Some Objects which it Shows," by
A Quekett Club-man. Roper & Drowley, Ludgate Hil!, E.C-

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

37

645 is 606, 7th ed.

646 is 605, 7th ed.
669 is 596, 7th ed.

676 is 601, 7th ed.

677 is 602, 7th ed.

678 is 603, 7th ed.
693 is 629, 7th ed.

711 a and b, alter authority to " Syme."

715, alter authority to " Poll."

720, alter authority to " Huds."

729 should have the small " s."

740 and 741, alter authority to " Grertn."

760 should be D. candidissima, Desf.

772 b a variety found in Warwickshire, etc., with
narrower-cut leaves and whole plant more gracile.

777 should be P. officinalis, Mcench.

781 b a var. found in the Channel Isles, Cork,
Ireland, etc., with radiant ray-florets.

786 /', a similar variation to the last.

787/', var. with deeper-cut leaves, lobe at end
larger, etc.

792 should be spelt S. spathulcefolius, DC.

794/', var. with cottony-webbed heads.

798 would be better named C. tenuiflorus, Curt,
the old name.

Carduus and Cnicus. Personally, I think the
use of these two genera unwarranted, the distinc-
tion between simple and feathery hairs of the pappus
is too artificial.

800 b, authority should be " Gren."

Soi, alter authority to " Willd."

802, alter authority to " Roth."

803, alter authority to " Willd."
S04, alter authority to "Roth."
808, alter authority to " Willd."

809 b is a var. with stiff spiny leaves, growing
especially abundant towards the base of Ben Lawers,
etc.

$>ioe was described by Mr. Jenner in the " Trans-
actions of the Edinburgh Botanical Society."

827 is 754, 7th ed.

834 is 772, 7th ed.

836 ^ is 774 /', 7th ed.

851. Mr. Backhouse now divides II. Aiiglicuiu
into four forms, instead of three, as in 7th ed.

858 is an added species from the Grey-marestail,
Dumfries-shire, found some years ago by Mr. Back-
house. It also occurs in Caithness, and perhaps in
Perth ?

859 b and c are two vars. from W. Sutherland, de-
termined by Dr. Almquist.

S60. Whether we have typical II. cesium, of Fries, ■
in Britain is yet perhaps uncertain. //. Smithii is the
plant ordinarily named as ccesium by British authors.
C is a var. (and a striking one) gathered on the Great
Orme's Head, Carnarvonshire ; it has narrow, deeply-
cut leaves, and seems to me ill-placed under
^cesium.

867 is an added species described by Dr. Boswell,

in the " Report of the Botanical Exchange Club and
Edinburgh Transactions," formerly named as strictum.
It occurs plentifully in Glen Dollar, Clackmannan-
shire.

868 is an added species first found by Mr. F.
Hanbury, in Caithness, since in Sutherland and
Orkney. Named by Dr. Almquist, and since confirmed
by Dr. Lindeberg, who calls it " forma latifolia."

870 is the old //. Borreri.

871, II. strictum of English authors. It is quite
undecided what name our plant should bear, as it
seems not to be the true plant of Fries.

888, alter authority to "Linn."

891^ alter to Icevipes, Koch. C. angustifolia is a
narrow-leaved form, gathered on the coast of Norfolk,
near Wells. I was enabled to identify this through
specimens kindly sent me by Dr. Buchanan, of Bremen,
from the East Friesian islands.

901 b is a minute /from the downs of the southern
counties.

905 c is a beautiful var. of the species found in
West Ireland by Mr. A. G. More ; it has flowers an
inch over.

910 has two fresh names given to it.

921. A better name for this is E. Mackaiua, Bab.

927 should be Dabeocia.

926 is 834, 7th ed.

930, alter authority to "Linn.," and in 932 to
"Gray."

933, //. monotropa, Crantz.

935 is 1058, 7th ed.

936 is 1060, 7th ed.

941. This should read a. acaulis, Hill ; b. caulcscc/is,
Koch.

947, alter authority to " Soland."

961 b, alter to divcrsifolia, Ait.

967 b is the form so often named E. iatifolia, Smith,
and figured as such in " Eng. Bot. Sup."

970 £ is a var. found by Mr. Townsend in the Isle
of Wight.

971 is an added species, easily recognised by its
stamens being inserted at the base of the corolla.

976 b is a var. strongly simulating G. campestns and
flowering in May and June.

983 should be C. Germanicum, Jacq.

993, alter authority to " Gray."

995, alter authority to " Relhan," and £ to
"M. et R."

999, alter authority to " Willd."

1002, an added species found near Kew, in Surrey,
by Mr. G. Nicholson.

1008, substitute a small "s."

1015 c is a yellow-berried form.

1016 c is a greenish-yellow berried form.
1036 is 898, 7th ed.

105 1 is 905, 7th cd ; but perhaps V. Toumefortii,
Vill., is an older name.

{To be continued.')

88

HARDWICRE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

We much regret to state that, owing to a severe
domestic affliction, Mr. John Browning has been
unable to send us his usual monthly article.

A correspondent writes— " Can you help to
raise a howl of execration against ali who shoot
immigrant birds until some more of us may have the
happiness to see them alive ? We do not want to see
them stuffed." We wish we could !

Mr. C. J. Watkins, King's Mill House, Pains-
wick, has forwarded us his list of microscopic objects,
chiefly entomological, which will prove of great value
to students, particularly those who cannot collect
their own material. We cordially recommend it.

Australians are delighted because Mr. Saville
Kent (formerly naturalist at the Brighton and Great
Yarmouth Aquaria, now Inspector of Fisheries in
Tasmania) has discovered that the small fry, people at
the latter antipodal place had been devouring under
the idea they were "whitebait," is really the young
of the true anchovy. Before that they only made the
acquaintance of anchovies in bottles ; and you cannot
get much natural history information from the post-
mortem examination you make at breakfast and
supper.

In these aesthetic days we are always looking out
for new designs. The simple process introduced by
Mr. Outerbridge, of Philadelphia, will therefore
probably be extended. He has been in the habit of
casting molten iron upon lace, fern leaves, &c, with
such success that no other ornamental patterns are
requisite for the surface. The objects are slowly
heated, or carbonised, before casting upon them.

It is stated that our London firemen are to be
dressed in clothing made of asbestos, which is
thoroughly fireproof. The plan has been successfully
adopted with the Paris fire brigades.

A German chemist has discovered a new gas —
hydride of nitrogen. It is exceedingly stable up to a
high temperature, and has a peculiar odour. It is
soluble in water, and possesses basic properties. We
shall hear more of it before long.

They have commenced crushing the gold quartz at
the Dolgelly mines. The first experiments were
made on 625 lb. of material, which is said to have
yielded 18 oz. of gold.

Some sensation has been created by the announced
discovery of natural gas near Peterborough. There
are a great many clay pits about the neighbourhood,
and it was found that the bricks made from the lower
beds (which were of a darker colour) required less
force to burn them. Moreover, whilst these bricks

were being burnt they emitted a burning gas. The
gentleman who announced the above facts suggested
that the Peterborough people should bore down to
see whether natural gas existed beneath the city.
The latter is perfectly unnecessary. Any geologist
would have told him that the dark clay or soft black
shale from which the bricks are made is due to
diffused organic matter, and that the latter, when,
duly heated, gave off sufficient inflammable gas to be
visible. In the natural gas stores of Pittsburg, nature
has clone for the much more ancient black shales-
what the brick-kilns of Peterborough did artificially —
the heat in the interior of the earth distilled the
natural oils and drove off the natural gases, both
being the residue of ancient life.

Possibly John Ruskin's dream may some day
come true, and every craftsman again be able, thanks
to electricity, to follow his craft at home. It is
proposed to let electric power from central stations
to craftsmen. An electro-motor of one-horse power
can be purchased for £10, and its cost would only be
a farthing an hour. The motor might be paid for,
as sewing-machines are, at so much a month. In
America and Geneva, the artisans are already availing
themselves of the new energy in carpentering,
tailoring, bootmaking, watchmaking, etc.

The Metropolitan Board of Works are about to
experiment, at Crossness, with the proposed scheme
to disinfect sewage by means of electricity. It is
stated that if a current of electricity is passed through
a tank of sewage, it disinfects, cleanses, and precipi-
tates all the solid matter.

It has just been demonstrated before the French
Academy that the virus or poison of rabies in dead
dogs which have been buried more than a fortnight
retains all its virulence, and will kill in fifteen days
after inoculation with it. This shows the necessity
of burning the carcasses of animals which have died
from contagious diseases instead of burying them ;
for it has been shown that earthworms bring up to
the surface the infected organic matter of such buried
bodies.

The Museum of the Nitural History Society of
Northumberland and Durham at Newcastle-on-Tyne
is pre-eminent for containing the Hancock collection
of birds and the Atthey collection of coal fossils,
beside many other specimens, animal, vegetable, and
mineral. Alderman Barkas, F.G.S., has been giving
popular explanations of the objects to young people,
which have been highly successful, nearly a thousand
persons having responded to his invitation.

The manner in which certain natural deposits of
carbonate of soda have been formed in Egypt and
elsewhere was explained by the celebrated chemist
Berthollet, on the assumption that an ancient sea had
left the marine salt over strata of lime. This theory

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

89

has recently been tested by a well-known French
chemist, who has demonstrated that natural carbon-
ate of soda is produced in all permeable calcareous
soils in proportion to the quantity of marine salt con-
tained in them. This being the case, common salt
ought to be a valuable manure on all limey soils
where plants are to be grown which require carbon-
ate of soda as their mineral food.

Long distance telephonic communication has
hitherto been a difficulty, but it seems as though
the recently introduced bronze wire will overcome
it. At any rate, it is expected that by the 1st of
July next, long-distance telephonic connection will
be made between Paris and Marseilles, over 500
miles of wire. Telephonic communication has
already been effected between Brussels and Paris,
which is nearly half the above distance.

Talking about telephoning, there was a novel
application of it the other clay in an American paper
devoted to the interests of animals. A gentleman
owned a favourite dog, which happened to be at his
father's office when the owner was too ill to venture
out. So the owner asked them to hold the dog up
to the telephone. The dog being held, the owner
whistled, the creature knew the call and pricked
up its ears, whereupon it was bidden to " come
home." It was then put down, the door opened for
it, and away it trotted off "home," as it was tele-
phonically ordered !

It is stated that the Dutch are entertaining the
grand engineering idea of pumping out and dyking
off the waters of the Zuyder Zee, and of thus recover-
ing from the ocean the vast area submerged by it
five hundred years ago.

Many colliery explosions have doubtless been
caused by the use of gunpowder for blasting. To
overcome this, certain lime-cartridges were invented.
Now it seems probable that Nobel's gelatine dyna-
mite in Settle's water cartridges will be used, as
neither spark nor flame is emitted by them.

M. Trauvelot has supplemented the observa-
tions of several astronomers that, so far from the
rings of Saturn being stable, they are, on the con-
trary, exceedingly variable, and subject to constant
fluctuations.

In these days there are only two classes of people
— those who cannot get enough to eat, and those
who habitually eat too much. The recent experiments
of Messieurs Henriot and Richet, therefore, will be
interesting to the latter. They have been investiga-
ting the influence of various diets on the interchanges
of gases in respiration, and find that respiration
increases with the increase of food, but only when
the latter consists of hydrates of carbon. The inter-
change of the gases is but slightly affected by a nitro-

genous and fatty diet. Feculent substances increased
the absorption of oxygen, and therefore cause a larger
amount of carbonic acid to be given off. (Think of
that, ye who delight in "high" game and venison.)

The veteran Professor Prestwich, whose name is
historically associated with the vast strides made by
Geology during the last half century, has resigned the
Geological Professorship at Oxford, and Professor
Green, of the Yorkshire College of Science, reigns-
in his stead. Professor Prestwich was originally a
wine-merchant, and it was when following that
business that he made nearly all his discoveries. He
was elected to the Chair of Geology at Oxford in the
place of the late Professor John Phillips.

It has recently been proved in the Zoological
Gardens at Halle, that hybrids between the jackal
and the domestic dog are capable of reproduction
among themselves.

An Electric Club has been formed in New York,
which was duly and brillantly opened on the 31st of
last month. As we should naturally expect, it is
fitted up with all sorts of electrical novelties. You
ring the bell by standing on a metal plate, and the
door is then unlocked by electricity ; chops and steaks
are cooked on electric gridirons ; boots and shoes
are blacked and polished by a machine worked by
an electric-motor. The clocks are wound up by
electricity ; and even the club piano can be played
by the same versatile agent !

We have just lost one of our best botanists in the
death of Mr. John Smith, of Kew Gardens, at the
ripe age of ninety-two years. Most people are ac-
quainted with his books on Ferns, of which he made
an especial study. He retired from active work at
the Gardens twenty years ago, but not until he had
largely helped to make Kew the celebrated place
it is.

Pasteur has gone in thoroughly for stamping out
the rabbit pest in Australia, and he apparently hopes
to win the ^25,000 offered by the New South Wales
Government to him who stamps them out. There is
an ingenious scheme by which the rabbits are per-
petuated. A price per head is offered for them, and
a new industry has sprung up at the Antipodes. It
pays the rabbit-exterminators to keep the rabbits
from extinction. In case of the last sad event their
occupation would be gone. In one colony the
Government offered so much per dozen rabbit-heads,
in another for so many tads. Forthwith there was
business done, the rabbit-catchers in one colony
dealing in tails, and those in the next in heads,
exchanging with each other, in order to get the
Government grants.

A Russian scientist states that he has discovered
Bacilli, or germs, in hailstones, and he calculated

9°

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

that in a cubic centimetre there was no fewer than
21,000 of them.

Astronomers have always been much interested
in the "Great Red Spot" on the planet Jupiter.
Mr. Denning is of opinion that it represents an
opening in the aerial envelope of the planet through
which we see the denser vapours of its lower strata.
The lighter tints observed during the last few years
are probably due to the filling in of the cavity by the
encroachment of the clouds in the vicinity. Parts
of some of the more prominent belts display an
intense red hue, like that of the old red spot, and
they may be due to the same causes.

The largest steamship ever constructed in Ireland
has just been completed by Messrs. Harland &
Wolf, for the Peninsular and Oriental Company. It
is called the " Oceana," and is 466 feet long, 6380
tons gross register, with engines working up to 7000
horse-power. She is said to be capable of attaining
the speed of sixteen knots an hour. The new vessel
left London with the mails on the 9th of March.

It is not long since it was discovered that the basic
s'ag of our iron furnaces (hitherto a perfectly waste
material) contained so much valuable phosphates, that
when it was ground to a fine powder it made a splendid
artificial manure. The Staffordshire Steel Co. are
now grinding two hundred tons of it a week, and the
selling price runs up to forty-five shillings per ton.

It is proposed to construct a bridge over the
Hudson, with a single span of 2850 feet, to be
145 feet above high water, and have a total length
of 6600 feet. The cables are to be carried on
towers 500 hundred feet high.

Baron Richtofen, Professor of Geology in Berlin
University, and famous as one of the scientific
explorers of China, died on the 6'.h ult., in Silesia, at
the early age of 53.

We have received a copy of "A Pocket List of
British Marine Mollusca," compiled by the Rev.
Geo. Bailey, F.R.M.S. It is excellently got up, and
convenient for the pocket. Price 6d., published by
Tindall & Co., High Street, Newmarket.

We are pleased to notice that Mr. C. B. Plowright
is publishing " The British Uredinea; and Ustila-
ginere " (illustrated with woodcuts) in a vol. of 270
pages. Price, to subscribers, Js. 6d., to non-sub-
scribers, 10s. 6d. Forms of subscription to be had of
Messrs. Kegan Paul & Co.

A remarkable paper was recently read before the
Liverpool Astronomical Society by the Rev. F. G.
Grensted, on "A Theory to account for the Airless
and Waterless condition of the Moon," to which are
appended some geological and physical notes, by
T. M. Reade, F.G.S.

Professor I. B. Balfour (of Oxford University)
has been elected Professor of Botany in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, the chair formerly held by his
distinguished father.

A new work on Astronomy by R. A. Proctor is
announced to appear in 2r. 6d. parts, the first part to
be published early in April. Publishers, Messrs.
Longman & Co.

Some time ago we noticed the death t>f Mr. Thos.
Bolton, the widely-known purveyor of living micro-
scopic objects. We are glad to observe that his two
sons, Mr. T. E. Bolton and Mr. S. P. Bolton, are
carrying on their father's extensive business.

Professor Herdman, of Liverpool, has just
published an interesting brochure, entitled " Puffin
Island Biological Station ; its Foundation and First
Season's Work."

ZOOLOGY.

Ballast-Bags of Seals. — At a recent meeting of
the British Naturalists' Society, Dr. A.J. Harrison, in
a paper on " The Ballast-bag of the Seal," said :
"According to the fishermen, the Otariae have an
internal pouch known as the ' ballast-bag ' because it
is always found to contain a number of rounded
stones. The presence of these is accounted for by
saying that when the animals grow very fat, they
become so buoyant as to be unable to sink below the
surface of the water without the aid of some ballast,
which they secure by swallowing stones." This theory
implies the possession by the seals of considerable
reasoning power. Observations have shown that the
so-called ballast-bag is only the stomach ; and ac-
cordingly some people have suggested that the stones
are intended to assist in the trituration of food in
somewhat the same manner as in the gizzard of fowls.
Other persons suppose the stones subserve no useful
purpose, and are accidentally introduced with the
food, or in play. In the seals and sea-lions at the
London Zoo similar rounded stones have been found,
large numbers of which are quite foreign to the
geographical character of the district. A Newfound-
land seal, which died at the Cliiton Zoo, in 1886, was
examined by Dr. Harrison, who found in the stomach,
gravel, nuts, and pieces of stick.

Unrecorded Daphnias. — Having read in this
month's number of your paper an article on " Un-
recorded Daphnia " (p. 37), I beg to say that, in
connection with some new discoveries in Fish
Culture, made at Geneva, I have specimens of
Daphnia ("pulex," I am told) which might be of
interest to Mr. C. Rousselet, resembling, as they do,
the drawing he has sent you. I shall be happy to
supply a few specimens, should the matter be of

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

91

sufficient interest, and I enclose some printed matter
giving particulars of the discoveries referred to, in
view of the remarks made ky Mr. W. A. Carter, at
Forest Hill, recorded in the following page of your
journal under the heading of " Science-Gossip." — ■
James Davison.

Rabbit Swimming a River. — On 17th of
February last, while waiting to see the university
boat, I witnessed what is I believe a rather un-
common occurrence. It was an extremely cold day,
several men were trying the skill of two fox-terriers
in hunting a wild rabbit. The rabbit was very hard
pressed, and, notwithstanding there were a number of
people on the bank, it ran past them, closely followed
by the dogs, down the bank into the river (the dogs
however did not take the water), and swam bravely
across to the opposite side, where there were several
people waiting to receive it ; one of them lifted it out
kicking vigorously. — F. L., Cambridge.

Lesser White Fronted Goose in Somerset.
— I see Mr. Gyngell, of Wellington, in this county,
Somerset, has recorded in the March number of
Science-Gossip the occurrence of the lesser white
fronted goose at West Buckland. He kindly sent the
head, legs and wings of this bird, all that remained of
it, to me for the purpose of identification. I certainly
made the parts sent to be parts of the lesser white
fronted goose (Anser erythropus), the small size of
all the parts sent, when compared with the same parts
of any other of our grey wild geese, at once led to that
conclusion ; moreover "the straight ridged bill forming
a line with the forehead," * which was very marked
in the head of this bird, is a very decided distinction.
The white on the forehead though not very clearly
marked having some brown feathers intermined,
probably owing to the bird being a young bird,
reached farther on the forehead than in A. albifrons,
extending quite as far as the eye. The bill, legs and
feet, and wings were much smaller than any of our
grey wild geese. I compared them carefully with skins
of A. albifrons, A. cinereus, and A. segetum, and also
with my live A. lonchyrhynchus, and could not make
them agree with either. They agree however very
exactly with the measurements of those parts given
by Dresser, in his "Birds of Europe," namely, tarsus
2'2 in. culmen 1*3. The wing I could not take a
measurement of as there was not sufficient of it sent
me ; but, compared with the other skins mentioned,
it was very short, and the quill feathers were smaller.
I did not record the occurrence of the bird anywhere,
as I took it for an escape, one wing to all appearance
having been pinioned. I admit I did not in passing
my fingers along it find for certain that a joint had
been taken off, but the quill feathers were some
wanting altogether, and one or two cut very short
off. There was no primary quill feather at all on

* See Yarrell, ed. 4, v. 4, p. 263.

that wing. Mr. Gyngell has however since written
to me to say, that he has since seen the person who
shot the bird, and he reports that it was perfectly
able to fly, and when first put up ilew nearly a mile
before it pitched again.— Cecil Smith, Lyndurst House,
Somerset.

Lacuna Pallidula, Da Costa.— Referring to Mr.
Gubbins' enquiries in your January issue, I would
refer that gentleman to vol. iii. of Jeffery's " British
Conchology," where he will find the habitat of the
species stated to be " on Laminarias and other sea-
weeds having flat and smooth fronds, at low-water
mark, and in a few fathoms seawards, chiefly on our
southern and western coasts," nothing being said
regarding its frequency of occurrence. L. pallidula
may be a commoner species than supposed. In the
West of Scotland it will usually reward search on the
surfaces of the "waving tangles" at spring tides,
where immature specimens are sometimes plentiful.
L. divaricata, Fabr. (= vincta, Mont.) is a much
more abundant form. It is a favourite food of wild
ducks, and may be found in their crops. I have
taken it in numerous localities from the Butt of Lewis
to the Island of Arran. L. puteolus, Turt., is not
in the West of Scotland, a common species : any I
have obtained — and they have been of var. coniea,
Jeffr. — have been by dredging. It seems to be
abundant in the English Channel, where at low tide
in the neighbourhood of Teignmouth a correspondent
has obtained for me a large series, with great variety
of marking. L. crassior, Mont., is widely distri-
buted, but local species occurring generally in deep
water.— A. Somerville, B.Sc., F.L.S., Glasgow.

LIMN.4EA Palustris, var. albida, Nelson.— I
found two specimens of this variety in a pond near
Doncaster last year along with a large number of
the type of the ordinary colour.

SpjleriumRivicola, var. flavescens, Pascal.—
Mr. J. A. Hargreaves, of Shipley, has shown me two
specimens of S. rivicola of a yellow colour from
Lancashire, which I take to be this variety.

Helix Hortensis. — Last summer I found a speci-
men of H. hortensis, with a dark brown peristome.
This, I presume, is the variety called by Kreglinger
fasco-labris. I have not seen it recorded before in
any British list. — Geo. Roberts.

Vinegar Eel. — In consequence of the author of
this interesting paper not having sent his address, no
proof could be forwarded to him. Mr. Thomas now
writes to make the following corrections :—" serru-
lated " instead of "sacculated;" "broad pouch"
instead of " brood pouch;" "excretary" instead of
"excretory."

Bats in Scotland. — I wonder if any of your
Scotch readers are within easy reach of Crookston

92

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Castle — if it still exists — in Renfrewshire, and whether
naturalists are allowed to visit it, because there is an
interesting point to be cleared up in connection with
it. In the old " Statistical Account " it was said to
be the home of the lesser horse-shoe bat {Rhinolophus
hipposideros), and if so it would be the only known
Scotch locality for the species, and so the most
northern point of its range in these islands. I should
not think of disputing the accuracy of the record, as
the writer was acquainted with other species, but the
late Mr. Alston, a great authority, refused to admit
this bat into the "Fauna Scotica." The bats of
Scotland appear to be the following : — The lesser
horse-shoe bat : Renfrewshire. The long-eared
bat : common ; as far north as Aberdeen. The
pipistrelle : common ; as far north as Sutherland.
Daubenton's bat : common ; reported from Kirkcud-
bright, Dumfries, Renfrew, Lanark, Fife, Aberdeen,
and Banff. Natterer's bat (reddish-grey bat) : rare :
Argyle and Midlothian. The whiskered bat : rare ;
I have seen a specimen from Rannoch, Perthshire :
not before recorded ; but probably mistaken for the
pipistrelle. In conclusion, I would urge your readers
to examine all bats that come in their way, as a
greater knowledge of the British species is much to
be desired. — J. E. Kelsall, Fareham, Hants.

MICROSCOPY.

Hardy's Flat Bottle. — In the description Mr.
Rousselet gave last month of the flat bottle, he omitted
to mentionthe cork, which is not only useful but a
necessary item to complete the "bottle." This I
generally make from the end of the internal piece of
rubber, so that it fits naturally. With the cork inserted
the bottle with contents can be safely carried in the
pocket, and can also be placed on the stage of the
microscope lengthwise, so that it does not require
holding. For this purpose jj inch thick is too much,
it is better to use rubber of jj to $ inch. To clean
the " bottle," use a stiff wire with some cotton cord
round the end. — J. D. Hardy.

The Royal Microscopical Society. — The Feb.
"Journal" contains papers on "The Fresh-water
Algce of the English Lake District," by A. W.
Bennett, F.L.S., "Note on Microstomas Ameri-
cana" by W. M. Maskel ; and " Note on the Minute
Structure of Pelomyxa palustris" by G. Gulliver.
There is in addition the usual excellent "Summary
of Current Researches " in things microscopical.

The Quekett Microscopical Club. — General
satisfaction was felt at the announcement that the
Quekett Microscopical Club was going to resort to its
good old ways, and have a soiree, or scientific evening.
This came off on the 9th March, in the Library of
University College (thanks to the council of the
College), and was largely attended ; not a few ladies

being among the visitors present. The exhibition
was uncommonly good, as the Queketters, who
individually possess many beautiful and rare slides,
determined to do their best, in competition with the
recent scientific evening of the Royal Microscopical
Society. So their treasures were brought out, and
very many beautiful and uncommon objects were on
view. Some of the best displays at the scientific
evening above referred to, were again repeated,
giving great satisfaction. The list of objects would
be too long for me to recapitulate, but I must mention
one or two of special interest. Hydra tuba was on
view, and giving off its medusa-like buds freely. One
of these was shown in a separate microscope. Mr.
Dodswell had not forgotten to bring his bulblet of
Chara, in which the remarkable cyclosis was going
on. Mr. Charters White, in one of the bays of the
room was showing off his micro-photographs as
lantern slides : thus quickly putting Dr. Crookshank's
ideas, as set forth at the Royal Microscopical Society's
exhibition, into practice. Mr. Parsons had the
curious and obscure polype, which is suspected to be
the cause of the annual appearance in the Victoria
Regia Tank of the Royal Botanic Society of the
unique fresh-water medusa (Lymnocodium) which is
such a puzzle to scientists. Mr. Enoch's drawings
and preparations were again before appreciative
observers. Several very fine slides of spider's eyes
were noticed. But the whole exhibit was so excellent
that one frequently heard the question, " Why cannot
the club do this sort of thing oftener?" Such a
display as this shows that the Queketters are not
quite gone to sleep yet. Let us hope they will
wake up, and repeat the pleasing results of many
years ago. It is true many of the old friends' names
are not now on the list, but still, many are left, and
their esprit de corps is strong yet.— S. J. Mclntire.

BOTANY.

GEcidium Aquilegle in America. — Last
summer I found an GEcidium growing on the leaves
of Aquilegia ccerulea, James, near the head of Swift
Creek, in the Langre de Cristo Range, Custer Co.,
Colorado. This specimen has been very kindly
determined for me by Dr. W. G. Farlow, of
Cambridge, Mass., who writes: "It is CEcidium
aquileg'ue, Pers., which has not been recorded before
in this country, I believe." There are several species
of Aquilegia in the Rocky Mountains, but A. ccerulea
is the most abundant and perhaps the most beautiful
of them all, its pale blue floweis being conspicuous
on the mountain-sides under the fir-trees in July and
August, at an altitude of ten thousand feet and above.
The tall stalks of Primula parryi bearing pink flowers
are also frequent by watercourses in the same situa-
tions.— T. D. A. Cockerel I, West Cliff, Custer Co.,
Colorado.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

93

Yew-Tree Poisoning Cattle (p. 44).— I am
old enough to remember an unsettled controversy on
this point in " Gardener's Chronicle," 1848. It came
up again in 1854 and was then closed in two letters,
the conclusion being that we must admit the leaves
of the yew to be "poisonous," but they are not fatal
unless taken in quantity in a fasting stomach. It
would be desirable for your recent correspondent to
tell the public whether the horses of which he wrote
were all fasting or not. I am not able to search the
G. C. later than 1854.— W. Gee, Freshford, Bath.

GEOLOGY, &c.

The Dicynodon in the Elgin Sandstones.
— For many years past this formation has been a
much-debated ground to geologists. Some affirmed
it was the new red sandstone— others, that it must be
the old red. Geology is expected to throw light on
the modern doctrine of evolution. The latter theory
maintains, above all things, the gradual development
of life on our earth. The debated formation above
alluded to looked like the old red sandstone; but
there had been a little fossil terrestrial reptile, of
high organisation, called Telerpeton, found in it many
years ago. Now, according to the law of succession
of life upon the earth, this reptile had no business to
be found in the old red sandstone formation. Its
proper place of appearance was much later on.
Other incidental fossil remains were found associated
with the Telerpeton, all of which suggested them to be
of much later date than the old red. When the British
Association met at Aberdeen in 1885, there was an
excursion to the quarry in the Elgin sandstone where
the reptilian remains had been found, and a geological
discussion took place. Within the last few weeks
there has been a new find of fossils in the same
quarry. These will not only settle the debate,
geologically and evolutionistically, but they are full
of novelty besides. In South Africa there is a well-
known formation, which has been fully regarded all
round as equivalent in age to the new red sandstone
of Cheshire and Warwickshire, that has produced a
variety of fossil extinct reptiles, which have not
hitherto turned up anywhere else. Among the
recent " finds " in the Elgin sandstone of Scotland
are the remains of the chief fossil reptile hitherto
found only in South Africa — a creature called
Dicynodon. So a few extra fossil bones have
practically settled two generations of geological
discussion, and Evolution is again justified of her
children.

Post-Glacial Time.— A paper on this subject by
T. Mellard Reade, C.E., F.G.S., has just been read
at the Geological Society. The author showed that
there exists on the coast of Lancashire and Cheshire
an important series of post-glacial deposits which he

has studied for several years. The whole country to
which his notes refer was formerly covered with a
mantle of low-level marine Boulder-clay and sands,
and the valleys of the Dee, Mersey, and Ribble were
at one time filled with these glacial deposits. These
glacial beds have been much denuded, especially in
the valleys, where the rivers have cleared them out,,
in some cases, to the bed rock. Most of this de-
nudation occurred during a period of elevation
succeeding the deposition of the low-level Boulder-
clay. On this eroded surface and in the eroded
channels lay a series of post-glacial beds of a most
interesting and extensive nature. They consist of
estuarine silt and Scrobicularia-clay covered by ex-
tensive peat-deposits, containing the stools of trees
rooted into them. Upon these lie, in some places,
recent tidal silts, and on the coast margin blown
sand and sand dunes. The series of events repre-
sented by the denudation of the low-level Boulder-
clay and the laying down of these deposits is as
follows : — 1st, elevation succeeding the glacial period,
during which time the Boulder-clay was deeply
denuded in the valleys. 2nd, subsidence to about
the 25-feet contour, when the estuarine silts and
clays were laid down. 3rd, re-elevation, repre-
senting most probably a continental connection with
the British Isles, during which time the climate was
milder than at present, and big trees flourished
where now they will not grow. 4th, subsidence to-
the present level, the submersion of the peat and
forest-beds, the laying down of tidal silt upon them,
and the accumulation of blown sand along the sea-
margin extending to a considerable distance in an
inland direction. It was estimated, from a variety
of considerations, that these events, all posterior to
the glacial period, represent a lapse of time of not
less than 57>5°° years allotted as follows : — 40,000
years for the elevation succeeding the glacial period
measured by the denudation of the Boulder-clay in
the valleys, 15,000 years for the accumulation of the
estuarine silts, clays, peat, and forest beds, and 2500
years for the blown sand.

The Geologists' Association. — The last part
of the" Proceedings" contains papers on "The
Formation of Agates," by W. J. Lewis Abbott ; on
"The Geology of Cornwall," by T. H. Collins, and
" Notes on the London Clay and its Deposition," by
J. Starkie Gardner, etc.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Eccentricities of Insect Life. — The following
notes may interest your correspondent, Peter Kirk*.
and others : — The past season has been a fairly good,
one for entomologists. One peculiar feature in the
abundance of lepidopterous insects has been the
recurrence of the yellow underwing moth {Tryphcena
protuiba) in fairly large numbers. This moth was,

94

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

very plentiful some five or six years ago, since which
time it has not occurred in anything like full force of
numbers. At the time we mention we have seen as
many as sixty at a time feasting at one patch of
■"treacles;" in fact it was quite a nuisance,
shouldering off every other insect which came to the
sweets, for it is a large, strong insect, and not to be
despise I as far as beauty goes; but when occurring
in such vast numbers as it does occasionally one is
apt to vote it a nuisance. At the time we speak of
we were compelled to kill them by hundreds ; it was
of no use to drive them off, they were there again
directly, so slaughter was our only defence against
them. The toads did not mind, though. We found
several sitting at the foot of each tree greedily gobbling
up such insects as fell down from under our thumb. It
is surprising what remarkable instinct these creatures
display in this matter ; they will assuredly discover
trees that have been "treacled," and there they sit
at the foot. Woe is it to any intoxicated insect
happening to fall to the ground ; it is snapped up in
an instant. We should, perhaps, explain to such of
our readers as do not understand " treacling," that it
is a method of capturing certain kinds of moths by
alluring them within reach by means of a sweet bait
composed of rum and treacle. This is brushed on
the trunks of trees, and is quickly scented out by the
insects, who congregate to sip the sweets, and thus
are easily captured. The toads, however, are not
the only purloiners of our treasures ; the bats soon
find out the game, and will pick off the insects from
the trunks of the trees as they pass to and fro in
flight. We have seen the cross-rail of a fence under
a " treacled " tree literally covered with the wings of
moths; the bat only devours the soft, juicy bodies,
clipping off the wings neatly and quickly. It is a
peculiar characteristic of insect life, that certain
species will occur at times in great profusion (as
above), then disappear for years altogether, or only
be seen in meagre numbers, again appearing, as at
first, in vast numbers. This peculiar trait in insect
life canrtot be satisfactorily accounted for ; many
hypotheses have been put forward, but in no instance
have they been substantiated by actual facts. — W.
Finch, jun., Nottingham.

*x* The above from my own pen appeared in the
"Nottinghamshire Guardian " quite recently.

Fox Eggars. — For the benefit of the writer of
the query respecting "Fox Eggars," in Science-
Gossip for February, I append the following
cutting from my article on " Lepidopterist's Work "
in the August issue of Science-Gossip, 1886. —
"Many larvae taken this month will be noticed to
feed slowly and in a very deliberate manner. If
kept, these will prove to be hybemating larva;. It
is often difficult so to preserve the conditions of
nature throughout the winter as to keep these larvae
in health. They frequently die, refusing all food in
a most obstinate manner. Of these larvae I will
merely mention those of the fox-moth (B. rubi),
which are exceedingly handsome and well worth
preserving. I have found them in great numbers on
the Lincolnshire coast, close to the sea, feeding on
brambles, etc. Yet, strange to say, I have never yet
seen the cocoon or perfect insect there. If any of
my readers possess a refrigerator they will be able
to keep these larvae throughout the winter by placing
them therein ; they hybernate ' full fed,' and spin
up almost immediately upon emergence from the
lethargic state. Judging from those I have kept,
however, I should say that they are the favourite
victims of the various Ichneumons." From the
above it will readily be seen that the larvae are

hybemating, but I very much doubt whether they
will be successfully reared. — W. Finch, j'n/i.,
Nottingham.

"Nest of Australian Fly " and the New Zea-
land Spider Wasp, or Mason Fly. — The insect de-
scribed by Mr. George Browne (see Science-Gossip
for October, p. 239), is probably Pompiliisfitgax, which
is, I believe, found in South Australia. However
that may be, it is evidently closely allied to the New
Zealand spider wasp (also erroneously called Mason
Bee), and I therefore give a few particulars concerning
our species, which may possibly possess some interest
for your correspondent. The New Zealand spider
wasp is. I believe, a species of Fompilus {P.
monachus?), is black and shining with smoky-
hyaline wings. It may be seen in abundance in
many parts of the Colony. The nests which are
frequently found in sheds, corners of verandahs, or
any convenient crevice, sometimes even the living
rooms, behind pictures, etc., are truly wonderful
structures. As 1 have in my possession a number of
nests, and have frequently had opportunities of
watching the operation, I will give a short description
of the mode of building. I one day watched several
wasps on a preliminary tour of inspection, and
observed them busily examining a number of chinks
about the corners of a building ; at last an angle
formed by a stud and the weather-board was selected,
the insects, for they sometimes work in pairs, flew
away, but in a very few minutes returned, each
carrying a pellet of soft clay of considerable size.
This clay they at once proceeded to attach to the
wall, working it well with their feet, and as soon as
it was properly fixed they flew off for more. This
proceeded till a small mud shelf had been made. On
looking again about an hour later I found that a cell
measuring half-an-inch had been nearly finished, and
later in the day three such cells had been completed.
I broke open the bottom one, and found it to
contain a spider, not dead, but evidently paralysed
by a sting from the wasp. On another occasion I
was fortunate enough to witness the capture of
spiders. As each cell is completed, a spider is
placed in it and the egg must be immediately laid
either on or in its body, for the wasp at once seals up
the cell and proceeds to build another and so on.
About ten weeks after the nest was finished I broke
open the second cell and found a tiny whitish grub
feeding on the body of the spider. It is seldom that
more than one spider is found in a single cell,
probably one is usually considered sufficient for the
future grub, still in three instances I have found two
comatose spiders in one cell, but they were small, and
evidently the parent wasp was well able to calculate
the amount of food likely to be required by each of
her voracious children, and thus where only small
arachnids could be secured, she doubled the number.
During the whole time that building is proceeding,
the wasps emit a steady buzzing noise, somewhat like
that made by a blue-bottle, but shriller. The nests
sometimes contain as many as twenty cells placed
either in a single, double, or triple line, according to
the convenience of the place selected. The whole of
the nest including the partitions is of clay, usually
when dry a pale yellow colour. The outside is well
finished, and is corrugated and made to look some-
what like the sculpturing on a crayfish — each corru-
gation is covered with very fine striations caused by
the builder's feet as she works the clay and cements
the whole structure together. I do not wish to
trespass on your space, and therefore will not now
give a minute description of the cells, but send a
photograph showing a nest built on the side and

BARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

95

shoulder of an empty medicine bottle as it stood on a
shelf in the tool-house. The larvre, as will be seen,
have eaten the spiders, and reached the cocoon stage.
In each cell were found portions of the legs and head
of the spider, but every other particle had been
devoured by the grub for whose sustenance he had
been placed there. If spiders are capable of thought,
what must be the state of mind of these unfortunate
victims, paralysed and shut up in a dark room,
awaiting the birth of their devourers, and what their
sensations when the greedy larva starts feeding on
their still living bodies? — T. IV. Kirk, Museum,
Wellington, X.Z.

Tailed Men. — A correspondent alludes to the
os coccyx in man, which recalls to recollection that
our ancestors have had a constant predilection for
men with tails. His Satanic majesty in pictorial
exposition used to take the disguise of hoofs and
tail ; and certain fanatics in the days of Thomas
a Becket had grim jokes about the tailed men of
Stroud ; but this appears as of yesterday, for I have
before me a sketch of a Culdee tombstone, from " an
auld kirkyard," at Keills, in Argyleshire, where the
" Noroway lion" has a twin supporter in a tailed
potentate, of ample brow, sitting on his buttocks,
and sleeking with his left hand a tail that curls
beneath his legs. This tomb of jarl or king is not
so ancient, but one of its associates is very archaic,
having concentric rings and scores ; and considered
as a group, in addition to defaced inscriptions, they
all present picture-writing identical with that on the
tomb-boards of North American chieftains, leading
one insensibly back to the infancy of the human race
when picture-writing was the fashion, and all the
world was kith and kin. One might indeed on these
grounds surmise these tailed men to be identical with
some of those old Assyrian gods, who in the Cunei-
form Inscription descriptive of the Deluge, as trans-
lated by Mr. George Smith, are thus graphically
described as seeking refuge from such a calamity :
" They ascended to the heaven of Ami. The gods
with tails hidden, crouched down ; " while the
presence of sphinx-like creatures and elements of the
Asiatic-European mythology in conjunction on the
tombs would colour the conjecture. The cuneiform
description of the Deluge is held to be more ancient
than the days of Abraham, and consequently of
Moses, to whom are accredited the opening chapters
of Genesis, the first of which written with a certain
cadence and in some sort of rhythm, would I suppose
be correctly termed a psalm. Provided these state-
ments be accurate, for I am no adept at the cuneiform,
it would seem as if there has always existed a hazy
idea concerning tailed men, among our fellow
creatures ; and we might easily imagine such to have
had its origin among the picture-writers of remote
antiquity in some actual tradition, although we are
only able to reason from affinity and analogy. On
the Culdee monuments, hunting the elephant is also
now and again depicted, but I question if the said
elephants could be proved mammoths or mastodons,
as I do not think that they are "hairy" beasts;
though at the same time they certainly harmonise
well with the tailed men, and their huntsmen have
Celtic targets, and the character of the monuments
themselves is very evidently not Christian, but in
harmony with those previously noticed ; and the
whole is vividly suggestive of the age of Saturn,
"Pan's blameless reign, and patriarchal days." — ■
A. H. Swinton.

Depraved ArrETTTES. — No doubt the cat men-
tioned by A. Verinder (p. 45) is suffering from

worms ; when such is the case these animals (and
dogs also) acquire a depraved appetite, seemingly
to assuage the constant sense of gnawing at the
stomach caused by the presence of the parasites. I
have seen dogs eat chrysanthemum leaves, cinders,
and other equally absurd delicacies {'!). A few doses
of areca nut would soon solve the question, however,
as much as will lie on a sixpence would be the dose
for a full-grown cat. I would advise A. Verinder to
give it a trial. — W. Finch, jun., Nottingham.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now-
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply-
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of out gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

T. H. B. — Any of Murby's excellent series of cheap scientific
manuals would meet your req»iremenls. Longmans' have pub-
lished a still better set of works at 4s. del. each. W. Collins &
Sons, Glasgow, have also issued a capital and cheap library of
books on the subjects you name.

Miss S. Smith. — The so-called Australian "opossum"
belongs to the same order (Marsupialia) as the American
animals bearing ihe same popular name. The zoological name
of the common Australian kind is Phalangista vulpina. Eggs
both of the echidna and platypus are not common, and the
Editor of Science-Gossip would be glad to be supplied with
one.

A. R. Bankarte.— Apply to Mr. Geo. Morton, F.G.S.,
Geological Society, Liverpool, who a few years ago published
a handy little manual of the carboniferous limestone of North
Wales, with maps, photographs, lists and localities for fossils, &c.

G. W. — You might apply to any of the dealers in microscopic
materials who advertite in the pages of Science-Gossip.

C. G. — You had better make Havre your head-quarters. If
you can, get Quatrefages' "Rambles of a Naturalist" on the
coasts of Normandy (2 vols.) translated.

C. C. — See McAlpine's "Zoological Atlas."

E. A. Hutton. — A General Index to the first twelve vols,
of Science-Gossip was published at the close of 1876, price 8</-
Apply to our publishers, Messrs. Chatto & Windus. Perhaps
another Index will be published at the end of the second twelve
y ears.

F. Stanley. — Mantell's " Geology of Sussex " has some
excellent figures of the chalk fossils of that region, with de-
scriptions, &c.

Geo. Alant. — Huxley's "Physiology" (price 4.?. 6d., Mar-
miilan & Co.) is the best elementary work you can get.
Flower's "Osteology" (price 6s. , Macmillan & Co.) on bone^.
You could order a student's microscope (from £2 10s. to £7)
from any of the microscope makers who advertise in our
columns.

C. T. W. N. (Sheffield). — We shall be very pleased to receive
short notices of the meetings of your society.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, plants for herbarium from all parts of the world.
Correspondence and exchange invited. — Rev. Hilderic Friend,
F.L.S., 19 Burlington Place, Carlisle.

Duplicates, Planorbis glabcr, Helix hispida, Helix (trims-
tonim, Valvata piscinalis, &c. Desiderata, Planorbis uitidus,
Spharium ovale, Pisidium rosetim, Succinea oblonga, or any
slugs' shells.— John Clegg, 5 Derby Street, Millwood, Tod-
morden. . .

I should be glad to correspond with a collector in the north
of Scotland with a view to exchanging the eggs of our midland
birds for those of the birds of his neighbourhood.— K. D.,
Cofton Parsonage, Redditch.

Wanted, good 5 X 4 or i-plate portable camera, swing back,
changing slide; lens must be good. Exchange, S. Kent's
"Infusoria" (cost £3 3J.), or other works. — H., 73 Clarence
Road, Clapton, N.E.

96

HARD WICKE ' 6 S CIE NCE- G 0 SSIP.

)

Exchange, land and freshwater shells for fossils of any
formation. — F. Hodgson, Laywood, Cornholme, near Tod-
morden.

What offers for vols. 12 and 2 of "Industries," unbound?
"Wanted, Newman's " British Moths," or Darwin's " Formation
of Vegetable Mould by Worms," and "Fertilization of Orchids
by Insects," or books on pond life. — John E. Nowers, 71 Bran-
stone Road, Burton-on-Trent.

Eaton's monograph of " Recent Ephemeridae," parts 3 and 4,
with 18 plates; also Day's "Breeding of Salmon " — Linnean
Society — in exchange for good micro slides, chiefly botanical.
— Beta, Castle House, Malvern.

Wanted, Science-Gossip, vol. ii. (Nos. 13-24, inclusive),
either bound or in 'parts, latter preferred. Offered, mounted
slides for polariscope. W. Wise, Chemist, Launceston.

Duplicate fossils from various formations, localities guaran-
teed, own collecting. Micro object slides (diatoms, zoophytes,
&c.) wanted in exchange. — P. Thompson, 19 Guerin Street,
Bow, London.

P. glabcr in exchange for any other land and freshwater
shells. — T. Ingham, 3 Railwav Street, Blackpool.

Wanted, foreign or English shell1--, star-fish, echini, birds'
eggs, corals, &c. — Fredk. Stanley, Cliftonville, Margate.

Gesenius's "Hebrew Grammar," by Conant (new); Olli-
vant's "Hebrew History of Joseph," with analysis; Franck's
" Meth. de la langue Hebrai'que," with vocabularies, and the
"Tauchnitz Pocket Hebrew-German Dictionary," in exchange
for a good text-book of botany. — R. McCully, Winchester
Road, Romsey, Hants.

"Observations on the Uraniidas," a family of Lepidop-
terous insects, with a synopsis of the family, and a monograph
of Coronidia, one of the genera of which it is composed.
Coloured plates. By T. O. Westwood, M.A., F.L.S. ; Part 12
of " Transactions of the Zoological Society of London," quite
clean. What offers? — Joseph Anderson, jun., Aire Villa,
Chichester.

Wanted, a few leaves of berberis infested with CEcidium
berberidis (stage of Puccinia grajuinis) ; will give good micro
slide or other micro material. — J. C., 23 Roland Road, Lozells,
Birmingham.

Murphy's "Tacitus," Murphy's " Sallust," Hume's "Es-
says," Byron's "Life and Journals," Smith's "Thucydides,"
D'Aubisne's " History of the Reformation," Guizot's "English
Revolution," and Kirke White's "Remains," in exchange for
fossils from any strata, but chiefly from carboniferous. — Dr.
Tooner, Clifton Avenue, Levenshulme, Manchester.

Wanted, Howitt's "Flora of Nottinghamshire;" will give
good value. — H. Fisher, Newark, Notts.

Wanted, to exchange British for North or South American
plants. I have about 700 species which are not native in North
America. Printed list sent on receipt of address. — H. Fisher,
26 Stodman Street, Newark, Notts.

Wanted, boxes for slides — not rack-work— in exchange for
Science-Gossip for three years. — Miss Jelly, Hatchlands, Red-
hill, Surrey.

Wanted, live spawn of frogs and newts ; good exchange
given in micro slides, &c. — H. P., 103 Camden Street, London,
N.W.

Wanted, pocket microscope lamp; also best quality 4-inch
objective. Good exchange given in micro slides, &c. — H. P.,
103, Camden Street, London, N.W.

Engravings of varieties of British Unios and Anodons, in
exchange for Continental, land or freshwater shells, or varieties
of British Helices.— Geo. Roberts, Lofthouse, Wakefield.

Duplicates : — Venus verrucosa, Trochus halinoia, Sulcosa,
Picturata, Cantharus subruginosa, Nassa variabilis, Colum-
bella rustica. Desiderata, other marine species new to col-
lection.— W. J. Jones, jun., 27 Mayton Street, Holloway,
London, N.

Fine foreign specimens of Helix, Clausilia, Patella, Mitrella,
Cetithium, Trochus, Zizyphinus, Unio, Planorbis physa, and
many others, offered for specimens not in collection. Corre-
spondence invited from all parts of the world. —J. T. T. Reed,
JRyhope, Sunderland.

Clausilia Rolphii an'! Plan, glaber, in exchange for any of
the vertigos or slug shells. — Sam Clough, 20 Abingdon Street,
Blackpool.

A collection of British land and freshwater shells — over
70 different sorts. Particulars sent on application. — Miss
M. P. Fitzgerald, North Hall, Preston, Candover, Basingstoke.

Wanted, fossils and minerals in exchange for general
curiosities (natural history specimens, &c). List sent. — A. S.
Richardson, 39 Edithna Street, Stockwell, London, S.W.

Planorbis glabcr in exchange for other British or foreign
land and freshwater shells, or marine and butterflies. — W. Dean,
50 Canning Street, Stoneyholme, Burnley, Lanes.

P. glaber (from the only Lancashire locality), /-•'. iiscinalis,
H. arbustorum, H. nemoralis, and others, in exchange for
books or shells. — Joe Bates, 20 Lord Street, Burnley.

Wanted, books on Practical Biology (Huxley's excepted).
Offered, Lyell's "Students' Elements of Geology" (1885, new),
and Newsholme's "Hygiene." Wanted, also, land and fresh-
water shells in exchange for H. cantiana and //. virgata (fine
specimens.) — Chas. A. Whatmore, Ranelagh Road, Wolver-
hampton.

Wanted, clay from a fossiliferous bed of the gault; ditto

from fossiliferous marine bed of the London clay. Chalk marl
from the Kentish beds, and material from any marine strata
also wanted. Good exchange. — A. Earland, 3 Eton Grove,
Dacre Park, Lee, S.E.

Wanted, foraminirerons material of any description, except
sponge sand. Good exchange in like material, or in named
specimens or micro slides. — A. Earland, 3 Eton Grove, Dacre
Park, Lee, S.E.

Six species of foraminifera, chiefly foreign, selected and ready
for rnounting, in return for one good mounted slide. All
specimens named and localised. Mutual approval necessary.
Write first, giving name of slide offered, to — A. Earland, 3 Eton
Grove, Dacre Park, Lee, S.E.

Wanted, Limncca slagnalis from Ireland, Scotland, Wales,
and the Continent, in exchange for either of the following: —
Helix pisana, Bulinius montanus, B. acutus, Cochlicopa
trideus, and Pupa secale.—J. Madison, 167 Bradford Street,
Birmingham.

Wanted, properly named Liassic fossils, in exchange for
fossils, shells, &c— John Hawell, M.A., Ingleby Vicarage,
Northallerton.

Planorbis glabcr and others in exchange for land and fresh-
water shells or fossils.— A. Walton, 44 Canning Street, Burnley.

Wanted, uncleaned marine diatomaceous deposits, particu-
larly Cambridge Estate, Barbadoes, Hungarian (various), Lim-
birsk, London clay, Monterey, &c. Will give good exchange.
— E. B. L. Brayley, F.R.M.S., Rockdeane, Hughenden Road,
Clifton, Bristol.

What offers for a collection of about 100 British mosses,
well mounted and named? — C. H. Waddell, Kendal.

Offered, back numbers of " Grevillea," "Scottish Natu-
ralist," "Journal of Botany," and "Popular Science Review."
— C. H. Waddell, Kendal.

Wanted, seeds and capsules of British plants, in exchange
for land and freshwater shells, books, &c. — P., 80 Leathwaite
Road, Clapham Common, S.W.

What offers for Muspratt's "Chemislry as Applied and
Relating to the Arts and Manufactures," 7-1 1, 14-21, 23-44 —
thirty-five parts in all ? — A. E. Fasnacht, Clayton, Manchester.

Wanted, dragonflies, echinoderms, crustaceans, and marine
shells ; lepidoptera and natural history books given in ex-
change.— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Offered, " Entomologist," vol. 19, also several odd numbers
of vols. 18 and 20, and "Entomologists' Monthly Magazine."
Wanted, dragonflies. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birming-
ham.

Micro slides (over 300), in exchange for diatom slides, polar,
crystals, or offers. — A. Downes, 5 Royal Park Road, Clifton,
Bristol.

Wanted, British bird skins. Offered, other British and
foreign bird skins, or bird books. — J. H. K., 18 Church Street,
Commercial Street, London, E.

Wanted, to form party of six to take in and circulate " The
Zoologist." — J. H. K., 18 Church Street, Commercial Street,
London, E.

A large number of American birds' eggs in exchange for
British.— W. Wells-Bladen, Stone, Staffordshire.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

"Old and New Astronomy," by R. A. Proctor, Part I.
(Longmans'). — " The Flora of West Yorkshire," by F. Arnold
Lees (London: Lovell Reeve). — "Medical Annual, 1888"
(Bristol: Wright).— " Birds of Herefordshire," by Dr. Bull
(London: Hamilton, Adams & Co.). — "Shell Collectors'
Handbook for the Field," by Dr. J. W. Williams (London :
Roper & Drowley). — "The Microscope." — "Journal of Con-
chology."— " Book Chat."—" Scribner's Monthly."—" The
Amateur Photographer." — "The Garner." — "The Naturalist."
— " The Botanical Gazette." — " Journal of the New York
Microscopical Society." — " Belgravia." — "The Gentleman's
Magazine." — "American Monthly Microscopical Journal." —
" The Essex Naturalist." — " The Midland Naturalist." —
" Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." — "The American Natu-
ralist."— "Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science." —
" Scientific News." — " Wesley Naturalist." — " Naturalists'
Monthly." — " La Science Illustree."

Communications received up to the 14TH ult. from :
W. R. N.— C. C— G. L.— P. S. T.— W. H. J.— A. J. H. C—
J. E. N.— K. A. D.— J. D. H.— T. D. A. C— C. E. S.—
F. W. W.— F. H.— B. T.— F. L.— G. T.— G. F., jun.— B. B. W.
—J. W. W.— J. S.— G. W. B.— J. A., jun.— F. B. C— J. H. J.
— R. McC— J. A. T.— J. C— F. S.— A. S.— G. E. E., jun.—
S. P. P.— C. L.— C. P.— P. T.— W. W.— E. C. J.— H. F.—
T. D. A. C— W. O.-F. W. A.— J. C— Rev. H.F.— H. W. P.
—A. J. H. C— G. R.-J. T. T. R.-G. W.— S. M. P.—
W. J. J., jun.— S. C.-T. J.— F. H. A.— W. D.-A. S. R—
M. P. F. G.— J. B.— A. G. T.— S. G. McL— S. B.— W. J.—
S. H.— J. C— N. F. L.— C. A. W.— J. E. K — A. E. F.— A. S.
—A. E.— J. M.— J. H.— A. W.— G. B.— A. R. B.— E. B. L. B.
—J. D. H.— A. D.— B. T.— C. H. W— W. J. H.— W. H. B.
—J. H. K.— W. W. B.— W. A. C— J. S. H.— S. P. B.-&C

IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

97

ON LAND SUBSIDENCES.

By Dr. CRESPI.

VERY one has
heard of the land
subsidences in
the salt districts
of Cheshire,
where lakes form
and houses
threaten to fall in
a manner that
rather shakes the
nerves of the
timid. But every
one is not aware
that Droitvvich,
in Worcester-
shire, is more
slowly but not
the less surely
sinking into the
ground, or rather
I ought to say,
that parallel to certain lines the land is sinking, and in
this way much destruction of property is taking place.
Wherever for many years large quantities of minerals
are removed from beneath the surface of the ground,
there must in time be a settling of the superficial
strata, and this settling is slower when the quantities
of material removed are small and from a great depth,
while, when the amount removed is large and near
the surface, the subsidence is far more rapid and
destructive. Near Dudley, the educated eye sees
on every side signs of land subsidence, and in many
other parts of the Black Country houses are shored
up, walls are cracked, and a general though unequal
sinking is obviously taking place. There is, however,
nothing unusual in the settling at Droitwich, nor is
the sinking on a very alarming scale, and, so far, it
has not been marked by terrible catastrophes, only
one house having totally collapsed and in that in-
stance no lives were lost.

Droitwich is not a prepossessing place : it is not

tastefully built, and is somewhat dingy ; the houses

are mostly shabby, and the shops small, and there

No. 281. — May ii

is little to distinguish it from a host of other fourth-
rate manufacturing towns which chiefly strike the
visitor by their dulness, smoke, and dirt. The country
round the town is, however, extremely pretty and
very fertile, and there is no difficulty in getting away
for a few hours to many of the prettiest and most
delightful spots in England. But the fame of
Droitwich, such as it is, is connected with its
brine, and were it not for inexhaustible supplies of
the purest and strongest brine in the world — the
residents say the purest and the best found any-
where— no one twenty miles off would have heard of
the grimy little town, through which the Midland
expresses tear without stopping on their way from
Cheltenham to Birmingham.

To the Romans the town was well known, or rather
it is to the Romans that it owes its foundation : that
great, wise, and enlightened people discovered the
properties of its brine springs, and with characteristic
energy set to work to extract salt from the water that
at that time welled up to the surface in inexhaustible
streams. As the brine is nearly saturated and con-
tains two-fifths of its weight of salt, and only requires
to be evaporated to yield a pure residuum of salt,
the process of salt extraction (for it is not fair to call
it salt manufacture) is easy and simple.

At present over 115,000 tons of salt are extracted
every year, and allowing that four times as much
brine is pumped up in the course of the year, half
a million tons are removed from a depth of 200
feet or thereabouts. Whether the brine comes from
deep reservoirs or from salt beds traversed by sub-
terranean streams — the explanation locally hazarded —
is immaterial : the fact remains, that the removal of
such vast quantities must in time lead to decided
sinking of the surface ; and as this sinking or'rather
these areas of subsidence are of irregular size and do
not include the whole town, although they in some
directions extend far beyond its boundaries, the visitor
is prepared to learn that, in twenty years, the sinking
has reached 19 feet. I do not vouch for the accuracy
of this calculation.

On leaving the station and making our way into

F

98

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

the town, we notice that the unfavourable impression,
which a first glimpse of the place makes, is corrected
to some extent by a closer inspection, and, moreover,
near the station there are dozens of new houses,
showing that the sinking is not so marked just there,
although possibly the great convenience of being
close to the station has outweighed other consider-
ations. On reaching the middle of Droitwich, the
visitor is struck by finding that some houses of con-
siderable antiquity still remain — strong and habitable
bouses evidently going back a couple of centuries
or more. At the top of High Street is a church
of some size and age, but no longer used, being
considered unsafe ; and just outside the town, over-
hanging the railway, there is another church, which,
though still used, has its tower curiously out of
the perpendicular. At one time High Street had
a gradual descent into Queen Street, and water
readily flowed all the way down ; now there has
been a decided sinking half-way down the former,
and water flows from both ends of High Street to-
wards the middle. Queen Street struck me as far
more curious ; here the sinking has been very decided ;
indeed some residents favoured me with reports that
made me quite fear, that I should some morning hear
that half Droitwich had fallen in. In Queen Street
there used to be a chapel, which became so unsafe
that it had to be taken down and rebuilt nearer the
station. Dr. William Parker Bainbrigge, a most
courteous and well-informed local medical practi-
tioner, permitted me to inspect his new house in
Queen Street. I entered, going down from the
street into the hall, but, strange to say, when the
learned physician built that house, four years ago, it
was on a level with, if not actually above, the pave-
ment. Along the Worcester Road, a few hundred
yards from the middle of Queen Street, two walls
are noticed skirting the road, one on each side, and
now the west wall presents a striking appearance :
the eye can trace the different stages of building, in
other words the wall has been built up as occasion
required to keep it level, on the east side the wall
has sunk to the level of the ground, although my
informant, Dr. Bainbrigge, told me that at one time
he could hardly look over that high wall into the
street. Close to Queen Street again, there are yards
with the roofs of the houses only just showing above
the ground, all else having vanished. Much of the
town is only kept from falling by the careful shoring
up that has been raised to a science, and to which
many houses owe their continued existence. Of
course new houses are seldom built in the more
dangerous parts of the town, and that continuous
improvement, which has transformed many shabby
fourth-rate old towns into quite presentable places
with good shops and handsome villas, is impossible
here while the depreciation of house property is con-
siderable. Still it is only fair to mention, that there are
some excellent baths and hotels in good condition,

indeed one range of handsome baths is quite new,
so that local enterprise is not dead, and since my last
visit still more extensive building has been going on.

The reader will perhaps ask how, if the land is
sinking in certain areas, the houses are sinking more
rapidly than the ground around them. That is, I
need hardly explain, not the case ; the houses and the
land are sinking, and the houses on opposite sides of
the lines of greatest subsidence fall towards those
lines. But the roads and yards have to be levelled
up, and thus it comes about that the houses seem to
be sinking into the ground, while in reality it is the
raising of the roadways and yards that leads to some
of the most curious effects which I have described.

Droitwich, in addition to its antiquity, land subsi-
dence, and pure salt, has acquired a well-deserved
reputation as a health resort ; and large numbers of
sufferers from gout and rheumatism are flocking to
the town to try its baths. The benefit which many
of these poor creatures derive is remarkable. When,
however, will people learn that it is better to keep
illness at a distancejhan to be temporarily relieved ?
when will they remember that, though a visit to the
Droitwich Brine Baths may restore mobility to the
stiffened joint and comfort to life, it is most important
after leaving the health-giving waters of the Roman
Salinse and the Mediaeval Wick, to live wisely,
temperately and naturally, avoiding luxury and self-
indulgence, and thus succeeding in keeping illness at
a distance ? Greater purity of living would prevent
half the sickness that casts a deep shadow over the
lives of the middle-aged and elderly, and with strict
abstemiousness there would be far less gout,
rheumatism, and dyspepsia, and consequently less
need for Droitwich.
Wimborne.

GEOLOGICAL PROGRESS DURING THE
LAST FIFTY YEARS.

THE following is an abstract of an address recently
delivered by Dr. J. E. Taylor before the
Ipswich Scientific Society : —

Dr. Taylor commenced with what he called the
stratigraphical part of the subject, that is, the advance
which had been made in our knowledge of the strata
of the earth's crust. Fifty years ago, he said, our
knowledge of the earth's strata was confined to about
half of what it is now, and that knowledge very
limited. Indeed, just a few years before, Professor
Sedgwick had given the name of Cambrian to the
rocks composing North Wales and Cumberland, and
Sir Roderick Murchison was then engaged in the
investigation of the Silurian rocks ; in 1837 Dean
Buckland published his famous Bridgwater Treatise,
which, perhaps, did more to redeem geology in the
eyes of prejudiced religious people, from its supposed
atheistic associations, than any work that was ever

HARD WICKE' S S CIENCE - G O SSIP.

99

published. At that time, said Dr. Taylor, both the
Cambrian and Silurian rock formations — two of the
thickest in this country — were very imperfectly under-
stood. There was no Devonian formation as it now
stands, no Permian formation, and the Neocomian,
which comes between the chalk and part of the
Wealden, had not been recognised. There was a
great break between the close of the chalk period
and the commencement of the Tertiary period, which
has since been filled up in part by the discovery in
Denmark of deposits of intervening age, and still
more so by certain thick beds in the Western States
of America, Dacota for instance. In 1837 the great
Tertiary system was practically waste ground. Lyell
was investigating it, and his subsequent divisions of
it, based upon the relative percentages of recent shells
which the older and younger strata of this formation
contained, were accepted by geologists all over the
world, and have been retained ever since. At the
period of which he spoke, our Suffolk Red crag was
supposed to be the newest formation. The Boulder
clays, gravels and sands which mask the northern,
midland, and eastern parts of England, were called
Diluvian, and even Dean Buckland wrote a paper
to prove that these deposits had been left by the
Noachian deluge, although he was wise and candid
enough to write a recantatory tract afterwards, when
he had learned more, to disprove his own former
opinion. Subsequently it was found that a special
period would have to be provisionally formed to
include the same deposits. This is now known as
the Great Ice Age, and the marvellous way in which
the evidence came in to prove, that we had a glacial
epoch at the time when our Suffolk and Norfolk
boulder clays were deposited, was detailed at some
length by the speaker. Lyell's work on the ' ' Prin-
ciples of Geology " had but recently appeared in
1S37, and was beginning to make headway. Previous
to that, it had been imagined that geological forma-
tions were the result of catastrophic action, 'that is to
say, of sudden and violent changes, but Lyell demon-
strated that the physical changes now in force upon
the face of the earth, if given time, would effect all
the mighty results with which geology had to deal.

At that time the theories held concerning earth-
quakes and volcanoes were very different from what
they are now. Even the great Humboldt died be-
lieving that volcanoes were simply so many blisters
on the earth's crust, and he went so far as to think
that they were suddenly and violently erupted. Mr.
Scrope, Daubigny, and others, were in favour of
volcanic mountains being gradually - accumulated
growths, and this is now known to be correct. The
ideas concerning the interior of the earth were then
exceedingly vague, and now seem exceedingly funny.
The earth's crust was regarded as much thinner than
we now know it to be. The whole of the interior
was believed to be molten, whereas we know that it
is as rigid as cast steel, so that the idea of a thin

crust blistering in the shape of volcanoes and frac-
turing in the shape of faults was a very easy concep-
tion. Geologists at that time lifted up continents
and set them down without any difficulty on this easy
theory. They brought seas rushing over suddenly-
submerged land, with such violence, that it was no
wonder they easily interpreted the phenomenon of
the drift, with its strange beds of boulders and
variously-disposed materials.

Granite was believed at that time to have been the
first cooled crust of the earth, whereas it is known
that granite in every instance has been formed under
exceedingly great rock pressure, never less than that
of thirty thousand feet of overlying rocks, and that
the reason why it appears at the surface is because
those materials had been stripped away by denuda-
tion. Between thirty and forty years ago, a few
gentlemen commenced a new line of investigation
into rocky structures. Dr. Sorby, of Sheffield, cut,
sliced, and polished thin sections of granite, and
examined them under the microscope. His paper on
the results he arrived at, read before the Geological
Society in 1862, effected a revolution in geological
investigation. From that moment the microscope
has been a geological instrument, and the discoveries
made by it have been really marvellous.

In 1861, Professor Dawson, of Montreal, announced
the existence of vast masses of rock older than the
Cambrian formation in the district watered by the
River St. Lawrence. These were called Laurentian.
He affirmed that certain beds of altered limestone in
these rocks had been deposited by a minute organism,
which he named Eozoon. This Laurentian series of
rocks has since then been found in almost every part
of the earth's dry-land crust. It is the core, so to
speak, the central part of the known stratified rocks
of the earth, although the name of Archean is now
generally given to this formation.

Dr. Taylor then took up the second part of his
subject, which dealt with the fossil remains in the
rocks. The idea, fifty years ago, was that each geo-
logical formation represented a special creation and a
special extinction. Creation was then believed to be
sudden, after the old idea, and extinction to be
equally brief. This idea maintained its ground up to
a quarter of a century ago in some geological manuals.
Darwin's works first started the idea of a continuous
stream of life upon the globe, which idea hitherto
had been checked by the belief that, at the close of
the Primary epoch, there had been a great break in
the life of the world, and that a similar break occurred
at the close of the Secondary epoch. But the fact,
that in other parts of the world deposits had been
discovered containing fossils which bracketed together
and filled up these gulfs, not only met the difficulty,
but established for ever the fact, that there had been
a continuous stream of life upon our planet. The
fossil remains known in the earth's crust fifty years
ago were not a twentieth part of those known to-day.

F 2

IOO

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The remarkable thing about many of these fossils, as
a rule, was that they were "missing links." Many
of them came to fill in the gaps which existed in the
living scale of animal and vegetable life. Thus the
Dipnoids, which are so abundant in the Old Red
sandstone or Devonian formation, are a link between
the fishes and the amphibians. The Dinotheria,
reptiles which existed during the Oolitic period, and
many of which attained a huge size in America and
Europe, were remarkable for their bird-like affinities.
This bird-like relationship, which is now only repre-
sented in existing reptiles by a few useless bones, was
then still further intensified by the discovery of a
feathered reptile, or a reptile which could fly. The
first mammals, or warm-blooded terrestrial animals,
that appeared early in the Secondary period, were
of the same kind as those which now exist on the
Australian Continent. Only one or two species were
known to have existed at the beginning of the
Secondary period, but by the close of the period
about a score have since been discovered adapted to
various conditions of life. It was not till the Tertiary
period that true placental mammals — animals which
bring forth their young alive — are known to have
existed. About this time the grasses, the earliest of
herbaceous flowering plants introduced on the face
of the earth, had become "social," or acquired the
habit of growing together, and this seems to have
affected the mammalian life of the world in no small
degree. The first known placental mammals were
herbivorous. Their types were very generalised, that
is to say, they possessed characters which have since
then been split up into half-a-dozen genera, and
perhaps into several families. Speaking of the
generalisation of life, Dr. Taylor said it was the same
with the earliest insects that appeared in the world.
They belonged to generalised types, or, in other
words, possessed characters which were now sever-
ally distributed to leading families of insects.

The lecturer then contrasted the on-
ward progress of the mammalian life
during the Tertiary period, illustrating
his remarks by specimens taken from the
Museum collection, which he said occu-
pied no small or unimportant space in
the demonstration of the progressive life
of the world. After having pointed out
our increased knowledge of the fossil vege-
table life, due largely to microscopic inves-
tigation of fossil vegetable tissues, the
lecturer concluded amid great applause.

Volvox GLOBATOR. — I read in Pritchard's " Natu-
ral History of Animalcules," 1834, that infusions of
hemp-seed and Tremella are said to abound with
specimens of Volvox globator. What is Tremella ?
And is the assertion supported by experimental fact ?
I have tried hemp-seed and failed. — R. II. Nisbett
Brown.

NOTES ON TURBELLARIA.

PERHAPS a word from this side of the Atlantic,
may not be uninteresting to your readers. Not
far from my house is a half-stagnant pool covered

H

j!!Nltii«:'r«,

ji

> 1. |i i'

Fig. 39. — Worm as usually
seen crawling.

Fig. 40.— Worm under compres-
sion, showing proboscis (D)
in position.

by lemna and shaded by alders all the summer long.
In this pool, a "happy hunting ground" of mine, I
have found in numbers quite abundant, a Turbellarian

Fig. 41. — Proboscis exserted.

worm, which until recently I supposed to be Planaria
torva. While manoeuvring one of them, trying to
free from it an external parasite, for the better study
of the parasite, I chanced to crush the worm.
Immediately there issued from the body a number of
tube-like forms, each of which moved about the
slide, elongating and contracting itself, and keeping

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

IOI

up perpetually a gasping swallowing movement,
during which I could see portions of the worm's
viscera pass completely through.

A scientific friend to whom I sent specimens
with drawings, after much study and searching,
found that the worm was probably a form described
by Leidy in the '"Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences," Philadelphia, in 1848, under the

Fig. 42. — Proboscis as disrupted
from body ; (E) being free end.

Fig. 43.— (F) free end.

name of Phogocata gracilis, and that the tubes (so-
called), varying in number as I have found them
from four to twenty-two (Leidy says twenty-three in
the full-grown animal) were the proboscides of the
animal. By placing the worm in a compressorium
and subjecting it to pressure, these proboscides may
be quite well seen in the body cavity writhing,
extending and contracting themselves, with a
ceaseless motion. I enclose rough sketches of the
creature, and of the proboscides as they appear when
separated from the body. They may interest you.
I may say that the infusorial parasites, which are
found quite plentifully upon this species of worm, are
identified as Urceolaria mitra, and it is said to be
the first time they have been seen in this country.

H. E. Valentine.
Boston, Mass. U.S.A.

" SACCHARINE "—A REPLY.

THE March number of Science-Gossip contains
an interesting, but withal somewhat amusing,
chapter by Dr. Alfred Crespi, on " Benzoylsulpho-
nicionide " — the new and marvellous sweetening
agent which recent research has been successful in
producing from that most unlikely source — coal tar.
The article is interesting, because of the scientific
details it gives, and because it draws public attention
to one more of those wonderful discoveries by which,
for the past twenty years, scientists have been steadily
increasing their usefulness to, and earning the grati-
tude of, every section of the community. It is amusing

only when the writer comes to the prosy question of
commercial utility ; then no other simile suits the story
so well as a game of skittles, the varying probable
uses of the production being trotted out only to be
bowled over again and knocked down by the ap-
parently somewhat self-doubled contrary arguments ;
and it occurred to me that a few words, from a manu-
facturer's point of view, might not be unacceptable to
general readers.

It is usually understood to be an easy task to
prophesy after an event has taken place, and, having
donned the prophet's mantle, Dr. Crespi peeps into
the future (?), and tells us that "probably for com-
mercial and domestic purposes saccharine will soon
come into common use in the form of an alkaline
powder." But this is exactly what has already
happened : a large firm of London wholesale grocers
are the agents for the U. K. ; and in many of our
leading retail shops little packets, containing a small
bottle with a tiny scoop measure, are being offered to
a discriminating British public at 2s. 6d. each.

The essayist considered it to be "reassuring to be
told saccharine will not drive cane or beet sugar from
the field " ; he does not venture upon giving any
reason for this comforting statement, but endeavours
to evolve "three great fields " of usefulness, the third
and least extensive being the only one that it is at
all likely to be of much service in. Sugar is strong
poison to some poor sufferers, and to these the boon
offered is almost beyond price ; were it alone for their
sake every sympathetic man would hail its introduc-
tion with joy. They are enabled to receive that for
which nature craves without detriment to their physical
conditions.

The second, that of covering the taste of sickly
drugs, is so ably disposed of by the Doctor himself
that I need not say one word upon the point, but will
at once address myself to the first, which is the largest
of the three fields, and which contains the greatest
fallacy, viz. Its applicability to manufactured goods,
with special reference to the confectionery trade; and
it may as well be stated at once very broadly that,
except for the flavouring of liquids, etc., in which
bulk is not a point at issue,. or for the sweetening of
culinary preparations requisite for invalids, it is of no
practical value to the manufacturer unless he got it
almost entirely free of cost, while at present its cost
is about equal to that of good sugar.

After having put certain ingredients together and
cooked them in the necessary fashion, the first con-
sideration with the maker is to know what weight he
has left, sugar as well as most other goods suffering a
loss by evaporation when at boiling-point ; this, how-
ever, due care reduces to a known quantity. Let me
give an illustration : if it were desired to produce
about one hundredweight of cake, 84 lbs. to be the
several component parts, and 28 lbs. of sugar to be
added, the total cost of material being, say, 30^.,
and the turnout, after baking, would be, roughly

102

HA RD IVICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

speaking, some 105 lbs. This loss would therefore
increase the cost of material by about 2s. per hundred-
weight ; but suppose the maker had used the relative
number of ounces of saccharine as his sweetening
agent instead of sugar, his cake would only weigh
about 81 lbs. instead of 105 lbs., and his cost, instead
of being about 32s., would be nearly 41s. 6d. per
hundredweight, and for this reason it would be outside
the pale of commercial utility. It will be readily seen
that this would apply with even greater force to
sweetmeats and jam, in which the proportion of sugar
used is much larger than in the case suggested. How
then can it be expected to "give an impetus to the
sweetmeat trade " ?

There are two peculiarities of saccharine which are
worthy of notice, its distinctive flavour, and its anti-
septic properties. The writer prepared two equal
quantities of apple jam, the one sweetened with sugar,
the other with its relative quantity of saccharine ; the
former was jam in the proper sense of the word: a
due blending in flavour of the fruit and sugar, but the
latter was not so — the sour fruit and the sweet sac-
charine were both present, but retained their distinc-
tive flavours. There was no blending, but the sour
passed away, leaving a sweetness behind that would
cloy if used even in only ordinary portions. These
trials were made some months ago, and although the
sample prepared with saccharine has been submitted
to the most trying tests, there has been an utter
absence of any fermentation such as would have been
produced either by the sugar or the fruit if submitted
to the same conditions. It therefore takes rank very
high as a powerful preservative, and except for the
reasons indicated respecting its bulk (which is insur-
mountable), it would on this account alone form a
formidable rival to sugar, and this would be a source
of deep regret, if it could be considered as possible,
for few would agree with D.r. Crespi in saying, " un-
fortunately it must not be forgotten that sugar is a
cheap and valuable food." I would rather say it is
a most fortunate fact that no inducement exists leading
manufacturers to replace an article which enters so
largely into consumption by one which "is not
changed in its passage through the body." As a
professional man, Dr. Crespi may think it is right
that "we range with science glorying in the time"
when progress does not " halt on palsied feet," but
one may ask him to consider the results of such an
innovation — such a revolution as he would picture
even possible : the tremendous loss of capital conse-
quent upon the transfer of the place of manufacture
from the factory to the laboratory, and the cessation
of the wage-earning power from the grower of the
beet or cane to the producers of the finished article.
Or, dismissing this as only a part of the incidence of
trade, the fearful loss of a nutritive food supply which
would be produced, more especially to the poor ; for
statistics show that, as price has gone down, the con-
sumption per head of the population has considerably

increased, and therefore it follows that if " the joy of
youth and the solace of old age" is taken from manu-
factured products and a chemical introduced instead,
the poor would be the first]to suffer, and this (I take
it) is the last end and aim of true scientific research.

G. H. Wicks.
Bristol.

THE BEE AND THE DEVELOPMENT
OF HONEY IN FLOWERS.

By G. W. Bulman, M.A.

THE whole theory of the development of honey,
by the selective action of bees, &c, hinges on
the supposition, that those flowers secreting it obtain
some advantage in the struggle for existence. And
the advantage is supposed to arise thus : When bees
fly from flower to flower gathering honey, they carry
pollen grains from one to another. It has been
proved — in the case of certain flowers — that the off-
spring from a cross are more numerous and vigorous
than those from self-fertilised flowers. When a
flower secretes honey the bees visit it, and fertilise it
with pollen from another, it produces more numer-
ous, and vigorous offspring than the honeyless ones.
Thus in time the honey-bearers become a majority.

" Those individual flowers which had the largest
glands or nectaries, and which excreted most nectar,
would be oftenest visited by insects, and would be
oftenest crossed ; and so, in the long-run, would gain
the upper hand."

So says Darwin, and so his followers continue to
believe. The statement seems plausible, and it may
be we see in imagination the race of flowers secreting
more and more honey in obedience to the selective
action of the bee or other insect.

A little reflection, however, and a careful con-
sideration of the facts of the case, quickly dispel
the illusion. It does not require the double million
magnifying glasses of extra power "to enable us to
see, that honeyless flowers, and scanty honey-bearers
are just as likely to obtain the advantages of cross-
fertilisation as any others."

Consider the case of a race of plants at any stage
of the development of honey. There is the same
general likeness as we see in any particular species
to-day, and the same slight differences. Some secrete
no honey, and some comparatively much ; some are
larger, others are brighter coloured than their com-
panions. Now it seems quite obvious, that a bee
visiting a bed of such flowers, will not be guided by
any particular outward aspect to the flower with
most honey. It will have to go, and examine by
close inspection ; and will be just as likely to visit
the honeyless blossoms as any others. It will
scarcely be contended by any one, that a bee flitting
over a flower can judge by its outward aspect of the
amount of honey therein, without settling on it and
examining. The limpid drop of nectar is a thing not

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

103

easily seen ; and is, moreover, often quite concealed
from view in the hidden depths of the flower. There
is no evidence that the honey-secreting flowers are
distinguished from the rest by any marks which can
guide the bee to them. Bees seem to show by their
habits, too, that they have no means of ascertaining
the presence of honey, save by actual inspection, for
several bees will visit the same flower in succession ;
and the same bee may sometimes be seen to return to
the flower it visited a few moments before, after
trying others in the interval.

Again bees often visit flowers without any inten-
tion of honey gathering.

It is a bright sunshiny day in the early part of
February. Winter aconites have spread forth their
yellow blooms, and offer their store of honey to the
early bees. A few of the industrious insects are
abroad and hard at work. They are rifling the yellow
blooms, but not of nectar. Pollen is the object of
their search, and the circlet of tiny cornucopias
surrounding, the stamens offer their sweet drops in
vain. On such occasions it matters not to the bee
whether a blossom secretes little honey or much,
those with the greatest store will obtain no advantage.
Such being the facts, we must, I think, admit that
the individuals in the race of flowers which secrete
much honey are no more likely to obtain the benefits
of cross-fertilisation than those producing little or none.
And with this admission the whole theory falls to
the ground. The selective action of the bee has not
even a theoretical influence as a producer of honey.

OBSERVATIONS UPON THE TURTLE, AND
THEIR ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION.

By W. August Carter, of the National Fish
Culture Association.

DURING the Colonial and Indian Exhibition
specimens of turtle from Western India were
shown in the aquarium, sometimes numbering as
many as fifty simultaneously. I made a series of
observations upon them at the time, and propose to
record the result of some of them here.

In the first place, I noticed that the turtle is a
somnolent creature, spending a large amount of time
in sleep, or repose. They rest at intervals through-
out the day, and usually sleep in the early morning,
becoming abnormally active at night. When asleep,
they lie upon the bottom of their habitat with their
heads downwards and eyes closed. At such periods
they are not easily disturbed, and appear oblivious to
all outward influences brought to bear through the
molestation of their congeners. The weight of turtles
is considerable, and precludes them from locomoting
perpetually in the water ; indeed, it seems curious
that such awkward creatures have the power to move
as rapidly and easily as they do. As a rule, when
swimming, they keep near the surface, in order to

gulp in air readily, which they do by stretching forth
their head from the water.

Upon land they are helpless creatures, being almost
as powerless as the seal under similar circumstances,
although there is a decided difference in the forma-
tion of their organs. Turtles are able to capture
their prey with great agility, being provided with a
long neck, which they extend to a considerable
degree when seizing it. The head moves quite
freely, as well as the fins and tail, which are all quite
independent of the shell. Unlike the tortoise, the
turtle's head is non-retractile. The former, upon the
approach of danger, withdraws its head and limbs,
presenting to the aggressor an impervious exterior,
proof against the stoutest foe. The house which the
turtle carries, however, is a mere shield for the back,
and does not, as in the case of a land-tortoise, form a
complete covering to the animal. The shell of the
former is very light, enabling it thereby to adapt
itself to an aquatic existence.

From what I have seen I have arrived at the
conclusion, that the turtle is a spiteful, pugnacious,
reptile. Extreme examples of this are to be found in
young turtles rather than in their elders, as I have
frequently seen the former attack the latter, and
meet with only a small amount of retaliation. The
appearance of two turtles undergoing a pugilistic
encounter is highly comical ; their utter helplessness
rendering the contest all the more exciting. The
quarrel sometimes arises from a disputed right of
occupying a certain position ; when one turtle will
jostle another until it retaliates by inflicting blows
with its fins upon the head of its foe, which appears
to be the most vulnerable part of turtles. Then
follow a succession of charges, when they bite and
gnaw at one another in the encounter until the
vanquished one retires to a remote corner, but only
to be attacked again by its enraged congener.

In regard to the artificial reproduction of turtle,
there is no doubt that the ova could be hatched if
subjected to proper treatment. In their natural
state they are deposited by the mother chelonian in
the sand, about two feet deep, where they become
incubated through the action of the sun. In breeding
them artificially nature must be closely imitated, and
every detail studied, to ensure success. According
to the precepts of nature, I venture to think the
following plan might be advantageously adopted.
Place the eggs in sand, heated to a normal tempera-
ture of 700 from underneath, by the means of ho*-
water pipes. This heat should be perpetually main
tained throughout the twenty-four hours. During the
day heat should also be concentrated from without,
bringing the temperature up to ioo°, which could
be attained by enclosing the incubating apparatus,
taking care to admit a certain amount of air. The
sand should be slightly moistened by allowing a
small quantity of vapour to descend upon the ova at
night-time.

io4

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

When the turtles break from their shells their first
impulse is to seek the water, therefore provision
should be made for this, taking care that the water
has a temperature of at least ioo°. When the ova
are shed they are soft, but afterwards become hard,
and the progress of formation within can be detected
by passing the hand over the eggs, which, at the end
of a month, furnish evidences of life. I am inclined
to think that, if a suitable incubator was supplied,
and the natural conditions of the shelly creatures
carefully provided for, they might be reared in this

applaud and support any undertaking having for its
object the extensive culture of turtles in Western India
and other tropical parts. Their scarcity is due, in a
great measure, to the destruction of ova, and] their con-
version into food, the eggs being highly nutritious.

This wholesale plunder ought to be vetoed by
legislative restrictions, more especially on account of
their feeble power of reproduction as compared with
their finny congeners. Turtles shed a very few ova
at one time during the breeding season, but they hatch
out with a greater amount of certainty than the eggs

Fig. 44. — Catching Turtles (from an old print).

country artificially. It would, I fear, be impossible
to domesticate these tropical denizens to our shores,
but they might be cultivated in the way described.
The propagation of the turtle is a most desirable
thing from a commercial point of view. It is idle to
expect them to enter largely into our list of dietaries,
but their numbers might be considerably strengthened
by proper and systematic measures being adopted
abroad.

Turtle soup has become such a popular institution
that there would be hosts of individuals ready to

of more prolific breeders. The growth of young
turtles is rapid. Immediately they emerge from the
ova they seem instinctively to dread the dangers
surrounding the first stage of their existence, when
their path is beset by hosts of predacious birds
which swoop down upon the tiny chelonians immedi-
ately they burst from their shell. Their flight to the
water, however, to avoid their aerial foes is a
remarkable instance of a powerful and discerning
instinct, being accomplished with a desperate rapidity
inspired by a keen sense of dread.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

105

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.

By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

Sugar Refining ey Electricity. — " Elec-
trician " tells us that this is to be carried out by a
company in New York, "The Electric Sugar Refining
Company," which expects to convert a ton of raw
sugar in two hours into perfectly hard white sugar at
a cost of 3s. 2d. per ton, and intends to turn out
three thousand barrels daily. This is very wonderful
indeed, when we consider the bulk of material in-
volved and the cost of obtaining chemical results by
electrolysis. The capital stock of the company is a
million of dollars. "Electrician" adds, that "the
results in this case will be awaited with a good deal
of interest ; " scientific interest, I presume, rather than
interest on the million of dollars.

Maturing Wines by Electricity. — The same
magazine describes more definitely the work of
Sig. Mengarini, who is diligently following up the
investigations of Blaserna and Carpine in effecting,
by the agency of electricity, those delicate and some-
what mysterious changes which in old-fashioned
wines were obtained by years of storage, and at very
great cost, that of the compound interest of the
dormant capital, rental of cellarage, besides loss
by evaporation, &c. Wines are very volatile where
many tasting tickets are issued.

We are told that in Mengarini's experiments a
current of about four amperes was passed through
the wine for periods of varying length ; that the
platinum electrodes become coated or crusted with a
deposit which consists chiefly of albuminous matter ;
that the proportion of alcohol is diminished ; that
some oxidation appears to occur ; that the bouquet of
the wine was developed almost exactly as by age, and
was sensibly increased by every application of the
current. The colour was also modified and Sig.
Mengarini suspects that the wine is sterilised, and
thus rendered incapable of further change.

There is nothing marvellous in all this, especially
now we know that a moderate heat, skilfully applied
as in " Pasteuring," does the like; the amount of
energy demanded is very small in proportion to the
commercial value of the result ; the actions of oxida-
tion, &c, are similar to those which probably occur in
ordinary maturation, and, above all, neither Sig.
Mengarini, nor Blaserna, nor Carpine are asking for
a million of dollars, nor forming any kind of company
or syndicate. This removes a mountain of scepticism.

Museum doings in New Zealand. — Our
Colonies are going ahead. The report of the
Colonial Museum and Laboratory of New Zealand,
tells us, that the attendance of visitors is so large
on Sundays that the passages are inconveniently
crowded; that 10,708 objects have been added to
the collection during the year, and 345 analyses
made. This is the 22nd annual report. No thunder-

bolts have fallen on the Museum building, neither do
the statistics of crime indicate any serious demorali-
sation of the community since the Sunday opening
and Sunday crowding has been in operation.

Muzzling Oysters.— We are told that the late
Duke of Wellington despised all pills and potions,
that when troubled with small ailments he treated
himself by simply " putting on the muzzle," abstain-
ing from food until recovery. This recipe has been
successfully applied to oysters which grow sick when
packed for exportation by opening their shells, and
losing the liquid contained therein, after which the
air enters and decomposition commences. American
observers have discovered that oysters feed only at
about the turn of high tide, and that the habit of
opening periodically, persists even when they are
out of water. Therefore to keep their shells closed
they are now muzzled by means of binding wire
passed through a hole near the lip of the shell, then
twisted with pliers. This, with practice, is done very
rapidly, and the muzzled bivalves survive very long
journeys.

This muzzling is but a reinvention, original, doubt-
less, but not new. It has long been practised by our
London fishmongers in the barrelling of oysters for
transmission to country places, especially in the old
coaching days, when barrels of oysters were
customary presents to country cousins. The native
oysters were carefully laid in the barrels, and each
barrel filled above the level of the top. Then the
cover was laid on the oysters and the whole thumped
down until all were wedged together so closely that
opening was impossible. After this the cover was
firmly nailed. Experience proved that the oysters
thus tightly packed remained fresh for long periods.

The Philosophy of Hanging.— Dr. Gross, of
Geneva, has made some curious experiments which
threatened to add his name to the list of martyrs to
Science. He constructed a noose which firmly com-
pressed both sides of his neck without pressing on
the larynx sufficiently to interfere with his breathing.
In two minutes he lost consciousness by congestion
of the brain, this congestion being due to the com-
pression of the veins which return the blood from the
brain. In another experiment he used isolated com-
pression applied simply to these vessels with like
result. He tells us that the loss of consciousness was
not preceded by either painful or agreeable sensations
(the latter have been affirmed to precede death by
hanging) ; the only feeling he experienced was a sense
of warmth or burning in the head. He concludes
that the drop of the hangman is unnecessary, and
that suicide by hanging may be effectual even when
the feet of the victim touch the ground.

Within my recollection London sightseers have
witnessed two fatal exhibitions of the wretched trick
of imitating the work of the hangman. One was at
Cremorne Gardens, the victim, if I remember rightly,

io6

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G O SSIP.

was Blackmore, a celebrated performer on both tight
and slack rope, who on several occasions suspended
himself by the neck and imitated the struggles of a
dying man, but at last performed the reality, and
was greatly applauded. The other was Sam Scott
" the American Diver," who erected a tall mast on
Waterloo Bridge, with a boom on which he performed
some antics, and then dived from a fearful height into
the river. One of his tricks was an imitation of the
popular Monday morning Old Bailey performance,
which at last he did perfectly.

It was generally supposed that in these cases the
rope slipped and compressed the larynx, but Dr.
Gross's experiments suggest another explanation.
Had the rope slipped as supposed, the athletic
expert, finding himself in danger of suffocation, would
instantly have grasped the rope and supported
the weight of his body as at the conclusion of his
ordinary performance, but if he suffered the gradual
swooning described by Dr. Gross, he might insensibly
pass the stage of strong effort and slowly die,

Police Telegrams.— New York is supplying a
lesson in police organisation by adopting a com-
prehensive system of telegraphic communication
between all the police stations of the city. The
calls are self-recording, the system of the Herzog
Teleseme Company being adopted in preference to
the evanescent telephone.

A Hint to Teachers. — All who are practically
acquainted with the working of our schools, whether
they be what are called " High Schools " or Board
Schools, or any other schools, will agree with me in
concluding, that the microscope is not doing the work
there that it should do as a general educator. Too
much of mere books, mere verbiage, mere rote work,
and too little of direct knowledge generally prevails.
Scarcely a school can be found in which the
microscope does any teaching at all.

In large schools it is difficult to use an ordinary
table microscope, on account of the time that must be
consumed in showing objects to the pupils one by one,
and the solar microscope or lime-light microscope
demands costly arrangements. But I think something
might be done by adopting the simple device of giving
an occasional collective lesson on some selected object
with black-board or diagram illustrations, and then
placing the actual object under a microscope (a small
cheap one with but moderate power would be
sufficient), and allowing the good children to have a
peep at the real thing on their way in or out of school.
Making such exhibition a reward for good conduct
would greatly add to the current valuation of the
show, and the general interest in the instruction it
would carry. Even where there is no intrinsic
interest or pleasure in any act, it acquires a conven-
tional value if it is treated as a privilege or a reward.

This is not limited to children. Full-grown men
grumble loudly on being compelled to sit on a jury,

but make huge efforts to obtain the privilege of sitting
in the House of Commons.

The Elements in the Sun. — Messrs. Hutchings
& Holden believe that they have found good reason
for placing platinum on the list of metals which the
spectroscope has found in the sun. They detect
sixteen coincidences of the solar lines with those
artificially obtained. They confirm the presence of
bismuth, cadmium and silver which other observers
have considered probable, but are doubtful concerning
cerium, lead, molybdenum, veranium and vanadium.
They are satisfied concerning carbon, which was
formerly described as not found. For reasons I
stated in " The Fuel of the Sun," chapter xiii., I doubt
the possibility of fairly demonstrating either the
existence or the non-existence of the non-metallic
elements by means of the spectroscope. During the
twenty years that have elapsed since that chapter was
written a great deal of spectroscopic work has been
directed to such investigation, and the contradictory
results that have been obtained, especially in reference
to oxygen, confirm my early scepticism. With the
thin sharply-defined lines of the metals the case is
quite different.

Action of Caffeine. — F. Coppola has recently
made many experiments on the action of Caffeine on
both warm and cold-blooded animals. He concludes
that it does not belong to the same pharmacological
group as digitalin, because it acts on the heart and the
nerve-centres, whilst digitalin and some of its deri-
vatives act exclusively on the heart. He asserts that
both strengthen the heart's action by stimulation of
its muscular tissue, but they act differently on the
frequency of the beat. The chief difference is that
caffeine causes dilatation and digitalin contraction of
the blood vessels.

Readers of the above should distinguish between
" strengthening the heart's action," and strengthening
the heart. A stimulant may do the first, but it does
not therefore do the second. The reaction following
may leave the heart weaker than before. This applies
to stimulants generally.

NATURAL HISTORY JOTTINGS.
The Green Tortoise Beetle {Cassida viridis).

ON August 9th, 1SS1, I for the first time saw the
singular larva of the green tortoise beetle
(Cassida viridis). It was feeding on the foliage of
a thistle that grew on a narrow strip of grass by the
wayside. I remarked the canopy of feces, also the
fact of the larva eating out the parenchyma of the leaf
from one side, and thus forming rounded spaces,
which, from the epidermis on the opposite side of
the leaf being untouched, gave a spotted or blotched
appearance to the food-plant ; in most instances the
epidermis was intact over the eaten-out spaces, while

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

107

in others it had broken, probably through contraction
by the heat of the atmosphere, and had left holes.

In the several accounts of this larva that I had read,
in which reference was made to its remarkable habit
of supporting over the back canopy-fashion the fasces,
these being carried by the two anal or caudal append-
ages, I never could realise how this skeleton plat-
form might carry such a substance. However, on
closely examining the larva?, I soon saw how this pecu-
liar feat was accomplished, though anything I had
read on the subject never led me to suspect it would
be so. The manner in which it is accomplished is
thus : — When the first skin is cast, instead of being
thrown off altogether, as is usually the case with
growing larvae, it is retained upon the two rigid whip-
like anal or caudal appendages, and upon its upper
surface are subsequently deposited the faeces which
agglomerate, the lateral branched spines of the exuviae
being well adapted for the support and retention of
this substance, which is, or shortly becomes, intensely
black in colour. When the second skin is thrown off,
it likewise is retained upon the anal appendages, and
is attached to the first exuviae on the under side by
the cast skin of the two anal appendages, which con-
stitutes a compound connecting link not only between
these first two exuviae but between each and all of the
four that are thrown off before the larva is full-grown ;
whilst on the upper surface the mass of faeces, gradually
increasing in width and height, agglomerates through-
out the entire length of the dorsal covering and
protection, which the larva has the power of elevating
or depressing : when undisturbed, this covering of
exuviae and faeces lies horizontally over the dorsal
region of the larva, canopy-fashion, and more or less
completely covers and conceals it from view.

Several of these larvae I secured, and supplied with
their food-plant ; and on leaving the country on
August 20th, they were shut up in their box, which
was not again opened until near the close of Sep-
tember. I then found that all of them had entered
the pupa-state, had afterwards fully evolved into the
imago condition and hatched out, and were now lying
dead on the bottom of the box.

Such were my first few observations and notes on
the very singular larva of the tortoise beetle, whilst
the desideratum (mentally made) was, further observa-
tions thereon. Hence, being again in the same
neighbourhood in the summer of 1883, I again
searched the thistles in the same spot as before, and
in its season found the larva, fed it up, watched its
transformations, and made copious notes thereon :
these I will give in the order in which they were
made, with such additions and modifications as subse-
quent study of the habits and structure of the larva,
pupa, and imago have enabled me to make.

August ilt/i, 1883. — This evening, at 5.30 P.M.,
I observed the full-grown larvae of the tortoise beetle,
as well as very small ones, browsing on the leaves of
the thistle, at the same place as I observed them two

years ago about this same date. It was very airy at
the time and quite cool, there being alternations of
sunshine and cloud.

I observe that they eat out the parenchyma of the
leaf in roundish small patches from both the upper
and under surface, leaving the epidermis in most cases
intact above or below, as the case may be. The size
of these holes is in proportion with the size of the
larva, increasing with its growth ; each hole repre-
sents a meal, or a course of a meal, and the paren-
chyma is eaten out by the larva backwardly towards
itself with considerable despatch. When feeding, or
at rest, the canopy of exuviae and faeces lies horizon-
tally directly over the dorsal region of the larva, but
does not touch it, and extends nearly or completely
up to the anterior margin of the thorax, being carried
upon the two forward-projected anal appendages.
The posterior extremity of the body is turned up at
right angles to the anterior and much greater portion ;
and the anus is at the extremity of the then erect,
cylindrical, and telescopic ventral tube, which is of
considerable length and situated beneath the posterior
margin of the fecal canopy. The faeces are not black
when first deposited, but speedily become so ; and
they consist of both liquid and firm parts. The
ventral tube is projected to an extraordinary length
on the passage of the faeces, chiefly by an evagination
of it, and is applied to the hinder margin of the
gradually widening and thickening fecal canopy, and
the fasces there deposited : this tube, which is in two
equal portions fitting into each other, and the body
telescope-tube-like, is remarkably flexile, adapting
itself readily to the form of the parts to which it is
applied, being sometimes bent upon itself at right
angles, and at others forming the arc of a circle ; and
is, sometimes at least, employed by the full-grown
larva in pushing off backwardly from the anal or
caudal appendages the fecal canopy (which it invari-
ably does), prior to laying itself up to assume the
pupal condition, and also in pushing forwards upon
the anal appendages against those that precede it the
new exuvial platform, on the shedding of the exuviae.

( To be continued. )

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRESH-
WATER POLYZOA.

MR. LORD'S note in Science-Gossip (Dec.
1887), regarding the development of the fresh-
water Polyzoa, leads me to suggest the plan, I have for
some years adopted, for finding the habitats of these
beautiful animals. To the end of my telescopic col-
lecting stick I screw a brass ring about four inches in
diameter, to which a very fine cambric net is sown.
This net, drawn through the water several times, will
secure a concentrated compound of Rotifers, stato-
blasts of Polyzoa, Volvox, and other organisms too
numerous to mention.

io8

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

At this season 'of the year I have frequently found
the habitats of Polyzoa, by means of their floating
statoblasts, in ponds where I had not seen them
before, and by searching the same ponds during the
next summer and autumn have been often successful
in finding the mature animal.

I may mention here, that the Lophopus aystallinus

on the 25th of March of the same year, 1875. The
opening of the statoblast is very curious and interest-
ing, and resembles a bivalve shell (which opens like an
oyster) from which the little animal protrudes and
soon forms a tube and grows rapidly into a colony.
The Cristatella mucedo usually break up and die during
the month of October, when the statoblasts are

Fig. 45. — Cristatella mucedo, enlarged, showing polypes.

is an exception to this rule, as we have always found
it fully developed in the winter and spring and not in
summer and autumn. It is very remarkable that
this naked form should live and thrive in the cold
weather, whilst the tubed forms break up and die upon
the approach of winter. It is, I think, doubtful if all
the statoblasts come to the surface of the water after
the disintegration of their tubes, as I have found those
of Alcyonella fungosa firmly attached to the dead

numerous, very beautiful, and quite different from any
of the other species. They are circular, and have a
number of anchor-shaped spines projecting from them,
which evidently serve for attachment to the stems of
weeds upon which they grow.

A colony placed in my aquarium late in October

Fig. 46. — Cristatella mucedo, naf. size.

sticks upon which these spongy-looking masses grow,
and surrounded by fluffy decomposing debris.

Those which float probably remain on the surface
until the time arrives for development, when they
would attach themselves to any floating weeds or
rootlets. I have found Fredricclla sultana very plenti-
ful in September, and a few alive early in November,
when the tubes were full of statoblasts, some of which
placed in my aquarium developed on the nth of
February following, and more hatched early in March,
and some very young forms were found in the canal

Fig. 47. — Fredericella sultana, nat. size.

rapidly decomposed, when the statoblasts were sur-
rounded by a semi-transparent oval sac which floated
to the surface, and in time liberated the statoblasts
which became free and floated on the water.

None of these developed, owing, probably, to the
want of natural surroundings.

The development of Paludicella Ehrenbergi is to
me !the most wonderful, and is altogether the most

HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

109

interesting. I shall never forget my delight when, in
1877, I first saw this beautiful shy and coy little
creature. Its delicate texture, its playful habits, its
exceeding beauty, make it a possession to be proud of.
I also found it early in March, 1878, when the hyber-
naculum was developing its young. Dr. Allman
states, that the hybernacula have not been seen
in this country.

"Van Beneden thus describes the occurrence of
Hybernacula or Gemmae, which under the influence

Fig. 48. — Fredericella sultana, enlarged, showing polypes.

of a favourite temperature would have grown into the
ordinary lateral branches of the polyzoan, but which
towards the commencement of winter acquire a
conical form, and then become for a while arrested in
their development. In this state they remain until the
following spring, when the investing membrane splits
to allow the elongation of the branch."

The specimens taken from the canal near Chester
have, on several occasions in the early spring, shown
the process of development described by Van Beneden.

No statoblasts having been seen in this species, it

seems pretty certain that this hybernaculum, or club-
shaped branch, is the only method of promoting the
life of this lovely little creature.

I have lately found (Dec.) these winter buds sealed up
ready for next spring, and in two of them I could see,
within the tubes, a semi-transparent oval nucleus or
sac, which evidently contained the germ for further
development.

If Mr. Lord or any readers of Science-Gossip

should wish to work out the development and

thoroughly study this beautiful class of animal life, I

shall be pleased to assist in any way I can, during the

little leisure I possess.

Thos. Shepheard.

Kingsley Lodge, Chester, Jan. 1888.

NOTES ON THE EIGHTH EDITION OF THE
LONDON CATALOGUE OF BRITISH
PLANTS.

By Arthur Bennett, F.L.S.

1059 is V. fruticans, Jacq.

1065 b is a pubescent variety, formerly quoted in
some of the earlier editions of the London Catalogue.

1069 b, alter authority to " Berl."

1076 b is a large broad-leaved form from Oxford-
shire, described by Dr. Boswell in " English Botany."

1079 b and c are varieties hard to distinguish from
one another or the type.

1 08 1 becomes O. purpurea, Jacq.

10893 is a Channel Isles' plant, small, and of a
beautiful yellow colour all over.

1096 is an added species, supposed to have occurred
in the Loch of Spynie, Elginshire, and probably else-
where, but unless in flower exceedingly difficult to
separate or name.

1 102, authority, "Hudson."

1 104, alter to longifolia, Hudson.

1 106, authority, "Linn."

1108, authority, "Hudson."

1 122 becomes C. parviflora, Lam.

1 130, hybrid. Gathered by Mr. G. Nicholson, in
Surrey, since named S. Nicholsonii, Taubert, in " Ver.
Bot. Ver. Pr. Brandenburg," 28.

1 131, authority, " Huds."
1 144 is 986, 7th ed.

1 150 is 991, 7th ed.

1165, authority, " Chaix."

1 166, authority, "Reich."

1 169, authority, " Waldst. and Kit."

1 1 70, alter to L.juncea, Berg.

1 181 a should be incanum, Moq., and C. viridescens,
St. Amans.

1 1 86 b should be rhombifolmm, Muehl.

1 194, authority, " Huds."

1 196 b is a green var. found by Mr. Grant, in
Caithness, and Mr. Beeby, in Shetland.

1200 should read a. acetaria, Moq., b. prostrata,
Moq.

no

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

1205 5 is a variety simulating P. dumetorum, and
often so named.

1208 is 1 1 14, 7th ed.

1224 becomes. R. limosus, Thuill.

1229 should read, 5. triangtilatus, ,Syme, c. subeor-
datus, Warren (both described in the "Exchange
Club Reports "), d. elo?igatus, Guss.

1236. The hybrids speak for themselves, others no
doubt occur. The Swedish botanists have been
studying these plants, and published interesting notes
on them in their "Botanisker Notiser."

123 1 b is 1105, 7th ed.

1263, authority, " Stokes."

1266(5 is a narrow-leaved var. of rare occurrence.

1274, alter authority to " Gaertn."

Our Salices, with the addition of S. hippophaefolia,
Thuill., found by Dr. Fraser in Staffordshire, remain
much as they were years ago, except that the then
newer species have been reduced to varieties.

13205, authority, "Loudon."

Epipactis. This genus is decidedly not settled, most
of the specimens named atro-rubcns (ovalis of Babing-
ton) are to my eyes not so. The only specimens^ I
can refer to the true plant of Babington are those
originally gathered by Mr. Tatham, in Yorkshire.

1345, alter authority to " Scop."

It is to be hoped that botanists will gather our rarer
Orchids sparingly, such as O. purpurea, O. militaris,
and O. Simla — the last has become exceedingly rare,
though I think I could find a fair number each year.
I once saw twenty-five in flower at the edge of a
wood, and noting this in Science-Gossip, I had
forty-five letters in the fortnight following. I could
only act fairly by answering none.

1358 £ is a var. found in Surrey, with a narrow
drawn-out lip, etc.

1363 is 1274, 7th ed.

1364 is 1279, 7th ed.

1365 is 1275, 7th ed.
1368 is 1278, 7th ed.

1380 b is a var. found in Wales.

1390 a alter to a. alt His, L., b. prostratus, L.

1401 1, alter authority to " Fries."

1419 is 1330, 7th ed.

1430 is an added species found in Herefordshire, and
in 1887 in Scotland. One of Don's "reputed" plants,

1439 c, d, e are three forms added of this varying
species ; c, a water form, d, a marsh one, <?, a con-
densed one, with flowers and leaves in fascicles.

f uncus alpinus, Vill., has been found in Perth ; in
1887 by Dr. White and Mr. Brebner.

1442 x is an hybrid between lamprocarpus and
acutiflorus, found by Mr. Beeby, near Hedge Court,
Mill Pond, in S.W. Surrey.

1443 b is 1372 £, 7th ed.
1449, alter to L. vernalis, DC.
1454, alter to L. erectus, Desv.

1454 a? is an added name for a pale form of the
species, usually taller and more gracile.

1458 is an added species described and figured by
Mr. Beeby in the "Journal of Botany," differing
from ramosum in its fruit, which is more like simplex.
As yet it has only been found in England. Spargania
for naming ought always to be gathered in ripe fruit.

1472 is 1255, 7th ed.

1474 is 1256, 7th ed.

1479^ is a form of natans, with long drawn-out
leaves.

1481 is an added species, found by Mr. Fryer in
Hunts. It is probably the true plant, but ripe fruit
has yet to be obtained.

1483 b. This is a form in habit between rufescein
and polygonifolius.

1487 b is a form of heterophyllus I found in
Cambridgeshire ; growing, the plant has much the
aspect of polygonifolius. The describer of it, the Rev.
Morong, placed it under " gramincus, L." (oxx hetero-
phyllus) ; he found it in the United States.

1488^ is a slender form of nitens, with recurved
leaves.

1490 is 1227 b, 7th ed.

1 49 1 is an added species figured and described in
the "Journal of Botany," from specimens gathered
at Cauldshiels Loch, Roxburgh, by Mr. Brotherston.

1492, added species, gathered by the Rev. Ley, in
Herefordshire, and identified by Professor Babington,
who supposed it identical with P. Lonchites, Tuck.

1463, added species, found by Mr. J. E. Griffith,
near Aber, in Carnarvonshire, which I was obliged
to describe as new in "Journal of Botany" ; as yet I
have not been able to place it under any recognised
species.

1495 b. Yorkshire, a peculiar form of perfoliate,
with the facies of nitens or heterophyllus in it.

14965. Hudson's plant, often when with narrow
leaves named P. obtusifolius.

14995, a Norfolk form of the species.

15005. A Hants and Perth form of obtusifolius,
the identification of which I owe to specimens kindly
sent me by Dr. Lange and Herr Mortenson.

1 501 is 1236, 7th ed. It would take too much
space to give here the reasons, for and against, this
name being used.

1502 c is a plant from the Orkney Isles gathered by
Prof.Traill, simulating P. rutilus, Wolfgang, very much.

1503 is a sub-species of pusillus, L., gathered by
Mr. Sturrock, in Perthshire ; it is a slender pretty
plant, different to anything I possess from any part
of the world.

15095 is an Orkney plant found by Dr. Boswell, a
small mud form.

151 1 is a plant with a four-celled anther and fruit
not so muricated as the usual form.

1512 is 1242, 7th ed.

1 5 13 5 is the Orkney plant.

Potamogeton coriaceus, Nolte (Cambridgeshire), should
have been in the Catalogue.

{To be conthmed.)

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

in

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

THE first meeting of the Royal Astronomical
Society for the new session was held on March
the 9th. A number of papers had been received on
observations of the total lunar eclipse of the 28th of
January.

In a paper sent by Dr. "Dyer on the observations
made at the Armagh Observatory, he stated that
he recorded seven disappearances and two reappear-
ances of stars, and called attention to the fact that
about the middle of the eclipse, when viewed
with the naked eye, the moon looked like a bright
disc with a dark triangular shadow on it. Mr.
Rambone, of Dunsink, sent a paper of observations,
in which he recorded seventeen disappearances and
eighteen reappearances, upon the red colour visible
on the moon's disc.

In the discussion which followed the reading of
these papers, Captain Noble said that he observed
that the body of the moon was almost chocolate-red,
whilst the limb seemed to be of a silvery green.
(The writer would suggest, that this appearance of a
bright green tint on the limb was doubtless only a
complementary colour produced by the red in the
eye of the observer.) This suggestion was made by
the Astronomer Royal in summing up the discussion.

In May there will be no occultations of any star as
large as a fourth magnitude.

Mercury will be an evening star in the last two
weeks of the month, and will be situated in the
north-west after sunset.

Venus will be a morning star in Aries, but will
enter Taurus in the middle of the month.

Jupiter will rise in the evening in Scorpio.

Meteorology. — In May the Isotherms assume
roughly the form of the letter S placed on its back
across England. At Haverfordwest the mean
average temperature is 530. The isotherm of this
temperature first falls to Swansea, then rises to
Leicester and again falls through Rutland and
between Ipswich and Chelmsford to Canterbury.

The Isotherm of 520 passes through Blackburn,
rises to York, and then falls to Hull and Norwich.

The Isotherm of 510 passes through Kirkcudbright,
rises to Jedburgh, and then falls to Norwich.

At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the lowest
reading of the barometer for the week ending 17th of
March was 28*60 in. on Sunday afternoon, and the
highest 29 -88 in. at the end of the week. The mean
temperature of the air was 37 "2 deg., and 3*8 deg.
below the average. The direction of the wind was
variable. Rain fell on every day of the week, to the
aggregate amount of 0-95 in. The duration of regis-
tered bright sunshine in the week was io*S hours,
against io'i hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 24th of March the highest
reading of the barometer was 30*07 in. on Wednesday

Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at inte>~vals of Seven Days in May.

Rises.

Souths.

Sets.

D.

h. m.

h. m.

h. m.

6

4 i6m

II 36M

6 56A

13

4 i6m

0 8a

8 OA

Mercury 2 .

20

4 25M

0 43A

9 IA

27

4 42M

I I4A

9 46A

1

6

3 56m

IO 49M

5 42A

Venus $ . .]

13

3 44M

10 54M

6 4A

20

3 34M

II OM

6 26a

27

3 26M

II 7M

6 48A

■

6

4 9A

9 5ia

3 38m

Mars 0*

13

3 37A

9 19A

3 5m

20

3 7A

8 49A

2 35m

27

2 42A

8 22A

2 6 m

•

6

8 48A

I 9M

5 26m

Jupiter %. .

13
20

8 i6a

7 44A

0 38M

0 7M

4 56M
4 26M

27

7 I2A

II 32A

3 56m

•

6

9 1 6m

5 i3A

1 13M

Saturn T?. .

13

8 51M

4 47A

0 47M

20

8 27M

4 22A

0 20M

27

8 2M

3 57A

11 52A

evening, and the lowest 29*06 in. at the end of the
week. The mean temperature of the air was
34*7 deg., and 7.0 deg. below the average. The
general direction of the wind was N.N.E. Rain fell
on five days of the week, to the aggregate amount of
0*66 in. The duration of registered bright sunshine
in the week was 1 1*3 hours, against 3*1 hours at
Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 31st March, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 28*57 in. on Wednesday
afternoon, and the highest 29*80 in. at the end of the
week. The mean temperature of the air was 40*0
deg., and 3*4 deg. below the average. The direction
of the wind was variable. Rain fell on six days of
the week, to the aggregate amount of o*S7 of an inch.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 11*2 hours, against 13*4 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 7th April, the lowest reading
of the barometer was 29*58in. on Monday afternoon,
and the highest 30*09111. on Friday morning. The
mean temperature of the air was 37'l deg., and 9*1 deg.
below the average. The general direction of the wind
was north-east. Rain fell on two days of the week, to
the aggregate amount of 0*08 of an inch. The duration
of registered bright sunshine in the week was 29*0
hours, against 29*7 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 14th April, the highest
reading of the barometer was 29 "93 in. on Tuesday
evening ; and the lowest 29 '59 in. on Friday morning.
The mean temperature of the air was 42*2 deg.,
and 4*9 deg. below the average. The direction of
the wind was variable. Rain fell on four days of the

112

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

week, to the aggregate amount of O'li of an inch.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 21*5 hours against 13*4 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

The average rainfall for May is 1 in. for the whole
of the east coast and a great part of the south coast,
and 2 in. for the whole of the west coast and a
portion of the south-east coast by the North Foreland,
while it reaches 3 in. in a few places in Cornwall,
North Wales and the English lake district.

THE STORY OF THE GREAT AUK.

EIGHTY years ago a boat's crew landing on an
island lying off Reykjanes, on the coast of
Iceland, chased, killed, and ate the great auk to its
heart's content. So recklessly did the sailors go to
work that they indiscriminately trod underfoot in-
numerable eggs and also a vast number of young
birds.

So abundant was the great auk at that time that
no one then could ever have dreamed that in less
than a century it would follow in the footsteps of
the dodo, the apteryx, and the solitaire, and
become an extinct and almost mythological creature.
Still less can we suppose that any one of the " Sala-
mine's " crew could have deemed it possible that the
eggs which he so remorselessly crushed would one
day attain such a value that ,£225 would be paid for
a single specimen. Yet such things are facts. The
bird has been improved off the face of the earth. It
no longer exists — a few stuffed specimens — a jar or
so of spirits encasing its remains, a few bones, and
less than seventy eggs, alone bear witness to the
fact that the great auk once dwelt among us.

With only seventy eggs in existence, and no further
supply forthcoming, it may not seem so surprising
that on the 12th day of the month of March last Mr.
Stevens, of King Street, Covent Garden, should be
able to sell a very fine egg of the great auk for £225.
As an instance of the rapidly increasing value of this
specimen it has been stated that it had been in the
possession of its late owner since 1851, when it was
purchased for ,£18.

No egg of any kind has ever realised so large a
sum as that fetched at the recent sale, although a
similar relic of the great auk changed hands in
December last for .£168.

The great auk belonged to the genus of web-footed
birds called auk (alca) the type of a family named
Alcadse. The members of this family are remarkable
for the shortness of their wings, which they employ as
fins or paddles for swimming under water — some
being even incapable of flying, and for the position
of their legs further backward than in other birds,
which makes walking difficult, and compels them
when on land to maintain an upright attitude. They
are distinguished by the very compressed bill, which

in the true auks is vertically elevated, and so sharp
along the ridge as to resemble the blade of a knife ;
and by their entirely graduated feet, destitute of hind
toes. The auks are entirely confined to the seas of
the northern hemisphere (the penguins taking their
place in the southern) and are most abundant in the
cooler regions. All of them have a dense plumage,
which generally exhibits on its surface a beautifully
polished appearance and silvery lustre.

The great auk, now extinct, in size as large as a
goose, was strictly an oceanic bird, rarely leaving
the water ; but when sojourning on land usually
selecting the spots most inaccessible to man. Its
winter plumage appeared in autumn, when its
cheeks, throat, forepart, and sides of neck were
white. Its summer plumage commenced to appear
in the spring, when the white on the head became
confined to a large patch which extended in front
and round the eyes ; the rest of the head, neck, and
upper plumage was of a deep black. It has been
said that this bird was deprived of the power of
flight, not from any peculiarity in the structure of
the wings and feathers, but simply on account of
their diminutive size. This, however, appears to be
an incorrect statement, inasmuch as Professor Owen
has declared, ' ' The proportion in which the skeleton
[of birds] is permeated by air varies. In Alca
impennis {i.e. the great auk), the penguin and the
apteryx, air is not admitted into any of the bones.
The condition of the osseous system, therefore,
which all birds present at early periods of their
existence, is here retained through life." Hence
we see that their wings did possess a peculiarity of
structure, fitting them for paddling purposes rather
than for flight.

It was formerly an inhabitant of Newfoundland,
Labrador, and Iceland, and a somewhat rare visitant,
at least of late years, of Norway and Sweden, and of
the Orkney, Shetland, and Hebrides Islands. To
compensate it for its inability to fly it was enabled,
as we have seen, to move with great rapidity under
water. Thus it is related how, in 1812, Mr.
Bullock chased one of these birds in the Orkneys in
a boat manned with six oars, and although every
effort was used to capture it, the bird outstripped its
pursuers and escaped. This was one of two birds
which for some time had been seen in the neighbour-
hood, and was well known to the people as the king
as the other was as the queen of the auks.

It was killed a fortnight afterwards, and came into
the possession of the authorities at the British
Museum.

In common with most of the Alcadce, the great
auk laid only one egg, and this upon the bare rock,
without any attempt at a nest. The eggs varied in
size ; thus of four in the possession of one collector
the sizes were as follows : — (1) 5 inches, by 2 inches
\o\ lines ; weight, 31 scruples 10 drams. (2) 4 inches
\dh lines, by 2 inches 113 lines ; weight, 41 scruples

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

113

9 grains. (3) 4 inches 7 lines, by 3 inches 1 line ;
weight, 40 scruples 9 grains. (4) 5 inches 1 line by
3 inches; weight, 38 scruples 15 grains.

The colour, also, was variable, some being of a
silvery white, others yellowish-brown and purple.
The spots and streaks differed much in colour and
form, some being yellowish-brown and purple, others
purple and black, whilst others, again, were of
intense blue and green.

This bird so recently as 1843, only forty-five years
ago, was included by Yarrell in his list of British
birds, rare it is true, but still a British bird which
within the memory of man has become totally
extinct ; and although, as Professor Owen has re-
marked, such extinction was not wholly brought
about by the hand of man, as in the case of the dodo
and the dinornis, it is a fact that the barbarism
which finally removed it from terrestrial existence
was certainly due to man's agency, and may be
reckoned as one of the features of the march of
civilisation in this nineteenth century.

The latest authenticated notice of the existence of
this bird, occurs in connection with Eldey Island, off
the coast of Iceland, from whence the last two birds
taken alive, were procured in 1844. Their remains
(the birds were dissected) are now preserved in
spirits in the Royal Museum at Copenhagen. It is
true that a tale is told concerning one Johannes
Propert (a half breed of Disco Island), who declared
that he met with the great auk so recently as 1859.
He related the circumstances to Mr. Brown, who
repeated the story before the Zoological Society.

According to this story, Propert and his com-
panions saw two birds, they captured and ate one,
the other escaping. The refuse of the one was
given to the dogs, who left but one feather behind,
said to have been afterwards found. But, as Mr.
Brown observes, inasmuch as Propert was a very
intelligent man, and well knew that the authorities
at Copenhagen had offered a valuable reward for a
specimen, it is utterly impossible to suppose, that on
seeing such a rare and highly-prized bird he would
shoot and eat it. Moreover, in 1868, only nine
years after, Mr. Brown found that the inhabitants of
Disco Island, where the pretended capture is said to
have taken place, had lost all memory of the bird,
although, on the mention of its Icelandic name
Isarokilsoc, they at once declared, "That means
' little wing,' " than which a better or more forcible
description of the bird could not be given.

It is worthy of note that the birds which have
become extinct within historical memory were all
little-winged birds. The dinornis of New Zealand,
known to the natives as the moa, was in existence if
not in the last century at least in the seventeenth. It
was decked in gaudy plumage for the sake of which,
as well as for its flesh, which was highly esteemed,
it was doomed to destruction and final extinction.
It is described as being utterly incapable of flight.

The dodo of Mauritius, described by several
voyagers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
and brought alive to Europe on more than one
occasion, had wings so short as to be of no use for
flight. It was therefore unable to cope successfully
for existence against man, who esteemed its flesh as
a tender morsel.

Again, the great auk of the northern hemisphere,
as we have seen, possessed wings of a character wholly
inadequate to enable it to fly. Its doom seems to
have been foretold by one of our old voyagers, Capt.
Whitbourne, who in 1620 thus describes it :

They are as big as geese and fly not, for they have
but a little short wing, and they multiply so infinitely
upon a certain flat island that men drive them from
thence upon a board into their boats by hundreds at a
time, as if God had made the innocency of so poor a
creature to become such an admirable instrument for
the sustentation of man.

Capt. Whitbourne's description of the means
adopted for the wholesale capture and destruction of
the great auk is corroborated by many other ancient
writers. Thus, in Mr. Hore's Voyage to Newfound-
land, in Henry Vlil.'s reign, we find in Hakluyt : The
Isle of Penguin, which is very full of rocks and stones
whereon they went and found it full of great foules,
white and gray, as big as geese, and they saw infinite
number of their eggs, the foules they flead and their
skinnes were very like hony-combes : full of holes,
being flead off: they dressed and ate them and found
them to be very good and nourishing meat. And
again, in proof of the wholesale destruction of these
birds, rude stone enclosures or pounds were, until very
recently, commonly to be met with at various places
in the northern hemisphere — silent memorials of the
means adopted for the capture and final extinction of
this unhappy bird.

Nor is it unworthy of note that Yarrell records how
Frenchmen visiting the haunts of the great auk in the
sixteenth century (1536), slaughtered and victualled
themselves upon its flesh, salting down what they
could not eat at the time ; and again, how the natives
not only pursued them for the sake of their flesh, but
with a view to making garments of their down. The
habits of the bird were evidently well known in
the sixteenth century, as we gather from Tusser's
" Husbandry," 1580 :

" In husbandry drowseth at fortune so auke,
Good husbandry rowseth himself as a hauke."

The earliest reference to the great auk as a
British bird, occurs about 1680, under the name of
gare-fowl, in an account of St. Kilda by the Lord
Register, Sir George McKenzie, of Tarbat.

The latest British specimen taken alive was at
Waterford Harbour, in 1834. Since this last date the
birds appear to have confined themselves to three
islands off the coast of Iceland, and in particular to
Eldey Island.

H4

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G 0 SSIP.

The submersion of this island brought great
destruction upon them ; but a whole colony escaped
to another island, which made its appearance at the
same time in the immediate vicinity of their former
home. To this island the name of Eldey was at once
transferred. It was the last known home of the
great auk. For fourteen years systematic expeditions
were made to this island, and some sixty birds and a
number of eggs were despatched from thence to
Copenhagen.

A single bird in 1834 is known to have fetched £8 ;
the two last captured in Iceland £g, and about the
same time ,£20 was refused by certain fishermen in
Iceland for two auks and two eggs.

A recent issue of the " Illustrated London News "
gives the following statement, with reference to the
gradual increase in the value of the few remaining
eggs—

1852 — 2 eggs sold for ^29 and .£30.

I85<5— 1 egg „ £21.

1865—4 eggs „ £30 (average).

1869— 1 egg „ £6c.

1880 — 2 eggs ,, 100 and 102 guineas.

1887— 1 egg „ £168.

1888-1 „ „ £225-

The same paper also adds that of the sixty-seven
recorded specimens extant, twelve are to be met with
in eight British museums, and thirty-two in British
private collections.

The Rev. J. G. Wood records that, owing to the
extreme value attached to these eggs, and the high
price which they fetch in the market, various in-
genious attempts have been made to forge copies.
Not many years ago, he adds, several apparently
genuine auk's eggs were offered for sale at a low
price, but they turned out to be nothing more than
forgeries admirably manufactured, and really valuable
as copies of the egg. This attempt at fraud is
scarcely to be wondered at, when such fabulous
prices as those above recorded are given for a single
specimen.

S. COODE HORE.
264, Dalston Lane, Hackney, E.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

During the approaching summer a new branch of
the London Geological Field Class will make a detailed
study of the chalk formation about London, under
the direction of Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S.
The other branch, under the same direction, will
follow the course of former years by investigating the
principal geological features in the neighbourhood of
London. Full particulars can be obtained by intend-
ing students on application to Messrs. G. Philip &
Son, 32, Fleet Street, and from many booksellers in
the suburbs.

During March and April, Dr. J. E. Taylor,
Editor of Science-Gossip, delivered lectures on
various subjects connected with geology and natural
science before large audiences in Ipswich, North-
ampton, Chelmsford, Loughborough, Lowestoft,
Manningtree, Hadleigh, and elsewhere. He is now
booking a few engagements for next winter.

The " Dicky Bird " Society in Newcastle now
numbers no fewer than 148,000 children-members,
all of whom are pledged to discourage birds-nesting,
catching, etc.

The French Association for the Advancement of
Science recently met at Oran, in Algeria.

Mr. Howard Saunders is the author of a very
attractive-looking book, capitally illustrated, now
appearing in shilling monthly parts, entitled " An
Illustrated Manual of British Birds." Publishers :
Messrs. Gurney & Jackson.

The well-known " Introductory Text-Book on
Geology," by Professor David Page, has been re-
written by Professor C. Lapworth, and is now,
therefore, one of the best in the field.

The first part of Mr. R. A. Proctor's "Old and
New Astronomy " has been published. As was
expected, it promises to be the finest work of the
kind yet issued.

No fewer than ten Fellows of the Royal Society
have died within four months. Their average age
was 79, so that science is long-lived.

The " Selborne Magazine " will in future be
published by Mr. Elliot Stock.

ZOOLOGY.

The Genus Clausilia. — On p. 26 I suggested a
possible explanation of the presence of species of
Clausilia in the West Indies and South America, the
genus being absent in North America. I have since
received a copy of Conrad's list of the Eocene fossils
of North America, and find the problem complicated
by the presence of three species, C. contraria,
C. vermicula, and C. teres in the Eocene strata of
Dakota. (There is a European C. teres, Oliv., which
I believe has priority, in which case C. teres, Meek &
Hayden, may be called C. occidentalis.) At present I
am unable to offer any satisfactory explanation of the
existence of these Dakotan species, and commend the
matter to conchologists for solution ; but it is just
possible their origin was Asiatic, as there are several
of the genus in Japan and China (the Japanese
C. martensi being one of the largest species of
Clausilia), and in many ways the fauna of Eastern

HARD WICKE1 S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIP.

"5

Asia is related to that of North America — a subject
on which I may have more to say later on. With
regard to the origin of Tudora in Europe (p. 26) it
is possible that the ancestor of T. femtginca was
carried across the Atlantic on floating timber by the
Gulf Stream, as the operculum would help it greatly
in resisting the influence of sea-water. And it is
noteworthy that the T. ?negacheila, of Curacoa, has a
habit of climbing trees. — T. D. A. Cockerell, West
Cliff, Custer Co., Colorado.

Grapta C-ALBUM. — On page 44, your corre-
spondent A. G. T. has a note on Vanessa {Grapta)
C-album, asking whether it is known to be double-
brooded. In reply, I may say that Mrs. Hutchinson
has proved without doubt that it is so, and has
recorded her observations in the "Entomologist's
Monthly Magazine," 1887, p. 186. Mr. W. H.
Edwards has some very interesting remarks on this
species in "Canadian Entomologist," 1887, p. 2, in
which he shows that C-album is represented in
America by three species : G. comma, G. satyrus and
G. faunas. Now the first two differ from G. C-album
in their preparatory stages, but faunus is still held
by many authors to be a race of C-album. Mr.
Edwards continues, " Faunus is a sub-boreal species,
flying from one ocean to the other . . . and being
boreal and one-brooded, it is fair to presume it came
from the north ; that at the time, ages ago, when the
two continents were united, the species occupied the
northern parts of both. When the separation took
place, the European branch split into numerous
varieties, and became double-brooded, yet retained
its identity as one species . . . one multiform species."
So he concludes that /annus, la single-brooded,
unvarying boreal species, is near to the primeval type
from which sprung the one variable European species
and the twelve known North American species. [P.S.
— I may mention that the cause of the destruction of
insects frequenting lime-trees (p. 43) is the tomtit
{Parus) and no poison.] — T, D. A. Cockerell, West
Cliff, Custer Co., Colorado.

Entomological Society of London. — At the
last meeting of this society, Mr. Goss read a letter
from Mr. Bignell, correcting a statement made by
Mr. Poulton at the March meeting of the society, to
the effect that the variety valezina of the female of
Argytmis paphia did not occur in Devonshire. Mr.
Bignell said that the var. valezina was included in
Mr. Reading's ' ' Catalogue of Devonshire Lepi-
doptera " ; and further, that he had himself taken
specimens of this variety in Bickleigh Vale, Devon.
Mr. Waterhouse read a paper entitled "Additional
Observations on the Tea-bugs (Helopeltis) of Java,"
and exhibited a number of specimens of these insects.
He said that the species infesting the cinchona in
Java was supposed to have been introduced from
Ceylon in tea, but that he had discovered that the

species on the tea and on cinchona in Java were
distinct, and that both species were distinct from
Helopeltis antonii of Ceylon.

Geographical Distribution.— Mr. T. D. A.
Cockerell will allow me, I know, to make the sug-
gestion— considering so little is known at present of
the why and wherefore of the distribution in space of
the land and freshwater mollusca — that the distribu-
tion in time be the only test ; and that if any one
given species, or any form of which we may reason-
ably expect it to be a derivative, be found in the
pliocene or anti- pliocene fauna of a district or sec-
tion, then we may believe it to be an autochthon of
that district or section. For example, should Plan-
orbis parvus, or some one species closely allied to it,
be found fossil in the pliocene or anti-pliocene for-
mations of the countries reckoned in his boreal
section, then we may more positively aver that its
"metropolis" of distribution was a northern one.
His proposed test {ante, page 25) seems to me scarcely
to hold water as a special way of working by the
very exceptions he makes to the rule he has formu-
lated, because colonists have certainly taken over
many species of which there could, by their very
ignorance of natural history, be no record ; and if a
prolific species were taken over it could delude a
naturalist visiting the country after a lapse of years
into reckoning it as indigenous, by reason of its
attained distribution, when it was only an immigrant
after all.— y. W. Williams.

CONCHOLOGY. — I have just got two advance copies
of a new work on the British Unionidae. It consists
of illustrations of a hundred different forms of Unios
and Anodons. There are no descriptions, but there
is an introduction in which the types of various
authors (1804-1879) are reproduced, to show the
confusion that has existed in regard to type forms.
The first edition, which is preliminary and subject to
alteration, is limited to about twenty copies. The
second and revised edition, which may number one
hundred copies, is designed to contain short descrip-
tions, together with exact localities for each form
illustrated. It may be remarked that the author is a
follower of the splitters, and some of the new-named
forms are in my opinion too near others to be sepa-
rated.— Geo. Roberts.

The British Slugs.— The author of the inter-
esting papers entitled " Slug Gossip," which appeared
in Science-Gossip for last year, proposes (p. 244)
the use of Lehmaiuiia as a genus. It is, however,
at best only a sub-genus, and is only used as such
by its author, Heynemann ("Die nackten Land-
pulmonaten des Erdbodens," p. 85), who includes in
it Umax arborum, L.flavus {variegatus), L. azrulans
and L. montenegrinus. It would appear, however,
that Agriolirnax, Morch, containing the British species
agrestis and Icevis, must be accepted as a true genus,

n6

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

as Simroth, who has carefully investigated the anatomy
of the European Limaces, finds it fully distinct, and
more nearly allied to Amalia than to Limax. In
discussing the species of Arion (pp. 265, 266), the
author proposes to unite bourguingati with subfuscus
as a variety. Simroth and others have nevertheless
detected anatomical differences, and I cannot imagine
any one familiar with the outward appearance of the
two species failing to distinguish them. "Arion
albus," of Linne, is a variety of A. ate/: Various
forms have been described as albus, flavus, etc., but
it does not appear to be proved that any of them are
good species, unless flavus is really identical with
Arion minimus of Simroth. — T. D. A. Cockerell,
West Cliff, Colorado.

Lacuna pallidula. — I find the Lacuna pallidida
and Lactam divaricata are rather common at low-
water mark, on Laminaria, etc., on the Isle of Wight
coast, about Luccombe.— J. C. Eccles, Vent nor.

MICROSCOPY.

Enock's Sketches. — If anything would tempt a
young man to the study of natural history, it is the
periodical series of " Sketches " and " Slides " illus-
trated by the sketch, which Mr. Fred. Enock is
bringing out. The last slide (accompanied by the
usual carefully-drawn, detailed sketch and with a
minute description) is devoted to the spinnerets of
spider (Epeira diade/ua), female, prepared without
pressure. The object, therefore, retains all its
natural form and colour, and is perhaps the best Mr.
Enock has turned out — which is saying a good deal.

Mr. Cole's Slides Redivivus.— Microscopists
and natural history students generally, will be pleased
to hear that Mr. Arthur C. Cole is in the field again.
We have received his new catalogue of micro-
scopical preparations, educational, physiological,
pathological and botanical. All workers should
forthwith procure this catalogue, for they will be sure
to find something in it they want. Accompanying
the catalogue were the following beautifully mounted
slides, in Mr. Cole's best manner: — "Budding of
Stem of Citron," " Feathers in follicles," " Growing
point of Mistletoe," and "Vertical Section through
Triton cristatus," showing the abdominal organs, etc.

The Quekett Club.— The last "Journal"
contains the following papers : — " On the Structure
of Butterfly and Moth Scales," by T. F. Smith ;
" On the Formation of Diatom Structure," by E. M.
Nelson ; " Notes on Villi on the scales of Butterflies
and Moths," by Dr. Royston Pigott ; "Parasitism"
(address of the President, A. D. Michael) ; Reports,
Meetings, Lists of Members, etc.

BOTANY.

Autocopyist Illustrations.— Mr. J. Clayton
recently read a paper before the Bradford Naturalists'
Society on Pinus sylvestris, which was copiously illus-
trated by sectional and other details, all of which
were duplicated by an autocopyist apparatus, and
each member who heard the paper was furnished with
a sheet of drawings, and another of explanations.
This is a novel and clever method of enabling a
scientific audience to follow the reader of a paper,
both in his matter and illustrations.

GEOLOGY, &c.

Margate Flints. — Fossil sea-urchins in a silici-
fiedstate, commonly known as shepherd's crowns, are
familar to every dweller on the English chalk downs,
and to the contemplative mind often form the subject
of an hour's wonderment during a country walk
where the birds trill sweet melody in the hedge-rows.
Especially curious do they appear to those who first
meet with them beside some flowing river lined with
purple osiers or by the quite margin of the sea waves,
where the idea of the living things around being
changed into flint appears to the human mind an all
unfathomable mystery. I have known a singular in-
stance of a gentleman of superior professional attain-
ments and agreeable linguistic cultivation, who in
the Martinmas summer of extreme old age occupied
himself with an endeavour to prove, that flints were
the relics of a former world destroyed by the deluge,
and whose crowning satisfaction was the production
of an illustrated volume, at a considerable outlay, in
which the general reader might be startled to find
variously identified silicified monkeys, lady's slippers
and an Egyptian priestess, black but comely. He
had firmly convinced himself, and no less convinced
certain of his townsfolk, for he was likewise a ready
speaker, that the deluge poured in over the south-
eastern shores of England and washed all these
defunct oddities and more into his geranium beds.
One of his cherished fancies I recall was to convert
the authorities at the British Museum, with whom he
claimed to be at variance, to these most singular
views, and to this end, he once in good faith pressed
upon my acceptance a sea-urchin partially embedded
in a flint-stone, which he averred could be naught
else but a sea-bird overwhelmed when in the act of
masticating the said delicacy ; the gist of the argu-
ment here as elsewhere being that his flint fossils
preserved their forms and integuments, a circum-
stance which if once admitted, all the rest very
naturally followed. The authorities in question, I
chanced to hear, professed themselves alive to the
matter in dispute, which whatever charms it may
have exerted on the antiquarian ear did not distinctly

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

117

recommend itself to any of their modern views of
classification, and thus the genial topic of an after-
noon's visit found no niche in that temple of fame
now blazoned with the name of Sir Charles Lyell ; for
nature had not yet fled her chosen haunt at Blooms-
bury. The marvellous flint which for other reasons I
retained, has preserved kindly recollections of the
donor, and it has always appeared invested with a
certain interest, not indeed as reviving the afore-
mentioned rationalistic views of Omar el Aalem or as
recalling the dreamy echoes of Ovid and tales of the
Caliphs, glittering with a fond notion of the repopu-
lation of the globe from vivified flints, an idea not so
wholly idle as put by the Kaffir boy, since dust and
shadow are we all, but as simply recording how such
blameless things as Echinoderms have become thus
wondrously metamorphosed. To the generality of
minds, evidently this hard flint was once soft and
plastic, and the sea-urchin, so to speak, had stuck
into it, as a sea-shell sticks into a lump of mud ;
the flinty matter permeated it, and eventually
hardened it precisely as fruit is candied in syrup.
Had the urchin afterwards become detached from
the mass, as is commonly the case, we should have
seen the result of nature's handiwork and not
the process, and our minds would have become
prepossessed with vague notions of the marvellous.
Sometimes it may be, we unwittingly pass by the
cast away article from the great world laboratory
driven by the sun, retaining the'impress of the pro-
cess, and rendering not wholly vain the notion of
those who have fancied that fossils were imperfect
models employed at the creation, considering like-
wise that creation to be in progress. On the Downs
it is the precedent to mend_ the roads with flint,
although there can be little question that a few cart-
loads of sea sand as tending to form a concrete with
the chalk would be preferable, as economising both
money and labour. The other day, walking out on
the Ramsgate and Margate road, I observed a heap of
shingle, newly thrown down as the navvies quaintly
say for road metal, and my eye fell upon a flint with
a pecten or scallop adhering to it, which deserves to
be depicted as it tells so plainly the story of its fate ;
geology being a great book of earthly leaves record-
ing births, marriages, and deaths, a glance at it tells
its history, so that no recording angel could be at
fault. Once at the decease of its occupant
it chanced to repose upon a mass of soft and
yielding flint lying at the bottom of the channel
of those days. Flints are naturally moist and brittle
when new from the quarry, but then they must have
had the nature of putty, for the chalky mud as it
accumulated above pressed it into the future stone,
and finally with its weight broke the shell into four
as if impatient to destroy the die. The shell
remains filled with the chalk, the flint projects over
the edges, and a spray of flint globules resembling
crystallised sugar are squirted over its surface ; the

simple but complicated result of squeezing. Time
has effected the rest, and hardened what was mud
to chalk and stone, but the white rind on which
the shell is cushioned shows plainly that it was not
covered by the soft flint, but that it reposes on it as it
fell, beautiful in death. How it comes about that
our cliffs are scored with lines of irony flints it is easy
to surmise and difficult to prove ; silica and iron
are ejected in mineral springs, and they enter into
the microscopic shells that strew the sea-bed ;
a broken flint no less than the chalk is composed
of minute layers of granules, presumably either
the said diatom paste or globigerina ooze, which
Sir Wyville Thomson described when brought up
by the Challenger dredge as a cream or red-brown
powder. Possibly red and white were then the virgin
hues of the chalk cliffs, and if this be so, black and
white is but their pale shade. When the black flints
of Dover on Blanc Nez are pounded by the surges
into red sand, the things that were return ; Margate
flints however are naturally rust-coated, red-brown,
or suffused with red coralline mesh work, more or less
resembling a mineral I have labelled as jasper ; not
however the Cyprian jasper, " di color verde sprozato
di sangue," for this poetical substance, that has been
considered more precious than life .and eloquent than
words, is probably common blood-stone. The pure
white rind of the flint on which the scallop reposes is
also powdered with ochreous red, but this truly is
sand such as scallops love, the earliest sands of Peg-
well Bay dear to the shrimps. What is its kin and
lineage, Plagiostoma or Pecten, I will then leave to
the curious, for to my mind the broken shell recalls
that all-impressive idea of the poet : — " Shall man
be sealed within the iron hills, or blown about the
desert sand," and dead it speaketh. — A. H. Swintou.

Boulders in the Carboniferous Limestone
of Dublin. — At a recent meeting of the Geological
Society a paper was read by Professor Ball on this
subject. He said that angular fragments of granite
and of schist, quartzite, and vein-quartz, such as
might have been derived from the metamorphosed
rocks which rest on the granite near Dublin, have
been discovered in beds of carboniferous limestone,
which often contain fragments of fossils, especially
Encrinites. They have been previously noticed by
several geologists. While Professor Jukes refers
their transportation to the agency of land-plants, Mr.
Croll quotes their occurrence in support of his argu-
ment as to the existence of glacial conditions during
the carboniferous period. Professor Bail observed
that the specimens exhibited none of the indications
of the existence of glacial conditions, whether we
regard the characters of the boulders or the nature of
the rock in which they are imbedded, which con-
tains no such silt as that occurring in the boulder-bed
of the talchir formation. Whilst rejecting the view
that they were transported by ice, he pointed out

n8

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

that they need not necessarily have been carried by
land-plants, but that they might have been torn from
the sea-floor by marine algre, some of which may
have have had a more buoyant character than those
of modern seas. He cited the case of a sandy beach
in the neighbourhood of Youghal, which is strewn
with limestone fragments, which had been conveyed
by sea-weeds thrown up after storms from submarine
banks. It was suggested that the occurrence of
natural fissures in the rocks and cracks produced by
concussions from large masses, hurled about by the
waves, might sufficiently explain how the fragments
could be freed from the main mass of the reefs under
the stress of the waves.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

A Spider's Contrivance. — When residing in
Lugano, in Switzerland, some time ago, I was much
interested in observing the method by which a garden
spider had adopted to keep its web extended under
difficulties. I had four small pollard acacia trees
about seven or eight feet high, planted in tubs, nine
feet apart, in front of my house. A garden spider
{Epcira diadema) had spun its web between two of
the trees, and had jnade fast its threads, or stays, to
various top and side branches ; but as there happened
to be no branches to which it could fix its threads
below the web, it must have thought of some other
means, and devised a mechanical contrivance for the
completion of its web by placing a weight on the
lower side of the web to serve as a stay. The spider
must therefore have descended from its half-finished
web to the gravel walk by one of its threads, and
selected a small stone, nearly \ inch cube, to which
it attached the thread by which the spider had
descended ; then by running up this thread to the
web, it hoisted up the stone to an elevation which it
considered a safe position, and out of the way of any
small animal that might pass underneath the web.
The stone was hanging about two feet off the ground,
and three feet below the spider's web. It was oscil-
lating with the wind. I placed my hand very gently
under the stone and raised it up an inch or two, upon
which the web immediately began to collapse, but,
on lowering my hand again, the web became extended
as before. — G. E. G.

Kangaroos on Leith Hill. — Some fourteen
years ago some kangaroos, kept in confinement by
Mr. W. J. Evelyn, Wotton House, escaped and made
their home on the common on Leith Hill and sur-
rounding district, where they have lived and bred
ever since. There is no abundance of them, however,
and great regret was felt some three years ago when
one was shot. Another has just been killed by a
large dog, and as it is felt that these interesting and
timid creatures should be propagated rather than
destroyed, it is to be hoped that persons passing over
the hill will be careful, when accompanied by large
dogs, to see that they do not attack or destroy the
only specimens of the kind running wild in this
country. The above paragraph from the "West
Sussex Gazette " of Feb. 2nd last is interesting. —
William Jejfay, Ralham, Chichester.

Heron and Water-Rat. — It may interest
W. Finch, jun. (Science-Gossip, p. 7), and other of

your readers, to know that Captain Knox in his
" Ornithological Rambles," 3rd edition, published
in 1885, nas figured a heron flying off with a water-
rat. Also I have been told by a Chichester bird-
stuffer that he, in one season, took three water-rats
from the stomachs of herons sent to be preserved. In
corroboration of the remark as to a heron capturing a

2 lb. trout, which seems almost incredible, a friend
of mine told me a few days ago, of a heron, on being
chased by a rook, dropping a trout which was ascer-
tained to weigh 2 lb. — William Jeffery.

Shooting Immigrant Birds.— I truly sym-
pathise with your correspondent in last Science-
Gossip, who wishes "to raise a howl of execration
against the shooting of our immigrant birds." The
most practical remedy I can suggest to prevent this
bird slaughter, is to take every possible opportunity
of enforcing the provisions of the Wild Birds Pro-
tection Act of 1880, by which all wild birds are
protected, more or less, between 1st March and 1st
August. Every offence against this Act, if supported
by satisfactory evidence will, I am sure, be readily
taken up by the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals, if reported to the secretary, and the
culprit brought to justice, and I can say from actual
experience, that a single conviction in any district
will have a most salutary effect. At this time of
year it may be useful to shortly state, that it is an
offence against the Act for any person in the United
Kingdom, bejtween the 1st March and 1st August,
(1) To shoot, or attempt to shoot, or use any boat
for the purpose of shooting, or causing to be shot,
any wild bird. (2) To use any lime, trap, snare,
net, or other instrument for the purpose of taking
any wild bird. (3) To expose for sale, or to offer
for sale, or to have in his possession after the fifteenth
day of March, any wild bird recently killed or taken.
(4) Any person who shall be found offending against
the Act, and refusing to give name and place of
abode, shall also be subject to a further penalty as
provided by the Act. May I also take this oppor-
tunity of bringing to the notice of the readers of
Science-Gossip, the Selbome Society, which has
for its objects the preservation of our native fauna
and flora, and is already doing some excellent work.
The annual subscription is only 2s. 6d., which also
entitles members to copies of the Society's magazine,
andall information can be obtained from J. L. Otter,
Esq., 3 Dr. Johnson's Buildings, Temple.— John
R. B. Masejield, Rosehill, Cheadle, Staffordshire.

BOMBYX RUBI.— In reply to Mr. Finch and
others, to the rearing of the above. I have bred it
for a good number of years, and it has always proved
very successful ; generally breeding five or six out of
every dozen of larvae. Mr. Finch should get a good
sized box, say 18 in. square and 12 in. deep, and put

3 in. of good mould into it, and place over it two
square sods of grass with a few roots of narrow
leaved plantain in it, then place the larvae into the
box, covered with wire gauze, and put it outside, so
that they will get full exposed to the winter. I have
never failed in the above. If kept indoors during the
winter they will all die. — Peter Kirk.

Ducklings. — Last summer I had two broods of
ducklings of eleven each. When two days old, the hens
under whom they were hatched were placed in coops
on my front lawn. The young ducks had their liberty
to wander where they pleased, and when about nine
days old, found their way down some steps into a
pond close by. After swimming about for some
time they returned, and attempted unsuccessfully to

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

119

mount the steps. Eventually they congregated
together, held a consultation, and after a chorus of
quacks started round a road to the back premises.
I went through the house, and saw them come in a
body under the gate into the yard. After looking
around for a minute or two, they approached me in
a body, held up their heads, and with a loud and
united quack, led off to the door separating the yard
from the garden. I followed them, and opened it,
upon which they immediately took the right path
round the house to the front lawn where the coops
were placed.

Feeding Frogs and Newts. (Science-
Gossip, p. 43). — I think A. F. Jenkins's frogs
cannot be tree-frogs if they will eat worms, as he
reports. I have kept tree-frogs, and they would
never eat anything but insects and millipedes, the
latter they were very fond of. The very name " tree-
frog " suggests an arboreal residence, as of course they
delight in, and where no worms could be obtained.
Perhaps they eat worms for want of something
better? I agree with your correspondent that it is
cruelty to keep newts constantly in water ; if
required as ornaments in an aquarium they should
always have a large piece of cork on which to
scramble when they wish. With regard to sala-
manders, the best food for them is undoubtedly
slugs, these creatures the salamander seems to be
just able to overtake in their flight ; other and more
active prey, such as worms, etc., invariably make
their escape whilst their enemy is making up his
mind which to take. — JV. Finch, jun., Nottingham.

Flies and Ants. — ' ' Amator Naturae " has evidently
witnessed the "Marriage Flight" of ants, which,
according to White, of Selborne, takes place on hot
sunny days of August and September. The larger
winged ants are the females, those of less size the
males. I have extracted the following from a paper
by F. Buchanan White, M,D., F.L.S. : "When the
winged individuals (male and female) leave the pupa
state they remain in the nest for a few days, attended
by the workers, but on some fine morning they come
out, climb about the dome, or on some neighbouring
plant and pair there, some however going off to a
greater distance. At this time the workers are in a
great state of excitement, and run hither and thither,
looking for the fertilised females, which are then
carried into the nest. The mates fly away, and,
being unable to feed themselves, die in a few days,
or are slain by birds cr spiders, or by other ants.
After a female has been fertilised she takes steps to
get rid of her wings, which are now of no further use.
This she accomplishes by moving them backwards and
forwards and shaking them violently till they drop off.
In getting rid of their wings they are often assisted
by the workers. Thereafter the rest of the life of the
female is spent in laying eggs from time to time, and
she takes little or no part in the work of the nest." —
Thomas Winder, C.E., Sheffield.

The Mountain Finch
usual for this bird to roos
house sparrow. During the
large flock of these finches
near Emsworth, of which
sparrow net, among the
(March 5) continue to stay
F. H. Arnold.

— It is probably not very
t in company with the
last week in February, a
appeared at Hollybank,
several were taken in a
evergreens. Some still
in the neighbourhood. —

Marine Copepod. — The illustration representing
a marine copepod with the young was found in the
Menai Straits about the beginning of February. It

shows in a striking manner the difference between
the young nauplii and the mature crustacean. I am
unacquainted with the name, and should be glad if
any reader of Science-Gossip could identify it. —
Bernard Thomas.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

Miss C. — The shell you sent us to be named is Cyprea
oceilata. If you will send us your address (which has been
mislaid) we shall be pleased to return the shell to you.

G. F., jun.— Your exchange was not inserted through in-
advertence.

G. E. East, jun. — Have you tried preserving the delicate
shells by placing them in a boiling mixture of milk and
gelatine ? It restores the organic matter and renders brittle
shells hard ; but much care must be taken.

J. Bowman. — We shall be very pleased to have your ornitho-
logical articles. Send us one to look at.

EXCHANGES.

Wanted, a set of the " Phytologist," in return for which will
be given a collection of British mosses, in all about 350 species,
named and localised, each species in separate packet ; together
with copy of Hobkirk's Synopsis. — J. C, 9 Wythenshaw Road,
Sale.

For exchange, Witkowski's movable anatomical plates, seven
in number, cost js. 6d. each, for Quain's " Anatomy," 8th or
gth edition, in good condition. — John L. Speirs, 1 Longley
Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Will exchange "Cornhill Magazine" for 1886 and 1887,
unbound, good condition, for good micro slides. Send list. —
Miss P. — Fern Cottage, Witheridge, North Devon.

Exchange. — Planorbis glaber, Cochlicope tridens, Pisid '171111
amnicum, &c. Desiderata, Bulimus montamis, Helix fusca,
Helix obvoluta, Helix pygma-a. — John Clegg, 5 Derby Street,
Millwood, Todmorden, Yorkshire.

Wanted, Newman's " Moths," entomological apparatus, or
ova, larvae, or pupae of Lepidoptera, in exchange for a number
of educational books, "Tit-Bits," &c— L., 4 Gill Street,
Nottingham.

Wanted, in exchange for rare and curious lizard, about six
inches in length, deep brown shining warty skin, found in
eastern Perthshire, a live specimen of sea anemone, any
of the trochus or turritella, or Velvet Fiddler crab. — Wm.
Smith, Belmont Street, Newtyle, Forfarshire.

About fifty pathological slides in rack box, with class-room
notes to most of them. What offers? Other micro-slides not
wanted. — W. Mathie, 127 Buchanan Street, Glasgow.

What offers for "Chambers's Encyclopaedia," 10 vols.;
Cassell's " Popular Educator," 3 vols. ; Cassell's " Franco-
Prussian War," 2 vols. ; Ward & Lock's " Instruction for All,"
3 vols., all bound half-calf, and equal to new, never having
been used?— W. Mathie, 127 Buchanan Street, Glasgow.

For exchange. — Marshall's " Rural Economy of Southern
Counties," 2 vols. (1799); "Burns's Correspondence" (1816) ;
Forrest's " Rock Sculptures on Rombald's Moor " (lithographs,
pamphlet); Harting's "Rambles in Search of Land Shells,"
and engravings of varieties of British Unios. Wanted. — Con-
tinental Unionidae, or varieties of Helices, or varieties or mon-
strosities of Dreissena polymorpha. — Geo. Roberts, Lofthouse,
Wakefield.

Wanted, a pond-collecting stick with bottle, net, knife, &c.
Will give good exchange in micro-slides. — Geo. Ward, Syston,
Leicester.

Most brilliant and magnificent exotic butterflies — Morpho
anaxibia and Morpho leonte — what offers? — Joseph Anderson,
jun., Aire Villa, Chichester.

Antique microscope, "by Heath and Wing, near ye Exeter
Exchange in ye Strand," supposed one of the first made, with

120

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

three objectives and other accessories, in mahogany case, all
in good preservation. Would like to exchange for a modern
serviceable microscope. — Ed. Lee, Havelock Cottage, Beach
Road, Jersey.

Good exchange given for well-blown (side-blown) eggs. For
further particulars apply to — W. M. Roberts, F.Sc.S., Aber-
gynolwyn, R. S. O., Merionethshire, N.W.

Wanted, "Entomologist," Nos. 102-190, 133, 194, 196, 197,
220-223 ; " Entomologist's Magazine," Nos. 49-55, inclusive. —
F. W. Frohawk, Balham, S.W.

To Egg Collectors. — I have a few coloured plates'of egg of
great auk. — F. W. Frohawk, Balham, S.W.

Wanted, British and foreign land and marine shells ; good
foreign stamps offered in exchange. — Thos. W. Reader, 171
Hemingford Road, London, N.

Wanted, a number of glass-capped boxes suitable for
mounting delicate and small shells, &c. — Thos. W. Reader,
171 Hemingford Road, London, N.

Science-Gossip for 1886 in publisher's covers; ditto 1887 in
half-calf, in perfect condition. What offers in photographic
apparatus? — Geo. Fell, jun., Aylesbury.

Offered. — A good one-sixth objective, no° aperture, shows
beaded striae on Surirella gemma. Wanted. — Kiitzing's
"Species Algarum," and other works on algae. — T. H. Buff-
ham, Comely Bank Road. Walthamstow.

Unmounted objects in exchange for other unmounted or
mounted objects. — Geo. T. Read, 87 Lordship Road, Stoke
Newington, N.

Wanted, I-?, edition of J. G. Wood's " British Beetles."
Good exchange in micro-slides or unmounted objects. — Geo. T.
Read, 87 Lordship Road, Stoke Newington, N.

Wanted, a good and strong hand magnifying glass, also a
flat micro aquarium ; will give well-mounted slides in exchange.
— A. E. Colman, 50 Elgin Crescent, Notting Hill, W.

Sponge spicules (mounted) from carboniferous limestone, in
exchange for spicules or other fossils from other formations. —
E. Carrick, Sharon Street, Dairy, Ayrshire, N.B.

Offered, "Universal Instructor," complete in 43 parts.
Wanted, Horace B. Woodward's "Geology of England and
Wales," 2nd edition. — J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning.

Quantity of books (miscellaneous) in exchange for natural
history books or specimens, or in part exchange for good
microscope. Lists sent. — D. Lea, Dragon House, Farnworth,
Widnes.

Helix cartusiana wanted in exchange for good British land
and freshwater shells. — John R. B. Masefield, Rosehill,
Cheadle, Staffordshire.

What offers for a duplicate volume of Science-Gossip for
1870, bound in the red paper (publisher's) binding? — E. H.
Wagstaff, 3 Waterworks Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Offered, really good telescope (cost 10s. 6d.), in exchange
for good books. — Joe Bates, 20 Lord Street, Burnley.

Wanted, "Mounting and Preparing Objects" (Davies) ;
"Pond Life" (Slack): "Hogg on the Microscope;" Huxley's
" Biology." Will exchange scientific and educational works and
fossils. — Jno. Eyre, 4 Render Street, New Cross, S.E.
2 Genuine worked flints from Thames valley gravels; skull,
dress, &c, of New Guinea native ; skull of fallow deer ; vols.
of Science-Gossip, " Entomologist," and other good books, in
exchange for micro-section cuttings, mounting apparatus, and
dissecting instruments. — H. E. Quilter, 4 Cedar Road, Leicester.

Vol. I. of "Comparative Embryology," by F. M. Balfour,
wanted. — H. E. Quilter, 4 Cedar Road, Leicester.

Advertiser, going to Australia, wishes to dispose of his
collection of micro-slides. What offers? — Arthur Downes,
5 Royal Park Road, Clifton, Bristol.

Six dozen micro objects, well mounted on ground-edge slides,
some professionally. Entomological books or apparatus re-
quired, or offers.— A. Draper, 179 Cemetery Road, Sheffield.

I will give two polished sections of unnamed and unlocalised
Devonian fossil corals, for one specimen of any unpolished
named and localised corals, except Fenestella rett/ormis, carb.
and Lithostrotion junceum, carb. — Ernest O. Meyers, Rich-
mond House, Hounslow, W.

Hawkins, "Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri," folio, 30 plates,
1840. What offers in books?— P. Payne, Free Library, Hinckley.

H. cantiana and H. virgata in exchange for species of
Vertigo and Pupa.— Chas. A. Whatmore, Ranelagh Road,
Wolverhampton.

For exchange, a collection of about 1500 to 2000 fossils;
also Science-Gossip (unbound), 1882-18S5, inclusive. — J. A.
Floyd, 15 Hospital Road, Bury St. Edmunds.

Offered, Science-Gossip from 1880 to 1887 (March parts
for 1880 and 1885, and one coloured plate for 1884 wanting).
Wanted, M 'Coy's " Prodromus of the Palaeontology of Victoria,"
decades I. VII. — J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning.

Offered, Brachiopods and other carboniferous fossils.
Wanted, fossils from other formations.— J. A. Hargreaves,
Charlestown, Shipley, Yorkshire.

Wanted, all or any of Darwin's works ; other books in
exchange. List sent on application.— Miss C. Leigh, Stone-
leigh Abbey, Kenilworth.

Specimens of minerals (40) in exchange for Darwin's
' Descent of Man," and the "Origin of Species." Also
minerals and fossils (chalk and coal measures) in exchange for

mounted micro objects. — A. Richardson, 39 Edithna Street,
Stockwell, London, S.W.

Duplicates. — U. pictorum, D. polymorplia, B. leachii,
P. corneus, P. vortex, P. spirorbis, L. stagnalis, L. peregra,
var. ovata, H. pisatia. Wanted, P. roseum, U. tumidus, P.
carinatus, V. pellucida, Z. ful-jus, H. lapicida, H. obvoluta.
— Henry C. Langdon, 4 Castle Down, Hastings, Sussex.

P. glaber for any other land and freshwater shells. — T. Ing-
ham, 3 Railway Street, Darwen Terrace, Blackpool.

British land, freshwater, and marine shells, in exchange for
any book or pamphlet by John Ruskin. — S. C. Cockerel!,
5 Priory Road, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

Wanted, Helix hortensis and H. nemoralis from all parts
of the British Isles.— Rev. J. W. Horsley, The Avenue, Bed-
ford Park, Chiswick.

Wanted, exotic Lepidoptera and other insects ; brilliant
ones preferred. Microscopic objects offered in exchange. —
J. W. Neville, Wellington Road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

Dragon-flies wanted from all parts of the British Isles, for
purpose of working up geographical distribution ; Lepidoptera
offered in return. — \V. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Dragon-flies wanted. Offered, A. adippe, G. rhamni,
I. bat is, L. argiohts, L. irretata, A. nebulosa, and many
others. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Wanted, micro-slides (especially botanical) in exchange for
back numbers of "Popular Science Monthly," "Science Re-
view," Science-Gossip, &c. ; also D or C eye-piece wanted in
exchange for A — difference arranged. — P., 80 Leathwaite Road,
Clapham Common, London, S.W.

Botanist (young) desires a fellow one to accompany him on
a collecting tour in beginning of July. — H. J., 69 Ramsden
Road, Balham, London, S.W.

Wanted, numbers of Science-Gossip for 1883,- except those
of October and December. State desiderata. — A. G. H., 10
St. John's Hill, S.W.

What offers in old volumes of Science-Gossip, micro-slides
of pond life or rock sections, for volumes of " Great Thoughts,"
" Cassell's Saturday Journal," a quantity of old " Graphics,"
and other magazines ? — A. G. H., 10 St. John's Hill, S.W.

For exchange. — Science-Gossip, 1S75-8, blue cloth, and
thirty odd numbers; "British Butterflies," " Moths," "Ento-
mology" (Kirby Spence), calf, gilt letters and edges, new;
" Life of an Insect," 2 vols. ; "Alphabet of Insects" (J. Rennie) ;
"Insects" vol. of "Jardine's Naturalist's Library," coloured
plates. — R. J. Warner, 80 Netherwood Road, Hammersmith.

"Illustrations of the Linnsan Orders of Insects" (W.
Wood), 1821, 2 vols., 35 coloured plates, valued by "Bazaar"
at 21s. Exchange for books on chess or singing, or anything
useful. — R. J. Warner, 80 Netherwood Road, Hammersmith.

Offered, two years of "Knowledge," 1885-6, unbound;
Muspratt's "Chemistry," unbound (incomplete). Wanted,
works on dyeing. — Sellers, Deepdale, Davenport Park, Stock-
port.

For exchange, a number of Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian,
and Oligocene fossils; also M'Alpine's "Zoological Atlas of"
Vertebrates" (249 figures), -and "Zoological Atlas of Inverte-
brates" (231 figures). Wanted, Wood's or Duncan's "Natural
History ;" also fossils from formations other than the above,
land and freshwater shells or micro-slides. — Theo. T. Groom,
St. John's College, Cambridge.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.
"Illustrated Manual of British Birds," Part I., by Howard
Saunders. — " Trans. Leeds Geol. Association." — " Practical
Geography for Schools," by Alfred Hughes (Oxford : Clarendon
Press).—" The Story of Creation," by Ed. Clodd (London :
Longmans). — Cassell's "Technical Educator," Part II. — "The
Microscope." — "Journal of Conchology." — "Book Chat." —
" Scribner's Monthly."—" The Amateur Photographer."—" The
Garner."— " The Naturalist."— " The Botanical Gazette."—
"The West American Scientist."— " Belgravia." — " The
Gentleman's Magazine."— "American Monthly Microscopical
Journal." — "The Essex Naturalist." — "The Midland Natu-
ralist."—" Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." — " The American
Naturalist." — " Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science."—
"Scientific News." — " Wesley Naturalist." — " Naturalists'
Monthly." — " La Science Ulustree," &c, &c.

Communications received up to the 14TH ult. from ■
F. G. A. B.— W. H. H.— R. F.— A. G. H.— M. G. S.T.— S. H.
—A. P.— J. H. H.— R.— H. F. R.— J. L. S.— J. E. N. B.—

F. C— A. T.— W— R. G— H. E. V.— G. T. P.— C. S. L —

G. H. W.— A. C. C— A. H. S.— G. P. S.— S.-S. S. A.—
G. L. A.— H. W.— G. J. -J. B.— G. R.— P.-W. H. L.—
G. W.— J. A., jun.— R. H. N. B.— J. C.— J. L.— W. S.—
W. E. C— E. L.— W. M.— A. G. T. G. T, jun.— J. S.
— E. C— A E. C— E. S.— I. H. B.— G. W. D.— G. T. R.—
D. L — I. W. R— J. W. F.— J. R. B. M.— E. H. W.—
W. M. R.— J. R.— E. O. M.— P. F. G.— A. D.— H. G.—
J. W. N.— W. H. B.— H. C. L.— R. C H.— P. P.— C- A. W.
—J. A. F.— J. W. H.-S. C. C.—J. A. H.— A. R—
C. L.— A. D.— H. E. Q.— P. K.— H. T.— I. I. G— J. C. E.—
W. G.— I. S.— A. B.-S.-T. D. A. C— M. E. S.— R. J. W.
-&c.

IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

121

THE COLOURS OF LEAVES AND FLOWERS.

By A. G. TANSLEY.

N Science -Gossip
for last October,
appeared an article
by Mr. G. W. Bul-
man, called "A
Red Leaf— A
Study in Botany,"
which I am sur-
prised to see has
passed entirely un-
challenged ; I
should therefore
like to offer a few
remarks upon the
subject.

In this article
Mr. Bulman ob-
jects to "certain
modern botanical
theories" by which
the colours of
flowers are held to be developed through insect
selection. His objection is based on the fact that, at
various times of the year, leaves also develop brilliant
colours. He remarks, very justly, that "we are just
as much bound to account for the colours of these as
of the varied hues of the blossoms," and he asks
whether they can "be shown to be any distinct
benefit to the plant in the struggle for existence."

He then goes on to attack a further development of
the evolution of colour theory, viz., that special
colours are evolved by, and together with, special
insects ; red and blue by bees and Lepidoptera, for
instance. His grounds are (i) that (in his experience)
there are certain red and blue flowers not visited by
bees, and (2) that many flowers of various other
colours are visited by these insects. Lastly, he cites
two instances (the hawthorn and some Umbelliferae)
which he holds to be in contradiction to the " special
colour " theory.

Mr. Bulman's objection to the general theory of
colour development in flowers, is, I think, fully
met by a quotation on the similarity of the coloured
No. 282.— June 1888.

pigments found in leaves to those of flowers which
Grant Allen (" Colours of Flowers," p. 20) makes
from Dr. Sorby, the great investigator of the chemical
nature of the coloured pigments found in plants. It
is as follows : —

" The coloured substances in the petals are, in many
cases, exactly the same as those in the foliage from
which chlorophyll has disappeared ; so that the petals
are often exactly like leaves which have turned yellow
and red in autumn, or the very yellow or red leaves
of early spring." "The colour of many crimson,
pink, and red flowers is due to the development of
substances belonging to the erythrophyll group, and
not unfrequently to exactly the same kind as that so
often found in leaves. The facts seem to indicate,
that these various substances may be due to an alter-
ation of the normal constituents of leaves. So far as
I have been able to ascertain, their development
seems as if related to extra oxidisation, modified by
light and other varying conditions not yet under-
stood."

Clearly then, the development of the coloured
pigments in both leaves and flowers is due to the
same primary chemical set of causes ; but, while
more or less accidental (being " modified by light and
other varying conditions not yet understood,") in the
case of leaves, in flowers the colours are stereotyped
and perpetuated by insect selection. To Mr.
Bulman's question, therefore, as to whether the
colours of leaves can "be shown to be any distinct
benefit to the plant in the struggle for existence," I
would answer decidedly in the negative ; if the colours
were any distinct benefit to the plant in the struggle,
natural selection would have seized upon and fostered
this peculiarity, and it would have become permanent,
instead of remaining a simple chemical outcome of
certain processes which take place in leaves in the
absence of chlorophyll, and subject to modification
by " light and other varying conditions."

Mr. Bulman further asks, why bees do not visit
brilliantly coloured leaves as if they were flowers.
The reason appears simple enough. If they ever do
visit them, they would soon find that there is nothing

122

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

to be got. Undoubtedly bees would not continue to
visit flowers simply because they possess attractive
colours. They require, as Sir John Lubbock points
out, much more substantial inducements.

Secondly, with regard to Mr. Bulman's attack on
the theory, that special colours are developed by
special insects ; red and blue by bees, for instance.

In the first place, the experiments of Sir John
Lubbock which Mr. Bulman mentions, were not
intended to prove that theory at all. In Sir John's
notice of them in his " British Wild Flowers in
relation to Insects" (p. 12), he does not even
mention red or blue as the colours chosen. The
experiments were of course intended to show that
bees can remember, and therefore distinguish, in-
dividual colours. These experiments are recorded at
length in "Ants, Bees, and Wasps" {International
Scientific Series), pp. 291-302. Another set of
experiments, recorded in the same volume, pp. 303-
307, do certainly show the preference of bees for
honey placed on blue paper ; and although Mr.
Bulman considers it "more philosophical and con-
clusive " to study the habits of bees with regard to
flowers themselves, I would ask why bees so greatly
prefer honey on blue paper, if not because they prefer
the colour blue in flowers ?

At any rate, whether bees prefer blue and red to
other colours or not, I suppose no one has ever
asserted that they do so in an resthetic sense. The
contention of the upholders of this theory is rather
that they have learned to consider blue or red as an
index of high specialisation ; and therefore of flowers,
which, while presenting peculiar adaptations for their
visits, in many cases exclude (by the length of their
tubes, etc.) other insects, except of course Lepi-
doptera ; that red and blue are in fact highly-evolved
colours, consequently present in highly-evolved
flowers which are fitted for the visits of highly-
evolved insects.

To make this point more clear, it may be as well
here to mention some important conclusions of
Hermann Muller, and Grant Allen. Almost the
last words of Midler's great work, " Die Befruchtung
der Blumen," are : —

" On the whole we find red, violet, and blue colours
appearing for the first time in flowers whose honey is
quite concealed and which are visited by more or less
long-tongued insects (bees, long-tongued flies, Lepi-
doptera), or else in flowers visited for the sake of
their pollen chiefly by bees and drone-flies {Hepatica
triloba, Verbascum phaniceum)."

Grant Allen shows a remarkable accordance with
this view, which is all the more striking because
his work is on such entirely different lines ; his object
being to account for the colours of flowers, while
Miiller's is to explain their mechanisms in relation to
their insect visitors. In summing up his " Law of
Progressive Colouration," he comes to six conclusions ;
the three bearing on this point are : —

(1). The most advanced members of all families
are usually red, purple, or blue.

(2). Almost all the members of the most advanced
families are purple or blue.

(3). The most advanced members of the most
advanced families are almost always blue, unless
spotted or variegated.

N.B. The qualifying words, "usually," "almost,"
are accounted for by his theory of " retrogression."

Now Grant Allen here designates by the word
"advanced" precisely those species which have
become so specialised, that their honey is inaccessible
to any insects except bees, Lepidoptera, etc.

Grant Allen's theory of colour development, as
expressed in his " Colours of Flowers," can hardly
be accepted in its entirety. Much of it undoubtedly
requires further proof, and much is unlikely on
general scientific grounds ; but however much or
little of it we accept, his accordance with Muller on
these points is worth noticing.

As to Mr. Bulman's first objection to this theory,
viz. that certain blue and red flowers are seldom or
never visited by bees, I do not think the facts support
him.

Personally, I have not systematically observed the
visits of insects to flowers ; but his observations on
two or three of the red and blue flowers mentioned
by him as seldom or never visited by bees are not
supported by those of Hermann Muller, recorded in
his "Befruchtung der Blumen," of the patience and
care of which I need hardly speak. These two or
three (the common poppy and the periwinkles) are
the only native German flowers (except the Scillas)
in Mr. Bulman's list, and therefore the only ones
recorded in Miiller's work.

Of these, the common poppy {Papaver Rhceas) has
been observed by Muller to be visited by seven species
of bees, and only three species of all other kinds of
insects.

Vinca minor has a similar record, viz. bees, seven ;
other kinds of insects, three.

On Vinca major Muller has observed only Bombus
agrornm.

Mr. Bulman's second ground of objection to this
theory is that bees often visit flowers of other colours
than red or blue. This no one will deny. Indeed
Hermann Muller in his " Befruchtung " comes to the
conclusion, that " the study of particular species of
insects confirms the conclusion based on observation
of the more conspicuous flowers, that in general
anthophilous insects are not confined by hereditary
instinct to certain flowers, but fly about seeking their
food on whatever flowers they can find it."

I think, in fact, we may safely conclude that while
red and blue, appearing as they do in flowers highly
developed in other respects, were evolved through
the selective action of long-tongued insects such as
bees and diurnal Lepidoptera, by which they are in
many cases almost exclusively visited, on the other

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

123

hand flowers of other colours possessing great con-
spicuousness with or without odour (white clover,
pear blossom, yellow crocus, dandelion, tropceolum,
willows), or a powerful odour with or without a certain
degree of conspicuousness lime-tree, mignonette),
combined with large quantities of easily accessible
honey or pollen or both, attract large numbers of
insects of very various orders, among which are many
bees. To this category, as will be seen, belong all
Mr. Bulman's list of "white, yellow, and greenish
flowers " " much frequented " by bees, and, as he truly
says, "a host of others might be mentioned."

With regard to the two instances (hawthorn and
some " Umbellifera; "), which Mr. Bulman seems to
think contradict the "special colour" theory, I have
only to say, that the first case is in accordance with
Grant Allen's " Law of Progressive Colouration," and
the red variety ought certainly, according to his view,
ceteris fia?'ibits, to attract the higher kinds of insects
more than the white one. But surely Mr. Bulman's
remark, that our "gardening friends" would "pro-
bably" tell us that insects are attracted "not nearly
so well " by it, is rather poor argument.

The " decided shade of pink " which some um-
belliferous plants have "before expanding" is more
important. It is perhaps analogous to the case of
Phlox mentioned* in "Colours of Flowers" (p.
115), which changes from blue to pink during the
day. " It has been suggested that this is due to the
presence of some substance which becomes blue by
non-elimination of oxygen during the night ; and as the
oxygen is given out during the day, the blue colour
disappears." Just in the same way, the pink colour
in the umbellifers may be due to presence of oxygen,
which is given off as the flower opens. But because
certain colours exist, as the results of chemical action,
where by the very circumstances of the case they
cannot be influenced by insect selection, surely it is
unwise to argue that the colours of flowers in general
are not produced by insect selection.

"RUDIMENTS AND VESTIGES."

DO not let us dishonour the memory of the great
master, Charles Darwin, by useless quibbles
over a possible construction to be placed upon his
words.

The drift and meaning of his writing and that
which he wished to teach is understood by those who
wish to understand it ; therefore we need not waste
time and patience by useless argument.

A word or two anent N. F. L.'s last "Reply." The
state indicated by the word "perfection " is relative
only, as Mr. Fenn pointed out — a creature is re-
latively perfect for the position it occupies ; but, as
Mr. Fenn says, that is not saying that it is incapable
of further advances in the direction of improvement.
Creatures alter, nay (so called) species alter ; see a

recent paragraph by our old friend Mr. Mattieu
Williams in the March number of Science-Gossip,
" The Mutability of Species ;" each was perfect for
its environment in its day (Mr. Fenn).

I cannot consider that we are put into a " strange
position " in having to seek for the highest develop-
ment of a given organ, anywhere.

Surely it is not needful, in these days, to demon-
strate again that the senses of sight, hearing, and
smell, in man are inherited in an enfeebled and
vestigial condition, as also are the teeth, lungs, and
down, of his body.

It is absurd to import into the question the pheno-
mena belonging to the mind.

What avails it to prove the question of sight to
place a bird in a picture gallery]? Put it in its own
sphere, will N. F. L. say that the sight of man can
compare with it ? The emotions have nothing at all
to do with the capacity of the visual organ.

Again, " refinement " need not be introduced ; yet
who shall say that the power of the hound to separate
from all disturbing influences, the odour that his
heart is set upon, is not refinement of sense ? Can
man do this? And if the dog hears sounds " unper-
ceived by us," surely this shows that his sense of
hearing is better than ours, and serves him to better
purpose.

The emotions evolved in the higher mental develop-
ment of man, do not find scope in the less developed
mental states of other vertebrates ; they have even a
limited field in mankind. Would a Bosjesman, a
Digger Indian, or a native of Tierra del Fuego receive
the full possibilities of intellectual entertainment in a
picture gallery or at an oratorio ?

Observe the delicacy of sight and smell in the bee,
that lead it to select, among an array of blooms, the
species that it first starts to plunder of its sweets in
the morning and to keep to it during its work, and to
return from flowery fields afar to its hive, though it
be a house among many houses all alike to our
seeming.

Is the sight of man equal to that of the eagle
or cat ? His sense of smell to that of the flies, the
Felince or Canina? ? — or his hearing to either of the
two latter ? — his teeth to those of the ancient races ?
What shall we say of the sense that enables birds of
prey to swoop down from the empyrean, where a
moment before not a speck was visible, upon the
fainting life of a dying animal, or the burying beetles
to come suddenly from the heights of air to the car-
case of a dead bird or frog ? which brings the male
emperor moths to play round the box wherein a female
is imprisoned, in troops, where, unless she were
present, few would be seen ?

It is a fair and reasonable deduction to assume that
the down on the body of man is a vestige. When
man emerged from the less to the higher intellectual
life — very slowly was it brought about — his gregarious
habits, and acquired methods of shelter, rendered the

G 2

124

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

hair upon his body less necessary, and it became irk-
some to him and in time came to be looked upon as
not ornamental ; the bold and handsome contour of
the limbs showed with a greater attraction to the
gentle sex when less covered by hair ; hence, by a
process of " natural selection," he has lost it. The
tail disappeared from the same cause doubtless, as
a useless, unornamental, and unnecessary appendage.
Verily, N. F. L., we must not be arrogant. The
loving student stands at the portals of a palace whose
beauties and marvels awe him into humbleness.
Rather may he say, "how great am I and yet how
small ! " how much am I indebted to these my kins-
men in the great kosmos for that I possess, yet how
little do I comprehend the complex laws and diverse
capacities which enable them to maintain their ex-
istence, equally with me, against the adverse elements
which war continually against us ; and while reverently
enjoying the feast of intellectuality which my higher
mental development enables me to enjoy, let me
give to each its due, and not pharisaically cast aside
as of less import than myself the grand evolutions
brought about by the travail of the ages. T.

A CURIOUS CREATURE.
B ALA NO GLOSS US SARNIENSIS.

THE following notes on this, the largest known
representative of its curious genus, may be of
interest to the readers of Science-Gossip.

This species is at the very least a score of times
larger than any of its brethren, and possesses the
additional interest of being an inhabitant of the
English Channel.

It was first recorded by my friend Dr. Rene Kcehler
of the " Faculte des Sciences" of Nancy, from por-
tions found by him on the shores of the Island of
Herm, in the autumn of 1885 ; and his notes on it
as well as a figure, are published in the " Annales des
Sciences Naturelles " of that year. But the figure, I
am sony to say is not perfect, he not having had
the good fortune to find the posterior portion of the
animal, and having spirited his specimens before
sketching them some of the structural detail is lost.

Since his discovery, I have frequently, in the same
locality, unearthed portions of this animal from four
to eight inches long, and, on one occasion only, an
entire specimen. It is from this last that my figure
and the following description are taken. This was a
large specimen, but judging from some fragments that
I have come across not exceptionally so.

Its length when fully extended was thirty-five inches,
and its diameter, that shown in the figure, i.e., about
three-eighths of an inch.

Its colouring was as follows. The anterior portion
or "branchio-genital region," extending for about
eight inches, of a beautiful orange yellow ; then on
the "hepatic region," a space of about four or five

inches, this gave place rather abruptly to a rich
chestnut brown ; this now passing through shades
of olive to a deep green for the whole length of the
digestive canal ("Tube digestif," Kceh.), beyond this
a creamy, and finally almost transparent white.

The texture of the animal is rather difficult to
define in terms usually applied to tissues, that of the
"branchio-genital" part being of a consistency not
unlike soaked bread, and might be called *• pulpy
friable." The hepatic region rather more gelatinous.

The next part, the green "tube digestif," is little
more than a roll of the sand which the animal has

1 1

WiiP'^m

m

a

zJm

ffl

i

*s

^

\

f~~)

Fig. 49.— Middle and posterior parts of Balanoglossus sar-
niensis, Kceh. (not continuous). Drawn from living specimens
by J. Sinel.

swallowed invested with a skin and membrane so thin
and delicate that a portion, say four inches long,
has not sufficient cohesion to maintain its weight if
lifted by one end.

The last six or seven inches are free from sand and
gelatinous.

The animal exudes a thick mucus which invests it
in a kind of web, especially around the anterior part,
and from which it may be drawn as from an incipient
tube. So rapidly is this mucus exuded, that during
the brief time that my specimen posed as model in a
dinner plate of sea-water I had to clear it at least a
dozen times. The animal emits a peculiar and by

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

125

no means disagreeable odour ; unlike anything and
everything else except " iodoform," which it resembles
precisely. This odour is very tenacious, specimens
that have been in four or five changes of alcohol still
retaining it strongly, while on the hand that has
touched either the animal or its mucus it will resist
hot water and Pears' soap to the third and fourth
application.

On the subject of its internal anatomy I am not
biologist enough to enter. The smaller species are
worked up in full detail in Huxley, Claus, and
other text books on invertebrate zoology, and the
particulars of these apply no doubt to the species
before us as well ; but the following details of its
outward form may be of interest.

The proboscis, when at rest is of the form shown
in the figure, and is not retractile ; on the other hand
it can be extended to double this length, not by a
process of eversion, as in the Nemerteans and Anne-
lids, but by simple elongation, until it assumes a
tapered point. In section, the anterior portion is
broadly triangulate, the lateral angles forming very
soft and pliable lobes which sometimes irregularly
fold over the dorsal side until they meet.

Medially — on both dorsal and ventral sides — there
runs a delicate thread, which appears, especially on
the dorsal side, to be at a much greater tension than
the rest of the structure, causing the lateral lobes to
assume a somewhat waved or "puckered" arrange-
ment.

From the hepatic region to within six or seven
inches of the anal extremity the section is sub-
cylindrical, and here gradually the medial threads
become nearly obsolete, being only traceable as very
fine lines. Here also the transverse " crenation,"
(or " pseudo- segmentation," if I may invent a term)
becomes irregular and assumes a kind of basket-work
pattern.

Beyond this, and on the part that I have mentioned
as free from sand and gelatinous, the threads again
appear, that on the dorsal side deeply sunk in a groove
giving the section at this part as oval, with a deep
emargination on one side, and the transverse "crena-
tion " again becomes regular, each line being traceable
on the whole circumference.

Referring again to colour, I have found some
specimens in which the anterior part was of a lemon
colour, and others of a brick red ; but the brown,
green, and creamy white parts I have not found to
vary.

Of its habits I am not prepared to say anything,
they seem to be altogether of a passive description.
Limp and apparently almost lifeless, it makes no
expression of the emotions when turned out of its
home, nor even when put into ajar of spirits of wine.
Of great length and extreme tenderness, it is a
puzzle to me how it maintains its integrity if it travels
at all, among the sharp sand and broken shell amidst
which it dwells.

That it does not habitually come to the surface of the
sand is plain, for on the surface no marks are seen
except such as are clearly traceable to the Synaptre
and Eunices, who are its congeners. Dr. Kcehler
also mentions that he has sought in vain for any mark
that would indicate its burrow.

No doubt the majority of the readers of SciENCE-
GOSSIP are aware of the interest that centres around
the curious genus " Balanoglossus," and how, re-
garding its place in nature, the doctors disagree.

How embryology, "ever the surest guide," relegates
it in turn to the Echinoderms, the Molluscs and the
Tunicates, while, to crown the complication, Balano-
glossus in adult life assumes an annelidan form but
couples with it "gill clefts" and other details that
pertain by right only to embryo vertebrates. The
inference from this is well explained in the following
quotation from Wilson's " Chapters on Evolution" : —

" There seems little reason to doubt that this
curious animal is a survival of a once widely repre-
sented type which to-day exhibits decline and decay
whilst preserving for us the important characters of a
common ancestor of several existing groups of animals."

J. SlNEL.
Jersey, April 16th, 188S.

NOTES ON NEW BOOKS.

OTHER SUNS THAN OURS, by R. A.
Proctor (London: W. H. Allen & Co.).
This is, perhaps, the best series of " Essays on
Popular Astronomy " Mr. Proctor has yet issued,
which is saying a good deal. They are all written
in the polished, terse, and yet lucid English of
which Mr. Proctor is master ; and they set forth in a
delightful manner the newest information and gener-
alisations on leading astronomical and correlated
subjects. The leading chapters are devoted to
"The New Star in Andromeda," "The Birth of
Worlds," "William Herschel's Star Surveys,"
"Photographing Fifteen Million Stars," "Figure
of the Milky Way in Space," "The Sidereal System
Fathomless," "Suns and Meteors," "Comets and
Meteors," "Whence came the Comets," "A New
Theory of Sun-spots," "Two Sun-like Planets,"
"The Great Red Spot on Jupiter," "A Dead
World," " A Zone of Worlds," " Saturn and its
System," &c.

The Story of Creation, by Edward Clodd (London :
Longmans). Another of Mr. Clodd's charming
treatises— rather summaries — of what the scientific
and philosophical world is doing and thinking about.
To intelligent men of business, scholars, and others
who have not sufficient leisure to undertake the
enormous labour of wading through the literature of
the Theory of Evolution, this book comes as a
godsend. In a brief and handy compass we have a
complete exposition of that theory. The laws of the

126

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

inorganic and the organic world are explained with
remarkable 'simplicity. Even scientific men, who
have already done Darwin and Spencer, will be
thankful to Mr. Clodd for enabling them at any time
to rapidly go over the old ground again.

Holiday Letters of a Geologist, by James Shipman
(Nottingham : Carrick & Young). The author is a
well-known and diligent field geologist, who herein
shows that he can not only work well but write well.
They are genuine "holiday letters," and have the
fresh and joyous flavour of holiday time about them.
Intending ramblers in North Wales, the Isle of Man,
the Norfolk coasts, and the southern coasts of
England, should forthwith procure Mr. Shipman's
book.

The Flora of West Yorkshire, by F. A. Lees
(London : Lovell Reeve & Co.). A bulky, handsome
volume, the result of years of labour, by one of the
most diligent, capable, and painstaking labourers in
the botanical field. The above work gives a sketch
of the climate of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and
shows the limits imposed by its various factors upon
the flora. It also connects the facts concerning soils
snd rocks, in respect to their behaviour under dis-
integration, with the plant-life. Lastly, it furnishes
to students and collectors a list of all the species
found in the Riding, which is not merely a guide to
the localities where they grow, but a history of each
species as well. Dr. Lee's appendices are as valuable
as the general text. The above work is one of the
best of its kind which have yet appeared.

A Flora of Hertfordshire, by the late A. R. Pryor
(London : Gurney & Jackson, successors to Van
Voorst). The late admirable and indefatigable
author of this large and important volume was a
frequent contributor to our magazine. It was well
known that he had been at work on the subject for
some time, and perhaps there is not a county in
England (except Sussex) with such a varied flora as
Hertfordshire. When Mr. Pryor died, his MS. was
bequeathed to the vigorous and growing Natural
History Society for the county. After waiting some
time, the work was edited by Mr. B. D. Jackson ;
and Mr. John Hopkinson wrote an introduction on
the Geology, Climate, and Botanical history of the
county. The result is a most valuable work, both to
the county and country at large. There is prefixed a
very useful map of Hertfordshire, showing its river
basins as adapted for botanical districts, each river-
basin having a district elevation and a geological
sketch map of the superficial geology, which is that
most influential on the distribution of plant life.
Mr. Hopkinson's preliminary essay is a model of its
kind for completeness, grasp, and generalisation.
Of the late Mr. Pryor's labours it is impossible to
speak too highly. This very work shows that no
honest worker lives in vain.

Notes on the Birds of Herefordshire, by Dr. H. G.
Bull (London : Hamilton & Adams). This hand-

some volume contains the notes which the late genial
Dr. Bull was wont to read at the Field meetings of
the Woolhope Club. The members were in the
habit of increasing their ornithological importance by
contributing their own observations. When they
had assumed a somewhat bulky importance, Dr. Bull
thought of publishing them, but died before he could
do so. The members of the Woolhope Club have
therefore carried out Dr. Bull's intentions, and have
generously published the work under his name.
Like all bird-books, it is delightful reading ; but we
would suggest there is too much " poetry " in it, as
much of quotations from the poets as is nearly equal
to the "Notes." Phil Robinson has done that sort
of thing so much better in his " Poet's Birds."

The Creator and What wc may know of the Method
of Creation, by the Rev. Dr. Dallinger (London : T.
Woolmer). For twenty years past, in the teeth of
opposition, we have contended that the doctrine of
Evolution, instead of being atheistic or even agnostic
in its tendencies, was a distinct gain in one's reverent
comprehension of God. Those who fear the opposite
should read the present work, by one of the most
distinguished scientists of the day, as well as one of
the most ardent evolutionists. Dr. Dallinger is a
Wesleyan Divine (or, as he would doubtless prefer
to be called, a Methodist parson) ; and this nicely got
up brochure is the "Fernley Lecture," delivered
before the Wesleyan Conference last year. It is
simply a fine and eloquent pleading before the Fathers
of his church for the new philosophy.

The Microscope in Theory and Practice, by Professor
Naegli and Professor Schwendener (London : Swan
Sonnenschein & Co.). The names attached to this
volume are high guarantee for good work. It is a
wonder its translation has not been attempted before,
and we are indebted chiefly to Messrs. Crisp and J.
Mayall, of the Royal Microscopical Society, for its
present appearance. To advanced workers, this
volume is indispensable. Everything connected with
the microscope, optical, mechanical testing, technical,
etc., is here contained. It is a Microscopical
Encyclopaedia, in short.

Bees and Bee- Keeping ; Scientific and Practical, by
F. R. Cheshire (London : L. Upcott Gill). This is
the second volume of Mr. Cheshire's thoroughly
exhaustive work on the subject. We duly noticed
the first when it appeared. It will be a long time
before another work, of such a thorough character,
will be issued on the subject. Mr. Cheshire has left
no wind for anybody else's sails. This second
volume is entitled "Practical," and deals with the
management of bees, their hives, control, artificial
aids, controlled increase, raising, etc., of queens,
production of honey, wintering, diseases, races, etc.

Lectures on Bacteria, by A. De Bary (Oxford :
Clarendon Tress). This is a translation of the second
edition of the famous lectures of the Strassburg
Professor, done by Mr. II. E. F. Garnsey, and

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

1 27

revised by Professor J. B. Balfour. Its chief aim is
to set forth the known facts in the life of bacteria in
connection with those with which we are acquainted
in other branches of natural history. The student of
bacteria could not find a shorter synopsis of the
bacteria, nor of their habits, life-history, etc., than
in this small volume.

A Dictionary of Place- Names, Giving their Deriva-
tions, by C. Blackie (London : John Murray). At
first sight, a book like this seems to have nothing to
do with natural history. There a person would be
mistaken. The names of many places enshrine the
ancient physical and geographical conditions which
do not exist to-day. From this point, the subject is
comparatively unworked. From the historic point of
view, it has been fairly thrashed out by Canon Taylor,
Professor Joyce, and others. To intellectual tourists
the names of places may possess an additional interest.
Mr. Blackie has done excellently, and Professor
Blackie has done well to the book (as well as the
author, we suppose) by a charming "Introduction"
to a subject no man loved better or worked better.
Intelligent Scottish and Welsh tourists, please get
this volume, and put it in your knapsacks.

The Shell Collectors' Manual, by J. W. Williams
(London : Roper and Drowley). Perhaps' there was
no practical work more needed for students than this.
The rule in natural history (so far as we know, after
nearly twenty years' practical experience) is that the
supply of information is greater than the demand. In a
few instances, this is not the case ; and Dr. Williams
is one of the few fortunate ones who has brought out a
cheap, thoroughly good, and even attractive hand-
book, which can hardly fail to be highly appreciated.
A Manual of Elementary Microscopical Manipula-
tion, by T. Charters White (London : Roper and
Drowley). It is pleasant to find we have nailed Mr.
White at last. Nobody likes a bit of fun more than
he ; and he doubtless enjoyed our ascription of
microscopical authorship to him, a few months ago,
amazingly. We had to recant — as all honest men
have (rogues never do !). But is it not funny that Mr.
White should bring out a charming and altogether
most useful and necessary little book like the present,
just after we had lachrymally expressed our regret
at supposing he was an author ? Never mind all that.
This is just the book for young amateur microscopists
to order of their booksellers immediately.

Living Lights, by Chas. F. Holder (London :
Sampson Low). A beautifully got up volume, abun-
dantly and artistically illustrated ; useful to the
naturalist as containing a summary of all the animals
and plants which give out phosphorescence in any
shape or form.

Ants, Bees, Dragon-flies, Earwigs, Crickets, and
Flies, by W. Harcourt Bath.

British Birds, by W. Harcourt Bath.
Silkworms, by E. A. Butler (London : Swan
Sonnenschein & Co). These are issues of the familiar

" Young Collectors' series." Mr. H. Bath's "Dragon-
flies," &c, will be especially welcomed; and all are
good and cheap (one shilling each).

Practical Geography for Schools, by Alfred Hughes
(Oxford : Clarendon Press). A new and important
method of teaching the subject, based on nine years'
trial at the Manchester Grammar School.

A Treatise on Hydro-dynamics, by A. B. Basset,
Vol. I (Cambridge : Deighton, Bell, & Co.). Only
that our pages are devoted chiefly to natural history
subjects, we should have liked to dwell more ex-
tensively on the merits of this work to students of the
subject. Suffice it to say, that possibly there is not a
more exhaustive manual before the public.

Elementary Text-Book of Physiography, by W.
Mawer (London : John Marshall). A handy, succinct,
and trustworthy little manual.

Photography Simplified (London : Mawson &
Swan). This is the third edition of a thoroughly
practical treatise on the subject, for the use either of
professionals or amateurs. It contains useful hints to
beginners on the selection of apparatus, and on
general practice.

The Medical Annual, 1 888 (Bristol: John Wright
& Co.). The enlarged bulk of this annual is sufficient
to indicate its practical success. It is now really a
work of reference to medical practitioners generally,
and contains essays on special subjects by a host of
recognised specialists, besides most useful summaries
of progress in treatment, pharmacy, etc.

Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of
Great Britain and Ireland, fifth annual issue (London :
Charles Griffin & Co.). This work becomes in-
creasingly useful and necessary with every yearly
volume.

Geology, by Dr. Page, revised by Dr. Charles
Lapworth, 12th edition (Wm. Blackwood & Sons).
This is really LapworthV book, and not Page's, which
is a good job ; and we hope the publishers will
acknowledge the metamorphosed authorship in the
next edition. In its present form there is nothing
better in elementary geological literature.

Introductory Text-Book to Zoology, by Dr. H. A.
Nicholson (Wm. Blackwood). This is the sixth
edition, revised and enlarged, of an elementary
manual of zoology than which we have seen nothing
better in Great Britain the last fifteen years.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE UNIONIDM.

DURING the years 1 886 and 1887 I was enabled,
by means of exchange and otherwise, to examine
a considerable number of specimens of Anodons and
Unios from different localities. The study of this
group is very perplexing, owing to there being so
much variation in the form of the shells, so much
in fact that every British author seems to have taken
a different view of what is a species or a variety.

123

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

And further, authors appear to be at variance in
considering what forms are types, especially in regard
to the Anodons. Brown (1845) and Tate (1866) have
each represented a form of A. cygnea which I believe
is generally considered as the type, but Gray (1840,
frontispiece) has given a figure of a form of the so-
called Zellensis. I have seen the variety which is
represented by Gray's figure from two or three places,
but it does not seem to be as common as the larger
forms of Zellensis. Judging from the number ex-
amined there seem to be three forms of A. cygnea
that are common. These, in the order of frequency,
are (1) Zellensis, Genel ; (2) type of Brown and Tate,
and (3) the form called rostrata ; but between these,
and approaching one or the other, there are numerous
intermediates, which cannot with certainty be classed
under any of the recognised forms. The variety
called intermedia, figured by Brown, is more allied
to cygnea than io anatina. Mr. Rhodes, an industrious
Bradford collector, sent me a number of this variety
from a pond at Pudsey, near Leeds. I also got it
from the Rev. W. C. Hey, of York. The York shells
are very thin, agreeing with Brown's description.
The Pudsey shells are rather thicker and variable in
size and degree of inflation. Both are green, the
Pudsey shells being very bright and beautifully rayed.
Alder considered that this should be regarded as a
species ; Jeffreys does not mention it. I also had
this form sent from Staffordshire by Mr. J. R. B.
Masefield, of Cheadle, but the shell is a degree thicker
than the Pudsey specimens. Amongst Mr. Rhodes'
shells is a remarkable subtriangular form of intermedia.
The nucleus is nearly in the middle of the upper
margin, which slopes upwards from before and behind
— the hinge forming the apex of the triangle. Another
specimen has the valves unequal in length. This
variety, species, or what it is, seems to live at times
rather deep in the mud. In a letter, under date May 7,
1887, Mr. Rhodes says: "The enclosed shells now
sent were obtained from a storage dam which is
4 feet deep in soft mud. I find them about 8 inches
from the surface. There is about one foot of
water and no vegetation. The dam is well shaded
with trees. I obtained them by taking off boots and
going in, sinking at each step up to the knees in mud.
I had to put my arm up to the elbow in water and
mud to get the shells, and had to keep constantly
walking or otherwise I should have stuck fast."
Under date July 5th, he again writes: "The shells
keep very deep in the mud from 6 to 12 inches down,
so that they can only be got by going in knee deep
in the sludge and looking for the little holes and
depressions which indicate where they are." The
average size of intermedia may be about 2\ inches
from hinge to lower margin, 4 inches from side to
side, and if thick.

In the Leeds and Liverpool canal, varieties of
Anodonta, both species, occur, which are brown in
colour, small, and not rayed. I imagined that ex-

posure in dredge heaps, and lying dead in the mud
for some time, might change the colour of the epi-
dermis, but Mr. J. A. Hargreaves, of Shipley, near
Bradford, who collected some hundreds of specimens,
and who is an excellent observer, informs me that
such is not the case, neither does scalding of either
dead or living specimens affect in any way the colour.
Many of the shells, however, Mr. Hargreaves says,
are green when young. Many of the canal shells are
characterised by being much compressed. Some that
are 3.5 inches in breadth, more than 2 inches in length
from beak to margin, are less than 1 inch in depth
or thickness. In these the animal is exceedingly
small. The largest brown shells are 5T30 inches in
breadth and 3! inches in length. One specimen of
Anodonta anatina var. complanata, collected by Mr.
Hargreaves, contained a pearl of a yellow colour
about half the size of a pea. A monstrosity of A.
cygnea var. rostrata was collected by Mr. Rhodes from
a pond. The edges of the valves on the lower margin
are folded inwards for a certain distance, and the
posterior side of the shell is much pinched in at the
extremity. About twenty specimens of this deformity
were collected. The shell appears to be normal up to
the last period of growth.

So far as I have been able to observe, the green
forms of A. cygnea run larger than the brown forms,
irrespective of locality. Some of the Bradford shells
are nearly black, and some that I have from a pond
at Rothwell Haigh, near Leeds, are of a dark slaty
blue colour, white on the umbones, smooth, saining
and faintly rayed.

The form called by Jeffreys Anodonta anatina var.
complanata, should, in my opinion, be raised to the rank
of a species. The hinge-line is not elevated into a
thin sharp wing, the shell is not angulated in any
part of its outline as is typical anatina, and it is
brown in colour. The varieties radiata should be
suppressed, as rays of different kinds are common to
both species, and to many varieties, and are found on
shells of all sizes and colours, and from all localities,
being in short a part of the ordinary colouring. Rays
are most strongly marked on green shells. The
variety intermedia (Pfeiffer) should be introduced into
our handbooks, and made to comprehend Brown's
subrhombea, to which it appears to be closely allied.
The variety pallida, recorded by Jeffreys from the
West coast of Ireland, seems to be rare. I have only
once seen it mentioned in local lists, and that was in
a Birmingham list by Mr. Sherriff Tye. I have it
from Mr. Masefield, who got it in Staffordshire, and
from the Leeds and Bamsley canal procured by Mr.
J. YVilcoek. Mr. Masefield's is of a clear fawn
colour, Zellensis in form.

The greatest difficulty in the study of the Unionida
is with young shells and with the numerous inter-
mediate forms. Jeffreys kept altering his views
as he became more and more acquainted with the
subject, and so will any one else that has continued

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

129

any length of time in the study, for new forms are
continually turning up which have a tendency more
or less to upset settled decisions. I should recommend
any one who may have a number of dubious forms,
which cannot be referred to any marked and estab-
lished variety, to simply put them on one side in a
drawer, and label them as intermediates, adding
locality, whether from pond or running water, with
elate or other circumstances. I have tried hard to
discover some means of knowing when a shell is
mature, but have failed. I think, however, when a
diell shows more than twelve principal growth lines, it
is approaching maturity. These lines in A. cygnea
are generally raised into ridges, and some shells
■exhibit forty or fifty, not reckoning the finer secondary
Hines which are smooth. In A. anatina (full grown)
■smooth spaces without ridges or lines are considered
to be distinctive of the species. But there is great
discrepancy in the descriptions of Anodons by British
authors, for instance Macgillivray says that the shell
of A. anatina is very thin and brittle, whilst Tate
says it is thick. The same with illustrations, Jeffreys
has figured a shell on plate ii. (British Conchology)
which is named A . anatina, but Gray has figured a
-very similar form (p. 288, "Manual," 1840) which
is called A notion cygnens.

A few notes on Unio tumidus and pictoriun are

;reserved for a future number.

Geo. Roberts.

Loft house, Wakejield.

THE PLIOCENE BEDS OF CORNWALL.

PROBABLY the most important discovery in
English stratigraphical geology, within the
last few years, is that of a deposit of Pliocene age, at
St. Erth in Cornwall, far distant from the typical crag
areas. A resume of its more important features may
be of interest to the readers of this magazine.

St. Erth is a village of between two and three
thousand inhabitants, three and a half miles south-
east of St. Ives, and two miles south-west of Hayle.
The deposit was first noticed by Mr. N. Whitley,* of
Truro, who however referred it to the Glacial period.
But the first detailed account of it was given by the
late Mr. S. V. Wood,t who referred it to the Pliocene
period, which has since been confirmed.

The deposit is exposed in a pit near the Vicarage,
where the beds shown in the accompanying section
(Fig. 50) may be seen. The "head" is a clay with
fragments of various rocks, most likely a glacial de-
posit. " Growder " is a coarse ferruginous sand. The
blue clay is the most important bed, as it contains a
large number of well-preserved fossils. The yellow
clay above may be only a weathered part of the lower
deposit. The whole area of the deposit is less than

* On the evidence of the Glacial Action in Cornwall (Royal
Geol. Soc. Cornwall, 1882).
•J- Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xli. p. 65.

an acre, so that it is perhaps scarcely to be wondered
that it was not discovered before. The shells being
preserved in a clay present a very different appearance
to the crag fossils, and, indeed, so resemble those
found in the eocene clays, that at first one feels in-
clined to place them in that formation ; but an
examination of the species soon dispels this idea.

The following is a list of the more important
forms : — Fusits corneus, Lin. ; Columbella sulcata,
Sow. ; Nassa serrata, Broc. ; N. granulata, Sow. ;
Cyprcca avellana, Sow. ; Natica millepunctata, Lam. ;
Cerithium reticulation, Da Costa ; Turritella triplicata,
Broc. ; Rissoa reticulata, Mont. ; Trochus zizyphinus,
Lin. ; T. multislriatus, S. V. Wood ; Odostotnia
acuta, Jeff. ; O. rissoides, Han. ; O. plicata, Mont. ;
Calyptrcca Chinensis, Lin. ; Conovulus pyramidalis,

f

5^

o o o o o 00 o o

\\

• •'d,„f\

v Ait'-l^

Vegetable soil.
" Head," 2-6 feet.

Yellow sand, 4-6 feet.

"Growder."
Yellow clay, 6 feet.

Blue clay, with fossils, 6 feet.
Quartz-pebbles.

Fine quartzose sand, 10 feet.

Elvan Dyke.

Fig. So.— Section at St. Erth (after Messrs. Kendall and Bell*.

Sow. ; Ostrea edulis, Lin. ; Pecten maximus, Lin. ;
P. operculars, Lin. ; Pectunculus glycimcris, Lin. ;
Nucula nucleus, Lin. ; Cardium echinatum, Lin. ;
Lucina borealis, Lin. ; Cardita aculeata, Poli ; Artemis
exoleta, Lin. ; Tapes pullastra, Wood ; Mactra solida,
Lin. ; Mya arenaria, Lin. ; Solen ensis, Lin.

Messrs. Kendall and Bell* have found 72 determin-
able species of Mollusca, and about 20 others which
appear to be new. Sponges, polyzoa, crustaceans,
echinoids, annelids, alcyonarians, holothurians, tuni-
cates, ostracods, and foraminifera also occur. Tuni-
cates have never before been found fossil ; the species
according to Dr. Herdman is closely allied t)
Leptoclinum teuue, obtained by the "Challenger."
The foraminifera are very abundant and beautifully

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xlii. p. 201.

i3°

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

preserved. Mr. F. J. Millet* has published a list of
upwards of one hundred species obtained by him.
We can strongly recommend this clay to microscopists.
A most striking feature in the mollusca is the large
number (49) of Mediterranean species, indicating a
more direct connection with that sea than now exists.
Of the species, 37 occur in the coralline crag, 33 in the
lower red crag, 23 in the upper red and Norwich crag.
The following table shows some of these relations,
and I have also added for comparison, the mollusca
from the coralline and red crag, on the authority of
the late Mr. S. V. Wood.f

Coral-
line
Crag.

Walton
Naze
Red
Crag.

Re-
mainder
of Red
Crag.

Total number of species)

of mollusca . . . .)
British and not Mediter-'i

ranean species . . .j

Mediterranean and British

,, and not\

British J

Neither Mediterranean!

nor British . . . . j
Species not known living

39*
20

154
51

24
142

148

'3

61

14

10
5°

199

3°
78
14
22

55

St. Erth
Clay.

about
92

6

41

8

36

35

The following occur which are absent from the
Suffolk crags, and are characteristic Mediterranean
forms : Fusus comeus, ATassa mutabilis, Ca)'ditun papillo-
sum, Carditaaculeata. The absence of Fusus antiquus,
F, gracilis, Buccinum dalci, and B. undatum, which
are abundant in the Suffolk red crag, is remarkable.
Littorina subaperta, Conovulus pyramidalis, Nassa
granulata, and Columbella sulcata, occur, and form an
important connecting link with the red crag. From
such facts as these Messrs. Kendall and Bell infer
u that, at the period of which we are writing, no
channel of direct communication existed between the
North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, the Straits of
Dover in the south being closed, while on the north-
west the Tertiary volcanic chain threw a barrier
across from the north of Scotland to Greenland,
by way of the Shetland and Faroe Islands and
Iceland."

"The study of the present configuration of the
North Atlantic is strongly confirmatory of this opinion.
The 100 fathom line encloses the Orkneys and Shet-
lands, while a long submerged ridge with deep water
upon each side extends from the Hebrides to the
Faroe Islands and, as has been so fully explained by
the late Dr. Jeffreys, has had a great influence in pre-
venting the intermingling of the marine faunas upon
each side of it."

The facts against this theory are chiefly limited to
the occurrence at St. Erth of Cardium clcgantuhim,
which does not live farther south than Norway, and
of Conovulus pyramidalis, which occurs only in the

* Royal Geol. Soc, Cornwall.

"t Crag Mollusca. (Palaeontogrjph. Soc, 1874.)

crags of East Anglia, and in the glacial deposits of
Wexford.

Most authorities seem agreed as to the age of these
beds, with the exception of Mr. Clement Reid,* of the
Geological Survey, who correlates them with the
Lenham beds, which are probably of Lower Coralline
Crag age. And we must confess that the 37 species
occurring in the Coralline Crag, against only 33 in
the Lower Red Crag, does seem in favour of this ;
nevertheless, this numerical method of correlation is
not altogether free from objection. Mr. Reid also-
considers the depth at which the clay was deposited
to have been from forty to fifty fathoms ; but Mr.
Bellf cannot agree with so great a depression, the
shells in his opinion indicating a much shallower
sea.

It is to be deplored that our three chief authorities
on the Mollusca of this period have recently passed,
away. Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun.,
and Mr. Robert G. Bell, had each commenced an
examination of the St. Erth mollusca. Writing on
this deposit in the " Geological Magazine " for October
last, Mr. Bell says : —

" It is hoped that a more detailed examination of
the molluscan fauna may soon be completed, and the
whole series added to the national collection."

But it was not to be.

For those who wish to go further into this subject,,
we would refer them to the papers above mentioned,
more especially to the excellent account by Messrs-
Kendall and Bell. X.

NOTES ON THE EIGHTH EDITION OF THE
LONDON CATALOGUE OF BRITISH

PLANTS.

By Arthur Bennett, F.L.S.

[Continued Jrom page no.]

1517, added species gathered in Norfolk by my
daughter and myself; its first record in Britain.
N. minor ought to occur, it is somewhat like N.
Jlexilis.

1518, added species from a canal near Manchester,.,
perhaps brought with Egyptian cotton.

1528 will be named S. nanus, Sprengl.

1530 will be named S. Numidianus, Vahl.

1535, authority should be " Smith."

1538/;, authority, "Koch," is a var. with compact
spikes and enlarged tubers on the roots.

1539/' is a var. found by Dr. White in Perthshire,.,
described by Sonder in his " Flora of Hamburg."

1540 is 1387, 7th ed.

1541 is 1388, 7th ed.

1544, /'. longifolium, Hoppe, is a large form of
the plant, c. alpinum, Gaud., is the Alpine one-

* Nature, vol. xxxiv. p. 342, 1886.
t Geol. Mag., p. 468, 1887.

HARD IVICKE1 S SCIENCE- G OSS I P.

131

headed form called E. gracile by Smith ; alter names
in Catalogue to the above.

1549, added species found by Mr. Brebner in
Perthshire ; should be searched for elsewhere in
Scotland, it is smaller and with fewer flowers than
the common species.

155 1 is 1384, 7U1 ed.

1554 should have been enclosed in rounded brackets,
to show that, although formerly found, it is now
■extinct.

1561 b, a form difficult to distinguish from arenaria,
unless in flower, though generally made a species.

1562 should be C. diandra, Schreb.

1564$, a form of the plant growing generally
isolated and with rigid panicle, &c.

1566, a species naturalised by the Thames near
Kew, it is an abundant N. American species.

1569 is 1427, 7th ed.

1569 b, spell with small g ; is an Alpine var.
gathered by Rev. R. Linton in Glen Shee.

1572 should have the last " en " cut out.

1573, an added species. Founded on a specimen
gathered by Dr. H. Balfour on Lochnagar some years
ago. Probably occurs also in Forfar.

1581^, a var. from Cambridgeshire, usually a
smaller, more gracile plant with narrower spikes than
stricta.

1582 3, a var. with the glumes much longer than
the fruits gathered in Norfolk.

Var. c, a var. from the north of Ireland, determined
by Dr. Christ.

1582 d, a var. gathered in Salop and Cambridge,
determined by Dr. Almquist, it is much smaller than
Ihe type with slender spikes and glumes.

3583, an added species from the coast of Norfolk.

1584^, a large form of rigida, simulating aquatilis,
which it is often named.

1585 <5, this varietal name should be altered to
.elatior, Babington, 1st ed. of "Manual of British
Botany, 1843," while Syme's name only appeared in
the 3rd ed. of " English Botany."

1585 c, a rare form with aristate glumes, gathered
sparingly by the Wick river in Caithness by Mr.
Banbury.

1585^/, a var. in habit somewhat between aquatilis
tmd Goodcnovii (vulgaris), found by Dr. White in
Perth.

1586, an added plant from the Wick river, Caithness,
■ a very interesting addition to our flora of an Arctic
species belting the globe at high latitudes.

1587^ may be held to be the same as 1442/S,
7th ed.

1588, alter name to C.ftacca, Schreb.

,1596^, a variety from Yorkshire figured in the
"*' Journal of Botany."

1598, alter name to vema, Chaix.

15983 may well be expunged. It was founded on
plants gathered in the Irish mountains, strongly
simulating the continental C. capita/a, L., the male

spike suppressed, and altogether so unlike prsecox as
to be well thought something else.

1603. This interesting Carex has been gathered by
several botanists from Glen Lyon, Perthshire, so that
Don's plant can now certainly take its place in our lists.

1604. I have seen the original specimens gathered
by Mr. Sadler in Glen Callater, and Mr. C. B.
Clarke and Mr. N. E. Brown, of the Kew Herbarium,
consider them C. frigida of Allioni. Along with
them Dr. Macfarlane kindly sent a sheet of specimens
of certain C. frigida, localised from the Clova
mountains. Mr. Bentham (5th ed. of his "Flora")
considers the Scotch plant "not the true plant of
Allioni, but a variety of vaginata."

1614^ may be held 1467 b, 7th ed.

1614 c, an added plant, is a sterile form offitlva or
an hybrid fnhia x fia-va for Orkney and elsewhere.

16 1 5 b consider as 1468 b, 7th ed.

1616 b ; this is the usual form of flava, and may be
held about equal to the var. lepidocarpa of 3rd ed. of
"English Botany" and "Topographical Botany."
The true lepidocarpa is decidedly rare. I have myself
only seen it from Caithness and Yorkshire.

1621, alter name to acutiformis, Ehrh.
1623 is 1476, 7th ed.

1623 b is a large, broad-leaved, long-spiked form
from Wales, &c.

1624 b is very rare as a British plant. I have seen
only one specimen, gathered by Mr. Druce in Perth-
shire.

1626, alter authority to " Linn."

1627 is 1484, 7th ed.

1634, added species, found near Southampton by
the Messrs. Groves, it is in some respects intermediate
between 1632 and 1633.

1638 is 1489, 7th ed.

1640, added species. A small annual plant now
found in several counties, but evidently introduced
with seeds.

1642, alter name to A. myosuroides, " Huds."

1651 is 1499, 7th ed.

1653 is 1482, 7th ed.

1656 c is a seaside var. found in Caithness, &c

1657 c is a var. found by Mr. Bagnell in Warwick-
shire, and since in several counties, it connects alba
with vulgaris.

1662, alter name to G. australe, Beauv.

1665, added species of Calamagroslis, gathered by
Mr. Grant in Robert Dick's station, recorded in his
life by Dr. Smiles. Dick supposed it Lapponica of
Hooker, but Mr. Grant's specimens proved it to be
the Arctic species named, which is rare in Europe,
in Lapland, Finmark, and Norway.

1666 is 1516, 7th ed.

1667 is 1512, 7th ed.

1668 is 15 13, 7th ed.

1670 £ is a var. with numerous stems to the root
and denser heads.

(To be continued.)

132

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
GNAT {TIPULA PL CMOS A), LINN.

By Harry Thomas.

I FIRST found the larvoe on the carcases of some
dor-beetles I had fished out from a water-butt
in my garden.

Shortly afterwards, my brother found a cluster of
the eggs attached just beneath the surface of the
water, to the side of a neighbouring water vessel.
We did not then know that these eggs were in any
way related to the larvae, until a close examination of
the living larvre that hatched out from them, revealed
their close similarity. Later we secured specimens of
the eggs and larvae from a tank in a garden at Bettws
y Coed.

The female lays her eggs, arranged spirally in a

and two transparent threads, twisted with each other,
may be traced from the neighbourhood of the lower
to the upper extremity, where they unite and are
continued beyond, as a single thread terminating in
an adhesive disk (Fig. 51). The eggs appear some-
what oval in form and are arranged in a spiral which
shirks a complete turn and when all but round makes
a loop and goes back again. The nearly completed
rings thus formed lie each within a separate segment-
Trie following notes on the development were taken
from superficial observations of the specimens beneath
the microscope, without any previous preparation.

Fig- 5'.

sausage-shaped, colourless jelly, varying from \ inch
to I inch in length beneath the surface of still waters.
I obtained specimens during the months of August,
September, and the early part of October. They
were found usually attached to the side of the vessel,
by an adhesive disk terminating a prolongation at
their upper extremity, just beneath the water : but
sometimes unattached, suspended several inches
beneath the water, when the disk reaches to, and
floats upon the surface. When first deposited, the
eggs are closely packed together, forming a short
brown string. In a very short time the connecting
envelope absorbs the surrounding water till it has
increased to many times its original bulk. The eggs
then become separated and form an inner spiral chain.
Slightly magnified, the egg-case appears divided into
many equal segments by narrow transparent rings,

Development Within the Egg.

The egg presents in profile a convex upper and a
flattened lower surface (these terms, upper and lower,,
are applied simply for convenience). Looking down

: ' " .

Fig. 52.

■'" •»-'& V.*. *5v-: • %;*.,.

.> ,'.A ■ '"*■'

I \%

' ' <.

Fig- 53-

Fig- 54-

upon it the appearance is oval. The shell is somewhat
elastic, and is perfectly transparent and structureless,
so that the development of the embryo may be easily

observed.

First Day. October \<,th. 5 P.M. — Examined a
few minutes after the eggs were deposited ; each
contains yellow granular yolk for the most part, but
at either extremity, colourless protoplasm. The cori-
tents fill completely the enclosed space (Fig. 52).

7.30 P.M. — The contents have receded slightly from
both extremities of the shell, farther from one than
the other. The colourless protoplasm is observable
at one extremity only, the opposite appears bilobed.

9.30 P.M. — The yolk granules have retreated from
these two lobes, and other similar though smaller

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

t i i

1oo

lobes accompany them. A
occur at the other extremity.

few yet smaller lobes
(Fig. 53-)

Second Day. October 16th. 1 1.30 A.M.— The yolk
has retreated equally from all parts and is surrounded
by a granular protoplasmic layer. The thickness of
the egg-shell is distinctly visible. In the majority of
the specimens the yolk is equally granular throughout
(Fig. 54), but in others upon the same slide the
granules have collected together forming apparently
hollow spheres.

2 P.M. — The protoplasmic layer has broken up into
numerous small divisions (cells). An outer layer of
cells is at first visible, but later in the day the whole

F"g- 55-

Fig. 56.

layer forms two layers. The yolk contains numerous
yolk spheres.

10 P.M. — The position of the yolk has altered con-
siderably. In profile the yolk still occupies a nearly
central position, but looking down upon the egg, it is
seen to extend to each side. It stops before it reaches
the posterior extremity, being produced further at the
sides than in the centre, the posterior of the embryo
being formed of granular protoplasm and not quite
extending to the shell. Anteriorly the yolk tapers to
a neck which does not extend to the shell, but is
surrounded by granular protoplasm. (Fig. 55.)

Third Day. October ijth. 9.30 A.M. — Viewed in
profile the commencement of the segments is faintly

indicated at the upper surface. The yolk extends to
the anterior upper surface and is nearly separated
into two portions by a bite, which occurs on the
upper surface a short distance from the anterior.
Looking down upon the egg, the only noticeable
change is the paleness of the neck at that portion
where the bite occurs.

6.30 P.M. — This bite in the neck of the yolk pre-
ceded the formation of the head-fold, noticeable on
my next observation. An indentation at the posterior
extremity represents the commencement of the hindt
gut, while a similar indentation beneath the head-fold
that of the fore gut.

Fourth Day. October i&th. 9.45 A.M.— The fore-
gut and the hind-gut are both apparent, they are
lined by a layer of cells. The yolk is more con-
centrated, lying between these embryonic organs,
and the mid gut is formed within its upper portion.
The appendages of the head now appear as. bulging
processes.

10 p.m. — The segments do not appear completed,
they are not apparent on the surface against the lower
surface of the shell. The fore and hind guts extend
to the mid-gut, both anterior and posterior limbs are

Fig- 57-

represented by corresponding processes as also the
papillce of the terminal segment. (Fig. 56.)

Fifth Day. October 19th. 2 p.m.— The larva has
now attained the complementary number and form
of the limbs and head appendages. All that is
necessary previous to its escape, is that its body
should increase in size and the internal viscera be
more fully developed. (Fig. 57.)

Growth from this period until its escape is apparent
in the body only, which becomes bent upon itself.
Besides the occasional movements observed as it
adjusts its increasing length to the cramped habita-
tion, the claws of the anterior limbs are, at certain
periods, expanded and retracted several times, and
often simultaneously the larva scrapes with its
mandibles against the shell. These movements may
be simply to effect a more comfortable position—
although apparently with another purpose— Aft, to
aid its escape. Before its escape I observed that the
alimentary canal, the nervous and the circulatory
systems were complete. The shell as frequently
bursts at one point as at another. All the larvre were
liberated on the evening of the 19th.
( To be continued. )

134

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.

By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

ARTIFICIAL SILK.— I have often pondered on
the humiliating fact that, in spite of all our
modern chemistry, we are still dependent on a
caterpillar for the production of the most beautiful of
our fabrics, the one that would be also the most useful
if it were cheaper. We know that it exists within the
silkworm as a liquid which, by some process of
oxidation or evaporation, or probably of both, be-
comes a tenacious solid immediately it is exposed to
the air. We know its ultimate chemical composition,
and also that it is derivable from nearly every kind
of leaf that grows, as nearly all are eaten by some
species of caterpillar, and caterpillars generally are
silk-producers.

We also know that it is obtainable from animal
matter, as the flesh-feeding spider also produces it.
Not only these, but a multitude of the inhabitants of
fresh and sea-water also produce silk. The threads
of the various species of mussel, the tubular cases of
many species of marine worms, and some of the
caterpillar-like caddis worms, are made partially or
wholly of a material of silken character. This is
also liquid before ejected, and its solidification under
water is still more remarkable than that of the
sub-aerial silk spinners.

We are now told that M. de Chardonnet has
produced an imitation of silk by adding to an
etherized solution of the material of gun-cotton
(nitrated cellulose) a solution of perchloride of
iron, and to this mixture a small proportion of
a solution of tannic acid in alcohol. This is
filtered and then forced by gentle pressure through
a fine tubular orifice, dipping into water acidulated
with nitric acid. The issuing fluid thus forms a
semi-solid thread which can be drawn forth and
then wound, after complete solidification by passing
through a dry air space. It is grey or black, but
may be dyed. The thread thus obtained is described
as tenacious, supple, transparent, and of silky appear-
ance and touch, and is not attacked by acids or
alkaloids of moderate strength, but is soluble in
etherized alcohol and acetic ether. The account I
have read does not tell us whether it has been used as
a varnish, which from the above description appears to
be its most promising application.

Cotton and other fibres covered with an adherent
film of such material would serve as the basis of
beautiful fabrics, and it might even be made into
waterproof sheets by simply painting it over surfaces
to which it would not adhere, and then skimming off
the film.

When we remember the small beginnings of some
of the greatest achievements of applied science, this
effort of M. de Chardonnet is very promising. Others
will doubtless proceed with the problem, and how-

ever great may be their success by improving upon
this first step, let us hope that the pioneer will not
be forgotten in awarding the honour and profits that
may follow.

The Colouring Matter of Blue John.—
Every visitor to the Matlock district of Derbyshire
and its catch-penny shows of abandoned lead work-
ings that are exhibited as natural caverns, and its
twopenny tolls for walking on highways and
byways, is familiar with "Blue John," specimens
of which are largely sold there, and some of it
is actually found in the neighbourhood. It is a
variety of fiuor spar (Calcium fluoride) in which the
blue tint is very deep and beautiful. The composi-
tion of the colouring matter has remained unex-
plained until lately. On the ioth of April last, Mr.
A. Norman Tate read a paper before the Liverpool
Geological Society, in which he showed strong
reasons for concluding that the colour has an organic
origin. If the further investigations that are pro-
mised confirm this, other questions will be opened,
such as whether the organic matter is of animal or
vegetable origin, and of what class, and how it came
thus diffused through the mineral. It is by no means
necessary that the material which gives the blue
colour to the fluor spar shall itself be blue. This is
shown by the fact, that the most intense and brilliant
of all blue minerals, of all blue pigments, lapis
lazuli, and artificial ultramarine, are composed of
materials, none of which are blue, viz., silica,
alumina, soda, sulphur, lime, sulphuric acid, iron,
chlorine, and water or potash.

A Prism of Flame. — Everybody knows that
prisms have been made of glass, and other refracting
solids, and all who have given any special attention
to the subject also know that fluids such as carbon
bisulphide have been formed into prisms by enclosing
them in glass walls, and that spectra have thus been
obtained corresponding to the dispersive powers of
the material of the prism. A. Winkelmann has
recently gone further, has made prisms of flame
affording opportunities for examining the dispersive
powers of incandescent vapours thrown into the flame.
He tried to obtain prismatic flames by enclosing
them in plates of talc or mica, but failed, and finally
succeeded by using a Bunsen burner of triangular
section and placing on the top of the tube a double
thickness of wire gauze, and on that again a triangular
support smaller than the section of the burner. This
carries an iron cup in which is placed the sodium or
other material, the vapours of which are to be ex-
amined. By these means he obtained a special
anomalous dispersion when the flame was largely
charged with sodium and potassium vapours ; but
only negative results with other substances. This
failure he attributed to the insufficient density of
their vapours.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i35

The flame itself appears to have done nothing, the
light passing through it unaltered. This is completely
in harmony with the results of my own experiments
on flame described in chapters vii. and viii. of " Fuel
of the Sun."

Trickery on Tin. — It is well for all of us that
the gamblers who have been rigging the tin market
are laid on their backs. Let us hope that they will
remain there, as the extravagant rise in the price of
that metal which they temporarily obtained by the
customary tricks of their class threatened to create
another very dangerous form of fraud, viz., a large
addition of lead to the tin which is used in tinning
the iron plates of which the cans now so largely used
for preserving provisions are made.

Lead is a peculiarly treacherous poison ; its soluble
compounds belong to the class to which the name of
" slow poisons " has been applied. A small dose
may be taken to-day, another to-morrow, and so on
for some time with no perceptible effect ; it appears
to remain in the system, but if the dose is repeated
with sufficient frequency the accumulation begins at
last to act with serious consequences.

Mr. Jacob Reese, of New York, speaking to his
fellow-countrymen, who consume so much tinned
fruit, advises them to eat no fruit canned in 1888.
This was at the time when the syndicate of tricksters
had run up the price of tin to some 60 or 70 per cent,
above its natural value. The simple fact that such
advice was seriously and properly given, and the pro-
bability of a sudden panic arising by the poisoning of
a few eaters of canned goods, shows the shallowness
of the syndicate. Such a panic would at once annihilate
about two-thirds of the demand for tin, and this oc-
curring simultaneously with the opening of new sup-
plies must have the effect of throwing down the price
of tin far below its old average. This has already
happened, even without any particular panic. I find
by reference to " Iron " of May nth, that the London
price of tin has fallen from 170/. to 85/. per ton within
a few weeks ; the old ordinary price was usually a
little above 100/. The financial condition of those
who rigged the market up to 170/. by holding back
supplies may easily be imagined. Their ruin is of no
serious consequence, rather desirable than otherwise ;
but the poisoning of the people or the checking of so
useful an enterprise as the canning of food for the
million is a serious matter.

Sponge Nurseries.— The Board of Trade Journal
for April describes the progress of a comparatively
new and very promising industry. Professor Oscar
Schmidt, of Gratz (Styria), has planted small cuttings
of sponges in suitable positions, and obtained in the
course of three years large and valuable specimens :
4000 of these, with interest for capital expended,
only cost 225 francs, about one half-penny each.
Those who have had much experience in marine

aquaria will not be surprised at this. In the early
days of the Crystal Palace Aquarium, I noticed that
one of the tanks had a very untidy appearance, as
though infested with cobwebs, and on further ex-
amination found this to be due to the growth of
sponges. The late Mr. Alford Lloyd, who con-
structed this aquarium, told me that this was one of
his common troubles, notably so at the Hamburg
Aquarium, where the sponges grew so rapidly that
some of the zoophyte tanks had to be frequently
emptied and cleared. This was especially the case
when the tanks were newly charged with sea-water
at certain seasons. I should add that the sponges
that thus infested the tanks, like those which abound
on our coast, differ very widely from the species that
are in commercial demand.

Scientific Millinery. — When highly-dressed
servant girls go out a-shopping, the smart salesmen,
who understand their weakness and are allowed a
premium for pushing and selling certain inferior
goods (vulgarly described as "spiffed"), skilfully
force the rubbish on the foolish women by assuring
them that each particular sample is "the latest thing
out," the fashion that presently will be all the rage.
He knows that with such customers intrinsic merit
of the goods is a secondary consideration.

It is a rather humiliating fact that there exists in
the scientific world a class of pedants who closely
resemble these highly-dressed servant girls — young
men of the period who are perpetually struggling to
make a display of their acquaintance with the latest
thing out in technical words and phrases. They profess
a profound contempt for what they call "popular"
science, and sneer at all who are so old-fashioned as
to use the simplest and clearest language, whether old
or new. This is especially the case in chemistry, where
we now have as many as half-a-dozen names for the
same thing, some of them simply absurd, but eagerly
adopted on the same basis as the latest fashion in,
bustles or bonnets.

Having frequently and very plainly expressed my
own opinion of such affectation, I am glad to find
the following in the second edition of Professor Tidy's .
"Handbook of Modern Chemistry," and that it is
quoted approvingly in "Nature.'' He says: " If I
have used the word 'potash,' and the body I mean,
to imply thereby is understood, I am satisfied. I
confess that the growing necessity for having a trans-
lation at one's side in attempting to understand the
modern scientific paper, is in my opinion a circum-
stance to be deplored. Danger, moreover, is always
to be apprehended when a language has to be in-
vented to support a theory or a formula. A party
Shibboleth has, no doubt, a charm for its special .
clique. It serves as a bond of union for the initiated, .
whilst it prevents the interference of outsiders."

My view of the folly is not quite as serious as that
of Professor Tidy. Such a clique as he refers to are:

i36

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

probably engaged in contending for a principle which
rightly or wrongly they supposed to be sound. The
young persons that I have described are by no means
addicted to principles ; technical verbiage learned by
rote constitutes the whole of their scientific attain-
ments.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

A T the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society
■£*- held on April 13th, it was announced that the
Society had been presented with the first volume of
the photographic survey of the heavens, sent by the
Paris Observatory, and a number of photographs of
stellar spective and other astronomical objects sent
by the Harvard Observatory of the United States.
A paper by Professor Holden was read On the
Probable Meteorological Conditions in California
during the Total Solar Eclipse of 1st January, 1889-
It appears that the eclipse will take place in the
rainy season, which is of course much to be regretted,
but inland there is some prospect of clear weather.

A paper was read from Mr. Eddie of Grahamstown,
On the New Southern Comet. This was stated to
have a nucleus similar to a star of the fourth
magnitude with a curved tail about four degrees long.

Professor Tacchini states that from October to
December 1887 there was but little activity observed
on the solar surface, the little that was visible was
principally in the southern hemisphere ; no spots were
recorded in the northern hemisphere.

On June 21st the Sun enters Cancer at o hr. in
the morning, and summer commences.

There will be no occupations worth observing this
month.

Mercury will be an evening star in a good position
for observing.

Venus will be a morning star all the month in
Taurus until near the end, when it will enter Gemini.

Mars will be in Virgo.

Jupiter will rise early in the evening in Libra.

Saturn will be an evening star in Cancer.

Meteorology. — Admiral Sir Vesey Hamilton has
sent me the following interesting experiences with the
Rain-Band Spectroscope.

"Dear Sir, 181A April, 1888.

" Relative to our conversation a few days ago,
I took your pocket-spectroscope to China with me,
but did not use it till I was two-thirds of the way
down the Red Sea, when the weather being quite
clear, and the sun shining bright, I was surprised to
find the densest rainband I had ever seen, and this
continued till past Socotra Sound, en route to Ceylon,
the air was saturated with moisture and temperature
for two or three days 950 in shade, and most oppres-
sive. Soon after passing Socotra Sound and till our

arriving in Ceylon, the sky became overcast and we
had constant rain crossing the Indian Ocean,
accompanied with very heavy showers and squalls,
thunder and lightning ; the temperature was then
about 86°. The date was between 10th and 25th
October, and the N.E. Monsoon was exceptionally
late that year. In China I found the spectroscope
more useful in foretelling the approach of fine weather
during rain than the actual approach of rain during
fine weather.

"I remain, faithfully yours,

(Signed) "R. Vesey Hamilton.
"J. Browning, Esq., F.R.S."

At first reading this would seem to impugn the
value of the Rain Band Spectroscope for the pre-
diction of rain — but not so upon closer examination.
The important point to observe is that the place
where Admiral Sir Vesey made the rain band
observation, and the point where the rain fell were
a great many miles apart, because the vessel was
sailing down the Red Rea when the observation
was taken, and it is worth noting that at the place
where the rain fell it was seven degrees colder than
were the observation was taken, a condition which
alone would account for its precipitation.

At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the highest
reading of the barometer for the week ending 21st of
April was 29.77 in- on Monday at noon ; and the
lowest 29.38 in. on Friday at noon. The mean tem-
perature of the air was 48.5 deg., and 0.6 deg. above
the average. The general direction of the wind was
south-westerly. Rain fell on five days of the week,
to the aggregate amount of 0.65 of an inch. The
duration of registered bright sunshine in the week
was 35.7 hours, against 30.1 hours at Glynde Place,
Lewes.

For the week ending 28th April, the lowest reading
of the barometer was 20.50 in. on Sunday at noon ;
and the highest 30.07 in. on Thursday evening. The
mean temperature of the air was 43.7, and 4.7 deg.
above the average. The general direction of the
wind was north-eastern. Rain fell on three days of
the week, to the aggregate amount of 0.67 of an
inch. The duration of registered bright sunshine in
the week was 8.0 hours, against 16.4 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 5th May, at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, the lowest reading of the
barometer was 29.23 in. on Tuesday morning ; and
the highest was 30.15 in. at the end of the week.
The mean temperature of the air was 49.0 deg. The
general direction of the wind was south-westerly.
Rain fell on two days of the week to the aggregate
amount of 0.16 of an inch. The duration of
registered bright sunshine in the week was 43.2
hours, against 36.4 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 12th May, the lowest reading
of the barometer was 30.02 in. on Tuesday afternoon ;

HARDWICKE'S SCI E NCE-GOSSIT.

i37

Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at inte;~vals of Seven Days in June.

Rises.

Souths.

Sets.

D.

h. m.

h. m.

h. m.

■

3

5 SM

I 36A

IO 7A

Mercury 5 .

10

i7

5 25 M
5 36 M

I 46A

1 43A

10 7A
9 5oa

.

24

5 33M

1 25A

9 I7A

,

3

3 21M

11 14M

7 7A

Venus $ . A

10
17

3 18M
3 18M

11 23M
11 32M

7 28A
7 46a

I

24

3 24M

11 41M

7 58a

/

3

2 19A

7 57A

1 38M

Mars <t . .

10

17

2 OA
I 43A

7 34A
7 13A

I IIM

O 46M

1

24

I 28A

6 53A

O 2IM

1

3

6 39A

II OA

3 26 M

10

6 8a

IO 30 A

2 56M

Jupiter X.

17

5 36a

9 59A

2 26M

1

24

5 6a

9 29A

I 56M

t

3

7 38m

3 32A

II 26A

Saturn T?. .j

10
17

7 i5M
6 52M

3 7A
2 43A

10 59A
10 34 a

24

6 29M

2 19A

10 9A

and highest 30.30111. on Friday morning. The mean
temperature of the air was 52*3 deg., and 1*4 deg.
above the average. The general direction of the wind
was variable. No rain was measured during the week.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 51.0 hours, against 56.4 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

The average mean temperature in June is at the
Land's End and the Bristol Channel 590, and it is the
same all along the South and South-East Coast. On
a line drawn through Beaumaris, Lancaster, York,
Hull and Norwich it is 580. In the Irish Sea,
Solway Firth, Berwick, South Shields, Middles-
borough and Flamborough Head, it is only 570,
while inland throughout the southern part of Eng-
land it is 6o°. This of course arises from the cooling
effect of the sea round our coasts.

The mean average rainfall in June is one inch on
the East Coast and two inches over nearly all the
rest of England, but in some parts of North Waies
and in Cumberland, Westmoreland and Lancashire it
is three inches.

NATURAL HISTORY JOTTINGS.
The Green Tortoise Beetle [Cassida viridis).

[Continued from p. 107.]

August 14th. — A full-grown larva that has thrown
off its fecal canopy as soon as enclosed in a box, has
straightened out the heretofore elevated posterior
portion of the body, the projecting ventral tube now
lying back horizontally in a line with the body, and
the two rigid, waved, whip-like anal appendages

standing erect at right angles to both body and tube :
these appendages spring from the extremity of the
body, just in advance inwardly of the ventral tube at
its base, do not coalesce, and only move with the
body. Shortly, however, and the extremity of the
body is again elevated at about right angles, and the
rigid anal appendages again projected forwards over
the back nearly horizontally, and the larva recom-
mences to feed, the freces now passed lying on the
tip or extremity of the ventral tube for a time, but
ultimately dropping off.

The flattened larva is woodlouse-like in form, or
elliptical, and has a close array of sixteen pairs of
nearly horizontally-set well-branched cylindrical spines
springing from the margin of the much and equally
depressed thorax and abdomen all around. The
thorax and abdomen occupy about equal halves of the
entire length of larva, and eaclt section carries eight
pairs of the setose spines. The head is black, and is
concealed beneath the thorax when the creature is at
rest, but, when walking, is in part projected beyond
the anterior margin, coming then into view. The
colour of the body above is a dull green, variegated
with a mottling of pale greenish yellow, which gives
to the entire upper surface a greyish green cast or hue :
the under surface of the body is of a dull uniform
light green colour. The spiracles (of which there are
eight pairs, one pair thoracic and seven pairs abdo-
minal) are situated dorsally near the margin of the
flattened body, are black with lighter apices, and are
elevated ; they are cylindrical, lie at an outward angle,
and gradually decrease in calibre backwardly towards
the apex of the abdomen, the first pair being situated
near the hinder margin of the prothoracic segment,
and the seven succeeding pairs in the seven anterior
abdominal segments. The lateral branched spines
are black in the basal one-half, and dusky in the
apical one-half: the anal or caudal appendages, which
are in reality the two spines appertaining to the
lateral margins of the ninth and last abdominal
segment, enlarged, modified in form, and changed in
direction, for a special function, are also black basally
and dusky apically : they are^thick at the base, where
they are furnished with minute secondary spines, but
taper rapidly to a very fine point, and are rigid and
waved apically, the waviness or warping being obvi-
ously caused by the constriction to which they have
been subjected by the several exuvioe retained there-
on from infancy to maturity. The legs are six in
number, and are short and stout : they are sparsely
clothed with short black spines, as indeed is the
entire body both above and below. The larva walks
slowly ; is diurnal in its habits, feeding on the leaves
of the thistle during the day from both the upper
and under surface, and generally leaving the epidermis
intact on the opposite side of the leaf from which it
feeds, though not infrequently making a minute
hole or holes therein which will account for the holes
found amongst the blotches on the leaves, the heat

'33

HARD IVICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G O SSI P.

of the atmosphere shrivelling up the ruptured skin or
epidermis ; and, sometimes at least, enters into the
pupa state on the upper surface of the leaves of the
food-plant. After casting its skin, the larva is of a
uniform pale yellow colour entirely : the head, limbs,
branched spines, anal appendages, and the ventral
tube, as well as the body, are all of this uniform pale
yellow colour, while the elevated spiracles are white,
the exuviae having obviously been shed from all these
parts. The cast skin is run up together into com-
paratively little bulk, is passed over the extremity of
the body and transferred to the anal appendages, the
flexile ventral tube being used in pressing it forwards
against the fecal canopy ; and with its head, flank'ng
limbs, and a complete chevaitx-de-frise of spines,
constitutes a new, larger, and most efficient platform
for the reception of the faeces. In a short time the
creature in all its parts assumes the normal hues.

When full-grown, and about ready to lay itself up
prior to assuming the pupal condition, the larva
throws off the fecal canopy, and takes a meal or two
more ; then it stretches itself out horizontally, retracts
the two segments of the telescopic ventral tube until
the basal and larger one is much shortened and the
apical one so invaginated and withdrawn within the
basal that only the tip projects beyond it, the anal
appendages being now erected perpendicularly ; whilst
the head and limbs are drawn up closely to the under
surface of the body, the head being deeply sunk into
the tissues, and the limbs directed backwardly as well
as being somewhat drawn together and sunk ; and
the anteroinferior portion of the abdomen (embracing
the first three segments) is pressed down firmly upon
the object chosen for the change, and thus formed
into an ovalish and flattened disk, beneath, which is
placed, or from which exudes, an obviously tenacious
fluid of a dark colour which anchors the larva to the
spot, aided probably by the short and stout spines
which sparsely clothe that region. In this position
it remains for a period of fully four days, gradually
growing darker in colour, and assuming a ruddy hue
along the back. On the fifth day, after a good deal
of very vigorous motion, during which it becomes
quite evident that the anteroinferior abdominal disk
is the only point of attachment of the larva to its
seat, the skin of the upper anterior portion of the
thorax becomes ruptured and the lively pupa vigor-
ously pushes itself forward out of the larval envelopes,
wriggling and twisting, expanding and contracting,
and frequently raising itself up nearly vertically in its
anterior three-fourths or so, until the exuviae has
passed beyond the fifth abdominal segment, when its
efforts cease, and the remaining abdominal segments
remain incased within the exuviae which firmly retains
and moors the pupa. The colour of the newly-
emerged pupa is pale green, variegated with pale dull
orange and the now nearly white dorsal mottling of
larvahood ; but in a few hours it has darkened —
become nearly black, with ruddy dorsal markings.

The spiracles, now reduced to four pairs appertaining
to the first four abdominal segments, are white
in colour, and are much more elevated than in the
larva.

In the pupa, the thoracic region is flattened out
horizontally all around, both laterally and anteriorly,
this extension having become nearly semicircular in
outline, and being quite thin ; and instead of being
surrounded with eight pairs of strong branched spines as
in larvahood, it is only margined with simple small
spines, two pairs of which, however, the fourth and
fifth from the mesial line anteriorly, are longer and
stronger, and furnished with some minute spines.
The pair of spines on the lateral margins or edges of
each of the five anterior abdominal segments (which
are all that can be seen, owing to the exuviae being
still attached to and covering and concealing the
remainder of the abdomen of the pupa) are also
flattened out horizontally quite thin, but are still
furnished around their margin with secondary spines ;
they are at the base equal in width with the segment,
and are directed outwardly, and inclined upwardly at
a considerable angle. Possibly the extraordinary ex-
tension of the entire margin of the thoracic region is
clue to a horizontal flattening-out, and a coalescence of
the eight pairs of spines which surrounded that region
during larvahood j and in the flattening-out of the
abdominal spines we may see the same process in
operation, which in the imago will be fully evolved
and seen in the extensive marginal addition to the
elytra which obtains. On the pupa first emerging,
the thin marginal extension of the thorax is infolded,
as are also the flattened-out abdominal spines, but
they both rapidly unfold.

In ten days after the pupa-state has been entered,
the perfect beetle emerges through a breach in the
upper anterior portion of the pupa-case. It is at first
of a pale green colour above, and a fine salmon colour
below, with some black variations ; i.e., the protho-
racic shield and the elytra are of a uniform pale green,
and the thorax and abdomen are of a salmon colour
with some black variations inferiorly, the salmon
colour showing through the as yet only semi-opaque
shield and elytra, as do also the head and antennae.
In a few hours it has become much darker green
above, and is entirely shining black beneath.

(To be continued.)

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Mr. Walter Gardiner, M.A., has just con-
cluded a course of three interesting lectures at the
Royal Institution, entitled "The Plant in the War
of Nature."

We have received a reprint of the " Land and
Freshwater Mollusca of Leicestershire," by Mr. H..
E. Quilter.

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

The " Selborne Magazine" is now published by
Mr. Elliot Stock. The last number is the best yet
issued.

Among new recent issues, special notice must be
taken of "The Westmoreland Note-book, and
Natural History Record," a quarterly magazine,
published by Mr. Elliot Stock. The first part is
capital reading.

An important paper, by Mr. W. J. Simmons, on
the "Study of the Mango-Weevil," has just been
reprinted from the "Journal of the Horticultural and
Agricultural Society of India."

Engineers ought to read a paper in the last
number of "The Naturalist," by the Rev. Arthur
Watts, on " Coal-dust and Explosions in Coal-
Mines."

W e have received the second part of Mr. Howard
Saunders' "Illustrated Manual of British Birds,"
(London : Gurney and Jackson ; successors to Van
Voorst). Both text and illustrations promise that
this will be the best popular work on the; subject yet
issued.

An Italian Microscopical Society has just been
formed, whose articles and pajjers are to be published
in Latin, French, English, and German. The address
of the Secretary is Mr. J. Platania, 14, Via S.
^Giuseppe, Acireale, Sicily.

The members of the Geologists' Association made a
two days excursion on Whit Monday and Tuesday
(May 21st and ;22nd) to Charnwood Forest, under the
^directorship of the Rev. E. Hill and Mr. J. D. Paul.
On June 1st, Mr. J. G. Goodchild reads a paper on
" The Natural History of Gypsum."

At a meeting of the Philadelphia Academy of
Natural Sciences, Professor Ryder described a ring-
3ike prolongation of the placenta in embryo mice and
■rats as indicating the descent of these animals from
lower types in which the placenta was zonary.

Professor Claypole ("American Naturalist "j
concludes that the ice at one time dammed up the Ohio
above the site of Cincinnati, forming a sheet of water
which he names Lake Ohio. As the banks of the
Ohio are 400 to 500 feet high at Cincinnati, the ice
must have been thicker than this. If assumed at 500
ieet, the rim of the ice would be 365 feet above the
level of lake Erie. The entire south of Ohio, a large
portion of West Virginia, and parts of Kentucky and
Pennsylvania must thus have been under water,
.forming a lake about 400 miles by 200. At one time
.Lakes Erie and Ontario formed a single vast sheet of
water, held by an ice-dam at a level of 700 feet above
the sea.

An island has been selected by the New South
Wales authorities on which Pasteur's method of
.extirpating rabbits is to be thoroughly tried.

MICROSCOPY.

The Royal Microscopical Society. — The last
number of the Journal is a valuable one. It contains,
in addition to the exhaustive summary of Current
researches relating to Zoology and Botany, the
Address of the President (the Rev. Dr. Dallinger),
and a paper (illustrated) by Mr. George Massee,
" On the Type of a New Order of Fungi." The
latter is intermediate between the Nidulariaceoe and
the Hymenogastres.

Volvox Globator. — In reply to R. H. Nisbett
Brown's query, the Tremella he speaks of is probably
the genus of that name among the Hymenomycetous
Fungi. If he wishes to make the infusion referred to,
and note if V. globator occurs in it ; let him search on
decayed stumps, logs &c, after rain, and if he lights
on a shapeless jelly-like substance, it is almost certain
to be some species of Tremella. ■ — P. F. Gillel.

ZOOLOGY.

The Development of the Polyzoa. — We
regret that, owing to a clerical error, Figs. 47 and
48, in Mr. Shipman's important paper on this subject
last month, the name of Fredericella was placed
under them instead of Paludicella. Readers inter-
ested in the subject will please note.

Tennyson's Natural History. — In a volume
of "Early Poems" by the Poet Laureate, recently
published, there occur some expressions which, to
say the least of them, are rather eccentric from a
natural history point of view, e.g., this line —

"Deeply the wood-dove coos : shrilly the owlet halloos."

Surely the author is sacrificing accuracy for the sake
of catching a bad rhyme. No stretch of imagination
could represent the sounds emitted by the owlet as a
"shrill halloo." Then what are the "quick lark's
clovest carolled strains " ? Again, we read that Nature

"greens
The swamp where hum the dropping snipe."

Does the snipe hum ? These, and many similar
instances which may be quoted, seem to exceed the
licence allowed even to poets. But the Laureate has
achieved a reputation as a naturalist among some of
his admirers for such discoveries as that ash birds
are black in March, a fact known to every village
boy in the kingdom. — E. H. V.

Hawaiian Butterflies. — At the last meeting of
the Entomological Society of London, Mr. E. Meyrick
communicated a paper " On the Pyralidina of the
Hawaiian Islands." Mr. Meyrick pointed out that the
exceptional position of these islands renders an
accurate knowledge of their fauna a subject of great

140

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

interest. He stated that of the fifty-six known species
of Hawaiian Pyralidina nine had probably been
introduced through the agency of man in recent times ;
but he believed the remaining forty-seven to be
wholly endemic : of these latter the author referred
twenty-six species to the Botydidae, twelve to the
Scopariadce, four to the Pterophoridae, three to the
Crambidae, and two to the Phycitidae.

BOTANY.

Purple-eyed Daisies. — Walking along the edge
of the cliff at the sequestered inlet of Dumpton Gap,
on the way from Ramsgate to Broadstairs, I came
upon a tuft of daisies each having an orange-red spot
in the centre of its disk. I dug up a root and potted
it, and the new blown blossoms present a sufficiently
curious and rich appearance for such common objects
as wild daisies, the colour in the centre being fresh
and deep. Examined closely, it is seen that the orange-
red spot is caused by the flowerets at the centre of
the disk having their petals tipped with purple, a
peculiarity often noticed in those of the ray, the
commingling of their rich yellow producing the effect
of orange on the retina. This flower has long done
duty as an exponent of Design in Nature ; here it
puts in a claim for Evolution or Work. — A. H.
Swinton.

Preserving Flowers. — Having noticed in the
"Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society" an article,
on Preserving the Colours of Flowers in dried speci-
mens, I append the following copy : — The process
consists of steeping the plants in a solution of sul-
phurous acid containing one-fourth of its volume of
methylated spirit. Delicate flowers require only five
or ten minutes immersion, and thick leaves as much
as twenty-four hours. They are then removed and
the fluid allowed to evaporate from the surface by
exposure, and then dried between paper in the usual
way. Another advantage is that plants so treated
are dried much more quickly and easily than those
which are simply pressed and dried when fresh. — IV.
y. Hopkmson.

" Annals of Botany." — The February part
completes the first vol. of this notable and important
work, edited by Professor J. B. Balfour, Dr. Vine,
and Dr. W. G. Farlow. It contains papers as
follows: "The Apical Cell of Fucus," by W. Mc.
M. Wood worth ; "The Procarpium and Fruit in
Gracilaria confervoides," by T. Johnson ; " On the
Germination of the Tubes of the Jerusalem Arti-
choke," by J. R. Green : " On the Sensitive Labellum
of Masdcvallia mucosa" by F. W. Oliver; "The
Effect of Cross-fertilisation on Inconspicuous Flowers,"
by Anna Bateson ; " Microscopical Anatomy of the
Common Cedar Apple," by Aylmer Sanford ; " On

some Normal and Abnormal Developments of the
Zoophyte in Trichomanes," by F. O. Bower ; " On
the Floating Roots of Sesbania aculeata" by D. H.
Scott; "On some anomalous cells developed within
the interior of the vascular and cellular tissues of the
Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures," by Professor
Williamson; "Some recent publications bearing on
the question of the sources of Nitrogen in Nature,"
etc.

GEOLOGY, &C.

Ice-graving in the Isle of Man. — In a very
readable paper in the April number, Dr. P. Q.
Keegan tells us something of the salient points of the
Geology of the Isle of Man. Excellent as the paper
is in the main, an unaccountable error is made when
we are informed that " there is little or no evidence
of local glaciers, or indeed of ice-chiselling of any
kind." My personal knowledge of the island's
geology is confined to the shore line of the south*
from Langness to Port Erin, and in this narrow strip
I have found abundant proof of ice-action. The
greater part — from the west side of Langness to mid-
way between Port St. Mary and Spanish Head — of
this coast line is hewn out of carboniferous limestone,
and wherever the protecting soil or boulder clay has
been recently removed from its surface, we are almost
sure to find ice polishing and striae. Scarlett Quarry,
where the overlying boulder clay has lately been
cleared out, affords a remarkably well-preserved
instance of glaciation. On the horizontal surface of
the limestone a little distance back from the quarry
face, the rock is eaten into troughs and hollows 7 or
8 inches deep, marking a pre-glacial work of solution
by rain water. Seaward of this the surface ceases
to be horizontal and slopes gently towards the shore.
This part is beautifully polished and engraved with
clearly cut parallel striae — running N.E. to S.W. —
distinct and fresh as when the ice mantle receded and
disappeared in the far-off days when the bond of
union between Mona and Norway consisted, not in
warm Viking blood and heroic saga, but in dreary
ice-rivers and snowfields. On the striated surface,
close to the junction with the corroded one, we see
here and there little depressions with irregular bottoms
— plainly the lower parts of pits once similar to those
intact hard by ; so that we have here a horizontal
surface not touched by ice, bordered by a slightly
sloping one from which several inches of rock must
have been planed away by glacial friction. Equally
good examples of unmistakable ice-action are exposed
south of Port St. Mary, where quite a considerable
cliff of boulder clay rests upon striated limestone.
South of the pier at this little fishing village, the ice
has passed over the upturned edges of the strata
grooving and rounding them ; producing outlines as

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

141

different as possible from those wrought by the action
of other denuding agents. Further on is a little stack
of limestone, the vertical faces on all but the side
fronting the sea, bevelled and striated, and close by,
a similarly glaciated high shelf — forming together a
tiny valley or gateway, admirable as an illustration of
how a glacier pouring down a valley, adapting itself
to the rocky channel, grinds smooth the rough places
in the bottom and sides. Fragments of polished and
striated surfaces and rubbings on paper of strice from
the above described spots are at Dr. Keegan's dis-
posal, should he wish to see them. — James Hornett.

Eozoon Canadense. — Sir J. W. Dawson has
recently given in the " Geological Magazine " some
new facts regarding Eozoon Canadense. Though the
form of this body is ordinarily regarded as indefinite,
well-preserved specimens show that the normal shape
of young and isolated examples is a broadly turbinate,
funnel-shaped, or top-shaped form, with sometimes a
depression on the upper surface. Other forms are
rounded or dome-shaped masses. In sections more
or less cylindrical, depressions or tubes may be seen.
If Eozoon was an organism growing on the sea-bottom,
it would be liable to be broken up, and in this
condition to constitute calcareous sand or gravel ;
examination of Laurentian limestone frequently reveals
the presence of Eozoon. Cryptozoum, whatever be its
zoological relations, is found in the Cambrian rocks
under the same conditions as Eozoon in the remark-
able imitative forms of:gneiss, laminated limestone
with serpentine, and various other laminated or
banded materials which are often found in collections
or specimens of Eozoon.

Bedfordshire Clays, &c. — At a meeting of the
Bedfordshire Archaeological and Natural History
Society held at Bedford (April 12th) Mr. A. C. G.
Cameron, Geological Survey, read a paper on the
"Clays and Bricks of Bedfordshire." He described
the geological formation of the country, and entered
at length into an examination of the clays and the
localities in which they exist. The manufacture of
bricks and kindred fabric out of Oxford clay was given
in considerable detail ; and the nature of the soils and
subsoils touched on from an agricultural point of view.
With regard to the Ampthill Clay, there is a thick
mass of it exposed in the cuttings of the Midland
Railway near Ampthill Station. At the northern
entrance to the tunnel, there are several noticeable
layers of stone, manifestly concretionary and containing
fossils. These concretionary stones lie amongst the
clay in a contrary way to the bedding. To the south
of the tunnel, the clay is blacker and contains Kim-
meridge forms of fossils. Professor Seeley has
correlated the clay with septarian concretions in the
Ampthill cutting with those of the St. Ives and
neighbouring brickyards, localising it as the Ampthill
Clay. It may, therefore, be considered as a passage
bed between the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays. The

lecturer said he must not omit to mention a characte
of the Ampthill Clay which he thought justified his
bestowing on it the term " troublesome," an epithet
which any one who has anything to do with that
portion of the line will endorse. This is its
sensitiveness to the weather, the result of which is
that the cutting presents an appearance of disorder
more compatible with that of a line in course of
construction than with that of an established road over
which for so long so many trains have daily run. As
is well known, huge masses of the clay become
detached from the sides of the cutting and slide
forward with a tendency to fall upon the line. This
is frustrated by the expedient of burning the clay on
the spot, constructing with it platforms at the foot of
the slopes. These present a rough surface, arrest the
progress of the sliding mass, and preserve the rails
intact. If grass were grown on these slopes, it is not
improbable as the surface is added to by the growth
of the vegetation, the slides would be of less frequent
occurrence, if not entirely stopped.

The paleontological and lithological characters of
the Oxford Clay as exhibited at the various brick-
works were also described, reference being made to
the use of the word " glass" for selenite amongst the
workers in Oxford Clay, in connection with selenite
in Germany, being sometimes popularly called
Francnglas, or Marienglas. The brickyards on the
Clapham road, Box End Kempston, Bletsoe,
Sharnbrook, and others at a greater distance from
Bedford, are opened just beneath a bed of yellow
sand and bluish loam, the " mild clay " of the builders.
To this sandy bed, the basement bed of the Oxford
Clay, the name of " Kelloways Rocks " has been
given from Kelloways, in "Wiltshire, where it was first
brought into notice by William Smith, the father of
English geology. In old times, owing to the difficulty
of transporting road metal, local stones were much
more used than they are now ; thus the rock at
Kelloways was then used for that purpose. At
Bedford it is characterised by hard lumps or
"doggers" of calcareous sandstone that lie very
prominently amongst the sand and loam. Beyond
the town, which partly stands on it, the Kelloways
can be traced up the valley as a fairly persistent bed
or narrow belt of sandy soil, out from which the hard
stone or " dogger " is seen protruding. — Beds. Times.
April 21, i{

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Early Nesting of the Chaffinch and
Blackbird. — My attention was drawn the other
day to the fact, that a chaffinch's nest with five eggs
was got on the 1 6th January, at Craigfin, May bole,
Ayrshire. Yesterday I visited the farm, and found
the report correct, the tenant kindly gave me parti-
culars. The nest was found in the side of haystack,
an unusual site for the species to build. When it

142

HA RDWICKE'S S CIENCE- GOS SIP.

became known, unfortunately, a boy destroyed the
nest and four of the eggs, the farmer having the other
in his possession. On examining it, though much
broken, I find it has been hard set, and would have
been hatched in a few days. It would have been
very interesting to have known whether the young
could have been brought up at this early season.
A blackbird's nest with young has also been got in a
plantation on Culzean estate, about the beginning of
February, these instances showing the remarkable
mildness of the season. — W. R. N.

Munchausen still Alive ! A weekly and
much-read paper has the following bit of veracity :
The Human Blood. — " Professor Bronson (an
American) states, that if a drop of human blood be
subjected to examination by the hydrogen microscope,
and magnified some 20,000,000 of times, all the
species of animals now existing on the earth, or that
have existed during the different stages of creation
for thousands of years past will be then discovered.
In the blood of a healthy person all the animalcula
are quiet and peaceable ; but in the blood of a
diseased person they are furious, raging, and preying
upon each other. That man contains within himself
all the principles of the universe ; also, that, if a dead
cat be thrown into a pool of stagnant water, and
allowed to dissolve there, a drop of water taken from
any part of the pool, will show as above, every species
of animal of the cat kind that has ever existed on the
earth, raging and destroying one another, the bodies
of all the lower animals being thus made animalcula
similar to themselves, and the body of man being
compounded of all that is below in the scale of
creation."

Localities for Butterflies. — Will any of the
readers of Science-Gossip kindly inform me of any
good localities, easily accessible from the north of
London (when one has only half a day to spare), for
any such species as the following : — Argynnis paphia,
A. euphrosyne, Melit&a artemis, Thccla quercus,
T. W-album and T. Betulce, Leucophasia sinapis,
etc. I should be very glad of information respecting
such localities of any of the more uncommon
butterflies ; I only mention the above as instances.
— A. G. T.

Rudiments. — It appears tome that Miss Layard is
perfectly justified in objecting to Mr. Darwin's use of
the word "rudimentary" on the ground that it is
not used by him in the generally accepted sense,
viz., an early state of a structure to be developed at
some future time. "Reduced," or "degenerated,"
would seem a more appropriate word to apply to an
organ, which, undoubtedly in a lower state of
development than it once was, has fallen away from
that typical form. " Rudimentary " might possibly
be correctly used for a structure in a low state of
development compared with a higher standard, but
at any rate the words suggested would be less mis-
leading. But Miss Layard not only objects to Mr.
Darwin's use of the word ; she would apparently
object just as much if " reduced," or " degenerated,"
were substituted for it, when applied to any of man's
organs. She is "inclined to doubt " Mr. Darwin's
statement that our senses are inherited " in an enfeebled
and rudimentary (or reduced) condition." Her reason
appears to be that in losing keenness our senses have
gained refinement and appreciation of variety, that it
is "quantity versus quality." This is indisputable,
but does not the mere fact that they have lost
keenness, justify the statement that they are "en-
feebled"? Again, why is it "strange" that we
should seek " for the perfection of our so-called

rudimentary organs in the lower animals"? Does-
not evolution include retrogression as well as pro-
gression in development, and has not man retro-
gressed so far as his "so-called rudimentary organs"
go? Miss Layard says: — "If we are driven to
defend the down on the human body, and even the
os coccyx, we shall find the same argument to hold
good" (viz., "quantity versus quality"). And
again, "the tail is the rudimentary condition of the
more perfect shortened formation." What "quality"
does Miss Layard find in the os coccyx to compensate
for the "quantity" in the tail? And how can a
structure, such as the os coccyx, which is so de-
generated as to have no function at all, be "more
perfect " than one which in many cases has
distinct functions ? I suppose Miss Layard would
assert that the muscles of our arms and chest, for
instance, are "more perfect" than those of a
gorilla's. Have not these organs fallen away from
the typical standard exemplified in the lower animals ?
It seems to me that Miss Layard regards the organs
of man, in all cases, as perfect types, and judges the
rest of the animal world by the standard she has set
up ; whereas, in reality, we do not find, and cannot
expect to find, all the typical forms of organs con-
centrated in one being. Because man is, taken
as a whole, the most perfect animal known, surely
he cannot maintain that each organ he possesses is,
per se, more perfect than any corresponding one
through the whole range of the animal kingdom.
— A. G. Tansley.

Yew Tree Poisoning Cattle. — Mr. Lett's note
(Science-Gossip, p. 49) calls to memory a similar
case, illustrating the poisonous nature of yew-tree
leaves, in Leicestershire in the year 1882. During
the night eighteen head of cattle, out of a herd of
forty, managed somehow to partake of them ; but,
if taken with three or four times the,; quantity of
their usual food, the leaves of the yew-tree are
innoxious. — C. E. Stott, Lostock.

V. Atalanta in 1887. — My experience does not
coincide with your correspondents' from Dundee,
Malvern, and Eastbourne in reference to this butter-
fly. It seemed very plentiful in this neighbourhood.
I noticed large numbers in a garden here settling on
some sunflowers. A very large proportion of the
specimens seemed much below the average size.
Would the very dry summer affect them in this way?'
— C. S., Fenarth, near Cardiff.

Feeding Frogs and Newts. — In giving my
experience of the food habits of the above, I did not
intend it to be understood that I habitually feed my
green-tree frogs on earthworms, although I can safely
state that I have had them seize and swallow small
specimens with avidity. Mr. Finch has no doubt
mistaken my meaning, owing to an oversight in
leaving out the words " common frogs," in connection
with " newts, salamanders, and green-tree frogs." I
had the idea that the heading, "Feeding frogs and
newts" would sufficiently convey my meaning. I was .
endeavouring to answer the query of a previous cor-
respondent, and no doubt he would understand that
I was referring to our common British species, which
is so totally unlike the beautiful little Hyla arborea
of the continent as to render it a matter of impossi-
bility to confound the two. My salamanders are also
very partial to slugs, as well as earth worms, which
certainly do not "invariably make their escape while
their enemy is making up his mind which to take ; "
I have known them to swallow three or four earth-
worms in a very short space of time when hungry ;
as a matter of fact, I think the latter would come off

II A RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS I P.

i43

second best in a race with a good lively slug.— A. J.
"Jenkins, New Cross.

Four-footed Bird.— The following paragraph
was taken from a well-known weekly newspaper about
a year ago. "An American naturalist, Mr. Em.
Brigham, has announced the discovery of four-footed
birds on the Anabija river, in the island of Marago, at
the mouth of the Amazon. Curiously enough, the bird
scientifically called Opisthocoma cristata is four-footed
only in early life, and after a few days one pair of legs
develop into wings. The bird . . . frequents the beds
of ' aninga,' a semi-aquatic plant, and rarely flies far
from its peculiar haunts." I am not a student of
ornithology, and this seems hard to swallow." —
A. G. H.

Notes from South Australia. — I have lately
come out here, and shall be very glad to have ex-
changes etc. with you for such things as I can pro-
cure here, and I'll be glad to know what you wish
me to do for you. Anything interesting to an amateur
photographer, either in way of reading or appliances
will be very acceptable ; mine is full plate with \ and
2 carriers. On my arrival here in October it was some-
thing magnificent to see the Orchidacere of the hills
in bloom, and all the shrubs in endless variety and of
exquisite beauty, even grasses were in themselves
sufficient to call for unreserved admiration. Oh how
I wished I could have sent collections to my various
English correspondents, as I used to when at home
in the hills of Burren, co. Clare, and I hope I will
next season be able to do so. There are such lovely
orchidaceous plants in every shape and colour (yellow,
blue, white, brown, copper, etc.), and as for bulbous
plants they are innumerable. One very pretty thing
I saw under shrubs and shady glens was, Drosera
Menziesia, a bulbous-rooted D., size of a marble,
with a crown of spathulate leaves on the surface, from
which rose a zigzag spike, on top of which four or five
flowers, size of 6d. (white with lovely pink spots), the
stem 18 inches, covered all along with small cup-
shaped leaves, studded with crimson and pink
tentacles ; it is a semi-trailer, and holds itself upright
by the curling of the little leaf-stalks round the twigs
and grasses, in the way of the nasturtiums. If two
or three happen to grow together, the effect, in the
sunshine, is something to remember, as they clasp
each other and become quite a pillar of sparkling
jewels. These bulbs, I trust, I shall be able to intro-
duce to my English friends, and shall be glad if you
mention me to yours, or insert any portion of this in
your journal and oblige me very much. — T. McGann.

Spider's Contrivances. — Referring to a spider's
contrivance "explained by G. E. G. in the Science
Gossip," I found several similar instances at
Biirgenstock on the Lake of Lucerne, but instead of
a fragment of stone sometimes a piece of clay was
employed. This plummet was so far distant from
the spider's web above, that I had no means of arriving
at the clever and probably truthful explanation given
by your correspondent. — J. Lawrence Hamilton,
M.R.C.S.

Toads Spawning.— On Saturday April 14, I
observed a large number of toads in a ditch on the
Lea marshes near Clapton. I counted no less than
nineteen breeding, and could have seen many more
in all probability, had I used my net. I captured a
group of five, all closely clinging together. In my
net, one old toad detached himself from the mass,
apparently in a great rage, and bit vigorously
through the muslin, which however he did not injure.

The remaining toads were making a queer noise,
something between croaking and squeaking. When
I had repeatedly shaken the net, they very reluctantly
left each other, and then, to my surprise, I found that
the centre of attraction was a large frog. I was
unable to see whether it was male or female. I
should like to know whether any instances are recorded
of toads breeding with frogs. My experience is that
as a rule toads do not begin to breed until the frogs
have ceased to deposit their spawn ; I should like to
know whether this is a fact, and also whether toads
croak. I have always studied the habits of frogs and
toads, and consider the latter to be by far more
interesting and intelligent than frogs, green or other-
wise. They are also much more easily kept alive.
I have had one in my possession since Sept. 1884, and
he is quite tame. — James Holloxuay.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of owe grattiitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

J. B. M. (Longsight). — Your "Exchange" was an advertise-
ment, and could only be inserted as such.

E. P. — You will find a fuller general account of the Norfolk
and Suffolk crags than could be given in Dr. Taylor's Address,
in his "Geological Stories" ('Story of the Crags'), and a still
more extensive account in his 'Geology of Suffolk,' in White's
"Suffolk Gazetteer and Directory."

E. W. Mathers and A. G. H. — See Rutley's "Elementary
Manual of Mineralogy," 2nd ed. Also various papers on the
subject in Science-Gossip. The fullest information, however,
is in Mr. Teall's work on Petrology.

J. S. H. — Your alga appears to be a species of Batrachosper-
mum. Dr. M. C. Cooke is now publishing, in parts, a work on
British freshwater alga?.

J. H. James. — The " Selborne Magazine" is published by
Eliot Stock, 62 Paternoster Row, E.C.

R. C. C. — You will be able to get sheet indiarubber by
ordering it through any apothecary. See articles on " Double
Staining," in Science-Gossip, vol. for 1875.

EXCHANGES.

Shall be glad'-to correspond with persons interested in
Australian Orchidacea?, and other plants and seeds for cul-
tivation, &c. ; also in microscopic slides and material, &c.
Exchange photographic and scientific books and journals.—*
T. McGann, Kaumantoo, South Australia.

Wanted, mineral specimens, fossils, foraminiferous materials,
echinoderms, &c, and mounted slides. Will give good ex-
change.— J. H. Cooke, 178 Prince of Wales Road, Sliema,
Malta.

I shall be glad to meet with a correspondent in conchology,
with a view to occasional exchanges. Will exchange shells of
this district and others for land or freshwater shells, British or
foreign, also marine. — J. Ruisell Weldman, 14 Hargher Street,
Burnley, Lanes.

Curious old compound microscope, by Martin, date about
1843, fitted in cabinet with six object glasses, two liberkuhns,
stage forceps, ten ivory slides, eighty-three glass slides and
fourteen wooden ditto, and various other appliances ; originally
cost .£50. What offers?— R. H. L. James, Watford Vicarage,
Herts.

Duplicates. — Sph. rivicola, D. poly}iwrpha, N.Jluvuitilis,
V. piscinalis, P. ttitidus, Helix sericea and caperata, B.
vbscurus, C. tridens, and many others. Wanted, B. Leachii,
and varieties of Helix hortensis. — F. C Long, 8 Cog Lane,
Burnley, Lancashire.

144

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Wilson's "Bryologia Britannica." — Wanted, a good copy of
Wilson's " Mosses," in exchange for handsome microscope by
Mathews, Carey Street. — Dr. Roberts, Brynteg, Menai Bridge.

P. glaber, L. peregra, and //. arbustorum, in exchange fur
land and water shells and fossils. — Albert Walton, 44 Canning
Street, Burnley.

Duplicates. — S. pubis, S. elegans, H. nemoralis, H. hor-
tcnsis, H. arbustorum, H. aspersa, H. Cantiana, H. virgata
(var.), H. ericetorum, H. rufesccns, H. caperata, H. rotun-
data, C. litbrica, C. rugosa, C. minimum, L. stagnalis (var.
fragilis), L. trmtcatu'.a, B. tentaculata. Wanted. — //. Cartu-
siana, II. concinna. H. revelata, H. obvoluta, H. pygm&a,
B. viontanus, P. secale, &c. — Chas. A. Whatmore, Much
Marcle, Herefordshire.

Wanted, Rimmer's "Land and Freshwater Shells," or any
other goud book on conchology, in exchange for Lyell's
" Students' Elements of Geology." — Chas. A. Whatmore, Much
Marcle, Herefordshire.

For exchange, P. glaber and others for British land, fresh-
water and marine shells, or foreign specimens. — W. Dean,
50 Canning Street, Stonyholme, Burnley, Lanes.

Foreign butterflies. Many fine duplicates in Orn., Papilio,
Morpho, and other orders ; also wings of brilliant species, such
as P. parts, U. rkypheus, M. menelaus, &c, for microscopic
work. — Hudson, Railway Terrace, Cross Lane, near Man-
chester.

To Egg Collectors. — I shall be glad to exchange for side-
blown, one-hole, authentic eggs of British birds, clutches pre-
ferred.— J. B. Young, 2 Elgin Villas, Rodwell, Weymouth.

What offers in good scientific books, &c, for "Knight's
Encyclopaedia, 27 vols., complete, in good condition (cost about
;£io) ; Ward, Lock and Co.'s "Universal Instructor," in 3 vols,
(new); Kingsley's " Glaucus ; or, wonders of the Sea-shore"
(with coloured plates), new? — H. Patrit, 103 Camden Street,
London, N.W.

Wanted, dragonflies from all parts of the British Isles ;
common species acceptable. Natural history books and speci-
mens offered in exchange. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood,
Birmingham.

Lindsay's " British Lichens," Stark's " Mosses," Gosse's
"Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica," Rymer Jones's "Aquarian
Naturalist," &c, offered in exchange for good works on
natural history, Kentish books, works on coins, or microscopic
accessories. — C. A. Grimes, Dover.

Snail shells. — Wanted, a number of specimens, with or
without the animals, of commoner species of Helix, Zonites,
Clausilia, Bulimus, &c. Will send box of cover glass in ex-
change.— G. H. Pickering, 13 Balfour Road, Highbury,
London, N.

What offers for five gerbilles, full grown, size of small rats ;
very hardy ; very little smell ; easily tamed — worth 5^. each at
"Zoo' ? — Ernest Robson, Dalton, Huddersfield.

Would any readers of Science-Gossip kindly assist a
teacher in forming a school museum by sending him anything
suitable in natural history, &c. ? — T. W. Paterson, West
Fountainbridge School, Edinburgh.

Si'ECiES aud varieties of Sphaerium and Pisidium wanted from
any locality ; good exchange given in fossils or other shells. —
H. E. Quilter, 4 Cedar Road, Leicester.

Magnesian limestone, liassic, and other fossils; also land
and freshwater shells offered for fossils, &c. — John Hawell,
Ingleby Vicarage, Northallerton.

Wanted, ammonites from any formation. — John Hawell,
Ingleby Vicarage, Northallerton.

Offered: — " Historia Muscorum Dilleni," 1741 ; " Bridel
Brideri Bryologia Universa," 2 vols., 1826; "Muscologia
Hibernica Spicilegium," by Dawson Turner, 1804; "Acharius
Lichenographia," 1810; all well bound, clean, and good as
new, with plates complete. Wanted, first-class work on
marine algae, and zoophytes. — J. Miles, 26 Sudely Place, Kemp
Town, Brighton.

Wanted, two original Jubilee sixpences ; will give the
following micro-slides, Watson's mounts, in exchange, viz :
group of diatomaceae, Actinocyclus ralfsii, anchors and plates
of synapta, arranged ; foraminifera from Adriatic Sea, trans-
pare^ t; and selenite, b'ue and yellow; or would give a Mall-
wood's finder, in case. — Mathie, 127 Buchanan Street, Glasgow.

Offered, "Antiquary," 12 parts for 1880; " Entomologist,"
36 parts for 1882-4. Wanted, "Geology: Chemical, Physical,
and Stratigraphical," by Prestwich (Oxford, 1888). — J. Smith,
Monkredding, Kilwinning.

Wanted, to borrow slides suitable for micro-photography;
prints given in exchange. — Edward Goodwin, Canon Court,
Wateringbury, Kent.

Over 1000 species (many very rare) of British and foreign
shells offered in exchange for others (recent or fossils) not in
collection. Foreign correspondence particularly desired. — Miss
Lin er, Arragon Close, Twickenham.

foi< di-posal, four plants of man orchis and two of large
buferfly orchis, latter showing flower buds. — W. H. Lowe,
24 Brodie Road, Guildford.

Wanted, to exchange British for North or South American
plants. I have about 700 species which are not native in North
America. Printed list sent on receipt of address. — H. Fisher,
26 Stodman Street, Newark, Notts.

Land and freshwater shells (British) in exchange for fossils,
dried plants, microscopic slides, or shells not in collection. —
W. Cros.-ley, 15 Barker Street, Cornholme, near Todmorden,
Vorks.

Wanted, Macira subtruncata, Capulus Hutigaricus, Plen-
rotoma turricula; many others to offer in exchange. — W. J.
Jones, jun., 27 Mayton Street, Holloway, London, N.

Fifty-three is. parts of the " Intellectual Observer" (with
coloured plates), 1862-6: also "Gardening" (illustrated), from
March 1886 to Dec. 1887, unbound, in exchange for diatom or
other micro-slides. — W. E. Harper, Norfolk Road, Maidenhead.

Low-power microscope with five object glasses (Lennie,
Edinburgh), in exchange for British beet'es, or good woik oi>
same. — W. Wallace, 28 Watson Street, Aberdeen.

Marine algae. — Correspondents wanted with a view to ex-
change of specimens. — W. Wallace, 28 Watson Street, Aber-
deen.

The Italian Microscopical Society (Acireale, Sicily) is form-
ing a library and a cabinet of slides, and will be very much,
obliged for anything donated to it. Address — The Italian
Microscopical Society, Acireale, Sicily.

Wanted, skins of wryneck, mar-h and cole tit, shrike, pied
flycatcher, rock pipit, redstart (male), whitethroat, garden,
reed, marsh, and grasshopper warblers, chifFchaff. Offered,
equivalent in odd numbers of Science-Gossip, "Scientific
Enquirer," " Nature," and " Naturalist's World." — J. H. K.,
18 Church Street, Commercial Street, E.

For exchange, several species of British birds' eggs. List
on application. Wanted, Briti-h and foreign land, marine and
freshwater shells, named and localised, or fossils. — Ernest A.
Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

Wanted, Murex trunculus, L. ; British land and freshwater
shells in exchange. — Ernest O. Meyers, Richmond House,.
Hounslow, W.

For exchange, fifteen species of Cypraea, unnamed and un-
realised. Wanted, eight species of named and localised British
or foreign marine shells not i'> collection, or plants. — Ernest O.
Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

Clausilia rugosa (var. tumidula) in exchange for varieties
and band-variations of H. nemoralis and hortensis. — Ernest O.
Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

Wanted, named foreign shells in exchange for British
species or tertiary and chalk fossils. — Fredk. Stanley, M.C.S.,
6 Clifton Gardens, Margate.

Wanted, exchanges in British land, marine and freshwater
shells ; have numerous duplicates in each class. Lists ex-
changed.— Fredk. Stanley, 6 Clifton Gardens, Margate.

Wanted, secondhand photographic enlarging apparatus.
State size and particulars. — J. Bates, 20 Lord Street, Burnley.

P. glaber and others in exchange for other land and fresh-
water shells, British or foreign.— J. Bates, 20 Lord Street,
Burnley.

Foraminiferous material, dredged in Belfast Lough, in
exchange for mounted foraminifera.— Rev. H. W. Lett, Agha-
derg Glebe, Loughbrickland, co. Down.

Wanted.— Exotic, British, or foreign Lepidoptera ; land and
freshwater shells, and gault fossils offered in exchange. — A. H.
Shepherd, 70 Brecknock Road, London, N.

Wanted, specimens of dragonfl es (Odonata) from all parts
of the world. Will send in return N. American insects of any
order.— Philip P. Calvert, Entomological Section, Acad. Nat.
Sci., 19th & Race Sts., Phila., Pa. U.S.A.

Nests and eggs of humming birds, and other rare eggs, in
exchange, for clutches of rare British eggs.— W. Wells- Bladen,.
Stone, Staffs.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

"Geology for All," by J. Logan Lobley (London : Roper &
Drowley).— " The Microscope."— " Scientific News."— " Book
Chat."— "The Amateur Photographer."— " The Garner."—
"The Naturalist."— "The Botanical Gazette."— " Journal of
the New York Microscopical Society."—" Belgravia."— " The
Gentleman's Magazine."— " American Monthly Microscopical
Journal."— " The Essex Naturali-t."— " The Midland Natu-
ralist."—" Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes."— " The American
Naturalist." — "Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science." —
" Scientific News."—" Wesley Naturalist," &c, &c.

Communications received up to the 12TH ult. from:
H. E. H.-J. H.-A. E. P.-A. B.-I. S.-W. J. H.— I. R. W.
-G. P.-W. G.— W. J. H.-J. H. C— R. H. L. J.— Dr. B—
P H. G.— T. T.— R. H. A— E. T. B.— H. W. P.— J. H.—
G. C.-A. C. G. C.-W. J. R.-J. H.-J. B. Y.-J. L. H -
W. D.— A. B.-H. F.-H. P.— P. F. G.-T. McG.— C. A. W.
—I. B.— J. B.— F. S.-Rev. R. C. C— E. O. M.— J. H. K.—
P. B. M.— S. C. H.— W. H. B.— E. M., jun.— H. W. L.—
G. P.-W. E. H.— H. F.— W. W.— W. J. J., jun.— W. C—
W. H. L.— J. E. L.— H. T.— E. G.— J. S.— W. M.— J. M.—
T. H.— T. W. B.— H. E. Q.— E. R.-G. R. G. H. P.—
t. A. G.-W. G.-E. G.-G. T. W. N.-F. C. L.— Dr. R.—
A. J.-J. J.-R. L. M.-B. H.-E. G.-Dr. A.-W. C.-E. P.
-J. B. M.— E. H. V.— P. H. C— W. W. B.— H. G.— A. H S.
—A. J. H. C.-G. H. W.-&C.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

145

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION IN SWITZERLAND.

fFTER a few days
botanising at Bex
about the middle
of May last year,
we found that
vegetation in the
mountains behind
the village was
not sumcientlyad-
vanced for us to
add many plants
to our collections,
and so we decided
to make an ex-
cursion to the
warm upper
Rhone valley for
the three days
that remained
available.
Making an early
start and catching the first train, we arrived at
Martigny at seven, and while breakfast was preparing
in the humble but very comfortable inn near the
station we looked over some rough ground close by
and gathered Sisymbrium Sophia and Echinospermum
lappula. Breakfast over, we started about eight for
Branson, some three miles off, each carrying a good-
sized package of drying-paper, for in so hot a locality,
where even so early in the year the thermometer
stood at mid-day at 86° in the shade, plants soon
wither if kept long in the vasculum.

En route, Euphorbia Gerrardiana, Hippopha'e
rhamnoides and Salix triandra were gathered on
the banks of the Rhone, then Hyoscyamus niger, and
at the foot of the hill, near Branson, Medicago minima,
Silenc otites, Senipervivum montanum and arach-
noideum, Thalictrum minus, Orlaya grandiflora, and
Hclianthemum Fumana.

To give a good idea of the vitality of the Semper-

vivums, a root was gathered here not yet in flower,

which after remaining over three weeks in the vasculum

flowered when planted in a London garden. Arrived

No. 283.— July 1888.

at Branson, we deposited the paper in a small inn
and mounted the hill. Helianthemum salicifolium,
Vulpia pseudonymus, Diauthus sylvestris, Orchis
eriophora, Carex nitida, and Herniaria glabra were
quickly found, then Anemone montana and, further
on, at the corner of the hill round which the Rhone
turns northward, Adonis vernalis, not yet in flower,
Oxytropis Halleri, H. pilosa, and Biscutella l<zvigata,
all in fruit. Descending to the foot of the hill
several Salices were found, and then remounting the
rocks, which by this time were quite hot to the touch,
we found Vicia onobrychioides and V. tenuifolia, both
allied to our V. cracca, but the former of the two
with larger and fewer flowers on the stalk Onobry-
chis arcnaria, Astragalus onobrychis , and Potentilla
recta. Further on, in a vineyard, Aji/ga Genevensis,
and then above Branson, in a rough pasture, Lathy rus
sphizricus. Descending to the village, we emptied
our vasculums, which by this time were quite full,
and arranging the plants in paper we shouldered
our packs and started off for the next village, Fully.
En route we gathered Herniaria ciliata, Trigonella
Monspeliaca, Eruca sativa, Ononis altissima, Bitnias
erucago, and a crucifer with enormously long flower-
stalk, Calepina corvini. 'The last two named are
natives of a more southern latitude, which have found
a congenial resting-place in this hot valley. In a
wood above Fully we gathered^ Veronica teucrium,
Astragalus glycyphyllos, and Vicia pisiformis, the last
unfortunately not in flower. At Fully we tried in
vain to get something to eat, but were obliged to
content ourselves with a little fairly good red wine,
and started off quickly for Saillon, some few miles
further on. Our route now lay only the right bank of
the Rhone and yielded very little of interest. Near
Saillon we stopped a short time to look at some
recently opened quarries of a stone called Cipolin.
High up the rocks was a small black speck, the
mouth of the quarries from which enormous blocks
of stone are brought down on a tramway, that from
below looks almost perpendicular. At the foot of
the trams are the workshops where the stone is
worked up into mantel-pieces, monumental stones,

H

i4<5

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

and other articles of this description. Though the
quarries have only recently been opened, a very con-
siderable industry has already sprung up in the stone,
which somewhat resembles marble in appearance.

Soon afterwards we reached Saillon, and on the
castle hill gathered Scorzonera austriaca, Onosma
stellulatum, and Ononis Columnce, the latter not in
full flower; and, descending to the town, Isatis
tinctoria. We now crossed the Rhone, and near the
banks gathered Orchis latifolia and Camelina sativa ;
and then, after a weary tramp along a straight
shelterless road for some two miles, reached Saxon.
Here we were more fortunate than at Fully, and
after some luncheon, finding there was still a good
time before the departure of the afternoon train to
Martigny, we strolled through the town. The baths
still attract a considerable number of visitors, but
before the suppression of the gambling-tables the
village must have been a very lively place in the
season. Behind the village rises a range of moun-
tains, the best known peak of which is the Pierre-a-
voir (8123 ft.), a famous point of view. On the
flanks of this range we gathered Adonis vernalis,
covering a large space with its beautiful golden
flowers, and Veronica prostrata, and then returned to
the station and took the train to Martigny, where
we arrived in time for dinner, very tired, but well
satisfied with the results of our first day. Rising
early next morning, we mounted the hill near the
station, gathering Sisymbrium Thalianum, Onosma
stellulatum, Allium vineale, and Helianthetmim
Futnana, and a few others, and descended in time
for breakfast and to catch the 7 a.m. train for
Riddes, where we left the train, sending our baggage
on to Sion. Our route now lay along the left bank
of the Rhone, and before long yielded us Typha
Laxmanni, a beautiful little plant, Carex vesicaria in
swampy ground, and on the cliffs to our right Diplo~
taxis tenuifolia ; out of easy reach grew Ononis
rotundifolia, but our day's journey was to be too
long a one for us to delay to climb after it. Before
long we gathered Dracocephalnm austriacum, a
beautiful Labiate plant with large purple flowers,
growing in a locality recently discovered, and almost
the only one now left in Switzerland. Along with it
grew Thalictrum fcetidum and Veronica prostrata.
Here we rested for a while under some fine walnut
trees, chatting with a well-to-do peasant who owned
a considerable extent of land covered with well-
grown fruit-trees. Starting off again, we tramped
for about two hours along the bank of the Rhone, a
most unpleasant walk — fine white sand in which the
foot sank deeply at each step, a broiling sun and
not a breath of air, and what is more, not a single
interesting plant to enliven the way. Crossing the
Rhone opposite Vetroz, we gathered Hieraceum
lanatum, growing amongst the stones of the embank-
ment, and shortly after, Ephedra distachya, Ifeli-
anthemum CElundicum, Ononis rotundifolia, Achillea

setacea, and Sclerochloa dura, but our search for
Androsace maxima was fruitless. Passing over
Montorge, a hill on the road to Sion, we found
Arabis turrita and Amygdalus communis, the latter
growing in what to me looked suspiciously like an
abandoned garden. It was now a good deal past
midday, and we were almost done up with the heat,
so we descended into Sion, and sending for our traps
from the station, pressed our plants while dinner was
preparing. Later on we strolled up the hill on
which the old Episcopal castle is built, we gathered
Vicia lathyroides, Veronica verna, and Allium sp/nrro-
cephalum, and then back to the town to discuss plans
for the next day. After feeling much tempted to
search for Cypripedium calceolus and other plants on
the hill on the opposite side of the valley, the
knowledge that several rarities were to be had at the
entrance of the Visp Thai, leading to Zermatt, de-
cided us to proceed thither. Foolishly we postponed
our departure till the first train next morning, and
thus shortened by several hours the last day of our
excursion. It was nearly ten when we alighted at
the Visp station, and already very hot, so we lost no
time in starting off in search of the two specialities
we had in view — Arabis auriculata and Silene vallesia.
Our hopes of finding the latter were soon destroyed,
as we saw plants growing in a garden at Visp which
showed no sign of flower. Soon after leaving the
station we found Erysimum Helveticum, DapJine
alpina, Juniperus Sabina, Arabis saxatilis and A.
muralis, Hxttchinsia petraa, Hieracium piclum, and
several other species of this difficult genus, Viola
arvensis, var. minima, and Salvia officinalis. Near
Stalden were gathered Crupina vulgaris, Veronica
triphyltos, Trigo?iella monspeliaca, Saxifraga tridacty-
litcs, and after looking longingly up the valleys
leading left and right to Zermatt and Saas re-
spectively, we retraced our steps to Visp, and took
the evening train back to Bex.

It will be understood that in this brief account of a
three days' excursion, all the plants seen are not
named, but only those which we had not previously
gathered. Nor would any stranger to the valley be
able in so short a time to find all the species
mentioned, but one of us having visited the neigh-
bourhood on a previous occasion, was able to find
many of the localities without much difficulty.

H.

NOTES ON THE EIGHTH EDITION OF THE
LONDON CATALOGUE OF BRITISH
PLANTS.

By Arthur Bennett, F.L.S.

[Continued from page 131.]

1673 is 1520, 7th cd.

1673 d is a var. with aristate glumes.

1674 is 1 52 1, 7 th ed.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

147

1675 is IS22, 7th ccl, alter name to discolor
R. ct S.

1676 is 1523, 7th ed.

1676 c is a var. found by Mr. Melvill in Perthshire.
1679 is 1526, 7th ed., but alter name to T.
frafcjise, Pers.

1 68 1 c is a long-leaved var.

1684 is 1531, 7th ed.

1685 is 14S3, 7th ed., alter authority to Koel.
16S6 is 1534, 7th ed.

1687 b is a var. found in the Isle of Wight, as also
var. c.

16S8, alter authority to Ard.

i6SS<5 is an Irish var. of the plant, with a different
facies to the Scotch plant.

196 1 c is what has mostly been reported as A".
-albescens, DC. I have seen true arenaria from the
Channel Isles and the Kentish coast.

1692^ almost explains itself, as a depauperate'var.

1693 b is a small maritime form of the plant.

1707 b, alter to casta, Gaud.

1 707 b, c, d, are described in the 3rd ed. of " English
Botany."

170S/S, c, two vars. described by Parnell in his
"British Grasses."

Jjiob, c, d, three vars. described in the 3rd ed. of
"English Botany."

17" l>, " English Botany." c, Parnell's book.

I7i3<r, described by Mr. Townsend in his "Flora
of Hampshire."

1 7 15 6, Parnell's book, c, Mr. Townsend's " Flora
of Hampshire."

1 7 18 is 1546, 7th ed.

1 7 19 is 1547, 7th ed.

1720 is 1548, 7th ed.
1725*5 is 1569*5, 7th ed.

1727 is very rare. I have seen only one gathering
named by Professor Hackel. But the whole of our
Festucre require gathering in good examples and with
roots.

1728 may be held the same as 1570 a, 7th ed.
1730. The vars. should stand thus :

a. genuina.

b. pseudo-lotiacea, Hack.

c. loliacea (Curt.).

*733. alter name to ramosus, " Huds."

1 734 b, a hairy var. I have it from Kent and Norfolk.

1 741 c, described in Parnell's " Grasses."

1 742 d, scarcely differing from var. b.
1 746, vars. of a very varying species.

1749 is 1587, 7th ed.

1750 is 1588, 7th ed.

1750 b and c, described in 3rd ed. " English Botany."

1751 b and c, described in 3rd ed. " English Botany."

1752 is the plant usually named Triticum aculum,
DC, but which name has been denied to it by two
excellent critical botanists of Europe. At present it
is doubtful how to name our plant, and also doubtful
whether we have the true plant of De Candolle.

1 757> alter to secalinuiu, Schreb.

In the ferns the species and vars. are taken from
the 3rd ed. of " English Botany," they not having
been published when the 7th ed. was compiled, which
was "adapted to Mr. Syme's ' English Botany.' "

The sequence of the genera from Hooker.

1S03, the name alter to calcarea, Fee.

1 8 1 1 b, c, two added vars.

1816, added species found by Mr. YV. H. Beeby in
Surrey ; on the continent, by some authors supposed
to be an hybrid between 1815 and 181 7.

1 S 19 is a rare Irish equisetum.

1S29/' is a tall var. from Lough Bray in Ireland,
described in "Journal of Botany."

The Characeoe are adapted to the various careful
publications of the Messrs. Groves, who have done
much to elucidate our British species.

It is hoped that these notes will, to some extent,
clear away some of the difficulties in using the 8th ed.
of the Catalogue. Very much yet remains to be done
to record the distribution of our flora, though Mr.
Watson's works have gradually built up a mass of
solid information, to which future workers can add.
The writer of this will be glad to receive notices of
plants found in any county not recorded in 2nd ed. of
" Topographical Botany," accompanied by specimens,
which will be returned if required.

Many of the writers on botanical subjects in
Science-Gossip do not seem to belong to either of
the Botanical Exchange Clubs, or to the Botanical
Record Club ; hence permanent records of their finds
may not be made ; all can help, and it is only by the
aid of many that the flora of a county can be kept up
to date.

I shall be glad to see any observations in SciENCE-
Gossip on these notes, and will do my best to further
explain any seeming anomalies.

I have not touched on the exclusion or inclusion of
introduced [species, as this may form a pretext for
endless disputation.

One of the gravest objections that have been made
is this: "Where are we to find these new species
and varieties described ? " The fact is this, the
Catalogue is ahead of any Flora ; hence some difficulty
will be experienced until one or the other of our
standard Floras is published in a new edition.
( Concluded. )

STUDIES OF COMMON PLANTS.
THE MARIGOLD (CALENDULA.)
By E. A. Swan.

THIS plant belongs to the order Composite. The
flower is curious and interesting. Two whorls
of sepals form the involucre, two or more whorls
of petals the ray florets, and a numerous company of
closely packed blossoms the disc. The involucre fits

H 2

148

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

very closely, ensuring a compact barrier against the
intrusion of insects from without ; and the two sets
of sepals are placed alternately and are well provided
with hairs on their margins.

The ray florets, which present an attractive circle
of bright yellow, are unisexual, possessing the female
organ only ; but this is perfect, and in due time
receives the pollen which fertilises the seed, the latter
being contained in an achene of semicircular shape at
the foot of each floret.

The blossoms are in three parts. Within these is
a barren pistil ; next, and surrounding it, five stamens
joined at the upper part so as to form a tube ; and,
outside all, a monopetalous five-lobed corolla. The

Fig. 58. — Part section of complete flower.

barren pistil ends in a blunt stigma, of a somewhat
pyramidal shape, covered with short spines. Its
office appears to be to raise the pollen by brushing it
off the anthers.

The order in which the important organs come to
maturity is as follows : — 1st. The anthers discover
themselves just above the corolla, hitherto closed.
2nd. The barren stigma is observed gradually thrusting
itself upwards till it stands displayed. 3rd. The fertile
pistil of each ray-floret shows slightly above the level
of the disc and then divides at the top ; previously it
was concealed between its particular floret and the
nearest outside blossom of the disc. To sum up, the
disc blossoms mature in regular order, beginning from
the outside, and when one or more rows are matured,
the fertile pistils become faintly visible. Cross-
fertilisation is secured by the above arrangement,
because, when the first pollen is available, there is no
fertile pistil whereon it can be deposited. An insect,
therefore, after brushing off pollen, will probably
carry it to some other flower, possibly on another
plant, where the fertile pistil has appeared.

I am inclined to believe that fertilisation is largely
carried on by very small insects that crawl bodily into
each corolla in search of nectar ; and, inasmuch as
they first attack the corollas on the outside of the disc,
they are likely to rub their bodies against the fertile
pistils. I am confirmed in this opinion by the fact,
that the fertile pistils barely disclose themselves above
the disc, so that a large insect would rarely if ever
touch them. I observed a minute beetle about T'3 of
an inch long to be a constant visitor, and I have
frequently seen it almost bury itself down a corolla.

No doubt its action had the effect of pushing down
the anthers and thus helping the stigma to rise,
I think that, if it were not for these insects and
others acting in a similar manner, fertilisation would
never take place. Again, the formation of the entire
flower is in favour of the supposition, that small insects
alone are concerned in the important process ; for, if
the duty had to be performed by large ones, it is most
likely that each blossom would have been a perfect
flower, and then a large insect when thrusting its
proboscis down the corolla would, at the same time,
press against a fertile pistil. The habit, too, of the
complete flower closing up at night points in the
same direction ; for many large moths fly about then,
and their attentions, far from being serviceable, might
be positively injurious, as they would, but for this,
remove pollen without placing it where required.

The barren stigma is a singular feature. It is an
instance of how a part may be made to subserve
a purpose for which it was not originally intended
and modified to suit the surroundings. Without the
assistance of this barren stigma, it is doubtful whether
pollen would ever be separated from the minute
anthers and raised to a position to be available for
visiting insects.

The figure represents a part section of a complete
flower, magnified about four times, with only three
blossoms a ray floret and a bract left standing, by
which some idea may be gained of the method
of fertilisation.

224 Cambenvcll New Road, S.E.

NOTES ON TRIFOLIUM STELLATUM.

AMONG the improvements of the last edition of
the ' London Catalogue of British Plants ' is
the inclusion of such of our non-native plants, "as
are now thoroughly established and look quite wild."
Some of these formerly denominated as " casuals " are
thus very properly admitted to our Flora. Mentioning
the starry-headed trefoil to a botanist at Kew as
occurring at Shoreham, a friend was recently told
that it was formerly to be found there ; but had long
since disappeared. This, I am glad to say, is by no
means the case , for on the low line of shingle near
Shoreham Harbour this lovely plant exists in pro-
fusion. As confined to Sussex, and as having been
established in its present locality for nearly a century,
a few observations on it may be offered. How it
gained its footing on this point of the south coast, and
there only, is unknown. The seeds may have been
scattered from some wreck, or imported in some of
the curious modes of plant distribution described by
Darwin. Gerard appears to have been acquainted
with it in the sixteenth century ; for, speaking of
Bauhm's Trifolium sttflatiim, he says "for distinction's
sake, I adde hirsutum, calling it Trifol, stcllatum
hirsutum" and his description of it is so quaint and

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G 0 SSIP.

149

accurate that it deserves quotation. " Rough starrie
headed Trefoile ; it hath a smal long white root,
from which arise stalkes, some foot high, round,
slender, hairie and reddish, having few leaves or
branches : the leaves stand three on a stalke, as in
other Trefoiles, smooth on the upper side, and
hairy below, the flowres are small and red, like in
shape to those of the common red Trefoile, but

Gerard gives no figure, as most of his cuts are
excellent. Syme speaks of Trifolium stellatum as
rare and " perfectly naturalised on the ballast along
Shoreham Harbour, where it has maintained its
position since 1804." In a note in the ' Phytologist,'
Borrer describes a visit to its habitat and as finding
it there with other species of Trifolium. I have
before me some beautiful specimens which he

Fig. 59. — Trifolium stellatum.

lesser, and they stand each of them in a cup-reddish
trough below, and on the upper part cut into fine
long, sharpe leaves standing open as the commonly
figure a starre : the flowres fallen, these cuppes dilate
themselves and have in the middle a longish transverse
whitish spot. I saw this flowering in May in the
garden of Mr. Tradescant, who did first bring plants
hereof from Fermentera, a small island in the
Mediterranean Sea." It is to be regretted that

collected, in late flower with the long awl-shaped
calyces, densely clothed with silky hairs, and the
larger starry heads which render it one of the most
lovely species of the genus. At the beginning of June
it is in perfection, when the stalked round heads of
flowers, in ovate spikes, erect, crowded together
display its light pinkish petals surrounded by an
environment of white and green. Sowerby's figure of
this plant represents the corolla of much too deep a

*5°

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

crimson hue. Freshly gathered specimens (May 24,
18SS) show albino flowers, mingled with others of
pretty pink, in the heads curved before expansion.
Some of our wild flowers are of especial interest as
being confined to but a single spot in our island,
and of these a sad diminution has sometimes taken
place owing to accidental circumstances, or the
ruthlessness of collectors. It is to be hoped that such
may not be the case with this floral gem.

F. H. Arnold.

NATURAL HISTORY JOTTINGS.
The Green Tortoise Beetle (Cassida viridis),

{Continued from p. 138.]

August 2W1.— This evening, which was dull, moist
and mild, I took from a thistle three tortoise beetles
that had squatted on the centre of the leaf above, near
its junction with the stem. From their colour
assimilating closely with the colour of the leaf they
were not readily distinguishable, their antennae and
limbs being tucked away beneath the leaf green
carapace which entirely covers and conceals the black
head and body ; they were just like so many green
scales lying on the leaves. The surface of the leaves
was very much blotched by having had the parenchyma
eaten out from above in small irregular patches, and
the lower epidermis left intact ; and as the tortoise
beetle itself eats out the flesh or parenchyma of the
leaf (as I have already observed in those evolved
within doors), as well as it does its larva, though in a
more irregular manner, I am inclined to think that
it has been the agent of this state of the leaves on this
particular plant.

As I have taken the imago from the foliage of
thistles as early as June 25th, and again on July 20th,
and the full-grown larvae (accompanied by younger
larvae) not before the second week in August, it
would appear that the tortoise beetle hybernates in
the perfect state ; when we consider that all those
larvae of the August brood are fully evolved in the
autumn, and that the food-plant (should the agri-
culturist allow it to stand and shed its seed) will die
down in the winter, and thus furnish no supply of
food to hybernating larvae of a later brood.

In all its stages the tortoise beetle is well supplied
by nature and instinct with the means of concealment
and defence. In the perfect or imaginal condition, its
form, structure, and colour are such that it can apply
itself closely to the foliage of its food-plant, and bear
a near resemblance to a green scale (itself not readily
distinguished) lying thereon. In the larval condition,
its colours are dingy; it is over-shadowed by and
concealed beneath its coarse black fecal canopy,
which causes it to closely resemble the mutings of
those insectivorous birds that affect its haunts ; and
its low depressed body is completely surrounded by
an armament of strong setose lateral spines, which

will tend to keep insect foes at bay, and with the
hard rough fecal covering it will probably cause birds
that may once feed upon the armed larva to consider
before again swallowing a morsel that contains more
hard, prickly, and innutritious husk than juicy, nutri-
tious kernel. In the pupal condition, the colours are
again dingy and dark ; the thorax and anterior
exposed part of the abdomen are still closely sur-
rounded by spines, whilst the last four segments of
the abdomen are encased in the run-together exuviae
of the anterior portion of the larva, and thus more
densely than ever surrounded with setose spines ; and
the posterior portion of the exuviae, embracing the
six hindermost abdominal segments, is thrown up
tensely and vertically, and the anal appendages are
thrown apart fork-like and horizontally forwards over
the dorsum, by the long fine rigid and elastic anal
appendages of the pupa, the whole constituting a
densely spinous and elevated anal protection and tail
to the insect during this its most helpless stage of
existence. Moreover, when even lightly touched, the
pupa has the power and habit of suddenly throwing
itself up vertically in its anterior three-fourths, and of
retaining that position at pleasure. This feat is
rendered possible by the manner in which the pupa
is secured and retained within and by the larval
exuvia : the setose spines of larvahood appertaining
to the sixth, seventh, and eight abdominal segments,
are now, in the pupa, reduced to mere ridges, and a
simple short spine backwardly directed, while the
anal appendages (the modified spines appertaining to
the ninth and last abdominal segment) are reduced to
two long, slender elastic spines ; the former, probably,
by an outward pressure, aiding in retaining more
firmly the hinder portion of the abdomen within its
exuvial sheath ; the latter, undoubtedly, being the
main instruments in mooring the pupa, and sometimes
visible within the tensely elevated exuvial tail bent
back bow-like ; whilst the abdominal exuvial disk
remains, firmly glued to its seat, and prevents the
pupa falling forwards.

Kirby and Spence, in their " Introduction to
Entomology," in speaking of the genus Cassida with
respect to the remarkable habit of its larvoe in shelter-
ing themselves under a canopy formed of their own
feces, have the following remarks : * "In some
species the excrement is not so disgusting as you may
suppose, being formed into fine branching filaments.
This is the case with C. maculata, Linn. In the
cognate genus Imatidium, the larvoe also are merdi-
gerous ; and that of /. Leayanum, Latr., taken by
Major-General Hardwicke in the East Indies, also
produces an assemblage of very long filaments, that
resemble a dried fucus or a filamentous lichen."
Again, J. O. Westwood, in "An Introduction to
the Modern Classification of Insects," says : t "The
larvoe of some of the exotic species of Cassida (C.

* Vol. ii., p. 212 ; ed. 6th, 1S43.
f Vol. i., p. 379 ; ed. 1839.

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE - G 0 SSIP.

151

ampulla, Oliv.), as well as those of the genus Imati-
dium, are also merdigerous, producing an assemblage
of very long filaments, resembling a filamentous
lichen. The late General Hardwicke published an
account of the transformations of a beautiful East
Indian species of Cassida. . . . The larva closely
resembles my figure of that of C. viridis ; but the
lateral rays are much longer, and anal feci-fork much
shorter."

Now, so far as the British species of Cassida are
concerned, the " fine branching filaments " into which
the excrement was supposed to resolve itself, are in
all probability simply the exuviae of the branched or
setose spines constituting a goodly portion of each
section of the fecal canopy, and a much larger pro-
portion of the newly added exuvial platform for its
continuation or increment ; whilst with respect to the
exotic species, as the " lateral rays (spines) are much
longer, and the anal feci-fork (anal appendages) much
shorter," may it not be passible, nay probable, that
the " assemblage of veiy long filaments, resembling a
filamentous lichen," is simply the exuviae alone, the
superaddition of the faeces being unnecessary and
undesirable, since the " anal feci-fork is much shorter,"
. and is probably less well adapted for carrying a load
of faeces that shall entirely extend over the body of the
larva, while the exuvial platform will be larger and
more extended, and consequently more protective,
owing to the much greater length of the lateral rays
or spines.

In the British species of Cassida, a protective
fecal dorsal covering being necessary to the well-
being of the larva, the reason why it should be
elevated above the body, and borne as it is on an
organ specially modified for the purpose, rather than
the faeces laid directly upon the dorsum (as naturalists
inform us is the case with the larva of the Crioceris
merdigerd), is obvious enough ; the spiracles of the
flattened larva are situated dorsally, and from the
nature of the faeces would at an early period in the
existence of the creature become clogged up, and
■ asphyxiation would assuredly ensue ; and thus the
very means employed by the larva as a protection and
self-defence would be converted into a means of self-
destruction. This necessity for a self-provided dorsal
covering has involved a considerable and remarkable
modification in form and direction of the two spines
appertaining to the last abdominal segment of the
larva, and of the terminal portion of the alimentary
canal or intestine, as well as in the direction or
pose of the posterior portion of the body ; thus the
spines are enlarged, completely changed in direction
(being vertical instead of horizontal), and are further-
more thrown forwards horizontally over the body
by the singular carriage of the hinder portion of the
•abdomen , while the anus, instead of terminating
horizontally with the body, is projected far beyond it
vertically by an extensive telescopic elongation of the
•intestine and the erection of the extremity of the body.

It seems somewhat singular that (from Kirby and
Spence downwards) our most distinguished and prac-
tical naturalists, our instructors and authorities in
entomology, who have been attracted by this most
remarkable larva and have written about it, and
most, if not all, of whom must have handled it,
should have missed the true formation and constitu-
tion of its artificial dorsal covering; and should have
entirely ignored the wonderful modification in form
and function of the terminal portion of the intestine —
its exsertion, and its prolongation telescope-tube-like
and evagination on the passage of the faeces ; its
remarkable mobility which enables it to assume the
most varied forms, and thus to be applied over
the entire extent, the length and breadth, of the
exuvial platform, so as to suitably dispose the faeces
in the construction of its singular canopy ; and, lastly,
to be used almost, as it were, as an organ of prehen-
sion, in aiding in the disposition of the exuvial plat-
form, and in the displacement of the canopy at the
close of the larval period. Burmeister, when treating
of the artificial coverings of the larvae of insects,
useful as a protection from their enemies, has, at page
506, the following remarks : "We find other cover-
ings in the aphidae and tortoise beetles, which envelope
themselves with a white woolly or fibrous substance,
the origin of which we are not yet acquainted with,
but it appears to be produced by a peculiar secretion
of the skin."* Thus this author even classes the
artificial exuvial and fecal canopy of the larvae of the
tortoise beetles with the natural woolly clothing ot
the aphidae, which is certainly an outgrowth from the
body of these homopterous insects in all their stages.

Charles Robson,

Elswick, Nciucastlc-iipon- Tyne.

LUNDY ISLAND.
By Dr. Crespi.

VISITORS to Instow and Ilfracombe generally
sooner or later are fortunate enough to catch a
glimpse of a long, low line far away on the western
horizon : that is the tiny Island of Lundy. At a distance
of twenty-four miles, it seldom looks more than a
nebulous line, slightly raised above the water ; but on
near approach it is seen to stand up grandly— a vast
granite mass, four miles long, three-quarters of a mile
wide, and from four hundred to, in one place, over five
hundred feet in height. Its configuration is singular ;
its long diameter points nearly due north and south,
while its eastern slopes, precipitous enough to make
them interesting and remarkable, are only one degree
less striking than its western sides, where walls of
rock rise in perpendicular steps sixty and eighty
feet at a time. The western side is particularly
imposing; and were Lundy more accessible, it would
attract tens of thousands of visitors. But Lundy has

* Manual of Entomology, transl. by Shuckard : Lond. 1S63.

152

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

no harbour at all, and no landing pier or stage what-
ever, and though the beach, at its south-eastern end,
is good as far as it goes, it is not always accessible or
safe. Sometimes furious seas roll upon that beach, as
though they would wash the island away, and Lundy
is then completely cut off from all connection with the
mainland, except by telegraph, which of late years has
been laid down between Hartland, on the Devon
coast, and the south point. Off Lundy the anchorage is
excellent in westerly gales, and then, especially if the
storm lasts some days, large numbers of fine steamers
and splendid ships with whole fleets of skiffs and tugs
take shelter under the lee of the island, until, with a shift
of wind to the east, they are off to a less exposed spot.
I once lived on Lundy for three years and a half,
and after a long residence in great cities and much
hurrying to and fro, the contrast was startling. Quiet
and leisure I had in abundance ; but, cut off from the
conflict and competition of life, the inclination to work
and to turn my time to the most profitable uses was
wanting, and never did I do less, never did I get
through fewer books. No ! whatever poets may say,
the man exposed to the storms and distractions of life
works hardest and does the best work. Rural retire-
ment is more fascinating to the imagination than in
reality. I used to listen to the piercing shriek of the
restless wind, stroll about the island, exchange a few
words with the residents, and when evening came I
was quite tired enough to feel that I had earned a
good night's sleep in return for my arduous labours.

Lundy is in many ways singular ; its chief attractions
are its configuration, climate, bird-life, and vegetation :
to say nothing of its history : not very eventful it may
be, but extending far enough back to invest it with
some interest. On the south point, overlooking a
narrow and dangerous neck of land, connecting the
greater mass of Lundy with Lametiy, stands a small
castle, rugged, ancient, and gloomy, once the strong-
hold of a Norman baron, and still called ' ' The
Castle." Its original lord and builder was a certain
De Marisco, which is said to be a corruption of De
Montmorency. The island, according to tradition,
was granted, centuries ago, to the Knights Templars,
who, however, never took possession of it. Then it
passed from noble to noble, was the scene of much
fighting between Welsh and Irish, and finally, fifty
or more years ago, came into the possession, by
purchase, of the late William Hudson Heaven, a
quiet, amiable country gentleman, who made it his
home for years, and there died a few years ago. The
present owner is his son, the Rev. Hudson G. Heaven,
M.A., formerly of Trinity College, Oxford, an able
and accomplished man of scholarly tastes, who has
the rare felicity, in the south of England, of being
absolute lord of all he surveys, without an equal or
rival within many miles.

The top of the island is an extensive and tolerably
level plain, sloping somewhat towards the north and
east, with no trees, no hedges, and no shelter. This

want of shelter is a serious drawback, and from the
comparative mildness of the winter and the absence
of severe frost, were there only substantial protec-
tion, large quantities of excellent early vegetables-
could be grown for the Bristol markets. Perhaps,
were sufficient expense incurred, a good deal of
shelter might be made amid the combes on the
eastern slopes, and vegetables of excellent quality
could be grown a month earlier than on shore. After
the end of March, white frost is extremely rare. In
March, 1878, the lowest reading was 320 F. and in
April 33° F., and in May 39°"5. In March, April,
and May, 1879, the readings were respectively 290,5,
300-5, and 360-5 F., and in 1880 in the same months,,
the minima recorded were 36°-o, 390,o, and 3S°'5.
Unfortunately the elevation of the island and the
want of shelter from the winds, in some measure
counter-balance the signal advantages which the
absence of low temperatures would give the island.

The south half has long been cultivated ; there the
grass is smooth and green, and the crops of superior
quality ; the northern half is, however, in a state of
nature, with shallow soil or bare rock, and more
lichen and moss than turf. The slopes of the island,
locally called sidelands, are, however, in places singu-
larly beautiful and attractive ; in others, principally,
though not wholly, on the west, they are majestic
and impress the few people who have an opportu-
nity of seeing them as sui generis. On the slopes,,
well under the shelter of the mass of the island,
and at some distance above the water, the soil is, in
places, deep and contained in pockets, where it has.
accumulated, and there the grass and many species of
wild flowers luxuriate,, and attain splendid proportions.
The speciality of the island is its wild birds, which
once abounded in millions. In those days, when they
rose, they filled the air with discordant cries. Long,
however, before I took up my residence on the island
their numbers had greatly diminished, [and though
protected, as much as possible, by the squire and his
sister, serious inroads have been- made upon their
numbers, and they no longer rise in the dense clouds
reported by earlier visitors. In April the sea birds
come in, and speedily almost cover the rocks and
the more inaccessible headlands and a little later
they commence to lay. The chief species are
several sorts of gulls, guillemots, shags, razor-billed
auks, puffins, and a few, only, alas ! very few
gannets, that noblest of British sea birds, darting
along like a ray of light far beneath the spectator's
feet and not much above the water. It is said, though
I cannot vouch for its truth, that Lundy is the lowest
latitude in which the Solan goose lays, though Dr.
W. F. Ainsworth has seen it flying along in its
characteristically majestic fashion, on the coast of
Portugal. These sea birds choose open ledges, and
most of them, almost of necessity, lay their eggs
where daring climbers can get to them. The tempta-
tion is too great, and as the work of destruction never

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

!S3

stops, the wonder is that what with the depredations
of the birds themselves, who can often be seen sitting
in most contemplative and philosophical fashion, with
half a huge shell impaled on their beaks, what with
the rats, what with the assiduous hunts of the islanders,
the sailors and the pilots, any escape. Puffins
generally lay their eggs, which are much like those
of the domestic fowl in size and shape, though not
identical in colour, in burrows, and so many of them
escape, and the razor-bills also choose obscure nooks
behind the huge masses of rock that have fallen from
the top of the island. But gulls and guillemots are
less fortunate and far-seeing, and they deposit their
eggs in full view of the egg-gatherer, while Solan
geese select by preference a few bare ledges, not very
difficult to reach, and few, indeed, of their eggs are
hatched out. The largest egg is the gannet's, and it
usually fetches sixpence in the market, but the most
brilliantly coloured is the guillemot's— green, white,
or blue. Nests are not made, except rude ones by
gannets and gulls, and a little rubbish is scraped
together by some of the puffins. Sea birds, in short,
do not excel in nest building.

The tameness of the birds at the breeding-season is
remarkable, and some of the smaller species actually
remain on their eggs until they are touched, and
resent any attempt to remove them, opening their
formidable beaks, and with right good will snapping
at the fingers of the egg-thief. Of all quaint little
creatures, none surpasses the puffin with its comical
appearance and red colouring, so much more vivid in
real life and in its native haunts than in museums,
where, however well and skilfully the bird-stuffer
does his work, the lover of nature is painfully struck
by the contrast, missing that indescribable something
which life alone can give. The eggs are not bad
when boiled a long time, but they have rather a strong
flavour, and are of no use for delicate cooking of a
high class ; while, as for the flesh of the birds them-
selves, though not absolutely unpalatable, especially
in a meat pie, there is something unpleasant in the
thought of eating them, and few are used to satisfy the
luxurious appetite of. man on our English coasts,
though the hardier and less squeamish Scotch do not
despise them preserved in salt.

Of land birds Lundy has a larger list than one
would expect, blackbirds and song thrushes, robins,
white-throats, a few cuckoos, sparrows, chaffinches
and other common species being fairly numerous, and
in severe weather considerable flocks of tender native
birds cross from the mainland. In addition to the
above, plovers, curlews, peregrine falcons, Cornish
choughs, ravens, crows, goshawks, and buzzards are
seen in small numbers, a pair or two of each species
residing on the island. The peregrine falcons of Lundy
have always been in high repute for hawking, and even
af the present day young falcons are sent away for
this purpose. An occasional eagle has before now
condescended to alight on the island for a brief rest.

Although the rocks look precipitous, and in places
rise in abrupt ledges four hundred and even four hun-
dred and fifty feet from the water, long practice and
holding a rope in the hand, fastened securely to a
crowbar driven into the ground, or firmly attached to
a projecting ledge or knob of rock, will enable a cool
head and a keen eye to explore almost all the island
ledges, comparatively little of the sidelands being
altogether inaccessible. Nor is this amusement as
dangerous as might be at first supposed, though lives
occasionally have been lost. Ladies soon become
expert climbers, and find great enjoyment exploring
the nooks and crannies of the mysterious bays of the
west and north-west.

The population never can have been large, nor can
fishing have helped to bring immigrants from Cornwall
and Devon. The want of a secure harbour is a fatal
drawback, for though the anchorage is excellent, and
shelter can generally be found in the roughest
weather, there has not been for many years, and
perhaps there never was, any place where a small
craft could find absolute safety in all states of sea
and wind ; in other words, vessels could never have
belonged to the island and stayed near it. The
shellfish is good, and a band of rugged Cornish
fisher-folk, from the 'wild coves of Land's End and
Sennen, generally come over for some months every
spring and summer, and, with the help of their
lobster pots, manage to get large hauls, which they
take over to Ilfracombe or Instow for the London
market. The fishermen's life is one of great peril
and exposure, and intense labour, and its rewards are
small ; the poor fellows losing their sleep and working
like slaves, and often perishing in storms, and all this
in return for very poor wages.

The antiquities of Lundy are not remarkable, and,
except for the remains of the small castle, there is
little to attract the antiquary. Legends there are
of a large population in ancient days, of towns,
villages, and large churches, but these seem to have
little to rest upon. Some brass guns were said to be
visible at certain states of the tide on the west side,
in the water, but I never saw them, though I often
looked for them. Some kistvaens were found many
years ago, but no description was made of them,
and they are totally gone. A quarter of a century
ago, however, some men cutting a tunnel for the
foundation of a wall, came upon a curious grave,
evidently of great antiquity, containing a skeleton, and
the remains of eight or nine other human bodies were
lying near. The skeleton in the grave is said to have
measured eight feet three, and a second skeleton was
also of abnormal size. The improbability that the
correct measurements were obtained is so obvious that
few people will accept these figures as reliable. A
lady residing on the island, though temporarily absent
at the time, assured me that no mistake had been made,
and that I could accept these figures. Unfortunately
the attention of antiquaries was not drawn to the

*54

HA ED JV/CEE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

matter, and the skeletons were buried by order of the
late squire in the churchyard. Some rude beads,
apparently of glass, were found in or near the graves,
and were preserved, and these were submitted to a
learned friend of mine : he pronounced them Danish,
but of no special interest. The largest of the
skeletons was enclosed in a rude stone grave, not, how-
ever, a carefully constructed stone coffin, although
a stone had been hollowed for the head and
another for the feet. If the beads were Danish, it is
natural to assume accordingly, that the bodies were
probably those of Danes, and a curious question
would be whether the Danes buried their dead in
the fashion described. Of course the length of the
skeletons is startling.

The present population of Lundy is small, and
though fluctuating a good deal, rarely exceeds fifty ;
most are connected with the extensive farm, com-
prising nearly all the cultivated land of the island,
others belong to the lighthouse service, and a few to
the squire's family. Accommodation for visitors is
scarce, and the squire does not wish his little kingdom
to be frequented by strangers. In summer a fast
steamer crosses most weeks from Ilfracombe, and
stops for a few hours. Difficult indeed would it be
to find a spot so cut off from the great world, and so
interesting in its way and yet so difficult of access.
When I returned to Instow, I used to feel that I
was in the bustle of modern life, though the first time
I crossed to Lundy, just after a journey to New York
and Birmingham, Instow, at which I was kept twelve
days, looked like the ultima thule of England. Since
I ceased to reside there, seven and a half years ago,
I have not set foot upon it, and the difficulty and
uncertainty as to getting to and leaving Lundy,
sufficiently explain my long absence from it, although
my interest in it is unabated.
Wimborne.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

MAGNESIUM FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY.—
This process, divested of unnecessary com-
plexity, consists in obtaining artificial light by simply
sprinkling some magnesium dust on gun-cotton, laid on
a plate which may be placed on the top of the camera
or other suitable position, and when the proper
moment arrives the gun-cotton is fired by a match and
the negative picture is obtained at once, provided the
arrangements are properly carried out. I have lately
witnessed its application by an amateur photographer
with excellent results, under conditions otherwise
hopeless. No glass pavilion is necessary, nor specially
painted background. A picture may be taken in any
room, and very good effects obtained, provided some
artistic taste is employed in the sitting and grouping
in reference to furniture and ornaments.

The flame being large, the shadows are not hard, as
when an electric light or magnesium wire is used, and
they may be still further softened by judicious use of
the gas or lamplight in ordinary use. To obtain this
softening effect the cap should be removed a little
before flashing. This gives what I may call an
under ghost, or gaslight picture not visible as an
actual picture, but supplying an appreciable effect in
softening the outlines. Amateurs may now take
home pictures after business hours, at any time in the
evening. This is likely to extend very largely the
recreative use of the beautiful art.

Another advantage of the flash light is that in
portraiture the eye is shown at its best. A strong
light contracts the iris, but this contraction is by no
means instantaneous. Therefore the flashed photo-
graph represents the eye as it was in the subdued
light or even darkness preceding the flash. The
sitter may be startled by the flash, but the picture is
not thereby disturbed, as the nervous impulse only
travels at the rate of about So to ioo feet per second,
and thus "the twinkling of an eye" is a work of
time, a slow process compared with instantaneous
photography ; the picture is taken before the twink-
ling has started.

An old Experiment. — In a lecture delivered in
April last at the Royal Institution, Sir William R.
Grove described an experiment he made in 1856,
which is suggestive of further research with the
modern appliances of more sensitive plates. He cut
letters out of paper and placed them between two
polished squares of glass with tin foil on the outsides.
The tin foil was then electrised like a Leyden jar, for
a few seconds, the glasses separated, the letters blown
off, and the inside of one of the glasses covered with
photographic collodion. This was then exposed to
diffused daylight, and on being immersed in the
nitrate of silver bath, the part which had been
covered with the paper came out dark, the remainder
of the plate being unaffected.

Here we have an effect usually described as photo-
graphic in which light is not the artist. Some sort of
action is communicated to the silver salt by the
electric charge, and it appears to be the same as that
communicated by light, but what the nature of that
action may be, is at present an absolute mystery,
in spite of the imaginary molecular gyrations,
oscillations, mean free paths, &c. &c, by which the
scientific dreamer conceals his ignorance. If tlie
philosophic modesty with which Sir William Grove
has treated these mysteries, from the time of his first
publication of ' The Correlation of Physical Forces '
in 1842 to the present time, were more general, the
prospects of solving them by experimental investiga-
tion would be greater.

Crystal-Making. — When a youngster, I amused
myself by making saturated solutions of alum in hot
water, placing cinders, &c, in these, and setting

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i55

them aside to cool. The cinders became coated
with beautiful crystals, and appeared like choice
mineral specimens. Baskets and other devices in
covered wire were similarly coated. Sugar was
crystallized, beautiful crystals of sulphur, made by
slowly evaporating a solution of sulphur in bisulphide
of carbon, and another form of sulphur crystals by
fusing sulphur in a crucible or gallipot, breaking the
crust which first forms on cooling, and then pitching
out the liquid. A nest of beautiful crystals remains.

I refer to these crudities in order to suggest that
crystal making should be reinstated as a popular
scientific recreation. The alums, which are so
numerous and so varied in colour, would alone afford
material for a little museum ; but the amateur avail-
ing himself of the achievements of modern chemistry
would find the field of recreation to be practically
boundless, and the pursuit both elegant and in-
structive.

Among novelties are the isomorphous double chlo-
rides of alkalis, iron, and of the alkaline earth-metals,
such as chromium, aluminium, magnesium, beryllium,
&c. Their colours are magnificent, some of them are
described by Dr. Neumann ai crystallising in
splendid octahedrons, resembling large diamonds,
and reflecting liglu with similar brilliancy. They
are chemical first cousins to the alums referred to
above. From these the ambitious amateur might
proceed to artificial gems, some of which, now
within the reach of chemical skill, are quite equal to
the' natural specimens.

Our Much-abused Climate. — We grumble at
our climate very unjustly, for though we Lave not
the reliable continuance of bright summer weather,
we escape its miseries in the consequent drought,
the insect vermin, the venomous reptiles, and other
pests that are nourished by it. We also escape the
violence that usually accompanies the break up of
any long spell of fine hot summer weather. An
account recently published in the "Times," of Indian
weather, should reconcile us to the occasional frus-
tration of a picnic or garden party, which is about
the greatest calamity to which our climate exposes us.
At one of "a series" of storms 150 people were
killed by hailstones in Moradabad, and many houses
were unroofed. At Delhi the hailstorm was a
bombardment of ice lumps lasting but two minutes,
but with terrible consequences. One hailstone picked
up in the hospital garden weighed ih lbs., another
near the telegraph office 2 lbs. 2000 huts were
destroyed at Rayebati, in Lower Bengal, 20 people
killed and 200 severely injured. Chudressor was
wrecked. The wind lifted large boats out of the
river, and one small boat was blown up into a tree.
We may be caught in a showeT while taking a
holiday up the river, but our steam launches are not
blown ashore on Eel Pie Island, nor our outriggers
up a tree at Henley.

Stature and Climate. — Those who are inclined
to attribute a great deal to the effects of climate on
the physical development of man, should reflect on
the facts pointed by Professor Flower in a recent
lecture at the Royal Institution, that the tallest and
the shortest people of Europe, the Norwegians and
the Lapps live side by side, and that the tallest race in
Africa, the Kaffirs, are close neighbours to the
diminutive bushmen. The natives of the Andaman
Islands and those of many islands of the equatorial
region of the Pacific, in which the conditions are
similar, are at opposite ends of the scale of height.

The Sight-seer's Headache.— The "Lancet"
has done well in taking up this subject, describing it
as endemic among the frequenters of picture galleries
and museums, and controverting the idea that it is
attributable to the atmosphere of such places. I have
given some attention to it, and made a few experi-
ments on myself. The conclusions to which I have
arrived nearly correspond to those of the writer in the
" Lancet." He says that the effort of mind in long
continued observation has probably an appreciable,
though a secondary influence, but with most persons
it is rather fatigue of muscle than of brain. "The
maintenance of the upright position during several
hours of languid locomotion, the varied and frequent
movements of the head, commonly in an upright
direction, and the similar and equal restlessness of the
eyes, whose focus of vision shifts at every turn as a
new object presents itself, form a combined series of
forces more powerful in this respect than the sunlight
and frequent changes of mental interest and attention
by which they are accompanied. The muscular
strain implied in these movements is necessarily very
considerable." He adds that "the resulting head-
ache has probably much to do with the unusual
activity of the cervical extensor and rotator muscles,
and of the muscles which move the eyeball."

An experiment that I have made, and repeated
several times, specially confirms this theory con-
cerning the neck-moving and eye-moving muscles. I
have compared the result of going through galleries
and museums with and without a catalogue, and find
that the headache commences in a much shorter
time with a catalogue than without, in less than half
the time. I have spent a whole day in galleries
where the pictures are plainly labelled, and have
suffered no headache whatever, but always suffer in
the course of a few hours when I use a catalogue.
I have observed the difference in our mercenary shows
— the Royal Academy, &c. — when a friend has
appropriated and read out the catalogue. Masterful
people like to do this, and being of amiable disposi-
tion myself, I submit.

I suspect that the shifting of the focus of vision
from catalogue to picture is the chief cause of the
fatigue, which appears to have a peculiarly cerebral
character. An anatomist will at once understand that

156

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the cerebral nerves are those mostly concerned in
these eye movements.

I recommend the boycotting of all picture galleries
and other exhibilions where catalogues are sold.
Such catalogues are paltry devices for the extortion
of an additional fee, and obtaining payment for
advertisements therein. Any picture or other object
that is worth exhibiting is worth a descriptive label.

Sparrows. — Among the readers of Science
Gossip are many observers of the habits of animals ;
I therefore note the following as suggestive of further
observation and experiment. I reside in an old
house with old-fashioned sunblinds outside, and old
creeping plants on the walls. In the course of
exterior painting, the workmen pulled down a
barrow-load of sparrows' nests from the sunblinds
and honeysuckle. In the course of a day or two they
were all rebuilt in their old places. This was
repeated four times at varying intervals, some of them
long enough to allow for a fresh supply of eggs, and
even the hatching of young birds. At the present
time (June 22nd) the fifth series of nests are in their
old places. Query : What is the limit of constancy
and perseverance of these birds ?

I see that the newspapers are reviving the old story
(superstition I call it) of sparrows saving fruit trees
by eating caterpillars ; sparrows have been killed in
Kent, and certain fruit-trees have been attacked by
caterpillars — ergo, sparrows feed on caterpillars. It
would be well if the inventors of these stories would
examine the crops of a few sparrows, and learn
thereby whether caterpillars or fruit buds and seeds
are the most numerous therein. I may add that in
my own garden, which is infested with sparrow
vermin, a plague of caterpillars also prevails, and the
fruit trees are suffering as in Kent.

NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
GNAT {TIPULA PLUMOSA), LINN.

By Harry Thomas.

Description of the Larva.

[Continued from p. 133.]

THE head of the larva is comparatively large, the
body tapers gradually, and is divided into
twelve segments. The head is provided with four

filiform processes. Upon either side beneath the
clypeus is a well-developed toothed mandible, and
below a comb-toothed labium with a broad basal-
jointed maxilla upon each side of it. Immediately
beneath the clypeus, upon each side, apparently
attached to its lower surface, are two chitinous
toothed ridges, and lying between them a triangular
toothed ridge surrounds the oral aperture.

The segment next the head, carries ventrally a

i ■ ■

/

A ^

\o

V

Fig. 61. — [a) digestive system; (3) lower
view of the head.

L-

//

Fig. 62.

Fig. 60. — Diagrammatic figure of young larva.

compound eyes, two antenna, and the following
mouth parts : — the clypeus appears jointed between
the antennce : it carries on its outer margin a delicate
transparent labrum, bearing on its free edge six short

process from which two rounded prominences covered
thickly with fine hooks, arranged in parallel lines,
serve as anterior limbs. These hooked processes can
be retracted into their common cushion by muscles
attached to their anterior walls.
The following ten segments carry
no appendages, but the 12th
carries the two posterior limbs,
very differently formed to the an-
terior. They are cylindrical and
tapering, and carry at their ex-
tremities some twelve strong hooks,
also retractile, although the limbs
themselves are but slightly so. Posteriorly this seg-
ment carries four oval processes, and dorsally two
small globular bodies, each supporting a few stift
bristles.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

157

The larva at first appears colourless and transparent,
end the yolk granules show through the integument
a pale brown in colour.
When the larva is first
hatched, the alimentary
canal contains a large
proportion of the food
yolk. Older larvae assume
a reddish-brown colour,
but in both young and
• old, the internal parts are
perceptible (Fig. 60).

The first moult occurs
•ehortly after the libera-
tion of the larva ; save in
increased size no diffe-
rence is noticeable after-
wards. Through how
many moults the larva
passes I do not know,
but long before it has at-
tained its full size — about § of an inch — when not quite

two anterior and two posterior. It appears to me
probable that these processes, as well as the four oval

Tig. 63. — The respiratory tissue oc-
curs similarly in the gth, 8th, 6th,
5th, and 4th segments, although not
marked in the figure. The line
shows the course of the transparent
colourless lines.

a quarter that length, four long processes may be ob-
served from the nth segment, placed ventral laterally,

Fig. 65.— [a) extensor diagram showing the position of the muscles of the body. Those of the
right side only are figured ; they occur similarly on the left. {6) Diagram showing the
position of the muscles of the limbs, {c), (</), and [e) Diagrams illustrating the contraction of
the fore-limbs.

terminal ones, subserve respiration. Such an organ is
united to the nth segment in the common gnat. For
the evidence pointing to this conclusion, refer to what is
written under the respiratory system ; but I may here
mention, that the pulsation of the heart ceases each
time that the two anterior processes are jerked back-
ward, thus apparently cutting off their communication
with the segment.

The Internal Viscera.

The Alimentary Canal— The oesophagus penetrates
the 1st, 2nd, and a portion of the 3rd segment. Upon
each side of the 1st and 2nd, lie the salivary glands.
In very young specimens I succeeded in tracing the
ducts from these glands to the back of the mouth.
In the 3rd segment the oesophagus expands into a
thick and externally rough-walled gizzard, followed,
posteriorly in the 4th by a large proventriculus ;
this tapers gradually into a long and narrow chylific
ventricle which extends to the 9th segment. The
ventricle frequently exhibits peristaltic motion. In
the middle of the 9th segment six tubes enter the
commencement of the short intestine that follows.
These are the Malpighian tubes. They are somewhat
convoluted ; three lie upon each side the 8th, 9th and
loth segments. The intestine is narrower and thinner-
walled than the ventricle; it traverses the 9th and
10th ; it expands in the nth, forming a rectum, which
ends posteriorly in the anus at the end of the 12th
segment (Fig. 61).

The Circulatory System.— & well-developed heart
may be observed on the dorsal aspect of the nth
segment, above the rectum ; it is composed of a small
posterior chamber, the auricle, which opens anteriorly
by a valve into a larger and more elongated chamber,
the ventricle, and the ventricle in turn opens by a
similar valve — preventing a returning current — into
the long dorsal aorta which I followed forward into

Fig. 64. — Nervous
system in very
young larva.

i53

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the 2nd segment. Upon either side of this dorsal
aorta processes were present ; they occur in pairs,
one pair in the anterior and one in the posterior of
each segment. They contain sometimes a brown and
sometimes a green material, apparently similar to the
respiratory tissue which is composed of brown cells in
the abdominal segments, but appears green in those of
the thorax. (Fig. 62.)

The Respiratory System. — Branching cellular tissue
is apparent in the 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and
10th segments. In older specimens it is present,
though less abundant, in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd, and
scattered sparely in the nth. The branching is
intricate, but there is no connection between the
branches in the separate segments. Upon each side
of the segments in which the branches occur, may be
noticed three or four small oval impressions clustered
together, they occupy the position of stigmata.
(Query. Is the integument thinner in these parts ?)
In my earlier observations I thought I could detect a
long transparent vessel upon each side, starting from
the neighbourhood of the nth segment. They
appeared shining and colourless through the red

wifa \

IT

Fig. 66. — The Nymph.

integument, and traversed the region of the body
where the respiratory tissue was most abundant. I
traced them forward to the 3rd segment. I have
since detected portions "of transparent vessels that
apparently start from, or enter into the processes of
the nth segment and appear intimately connected
with the respiratory tissues in the nth segment. (I
am unable to thoroughly satisfy myself concerning
these last appearances, as later observation shows the
two lateral lines disconnected between each segment.)
The walls of the processes are extremely thin.

In very young larvae, a loose cellular tissue is visible,
in the interspaces of the viscera. This structure takes
the place of the branching system and gradually
developes into it. In old larvse, branching, vascular
trachea; are apparent in the 1st segment upon each
side. In the nymph they appear as external tracheae.
(Fig. 63.)

The Nervous System. — The supra-cesophageal
ganglion occurs in the 1st segment ; looking down
upon the larva, it appears as a bilobed mass. (In
very young larva;, this ganglion is comparatively
larger — as are all the other — and lies half within the

head and half within the 1st segment ; in this stage I
was able to trace nerve threads to each of the eyes.)
The supra-cesophageal ganglion is united on each side
to a smaller ganglion, beneath the gullet, the infra-
cesophageal ganglion by a broad commissural cord.
There is another small ganglion lying in the 1st
segment, immediately following the infra-cesophageal,
and they are two other similar ganglia in the 2nd
segment, one anterior and one posterior ; while similar
ganglia occur anteriorly in the 3rd, 5th, 6th, 7th,
8th, 9th, and two in the 10th segment.

In the very young larva3, there is a ganglion in the
4th, and one only in the 2nd, and each ganglion at
that time shows clearly its double origin. The-

a-

\ I v I

Fig. 67.— [a) head of male ; (/>) head of female.

ganglia are united by double commissural cords-
(Fig. 64.)

The Muscular System. — The muscles appear as;
narrow striated bands. Those from the mandibles and
other mouth parts are inserted in the posterior walls
of the head. The muscles from the head are inserted
at the junction between the 1st and 2nd segments, and
those of the body appear to be attached and inserted
to the anterior of each segment. The fore-limbs are
furnished with retractor and extensor muscles ; the
former are attached to the anterior inner walls of the
rounded hook-bearing processes and inserted in the
dorsal posterior walls of the 1st segment. By their con-
traction they draw in the process as you might draw
in a tape, the lines of books lying forward the while.
The extensor muscles are attached to the posterior
walls of the limb and inserted in the posterior dorsal

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i59

walls of the 2nd segment. By their contraction they
expand the process in a contrary direction. The
posterior limbs are furnished only with retractor
muscles, the circle of hooks they carry being usually
expanded. These muscles are inserted in the anterior
ventral walls of the 12th segment and to the anterior
•dorsal walls of the same. The latter cross each other.
The terminal bristle-bearing papillae are each
furnished with a muscle inserted in the anterior dorsal
wall of the 12th segment. (Fig. 65.)

The Nymph.

For how long a time the larva exists as such I do
■not know, but it builds for itself small cases of mud
in which it dwells attached to the side of the tank,
or forms tunnels in the sediment at the bottom.
Occasionally they may be seen swimming with a
quick often-repeated series of jerks, forming their
body into a shape resembling the figure 8. The final
•larval coat is shed, and the nymph form assumed
beneath the water at the bottom of the tank. The
larva leaves its tunnel and crawls above the mud
previous to this change.

The form of the nymph is very different to that of the
larva. The mouth appendages undergo much change
— two large compound eyes replace the four smaller
ones. The anterior hooked limbs dis-
appear, and to each of the three first seg-
ments— now united to form the thorax — a
pair of many-jointed limbs is attached, to
the 2nd, dorsally, a pair of wings and
similarly to the next, a pair of halteres.
The head is bent down upon the thorax,
and the wings and limbs lie closely against
it. The segments of the abdomen suffer
less change, the limbs of the nth and 12th
are gone, and in their place the terminal
segment supports posteriorly a divided
•semi-circular appendage bearing respira- Fjg- 68.

tory hairs. Respiration is effected by Fig! 70.

coming forth is a more tedious performance, and with
their wings yet within the old case, they fall back into
the water, where they lie until their struggles have
liberated their imprisoned members (Fig. 66).

The Imago.

I have given figures of the male and female Tipula
plumosa, Linn. The lessen figures are natural size.
The male is distinguished from the female, by his
antenna;, abundantly feathered, rising from two large,
globose, black prominences between the eyes ; the
terminal segment of his abdomen carries posteriorly,
besides the two pulps, common to both sexes, a pair of
claspers. The female possesses two fine antennre which
rise from two lesser prominences, similarly situated.
They bear but few hairs, hardly perceptible. The
terminal segment of her abdomen bears on its sternal
surface two palpi, prolonged backwards, they are
larger than those possessed by the male (Fig. 67). —

Llandudno.

A SriDER'S DEADLY FOE.

I SEND herewith drawings and notes of an ich-
neumon wasp that preys upon a small spider in
Ceylon. I have been unable to identify the insect,

Fig. 6S

1~^\.i^

^•wmS

4

Fig. 71.

.branchke, shining silky hairs rising in three
it ufts from each side the thorax above the
head, and others from the terminal segment
of the abdomen. I believe that for the greater part
of the time the nymph remains beneath the sediment
.at the bottom of the tank, but before the final change
it comes forth, and with much apparent effort swims
•to the surface. Here it rests for a short time, the
dorsal plate of the thorax at the surface, the abdomen
•bent beneath the water. In a few minutes it bends and
straightens itself repeatedly. These movements occur
several times with short rests between. In less than a
quarter of an hour after it has risen to the surface, the
thorax splits down the dorsal plate and the head of
the imago projects. I have seen them rise straight
up as though they had received a mechanical impetus,
they ascend so smoothly from the old nymph skin,
taking flight immediately they are free. Usually this

Spider, with parasite in situ, magnified.

■Spider, natural size.
— Parasite, further magnified, showing eight retractile tubercles
he back, each of which is crowned with numerous minute fleshy

upon t
hooks.
Fig. 71. — A single tubercle, highly magnified.

but it is possibly allied to the " pimpia " mentioned
by Packard as being parasitic upon a spider in
Europe ("Guide to Study of Insects," p. 193).
The spider usually attacked is a small black animal
with globose abdomen, that spins a loose irregular
web on the under-surface of leaves. The ichneumon
wasp appears to oviposit upon female spiders only,
the males being much smaller and unable to support
the wasp grub. The egg is fixed to the abdomen of
the spider close to its junction with the cephalo-
thorax. The newly -hatched larva immediately
pierces the skin and commences to absorb the
juices of its host. The spider continues to feed
and remains apparently in good health until the
parasite is full grown, when the latter destroys

i6o

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

its victim, leaving nothing but the empty skin.
The larva then commences to spin a flask-shaped
silken cocoon attached by one end to its support
(generally the under -side of a cinchona leaf). It

through the pipes previous to observing, so as to cool
them very quickly. From personal experience I can
say that if the hot-water pipes are used of course
only for the purpose of drying the observatory, that
although cold water may be run through
the tubes, it will not be possible to use
the telescope for observing for several
hours afterwards. A difference of tem-
perature of one or two degrees will be
sufficient to set up tube currents, which,
in so large an aperture will destroy all
definition. The heating contrivance
may be beneficial to the telescope, but
will be of no other service to the
observer.

Mr. Cowper Ranyard describes a
contrivance for applying electrical con-
trol to the driving clock of an equatorial
by making use of the instantaneous
current from a pendulum as it passes
through a drop of mercury at the
bottom of its arc to move a small
lever which shifts a little weight from
one side to the other of the fulcrum of
the clutch which embraces the revolving
disc of the governor. The current
passes through an insulated revolving

Fig. 72. — Imago, magnified. Colour black ; a reddish patch upon the thorax ; wheel. When the clock IS fast as

scutellum and attachment of wings yellowish. Antennae multiarticulate, basal 1 •.! tr,_ ^on/lnlum thp>

joint reddish. Legs yellowish, tarsi of third pair and terminal joint of first Compared With the pendulum, VOS.

and second pairs blackish. Wings covered with minute hairs. Segments of current is sent through a horseshoe
abdomen with symmetrical rounded prominences.

builds up the cocoon gradually, completing the
walls as it proceeds, forming first a cup-shaped
receptacle, which is lengthened by regular additions
to the open edge, and finally closed. A specimen
under observation completed its work in forty-eight
hours. E. Ernest Green.

Pundiiloya, Ceylon.

A

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

By John Browning, F.R.A.S.
T the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society,

held on May nth, Mr. E. Crossley gave an
account of a large dome he had built and erected at
Halifax to protect a reflecting telescope thirty-seven
inches in diameter. The dome is thirty-nine feet in
diameter, and runs by means of fourteen wheels in a
circular iron ring placed on a wall fifteen inches thick.
The dome is provided with twenty-three iron ribs.
The observer stands in a gallery which moves round
with the dome. The dome weighs about fourteen
tons. Both the dome, the gallery, and the staircase
attached to it, weighing altogether sixteen tons, are
moved by a small hydraulic engine placed in a room
at the side of the observatory. There are hot-water
pipes in the observatory, by means of which it can be
warmed in cold weather. Cold water can be run

magnet on one side of the lever, and
when it is slow through a similar magnet on the
other side of the lever. This shifts the weight, and
increases or decreases the pressure on the revolving
governor disc. When the clock is [keeping time, the.
weight is drawn to the central position by a third
magnet.

On July 23rd there will be a total eclipse of the
moon partially visible at Greenwich. The first
contact with the shadow takes place at 3 hrs. 55 m.
in the morning. The total phase begins at 4 hrs.
54 m. morn., and ends at 6 hrs. 36 m., the last
contact with the shadow will be at 7 hrs. 35 m. The
moon sets at 4 hrs. 10 m., about 44 minutes before
the total phase commences.

There will be no occultation of any star above the
4th mag. in July.

Mercury will be very near the sun until the middle
of the month, afterwards it will be a morning star.

Venus will rise and set with the sun.

Mars will be in Virgo, near to Spica at the
beginning of the month.

Jupiter will be in Libra in conjunction with the
moon on the iSth at 5 hrs. aft.

Saturn will be an evening star in conjunction with
the moon at 8 hrs. aft. on the loth.

Meteorology.— At the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, the highest reading of the barometer for the
week ending 19th of May was 30-20 in. at the

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

161

Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at intervals of Seven Days in July.

Rises.

Souths. 1

Sets.

T>.

h. m.

h. m.

h. m.

\

i

5 9M

O 52A

8 35A

8

4 28m

O 7A

7 46a

Mercury 2 . >

15

3 43M

II 24M

7 5A

22

3 6m

IO 54M

6 42A

•

29

2 49M

IO 44M

6 39A

X

I

3 32M

II SIM

8 IOA

1

8

3 46m

O IA

8 i6a

Venus $ . A

15

4 3M

O IIA

8 19A

I

22

4 23M

O 20A

8 17A

'

29

4 44M

O 28A

8 I2A

^

I

1 i6a

6 35A

II 54A

1

8

1 5A

6 i8a

II 3IA

Mars <? . . \

15

0 s6a

6 2A

11 8a

I

22

0 49A

5 48a

10 47A

29

0 42A

5 34A

IO 26 A

>

I

4 35A

8 59A

I 28M

8

4 6a

8 30A

0 58M

Jupiter "U-. .

15

3 38a

8 2A

0 30M

22

3 i°A

7 34A

O 2M

i

29

2 42A

7 6a

11 3OA

1

I

6 6m

1 55A

9 44A

1

8

5 43M

1 31A

9 I9A

Saturn T? . . \

15

5 20M

I 7A

8 54A

22

4 58m

0 43A

8 28A

29

4 35M

0 19A

8 3A

beginning of the week, and the lowest 29*37 in. on
Wednesday afternoon. The mean temperature of the
air was 55*9 deg., and 2*6 deg. above the average.
The direction of the wind was variable. Rain fell on
two days of the week, to the aggregate amount of
C32 in. The duration of registered bright sunshine
in the week was 39*4 hours, against 40*6 hours at
Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 26th May the lowest reading
of the barometer was 29-64 in. at the beginning of
the week, and the highest 30*26 in. on Monday
evening. The mean temperature of the air was 54*0
deg., and 1*3 deg. below the average. The general
direction of the wind was north-easterly. No rain
was measured during the week. The duration of
registered bright sunshine in the week was 62*3
hours, against 57*1 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending June 2nd the lowest reading of
the barometer was 29*55 in. on Wednesday morning,
and the highest 30*07 in. on Friday evening. The
mean temperature of the air was 55*8 deg., and 1*3
deg. below the average. The direction of the wind
was variable. Rain fell on Wednesday, to the
amount of o*l6 inch. The duration of registered
bright sunshine in the week was 43*8 hours, against
55*2 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending June 9th, the highest reading
of the barometer was 29*96 in. on Tuesday morning,
and the lowest 29*40 in. on Saturday morning. The

mean temperature of the air was 58*9 deg., and 0*7
deg. above the average. The general direction of
the wind was variable. Rain fell on four days of the
week, to the aggregate amount of 0*17 of an inch.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 21*2 hours, against 13*4 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

For the week ending June 16th the highest reading
of the barometer was 29*94 in. on Sunday evening,
and the lowest 29*52 in. on Tuesday afternoon. The
mean temperature of the air was 57*1 deg., and 1*9
deg. below the average. The direction of the wind
was variable. Rain fell on two days of the week, to
the aggregate amount of 0*54 of an inch. The
duration of registered bright sunshine in the week
was 51*7 hours, against 49*2 hours at Glynde Place,
Lewes.

The mean temperature in July is at the Land's
End, Hereford, Lincoln and Yarmouth 620, at
Haverford West, Liverpool, Gateshead and Hull it
is 6i°, at Carlisle, Berwick, Newcastle and Middles-
bro' it is 6o°, but inland through the greater part of
England it is 630, and in the district about twenty
miles round London, it is 640.

The mean rainfall for July is more equal than that
of any other month, being about two inches for the
greater part of our island varying only to three inches
and occasionally four inches along the West coast.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

M. Perrotin has been making some important
observations of the channels in Mars, and has de-
scribed various important modifications that have
taken place in these appearances since they were
first observed in 1886. The triangular continent,
somewhat larger than France (the Libya of Schia-
parelli's map), which at that time stretched along
both sides of the equator, and which was bounded
south and west by a sea, north and east by channels,
has disappeared. The place where it stood, as in-
dicated by the reddish-white tint of land, now shows
the black, or rather deep blue colour of the seas of
Mars. The Lake Mceris, situated on one of the
channels, has also vanished, and a new channel,
about 200 long and 1° or 1*5° broad, is now visible,
running parallel with the equator to the north of the
vanished continent. This channel forms a direct
continuation of a previously existing double channel,
which it now connects with the sea. Another change
is the unexpected appearance about the north pole of
another passage, which seems to connect two neigh-
bouring seas through the polar ice.

Much interest has lately been taken in an operation
in beneficial surgery in which the object was the
transplantation of a portion of the nerve of a rabbit,
nearly two-and-a-half inches in length, from the

162

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

animal to the human being. The patient was
Professor von Fleischl, who occupies the chair of
physiology in the University of Vienna, and the
operator, Dr. Gersung, of Vienna. Sixteen years ago
the patient poisoned his right hand, gangrene super-
vened, followed by neuromata, or nerve tumour.
Operations became necessary, and from time to time
were carried out, with the result that two fingers lost
the sense of touch, owing to the continuity of the
nervous system having been broken. On the 4th of
March last, a rabbit was killed, and from its still
warm body " as long a piece as possible of the
sciatic nerve of the animal " was taken out and
transplanted into the hand of Professor von Fleischl.
The results are said to be favourable.

Mr. J. E. Todd has a paper on the subject of
"Directive Coloration in Animals "in the "Ameri-
can Naturalist." He defines directive coloration as
that which is in any way useful to a species, by
assisting in mutual recognition between individuals,
or by indicating one to another their attitude of body,
and probable movements. He gives a number of
instances.

Another competition in the common field of
natural science is announced, "Life-Lore," edited
by Mr. W. Mawer (an old and valued contributor
to Science-Gossip). The price is sixpence, and the
first number was to be issued on June 25th.

Another old friend and contributor to our pages,
Mr. Edward Lamplugh, of Hull, is preparing under
the title of " Hull and Yorkshire Frescoes," a volume
of privately printed poems and sonnets — one for each
day of the year, mostly inscribed to Yorkshire men
of letters and scientists. One sonnet is inscribed to
Science-Gossip.

Dr. Gamalea has been carrying out some ex-
periments on Merino sheep at the experimental
station, Odessa, inoculating them protectively against
the cattle plague. The results are said to be very
hopeful.

Dr. A. B. Griffiths and his wife, of Lincoln,
have recently contributed a joint paper, the result of
their joint experiments, showing the influence of the
various rays of the solar spectrum on the growth of
plants. They planted beans and mustard seeds in
lively soils, to which iron sulphate was added, and
they found that the greatest amount of iron oxide,
and probably of albuminoid were stored up in the
plants which had been exposed to the yellow-green
rays of the spectrum.

French Archaeologists have recently discovered
in a cave at Mas d'Azil, Ariege, a sub-fossil tooth of
horse, carved with the bust of a woman. The pendent
breasts and profile of face are said to be carefully
delineated. The nose is large and rounded, and the
chin retreating. This is the third example found of
prehistoric, or Quaternary art.

The Liverpool naturalists made a six days' marine
excursion in Whitsun week, between Liverpool and
the Isle of Man, and very successfully employed sub-
merged electric lamps to attract swimming objects.
These lamps were used both at the bottom and surface
of the sea.

M. Jean Luvini has just read a paper before the
Paris Academy on the " Origin of Aurora Borealis."
This phenomenon he regards as analogous to the
discharge of electricity in thunderstorms, the only
difference consisting in their different degrees of
intensity. Both are attributed to the friction of
particles of water and ice, and occasionally of other
minute bodies, drawn by the aerial currents into the
higher atmospheric regions and disseminated over
the terrestrial atmosphere some hundred miles thick.
The northern lights are most frequent about the pole,
where the air abounds most in icy particles and where
trie field of terrestrial magnetism is most intense.

MICROSCOPY.

Magnification in Photo-micrographs. — A
friend of mine, Mr. Walter Osmond, who photo-
graphs a good deal with the microscope, inquires
how he should fix the magnification of his objects as
shown in his pictures ? Using a 5-inch objective and
an ocular which together give 300 diameters, with
the eye-glass at 10 inches from the paper, he gets a
field as nearly as possible 6 inches in diameter.
Employing the same eye-piece and objective in his
camera, he gets a disc in his photos of 2*9 inches.
He fixes the magnification in the photo at 145 dia-
meters, by the following simple rule-of-three sum : —
6 : 2-9 :: 300 : 145. Similarly, with a 2-inch ob-
jective and a powerful ocular, which together give
55 diameters at the standard height of 10 inches,
he fixes the magnification of his photos at 2b\ thus : —
6 : 2*9 :: 55 : 26'5S3. Is this correct? You will
observe I distinguish in this note between the "mag-
nifying power" of an objective and "magnification,"
implying by the latter term mere enlargement, and
confining the former "magnifying power" to that
particular degree of enlargement which is obtained
when an image is projected by any kind of micro-
scopic camera, on a plane horizontal surface parallel
to the body of the microscope, and distant exactly
10 inches from the centre of the eye-glass of the
ocular. I would only add, that such rough measure-
ment as can be made by opening both eyes, and
comparing an object with a rule laid at the stage,
serves to show that Mr. Osmond's method is correct.
— IV. J. Simmons^ Calcutta.

The Combined Use of Celloidin and Paraf-
fin.— Kultschizky states that the use of both cel-
loidin and paraffin in imbedding microscopical pre-
parations has certain advantages over that of either

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

16'

material alone. The individual paits of delicate
objects preserved their proper relations ; tire pre-
paration remains dry, and the process of making
sections does not require the use of alcohol, and
sections can be made as thin as when paramn only
is used. The method is as follows : — The alcoholic
preparation is allowed to lie for a few hours in a
mixture of equal volumes of alcohol and ether ; it is
then placed for twenty-four hours in a solution of
celloidin, the strength of which is immaterial. It is
now placed in ordinary oil of origanum, subsequently
in a mixture of paramn and oil of origanum, which
should not be over 1040 Fahr. in temperature, and
finally in melted paraffin. The length of time that
it should remain in the oil of origanum, in the solu-
tion of paraffin, and in the melted paraffin, depends
on the character of the object, and must be ascer-
tained by trial.

New Slides.— From Mr. F. Enoch (Woking),
we have received a splendidly-mounted specimen of
the large jumping spider (Salticus tardigradus) mounted
without pressure. The object retains the natural
form of the creature, and the eyes are as brilliant as
noble opals. It is mounted as an opaque object.
Mr. Ernest Hinton (12 Vorley Road, Upper
Holloway) has kindly forwarded us a most interesting
and cleverly cut and mounted preparation, shewing
the unisexual flowers from inside the common
fig. It plainly illustrates the remarkable mode of
reproduction of this plant. The flowers are packed
all over the inner surface, and are merely divided
from each other by soft, colourless bracts. The speci-
men is intended to be examined by the paraboloid.

ZOOLOGY.

The Boar-fish {Capros aper, Cuv. ; Lens aper,
Linn.). — Yesterday morning, April 19th, five living
specimens of this rare and beautiful fish were sent me
from Babbicombe, where they had been just caught
in a mackerel-net. They had been unfortunately
conveyed in so small a quantity of water, that by the
time they reached me they were nearly exhausted.
Yet on being immediately put into a large marine
aquarium, two of them revived. These have passed
the night well, and are vigorous this morning ; their
brilliant hues, and sprightly movements, rendering
them ornamental and attractive. The specimens were
all exactly alike. Total length 5 inches, vertical
depth (from points of first dorsal to points of ventral)
3! inches ; thickness, just behind head, § inch : —
colour pale scarlet, fading to pearly white on belly,
rich vermilion on back, whence undefined bands run
vertically down each side ; the stouter fin-rays are
tipped with scarlet. Yarrell (Br. Fish. vol. i. 190)
has given a very good figure of the species, which he
considers one of much rarity, insomuch that the first

British capture of it recorded (in October, 1825) was
considered an occurrence worthy of being com-
municated to the Zoological Society. The present
is, however, not the only occasion on which I have
known it taken in Babbicombe Bay ; where it is
known by the name of the Fan Dory, in apparent
distinction from its near ally, the John Dory (/'/
janitorc). In captivity, as I have said, this charming
fish is of graceful and pleasing manners. Ever
retaining its vertical position, it swims incessantly
about, gliding to and fro into every part of the tank,
usually a few inches below the surface, ever protruding
and retracting its telescopic snout, its strong spinous
fins erected, and its immense liquid eyes greatly
enhancing its beauty. — P. H. Gosse, F.R.S., Sand-
hurst, St. Mary church, Torquay.

Physa elliptica.— On the 12th of October, 18S7,
I was at Powderhorn, in Gunnison, co. Colorado,
and close to White Earth Creek I found a very small
and shallow pool crowded with a species of Physa
new to the Colorado fauna, which Mr. H. A. Pilsbry
has kindly determined for me as P. elliptica, Lea.
This species has something of the outline of P.fon-
tinalis, but the mantle is not spread over the shell.
The specimens belonged to a var. decollata, having
the spire eroded and truncate, which may have been
due to overcrowding, and the fact that the only food
they had consisted of dark green globular algae,
about the same size as the physa;. Small limnrea are
now very abundant in the road-side ditches about
West Cliff, Custer co.,' which I cannot distinguish
from European Limncsa truncatula, although in
America they would be referred to L. humilis, Say. —
T. D. A. Cockerel!, West Cliff, Colorado, May 10th,
18S8.

Book-worms. — In the interest of a number of
book-lovers out here, I avail myself of the pages of
your popular and widely-read journal to bring the
facts stated below to the notice of the publishing
firms at home. Recent publications are attacked by
larvce, which in many cases bore their way right
through a book. They usually start from the inner
edge, or thereabouts, of the covers 5 in other cases
they select other points of attack, while in several
instances the bore begins mysteriously in the very
heart of a volume. I have found larvae and pupae,
and frequently little brown beetles (in one case four
or five ant-pupae) in these borings, but I think the
beetle larva is the chief delinquent. I have not
found ova. The new "serials," indeed all new-
books, biographies, science primers and manuals,
and the like, are special favourites with these pests.
Mites sometimes are to be found, and lepismse,
which are said to feed on mites, but not to injure
the books themselves. I now "kyanize" all new-
books with a weak solution of corrosive sublimate
dissolved in spirits of wine, and applied freely to the
inner surfaces of the covers, about the binding, &c>

164

HARD WICKE ' 6" 6" CIE NCE- G 0 SSI P.

but of course not to the outside anywhere. The
remedy, however, is not a pleasant one when applied
in my method ; it would be better if the paste
employed in binding were itself so poisoned. As
the larvae do not attack unbound papers, stitched or
wired magazines, &c, it seems fairly safe to infer
that it is the paste which proves attractive, and that
it should be poisoned with some drug which will
retain its toxical properties in sufficient strength to
destroy the young larvae as soon as they touch it.
I have had books attacked in the course of one week.
The point to be remembered is that it is the newly-
bound volumes which suffer ; old books escape. —
IV. y. Simmons, Calaitta.

Development of the Gnat. — Errata, page 133.
The following figures should be transposed: — Fig. 55
should be 56 ; Fig. 56 should be 55.

Pallas's Sand Grouse {Syrrhaptes paradoxus).
Six specimens of this rare and remarkable bird were
killed from a large flock in the neighbourhood of
Fyvie on the 26th of May ; they had been seen for
some time previous in small and in large flocks.
Being natives of the far east, they have probably
been driven here by stress of weather, and are now
seeking breeding-ground. It would be very interest-
ing to know if they should remain to breed, being
unknown in the British Isles before 1859. — IV. Sym,
Fyvie.

Irruption of Pallas's Sand-Grouse. — Mr. W.
Eagle Clarke, F.L.S., the senior assistant in the
Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh, writes as
follows to the "Naturalist": — "Once more, after
an interval of a quarter of a century, Europe and the
British Isles are the scene of an irruption of Pallas's
sand-grouse {Syrrhaptes paradoxus, Pall.), large flocks
of which, leaving their home in the Steppes of
Central Asia, have been making their way westward
during the past month or two. On the 21st of April
they appeared in various localities in Poland ; on the
27th, they reached Saxony ; on the 5th of May they
were seen in the island of Riigen, and on the 7th in
Holstein. They reached England about ten days
later. On the 17th of May a specimen was brought
in the flesh to me at the Leeds Museum, which was
said to have been shot in Dewsbury Road, Leeds.
On the 1 8th Mr. Philip W. Lawton saw five at
Shurn, and the same day (as Mr. Lawton informs
me) a man at Patrington saw a party of about a
score. Since then Mr. Lawton has had numerous
examples brought to him for preserving. On the
19th, Mr. Donkin saw a party of twenty in a field
adjoining the Ardsley reservoir, near Leeds. On the
20th large flocks, as reported in the newspapers,
were seen in Oxfordshire, and at Hoddesdon, in
Hertfordshire ; and others, the date of which I have
not seen noted, were reported from Clifton, Notting-
hamshire. On the 24th, Mr. Thos. Bunher wrote me

that one had been captured alive near Goole, and on
the same date Mr. Frederick Boyes, of Beverley,
wrote me that about fifty or sixty had been seen at
Flamborough, and that Mr. Harper, of Scarborough,
had called to tell him that he had seen about thirty
at Spurn. In a note in "The Field" of May 26th,
Mr. Boyes remarked that these birds appeared on
the east coast of Yorkshire on the anniversary of the
day on which they were first observed a quarter of a
century ago, and that a flock seen on the 20th, at an
East Yorkshire locality, the name of which he does
not give, contained at least a dozen birds. In the
same note he states further, that a friend saw about
thirty at Spurn on the 25th of the month. On the 24th,
one was telegraphed on the Boroughbridge Read, near
Norton-le-Clay, and eight others are said to have been
seen in the neighbourhood. As it is desirable that an
ample record should be kept of this most noteworthy
and interesting ornithological event, I hope all readers
who have it in their power will communicate to this
journal full details and particulars to such occurrences
in Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Lincoln
shire, Nottinghamshire (including the details of the
Clifton instance), Derbyshire, Cheshire, Lancashire,
Westmoreland, Cumberland, and the Isle of Man, as
may come within their observation."

BOTANY.

A May Ramble at Prinsted. — Unpromising
localities sometimes reward the explorer in unexpected
ways and delight him with the sight of plants little
anticipated. Prinsted Common, at the western ex-
tremity of Sussex, appears to have been long ago
reclaimed from the sea, which still occasionally makes
inroads upon it. Flat and of small dimensions, there
is little to interest in its immediate scenery, excepting
the distant S. Downs and the intermediate spires
of Chichester Cathedral and that of the ancient
church of Bosham ; but the tract itself, an expanse of
sward, surrounded by banks, contains a very varied
flora. Among the Cerastiums largely predominates
C. tctrandriun with its fine white blossoms inter-
mingled with abundance of Mccuchiaerecta. The turf
is decked with Trifolium subterraneum, T. minus, and
T. filiformc ; and occasionally patches of Trigonella
ortiithopodioides are to be seen. One of the banks
presented at intervals quantities of the pale pinkish
petals of Cochlearia Danica, which in hue differs so
much from its congeners as to be easily recognisable,
not to speak of its deltoid leaves. Near it amongst
the grass also appeared an unexpected little plant
Myosurus minimus, of various size, from half an inch
(in full tlower) to six or seven inches in height. Most
botanical records mention it as growing in fields or
gravel pits, but here it seems to delight in a different
situation, and it appears to be sporadic, for a year

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

165

ago, not an example could be seen. Ranunculus
parviflorus occurred in plenty. Myosotis collina
studded the ground with its blue blossoms, and not
far off M. versicolor also grew with Aira pracox.
Plantago coronopus was one of the most abundant
plants on the common, which is fringed on one side
by the curious trailing Torilis nodosa, while later on in
the season Bupleurum temiissimum is also to be
found here. Passing towards the shore Lepidium
campestre was conspicuous, and a small pool was
completely mantled with white by the flowers of
Ranunculus Baudotii. An hour's ramble was thus well
repaid, on a lovely spring afternoon. — F. H. Arnold.

spirit, one part ? If so, I should be glad to hear what
their experiences have been. The experiences I had
were most disastrous. The recipe said, for plants
with fleshy leaves twelve to eighteen hours will be
sufficient. So I put some Orchis musculo- in the
solution, and in twelve hours took them out ; the
effect was peculiar, the leaves were flabby, and of a
dirty yellowish-green colour, and the flowers had a
little colour and shape left, but I defy any botanist
to determine what species they belong to. Thinking
I might have left them in too long, I tiied some
Cochlearia Anglica, and left it in forty minutes ; on
taking out, the leaves were flabby, and of the same

K -

Fig- 73- — Melon-seedling found in a water-melon when first cut open. — Sholapur, India, 1888.

Lychnis dioica. — I have just noticed a singular
instance of change of colour, in certain specimens of
Lychnis dioica, which bore pure white flowers last
summer ; have their petals this summer of a pale red
colour, and do not appear to be quite as large in size
as the white ones. The plant grows in a well-
sheltered spot not far from the sea coast. — Geo. Rees.

Natural Grafting. — I saw rather a peculiar
thing the other day — a large branch had broken off
a box-tree, and in falling, had stuck in a fork of the
tree, and there the branch is growing. In falling,
the branch must have bruised through the bark and
the sap run from the tree into the branch. It has
evidently been there some years, as the branch is
quite grown over in the fork. — E. C. Pope, South
Yalgogrin, N. S. Wales.

Unusual Case of Germination. — I am sending
you a sketch of a melon seedling (Fig. 73). I found it
growing on the pulp inside a very large water-melon.
It seemed quite happy in the dark ; there was room
for it to stretch, as these melons are rather hollow.
The two leaves were a bright, tender green. One or
two other seeds were just beginning to sprout. The
sketch is life-size. — Amy Hensley, Sholapur, India.

Preserving the Colours of Plants. — Have
any of the readers of Science-Gossip tried a process
for preserving the colours of plants for the Herbarium
recommended in the ' Annals of Botany,' and con-
sisting of sulphurous acid, three parts ; methylated

dirty yellow-green colour as those of the orchis.
I then tried some flowers of Scilla nutans, and in ten
minutes they had lost every vestige of colour. Is this
preserving the colours of plants? If so, I would
rather stick to the old style of drying. There is also
a process with salicylic acid and methylated spirit.
Do any of your readers know anything of it? — A. E.
Lomax.

Ustilago Receptaculorum. — Could any reader
of Science-Gossip favour me with a fresh specimen
of the goat's-beard smut during the present summer ? —
Charles B. Plowright, 7 King Street, King's Lynn.

GEOLOGY, &C.

The Glaciation of the Isle of Man. — In
Science-Gossip for April last (p. 73) is an article
entitled " In the Isle of Man," by Dr. P. Q. Keegan,
in which several remarkable theories and statements
as to matters geological are set forth. The author
makes merry at the expense of geologists because,
forsooth, they ascribe certain boulder-deposits to
glacial action, and says, "the idea of these outlying,
heterogeneous masses of rocks being gradually
pushed up from below by some lateral or other
pressure, seems never to have tickled their heads."
It always appears to me unwise to suppose oneself
superior to scientific authorities without first carefully
examining the evidence and the existing theories.

i66

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

That geologists are well acquainted with the fact,
that materials may be "pushed up from below [i.e.
from the sea-bottom\ by some lateral or other
pressure," is shown by a note in Dr. A. Geikie's Text
Book, 2nd edition, p. S97, in which we read, " Mere
fragments of marine shells in a glacial deposit need
not prove submergence under the sea ; for they may
have been pushed up from the sea-floor by moving
ice, as in the case of the shelly till of the west of
Scotland, Caithness, Holderness, and Cromer."
Professor II. Carvill Lewis, speaking of what he
terms the Irish Sea Glacier, says, "South of
Manchester it contains flints and shell-fragments,
brought by the glacier from the sea-bottom over
which it passed." British Association Report, 1887,
p. 692. To suppose, however, that most deposits
called glacial are merely scrapings from the sea-
bottom is to ignore the abundant evidence afforded
by those boulders, the origin of which can be traced.
Dr. Keegan continues, "there is little or no evidence
of local glaciers, or indeed of ice chiselling of any
kind." On this point I can speak from personal
knowledge, as I formed one of a party of the British
Association which visited the island in September
1887. At Scarlet Point, to south of Castletown, a
•considerable, slightly sloping surface of carboniferous
limestone has been exposed by removal of the surface-
soil, in a large quarry close to the shore. On the
limestone are unmistakable glacial striae, the direction
of which two observations gave as E. 35° N. and
E. 37J0 N. (corrected 210 for magnetic declination).
I have a piece of the striated limestone. At Port
St. Mary, on the outer side of the shore end of the
new concrete pier, even more distinct glacial striae
were observed, on the carboniferous limestone, which
slopes towards the sea. The average direction of
the striae is E. 330 N. This is within 2° to 4*° of
being the same as that observed at Scarlet Point.
In both cases several square yards of rock were
covered with striae. From the beds immediately
overlying the limestone at Port St. Mary and from
within 3 or 4 feet horizontally and vertically of the
striae, I have obtained a rounded and well-scratched
boulder, 4! inches long, and weighing 1 lb. 13 oz.
These facts are, I think, sufficient to show that the
Isle of Man has suffered some glaciation. The
beautifully rounded and undulating outlines of the
hills suggest the same thing, although Mr. H. B.
Woodward says (Geol. of England and Wales, 2nd
edition, p. 79), "In consequence of its want of
durability, the mountains of this [Skiddaw] slate, as
John Phillips remarked, have smoother contours,
more uniform slopes, and a more verdant surface
than those of the Borrowdale Series." Not all the
clay-slate of the Isle of Man, at any rate, appears to
be wanting in durability, judging by the excellent
state of preservation of the Runic crosses at Kirk
Braddan, which are supposed to date from between
a.d. 1 170 and 1230. The ice at Scarlet Point and

Port St. Mary no doubt travelled from a north-
easterly, in a south-westerly direction, as Cumming, in
his geologically useful, though old, work called
"The Isle of Man" (Van Voorst, 1848) mentions
some transported blocks or boulders, the parent rock
of which was known, as having travelled in that
direction. — Bernard Hobson, B.Sc. { Vict.) Man-
chester, May loth.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

British Aciiatin.e. — In Catlow's "Popular
Conchology," page 17S, it is stated with regard to
the Achatina;: — "Two small species, Achatina
acicula and Achatina octona, are found in England,
among the roots of trees, etc." Does any reader know
anything of Achatina octona ? — Francis B. Long,
Burnley.

Night-Flowering Convolvulus. — I have before
me " A Tour round my Garden," translated from the
French of Alphonse Karr by the Rev. J. G. Wood,
1S56. On page 65 I read "The Convolvulus does
not expand its flowers till the night is pretty far
advanced," and again, page 143, " Convolvulus, whole
flowers close and fade as soon as they are touched by
the sun." What species of Convolvulus blossoms by
night, as is here stated ? — Julie Hodgson.

Remarkable Frost Phenomenon. — About the
1 2th January there occurred here a frost phenomenon,
a brief notice of which may be interesting to the
readers of Science-Gossip. During the week
commencing on the 8th, the weather was remarkably
mild and spring-like — so mild indeed that my wife
and I went down to the coast and spent some
delightful days in geological exploration — gathering,
amongst other good finds, an ammonite new to the
Yorkshire Lias. Towards the end of the week the
sun became obscured by a dense fog, though the
weather still continued mild. I found on returning
home that the fog had been prevalent there also.
Some days later, passing over the high ground which
separates this parish from the neighbouring parish of
Bilsdale, I observed branches of trees broken off on
all sides, some of them quite six inches in diameter at
the point of breakage. In some cases the tops of
spruce firs were broken off, and some smaller trees
were broken short off in the stem. Finding a' man
mending the road I obtained from him the cause of
all this destruction, which had certainly puzzled me,
as there had been hardly a breath of wind of late. I
found that during the time of the fog the trees on the
lower grounds had been dripping with moisture. On
the higher ground the temperature had fallen below
freezing-point,- and the moisture had continuously
frozen on the branches. Near the summit the amount
of moisture had been augmented by a breeze drifting
it out of Bilsdale. Pointing to quite a small branch,
which had fallen with many others upon the road, so
as to make it impassable for carriages, the man told
me that, when the ice was upon it, he had only just
been able to lift it over the wall. — John Harwell,
Ingleby Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton.

Varnishing Photo Gelatine Dry Plates. — I
should be glad to know if white hard spirit varnish
would be suitable for varnishing photographic
geb.ti.ne dry plates. I have a large quantity of the

HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIP.

iGj

spirit varnish and have bought repeatedly negative
varnish at three times the price, and should be pleased
to know if the varnish I name would do. Surely
there is nothing in the spirit varnish that could
be unsuitable, and nothing in the so-called negative
varnish that is absent from the best white hard spirit
varnish. That which I have is the best to be obtained,
made by the most reputed varnish manufacturers.
— H. Fi slier.

Saccharine. — Referring to the article on Saccha-
rine for May, can Mr. Wicks say why Saccharine is
precvibed for patients suffering from Diabetes when
sugar is considered harmful? — Rev. H. Whittaker,

Peterborough.

Yew-Trees, their Age, &c. — You were good
enough to admit into your January number a letter
of mine inviting discussion on yew-trees, and the
mode of ascertaining their age. In your February
number three letters appear in reply. I wish, first of
all, to thank the writers. In1 the first letter, A. G.
Tansley calls my attention to " the two finest yews
in the Malvern country, in Cradley churchyard," and
adds that "the largest is 26 feet in circumference,"
quoting a "Botany of Malvern " as his authority. I
have since measured the Cradley yews, and found
one 17 feet 7 inches, and the other 17 feet 9 inches
in circumference, making allowance in the one case
for a portion of trunk which had evidently dis-
appeared. J. Saunders, Luton, the writer of the
second letter, is good enough to promise the measure-
ment of some Bedfordshire yews. Both these writers,
however, seem to object to the measurement of the
diameter instead of the radius. Allow me to explain
that I used the word "line " in its arithmetical sense,
as meaning T^th of an inch, and without any reference
whatever to the concentric rings, and I adopted the
diameter as simply a convenient mode of expressing
the size. I have to thank W. E. Windus for calling
attention to the Crowhurst (Sussex) tree, and for the
promise of the photograph, a copy of which I have
since received. Your correspondent F. C. D. B. in
the March number, besides giving particulars of the
yew at Ankerwyke House, also evidently thinks the
size may be conveniently expressed by the length of
the diameter. And this is, of course, the same thing
as measuring the circumference and taking one-third
of it as representing the diameter, only in taking the
circumference it must always be the smallest circum-
ference, whether it is three feet or more or less from
the ground being a matter of no moment. As an
authority for taking a line of diameter to represent a
yew, I refer to Mons. A. P. de Candolle's remarks
on the subject in Dr. Pye Smith's "Geology and
Scripture," as follows: — "Of all European trees,
the yew appears to me to be that which attains the
greatest age. ... If for very old yews we take the
mean of one line a year, it is probable that we are
below the truth " (it is necessary, however, here to
add that he takes the line to be T'0th of an inch),
" and that in reckoning the number of their years of
age as equal to that of their lines of diameter, we
make them younger than they are." He continues :
" Now I have become acquainted with the measure-
ment of four celebrated yews in England. That of
Fountain Abbey, .... of which we have historical
notices in 1 133, was, according to Pennant, in 1770,
1214 lines in diameter, which will give above 1200
years of age. That in the churchyard of Crowhurst,
Surrey, is stated by Evelyn, in 1660, to be 1287 lines
of diameter. . . . That of Fotheringhall, in Scotland,
had in 1770 a diameter of 25SS lines, and its age is

consequently twenty- five to twenty-six centuries.
That in the churchyard of Braburn, Kent, had in
1660 a diameter of 28S0 lines ; if, then, it be still in
existence, it must have reached 3000 years." The
Braburn yew, I may add, is no longer in existence.
In 1660, when Evelyn measured it, he found it
58 feet in circumference. Balfour, in his "Botany
and Religion," adopts Mons. de Candolle's list of
" Remarkable Trees, the ages of which have been
ascertained," and gives 2880 years as the greatest
of the yew. In an article in " Eng. Cyc." on the
age of trees, there is a " Table of the Rate of Increase
in Diameter of certain Exogenous Trees expressed in
Lines," and amongst them a yew seventy-one years
old, whose diameter was 695 lines. — P. J.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

J. A. H. and others. — The author of "Sagacity and Morality
of Plants" was slightly in error in referring (page 31) to Mr.
Grant Allen's work on "The Shapes of Leaves." The'subject
was treated upon by Mr. Allen in "Nature" (1883) under this
title, but we believe the papers have not been republished.

J. T. Balcomb. — Thanks for your specimens. We will bear
the matter well in mind.

M. E. Pope. — Many thanks for your kindly interest in the
old " Science-Gossip." We wish all our subscribers were as
good proselytisers !

C. Wilson (Southport). — The plant is Claytonia pcrfoliata.
— a Canadian species, and an excellent salad plant, containing
oxalic acid in its leaves.

G. Grierson. — Write to Dr. M. C. Cooke, 146 Junction
Road, Upper Holloway, London, N.W.

Geo. Campbell. — Apply to the editor of the Geologists' As-
sociation, Professor Boulger, 18 Ladbroke Grove, London, W.,
for the paper on "Agates."

E. Browne and others. — Mr. Brunetti's address is 129
Grosvenor Park, Camberwell, S.E.

J. B. — We expect you refer to the late Dr. Lankester's " Uses
of Animals to Man " for the paper on Tannin. If so, enquire
of Messrs. W. H. Allen, Waterloo Place. You will find good
papers on Tannin in the last edition of Professor Johnson's
" Chemistry of Common Life," edited by Professor Church.

W. Gyngell. — Address, _ the " American Naturalist," 501
Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, for exchange.

W. L. K.— Apply to Mr. King, Sea Horse House, Portland
Road, London.

EXCHANGES.

Marine shells, rubbings of memorial brasses, and curios ;
what offers? Will send list of either if wished. — Archibald Hy.
McBean, S. Denys, Southampton.

Wanted, eggs, in clutches, of rare British birds ; also
cuckoo's eggs, with full data. Offered, a good exchange in
insects, eggs, or shells. — W. K. Mann, Clifton, Bristol.

Rare Scotch and Irish mosses and hepatics offered in ex-
change for others. Special desiderata, 26, 27, 99, 106, 109, 121,
135, 147, 154, 156, 166, 169, 173, 183, 187.— W. B. Waterfall,
Thirlmere, Redland Green, Bristol.

Mosses and hepatics offered in exchange for slides of same.
— W. B. Waterfall, Redland Green, Bristol.

What offers in unmounted micro-material for first-class slides
of the following : arranged foramimfera (50 varieties) ; sections
of species of echinoderms (20 varieties) ; sections of bone and
teeth (in Canada balsam), showing the lacuna? and canaliculi ;

i68

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

whole insects mounted without pressure; and choice stained
and injected preparations? — A. J. Doherty, 63 Burlington
Street, Manchester.

Wanted, all or any of the following shells : — Trochus viille-
gramis, T. Agathensis, T. alabastruiu, Mangelia (pleurotoma)
Teres, M. cancellata, M. reticulatum, M. leufroyi, M. linearis,
M. scabia, M. guinniana, M. nana, M. striolata, M. coarc-
tatits, Anomia striata, Nucula sulcata, Area tetragona,
Tcllina balaustina, Lutraria oblonga, Saxicava Norvegica,
Pkolas crispata, Thracia distorta, T. pubescens, T. villosius-
cu'a, Fusus Isla?tdicus, F. Turtoni, F. Berniciensis and /so-
cardia Cor. Will give any other rare British shells, fossils,
minerals, polished Devonian corals, or sections of corals, ready
for mounting for the micro. — A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank
Street, Teignmouth, Devon.

Wanted, vols. 14-19 of "Entomologist's Monthly Maga-
zine," or any of them, in numbers or otherwise ; also numbers
from January 1886 to present time, inclusive. Will give in
exchange numbers of " Popular Science Review," microscopic
slides, or cash. — C. F. George, Kirton-in-Lindsay.

I should be glad if any conchologist would oblige me with
any of the following, to complete a collection for a school
mu«eum : — B. Leachii, V. cristata, PI. lineatus, uitidus, Ph.
hypno7-um,fontinalis, Sph. ovale, P. roseum. nitiduni, L.glu-
tinosa, involuta, A. lacastris, S. oblonga, H. lamellata, car-
tusiana, concinna, pygmaa, C. Rolphii, vertigo (any species).
— Chas. A. Whatmore, Much Marcle, Herefordshire.

Dragonflies wanted from all parts of the British Isles,
fresh and unset preferred. Offered, A. adippe, G. r/uimni,
A. selene, A. euphrosyne, L. sinapis, and many others. — W.
Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Wanted, anything photographic, in exchange for quantity
of micro-slides and unmounted objects. — J. Wain Wilshaw,
45; Shoreham Street, Sheffield.

Unbound volumes of Science-Gossip, "Design and Work,"
"Amateur Work," and "English Mechanic," in exchange for
good tripod stand, i-plate lens, or photographic literature. —
J. Wain Wilshaw, 455 Shoreham Street, Sheffield.

For exchange: — "Tabular View of Orders and Families of
Molluscs, " by Dr. Woodward (500 figures), in book form,
published at 4s. ; "Objects of Microscope," by Lane Clark
(coloured plates), published at 3s. 6d. ; "Magician's Own
Book, with 999 Tricks," published at 3s. 6d. ; "Common Out-
door Birds," by Stannard," published at is. 6d. The above
are all in good condition, nearly new. Natural history books,
or good shells and fossils wanted in exchange ; books preferred.
— Ernest O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

To Egg Collectors. — Have several "Sooty Ferns" and other
rare eggs to exchange for side-blown, one-hole, authentic speci-
mens, clutches preferred. — Commander Young, R.N., Rodwell,
Weymouth.

Duplicates. — Z. excavatus. Wanted, 3". ovale, P. nitidum,
P. roseum, L. glutinosa, S. virescens, S. Pfeifferi, S. oblonga,
H. laniellata, H. revelata, H. /urea, H. obvoluta, B. -inon-
tanus, A. lineata. — A. Hartley, 5 Albert Street, Springfield,
Idle.

Engravings of varieties of unios and anodons, for Anodonta
anatina or Unto pictorum. — Geo. Roberts, Lofthouse, Wake-
field.

L. C., 8th edition. Wanted — 74, 1136, n88, 1250, iG66£.
Will give in exchange any of the following : — 588, 620, 1558,
1597, 1627, 1628, 1692. — W. W. Reeves, 32 Geneva Road,
Brixton, S.W.

Offered, "Leisure Time Studies" (Wilson); "Nature's
Bye-paths" (Taylor) ; "English Folk-Lore" (Dyer). Wanted,
"Geology of England and Wales" (H. B. Woodward), 2nd
edition. — J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning.

Offered, good quantity of the fine diatomaceous deposit
from Poplein, U.S.A., and other localities, in exchange for
similar and other good micro material and slides. — W. D.
Stewart, 2 Gilmore Terrace, Edinburgh.

Wanted, animal hairs for micro mounting ; good exchange
in micro and lantern slides, &c. Lists exchanged. — W. D.
Stewart, 2 Gilmore Terrace, Edinburgh.

Will exchange nests and well-blown eggs of nightingale,
blackcap, willow wren, shrike, meadow pipit, landrail, grebe,
&c, for nests and eggs of reed, grasshopper, Dartford and
garden warblers lesser whitethroat, cirl and common buntings.
— Harry F. Medley, Romsey, Hampshire.

Two dozen histological slides, in case, for any suitable offer ;
also earlier edition of Cassell's "Book of Birds," parts 1-28.
Wanted, British coleoptera and hymenoptera. — J. B. Mayor,
5 Queen's Terrace, Longsight, Manchester.

Specimens of Unio margaritifer wanted from any district
in Ireland, especially Co. Tyrone, pood exchange in same
species from its only known Lancashire station, or other land
and freshwater shells. — R. Standen, Swinton, Manchester.

Wanted, British or foreign lepidoptera ; British land and
freshwater shells offered in exchange. — T. A. Lofthouse,
67 Grange Road, Middlesbro'. _

Wanted, good works on British lepidoptera and conchology.
"Flowers of the Sky" (Proctor); "Naturalist's World" for
1886, unbound; "Civil Engineers' and Architects' Journal,"
vols. 7 and 10, and odd numbers of Science-Gossip offered in
exchange, — T. A. Lofthouse, 67 Grange Road, Middlesbro'.

Fine specimens of gold sulphuret, malachite, carnelian,
bloodstone, and other minerals, offered for good foreign marine
shells ; will send sketches, to size, on receipt of lists. — W. J.
Jones, jun., 27 Mayton Street, Holloway, London, N.

Wanted, Geikie's " Text-Book of Geology ; " Rutley's
" Study of Rocks ;" Ganot's ' ' Physics ;" Dana's " Mineralogy,"
1887, and Greenwood's "Metallurgy." Good exchange given.
J. D., 146 Ecclesall Road, Sheffield.

Wanted, student's microscope fitted with polariscope, &c.
Offered, mahogany case of hydrometers, fossils, minerals,
books, &c. — J. D., 146 Ecclesall Road, Sheffield.

Some exquisitely beautiful species of exotic lepidoptera, in
good condition and well set. What offers? — Joseph Anderson,
jun., Aire Villa, Chichester.

Wanted, pupae of British lepidoptera; will make a return in
imagos. — Joseph Anderson, jun., Aire Villa, Chichester.

British and foreign shells and minerals, collection of British
mosses (in book), a remora (sucking fish), and a rhinoceros
horn, in exchange for a tricycle, safety bicycle, or fancy
pigeons. — F. Marriott, 69 Duke Street, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

Wanted, Nos. 74 and 75 of Science-Gossip (1871) to make
up set ; will give in exchange two good micro-slides for each or
any part. — J. J. Andrews, 2 Belgravia, Belfast.

I have H. pomatia and Cyclostoma elegans, also the egg of
an Egyptian goose; what offers? Should like marine shells,
birds' eggs, or curios. — Archibald Hy. McBean, S. Denys,
Southampton.

Wanted, telescope, microscope, or drawing instruments
in exchange for miscellaneous or educational books. — G. New-
ton, 7 Basuto Road, Fulham, London.

Specimens from about fifty or sixty species and varieties of
British land and freshwater shells, named and localised, for a
similar number of land and freshwater shells of other countries.
— T. Rogers, 27 Oldham Road, Manchester.

Wanted, a good yjj-inxh or y^-inch objective ; will give first-
class diatom slides in exchange. — T. B. Bessell, 8 Elmgrove
Road, Bristol.

Wanted, a German-English Dictionary : will give good
exchange in diatom slides. — T. B. Bessell, 8 Elmgrove Road,
Bristol.

Wanted, freshwater algae, mounted or unmounted; will
give in exchange other good microscopic slides or other
unmounted objects. — J. Collins, 23 Roland Road, Lozells,
Birmingham.

To Egg Collectors. — I will exchange splendid specimen of
Pallas' sand-grouse egg, for golden eagle or other rare eggs. —
Chas. Fidler, New Square, Chesterfield.

Offered, "Journal of Postal Microscopical Society" for
1882 and 1883, and "Journal of Microscopy and Natural
Science," 1884-7 (24 parts). Wanted, "Geologist" for 1859-60.
— J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning.

Wanted, British birds' eggs in clutches ; also cuckoos. Can
offer various natural history specimens. — W. K. Mann, Wel-
lington Terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

Wanted, micro object cases (not racked) to hold 144 slides ;
also glass-capped boxes. Named and localised fossils, from
various formations, offered in exchange. — P. Thompson, 19
Guerin Street, Bow, London, E.

P. glaber, P. dilatatus, Valvata piscinalis, H. arbuslorum,
and others, in exchange for British or foreign land and fresh-
water or marine shells. — W. Dean, 50 Canning Street, Stoney-
holme, Burnley, Lancashire.

P. glaber in exchange for other land and freshwater shells. —
Thomas Ingham, 3 Railway Street, Darwen Terrace, Blackpool.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

" Story of the Nations : Assyria " (London •. T. Fisher
Unwin).— " Nature's Fairy Land," by H. W. G. Worsley-
Benison (London: Elliot Stock). — "Trans. Leeds Geological
Association." — "Illustrated Manual of British Birds," Part III.
—"Book Chat."— "The Amateur Photographer."— " The
Garner."— " The Naturalist."— " The Botanical Gazette."—
" Journal of the New York Microscopical Society." —
" Belgravia." — " The Gentleman's Magazine." — " American
Monthly Microscopical Journal." — " The Essex Naturalist." —
"The Midland Naturalist." — Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes."
— "The American Naturalist." — "Journal of the Trenton
Nat. Hist. Soc," January. — "Eleventh Annual Report of
Hackney Microscopical Soc." — " Trans. Chichester and West
Sussex Nat. Hist, and Microscopical Soc." — "Journal of
Microscopy and Nat. Science." — " Ottawa Naturalist." —
" Scientific News." — " Wesley Naturalist," &c, &c.

Communications received up to the 12TH ult. from :
C. W.— J. T. P.— J. D. Y.— F. L.— E. E. G.— A. J. D.—
W. K. M.— Rev. H. W.— W. B. W.— W. A. C— E. L.— Dr.
G. C.-B. A.-F. H. A.— S. J.— M. A.— Dr. J. R— P. J.—
F. H. A.— S. D.— Rev. C. J. S. B.— W. J. S.— T. D. A. C—
W. J. S.— E. B.— R. D. A.— C. F. G.— C. R.— W. G.—
W. J. S.— Dr. H. W. W. B.— H. M.— R. W.— B. H.— J. S. G.
— H. J. G.— G. A. M.— S. D.— J. J. A.— J. A. H.— G. A. G.
— C. W.— W. J.— H. W. B.— R. C. R. J— S. H., &c, &c.

HARDJVICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

169

BRUCE!

By J. E. TAYLOR.

: And hopes that in yon equal sky,
His faithful dog shall bear him company."

;E have been friends
and companions
for nearly seven
years. We so
thoroughly under-
stood each other
that we rarely
quarrelled — for
quarrels are al-
ways the result
of misunderstand-
ing. I am not
quite a believer in
the Indian doc-
trine of metem-
psychosis, but
there is something
in it. ' ' All crea-
tures meet in
man," said good
George Herbert.
You find one man " foxy " in cunning, another
" weasely " in suspicion, a third " hoggish " in feeding
or "fishy" in drinking (or both). The best thing
you can say of a man is that he is as "faithful as a
dog." So, you see, the dog bears the palm from the
man !

My dog had nothing human about him, and was
therefore an ideal dog. He was as well known about
the town as myself. Even the butcher-boys seldom
teased him. You would hear the lads calling, "Bruce,
Bruce," to him in any part of Ipswich, whenever we
wandered in search of quaint undescribed archseo-
logical " bits." The little dogs often followed him,
and sometimes barked at him, but Bruce took no
more notice of them than he did of the musical chimes
of St. Matthew's Church. He was a Prince among
dogs. He never stooped to anything mean, or low,
or cowardly. He was unpunctual sometimes in his
returns from calling on his friends ; but nobody would
No. 284.— August iSSS.

have known it if his own conscience had not forced
him to assume that depressed appearance we call
"hang-dog." Nor did he come up to Professor
Huxley's definition of a dog as an " arrant cad-" —
one which only barked at people who were ragged,
and reserved his attentions for the well-clad. Bruce
did prefer well-dressed and good-mannered people —
who does not ? That was all. As he used to lie
outside my garden-gate, with his fore-feet stretched
out, and his magnificent, black, square head between
his paws, there was not a working man going or
returning from dinner who did not stop to pat him,
and say, " Bruce, good Bruce !" And Bruce responded
by a gentle switch of his great feathery tail, which
sent the flies spinning. The babies tottered up to
him, and pulled his long silken ears, and gave him
biscuits. Even the cats passed him by without
setting up their backs, for they had found out that
Bruce was harmless.

Bruce was my literary friend. He has lain hours,
days, months at my feet whilst I have been writing.
He has listened, with one twitching ear, whilst I
have read aloud to myself some sentence I had
written which I thought unusually good — and after-
wards dropped it, wondering what it was all about,
and what good in the world it was to a dog ! How
well he knew me ! I had my moments of depression,
of anxiety, of low-spiritedness — frequently brought on
from assiduous over-work and over-worry. Bruce
knew ! Often has he silently thrust his great, cold,
black nose into my hand at such times. I knew
what he meant — "Cheer up, master; 'Heart
beneath and God o'erhead ' ! "

Bruce came to me in disgrace. He was a fine
black, smooth-haired, retriever, and his crime was
that he would not retrieve. Perhaps he was like
myself — he didn't care to have anything to do with
that form of pleasure which is connected with suffering
and death. I fancy some keeper must have peppered
him in disgust at his unexpected and non-sportive

I

170

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

qualities, for he never heard a gun fired without cutting
home as fast as he could. Nevertheless, the instincts
of his breed were there. I have a stupid habit of
lingering by wayside stone-heaps, and poking among
the stones, if haply I may find some flint implement
or fossils. Likewise a gravel, clay, or sand-pit has a
similar attraction for me that a public-house has for
other men — I cannot pass one. Bruce soon found all
these weaknesses out. On a country ramble, if he
were ahead, Bruce never passed a stone-heap or a
gravel-pit — he stood there till I came up, and said as
plainly as an intelligent dog could, " Master, are you
going in here this morning ? " I have seen that look
hundreds of times, and said to him, "Not this
morning, Bruce ; " whereupon he wagged his huge
tail at the compliment that he was understood, and
proceeded on his own canine investigations. I used
to say to my friends, " Bruce knows as much about
geology as most men," whereupon some of the easily-
surprised ones said "Indeed !" and the others, who
were conscious that they knew no more of geology
than my dog did, laughed at my weak joke.

Bruce was nearly as old as my youngest child.
They were almost babies together. As soon as my
baby-daughter could toddle, Bruce was her companion
and playfellow. She rode astride his big black back,
and Bruce would then put out his great red-flannel
strip of a tongue on one side, as if he were proud
that a mere dog could be so useful. The children
played " Little Red Riding Hood " with him. He
was the " Wolf," and was put to bed with a white
night-cap on his splendid black head — only he
wouldn't go to sleep, or pretend to. He preferred to
see what was going on, and every now and then to
put in a word or two, and interrupt the dialogue in
the form of a sharp bark.

The last time Bruce appeared in public (for he
frequently made his way surreptitiously on to my
platform) was a few weeks ago, when Mr. Leighton
Bailey gave his lecture on Australia, and I proposed
a vote of thanks. The people called out "platform,"
and on to the platform I went. There was a large
audience, and they cheered me. Then, just as I was
speaking, there was another cheer. It was for Bruce,
who had followed me, and now stood confronting the
audience I was addressing, greeting their cheers with
a few short but vigorous barks. The more they cheered
the more he barked at them, until, at a word from
me, he coiled himself up, and the subsequent pro-
ceedings interested him no more.

Such was my canine friend of seven years' standing
— faithful, obedient, sympathetic. We found him
last Friday morning — dead. Evidently he had been
poisoned, and I don't envy the brute who unfortunately
poisoned him. The children cried and sobbed. I
felt that another friend had joined those on the Silent
Shore. But I am thankful I ever had the friendship
of Bruce. I am a better man for it ; and God has
not sent even a dog into the world without a purpose !

REMARKS ON BRITISH BOTANY, AND
ON PLANT COLLECTING.

By A. Bennett, F.L.S.

IT is seven years since the author of "The Cybele
Britannica," Mr. H. C. Watson, died. Since
that time how many of our local botanists have made
themselves acquainted with his compendium of the
above work, issued in 1870? I fear far too few;
and yet it is the most interesting of all his works on
our flora, whether we consider its range as showing
the distribution of our flora in Britain, or outside of
our country, the numerous valuable comments on
sub-species and varieties, or the attempt to eliminate
the doubtful records from the real. His later work,
"Topographical Botany," goes into more detail, and
shows the county distribution of every species (then
known) of our flora, and in its second edition is
available to all (the first being only privately printed).
Now, my reason for writing these notes is to call
more attention to these works of Mr. Watson, and to
beg of collecting botanists to try and gather better
and fuller specimens than many now do. It is really
quite unfair to those who are asked to name speci-
mens to send wretched fragments (such as are often
sent !) on which a man must either stake his reputa-
tion, or give possible offence from a supposed want
of courtesy by refusing to name such. And the
more critical the genus, the greater need for full
specimens. An experience of a few years with the
various exchange clubs compels me to say, that
generally we are behind Continental botanists in the
usefulness and scope cf our gathered specimens.

And again, our botanists generally fail to tell us in
what sort of a place the plant grows ; the parish is
given, but usually not a hint whether it is on a heath,
roadside, common, &c. Not that all are so lax ;
there are now several of our botanists who are most
careful to indicate the height, situation, &c, on their
labels ; these are hence valuable, especially if from a
province where the range was not known, or only
imperfectly known to Mr. Watson. I had through
my hands last year some hundreds of voucher-records
from Scotland, and the difference in the way they
were recorded was remarkable ; some thought the
year and county was sufficient, others put on their
labels all that one could desire or expect. Much of
this, I fear, comes from the rage to collect rarities ;
of course, most of us want to gather some "good
things," as we call them ; but I shall never forget
the words that good and estimable botanist, the Rev.
W. W. Newbould, said to me when I was first intro-
duced to him : " Don't hunt for rarities, but gather
all, and examine all, and you will find more rare
things than rushing from one place to another after
them," and my experience is, he was perfectly right.

With many of us our time is limited and oppor-
tunities few ; but I could point to several botanists

HA ED WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

171

with little spare time who have done some good
work ; in fact, more so than many with plenty of
leisure.

Some have urged, "We cannot send our notes
anywhere;" but this is wrong, with the numerous
natural history journals, and in nearly every county
there is now some scientific society (a long list of
these societies was published in this journal a few
years ago), and now many are linked together in
"Unions;" for example, "The East of Scotland
Natural History Union," "The Yorkshire Natu-
ralists' Union," and the Midland. We want such
for the South of England ; or, if the ground is
thought too wide, the south-east and south-west.
These societies are of great benefit, as bringing under
more experienced eyes the work of the several ones
affiliated to them, and the chances of errors being
disseminated becomes much less.

We cannot grumble at the want of good books in
our flora, with such books as Babington's " Manual,"
Hooker's "Student's Flora," and Bentham's " Hand-
book ;" it is probable that at no time have such
accurate and full Floras been extant. Yet, even now,
my own impression is that we have still a great deal
more to learn of the life-histories of our plants than is
usually thought.

- Of course, the botanist who really wants to know
all he can about our plants will not be contented
with these Floras even, but will seek more extended
information in such works as Symes's " English
•Botany" (3rd ed.), now to be found in most good
libraries where books are lent out.

If he can read French, I would advise him to get
the last edition of Lloyd's "Flore de 1'ouest de la
France;" if Latin, Koch's "Synopsis of the Ger-
man and Swiss Floras." Unfortunately, I know of
no book so accessible as these for Scandinavian
plants. Fries' are now getting old, and the admirable
" Handbook" of Hartman is written in Swedish.

But our botanist must not make the mistake (as
Professor Babington remarks in his "Manual") of
thinking that he has found a new British plant
because it seems to fit the description of a Continental
species ; but a reference to Professor Babington or
Mr. J. G. Baker would soon decide what he had
gathered, to both of whom we owe so much of the
great advance in British botany since 1843.

Another thing we much want in British botany is,
that more botanists would take up the study of
particular orders and genera, and work at them with
a view to correlating our forms with the W. European
ones. It may not be out of place here to name some
of those who will be glad of help in the respective
genera (it is needless here to name Professor Babing-
ton for rubi, or Mr. Baker for the roses), such as
Mr. Hanbury for Hieracia (who is engaged on an
illustrated monograph of the British species), Mr. F.
Townsend for Erythraea and Euphrasia, Mr. Beeby
for Spargania and Junci, the Messrs. Groves for

Characese, and I myself should be glad of help in
Potamogeton (as would my good friend Mr. Fryer of
Chatteris), Carex or Salix. But we still want many
others taken up, such as the Batrachian Ranunculi,
Potentilla, Mentha, Rumex, Atriplex, &c, and
some of the genera of grasses as Agrostis, Poa, or
Festuca.

It is only fair to say, that where specimens are
asked to be returned, stamps should be sent to cover
postage by parcel post, as this is now an inexpensive
way of sending specimens. A large number may be
sent in one parcel, if care is taken to use thin paper ;
it matters little how thin the paper is, so long as
the outside covers are stout and tightly bound by

string.

If these crude notes, written as they are as a sort
of general reply to many queries, should stimulate to
the study more, and the rarity hunting less among
our flora, I shall be content.

NOTES ON THE FLORA OF THE
SOUTH DOWNS.

MR. LAMB has already given an interesting
paper on the Flora of the North Downs, and
perhaps a few notes on the South Downs around
Lewes may be useful as a further illustration of the
flora of the chalk formation.

As might be expected, many of the species are
identical, but there are some few exceptions and
additions.

The Chalk Hills of East Sussex are remarkably
free from wood, except some few plantations chiefly
on the northern slopes ; they thus differ very much
from the Downs of West Sussex and of Kent.

It may be convenient to divide the plants into
three divisions — those of the open clown ; those of
the cultivated tracts, which tracts have lately been
much on the increase, and those of the woods.

Taking the open down first, the most noticeable
plants are Poteriuni sanguisorba, Hippocrepis comosa,
Ononis arvensis, Phyteuma orbicularc, Scabiosa colum-
baria, Anthyllis vulneraria, and its variety Diltenii,
Spinea Jilipendula, Pimpinella saxifraga, Aspenda
cynanchka, Polygala vulgaris and calcarea, Liiuim
catharticum, Phymus serpyllum, Cnicus acaulis,
Carlina vulgaris, Gcntiana amarclla and campestris,
Orchis ustulatci, Ophrys apifera, Gymnadenia conopsea,
Phesium humifusum, Scnccio campestris, Ccrastium
semidecandrum, Orchis pyramidalis, mascula and
morio, Habenaria viridis, Ophrys aranifera, and
Herminium monorchis, Helianthcmum vulgare, and
Viola Jlavicornis—ZL dwarf form of Viola hirta also
occurs, which does not seem to be quite the same
as the Viola calcarea of Cambridgeshire. The bulk
of the turf consists of Festuca ovina, and Bromus
erectus, with here and there an admixture of Kceleria
cristata, B-riza media, Avena Jlavescens, and on the

1 2

172

BAEDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

northern slopes in places the very conspicuous Bra-
chypodium pinnalum.

In the rougher places among the abundant furze
Ulex Europaus (U. nanus does not occur), and on
broken declivities and edges of cultivated ground,
grow Rosa micrantha, Rosa rubiginosa rarely, Rosa
spinosissima and Rosa scpium, the last named very
local, Carduus nutans and crispus, Centaurca scabiosa,
Inula conyza, Centaurca calcitrapa, C. solstihalis
(locally), Echium vulgare (especially near the sea),
Onobrychis saliva, Hyoscyamus niger, Cynoglossum
officinale, Verbena officinalis, Galeopsis tctrahit, Chlora
perfoliata, the very local Sescli libanotis, Hypericum
hirsutum, Conium tnaculatum, Senecio erucifolius,
Lactuca muralis, Campanula trachelium, Marrubium
vulgare, etc., Junipcrus communis, so common in
West Sussex, is extremely rare here, and only grows
to the height of a few inches.

The cultivated tracts produce, besides the
usual plants of such districts, some interesting
species, among which may be mentioned
Papaver argcmone and hybridum, Lithosper-
tnum arvense, Galium tricorne, Linaria elatine,
spuria, and minor.

The wooded parts are chiefly composed of
beech and ash, oak only occasionally occurs.
The undergrowth contains Viburnum lantana,
and more rarely Rhamnus catharticus ; Pyrus
aria is rare. These woods are rich in orchids.
The following species grow rather commonly
— Listcra ovata, Cephalanthera grandiflora,
Orchis maculata, Oplirys muscifera, Habenaria
chlorantha, and Ncottia Nidus-avis, while
Herminium monorchis, Cephalanthera ensifolia,
and Aceras anthropophora are rare. Viola
hirla is common, and Viola pcrmixta, re-
sembling in some respects both hirta and
odorata, is frequently found. Geranium pra-
lense and columbinum occur in a few re-
stricted localities, as well as Daphne mezereum.
About seventeen species of Orchidacea are
recorded from the chalk of East Sussex.

Of the species mentioned by Mr. Lamb,
the following I have never seen on the chalk
of East Sussex, viz. Hclleborus fcctidus, Pa-
paver somnifcrum, Afalva moschata (common
in the Weald), Atropa belladonna, Verbascum
Lychnitis, Ajuga chama'pitys, Buxus semper-
■virens, Orchis militaris and fitsca, and Ep't-
pactis latifolia (a wealden plant), while Iris
fcetidissima is very rare, and Taxus baccata
invariably planted. Ophrys arachnites, Orchis hircina
and O. simia, which have been met with on the chalk
in Kent, are quite unknown in Sussex, and we miss
entirely Astragalus hypoglottis, Thalictrum saxatile,
and Anemone Pulsatilla, which are characteristic of
the chalk of Cambridgeshire.

J. H. A. Jenner.

4 East Street, Zewes.

ON VARIOUS ROTIFERS {ASPLANCHNA
MYRMELEO).

By C. Rousselet.

I HAD the good fortune a few days ago to find
this fine and very rare Rotiferon, which has not
yet been properly figured nor described, and only
recorded once in England.

Dr. Hudson, in a footnote on page 123, vol. i. of
his recent work on the Rotifera, says: "His
(Ehrenberg's) Arotommata myrmeleo is unknown in
England, but Leydig has made it clear that in this
instance Ehrenberg has made a mistake, and that
the Rotiferon has not got the cloaca which Ehrenberg
describes. It is therefore an Asplanchna with a foot ;
one much resembling that of ATotops clavulatus. Its
jaws, ovary, vascular system and eye resemble those
of A. BrightwellU:*

Fig. 74. — Asptaitchna myrmeleo. Female X 75.

And in Addenda to the same work, Mr. P. H.
Gosse remarks of Asplanchna myrmeleo : This inter-
esting species is no longer an alien. Mr. Hood has
lately sent me from Dundee, living and healthy
examples. They seemed to possess no contractile
vesicles."

No figure is given, and Pritchard's illustration of
this species, which he evidently copied from some

HA RD WICKE ' 5 SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

173

continental work, probably Ehrenberg's, has only a
very distant resemblance to the original.

It gives me therefore much pleasure to submit a
sketch from life of this handsome Rotiferon, with a
short description of its structure.

In size, structure of ciliary wreath and general
appearance Asplanchna myrmelco greatly resembles
A. Brightwellii, only that it has a small two-toed
foot on the ventral side of the bag-like body, which
is its most characteristic peculiarity. The ciliary
wreath is not continuous, but interrupted, forming
eight strongly ciliated patches round the edge of
the corona ; within are seen two tubular sense-
organs, furnished with a tuft of setae. There is one
single eye seated on the dorsal side of the brain mass,
from the brain two fine nervous threads run down-
wards to the rocket-shaped dorsal antenna?.

The jaws are sharply pointed pincers and not
serrated. The long delicate oesophagus leads to a
large thick-walled stomach, which is a blind sack
held in position by some fine muscular threads
attached to the wall of the body below. There is
certainly no intestine or cloaca, and the animal is
therefore a true Asplanchna.

Several of them had swallowed small water-fleas
{Chydorus sphccricus), the empty shells of which I have
seen ejected by the mouth. One of the water-fleas
was of considerable size, and the stomach was well
stretched over it, which enabled me to note that the
wall appears to consist of a single layer of large and
thick, brownish cells, densely ciliated on the inner
surface, and each having a clear shining nucleus.

Immediately above the stomach, and attached to
the oesophagus, are two large gastric glands, each of
which is double.

The ovary is a very large horseshoe -shaped struc-
ture, very broad and flat at the ends ; attached to the
middle of the ovary is always a maturing ovum, of
varying size, but I have never seen a fully formed
young, as is so often the case with the other
Asplanchnse, although I have seen many individuals
and observed them for several days. It appears
therefore probable, that the eggs are expelled and
left to develop outside.

From the ovary a very thin-walled oviduct leads to
an opening just above the foot.

The muscular system is normal ; four broad bands
arise from the head and are attached low down to the
sides of the body wall, and a number of very fine
threads keep the various organs in position ; five or
six fine muscular threads encircle the body trans-
versely, and a broad band of loosely connected,
elongated muscular cells surround the neck region.

The contractile vesicle is very large and of usual
structure, situated immediately behind the foot ; two
sets of lateral canals arise from it and end in the
region of the head ; they are convoluted in two
places, and branched, or double, part of the way ;
vibratile tags are numerous, but appear to exist only

where the canals are double, and then only on one of
them.

The foot is very small in proportion to the size of
the animal, and situated in the ventral angle of the
body, but sometimes its position is much higher up ;
it is retractile and has two small toes, by means of
which it can, and does, attach itself occasionally to
foreign objects. The foot has four retractor muscles,
two attached to the head, and two fixed laterally to
the sides of the body ; in the interior of the foot is
seen a large oval gland. Every time the head is drawn
in, the foot is driven out with a rush, by the pressure
of the fluid within the body cavity.

Size of female is ^ in. to ^ in., found in a pond at
Staines. The male has not yet been seen.

It is strange that this large and conspicuous Rotifer,
which can easily be seen with the naked eye, has so
long escaped detection in England, where a whole
army of microscopists explore almost every pond in
the country during the summer months. Perhaps also
it has been seen and not recognised, from want of a
published figure and description.

I much regret that Messrs. Hudson and Gosse have
not made their fine work complete by including therein
"all" the known species, whether found in England
or elsewhere. The distribution of these minute
creatures is so very wide, that every species is almost
sure to be found in England sooner or later, and a
"complete" monograph of the class would very
greatly assist in finding and identifying them.
Perhaps this may ultimately be remedied by the issue
of a supplementary part.

July yd, \i

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES IN NORWAY.

By WlLLOUGHBY GARDNER.

ON the 4th of July last year, I sailed in the good
ship "St. Sunniva," from Leith, for a ten
days' holiday in Norway ; the weather, unlike that
in England, had been very wild and wet over the
greater part of Scandinavia for two or three weeks,
but the meteorological reports foreshadowed a rising
barometer in the north, and we started with most
brilliant anticipation, which was very fully realised.
Although I formed one of a party of friends for the
most part without particular scientific instincts, I
looked forward to in indulging in a little natural
history, if possible, by the way, and therefore went
provided with blotting paper, for pressed plants, and
sundry small boxes, and butterfly net, for insects. It
turned out, however, that with as much sight-seeing
as we could possibly do every day amidst the glorious
scenery of the western fjords, there was little spare
time for collecting of any kind, and these notes are
therefore unfortunately but very meagre ; such as
they are though, I trust they may be of interest.
Norway is a country with a very remarkable

174

HARDJVICRE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

climate from its northern latitude (Trondhjem is
on the same parallel as Iceland, and Bergen even is
rather farther north than St. Petersburg), one would
expect it to be very severe and inclement, but,
owing to the Gulf Stream flowing directly against its
coasts, its western shores enjoy a remarkably mild
and agreeable temperature ; at Skudesnaes the mean
register of January is 34°, and of July 540, Fahrenheit,
— i.e. only a difference of 200 ; the rainfall in
these districts is however very excessive, reaching to
as much as 90 in. per annum at Florti, against an
average of under 30 in. in England.

Towards the interior, however, the climate shows
much greater extremes ; the valleys some sixty to
one hundred miles from the coast are sometimes
almost unbearably hot in summer, and in winter
they are very cold — the salt water of the fjords
forming a solid highway for the sleighs of the inhabi-
tants for many months together.

I mention these facts to show what a variety in
Fauna and Flora may be expected in S.W. Norway,
much more than one would imagine in a district so
close to the Arctic Circle.

Then again, although there is probably less sun-
shine in Norway in the course of a year, than with
us, there is very much more of it in summer ; south
of Trondhjem even, there is veritably no darkness
whatever for many weeks in June and July, which
has a marked effect upon the vegetation ; although
frees and plants of perennial growth are much more
stunted than with us, especially inland, where they
experience a long vigorous winter, all flowers and
foliage are very much more luxuriant than in this
country, owing to the continued daylight and long
hours of sunshine developing them to an unusual
degree. The progress of vegetation is so extraordi-
narily rapid that in the north of Norway barley will
often grow z\ inches in twenty-four hours, and it
is planted and harvested in the space of ten weeks !

Our first landing was at Bergen, where we spent
our time very agreeably amidst the accustomed sights
of the place. Here I will only mention that we
visited a most admirable museum, where I should
recommend all travellers to spend as much time as
possible ; this hint may prove useful if it is wet out
6f doors, as may frequently be the case in a town
where it is said to rain on at least three hundred
days in the year ! Besides a truly magnificent col-
lection of Norse antiquities, extending from the
earliest stone ages to the historic period, the museum
contains a most interesting and complete series of
Norwegian fish and marine animals, from the huge
whale skeletons in the main hall, downwards ; we
noticed fine seals, walruses, sword and sunfish, and
also bears, polar and brown, reindeer, and all other
Scandinavian animals, even to the little lemming of
the mountains ; some of the birds were remarkably
well set up, — the snowy owls and a nest of young ones
of another species, being particularly conspicuous.

From Bergen we took train in the evening to
Vossevangen, and on the following day drove
through the most varied and wonderful scenery to
Gudvangen on the Noerofjord. It was truly a
glorious morning, bright sun, and weather all that
could be desired, so I got out my butterfly net,
hoping to have occasion to use it during the journey.
For the first hour and a half, I saw nothing on the
wing, but about 10.30 A.M. insect life began to stir,
and I pulled up the pony and jumped out of my
stolkjserre precipitately (to the huge amazement of
the small post-boy hanging on behind) to give chase
to what proved to be neither more nor less than a
"common blue" (Z. Icarus). Nothing daunted,
however, I kept my " weather eye " well open as
we drove along, and during the course of the next
few miles my captures consisted of Lyccena Agon,
more Icarus, and C. Pampliylus ; a little later, on a
bank of brilliant flowers beside a river, I gave chase
to a butterfly which appeared very like our British
Pararge Megcera on the under side, when settled, but
which proved to be a variety of the widely-spread
continental P. Mara. My specimen does not agree
exactly with any types I have seen in collections or
figures, being distinctly darker in colour, and with
the fulvous bands on the fore-wing larger and more
brilliant.

The flora here was of mountain character for the
most part, but very luxuriant in growth ; I never in
my life saw such magnificent bedr, one might call
them, of oak and beech fern ; parsley fern, too,
appeared in glorious bunches on the higher grounds,
the fronds being remarkably fine ; Asplmium Tri-
chomanes grew everywhere in the rocks, but seemed
barely so thriving as it often is in Wales. Every
now and then we stopped to regale ourselves on
delicious wild strawberries and whinberries by the
wayside, and I also gathered a few black crowberries
{Empetrum nigrum). Many ordinary English wild
flowers grew in the greatest profusion in sheltered
situations, and near the streams, hair-bells, ragged
robin, and heartsease were especially noticeable for
their very large and brilliant blossoms — specimens
being in many instances almost half as large again as
with us. The common sundew or fly-catcher {Drosera
rotundifolia) I also noticed in damp places, and the
leaves were fully an inch across — perhaps a merciful
provision of Providence in a land of midges and
other insect pests ! En passant, I will say that
we were fortunate in escaping without serious attack
from the mosquitos, which are such a nuisance in
some districts, more particularly towards Sweden ;
we found a species of horse-fly very annoying, how-
ever, the blood-thirsty creatures were like the man-
eating tigers of India ; when they once tasted good
English blood, they gave up henceforth all idea of
subsisting on the life fluid of ordinary Norwegian
pony !

About mid-day, near Vinje, we came to some very

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

J75

good collecting ground for Lepidoptern, and saw
numbers flying about in some open glades and hay
fields full of wild flowers, at an altitude of nearly
iooo ft., by the side of a river. While one of our
party was engaged in taking some photographs, I
had a good look round for half an hour ; numerous
Fritillaries were on the wing here, but the only
specimen I took proved to be A. Aglaia — of the usual
English type; Lycccna Alexis and Icarus and C. Pam-
phylus again abounded. I saw, though I did not cap-
ture, another P. Mara ; my most noteworthy " take,"
however, was a specimen of Polyommatus Plippolhoc ;
this is the true Hippothoe of Linnaeus and Esper,
or the Chryseis of Hubner, not the variety of Dispar
called by the name ; it is interesting to the English
collector as having been formerly taken in this
country at Ashdown Forest in Sussex, and also in
Epping Forest. My capture here was unfortunately
rather a ragged specimen, but this is of frequent
occurrence in these wild mountainous districts, where
insects soon get knocked about, owing to the often
boisterous weather.

Further on, as we neared the Stalheimsklev, we
came into a district of wild moorland with forests of
fir, some 1200 ft. above the level of the sea. Here I
pulled up once or twice to pursue a pale-looking
Geometer which flitted away every now and then
across the road, and which turned out to be our
familiar Melanippe montanata ; in some places it
was very abundant, but it seemed to be the sole
representative of its family in these parts, where one
would at least have expected to turn up something
more unique. Presently, however, a quick dark
flying insect of Erebia-like appearance caused me to
dismount and give chase hurriedly, and a lucky
"catch," in very awkward and rough ground,
revealed a most interesting insect in Erebia Ligea ;
the specimen taken is of the northern form, with
smaller spots and fulvous bands on the forewing
than the type ; this again was, to me, a most inter-
esting capture, being the first time I had ever taken
the species, though I have carefully scrutinized
numbers of specimens of its near ally, Blandina, from
the slopes of Goat Fell, in our Scotch Isle of Arran,
in the hopes of discovering the true Ligea, which was
formerly reported to have been captured there by
two different collectors j though these insects are
yery similar upon the upper surface, there is no mis-
taking the white anti-marginal splash on the under
side of the hind wing of Ligea.

Passing through these fir-woods, numbers of a
small skip-jack beetle flew about the road, which
proved to be none other than the pretty little Corym-
betes citpreics of our Welsh mountains ; this was the
only Coleopterous insect that I noticed in any pro-
fusion ; but driving somewhat rapidly through a
country is not a very satisfactory way of collecting,
and I am sure that the whole of this district would
well repay a thorough investigation.

Of bird life we saw but little that was remarkable
during the journey ; the familiar field-fare was re-
cognizable at once, flying mostly in pairs ; it breeds
here, of course, only going south to England for the
winter. Magpies chattered here and there ami
everywhere among the woods : these birds are great
favourites with the peasants in the country districts ;
they become very tame in the long severe winter,
hopping unmolested in and out of the houses, where
they are fed and encouraged as visitors of happy
omen, much as robins are with us ; and woe be to
the stranger who should attempt to do them amy
harm.

The common crow of Norway is what we call1 the-
" hooded crow ; " it was to be seen everywhere about
the country, while rooks and carrion crows were
conspicuous by their absence. A pretty little wag-
tail, the "grey-headed" {Molacilla negledd) I think,,
flitted about by the side of every stream.

We did not have the luck to come across an eagle
or anything else specially noteworthy.

Reaching at length, after five hours' driving, the
far-famed Stalheimsklev, the magnificent scenery cf
the gorge of the profound and sombre Ncerodal, with
its stupendous precipices of over 3000 ft. high on
either side, its two huge water-falls, and other at-
tractions, quite took away one's attention from any
of the smaller objects of interest in nature ; leaving
the zigzag road and climbing down beside the
Selvefos, almost enveloped in the vaporous spray
which drifted about in huge clouds around us, I
noticed, however, a most beautiful and rare Saxi-
frage growing among the rocks, probably Saxifraga
splendcns, which had a tall and most graceful
pyramid of snowy white star-like flowers, some
twelve to eighteen inches high. I managed to
secure a root, which, unfortunately, I could only keep
alive for a day or two, and was charmed with its
most delightful fragrance, given off chiefly during
the evening.

The huge and awful precipices towering some
3000 ft. above our heads as we drove along the
bottom of the Noerodal, are chiefly composed of a
light grey felspathic gneiss ; primary rocks are the
order of the day in Norway — granite, gneiss, quartz,
mica, felspars — all to be seen, now, much as when
first deposited, and seldom covered by any more
recent formation ; truly, for the geologist, this is a
country of rare attractions, presenting a series of
rocks of most hoar antiquity, and with perhaps few
strata later than the Silurian.

During this_day's journey we had our first glimpse
of Norwegian hay-making, a somewhat novel pro-
cess ; the coarse rank grass, mixed half and half with
thistles and various other miscellaneous plants,
which is dignified by the name of hay, is a most
valuable commodity in this country, where all com-
munication from place to place is carried on by
means of ponies in carrioles and stolkjrerres"; the

176

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

crop therefore, such as it is, gets no ordinary care
and attention, and the patient plodding Scandinavian
peasantry, knowing that it would stand a poor chance
of drying in this uncertain climate if left upon the
ground, take the trouble to hang it up handful by
handful on rows of hurdles brought out for the occasion
into the hayfields. The idea is a good one, as the
grass dries very rapidly in this way ; it might possibly
be worth the consideration of the now much
straitened British farmer, who also usually has a
very changeable climate, amongst other things, to
contend with.

So valuable indeed is the smallest patch of grass
in this rock-bound country, that we frequently saw a
most luxuriant growth carefully cherished upon the
roof of an out-house or stable, where at intervals
sheep are hauled up to browse, or hay-making opera-
tions are carried on !

On joining the rest of our party at the end of the
day at Gudvangen, I found that a friend who had a
"net" with him had taken the same species of
Lepidoptera as I had, with the addition of a speci-
men of the angular winged Argynnis pales (Schiff.),
var. Lapponica (Stgr.), an interesting Alpine and
northern insect, which he had captured in a small
meadow near Vinje.

Whilst steaming down the Sogne Fjord late on the
evening of this particular day, we passed some
salmon weirs, behind which were some curious long
white streaks upon the rocks, looking like water at a
distance ; on inquiry, we learned that these were
r ainted cascades, made for the purpose of taking
advantage of a salmon's well-known predilection for
ascending waterfalls ; truly a novel way of attracting
the fish into the nets !

Our journeyings did not permit of further ento-
mological collecting till we reached the far-famed
Romsdal valley ; landing at Nses late in the evening,
I took my net on shore for the chance of a few
insects in the darker hollows of the woods, &c,
towards midnight ; but when I say that we took a
very successful photographic view at 11.15 p.m., and
that I made a water-colour sketch an hour later, it
will readily be understood that one was hardly likely
to capturefmany moths ; indeed, during my trip in
Norway I never saw a single Noctua, and conclude
that they must arrange their emergence into the
perfect state for the spring or autumn, when the days
are shorter ! The country hereabouts would, I am
sure, well repay the thorough investigation of all
geological visitors ; on the mountain-side close to
Verblungnres no fewer than four well-defined, raised
beaches mark successive coast lines ; up the valley-
moraines, striations, rounded blocks, and all features
of glacier action, may be studied to repletion, while
every form of disintegration, by air, frost, water,
landslips or avalanche, is illustrated most vividly, and
on a really cyclopean scale.

Next morning I took my net and a few boxes with

me for the drive up to Horgheim. Truly this was
the grandest bit of country I had ever collected in,
but so impressive and overpowering was the scenery,
that one could hardly bring one's thoughts down to
so small a thing as an insect. We drove up the
fertile valley of the Rauma, carpeted in places with the
brightest and loveliest of flowers, well-nigh awed, I
may say, by the sight of the huge bare gneiss preci-
pice of the Romsdalhorn disappearing in the clouds
on the one side, and the towering crags of the
Troltinderner, with jagged pinnacles clear cut
against the sky, far above us on the other ; far above,
I say, for they were 5800 ft., or considerably over a
mile high, above our heads, and so precipitous, that
I verily believe one could have thrown a stone from
the top of the nearer peaks to the bottom of the
valley. The winter snows were still lying thick in
the hollows, but ever and anon the warmth of the
perpetual summer sunshine told upon them, and twice
did we see a huge avalanche come roaring down
with a noise like thunder, bringing enormous rocks
and all sorts of lesser debris into the valley ; luckily
these avalanches seldom reach as far as the road in
summer, but we passed one great rock which had
evidently fallen a day or two previously, and which
had ploughed across our road and gone crashing
through the wood beyond, laying low all the trees
in its path.

The woods here were chiefly composed of alder,
birch, and ash ; here and there we saw a diminutive
oak, but the great tree of which we are so justly
proud in England cannot in this climate develop
into more than a large stunted bush. Although
perennial vegetation is so dwarfed, many familiar
plants of a summer's growth attain to a wonderful
luxuriance, owing to the almost perpetual sunshine
they enjoy during their short season ; the meadows in
this valley were one mass of flowers ; there were beds
of deep red-purple heartsease growing so thickly that
you could hardly see any green between the blossoms,
and the latter were fully 1 in. by § in size. Yellow-
rattle, bird's-foot trefoil, milkwort, eye-bright, globe
flower, and other friends at home, were here seen of
a most abnormal size and in most luxuriant profusion.
Aconite was common in the woods, and many plants
quite unknown to us, appeared here and there also ;
I was quite sorry that I had no time to collect more
of them, but of the few brought home and since named,
Comics Stucica has perhaps proved the most inter-
esting ; it is very rare with us, occasionlly occurring
in the Scotch Highlands, and is remarkable for its
very small, almost unnoticeable, flower, surrounded
by four pale white sepals, which appear like four
white petals, though of course they are not the flower
at all. A friend who was with me also made an
interesting find at the foot of the Romsdalhorn, dis-
covering a specimen of the Scandinavian edelweiss
[Anlcnnaria alpiua ?) among some rocky debris.

In this land of brilliant blossoms, T naturally

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

i77

•expected to find some interesting insects, and there-
fore dismounted every now and then from my
stolkjserre to look about; "blue" butterflies
abounded everywhere, but turned out to be nothing
.more than the familiar Icarus and /Egon, the latter
being the commoner of the two ; C. Pamphylus was
•also abundant, varying in no way from the British
type ; the Fritillaries were represented by Aglaia,
and I saw one specimen of some other large Argynnis,
which I failed to run down ; my most interesting
capture, however, was a beautiful fresh specimen of
Polyommatus Hippothoe, on a bed of heartsease ;
verily, this is a lovely insect when just out, with
its rich red coppery upper surface, shot with violet
reflections ; it soon loses its true brilliancy when dead.
Not very far from where I took this beautiful
butterfly, snow was lying in drifts ten to fifteen feet
thick in shaded hollows.

I do not think I ever saw so many Dor beetles in
•one day as I did during this drive ; these insects have
a peculiar Scandinavian association for us, our name
Dor being simply a corruption of Thor, the great god
of Thunder of our Viking ancestors, whose name is
also perpetuated to us in the word Thursday or
Thors-day. Our Norse forefathers dedicated this
beetle to their god Thor, and are said to have held
it in high veneration in consequence ; a relic of this
survives in some parts of Norway and Sweden to the
present day, where the simple-minded peasant will
reverently set the poor little beetle upon his feet
again, if he finds him lying on his back on the road,
passing on with a lighter heart, at any rate, for the
kindly deed. Throughout Norway the greatest
consideration and kindness is shown for all living
creatures, both by young and old.

At a house up the Romsdal valley I saw a fine
bear's skin, obtained in the neighbourhood, but the
only wild animal I had the luck to see alive was
a wild cat, a handsome looking creature, with a
bluish-grey fur and thick short bushy tail.

At Molde, a place where we saw a panorama of
distant snow-capped mountains lit up by the late
evening sun, which was a never-to-be-forgotten dream
of purple and gold, I did not manage to do any
entomological collecting, as the country was soaked
with recent heavy rains ; the flora of the neigh-
bourhood, however, was wonderfully varied, and
vegetation generally marvellously luxuriant. On the
hill behind the town I was delighted to find Linnaa
borealis growing very abundantly ; this pretty little
creeping evergreen, a near ally of the honeysuckle,
with its gracefully pendent white flowers, was the
special favourite of the great botanist whose name it
bears.

An interesting though necessarily very saddening
sight which I was permitted to see at Molde, was the
large Lepers' Hospital. One is accustomed to read of
this dreadful disease in the Old Testament Scriptures
with a vague notion that it was a scourge of olden

times, having no connection with the nineteenth
century ; a visit to the wards at Molde, however,
distressingly dissipates this idea.

Neither at Trondhjem, nor in the Geiranger, had I
any opportunity of using my net again in pursuit
of butterflies, but, apropos of the latter, I may mention
a seemingly rather favourite ornamentation of crosses
in the graveyard of Trondhjem Cathedral ; one
might almost suppose that Butler's " Analogy " had
been translated into Norse, and was a book much
studied in the district, for above the inscription on
the headstone was frequently engraved his well-known
emblem of Life and Immortality — the grub and the
butterfly. This was, at any rate, an interesting fact
which could not fail to catch the eye of an amateur
entomologist.

A call in at Bergen again completed our short trip
in " Gamle Norge," and, in conclusion, I can only
say that any naturalist with time at his disposal would
find in this glorious country most delightful fields for
collecting and investigating, amidst the most wonder-
ful and verily grand and awe-inspiring of scenery ;
he will probably on his first visit, however, as I
myself did, find the scenery so completely absorbing of
his receptive faculties, that he will scarcely succeed
in taking in many minor details of the country.

On looking over the few entomological captures I
brought home with me, it strikes me as rather a
curious thing that, while the long hours of sunshine
certainly have such a marked effect upon all flowers
in Norway, making them grow to such an abnormal
size, and with such extraordinary luxuriance, insect
life does not seem to be affected to any appreciable
extent in the same way ; probably, however, the
excessive moisture of the climate, which is beneficial
to plant life, serves to check insect development.

It is a somewhat remarkable circumstance, too, that
although the prolonged sunshine makes all the flowers
much brighter in colour, and their scents also very
much more powerful than in England, the fruits that
ripen in Norway have, for the most part, a decidedly
inferior flavour to those grown in this country.

THE INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGY ON
POPULATION.

By G. W. Bulman, M.A.

THE influence of the geological structure of a
country makes itself felt in various directions.
It shows itself in the scenery, and determines whether
a district shall be flat and tame, gently undulating
and picturesque, or rugged and grand ; it settles
which shall be the dominating species of tree, and
affects likewise the humbler vegetation ; it is an
element in the formation of climate, and may largely
affect the rainfall ; finally, it has no small influence
on the population. •

If we draw on a map of Great Britain a line from

1 78

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

the mouth of the Tees to Lyme Regis in Dorset, we
cut off on the east a roughly triangular portion,
containing nearly all the geological formations newer
than the Permian. At the same time, we isolate
almost the entire region where the nightingale is to
be found in this country. This emphatically suggests
some geological influence on the distribution of the
bird, the exact nature of which does not appear to
have been determined.

And as geology has affected the minor population,
so also has it influenced the human. The distribution
of the various settlers in Britain — Celts, Saxons,
Danes, and Norwegians — shows some striking
dependence on the geological structure of the
country.

To determine the various' areas occupied by these
races, the most reliable method has been found
to be the study of place names. Where the popu-
lation has remained Celtic, the root-words in these
appellations are mostly in that language, whereas
Danish and Norwegian settlers gave their towns
names from their own speech. An examination
of the names of towns and villages, then, gives data
for the construction of a map, coloured according to
the different languages from which the place names
come. Such a map shows, in the most exact manner
possible at present, the districts occupied by the
various tribes. A chart of this kind is to be found in
Taylor's "Names and Places," showing the distribu-
tion of the various tribes of settlers in the British
Isles. On comparing it with a geological map of
Britain, we are struck by the remarkable way in
which the geological structure seems to have
determined the areas occupied by the Celts, the
Danes, and the Norwegians.

On the former map, the yellow, denoting Saxon
names, has driven the red, or Celtic, into the two
districts of Wales and Cornwall.

This red area in Wales coincides roughly with the
Silurian and Cambrian of that district ; while that of
Cornwall is approximately the Old Red Sandstone,
with frequent patches of granite, which forms the
south-west corner of England. It is easy to see why
these districts were chosen as places of refuge by the
fugitive Britons. Both are rough, mountainous
regions, abounding in deep valleys, and steep hills ;
and, in ancient times, with impenetrable forests. In
them the Britons found a safe retreat from the fierce
Saxons. And it is the geology of these regions which
made them thus suitable and preserved the Celtic race
in England from extinction.

The Cambrian and Silurian rocks are our oldest
formations, except the Archrean. Long exposed
to the weather, and the general vicissitudes of time,
and lying often at high angles, they have been cut into
numerous deep glens, high rugged crags and splintery
peaks ; while volcanic agency has likewise helped to
produce a wild and rugged region.

In Cornwall the old red sandstone, which does not

as a ride produce the grand and rugged scenery of the
Cambrian and Silurian, has been broken up by
mighty intrusive masses of granite ; and the combina-
tion has produced a region of wild and lofty hills, well
suited to provide a refuge for the fleeing Celts. A
similar influence has preserved a large area in
Scotland, north of the Forth, to the ancient Celtic
population.

The next thing to be noted on the map, is the fact
that the green, indicating Danish settlements, is all on
the east coast ; while the blue, indicating Norwegian,,
is on the west. Both penetrate inland in many
places. The former range from Suffolk to the mouth
of the Tees, with a few small areas scattered about
further north and along the south coast, etc. The
latter are indicated on the map from the Shetland
and Orkney islands down the west coast, continuously
at first, and then at intervals, as far as the north shore ■
of the Bristol Channel. On the east they only occupy
Caithness and Sutherland, with a few small and
scattered areas extending as far south as Peterhead..
No indications of Danish settlements appear on the
west coast, and none of Norwegian on the east,.
except in the north of Scotland. These distinctions as
to inhabitants coincide remarkably with the geological
difference in the two coasts. The latter present a
striking contrast, owing to the varying nature of the
rocks. In Great Britain the older rocks lie in the
north-west, and as we proceed in a south-east
direction, we pass continuously from older to newer
formations. Consequently, from the extreme north of
Scotland to the Land's End scarcely any newer rocks-
than the Permian enter into the formation of the west
coast-line. On the other hand, from the mouth of the
Tees southwards we find no rocks older than the Trias,
forming our eastern shore.

Thus it appears that the Norwegians chose the
regions where the older rocks opposed their time-worni
cliffs to the waves, while the Danes were drawn,
towards those parts where the sea washed the less
imposing barriers of chalk, mud, and sand of the
younger rocks. Let us inquire, then, if this
geological difference can in any way account for the
Norwegian's choice of the west coast, and the Dane's,
partiality for the east. It is clear we cannot
attribute it to chance, for the settlement of the
Northmen in England was not by one, but by many*
invasions.

If we compare the west coast of Scotland with that
of Norway, we see at once a striking similarity. The
numerous long, deep, and narrow fjords of the latter
are faithfully reproduced in the extensive sea-water
lochs, which indent the coast of the former at frequent
intervals. Each coast line, moreover, is studded with
numerous small islands. The rocky and deeply
indented nature of Scotland's west coast is due to the
same cause as the rough and rugged scenery of Wales.
Those narrow arms of the sea, running inland for
such long distances, represent the deep valleys ; while.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

179

fthe lofty hills appear as towering cliffs, and craggy
islands. And, when we turn to a geological map of
Norway, we find that it is almost entirely occupied by
■Cambrian and Silurian rocks ; the coast of Norway is
geologically the same as the west coast of Scotland.
We may then infer that the Norwegian invaders chose
■our west coast because of its similarity to their own,
and we know that the resemblance is due to geo-
logical structure.

And can we offer a similar explanation with regard
to the Danish choice ? The country most thickly
peopled by the Danes extends from the mouth of the
Tees to the Naze in Essex. Of this, the region from
the Tees to the Great Ouse is the most thickly studded
with Danish names. Two-thirds of this latter extent
is composed of recent drift and alluvium, and the
remainder almost entirely of Liassic and Oolitic
rocks. Flamborough Head and the Norfolk coast are
•Cretaceous ; the remaining part, southwards to the
Naze, the Tertiary rocks of the London basin. Hence
we have on the line occupied by the Danish settlers
a large extent of flat coast, cliffs not lofty, and no
deep indentations such as we find on the west coast.
Looking at an ordinary map of Denmark, we are
struck at once by the peculiarity of its coast-line. The
sea penetrates into the heart of, and at times almost
■ across, the country; narrow spits of land cut off, or
almost cut off, small areas of ocean ; lakes are thickly
studded over the interior, and there are no high
mountains. All this suggests an absence of the older
geological formations, and a land recently elevated
from the sea. And on consulting a geological map,
we find that with the exception of a few patches of
Cretaceous rocks, Denmark is entirely Tertiary. So
it appears the Danes chose that portion of the British
coast which most resembled their own low-lying
shores.

Yet another geological element has exerted an
influence in determining roughly the ultimate extent
of territoiy occupied by the Danes. This influence is
due to that barrier of Magnesian limestone which
stretches with a gap of twenty miles immediately
south of the Tees, like a wall from the Tyne to
,the Trent, where the latter begins to take its final
northern bend. In a roughly approximate way this
barrier has bound in the Danish settlers. Through
■the gap on the south of the Tees the green of the
Danish district on the map swells out westward to
meet and mingle with the Norwegian blue, spreading
• eastwards from the coast of Cumberland. And again,
<where the magnesian barrier ends at the river Trent,
the Danish settlers have spread out south-west
towards the Bristol Channel.

This coincidence, it has been hinted, is only
rough, but the two bulgings out westwards through
'the gap and below the wall are most striking. A
large portion of Central England to the west of
.it is, in fact, left comparatively free from Danish
influence on its place names.

Such are the results which suggest themselves, on
a cursory comparison of the geological map with one
coloured according to the prevailing nationality, as
determined by place names.

They show that geology has had some share in
deciding the areas to be occupied by the different
nations. The part which the geological structure of a
region has had in moulding the character and
physical development of the people opens out another
interesting field of inquiry.

Corbridge-on- Tyne.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By "\V. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

\LUMINIUM. — The production of aluminium is
steadily progressing in the direction of cheapness.
If its future history shall correspond with the past
history of many other chemical manufactures, it may
ere long become sufficiently cheap to enter into the
composition of ordinary domestic utensils, and
largely to take the place of copper and brass. If it
thereby hastens the ruin of commercial conspirators
who are rigging the copper market, all respectable
men of business will be thankful to it.

The combination of tenacity with lightness which
is the characteristic of this interesting metal, consti-
tutes its chief merit. A multitude of uses will arise
from this combination immediately the price is
sufficiently reduced.

It should be remembered that its low specific
gravity is practically an element of cheapness.
Copper, bulk for bulk, is more than three and a half
times as heavy as aluminium, silver four times ; there-
fore aluminium at 3J. per lb. is practically as cheap as
copper at tenpence, seven aluminium kettles of given
size will weigh less than two of copper, besides the
economy in handling. Four aluminium spoons of
given size, will weigh less than one of silver.

I should here correct a rather common mistake.
In newspaper references to this subject, the writers
frequently describe clay as alumina, or the oxide of
aluminium. Even in a well-established text-book on
geology, I find enumerated among the constituents of
rocks " alumina or pure clay," and in an old
Dictionary of Geology we are told that " When clay
is quite pure and unmixed it is termed alumina."
Pure clay h3s a far more complex composition. It is
a hydrated silicate of alumina, i.e. a compound of
solid water with the oxide of silicon and alumina.
Neither alumina nor silicate of alumina (whether wet
or dry) has the characteristic plastic properties of
clay. If clay were mere alumina, the problem of
making aluminium would be materially simplified.

The Mandrake. — In a recent number of " The
Asclepiad " (2nd quarter, iSSS), Dr. Richardson has
an interesting article on this subject. The facts he

i8o

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

states show very plainly that the use of anaesthetics

for annulling pain in surgical operations is but a

revival of an ancient practice, and that the mandrake

(Atropa mandragora) was one of the most popular

agents.

" Give me to drink mandragora
That I might tleep out this great gap of time."

exclaims Cleopatra during the absence of Mark
Antony, and Iago says, when he had duly poisoned the
mind of his confiding master,

" Not po-py nor mandragora
Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world
Shall ever rr.edecine thee to that sweet sleep
Which thou ow'dst >esterday."

Dr. Richardson with some difficulty obtained a
specimen of the root, and from it prepared the
"Wine of Mandragora" according to the ancient
recipe. His experiments show that the ancient
reputation of this preparation was well founded as far
as its anaesthetic properties are concerned, that it is
"a general anaesthetic of the most potent quality,"
and he has no doubt that its active principle, if
isolated, would be " one of the most active anaesthetics
we have yet discovered." This is not all, it possesses
the valuable property of producing long continued
local insensibility. Dr. Richardson found that, on
applying the tincture to his lips the insensibility was
very decided, and lasted for more than an hour.

Some of our very numerous aspirants in organic
chemistry will do well in separating the alkaloid or
whatever else the active principle of the mandrake
may be, and studying its compounds.

As regards the difficulty of obtaining specimens, I
may mention a fact that came under my notice two or
three years ago. The driver of one of the Harlesden
omnibuses on which I was riding, drew from his
pocket a piece of what appeared to be horse-radish,
and told a long story concerning the wondrous
medicinal virtues of this root which he called the
mandrake. He used it by scraping, and chewing the
shavings. Its appearance corresponded to the
drawings I have seen, excepting that it lacked the
bifurcation supposed to represent the legs of a man.
He obtained it from a herbalist and always carried
it, supposing that he thereby rendered himself proof
against infection.

Science in Turkey. — A report on the Climat-
ology of Constantinople, based upon the results of
twenty years' observations made at the Imperial
Meteorological Observatory by command of the
Sultan, may appear surprising to some people who
have been deluded by factious falsehoods iDto the
belief, that the "unspeakable" Turk is a creature
incapable of scientific or any other progress. M.
Coumbray, Director of the Constantinople Observa-
tory, issued between 1868 and 1874 a monthly bul-
letin, including the results of observations made in this
and the other observatories of the Ottoman Empire.

The recent report for 1887 refers mainly to Con-

stantinople, where the minimum temperature was
l7°-2 (January, 1869) and the maximum 99°"i
(August 1880), a range of 820. This is considerable,
but the climate of Odessa is far more severe, the
temperature in winter commonly falling more than
20 degrees below that of Constantinople where the
worst climatic trouble comes with a S.E. wind, the
Sirocco or Samiel, which is a diluted simoom
blowing from the desert. I spent June and July there
many years ago and found myself prostrated with
severe headache and lassitude, which led me to
suppose that I was sickening for fever. It lasted
just three days, and the first intimation I obtained ot
its real cause was the inquiry from an Englishman of
greater experience in Eastern travel, who asked me
how I had pulled through the sirocco.

Protection for Fishes.— The Liverpool Marine
B'ology Committee made a holiday cruise at Whitsun-
tide which must have been very interesting to the
naturalists. Among other proceedings they practi-
cally tested the effect of the electric light as an
adjunct to fishing, by lowering at night two nets
under similar conditions, excepting that one was near
to a sunken electric light, and the other on the dark
side of the same ship. After being out for three-
quarters of an hour the nets were hauled in. That
which had been towed in the dark contained
practically nothing ; the illuminated net contained an
abundance of Crustacea, especially of free-swimming
species. The experiment was repeated with modifi-
cations, the results in all cases showing that the light
adds greatly to the power of the fishermen. Besides
these, other experiments have been made where true
fishes, vertebrata, were concerned, and all with
similar fatality. Practically, such luminous decoy is
but a refinement on the old Norwegian method of
salmon-spearing by night, with a blazing wood fire
overhanging the bow of the boat.

It does not appear that this electric bait has yet
been commercially used on a scale of any magnitude,
but if it does come into extensive use, it will add to
the existing necessity for legal restrictions to sea
fishery, in the limitation of reckless capture of young
fishes, or rather of fishes that have just passed through
the natural dangers of infancy, and are entering upon
that stage of life when they may escape their ordinary
enemies, and rapidly grow to become valuable food-
material for ourselves. This protection may be
afforded, by specifying a minimum size of certain
fishes that may be exposed for sale. If, for example,
the fishermen could find no market for "slips" and
"grilse," their own interests would be sufficient to
induce them to return these to the water, in order
they might become soles and salmon.

The Recalescence of Iron. — This is a curious
and obscure subject. In the course of cooling from a
white heat, some samples of iron appear at certain
temperatures to start into an increasing glow. Mr.

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS I P.

1S1

II. Tomlinson has endeavoured to throw some light
upon the mystery by testing the variations of internal
friction of the metal at different temperatures, the
method adopted being that of suspending a wire
vertically, heating it by an electric current, and
noting the period of horizontal vibration when the
wire is twisted. At 550° (Centigrade) the internal
friction rises rapidly, and still more rapidly at 10000,
at which temperature the wire comes to rest after two
or three vibrations. From Iioo0 to 12000 it seems
to decrease. At 5500 the magnetic and thermo-
electric properties also change. At 10000 heat also
becomes latent. When iron has been strained by
bending or hammering, the strained portion appears
clouded as the cooling proceeds. This is attributed
to the more rapid cooling of the strained part, which,
according to Mr. Tomlinson, has a lower specific heat
than the unstrained portions. In well-annealed iron
recalescence cannot be detected.

Rapid Evaporation. —If I remember rightly it
was Sydney Smith who defined woman as a biped
who refuses to reason and who lights a fire on the
top. Woman was avenged when it was proved that
the best method of preventing smoke and economising
fuel in an ordinary open grate is to light the fire at
the top and allow it to gradually burn downwards.
By doing so the hydro-carbon vapours generated in
the first stage of combustion of the coal, have to pass
through the fire above, and are there completely
burned with full supply of oxygen, and therefore no
smoke is generated. This proceeding corresponds to
that of firing a boiler furnace by pushing the fully
incandescent fuel farther back on the long bars and
supplying fresh fuel in front.

A German chemist, W. Hempel, has carried the
feminine paradox still further. He finds that the
most rapid and generally effective method of evapo-
rating liquids, is to apply the heat above their
surface instead of at the bottom of the vessel containing
them. For this purpose he uses a Siemens' inverted
regenerative gas-burner, (other inverted burners, of
which so many are now in use, will answer the
purpose,) bringing the flame as near as possible to the
surface. There is no ebullition and consequently no
spirting, an important advantage in many chemical
operations, especially where evaporation is involved in
an analytical process. He finds that no appreciable
amount of sulphurous acid from the gas is absorbed
by the liquid.

The Specific Gravity of Liquids. — A. B
Taylor ("Chemical News, vol. li. p. 138) proposes
a very simple method of ascertaining this. It is to
take a solid of known specific gravity, and of this
weigh as many grains as correspond to its specific
gravity, and then weigh it in the liquid to be tested.
The loss of weight in grains expresses the specific
gravity of the liquid.

The principle of this will be understood by

remembering, that specific gravity tables express the
weight of a given bulk of solids and liquids as
compared with an equal bulk of distilled water.
Therefore if Mr. Taylor's method be applied to
distilled water, the result will be unity, whatever solid
be used. If, for example, the specific gravity of the
solid be i*o, it means that bulk for bulk it weighs the
same as water, therefore, if one grain of this is
weighed in water it will displace exactly its own bulk
of water and neither float nor sink, will weigh
nothing in the water, i.e. will lose one grain. The
specific gravity of platinum is 2\\. Therefore 2i£
grains will have exactly the same bulk as the solid
above supposed, or that bulk of water, and the loss
again will be 1. But if the liquid were, say \\ times
as heavy, bulk for bulk, as distilled water, this bulk
of platina will have to displace or push upwards \\
times as much weight of fluid in order to put itself
below its surface, and thus will lose \\ grains of
weight in such liquid as against the one grain lost in
water.

NOTES ON rHTHIRIUS INGUINALIS.

TWO or three specimens of this insect were sent
to me to be mounted. On examination one of
them proved to have feet of what I take to be a

Fig. 75. — [a) External and internal terminal claws.
P. ingiiinalis.

Fig. 76.— (o) Ovum? P. inguinalis.

somewhat peculiar structure. Within the terminal
joint of each foot there is a terminal claw, which is
rather longer than the external terminal claw. This

182

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

■difference in length is most marked in the anterior
pair of legs, employed by the insect in walking ; but
it is also observable in the posterior (climbing) pairs
of legs.

I have compared the mount in question with a
specimen independently prepared by Mr. W. M.
Osmond, a member of our Microscopical Society
here, and with two other specimens mounted by me j
also with a carefully executed drawing from a German
preparation ; in none of them, however, is there any
double claw. Mr. Osmond employed caustic potash
in cleaning his object ; in all of my slides I adopted
Mr. Jackman's process for mounting a tape-worm
■{vide "The Microscope" for January last, p. 5),
which, in the few instances in which I have tried it,

Fig. 77. — Terminal claw of second pair of legs, showing infernal claw
attached to muscle, and longer than external claw.

has answered well for small insects. My objects
were perhaps not sufficiently flattened to admit of
their being clearly focussed all over, but I am
responsible for this feature. Does the insect in
question moult, and was this specimen secured at an
opportune moment ?

The photographs which illustrate this note have
been expressly taken for it by Mr. Osmond ; it
seemed to us that in a matter of this kind photos
would be accepted, as being more reliable than hand
drawings.

In two specimens we have observed a long oval
body (shown in one of the photos I enclose) : is it an
egg? I have a drawing of the abdomen of a choice
sample of Cimex lectularius, which contained no less
than six unmistakable ova : I examined it in pure
carbolic acid as a medium ; and it brought the ova
to view with wonderful clearness.

Calcutta. W. J. Simmons.

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF AQUATIC
FORMS.

By T. D. A. COCKERELL.

IN my previous paper on Geographical Distribution
1 dealt almost entirely with terrestrial species,
and did not speak of those inhabiting the sea. I now
propose to consider some of the more noteworthy
facts concerning the distribution of aquatic forms,
dealing, as before, mainly with those which inhabit
the British Isles.

The wide distribution of freshwater species is
familiar to every naturalist, and was fully recognised
and insisted upon by Darwin,* who attributed it
mainly to the agency of birds. Some are
universal, as for instance Charafragilis, which
is "found in every country and clime, in ice-
water at the north, and in the hot springs
(boiling water) of the Yellow-stone." f But
here it must be remembered that Chara is a
Cryptogam, and the universal distribution of
many terrestrial cryptogamia is well known.
Mr. C. R. Orcutt has sent me an interesting
list of the flora of Southern and Lower
California, which includes a large proportion
of freshwater plants common to Britain ; for
instance, the three species of Potamogeton
quoted are natans, pusillus, and lucens, and
iV\ / the three Lemnacece include Leiuna trisulca
Wm and L. minor, species which I have also found
in Saguache Creek, Colorado. Callitrichc
vcrna is likewise a Califomian plant.

Freshwater sponges are widely distributed,
one of the most extraordinary instances being
that of Meyenia phtmosa, which occurs of the
typical form in Bombay, and reappears as
the var. Palmeri along the banks of the
Colorado River, in North- Western Mexico.
A genus of Trichoptera, Helicopsyche, is
world-wide, being found in Europe, America, New
Zealand, &c, and the larvae of these insects live in
streams, encased in a shell, resembling very closely that
of the Molluscan genus Valvata. Probably these larvae
are distributed by birds, as it is incredible that the
perfect insect should have the power to cross wide
tracts of ocean, or even great distances on land ; and
it has come under my own observation in Colorado,
that wild ducks {Anas bosca) greedily devour these
larva-cases, containing the living larvae.

But it must not be supposed that freshwater species,
even the most widely distributed, are not prone to
vary.

Every conchologist is aware of the immense and
puzzling variation in such genera as Limncea and
Pisidium, not so much in species whose range is

'Origin of Species," 6th ed. 1882, pp. 343-347-
' Kotanical Gazette," 1888, p. 67.

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

183

restricted, either, as in those which inhabit many
countries and both hemispheres. In plants, the genus
Potamogeton, for instance, is such as to puzzle the
most skilful, and even in Ranunculus, the terrestrial
forms of which are fairly well-defined, the aquatic
species or sub-species defy classification.

Of freshwater fish, the Salmonidre offer sufficiently
good examples of variation ; for instance, the trout of
Great Britain and Ireland, all referred by Dr. Day to
Sal mo trutta, are divided by Dr. Giinther into no less
than eleven species ; so that it evidently becomes
a question, as with most other freshwater genera — Are
we to say that the genus is a large one including
many species of very restricted range, or a small one
with few species of very wide range?

The Trichopterous Philopotamns montanus, again, is
an analogous case. This insect has a variety, Scoticus,
which Mr. King found near Killarney, in the same
district as the typical form, but confined to a single
stream, where the type did not occur. Further,
there are two other] forms of Philopotaimis, cesareus
and insularis, peculiar to Jersey and Guernsey
respectively, and which, it would appear, may either
be considered species or varieties of P. montanus,
according to the view taken of the limitations of
these terms.

It seems therefore to me, reviewing all these facts,
that the bare statement that freshwater forms are very
widely distributed does not convey the exact truth of
the matter ; but rather we should say that the races
are not so well defined, and merge more into one
another than is the case with terrestrial forms, and
hence what might, if all connecting links were
destroyed, be considered a genus of many species,
becomes a single widely-distributed species with
endless varieties.

The explanation of this may probably lie in the
fact, that freshwater species cannot spread as
gradually as if they were on land ; but are conveyed
from pond to pond, river to river, or river to pond, as
chance may have it, and nearly always the new
habitat differs somewhat from the old, whether in
the flow or constitution of the water, or the nature
of the food, so that it is clear that only the most
pliable species, which readily adapt themselves
to new conditions, would stand a good chance of
surviving.

This theory may throw some light on the extra-
ordinary difference between the freshwater mussels
( Unio and Anodonta) of Europe and America. In
Europe we have a few species belonging to each
genus, presenting innumerable and puzzling varieties,
but in America hosts of more or less well-defined
species. This enormous abundance of specific forms
in America as compared with Europe has been
attributed to the diversity of geological changes
supposed to have occurred in America, and the
consequent isolation of forms. I attribute it to
precisely reverse conditions — the great basin of the

Mississippi, in which most of the species arc found,,
is connected throughout, and nearly fulfils the
conditions of a terrestrial area in the opportunities it
offers for gradual migration ; whereas in Europe there
are many river systems, distinct, yet of no great size,,
such as those of the Seine, the Thames, the Rhone,
the Garonne, and an endless host, all of which must
be peopled from each other by sudden and not by
gradual migration.

Paradoxical as it may seem, that isolation should
prevent the development of many species, I am forced'
to this conclusion as to freshwater forms by the-
facts before me, and I shall look eagerly for any
comments which naturalists may be able to afford
on the subject, tending to prove or disprove my
conclusions.

Now to come to the second part of my subject, the-
distribution of species inhabiting the sea. Those of
the British coasts may be divided roughly into
northern and southern, yet their origin must have
been from many sources, which we can only dimly
trace at present. A resemblance has been noted
between the marine Crustacea of South America and.
of Britain, which may possibly be due to the Gulf
Stream peopling our shores with types from America,,
while it seems not unlikely that land once existed at
an intermediate point, if there was no terrestrial
connection.

Floating species are sometimes world-wide. I have
seen examples of Spirilla peronii and Ianthina exigita-
from New Zealand, and these same shells are occasion-
ally washed up on the western coasts of the British
Isles. The marine mollusca of the northern and
southern temperate zones bear a remarkable likeness-
to one another, being for the most part of identical
genera and very similar in appearance, though there
are of course many notable exceptions.

The distribution of many species of univalve
mollusca appears to be very largely influenced by
warm and cold currents of water, as the Rev. A. H.
Cooke pointed out to me in the case of the genus
Purpura, in which this obtained both in the Atlantic
and the Pacific. Central France was at one time
probably submerged, and an open connection existed
between the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel
and the Mediterranean, as seems probable from the
Mediterranean character of many of the pliocene
fossils found at St. Erth, Cornwall, and from Dr.-
Gwyn Jeffreys' account of the deep sea mollusca of
the Bay of Biscay. — All these various points are
worthy of careful and detailed investigation ; I merely
mention them here, but their consideration in detail
would fill a book.

Boreal marine species are circumpolar, and, fre-
quently following the coast-line of continents, appear
where one would hardly expect them. Let us take,,
for instance, the Pacific coast of North America.
W. H. Dall gives a list of the mollusca found on the
expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska, and this includes

1 84

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Trichotropis borcalis, Cylichna alba, Mya truncata,
and other well-known European species. This is
exactly what we might expect, from the northern
character of the locality, but surely Southern
California would possess no European shells? On
the contrary, many of its genera are also European,
and Mr. C. R. Orcutt found Bulla vesicula (considered
perhaps a variety of hydatis), Pholas crispata, Saxicava
rugosa, and Lasea rubra in the vicinity of San Diego,
as well as Mytilus edulis, a species not only common
to Europe but to the Pacific coast of South America,
but which may possibly have been introduced from
its habit of clinging to the bottoms of vessels.
Also, a little Erachiopod, found at San Diego and
Todos Santos Bay, was referred by W. H. Dall to
Platidia anomioidcs, a species found in the Mediter-
ranean, North Atlantic, and Caribbean sea, though
whether this indicates a boreal origin, or an ancient
disconnection of North and South America, I
cannot say ; the latter theory is favoured by Dr.
Gunther's statement, that about 30 per cent, of the
fishes are identical on both sides of the Isthmus of
Panama.

The marine alga; of California, like the mollusca,
include some European forms, and a list of those
collected by Mr. D. Cleveland at San Diego
enumerates such familiar species as Enteromorpha
compressa, Corallina officinalis, Fitcus vesiculosus,
Plocamium coccineum, Ulva lalissima, — all of which
I have myself collected at Margate on the Kentish
coast.

Much that is interesting may be elucidated from a
study of the distribution of species on various parts of
the British coast. Many mollusca that are common
in Cornwall and the Channel Islands do not range
to the other end of the English Channel, and are
unknown in Kent : such are Trochus lineatus, which
takes the place of Littorina littorea, in the western
part of the Channel, T. magus, which extends as far
east as Hastings, and many others. Species thus
ranging over the western portion of the Channel
extend further east on the French than on the
English coast, a noteworthy instance of this being
Donax trunculus, which, though south-western and
very rare in England, is found on the north-east coast
of France and in Belgium.

In comparing the lists of the marine shells of Kent,
Scilly Isles, and Yorkshire and Durham, I was
struck by the fact, that a number of species common
to Scilly Isles and Yorkshire and Durham are
unknown in Kent. How this most unexpected
circumstance is to be accounted for, I do not know,
and I very much regret that the almost total lack of
records for Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex
renders it impossible at present to trace how far these
species descend on the eastern coast. It is much to
be desired that conchologists having knowledge of the
occurrence of such species as Pecten tigrinus, Phiitne
scabra, Scalaria turtoncr, S. trcvclyana, &c, on the

coasts of any of these counties will place the fact on
record, and any records whatever from the eastern
coast between Yorkshire and Kent would be of
exceptional value.

In the present paper I have only been able to
indicate lines of enquiry, which may be followed out,
as circumstances allow, in the future. To do this, it
ii necessary to examine as many local lists as possible,
and I shall be very greatly indebted for the loan of
any such, and will do whatever may be in my power
in return for such assistance. I venture to hope that
others, having better opportunities than I, will give
some attention to the distribution of species round the
British coasts, so that there may be a better under-
standing of the true relations of the various local
faunae.

West Cliff, Custer Co., Colorado.

LIST OF BRITISH TABANIDiE, WITH
NOTES.

By E. Brunetti.

THE British species of Tabanidoe, though few in
number, seem to be very little understood by
students of Diptera, owing probably to the species
being very closely allied, their great variation, and
the extraordinary confusion existing in the synonymy.

Professor Brauer's elaborate monograph on this
family (1880) has completely cleared up the confusion,
and I now venture to give a list of our British species,
adding such notes as may appear of interest.

My best thanks are hereby tendered to Mr. Verrall
and Dr. Mason for very kindly placing their col-
lections at my disposal, and also to Mr. C. Dale and
Dr. Meade for much information on this group. The
collection of the Entomological Club (through the
kindness of Mr. B. Lowne), and the British Museum
collection, have also been carefully examined, nearly
a thousand specimens having passed through my
hands.

Schiner, in 1868, admitted 1122 species in this
family, 106 or thereabouts being European. Nine
genera are European, five being represented in
Britain.

I. Tabanus, Linn. 1766.

Linn. Sys. Nat. (1766).

1. T. bovinus, Linn. 1766. — Linn. Sys. Nat. ii.
1000 ; tropicus, Harris ; larva, De G. Ins. vi. 6.

This is usually considered the commonest species,
but it is much less common than the next species,
T. Sudcticus, which is very frequently mistaken for
bovinus. In Dr. Mason's collection I found a very
small <$ measuring only 18 mm.

2. P. Sudcticus, Zell. 1842.— Zell. Isis (1842), 815,
pi. i. 5-8 ; bovinus, Mg.

Professor Gobert thinks this a variety of T. spo-

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

185

•dopterus, Mg. Mr. Verrall first called the attention
of entomologists to this being a British species,
though Mr. Newman recorded the capture of a series
without mentioning any authority for the identification
of the species.

3. 7. autumnalis, Linn. 1766. — Linn. Sys. Nat. ii.
J 000 ; bovinus, Harris.

Some males of this species were placed in the
British Museum collection as paganus, Fab., till I
pointed out the error. One rare variety of this
species has clear wings and black tarsi ; I found
one in Dr. Mason's collection, and one in that of the
Entomological Club, where it was labelled glaucopis,
Mg. The males sometimes resemble Theriopkctes
solstitialis, but may at once be recognised by the bare
eyes.

4. 7. Grtzcus, Fab. 1794. — Fab. Ent. Sys. iv. 368 ;
fermgineus, Mg. ; ursulus, Mgrle in Mg. ; J'ulvicornis ,

Schi. ; Liburuicus, Wied. in litt. ; propinquus, Palm, j
infusus, Walk.

Very rare. One in Mr. Verrall's collection.

Professor Pandelle thinks apricus, Mg., a variety
of this species.

5. 7. glaucopis, Mg. 1820. — Mg. Sys. Bes. ii. 48,
g ; lunulalus, Lw. ; cognatus, Lw. ; fcrrugincus, Mg. ;
flavicans, Zell.

Very rare. Three in Mr. Verrall's collection, and
one in the British Museum.

6. 7. bromius, L. 1761. — Linn. Sys. Nat. ii. 1001 ;
autumnalis, Harr. ; ?nacu!atus, De G. ; glaucus,
Mgrle. ; glaucescens, Schi.

This species often makes fields quite impassable,
owing to its great abundance occasionally, and its
persistent attacks on man. The Rev. J. G. Wood
recommends smearing paraffin round the neck when
collecting, as the only preventive from their bites.

The male is much less common than the female.
A specimen labelled glaucus, Mg., said to have been
thus named by Walker, is only a variety of bromius.

7. 7. maculicornis, Zett. 1842. — Zett. Dip. Scan. i.
117; borealis, Mg. g ; nigricans, Egg.; glancescens,
Schi. 9 ; bromius, var. Loew. ; ? Miki, Brauer.

This not uncommon species may be distinguished
from bromius, its nearest ally, by the dull leaden
colour of the abdomen, which is grey, or tawny-grey,
in bromius.

In Professor Brauer's illustration he shows a row
of hairs on the upper side only of the first antennal
joint, but in my specimens the joint is equally hairy
all over. In one large 9 in the Entomological Club
collection the branch of the third longitudinal vein is
forked, as in the genus Atylotus. Walker says this is
often the case in Tabanus (with which he incorporated
Theriopkctes and Atylotus), but this specimen is the
only one that I have seen presenting this peculiarity
(except in true species of Atylotus).

8. 7. cordiger, Wied. 1820. — Wied. in Mg. Sys.
Bes. ii. 47 ; atricornis, Mg. ; latifrons, Zett. ; mega-
cephala, Jaen. ; vicinus, Egg. ; anthracinus, Walk.

This species is liable to be confounded with
bromius, L., from which it may be distinguished by
the abdominal spots being hoary instead of yellowish-
grey ; with maculicornis, Zett., from which its
blacker abdomen and eyes bare of a coloured band in
life will distinguish it. It also resembles Theriopkctes
montanus, but can be separated from this species by
its bare eyes and the absence of tawny spots on the
basal abdominal segment.

II. Therioplectes, Zell. 1842.

Zell. Isis. (1842) 815.

This genus has pubescent eyes, and may therefore
at once be distinguished from Tabanus.

Baron Osten Sacken, Schiner, and Brauer, still
rank this and the next genus as sub-genera only of
Tabanus.

1. T. montamcs, Mg. 1820; Mg. Sys. Bes. ii. 55.
Rather rare.

2. 7. micar.s, Mg. 1804 ; Mg. Sys. Bes. ii. 34,
pi. xiii. 20 ; Auslriacus, F. Walk. ; signatus, Pauz. ;
nigcr, Donov.

Rather rare. Closely resembling the bisignatns
var. of 7. tropicus, L., from which the black tibice
separate it.

Wiedman's Auslriacus is not this species. In Dr.
Mason's collection I found a var. (? distinct species)
with a short and rounded abdomen, and thick hair
(black in £, brownish-grey in 9) on the under side of
the head.

3. 7. tropicus, L. 1761. — Linn. Sys. Nat. ii. 1001 ;
bimaculatus, Mcq. ; signatus, Schi. ; borealis, Jaen. ;
bisignatus, var. melanochroitica, Jaen. ; luridus, Lw.

The bisignatus variety is not rare in Britain, but
very scarce on the Continent. Were it not fcr
Professor Brauer holding a different opinion, I should
have ranked this variety as a separate species. In
one specimen in the British Museum collection the
wings are entirely clear, with an entirely tawny first
antennal joint.

The <$ is much rarer than the 9, and is less subject
to variation. Some of Zetterstedt's varieties of his
borealis may possibly be this species. It somewhat
resembles Tab. Gracus and 7. glaucopis, but the
pubescent eyes will easily distinguish it from either.
Common.

4. 7. solstitialis, Schi. 1862.— Schi. F. Aust. i. 30;
tropicus, Lw. ; luridus, Walk.

Professor Pandelle seems inclined to consider
tropicus, L., and solstitialis, Schi., as the same species,
and hints at merging 7. montanus also. In one
variety the abdomen is very conical (tf), the dorsal
black stripe very narrow, and the wings darker than
usual, the size being smaller than in the type.
Common.

III. Atylotus, Os. Sack. 1876.

Os. Sack. Mem. Bos. Soc. ii. part 4, no. iv. 421-
479-

i86

HARD Wl CKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

i. A. rusticus, L. 17S1. — Linn. Sys. Nat. ii. 1000 ;
Italicus, F.

Rare and local. Common in many parts of Europe.

2. A. fulvus, Mg. 1820. — Mg. Sys. Bes. ii. 61 ;
alpinus, Schr., Curt., Walk.; rusticus, Pauz. ; jcrus,
Schr. ; sanguisorba, Ilarr.

Closely allied to rusticus, of which Pandelle thinks
it a variety. The ^ is very rare. The colour of the
legs varies to a very great extent. Rare.

IV. Chrysops, Mg. 1803.

Mg. Sys. Bes. ii. 65.

1. C. ccccutiens, L. 1766. — Linn. Sys. Nat. 1001 ;
lugubrisy L. ; viduatus, F. ; nubilosus, Harr.

Professor Pandelle merges C. sepulchralis, F., as a
variety of this species, but they seem to me distinct.
He also ranks rclictus and quadratus to varieties also.
Both of them, however, are undoubtedly good species.

2. C. rclictus, Hgg. 1820. — Hgg. in Mg. Sys.
Bes, ii. 69 ; cacutiens var., Pandelle ; parallelo-
grammus, Zell. ; nubilosus, Harr. ; viduatus, Mg.

The markings of this species are more irregular
than those of C. ccccutiens, and it seems to be some-
what less common.

3. C. quadratus, Mg. 1820. — Mg. Sys. Bes. ii.
7° ( c? ) 5 pictus, Mg. ; viduatus, Mg.

Mr. Verrall first introduced this species to our
fauna in the Ent. Mon. Mag. for 1886, January.

Professor Gobert thinks fenestratus, F., Italicus,
Mg., and pcrspicillaris, Lw., only varieties of this
species. Rather rare.

All the species of Chrysops are subject to very great
variation, and all are very closely allied. Those
taken in Britain come chiefly from the south coast.

V. H.^MATOPOTA, Meig. 1803.

Mg. in Illiger's Magaz. ii. 267.

The species of this genus are very confusing ; some
authors (as Macquart) making several, whilst others
(as Walker) admit only one. Most of the descriptions
are so incomplete that it is impossible to tell to which
species the types belonged.

Macquart, Gobert, Pandelle, and others have all
created new species that many authors consider only
varieties, and it appears to me that we can, at any
rate for the present, only admit three to our fauna.

1. II pluvialis, L. 1766. — Linn. Sys. Nat. ii. 1001 ;
equorum, F. ; hyctomantis <$, Schi. ; Italica (var.),
Mg.

This species often occurs in such numbers as to
make whole fields impassable, the bite being very
severe, causing much inflammation. Very common.

2. //. crassicomis, Whlb., 184S. — Wied. Dip.
Exot. i. 100; ocellata, Wied. ; pluvialis, Walk.

This species is lighter in colour, the brown ring
marks on the wings more circular, the abdominal
spots more distinct than in H. pluvialis, and the
hairs on the vertex of the head rusty brown instead
of black. Not common.

3. H. Italica, Mg. 1S04.— Mg. Klass. i. 163; plu-
vialis, Wlk. ; grandis, Mcq. ; tenuicomis, Mcq. ;:
triangularis, Wied. ; clongata, Curt. ; gymnonota,
Bridle.

Very rare. Two in the British Museum collection.

Were it not that space does not permit, I should
have added analytical tables of the species and
extended my notes on each species ; but it is to be
hoped that the list as here given may prove of some
assistance to those working at this group.

I am now revising the British Asilidx and Cono-
pidre, and should be most happy to receive any
specimens for examination or notes on any species of
either family.

129, Grosvcnor Park, Cambenvell, S.E.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Professor von Fleischl, a German professor of
physiology, has recently undergone an experiment
wherein two-and-a-half inches of the sciatic nerve of
a rabbit (dead but warm) was transplanted to his-
hand.

Mr. J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., etc., has in the
press a volume entitled " Planetary and Stellar
Studies " : papers on the planets, stars, and nebulre.
It will shortly be published by Messrs. Roper and
Drowley.

Mr. A. R. Wormald's little brochure, entitled
"The Practical Index of Photographic Exposure,"
has just passed into the second edition. We are not
surprised, for it is one of the handiest little books out.

The planet Mars is just now obtaining much
attention. A paper on it has just been read before
the French Academy by M. Perrotin. He remarked
that the region of Libya has recently undergone fresh,
modifications. The sea which covered the surface of
this insular mass has mostly receded, its present
appearance being intermediate between that of iSSfcV
and its condition a few weeks ago. The existence
has also been determined of canals or channels,,
partly double, running from near the equator to the
neighbourhood of the north pole. They mainly
follow the meridian, and merge in the seas encircling
the white snow-cap of the pole, and, strange to say,
their course may be followed across the seas them-
selves right up to the snow-cap.

M. Fizeau has also contributed a paper on the
same subject. Speaking of the "canals" of Mars
he says — "The various circumstances connected with
these appearances, as lately described by Messrs.
Perrotin ami Schiaparelli, suggest a strong analogy
with certain phenomena of glaciation — parallel ridges,
crevasses, rectilinear fissures often of great length
and at various angles, observed in the regions of

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

187

large glaciers in Switzerland and especially in Green-
land. This leads to the hypothesis of a vast
development of glaciation on the surface of Mars,
where, the seasons being relatively longer and the
temperature much lower, the conditions must also
■be more favourable than on the earth for these
manifestations."

The " Liverpool Mercury," speaking of Mr. Isaac
Roberts' Pantograver, says : — " This is a simple
•engraving instrument, by Mr. Isaac Roberts, of
Maghull, well known in the world of astronomy for
his work in stellar photography. This machine is
intended to transfer the star pictures on the glass
negative direct to a copper plate, from which they
can be printed without being retouched by hand. At
•first glance the instrument appears very complicated,
but in operation it is really quite simple, and the
results are astonishing. The engraving tool is a
diamond, and the star circles can be either enlarged
or reduced at will. By the aid of this pantograver, as
Mr. Roberts calls it, a negative containing five
hundred stars can be copied upon a metal plate by
an average operator in one day, and the plate thus
produced will be scientifically as accurate as the
negative, and any number of copies can be produced
by the printer for observations and measurements.
The full significance of this invention will probably
be realised only by those engaged in the work ; but
it is evident to all that reproducing stellar photo-
graphs by any means hitherto known to us introduces
•elements of uncertainty which render accurate work
from copies almost impossible. By the application
of the pantograver, it will be possible to produce at a
very small cost an accurate star map of the heavens,
and so the indefinite delay of an expensive catalogue
scheme will now go to the wall."

The opening of the Marine Biological Station, at
Plymouth, on the 30th of June, was an event in the
history both of our fisheries and of practical biology.
We have never yet had in England or Wales any
place where the scientific study of our fish fauna could
be carried on, and having regard to the work that
has been done in the United States, in Germany,
and at Naples, we have fallen sadly behindhand.
Scientific fish culture, properly so called, is quite
unknown in this country. We have not even any
reliable scientific observations on our fisheries and
the migration of fish that can be relied upon. The
success of the undertaking is greatly, if not chiefly,
due to the unabated efforts of Prof. Ray Lankester.

The British Association meets this year at Bath,
on the 5th of September, under the genial presidency
of Sir F. Bramwell, the great engineer.

The Editor of Science-Gossip has now only a
few nights open for lecture-engagements next winter.
His list of engagements is limited, on account of

other work, and this year it has b;en filled unusually
early.

In the "American Naturalist " for May appears an
interesting paragraph, entitled " The Monkey as a
Scientific Investigator."

Those who can, should read Dr. B. W. Richard-
son's lecture delivered before the Sanitary Institute
on July 12th, upon " The Storage of Life."

Among the big things to be discussed at the forth-
coming meeting of the British Association will be
the Formation of Coral Reefs. Perhaps the Duke of
Argyll will take part in it !

MICROSCOPY.

New Slides. — We notice with pleasure No. 22
of Mr. Fred Enoch's slides and the accompanying
"sketch." Both are devoted to that extraordinary
insect Nycteribia Hopei — the parasite of the Indian
flying fox. The slide is an unusually good mount.
The insect is more like a spider than a fly, and if it
had only two legs more, would be mistaken for one.

Quekett Microscopical Club. — The last
number of the journal of the above club contains
the following papers: "Notes on Marine Aquaria,"
by H. J. Waddington ; " On Arachnoidiscus as a
Test for High-power Objectives," by T. F. Smith ;
" On some Remarkable Spicules from the Carnaru
Deposit," by B. W. Priest ; " On the Reproductive
Organs, especially the Antheridia of some of the
Floridece," by T. H. Buffham ; " On true and false
Images in Microscopy," by T. F. Smith; "On the
Interpretation of a Photo-micrographic Phe-
nomenon," by the Abbe Diffraction Theory," by E.
M. Nelson.

Scales on Red Currants. — I do not know
whether it is generally known (for I have not been
able to find any mention of it in works on the micro-
scope) that the red currant contains a very beautiful
object for the polariscope. Most people have no
doubt experienced the discomfort, after eating this
fruit, of numerous flat scales adhering to the tongue
or mouth , if these are scraped off the tongue and
examined with the polariscope I think they will
please. The colours are subdued and very beautiful ;
they will bear a |-inch objective. I believe these
scales are situated in the crown of the fruit, but have
not been able to discover their use or exact form, as
they are very easily broken. I shall be glad of any
information on the subject any of your numerous
readers may be able to offer. — Sidney y. Tindall.

The Royal Microscopical Society. — The
June number of the journal of the above society,
besides the usual copious summary of current re-

i88

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G 0 SSI P.

searches relating to zoology and botany, contains the
following papers : — " A Revision of the Genus Aula-
codiscus, Ehrb.," by John Rattray; "The Forami-
nifera of the Red Chalk," by H. W. Burrows,
C. Davies Sherborn, and the Rev. G. Bailey. The
latter were obtained chiefly from Speeton, and are
mostly of a large size.

ZOOLOGY.

Sand Grouse. — Walking yesterday, about five
o'clock p.m., on the road between Bexhill and
Sidley, I noticed a flock of what I, at first sight,
imagined to be nine pigeons. They, however,
passed so close to me, just clearing the hedges, that
I was able to identify them as sand grouse. I
marked them down in a rough pasture some few
fields from the road. I should be glad to learn if
the sand grouse has been seen before in any part of
Sussex, and if it has ever been known to breed in
England ? — W. E. Windus, Bexhill-on-Sea.

Pallas's Sand Grouse. — With regard to the
recent immigration of Pallas's sand grouse (Syrhaptes
paradoxus) it may interest your readers to know that
I saw on the 31st ultimo at Portsmouth a pair that
were killed out of a party of about a dozen at Sinah
Common, in Hayling Island, Hampshire, just over
the Sussex border a few days before. — William
Jeffery.

" Achatina octona." — In reply to Mr. Long's
query in the July number of Science-Gossip, I
would refer him to Jeffrey's B. C. vol. i. p. 299,
where mention is made of the introduction of this
shell into the British list on the authority of Dr.
Pulteney. It is a common West Indian land-shell
belonging to the genus Stenogyra and was confused
by Pulteney with Litnnaa glabra, to which it bears a
considerable resemblance. A near relative of this
species (Stenogyra Goodalli, Miller) was accidentally
introduced into some nursery gardens near Bristol
about 1820, and is said to still flourish there, but I
have never seen a record of Stenogyra octona under
similar conditions. Some writers too have erroneously
identified Linne's Helix octona with the English
acicula, so that the introduction of this name may
be traceable to several sources. — Brockton Tomlin,
Chester.

Unrecorded Daphnia. — In the February number
of Science-Gossip (page 36) I gave a drawing of
a Daphnia found at Rye House, which I believed to
be unrecorded. I have now again found the same
animal, in considerable numbers, in a different
locality, namely Staines. I can confirm that each
branch of the swimming antennae has "five"
plumose filaments, which is very abnormal, all other
species of this genus having five to one, and only four
to the other branch. It is viviparous, that is, the

young remain in the brood-pouch until fully formed j
I have seen them come out one by one, nine in all.
The newly-born young resemble the mother very
closely, having the long, single-jointed superior
antenna;, and five, but very fine, filaments to each
branch of the swimming antennae, and two equally
fine, but long posterior setae. The excessive fineness
of the filaments was remarkable, and quite out of
proportion to the very stout branches of the antennae
to which they were attached. It soon became
evident, however, that they were only temporary
appendages. About five minutes after being born,
every one of the young began to struggle violently,
with the result that a fine skin was cast off, being the
first moulting ; the change was very striking, the
filaments, which a moment before had been so fine
that they could hardly be seen, were all at once quite
large and in harmony with the rest of the body ; the
branches of the antennae had become much thinner,
and this leads me to believe that the filaments must
have been bent and held against the branches under
the tightly fitting skin, and on this being removed
they were released and assumed their proper position.
The head is rounded in front, and there is no pointed
beak. I will name this water-flea provisionally
Daphnarella longisetata, n. genus and sp. — C.
Rousselet.

Capture of a Spider new to Great Britain.
— On May 28th, I received a pair of Saltici from
Colonel Le Grice, Royal Artillery, Shorncliffe, which
I was unable to identify from the works by English
authors, but on June 7th Colonel Le Grice informed
me that Rev. O. P. Cambridge had identified this
spider as Pellenes tripnnctatus, or Crucigerus, described
under both names by Walckenaer, but which had not
been recorded as occurring in Grent Britain. This
spider was first seen by Master Wm. Kerr (aged n J),
who pointed it out to Colonel Le Grice, who captured
it. A female was seen soon after by Mr, Kerr, sen.
and captured by Colonel Le Grice. Mr. Kerr
informs me that this beautiful spider prefers the
brightest sunshine, and occurs on sloping banks
facing south, the male perching upon small pieces of
chalk, and quickly jumping upon any unlucky fly
which may come within range. The four large eyes
on the anterior row are surrounded with bright scarlet
hairs, below which a margin of white hairs contrast
most strikingly with the black legs, &c. The female is
totally different in colour, being covered with yellowish
or almost white hairs ; it is somewhat sluggish in its
habits, until disturbed, when it jumps, first in one
direction, then in another, making the capture of it
really exciting and difficult. Both sexes are about
of the same size as the common jumping spider
(Salticus sccnicus). — Fred. Enoch, E.E.S., 11 Parollcs
Road, N.

British Achatin/e. — Replying to Francis B.
Long's query concerning this genus of land shells,

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

189

Catlow's remarks thereon are altogether wrong.
Achatina acicula are not found at the roots of trees,
but in the roots of grass and herbage. Achatina
octona — Helix octona of Linne, — is a common West
India shell, introduced by error into the British fauna
many years ago. The Helix octona of Pennant is
also an obsolete name and is now represented by our
Limnaa glabra, an aquatic species found in streams
and ditches. If Mr. Long is entering on the study of
conchology I should strongly advise him to shun
Catlow and adopt some more modern author. — J. T.
M., Sevenoaks, Torquay.

The Development of the Gnat. — On p. 158,
the Fig. 66 has been inverted. On p. 159, read
"palpo," the fourth word of the seventh line, under
"The Imago." Added note. — In specimens of the
egg cases I examined this season (1888), I find that
when not attached to the side of the tank they are
suspended from any free floating object, and pre-
vented sinking by this means. I am doubtful
whether the thread always ends in a disk, and be-
lieve they are always suspended from some foreign
body. — H. T.

BOTANY.

" Mimicry " IN Plants. — I enclose herewith a
specimen of Geranium molle with white petals. It
was found growing by a sandy roadside near Blyton,
Lincolnshire, among a great profusion of Cerastium
arvense from which the flowers were scarce dis-
tinguishable. It might almost be classed as a case of
mimicry were it not for the difficulty in seeing what
protection a resemblance to Cerastium arvense could
afford it. It is, I think, more probably a case of
reversion due partly to the dry nature of the soil, and
partly to its exhaustion by the large quantity of
Cerastium growing closely around. This is rendered
more probable by the fact of the specimen being
below the average size. — G. A. Gricrson.

Drying Plants. — I cannot recommend sul-
phurous acid and methylated spirits for steeping
flowers in. I tried it, and green leaves turned a dull
brown ; blue and purple flowers, such as Centaurea
cyanus, Phacelia tanacetifolia, Ajuga reptans, Entoca
viscida, and Myosotis dissitijlora turned pink and
crimson, and Aconitum napellus partly pink and
brown. Red and pink flowers were much changed in
shade ; the last disastrous effect was on white and
yellow flowers, as Doronicum, Pyrethrum, Bellis
perennis, Hieracium aurantiacum, &c. ; but their
foliage was spoilt ; this effect was apparent after
very few hours' immersion. In a spike of Cynosurns
cristatus the glumes turned brown and the anthers
pink. Can any chemical reader explain why so
many turned pink?— E. A,

Yew Trees of Kingley Vale.— In the beauti-

ful and secluded spot of ground called Kingley Vale
or locally Kingley Bottom, which is equally divided
between West Stoke and Lavant near Chichester,
there is an assemblage of yews such as is rarely to be
met with. They number considerably over two
hundred. Tradition assigns to a part of this grove a
date of about A.D. 900. In the centre of this is a
solitary oak, said to be connected with Druidic rites ;
this is now a mere shell, but has one branch still
luxuriant and overtopping all the adjacent yews, its
foliage appearing in bright contrast. Its girth I find
must have been when the tree was perfect about
18 ft. That of the larger yews of the grove was
about 20 ft. at 4 ft. from the ground. Their circum-
ferences are less than those of other yews growing in
Sussex churchyards, but the point which chiefly
strikes the observer is their great number, and I
should be much obliged if readers of Science-Gossip
would inform me of any locality in which hundreds
of yew-trees are to be seen growing together, and
whether, if so, they have the appearance of being
indigenous ? — F. H. Arnold.

The Boreal Flora in Colorado. — Among
my finds in Custer Co. this year are several species
common also to Britain, and belonging to the Boreal
Flora. Yesterday I came across a patch of Geuni
rivale, Linn., and this is a more southern locality
than any so far recorded for it in America. Equisctum
hiemale and E. arvense are very commom here, and
among the lower Cryptogamia I have met with
Agaricus campestris, Linn., Ustilago segetum, Bull, (on
oats), Ceratodon pnrpurens, Brid. (which in England I
used to find on Chislehurst Common), Distichium
capillaceum, B. and S., and Closterium acerosum. But
these cryptogamic plants are so widely distributed
that one cannot draw many conclusions from their
occurrence in any given region. Marchantia poly-
morpha is also very abundant by the creeks in this
locality, and recently I found Lemna trisnlca and
L. minor close to West Cliff. — T. D. A. Cockerel!,
West Cliff, Colorado.

Unusual Germination.— Last year I frequently
met with cases of abnormal germination, similar to
that mentioned in the July number of SciENCE-
GossiP, with these differences : that my experience
was with lemons, and the growth of the young plant
had not proceeded quite so far as that shown in the
diagram of last month. Taken in connection with
the usually accepted teaching that air is necessary for
the germination of seeds, and light for the production
of chlorophyl, these abnormal germinations are very
singular. — F. J. George, Chorley, Lane.

Corrections to Notes on Eighth Edition
of London Catalogue, by Arthur Bennett.
— There are some needed corrections which ought to
be made, and had escaped my notice until kindly
friends pointed them out.

190

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

172. It is very doubtful whether the name stagnina
ought not to have been retained.

343^ alter to c.

936 of 8th ed. is 1059 of 7th ed. not 106c, which is
937 8th ed.

1 144 8th ed. is 985 7th ed., not 986

1 145 8th ed. is 986 7th ed.

1 166 "p," the p is wanting.

1463 p. no should be 1493

151 1 Mr. Beelys calls my attention to this, that the
character I have assigned to this belongs to L. mcicro-
stemon, Gay, which is very rare in Britain.

1562 Schrank, not Schreb.

Unusual Germination. — I see in the July part
of your paper an account of an "Unusual Case of
Germination." I have frequently seen the seeds of
lemons sprouting inside the lemon, although never so
much so as to produce leaves as in the above account.
— Prosper H. Marsden.

The Botany Examination of the Science
and Art Department, South Kensington. —
Can any of the readers of Science-Gossip inform
me what school of botany it is necessary to attach
oneself to, or what books it is necessary to read in
order to pass the Honours stage of the examination
in Botany under the South Kensington Science and
Art Department? I know a few thoroughly com-
petent botanists of many years standing who have
repeatedly sought to pass that test and been rejected.
The examiners, I am aware, insist upon a sound
knowledge of Physiology ; but one of my friends, who
went in last May, carefully studied Vines's and
Sachs's works on the subject, besides going through
a considerable training in experimental and micro-
scopic work, and has just received an intimation that
he has not done sufficiently well to make it necessary
for him to attend the practical part of the examination
at South Kensington. He is considerably puzzled to
know where the weakness in his paper lies, for he
felt thoroughly at home in the questions, and could
have easily answered all that were set, but of course
he was confined to a limited number. Is it true that
the examiners require a candidate to have passed all
the previous stages before they will grant a pass in
Honours ? or that the examiners favour lady candi-
dates more than gentlemen ? Or that the amount of
money at disposal for grants or passes is limited, and
that the number of passes is regulated accordingly?
Or that some subjects are favoured by the Depart-
ment more than others? Is it also a fact that the
form which is filled up by the candidate does not
go before the examiners? Why should it be so
particularly insisted upon that the candidate's pre-
vious highest success should be stated in this form ?
What have such matters as the age and profession of
the candidate to do with the examination ? Are not
these examinations intended to encourage the study
of science among the working-classes rather than |

among persons who have received a special university
training ? These are a few of the questions that I
should like to see answered, and unless they are
answered the present increasing want of public
confidence in the honesty of the Department will go
on until the whole scheme becomes a farce and a
failure. Perhaps a question in the House of Commons
would settle the matter. — Inquirer.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

A Starling in Trouble. — A labourer hearing
an unusual noise proceeding from the roof of an out-
house, observed that a starling had caught its leg
between two tiles and was endeavouring to get free,
at the same time screeching as loudly as possible
apparently from fear and pain. He thinking that
the starling being unable to extricate itself would
starve, went in search of a pole in order to put it out
of its sufferings. But another starling hearing the
screeches of its companion came to the rescue, and
commenced tugging and pulling at the refractory leg,
which by the combined efforts of the two was soon
released uninjured. — Edzoard Goodwin.

Flies in Windows. — Can any of your readers
explain how it is that when a fly buzzes on the
window-pane it turns its back to the glass ? As far
as I can see it is done solely for enjoyment, and that
the fly could not get up such a fine sensation by
having its feet towards the smooth surface. Secondly,
do flies turn their backs to the surfaces of leaves,,
trees, stones, rocks, &c, and enjoy their buzz against
them, or is this an acquired habit of theirs since the-
discovery of glass ? — J. Smith, Monhredding Kikvin-
ning.

Answer to Query at p. 100. — Tremella is a
fungus. There are several species, and in all of them
the whole plant is gelatinous, and more or less
folded. Most of them have the faculty of absorbing
and holding water almost like a sponge. They shrink
into small compass in dry weather, but quickly swell
out again under the influence of the first shower.
One species {Tremella mesenterica) is known in many
places as witches' butter, and is often common oni
dead branches.—//. W. Lett, M.A.

Several Natural History Queries — Can any
of your readers inform me : (1) If they have ever seen
a toad in the stomach of a fish, and if so, will they
kindly mention what fish ? (2) Have they ever seen
a frog clinging to the head of any fish, as so minutely
described by Walton ; if so, did the fish suffer in any
way ? (3) When pike have paired off in the spring,
have they ever seen three, or say a brace, so close
together, (i.e. side by side) that it would have been
possible to snare them at one go ? Say two weighing
3 lbs. each. Can any of your readers give any reason
for jack indulging in this habit before spawning ?
Do perch, for instance, carry on in this manner? I
merely ask the question, because on one occasion
I caught nearly forty perch and there were only three
males in the lot. Female bream are often attended
by three or four males. A female toad again is often
followed by, I should be sorry to say how many males.
Lastly, when frogs and toads have coupled, can
any of your readers inform me when impregnation
takes place ? Is it before, after, or at the time of
shedding the spawn ? Can you give me any reliable
information ? — Mi A.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

191

Stoats and Weasels for Australia.— A
syndicate of capitalists has for some time past been
purchasing large numbers of stoats and weasels for
exportation to Australia and New Zealand for the
purpose of reducing or destroying the rabbits which
have become such a pest to the farmers in these
countries. A gamekeeper in the neighbourhood of
Brampton, Cumberland, was appointed their agent,
and he has already secured and transmitted about
four hundred of these vermin to the antipodes. The
price he pays to the trappers is from y. 6d. to 'js. 6d.
each, but by the time they reach their destination it
has been increased to six or seven pounds each.
They are packed in boxes two in each, and fed during
the voyage on dead pigeons, two of the latter being
supplied to each of the animals once in three days.
They require great care and attention during the
voyage out, and this added to the expense of feeding
raises their value to a considerable amount on their
arrival at the destination. A singular change has
come over the habit of the rabbit since it became
acclimatised in Australia. Here it burrows in the
ground, but in that country it is in the habit of
climbing trees, which it can do with great facility, for
the purpose of feeding on the leaves and bark, of
which it seems particularly fond. — Dipton Burn.

Observation on Young Cuckoos. — On'Wednes-
day, June 27th, I was shown a fully-fledged cuckoo
sitting in (or, rather, all over) a robin's nest in the
bank of a lane. My uncle, the Rev. N. A. Watson,
of Boughton, Malherbe, who found the nest, told me
that after hatching the egg, the robin parents deserted
the nest, and that the cuckoo parents (both) took
charge of their offspring, and that he had often seen
them feeding it. He was quite sure that the robins
would have nothing to do with the interloper. Is not
this a variation on the traditional account ? — M. S.
Pope, Maidstone.

Nest of Short-tailed Field-vole. — A friend
of mine the other day brought me word, that whilst
egg-collecting in a wood, he had found a nest of
young mice in a hole in a tree. He thought it was a
great tit's nest, and was rather surprised when he
secured three young mice in his net, instead of eggs.
I visited the tree a few days afterwards, and found
that the hole by which the old mouse entered was
very small, and situated about twelve inches from the
ground. There were five young voles in the nest, all
of which I secured, but the old one escaped. What
surprised me most was the quantity of material
comprising the nest ; it would have taken a half-
gallon tin to have held it all, and was composed of
moss, gnawed up into fine pieces. I always under-
stood that the field-vole made its nest on the ground
in fields, &c. Is not this an unusual place for one ?
■C. D. Head, Norwood Street, Scarbo?vugh.

Influence of Sound on Animals. — The
following incident having come under my own
personal observation, I append it, as it may be of
interest to readers of Science-Gossip, more particu-
larly to those who are interested in the influence of
sound upon animals. That " music hath charms "
no one will deny, but how far that fascinating charm
■exerts itself is difficult to determine. Life in the
country gives the possessor of a "quiet eye" much
opportunity for observation. The drawing-room of
our rustic dwelling opened onto a lawn ; immediately
outside the glass door was a large flagstone making,
as it were, a step from the room to the garden. Our
delight on a summer's evening was to sit outside,
whilst one of the others indoors would entertain us
with pianoforte music, and it appeared not only us

but also a visitor which we invariably received on
those occasions. No sooner had the music begun
than a large toad came jumping along over the gravel-
path, across the lawn, and taking up his position on
the flagstone, would remain as long as the music
continued, neither fearing nor taking the slightest
notice of our presence ; there he stayed, apparently
happy and certainly as much delighted as we. As
soon as the piano ceased our friend bade us "good
night " and jumped away home. I am pleased to
add we were continually honoured by his company.
Query. Is this a peculiar case, or one of frequent
occurrence ? — Arthur B. Harrison, CJiehnsford.

Varnishing Photo Gelatine.— Dry Plates. —
White hard varnish diluted with methylated spirit, in
the proportion of fifteen parts varnish to twenty- five
parts spirit, makes a fair dry plate varnish. It is not
very durable and apt to be soft. Some recommend
the addition of a little " brown hard " to it in order to
remedy this defect. — B. Se., Plymouth.

Toads Spawning. — A correspondent, writing
under the head " Toad Spawning," asks if it be a fact
that toads croak. The question is made curious by
your correspondent stating that he has always studied
the habits of the toad. Perhaps he will pardon me if
I hint that he could not have very closely studied the
habits of that animal, even for a short time, without
having heard, at least at breeding time, a full chorus.
Since writing the last line I have been to my froggery,
or more strictly " toadery," and succeeded in making
one of my toads croak by putting it first in water and
then pretending to catch it. Perhaps your corre-
spondent will verify experiment for himself. — R. T.
T., Gosport.

Rudiments. — As a contribution to this discussion,
I may mention that Sachs, in his "Vegetable Physi-
ology," used the terms "rudimentary" and "re-
duced," the former in Miss Layard's sense, and the
latter in the sense in which Mr. Darwin used the
word " rudimentary." Sachs classifies all organs
into typical, metamorphosed, rudimentary, and
reduced, on physiological grounds. — J. Hanisou,
Bedford.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers.— As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Qv erists.— We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

A. Mayfield. — Yes, you are right; the plant is Claytonix
perfoliata.

C. J. Heaton. — The yellow-flowered composite plant ycu
sent is the leopard's bane [Doronicum fiardalianches).

J. I. N. — Mr. Arthur Bennett's address is 107 High Street,
Croydon.

J. S. G. — We shall be very glad to have your papers on the
Molluscan Fauna of Malta. It is a place much visited now.

C. H. G. — Thanks for the specimen ; it is a fungus — Xylaria
digit ata.

B. Sc. — The "Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society"
may be obtained of the publishers, Messrs. Williams and Nor-
gate, London; or of Mr. W. P. Collins, 157 Great Portland
Street, W.

IQ2

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

EXCHANGES.

Indian birds' skins in exchange for micro mounts or re-
quisites, scorpions, centipedes, &c, in spirit for dissection, &c.
Any objects of natural history collec'.ed for exchange. Corre-
spondence invited. — R. de H. St. Stephens, A.R.S.M., the
Eastern Mysore Gold Company, Limited, Kolar Road, Province
of Mysore, Central India.

Offered. — Acilius sulcatus and larva;, and Limnea stag-
nalis. Wanted. — Hydrophilus and Planorbis Cornells, for
aquarium. — Thomas D. Sellers, Deepdale, Davenport Park,
Stockport.

Wanted, many species of birds' eggs, particularly clutches
with data. Offered, British lepidoptera.— W. K. Mann, Wel-
lington Terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

Duplicates, Unio mar gar it if er (L.), from the only Lan-
cashire locality, and other good shells. Desiderata, British
and foreign land and freshwater shells.— W. Hy. Heathcote,
M.C.S., East View, Preston.

Dragonflies wanted from all parts of the British Isles,
fresh and unset preferred. Offered, lepidoptera, A. adippe,
A. euplirosyne, A. selenc, A. puphia, G. rhamni, L. sinapis,
T. rubi, &c. — W. Harcourt Bath, Birmingham.

Dragonflies wanted from all parts; of the world. Offered,
land and freshwater shells, arachnida, collection of grasses,
natural history books, &c. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood,
Birmingham.

Duplicates. — Planorbis glaber, Planorbis nitidus, Coch-
licopa tridens, Physa hypnorum, Zonites crystallinus, and
others. Wanted, Bulimus montanns, Pisidium roseum, An-
cylus lacustris, Physa fontinalis, and others not in collection.
— John Clegg, Sandholme Villas, Todmorden.

Small collection of birds' eggs, some side-blown ; also
Kearley's "Wonders and Curiosities of Animal Life," cloth,
gilt. What offers in foreign stamps? — H. Langford, 4 Gill
Street, Nottingham.

To Egg Collectors. — Have several rare Riippell's and sooty
tern's eggs to exchange for clutches of British birds' eggs ;
must be side-blown, one-hole, and full data. — Commander
Voung, R.N., Rodwell, Weymouth.

Wanted, European or foreign coleoptera, in exchange for
S. African lepidoptera, coleoptera, or hymenoptera. — R. M. L.,
c.o. T. D. Butler, Esq., Duke's Road, Rondebosch, near
Capetown, S. Africa.

British mosses, about 120 varieties, in exchange for scien-
tific books or apparatus. — G. A. Barker, 1 Northwold Road,
Upper Clapton, E.

Eggs. — Kingfisher, cuckoo, buzzard, nightjar, twite, heron,
ring ouzel, dipper, goldfinch, &c, all one-hole, this season's
eggs, in exchange for others. — Jas. Ellison, Steeton, Leeds.

Wanted, eggs of tits, shrikes, hawks, warblers, buntings,
plovers, finches, grebes, &c, in exchange for other rare eggs,
in sets or separate. — Jas. Ellison, Steeton, Leeds.

Collins's histological microscope in mahogany case, with a
i-inch objective by Beck, all quite new and in splendid con-
dition, no further use for it. What offers? — E. Wagstaff,
3 Waterworks Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Wanted, to exchange British for North or South American
plants. I have a large number of species which are not native
in America. Printed list sent on receipt of address. — H. Fisher,
26 Stodman Street, Newark, Notts.

Birds' eggs, side-blown, wanted, in exchange for lepidoptera.
Have elpenor, fuciformis, stellatarum, atropos, convolvuli,
ocellata, bucephalus, nupta, dominula, plantaginis, pinastri,
ligniperda, ligustri, monacha, aprilina, butes, and others, and
many butterflies. — Wheldon, chemist, York.

Offered.— L. C, 8th ed.: 5, 13, 34, 40, 43, 45, 65, 76c, 94,
95. 96> 98> I2I» '49. l64. '68, 191, 309, 352, 526, 557, 559, 590,
656, 741, 754, 776, 777, 979, 1102, 1104, 1237, 1240, 1361, 1363,
138s, 1386, 1389, 1475, 1545, 1592, 1595, 1606, 1609, 1616, 1654,
1657b, 1694, 1719, 1724, &c. Many desiderata, especially
hieracia. — Miss E. Armitage, Dadnor, Ross, Herefordshire.

I should like to correspond with some one, in any part of
the world, who is forming a collection of British and foreign
birds' eggs (side -blown preferred), with a view to exchange
specimens. — H. B. Booth, 25 Northfield Place, Manningham,
Bradford, Yorkshire.

Duplicate, Unio margaritifer. Wanted, American unios.
— W. Hy. Heathcote, M.C.S., East View, Preston.

P. dilatatus and arbustoruni, C. tridens, Bui. obsenrus, and
others, in exchange for other British land and freshwater or
marine specimens. — W. Dean, 50 Canning Street, Stoneyholme,
Burnley, Lancashire.

Exotic butterflies. — Papilio ulysscs, 9, Buddha, cf and 9,
Homerus, Morpho adonis, and other rarities, fair condition ;
also wings of morphos and urani, as for microscope. Wanted,
Papilio ascanus, rf, montrouzieri, &c. — Hudson, Railway
Terrace, Cross Lane,- Manchester.

Wanted, Scotch copper coins and gun money, in exchange
for British' copper coins, Aclierontia atropos, &c. — W. P. H.,
26 Market Place, Newark.

Offered. — L. C., 8th ed. : Nos. 137, 257, 300, 337, 342, 415,
547, 590, 636, 651, 899, 960, 1171, 1367, 1393, 1417, 1521, 154°.
1560, 1571, 1582, 1506, 1617, 1620, 1623. Many desiderata. —
W. A. Clarke, The Grove, Chippenham, Wilts. ,_ _

Oological specimens wanted : conchological specimens will
be given in exchange. — Jos. S. Galizia, M.C.S., 64 Piazza.
Celsi, Valletta, Malta.

Wanted, complete back volumes of Science-Gossip and
" Journal of Conchology," also scientific books; Maltese land
and sea shells given in exchange. — Jos. S. Galizia, M.C.S.,
64 Piazza Celsi, Valletta, Malta.

Wanted, examples of the algae, seaweeds of all kinds,
growing on the Welsh coast of the Bristol Channel ; foreign
algae or other plants in return.— I. Gifford, Parks, Minehead,
Somerset.

Offered.— Thirty-one Nos. Science-Gossip, 1885-6 ; thirty-
one Nos. "Naturalist's World," 1884-6 ; twelve Nos. "Prac-
tical Naturalist," 1883.— E. J. Dufty, Luxford, Notts.

What offers for mounted or unmounted sections of various
organs of frog (most of them injected); also vegetable sections
(fern, bean, &c.)? Wanted. — Frogs and other organisms re-
quired for Huxley's biological course ; also micro apparatus. —
Richard Ferdinand Tomlins, 82 High Street, Gosport.

Cyclostoma elcgans, Helix virgata, Bythinia tcntaculata,
and several other varieties of land, freshwater and marine
shells, in exchange for other varieties. Lists.— F. Stanley,
M.C.S., Clifton Gardens, Margate.

Would be glad to correspond with persons interested in the
smaller marine life, with a view to exchange the same for that
of freshwater, vegetable or animal, microscopic or otherwise,
most suitable for mounting, or aquarium purposes. — Jos. I.
Newton, 202 Blandford Street West, Ashton-under-Lyne,
Lancashire.

Wanted, specimens of less common British birds (skins or in
flesh). Offered, five vols, of Science-Gossip (1865-9), and
other natural history books ; also some foreign bird skins. —
J. H. K., 18 Church Street, Commercial Street, London, E.

I should be glad if any reader of Science-Gossip could let
me have a few live crayfish (Astacus Jluviatilis). — Chas. A.
Whatmore, Much Marcle, Gloster.

Wanted, a student's microscope. Send particulars to —
Chas. A. Whatmore, Much Marcle, Gloster.

Dana's 'Text-Book of Mineralogy" (4th ed., 1882), for
Geikie's large "Geology;" Sir G. Head's "Tour of Many
Days in Rome" (3 vols.), and Dalbono's "Roma Antica e
Moderna," for botanical literature ; Sir W. Jardine's " Strick-
land's Memoirs and Scientific Writings," for geological or
zoological literature.— Rich. McCully, Winchester Road, Rom-
sey, Hants.

Maltese, and some foreign land and sea shells in exchange
for a good secondhand microscope. — Jos. S. Galizia, M.C.S.,
64 Piazza Celsi, Valletta, Malta.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

"Geology for All," by J. L. Lobley (London; Roper and
Drowley). — "Flower Gardening for Amateurs," by Lewis
Castle (London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co.).— "Flora of the
N. East of Ireland," by Messrs. Stewart & Corry (Cambridge :
Macmillan).— " Handy Guide to Norway," by T. B. Wilson,
M.A. (2nd ed., London: Stanford).— " Bird's Nesting and
Bird Skinning," by Miller Christy (London: T. F. Unwin).—
"Speaking Parrots," by Dr. K. Russ, parts 1 and 2 (London:
T. F. Unwin).— "Trans. Chichester Nat. Hist. Soc." — "Illus-
trated Manual of British Birds," by Howard Saunders, Parts
iii. and iv. (London: Gurney & Jackson). — "Trans. Leeds
Geological Association."— " Synopsis of the Vertebrate Fossils
of the English Chalk," by A. G. Woodward.— "Journal of
Trenton Nat. Hist. Soc." — "Westmoreland Note Book and
Nat. Hist. Record."— "Proceedings Yorkshire Geol. and Poly-
technic Soc."—" Electricity versus Gas," by John Stent
(London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co.).— "The Essex Natu-
ralist."— " Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science." — "The
Sanitarian" (New York).— " Book Chat."— " Belgravia."—
"The Gentleman's Magazine."— "The Naturalist."— "The
Ottawa Naturalist."— "The American Naturalist."— "The
Victoria Naturalist." — "The Midland Naturalist." — " The
Amateur Photographer."— " Science News" (weekly).— "Proc.
Royal Soc. of New South Wales."—" The Botanical Gazette "
(Crawfords & Wille, Indiana).— "The Garner."— " Feuilles des
Jeunes Naturalistes," &c. &c.

Communications received up to the 12TH ult. from :
Dr T W. W.— I. G.— J. H.— R. M. L.— W.— H. G.-I. D. S.
-Rev. C. J. S. B.-J. L.-W. K. M.-J. R.-W. H. B—
W. A -A. R. W.-E. B.-H. J. B.-G. W. B.-W. H. G.-
T W T — I D. A. C— F. H. W.— E. W.— G. D. T. R.—
r c - C P.— I. A. W.— G. A. B.— A. M.— W. H. G.— A. B.
— C. D. H.— J. E. G.-A. L. D.-J. L.— E. B.-R. H. B. N.
__F H A— W. H. L.-W. H. H.— B. T.— W. H. B.—
C Y. R. N.— J. C M. C. S.— D. B.-C R.-N. A. L.— J. E.
_G A. G — E. A.— M. E. P.-A. G. H.— F. J. G.— W. P.—
R L.— A. J. W.— H. F.-C. J. H.— Dr. A. B. G.— C. R.—
A' D — H. B. B.— W. P. H.— C. C-Wm. A. C— H.—
W H H — S. J. L.— J. F. H.— E. E. L.— R. McC— J. H. K.
-T B., iun.-A. H. S.-F. S. T.-J. I. N.-R. T. T.-
P. H. M.-J. L. M.-J. H. G.-E. J. D.-G. A. C.-C. A. W.,
&c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

193

THE SUNFLOWER.

By H. W. LETT, M.A.

HE Helianthus or
sunflower (the Eng-
lish is a literal
translation of the
botanical name), of
which there are
thirty - five known
species, is a native
of America, from
whence it was first
brought to Europe
in the year 1597.
Owing to the re-
cent fashion in
favour of this showy
flower, it is familiar
to everybody, but
it is not so well
known that the
common garden
vegetable, the Jerusalem artichoke {Helianthus tube-
roses) is one of the same genus. The name "Jeru-
salem" is probably a corruption of the Italian
*'girasole" or "turn-sun," i.e., sunflower; while
the usurped title "artichoke" (to which it has
botanically speaking no right whatever) has reference
to the flavour of the tubers. Few persons in this
country have ever seen the flower of the Jerusalem
artichoke, which is seldom produced in the British
Isles, indeed it is not worth the trouble needed to
bring it to perfection, being a small yellow blossom
like that of the coltsfoot enlarged.

The sunflower is largely grown in parts of France
for its seeds, which yield large quantities of oil and
oil-cake used for cattle food, and in certain regions
of America it is cultivated for the stems, which supply
sufficient fuel for cooking.

The old Greeks and Romans had quite another
plant which they called Heliotropium or Heliotrope —
literally " Sunturning " — to which they attributed
many extraordinary and fabulous properties, amongst
others that described in its name of always turning
its open flowers to the sun ; this by some is considered
No. 285.— September 1888.

to be the common Heliotropium Europaum of South
Europe, which is not much more than an insignificant
weed. The modern sweet-scented Peruvian Helio-
trope, or "Cherrypie," was not introduced from
South America till 1740, having been discovered
by the celebrated Jussieu when botanizing among the
Cordilleras.

There is a wonderful jumble and confusion in the
minds of many about and between these two plants
Helianthus and Heliotropium. What the ancients
believed concerning their Heliotrope has been trans-
ferred without any reason, (except that the first part
of each name is the same) to the Helianthus, a name
given by the great Linnreus, on account of the
brilliant colour of the flowers, and their resembling
the typical representations of the sun — an orb
surrounded by a circle of tongues of flame. And the
idea thus associated with the plant, notwithstanding
its being disowned by such an authority as Sir
Joseph Paxton in his " Botanical Dictionary," is still
taught by our popular dictionaries, just as the poet
sings "how the sunflower turns on her god when he
sets the same look that she turned when he rose ! "

I thought the notion had passed away from the
minds of modern botanists as a poet's fancy, till I
lately read in the "Journal of Microscopy and
Natural Science " for July 1886, an interesting paper
by Mr. H. W. S. Worsley-Bennison, F.L.S., Lecturer
on Botany at Westminster Hospital, on "The Power
of Movement in Plants," in which at p. 157 occurs
the following passage — " Positive Heliotropism, ....
Among flowers, the compositse furnish us with many
examples, one being specially prominent, the sun-
flower, whose peduncle twists in a circle during the
day, bringing its flower constantly towards the sun."

When I perused this statement in print by such a
writer, though I was quite sceptical of any such
extraordinary Heliotropism, I resolved to test it
practically, and having done so I now send you the
result.

A long row of fine sunflowers in an open space,
apart from walls or trees, in my garden, afforded a
most favourable opportunity ; and amongst them I

K

1 94

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

selected six of the finest blossoms. These faced by
a compass, respectively, north, south, east, west,
north-east, and south-east. Having driven a stake
into the ground close before each selected flower, I
nailed on each stake two pieces of wood each eight
inches in length and one in width ; one of these was
on the top of each stake and could be moved by me
in a horizontal direction, the other I placed a little
lower on the side of the stake at right angles to the
first. It is not easy, without a figure, to explain my
simple and yet complete contrivance for observing if
the sunflowers moved in any direction.

I set my indices, by fixing each pair of pointers
perfectly parallel to the discs of the flowers, so that
no matter in what direction the flower might move,
it must be apparent when next inspected. I visited
them three times each day for a week, shortly after
sunrise, at noon, and a few minutes past sunset. The
time was the first week in September of the year
(1886); and the flowers were just beginning to open
the florets on the circumference of the discs.

Well — I found no twisting of the peduncle in a
circle, no turning of the flower after the sun — none
whatever. My flowers faced, respectively, north,
south, east, west, north-east, and south-east, as they
did when I set my marks at them. So far as facing
towards the sun, there was no movement that I could
detect. One slight alteration I did notice, in some
but not all of the flowers with which I was ex-
perimenting, a tendency of the head to droop or
incline towards the earth, as the seeds began to form ;
what I call my vertical indication showed this, but
there was no return to the original position, the
inclination remained permanent. Moreover, this
insignificant movement was not towards, but actually
away from the sun, and appeared a provision for
keeping the crowded seeds dry as they rapidly formed
and began to ripen.

If it were the case that the sunflower every twenty-
four hours twisted its peduncle and brought its flower
constantly towards the sun, every sunflower in every
garden would be found facing in precisely the same
direction, a fallacy needing no refutation. Why, I
have grown sunflowers against a south wall, and they
faced in all directions (just as those in my garden are
doing now while I write) some even towards the wall !

It was said to me, at the time I was recording these
observations, that the sunflowers only turned towards
the sun when the sun shone ; very good, and five out
of the seven days of my trial were genuine sunshiny
days, and still I could not detect any difference at
any time in the position of the flowers.

Just one more fact, the sunflowers were of the
common tall and dwarf kinds ; the seed from which
they were raised was partly home-saved, and partly
bought at a seedsman's in Belfast, and the flowers
when expanded seemed just the same as those with
which I have been familiar for forty years.

Aghaderg Glebe, Loughbricklatta, co. Do~u<n.

NOTES ON NEW BOOKS.

'^HE STORY OF THE NATIONS —
1 ASSYRIA, by Z. A. Ragosin (London :
Fisher Unwin). This is one of the most interesting
volumes of this interesting series. It reads more like
a lively novel than dry ancient history, and the
numerous illustrations help the reader marvellously.

The Flora of the north-east of Ireland, by S. A-
Stewart, and the late J. II. Corry (Cambridge :
Macmillan). County and local floras are rapidly
multiplying, and it is a good thing that our British
plants should be thus accurately chronicled. The
present work gives a thoroughly trustworthy account
of the native flora of Down, Antrim, and Derry.
The idea was projected by Mr. Corry many years
ago, and has been ably carried to its completion by
Mr. Stewart. Indeed, Mr. Corry, at the youthful
age of twenty-four, may be said to have lost his life
in connection with this book — for he was drowned
in Lough Gill when on a botanical expedition.

Nature's Fairy-land, by H. W. G. Worsley-
Benison (London : Eliot Stock). A series of de-
lightfully-written chapters, recalling rambles by wood-
land, meadow, stream, and shore. Mr. Worsley-
Benison is a well-known writer in our columns, and
therefore our readers are aware he is an enthusiastic
naturalist. The chapters in the book have been
mostly contributed to various magazines. We cor-
dially commend Mr. Benison's book to our readers.

Birds-nesting and Bird-skinning, by Miller Christy
(London : T. Fisher Unwin). This handy little
volume is just- the book for a beginner. It was
originally written by the late Ed. Newman ; but the
present is the second edition, thoroughly revised and
rewritten by Mr. Christy, and the chapter on bird-
skinning is wholly his own.

Geology for All, by J. Logan Lobley (London :.
Roper and Drowley). Mr. Lobley is widely known
as an earnest geologist. Few other men have been
so much mixed up with geological literature. As a
lecturer and teacher he has also been most successful.
Consequently our readers will be prepared to expect
that this little manual is one of the highest character.
A young man desirous of taking up geology as a study
cannot do better than buy this book.

Flower- Gardening for Amateurs, by Lewis Castle
(London : Swan Sonnenschein). Books on gardening
are always welcome, but there is an especial charm
about Mr. Castle's. The author is as well up in
horticultural literature as he is practically acquainted
with the subject. Amateurs who are their own
gardeners will gratefully peruse this little volume,
and find hosts of hints they can carry out for them-
selves.

The Smithsonian Report for 18S5 is a bulky volume,
full of illustrations. Nearly the entire work is taken
up with a description of the George Catlin Indian

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

195

Gallery, by Thomas Donaldson. To ethnologists
this volume has therefore an unusual value.

Handy Guide to Norway, Second ed., by Thomas
B. Willson (London : Ed. Stanford). Mr. Willson's
excellent guide to a now much visited country has
been thoroughly revised and enlarged. It may be
too late to visit Norway this year, but those who
think of going next summer should obtain this handy
book. It is abundantly illustrated with maps, and
the notes on botany and fishing, &c, make it un-
usually valuable.

My Microscope, by a Quekett Club Man (London :
Roper and Drowley). A charmingly-written and
artistic little book, designed to be an " Introduction
to the study of the Infinitely Little." This is the
second edition, showing how well the first was
appreciated by the rapidity with which it has gone
off.

British Reptiles, by C. C. Hopley (London : Swan
Sonnenschein). This is another shilling volume of
"The Young Collector" series, whose chief value
consists in each having been entrusted to the person
best fitted to write it. Nobody will doubt Miss
Hopley's fitness — this little book includes the
Batrachians.

The Transactions of the Leeds Geological Associa-
tion, Part 3, contains some excellent papers by
Mr. Thomas Tate, Professor McAll, W. Cheetham,
C. Brownridge, Professor Green, &c, and some well-
written accounts of geological excursions made in the
district.

Transactions Chichester and West Sussex Aratural
History Society, has papers by the Rev. C. D. Ash,
Rev. F. II. Arnold (" Phyto-Geography of the
South Coast "), Rev. J. Fraser, Dr. Paxton, and Mr.
Joseph Anderson, jun.

The Westmoreland Note-Book and Natural History
Record, is devoted to local topography, biography
and antiquarianisms ; it also contains local ornitho-
logical, botanical, and geological papers.

Transactions Hertfordshire Natural History Society,
vol. iv. part 8, is devoted to accounts of various
field meetings, held in different parts of the county.

The eleventh annual report of the Hackney Micro-
scopical and Natural History Society, contains abstracts
of papers read, and shows the Society to be in a very
healthy state.

ROSE PESTS.
Hemiftera.

SOME conversation upon certain rose insects,
which took place at a recent meeting of
gardeners, has induced me to refer to the subject in
these pages, in the hope that the matter I have to
bring forward may be useful to the large number of
persons who peruse these pages, many of whom, no

doubt, are more or less interested in the cultivation of
these beautiful flowers.

Perhaps the worst insect enemies of the rose are
the various species of aphides, green fly, or smother
flies, as they are variously called. G. B. Buckton,
F.R.S., in his excellent monograph published by the
Ray Society, gives five species as infesting various
species or varieties of rose. The most common of
these are Siphonophora rosce and S. rosarum, but for
all practical purposes they may all be treated as one
species. No gardener needs be told of their hurtful
properties, clustering round the buds and tender
branches, and sucking the juices of the plant by
inserting the rostrum through the tender bark. The
rate of increase of these insects is something prodigious,
and unless a check is put upon them as soon as they
appear in the spring, they soon become so numerous
as to render any remedial measures almost hopeless.
In common with other aphides, the rose aphis has
several natural enemies, and these at all times should
be encouraged. The most observable, perhaps, being
the various kinds of hovering flies (Syrphida?), those
two-winged insects with bodies banded black and
yellow, and which may be seen in sunny weather
flying about the garden and poising motionless every
now and then before some object, especially a
composite flower, but darting off with lightning speed,
if disturbed, to poise again in another place. These
deposit eggs among the aphides, and the grubs which
hatch from them are legless, broad behind and
tapering gradually to the head. They feed upon the
green flies, as do also the various kinds of lady-bird
beetles (Coccinellidse) and their larva?. In the case
of a tree which grows in such a position that it
cannot readily be examined, it is a good plan to
collect a quantity of these latter insects and place
them upon it. The rose aphis has, however, another
enemy, perhaps more destructive than either of the
above, in the shape of a very minute metallic fly
(Aphidius cancellatus) which deposits its eggs in the
aphides, the larva? feeding within. This fly is so
small that it is seldom seen at large, but the dried
carcases of the victimised insects may be readily
observed fixed upon the rose leaves, and if collected
and placed in a glass-topped box the parasites may be
bred from them. Near to woods perhaps also the
larva? of some of the lace-winged flies (Hemerobiida?)
do their share in aphis destruction. These larva? may
readily be distinguished from those of the hovering
flies in the fact that they have six legs on the front
segments, and some of the species make a cloak of the
aphis skins which is carried upon the back. Every
rose grower should make himself thoroughly ac-
quainted with all these insects, and with judicious
care and proper selection, they will help him greatly
in his work.

Among the artificial remedies employed for the
destruction of these numerous pests, it will only be
necessary to mention two. The first is that recom-

K 2

196

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

mended by Miss Ormerod as a general aphis wash,
and which consists of one part of black soft soap
boiled in eight parts of soft water, to which paraffin
must be added while boiling, and the mixture bottled
while warm. When required for use it is to be
diluted with water, the strength depending on the
state of foliage and severity of attack. Another
wash is that recommended by Mr. Whitehead as
being of general use in the Kentish hop gardens :
viz., 6 to 8 parts quassia boiled in 100 parts of soft
water and 4 to 5 parts soft soap.

The common cuckoo-spit insect, or froghopper
{Aphi'Ophora spumaria) often very common in gardens,
is also injurious to roses and other plants, and there is
also a scale (Diaspis roscc) which is supposed to be
peculiar to this genus of plants.

S. L. Mosley.

Beaumont Park, Hiiddersfield.

( To be continued. )

THE ECONOMICAL PRODUCTS OF

PLANTS.

By J. T. Riches.

THE Durian Fruit. — This is the produce oWurio
Zibethinus, Linn., a tree belonging, according
to the latest arrangement in Bentham and Hooker
fils' Genera, Plantarum, to the family Malvacere, tribe
Durire. It is a native of the Islands of the Malay
Archipelago, and is now extensively cultivated both
in the Peninsula and Islands. The present cultivated
varieties are vastly superior to the wild form from
which they have originated, and which still exists in
the forests of Borneo and Sumatra. It is a very large
tree, growing from sixty to eighty feet high, resem-
bling in appearance an elm tree. Leaves alternate,
oblong, acuminate, rounded at the base, entire sub-
coriaceous, densely covered beneath with minute
scales, giving them a silvery-red appearance. Flowers
produced in little clusters, on the main trunk or
branches of a yellowish-green colour. Fruit variable
in form, globular or oval, measuring as much as ten
inches long, rather more than half as broad ; it has a
thick very hard rind, covered with hard short
hexagonal spines, and is divided into five cells, each
of which contains from one to four seeds, rather
longer than a pigeon's egg, completely enveloped in
the firm cream-coloured pulp, which is the edible
portion, and its consistency and flavour is in-
describable, and during the period when the fruit is in
season, it forms a staple part of the food of the
natives, and in a good fruit season large quantities
are preserved in salt in jars and bamboos, and kept
the year round, when the odour is very uninviting to
Europeans, but the Dyaks are regardless of this,
being accustomed to it, and they very much enjoy
them as a relish with their rice.

Of all tropical fruits this is perhaps the most

delicious, at least it has been so regarded by most
travellers who have written and spoken in the highest
terms of it. One thing is certain, if it may not claim
rank as the king of tropical fruits, it is the one with
the most abominable and offensive odour, which has
been commonly compared either to putrid animal
matter or rotten onions, and it would be inferred
that a fruit with such an odour, would be most
repugnant. This is so perhaps upon first acquain-
tance, but that is speedily overcome, and the durian
in the end becomes a favourite. The old traveller
Simchott, writing as early as 1599, says : " It is of such
an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour all the
other fruits of the world according to those who have
tasted it." And Dr. Paludanus adds : " This fruit is
of a hot and humid nature. To those not used to
it, it seems at first to smell like rotten onions, but
immediately they have tasted it they prefer it to all
other food. The natives give it honourable titles,
exalt it, and make verses on it." Mr. A. Wallace
(" Malay Archipelago," p. 75), than whom we want
no better authority, says : "A rich butter-like
custard flavoured with almonds gives the best general
idea of it, but intermingled with it come wafts of
flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion sauce,
brown sherry, and other incongruities. Then there is
a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing
else possesses but which adds to its delicacy. It
is neither acid, nor sweet, nor juicy, yet one fee)s
the want of none of these qualities, for it is perfect as
it is. It produces no nausea or other bad effects, and
the more you eat of it, the less you feel inclined to
stop. In fact to eat durians is a new sensation worth
a voyage to the East to experience. It would not be
well perhaps to say that the durian is the best of all
fruits, because it cannot supply the place of the sub-
acid juicy kinds, such as the orange, mango, and
mangosteen, whose refreshing and cooling qualities
are so wholesome and grateful, but as producing a
food of the most exquisite flavour it is unsurpassed.
If I had to fix on two only as representing the perfec-
tion of the two classes, I should certainly choose the
durian and the orange as the king and queen cf
fruits." Mr. Wallace also remarked upon the
dangerous character of a durian plantation when the
fruit is ripe, and liable to fall, and it is of frequent
occurrence that such prove very serious to many
persons during the season, and owing to the great
weight of the fruit, and its spiny coating, a very bad
wound is caused by a blow upon the head, but which
bleeds profusely. At the same time he remarks it is
astonishing how rapidly persons recover from the
effects of such a blow.

The Mangosteen Fruit. — This is produced by
Garcinia mangostana, Linn., which belongs to the
Gamboge family (Guttifereiu). It is a native of the
Malay Archipelago, where it is extensively cultivated.
It has also been introduced, and is cultivated in the
Southern and Eastern provinces of India, but it does

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

197

not there attain to such perfection as in the Malay
Islands. It appears to have been introduced into
this country in 1789, and it first produced its fruit in
the gardens of the Duke of Northumberland at Syon,
Isleworth, in 1855, from whence it was figured by Sir
W. J. Hooker in the Bot. Mag., t. 4847, where it is
also well described.

It is a large tree, with a freely-branched conical
head, leaves oblong-elliptical, acutely pointed, entire,
glossy, of a leathery texture. Flowers near the
extremities of the shoots, solitary, on very short

Fig. 78.— Flower of Garcinia mangostana, Linn.

Fig. 79.— Fruit of Garcinia mangostana.

peduncles, of a dull red colour, and about the size of
dog-roses. Fruit spherical in form, a section of
which would be about three inches in diameter, and
for which the tree is most highly esteemed, although
it possesses other virtues which gain for it great
favour. The fruit is largely used as an article of food,
it is very luscious and wholesome, and with the last
is one of the best tropical fruits. Dr. Abel, in his
description of the fruits of Batavia, says: "First in
beauty and flavour was the mangosteen. This, so
often eulogised by travellers, certainly deserves much

of the praise bestowed upon it. It is of a spherical
form, of the size of a small orange when ripe,
reddish-brown, and when old, chesnut-brown. Its
succulent rind is nearly the fourth of an inch in
thickness. It contains a very powerful astringent
juice, and in wet weather exudes a yellow gum which
is a variety of gamboge. On removing the rind its
esculent substance appears in the form of a juicy pulp,
having the whiteness and solubility of snow, and of a
refreshing, delicate, delicious flavour. We were all
anxious to carry away with us some precise ex-
pression of its qualities, but after satisfying ourselves
that it partook of the compound taste of the pine-
apple and peach, we were obliged to confess that it
had many other equally good but inexpressible
qualities." It is stated that any quantity of the fruit
may be eaten without deleterious effects, and it is
given with sweet oranges to persons affected with
fevers, and, according to good evidence, Dr. Solander,
in the last stage of a putrid fever at Batavia, found
himself insensibly recovering by sucking this delicious
and refreshing fruit. According to Dr. Garcin, in
honour of whom the genus is named : " It is one of
the most delicious of the East Indian fruits, and a
great deal of it may be eaten without inconvenience ;
it is the only fruit which sick people are allowed to
eat without scruple." Mr. A. Wallace ("Malay
Arch.," p. 84), in describing Sarawak, says, " a cool
spring under an overhanging rock just below the
cottage furnished us with refreshing baths and
delicious water, and the Dyaks brought us daily
heaped-up baskets of mangosteens and sunsats, two
of the most delicious of the sub-acid tropical
plants."

The bark of the tree is astringent, and a decoction
of it is used by the natives in dysentery, etc., and the
Chinese prepare a black dye from it.

A NATURALIST ALL AT SEA.

IT was in February that I jotted down a few notes
near the Equator, outward-bound for Australia.*
I wrote under difficulties — for a head-wind and
choppy sea interfered sadly with our action, and I
upset a bottle of ink over the counterpane in my
berth, amongst other misfortunes.

Sydney was my farthest point from home. Our
ship— the P. and O. " Victoria "—entered the heads
at five o'clock A.M. I was already on deck,
knowing full well that one of the finest sights in the
world would shortly be revealed.

The gap in the precipitous headlands is so narrow
that even Captain Cook himself at first sailed past
without discovering the entrance. He landed at
Botany Bay, marching overland to behold Port Jack-
son ; a stupendous revelation it must have been !

* Science-Gossii', April, 1888.

193

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Written descriptions convey but a slight impression
of Sydney Harbour. Within the heads, altogether
hidden from the sea approach, lie numbers of peace-
ful creeks, bays, and protected sheets of water pene-
trating inland in all directions, surrounded with
verdure-clad rocks and thickly-wooded land to the
very water's edge. Charming suburbs fringe the
sandy bays, and deep water extends in most parts
right up to the rocky coast line. More than ten
miles up the harbour, where the steam ferry crosses
from the Circular quay to North shore, there is
fifty to sixty feet of water in the main channel ; and
in Middle Harbour a steamer goes direct to the
rocky ledges to land passengers ; no landing stage is
required, for the depth of water is ample.

One of my first experiences was in shark fishing.
One or two young officers of the " Victoria" started
off in a tiny steam pinnace with ingeniously contrived
tackle to snare a wily monster of the deep. An
enormous hook and line was baited with a leg of
salt pork ; an empty biscuit-tin being used as a float.
In less than an hour the whole concern disappeared
suddenly beneath the water ; most vigorous tugging
indicating that we had a bite. In a few minutes
it was an open question whether our frail boat should
be spun round and round at the sweet will of an
infuriated shark, or whether we might tow him
securely to shore. Eventually he was drawn ashore ;
the head was cut off to ornament the bows of the
boat as a trophy, and a careful measurement gave
the entire length of the beast as fourteen feet ; in his
stomach were a goodly number of recently swallowed
fish. The party on returning to the ship received
an ovation, and regained the deck literally swollen
with pride.

I had often enough heard of the Port Jackson shark,
and besides the rows of sharp-pointed teeth, I could
not help being struck with the smooth, ribbed palatal
teeth, not so unlike those excavated from the Sussex
Chalk, I think of the genus Ptychodus. In fact, the
connection of the Australian flora and fauna with
past geological periods crops up at every turn you
take in the country.

Shortly after landing in Sydney, I sat down to
lunch at Petty's Hotel. The first thing offered
happened to be fresh oysters — a mollusc I never eat
in the raw state. At a glance, I perceived something
strange about them, and took a specimen on my plate
for examination. It was for all the world like the
fossil Ostrca carinata that I had so often hammered
out from the greensands in the Isle of Wight. Each
valve is long in proportion to width, crenulate at the
edges and quite unlike the English "native." They
appear succulent, judging from the manner in which
they were disposed of at lunch. Any quantity can be
gathered from the rocks in Sydney Harbour, as Dr.
Taylor remarks, in his interesting Australian book.*

* ' Our Island Continent.'

Clusters may be seen from the Botanic Gardens
skirting the bay.

At the Sydney Museum, through the kindness of
R. Etheridge, Esq., I saw a fine series of the recent
Trigonice, strange survivals of the past. At least
three species remain, the largest in Tasmanian waters,
the two other occurring in isolated spots near Sydney.
The initiated few can usually dredge up a specimen
or so, but the localities are not generally known.

Here again the life history of this bivalve throws us
back to Oolitic and greensand epochs. The small
species, with circular knobs on the ribs, is the rarest,
and at once reminded me of a larger type from the
Atherfield clays — Trigonia dtcdalia, I think.

On the beach at Manly, I saw a small boy carrying
an octopus nearly as long as himself. It had been
stranded on the sand, and he had secured his prize.
Each tentacle must have exceeded a foot in length,
and the hideous creature changed colour,' blushing, so-
to speak, from purple to red. His prominent eyes
started from the head, and the double rows of suckers
still had adhesive powers.

On another occasion I was in the fish-market, and
bought a dozen cuttle-fish (sepia) by auction for
sixpence. These creatures were of great interest. I
extracted the internal shell, which, pressed and dried,
forms a beautiful object. It might be compared to
the feathery end of a quill pen, with clear, trans-
parent, talc-like substance in place of feathers.
Then I investigated the ink-bag, filled with murky
fluid, with which I had no difficulty in writing a
letter. It is curious to observe the circulation of
inky globules beneath the skin of the sepia ; it causes
an incessant change in colour and apparently never
ceases. Has the animal the power of forcing the fluid
from the bag through the system ; or is the black
fluid separated during circulation to be stored up as
a defensive power ? I do not know how the matter
is originally secreted. Sydney Harbour is full of
medusae, squids, and gorgeous floating cephalopoda.

I spent a happy day rambling through endless
marshes — high up in the Blue Mountains, near
Katoomba. It was in the month of March, rather
late for an abundant flora, but ample material
remained, and the sundews alone afforded a day's
occupation.

In the previous week I had gathered specimens of
Drosera pygimva, at Watson's Bay, Sydney, a minute
plant one-third the size of our own D. rotundifoliay
which grows in dense masses of miniature rosettes in
the crevices of rocks.

To-day I found any quantity of D. spatulata,
with white and rose-coloured flowers, fully expanded,
the specific name accurately describes the leaves,
which have also brilliant red hair-glands with dewy
points, in many cases having insects attached.
Another interesting plant growing by the side of a
peaty stream, was D. binnata. It has singular pairs
of lineardiairy leaves bifurcating from each stem, thus

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

199

forming a kind of horse-shoe, fringed with the sticky
glands. The flower was completely withered ; I
think the petals are large and white, the loose,
terminal head of flowers growing in an irregular
corymb. I tried an experiment with one of these
plants. A large ant ran on a fragment of wood close
at hand. I carefully placed him in the centre of the
.Drosera leaf, where, in spite of struggles, the viscid
matter secured the prey ; more than this, the whole
horse-shoe gradually folded over the unfortunate ant,
revealing clearly the irritable nature of the hairy
leaves. I saw numberless insect cases attached to
other Drosera plants ; mere shells, with all juices
extracted. I have some recollection of a woodcut of
this species in Dr. Taylor's book, " The Morality
and Sagacity of Plants." Growing several inches
from the ground, hidden away in clumps of coarse
grass, was another form of Drosera, differing widely
in character from the preceding species. It was
D. auriculata, with spiral stem, and crescent-shaped
leaves on separate pedicels, having terminal pure white
flowers ; a rosette at the base of the plant, clinging
close to the soil, as with our commoner forms.

I am convinced this plant has learned to grow-
upwards, the better to secure living prey — unwary
flies are more readily entrapped. This is not pure
supposition. I noticed many scores of seedlings on a
dry, sandy patch of ground. Here were the different
stages of development. Some had simply the rosette
of leaves ; others had an abortive spiral growth ;
comparatively few showed a vigorous upward growth.
I could have gathered a complete series, from the
simple rosette of leaves to the spiral plant. In my
opinion, they have simply learned to grow high up
for the special purpose of food capture.

Another small Drosera I found in one rocky place ;
I cannot supply the specific name, for the plant was
not in the Sydney Herbarium. The roots were
fleshy and bulb-hke, to be compared with miniature
round radishes. The leaves were peltate on separate,
radical stems, being distinctly green, sparingly covered
"with brown hairs ; flowers not visible at this season
of the year. (D. peltata ?)

(To be continued.')

BOTANICAL NOTES AT HASTINGS.
By P. F. Gillett.

VERY few towns have had so much attention
paid to their Natural History features as
Hastings. For this great credit is due to those un-
tiring workers in every branch, through whose
exertions the "Fauna and Flora" have appeared.
Additions to it are however constantly being made,
which are recorded in supplements, two of which have
been issued. To mention a few of the plants
observed during a visit in the early part of July is the
object of this paper.

The rigid and hare's-foot trefoils ( Trifolium scabrum
and arvcnse) were observed on the cliffs below the
castle, together with a few patches oiSedum Anglicum.
The latter, however, grew more plentifully on the
East Hill and above Lover's Seat. The biting stone-
crop (S. acre) was abundant among the loose stones
near the beach at Bopeep, together with the sea
campion, viper's bugloss, horned poppy (Glaucium
luteum), and one or two spergularias. In a small
marsh by the cliff at Bulverhythe the glasswort,
sea arrow-grass (Triglochin maritimum), sea-milk-
wort (Glaux maritima) were met with, the latter
in some abundance ; while a ditch nearer Bexhill
produced Carex vulpina and Sc'upus maritimus. On
another occasion the sea-shore west of Bexhill was
the ground chosen. The sea-kale (Cakile maritima),
with its fleshy glaucous leaves, grew in several places
along the beach, and in moist places in the sandy
cliffs the brookweed (Samohis Valerandi) was to be
seen.

Battle with its abbey calls for mention. Epilobium
montanum, Parietaria officinalis, and the ivy-leaved
toad-flax grew plentifully from the walls with various
species of fern not mature enough for identification.
In some muddy ground in a neighbouring lane a few
specimens of the water purslane (Pcplis rortula) were
seen. A white-flowered specimen of Epilobium
montanum and one of herb-Robert (Geranium
Robertianum) were the only albinos seen. Around
Battle are to be seen some of the prettiest lanes in
Sussex.

A visit paid to Guestling, the home of that rarity
Centaurea Jacea, was productive of several unpossessed
specimens. Through the kindness of that veteran
naturalist, the Rev. E. N. Bloomfield, M.A., of
Guestling, I was enabled to obtain a few specimens
of that plant, which seems undoubtedly wild in the
meadows in which it grows. Another plant which
has only been lately noticed here, is that rare thistle
hybrid Cnicus Foster!, a cross between palustris and
pratensis, almost visual proof being afforded by the
occurrence of the parent plants not many yards from
each other. A few umbellifers seen were hemlock
(Conium maculatum), chervil (C/mrophyllum temu-
lum), water-drop wort (CEnanthe crocata), and
CEnanthe Phcllandrium, with its thick bamboo-like
stems. Trifolium hybridum, at a glance very like the
common Dutch clover, and T. incarnation, with its
tall crimson heads were evidently escapes. The
marsh cinquefoil (Potentilla Comarum and Corydalis
ctaviculata), were also found here.

The above are of course only a few of the plants
noticed, and as the district is very productive in all
branches of natural history, Hastings can certainly be
recommended in answer to the " Where shall I go ? "
of the naturalist. The number of Phsenogamous
plants on the list being so great, the drying paper of
any one botanically avaricious would be always " in
active service."

200

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS/E.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

A BSOLUTE ALCOHOL.— The difficulty of
•£*■ obtaining this is considerable. Ordinary dis-
tillation separates alcohol from water but imperfectly,
the water and the alcohol adhere so firmly that when
a mixture of these, such as always is first obtained in
the manufacture of alcohol, is distilled, some water
comes over with the alcohol although the boiling
point of the latter is so much lower than that of the
water. Thus, ordinary "spirits of wine" or the
" Rectified Spirit " of the pharmacopoeia, contains
but 84 per cent, by weight of pure alcohol, and
official "Proof Spirit" contains but 49 per cent.
This proportion was originally determined by the old
method of testing or proving the strength of the
mixture. A small quantity of gunpowder was
moistened with the liquid to be tested and then a
light applied. If it fired the gunpowder, it was said
to be "over proof;" if not, "under proof." The
weakest spirit that will stand this test is what we now
describe as having specific gravity 0*920 at the
temperature of 6o°, which is the modern excise proof
standard.

The ordinary method of removing all the water or
obtaining absolute alcohol is to invoke the strong
affinity of quicklime for water, by adding this, or a
mixture of it with alkaline carbonate, to the simply
distilled spirit and then to distil again. The lime
holds back the water, and if the process is skilfully
conducted, absolute alcohol finally comes over from
the still, having a specific gravity of 07938.

Another method of separating the water has been
recently devised. Gelatine, in its soluble form,
absorbs water very freely, but is a total abstainer
from alcohol. By suspending thin sheets of gelatine
in diluted alcohol the gelatine will take up the water
and leave the alcohol behind, and we are told that in
this manner absolute alcohol is obtainable without
distillation. The process is curious and interesting,
but I do not vouch for its complete efficiency.

The Purification of Alcohol.— Intimately
connected with the above is another recent announce-
ment of a new method of removing that bugbear of
the distillers — fusel oil — from alcohol. Hitherto this
has been practically effected by the very simple yet
expensive process of ageing, keeping the spirit — such
as whisky — for some years in the cask, during which
period the proportion of fusel oil gradually diminishes,
and the spirit diminishes in strength from over proof
— to much under proof. I have never met with any
account of the rationale of this change, but have
supposed that between the fusel oil and the wood of
the cask there must exist some selective adhesion
whereby it enters the pores of the wood, passes slowly
through and then evaporates from the outside. This

theory is supported by the fact that, after bottling,
the action is so much reduced that the exosmosis
appears to be limited to the cork.

The new method consists (omitting details) in
mixing with the raw spirit a hydrocarbon, i.e. a liquid
of the same class as the resin existing between the
woody fibres of the cask.

The fusel oil adheres to the hydro-carbon — i.e.
mixes with it, while the alcohol remains unsociably
apart, and its purification is thereby effected. High
authority is quoted in affirmation of the completeness
of this purification. My only difficulty in accepting
all that is stated in favour of the process is that a
limited company is either afloat or in course of flota-
tion. One becomes brutally cynical in these days
concerning anything and everything that appears on
the prospectus of any such company.

Volapuk. — The recent agitation in favour of this
cacophonous innovation reminds me of an experiment
I made about thirty-five years ago in a school which
was founded in Edinburgh by the late George Combe,
James Simpson, William Ellis, and other advanced
educationists. The primary object of the experi-
ment was to determine the amount of time that might
be saved in learning to read and spell the English
language when divested of its barbaric orthography.

A class was formed of little children of both sexes,
taken at random, and who had not yet begun to learn
the alphabet. These were taught to read books
printed in the phonetic type devised by Mr. Alexander
J. Ellis (that in which " The Phonetic News" was
printed), by a young pupil teacher in the ordinary
school hours. In the course of about eight months
they could all read easily and freely Bible selections
and other matter printed in the phonetic type.
Reading and spelling of course came together, the
spelling being merely a natural analysis of the sound
of the word. Then came the transition to ordinary
type. The resemblance between the forms of whole
words in both types rendered this very easy ; it was
effected in about two months longer. But the
miserable business of ordinary spelling still remained.
Herewith commenced the usual training in intellectual
degradation, the violation of all logical consistency
in the first efforts of intellectual education. The
mastering of this abomination demanded as much
time as would be necessary for learning altogether one
or two modern languages.

We commonly envy the linguistic attainment of the
Germans, but forget that a German child requires no
spelling-lessons in his own language beyond learning
the phonetic value of the alphabet and the correct
pronunciation of the word to be spelled.

But what is the connection between this and the
Volapuk controversy? Simply that when we — or
rather the Americans, who are sure to outstrip us in this
— adopt a thorough spelling reform, such as Ellis's or
that more recently devised by Melville Bell,- the

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

20I

English language will at once become the medium
of communication between all the nations. In every
other respect but its vile spelling, our tongue stands
pre-eminent as the simplest and best that human
beings have spoken, and, besides this, it has now such
a start in the race for universality that it is certainly
destined when orthographically purified, todebabelize
the world.

A Sensational Cure.— Many of my readers
have probably read the paragraph that has appeared
in many newspapers narrating the wonderful cure of
a blind man by a flash of lightning. The " British
Medical Journal " disposes of the marvel by a simple
sifting of the facts. The man was injured by an
explosion in a mine ; one eye was totally destroyed,
and he became unable to see with the other. He
was in hospital for seven weeks with fits, and on
leaving was led about, owing to his defective sight.
One evening after a flash of lightning he noticed that
he " could see indistinctly objects near to him." A
few days after he could walk about without a guide.
On enquiry, the editor of the journal learned that for
some time after this the patient could only partially
open one eye, that the cornea was opaque, and had
been gradually clearing for many months past, and
adds, that in the absence of any authoritative state-
ment as to the condition of the vision before and
after the lightning flash, there seems no reason for
assuming that the case was anything but an ordinary
one in which the cornea was slowly clearing.
Nothing is more common than for a gradual improve-
ment to be suddenly noticed when it has reached a
certain stage.

Imperfect Combustion. — All who have experi-
ence in the use of mineral oil lamps must sooner or later
learn that the condition demanded for their burning
without smell is that the wick shall be turned up so as
to obtain a full-sized flame without actual smoking.
It is commonly supposed, at first, that by keeping the
flame low all objectionable odour is prevented, but
the contrary is the case. Something more may be
learned, by first charging a lamp with a measured
quantity of oil burning it with the flame at full size
for a given time and ascertaining the loss of oil ; then
making a second experiment with the same lamp,
same quantity of oil burning the same time, but with
wick turned down so as to have but a fraction of the
amount of light supplied during the first experiment.
On measuring the loss of oil this time it will be found
but little less than in the first case. Therefore in
turning down such lamp flames we obtain no such
saving of material as in turning down a gas flame.

The reason is that with the low flame a considerable
quantity of the products of incomplete combustion are
making their escape into the air, and these are not
only offensive to the sense of smell, but are also
injurious to health, they are analogous to the vapours

that are created by blowing out the flame of a tallow
candle and leaving the wick to smoulder.

M. N. Grebant has recently studied the action of
the much milder products of the imperfect combustion
of coal gas, by placing a dog in a chamber of twelve
metres' capacity in company with an ill-supplied
Bunsen burner. A comparison of the gases of the
blood taken from the carotid artery, before and after
the experiment, showed that the oxygen of the
original blood was almost wholly displaced by
carbonic oxide.

Exhaustion of Soils. — The virgin soils of
Australia are suffering a form of exhaustion due to
the loss of nitrogen. Mr. R. W. E. Macivor has
written on the subject in " The Chemical News,"
vol. 57, p. 25, pointing out the causes of this, one of
them being the practice of burning the straw instead
of returning it to the soil as we do after it has done
its work as litter for cattle and horses. I refer
particularly to this, as such wastefulness is not
peculiar to Australia. Ignorant gardeners and
ignorant farmers burn the weeds they remove from
the soil, and in doing so cast all the ammonia they
contain into the air, and then purchase guano
imported from the other side of the world to replace
the loss. If these weeds were properly stacked and
sufficiently rotted to destroy the fertility of their seeds,
they would, when returned to the soil, constitute the
best of all possible manures, because they return to
the soil just what they have taken from it.

In ordinary gardens the crop of weeds far exceeds
in exhaustive energy the sum total of all the other
crops. In flower gardens this excess may amount to
ten or a hundredfold, and yet many gardeners are
deliberately guilty of the heinous offence of carting
away the weeds bodily, which is still worse than
burning them, as in the latter case the ash, with its
mineral salts may be returned. It is not always
ignorance that induces this wasteful proceeding. I
have noted the doings of more than one gardener who
has a small nursery of his own, and who also attends
to the gardens of villa residents in the neighbourhood.
I found that most of these studiously throw away the
weeds from the gardens of their employers, and
religiously save their own. They commonly make a
profit on the stable manure which they purchase for
the purpose of compensating the unreplaced ex-
haustion of the outcast weeds. In some cases, of
course, the employer not the gardener, is the culprit,
the latter merely obeying orders, or the garden in
question may be a little back yard all too close to the
house to allow space for a weed heap. In every case
the waste is shameful, and only mitigated by the fact
that somebody else may appropriate the castaway
weeds and use them properly, and in the case of
burning that some of the ammonia may be washed
from the air by rain to improve the crops of more
deserving agriculturists.

202

HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

A DAY'S SHELL COLLECTING.
By Dr. J. W. Williams, m.a.

ON Wednesday last (June 8th), the weather
being fine and the wind freshly blowing, Mrs.
Williams and I put into effect a long contemplated
day's visit to the River Lea and the necessary ac-
companiment of a good search with the scoop into
the water for shells. Mr. Wallis Kew had paid
fleeting visits with me to the river before, for the
same purpose, but we had never stayed so long as to
make a thorough examination of the river's bed. On
the day of which I am writing this paper we started
from my residence, near Regent's Park, a little after
ten in the morning, and reached our destination
about mid-day, and worked hard and fast till the
shades began to lengthen, and the watch to tell us
that it was getting near the time of evensong. Never
have I spent a more delightful day with nature on the
outskirts of London. Never on the outskirts of
London have I felt more deeply thrilling in one's
very soul the ever-recurring miracle of the mystical
yet sanely realistic, Walt Whitman —

"To me, every hour of the li^ht and dark is a miracle,
Every inch of space is a miracle,
Every spear of grass — the frames, lirnbs, organs, of men

and women, and all that concerns them, —
All these to me are unspeakably perfect miracles."

Yet, not like the pure, pure country, but for all
that, still enjoyable and delightful.

I have never taken so many Splnrrium rivkola as I
took on that day. Almost every sweep of the scoop
brought up some for my collecting box ; and more
were taken in one spot than in another, which evi-
dently shows a tendency to gregariousness on the
part of these, our largest species of the genus
Sphrerium. They are pretty bivalves, oval in shape,
and much ventricose around, and in the neighbour-
hood of the umbones, markedly sculptured with
raised stria; running concentric with the umbones
which are central in position and bluntly pointed ;
the colour is yellowish, banded, or otherwise marked,
with blackish brown, and the whole shell carries a
length of 19 mill., and a width of 15 mill. The
younger ones are much flatter in shape, less ventricose,
paler, and not marked with blackish-brown. The
shell seems to age first by an extension in length and
breadth, and then by an extension in width, for as it
becomes older and older, so does it become more
ventricose. This ventricosity is more pronounced at
the umbo — the umbo being the baby-shell ; so that the
adult carries, as well as its own likeness, a miniature
of itself. Spharium cortieum were present there too,
and specimens of its varieties compressa and flavescens.
The former of these varieties was described by Dr.
J. E. Gray as " shell rather compressed, margins
meeting at an acute angle,"* and by some chance

* Vide " Shell-Collector's Handbook for the Field," p. 47.

or other has been overlooked by Dr. Gwyn Jefferys,
Rimmer, and Adams ; the latter is paler, not so
large, and more globular than the type, and was first
described by Macgillivary as Cyclas flavescens on p.
246 of his " Molluscs of Aberdeen." Sphcermm
corneum is common almost everywhere, but Spharium
rivkola is more or less local in its distribution.

Closely allied to the Sphaeria are the Pisidia, both
genera belonging to the family Sphaeriidae, and of the
genus Pisidium only one species was taken, viz.,
Pisidium amnicum. It is an extremely difficult
matter to tell the Pisidia from the Sphasria, and
although some conchologists will stake their word
on the examination of the shell merely, I will not,
and must have the animal before I will come to
a definite and conclusive diagnosis. It is then, if
you have the animal, an easy matter, for if a specimen
belongs to the genus Pisidium it has one siphon, and
if it belongs to the Sphaeria two siphons ; if it be a
very young Anodon or Unio it has no siphons at all.
That is the only conclusive test, and that I recom-
mend to all shell-workers as the only positive way
whereby they can diagnose the genus. Get your one
siphon and then tell the species by the shape of the
shell if you like ; it is triangular in Pisidium amnicum
and P. fontinale, oval in P. pusillnm, round in P.
nitidum, and oblong in P. roscum. Pisidium amnicum
and P. fontinale are the only two alike in the shape of
the shell, it being triangular in both species, but the
shell of P. fontinale is far more tumid (almost cuboid),
more transparent, thinner, and not so deeply grooved
concentrically. I cannot pass by the Pisidia without
mentioning that Pisidium pusillum differs from all
other lamellibranchs in having the sexes united
in the same individual ; just as Limax (Eulimax)
Icevis differs from all the Pulmonata in having the
sexes distinct.

Of the Anodons I took one Anodonta anatina, and
of the Unios, three Unio tumidus. I have not much
to say of these except that U. tumidus is the most
plentiful of the Unionidae in the River Lea, and that
A. anatina can be easily distinguished from A. cygnca
by the angle which its ligament makes with the lower
margin of its shell, and that U. tumidus can be as
readily distinguished from U. pictorum by the wrinkled
condition on its umbones. Dr. Henry Woodward
has lately considered it his duty to make the statement
that A. anatina is but a variety of A. cygnea, and in
the absence of his giving any proofs for this somewhat
uncanonical assertion, and on the grounds of the
difference well marked between the two types, I must
hold his idea as arguing badly for his knowledge of
the constitution of a species and of a variety.
Anatomical differences apart, there is enough in the
shell to warrant us in still holding on to it as a good
species.

Passing on now to what Cuvier termed the
Malacozoa Gastropoda ; of the family Paludinidae I
took, Paludina vivipara and Bythinia tentaculata.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

203

One of the Paludina vivipara was the largest I ever
took, and didn't my eyes glisten when I saw the giant
crawling up the muddy sides of the stream ; it was a
well-marked specimen with a longitudinal measure-
ment of 38-5 mill, and a transverse diameter of
the aperture of 19 mill. Bythinia tentaculata was
there in plenty.

Valvata piscinalis was in tolerable abundance in the
weeds on the bottom of the river, and also some
little specimens which closely simulate it on first
look, and of which I must warn the young collector,
viz. baby/1, vivipara; but by an old hand they can be
at once distinguished, for where is the umbilicus, the
peculiar twist on the last whorl as you look at it
from the side of the aperture, and the old oper-
culum ? Valvata piscinalis is umbilicated very
distinctly, the operculum looks old and brownish, and
it has a peculiar twist on its last whorl ; the young
P. vivipara has no, or if present, it is'extremely slightly
marked, umbilicus, the operculum is so thin that it can
scarcely be distinguished on the body of the animal,
and there is none of that peculiar twist on the last
whorl. The young P. vivipara with the animals in
them look very pretty things indeed, and they would
make very pretty things too for the collection,
because they appear to be marked with three black
bands which come out well in relief; but on extracting
the animal only a transparent horn-coloured and ex-
tremely fragile shell is left without the banding, for
that has disappeared with the animal, it being present
on that portion of the animal which is known as the
mantle. As the shell becomes older, this colour is
laid down in it by the free edge of the mantle from
which it is secreted, and thus the characteristic
markings of the adult shell is typified in the markings
on the mantle of the embryo.

Several purple-mouthed Limtuza palustris were also
taken, and plenty of Limnaea peregra and Limnaa
auricularia with "intermediate forms" between
these last two species. Limnma peregra, vars.
labiosa and succinevformis, were the most plentiful, and
some specimens which cannot be told whether they
are peregras or auricularias, and which is best to
designate as " intermediate forms " for Limnaa
auricularia seems to have been evolved from Limncea
peregra, not only because of the presence of these
" intermediate forms," or mesostates, as they may be
termed, but on account of the great resemblance the
two species bear to one another in their internal
structure, especially in the reproductive organs, where,
if anywhere, the greatest differentiation would be
expected. All the Limnsea have been seen floating ;
Mr. Wallis Kew first observed Z. truncatula doing
this in Lincolnshire ; and I have lately had the
pleasure of completing the list by observing L.
auricularia doing the like.

The pretty and delicately formed Physa fontinalis
was also taken ; and also specimens of a small narrow
and thin Z. stagnalis which to me does not seem

worth a variety-name, but which nevertheless is
named var. fragilis. There must indeed be some
hard and fast line drawn in naming varieties, or else
we shall all be overwhelmed in a deluge of variety-
names, for in no other zoological group, with the
exception, perhaps, of the leeches, does variation
occur to such a great extent as in the Mollusca.

AFTERGROWTHS AMONG HARDWOOD
AND CONIFEROUS TREE STUMPS.

By Robert Coupar.

THE aftergrowth of Hardwood and Coniferous
tree stumps is a subject of much interest to
the scientific and practical student, inasmuch as it
affords us a pleasing and instructive study to master
the details and explain the cause of this curious and
interesting freak of nature.

That some trees of the hardwood species do grow
after being cut down is well known ; the roots draw
sap from the soil which circulates through the root
and stimulates those latent and hidden buds contained
in the bark into growth, becoming shoots, and finally
increasing to copse, ultimately reaching a tree none
the less inferior to its parent, which may be again
cut down and the same process repeated over and
over again.

Now, if we were to destroy the bark, this physio-
logical property would be entirely destroyed, hence,
in regenerating copse woods, the great care of pro-
tecting and saving from injury is apparent.

Now, in the case of coniferous trees which have
not this physiological property of pushing out young
shoots and leaves from the felled stumps, how can
they grow as formerly, is the main inquiry ?

In some works, for instance, arboricultural work, the
authors have fallen into the error of saying they have
the power of growing after being cut down : and
recently, at a society's meeting at Edinburgh, some
authors positively asserted they had known several
instances of isolated and other stumps continue growing
for very many years]after being cut down. Such asser-
tions are entirely misleading, and have been given
before the writers made themselves in the least ac-
quainted with thelife and various functions of plant-life.
We have observed that hardwoods produce leaves
and shoots which elaborate, the sap returning again
by the bark to be converted into woody tissue, hence,
no leaves, no growth, unless by a system inarching or
engrafting.

Since, then, conifers are not capable of sending out
shoots and leaves, they have no elaborating organs
of their own ; in other words, they have no lungs,
for the leaves are compared to the lungs ; they are
the breathing organs of the plant. Then these coni-
ferous stumps cannot possibly grow after being cut
down, unless they have been previously engrafted

204

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

when the trees were in full connection of all their
junctions.

By referring to illustration A, which represents two
coniferous trees (larch) engrafted, or inarched, as
it is sometimes called, and the sap ascending and
descending, is moving from one tree into the other ;
now, if we cut down one of these trees and leave the
other standing, this standing tree will perform the part
of a nurse, the elaborated sap from the leaves of the

suppose you were to cut all the roots with a pickaxe
and gently lift the stump or root out of the ground,
and placed it upon some other object, the stump
would grow, provided the leader was not severed or
injured.

Illustration B represents a larch tree growing on
Lord Mansfield's estate, Scone Perth, having six of
these aftergrowths, all depending for support upon
the one tree. Fig. 81 is entirely grown over with

Fig. 80. — Larch, showing natural engrafting.

nurse-tree will circulate into and through the root
of the felled tree, and consequently not only keep it
alive, but will live and make wood just the same as
if it had been in full connection of all its parts, leaves,
branches, and stem. Certainly, when the nurse-tree
is removed, the stump will die.

Again, the root of the felled stump may, and in
many cases will extract sap from the soil and send the
same through to- the nurse-tree, although the roots
performed no function whatever. For instance,

the aftergrowth ; they are only partly covered over,
while the heart wood of the former tree has entirely
disappeared and quite rotten, having a hole quite
through. Numerous instances of these growths in all
stages have come under my notice when thinning
woods ; many instances where close planting produced
an aftergrowth which in after years I found nearly en-
closed in the future layers of some of the larger roots.
These stumps were at one time all trees, having
been cut down when about fifteen years old, and were

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

205

Fig. 81. — Larch having six aftergrowths, all supported by one tree.

2o6

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

living a few years ago, while the parent was over
seventy years of age, and will continue growing as
long as the nurse-tree lives.

A remarkably perfect specimen of this aftergrowth
was exhibited by me at the S. A. B. Society, in
Edinburgh, a few years ago, and obtained the
society's silver medal. The same specimens were
exhibited at The Forestry Exhibition in Edinburgh.

I may here mention, careless observers in going
over old woodlands, where larch, spruce, silver, &c,
are left, might have observed an effort on the part of
the stump to produce an aftergrowth. But there
being no nurse-tree to feed them, their existence is
only until the elaborated sap is used which will be
the first year after being cut down.

Silver, Douglasii, nobilis, Albertania, spruce larch
will produce aftergrowths quite freely : also some
other pines. But it seems the pine tribe have not
the same property of freely growing over, although on
examining any suspected specimen it will be found
they are growing and making wood a little under the
surface.

Again, to illustrate this more clearly, as I am
anxious these growths should be thoroughly under-
stood, suppose, for instance, that a man receives an
injury, having lost so much blood thereby that it is
found he has not enough to nurse the vaiious organs
of his body until more blood could be made to make
up what was lost : suppose, then, all the bodily
functions are quite healthy ; if an opening is made
in his arm, whereby more blood could be passed into
his body from the arm of another man beside him,
the man would recover. Now this admirably illustrates
the present case before us. The tree has been
deprived of its elaborating organs ; it has no way of
manufacturing blood (sap), but the nurse-tree performs
that function for it, and supplies it with elaborated
sap (blood), which not only keeps it alive, but forms
wood yearly, the same as if it had been in full
connection of all its functions. Nor does this exhaust
my observations. Not far removed from the tree
given in the illustration, I found another remarkable
instance of aftergrowth. A leader from one tree had
become engrafted into the leader of another tree
about four feet from the stem. In this case the roots
were both running in the same direction. After the
tree had been cut down many years, and all the wood
rotted away, I discovered that the shell of the main
root, practically known as the "tapins," was alive,
being fed by a nurse-tree, and had been making faint
layers of wood almost unrecognisable for many years.
This specimen was also exhibited.

Again, I have found numerous instances of natural
engrafting among stems and branches. This might
form the subject of another paper.

Now, in the first place, it is observed that, in order
to produce an aftergrowth, the trees must become
engrafted during life, when connected they will live
on as long as the nurse-tree lives.

A slight difference takes place among hardwoods
which become engrafted. They grow on as long as
they are fed by the nurses the same as the Conifers.
But should these hardwoods throw out leaves and
shoots, as is sometimes the case, they might then
continue to live, although deprived of the connection
and the nurse, because then they would have lungs of
their own (leaves). If they had not these, then if
severed from the nurse they would die the same as
would Conifers.

Ashford Castle, Gahuay.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

ANOTHER American observatory is to be pro-
vided with a very large refracting telescope ;.
this fortunate observatory is Denver University,.
Colorado, which is to have a new refractor 20 inches
in diameter. The expense of this is to be defrayed
by Mr. H. B. Chamberlin, of Denver. The instru-
ment will be mounted 5000 feet above sea level, that
is 800 feet higher than the great Lick refractor.

It is a strange thing that none of our great
capitalists should present such a telescope to one of our
observatories. England is now behind every country
in Europe, and, of course, immeasurably behind
America, in optical means of research in astronomy.

Such great apertures should be of enormous value
in photographing the heavenly bodies, and it is now
evident that the future of astronomy lies entirely in
this direction.

At the meeting of the Astronomical Society of
France, held on July 6th, Mr. Trouvelot presented
the society with a set of photographs of celestial
objects made at the observatory of Harvard College,.
U.S., and forwarded by Mr. Pickering.

The photograph of the Pleiades is peculiarly
interesting, as it shows the same curious rectilinear
trails of the nebulous matter which are so strikingly
visible in the last photograph taken by M. M. Henry.

Really valuable photographs of nebulce cannot be
taken except with telescopes of large aperture.

There will be no occultations, eclipses, or other
celestial phenomena of interest during September.

Mercury will be an evening star during the latter
half of the month.

Yenus will be an evening star throughout the-
month, and will be in Virgo near to Spica on the
22nd.

Mars will be an evening star, but will be too low
for observation.

Jupiter will be an evening star, and will be near
Mars on the 12th.

Saturn will be between Cancer and Leo.

Meteorology. — This subject is unfortunately so fertile
of interest that to treat it adequately would require

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

207

Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at intervals of Seven Days in July.

Rises.

Souths.

SctS.

D.

h. m.

h. m.

h. m.

\

2

6 2M

O 33A

7 4A

1

9

6 45 M

O 49A

6 53A

Mercury 5 . \

16

7 24M

I IA

6 38A

I

23

7 57M

I IOA

6 23A

'

30

8 25M

I i6a

6 7A

\

2

6 35M

O 5SA

7 ISA

1

9

6 57M

0 59A

7 ia

Venus $ . A

16

7 20M

1 3A

6 46A

I

23

7 41M

1 7A

6 33 a

'

30

8 4M

1 I2A

6 20A

N

2

0 25A

4 39A

8 53A

1

9

0 24A

4 30A

8 36A

Mars of . . >

16

O 22A

4 22A

8 22A

I

23

O 2IA

4 I5A

8 9A

'

30

O 20A

4 9A

7 58a

\

2

O 38A

4 58a

9 i8a

1

9

O ISA

4 34A

8 53A

Jupiter %. A

16

II 53M

4 IIA

8 29A

23

II 32.M

3 48a

8 4A

3°

1 1 IOM

3 25 a

7 40A

2

2 42M

10 I9M

5 56a

1

9

2 I9M

9 55M

5 3ia

Saturn T? . A

16

I 56M

9 3°-%I

5 4A

I

23

1 33M

9 6m

4 39A

30

1 9M

8 41M

4 I3A

more than the whole number of Science-Gossip.
What weather there has been will be seen in the
weekly summaries which appear below, but I must
mention that the Iith of July was colder in some
places than the corresponding day in January, and
the rainfall was between four and five times the
average, so that nearly 1000 tons of water fell to an
acre.

The unfavourable weather has militated greatly
against astronomical observations being made, so
that there is less to chronicle than otherwise would
have been the case ; but this exceptional weather has
greatly increased the interest in meteorological results.

As I was unavoidably prevented from writing my
paper on Astronomy and Meteorology last month, I
have given here the meteorological results of the two
months, as I believe they will be found exceptionally
interesting.

At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the highest
reading of the barometer for the week ending June
23rd, was 3004 in. on Monday evening, and the
lowest 2972 in. on Wednesday afternoon. The mean
temperature of the air was 54-2 deg., and 6-3 below
the average. The general direction of the wind was
N.N.E. Rain fell on four days of the week, to the
aggregate amount of 0-27 of an inch. The duration
of registered bright sunshine in the week was 17*7
hours, against 14*4 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending June 30th, the highest reading

of the barometer was 29-91 in. at the beginning of the
week, and the lowest 29*35 in. on Friday afternoon.
The mean temperature of the air was 61*9 deg.,
agreeing with the average. The general direction of
the wind was south-westerly. Rain fell on five days
of the week, to the aggregate amount of 2 "37 inches.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 29-9 hours, against 34*1 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

For the week ending July 7th, the highest reading
of the barometer was 29-88 in. on Sunday evening,
and the lowest was 29*31 in. on Wednesday afternoon.
The mean temperature of the air was 56-4 deg., and
5'2 deg. below the average. The general direction
of the wind was south-westerly. Rain fell on six
days of the week, to the aggregate amount of 0-90
inch. The duration of registered bright sunshine in
the week was iS'S hours, against 24-2 hours at
Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending July 14th, the lowest reading
of the barometer was 29-50 in. on Wednesday
morning, and the highest was 29- 94 in. on Friday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was 55'$
deg., and 7-0 deg. below the average. The general
direction of the wind was north-west. Rain fell on
four days of the week, to the aggregate amount of
0-44 of an inch. The duration of registered bright
sunshine in the week was 23-2 hours, against 26-6
hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending July 21st, the lowest reading
of the barometer was 29-26 in. on Monday afternoon,
and the highest was 29-76 in. at noon on Friday.
The mean temperature of the air was 59*4 deg., and
4'0 deg. below the average. The direction of the
wind was variable. Rain fell on six days of the
week, to the aggregate amount of i'6i inches. The
duration of registered bright sunshine in the week
was 1 1 8 hours, against 10-7 hours at Glynde Place,
Lewes.

For the week ending July 28th, the highest reading
of the barometer was 29-73 in. at the beginning of
the week, and the lowest 29-29 in. on Saturday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was
60-3 deg., and 2*4 deg. below the average. The
general direction of the wind was south-west. Rain
fell on each day of the week, to the aggregate
amount of I'll of an inch. The duration of
registered bright sunshine in the week was 34-8
hours, against 22*2 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending August 4th, the lowest reading
of the barometer was 29-25 in. on Monday afternoon,
and the highest 30-07 in. on Friday morning. The
mean temperature of the air was 56-9 deg., and
5-8 deg. below the average. The direction of the
wind was variable. Rain fell on five days of the
week, to the aggregate amount of 4-29 in. The
duration of registered bright sunshine in the week
was 22 'O hours, against 23-1 hours at Glynde Place,
Lewes.

2o3

IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

For the week ending August nth, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29/63 in. on Sunday
morning, and the highest 29/98 in. on Monday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was
63 '9 deg., and ra deg. above the average. The
general direction of the wind was south-west. Rain
fell on two days of the week, to the aggregate amount
of o " 1 1 in. The duration of registered bright sunshine
in the week was 47*5 hours, against 41 "5 hours at
Glynde Place, Lewes.

In September the isotherms run nearly east and
west across England. The mean average tempera-
ture across Wigtown, Dumfries, and Jedburg is 550 ;
across Lancaster and York to Flamborough Head it
is 560 ; across Liverpool, Derby, Retford, and
Lincoln, it is 570; across Swansea, Monmouth,
Reading, Hartford, and Ipswich it is 580, and along
the S. W., the S. and the S. E. coast it is 590.

The rainfall differs almost in vertical lines from N.
to S., being about 5 inches on the W. coast, about
3 inches in a vertical line down the middle of the
island, and about 2 inches on the E. coast.

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The sharks reported to be locating the mouth of
the Mersey, to the great terror of sea bathers, turn
out to be dog-fish.

A "Primer of Micro-Petrology," by Mr. W.
Mawer, is announced. This will be welcome news
to many intending students.

M. E. L. Trouvelot, during the storm of June
24th, at Paris, succeeded in obtaining the photograph
of a flash of lightning, and submitted the proof to the
Academy of Sciences on the 9th inst. This flash which
seemed to connect the earth with a cloud subtending
an angle of 40° This flash appears divided in four
main branches, brilliant and strongly marked. But
there were others less visible, some so faint that they
could not be seen in the negative without the help of
a lens. The total number of the branches large and
small is thirty-seven. A microscopic examination of
the image of the flash shows that it is like a long
ribbon, taking all the forms which a ribbon might
present if plunged into a slowly moving liquid. This
ribbon seemed to be traversed vertically by a multi-
tude of rays more or less close together, and more or
less brilliant. They are seen almost everywhere upon
the flash, even upon its faintest ramifications. They
correspond in general with the fracture of the zigzags
which seem to make up the flash.

" Nature " of August 9th, says : — A new gas pos-
sessing some remarkable properties, has been dis-
covered by Professor Thorpe and Mr. J. W. Rodger,
in the research laboratory of the Normal School of
Science. It is a sulpho-fluoride of phosphorus of the

composition P S F3 ; and is termed by its discoveries
thiophosphoryl fluoride. The best method for its
preparation consists in heating pentasulphide of phos-
phorus with lead fluoride in a leaden tube. It may
also be obtained by substituting bismuth fluoride for
the fluoride of lead, the only difference between the
two reactions being that the second requires a higher
temperature than the first. Again, when sulphur,
phosphorus, and lead fluoride are gently warmed
together, an extremely violent reaction occurs, but
if a large excess of the fluoride of lead be employed,
a tolerably steady evolution of the new gas occurs, the
excess of the lead salt appearing as moderator. It is
an interesting fact throwing considerable light upon
the constitution of the sulpho-fluoride, that it may
be obtained by heating together to 1500 C. in a sealed
tube, as mixture of the corresponding chlorine —
thiophosphoryl chloride, P S C I3— a mobile colour-
less liquid and trifluoride of arsenic. The simple
exchange of chlorine for fluorine here brings about a
striking physical change, from a highly refracting
liquid to a colourless gas ; and now for the remark-
able properties of the gas. In the first place, it is
spontaneously imflammable. If it be collected over
mercury, upon which it exerts no action in a tube
terminating above in a jet and stop-cock, and the
latter be slowly turned so as to permit of its gradual
escape, the gas immediately ignites as it comes in
contact with the air, burning with a greenish-yellow
flame tipped at the apex with blue. If, however, a
wide tube containing the gas standing over mercury
be suddenly withdrawn from the mercury trough, the
larger mass of gas with production of a fine blue
flash, the yellowish-green tint being again observed
as the light dies away. If a quantity contained in a
tube over mercury be heated for a considerable time
complete decomposition occurs ; sulphur and phos-
phorus both being deposited upon the sides of the
tube and gaseous silicon tetrafluoride left. From a
spectroscopic examination, dissociation was shown to
occur at the lowest temperature of the electric spark.
The gas is slowly dissolved by water and appears to
be somewhat soluble in ether ; but alcohol and ben-
zene exert no solvent action upon it. Finally, the
colourless transparent gas was reduced to liquid
somewhat resembling the sulpho-chloride, by means
of Cailletet's liquefaction apparatus.

Mr. W. T. Blandford, F.R.S., announces the
immediate publication of Part I. of his "Fauna of
British India," including that of Ceylon and Burmah.

The South Shields Literary and Scientific Society
have started a new monthly, under the title of " The
Tyneside Review." It is very brightly written and
well edited.

We are sorry to have to chronicle the death of
Professor H. Carvill Lewis, a young American
geologist who has made his mark even in British

HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE - G 0 SSIP.

209

geology, particularly in glacial geology. He had
come over to England to pursue his studies on this
subject, and to attend the approaching meeting of
the British Association.

Parts III. and IV. of Mr. Howard Saunders'
" Illustrated Manual of British Birds" are published,
and fully maintains the high opinion we expressed
about it at first.

We have received Parts I. and II. of Dr. Karl
Russ' "Speaking Parrots," published by L. Upcott
Gill. It deals with the diet, diseases, &c, of these
birds, and is well illustrated.

The last number of the " Journal of the Geologists'
Association" contains papers on "Pleistocene Land
and Freshwater Mollusca," by B. B. Woodward;
" Elephas primigenius associated with Flint Imple-
ments at Southall," by J. A. Brown ; and on the
"Influence of Geology on the early Settlements and
Roads," by F. J. Bennett.

We have received a reprint of Mr. William Cash's
important paper on " The Fossil Fructification of
the Yorkshire Coal Measures," originally published
in the " Proceedings of the Yorkshire Polytechnic
Society;" also a reprint of Mr. A. Smith Wood-
ward's "Synopsis of the Vertebrate Fossils of the
English Chalk," from the " Proceedings of the Geol.
Association."

MICROSCOPY.

Measurements by Camera Lucida. — Would
you kindly reply through correspondents' column the
following queries ? (i) In measuring with the micro-
scope by means of Camera Lucida. The books I
have state that the distance from table must be 10"
when the micro is horizontal. I presume that is if the
distance between the object and the eye-piece
measures 10"? (2) If I now pull the draw tube out
3" making the distance from object to eye-piece 13",
I reason that I must raise the micro until it measures
13" from table, is this correct ? (3) Roundly stated,
should the distance from table (when micro is
horizontal) not equal the distance between object and
eye-piece in all cases ? — R. W.

New Slides. — We have received a special slide
of the Hessian fly {Cecidomya destructor), with illus-
trated descriptive sketch, from Mr. Fred. Enock.
Mr. Enock has devoted special attention to the life-
history of this notable insect, and has watched and
noted every change from egg to egg again, and we
believe it is his intention shortly to publish a full
account of it. The "Journal of the Trenton Nat.
Hist. Society" contains papers on "Freshwater Im-
pressoria," by Dr. A. C. Stokes, &c.

New Method of Classifying Bryozoa.— In-
stead of depending upon exterior characteristics for
classification, the bryozoa are ground into the re-
quired thinness and submitted to the microscope.
The method of preparing these mounts is described
in "Science" by Mr. A. F. Foerste. The specimen
is ground on a Barnes' machine with emery till a
plane is formed, having the same direction as the
intended section. The successively finer grades
can be made very fine indeed by using polish-
ing powders sprinkled over a piece of plate glass.
Then the specimen is carefully washed, dried, and
glued with Canada balsam to the slide which is to
retain the specimen. The specimen is then ground
away until only a thin sheet remains fastened in the
Canada balsam, after which it is again smoothed,
washed and protected by a thin cover glass.

ZOOLOGY.

H. NEMORALIS VAR. SCALARIFORME. — I have to
record from this district a specimen of the rare shell
Helix nemoralis, M. scalariforme. Mr. R. Stand,
author of the "List of Lancashire Land and Fresh-
water Molluscs," paid a visit to this district in June,
1887, and called to see it, and pronounced it a
unique specimen of that variety. Mr. E. Collier, of
Manchester, called and saw this specimen, and pro-
nounced it to be one of the finest that he had the
opportunity of seeing. — J. Russell Wildman, Burnley,

Planorbis dilatatus. — A short time ago much
interest was created among conchologists by the
rediscovery of P. dilatatus in a pond at Burnley, and
some theories were offered by Mr. T. Rogers, of
Manchester, as to their probable introduction to
Burnley. The ponds in which they were discovered
were the feeding ponds to a paper-mill, and to the
engines of a weaving shed, and their temperature is
somewhat above the normal, which no doubt accounts
for their being larger specimens than those obtained
from the Gorton canal. The chief weeds in the pond
are Potamagun crispus, Anacrhais alsinastrum, and a
confervoid which grows on the sides and on the but-
tresses of the railway viaduct which crosses the ponds.
I may say these are the ponds mentioned as "Marger-
son's Print Works," in Dyson's List, and it is doubtful
whether they were to be found when that list of
molluscs was written. Some months ago Mr. F. C.
Long discovered them also in the canal which runs
through Burnley, but the specimens were not so
large as those found in the ponds. These also were
found in close proximity to the return pipe from the
condensers of the engines of a large spinning mill,
and on examination of the embankment farther into
the town, in some numbers, and also extending into
the country for over a mile beyond the farthest mill,
but in smaller numbers. When these shells were

2IO

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

discovered in the ponds, some speculation was made
on their probable introduction, and Mr. J. Bates,
who first noticed them particularly, had some
correspondence as to their probable introduction.
Their mode of distribution and their method of intro-
duction to that particular pond was a little puzzling
at first, as no cotton mill was within at least a
•quarter of a mile, and no visible connection with
the canal or any river, until they were discovered in
the canal (they had not been found in the canal
prior to this), when their introduction could be ac-
counted for by the action of the birds. This must
have been some time since ; as the district between
the ponds and the canal is now built upon, and the
canal is some considerable from and height above
the ponds, and no doubt, being the nearest Ho the
canal, and most suitable for the development of
the ova, would probably have some influence upon
them. I may say that the ponds are themselves
nearly one hundred years old, as we can ascertain ;
but I think Mr. Rogers' theory of their introduction
to England will no doubt account for their not being
discovered prior to 18S6. I may also say that P.
glaber, P. albas, B. Lcachii are also found in the pond.
The nearest locality for the first species of the three
is two miles away, and for the last no other place has
yet been found, so there is plenty of scope for the
various opinions upon this method of distribution of
molluscs and plants. — J. Russell Wildman, 14,
Harghurst, Burnley, Lancashire.

" Book-worms."— With reference to Mr. W. J.
Simmons' article on " Book- worms," which appeared
in your July number, it speaks of the paste used in
binding as attractive to the insect, which, in the case
of the present style of binding is true, but the ravages
of the worm of the past were undoubtedly due to the
wooden boards used so greatly for binding previous
to the present century. My object in writing now, is
to suggest a sure preventive against the present pest,
and destruction, which binding is subject to in tropi-
cal climes, i.e. have all books bound in the best
buckram, and have directions given to the binder to
mix arsenic freely with the paste, and when covering
the boards with the buckram, to paste it on, not glue
it as is usual in that style of binding. The poison will
retain its toxical properties, and not injure the ap-
pearance of the book. Trusting you will find room in
your valuable paper for the above suggestions. —
A. B. C, Cambridge.

New British Earth-worms. — Mr. W. B. Ben-
ham writes to " Nature " (August 2nd) as follows : —
' The occurrence of any new animal in England is a
point of some interest, however humble that animal
may be, and in order to work out the species of
British earth-worms, I sent a letter to the ' Field,'
some time back, requesting readers of that journal to
forward me specimens. In reply, I received a large
number of worms from various people, amongst them

being M. F. O. Pickard Cambridge, of Hyde, who
has very kindly sent me several parcels of worms.
One of these parcels contained some very fine gravel
taken from the bed of a stream, together with a
number of small worms about one and a half to two
inches in length. These turned out to be a species
of Allurus, a genus formed by Eisen for a worm in
which the male are on the thirteenth segment instead
of on the fifteenth, as in the other genera of the
family Lumbricidas. Only one species is at present
known, viz. A. tetrcedrus ; it is of a beautiful sienna
colour, with a dull orange clitellum. I wish to
record, for the first time, its occurrence in England;
and also to draw attention to the fact that it lives in
water, at any rate for some part of the year. Mr.
Cambridge has been most obliging in giving me facts
as to the place in which he found the worms ; they
occur in the gravelly bed of a stream which at certain
times of the year runs down so low as to leave small
gravelly islands two or three inches high. In these
islands he found Allurus ; but he finds none in the
banks of the stream. We already know of Crio-
drilus as being a thoroughly aquatic earth-worm,
living in muddy beds of rivers and lakes ; and
although this worm has not yet been recorded in
Great Britain, I see no reason to doubt that it exists
here. I should add that Mr. Beddard has informed
me that he received a specimen of Allurus from Lea,
Kent, some time after I received these from Hyde.
It has been recorded also from Sweden, Italy, and
Teneriffe."

A very rare fish, Plagyodus (Alepisaurus) ferox,
has just been caught in the Karlsbfjord, in Iceland.
It is 5 feet 9 inches long, with small shark like fins,
those on the back being about a foot in length. The
head is pointed, and the teeth long and sharp. It
appeared to lie asleep on the surface of the water,
and a fisherman caught it by its tail, when it at-
tempted to bite him. Professor Liithen states that
hitherto only three specimens of this fish have been
caught, viz,, one at Madeira, one in Greenland, and
one previously in Iceland. It is believed that this is
the mysterious fish, the fase-al, i.e. the eel with a
mane, of which the Faroe fishermen stand in such
awe.

The Boar Fish. — I have read, in Science-
Gossip for July, Mr. P. H. Gosse's account of the
appearance of this rare fish at Babbicombe, and wish
to add a few particulars that have occurred to me.
The species is common to the Mediterranean, but a
rare visitant to these shores. About eight or nine
years ago it occurred rather plentifully on the Dorset-
shire coast, but I have not heard of its appearance
since, until this year, when I was staying in Guernsey
at the end of the winter, and where it began to make
its appearance at the end of March, though not in
any numbers. But in May it began to arrive on the
Dorset coast, and became so abundant in the middle

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

211

of the month that many hundreds were taken daily
in the mackerel nets off Wyke Regis and Portland,
many others being cast ashore in Weymouth Bay
at almost every tide owing to what may be termed a
suicidal instinct on its part. It comes sailing in
with the tide in the usual vertical fashion, but on
finding itself approaching shallow water, instead of
backing seaward, it lays on its side and flaps itself in
a line for the shore, where it becomes stranded. It
is a handsome little fish, and when trapped in a
rock-pool, as happened to me on several occasions,
is a most interesting and beautiful study. — J. T.
Marshall, Sevenoaks, Torquay.

BOTANY.

"Annals of Botany." — The June part of this
high-class work commences the second volume. It
contains the following papers : — " Notes on the Plas-
modium of Badhamia utricularis and Brcfcldia
maxima," by Arthur Lister; "On the Presence of
Sexual Organs in yEcidium," and "A Monograph of
the genus Calostoma," Desv. (Mitremyces, Ness), by
George Massee ; " On the Formation of Sugars in
the Septal Glands of Narcissus," by E. Hamilton
Acton; "On a Method of Studying Geotropism,"
by Anna Bateson and Francis Darwin ; "On Catha-
rinea dnomqla, Bryhn, a new British Moss," by
J. Reynolds Vaizey ; " On the Structure, Develop-
ment, and Affinities of Trapella, Oliv., a new genus
of Pedalmeae," by F. W. Oliver. Also notes—" On
the Systematic Position of Isoetes, L." by E. H. Vines ;
" Preliminary Note on the Development of the Root
of Equisetum," by J. Reynolds Vaizey ; " Pinus
Monophylla," by Maxwell T. Masters. Most of the
papers are illustrated in the highest style of book
art. The second volume of the "Annals of Botany "
promises even better things than the first.

Botanical Excursion in Switzerland. — In
Science-Gossip for July, p. 146, second column,
line 37, for "left and right," read "right and left."
Perhaps the error is not of sufficient importance to
be noticed. — y. F. Hamilton.

White Flowers. — It has always seemed to me
that albinisms in animals, and white mutations of
normally coloured flowers, were of more scientific
interest than is generally supposed, so that of late
I have been gathering notes bearing upon this
question and its solution, with some hope of good
result. At present, however, I will not enter into
any theories on the subject, but merely appeal to
those who meet with such to record them plainly
and accurately for the benefit of other observers;
and will now record two white-flowered varieties I
have this year found in Custer county, Colorado : —
Iris missouriensis form albiflora ; flowers white, not

uncommon with the type, at about 7,600 feet alt.,,
but not seen higher, where the type is abundant.
Campanula rotundifola form albiflora ; flowers white,
and in the specimen I found rather smaller than is
typical. Found at about 8,500 feet alt., one plant.
It will be noted that both these flowers are normally
purplish-blue, and flowers of this colour seem un-
usually prone to have white varieties, while yellow
flowers most rarely show them — a significant fact,
Companula of normal colour will frequently fade-
white in drying. — 71 D. A. Cockerell, West Cliffy
Colorado.

Mimicry in Plants. — In hunting for plants the
other day, I came across some specimens of Ger-
anium tnolle, having not only their petals white, but
their leaves also considerably blanched. These grew
on a low dune in the lovely vale of Clarach, near
Aberystwyth. A little farther inland, I noticed a
specimen of G. pratense, with pale petals, growing,
on the encroaching sands. I attributed this change
of colour to the barrenness of such soils. Cerastiums
were absent. — Geo. Bees, Aberystwyth.

The Flora of Anstey's Cove. — There is pro-
bably no spot on the south coast which better
repays the botanical explorer than this charming
Devonshire cove, about two miles from Torquay,
In addition to the loveliness and sublimity of the
scenery, the rambler may meet with more rare and
beautiful wild flowers there on a summer afternoon
than he will find in other less favoured localities in a
search extending over several days. My visit was
made on the 2nd of August, when most of the plants
I shall mention were in full flower. As one ap-
proaches the cove over the down, which extends to
the edge of the cliff from the Torquay road, he finds
its carpet studded with thousands of the blue
blossoms of the autumnal squill (Seilla autumualis)..
Thence he descends by a slippery stair of rough steps
to the cove below, which is bounded by the sapphire
sea on one side, and huge Cyclopean rocks on the
other, clothed with green ivy and privet, while a
beach of white pebbles, on which are huge masses
of rock, surrounded by samphire, appears in strong
contrast with the darker limestone above it. Close
by, I first met with abundance of the lesser meadow
rue {Thalictrum minus), the foliage of which at
first sight somewhat resembles the maidenhair fern.
Large patches also were to be seen of the very
rare Sedum rupestre, with its golden stars, and the
silvery flowers of Sedum Anglicum, unusually large
and fine, also appeared at intervals, as did the
yellow Sedum acre. Ik re, too, occurred in plenty
and perfection the rare Portland spurge {Euphorbia
Fortlandica), with its tufts of lower leaves of glau-
cous hue, while the upper leaves and flowers were of
livelier green. The next plant which caused attention
was the white rock 'rose {Helianthemum polifolium),
found only, according to Watson, in Somerset and

2 12

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Devon. This was abundant higher up the glen ; but
was out of flower, as was also the sea cabbage
(Brassica oleracea), with large racemes and pods.
Among the masses of stone, the wild madder [Rubia
peregrina) luxuriously winds its stems and spreads its
prickly leaves in profusion, and on searching among
the ivy, on its roots, I met with the find of the afternoon,
Orobanche hederce. It has a more lax spike than that
of the O. minor, and its flowers are paler and were
in some instances quite white. Two plants which I
sought for, I'icia sylvatica and Melittis melissophyllum
recorded from this place, I did not fall in with, from
some reason or other. Again climbing the steep
ascent, above which were whistling the bullets of the
volunteers who were at practice, and listening to
their "ping" as they struck the target, many more
common but scarcely less interesting species were to
be seen, such as, Dancus maritimus, Cardials tenui-
florus, Geranium columbinum, and G. lucidum, Hyperi-
cum monlauum, Linum angusti/olium, Spinra
Filipendula, Cotyledon umbilicus, Silene maritima,
Iris fiitidissima, Viburnum Lantana, Pyrus aria in
plenty, and Arabis hirsuta, rather sparingly. All the
plants above mentioned, including Ligustrum vulgare,
were undoubtedly indigenous. Time did not admit
of the full exploration of the southern cliffs which
are covered with shrubs, among which grew Solidago
Vtrgaurca and Inula Conyza, and after a row across
the placid waters of the cove, at sunset, in the direc-
tion of Berry Head, a pleasant return was made to
Paignton. — F. H. Arnold.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Rudiments. — Ten months " ago I started the
question as to the appropriateness of Mr. Darwin's
use of the term " Rudimentary."

In the course of the argument many other subjects
of equal interest have been discussed, until the
particular point at issue is likely to be overlooked.

To some of the readers of Science-Gossip, the
question has appeared a "useless quibble," to others
it savours of a want of " generosity or magnanimity,"
and yet, on looking over the remarks that bear
immediately upon the subject, I am inclined to think
that there is an underlying general feeling that a
better word might be substituted.

Leaving alone, for the present, the question, as to
the truth of the conclusion that the word "rudi-
mentary " is meant to suggest, I return to the first
question. Does the term express what it is intended
to, in the " Descent of Man" ?

Mr. F. G. Fenn, writing in the November number
of Science-Gossip, allowed that "Darwin used the
word rudimentary where many able anatomists and
naturalists would now use vestigial."

Mr. T. Alfred Dymes, while defending Darwin's
use of the word, himself suggests the mental substitu-
tion of " modified," " since," he says, " the desire to
have the word altered seems to exist."

"T" who is jealous for the honour of Darwin's
memory, and seems to fear that it is at stake, because
of the possible misuse of a single term, has neverthe-

less himself substituted the word "vestigial" for
"rudimentary" in the following quotation. "It is
not needful," he says, "in these days, to demonstrate
again, that the senses of sight, hearing and smell, in
man are inherited in an enfeebled and vestigial
condition. " *

Why does "T" substitute "vestigial" for Mr.
Darwin's "rudimentary," unless he too is conscious
that the latter term is misleading?

Mr. A. G. Tansley, though disagreeing with the
general drift of my last paper, recognises the objection
to Mr. Darwin's use of the word "rudimentary,"
"on the ground that it is not used by him in the
generally accepted sense," &c, and suggests, as a
more appropriate word, either " reduced " or
"degenerated." As the special object of my article
was to challenge a defence of the word, and as no
adequate defence appears to be forthcoming, perhaps
it is useless to weary your readers further with the
etymological phase of the question. But while rather
a reluctant recognition of the inadequacy of the teim
" rudiment " has been obtained, none of your corre-
spondents appear willing to allow that the machinery
of the human organism (the brain excepted) is up to the
"typical standard." An evolution of retrogression
is cheerfully accepted as the gradual means by which
man has arrived at his present physical condition, and
on this poor "degenerate, enfeebled, reduced,
modified, inferior, vestigial " instrument, his brain,
which apparently alone has progressed, is to act,
with this astonishing result, that he is " the most
perfect animal known." The inconsistency of a
brain that has progressed, being prepared to work an
organism that has retrograded, appears to me most
apparent.

It is like Mozart attempting to play on a worn-out
lodging-house pnno.

No one would have recognised Mozart if he
had had nothing better to play upon, and the
superiority of the human brain power can only be
recognised through the instrument that it works.

Moreover, if we are to believe such an authority as
Dr. M. Foster, it would appear that, of the two, the
brain is even more dependent upon the machinery,
than the machinery upon the brain, for the demon-
station of its powers.

An animal from which the cerebral lobes have been
removed can be induced to perform all the
movements which an entire animal would be capable
of, by means of the application of appropriate stimuli.

" The machinery," says Dr. M. Foster, " for all the
necessary and normal bodily movements is present in
all its completeness. The share therefore which the
cerebral hemispheres take in executing the movements
of which the entire animal is capable, is simply that
of putting this machinery into action." Again he
says, " The relation which the higher nervous
changes concerned in volition bear to this machinery
is not unlike that of a stimulus. We might almost
speak of the will as an intrinsic stimulus. Its
operations are limited by the machinery at its command."

With such statements of fact before us, it is difficult
to see why "it is absurd to import into the question
the phenomena belonging to the mind," as your
correspondent "T" declares it to be.

In conclusion I would repeat, that arguing upon
evolution ground only, should I compare the organs of
different classes of animals one with another, to find
the greatest degree of perfection : for while com-
parative anatomy has revealed to us the unmistakable
family likeness running throughout creation, it does
not necessarily follow that we are justified in making

* The inverted commas and italics are mine.

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS I P.

21 '

invidious comparisons between organs specially
adapted to differing purposes. Nevertheless, the
evolution theory has so accustomed us to the use of
such terms as " higher and lower forms," " progres-
sion and retrogression," that in order to answer the
evolutionist, he must be met on his own ground. It
might be more correct to deny the existence of a
" typical standard" by which the organs of animals,
whose environment differs, could be measured, but
since such standards are claimed to exist, it is most
reasonable to look for them in man. But your
correspondent Mr. Tansley has out-Darwined
Darwin, in asserting that " the muscles of our arms
and chest . . . have fallen away from the typical
standard exemplified in the lower animals," for
while I am quite ready, as he supposes, to admit
that they are "more perfect" in man than in the
gorilla, I cannot do better than quote Mr. Darwin
himself in support of my belief.

He says, "Although the intellectual powers and
social habits of man are of paramount importance to
him, we must not underrate the importance of his
bodily structure .... To throw a stone with as
true an aim as a Fuegian in defending himself, or in
killing birds, requires the most consummate perfection in
the correlated action of the muscles of the hand, arm
and shoulder, and further, a fine sense of touch."

When any quality surpassing this "consummate
perfection" is to be found in the structure of the
gorilla, then only need we look upon it as the
typical standard from which we have fallen. — Nina
F. Layard.

Ground Ivy. — While searching for orchids the
other day (June 23rd) my interest was aroused by
observing a curious appearance in the above plant.
A large quantity of ground ivy I noticed as having
a remarkable growth in the leaves, one at least on
each stalk having a substance about the size of a
small cherry, apparently growing out of the leaf. On
examining and dissecting one, I found the growth to
be a kind of gall, consisting of an outer case of a
substance resembling the rind of an apple, then a
kind of spongy or woolly material, and finally a cell
containing a minute maggot. Some of the galls had
two or three cells, containing the insects, and ap-
peared as if double. Can any one tell me if this is
common to the plant, also the name of the parasite ?
I may add, every plant I noticed in the immediate
vicinity of those first examined were afflicted in the
same manner, while those in other places were free
from the insect. — F. H. IK

Yew-Trees, their Size and Age.— Since the
correspondence on the above subject has come for-
ward, I thought I would measure a fine old yew m
the churchyard at Much Marcle, Herefordshire. I
find the circumference at a distance of about 6 ft.
from the ground, to be 25 ft. 5 ins. This gives a
diameter of 8 ft. i.^ ins. (taking n = 'f ) or 1164 lines,
indicating an age of 1164 years. I must not forget
to say that the tree is hollow, and there are seats
inside. Now should the width of this opening be
taken into consideration in measuring the circum-
ference ? In other words, has the fissure been caused
by a rent or by the removal of a portion of the tree ?
I think most probably the former. This supposition
will, of course, considerably reduce the age of the
tree. — C/ias. A. What mo re, M.C.S.

Natural History Notes. — The following notes
might be interesting to your readers. On the 3rd of
June I took a freshly emerged specimen of Cohas
edusa. Isn't this very early for the appearance of this
butterfly ? On the 8th July I passed a garden with a

good quantity of ferns growing in it, and all of them
except a few — viz. S. vulgaris, O. regalis, and
A. nigrum — had the ends of the fronds branching
out. Can any correspondent account for this phe-
nomenon, as there was no peculiarity in the position,
except that they were facing the north 1—E. E. Lowe.

Dissolving Gum Tragacanth. — In your book
" Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural His-
tory Objects," at page 133, you mention the Gum
Tragacanth being dissolved in gum arabic. I find
some difficulty in getting the former to assimilate
thoroughly. Can any reader please state what I can
add to cause it to do so ? I may say that it proves
satisfactory, excepting occasionally, when a rather
large piece comes up, and that generally when one
wants it to be the opposite, for mounting such a
plant as one enclosed. — J. F. H.

The White Rocks of Castille and Red'
Rock of the Moselle. — " The way to Heaven is as
near, if not nearer, from Syria as from England, or
my native Spain," remarked the Queen of Charing,
piqued with our proverbial climate ; and if ever
creation dawned in a transparent, dry and elastic air,
you may breathe its enchantment when the constella-
tion Virgo sheds its influence on the corn-land of
Castille. Wildly magical and full of light is then
the silent night ; the Milky Way glitters around like
a diamond cincture, and angels appear to descend
with burning torches and jewelled crowns to gather
in the golden ears. When the sun arise ;, flowers the
most urbane gleam like tinsel over this tree-less waste
of limestone and sand, white and sparkling as
wedding-cake paste ; and heated by the glow, they
exhale delicate aromas that the same species seem
quite to want in our damp, northern air. Roots out
of dry ground, they one and all are adapted to the
parched soi', in being woolly or wiry, or soft, fleshy
and glandular, and thus they live on and soak in from
the dews the nourishment denied to their rootlets.
You may notice this in the mealy composite, Chon-
drilla juncea, in the flesh-coloured Jerusalem sage
(Phlomis), in the purple sandworts full of colour, in
the yellow thistle [Scotymus hispanicus), in the wiry
stalks of the annual tansey, dwarfed pinks, and stone-
crops, or even in the downy and inconspicuous
Holosteum umbellicum too easily mistaken for a
plantain. The very stalks of the buck's horn
plantain appear here a trifle more woody and tough.
But among the loveliest of Castillian wild flowers, the
frail blue pimpernel shuns the drought and bathes its
beauty in the perpetual freshness of the river bank ; ^
strange too, for with us these are also flowers of the
corn-field though impatient of the shower. The
gutta-percha hills and steppes that arise out of these
shining plains resemble so many icebergs ; and when,
the dust drives along their summery vines in smoky
puffs, they present the dreary appearance of eternal
frost. Everything on their slopes is then crisp and
candied as if encrusted by a petrifying spring ; the
scorched grass, flowers, flies, and grasshoppers, are
alike liveried in silvery white. The Chalk Hill blue
buttei flies (Polyommatus corydon) are indeed so large
and white as they come dashing along the road as to
be perfectly unrecognisable ; and Polyommatus dorylus,
only to be distinguished in the shadows from the
common blue by a cerulean flash, and. only differing
in the absence of two spots at the base of its fore
wings, trust we Professor Leller, is often to be seen
abroad in similar disguise. Here, however, the
change is structural, for the wing tcales are newly
adorned with yellowish white. True it is that on.
chalk and limestone most of the butterfly and moth

214

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G O SSI P.

kind are naturally paler, and here garden flowers
■often turn suddenly white, and so should it be
in Castille. I have tracked these tranformation
Chalk Hill blues from Valladolid to Valencia, but on j
entering on the damp mountains of the Asturias, that '
act like a sponge in sucking in the Atlantic clouds !
and clarifying the Castilian air, I noticed that they
there wore their usual blue d*ess. Hence it is
evident that dry calcium is a bleaching powder ; and
there is a reason why the pale hills should be popu-
lated by forms so wan. Let us now turn to the iron
tonic. Is any moon-struck lover desirous to taste the
love philter of the Syrian damsels, let him take a
railway-ticket to Treves previous to a July thunder- ;
plump. The Moselle is creeping along, low in
its channel, brick-red and lurid. The purple clouds
are mirrowed red, and the strip of intense blue
between reflects laky purple. Beneath the red rocks
he will start to see its maternal bosom curdle as with
clotted gore. The blood-drops of Adonis are dripping
on the purple floss of the Geranium sanguineitm and
trickling down the sticky stems of the Silene armeria :
and from the bosky ravine Cupid in giddy chase leads
forth the queen of loveliness riding the sly-eyed boar.
No, the slant sunbeam fades, and it is the all indelible
blood of the Theban cohort that mantles there, and
the little Christian maiden leaps and screams — er-
schrecklich. Slow echoing up the valley growls the
thunder, beneath the red rocks the current turns blue
and pure, but on the opposite bank it swerves among
the lean bluish barley, red and more turbid : and now
the deluge is sweeping down in its strength, no longer
red, but yellow and sparkling as Moselle mousseux.
Let us walk up this acacia-scented shade and observe
how Nature paints her colours on rocks so red and
soluble. There is a glow around, and the white and
zigzag clovers have a rosy hue ; but brown, and black
are evidently here in fashion. The bramble stems
have a look of porphyry, and a company of escargots
(Helix pomatia) crawling on the wet bank carry shells
as brown as chestnuts. The black and brown butter-
flies are all most unusually black, and something akin
to ink blots and inks in their wing patterns. Our
manufacturing towns change the white moths in their
vicinity into blackamoors, and iron oxide and
vegetable acid make ink ; and could we bottle an
extract of native soil we might create varieties at
pleasure. Stay, my friend, in practice I have never
produced much effect on living things by a use of
inorganic chemicals ; Nature is wiser than I, and her
love philters are more potent. — A. H. Stuinton.

Thrushes' Nest on the Ground. — Whilst
rambling in the neighbourhood of Dromore, co.
Down, lately, I discovered a fine thrushes' nest with
four eggs, situated in long grass on the ground. It
was near a river, and close to a shrubbery. I should
like to know if it is unusual for thrushes to build on
the ground. — F. J. Bigger, Belfast.

Before Darwinists were Metamorphosists.
— It is pleasant to think that in the middle ages
Rochester Priory possessed its Book of Flowers and
its description of Noah's Ark, and to learn that
monasteries equipped their divines and metamor-
phosists as well as their knights of the sword, for to
them was entrusted the formation of language and
ideas which mould themselves with difficulty to the
age. The maiden of sweet seventeen who has
watched the alkanet drop its sad bells one by one in
the shadows, and who has striven to think that flower
of blue was once the athlete Ilyacinthus killed by a
quoit, will readily pardon the helpful monk who be-
thought him to supplement the grand fiats with some

small compliancy on the part of the nature herself
drawn from so dreamy a source ; for poor man, great
in Genesis and the Classics, museums and microscopes,
had never conjured up a phantom of Darwinism to
expound that a dull order was Heaven's first law.
Thus the writer of the Natural History, 1270,
alphabetically arranged, after prefacing an arbitrary
idea of the creation of man borrowed from the Latin,
proceeds to describe the animals, birds, sea and
river animals, reptiles, fish and insects, in groups as
the Biblical idea directed ; beginning otherwise
methodically with A is the ass, and including among
his freight of two hundred and eighty, or thereabouts,
Pegasus and the Phenix. Yet the transaction is not
wholly incurious, since the social ways of the beavers
in the forests of Poland, according to Jacob, appears
drawn from life, while the proclivities of the boar
and bear in Germany are detailed with a gush and
gastronomic relish. For the same reason, an enquiry
as to the origin of Perpetual Motion in a Prime
Mover of Infinite Power, inspired the logician of
those days with an uncomfortable notion of stu-
pendous violence since none had pushed generation
to its limits and observed the working of the great
in the infinitely little. Who will not allow that
Darwinism is an advance on the score of integrity ? —
A. H. Swiii ton.

Notes on Hybrid Zebras. — Mr. Tegetmeier has
communicated to the " Field" the following account
of a very interesting experiment on the breeding of
hybrid zebras, and their fertility or sterility, which
is in progress at Theobalds, the estate of Sir Henry
Meux. " Some few years since, a very fine female
specimen of Burchell's zebra (Eqiins Burchelli) was
obtained from the Zoological Society, and turned
into the park in company with a herd of ponies.
Burchell's zebra, I may state, is the species most
frequently captured, and by far the most in Zoological
collections. It is an inhabitant of the plains, the
other species dwelling in the mountainous districts
of South Africa. Contrary to general belief, the
zebras are tamed without difficulty, if proper treat-
ment is adopted towards them. On going into the
park at Theobalds, I was cautioned against ap-
proaching the zebra ; but, having confidence in my
power ol making friends with animals, I quietly
walked up to her when grazing, took care not to
alarm her, and was leaning on her withers and
patting her off side in a couple of minutes. In fact
this zebra is much more docile than the two fillies of
which she is a parent. The eldest of these, rising
three years old, was sired by one of the ponies in the
park, and shows the stripes of the zebra only to a
moderate degree. The other, and by far the finer
filly, a yearling, the produce of a half-bred trotting
pony, imported, I believe, from the United States of
America. This yearling is beautifully striped, not
only on the legs and neck but also on the haunches.
As they have not been handled they are rather skit-
tish, having a good allowance of corn along with the
working ponies, all of which are in admirable con-
dition. There should be no difficulty in breaking in
these two fillies to harness. Many of my readers
must remember two hybrid zebras belonging to the
Zoological Society, that were formerly driven about
town tandem, in a light cart. They were as docile
as any ordinary horses ; and with judicious treatment,
there is no doubt these two fillies would be equally
amenable to gentle and judicious discipline. Ordinary
mules are characterised by great nervous excitability,
and my friend, Mr. C. L. Sutherland, is always
insisting on the necessity of accosting mules with
gentleness, so as to avoid startling them. He main-

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS I P.

215

tains that what is generally regarded as obstinacy
and perversity, arises in most instances from nervous
excitement. I can testify that, in the numerous mules
I have seen for about a score of years in his stables, I
have never seen one vicious or obstinate. Doubtless
these hybrid fillies would partake of the mule char-
acter, and require gentle handling and careful treatment
to break them in satisfactorily. It is essential that an
animal should acquire confidence in man. Another
point of some considerable interest may possibly be
determined at Theobalds— namely the fertility of the
hybrids. These two fillies are now running about
almost in a state of nature with a troup of ponies,
they are well fed, and are under such conditions that
their fertility, if it exists, may be demonstrated.
The experiment of trying to breed from them from
an entire pony is one of considerable interest, and
whether it prove successful or otherwise will add a
definite amount to our knowledge of the constitution
of these hybirds."

Bees and Jubilees. — Some of your readers may
recollect the bees which White, in his Natural History
of Selborne, mentions as having their home in his
time (now probably a hundred years ago, as he died in
1793), on the summit of Mount Carburn, near Lewes,
in this county (Sussex). I visited the spot a few days '
ago, but I could not see a single bee or any appearance
of bees, work there. Seeing a shepherd at a short
distance, I went to him and inquired whether he
knew anything about the bees I was looking for. He
said, " Oh, yes ! I have often been driven away from
the top of Carburn by them, but the Jubilee fire did
for them, for I have not seen one since then." So
that it would appear that this colony of Anthophora
acervonim is now extinct. The site of this colony
covered a very small space of ground, and no doubt
the fire which was of huge dimensions consumed all
the mature bees then and there and baked all the
'eggs, larva; and pupae that were underground. It
would appear, therefore, that even Jubilees have their
drawbacks, for that of last year was the occasion of
the destruction of a colony of insects that may be said
to be historical, and which though now destroyed, will
certainly live for ages yet to come in White's delight-
ful " History of Selborne."— R. B. P., Eastbourne.

Mr. Ruskin's Museum at Sheffield. — Half a
dozen years have passed since Mr. Ruskin offered to
Sheffield all his art-treasures, providing the town
would find a suitable building for their preservation.
He even went further in his spirit of" munificent
liberality by undertaking to personally superintend
the arrangement of the objects in the Museum, and
be responsible for its management during his life-time.
It was proposed that the new building should be
built at Endchffe, one of the most beautiful spots
within the boundaries of the old town. Money was
not wanting ; ,£10,000 were subscribed ; plans were
prepared, and the design was admitted by Sheffield
experts to excel anything they had thought possible.
Then an irritating obstacle occurred. Matter-of-fact
municipal magnates intervened. They did not under-
stand the naiure and purposes of the St. George's
Guild, and distrusting its continuance, made it a
condition of subscription that the Museum should be
satisfactorily guaranteed to Sheffield for ever.
Technical difficulties arose as to the title and the
nature of the guarantee that the Museum should
remain the inviolable and permanent possession of the
town. Mr. Ruskin has a scornful contempt for
superficialities, and he cannot bring his mind down
to legal hair-splitting. He declined to read any
further lawyers' quibbles, and his indisposition left
the matter in abeyance. It is satisfactory, however,

to know that the settlement of the whole question-
will no longer be delayed, and that soon the new
building will arise in all its fair proportions. Mr.
Ruskin has deputed the trustees to cut the Gordian
knot by telling the lawyers to draw up a conveyance
between the Mayor and Corporation of Sheffield and
the St. George's Guild. The pictures and objects, as
well as the building, are to remain the property of the
public for ever. The new Museum will be a
splendid memorial to its founder, and a permanent
embodiment of his ideas. May he long be spared to-
advise in all its counsels and to direct its resources. —
Edward Bradbury, in "The Magazine of Art" for
August.

The " Spectre of the Brocken " on Snowdon..
— During an ascent of Snowdon on July 5th two
friends and myself witnessed the strange phenomenon
known as the " Spectre of the Brocken." We left our
tents near Lake Ogwen in heavy rain and crossed
Tryfaen and Glyder Fach in thick mist, dropping
down on Pen-y-Gwryd Hotel for refreshments. The
mist still hung heavily on Snowdon, but we determined
to try the ascent by the Crib Goch Ridge. About
7.30 p.m. the mist lifted to the west, revealing a
magnificent view seawards, while the Crib Goch
glowed red in the sun's level rays. Our shadows,
enormously magnified, suddenly appeared on the
dense bank of fog to our left, encircled by two
concentric rainbow rings. The shadows would be
about 50 feet high and the outer ring fully 300 feet
diameter. Every movement we made was faithfully
represented, and by standing together the three
shadows were produced in one circle. This curious
sight occurred four times in forty-five minutes,,
disappearing only when the mist obscured the sun.

Ipomcea, &c. — In his "Tour Round My Garden,"
quoted by Julie Hodgson (Science-Gossip, p. 166),
A. Karr means evidently Ipomcea pupicrca, L. It is-
frequently sown round houses and windows, and its
flowers close early in the morning. Their popular
names are volubilis and sometimes liseron, though
this is rather Convolvulus sepinm. The original text
says " volubilus " in the first passage, and " liseron "
in the second. — C. C. Doullens, Somme.

Preserving Bats. — Could any reader of Science-
Gossip give me instructions how to kill and preserve
a blind bat 1—John J. Holstead.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now-
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of"
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

H. E. Jones. — The best and cheapest polish that would
bring out trie structure of an already worn pebble would be
common coach varnish. _

G. A. G. — Thanks for the specimen of white Geranium
Robertianum. It is, however, of not uncommon occurrence.

A. Howes.— The "Selborne Society" publish through Elliot
Stock, from whom you may get the address.

A. Pittis. — The caterpillars reached us in such a shrivelled-
up condition that it was quite impossible to identify them.

2l6

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

T. G. — Get "Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural
History Specimens," edited by J. E. Taylor, published by
Messrs. W. H. Allen, price 3J. 6d.

C. H.— You will find Adams' "British Birds and Their
Eggs" useful. The coloured plates are well done, and will
help you. Montague Brown's " Manual of Taxidermy " will
give you all the as.-istance you require.

Dr. Forbes (Leith). — Many thanks for the coloured photo-
graph of the dodo, and 5 our kind and generous remarks.

A. W. Harrison.— Consult Sir Robert Balls' " Story of the
Heavens," also Skertchley's " Physical History of the Uni-
verse."

f

EXCHANGES.

Aneylus fluviatilis, Planorhis glaber, P. albus, P. spirobis,
P. dilatatus, Physa hypnorum, Helix nemoralis, H. hortensii,
H. arbustorum, H. aspcrsa, Pupa umbilicata, and A tin Jon
cygnca, in exchange for land, freshwater and marine shells, or
fossils. — Albert Walton, 44 CanningStreet, Burnley.

Can any conchologist oblige me with a couple of specimens of
Helix obvoluta ? I will send in return twenty species of shells
from neighbourhood of Burnley. — Francis C. Long, 8 Cog
Lane, Burnley, Lancashire.

Wanted, foreign shells (not British) in exchange for land,
freshwater, and marine shells from the vicinities of Port Eliza-
beth and Algoa Bay. Lists exchanged. — John Farnuhar,
33 Upper Hill Street, Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony.

Will exchange eggs of rook, hooded crow, crow, pheasant,
moor hen, partridge, sand martin, landrail, common sandpiper,
jay, magpie, redpole, tree sparrow, yellow ammer, garden
warbler, chaffinch, greenfinch, wry neck and red-backed shrike,
for natural history specimens, star-fish or echini preferred — not
necessarily British. — Hugh B. Preston, 54 Lexham Gardens,
Kensington, W.

WiLLexchanee 140 Ceylon bird skins, prepared for mounting,
and quantity of ant live larvae, for other natural history objects.
— Dr. Clements, 3 Prospect Road, Chatham.

Duplicates. — P. albus, P. carinatus, P. spirobis, Physa
hypnorum, Lint, truncatula, Z. glaber, Z. nitidus, Pupa
umbilicata, C. tridens, C. lubrica, &c. — Wanted, Pis, nitidum,
Z. excavatus, H. aculeata, H. concinna, Balia pet-versa. —
F. C. Long, 8 Cog Lane, Burnley, Lancashire.

Offered. — Leenwenhoek's Works on the Microscope,
2 vols, in 1, date 1800; "Baker on the Microscope Made
Easy," 1769; and parts 1 to 20 inclusive of Dr. M. C. Cooke's
"Grevillea," in exchange for vols, of Science-Gossip for the
years 1872 to 1877 inclusive. — Dr. Webb, 2 Brougham Terrace,
We-t Derby Road, Liverpool.

Wanted, supplement only to "Wood's Index Testaceo-
logicus." — C. L. Smout, 8 Trinity Street, Hastings.

Shells from the north London district in exchange for
.9. ovale, S. lacustre, P.fontinale, P. pusillum, P. nitidum,
P. roseum, U. margaritifer, U. pictorum, B. Leachii, V.
cristata, P. lineatus, P. nitidus, P. nautileus, P. glaber,
P. dilatatus, P. hypnorum, L. glutinosa, L. glabra, A.
lacustris, V. pellucida, various species of zonites, H. arbus-
torum, H. concinna, H. hispida, H. sericea, H. revelata,
H. fusca, H. pisana, H. rupestris, H. pulchella, H ' . obvoluta,

B. montanus, P. ringens, P. umbilicata, P. marginata,
various species of vertico, C. Rolphii, C. biplicata, C. tridens,

C. lubrica, A. acicula, C. minimum, and A. lincata. — J. W.
Williams, M.A., D.Sc, 51 Park Village East, London, N.W.

Wanted, larva of Ocellatus caga and Quercus ligustri ;
will give in exchange various lepidoptera, preserved larva,
dispar, coleoptera, or No. 1 of Lang's " Butterflies of Europe."
List sent.— Walter Copley, 17 Clough Terrace, Sowerby Bridge.

Wanted, to exchange plants for herbarium; correspondence
invited. — E. C. Angel, 4 Saville Row, Bath.

Offered, i-plate camera and lens, two double slides, stand
and two vulcanite developing dishes. Wanted, micrographic
dictionary. — R. Williamson, 137 Ardgowan Street, Glasgow.

Animal hairs for micro mounting. About twenty different
and interesting kinds used in the textile manufactures, in
exchange for rare British or foreign birds' eggs or skins. —
H. B. Booth, 25 Northfield Place, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

Will exchange, in sets or separate, eggs of merlin, ruff,
cuckoo, kingfisher, nightjar, &c, for warblers, jays, hawks,
landrails, tits, finches, buntings, owls, plovers, crows, and
many others. — Jas. Ellison, Steeton, Leeds.

Offered. — Clutches of kestrel, S. hawk, dipper, stonechat,
grasshopper, warbler, chiffchaff, goldcrest, and tomtit, corn
and reed buntings, lesser redpoll, bullfinch, rock dove, common
sandpiper, oyster-catcher, heron, mute swan, cormorant, kitti-
wake, great black-backed and herring gulls (nests with several),
eggs of gudlemot, razor-bill, puffin, gannet, manx, sherwater,
storm petrel. Please de-cribe clutches offered in exchange for
above. — R. J. Ussher, Cappagh, Lismore.

H. cantiana in exchange for other land and freshwater
shells or fossils. — W. Crossley, 15 Barker Street, Cornholme,
near Todinorden.

About fifty species of marine algae, in exchange for rare
marine, land and freshwater shells. Also stamp album (back
rather damaged), containing about 400, many rare varieties, in

exchange for marine, land and freshwater shells. — John Jos.
Holstead, 19 Millholme Terrace, Upperby Road, Carlisle.

Offered.— "British Moths" (Duncan), with 30 coloured
plates; "English Folk Lore" (Dyer). Wanted. — Bentham's
"Illustrations of British Flora." — I. Smith, Monkredding, Kil-
winning.

P. glaber and P. dilatatus in exchange for other British or
foreign land, freshwater or marine shells. — W. Dean, M.C.S.,
50 Canning Street, Stoneyholme, Burnley, Lancashire.

Shells, coins and fossils in exchange for British or foreign
butterflies or moths named and set. — F. Stanley, M.C.S.,
6 Clifton Gardens, Margate.

Wanted, larvae or pupae of any of the larger British or
foreign lepidoptera, in exchange for British marine, land or
freshwater shells, or English coins. — F. Stanley, 6 Clifton
Gardens, Margate.

Fine specimens of H. nemoralis and H. ericetorum from
Portrush, co. Antrim, Ireland, in exchange for good varieties
of the same from other localities, or H. pisana, Cantiana
cartusiana, Fusca lapicida, C. Rolpliii, L. aricularia, &c. —
T. H. Hedworth, Dunston, Gateshead.

Fifty-four species of British butterflies, including iris,
artaxerxes, swallow-tails, frittilaries, vanessas, hairstreaks,
blues, and many others— some very rare and valuable, in
exchange for British birds' eggs. Send lists with desiderata to
— A. Hollis, St. Johns, Antony, Cornwall.

Over 100 species of well-preserved shells from the Paris
basin chalk, in exchange for shells and fossils from the British
Isles. Lists exchanged. — Monsieur Bonnet, 9 rue Mazagran,
Paris.

Wanted, June gatherings of Pleurcsigma angulation,
estuarii,fasciola,formosum, elongatum, lacustris, Spencerii,
Parkeri, curvuhem, &c, in good quantities. Will give in
exchange fine deposits, either prepared or raw, Oamaru,
Simbirk, Springfield, and others. — J. Tempere, 168 rue
d'Antoine, Paris.

Helix h&mastoma from India, and H. cantiana. What
offers? Also some old curios. List sent. — Archibald Hy.
McKean, S. Denys, Southampton.

Wanted, a good gathering of J'olvox globator ; a good
exchange will be given in micro slides. — S. L., 15 Horton Lane,
Bradford.

Duplicates, L. C, 8th ed. — 5a, 39, 40, 41, 81, 82, 176, 29r,
317. 36°*, 372, 479. 494. 505. 543. 576£. 639, 680, 835, 859, 865,
873. 9OI> 9IO> 94°. 944. 954> 96(>, 973. io43. 127°. 1344. r346,
T475> '545. i55°> i563. 1756-— J- A. Wheldon, High Ousegate,
York.

British and foreign birds' skins in exchange for others, or
eggs. — S. L. Mosley, Beaumont Park, Huddersfield.

Duplicates. — Pterostichus picimanw;, Auch. oblongus, ,
Scistus Jerrugineus, Hydra>na nigrita, Cistila murina, Lep-
tura livida, Saprinus maritimas, &c. Desiderata. — Nume-
rous species for types. — W. H. Bennett, n George Street,
Hastings.

Wanted, student's microscope. Offered, Matthew Henry's
" Commentary," complete, 6 vols, (folio), and other books. —
S. E., 4 Padua Road, Penge.

Wanted, many species of birds' eggs, particularly clutches
with data. Offered, British lepidoptera. — W. K. Mann, Wel-
lington Terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

Wanted, books of travels, especially scientific ; also general
natural history books. Lepidoptera, eggs, shells, &c., offered
in exchange. — W. K. Mann, Wellington Terrace, Clifton,
Bristol.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

" Smithsonian Report" (1885).— The Cathie Gallery" (Wash-
ington).— "The Bacon-Shakspere Question," by C. Hopes
(London: T. G. Johnson). — "Proceedings Liverpool Geol.
Soc." — "Journal Royal Microscopical Soc." — "The Micro-
scope."— "Scientific News." — "Book Chat." — "The Amateur
Photographer."— " The Garner."— "The Naturalist."— " The
Botanical Gazette." — "Journal of the New York Microscopical
Society." — " Belgravia." — "The Gentleman's Magazine." —
" Americ.in Monthly Microscopical Journal." — "The Essex
Naturalist." — "The Midland Naturalist." — " Feuilles des
Jeunes Naturalistes." — " The American Naturalist." — " Journal
of Microscopy and Nat. Science." — " Scientific News "—
" Wesley Naturalist." — "Victorian Naturalist." — 'Journal of
Conchology." — " Cassell's Technical Educator." — " Life-Lore."
— " Research," &c. &c.

Communications received up to the 12TH ult. from:
R. C— A. P.— L. C-J. W. W.— T. B.— H. B. P.— J. B.—
W. S.— J. R. W. C .— L. S.— W. C— E. C. A— F. C. L.—
G. H. W.-J. F.— I. F. H— P. F. G.— R. B. P.— W. G. C—
J. S.— I. D. A. C— A. H.— A. W.— C. C.—]. J. H.—
I. F. H.— W. M.— R. J. U.— W. D.— J. E.— W. C— W. B. B.
— F. N.— R. W.— A. B. G.— A. H.— G. R.— T. H. H.—
H. E. J.-F. S.— D. W. B.— S. T.— F. H. W.— E. W.—
S. L. M.— W. H. B.-E. E.— D. A. W.— G. G. - J. I. R —
A. S.— A. H. M. R.— W. W.— J. T. M.— W. K. M.— W. H. B.
—J. B. B.— A. P.— G. D— C. H.— C. L. N.— E. 0. R.—
W. J. S.— K. P.— D. J.-A. W. H., &c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

217

A NATURALIST ALL AT SEA.

By C. P.

[Continued from page 199-]

T was in the Blue
Mountains that I
first saw parrots in
their wild and
natural condition.
It was after a severe
thunderstorm at
Katoomba ; all
bird-life seemed ex-
ceptionally restless.
A flock of parrots
came up from the
fastnesses of the
forest — 1000 feet
below in the valley.
They were chiefly
Rosellas and Lories,
brilliant enough in
plumage, but fool-
ish and discordant
birds. They rested
on the telegraph wires or among the branches of
gum-tree, utterly regardless of our presence ; sitting
to be stared at with field-glasses, with all the
sang-froid of a dowager in her opera-box. But,
for my part, I would rather see a parrot in a cage
— and hear him swear — than have them in native
wildness, there is an incongruity in such garish
colour and clatter. On board the "Oceana,"
returning home to England, we had a splendid
collection of living parrots and cockatoos, the
property of various passengers. I had ample oppor-
tunity of comparing the various Australian species.
Besides the yellow crested cockatoo (C. galerita)
there was the attractive Leadbeater's species (C.
leadbeateri), white with tinges of red in the breast,
and at the base of the crest. But, perhaps, the finest
of all was a nearly black fellow of great size. I think
he is known as the Funereal cockatoo. Besides
these we had the pearl-grey little parakeet cockatoo,
rosellas, love-birds, grey parrots with rose-coloured
No. 286.— October 1888.

heads, white parrots with blue eyes and breast
dashed with crimson, with numerous green and
yellow and blue species.

Mr. Etheridge showed me at the Museum in
Sydney a tame dingo, a somewhat uncommon
specimen ; their nature is treacherous, and even with
this young dog nobody but his master could safely
touch him. In appearance it reminded me of a lean
Colley with the startled ferocity of the wolf; the
colour being tawny yellow, shading to brown on the
back. Of course this animal is one of the few non-
marsupials of Australia. There is now ample
evidence of its existence back into prehistoric ages ;
bones occur in caves of Pleistocene period.

There is a fine series of kangaroos in the
Melbourne Zoological Gardens, ranging from the
smaller "Wallabys to the giant " old men" species,
the specific distinctions appeared to me terribly
puzzling ; in fact, the chief variation appears in size,
colour and habit, rather than structural change ; the
intermediate gradations are wonderfully close.

I saw an echidna burrowing in the ground, the
porcupine-like bristles of the back only visible above
ground ; the platypus I saw only in a pickle-tub, and
the eggs preserved in spirits — perhaps half the size of
pigeons'-eggs. In the Melbourne gardens a couple of
the so-called bears reposed peacefully in a gum-tree.
I do not suppose they would attack a flea. No protec-
tion is needed, so they have liberty sufficient to
clamber from tree to tree ; as a matter of fact they
never seem to move, they are very small, with grey-
brown fur.

The most attractive spot I traversed in the
Blue Mountains was Nellie's Glen, a stupendous
ravine hardly less than a thousand feet in depth.
Here noble tree-ferns afforded a welcome shelter,
Hymenophyllum and various small ferns covered the
face of the moist rock. Large yellow-breasted
robins flitted overhead and the irresistible laughter
of the jackass, hidden away in the tall gums or
wattles, compelled us to join in his merriment.

2I<

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS IP.

Gigantic ants scurried here and there. One large
black fellow, solitary in habit, , carries a massive pair
of jaws, but fights only when disturbed. He is
known commonly as the "policeman or bull-dog
ant " because he separates the " soldiers," a fierce and
warlike tribe with red bodies ; the latter have uncon-
trollable fits of passion. Tickle one with a stick,
and he will simply lie on his back kicking with fury.
Beware how either species touch the skin. I am
informed that the sting or bite is intensely painful,
like the touch of a hot iron. But there is a more
extraordinary species still in Queensland, called the
meridian ant ; the hillocks erected by them are
several feet high, but remarkably thin. Passing in
the train they have the appearance of so many tomb-
stones. The strange thing is, each one is erected due
north and south ; they never vary from this position.

Small white ants (Termites, I suppose,) I saw at
work in a gentleman's stable, near Sydney. They
had ruined the coach-house, in spite of constant
petroleum dressing.

In Melbourne I had the good fortune to receive an
invitation to the conversazione of the Field Naturalists'
Club, and was fairly amazed at the evidence of work
accomplished in all branches of Natural History.
The collections and groups of birds alone repaid us for
the evening expedition. A crimson-breasted specimen
of Columba supcrba, a pair of frontal tit-shrikes,
rifle-birds, regent-birds, and many others dwell in
the memory ; while the variety of robin is quite be-
wildering. Flame-breasted, crimson-headed, yellow-
breasted, grey-throated, hooded robin, pink-wood
robin ; and I believe this does not complete the list
of the New South Wales species.

When the club organise an expedition in holiday
time, they simply start off for a week or so to some
spot hardly known to naturalists, say an island,
perhaps ten times as large as the Isle of Wight.
Here they camp, shoot and hunt, collect unknown
treasures from the sea-shore and botanise inland to
their hearts' content. It is virgin ground. Things
unknown to science may turn up in any direction.
Such conditions are enough to excite our envy,
cramped up in over-populated England. I saw
scores of bottles crammed full with strange sponges,
Echinoderms, Hydroids and Polyzoa ; not one quarter
of these had been examined, and doubtless new
genera and species lie waiting to be described. The
difficulty during a short visit — where life is so prolific
— is to know what to study ; there is material for
years' work. If these lines should meet the eyes of
any member of the Melbourne Field Naturalists' Club,
I venture to suggest that he should forward a short
account of one of their splendid expeditions (say to
King Island this last year), to the Editor of Science-
Gossip. It would prove deeply interesting to scores
of fellow workers in far off Old England.

At one of these meetings in Melbourne, Professor
Baldwin Spencer, Biological instructor at the Uni-

versity, showed me a dish of sea water, containing the
curious fish in a living state, Amphioxus lanceolatus,
dredged up in Port Phillip. They are transparent,
and barely exceed two inches in length, and possess
the slightest possible structure. Having notes on
this fish, I hope to deal more fully with the subject
in the future.

Confirming the repeated assertion, that snakes
swallow their young ones at the approach of danger,
the following may not be without interest. On the
28th March, 1888, Mr. H. J. M'Cooey, at Coogee
Bay, surprised a black snake (Psaidcchis porphyriacus)
in the scrub. It made a hissing sound or gulping
noise, and opened the mouth wide ; no less than
eighteen young ones rapidly disappeared down its
throat. He killed the snake and thirteen young
ones ; the remainder escaped as the parent was
dissected. Mr. John Taylor, a shipper well known
in Queensland trade, informed me he had himself
seen a large black snake swallow her young. I think
ample proof of this now exists from various parts of
the world, and in England we may still look for
evidence that the common viper performs a similar
feat.

I cannot at present put into shape my impressions of
the Sydney and Melbourne Botanic Gardens. From
the directors of both, I met with all facilities and
assistance in studying the Australian and tropical
flora. I am now occupied in planting seeds of typical
Australian plants in an English green-house, from a
splendid collection given to me by Mr. W. Guilfoyle,
F.L.S., of Melbourne Gardens. Among them are
hakeas, acacias, eucalypts, casuarinas, pittosporums,
and many beautiful species.

It is strange to see how the weeping willow
flourishes at the antipodes. Indeed, this Salix
Babylonka is a wonderful tree, and appears to be
transmitted by cutting all over the world, wherever
civilisation advances. I believe the male plant only
is known, and the original home is said to be Asia.
I picture it drooping on the terraces of the famous
hanging gardens at Babylon, aud likely enough it
was the same tree mentioned by the Hebrew poet :

" By the waters of Babylon we sat down and wept . . .
As for our harps, we hanged them up upon the trees that are
therein."

But where on earth has the female plant gone ?
Have any of your readers seen it ?

THE ERRONEOUS REPUTATIONS OF
REPTILES.

IT is surprising how manifold and ridiculous are
the popular errors connected with reptile life.
The common slow-worm {Aiignis fragilis), alias blind-
worm, is believed by ninety-nine out of every hundred
of the uneducated to be, as its latter name implies,
blind ; although its eyes, though small in comparison

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

219

•with its size, are very bright. Indeed, their very
insignificance of size seems to be compensated for by
their remarkable brilliancy and beauty. A slow-
worm's eye is the prettiest part of its whole body.
Another delusion of those ignorant of natural history
and its teachings (although like most of the other
erroneous notions of reptile life, such belief, owing to
the advance of scientific culture, is rapidly on the
decline) is that a slow-worm can inflict a bite that is
poisonous. It is well I have said " those ignorant of
natural history and its teachings," for it is evident
if these ignorant ones were more conversant with
nature, they could not labour under such an error.
It is as much an impossibility for a slow- worm to
poison anyone, as it is for an eel to do so, for the
very simple but conclusive reason that, instead of
possessing fangs with which to inject poison and a
pair of glands from which to secret the venom, it
possesses numerous minute teeth. The use of these
teeth to the slow-worm is not very obvious, for it
swallows its food whole. In the summer of last year
I was returning from a ramble, with a half dead slow-
worm in my hand, when I met an acquaintance.
After we had been talking for some time, the gentle-
man, who, by the way, had sorely neglected the
fascinating study of nature, although he was an artist,
told me he was once bitten by a slow-worm, and that
the wound became very much inflamed. There is no
doubt he was bitten by an adder and not a slow-
worm, for the latter's teeth cannot pierce the
epidermis. Another belief, common among the
uncultured, is that snakes "sting," and that they do
so by means of that wonderful structure, the forked
tongue. This is probably the reason the slow-
worm, as well as the ringed snake, has gained its
present reputation of "stinging" and "poisoning."
The common ringed snake (JVafn'x torquata) is
reputed to be venomous, no doubt, as I have said
before, in consequence of its possessing a forked
tongue.

Adders are deservedly known to be as venomous as
Anguis fragilis and Natrix torquata are harmless.
Frogs and toads have been believed for many years
to be capable of existing under most extraordinary
circumstances, and are even now believed by many
to have the power of living without food and air for
months and even years. It is truly marvellous how
long reptiles can live without food. Here are a few
instances, very kindly furnished by Mr. Halfpenny,
which I quote, not because they are extraordinary,
for there are many others on record much more
wonderful, but because they are of recent occurrence
and their accuracy can be relied on. "I have a
young live adder in my possession which has taken
no food since I have had it, the first week of last
October (1884)." This would be nearly four months
the adder fasted, and it is the more perplexing, that
during this period, the adder has been kept in a case
in a warm room, where the fire was constantly

burning. The adder had not therefore been dormant
during those four months, but constantly wearing
away tissue which it could not repair. He then goes
on to say, " A toad I have kept four months without
food, and a triton six ; the same fact has been
observed in the tortoise by a friend of mine. They
each expired at the end of that period." According
to occasional reports, frogs {Ratia tcmporaria) and
toads {Bufo vulgaris) have been found alive in rocks
and trees where they must have been for years,
without the possibility of air penetrating to them,
much less food. If a toad or frog has been found
alive under these circumstances, depend upon it both
air and food in some way penetrated to the prisoner.
Dr. Buckland, by his experiments, has perhaps done
more to dispel this absurd idea than any one. He
confined twelve toads in separate holes cut in soft
sandstone and covered the apertures with plates of
glass firmly cemented to the sandstone, so as to
exclude both insects and air. When about a year
had elapsed he examined the holes, and of course
found the toads dead. Toads are also thought by
many to be capable of emitting fire. As a matter of
fact they cannot " spit fire," but still it is interesting
to note how credulous some people are in the nine-
teenth century. The toad, in spite of its evil character,
has been found by gardeners a most useful adjunct,
being very effectual in ridding the garden of insects.
The last reptiles to be mentioned are newts ( Triton
cristatus and Triton picnctatus) and lizards. All
these creatures are believed to be capable of biting,
and thus inflicting a nasty, if not dangerous wound.
How some of the errors, which I have enumerated
were originated, is a fitting subject for the philosopher.
The humble naturalist will not venture an opinion on
so profound a mystery.

Arthur Ayling.

THE ECDYSIS OF INSECTS.

ONE of the writers in the August number of
Science-Gossip, described a specimen of
Phthirius i/iguina/is, in which he noticed that
within each of the animal's claws there existed
another claw, resembling the one within which it
was situated. He asked, with great caution, whether
it was possible that the animal was about to moult.
There can be no doubt in my mind that such is the
case. All insects which do not pass through the
regular stages of larva, pupa, and imago, but at all
times resemble the adult animal, periodically cast
their inelastic, chitinous skins. As examples of this
can be taken, the cockroaches, crickets, aphides,
earwigs, and the whole family of bugs. Were it not
for this provision, these animals would not be able
to grow.

The state of things described in the August
number, is not confined to the Phthirius inguinalis.

L 2

220

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

I have observed the same in several specimens of
Pediculus capitis.

In the specimens examined by myself, the whole
of the skin was seen to be reduplicated. Two sets
of spiracles, one within the other, were beautifully
shown. In all the great tracheal vessels, the spiral
membrane was seen to be double, the inner tube
being continuous with the outer skin of the abdomen,
thus showing that the tracheae are shed as well as
the external skin.

The most interesting fact, however, that my
specimens showed, was, that not merely the shell or
exoskeleton was about to be shed, but also the
muscles that worked the terminal joint, a phenomenon
that has not, I believe, been hitherto observed.

bodies, and are marked with fine transverse striae.
The muscle which flexes the outer claw is seen to be
entirely outside the inner shell, and must, therefore,
be cast off when the animal casts the outer skin.

It has been objected, by one savant to whom I
submitted my specimens and views, that the striated
bodies in question are not muscles at all, but merely
tracheal dilatations, and that the apparent muscular
striation is caused by the spiral thickening within
those tracheal dilatations. This objection seems to
be frivolous. At any rate, it is easily overcome. If
the stria: were due to the tracheal spiral, they would
present, when the microscope is focussed half through
their substance, a dotted appearance at their ends.
This is found not to be the case.

Fig. 82. — Ecdysis of Pediculus capitis (highly magnified).

The accompanying diagram, drawn with the aid of
a camera lucida, from the foot of a Pediculus capitis,
will serve to show what I mean. The last three
joints are represented. Within the shell of these can
be seen the new skin (/). This is seen to be
delicate and wrinkled ; it does not become chitinous
until the removal of the outer shell (s).

The relative position of the two terminal joints, or
claws, is peculiar, and has an important bearing upon
what follows. It is seen that the terminal claw of
the inner, or new limb, lies not within the corre-
sponding claw of the outer limb, but within the last
joint but one.

Attached to the base of both of the terminal
claws can be seen the muscles—;/",/' — by which they
are flexed. They are elongated sub- cylindrical

The very position of these bodies shows them to be
flexor muscles. They are inserted into the only avail-
able part of the claws, and lie in the only possible
direction in which properly-acting flexors could lie.

Even supposing that these bodies are not muscular,
it stands to sense, from the relative position of the
two claws, that the muscles within the inner skin
cannot possibly act upon the outer claw. Hence,
those that do move the outer claw must lie within
the space between the two, and must therefore be
thrown off when the ecdysis takes place.

The specimen from which the drawing was made,
was mounted in Canada balsam, after being first
treated with potash, and cleared with turpentine.

James Harvey.

Scarborough.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

221

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

A BIG METEORITE.— A visit to the collection
of meteorites at the end of the mineral room
of the British Museum, presents a curious commentary
on the fact that, until the beginning of the present
century, the orthodox scientists denied their existence,
and treated all accounts of their fall as they now
treat all descriptions of the sea serpent, they would
have sacrificed their scientific reputation had they done
otherwise. This, in spite of the actual exhibition in
London, in 1796, of a stone weighing fifty-six pounds,
utterly different in composition and appearance from
any rock known to exist on the face of the earth, and
the fall of which was witnessed and attested by
several credible witnesses.

The Royal Society of that date refused to listen to
the evidence ; but was forced to do so in 1802, and
now it listens placidly to a theory which builds up
the stars, and all the other heavenly bodies, of these
wandering lumps.

The National Museum of Brazil has lately secured
a noble specimen, weighing 11,800 lbs. The cost of
its transport was defrayed by Baron Greahy. The
survey of its route, and preliminary arrangements,
occupied three months ; its journey commenced on
November 25th, 1887, and it reached the railway by
which its journey was completed, on May 14th of
the present year. It had to cross above a hundred
streams, to ascend 870 feet over one mountain chain,
besides crossing many of smaller elevation, and this
in a region of mule paths. The distance from
Bendego Creek, where it was lying, to the railway
that finally carried it to Rio, is 71^ miles.

Relative Nutritive Value of Starch and
Fat. — According to some recent experiments made
by O. Kellner, who fed horses on different materials
and compared the results, the nutritive value of
linseed oil as compared with starch, is 2'6 to 1.
These figures were based on calculation of the work
done, and it should be noted that the comparison is
made between vegetable oil and farinaceous vegetable
food.

I am not surprised at this result, having long ago
witnessed similar experiments made upon human
beings in Shropshire. At the time when mowing
machines were but little used, large numbers of Irish
labourers came across to assist in the hay harvest.
These were typical specimens of poor cottiers, who at
home fed almost entirely upon potatoes, i.e. mainly
upon starch. At first, for a week or two, the
Irishmen were unable to keep up with the English
labourers in mowing, a kind of work which pretty
accurately measures the muscular energy of the
labourer when paid for by the acre. At the end
of about a fortnight, they became able to do their
fair share, having in the meantime been largely fed

on fat bacon. The Irish labourers were annual
visitors, and had the same amount of training in the
peculiar muscular action of mowing as the English-
men.

My observations in Ireland in the course of four
summers, during which I visited every county of the
" distressful country," convinced me that the poli-
ticians on both sides are raving in vain ; that the
chief curse of Ireland is neither the Saxon, nor the
priest, nor the league, nor the tory, nor the radical,
but is the potato ; and the craving for a sluggish
distension of the stomach which is generated
by potato feeding, becomes a vice that in many
cases is comparable to the alcohol crave. Mr.
Parnell would be converted into a true patriot, a
genuine benefactor to his country, if he would im-
port the Colorado beetle, or any other creature that
should devastate and finally extirpate the debasing
tuber. Even pigs degenerate if fed upon it ex-
clusively, and human beings similarly fed suffer from
a combination of habitual distension, and lack of
nutrition that deprives them of both physical and
moral energy. The Irishman transplanted to America
and properly fed, becomes quite an altered being, so
far as industry and general energy are concerned.

Consumption of Muscle by Exercise. — In
Chapter xix. of "The Chemistry of Cookery,"
I have discussed the two rival theories of the
" Physiology of Nutrition," that of Liebig, and that
which has been lately picked up by certain fashionable
physicians. The first asserts that life-work is generated
by the transformation or self-decomposition of living
tissue, the latter that it is due to the combustion o
food. According to the first, the work is done by
the consumption of the engine itself, which the food
renews ; according to the second, by the combustion
of the food, as by the coal of our steam engines. I
believe that Liebig is right, and that the analogy of
the steam engine, which is claimed for the modern
theory, is utterly fallacious. .

This view is confirmed by experiments recently
conducted by A. Monari, and recorded in the
" Gazetta Chemica Italiana." Monari has determined
the difference of the chemical composition of muscle
before and after exercise by killing full-grown dogs
after repose, and others after protracted exercise.
He finds that the proportions of both creatine and
creatinine are increased by fatigue, and that this is
especially the case with the creatine. The results of
his analyses are displayed in tables.

To appreciate the significance of this result, it is
necessary to understand that the destruction of
muscle, which Liebig described as the chief source of
animal mechanical energy (that of nervous tissue
being also demanded in a lesser degree), is shown by
the conversion of organised matter into saline material
of a chemical character intermediate between itself
and ordinary mineral matter. Such is urea, kreatine,

222

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

and kreatinine, the two latter being salts of some
complexity of constitution, as compared with the
usually simple constitution of purely mineral salts.

The True Advancement of Science.— There
is one passage in the interesting address recently
delivered by Sir Frederick Bramwell before the
British Association, that should be read, marked,
learned, and inwardly digested, by some of our
modern scientists, or, more properly speaking,
pedants. I refer to that class who pretend to despise
popular science, and who imitate the vegetarian fox
of the fable in their treatment of those who have
grasped the great truths of science with sufficient
thoroughness to be able to expound them clearly and
simply, and thus place them within the reach of all
intelligent people.

Sir Frederick Bramwell reminded the Association
that its declared and primary object is the " advance-
ment of science," and that such advancement implies
its practical application for the benefit of mankind.
The class of benefits to which he, as a civil engineer
maintaining the dignity of his vocation, especially
referred, were those physical blessings which science,
in the hands of its best votaries, has so beneficently
showered upon us.

Besides these, there is another class of blessings
which the teacher who diffuses science among the
millions is justified in extolling, viz. the moral
advancement which necessarily follows its general
diffusion. The poetry of creation is an epic, com-
pared to which all the poetry of the human imagi-
nation is but nursery rhyming ; and the highest and
purest of all religion is the worship of divine truth,
the teaching and the application of which is the
whole and sole business of science.

Mere discovery is but one of these three steps, and,
being the first, should be honoured accordingly.
Without the other two it is worthless, and may even
be mischievous by perverting the religion of pure
truth to the vile purpose of creating a pestiferous
priesthood of pharisaical pedants ; pretentious prigs,
who would appropriate for their own purposes of self-
exaltation, that intellectual wealth which is the
common property of all mankind.

The British Association has nobly fulfilled its
purpose in the true advancement of science by its
missionary work throughout the kingdom. Where-
ever it has halted, held its meetings, and made its
excursions, a popular awakening and elevation of
intellect has followed. Its admission of all to
membership prevents the possibility of its partaking
in any degree of the character of a mutual admiration
club, and constitutes a bold and clear expression of
the common rights of all human beings to freely
partake of the intellectual banquet which science has
prepared.

Action of Coai.-Tar Dyes.— One of the pecu-
liarities of the coal-tar dyes is their partiality to

animal substances, such as wool and silk. To these
they adhere with admirable pertinacity, saving the
dyer all the trouble of preliminary or subsequent
treatment with mordants to destroy the solubility of
the dye, and fix it to the fabric. To apply the coal-
tar dyes, he simply immerses the fabric in the hot
solution of the colour, retaining it there for a longer
or shorter time, usually at a boiling heat. I have
frequently made the experiment of immersing a skem
of natural silk cleansed from its "silk glue" by
alkali, in a solution of the dye, and boiling this until
the colour leaves the water and goes over to the
silk, the water thus becoming quite colourless,
thereby showing a positive appropriation of all the
dye by the silk, which is quite different from mere
participation of stain.

E. Knecht has recently investigated this subject, in
order to determine whether the taking up of these
dyes by the fibre is a chemical or mechanical process.
He submitted woollen and silken fibres to the action
of hot solutions of the dyes until all the colour
was taken up by the fibre, then analysed the
decolorised solution, and found it to contain am-
monia derived from the fibre, and that, in the case
of rosaniline hydrochloride, the hydrochloric acid re-
mained in the solution, and the rosaniline had gone
over to the fibre. He found that similar changes
occurred with other colours, such as diamido-
azobenzine-hydrochloride, &c. These results he
regards as proving that the adhesion of the dye in
such cases is a quantitative chemical change and not
a~mechanical process ; or, to express it otherwise, the
dyed silk or wool is a chemical compound of the silk
or wool itself or some constituent thereof with the
colouring matter.

Improved Wine.— The following from the Journal
of the Chemical Society of July, page 737, is a
summary of the results of the experiments of Laborde
and Magnan on the toxic or poisoning action of
alcohols, and of the artificial bouquets that modern
chemical science has supplied to the ingenious
manufacturers of high-class wines. I copy it to
afford some cheerful reading for those who are fond
of such beverages, merely explaining that the liqueurs
named are some of those usually added to champagnes,
&c, or which, skilfully applied to fortified vin
ordinaire, converts it into choice vintage with ex-
quisite bouquet, and raises its price in this country
from one shilling to five, ten, twenty, or thirty
shillings per bottle, according to the label or cobwebs.
"Salicaldehyde, which is added to vermuth, bitter,
and essence de reine des pres, produces strong
epileptic convulsions. Methyl salicylate, which is
used as a substitute for oil of winter-green in vermuth
and bitter, also produces convulsions, although not of
an epileptic form. Benzonitrile and benzaldehyde,
which are added in small quantities to noyau,
produce tetanus and even death."

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

223

I was glad to read in a recent number of "The
Asclepiad," an article by Dr. B. W. Richardson, on
"Alcohol at the Bedside," and to find there from
the pen of one of the most staunch and determined
of abstainers a decided recognition of the great
medicinal value of alcohol, which some fanatical
teetotalers have lately denied, who would prohibit its
use in hospitals, and banish it from the pharmacopoeia.
But Dr. Richardson protests against prescribing it in
the form of wine or other commercial beverage. He
insists upon the use of pure ethylic alcohol, dispensed
like other drugs, and mixed by the dispenser only
with the other items of the prescription. The
modern manufacture of choice wines renders it
absolutely impossible for the physician to know what
he is prescribing when he recommends the use of
any of them. His grandfather may. possibly have
formed some idea of the composition of the wine of
his period.

RUDIMENTS AND VESTIGES.

IN the controversy on this subject in the pages of
Science-Gossip during the last year, there
have been, besides various side issues, two distinct
questions under discussion, both of which Miss
Layard started in her original article in Science-
Gossip for October, 1887, and which, it seems to
me, should be studiously kept separate.

The first of these is, whether Mr. Darwin's use of
the word rudimentary in the "Descent of Man,"
etc., is in accordance with its etymological and
generally accepted sense.

I think that, as Miss Layard says in her last
contribution to the discussion, there has been a
general consensus of opinion "that a better word
might be substituted ; " but, at the same time, as
she rather implies by using the words "reluctant
recognition," there has been a general feeling that
the matter was not of the first importance when
compared with Miss Layard's other contention.

For although Miss Layard is absolutely right in
saying that "if Mr. Darwin, by his persistent
accuracy, has taught his readers to submit terms as
well as facts to a strict investigation, he would have
been the last to' complain of the jealous regard
for truth which cannot sanction the misuse of a
single word ; " still this possible misuse sinks into
absolute insignificance beside the other question
which Miss Layard has raised. As a matter of fact,
not only by Darwin, but by many others among the
first authorities, is the word used in this sense, as a
consultation of the pages of " Nature " will show at
once. Still it is an undoubted fact, that this use is
not in accordance with the derivation of the word,
nor its general use.

Miss Layard has, however, from the first, associated
with this a question of vastly more importance than

the possible misuse of a word could be, inasmuch as
it affects the whole conception of organic evolution.
This is whether. one or more of man's organs may or
may not be said to be in a lower state of develop-
ment than any corresponding ones throughout or-
ganic nature. At the base of Miss Layard's argument
on this subject, there appears to me to lie a
fundamental misconception of the nature of organic
evolution, and it is connected with the use of such
words as "typical standard," "progression," "re-
trogression," etc. For while Miss Layard says in
her last notes on the subject that "it does not
necessarily follow " from " the unmistakable family
likeness running throughout creation " " that we are
justified in making invidious comparisons between
organs specially adapted to differing purposes," she
herself makes these "individious comparisons" in
her first article by saying : " Allowing, as we must,
man's to be the ideal form, might it not be more
correct to speak of the lower forms which preceded it
as made up of excrescences and deficiencies ? " And
again : ' ' The tail should ... be regarded as an
excrescence, the ape being the rough sketch of the
ideal form, before the artist had pared off the super-
fluous clay. To a casual observer, the huge shoulder
bones, and the formidable jaw and teeth of the ape,
might argue a superiority over the same organs in
man. . . . but when we consider the deficient brain
of the anthropoid ape, and his small skull, we see at
once that to keep the balance true, excrescences in
one organ were bound to make up for deficiencies in
another."

It is precisely this arbitrary setting up of a
"typical standard," or an "ideal form," for the
whole organism, rather than judging organisms by
their relation to environment, which Mr. Fenn
wrote to combat in the November Science-Gossip,
and which Miss Layard herself now deprecates.
The only justifiable use of such a phrase is when it is
applied to the most highly-developed known form of
an organ or set of organs. Thus Sachs, in his
" Physiology of Plants " (p. 6), says : " I name
organic forms which present the essential peculiarities
in great perfection, and from which, therefore, a
clear scientific consideration best proceeds, typical
forms.'''' In this sense the tail of the lower animals
must be regarded as the typical form, not as an "ex-
crescence," while our os coccyx is, on the other hand,
not a "more perfect shortened formation," but in a
lower state of development and therefore " rudimen-
tary," or, if Miss Layard will, " reduced." This then
is the only sense in which I used the word, and it is
difficult to see in what other sense it could be used
by any one accepting the theory of organic evolution
as generally understood. For the setting up of an
arbitrary standard of perfection; would imply the
operation of an intelligent agency, and would be
entirely inconsistent with the operation of a
factor like natural selection, or the inheritance of

224

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

functionally-produced modifications, which, of course,
ultimately consist in the action of certain purely
mechanical environing agencies on the organism.
And it must be remembered that this conception
of organic 'evolution is not the idea of any school
of ultra-Darwinians, but the opinion of nearly all
the prominent men of science of the day. I
allude to men like Professor Huxley, Mr. Herbert
Spencer, and Dr. Romanes. Every organism then
being what it is in virtue of its varied and changing
environment, it would be manifestly absurd to set up
an arbitrary standard of perfection. Yet this is what
Miss Layard did in her earlier articles. "That
standard," she said, in effect, "is man."

Thus it will be seen that while Miss Layard
attributes to me the use of the phrase " typical
standard," etc., in a sense that requires an assumption
which, as I have endeavoured to show, an evolutionist
(in the usually understood sense) could not have
made, she herself makes this very assumption in her
earlier articles.

Again, in Miss Layard's most recent contribution,
she makes some assumptions for which I can find no
warrant in the correspondence on the subject. For
instance, she says : "An evolution of retrogression is
cheerfully accepted as the gradual means by which
man has arrived at his present physical condition,
and on this poor. . . instrument, his brain, which
apparently alone has progressed, is to act, with this
astonishing result, that he is ' the most perfect
animal known.' " Now, who ever asserted or im-
plied that "the brain alone has progressed"?
Again, I fail to see "the inconsistency of a brain
that has progressed being prepared to work an
organism that has retrograded," taking retrogression,
as I imagine all evolutionists must, to mean that
certain altered conditions have necessitated a corre-
sponding modification of function, and this again has
reacted on the body, and produced certain modifica-
tions of structure, the process being in some cases
combined with the action of natural selection.

Again, the analogy with "Mozart attempting to
play on a worn-out lodging-house piano," appears to
me to be singularly unhappy ; and for this reason —
a mechanical instrument which the contrivers know
can perform certain things, and must absolutely be
worn out sooner or later, cannot possibly be com-
pared with an organism, which has infinite powers of
adapting itself to changed conditions.

Further, with regard to the quotation from Dr.
Foster, which is summed up in the italicised words :
" Its (the will's) operations are limited by the
machinery at its command." Nobody asserted that
the machinery at the command of the will was not
adequate to perform the things man does perform.
All that any of your correspondents contend, is that
certain parts of this machinery are in a lower state of
development than the corresponding parts of some of
the lower animals.

Lastly, with regard to the two striking instances
which I mentioned in Science-Gossip for June in
support of this fact, I would point out that while I
spoke of the muscles themselves of an ordinary
civilised human being of the present day, Mr.
Darwin speaks of the " correlated action of the
muscles of the hand, arm, and shoulder" of a
Fuegian, which is a somewhat different thing. My
other instance Miss Layard has not attempted to
answer.

In conclusion, I would repeat that organs, per se,
can only be considered more or less perfect in
proportion as they are more or less able to perform
the functions for which they were developed ; and that,
therefore, no organism can be said to be " ideal "
unless every one of its organs performs its functions
more completely than any corresponding ones through-
out organic nature. As no organism, from the
changing nature of the environing conditions can
possibly conform to this standard, to call man or any
other organism "the ideal form," is entirely in-
consistent with the fundamental principles of organic
evolution.

A. G. Tansley.

LATHYRUS TUBEROSUS IN SUSSEX.

A MOST interesting floral "find" in Sussex
during the present summer has been that of
the pease earth-nut {Lathyrus tuberosus), by R. D.
Postans, Esq., who observed it on the shingle beach
at Eastbourne in full bloom in the first week in
August. He then sent me a specimen with its
lovely crimson flowers, but with only a portion of
its creeping rootstock. Afterwards, however, using
a trowel, the rootlets, with its remarkable tubers,
were also found. These were forwarded on the
1 6th, and are here represented of the natural
size; one of them weighed a quarter of an ounce.
As this curious species, so far as I know, has
only occurred previously at Fyfield, near Chipping
Ongar, in Essex, Gibson's account of it may be
quoted :—" This beautiful plant was first noticed
here by Octavius C order in 1859, and distinguished
in the following year. It grows about Fyfield, ex-
tending over a district three miles in extent. A
plant so conspicuous might naturally be supposed to
be a recent introduction, but a resident farmer has
noticed it growing abundantly in the same fields for
the last sixty years." He also observes: "The
Rev. W. W. Newbould finds specimens of L. tuberosus
in the British Museum, in the collections of Buddie
and Petiver, Buddie stating : • I had it from the
Rev. Mr. John Sedgwick, who gathered it not far
from Lincoln in the north field of Blankney, near the
road to Lincoln.' " The locality in which the Sussex
plant occurs, i.e. the shingle beach at Eastbourne,
differs greatly from that mentioned by Gibson, viz.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

225

in several corn-fields and also along the hedge banks
and borders of the same fields. The figure of this
species as given in Gibson's " Flora," is a good one,
with the exception of the leaflets, which are repre-
sented as ovate, whereas they are obovate ; but truer
to nature than either the engravings of Gibson or
Syme is the old woodcut of Gerard, headed Terra

lesser, of a red purple colour, in smell not unpleasant ;
in their places come up long cods, in which are three
or four round seeds : the roots be thicke, long, like
after a sort to acorns, but much greater, blacke,
without, gray within, in taste like to the chesse-nut ;
out of which beneath doth hang a long slender string."
He mentions also that by the Dutch, the curious

Fig. 83.— Lathy t us tubcrosus.

Tig. 84. — Rootstock and tubers of Lathyrus tuberosus.

glci7ides, pease earth-nut, while his verbal description
allowing for the absence of technicalities is excellent.
"The pease earth-nut commeth vp with slender
and weake stalkes : the leaves be thin, and little,
growing upon slender stems, with clasping tendrils at
the ends, with which it imbraceth and taketh hold of
such things as stand neere onto it : the flowres on the
tops of the stalkes are like to those of pease, but

tubers are called " tailed mise of the similitude or
likenesse of domesticall mise, which the blacke, round
and long nuts, with a piece of the slender string
hanging out behind do represent," and to a dead and
shrivelled mouse they have certainly a quaint re-
semblance. Gerard states that although this plant is
common in Germany, he had not heard of its occur-
rence in England. In Holland it is stated to be used

226

HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SI P.

as an esculent. We have now records of its occur-
rence in Essex and Sussex, but how it got to either
of these localities, so far distant from each other, has
not as yet been accounted for.

F. H. Arnold.

A WINTER IN MASSAUA.

DURING last winter the steamer I commanded
was taken up by the Italian Government for
condensing purposes, and in spare time I amused
myself by making a few notes on the Natural History
of the place I was sent to, Massaua, and its im-
mediate neighbourhood, the results of which notes I
here generalise, hoping they may prove of some
interest. Many men situated as I am visit places
from whence no notes or collections have ever been
made, and it is the hope that something may be done
in that way, that encourages me to place these few
lines before you ; and I shall arrange them under
different heads.

I. General Description. — Massaua is situated on a
small island on the western side of the Red Sea,
and has a population of about Sooo inhabitants,
comprising a most heterogeneous collection of
Abyssinians, Gallas, Somalis, Arabs, Egyptians,
Soudanese and Hindoos. There are a few good
houses, built of coral rock, with thick walls, and,
as is customary in Eastern places, flat roofs, very
effectual in keeping out the heat ; but the majority of
natives live in ramshackle huts made of a few poles
and rough mats, which, during the heavy winter
rains afford little protection against the elements.
There is very little sickness ; rheumatic fever how-
ever amongst the natives is the most prevalent
ailment, and from it the Italian troops suffered a
good deal. There is far less sickness during the hot
dry summer than in the winter. At Massaua is
established a French Catholic Mission and at
Makullo (a village about 3 \ miles W.N.W. of
Massaua) a Swedish Protestant Mission, both doing
good work. At the latter I met with great hospitality
and kindness, and was able to get a good deal of
information. There are no wells in Massaua, all the
water is brought by pipes from Makullo, at which
place there is a good and constant supply, though
the water is slightly brackish.

With Suakim (which is situated 242 miles to the
N.W. by N.) it has always formed one of the best
harbours on this coast, and through it all the outside
trade of Abyssinia has been conducted. Although
practically not forming a part of the Abyssinian
dominions, it has generally been looked upon as the
port of that country, not only by the outer world but
more especially by the. Abyssinians themselves.
Since 1557 it has been nominally under Turkish and
Egyptian rule, but in 1SS4, under a treaty between
King John (the Negus of Abyssinia), the English

and Egyptians, the Italians obtained a footing and
have recently declared their intention of holding the
place altogether. From Massaua to Saati (a place
25 miles inland to W.S.W.) the Italians have laid
down a substantial railway well guarded by forts.
Owing to recent hostilities, the port has been closed
to commerce from the interior, and it will take some
time to restore the native confidence and trade.

2. Physical Geography. — Massaua is situated in
latitude [15° 37' 2 N., longitude 390 27' E., on a
small island in a creek formed by Jerrar and
Massaua bays on the N. and W.N.W., and Har-
kiko Bay on the S., which bays have good
channels into them of five or six fathoms depth,
forming good though not extensive anchorages.
The island is connected by a long causeway to the
mainland which here — as nearly all down the west
coast of the Red Sea — stretches away as a flat plain
to the foot of the low range of hills about three miles-
distant. This plain is formed of alluvium spread
over the substratum of coral formations in many
places (under the alluvium) in a very perfect state of
preservation, while here and there the coral crops up
above the soil in jagged rain-worn rocks. So unlike
real coral are these rocks that it is only by a close
examination that its real character can be determined.
The hills are volcanic and are those known as the
Aden volcanic series (Blandford). Beyond these
hills stretches inland an almost uninterrupted succes-
sion of hills and valleys forming in some places a
most rugged country, and gradually rising in altitude
from 500 or 600 feet at the first hills to the grand
mountain ranges 10,000 feet high in Abyssinia. The
hills near Massaua show no signs of recent volcanic
activity, though a little farther inland, near Dogali,
there are well-defined lava beds. From the valleys
several wide and shallow river beds can be seen, one
very well defined, passing by Makullo and debouching
into Jerrar Bay, though I could hear of no water ever
having flowed in it, on the surface. But at almost
any time of the year, water can be obtained by
digging into the bed, in fact while I was there it
could easily be got in a few minutes by scooping out
the soil with the hands to the depth of a foot. That
there have been many rushes of water down this bed
is proved by the fact, (1) that the plain is thickly
covered in places (particularly N. of Otumlo Bay)
with fragments of rocks such as obsidian, mica-schists,
quartzite, porphyrite, and rhyolite, which could only
have been brought down from the interior by rushes
of water ; and (2) the plain is formed by alluvial soil
from the interior. The overspreading of the fringing
coral reefs is particularly to be noticed, as by this
means the Red Sea is slowly but surely being filled
up. In "Nature," of April 26th last, I particularly
allude to the coral formations here, and also to the
gradual upheaval of the coral, so that we have the
two forces of upheaval and deposition working
together. I consider there to have been upheaval

HARD 1VICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

227

chiefly from the following fact. Many of the coral
masses on the plain are very much undermined by the
•action of water, which action can be seen still at work
round the harbour. From high-water mark seaward
the water deepens gradually to about three or four feet
just inside the edge of the reef, then shallows slightly
immediately over the edge, then drops suddenly to four
•or five fathoms deep. The part between the edge of
the reef and the high-water mark is slowly filling up
•with disintegrated coral debris and sand drift, and is
also being raised by upheaval, which latter action
seems to be intermittent rather than continuous. It
•would be extremely interesting if continuous observa-
tions on the growth, etc., of the coral were made at
some such place as this. Everything is favourable
for such observations to be taken, either in this port
or at Suakim. Most curious is it to note how in
some places the edge of the coral reef may be quite
close to the high-water mark, while in other places,
at some distance off. Possibly this may be owing to
the way in which the tide currents strike the reef, in
some places continually bringing in fresh supplies of
food, in others reaching the reef after being exhausted
of food supply. On the seaward side of the
coast there is a long line of coral islands, with
a deep water channel inside, and I cannot help
thinking that by the same process these too
will be gradually joined to the mainland, not
so rapidly, unless there is more rapid up-
heaval, for the alluvium will have farther to
travel. Earthquakes are by no means rare
phenomena here, and signs can be seen in
Massaua, as cracked buildings, etc., which
testify to the severity of the shocks.

3. Vegetation.— On my arrival towards the
end of November there was very little vegeta-
tion on the plain, but it very soon began to
sprout up in the most marvellous way, and, at
the beginning of February, not only the plain
but also the hills looked quite green and nice.
'Scattered about the plain were clumps of large
cacti up which climbed several kinds of
creepers, and then there was a large fleshy-
leaved shrub with a handsome yellow flower,

said to be poisonous. There are dozens of pretty
little flowering plants which seem to spring up as if
by magic, out of what appears the most barren soil,
though undoubtedly it does look so barren, yet it is
very rich and with irrigation would grow almost
anything. There are only a very few trees, and
these have been planted and have to be well cared,
or else the summer heat would soon shrivel them up.
Although summer and winter are at the same time
here as in England, yet their effect upon vegetable
and animal life is practically reversed : plants flower,
and animals breed in the winter, in summer all is
quiet, no vegetation, few animals and no insects,
all is at rest, owing to the intense heat.

4. Zoology. — It is chiefly owing to the lack of

surface water that the fauna is so poor : of animals a
species of hy;ena, a small gazelle, called by the
natives "Dig Dig," a ground squirrel (Xerits rutilus),
a small jerboa, and a small bat were all I saw. At
times leopards are seen in the neighbourhood, but
they are becoming rare now.

David Wilson-Barker.
66, Gloucester Crescent, Regent's Park.

[To be continued.')

THE WATER-SPIDER {ARGYRONETA
AQUATIC A).

THROUGH reckless collectors and would-be
aquariumists not knowing, or taking proper
precaution as to the natural habits of the water-
spider, and the insertion of more voracious enemies
in the same compartment, has probably arisen the
scarcity of this amusing aquatic creature.

Yet, when in captivity, its movements may be
watched with facility while spinning from plant

Fig. 85. — Female of water-spider [Argyroneta aquatka)

Fig. 86. — Cocoon of Argyroneta aquatka.

to plant its fine webby path, and occasionally ascen-
ding to the surface of the water to refill with air
the silken envelope with which its body and respi-
ratory organs are so wonderfully provided, for its
existence while under water ; then, the fact of its
hinder legs guarding the silvery-like bubble with

22j

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

which it now descends with safety to its enclosed
harbour, has rendered the water-spider one of our
most amusing and interesting aquarium pets.

For several years it has been my pleasure to keep
a few of these along with a variety of other, though
select life in the aquaria. With newts or fish they
seem perfectly agreeable, as one of the latter, a
coloured fish {Cyprinus aurattis) almost ten years old
in the aquaria, to the surprise of all, made itself
especially an associate, and playmate with its Crus-
taceous companions.

In a small tank, thickly beset with Ranunculus
diversifolius, Helosciadium inundatum, and Lenuia
polyrhiza, with its broad fleshy fronds, and long spread-
ing roots covering the surface, the whole thus formed
a most suitable habitat, in which, for special observa-
tion, I placed several water-spiders, which I collected

yellowish mass of egg surrounded with a glistening
layer of air, distinctly separate from its still unfinished
harbour.

After a day or so of rest, it further extended the
nest downwards, in a bell or funnel form, until
nearing two inches long ; then closed the lower or
wider portion, with the exception of two openings,
one on each side, just to give leave of its exit or
admission.

This being completed, the mother could often be
seen gracefully wending her way to the surface, and
carrying down large successive bubbles of air, then
carefully liberating, one by one, in order to form a
sufficient supply, in which it then remained for some
days.

From the end of the first week the egg now
gradually grew darker, and on July 1st, exactly the.

Fig. 87.— Male of water-spider {Argyroneta aquatica).

on the 5th of June, while out collecting aquatic plants.
One, apart from the other, appeared to be somewhat
restless ; this of course was watched with anticipation,
as the others had already made themselves at home.
For the first two days it quickly traversed from side
to side, making repeated attempts to climb the glass
to effect an escape, but eventually it settled down,
and was soon busily webbing together in a diverging
manner the pectinate leaves of the water crowfoot ;
then going within its leafy shade, not only as it
almost appeared to do, to examine or to arrange the
work so far done, but actually to weave its silken
cocoon, or nest, in which, on the fifth day, 10th of
June, through a small opening it had left unwebbed
from it closing on the sides of the glass, and which
fortunately served the agreeable purpose of pursuing
the future progress of what could be observed, the

third week, the upper portion of the nest, or
cocoon, was completely laden with young ; when,,
the large globule of air slowly began to diminish, and
on being exhausted, the mother seemed reluctant to
find a further supply, as though she had done
her duty.

Here the young naturally became troubled, and
in the fourth week were quickly parading the
interior of their cell, apparently for escape, which
they, through the course of nature, effected on July
nth; thus, in about thirty days, over forty young
were actively playing their delightful and youthful
part, each bearing its silvery bubble, thus assuming
the respective and peculiar characteristics of the
parent.

The water-spider has its own instinction and
acutencss, in repelling its aggressors, especially so

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

229

while guiding its young. During the course of
hatching, my attention was drawn to what I may
term a sudden conflict between the spider and
the so-called water-shrimp [Oniscus aquaticus),
which had unfortunately partly gained an entrance,
but only to be rolled out a lifeless victim. On
another occasion a trumpet snail (Planorbis corrtcus)
happened to advance on the ends of its telephone.
To such an herbaceous monster Argyroneta did not

ant, common about houses here. I have obtained
similar wings from undoubted termites secured during
a flight. In the drawing, a represents the venation
at the point of insertion ; b is a more highly magni-
fied view of the star-like dots distributed all over the
cells of the wings ; in c these star-like dots are still
more highly magnified. They are shown in profile
in e, in the folded edge of a wing ; they are promi-
nences which project above the surfaces of the

Fig. 88.— Wing of Termite.

venture so very near, but with its furcated claws
continued annoying, at each protrusion, the horns
of the snail, till it reversed its course, then the
water-spider retired the victor.

Jos. I. Newton.

NOTE ON WING OF A SPECIES OF
TERMITE.

THE wing from which the drawings which ac-
company were made, was found with a number
of similar cast-wings in a nest of the harmless black

wing, and are distinguishable from the strong,
long hairs (/) which also occur, but less numerously.
The star-like dots (prominences) appear on both
surfaces of the wing. The venation of the entire
organ is shown in d. The features alluded to in
this note are brought out in ^a balsam mount ;
but in order to see the delicate contour of the
projections on the folded edge of the wing, a little
weak spirit and water is a preferable medium to
balsam : c is from a balsam mount ; e e are in dilute
spirit.

W. J. Simmons.
Calcutta.

230

HA R D WICKE ' S S CIE JVC E- GO SSI P.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

"HTHE "Observatory" states, that the provision
of the funds required for the construction of
two telescopes, to enable the Royal Observatories at
Greenwich and the Cape of Good Hope to take part
in the international scheme for charting the heavens
by photography, has been sanctioned by the Treasury.

Earl Crawford and Balcarres has presented the
whole of the equipment of his observatory at Dun
Echt to the Government, on condition that they
retain the administration of the Edinburgh Observa-
tory, and do not make this over to the university, as
it is said they intended.

A new comet (e. 1888) was discovered on the 3rd
of September at the Lick Observatory, California, by
Mr. Barnard, who describes it as a "circular,
diameter 1', magnitude 11 or fainter."

Professor Schiaparelli has published the first series
of his observations of double stars containing
measures of 465 binary systems, which he has ob-
tained with the eight inch Merz refractor of the
Royal Brera Observatory at Milan during eleven
years. The number of the observations, which are
•chiefly of double stars, the components of which are
within five seconds of each other, amounts to nearly
four thousand.

On October 1st there will be an occultation of
Saturn.

The disappearance takes place at 3 hrs. 59 min.
aft. ; at the time of reappearing the moon is below
the horizon.

There will be no occultation in October of any star
larger than the 4th magnitude.

Mercury will not be in a good position for observa-
tion in October.

Venus will be an evening star throughout the
month, and will be in Virgo until the 7th, when she
•enters Libra.

Mars will be an evening star, but will be situated
unfavourably for observation.

Jupiter will be an evening star, and will be in
■conjunction with the Moon on the 9th at 1 hr. morn.

Saturn will be in Leo and will rise about mid-
night.

Meteorology. — At the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, the lowest reading of the barometer for the week
•ending 18th August, was 29*67 in. on Monday
morning, and the highest 30*16 in. at the end of the
week. The mean temperature of the air was 56 *4
deg., and 5*8 deg. below the average. The direction
of the wind was variable. No rain fell during the
week. The duration of registered bright sunshine
in the week was 27*8 hours, against 36*4 hours at
Glynde Tlace, Lewes.

For the week ending 25th Angust, the highest
reading of the barometer was 30*10 in. at the begin-
ning of the week, and the lowest was 29*43 in. on

Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at inlerz'als of Seven Days in October.

Rises.

Souths.

Sets.

D.

h. m.

h. m.

h. m.

1

7

8 47M

I I9A

5 5ia

Mercury 5 .|

14

8 57M

8 40.M

I 15A

5 33A

21

0 56a

5 I2A

'

28

7 40M

O I2A

4 44A

f

7

8 27M

I I7A

6 7A

Venus 5 .

14

8 49 M

I 23A

5 57A

21

9 I2M

I 3OA

5 48A

v

28

9 34M

I 38A

5 42A

(

7

0 i8a

4 3A

7 48a

Mars cf . A

14

0 14A

3 S7A

7 40A

21

O IOA

3 52A

7 34A

1

28

0 SA

3 47A

7 29A

-

7

10 50M

3 3A

7 i6a

Jupiter %. .

14

10 29M

2 40A

6 51A
6 28A

21

IO IOM

2 19A

•

28

9 49«

1 57A

6 5A

t

7

0 45 m

8 16.M

3 47A

Saturn 1?. A

14

0 21M

7 5-tM

3 21A

21

11 53M

7 22M

2 55a

'

28

11 28M

6 56M

2 28A

Friday evening. The mean temperature of the air
was 6o*o deg., and 1*3 deg. below the average. The
general direction of the wind was S.W. Rain fell on
five days of the week, to the aggregate amount of
o*8i in. The duration of registered bright sunshine
in the week was 29*2 hours, against 37*6 hours at
Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 1st September, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*32 in. on Tuesday
evening, and the highest was 30*15 on Saturday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was
56*6 deg., and 4 deg. below the average. The general
direction of the wind was south-westerly. Rain fell
on three days of the week, to the aggregate amount
of 1*22 in. The duration of registered bright sun-
shine in the week was 32*2 hours, against 38*7 at
Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 8th September, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*75 m* on Monday
afternoon, and the highest was 30*22 in. at the end of
the week. The mean temperature of the air was
57*1 deg., and 2*4 deg. below the average. The
general direction of the wind was south-westerly.
Rain fell on six days of the week, to the aggregate
amount of 0*16 in. The duration of registered bright
sunshine in the week was 20*8 hours, against 27*2
hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 15th September the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*94 in. on Monday
morning, and the highest was 30*32 in. on Thursday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was
54*5 deg., and 3*4 deg. below the average. The direc-
tion of the wind was variable. Rain fell on two days of

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

:3i

the week, to the aggregate amount of o-o6 of an inch.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 42 '4 hours, against 547 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

In October the isotherms form deep curves as they
cross England and Scotland. The isotherm of 480
passes through Lanark, Roxburgh, and Haddington ;
that of 490 through Wigtown, Kirkcudbright, Stock-
town and Newcastle ; of 500 through Liverpool,
Derby and Hull ; of 510 through Denbigh, Hereford,
Reading, Hertford and Cambridge, to the Wash ; of
520 through Anglesea, Swansea, Salisbury, London,
and the east coast off Ipswich ; of 530 through
Haverford West, Devonport, Brighton, and Canter-
bury. These isotherms represent the mean average
temperature of the places named for the month.

The average rainfall in October is 2 inches on the
east coast, 3 inches on the south coast, and 4 inches
on the greater part of the west coast.

THE RED LEAF AGAIN : A REPLY.
By G. W. Bulman, M.A.

I HOPE Mr. Tansley will forgive me when I say
that I cannot find anything in his paper
(Science-Gossip, June, 18S8) which at all weakens
any of the arguments drawn by me from a red leaf,
and from my observation of the habits of bees
(Science-Gossip, October, 1887).

In fact, I find in it admissions and quotations from
the authorities which fully confirm my general
proposition, viz. that red and blue flowers are not
developed by the selective action of bees.

In the paper referred to, I drew two conclusions
from the red leaf :

(1.) That a brilliant red might be developed in a
plant without the selective action of insects.

(2.) That bees were not attracted merely by a red
colour in a plant.

With regard to the first, I do not wish to
exaggerate its importance in connection with what I
will call for shortness the bee-selection theory : it
does not prove the theory impossible, but it does
show that it is not necessary. If a brilliant red leaf
can be otherwise produced, why not a flower ? And
it is believed by the advocates of the theory in
question that coloured petals were originally green
leaves.

As Sir John Lubbock expresses it : "I believe
.... that all blue flowers have descended from
ancestors in which the flowers were green ; or, to
speak more precisely, in which the leaves immediately
surrounding the stamens and pistil were green."
("Ants, Bees, and Wasps," p. 308.)

As to Mr. Tansley's quotation from Dr. Sorby, I
cannot understand how it is supposed fully to meet my
objection. It is simply a statement that the colouring
matter in the petals of flowers is often the same as in

the leaves, and that in " many crimson, pink, and
red flowers," the development of colour " seems as if
related to extra oxidation."

Looking at the red leaf, I say, "If this final result
can be arrived at without selection, why not the red
petal ? " Surely the fact, that the colour is in both
cases due to the same chemical changes, does not
make the suggestion less probable.

And Mr. Tansley's own conclusions are that the
development of coloured pigments in flowers and
leaves is due to the same primary causes, but that
the colours of the former are "stereotyped and
perpetuated by insect selection." This is an admis-
sion of the conclusion to which my own arguments
tended, viz., that colour in flowers is not developed
by the selective action of insects. I suggested, that,
since it could be fully developed in a leaf without
insect agency, it might be so also in a flower : Mr.
Tansley says, that "clearly" it is so.

I am aware that the development of colour by
chemical action spoken of by Dr. Sorby does not
exclude the idea of development by insect selection :
it has nothing whatever to do with it. In any case
whether insects have influenced the development or
not, the colour is necessarily due to chemical
changes. But the connection in which Mr. Tansley
uses the word " development " seems to imply that
the coloration of the flower was as completely
effected as that of the leaf before insect selection
come into play to stereotype and perpetuate it.

With regard to the "stereotyping " of the developed
colours by insect selection, it is conceivable that this
might occur if insects showed that critical appreciation
of the colours of flowers with which some people
credit them. I will return to this point when I come
to my argument from the habits of bees with regard
to different coloured flowers. In my former paper,
however, I said nothing against this "stereotyping"
theory. I was not even aware of its existence : my
arguments were rather against such views as those
expressed by Mr. Grant Allen in — for example — his
paper on " Monk's-hood " (" Knowledge," September
29th, 1S82). Speaking of the blue colour of
monk's-hood, he says :

"Next, we may suppose, the large green sepals,
being much exposed to view, began to acquire a
bluish tinge, as all the upper parts of highly developed
plants are apt to do ; and the bluer they became, the
more conspicuous they looked, and therefore the
better they got on in competition with their neigh-
bours, especially since bees are particularly fond of
blue."

This is the sort of process I understand when I
speak of the development of colour by the selective
action of insects : it seems to me more in accordance
with Darwinism than Mr. Tansley's theory, which
seems to admit that the colour may be fully developed
without insect selection, and is only stereotyped
and perpetuated by the same.

232

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

But the red leaf may be supplemented, and the
argument drawn from it strengthened, by the
consideration of certain flowers, in the fertilisation of
which bees may be supposed to have played no
part.

Most people know the beautiful and brilliant
little crimson flowers of the hazel. The conspicuous
red part is the stigma, and Hermann Miiller considers
that this colour has been developed without any
selective insect agency :

" From the structure of the flowers, and from insects
never visiting the stigmas, I am convinced that the
hazel is a strictly anemophilous plant ; that the red
colour of its stigmas is solely an effect of chemical
processes connected with the development of the
female flowers to maturity, just in the same manner
as in the female flowers of the larch-tree and some
other coniferae." ("Nature," May 13th, 1875.)

Yet if insects had been observed visiting the
flowers, the red would doubtless have been put down
to their selective action.

Another case is that of the salad burnet (Poterium
Sanguisorba). This plant bears its stamens and
pistils on different flowers, and probably depends on
the wind for fertilisation. The perianths of both
hinds of flower are green, but in the one the stigmas
are of a lovely pink colour.

Whatever, therefore, may be thought of the
argument from the leaf, we have here conclusive
proof that red may be developed in flowers without
the selective action of insects. It is true, it is the
stigma which is coloured in both cases ; but if this
can be accomplished without insect agency, it is
simple dogmatism to say that petals might not be so
also.

Mr. Tansley's objection, that the red of the leaf is
not fixed — although I do not exactly know in what
sense it is not fixed — cannot be urged against these
examples.

We have in them cases in which colour has been
"stereotyped and perpetuated" without insect
selection.

My second point, that bees are not necessarily
attracted by red, is admitted as a thing obvious to
all : its antagonism to the theory is evaded by the
statement, that bees are not supposed to care for red
and blue simply as colours.

" At any rate, whether bees prefer blue and red to
other colours or not, I suppose no one has ever
asserted that they do so in an aesthetic sense. The
contention of the upholders of this theory is rather
that they have learned to consider blue or red as an
index of high specialisation ; and therefore of
flowers . . . presenting peculiar adaptations for their
visits."

With these words as it appears to me, Mr. Tansley
deals a death blow to the theory he is defending. If
the bee only goes to a blue flower because it has
learned by experience that these are specially adapted

for its visit, it cannot have had any share in the
development of the colour.

Let us go back for a moment — in imagination — to
the time, when, according to the theory, flowers
had not yet become blue. The bees' taste for blue,
being simply the result of experience, does not exist.
So the few flowers with a chance shade of blue,
among the green, white, yellow, red — whichever
we assume they were — are not specially selected by
the bees visiting the blooms for honey, and do not
obtain any advantage : the chance variations towards
blueness, not conferring any benefit, are not seized
upon by selection — they disappear.

How are the bees to be guided to the particular
flowers of Mr. Grant Allen's Monk's-hood which
" began to acquire a bluish tinge," if their taste for
blue is a thing still to be acquired ? In fact, should
the above statement be accepted, my arguments are
superfluous : the whole theory collapses under Mr.
Tansley's assertion.

But is it true, that no one has asserted that bees
prefer blue in an aesthetic sense — that is, I infer,
simply as a colour ?

I will leave the following quotations from Mr.
Grant Allen to speak for themselves.

Hyacinths are said to " have acquired a blue
pigment to attract the eyes of azure-loving bees."

" Bees are particularly fond of blue."

Of the beetle, it is said, " he has certain special
tastes for certain special hues and blossoms," and
" It receives a sense impression from the bright hue
of a flower, and is irresistibly attracted towards it, as
the moth is to the candle."

I think the author of the above would wish to
apply these generalisations as to the beetle's tastes to
the bee likewise. Further observations have simply
strengthened the conclusion.

The conclusion I drew from my observations re-
specting the flowers visited by bees, was, that the
latter did not specially select red and blue — that they
showed no preference for these colours in flowers.
(To be continued.)

SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

The editor of "Scientific News" gives the fol-
lowing good wrinkle : — " The marsh rosemary
(Ledum pains tre), otherwise known as Labrador tea,
is a shrub growing to the height of three feet or four
feet. It grows in swampy districts, in the north-
west of Ireland and Scotland, in the countries around
the Baltic, in Siberia, and the Dominion, especially
Labrador. The alcoholic extract of its leaves has a
very peculiar but not absolutely disagreeable smell.
If it be diluted with water, and applied to the skin,
no sand-fly, mosquito, etc., will, to the best of our
knowledge, settle on the person thus protected. We
have heard of this remedy and of its efficacy so

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

233

long that we do not remember who first discovered
and applied it. Mr. Brown is right concerning the
disagreeableness of ' F. B.'s' lotion; but we must
remember, after all, that the bite of a mosquito may
mean the injection into the system of the poison of
yellow fever or of malaria."

Dr. J. E. Taylor, editor of SciENCE-Gossir,
commenced his season for popular science lectures at
the Colchester Students' Association on September
26th, with a discourse on " Flowers and Fruit ;
their History and Origin."

The annual exhibition of the South London Ento-
mological and Natural History Society will be held on
the 17th and 18th of October, at the Bridge House
Hotel, London Bridge, S.E. Many complaints
having been made, owing to the difficulty of seeing
the exhibits through the crowded state of the rooms,
it has been decided to call the evening of the 17th of
October a "private view," for which complimentary
tickets will be issued to the exhibitors and the press,
and a limited number will also be issued at a fee of
one shilling each on the 18th of October.

The International Geological Congress, which
assembles every three years, met this year in London,
on September 17th, under the presidency of Pro-
fessor Prestwich. The last time it met was in Paris.
Excursions were arranged on the 24th of September,
to the Isle of Wight, North Wales, Norfolk and
Suffolk, the Jurassic rocks of Central England, and
West Yorkshire, for the purpose of examining the
special geological features of those districts. These
were under the direction of Messrs. Whitaker, J. S.
Gardner, Professor Keeping, Professor Blake, Dr.
Hicks, Dr. J. E. Taylor, Messrs. G. Morton, Wood-
hall, Lamplugh, F. W. Harmer, Clement Reid, Marr,
Tidderman, A. H. Green, H. B. Woodward, &c.

We have much pleasure in drawing attention to
the capital portrait of the well-known Rev. Dr.
Dallinger (with short biography) in the last number
of the recently issued but vigorously edited monthly
scientific journal, " Research." We are genuinely
sorry to hear that Dr. Dallinger has at length retired
from his useful (if not fitful) post of Governor of
Wesley College, Sheffield. No man has ever clone
more to polarise Wesleyan Methodism witli a love of
God's works than he has.

At the recent meeting of the American Associa-
tion for the advancement of science, the chief
feature was a paper by Professor Hall on the " New
Psychology," in which he stated that hypnotism
was one of the most promising areas of modern
psychic research.

Germany has lost perhaps her greatest physicist,
by the death of the distinguished Dr. Clausius, at the
age of sixty-six. He will probably be best known to
students by his researches and publications on heat.

Death has been very busy with our scientific men
the last few weeks. Among the chief and best
known is a man who has done more than a regi-
ment of ordinary scientific men to make science
understanded of the people, Mr. R. A. Proctor, the
distinguished astronomer, astronomical writer, and
lecturer, and editor of "Knowledge," at the com-
paratively early age of fifty-three. Poor Proctor !

Another valued old contributor to Science-
Gossir, has joined the majority ; Mr. Philip Henry
Gosse, F.R.S., the zoologist, died at his residence,
Torquay, at the age of seventy-eight. He was the
author of works on the Natural History of Canada
and Jamaica, the result of his personal investigations,
besides others on British Zoology. He devoted
himself in his later years to the microscopic study of
the British Rotifera. The last scientific communi-
cation he penned was the short paper on the " Boar-
fish," which appeared in the September number of
Science-Gossip.

Another old and valued friend is also gone — Mr.
Henry Stevenson, F.L.S., the author of the two
raciest volumes in all ornithological literature, "The
Birds of Norfolk." He was only fifty-seven.

Is there anything more painful than to be the
brief biographer of friends with whom are associated,
in the past, happy days and sunshiny hours ? Poor
W. H. Baily, the author of " Characteristic British
Fossils," acting palaeontologist to the Geological ,Sur-
vey]of Ireland, professor at the Royal Dublin College
of Science, contributor of many articles to SciENCE-
Gossip, is also dead. He was a contemporary of
Edward Forbes, and De la Beche, and John Philips.

How electrical science has grown is best proved
by the fact, that five millions of people are now
dependent on the electric current for their daily
bread !

Accounts of the marvels revealed by the great
Lick telescope come to us from California. The
ring nebula in the constellation of Lyra has been
specially under examination by the aid of the thirty-
six-inch refractor. The refractor in the Washington
Observatory, in 1874, revealed thirteen stars outside
and one inside the ring. But the Lick telescope
shows twelve stars inside, and reveals " a corner of
the universe where the great work of creation is now
actually in progress." " Here," writes an observer,
" in this cosmic workshop of Lyra are scattered raw
materials and finished solar bodies ; rows of suns
ablaze with pristine light, and masses of unformed
vapour, in whose bosom the carbon atoms may be
floating which in the ripeness of time shall assume
forms of beauty and life."

Professor Piazzi Smyth has resigned the office
of Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, which he has
held for forty-three years.

234

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

" Nature " of August 30th, says that Mr. John
Tebbutt, Windsor, New South Wales, picked up
Encke's comet on the evening of July 8th ! What
has he done with it ?

The use of electricity was the subject of a brilliant
address by Professor Ayrton at the meeting of the
British Association. The Professor insisted on the
great and undoubted future of electric power, and
suggested that the time will even come when coal
will be burned at the pit mouth for the purpose
of creating mechanical energy at towns distant from
the coal fields. Ere long he thinks it will be
cheaper to carry electricity along a wire than coal
along a railway. England would then resume her
green and beautiful appearance, electric machinery
at the pit mouth supplying power and light to distant
parts. Electricity is at present produced by the
, burning of coal in the steam-engine. Professor Ayrton
fancies that eventually electricity may be obtained by
the burning of coal direct, without the agency of the
steam engine, just as it is already obtained from
galvanic batteries by the direct consumption of zinc.
In America, says the Professor, there are already
twenty-two electric tramways, while in England there
are only four. In America there are six thousand
electro-motors working machinery, while in Great
Britain there are scarcely one hundred. The new
mountain railway at Lake Lucerne is worked by elec-
tricity produced by the river Aar, three miles away.
Electric trains, it is said, will never come into
collision, as they can be so arranged that one train
cannot get upon the section occupied by another
without losing its current. At present, when a train
stops at a station, the steam which drives it is largely
wasted. When the electric train stops its energy will
simply fly along the track for the use of distant trains
which are moving. The eloquent Professor waxed
warm with enthusiasm for a power which produces
energy in the day-time and light at night. Even
heat in time is to be supplied by the agency of the
fluid which has recently flashed brilliantly in our
autumn skies.

In his paper on the Graphophone, read at the British
Association meeting, Mr. Edmunds stated that Pro-
fessor Bill and Mr. Tainter had found that tinfoil, as
used in that instrument, was far too pliable for the
purpose, as it always had a tendency to pucker and
destroy the symmetry of the sound-waves. They
perceived that no good result could be obtained by
merely indenting a pliable material ; it was necessary
to engrave a record in a solid resisting body ; and this
discovery enabled them to 'produce a really practical
instrument, which they termed the " Graphophone."
Instead of tinfoil, Mr. Tainter employed wax,
ploughing out, by means of a vibratory stylus, a
narrow undulating groove, which constituted a sound
record. Mr. Tainter has brought the experience of
many years to the perfection of the Graphophone.

The pith of the invention appears to be the "re-
cording cylinder," six inches long by an inch-and-a-
quarter broad, formed of cardboard, coated with
wax. This is placed in a small lathe and rotated by
a treadle in contact with the "recorder," which
consists of a metal frame supporting a thin mica
diaphragm, in the centre of which is a steel point
that cuts a narrow groove on the surface of the
cylinder, according to the quality and intensity of
the sound spoken against it. The recorder is then
removed, and replaced by the "reproducer,"
a light feather of steel that travels along the
grooves made on the cylinder, and transmits their
undulations to a small mica diaphragm, which
in its turn communicates its vibrations, as sound-
waves, to the ears of the auditor by means of two
india-rubber tubes, for Mr. Tainter found it best to^
reduce the size of the record, and concentrate the
sound in this way, on account of the greater dis-
tinctness that was thus secured. The manipulation
of the Graphophone is very simple. It requires no
adjustment, no electric motor, no galvanic battery..
The . foot supplies the motive power, and the
machine regulates its own speed by means of an
ingenious, but simple governor. Journalists and
reporters may dictate their articles and reports,,
leaving others to transcribe them. The principal of
a firm can speak his day's correspondence into the
machine, which will repeat it sentence by sentence,
to be written down in proper form by the clerk.
Purely verbal communication can be carried on
through the post by means of the record cylinders,
which are [ extremely light, although capacious
enough to hold one thousand words apiece.

MICROSCOPY.

New Slides. — We have received from Mr. J. Sinel,
Jersey, a set of admirably mounted and most useful
zoological slides as follows : — 1. Section of sponge
(Sycon) showing monads ; 2. Longitudinal section
through an expanded sea-anemone [Bunodes) ; 3.
Transverse section through sea-anemone {Tealia) ;
4. Expanded zoophytes {Campanula angulata), with,
parasitic diatoms ; 5- Section of compound ascidian
{Leptocliuum) ; 6. Eye of Sepia. The sponge slide
and that of Campanularia are unusually good, even
for Mr. Sinel. — Mr. Ernest Hinton has forwarded us
an exquisitely neat and cleanly mounted slide of a
scale-moss [Gcocalycea), showing the antheridium and
archegonium. The two latter are curiously con-
nected in a chalice-like crown at the summit of the
shoot, and they are mounted in their natural position.
This specimen is from Chapel le Dale, Yorkshire. —
Mr. Walter White, Litcham, Norfolk, has forwarded
us specimens of his botanical preparations which he
offers at the low price of six for a shilling. They
are marvels of cheapness as well as of neatness, and

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

235

have been specially got up for students of "Sack
Thorne" and other botanical manuals on vegetable
physiology. Mr. White's list includes no fewer than
1 So such illustrative slides. Whilst speaking of such
aids to biological students, we would draw attention
to the preparations and specimens of Mr. W. K.
Mann, of Bristol, whose catalogues collectors would
do well to obtain and study. All instruments for
egg collecting and preparation are offered by him, as
well as collections of all sorts of insects, shells, birds'
eggs, skins, &c. — From Messrs. Bolton, of Birming-
ham, may be procured mounted specimens of a vast
number of alga.', infusoria, rotifera, polyzoa, &c, for
students' uses.

The Royal Microscopical Society. — In addi-
tion to the usual welcome summary of current re-
searches relating to zoology and botany, the August
part of the journal of the above society contains a
lengthy and highly elaborate paper (well illustrated)
on "Additions to the Knowledge of the Carboniferous
Foraminifera," by the Rev. Walter Howchin, F.G.S.

Measurements by Camera Lucida. — The books
that R. W. has are quite correct when they state
that the microscope when 'horizontal, that is, the
•eye looking through the camera lucida, must be
10" from the table, or, rather, the paper on which
the drawing or measurement is to be made. R. W.
is quite wrong in his surmise, that the distance
from the paper should vary with the distance between
the object and the eye-piece. When we say a
•drawing magnifies so much, we mean that it
magnifies the appearance of an object at a certain
distance so much, and this distance for microscopic
purposes is by general consent 10". A man at a
thousand yards appears a very different size to what
he does at a hundred yards. If we have a drawing
which states that a man is magnified so much, we
must know at what distance the man is supposed to
be. If we place in the horizontal microscope a scale
of hundredths of an inch, and looking vertically
down through the camera lucida on a piece of
paper at 10" from the eye, see that three of the
divisions equal one inch, we then know that the
picture we see or draw magnifies the object J4|9 = 33
times nearly, supposing the object to be at 10". — ■
F. Le Grice, Colonel R. A., Shorncliffe.

ZOOLOGY.

Anodonta cygnea, Linne. — In the September
number of Science-Gossip Dr. Williams states
concerning the form Anodonta anatina, Linne, that,
" Anatomical differences apart, there is enough (he
docs not say what) in the shell to warrant us in still
holding on to it as a good species." He has just
before said that Dr. Henry Woodward's statement
to the contrary was " uncanonical." If reference be

made to the principal authorities on this subject, it
will be found that they by no means endorse the
opinion held by Dr. Williams. Messrs. Forbes and
Hanley,* who were naturalists in the highest sense of
the word, mention the name " anatina " as belonging
to a variation in the form of the shell of Anodonta
cygnea. Isaac Lea,f who made a life-long study of
the unionidre, and added more species to this family
than any other man, says, when speaking of the
point in question : " I have after a good deal of
consideration and examination of my specimens,
and the figures in numerous works describing the
unionidce, satisfied myself that An. cygnea and An.
anatina are not specifically distinct." Dr. Paul Fischer
again, in his " Manuel de Conchyliologie " (p. 197),
has quoted, without amendment, from Dr. Gwyn
Jeffery's book, % the number of species in the genera
of British land and freshwater mollusca, two species
of anodonta being enumerated, but when speaking of
the distribution of this genus, Dr. Fischer says there
is but " one European species."§ Turton and Gray
held the same opinion, the latter agreeing with
Forbes and Hanley || that not even good varieties
could be made from the variations of the freshwater
mussel. Surely in the face of authorities such as
these it is, to say the least, premature, to raise the
charge of " uncanonical," for the onus probandi rests
with those who hold the contrary opinion. The
whole difference between the shells of the " two
types " so-called, can be summed up in this. The
ventral margin is approximately parallel to the hinge
line in the typical cygnea, while in the other form
the hinge line, and the approximately straight line of
the ventral margin, if produced will meet on the
anterior side of the shell. On turning to the
descriptions of these forms in Dr. Williams's
Handbook, no anatomical differences are to be
found noted, though the author of it in the article
mentioned above seems to consider that they exist.
The shell of cygnea is described as " oval," that of
" anatina" as " elliptical- oval," one fails to see any
essential difference. Again the cygnea shell is called
"dull green," that of the other form, "dark-olive-
coloured ; " now the largest specimen of anodonta
in my collection (six inches from anterior to
posterior margin) which undoubtedly is cygnea is
dark-olive-coloured, while another specimen which is
a very good example of the variation is dull green.
Any one who has collected and examined fresh-water
mussels knows that there is every conceivable interme-
diate form between the typical cygnea and the so-
called species anatina, and that the shells vary in many
ways besides, according to their environment. A
very good way to obtain evidence bearing on the

* " British Conchology," vol. ii. p. IS9-
t " Synopsis of the Family Unionidse," p.
J " British Conchology."
5 " Manuel de Conchyliologie," p. 1002.
II " British Conchology," vol. ii. p. 156.

76.

236

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

question has been suggested. Take the fry, say of a
typical cygnea, and place batches under different
conditions. If on growing, all develope into typical
cygnea, it will be something of an argument in
favour of Dr. Williams's theory ; if on the other hand
some take the " anatina " form, it is proof positive
that this is merely a variation. The futility however
of recklessly creating varietal names seems at last to
be dawning on Dr. Williams's mind, if one may
judge from the concluding sentences of his article.
"There must be some hard and fast line drawn in
naming varieties, or we shall all be overwhelmed in
a deluge of variety names." The "we" evidently
refers to those who acknowledge and make worthless
varietal names, and they will be the only ones to
suffer, since every true naturalist discreetly ignores
the products of their wasted energy. The case of
the variety-monger and varieties is parallel with that
of Dr. Johnson and strong-drink. " I can abstain,"
said he, " but not be temperate." To what can
Dr. Williams's welcome change of opinion be re-
ferred ? Can it possibly be due to the experience of
his "Slug Gossip"?— Wilfred Mark Webb.

The Social Instinct in the Rabbit. — Some
few years back a curious instance of this universal
and most wonderful of instincts, which even at times
influences our fellow creatures in the sense refined,
came prominently beneath my notice. To amuse
my little nephew and nieces a rabbit hutch was
procured. What became of the majority of the
occupants is sad and hard to tell, but out of the
batch one eventually remained, which by way of a
treat was from time to time let loose to gambol on
the turf. Within that rabbit bosom the fraternal
yearning smouldered true ; he began to run round
and round a little, every living thing does ; and then
he fairly ran round my father's legs while mowing
with the mowing machine. The next followed the
nursery maid out into the road, was twice captured
madly scampering up Church Hill, and finally one
Sunday morning, he or she, fairly followed the
congregation into the church. As in the episode
of Sir Launcelot, more could not be tolerated from
a rabbit. — A. IP. Swinton.

Pallas's Sand Grouse {Syrrhaptcs paradoxus).
— A male of this bird was shot at Kenmoor, near
Yatton, Somerset, in the early part of July. The
bird was verified by Mr. Charbonnier, taxidermist,
Clifton. (Perhaps this may be of interest to your
readers.) — H. A. Francis, Clifton.

Galls on Ground Ivy. — The galls on leaves of
ground ivy are the work of the gnat Cecidomyia
Bursaria, Bremi. Mr. E. A. Fitch, in his account
of the Galls of Essex ("Trans. Essex Field Club,"
vol. ii. part 6), thus describes them : " Small, hairy,
tubular galls, occurring in some numbers on the
upper sides of the leaves. When mature, the galls

readily fall from the leaf, leaving several round holes
in it. The single pale yellow larva pupates within
the fallen gall." I have occasionally found them
about here, but I think they are not very common. —
Reginald W. Christy, Chelmsford.

Ground Ivy. — The excrescences on ATepeta
glechoma, noticed by F. H. W. in the September
issue, are the galls of Aitlax glechoma:, a hymen-
opteron. They appear to have been specially
abundant this summer. — E. Step.

Vanessa Antiopa in Kent. — On August 22nd,
I received a letter from my friend, Mr. J. Wood, of
Chatham, written the day previous, stating : " To
our great surprise this morning, we saw a Camberwell
Beauty in the garden, feeding on an over-ripe
gooseberry which had fallen from the bush. We
watched it for some time, it looked so beautiful. It
flew up, and actually settled on me, and then on my
sister." Upon receiving this news, and knowing
the habit the Vanessidoe have of returning day after
day to sweets, I arrived at my friend's house about
mid-day, and was glad to hear it had been again
feeding upon the gooseberry that morning, and I had
the fortune to secure it, while settled on a gravel
walk. It is a fine specimen, 3^ inches in expanse,
and very richly coloured ; the margins are of a
straw-yellow colour. With the exception of the
margins being slightly chipped, it apparently was
freshly emerged. — F. W. Frohawk, Balham, S. IV.

BOTANY.

Botanical Examination.— I have often heard
students who have failed in their examination lay all
the possible blame on the examiners, who are
singularly unfair to these same sad students, but I do
not remember one before, rushing into print to air
his grievances. To shew that I am not writing this
because I happen to have been successful, I may tell
" Inquirer " that I am just as disappointed in Biology
in the late examination, as his friend is in Botany.
As to the questions he asks, I may say that, in my
opinion, there is no available way of obtaining official
answers to his, to say the least, singular queries.
As one who has sat some fifteen or sixteen times at the
Science and Art Department Exams., I may be
allowed to answer these questions to the best of my
ability : (i.) The examiners do not require a candidate
to have passed all the previous stages before granting
a pass in honours, (ii.) The stupidity of the question
forbids my answering it. (iii.) I do not think the
number of passes is regulated by the amount of grant,
for many external students sit the exam, and no grant
will be claimed upon their success, (iv.) It is not so
difficult to pass in some subjects as in others, e.g. one
can more easily take honours in agriculture than the

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

237

same stage in either mathematics or botany, (v.) The
form attached to the answer paper does not go before
the examiners, for, on the paper of questions it is
distinctly printed, "Your name is not given to the
examiners, and you are forbidden to write to them
about your answers." (vi.) The candidate's previous
highest success is asked for, I should say, for the
purpose of determining the amount of grant to be paid
for the candidate's present success, (vii.) Age and
profession have nothing to do with the examination,
but I do not think there is anything unusual in asking
one for these particulars, (viii.) No; each should
have an equal opportunity. I do not agree with
*' Inquirer " that the whole scheme of the Depart-
ment will become "a farce and a failure" should
his questions not have been answered. It is not in
the method of examination, nor in the honesty of the
same, that the Department is in fault, but in the
method by which it encourages the teaching of
science. It should not allow students to take up a
science until they have been grounded in the truths
that lead up to that science — thus, a knowledge of
physiology is indispensable to the study of hygiene,
and Professor Huxley himself says that many candi-
dates in physiology fail because they have no know-
ledge of chemistry or physics. A question in the
House of Commons could be asked with more
propriety on this Departmental stupidity than about
an individual failure in honours botany. —Chas. A.
I Vhatmore.

The Sunflower. — Mr. Lett says : " If it were
the case that the sunflower every twenty-four hours
twisted its peduncle and brought its flower constantly
towards the sun, every sunflower in every garden
would be found facing in precisely the same direction,
a fallacy needing no refutation." The fallacy is
however not in the poetry but in the argument, which
would never have been used by any person fully
acquainted with the tendency of plants to vary, which
variableness affords a necessary basis for selection
whether natural or artificial. When Dr. Darwin
said that seeds yielded by flowers that had been self-
fertilised gave origin to plants less vigorous than those
which were cross-fertilised, he admitted that the
results of his experiments were not uniform, and that
he noticed some conspicuous exceptions. In like
manner, a phenomenon which has been observed in
sunflowers for many generations is none the less true
because it did not appear in the plants selected for
observation by Mr. Lett. It may be questioned if
the term peduncle can be rightly applied to the
flowering stem of the sunflower, on the top of which
the capitulum stands and which is indeed the central
axis of the plant bearing leaves up to the base of the
receptacle itself. Remarkable for its rigidity when
blown aside by a storm like that of the 28th August,
the roots of the plant are loosened in the ground, but
the stem in its lower part remains straight as a yard

measure made of wood. The upper portion of the
stem being as flexible as the base is rigid, turns
towards the zenith, and assumes an erect attitude
whatever be the angle at which the lower portion of
the stem is inclined. If after this the plant be raised
and fixed to a support, the stem regains its rectitude
by straightening the bend made in its upper part.
This is of course providing that the raising of the
plant be done before the stem has lost its flexibility in
the part which had been bent. When the flowering
time approaches and the capitulum begins to incline
towards a lateral rather than a vertical aspect, its
inclination tends to follow the sun just as the summit
of a fallen plant turns up towards the zenith : this
inclination continues till the flexibility of the stem
ceases in its upper as it had previously ceased in its
lower part, and the entire plant becomes rigid. I
think Mr. Lett was unfortunate in his choice of the
largest flower-heads, as they would be most likely
soon to lose what flexibility they had and become
rigid. — John Gibbs.

Carduus Setosus. — It may interest some of your
readers to hear that this variety of C. arvensis has
been found near Cirencester. Bentham mentions it
as having been found in the county of Fife. Does it
grow in other parts of Britain ? — K E. Z.

"Annals of Botany." — The August number
of this valuable scientific serial contains the following
papers: — " Arceuthobium oxycedri" (with plate), by
T. Johnson ; " On the Development of the Aleurone-
Grains in the Lupin" (with plate), by A. B. Rendle ;
" On the Structure of Spongocladia, Aresch (Spon-
godendron, Zanard), with an account of New
Forms" (with woodcuts), by George Murray and
Leonard A. Boodle ; " Notes on the Geological
History of the recent Flora of Britain," by Clement
Reid ; " Recent Researches on the Saprolegniese ;
a critical abstract of Rothert's results," by Marcus
M. Hartog ; "Illustrations of the Structure and
Life-History of Puccinia graminis" (with plates), by
Ward H. Marshall. Also the following notes : —
"On the Systematic Position of Isoetes" (second
note), by S. II. Vines; "On the Occurrence of
Starch in the Onion," by A. B. Rendle ; " A Modi-
fication of Pagan's Growing Slide " (with woodcuts),
by Selmar Schonland. The plates are up to their
usual artistic mark.

GEOLOGY, &c.

Flint Implements. — A beautiful collection of
flint implements (neolithic), including finished and
unfinished, polished and unpolished borers, scrapers,
hammers, flakes, &c, has recently been presented to
me ; but the donor can give me no further information
than that they were picked up on the chalk downs

238

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

near Eastbourne. They are patinated and white,
resembling the ordinary fractured flints found on the
downs. No text-book, or treatise on flint imple-
ments appears to mention flint implements as found
in abundance on the downs, and they are dissimilar
to those, few and far between, found on the
Wiltshire downs. It is just possible that a record of
these may be of public interest, and I am anxious to
rescue the history and origin of this collection from
oblivion. I shall be grateful for any notes or
references on the subject. — A. S. Eve, Marlborough
College.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Pin-hole Photography. — In the excellent
"Dictionary of Photography" now being weekly
published in the "Amateur Photographer," Mr. E.
J. Wall says : " Of late years the possibility of
taking passable negatives without the use of an
ordinary camera and lens has become an established
fact. For this purpose any rectangular box which is
absolutely light-tight will do. In one end make a
minute hole with the point of a needle, and at the
other end place the sensitive plate, keeping it in its
place by means of a clip or other simple arrangement.
A prolonged exposure is required about twenty or
thirty times the ordinary one, for any given subject.
No focussing is required, as the image is always fairly
sharp, no matter what distance the plate is from the
hole. The larger the plate the wider the angle, and
the greater the distance, the larger the image. As an
experiment it should be tried by every amateur, as
the materials are always at his command in the shape
of an empty plate-box."

Saccharine. — Replying to the query of Rev. H.
Whittaker in July issue : Roughly speaking, diabetes
is a form of disease by which all foods are turned
into a sugar, and passed away without nourishing the
body. The great effort of the physician is therefore
to provide food for the patient having no sugar in it
to aggravate the complaint. Saccharine is merely a
sweet taste, being a mineral product, it could not
assimilate, and was believed to pass out of the body
unchanged. This view has now been challenged by
some leading French scientists, who assert that when
it does not assimilate, it also does not pass away, but
remains in the body to accumulate, in which case it
would not be desirable to use it for any purpose
whatever. I may further mention that Government
prohibit its use for brewing, and Somerset House
authorities have just announced their success in
finding a good test for detecting its presence. — G. H.
Wicks, Bristol.

What Insect ? — Will any reader of Science-
Gossip tell me the name of a dipterous insect, about
as large as a blue-bottle fly, wings transparent, with
curious clouded appearance, in irregular patches of
smoke colour, eyes of splendid colour, red, yellow,
and green, in varied lights. — C. P.

Tennyson's Natural History.— In Science-
Gossip for June, page 139, E. II. V. inquires
whether snipe hum ? In dear old Gilbert White's
Natural History of Selborne (letter to Thos. Pennant,
of August 4th, 1767), the following passage occurs :
" Numbers of snipes breed every summer in some
moory ground on the verge of this parish. It is very

amusing to see the cock bird on wing at that time,.
and to hear his piping and humming notes." Un-
fortunately I have no personal knowledge which
would help in answering E. H. V.'s query; and I
shot, for snipe shooting is common out here where
the rice-swamps which are within very easy distance
of this city, afford splendid shooting. Tennyson
may, like Gilbert White, have heard the humming
notes of the snipe. I know that whenever wild birds
pass over this city at night, in the migrating season,
their shrill notes among the clouds always recall
Tennyson's line about the "birds that change their
seasons in the night." I think his description of a
tropical island, " the mountain wooded to the peak,"
and so on, in " Enoch Arclen," is wonderfully accurate,
and in its own line usurpassed in poetry. By the
way, some of our water birds, snipe, &c, are said to
come to the swamps in Lower Bengal from Thibet,
and to do the long journey in a single night. I have
also heard that for two or three seasons, a water-
bird only found in Central Asia, visited one particular
pond in our Zoological Garden. It came during our
cold weather, and stayed only a few days. Whether
it was the same bird which came year after year, I
do not know ; but the presumption seems to have
been that it was. This is a very gossiping note, .but
scientific gossip is admissible in your columns ! —
IV. J. Simmons, Calcutta.

Rudiments. — I notice that your correspondent
challenges a defence of the word rudimentary. I
should be sorry to be understood as speaking ex
catkedrd, but having given some little passing
attention to the comparative anatomy of the arthro-
pods, and observing that certain difficulties which
possibly predonderate with your lady writer lie without
the department of human anatomy, I must in courtesy
be forgiven if, as a matter of feeling, I beg personally
to differ as regards any lachrymose conclusions, end
I sincerely trust any remarks of mine may be as
kindly received as they are indeed conceived. The
word rudimentary, according to Dr. William Smith,
the classical lexicographer, is derived from the Latin
adjective rudis, in a natural state, not improved by
art, hence unwrought, unfilled, unformed, rough,
raw, wild ; and in the present sense I conclude
unspecialised ; but let us hear Dr. Darwin himself,
who thus writes to Sir Charles Lyell from Ilkey,
Yorkshire, under date of the eleventh of October,
1859 ("Life and Letters," vol. ii. pp. 213-14). " On
the theory of Natural Selection there is a wide distinc-
tion between rudimentary organs and what you call
germs of organs, and what I call in my bigger book
' nascent ' organs An organ should not be called
rudimentary unless it be useless — as teeth which
never cut through the gums — the papillae, repre-
senting the pistil in male flowers, wing of Apteryx,
or better, the little wings under soldered elytra.
These organs are now plainly useless, and ii fortiori,
would be useless in a less developed state. Natural
Selection acts exclusively by preserving successive
slight, useful modifications. Hence Natural Selec-
tion cannot possibly make a useless or rudimentary
organ. Such organs are solely due to inheritance
(as explained in my discussion), and plainly bespeak
an ancestor having the organ in a useful condition.
They may be, and often have been, worked in for
other purposes, and then they are only rudimentary
for the original function, which is sometimes plainly
apparent." If the biography of genius affords any
proof that form and comeliness is indicative of inward
enlightenment, I for one should hail with pleasure the
future development, but as regards naturalists it is
not always thus. In the case of my deceased friend

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

239

Mr. Henry Waring Kidd, who wrote the article on
Fasciated Stems in Science-Gossip (vol. xix. pp. 196-
19S), these perfections never appeared at all. The
article was written by the nurse from dictation, and as
for his personal appearance, as his own relatives said,
it would frighten any lady. He was a confirmed
paralytic, hopped like the kangaroo and gesticulated
like the baboon, and had no acuteness of either sight
or hearing, I think ; and yet had he been alive, I am
almost sure he would have answered the query in
Science-Gossip in respect to the cherry-galls on
ground ivy, which are possibly those of Cecidomyia
bursaria (Entomologist's Annual for 1872). He
came however of a talented family. — A. H. Swinton.

Field Vole. — This animal occasionally nests "in
crannies and holes of tree roots, and about hedge -
bottoms, but the most common locality in my
experience is a few inches below the surface in corn-
fields, &c. The occurrence described by Mr. Head
can scarcely be called unusual. — J. A. Wheldon.

Galls on Ground Ivy. — If not too late, I should
like to see some of the galls mentioned by F. H. W.
(p. 213) ; I am forming a collection of galls for my
museum, and shall always be glad to have galls of
any kind. — S. L. Mosley, Beaumont Park Museum,
Huddersjield.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers.— As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat
•dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of ow: gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

F. W. H.— Get Staveley's *' British Insects." We know of
no popular elementary treatise on " Acari." See Mr. George's
papers on the subject in past vols, of Science-Gossip (illus-
trated). For Diptera, consult the British Museum Catalogues,
a'so numerous papers (illustrated) in past vols, of Science-
Gossip.

Wm. R. — "The Naturalist" is the accredited monthly
journal of natural history for the north of England, and is
published monthly at Sunny Bank, Leeds, price (with
postage) jd.

W. A. L. — We are open to accept good papers on the subject
you mention.

A. Bates. — Your specimen is the female of the great saw-
fly {Sirex gigas).

E. C. R- — You cannot do better than procure Sowerby's
"Grasses," with coloured plate of every species. Stark's
" British Mosses" would be the best for you.

H. Smith. — See papers by the late Mr. J. F. Robinson on
"Notes for Science Classes," as to cutting and mounting
botanical objects, in Science-Gossip for 1883.

T. Millie. — You can learn very much of astronomy indeed
without a teacher. Get " Planetary and Stellar Studies," by
J. E. Gore (London : Roper and Drowley), just published ; or
any of Mr. Proctor's works, star maps, &c.

J. A. Hcgg.— The growth you enclosed is the gall of species
of Cecidomyia.

C. Harris.— You cannot do better than take in the shilling
parts of the work now being issued by Messrs. Gurney and
Jackson (successors to Mr. Van Voorst), written by Mr.
Howard Saunders. It contains illustrations of nearly every
British species, with all the details you require.

L. Kitching. — The fungus sent us is a species of the
" Birds' Nest fungus" (Nidularia).

L. Allen.— We received your letter, but there was no plant
enclosed.

G. O. Day. — Stainton's "Manual of the Sineina," 2 vols.,
is the best yet out. Weare not aware that Newman ever
published on the micro-lepidoptera, beyond what you find in his
" Moths."

T. F. Hall.— Mr. J. Sinel, St. Helier's, Jersey, would
doubtless be able to help you to the special kind of knowledge
you require.

EXCHANGES.

Dragonflies wanted, fresh and unset preferred. Lepid-
optera given in exchange.— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood,
Birmingham.

European butterflies wanted. British Iepidoptera in return.
— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Offered. — Chalk and Thanet sand fossils. Wanted.

Micro apparatus or material, slips preferred. — Chas. L. Neil,
Hamilton House, Goldsmith Gardens, Acton.

Devonian corals (polished sections), unnamed. What offers
in micro apparatus ?— Chas. L. Neil, Hamilton House, Acton.

For exchange. — Micro slides and botanical objects. Wanted,
natural history books, micro slides, or apparatus. — Ernest 0.
Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

Wanted, " Carpenter on the Microscope." Exchange
micro slides, land and freshwater shells, &c. — Ernest O.
Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

Exchange. — Bicycle, rear-driving safety, Premier pattern,
plated parts, balls, only once ridden. Offers, or would ex-
change for good double tricycle. — Chas. L. Neil, Hamilton
House, Acton, W.

Offered. — "British Association Handbook," Manchester
(Nat. Hist. Antiquities and Industries), pp. 108. Exchange
for books, journals, or first-class slides (animal). — G. H. Bryan,
Chaucer Road, Cambridge.

Will exchange " British Medical Journal," 5 vols, unbound,
from June 1883 to Dec. 1885, for books or periodicals, micro or
nat. hist, apparatus, or offers. — G. H. Bryan, Chaucer Road,
Cambridge.

Marine algae from the N.E. coast of Scotland, and N.W.
coast of Ireland, in exchange for other marine algae, English or
foreign, mosses, lichens, or flowering plants. — E. M. Holmes,
Bradbourne Dene, Sevenoaks.

Duplicates. — A. adippe, A. euphrosyne, A. selene, G.
rhaiuni, L. sinapis, H. thalassina, L. argiolus, T. rubi,
&c Desiderata, dragonflies. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood,
Birmingham.

Duplicates. — Helix virgata and H. caperata from Llan-
dudno, Calopteryx splendens, C. virgo, and other dragonflies.
Desiderata, dragonflies. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Bir-
mingham.

Dragonflies wanted from all parts of the British Isles,
fresh and unset preferred. Natural history books and speci-
mens offered in exchange. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood,
Birmingham.

Offered, gratis, to first applicant requiring same for school
museum, or similar object, a box of fossils and minerals (about
i cwt.), a few hundred British, and a few dozen foreign shells.
Recipient to pay carriage. — J. Sinel, Cleveland Road, Jersey.

Wanted, to exchange British plants for herbarium. Offered,
rare duplicates, and a small collection of British lichens named
and collected by the late Wm. Gardiner, of Dundee. Lists
exchanged. — F. B. Webb, Church Terrace, Cheadle, Stafford-
shire.

Will exchange Liassic fossils for British birds' eggs.—
W. D. Carr, Lincoln.

Trigonia pulcliella from upper lias, in exchange for other
British trigonias. — W. D. Carr, Lincoln.

Wanted, plants from the west and south of India. Send
lists to — E. de C. Crowcombe, Be;kenham, Kent.

Lantern slides (photo micrographs) of insect, botanical,
and geological subjects, diatoms, &c., in exchange for micro
slides, &c. — W. D. Stewart, 2 Gilmore Terrace, Edinburgh.

Will exchange vol. i. of "Science for All," bound, good as
new, for any of Darwin's works, or other science books. —
W. E. Rider, Parker Street, Cambridge.

Shells: H. virgata and var. subinaritima, H. pisana;
desiderata very numerous. Land, freshwater, and marine
shells duplicates the following. Eggs: partridge, magpie, rook,
robin, willow warbler, whitethroat, missel thrush ; desiderata
very numerous. Insects : duplicates, amongst which are as
follows, lonicem bred, segetum, /estiva, Brunniz, and many
others ; desiderata very numerous, especially butterflies and
bombyces. — N. Hewett, 26 Clarence Street, York.

For exchange. — Foreign marine, land and freshwater shells,
British birds' skins and eggs. Wanted.— -Eggs and nests,
foreign shells, British beetles, natural history books and
pamphlets. — J. T. T. Reed, Ryhope, Sunderland.

North American land shells in exchange for any British
land and marine shells not in my collection. — Thos. W. Reader,
171 Hemingford Road, London, N.

Good foreign stamps offered for shells, fossils, or micro
slides. — Thos. W. Reader, 171 Hemingford Road, London, N.

To egg collectors. — Will exchange a few puffins' eggs, with
full data and side-blown, for others similarly blown. — D.
Dennett, 13 Fernbank Road, Bradford, Yorks.

240

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS IP.

For leaves of Dentzia scabra, enclose stamped envelope ;
others if good material enclosed. — Dr. Martin, New Brompton.

P. glaber, Bui. obscurus, V. piscinalis, H. arbustorum, in
exchange for other British land and freshwater or marine shells.
— W. Dean, 50 Canning Street, Stoneyholme, Burnley, Lanes.

Ammonitbs, belemnites and other cephalopods wanted in
exchange for fossils, shells, rocks, minerals, &c. — John Hawell,
M.A., Ingleby Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton.

Fossils from magnesian limestone, lias, &c, offered in
exchange for fossils, shells, &c. — John Hawell, M.A., Ingleby
Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton.

Helix fusca and numerous other British shells offered in
exchange for other shells, fossils, &c. — John Hawell, M.A.,
Ingleby Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton.

I should like to correspond with naturalists in any part of
the world, and especially in S. Africa, S. America, and
Australia. — \V. M. Roberts, F.Sc.S., Abergynolwyn, R.S.O.,
Merionethshire, N.W.

Pritchard's "Infusoria," 1861, Ralfs' '* Desmidias," i84<?,
Cooke's " Freshwater Algae," 1882, Gosse's "Tenby," student's
microscope, by Watson & Sons, condenser, live cage, &c.
Exchange for books with illustrations by Cruikshank, Row-
landson, Leech, Aiken, Phiz, sporting books, early editions of
Dickens, "Titmar^h," and other popular authors. Lists in-
vited.— F. W. N., 72 Victoria Road, Great Yarmouth.

Will exchange clutches of coot, moor hen, great black-
backed, lesser black-backed, herring, and common gulls, kitti-
wake, great skua, curlew, lapwing, ringed-plover, snipe, missel
thrush, common, Arctic, sooty and Riippell's ferns, mute swan,
guillemot, razor bill, ringed guillemot, and puffins, for clutches
of other species. — Commander Young, R.N., Rodwell, Wey-
mouth.

Wanted, a bit of fresh stem of Euphorbia splendens ; vege-
table preparations offered in exchange. — Walter White, Litcham,
Swaffham.

Some of the best varieties of cerei, phyllocacti (various
colours), stapelias, &c, in exchange for shells, cool greenhouse
orchids, or offers. — E. R. F., 82 Abbey Street, Faversham.

Wanted, to exchange plants for herbarium. Lists ex-
changed.— E. C. Robinson, 46 Fishergate, Preston, Lanes.

I shall be glad to exchange land, freshwater, or marine
shells, brass rubbings or curios. — Archibald Hy. McBean,
S. Denys, Southampton.

Pitchstone and spherulite from Arran, in exchange for
fossils or minerals. — E. Carrick, Sharon Street, Dairy, Ayr-
shire, N.B.

Beautifully preserved sea-urchins (with or without spines),
in exchange for British land, freshwater and marine shells, or
insects. — T. W. Paterson, 18 Polwarth Crescent, Edinburgh.

Will exchange British and foreign marine mollusca for
fossils from Norwich, crag or pleistocene deposits. — W. A.
Loydell, 20 Stanley Gardens, The Vale, Acton.

Offered. — "The Naturalist," Hobkirk and Porritts' series,
Nos. 1-4, 6-13, 49-84. Wanted. — Land and freshwater shells,
or eggs of British birds in clutches. — Chas. Oldham, Ashton-
on-Mersey, Manchester.

For exchange. — Carrion crows, rooks, magpies, black head
gulls, kittiwakes, puffins, guillemots, razor bills, jackdaws,
willow warblers, hedge warblers, moor hens, partridges, ring
doves, whitethroat, one Yorkshire leal, one sparrow hawk, two
long-eared owls, &c. ; some of above in clutches if required.
Send lists of duplicates and desiderata to — E. G. Potter,
19 Price Street, York.

Duplicates. — Euonymella, psi, caia, grossulariata, salicis,
pallens, ova of dispar. Desiderata very numerous. — F. W.
Paple, 62 Waterloo Street, Bolton.

Duplicates, L. C., 8th ed. — 5c, 27, 39, 40, 41, 64, 79, 81,
82, 85, 91, 137, 166, 176, 234, var. Floydii, 249, 273, 29r, 317,
335. 336, 353. 3$6£, 372, 479. 494. 5°5. 5M^, 5 '4™. 543. 639,
680, 692, 774, 799, 808, 812, 859, 863, 865, 901, 910, 940, 944,
954, 966, 973, 1043, 1077, 1109, 1126, 1164, 1191, 1192, 1196,
1224, 1227, 1230, 1270, 1335, 1344, 1346, 1394, 1421, 1475, 1545,
1550, 1561, 1563, 1617.— A. Wheldon, Chemist, York.

In exchange for six slides I will send forty varieties of animal
hair. — Arthur H. Williams, Hythe.

Wanted, foreign butterflies or moths, either set or in
papers ; exchange duplicates of same, or fossils, shells or coins.
— F. Stanley, 6 Clifton Gardens, Margate.

Wanted. — Z. glaber, H. revelata, obvoluia, P. secale, A.
lineata, B. perversa, U. tumulus, P. lineatus, glaber, L.
glutinosa, &o, in exchange for other land and freshwater
shells. — T. A. Lofthouse, 67 Grange Road, Middlesbro'.

Wanted, pupae or imagines of British or foreign lepidoptera ;
will give shells, &c, in exchange. — T. A. Lofthouse, Grange
Road, Middlesbro'.

Liassic and magnesian limestone fossils offered in exchange
for mountain limestone fossils.— John Hawell, M.A., Ingleby
Vicarage, Northallerton.

British and foreign ammonites wanted. Exchange fossils,
&c. — John Hawell, M.A., Ingleby Vicarage, Northallerton.

Will exchange Humboldt's "Travels in South America"
(new), published by Bohn, for good copy of Carpenter on the
"Microscope and its Revelations." — Francis Lannin, 1 Marl-
borough Terrace, Londonderry.

Will exchange " Nature," bound volumes 23 and 24, or 25

and 26, in splendid condition, for Davis's "Practical Micro-
scopy," in good condition.— J. Hunter, Sea View, Buncranna,
co. Donegal.

Wanted. — Varieties of Helix rotundata. Helix hispida,
except subru/a, Limnea palustris, and Pupa ringens. Offered.
— Pupa secale, Helix rupestris; and Carychium minimum. —
Miss Eyre, Swarraton Rectory, Alresford, Hants.

I have a number of spare plates (coloured), as issued in my
"British Birds," suitable for framing, which I should be glad
to exchange for birds' eggs, or insects, British or foreign. —
S. L. Mosley, Beaumont Park Museum, Huddersfield.

Wanted, to correspond with collector who could supply
Ophiocotna Jiliformis, O. bellis, U. violacea, U. hispida,
Echinus lividus, £. neglectus, E. placenta, Brissus lyrifer,
&c. — C. Jefferys, Warren Street, Tenby.

Helix obozmlata, Bulimus montanus, Pupa ringens, Tesla-
cella, both species, and Succinea oblonga wanted. State return
required.— C. Jefferys, Warren Street, Tenby.

Lutraria oblonga, Solen pellucidus, Ianthina rotundata,
Ovula patula, Solecurtus antiquatus, &c, wanted. State
returns required.— C. Jefferys, Warren Street, Tenby.

Duplicates. — Andrena fasciata, cf, Xomada borealis, QT
&c. Wanted, rare and local aculeate. Hymenoptera. — G. E.
Frisby, 6 Church Street, Maidstone.

Wanted, copy of Tate's "British Mollusks" (coloured
plates), and copy of each of the 1875 and 1876 "Botanical
Record Club" Reports.— W. Whitwell, 4 Thurleigh Road,
Balham, S.W.

Will exchange "An Arrangement of British Plants," sixth
edition, 4 vols, (illustrated), by Withering, for a turntable, or
illustrated books on British land and freshwater shells, or
offers. — J. B. Beckett, Trinity Place, Friars Lane, Great
Yarmouth.

What offers for a collection of British marine, land and
freshwater shells, named and localised? — J. B. Beckett, Trinity
Place, Friars Lane, Great Yarmouth.

Will exchange last year's Science-Gossip (December
number missing) for fishing tackle.— Arthur Patterson, Yar-
mouth.

Wanted, a few hymn books, in fair condition, containing
psalms and hymns with supplement, or otherwise, prepared for
the use of the Baptist denomination. Will give British or
foreign shells, fossils or minerals, or polished corals, Devonian
specimens. — A. J. K. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teign-
mouth.

Wanted, Wood's "Index Testaceologicus," complete. Will
give a rare exchange in fossils, minerals, British and foreign
shells, polished specimens of the Devonian corals and sponges
(tine sorts), sections of corals for mounting (some very rare
sorts). — A. J. K. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

" Planetary and Stellar Student," by J. E. Gore (London r
Roper and Drowley). — " Entomology for Beginners," by Dr.
A. S. Packard (New York: Henry Holl & Co.).— "The Geo-
logical History of the British Islands," by A. Jukes-Browne
(London: Longmans). — "The Asclepiad." — "The Micro-
scope."— "Scientific News." — "Book Chat." — "The Amateur
Photographer."— " The Garner."— "The Naturalist."— " The
Botanical Gazette." — "Journal of the New York Microscopical
Society." — "Belgravia." — "The Gentleman's Magazine." —
"American Monthly Microscopical Journal." — "The Essex
Naturalist." — "The Midland Naturalist."— " Feuilles des
Jeunes Naturalistes." — " The American Naturalist." — " Journal
of Microscopy and Nat. Science." — "Scientific News" —
"Wesley Naturalist." — "Victorian Naturalist." — "Journal of
Conchology." — " Cassell's Technical Educator." — " The Speak-
ing Parrots" (part 5). — "Research," — "British Dogs," by
Hugh Dalzell (parts 22 and 23). — "Proceedings Bristol
Naturalists' Society." — "Trans. Penzance Nat. Hist. Soc."
— "Proceedings S. London Entomol. and Nat. Hist. Soc." —
Trans. Hertfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc."— " Third Report, City
of London Coll. Sci. Soc," &c. &c.

Communications received up to the 13TH ult. from :
C. P.— A. C. Y.— W. H. M.— B. M. C B.— A. M.— M. C L.
—J. N.— W. H. B.— E. M. H.— G. H. B.— L. K.— J. B.—
S. K. S.— W. J. S.— G. E. H.— W. L. W. B.— C. H.—
K. L. D.— F. W. F.— E. E. L.— L. A.— W. L. W. E.—
S. L. M— G. O. D.— F. N.— W. W.— R. W. C— G. E. F.—
F. L.— A. J. K. S.— F. H.— H. A. F— P. H. M.— C. J.—
J. R. W.— J. S.-C. K.— J. C— J. H.— W. D. S.— E. C. C—
R. H. R.— F. B. W.-G. W. R.— W. D. C— S. W. R.—
J. T. R.— F. W. A.— D. W. B.-J. I. N.— A. A.— W. H.—
W. E. R.— J. W.— S. L. M.— W. O.— C. A. W.— J. H.—

W. M. R F. E. Z.—W. D.— W. M. W.— J. B. Y.— F. W. H.

—A. W. S.— H. S.— E. G. P.— F. W. P.— F. W. P.— E. C—
A. L.— A. H. M. B.— E. C. R.— W. H. W.— I. A. W.—
W. W.— W. A. S— C. O— E. S.— E. R. F.— M. B. B.—
F. W. N.— A. G. T.— J. A. H— T. A. L— A. H. W.— A. S. E.
— L. F.-F. S.— H. W. B.-J. S.— C. D. B.— J. H.— J. M.—
F. L.— T. F. H.— C. P.— H. L.— G. F.— R. S.— J. H.—
J. H. W., &c. &c.

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

241

THE RED LEAF AGAIN: A REPLY.

By G. W. Bulman, M.A.

{Continued from page 232.]

WILL now examine
briefly the state-
ments brought for-
ward from the
authorities against
my views. On the
whole, I cannot
see that they affect
my arguments at
all — except, in-
deed, to strengthen
them.

I instanced the
common scarlet
poppy, and the
two periwinkles as
very conspicuous
red and blue
flowers upon
which I had never,
or scarcely ever,
observed bees. Mr. Tansley cites Hermann Muller
to show that the former is visited by seven species of
bees, the smaller periwinkle by the same number,
and the larger periwinkle by one. I willingly accept
these statements as facts. At the same time, I must
put in the caution, that such statements as to the
number of species of bees which have been noted
as visiting particular flowers is apt to be misleading,
if not carefully considered.

It is not the number of species visiting a flower,
but the absolute number of blossoms visited, and
thus receiving the benefits of cross-fertilisation which
is important ; the flower receiving the visits of only
one species of bee may, in the long run, have a
larger number of blossoms cross-fertilised than the
one receiving the visits of seven. For example, I
have compared the visits of bees to the white flowers
of the duckweed and to the blue of a common speed-
well ( Veronica Buxbaiimii),

In the garden where I made the observation, the
No. 287.— November iSSS.

former was growing thickly, with the latter scattered
plentifully among it, and elsewhere. Speaking
roughly, about one hundred chickweed flowers were
visited for every one of the veronica : yet, during the
period of observation, the former attracted two
species of bee, and the latter three.

This fact also speaks not undecidedly on the
subject of the bee's asserted preference for blue. Is
it not strange, on the supposition of its truth, that
the white flowers should receive more visits than the
blue ? On a rough calculation a bee visited about
twenty chickweed flowers per minute : a score of
bees at this rate would visit every blossom in the
garden in the course of a spring day. And if, in a
race of white flowers, practically every flower gets
the benefit of a bee's visit, where is the advantage
which those happening to have a tinge of yellow,
red, or blue are supposed to obtain ? It becomes a
vanishing quantity : the uncoloured ones are equally
benefited.

To return to the poppy and periwinkles, I must
confess that the general impression derived from my
observations remains the same. If, during an ex-
tended series of observations, many thousands of bees
are seen on greenish, white and yellow flowers, and
none or very few on such conspicuously blue and red
ones as the above, I do, and must, draw the conclusion,
that bees have no decided preference for red and blue
flowers. I do not infer, and do not wish any one to
infer from the fact, that I have never seen a bee on a
particular flower, that therefore it is not visited :
it is the comparative number of visits which is the
point.

The habits of bees with regard to those blue
flowers which have white and ether varieties is
decisive as to their taste in the matter of colour.

I have noticed them on the flowers of the forget-
me-not, where blue and white varieties grew together :
they pass with seeming indifference from blue to
white, and from white to blue.

Among garden hyacinths, where blue, pink, and

M

242

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

white grow together, I can distinguish no preference
for any of these colours.

One more example of the habits of bees in connec-
tion with different coloured flowers of the same
species, and I will spare my readers — who have not
already spared themselves.

It is the transcript of a leaf from my note-book.

Here is a patch of the Sun cistits, or rock rose
{Helianthemum vulgare), with red, yellow, and white
flowers.

Three yellow blossoms are separated from five white
ones by one red ; to the right are a large number of
red flowers.

Bee No. I visits all three yellow flowers, the red
one and four of the white ; then pays flying visits to
one or two of the yellow, and goes off to the
numerous red.

Bee No. 2 visits all five of the white, two of the
yellow, goes back to the white and revisits four of
them ; finally it goes to the red.

I have since frequently observed the bees on the
same tri-coloured bed, and have seen them pass from
colour to colour in ever}' order possible on the theory
of permutations. No bee that I have observed for any
length of time on these particular flowers kept to one
colour.

Mr. Tansley asks, " Why bees so greatly prefer
honey on blue paper, if not because they prefer the
colour blue in flowers ? " I think, on the whole, I
shall leave Sir John Lubbock to explain the results of
his own experiments.

But, whatever the interpretation may be, they do
not prove that bees visit blue and red flowers more
frequently than others, and this is the point. If the
experiments are inconsistent with observed facts, so
much the worse for the experiments —or the facts.

The statements of Messrs. Grant Allen and
Hermann Miiller as to the colours, etc., of the most
advanced flowers, touch upon a subject about which
it is hardly possible to be otherwise than dogmatic.
As Mr. Darwin says, " It is hardly possible to define
clearly what is meant by the organism being higher or
lower." I will not, therefore, enter into any discussion
as to what the characteristics of the most advanced
flowers are ; I will simply bring forward a few
examples from our native plants, which seem to me
to show, that the statements referred to are weighted
with too many and important exceptions to rise to the
dignity of rules.

Take the orchids, which Mr. Grant Allen declares
to be " by far the highest of the trinary flowers, if not
indeed of the entire vegetable world."

Among these we find some sixteen described as
green, greenish- white or yellow ; thirteen as purple ;
four as brown ; two as brown and purple. Not a
single well-marked blue occurs among them. In the
order Boraginaceae, on the other hand, which possesses
the lowly mark of symmetry in its flowers, we have
a great preponderance of blue. Among the trinary

tribe we have the intensely blue Scilla bifolia, and the
wild hyacinth, both simple as to the form of their
flowers.

The veronicas are perhaps the simplest of the Scro-
phulariacece, and they are blue. The iris is a
complex flower, and our commonest species is yellow.

The common flax is a simple flower, and yet blue ?
the campanulas are blue, and yet comparatively
simple. As a last example, take the Compositae.
The highest of the three divisions into which it is
usually divided is considered by Mr. Grant Allen to
be that in which the corollas are all ligulate. These
are, dandelion, hawkweeds, etc. — nearly all yellow :
the lowest division, in which the corollas are all
tubular, contains many purple flowers.

But I am not at all satisfied that Miiller intends, in
the words quoted by Mr. Tansley, to assert that the
most advanced flowers are usually red, violet or blue.
He says we find these colours " appearing for the first
time in flowers whose honey is quite concealed " ; but
there is nothing to indicate that he considers these
the most advanced. Now, as a matter of fact, there
are some simple flowers — winter aconite and Christ-
mas rose, for example — in which the honey is quite
concealed.

Further, it is to be noted, that the second part of
Muller's statement is to the effect, that blue appears
likewise in simple flowers (Ifcfiatica, IWbascuvi). The
accordance with Mr. Grant Allen's views is only
apparent if we accept concealment of honey as the
mark of advance, and omit this second part.

And supposing we allow to the combined statements
of Grant Allen and Hermann Muller the full force
which Mr. Tansley seems inclined to assign to them,
they do not in themselves affect the argument. If all
highly advanced flowers could be shown to be blue,
there would not even be a theoretical possibility that
they could have been evolved by the selective action of
bees, unless it could also be shown that bees have —
or once had — a sufficiently strong preference for blue
to cause them to pick out blue flowers for their visits.

Muller's statement, that bees "are not confined by
hereditary instincts to certain flowers, but fly about
seeking their food on whatever flowers they can find
it," fully confirms my own observations and conclu-
sions : it completely annihilates the whole Darwinian
theory of the development of flowers by the selective
agency of insects. It follows as a necessary and
logical consequence from it that, however the form
and colour of flowers have been produced, it has not
been by the selective" action of bees. The theory
absolutely requires that the insects should select
certain peculiarities of form and colour, and confer
upon them the benefit of cross-fertilisation, so that
the flowers so chosen may live down the ancestral
form, and the less improved varieties ; and the selec-
tion must be continuously carried out for very many
generations of bees before any appreciable advance
can take place in the flower.

HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

243

Further, the instructive preference must be
hereditary ; for what could a single generation of
bees do? The life-time of a bee is short — in
many cases only a single season — it has scarcely time
even to get educated in the matter of colour, much
less to effect any alteration in the race of flowers. In
fact, if the preference were not hereditary the tastes
of the bee would vary from generation to generation,
and one would undo the work of the other.

I think Hermann Midler's conclusions on this
point would have been more in place as an appendage
to my own paper, than in a professed criticism of the
same.

And it is strange after such a statement, and the
previous admissions that coloured flowers are not
developed, but only "stereotyped and perpetuated"
by insect selection, and that the bee's taste is simply
a matter of education, to read Mr. Tansley's words :

"I think, in fact, we may safely conclude that
.... red and blue, appearing as they do in flowers
highly developed in other respects, were evolved
through the selective action of long-tongued insects
such as bees and diurnal Lepidoptera."

I cannot make out from what premises this remark-
able conclusion is drawn : it remains an inscrutable
mystery how the facts and arguments of the paper
itself are supposed to oppose my views.

I am glad to find that Mr. Tansley agrees with me
in thinking that the red hawthorn ought, according
to the bee-selection theory, to attract bees more than
the white one. As far as I can make out, it does not,
and therefore goes against the theory.

The word " probably " used in my former paper, I
admit makes the argument from the red hawthorn a
poor one : if it can be shown that bees visit it more
frequently than the white, the particular argument
fails altogether : as far as I know, this has not been
done.

With regard to the concluding paragraph of Mr.
Tansley's criticism, it is doubtless unwise to argue
from the existence in flowers of certain colours which
cannot have been influenced in their development by
insect selection, that the colours of flowers in general
cannot have been so developed : it is, however, a
legitimate and necessary conclusion, that they may
have been developed without the selective action.

Carefully considered in connection with the general
principles of natural selection, I think a very strong
argument can be deduced from the facts in question.

These facts are, that many white umbelliferous
flowers are pink before opening, and that other
flowers — hawthorn, Christmas rose, white evening
primrose — are so when beginning to fade.

Suppose for a moment that chance variations such
as these occur in certain races of white flowers,
when as yet red and blue are not. What advantage
will the flowers obtain in the struggle for existence ?
Suppose that bees are attracted by the red, and prefer
it to the white. In the former case, they visit flowers

not sufficiently advanced to receive any benefit in the
form of cross-fertilisation, and in the latter, those
which are too advanced for it — which are already
fertilised, and probably rifled of their honey,
altogether or in part. The reddish flowers obtain no
advantage from their colour : the bee obtains no
honey from the unopened flower, and very little — if
any — from the faded one.

I am assuming here — I know not with what
authority, but the reddish tints in question do seem
akin to the bluish shade which began to appear in
Mr. Grant Allen's developing monk's-hood — that such
colours in white flowers are the chance variations out
of which red flowers are supposed to have been
evolved by selection. As I have shown, neither bee
nor flower obtains any benefit, and no development
of colour can be supposed to take place.

This is a strong argument, but it becomes stronger
when taken in connection with the educational theory
brought forward by Mr. Tansley.

The bee, according to this theory, has been
educated by experience to go to red flowers : it is not
attracted by red as a colour. Why, then, should it
pick out pink buds, and fading flowers, yielding no
honey, or very little ? And if it did, consider the
educational effect. Will not the bee learn to distrust,
and avoid red flowers ?

But as I understand Mr. Tansley, he does not
believe that the bee carefully selected those flowers
showing a slight tendency to redness, and by
accumulating such variations evolved the fully-
coloured blossom : he rather seems to insinuate, that
the flower may have been as perfectly coloured as the
red leaf before the bee's action came into play —
the bee "stereotyped" the flower, but not the
leaf.

It is to be remarked that this theory, equally with
that of development, requires a fixed taste, and a
constant exercise of the same, on the part of the bee :
it must be carefully examined in connection with the
colours of the flowers receiving the greatest number
of bee-visits.

NOTES ON FLYING-FISH.
By Surgeon G. D. Trevor-Roper, R.N.

TRAVELLERS along the paths of Nature ever
find fresh food for wonderment, combined
with a feverish anxiety to know the why and where-
fore. Whether it be the history of the past, the
levelling of mountains, and the upheaval of continents,
with all their accompanying phenomena, or the study
of things existing both animate and inanimate, they
all give ample scope for reflection, thought, specula-
tion, and the building up of golden theories too often
to be dashed to the ground by a few moments' sober
thought. All of us have heard of, and perhaps

M 2

244

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

marvelled at, the active little Periophthalmos, the ex-
traordinary Ornithorhynchus, and leaf-like Phyllium,
but we look with less astonishment at the strange
fact, that Nature has created a fish that flies.

It is an old tale of the sailor-mother who, on being
told of the existence of flying-fish, remarked, "Ah !
Jack, I've heard tell of mountains of sugar, and rivers
of rum, but fish that fly, Jack, na ! na ! " But since
this good lady expressed her incredulity, the world
has been made smaller ; fast ships traverse the seas in

Exoccetus, or true flying- fish allied to the gar, and the
Dactylopterus or flying gurnards. It is the former of
these about which I wish to speak, having had con-
siderable chances of observing them. I have now a
wing, in my possession, of one captured off the coast
of Brazil, measuring ten inches in length. On that
coast, as well as in the West Indies, they run to a con-
siderable size. Those in the Indian Ocean, however,
are very much smaller, few of them exceeding eight
inches from snout to tail.

Fig. 89. — Dactylopterus volitans.

Fig. 90. — Common Flying-fish (Exoccetus volitans).

all directions, and have made lands, that were once
almost inaccessible, become the scene of a holiday
trip, and the flying-fish an object of daily occurrence.
Yet, as Professor Moseley tells us in his " Notes of a
Naturalist on board the 'Challenger,'" the question
of their method of flight is by no means settled. This
is not so much to be wondered at, as their flight is so
rapid that it is most difficult and often impossible for
the eye to follow it.

We have the two genera of flying-fish : the

All day long, these little "skip jacks," as the
sailors call them, are being "put up" by the ship,
and flitting away en every side. But very frequently,
also, large shoals are seen flying a considerable
distance in frantic endeavour to escape from their
enemies whose name is legion. Like moths and
many bipeds they are attracted by a bright and
dazzling light, and wake from their dream often to
find themselves on the hard, dry deck, to be trans-
ferred to the sailors' mess ; a welcome change from

HARD WfCKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

245

salt provisions, and, indeed, most excellent eating, for
those who do not mind bone.

It is rare not to find a few on the decks in early
morning, that have come in over the gangway, a
height of seven feet above the water-line. They often
fly higher than this, as many a fair traveller in a mail
steamer can tell who has been startled at dead of
night by the flopping of a flying-fish through a port
into the sanctity of her state-cabin.

As regards the much debated question of their
flight. After carefully observing them for some time,
I have come to the conclusion, that their great
pectorals are never by any chance used to strike the
air with. I have come to this conclusion, not only
from watching them from various points of view, but
also from dissection, and their so-called flight is
nothing but a series of prodigious leaps. Let us look
for a moment at the movements and structure of these
wing-like fins. At rest they are closed, the flat
surfaces looking inwards and outwards, and their
direction backwards and slightly upwards.

As the wing is brought forward the rays are spread
out, and the internal and external surfaces become
superior and inferior, the first and longest ray fore-
most. The wing is continued forward in this position
to a little beyond the right angle, when it is turned,
in order to strike the water either directly backwards,
or backwards and upwards. The extremity of the
fully extended wing is also bent backwards, giving it
the appearance of a scoop, and thus we see what an
immense power there is for grasping the water and
throwing it backwards. On leaping simply to get
clear of the ship they make one or two vigorous
strokes, and with their wings in the position of rest,
pass through the air for a few yards and then fall.
It may also be noticed that they strike the water as
they enter it. When being pursued, however, they
can cover a distance of over one hundred yards of
space. This, with nothing to help them but the
original stroke or strokes, would be impossible. In
these long flights it can be seen, and I have found,
standing with my eye as nearly on a level with the
■water as possible the best, watching them as they go
away from me, that their wings are spread out to
their full extent, with of course their flat surfaces
superior and inferior, and there is no doubt that in
this position they act after the manner of a parachute.
But often this cannot be of much service to them, as
they frequently go dead "in the wind's eye." I
believe that there are two ways by which they
progress : one, by giving a vigorous stroke with their
wings — hitting the water precisely as they do in
swimming — on coming to the summit of a wave ; by
this they are again raised into the air and propelled
forwards. The other way is by a stroke of their tails,
by which they not only propel themselves forward,
but also are enabled to change their course.

This latter method is very similar to the movements
of their relation the gar-fish. The latter I had a

good opportunity of observing the other day when
lying at anchor in Aden harbour. An immense
shoal of small fish (species ?) were disporting them-
selves round our stern, and at a short distance from
them, several gar-fish were swimming slowly to and
fro, waiting an opportunity to seize their prey. At
first it was a matter of wonder that they did not
at once make a dash for a fish, but it soon became
evident that the little ones when prepared, were too
fast for them. On the outside of the shoal, were
numerous fish of the same species, but of a very much
larger size, giving one the idea of forming a body-
guard ; this idea was soon dispelled, by seeing that the
gars treated them with the greatest indifference, as
they in turn were treated — the reason no doubt
being that the garfish, unlike some young friends that
I have met, have eyes in proportion to their stomachs,
and find that the bigger fish would prove a serious
difficulty if an attempt were made to swallow them.
The lucky gar who had seized a toothsome morsel,
often became an object of envy and hatred to his
brother fish, who pursued him with sinister designs.
It is then that the pursued, raising the anterior two-
thirds of his body out of water, dashes along at terrific
speed for many yards, creating great disturbance in
the water, and as he is never followed far whilst
performing this feat, it is probable that the splashing
of the water renders him invisible to, or confuses his
pursuer.

To return again to the flying- fish ; we find that the
wing is not capable of the movements necessary to
propel the fish through the air. It is true it is
capable of being moved up and down, though not
above the horizontal, and of course, if the wings were
used in this way, and had sufficient strength, which
I doubt, it would cause the fish to rise in the air;
but it is apparent to the most cursory observer that
they never do this. As for progression forwards,
I have before stated that the wing cannot be abducted
beyond a right angle, and the only movements that
can be brought about are striking directly backwards,
or backwards and upwards.

There is at once a striking difference in formation
between this great fin and the wing of a bird. The
latter has anteriorly and laterally the strong bones of
the wing itself and the long primary feathers, which
are first brought forward to cleave the air, and the
power of flight is almost solely due to this, for the
same action in the fish the fin would have to be
rotated forwards 450 ; a feat impossible alike from the
structure of the joint, and the action of the muscles
covering it. It is worthy of notice that these fish
have an oval swim-bladder capable of enormous
distension, nearly filling the abdominal cavity at the
expense of the other organs.

These are the ideas that I have formed concerning
the locomotion of the Exocceti, but to speak with
absolute certainty of a subject so difficult of exact
observation would be most rash, and as for many

246

HA RD WICRE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

months I shall still be in the regions where they
abound, I may find cause to alter my ideas ; at any
rate, no opportunity will be lost of carefully watching
these little models of the outcome of the great
"struggle for existence" and "survival of the
fittest."

THE SUNFLOWER.

I HAVE been much interested in reading Mr.
Lett's paper on the above plant in Science-
Gossip for September, and I am glad that the
mention of Helianthus in my article on "The Power
of Movement in Plants," induced him to try some
experiments.

I wish to say a word in reply to his generous
criticism.

My paper was written in 1884, as a contribution
to a series read before the Highbury Microscopical
Society, and I made the statement quoted by Mr.
Lett without carefully searching for modern investi-
gations on the subject. This I the more readily did,
because I had noticed on several occasions that the
flower-heads in a bed of Helianthus did vary their
position from east to south-east during the day. In
1886, I sent my paper precisely as it stood to the
"Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science," in
response to a request from Mr. Allen for some
contribution.

In 1887 I carefully revised the entire paper after
reading it before the Croydon Microscopical Club ; and
in doing so, I took occasion to quote from Professor
S. H. Vine's " Physiology of Plants" the following
statement as a corollary to my former one: "The
flowers, or more correctly the inflorescences of the
sunflower, even when the plant is growing quite in
the open, direct their superior surfaces, not upwards,
but to some quarter of the compass, usually to the
south-east. This peculiarity cannot, as yet, be fully
accounted for, though it doubtless depends upon some
special form of heliotropic irritability. Some radical
organs do not, however, assume a fixed light-position,
but follow the daily course of the sun to a greater or
less extent. It is usually accepted as a fact that this
is the case in the sunflower, but Wiesner has found
that it is not so. Under normal conditions, the
inflorescences of the sunflower assume a fixed light-
position, as described above ; it is only when the
peduncles are partly etiolated that any daily move-
ment can be detected."

This would seem to show that there is a certain
amount of truth in the popular supposition in respect
of Helianthus, but that when any revolution does
occur, it is a result of the abnormal condition of
etiolation. This may have been the case on the
occasions named by me, especially as this was noted
late in summer. The experiments performed by Mr.
Lett may have been made on perfectly fresh, healthy,

robust plants, in which no trace of etiolation could be
found.

I find, however, in Sachs's "Lectures on the
Physiology of Plants," published in 1887, the follow-
ing sentence on p. 692: — " In very sensitive plants,
e.g., young flax-stems and flower-shoots of the sun-
flower, it is possible to notice how its apical parts
follow the course of the sun from morn to eve, always
inclining towards it."

I quote this from the English edition, translated by
Professor Marshall Ward, so that it seems that the
notion has not wholly " passed away from the minds
of modern botanists as a poet's fancy," as Mr. Lett
suggests.

If it be true that the "flower-shoots" of Helianthus
behave thus, why not the entire inflorescences at a
later date ?

The whole question is one of intense interest, and
I am glad that Mr. Lett has turned his attention to it.
Whatever may be the final result, I shall thankfully
welcome any suggestions or experiments in relation
to the subject, either in the case of Helianthus, or in
that of any other plant.

H. W. S. Worsley-Benison.

Sutton.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

I HAVE a prospectus and sample of a new series ■.
of charts of the constellations, by Mr. Arthur
Cottam, F.R.A.S. The sample chart represents
Cassiopeia, in the scale of one-third of an inch to a
degree. This is larger than any star-chart recently
published. The scale is nearly that of a globe ten
feet in diameter. So small a portion of the heavens
is given on each chart, that the amount of distortion
due to their being on a flat surface is almost inappre-
ciable. There are thirty-six charts, and all stars are
shown that are visible to the naked eye, that is, down
to 63 magnitude.

Mercury will be at the least distance from the sun
on November 6th.

There will be no occultation in November of any
star above magnitude 5.

In November Mercury will be a morning star in
Libra.

Venus will be an evening star, and will be close to
Jupiter on the 1st of the month.

Mars will be an evening star.

Jupiter will be too near to the sun for observation.

Saturn will be nearly stationary in Leo throughout
the month.

Meteorology. — The meteorological records have un-
fortunately again been painfully interesting. We
hear of heavy snow lying on uncut corn.

At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the lowest
reading of the barometer for the week ending 22nd

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G O SSI P.

247

■Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at intervals of Seven Days in November.

Rises.

Souths.

Sets.

D.

h. m.

h. m.

h. m.

{

4

6 15M

II 15M

4 ISA

Mercury 2 A

11

5 28M

10 39M

3 5oa

18

5 27M

10 31M

3 35A

I

25

5 53M

10 38M

3 23A

(

4

9 54M

I 47 A

5 4°a

Venus 2 . J

11

IO I2M

1 57A

5 42A

18

IO 26M

2 7A

5 48a

1

25

IO 36M

2 i8a

6 OA

c

4

II 59M

3 43*

7 27A

Mars cf . .j

11

II 50M

3 38a

7 26A

18

II 4IM

3 34A

7 27A

'

25

II 3OM

3 29A

7 28A

r

4

9 3om

1 36A

5 42A

Jupiter V-. J

11

9 IOM

1 15A

5 20A

'

18

8 50.M

0 S4A

4 58a

25

8 31M

0 33A

4 35*

t

4

11 3A

6 34M

2 IA

Saturn I?. J

11

10 37A

6 8m

I 35A

'

18

IO IOA

5 4IM

1 8a

25

9 43*

5 MM

0 41A

September, was 29-95 -n- at the beginning of the
week, and the highest was 50*12 in. on Wednesday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was
57'2 deg., and 0*4 deg. above the average. The
general direction of the wind was N.E. No rain
was measured during the week. The duration of
registered bright sunshine in the week was 32*6 hours,
against 49*0 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 29th September, the highest
reading of the barometer was 30*09 in. on Wednesday
evening, and the lowest was 29*39 m- at; the end of
the week. The mean temperature of the air was
55*8 deg. and 0*2 deg. above the average. The
general direction of the wind was N. E. Rain fell on
four days of the week to the aggregate amount of
0*51 of an inch. The duration of registered bright
sunshine in the week was 12*7 hours, against 21*2
hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 6th October, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*09 in. on Tuesday
afternoon, and the highest 29*83 in. at the end of the
week. The mean temperature of the air was 42*7
deg., and no less than 11*3 deg. below the average.
The direction of the wind was variable. Rain fell on
two days of the week to the aggregate amount of o*i 1
of an inch. The duration of registered bright sun-
shine in the week was 33*0 hours, against 39*1 hours
at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 13th October, the highest
reading of the barometer was 30*04 in. on Monday
morning, and the lowest 29*70 in. on Saturday
morning. The mean temperature of the air was 45
deg., and 7*2 deg. below the average. The direction

of the wind was variable. Rain fell on Friday to the
amount of o * 02 of an inch. The duration of registered
bright sunshine in the week was 24*6 hours, against
34*8 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

The isotherms or lines of equal temperature for
November over the greater part of England are of the
form of the letter U. From considerations of space I
will give the names of only three places for each
isotherm, corresponding to the top, the bottom, and
the top again of each U.

The isotherm of 41 ° then runs through Lanark,
trends down as far as the river Tyne, and then runs
up again to Haddington ; 420, runs through Ayr
down to Nottingham, and up to Berwick ; 430, runs
from Kircudbright down to London, and up to
Flamborough Head ; 440, from the Isle of Man down
to Winchester, and up to Margate ; 45°, Carmarthen,
through Portsmouth and Beachy Head. The iso-
therms of 460, 470, and 480 run through the west of
South Wales, and across Cornwall.

The average rainfall for November is two inches
for the greater part of England : along the south
coast for about twenty to thirty miles inland it is three
inches, on the west coast it is four inches, and in some
parts of North Wales and Cornwall it averages five
inches * the last figure represents nearly five hundred
and twenty tons of water to each acre.

CLOUDS ON LAND AND SEA.*

NO doubt cloud observations, with a view to
forecasting the weather, have been taken
since the earliest times, but of late years the method
of making the observations has been systematised.
Mr. Abercromby and Professor Hildebrandson, of
Upsala, have agreed upon a nomenclature for the
various kinds of clouds, and Mr. Abercromby now
comes forward to give us in this little book a de-
scription of the different kinds of cloud, and the
method of determining the direction in which a cloud
is moving.

The system advocated by the author is that all
clouds may be sufficiently described by ten terms,
these terms denoting not only the name of the cloud,
but the height at which it is formed. Then these
various terms are given and fully described by the
aid of diagrams. Next he gives a chapter — the
direction in which cloud stripes lie — explaining the
perspective of clouds, and, to conclude, a most im-
portant chapter on the direction of cloud motion.

As well as the diagrams, the book is illustrated by
ten exquisite photographs of the various types of
clouds taken by the author.

Cloud observations will enable a practised observer
to forecast the weather with some accuracy without

* " Instructions for Observing Clouds on Land and Sea,"
with photographs and engravings, by the Hon. Ralph Aber-
cromby, F.R.M.S. E. Stanford, Charing Cross, London, S.W.

248

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

the cost of instruments, and so may prove invaluable
when the instruments are out of reach. I have for
years tried to help friends with information on the
subject, but for want of pictures of the clouds my
instructions have been misunderstood or forgotten.

This little book was greatly wanted, and will be
warmly welcomed by all who are interested in cloud-
lore.

John Browning.

THE OPTICAL EFFECT OF "FOCUSSING
UP OR DOWN" TOO MUCH IN THE
MICROSCOPE.

By W. M. Maskell, F.R.M.S.

THE annexed sketches represent the optical
effects produced in some cases by bringing the
objective of a microscope either a little too near to,
or a little too far from, an object to be properly " in
focus." The object represented is a freshwater Alga
(Gonium pector ale) common in most pools, probably
all over the world. The specimen represented was
observed in New Zealand. The figure a shows the
Alga as it appears under a Beck's J-inch object with
" Kelver " eye-piece, in proper focus. Gonium when
alive travels somewhat rapidly through the water, but
a very small drop of alcohol on the slide will bring it
to rest, when its component cells and their flagella
can be observed. It then exhibits an arrangement of
sixteen more or less orbicular cells in a square colony :
their colour is bright green, with a translucent
envelope round each one. The diameter of the
whole plant and of its cells varies, but may average
about ^-inch for the whole plant, and ^'^-inch for a
cell. If now the objective be lowered a very little, so
as to throw the Alga out of focus and to see, as it
were, beyond its surface, as shown in the figure b, not
only do the outlines become blurred and indistinct,
but a somewhat curious change of colour is noticeable.
The whole plant assumes a green ground-colour, the
spaces formerly visible between the cells being ob-
literated, and at the same time an elegant geometrical
pattern is produced, with various tints. Four crimson
specks appear at about the middles of the four inner
cells, and with these as centres four delicate circles of
bright yellow interlace each other, the radius of each
circle being the distance between two crimson spots.
The spots are also connected by narrow bands of
lighter red colour. The outer ring of cells appears as
composed of pyriform bodies, the points inwards and
overlapping, producing thus the semblance of green
spokes in the four circles. In each of these cells, on
the circumference of tha circles, is a crimson spot
formed of concentric curves open towards the middle
of the plant. By focussing downwards a little more
or less the crimson spots or the golden circles may be
made more or less conspicuous on the green ground.
If again, the object glass be screwed up, past the true

focus, as shown in the figure c, an entirely different
effect is produced. Instead of the whole plant
appearing solid, as in b, the spaces between the cells
are amplified, and the whole colony seems larger and
more scattered ; and the cells, quite disconnected,
are now not green, but yellowish-brown with a
broad darker band encircling each.

These effects of colour are noticeable not only with
J-inch objective, but also with the \ : and they may
even be made out with the 1 -inch, though, of course,
not well, as the plant then appears so small. I have
carefully examined a good many (perhaps fifty)
specimens of gonium to observe the changes men-
tioned, and have found the same in all, provided the
plants were not mutilated. In cases where two or
three cells were missing the colour-changes were not
easily observed.

Of course, I presume that the effects here spoken

0

000^

Fig. 91. — Gonium perforate (Mueller) ; a, its true focus ;
b, object-glass lowered too much ; c, object-glass raised too-
much.

of are easily explicable : the passage of the light
through the semi-transparent green cells, the trans-
lucent envelopes and the empty spaces, producing
complementary colours. And in itself the thing is
doubtless not of any importance. Yet indirectly it
may possess some value as in a certain kind of way a
warning. From the measurements which I have been
able to make I imagine (my fine adjustment not being
graduated there is no attempt at complete accuracy)
that the distance through which the ^-inch objective
passes from a to b is not more than the T|D of an inch :
and from a to c about the same, or rather less. This
is accomplished by a very slight turn indeed of the
milled head of the fine adjustment. In the case of
Gonium perforate it is usually pretty clear when one
has the plant properly in focus, especially as the view
of the flagella comes as a guide. But there are many
objects as to which it may be supposed that so small
a difference as -r^-inch may not seem to throw them
out of focus whilst in reality they are so to an extent
which might cause error. Query : might the striae

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P.

249

of Diatoms come under such a category ? It is a
common thing to hear and read that the appearances
of things under the microscope are not always to be
taken as strictly true : and doubtless the microscopists
of old days owed some of the queer figures they drew
to this cause. The changing colours and form of
Gonium perforate as above noticed may perhaps serve
a useful purpose, if they warn some young microsco-
pists to be very particular in the observations they
make ; possibly also some older hands might take a
hint.

Wellington, New Zealand.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

HUMAN POLARITY — Some years ago a large
number of people educated themselves into
the belief that they could sleep better with head to
north and feet to south, than if lying east and west.
This was between 1845 and i860. It appears that
this notion has either revived in America, or has not
yet died there. A doctor writing in the " St. Louis
Globe Democrat," asserts that the notion has its
foundation in true scientific facts, and that each
human system has its magnetic poles, one positive
and one negative, some persons having their positive
pole in the head and their negative in their feet,
and viceversd. He proceeds to tell us hat, in order
that the person sleeping shall be in perfect harmony
with the magnetic phenomena of the earth, the head,
if it possesses the positive pole, should lie to the
south, or if the feet possess the positive pole the
head should lie to the north.

This doctor, like those with whom I discussed the
subject at the time above-named, seems to be ac-
quainted only with the declination of the magnetic
needle, and to know nothing of the dip. If the
positive-footed people are to lie in the magnetic
meridian, they must, in our British latitudes, lie with
heads 18 degrees W. of North, and with heels up-
wards at an inclination of 67 degrees from the
horizontal line, or within 23 degrees of the perpen-
dicular.

In 1720 the dip amounted to 74° 42'> or within
I5j° of the perpendicular, in London. To retain
either of these positions, the victim of "perfect
harmony with the magnetic phenomena of the earth "
would require to be securely tied by the heels, and
all the bedding to be tied likewise, to prevent the
tobogganing that would otherwise occur at such
angles. At two regions of the earth, viz., at the
north and south magnetic poles, the victim of
magnetic harmony would require to sleep in per-
pendicular position, head or feet downwards, according
to which pole, and the positive and negative specia-
lities of the individual.

The statement of the learned doctor, who tells us

that the positive pole of the person draws one way,
but the magnetic pole of the earth draws the other
way, and forces the blood towards the feet, affects
the iron in the system, tones up the nerves, and
makes sleep refreshing and invigorating, indicates
the necessity of placing the body accurately in order
to obtain the full effect. In our latitude the magnetic
force, which determines the dip, exceeds that which
effects the declination, or, otherwise stated, the down-
pull stronger than the north pull.

Steering Balloons. — Four months ago several
newspapers and magazines informed us that Mr.
Peter C. Campbell, of No. 455, Fifth Avenue,
Brooklyn, had invented and constructed a "novelty
air-ship," a long egg-shaped gas-bag with clock-work
to move a fan-wheel at one end, and a horizontal
screw below to raise or lower the ship. Besides
these there were broad flat wings, extending on each
side, to guide the balloon by being raised or lowered
at any desired angle, and two flat V-shaped screens
spread like the tail of a bird attached to the rear,
and just forward of the propeller. These to maintain
the perpendicular and to steady the whole. All
these appliances are attached to a light frame, which
tapers to a point forward. A small electric engine is
to actuate the clock-work. We are told that a
model three feet long sailed about a room successfully.
This sailing of the model may appear satisfactory,
but I fear that such experiments on such models
with clock-work are necessarily fallacious, for two
principal reasons. The first is that in a room the
air is still, and a small progress — say of five or six
miles per hour, makes a great show, while in the
open air such a pace would be insufficient to over-
come a very moderate breeze. The mean velocity
of the wind in our climate is from twelve to fourteen
miles per hour at the surface, or nearer to twenty-
nine at an elevation of 1000 feet. With such a
breeze, such a machine could do no more than effect
a slight deviation from its drift with the wind.

The second fallacy in ordinary models, is that they
do not carry the motive-power machinery. Clock-
work of course has no such power, it merely receives
and transmits it. The clock-work of the model is
supplied by winding before the model is started. In
practice the machine that does this work must be
carried, and this constitutes a serious addition to the
demand for increased bulk of the gas bag.

The best prime mover yet known, is the muscular
power of the aeronaut, and my old friend, Com-
mander Cheque, who carefully studied this subject
and was very sanguine, concluded that with a feather
paddle, which is the best machine, about five miles
an hour through the air is attainable by our ordinary
balloon. It is very doubtful whether the elongated
shape usually designed for these " air ships " would
afford any advantage in this respect, as every devia-
tion from the spherical figure demands greater surface

25°

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS J P.

and weight of bag and netting in proportion to
the quantity of gas inside ; the whole bag must be
proportionally large.

African Pygmies.— One of the abounding follies
of the pedant is that of sneering at popular traditions.
The philosopher treats them very differently by
studying their origin — they must have some sort of
origin. They may be fallacious, but they cannot be
baseless, and their history is always instructive. In
many cases they are records of fact concerning which
the pedant is simply ignorant.

This was notably the case with the traditions of
the fall of meteorites which were treated with such
lofty contempt until the beginning of the present
century, and may yet prove to be also the case with
the sea-serpent.

Among such traditions is that of the existence of
a race of pygmies in Central Africa, the truth of which
has been finally demonstrated by Emm Pasha. The
Akkas that he found in the country of the Monbuttu,
one of whom he retained as a domestic servant, are
true pygmies, as proved by the detailed measurements
he sent to Professor Flower, and the skeletons he
disinterred and forwarded to the British Museum,
and which arrived safely in September 1887. They
are of full-grown people, one a man, the other a
woman. The height of the female is just four feet,
to which should be added half an inch f6r the thick-
ness of the skin on the soles of the feet and top of
the head. The male skeleton about a quarter of an
inch shorter. The height of the full-grown woman,
of which Emin states particulars, is barely three feet
ten inches. As Prof. Flower observes, "one very
interesting and almost unexpected result of a careful
examination of these skeletons is that they conform
in the relative proportions of the head, trunk, and
limbs, not to dwarfs, but to full-sized people of
other races, and they are therefore strikingly unlike
the stumpy, long-bodied, short-limbed, large-headed
pygmies so graphically represented fighting with their
lances against the cranes on ancient Greek vases."

Their skulls are quite unlike the Andamanese and
the JtJushmen. They are obviously negroes of a
special type, to which Haney has given the appropriate
name of Negrillo. They occupy various spots across
the great African Continent, within a few degrees
north and south of the equator, extending from the
Atlantic Coast to near the shores of the Albert
Nyanza (30 deg. E. long.), and perhaps even farther
to the east, south of the Galla land ; there are still sur-
viving scattered communities of these small negroes,
all much resembling each other in size, appearance,
and habits, and dwelling mostly apart from their
larger neighbours, by whom they are everywhere
surrounded.

The above particulars are derived from a lecture
delivered at the Royal Institution, by Professor
Flower.

Vegetable Food. — J. Rutgers has recently made
a series of experiments on the relative nutritive value
of animal and vegetable proteids, i.e. the nitrogenous
constituents or "flesh-formers," as distinguished from
the food-material that merely supplies the animal heat.
The experiments were made on human beings, and
the conclusions are summarized as follows : —

" Vegetable proteids containing an equal amount
of nitrogen can be substituted for the animal proteids,
which were used without the nitrogenous balance of
the body being disturbed. Beans and peas load the
intestinal tract very much, both in respect of their
solid constituents and of the gases formed from them ;
meat and rice have not this disadvantage. This and
other contra-indications of a similar nature would
render an exclusive vegetable diet undesirable. The
acidity of the stomach and also that of the urine is
much smaller when the diet is exclusively vegetable
than when a mixed diet is taken."

It is now generally known that peas, beans,
lentils, &c, are the most nutritious of vegetables, as
regards flesh-forming, but it is not so generally known
that they are far more so than flesh meat ; beef with-
out bone contains an average of 17 per cent., while
the common dried peas as sold in the shops contain
24 per cent. But the nitrogenous food which they
contain (casein) is more difficult to digest than that in
flesh, unless it be specially treated as I have described
in " The Chemistry of Cookery."

Besides this they contain much cellulose (woody
fibre), which some people can digest much more
readily than others can, this difference apparently
depending upon the supply of saliva and the other
secretions that contain animal diastase. My own
experiments on myself and observations of the experi-
ence of vegetarians have convinced me, that the
digestive organs may be educated considerably in
this direction ; that after a long habit of flesh-feeding
a sudden change to a purely vegetable diet is usually
attended with deficient nutrition displayed very
visibly at first, but followed by a gradual improve-
ment even though less food be afterwards taken.
This I believe to be due to increased supply of
saliva, pancreatic and intestinal juices which are
required for converting the vegetable fibre into
dextrine. The majority of vegetarians escape the
trouble of this transition by using milk and egLjs,
and I recommend all who try the experiment to do
this at first and proceed gradually to the pure vege-
table dietary.

The diminished acidity observed by Rutger supports
the vegetarian contention that gout, rheumatism, and
the other ailments clue to excess of uric or lithic acid,
are cured by abstinence from animal food. I have
met with many examples of this, one very striking
case but a few days since, when an old gentleman in
his eighty-ninth year called upon me respecting a
proposed local effort in connection with the vege-
tarian movement. Three months ago he was

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

251

seriously ill, expecting to die, and was induced to
try the experiment of changing his customary flesh
meat diet. To use his own words, he has no
"vegetarian fad," but found such immense benefit
from the change that he is actively working to induce
others to follow his example. He rises at 6 a.m.,
goes to the city, does a day's work there and takes
long walks for recreation. He walked nearly two
miles to call upon me, and back again, without
fatigue, and his appearance verifies his statements of
vigour, both of mind and body.

THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY AT
PLYMOUTH.

THE appearance of the second number of the
Journal of the "Marine Biological Association
of the Uuited Kingdom," which, it will be re-
membered, was founded in order to organise a series
of stations for the pursuit of biology, affords us a
pleasant and practicable pretext for reviewing the
work of this association up to the present, and of
giving some account of their laboratory at Plymouth
formally opened on June 30th last.

The extraordinary lack of anything like a scientific
knowledge of the life-histories, habits, and food stuffs
of our important food fishes was amply demonstrated
at the various congresses held in connection with the
London Fisheries Exhibition of 1884. This bore
fruit, after many days, in the formation of the associa-
tion whose Journal now lies before us.

In a paper read before the Society of Arts in the
year 1885, Professor E. Ray Lankester gave an
authoritative statement of the aims of the proposed
association, together with a short sketch of the work
done by similar bodies up to that time. He drew
attention to the fact that the French, Norwegians,
and more especially the Americans, had made attempts
to regulate their sea fisheries on rational principles,
to understand and control, for the advantage of their
race, the operations of nature, rather than leave them
to the unknown development of physical causes. On
the other hand, although our fisheries are of immense
importance to us, we had made little or no endeavour
to obtain an accurate scientific knowledge of the
conditions most favourable to their development.
Our ignorance on the subject of fish and fishing is
appalling — we do not know, for instance, why soles
are getting scarcer every year, nor why great shoals
of fish appear at certain seasons at certain spots, or
cease to so appear. We are also completely ignorant
of the possibilities of artificial rearing, and stocking
of the fishing grounds, or of cultivating favourite
foods in order to favour the increase of the fish. To
provide facilities for acquiring such knowledge the
association determined to found a series of labora-
tories at various stations, each provided with boats
and fishermen, and having within its walls tanks for

hatching eggs, and watching fish, and conveniences
for trained naturalists and biologists.

The first of these is now a visible entity in the form
of the handsome building on Plymouth Hoe, and of
which we propose to give some account.

Most of our readers know Plymouth Sound, a
somewhat triangular inlet of the sea, protected from
southerly gales by a magnificent breakwater which
spans the mouth. Along its most inward shore,
about two miles from the breakwater, stretches the
town of Plymouth, a line of light grey houses cresting
the cliffs. The Sound is everywhere bounded by
cliffs, which on the western side are more sloping and
exhibit the delightful green lanes and close set clumps
of trees of Edgcumbe Park.

Between the town and the Sound is the historic
cliff top, known as the Hoe, and on the eastward part
of this, just below the old citadel of Charles II.'s
time, is situated the laboratory. A rare place for
work in the bright summer days, with the panorama
of the Sound spread below, a blue sheet of water with
swift shadows of cloud coursing over it, and its
surface dotted with craft of all kinds from the hand-
some old training brigs, relics of the wooden walls of
past days, to grim, modern armour-clads and stately
Australian liners. The room too in which the
naturalists work is always musical with the plod of
the water in the tanks and redolent of the sea.

The building is of local marble, light grey in
colour, and offers a long front to the sea, flanked at
either end with square projecting blocks. The
central portion connecting the terminal blocks, is
two stories, and each story forms one long room of
which the lower is the large aquarium, while the
upper forms the general working room of the
naturalists. Of the two terminal blocks, that to the
east is entirely taken up by the residence of the
director, while that to the west — the central con-
necting part, is given up to the work of the institution.
In addition to the two long central rooms above
mentioned, there is a chemical room, where the
necessary reagents are stored ; opposite to this is a
room devoted to physiological research, in which are
also large cases with glass fronts intended for the
display of the reference collection. These two,
together with a small room for photographic pur-
poses, occupy the second floor ; above them is the
library, which already has on its shelves a fair collec-
tion of reference books and periodicals.

The large airy room which forms the work-place of
the naturalists is beautifully fitted up, and pleases all
with the admirable completeness of its arrangements.
Down the centre run a double row of tanks, twelve
in all. Each is of slate, with a plate glass front, aid
is about four feet long, by three wide and two deep.
Into each a couple series of jets of sea- water are con-
tinually playing with considerable force, giving com-
plete aeration with constant renewal. The north side
is divided off into six spacious cubicles, each of which

252

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

has a complete set of reagents, and is allotted to one
of the naturalists ; the north light is admirable for
working with the microscope, and there is plenty of
it since each cubicle is fronted by a large window.

The room below this also occupies the whole length
of the central part of the building, and contains a
number of large handsome tanks wherein forty-pound
congers, huge bass, and the like may find plenty of
room to disport themselves. These are at present
occupied by congers, soles, bass, rays, lobsters, crabs,
etc., which are expected to afford the association, in
return for their keep, an abundance of eggs and
larval stages. Mr. Cunningham, M.A., the resident
naturalist, has special charge of these, and has con-
tracted a most fatherly liking for his finny charges,
especially the huge 1 andsome, sleepy congers with
their velvety black sides and graceful movements.
His two papers in the current number of the Journal,
and the short account of the segmentation of some
Teleostean eggs furnished to the British Association,
are an interest of the results to be obtained. Up to
the present, however, the congers have not answered
his expectations, since they resolutely refuse to breed ;
and this is the more disappointing, because the life-
history of these, as well as of other eels, is a complete
mystery which has tantalised naturalists for a long
time past. In the base of the building are the engines
and pumps which keep up the circulation of the sea-
water, which is done by two large gas engines and a
number of centrifugal pumps. The larger of the two
engines is also in connection with an ejector placed
below low-water level, which supplies sea-water
wanted to make good any loss from evaporation or
leakage. This fresh supply, together with the over-
flow from the aquaria tanks, passes into a large
reservoir from which it is sent afresh through the
pipes by the pumps. By having a closed circulation
of this character, the density of the water can be
artificially controlled, and this is the more necessary,
since Plymouth Sound receives the flow of two rivets
and at times of large rainfall, as for instance, this last
summer, when its water fell much below the normal
density.

The institution is dependent for its supply of fish
and specimens generally upon hired boats, one of
which goes off every day with tanks and bottles in
which to bring home the catch alive. The dredge and
surface-nets are employed. These boats are under
the control of a practical fisherman, Mr. Roach, who
is rapidly making himself invaluable to the institution.
His readiness to help in every way is most marked,
and the pleasantest reminiscence of a couple of months
spent there is inseparably linked to his cheerful
bronzed face and hearty voice. The other source
from which supplies are drawn is the professional
trawlers, fine vessels of thirty to sixty tons, manned
by a splendid class of men, remarkable for their steady
industrious habits. The strong religious feeling which
is characteristic of the class is a survival of John

Wesley's preaching more than a century and a-half
ago. It is equally present at Brixham, another large
trawler's centre, where it is one of the sights to see
the men go to church in procession on a Sunday
morning. The trawling boats come home every
Saturday, and start on the Monday ; the supply
derived from them is thus intermittent, and it is
rapidly becoming most necessary to have some means
of following them to their fishing grounds to obtain
what is necessary. Nothing but steam will enable
this to be done, and the most pressing need now felt
at Plymouth is the want of a small steamer, so that an
opportunity is afforded to any lovers of pisciculture
and practical biology to obtain one. Want of space
prevents us from completing this account, but one
must say a few words in grateful acknowledgement of
the services already rendered by the present director,
Mr. G. C. Bourne, M.A., F.L.S., and to the
efficiency of the laboratory. His indefatigable zeal
and sympathy communicates itself to all who may
have the pleasure of being associated with him on the
work. W. B. A.

NOTES ON THE DIVISION OF THE VOR-
TICELLA.

OBSERVED under J-inch objective. Eye-piece
B. Spot lens. Daylight : — At 10 o'clock
observed an isolated vorticella with the following
appearance.

There were no cilia observable.

At 10. 1 there were cilia at work at a.

Fig- 93-
At 10.2 a sharp contraction of stem occurred. On
regaining its position, the black mass has divided in
the middle. There seems to be no attempt at assimi-
lation, the granules and monads in the vicinity being
perfectly quiescent.

At 10.5 greater segmentation in the
middle. The stem apparently has a
tendency to divide.

Fig. 94.

At 10. 11 a sharp contraction of stem,
the vesicles being further divided. Lateral
movements frequently occur, as if the
vesicles were desirous of parting company.

Fig- 95-

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

253

Fig. 96.

Fig. 97-

Fig. 98.

At 10.15 first tendency to assume
a cup-form at sides, a truncated
cone appearing in the centre.

Great agitation and swaying of the
protoplasm.

At 10.18 an edge of thin pro-
toplasm is becoming more and
more apparent. Will this develop
cilia ?

At 10.20 separation more com-
plete. The vesicles are longer and
thinner.

Fig. 99.

Large tentacles (? hydrazoid processes) tend to
appear at the sides.

At 10.22 cilia now developed
from the belt spoken of above.

Fig. 100.

They move very slowly, and are evidently not yet
perfect in functional activity.

At 10.25 tne undulatory motion continues. On
criticism of the \ the cilia are more like columnar
epithelium.

There is no tendency to
assimilation at present.
Will this come with the
completion of the cilia?

At 10.27 a curious occur-
rence in b vorticella. A
ridge of cilia (?) appears at a.

Fi,j. 101.

Fij. 102.

At 10.29 sharp contraction. Considerable latent
period before relaxation. Ciliary wave more rapid.

10.30 cilia evidently separating.

10.31 another contraction. Cilia on c completely
developed, yet no assimilation, b is now in a position
unfavourable for observation.

10.35 first assimilation by c — a small monad.

10.45 tne lower belt
of cilia on b at a appear
very active. Do they
assist in the final division
of the stalk, and why do
they not appear in c?

Fig. 103.

Whilst the left-hand vorticella (c) is stationary,
b is continually swaying backwards and forwards.

At 1 1.5 division com-
plete as far as cells go.
The stalk is at present
common property.

At 11.35 the stem
was completely se-
parate and then left
microscope.

The difference in the size of the sketches is owing
to the fact that sometimes I used the one-eighth as
well as the one-fourth.

J. Herbert Frederick.

Sidcnp.

THE EYES OF THE STOMATOrODA.

By Professor J. Wood-Mason.

{Superintendent of the Indian Museum.}

THE following important and highly interesting
paper, was recently read before the Micro-
scopical Society of Calcutta :

The eyes are more or less distinctly bilobed in all
the Stomatopoda. Of the two lobes into which
the eyes are divided, the one is, in relation to the
long axis of the animal's body, inner in position,
and directed inwards, upwards, and forwards, and
the other is outer, and directed outwards, down-
wards, and backwards in various degrees in the
different genera and species of the order ; so
that, if the planes dividing the two lobes from one
another are produced downwards, they will meet at a
greater or less distance, forming a narrower or wider
angle below the long axes of the eyes. While
investigating the relations of the interlobar planes of
the eyes to the arteroposterior vertical plane of the
animal's body and to one another, and studying the
form of the eyes generally, in the different genera
and species of the group, for taxonomic purposes
in connection with my descriptive catalogue of
the collection of Malacostracous Crustacea in the
Indian Museum at Calcutta, I have come upon some

!54

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

interesting features in the structure of the eyes, and
particularly of their lenses, which appear to have
hitherto escaped the notice of anatomists, and to
which no reference is made in the latest considerable
contribution to our knowledge of this interesting order
of Crustacea.

The eye of Squilla raphidca, the largest species of
its genus, is composed of two huge cylindrical lobes
of nearly equal size. The inner and shorter of these is
directed inwards, upwards, and forwards, while the
outer and longer takes an exactly opposite direction,
and looks outwards, downwards, and backwards.
When the eye is viewed as a whole in profile, its two
lobes are seen to be separated from one another by a
wide and shallow obtuse-angled groove, which if
continued backwards on to the upper surface of the
peduncle would bisect the obtuse-angled distal
extremity of the peduncle, which is shaped like the
two-way piece from which the bronchi fork in a
windpipe. As in most arthropods in which the lens
is divided into facets, the lens-facets of the stomato-
pod eye are hexagonal. When a strip of the lens of
Squilla raphidca including portions of each lobe and
of the dividing groove is viewed under the micro-
scope, two rows of lens-facets in the bottom of the
groove are seen to be elongated in a direction at right
angles to the groove, or to the plane dividing the two
eye-lobes from one another. The lens-facets are, in
fact, modified at the junction of the two eye-lobes.

The genus Lysiosquilla has eyes much like those of
the above-named member of the genus Squilla, with
the eye-lobes produced on each side of the interlobar
plane and divided from one another by a shallow
groove. In L. maculata, giant of its genus, the
ordinary hexagonal lens-facets of the two eye-lobes
are divided from one another by a band of six
longitudinal rows of smaller and differently-shaped
facets arranged in oblique series of six. Some of
these facets are hexagonal, others are rhomboidal, and
a few are irregular in shape ; they are all, however,
obvious modifications of the hexagon.

In the genus Pseudosquilla, the lobes of the eyes
are scarcely at all produced, and the lens is not
perceptibly divided into lobes. A band of different
coloration from that of the surface on each side of it
can, however, be made out by the unaided eye
crossing the lens from the distal edge of the non-
faceted peduncle above to the corresponding point
below. Under the microscope, this band is resolved
into six longitudinal rows of square and transversely
oblong lens hexagons arranged in almost perfect
cross series of six.

The eye of Gonodactylus chiragra is sub-cylindrical ;
the lens occupies, roughly speaking, the outer apex
of the peduncle, as in many Decapod Crustacea, and,
there is no appearance of division into lobes. Never-
theless, a band similar to that met with in Pseudo-
squilla, which all zoologists admit to be closely allied
to Gonodactylus, is present, and is similarly resolvable

under the microscope into six longitudinal ridges each
formed of lens-facets which are elongated in a
direction at right angles to the band, and have almost
entirely lost all traces of their former hexagonal shape.
This band traverses the longer surface of the oval eye,
dividing it into two equal parts, which correspond
without doubt to the eye-lobes of Squilla raphidca.
In this species of Gonodactylus, the two lobes of the
lens participate equally in the formation of the one
apex of the eye, the two lobes being extended equally
in the one forward direction instead of in two opposite
lateral directions. But in Gonodactylus gracilis and
its allies, the two lobes are so swollen laterally
inwards and outwards, that the whole eye has come
to resemble a fat pea. This lateral extension of the
eye-lobes, carried a few degrees further, would pro-
duce an eye of the form and proportions of that of
Squilla raphidca.

In Protosquilla, which has recently been founded by
Brooks for the reception of some species that had pre-
viously been associated with Gonodactylus, the eyes,
as might be expected, differ in matters of the minutest
detail only from those of Gonodactylus chiragra.

Of the remaining genera of Stomatopoda, Lepto-
squilla, Chloridella, and Coronida, the first is still very
rare, and, being only represented in the collection
under my charge by one very young specimen of its
single species, has not been examined, but from its
general structure, it may, with tolerable confidence,
be inferred that in the adult condition it resembles
Squilla in the form and arrangement of its lens-facets ;
the second, which has such small and degenerate,
though, strange to say, strongly bilobed, eyes that
nothing can be made out about its lens-facets, is such
a very slight modification of the Squilla type that it
may be safely set down as having once had eyes like
those of Squilla ; and of the last, which has de-
generating, but nevertheless also strongly bilobed,
eyes, I only possess badly preserved specimens, in
which, however, I feel fairly sure that I can detect,
between the lens-lobes, traces of a narrow granulated
band which may represent an arrangement similar to
that seen in Lysiosquilla maculata.

Both in longitudinal section at right angles to the
lens-band and in transverse section, the soft structures
of the eyes present no less distinct signs of duplicity
than do their lenses, and, in Gonodactylus chiragra
and some species of Squilla, exhibit a nearly perfect
bilateral symmetry ; the retinuku and vitrella;, es-
pecially the former, being disposed plainly in three
groups, two lateral corresponding to the two lobes of
the lens, and one medium corresponding to the
dividing band of modified lens-facets, in size as in
number ; and each lateral group of retinulce being
separated from the median by an interval which is
wider than the large median retinulre are broad. Each
of these intervals is in Gonodactylus chiragra occupied
by the branches of one of two large blood-vessels
| which enter the eye, one on each side of the middle

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

255

line of the peduncle, and send off abundant fine
capillary branchlets to all parts of the retina only,
the vitreous body being non-vascular.

Whether the bilobed condition of the eyes in the
Stomatopoda is to be explained by two pairs of
originally sessile eyes (such as are present in the
Amphipod genera Phronima and Ampellisca) having
been first mounted on one pair of movable stalks (as
has actually occurred in the Arachnidan family
Trombidiidae) and afterwards become one pair by the
almost complete coalescence of the two eyes of each
side, or whether, as is perhaps the more probable, it
is the result of a secondary adaptation to the par-
ticular conditions of life of these animals, is an
interesting subject for future investigation which can
only be attempted with profit on perfectly fresh eyes.

FUNGUS FORAYS IN FRANCE.

THE Societe Botanique de France having invited
English mycologists to join their meeting in
Paris last season, the invitation was accepted by
the Rev. Canon Duport, Mr. Phillips, of Shrewsbury,
Mr. Plowiight, of King's Lynn, and myself.

Accompanied by Canon Duport, I visited the
Vosges mountains before the meeting, with the view
of making excursions in search of the interesting fungi
recorded by Monsieur Quelet, of Herimoncourt, in his
" Champignons du Jura et des Vosges." But, on our
arrival at Gerardmer, we found that snow had already
fallen, and the next day a heavier fall took place,
completely covering the ground.

A few interesting species were noticed on the first
day, amongst which I may mention : Cortinarius
alboviolaceus, C. briinneo-fulvits, and C. variicolor ;
Hygrophorus tephroleucus and C. pustulatiis ; Russula
mustelina and R. rubra ; Myccna rosellus.

We endeavoured, the next day, to ascend the
Hoheneck, one of the highest summits of the Vosges ;
but, after wading through the snow for hours, were
obliged to give up the attempt. Gerardmer is an
excellent centre for excursions, the hotels are good
and cheap, and the fare plentiful. The scenery in
the neighbourhood is of a high order — fine forests
surrounding a series of small but picturesque lakes,
roches moutonnees and ancient moraines bearing
witness to the existence of former glaciers, waterfalls,
and splendid views over Rhineland as far as the
Bernese Alps. There is an excellent hotel on the
Schlucht, about three hundred feet below the summit
of the Hoheneck. We had to leave Gerardmer with
regret after spending two days there.

On our arrival in Paris, we visited the fungus ex-
hibition held in the rooms of the society, Rue de
Grenelle. Owing to the dryness of the season, there
were fewer fungi of interest than might have been
expected. The following were the most remarkable
species in the exhibition : Hygrophorus crubescens,

formerly confounded with Tricholoma Russula, but
distinctly a Hygrophorus resembling a small form of
H. cburneus, but of a pinkish colour ; //. pudoriuus,
figured by Kalckbrenner, a blushing beauty from the
Vosges ; Clathrus cancellatus ; Polyporus Pes-capm,
P. croceus, P. leucomelas ; Pleurotus maslrucatus, and
P. iiidulans ; Armillaria bulbiger ; Pholiota destruens ;
Qucletia mirabilis, a curious puff ball with a long shaggy
stem, growing on tar, and brought by M. Lebreton
from Normandy ; Clavaria juncea ; Pholiota destruens.

We visited on the following day the Forest of
Hesblay, where the only fungus amongst those
gathered which seemed to me of interest was Pholiota
caperatus.

The next day was devoted to the Bois de Carnelles ;
but the ground was very dry, and fungi were scarce ;
Mycena aurantio-marginatus, and Lepiota holosericeus
were our best finds.

In the evening M. de Seynes, the President of the
Societe Botanique de France, entertained at a most
recherche dinner the English visitors, and the French
mycologists, Messieurs Boudier, Quelet, Richon,
Lebreton, Planchon, Roze and Mougeot.

After dinner Canon Duport read a letter from the
President of the Woolhope Club, inviting French
mycologists to join the Hereford meeting next year,
and Mr. Phillips expressed in English his sense of
the liberality of the host and the cordial welcome
given to the English visitors.

The excursion next day was arranged for Pierrefonds
in the forest of Compiegne. After a short visit to the
grand old castle, one of the finest feudal monuments
of France, restored by the celebrated architect
Viollet-le-Duc during the last empire, we explored
the forest. We found it to be excellent fungus ground,
but the distance from Paris limited our researches.

The following species may be mentioned as specially
interesting : — Lepiota polystictus ; Afycena collariatus ;
Lepiota Friesii ; Tricholoma lascivus ; Nolanca pro-
letaria ; Clitocybe suaveolens, and C. odorus ; Lentinus
cochleatus ; Cortinarius fulmineus, and C. Lebretoni ,
Marasmius prasios/nus, M. globularis, and JiL fusco-
purpureus.

The remainder of the week was devoted to the
forest of Fontainebleau. Making the Hotel de Lyon
our headquarters, we drove through the forest in
carriages, halting at spots prolific in fungi.

The cold weather had played havoc with many
fungi we expected to find. We noticed a large
number of Cortinarius violaceus shrivelled by the frost ;
but still a good many interesting species remained,
amongst which I may mention : — Psalliota Vaillantii J
Collybia longipes ; Hypholoma Candolleanus ; Lnocybe
dulcamaras ; LLcbeloma strophosus ; Cortinarius
anfractus, C. dibaphus, and C. rtcfo-olivaceus ; Boletus
erythropus ; Clavaria eoralloides ; Merulius radia/us ;
Russula Queletii, and R. delica ; Polyporus croceus ;
Pholiota adiposus ; Hygrophorus olivacco-aibus.

In conclusion a few words respecting the fungi

256

HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

eaten during the excursions may be acceptable, as
these forays were originally started with the view of
promoting the use of fungi as an article of food. But
in this respect they do not appear to gain ground in
popular estimation.

The great difficulty is having them properly cooked ;
and as may be supposed, the French have the advan-
tage over us in this very necessary particular. The
fungi eaten at the various dinners of the society were
Boletus edulis, Cantharellus cibarhts, Tricholoma
nudus, Lactarius delieiosus, and Helvetia crispa.
Helvetia crispa was, in my opinion, by far the best.
But, in this country, it grows too sparingly to furnish
a good dish for the table. An interesting discussion
took place during one of the evening meetings on
poisonous fungi.

It was generally agreed that the poisonous qualities
of Agaricus mnscarius had been exaggerated, and that
the majority of poisonings recorded in the newspapers
were caused by Amanita pantherinus from its close
resemblance to Amanita rubescens, a species much
eaten by the French peasantry. Amanita mappa was
also considered a most dangerous fungus.

I was anxious to hear the opinion of French
mycologists about the merits of Amanita dcsarea,
described in books as the best of all fungi. But all
who had eaten it did not think much of it and con-
sidered it "fade." It is, however, possible that in
France, where it occurs sparingly, it does not develope
its savoury 'qualities, it being a southern species
abundant in Italy.

T. Howse, F.L.S.

10 Cheync Gardens, Chelsea Embankment.

ROTIFERA AT STAINES.

IN your August number, Mons. Rousselet records
the finding of Asplatichna myrmeleo at Staines,
and gives a capital drawing of the female. Staines
is a favourite hunting-ground of mine, and as I
found A. myrmeleo tolerably abundant the first visit
I paid the place, after the publication of Mons.
Rousselet's letter, it occurred to me that the male
ought also, sooner or later, to be forthcoming ;
and I am happy to be able to record my success in
finding him, and enclose a rough sketch herewith.
As I did not observe him when I first looked over
my last gathering from the ponds, I conclude that he
was born in one of the troughs, in which I have since
kept him ; but although I did not actually see the
birth, his appearance is so characteristic of A. myr-
meleo, and so unlike any other asplanchna, that
further proof of his specific identity seems to me
unnecessary, and consequently Mons. Rousselet's
statement that the male has not been seen will no
longer hold good. Like the males of the other
asplanchna, it is characterised by the total absence
of mastax or other digestive apparatus. There is a

large tripartite brain, with large eye-spot, also
dorsal antennae, a vascular system with numerous
vibratile tags, and muscular system as in the female.
The contractile vesicle is very large and very active,
and the ovary and ovisac of the female is replaced

Fig. 106. — Male of Asplanchna myrmeleo (mag.).

by a large sperm sac or testicle with a duct which

terminates in a protrusile penis behind the foot under

a valve-like flap. The average size of the specimens

I have seen was ^th of an inch long ; habitat, marsh

ponds at Staines.

Geo. Western.

MICROSCOPY.

Australian Sponges. — In your correspondent's
very interesting account of his Australian wanderings,
I notice at page!2i8, he saw many sponges collected
by the members of the Melbourne Naturalists' Club.
Now I hope I am not asking too much in enquiring
would C. P. put me in communication with some one
at Melbourne who has collected sponges in Australia ?
As a microscopical .student, I have taken up sponges
and should very much like to obtain some speci-
mens in spirits to section and examine here. — Joseph
Clark.

Dissolving Gum Tragacanth. — Your corre-
spondent, J. F. H., in September number of your
paper, will find that the following will answer very
well for his purpose : — Powdered gum tragacanth,
and powdered gum arabic, of each \ oz. ; tincture
guaiacum, I fluid drachm ; water, 8 fluid ounces.

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

257

Rub down in a mortar the gums, with a little water
gradually added ; add the tincture guaiacum, and
shake up in a wide-mouthed bottle, and make up to
eight ounces with water. I have used this for
mounting my plants for the last two or three years,
and find that it answers admirably ; but am told
that gelatine and water, in which is a little corrosive
sublimate has been dissolved, is better (applied hot).
— Prosper II. Marsden, Manchester.

ZOOLOGY.

Re-Growth of Fins and Scales in Fishes. —
In May, this year, one of my children caught a small
roach in a brook that serves as an outlet to an over-
flow from the park lake. The weather had for a
short time previously been very dry, and the brook
had but a few inches of water in its deepest parts.
The roach was about four inches long, and was
sadly injured by the loss of about half his complement
of scales and the whole of the dorsal lobe of his
caudal fin, his maimed condition being due, probably,
to his struggles in the shallower parts of the brook.
The fish was caught by hand, and within a few
minutes of capture was placed in my aquavivarium,
then occupied by three small carp and a loach,
innumerable mollusca, &c. In a few weeks the
whole of the lost scales were replaced, and a slight
fringe occupied the site of the missing portion of the
caudal fin. This fringe gradually developed until
now (October 6) the late missing lobe is completely
replaced, and the fish is the most active in my
miniature pond. I may add that my aquavivarium
Js only 18 inches square by 8 inches deep, that it is
kept on the natural system, and that neither water
nor fish have been changed since it was started more
than four years since.—/'. C. King.

Shells from Niagara. — There is a very serious
error, involving as it does a totally inaccurate record,
in the newly-issued " Proc. of the South London
Ent. and Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1887," and as it will be
long before it can be corrected in the " Proceedings "
for 1888, I venture to ask you to allow me to correct
it in your columns. On page 89, I am stated to have
sent for exhibition six species of shells from the
Niagara River. Somehow, the two notes I wrote
for different lots of shells have got mixed up, and of
the species mentioned, only Planorbis bicarinains was
from Niagara River— all the rest were from Colorado,
and the note following about their being also Euro-
pean applies only to the Colorado species. Another
Colorado species also found in England is Physa
hypnorum — I found this near West Cliff this year. —
T. D. A. Cocker ell, West Cliff, Colorado.

Mollusca in Colorado.— During the past sum-
mer, Custer county has yielded me a fair number of

mollusca, including two new varietal forms— Hyalina
arborea, var. viridula, shell semi-transparent, greenish-
white, and Pupa blandi (Morse), var. alba, shell
white — these varieties being exactly analogous to
H. alliaria, var. viridula, and P. marginata, var.
alba respectively. Both these varieties, like their
analogues in Europe, are much more local than the
types, although they occur with them. The only
snail of any size we have here is Patula Cooperi
(Binney), of which the type and var. confluens (bands
confluent, giving the appearance of a brown shell
with a broad white band above the periphery and a
white umbilical region) occur in Custer county. The
young of P. Cooperi are keeled, and are remarkable
for a feature which seems not previously to have been
noticed, namely, that they have numerous fine spiral
ridges of epidermis, that on the keel being especially
well developed ; in some specimens this condition is
so far developed that the shells are beautifully ciliate.
— T.D.A. Cocker ell, West Cliff, Colorado.

The Beauty of the Lichen Mark. — The
markings on the wings of moths consist of lines and
spots that present a family likeness. Lichens, we
presume, came into existence every whit as early as
the moth race, and hence it is that the night-moths
that sleep on our palings during the sunlight are
protected from harm by being patterned to resemble
the cushions on, which they repose. There is an
amazing adaptability in the moth race ; a chrysalis
can secrete a spot of colour so as to vary the wing
pattern of the moth it discloses, and during the
expansion of the wing membrane a line may become
straighter, or more curved lines, may become spots,
and spots lines. From such changes we describe
species which beget their like. The thinning of the
b'rds has left us moths that are lichen-like, since the
more they became like the lichens the better chance
had they of escape and mating. Sometimes their
caterpillars also feed on the lichens, and then, like
the marbled beauty {Byrophila perla), a common
white fleck on most people's palings, the insect's
whole existence is passed at the lichens. Curiously
enough this minute moth has a congener, B. glandi-
fera, which is only distinguishable from it, in that
both itself and its caterpillar more nearly resemble a
lichen, but instead of being on that account com-
moner in this country, it is scarcer. As I am not
aware that the sparrows object to the pearlier dainty,
and turn out the greener, bigger, and more question-
able affair, in spite of its lichen colour and curves,
it is not erroneous to suppose a decrease of lichens
and an increasing omnipresence of whitewash and
mortar as the plausible explanation. When a school-
boy at Bath, I recall making the acquaintance of
both these little moths, perla showing up on the grey
Bath stones somewhat the earlier. Few fresh lichens
now mark the trees of Tyburn and the Fleet, and
shed over orchid and primrose tuft the fragrance of

258

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- GOSSIP.

spring ; you may meet there with perla, but not with
glandifera, which, as the huntsman of the Exmoor
stags once put it, contains far too much of the "real
creature." There, too, sits the garden carpet-moth
on the area window, overlooking its pot herbs,
another whity-grey edition of plaster and smoke,
with the licbeny marks of the British brushwood
almost defaced ; there crawl domestic spiders ugly
as crabs, and more active, wanting the redeeming
brand of the lichen ; the very sparrows that chirp
there seem to want the freckles of their gentility.
When the globe is covered over with this new garb
of tall houses and goose-foot plots, and artists' models
look forth from among every potsherd, we shall see
plainer this natural selection of wan and degenerate
forms. But though child-like simplicity has flown,
the new Caucasian type of man that has thence arisen
is fairer than the African and more monkey-like ; let
us recognise this lost woodland trait, therefore, in
virtue and refinement, and as for the moths and
spiders and sparrows which do not thus improve, let
us preserve for them the woodland whence they
derive their lichen mark of silver and of yellow gold.
— A. H. Sivinton. Tudor Villas, Geiy Street, Bedford.

BOTANY.

The Botany Examination of the Science
and Art Department, South Kensington. —
The series of questions propounded by " Inquirer,"
in August Science-Gossip under the above heading,
having elicited no reply in the September number,
the following brief attempt to answer some of the
queries may be acceptable. The " School of Botany "
to which it would be desirable to attach oneself,
would assuredly be that referred to by your corre-
spondent as represented by " Vines and Sachs's
works." At least, these were the principal authorities
studied by myself previously to an examination in
botany, in which an honour certificate was obtained.
In addition to the above-mentioned works, every
botanical article to which one could gain access was
studied ; but probably a practical acquaintance with
the plants themselves, seeking to test every point
advanced, as far as possible, by examination of living
specimens, helped materially at the critical time.
Summer and winter, week in and week out, plants
both British and foreign, were laid under contribution
to reveal the secrets of their structure, and their
affinities to each other. For several years the rule
was made to acquire some fresh fact every day, and
the spirit of the resolution was carried out, notwith-
standing the fact, that an arduous avocation was
necessarily pursued as a means of livelihood. By
looking after the odd moments, it is surprising how
great is the sum of them in a few years. Your
correspondent remarks that a friend of his having
failed, is at a loss to know wherein the weakness of

his paper lies. Possibly the following extract from a
report of the examiner in botany may be of Interest.
" The advanced stage is decidedly weak and un-
progressive. The candidates bring no really advanced
knowledge to the examination, and attempt questions
designedly somewhat difficult with a very moderate
elementary equipment, and without even in too
many cases a ghost of a notion what the question is
aimed at." These remarks apply even more strongly
— as is, indeed, always the case — to the honours
papers. " Inquirer " next gives a series of questions
which may be answered more briefly. It is not
necessary to pass all or any of the previous stages to
enable a student to succeed in honour ; but unless he
has passed in one of the previous stages, his teacher
cannot claim the grant. The suggestion as to
whether the examiners favour lady candidates more
than gentlemen, would not hold good in my own
case, not being one of the fair sex, and also being the
only one who succeeded out of those who sat at the
same time. The query as to the limits of the money
at disposal is out of my cognizance ; but we may
surely assume the examiners are gentlemen of honour.
At the same time, one may hold the conviction
strongly, that there is great room for improvement in
the apportionment of grants. Payment by results
should be materially modified, and a capitation
grant should be accorded for a given number of
attendances. The changes here suggested are, I am
persuaded, of real importance to the welfare of science-
classes generally, and would tend " to encourage the
study of science among' the working-classes," to
quote from your correspondent. The answers to the
other queries may be briefly summed up. It is
highly improbable that some subjects are more
favoured than others, although a new subject would
most likely be treated less severely than an old one,
as the facilities for acquiring special information are
fewer in such a case. The candidate's previous
successes, his age and profession, are all matters of
detail, that bear chiefly on the grant to be paid to
the teacher. I believe it is a fact, that the form
filled up by the candidate does not go before the
examiner, so that he may be perfectly unbiassed in
criticising the work before him. Being persuaded of
the value of scientific training upon the youth of our
nation, and that if our country is to secure a first
position among the producers of the world, it can
only be by the use of brains as well as hands, it is to
be hoped that all possible encouragement will be
given to these classes by those at the head of affairs.
y. S., Luton, Beds.

A Day's Weeding at Clifton. — At the end of
August — I can hardly call it summer this year — I
found myself at Clifton Downs with a spare day or
two for an examination of the precipitous limestone
rocks, peihaps more from a botanical than geological
point of view. Wandering over the elastic turf of

HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SI P.

259

the downs, on the zigzag footpaths up St. Vincent's
rocks, in the shady glades of Leigh Woods, or by
the salt marshes of the Avon, I found the lingering
remains of an abundant flora, presenting many points
of interest to one strange in this locality. Both the
season and place favoured plants of the umbelliferous
order. It might be previous want of observation,
but I never recollect finding so many species of these
confusing genera growing in one district. Accus-
tomed to hunt for plants, this peculiarity struck me
at once. Descending to the Avon by the path imme-
diately below the suspension bridge, I noticed Torilis
nodosa (knotted hedge parsley), a procumbent plant
with graceful and feathery leaves, cut like minute
parsley and axillary clusters of sessile, inconspicuous
flowers succeeded by prickly seeds. On the highest
point of the cliffs a profusion of Fceniculum vulgare
(fennel) grew, with numerous umbels of yellow
flowers and filiform leaflets. At the base of the
rocks Apium graveolens (celery) was quickly revealed,
if only by its nauseous smell. I believe it is a fact
that the wild plant, growing in moist situations, is
poisonous. On the bare rocks Petroselimtm sativum
(parsley) luxuriated ; it has all the properties of the
garden plant, but the leaves are more bluntly cut,
and lack the crinkled appearance. If indigenous at
all, I think this is a likely situation. Daucus carota
(carrot) was abundant, easily recognised by large
umbels surrounded by involucrum, each segment of
which is divided. Pimpinclla saxifraga (Burnet
saxifrage) is plentiful on the downs, while P. magna
(great Burnet sax) grows on certain parts of the
cliffs. I suppose, independent of size, there are
specific distinctions in these two plants ; the terminal
leaflet being divided into three parts, in the latter
species, is perhaps the best marked difference. Grow-
ing almost side by side in Leigh Woods I found two
species that might easily be confused. The first was
the common Hcracleum Sphondylium (cow parsnip),
with tall umbels of evil-smelling flowers, rough
stem, and irregularly bluntly cut foliage. The second
was of equal size, with similar umbel of flowers, not
evil scented, however, and having smooth stems,
with leaves perfectly regular, the pinnace tapering to
a point ; it was the Angelica sylvestris (wild angelica).
By the roadside Anthriscus sylvestris (chervil), A.
vulgaris (spreading chervil), and Charophyllum temu-
lentum (rough chervil) grew. Although there is
nothing rare in the above, I think it instructive to
find so many allied genera near together. It is
wonderful how easy the identification of the Umbel-
liferae becomes when the various species are carefully
examined by means of the ripened seeds. Some are
rough and bristled, others are ribbed, but smooth;
each has a distinct form and peculiarity. I may be
pardoned for introducing these remarks, which are
not for accomplished botanists, but for the beginner,
who is apt to be puzzled by a cursory study of
umbelliferous plants, as I have often been myself.

It was late in the year for the rare Aral/is stricter,
which finds a habitat on these limestones ; I could
not find even the seed-pods. But I cannot forbear
to mention a deserted patch of waste ground beneath
a stone quarry, and immediately beside the Avon-
mouth railway ; covering a small acre of ground a
great variety of weeds struggled for existence with
each other, common enough for the most part, but
yielding a typical collection of British wild flowers in
blossom in the later summer months. Within half-
an-hour I had observed thirty-eight species of plants ;
I dare say there were more, but time was limited.
Amongst the wealth of tansy, hemp agrimony,
figwort, willow herbs, scabious, dyer's green
weed, wormwood, toad flax, geranium, flea-bane,
marjoram, comfrey, purple loosestrife, St. John's
wort, knap weeds, clematis, feverfew, and perfoliate
yellow wort, in delightful confusion, I saw a few
plants less familiar to me. Calamintha nepeta (the
lesser calamint) appeared to me a distinct form of
that genus ; Inula conyza (spikenard) = Conyza
sqziarrosa, appeared plentiful ; Verbena officinalis
(vervain) was here and there ; Solidago virga-aurea
(golden rod) crowned every rock in full glory ; Hel-
minthia echioides (ox-tongue) was also attractive, and
great masses of Centranthus ruber (red valerian) wild
as far as I could judge. Growing together were two
medicks — M. maculata, with black spots on the
leaflets, and M. denticulata, with circular seed-pods ;
Diplotaxis tenuifolia (wall rocket) grew freely on
the rocks — I almost think the smaller species, D.
muralis, occurred near at hand ; mignonette, the
rock rose, and other plants were prominent. Alto-
gether this was a pleasant little corner. Wandering
about in other directions I saw the remains of
Hypericum Androstcmum (tutsan), and two of the less
common geraniums, G. sanguineum and G. colum-
binum, still in flower. In the salt-marshes by the
Avon, Aster tripolium (sea aster), Plantago maritima
(sea plantain), and Armeria marina (sea sand-wort)
flourished. Returning to the downs, Thalictrum
alpinum (meadow rue) met my eye, with Hieracium
pilosella, splendid heads of Carduus nutans, Cnicus
acaulis, and an abundance of Crepis virens. It should
be stated that these names are all taken from
Sowerby's "British Wild Plants;" I have not the
London Catalogue, and am not familiar with the
more recent nomenclature. — Wayfarer.

Floral Monstrosities.— It may interest some of
your readers to hear of a peloric form of La7>iiicm
Galeobdolon which I found on Colley Hill, Surrey, in
May last. Only a terminal flower exhibited the
deviation from the normal form of corolla. The
corolla had five regular lobes, each lobe with the
usual reddish marks : the calyx was six-toothed, but
the other organs were normal. I shall be pleased to
hear if any of my fellow readers have observed this
form. Mr. James Britten, to whom I showed my

260

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

specimen, was much interested, he said it was quite
new to him though he had seen B. album going that
way. I have also a five-lobed corolla of Veronica
agrestis, found at Caterham. Can you inform me if
Carduus crispus, variety litigiosus, is common in
England ? A specimen from near Wallington, Surrey,
which I have compared with the specimens in the
Natural History Museum, closely resembles two
specimens collected by Mr. de Crespigny in Surrey
and named as above. — H. IV. Monington.

Fungus Hunting. — At our Annual Fungus foray
made in Epping Forest on Sept. 8th, under the
direction of our President, Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A.,
A.L.S., etc., assisted by Mr. Geo. Massee, F.R.M.S.,
the number of species obtained exceeded one hundred
and forty, and of these twenty had not previously
been recorded to the Forest, and no less than five of
them were found to be new to Great Britain ; of these
twenty-nine were microscopical, five of them being
myxo-gasters collected by Mr. Geo. Massee. I
append the name of the twenty fungi found Sept. 8th,
1888, new to Epping : Agaricus (Pluteus) names,

* Agaricus (Araucoria) subg/obosus, Cortinarhis catiinus,
Cortinarius rigidits, Hygrophorus calyptraformis,

* Lactariits aurantiacus, *Russula armeniaca, *Ritssn!a
maculata, Rnssula granulosa, Russida ji'lax, Can-
tharellus infundibuliformis, Comatricha tyfiluna, Coma-
tricha Friesiana, Licea applanata, Physarutn cinereum,
Fuligo varians, Hypoxylon cohecrens, Spluetvtheca
pannosa, Isaria farinosa, * Scolecotrichum tiniseptatum.
Those marked with an asterisk are new to Great
Britain.— Collis Willmott.

Botanical Examination. — Mr. Chas. A. What-
more has assumed an ex cathedra position in answering
my questions, and his answers coincide with the
notions which the Department endeavour to impress
upon the public. I am not so sure that these notions
represent the true state of the case. Even if a
candidate is unsuccessful, he is entitled to have an
opinion of his own, especially if he has spent years
in the study of the subject, is well acquainted with
its current literature, and has passed several of the
earlier stages of the examination. Since my note
which appeared in the August number was written,
some new light has been thrown on the case. The
Botany Examination was held on June 30th, and on
June 14th my friend received the intimation that he
had not done sufficiently well to make it necessary to
attend the practical part of the examination at South
Kensington. He then wrote to ask if by that
intimation he was to understand that he had failed
altogether ? On June 20th he was informed that the
result would be made known to him in due course.
In another month he was finally informed that he had
altogether failed. On July 19th he wrote to ask the
examiners if it was possible for a candidate to receive
the intimation (dated June 14th) an 1 yet pass in the
2nd class of the honours stage ? If not, what was

the object of keeping the candidate in suspense for
another month before he was informed that he had
failed? He also made some general remarks upon
the examination, and offered to submit his paper to
any jury of botanists of whom he had the selection of
half, submitting, at the same time, that the questions
called for only book-knowledge, and that it was not
possible to show practical kdowledge, and confine
himself to the terms imposed at the head of the paper
as to the manner of answering the questions. On
July 30th he received a letter from the Department,
stating that the letter to the examiners coustituted a
grave breach of the Department regulations, and that
had he been examined in any subjects other than
botany, his papers in all such subjects would have
been cancelled. The obvious reply to this was that
the letter to the examiners could not very well
influence them in giving their decision after they had
given it. What it would have to do with any other
subjects that the candidate had gone in for, it is
difficult to say. A few remarks on Mr. Whatmore's
answers to my questions. (1) In their annually pub-
lished reports on the results of the examinations, some
of the examiners have urged that the candidates did
pass the stages successively ; and that circumstance,
coupled with my own observation, leads me to infer
that as far as possible that condition is enforced,
although not actually required by the regulations.
(2) Of seven candidates for the Honours stage that
have come under my observation, only three have
passed the second stage, and of them two were ladies
who certainly possessed no extraordinary knowledge
of botany. (3) With regard to the passes being
regulated by the sum available for grants. I have no
recent statistics from which that conclusion might be
inferred ; but a few years ago the amount voted by
Parliament for the Department was ^"319,454 ioj.
exclusive of the Geological Survey. The amount
paid to teachers of Science was ,£43,519 2s. gd.,
and to teachers of Art ^16,415, or a total of
,£59,934 2s. gd, which is less than one-fifth of
the whole sum. In other words four shillings
in the pound goes into the pockets of those
who really do the work, while four- fifths is
swallowed up in centralisation, red-tape, official
salaries, examiners, inspectors, and printing. It
comes out that the little smattering of science that a
student gets to pass the first class of the elementary
stage 'costs the country ,£10, seeing that £2 is the
grant to the teacher. I have no doubt that later
statistics would show an even greater disproportion.
After so much has been swallowed up in expenses,
it follows that the number of passes must be limited
by the balance available for grants. (4) In my
opinion it is not fair that it should be easier to pass
in some subjects than in others, without stating in the
regulations which are the easy subjects. (5) Whether
the form goes before the examiners or not matters
little, but (6) the fact that age and profession are

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

261

required to be stated indicates that such matters are
taken into consideration in granting passes, and that
may be done either by collusion between the
managers and examiners or by one form going before
the examiners. (7) Mr. Whatmore's answer confirms
what I have said under No 1. If the amount of
grant depends upon the previous highest success,
there is a disposition to require the candidate to pass
the stages successively. At one time every first-class
pass carried with it a Queen's prize, but one condition
after another has been imposed until now the number,
as well as the value of such prizes must be a mere
figment of what it formerly was. (8) If these
examinations are not intended to encourage the study
of science mainly among the working classes, how is
it that grants are not allowed on the successes of
students whose incomes or the incomes of their
parents are more than ^200 a year ? — Inquirer.

GEOLOGY, &c.

Amber Hunting in the Baltic. — Between
Dantzic and Memel is the home of the amber fishers
of the Baltic. Germans call it the California of East
Prussia ; and, standing under the shadow of the
light-house at Briisterort, where the peninsula juts
out into the sea, one can see with the naked eye, on
a moderately fine day, the entire stretch of coast from
which, for more than three thousand years, the bulk
of the amber-supply of the world has been obtained.
Twenty, thirty feet deep and more, beneath the
sand-dunes that extend for miles around, and form
the ocean floor, here are the veins of "blue earth,"
as it is termed locally, in which the petrified yellow
and yellowy-brown masses are found embedded ; and
a little way out beyond the lighthouse on the Fox
Point, where a fleet of black boats generally rides at
anchor on the grey-green water, is one of the great
amber-reefs of the "Bernstein-Kuste," a veritable
layer of amber cropping up in the sea bed, and
heaped up by the ceaseless action of wind and water.
The "blue earth" formation runs far back inland, so
that amber can be mined as well as fished, as it, in
fact, is in some places in the district. But as the
deposit is so much nearer the surface under water,
where it is being continually exposed by the gradual
sinking of the sea-level, while the ebb and flow of
the tide and the frequent storms that occur along the
coast help to free the amber from the sand and weeds
in which it is hidden, it is found more profitable, as
well as easier, to "fish" than to "dig" it. A few
years ago digging was largely carried on in the
Samland, and assumed almost the proportions of a
regular industry. Five or six peasants, not possessing
the right to "fish," would combine, and obtain per-
mission to excavate in likely spots on the estates of
private persons. The result was profitable, but in
the end, the "digging" proved a source of unmixed

evil to the locality. The "diggers" began to cheat
the proprietors of their proportion of the yield, and
invariably concealed a good find. Dealers, who
crowded into the district in the hope of picking up
bargains, cheated the "diggers." Then people
began digging in parts forbidden to them, making
what were termed "moonlight" expeditions to
promising grounds. Fights with inspectors were of
constant occurrence; when disturbed, the ' diggers"
had no hesitation in having resort to firearms, and
murders became quite common, so that the Govern-
ment was obliged to prohibit this form of amber-
getting. The right to "fish" belongs to the coast
villages and communities, and, in parts, to the State*
The latter farms out the grounds belonging to it to
certain Konigsberg and Memel firms. One of these,
Messrs. Stantien and Becker, agreed, in 1S62, to
keep open the waterway of the Frischcs Haff — which
needs constant dredging — and pay 25 thalers a day
besides, if they were allowed to dredge there for
amber. That the contract proved not unprofitable to
them may be inferred from the fact that, when the
six years for which they had tendered expired, they
offered two hundred thalers per working day, instead
of the original twenty-five. The take of amber at
Schwarzort, where the dredging is carried on, was
estimated at seventy-five thousand pounds for the
working year to about thirty weeks.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Thrush's Nest on Ground.— I do not think it
very unusual for the thrush to build its nest on the
ground. I found one this year in a similar position to
the one described, in fact I think the thrush is one
of the boldest of our nesting birds. I may mention
that one nest I found was placed on a piece of rock,
jutting out of the banks of a stream, no attempt
whatever at concealment being made. To examine
the nest it was only necessary to lift it down, and
replace it afterwards. How the thrush managed to
form its nest in such a position, is hard to say. —
F. IF. Paple.

Liparis Salicis, &c. — Mr. Newman, in his " Illus-
trated Natural History of British Moths," gives as
the coloring of the wings of the satin {Liparis salicis)
" white, unspotted, delicately silky." I believe this is
not quite correct. On a certain day in August last, I
captured a salicis, and late in August a salicis came
out of a pupa I had, both of which had the white of
the wings plentifully sprinkled all over with sort of
gold-dust scales, not in the form of spots, but as the
general hue of the wing. When the insect has been
"out" a few hours (or even a few minutes), the
yellow gets rubbed off and white only is seen. The
colouring of Liparis salicis is well figured in West-
wood's edition of " Index Entomologicus." I may note
here the great mortality of salicis in the larvce state. I
have at Deal in August examined a great many webs
that the larvae have spun before they turn into the
pupa state, and found fully three-fourths shrivelled
up, and also a great many eaten by earwigs. Not
very many comparatively are " ichneumon stung,"
the ichneumon pupa being yellow, and only one in

;62

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G 0 SSI P.

■each salicis. I may also here mention that, on August
ioth, I caught (near Deal, Kent) a red admiral
{Pyrantels Atalanta, Hubn.) at about 7.30 quite
dusk, but before it was regularly dark. A similar
occurrence is mentioned by the Rev. J. G. Wood,
but at midnight at sugar. — G. IV. Kirkaldy.

Unusual Germination. — In October of 1887
my servants found several lemon pips germinating in
the lemon. My cook put one young plant into some
earth in a flower-pot and kept it in the kitchen
window, where it was warm. In three days I found
it had doubled its growth, but afterwards it died.
The weather had set in very cold. On comparing
notes with a friend, I found that at about the same
date, she had observed the same abnormal germina-
tion in lemons. A gardener tells me that he has
often found peas and beans germinating in the pods
in wet seasons. — Clara A'iugs/ord, Canterbury.

Notes from Wales. — Many travellers through
Wales are acquainted with the view at the head of
the Nant Francon Pass, where Llyn Idwal lies at the
foot of a precipice formed by the Glyders and Y
Gam, and probably they have observed a strange
chasm in the rocks known as Twll du, or the Devil's
Kitchen, through which a little stream falls into the
hollow at the head of Llyn Idwal. It is a weird
spot, and well worth a visit ; but few of those who
see it from the shores of the lake ever see it from
above, though, perhaps, that view is the more
striking of the two. Not only is it interesting as a
view, but from a botanist's point of view also, for the
rocks forming the chasm are the habitat of many
interesting plants. It may be reached by a stiff
clamber up the rocks from the lake, or approached
from behind from the Llanberis valley. It was by
this latter route that we explored it. Leaving the
main road a few yards beyond old Llanberis church,
a path winds up the hillside past a few cottages,
getting gradually less distinct until a wall has to be
climbed, which brings one to the open mountain.
So far there was nothing much to notice, except
some unusually fine specimens of A. Fi/ix-fivmiua
growing by the side of a stream. Following a rill,
by which Saxifraga stellaris was plentiful, and
bearing to the right, a very boggy plateau is reached,
lying between Y Gam and the Glyders. Narthecium
ossifragum was very plentiful, though nearly over.
Steering towards the highest part of the latter
mountain, a little town — Llyn-y-Cum — is reached,
and here the interest begins. The little lake was
carpeted with Lobelia Dortmanna, the flower spikes
being out of the water, but not yet in flower ; and at
the edges were dense masses of Menyantlies trifoliata,
which must have formed a beautiful sight earlier in
the year. Following the stream from the lake, a few
minutes' walk brought us to the chasm, and a few
more minutes put us in possession of several plants
which we had not seen anywhere elsewhere in the
neighbourhood. The walls of the cleft were clothed
with Alcliemilla vulgaris, and Oxyria reniformis,
though these are fairly commonly distributed, yet
here they attained a wonderful luxuriance. The
finds were Geum rivale, Thalictrum alpinuiu, Plantago
maritima, Rubus saxatilis, Arenaria verna, Si leu c
acaulis (in fruit), Asplenium viride, and Asplenium
Trichomanes. The latter, though abundant in the
Nant Francon valley, was hardly to be found on the
Llanberis side. Wandering amongst the rocks, we
found also Galium boreale, Solidago Cambrica, and
Sedum rhodiola. A Hieracium, which may have
been alpinum, grew tantalisingly just out of reach.
Besides these, the ordinary plants of the district were

there ; but these were enough to compensate for
what had been otherwise a rather unproductive
expedition. A somewhat similar flora was seen on
another day at Clogwyn Dda'r Ardda, a precipice on
the right of the Llanberis path to Snowdon, where
Selago selaginoides and Cerastium latifolium were
added to the list. Asplenium viride was much more
plentiful there than at Twll Du, and the parsley fern,
Allosorus crispus, was in wonderful profusion among
the rocks at the foot of the precipice. The stern
demands of time prevented a more thorough search
in what seemed to be a most promising locality.

Vanessa Antropa. — A very fine fresh specimen
of this butterfly was captured, on August 24th, in a
chemist's window in this town, and is now in my
possession. The border is paler than a continental
specimen I have, and it is also slightly larger. From
the state of the wings, I should imagine it had but
recently emerged. — P. Stanley.

A Pilgrimage to Down. — The members of the
South Place Institute met at Cannon Street Station
on Sunday, the 19th of August, for the purpose of
paying a visit to the late Charles Darwin's residence
at Down. They proceeded to Orpington, the five
miles lying between Orpington and Down being
accomplished on foot, the route chosen being that
across the fields by " Sunningside " to Farnborough,
and from there on to "High Elms," the residence
of Sir John Lubbock, who had kindly issued an
invitation to the members to visit his grounds. The
walk through the shrubberies and woods at " High
Elms " was greatly enjoyed, the profusion of wild
flowers delighting all the botanists present. The
journey was then proceeded with until Down church-
yard was reached, and here the family grave of the
Darwins was visited. A short meadow walk now
brought the company to Down House, where they
were most hospitably received by Mrs. Darwin, Miss
Darwin, and Mr. and Mrs. Litchfield (the late Mr.
Charles Darwin's daughter and son-in-law). The
large party was then divided into two portions, and
these were severally conducted by Mr. Litchfield
through the apartments which Mr. Darwin used at
different times as his studies, and had shown to them
some of the simple forms of apparatus with which he
had conducted his important biological investigations.
It was with reverent feelings that the company
lingered a few minutes where the great master had
spent so many days and years, and all felt it a
privilege to be allowed the opportunity of paying a
debt of affection to the memory of the great man.
Mr. Litchfield conducted the company through the
conservatories, and pointed out the Dark Room
which Mr. Darwin had constructed so as to
observe the effect of perpetual darkness upon plant
development. On reassembling at " the House," the
company was invited to "four o'clock tea," and at
half-past five it set off, accompanied by Mr. Litchfield
as far as Farnborough, on the return journey. It
might be worthy of note, that the above institute —
which has lately appointed Dr. Stanton Coit as
its minister — has changed its title from South
Place Religious Society to South Place Ethical
Society, and a very pleasing service is heard of a
Sunday morning, and where may be heard a very
able scientific discourse. There are also science
lectures, delivered by David Houston, Esq., on
"Elementary Animal Physiology"; Miss M. E.
Knightly, on "Elementary Biology"; A. Vaughan-
Jennings, Esq., on "Advanced Botany," during the
week. There is also a very good lending library
connected with the institute ; and classes are held of

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP.

263

a Sunday afternoon for providing pleasant instruction
of various kinds to children of all classes. — Lester
Francis, 16 Wanscy Street, Walworth.

Celloidin. — Will some correspondent oblige me
by giving the composition of Celloidin. Watts does
not give it, and I cannot find it in the shop here. —
J. B.

A Strange Nesting-place. — On the nth of
June this year, when the steamer " Dunara Castle "
on her return from St. Kilda called at Uig in Skye, a
shore-boat came alongside to bring on and take off
passengers and cargo, as is usual at ports where there
is no pier or landing-stage. Behind a suspicious
looking jar in the bows of the boat was a nest,
apparently a rock pipit's, with four eggs. The boat-
men told us that the old bird flew off just as they
were leaving the shore, but that oftentimes it would
stay on its nest and come out with them. A fort-
night afterwards I learned that the eggs had hatched
out, and a fortnight later was glad to hear that they
had all got away safely. The rock pipit not un-
frequently makes its nest in the wreckage of an old
boat on the seashore, but this is the first time I have
seen or heard of one in a real " live " boat. — Robert
H. Read.

" Pecten Tigrinus," found on Forfarshire Coast
at Montrose, taken from the stomach of a flounder
(dab), caught by a small boat in July. It seems a
complete and full grown specimen. — B. J\IcC. Barclay.

White Sparrow. — It may be interesting to note
that, on Tuesday, 7th August, I observed an almost
pure white specimen of the common house sparrow
on Glasgow Green.— Hannan Watson, Sec. Zoological
Society of Glasgow.

Helix Pomatia at Lucerne. — This species was
found very abundantly by myself in the neighbour-
hood of Lucerne during a recent visit. — W. Harcourt
Bath, Ladyioood, Birmingham.

There is at the Hartley Museum, Southampton,
amongst the land and freshwater shells, one named
Helix nemoralis (variety hortensis). Is it a new
species, as I do not find it in Dixon and Watson's
Manual of 1858, or the handbook by J. W. Williams,
M.A., D.Sc, Editor of the "Naturalists' Monthly,"
published this year? You will much oblige by
enlightening me on the subject. — Archibald Hy.
I\IcBcan, S. Denys, Southampton.

Thrush Nest. — The thrush frequently nests upon
or near to the ground, although less often than the
blackbird and ring-ouzel. In my experience both
the thrush and the blackbird will nest almost any-
where. Often have I found their nests in barns and
cow-houses, sometimes placed conspicuously on a
beam, at others in holes of the wall caused by the
displacement of stones or bricks. I saw this summer
a blackbird's nest on a pair of wooden steps hanging
against a wall, at Heslingtoe Hall, near York. — J. A.
Wheldon. ■

Natural History Queries. — In answer to
M. A., I believe it is not unusual to find toads in the
stomach of fish, especially young toads. Of course
the older ones do not frequent the streams so much.
I have seen one, three parts grown, taken from the
stomach of a five-pound jack. I have seen as many
as five pike lying in the shallow in March, but not so
close together as to render it possible to snare any two
of them at the same time, but still all within a few
inches of each other. — y. A. Wheldon.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists.— We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others.— We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general,
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges " offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of
advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of
" exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

A. B., T. R. D.( and Others. — Answers next month.

S. M. — You can procure splendid specimens of Blue John
(coloured filiate of lime) polished or otherwise, at a very cheap
rate, by writing to the keeper of the Museum, Speedwell Mine,
Castleton, Derbyshire.

Tony. — Yes, your specimen is a white var. of Geranium
molle.

J. B. — Celloidin is a preparation of pure pyroxylin, patented
for Germany and England under the name of "Schering's
Celloidin." Mr. Arthur Bolles Lee, in his splendid " Micro-
scopist's Vade-Mecum," says it may be obtained through the
po=t by writing to "Schering's Grun Apotheke, Wittick and
Benkendorf, Berlin."

P. N. (Bolton) —The "Playtime Naturalist" will be issued
in the course of next month.

M. J. B. — Your fossil is a very fine internal flint cast of
Anachytes ovata — one of the commonest of the chalk fossils
found silicificd.

P. Q. Keegan.— The female of the stag-beetle {Lucanus
ccrvus).

R.T. Orme.— No better book than Stark's " British Mosses."

James K. Benson. — You can procure them from Mr. Chas.
Cullins, 157, Great Portland Street, London, W.

Nemo.— Write to the Hon. Secretary of the Geological
Society of Liveroool. He will tell you all about Mr. Morton's
book on the Carboniferous Limestone of North Wales.

J. W. Odell. — Many thanks for the fasciated specimens
sent us. These monstrosities are more than astonishing.

EXCHANGES.

Offered.— Eggs of pine grosbeak, dotterel, gannet, razor-
bill, guillemot, puffin, Sgull-billed tern, sooty tern, fulmar, manx
shearwater, storm petrel, clutches of ring-ouzel, stonechat,
goldcrest, chiffchaff, grasshopper warbler, dipper, coal tit,
1 — t — tit, rock pipit, purple martin, lesser redpoll, bullfinch,
corn and reed buntings, magpie, green woodpecker, sparrow
hawk, kestrel, shag, mute swan, rock dove, capercaillie,
golden plover, oystercatcher, common sandpiper, arctic tern,
herring gull, and kittiwake ; nests with several. Please describe
clutches offered in exchange for the above. — R. J. Ussher,
Cappagh, Lismore.

Offered. — Micrographic dictionary, and Davis's "Practical
Microscopy " (new). — Wanted, lantern slides of Scottish scenery
—must be good.— H. W. Case, F.R.M.S., Cotham, Bristol.

Wanted, good books on microscopy; will gives slides in
exchange. — Henry Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Road, London.

Wanted, a small specimen of Actinoloba dianthus for salt-
water aquaria, in exchange for coins or eggs. — R. McAldawie,
4 Brook Street, Stoke-on-Trent.

Wanted, a well-set specimen of a hornet {Vespa crabo), in
good condition, in exchange for good specimens of British
land and freshwater shells, or unmounted specimens for micro-
scope, &c.

Australian marine shells (Port Jackson), named, offered in
exchange for terrestrial or marine shells from any of the islands
of the Pacific. — T. Rogers, 27 Oldham Road, Manchester.

Sixteen' micro slides (various objects) offered in exchange
for some modern illustrated book on botany ; list sent, or
mutual approval. — D. T , 115 Dynevor Road, Stoke Newington,
London, N.

Splendid collection of moths and butterflies, over 300
different species (list sent on application), in exchange for
Rover bicycle. — Fiennes A. N. Beasley, Ardenham House,
Aylesbury.

Wanted, micro slides in exchange for Rutherford's freezing
microtome. — R. Suter, 5 Highweek Road, Tottenham.

Dragonflies wanted from all parts of the world for figuring.
— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

264

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Duplicates.—/!, adippe, A. fiaphia, A. eup/irosyne, A.
selaie, G. rhamni, V. atalanta, V. urttca, P. fhlaus, H.
sylvams, H. lined, H. alveolus, &c. Desiderata dragonflies
from all parts of the British Isles.-W. Harcourt Bath, Lady-
wood, Birmingham. ... <■„,

Natural history specimens and books given in return !or
dragonflies, set or unset.-W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood,

Wanted at once, mounted microscopic sides, longitudinal
and transverse sections of Ruscus aculeatus (butcher s broom).
Send particulars, &C, to-Miss Cates, 17 Budock Terrace,

West Indian and West African specimens, about sixty
kinds, mostly in glass-top boxes, including various seeds, shell-,
sugar cane, &c. ; also snake in spirits suitable lor e*h.b,t.on or
private collection. What offers? Safety bicycle wanted, good
make.-W. Pix, 167 St. Thomas' Road, i insbury Park, London.

Natural history books in exchange for microscopic slides
or cabinet. Microscopic slides for exchange.— S. Harrison,
Dalmain Road, Forest Hill. -sri,-,

Wanted, dentalium and entale. Will exchange for either
marine or land and fre-hwater shells; also curios and memorial
brass rubbings in exchange for eggs, other than birds.—
Archibald Hy. McBean. S. Denys, Southampton.

Offered, cone in cone. Wanted, shells, recent and fossil.
cend lists.— J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning.

PI dilatatus and Sp/i. ovale from new Lancashire locality,
and other land and freshwater shells to exchange Desiderata
numerous. -T. M. Harvard, 41 Union Street, Leyland, near

^Ve°riigo pusilla, Zon. fulvus, H. fusca, and H. aculeata,
offered in exchange for H. camellata, S. oblonga, V.tumtda,
alpestris, substriata, or angustior.—R. Standen, bwinton,
Manchester. . ., .,

Wanted.— Living and mature specimens of Zon. nitiaus,
Zon. excavatus, and H. pisana-a. quantity required for
direction. Good British land and freshwater shells offered in
return.— R. Standen, Sainton, Manchester.

Wanted, Huxley on " Crayfish," Lubbock on Ants, Bees,
and Wasps," Cooke on "Fungi," all in the International
Science Series— must be cheap and in fair condition.— Cnas.
A. Whatmore, Much Marcle, Gloster.

Will exchange Newman's edition of Montagu s Ornitho-
logical Dictionary" for Rye's " British Beetles, m good
condition.— William Jeffery, Ratham, Chichester.

Exotic butterflies. Duplicates: Pap. Sinon, Agestor,
Efiycides, Paris, vernalis (new species), M. adorns, lVc. ; also
wings of morphos and urania<=. Special desiderata: Pap.
ascanius (Rio), Montrouzieri, Dadalus, Crino Arjuna, 6cc.
—Hudson, Railway Terrace, Cross Lane, Manchester.

Choice Wenlock limestone, and other good fossils, in ex-
change for scientific books, chalk fossils, or offer-.— A. Y.
Ovant, " Cottesville," St. Oswald's Road, Small Heath,
Birmingham. , . ,

For exchange, eggs of cuckoo, kingfisher, ptarmigan wood-
cock, goldfinch, dunlon, hawfinch, and many others in clutches
or separate. Wanted, one-holed eggs of the common British
birds.— las. Ellison, Steeton, Leeds.

Back numbers of the "Entomologist;' also a variety of
moths, ova of aneularia, in exchange for roots of orchis or sea
anemones, &C-H. Sharp, 23 Union Street, Langham Place,
London, W. . . , c

Fossils from all British formations wanted, in exchange for
fossils, minerals, shells, &C— John Hawell, M.A., Ingleby
Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton. _

For exchange, scientific and philosophical books ; also a
small collection of minerals and rocks. Offers solicited in
recent shells.— Miss Linter, Arragon Clo-e, Twickenham. _

Offered, the following micro slides, Watson s mounts, viz.
"anchors and plates of synapta" (arranged), group ot
diatomaceae, actinocyclus, ralfsii," "foram.n.fera from Adriatic
Sea," and " Selenite, blue and yellow ;" also a Malt wood s
finder in case. Wanted, orieinal Jubilee sixpences.— W. Mathie,
10 Queen Mary Avenue, Crosshill, Glasgow. • • r

A few natural history specimens preserved in spirit, from
South Africa, including chameleon, lizard, locust, caterpillar,
&c. Exchange as above, or offers. -W. Mathie, 10 Queen
Mary Avenue, Crosshill, Glasgow. ««■•,

Cassell's " Popular Educator," 3 vols. ; Cassell's Miniature
Poets," 16 vols.; Cassell's "Franco-Prussian War," a vols.;
Dr. Karl Russ on "The Speaking Parrots;" McKendrick s
"Outlines of Physiology;" album containing eighty-eight
portraits of actors, actresses, &C, and lot of miscellaneous
music fur violin, piano, harmonium, &C. What offers ?-W.
Mathie, 10 Queen Mary Avenue, Crosshill, Glasgow.

Micro slides for exchange. Wanted, fossil- minerals, or
books on natural history.— ErnestO. Mejers, Richmond House,

Hounslow, W. . . . „ r>i 1

Wanted, Hobkirk's "Synopsis of British Mosses, _' Plues
" British Grasses," " Outlines of British Fungoloey, Leightons
"Lichen Flora of Great Britain, Ireland, ai d Channel Isles,
Tripp's "British Mosses," and others. Also Lolium temu-
lentunt, Linn., and all other grammes from all parts of the
British Isles. Micro slides in exchange.— Ernest O. Meyers,
Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

For exchange, Hamblin Smith's "Study of Heat" and
Gill's " Chemistry for Schools."— Ernest 0. Meyers, Richmond
House, Hounslow, W.

T. captd-serpentis (attached), Cr. anomala (on stones), f.
■j-radiatus, Lima elliptica and subaurkulata, A uc. mtida and
tenuis, Leda pygmaa and minuta. Luc. spimfera, Ax.Jerru-
ginosus, Ast. sulcata and triangularis, S. siltqua, V. arcuata
,61 inches), Th. prat amis. Dent, cutahs (live;, fr. mille-
granus [smzU), Trick, borealis, in exchange for other British
marine species not in collection.— A. Somerville, 34 Oranby
Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. .

Helix Minoricensis, Helix lactea, Helix argia. Clausilia.
bidens, var. virgata, Clausilia dubia, var. Suttoui, Bulimus
decollatus, Vertigo minutissima, and some other species, in
exchange for Testacella, the pink African var. of Helix pisana,
and other interesting variations of British species, or shall be
glad to send specimens to any requiring them, as long as the
stock holds out.-Jno. W. Taylor, Outwood Lane, Horsforth,

near Leed-. . . _ . . , _ ., ,, u- v,.,',.

Wanted, Baily's " Characteristic British Fossils, Bigsby s
"Thesaurus Devonico-Carboniferus, and Nicholsons Pale-
ontology," new ed.-F. C. King, Bank Villa, Fulwood, Preston.

Wanted, Science-Gossip, Nos. 52, 59, 60, 68-70, 89, 97-
108.- F. C. King, Bank Villa, Fulwood, Preston.

Offered, Science-Gossip for 1867, 1876-79, and several
odd numbers, in exchange for British marine shells, fossils,
minerals, &C.-F. C. King, Bank Villa Fulwood Preston.

Wanted Helix nemoralis and H. hortensis from all parts
of the country. Offered, H. Carthusiana, H. Cantiana,
H. cricetorum, H. lapkida, H. arbustorum H caperata,
Bui. obscurus, and var. alba, &c— Rev. J. W. Horsley, The
Avenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

A complete set of reagents and apparatus for qualitative
analysis, and Valentin's" Qualitative Analysis" (latest edition).
Particulars on application. A good microscope wanted —
Casteel, i5 K.nnington Grove, Upper Kennington Lane, b.*,.

Darts of several species of helix offered for British and
foreign land and freshwater shells.— W. H. Heathcote, M.C.b.,
East View, Preston. . .

Offered, darts of Helix aspersa, nemoralis nortensis

caperata, &c. Desiderata L-J^uia^e%'^\ sp^'er%°f
vertigos' Acme lineata, &C.-W. Hy. Heathcote, M.C.S.,

East View, Preston. .

Marine shells.-r Pecten tignnus, Mya armaria, Tectura

testudinalis, Trophon truncatus, Fusus gracilis. Wanted,
other duplicates in exchange, or birds' eggs.— A. Kelly, 5 Canal
Lane, Aberdeen, N.B. . ,

A NUMBER of well-mounted and interesting botanical and
entomological slides in exchange for any of the recent bio-
logical and botanical works, Huxley and Martin, &c. ; a violm
also wanted.-J. C. Blackshaw, 4 Ranelagh Road, Wolver-

Wa™ed, ' inch objective to fit Crouch's educational micro-
scrope; also Peter Gray's " Fungi and Lichens Swan Son-
nenschein).-Chas. A. Whatmore, Much Marcle, Gloster.

Wanted, books on botany, or volumes of Science-LiOSSIp
prior to 1886 ; good microscopic slides in exchange.— J. Collins,
23 Roland Road, Lozells, Birmingham.

Wanted, two or three gross of unmounted micro photos,
also superior microscopic slides.— R. Suter, 5 Highweek Road,

Tottenham. ... n -j

Wanted, pupae or imagos of the larger species of lepidoptera,
also some suitable for a beginner; will give in exchange a
book-pattern store-box 14 in. by 10 in., corked and papered,
quite new.-R. Laddiman. Upper Hellesdon, Norwich.

Wanted, diurnal lepidoptera from all parts_ of the world.
Foreign shells and British birds' skins offered in exchange.—
J. T. T. Reed, Ryhope, Sunderland.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

" The Senses of Animals," by Sir John Lubbock (London :
Kezan Paul & Co.)— " The Star Atlas," translated from the
German of Dr. H. ]. Klein, by Rev. E. McClure (London:
S. P. C. K) — "Quarterly Journal Royal Microscopical
Society," &c. &.c.

Communications received up to the 13TH ult. from :
v q _ a C D — K. E. S.— I. R. F.— T. D. A. C— J. b. a.—
I W H-T B.-D. T.-R. G. H.-C. H.-T. D. A. C-
T h'f -R-A S -M S P.-L. I. G.-R. D. P.-W. P. W.
J'R'S -^'T R -C W-B. B. L. T.-G. C-H. W. M.-
C A W -T C B.-A. K.-W. H. H.-R. J. H.-W. A. F.-
F W C-H E-H. G. D.-J. B. B. M.-C.-R. M. A.-
T R-T H F.-G. T.-H. L.-R. S.-W. H.-G . W._
a a B -W P-G. V. C—S. H.-A. H. Mc. B.-I. S.-
T. M. H.-1 S.-C. A. W.-W J-.H -A T. O -U M.
T r _w T — T H. A. H.— J. E.— F. N.— L.— H. b.— J. H.
ZE O M-j W. T.-J. H.-F. C. K.-F. A. P.-W. I. S.
_f- A w _C O.-J. S.-T. F. U.-S. L. M.-A J. H. C-
-1 AW. UjtJ. .Jw._j. C. P.-B. T.-F. W.-J. C-

F. P.' P.-T. D. A C.-G. F. R.-G. D.-W. P. H.-J. H. W.,

&c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

265

NOTES ON THE FRONTAL SAC OF THE MUSCIMl.

OMETIMES ques-
tions have been put
to me on the sense-
organs of insects
to which I could
not give, neither
could I find by
reference, a satis-
factory answer ;
this was rather
humiliating, and
led mc to try to
unravel some of
the mysteries of
the subject myself.
The pursuit is of
great interest, and
very fascinating,
wish that I
impart to
the great

and I
could
others
pleasure that I have felt in the work.

In the older flies, which are often more numerous
than welcome in our homes, the frontal sac is not to
be seen on the exterior, but in the young insect that
has lately escaped from the pupa case it may fre-
quently be seen as a whitish bladder-like protuberance
on the front of the head. I have met with very
little literature on this organ. Walker merely speaks
of it as being alternately projected and withdrawn.
Mr. B. T. Lowne, in his "Anatomy and Physiology
of the Blow-fly," has given a detailed description of
the sac, he says —

' ' When the perfect fly emerges from the pupa, a
large protuberance occupies the front of the head
immediately above the antenna;. It consists of a
membrane, by the dilatation of which the insect bursts
off the anterior extremity of the pupa case ; when
fully dilated it is larger than the head, which is as
yet retained within the pupa; but as soon as the
latter escapes, this protuberance rapidly collapses and
is withdrawn into it. Until the integuments are
thoroughly hardened it may be made to protrude
No. 288.— December 1888.

from the head by gentle pressure, but is not after-
wards visible externally ; by pressing back the facial
plate, however, a fissure is opened between it and the
occipito-frontal plate and cheeks, by which the
cavity formed by the retraction of the membrane
communicates freely with the external air. The
membrane is continuous with the integument at the
margins of the fissure ; it assumes a bright yellow
colour in the mature insect, and is thrown into
numerous plications ; its connections are best seen
from the interior of the head. The extent of its
surface is very great, and is much increased by being
closely covered with papillae. It has probably three
distinct functions ; first, it serves to break off the
anterior extremity of the pupa case ; secondly, it is
undoubtedly connected with the humming of the
insect, the facial plate being thrown into rapid
vibrations during the emission of sound ; and lastly,
it seems to receive numerous nerve filaments from the
antennal nerves, and is probably an accessory organ
of smell. From its position I propose the term
frontal sac to designate it." He further remarks
that—

" The evidence that induces me to include this
organ under those of special sense is, that its extensive
surface, which is thrown into numerous plications, is
still further increased by being covered with blunt
papilla. Its internal surface is covered with yellow
pigment, and with a thin layer of nerve cells
connected with filaments from the antennal nerves.
As already stated its cavity is in free communication
with the atmosphere, and the air contained must
be frequently changed by the vibrations of the
antennal plate.

"With regard to the respective share which the
antennae, palpi, and frontal sac, probably have in the
olfactory sense, we have little to guide us : but it
appears to me likely, that the olfactory organs of the
antennae enable the insect to perceive odours, which
are quite inappreciable to the vertebrata. The palpi
are probably gustatory organs, whilst I think it very
probable that the frontal sac, the nerve supply of
which is far more limited, and the structure of which

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266

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

is far coarser, is especially adapted for the appreciation
of the more powerful odours."

From these quotations it is quite evident that the
knowledge of the functions of the frontal sac is very
imperfect, but as Lowne has made two affirmatives,
and one inference, I have tried to confirm him.

As the sac in its earliest stage is external to the
head, contains undeveloped cells, which for want
of a better term I will call growth cells, and fluid,
it is well adapted to the forcing open of the pupa
case.

With all due deference to Mr. Lowne's professional
knowledge, I think that he is somewhat wide of the
mark in stating that the frontal sac is connected with
humming of the insect. Besides the brain, nerves,
muscle, air-sacs, etc., the head of the insect contains
a large quantity of fluid which will necessarily be in
contact with the inner surface of the sac, and thus
help to counteract any vibrations of its walls. Again,
if it remained perfectly diy, the loose plications into
which it is formed would yield if the least tension was
applied, and thus be anything but conducive to the
production of sound. The absence of any muscular
attachment to its walls, or other means of compression
by which the contained air could be forcibly driven
through a narrowed outlet puts this means 'beyond a
doubt, even if it was not borne out by the fact, that
there is no provision for regulating the size of the
outlet, if it was capable of alterations in size, which
it is not. The facial plate, as well as the whole head,
doubtless vibrates ouring the production of sounds
by the insect, though it does not follow that the sound
must emanate from the head. Any one who has
watched a grasshopper when it gives its shrill call,
must have noticed the great muscular exertion
required to produce the sound, and probably it is so
with most insects that have this gift. From the few'
observations I have made, I think that we shall have
to give more attention to the thoracic spiracles before
the question of sounds produced by insects is cleared
up.

The inference that the sac is an olfactory organ
seemed quite feasible, and as Mr. Lowne has given
his reasons for arriving at that conclusion, I have tried
to follow him. First, I sought for the nerve fibres
given off by the antennal nerve to the sac, then for the
layer of nerve cells covering the internal surface of its
thin walls, but have failed to find either. The yellow
pigment is represented in the young fly by the un-
developed mass of nucleated cells, which disappear as
the various tissues become perfected. The papilla?
appear to be simply thickened elevations of the walls
of the sac, without any perforation. Epidermal papilla;
are present in the base of the halters, but these have a
distinct lumen into which a nerve penetrates, but in
the papilla.- of the frontal sac, nothing of the kind is
to be seen. I have therefore reluctantly come to the
conclusion, that it is not sensor}', but serves some
purely mechanical purpose.

Having reached this conclusion, its purpose must be
further sought for, therefore, looking at the whole
head, I found that the boundary on every side save
one, was composed of hard inflexible chitine, but
fiom the one side projected the flexible proboscis.
The house-fly and other insects of the same genus
have the power of projecting and withdrawing the
proboscis at will. I have before stated that the head
contains a large quantity of fluid, so does the
proboscis. There are also large air-sacs in the head,
but these are constructed on a plan to resist external
pressure, in some instances they are strengthened by
a lining of spiral fibre. Now for a moment, suppose
the proboscis to be projected to its full extent, what
would happen if it was withdrawn and pressed up
towards, and partially into the lower part of the head ?
The action would most certainly displace some of the
fluid contents both of the head and proboscis ; fluids
being inelastic, some provision must be made for the
displacement, or otherwise the act could not be
performed. Now the frontal sac, with its elastic folds
hanging so gracefully in the fluid, appears to be the
very best and simplest organ for the purpose.
During the act of projecting the proboscis the air
would rush in through the opening in the forehead
and inflate the sac, causing its outer walls to become
further separated and fill up the space vacated by the
fluid. When the proboscis is again retracted, a
reverse action of the frontal sac would take place, the
air would be expelled and the external walls of the
folds approach each other. Thus a uniform pressure
on the brain, nerves, and muscles would be main-
tained, whatever might be the position of the
proboscis.

Now this is all very plausible, and things fit as they
should do in any well-arranged place, but will it bear
testing? With this object in view, I have cut into
sections, heads of flies of one and the same species,
some with the proboscis distended, others with it
retracted. In those with the proboscis distended, I
found the space occupied by the frontal sac with its
folds proportionately large, in those with the pro-
boscis retracted, the folds of the sac are compressed,
and the whole lower portion is elevated, and ap-
proaches the upper external wall ; in a word, it occupies
less space in the head than when the proboscis was dis-
tended. The uses of the papilla? are now apparent,
for as the external walls of the sac are brought closer
together the papillae interlock and retain a certain
portion of air, thus preventing the surfaces adhering
to each other, which might be the case if they were
perfectly smooth and damp.

I have had to bring this subject before you much
sooner than I intended, therefore, have not had the
opportunity of confirming this view of the organ, so
thoroughly as I should wish, but should it, on further
investigation prove to be wrong, and a right one
promulgated, I shall be as ready to embrace it as any
one. In justice to Mr. Lowne I would remark, that

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

267

it is some eighteen years since his valuable work on
the blow-fly was published. Since then there have
been immense improvements in our methods of
preparation as well as the instruments for making
sections, which enables us to see the internal struc-
ture of these small organs without their tissues being
displaced, whilst Mr. Lowne and his predecessors had
to depend on their skill and patience in dissection,
and such was the wonderful work they did that it will
be an everlasting memorial to them.

GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS.
By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

THE AIR OF COAL MINES.— Some popular
fallacies connected with this subject prevail
rather widely. It is natural to suppose that, in the
gloomy regions underground, the atmosphere and
general climate must be very bad. This, however, is
not the case. The climate, as regards temperature,
is positively luxurious ; cool in summer, and mild
in winter.

It is well known that the ponies, taken down to
work in the pits, improve so much in condition that
a few weeks vacation underground adds materially to
their market value, if sold immediately they come up.
This is due to the mild, equal temperature. I have
described this before, and have been critically over-
hauled for perpetrating a supposed paradox.

Mr. S. G. Nasmyth has recently conducted a
series of physical, chemical and biological observa-
tions on the subject, and has communicated his
results to the current volume of the " British
Medical Journal" (pages 222 to 229). He found
that during three months, the highest temperature
was 550, and the lowest 530 Fahr., and that for
twenty-one consecutive days, it remained constant
at 530. Victims of bronchitis think of that ! Only
two degrees of maximum variation during three
months, and for three weeks no variation at all !

The chemical composition of the air in reference to
carbonic acid, oxygen supply, and organic matter,
did not prove quite so favourable ; but still it
warranted the general conclusion, that the air of coal
mines " compares favourably with that of one-roomed
houses, schools, and work-shops." Mr. Nasmyth
adds, that miners are not unhealthy, and are not
particularly affected by phthisis or bronchitis, a con-
clusion which quite accords with my own experience
among the colliers of Flintshire, and that of my friend
Robert Piatt, who was the medical practitioner of
the district, attending all the colliers and their families
by contract, i.e., by an arrangement with the pro-
prietors, who paid him a fixed amount for attendance
on their employes and their families. He frequently
told me that, if the atmosphere of the colliers' cottages
and of the public houses had been as good as that under-
ground, his work would have been much lighter.

I observed, however, two peculiarities of the
miners, first, their delicate complexions (after re-
moval of coal dust) and their delicate appetites as
compared with out of door labourers. The collier
cannot digest the hard skim milk cheese, and the fat
bacon that is welcome to the farm labourer. I
have heard certain useless people (who, earning
nothing, deserve to starve) sneer at this daintiness of
appetite as an affectation. It is not so,; both this and
the pale transparent skin are consequences of lacking
the natural stimulus of daylight.

Science in Australasia.— We that have not
visited the antipodes are apt to regard Australia as
altogether a land of sheep runs and shanties. It is
rarely associated in our minds with any ideas of
cities, cathedrals, universities, and such like old-
world developments. With these impressions, how-
ever vague, we are naturally surprised to learn that
on the 28th of August last, "The Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science," com-
menced its proceedings with an opening speech by
Lord Carrington, followed by Presidential address by
Mr. C. H. Russell, and that the sectional meetings
commenced on the next day, and continued through-
out the week, during which one hundred and ten
papers were read on various branches of science, and
that the association already numbers about 850
members.

The meetings were held at the University of
Sydney ; the leading citizens of that city entertaining
the visitors with great hospitality, and many pleasant
excursions were made by the members of the associa-
tion. The next meeting is to be held in Melbourne,
Baron Sir, Ferdinand Von Miiller, the government
Botanist of Victoria, being the President elect.

The association which, as its name indicates,
embraces the whole of Australasia, will meet in New
Zealand in 1890. I have not heard whether any
invitation from the Fiji Islands has yet come under
the consideration of the council.

Surgical Meat Preserving.— We still have
much to learn from the lower animals even in the
business of meat preserving. At the recent meeting
of the British Association, Sir John Lubbock described
some of the scientific proceedings of certain solitary
wasps. The female of one of these (Ammo-
phila) feeds kher young on a full grown caterpillar,
which is placed in the nursery cell of her infant
maggot. To prevent the inconvenience of struggling
meat on one hand, or decomposing meat on the
other, the mother-wasp performs very skilfully an
elaborate surgical operation demanding accurate
knowledge of the anatomy of the nervous system of
the caterpillars, which, as some of my readers will
remember, consists of a series of ganglia ; one set, the
supra-cesophagal, from which the nerves connected
with vision, &c, radiate, and others at each segment

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268

HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIP.

sending off nerves to each pair of legs, and connected
together by commissures running down the length of
the body.

The first step of the wasp surgery is to pierce the
membrane between the head and first segment of the
body and to sting the brain-like supra-oesophagal
ganglia of the head, or the commissure cords that
connect them with the body in general. This, if we
may trust our imperfect human notions of the
physiology of the nervous system, is equivalent to the
administration of chloroform, as it disconnects the
body with the machinery of sensory consciousness.
In higher animals it would produce general
paralysis, but not so in caterpillars, every segment
having its separate motor centre as above described.
The kicking and struggling due to these, although
rendered merely automatic, would by the first opera-
tion still be inconvenient, therefore this operation is
followed by eight others, one perforation and paraly-
sing at each pair of segmental ganglia ; thus paraly-
sing each pair of legs and permitting the young wasp
to feed upon the caterpillar segment by segment,
without inconvenience, either to the feeder or the food
which remains alive, though quiescent up to the last
morsel, by virtue of its semi-independent segmenta-
tion.

There is another species of wasp, to which I have
not been introduced by name, which is carnivorous
in its adult stage. This feeds on an animal in which
the nervous system is more centralised than in the
caterpillar, viz., on a grasshopper, the carcass of
which is preserved by a single operation that is per-
formed by throwing the grasshopper on its back,
bending back its head so as to open the articulation at
the neck, and then piercing the membrane and
crushing the supra-cesophagal ganglia by a squeeze of
powerful jaws. Paralysis and insensibility are thus at
once produced without destroying the thoracic and
abdominal nervous machinery which controls the
functions of respiration and nutrition.

Thus a living but insensible carcass is stored in the
larder, one that may be eaten at once or kept in good
condition, or even fattened by administering an easily
digestible, nutritious syrup that the wasp collects
for the purpose ; none of its working energy is
dissipated in supplying the grasshopper with saltatory
or other muscular force ; all is economised to do the
work of nutrition.

Cat Day at the British Association. —
"Every dog has his day," in the ordinary course of
nature, but at the British Association, September 7th
of this year was largely devoted to cats by the Zoo-
logical Section, the chief subject being the heredity
of their abnormal toes. Mr. E. B. Poulton described
a kitten sent to him from Wales in 1879 with six
toes on each foot. The mother of this kitten had
seven toes on each of the fore feet ; thus mother and
kitten both had twenty-four toes, though not similarly

distributed. Then Mr. Poulton's kitten became
frequently a mother, her husbands being ordinary
twenty-toed cats ; nevertheless in many of her
families ' ' a high percentage of abnormality occurred."
One kitten with five toes on the fore feet and six
on the hind was given to a friend, which "among
many families with a high proportion of abnormality,
produced a kitten with seven toes on the fore feet
and six on the hind, thus reverting to the condition of
the great-grand-parent in the possession of Mr.
Yaughan " who gave Mr. Poulton his first kitten.
This multiplication of toes is still proceeding among
the cousins and nephews and nieces, and later
generations.

Miss Lydia Becker described a Suffolk cat with
abnormal toes, and others joined in the discussion,
all agreeing that the phenomena are very interesting,
but nobody appears to have suggested the appoint-
ment of a cat committee to investigate experimentally
and report annually on the subject of such heredity.

Many years ago — when I was a boy — there lived
in Wardour Street, Soho, a pork butcher named
Foot, whose children all had supernumerary toes, and
were objects of considerable interest in the neighbour-
hood. We had an old black servant at the time, and
I well remember her explanation. Mr. Foot dealt
largely in boiled " pigs' trotters," i.e. feet ; these were
displayed in the shop window, arranged in a row by
Mis. Foot, who served the customers. Black Polly
maintained that the contemplation and handling of so
many toes by the mother caused the evolution of her
children's abnormality — she expressed her theory,
however, in somewhat different terms.

The Height of Waves. — Some curious ex-
aggerations have prevailed concerning this subject,
and many have been the controversies relating to it. A
captain in the mercantile marine, writing to'the "Liver-
pool Mercury," describes his investigations, which
appear to have been carefully conducted by viewing,
while rounding Cape Horn, the waves that came up
astern from the mainmast in a line of sight to the
horizon, and marking on the mast the height of co-
incidence. On measuring the distance from these
marks to the mean draught, he found them to be as
follows : 64, 61, 58 and 65 feet in height, and that the
length of the waves varied from 750 to 800 feet.

Ansted says : " The highest and largest waves do
not often exceed forty feet from the crest to the
deepest part of the trough," and adds, "when these
great waves approach the shore or shoal water, and
reach the bottom of the sea they increase in height,
reaching sometimes to upwards of 150 feet, but they
diminish in breadth or amplitude, and become
pointed."

The difficulty of determining the height of waves
from a ship is very considerable owing to the insta-
bility of the platform on which the observer stands,
while the measurement from the shore is easy enough.

HA RD WICKE'S S CIENCE- G OS SIP.

269

Admitting this, it appears to me that Prof. Ansted
refutes himself, as the reconciliation of his two
measurements, demands that the shore-breaker shall
become nearly four times as high as the deep water
wave. This may be refuted by simply standing on
a steeply-sloping shore at such an elevation that
the crest of the shore-breaker shall coincide visually
with the horizon. If such increase of height took
place near to the shore it would be unmistakably visible
from such a standpoint. If it occurred gradually, say
within a mile or two from shore, it would be very
distinctly observable by the increased pitching of a
ship on approaching the shore.

NOTES ON FASCIATION IN PYRETHRUM.

DURING the past summer the conditions favour-
able to the development of fasciated growth
in plants have been prevalent. Wet, comparatively
sunless weather, is highly productive of abnormal
growth, and in no class of plants has such growth
been more common than in the genus Pyrethrum.

The earliest species to flower is P. roseum and its
varieties, the flowers of which are of two classes,
single and the so-called double ; in the latter the disk
florets are large, tubular, and coloured like the ray
florets, the former being simply normal flowers with
small disk florets.

There has been a great tendency on the part of the
so-called double varieties to assume abnormal forms,
the most common being a curious ridge-like formation
of the receptacle, giving the flower the appearance of
a celosia. In the typical varieties, the flower heads
were more or less mis-shapen, some very curiously
divided across as if they had been cut with a sharp
knife when they were unfolding.

In a large collection of plants here very few
escaped without some slight trace of fasciation. In
July I looked through some thousands of plants at
a large hardy plant nursery, and batch after batch of
old-established plants, and one year old seedlings
showed the same condition, the more highly-developed
" doubles " being affected the worst.

P. parthenium has shown the same abnormal con-
dition and growths, but in this species a curious leafy
malformation has been developed in place of the
flower heads ; this growth greatly resembled the
huge outgrowths one sometimes sees on common
soft herbaceous plants — an excrescence due ofttimes
to the development of adventitious buds, and oc-
casionally to arrested growth. The yellow-leaved
variety of this species, known in gardens as "golden
feather," when allowed to grow naturally, has been
equally prolific during the past summer in producing
these curious growths ; that they are due to the in-
fluence of fasciation is proved by the flattened and
twisted stem.

P. uliginosum is a late flowering species, with tall,

bold-growing stems, lanceolate leaves and large
attractive white flowers. For several years past the
plants in the gardens here have shown a strong
tendency to produce mis-shapen flowers and stems,
the fasciation showing in many instances low down
on the stem in the form of a flattened main stem ; this
flattened condition of the main stem has however not
prevented the lateral branches from flowering and
producing flower-buds. In this respect it differs
from a case noted on p. 50, vol. xxii., where the
flattened stem of Tropnolum tuberosum failed to pro-
duce perfect flowers, buds only being developed,
which were abortive. This autumn it is a matter
of difficulty to find a single plant of P. uliginosum
without some trace of fasciation ; all kinds of mon-
strosities are to be found, from the shapeless terminal
mass of flowers, to a perfect double flower, double
in the sense of having two adherent capitulums on
one flower stalk.

This excess of abnormal growth in the genus
Pyrethrum was due to the wet season. On cultivated
ground the effect of so much wet is to present the
plants with an overdose of plant-food, rendered
soluble by the continuous presence of rain-water.
This is very noticeable in the case of P. roseum, a
species not so given to abnormal freaks as the last
noticed species.

A plant of P. Tchichatchnvii (native of Asia,
Minor), growing in a very dry position under trees,
has shown no trace of abnormal growth. This is the
only species growing here that has been perfectly
free from the influence of fasciation. How far its
dry position influenced the growth is a matter .for
experiment another season.

Pinner. John W. Odell.

LIFE UNDER A STONE.

NATURAL history is a subject on which, in all
its various branches, many books have been
written. Nature, it has often been said, is itself a
book ; not indeed one that he who runs may read,,
but a magic volume to those who study it with care.
Some pages there are which seem at first sight blank,
but these are written in invisible ink, and need only
the fire of enthusiasm and the light of understanding
to bring out clear and well-defined the message that
they bear. Other leaves are inscribed in characters
so strange and mystic, that many a sage has studied
them in vain, 'until, as time rolls on, there is found at
last one wiser than the others, who translates the
writing on the page aright. The book of Nature is
never finished ; daily the great Author adds fresh
chapters to the work, yet there is never a dull
page, and even those which at a glance may seem
least interesting, will always well repay a closer
scrutiny.

It is with one of these apparently uninteresting

HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS J P.

pages of natural history that we propose to deal — with
a ciiapter called : "Life under a Stone." Nowastone
is regarded by most of us without interest ; it is used
in common parlance as the symbol of all that is
worthless, all that is dull, hard, or insensible. Yet,
the geologists tell us, the mere pebble rolling at our
feet may have a history reaching farther back than
the history of man. The tale it may unfold is one to
which wise men listen with awe and reverence.

It is not, however, with the stone itself that we
have now to do, but with the life beneath it.
Shakespeare has told us, in an often-quoted passage,
that we may. find "sermons in stones," but it was
reserved for a writer of our own day to show us that
there were also sermons under them.

"Did you never," says Oliver Wendell Holmes,
in his "Autocrat of the Breakfast Table," "in
walking in the fields, come across a large flat stone,
which had lain, nobody knows how long, just where
you found it, with the grass forming a little hedge, as
it were, all round it, close to its edges — and have you
not, in obedience to a kind of feeling that told you it
had been lying there long enough, insinuated your
stick or your foot, or your fingers under its edge and
turned it over as a housewife turns a cake, when she
says to herself, ' It's done brown enough by this
time ' ? What an odd revelation, and what an unfore-
seen and unpleasant surprise to a small community,
the very existence of which you had not suspected
until the sudden dismay and scattering among its
members produced by your turning the old stone over !
Blades of grass flattened down, colourless, matted
together as if they had been bleached and ironed ;
hideous crawling creatures, some of them coleop-
terous or horny-shelled — turtle-bugs one wants to call
them ; some of them softer, but cunningly spread out
and compressed like Lepine watches (Nature never
loses a crack or a crevice, mind you, or a joint in a
tavern bedstead, but she always has one of her flat-
pattern live time-keepers to slide into it) ; black,
glossy crickets, with their long filaments sticking out
like the whips of four-horse stage coaches ; motion-
less, slug-like creatures, young larvae, perhaps more
horrible in their pulpy stillness than even in the
infernal wriggle of maturity ! But no sooner is the
stone turned and the wholesome light of day let upon
this pressed and blinded community of creeping
things, than all of them which enjoy the luxury of
legs — and some of them have a good many— rush
round wildly, butting each other and everything in
their way, and end in a general stampede for under-
ground retreats from the region poisoned by sunshine.
Next year you will find the grass growing tall and
green where the stone lay ; the ground-bird builds
her nest where the beetle had his hole ; the dandelion
and the butter-cup are growing there, and the broad
fans of insect-angels open and shut over their golden
disks, as the rhythmic waves of blissful consciousness
pulsate through their glorified being."

The description is as graphic as are all word-
pictures from the same pen, and the subsequent
passage — the " sermon " — giving the meaning of the
little parable is too pretty to be left unquoted, though
it has, perhaps, but little bearing on our subject.
" The stone," our author goes on to say, "is ancient
error. The grass is human nature borne down and
bleached of all its colour by it. The shapes which
are found beneath are the crafty beings that thrive in
darkness, and the weaker organisms kept helpless by
it. He who turns the stone over is whosoever puts
the staff of truth to the old lying incubus, no matter
whether he do it with a serious face or a laughing
one. The next year stands for the coming time.
Then shall the nature which had lain blanched and
broken rise in its full stature and native hues in the
sunshine. Then shall God's minstrels build their
nests in the hearts of a new-born humanity. Then
shall beauty — Divinity taking outlines and colour —
light upon the souls of men, as the butterfly, image of
the beatified spirit rising from the dust, soars from
the shell that held a poor grub, which would never
have found wings had the stone not been lifted."

The living creatures beneath the stone are in the
foregoing quotation, perhaps partly to serve the
purpose of the allegory, painted in colours somewhat
darker than need be, and it will be our task to try
and point out that, as there is " good in everything,"
so there is beauty even in the common-place ; and to
arouse, if possible, some interest in the life-history
(not less curious than that of the hugest mammal) of
the tiny beings which constitute this " community of
creeping things."

Suppose, then, that during a ramble through wood
and field we come upon a stone lying half-buried in
the grass or fern which has grown up round it, and
turn it over, what kind of creatures shall we find
beneath it ? The stone may differ according to the
district in which it is found ; in one place it may be
a bit of granite boulder, in another some other sort of
stone, but the "little population" under it is always
nearly the same. It may vary a little, for instance, if
the stone does not lie quite flat, and there are crevices
beneath roomy enough to accommodate beetles ; we
may find some of these hard-coated gentry, but even
if the stone seems to lie so close that nothing living
could squeeze ;between it and the ground, yet there
will be creatures under it, and one thing we are
certain to see, on turning the stone over, is a congre-
gation of woodlice.

Now though the woodlouse is such a common and
familiar object, most people know so little of its
anatomy as to fall into the error of calling it an
"insect." But an insect, to be properly so called,
must have neither more nor less than six legs, a body
divided into three distinct parts, and must breathe
through a system of air-tubes dispersed over the
body. The woodlouse clearly does not answer to
this description, therefore it is not an insect. To

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

271

what tribe, then, does it belong ? Many of our
readers will doubtless be surprised to learn, that the
crawling thing they have always considered as an
insect is in reality a crustacean ; that is to say, it
belongs to the large family of crabs, and is a cousin,
though a distant one, of the little creatures whose odd
sideway movements in the rock -pools left by the
retreating tide are the delight of children at the
seaside.

At least three species of woodlouse are common in
England, yet few people, except naturalists, know
how to distinguish them. The first and perhaps most
generally known is the "pill-woodlouse," the scien-
tific name of which is Armadillo vulgaris, in allusion
to the odd likeness it bears with its hard shelly
covering to the armoured quadruped so-named. The
pill-woodlouse seems really clad in mail, for the
horny surface of its carapace has the bluish gleam of
steel, and is as polished as a knight's cuirass. More-
over the armour of the woodlouse is even superior, in
point of make, to a perfect suit of harness finished
by the hand of the most skilled of ancient armourers.
For it is so cleverly jointed, that it not only does not
interfere in the least with the free movements of its
owner, but it actually enables the latter to roll him-
self into a ball, each segment fitting one into the
other and presenting a shining impervious sphere to
the attacks of every enemy. Its striking resemblance,
when thus coiled up, to a pill, has given to the
woodlouse its English name, and it is said that in the
earlier days of medicine they were actually used by
druggists. How this may be we know not, but
certain it is that they have been employed by many
a schoolboy in very unpleasant practical jokes.

The second species, the common woodlouse
(Porcellio scaber), is devoid of this ability to roll
itself up, and this constitutes one of the differences
between it and the first-named. The colour is much
the same as that of the pill-woodlouse ; but it is not
nearly so polished, and is sometimes spotted with
white. The chief mark, however, by which the two
species may be distinguished, is the projection in the
common woodlouse of the abdominal appendages
beyond the carapace. In the pill-woodlouse these do
not appear.

The third species is the land-slater (Onisats asellus),
and this kind also does not roll up. This woodlouse
is known by its having eight joints in the antennae,
whereas the others have only seven. It has also two
rows of yellow spots, and the same number of white
spots along the back. All the species have seven
pairs of legs, equally developed.

Woodlice, like other crustaceans, breathe air by
gills ; but it is essential to their well-being that the
air they breathe should be saturated with moisture.
Accordingly, they never object to shelter under a
stone, otherwise conveniently situated, on the score
of its being too damp, though they occasionally
prefer, as a refuge, a rotten log, or some other piece

of decaying timber. Damp and darkness are their
delight, and the light of day is hateful to them ; they
will take advantage of any retreat to avoid it. Hence
they are sometimes found in the galleried nests of the
hill-ant (Formica ritfa), where its hosts do not
interfere with it, and, indeed, seldom take any notice
of this uninvited guest.

Their food is chiefly of a vegetable nature, and as
they are very sharp-toothed little creatures, they are
rather destructive in gardens, and where they abound
it is not easy to get rid of them. Fowls will eat
them readily, and when woodlice are too plentiful,
the inhabitants of the hen-house may be let loose
upon them with great effect ; only that in a well-kept
garden we are apt on such occasions to find — as the
ancient Britons found when they called upon the
Romans to fight their battles for them — the invaders
more formidable enemies than those they were
intended to drive out.

In the order Isopoda, to which woodlice belong,
the young are developed within a larval membrane,
and when they are liberated by the bursting of the
membrane, they nearly resemble the adult, with the
exception of having only six pairs of legs instead of
seven. The respiratory system is curious. The seat
of the organs of respiration is the lower surface of
the abdomen, these organs consisting of leaf-like
branchiae, or gills, protected by plates folding over
them.

Woodlice are not by any means the only creatures
to be found under stones. Almost as common,
perhaps, as these are the millepedes, strange little
beings, in appearance something between a hard-
bodied caterpillar and a centipede. These are some-
times called "wire worms," but quite erroneously,
the real wire-worm being the larva of the click-beetle
(Elater). Their bodies are perfectly cylindrical ;
they are generally from an inch to an inch-and-a-half
in length, and though they have not really a thousand
legs, as their name implies, they have a goodly
number, namely, from a hundred and sixty to two
hundred. These feet look almost like a fringe of
delicate white hairs, and, as the millepede glides
along, the movement of its many legs imparts a kind
of rhythmic wave-like motion to its whole body, which
is pretty to watch.

Three species are common in England. The first,
and perhaps best known, is called Julns sabulosus ;
its colour is dark greyish-brown, with two reddish lines
running down the back. The common millepede
(Jitlus terrestris) is the second species, a little
smaller than the first, and distinguished from it by
lacking the two reddish dorsal lines. The third
species (Glomeris marginata) is sometimes called
the "pill-millepede," and is even mistaken for the
pill-woodlouse, from its habit of rolling itself up
spherically. The other millepedes roll themselves
also when touched or disturbed, but in a flat spiral,
like a coil of wire. The pill-millepede may really

272

HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

easily be known from the woodlouse, from the fact
that its legs all originate on a single line in the
middle of the under-surface of the body, so that
when the creature is walking, the legs do not appear
at all beyond the edge of its shelly covering. It is
much shorter than Julus sabulosus and Julus ter~

taint the air. They are nocturnal in their habits,
as are most of the creatures which find a refuge under
stones, and in order to see them in the day time, we
must search in such haunts as these. They come
out with the bat and the owl, and in the dusk of the
evening may be found taking their walks abroad.

Fig. 107. — Group of Centipedes— 1, Glcmeris margittata ; 2, Julus tcrrestris ; 3, Polydesmvs coiirf>lanaius ; 4, Folyxcncs ;
5, Gcophilus longicomis ; 6, Litlwbiusforficatus; 7, Scutigera colcoptrata.

restris, and has from seventeen to twenty-one pairs of
legs.

The millepedes feed on decaying animal and
vegetable substances, and seldom, if ever, attack
living vr.getation. Thus they are useful as scavengers,
clearing away much refuse which would otherwise

In the spring the female millepede sets herself
industriously to work to scoop out a hole in the
earth, which she intends as a cradle for the reception
of her future offspring. When the hole is finished,
she makes haste to deposit therein sixty or seventy
eggs, which remain about three weeks before they

IIARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

*73

•are hatched. When the young millepedes make
their first appearance in the world, and prepare to
enter upon their humble but useful career, they are
entirely destitute of the many limbs which are
destined to adorn them when adult. Each also
bears — as a newly-hatched chicken sometimes does —
the two halves of its egg-shell attached to its body by
a filament. At a later period of their existence, they
are endowed with three pairs of feet, and are then
enabled to disencumber themselves of the egg shells.
They might easily be mistaken at this time for the
larvae of some beetle. In the further stages of their
development, they gradually acquire additional seg-
ments and additional limbs, until they finally resemble
in shape and size the parent form.

One rather unpleasant peculiarity of nearly all
•millepedes, is their disagreeable odour, arising from
an acrid fluid secreted from cutaneous glands on the
dorsal surface of the body. The pores from which
the secretion exudes, are two on each segment, and

of two Greek words, the former signifying a stone
and the latter to live.

Several species of Lithobius are found in England,
but the commonest is Lithobius forficattts, which must
be known to every one who has seen stones, flower-
pots, or old rubbish turned over or removed. It is
a flat, segmented, shining, reddish-brown creature,
from an inch to an inch and a half in length, with a
pair of long jointed antennae rather redder than its
body, and fifteen pairs of rather yellowish legs.
These numerous limbs carry it very nimbly out of
sight if it is disturbed in its hiding-place, but it is a
creature of a decidedly irritable disposition, and
should it be captured or otherwise interfered with,
it does not hesitate to inflict a savage bite with its
sharp curved nippers.

Most of the centipedes are chiefly carnivorous, and
therefore need not be feared by gardeners ; they prey
upon insects, worms, and other small animals, and
are useful in a garden to keep these within reasonable
numbers. One species of centipede, however,
though it lives generally upon the larva? of
insects and other soft-bodied creatures, occa-
sionally departs from the rule of flesh-eating
to join the ranks of the vegetarians ; it is not
proof against the temptations of a ripe peach,
apricot, or plum, and may be sometimes found
neatly coiled up in the heart of the fruit. Not

Fig. 108. — Gcojihiliis electriais, the phosphorescent centipede.

Fig. 109. — Jiilus terrc^tris.

have sometimes been mistaken for stigmata. The
Teal stigmata are, however, placed in pairs close to
rhe bases of the legs.

The millepedes belong to two families of the class
TVIyriapoda, and we must now turn our attention from
the Julidas and Glomeridae to the representatives of
two other families (Lithobidae and Geophilidae) of the
■same class, namely the Centipedes.

The name of centipede is misleading, like that of
millepede, and is commonly applied alike to the
above-mentioned two families, the members of which
differ in appearance considerably. The centipede
is an inhabitant of most parts of the world, and in
the tropics it grows to such a size as to be quite a
formidable creature. All the centipedes have foot-
jaws, or maxillipedes, armed with perforated hooks
communicating with poison-glands ; hence their bite
is always painful, and that of the large foreign species
produces sometimes serious effects. The Lithobidse
are pre-eminently dwellers under stones, and to this
habit of life they owe their name, which is composed

infrequently, too, it takes advantage of the hole made
by a greedy slug in the side of a fine strawberry, to
sip the sweet juices. This little robber rejoices in a
name almost as long as itself; it is called Arthrono-
ma/us longicornis. The total length of this centipede
varies from two and a half to three inches ; its
colour is lightish yellow, the head inclining to a rusty
hue ; it has long hairy antennae, and from fifty-one to
fifty-five pairs of legs.

The female seems to b full of solicitude for her
offspring, for after having laid from thirty to fifty eggs
in a hole in the ground, she coils herself up round them,
and remains in this attitude until the young hatch,
a period of two or three weeks. The young of
centipedes, like those of millepedes, do not exactly
resemble their parents at first, but go on acquiring
additional segments, or somites, and limbs, until the
adult form is reached. This result takes, in the case
of centipedes, a long time to attain, and the growing
process is not completed until after a series of changes
of skin, or "moults."

274

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Centipedes are nocturnal creatures, but Arthrono-
■mains longicornis renders itself very conspicuous in
the dark by a peculiar power of giving out a phos-
phorescent light, almost as strong as that of the glow-
worm, in consequence of which it is liable to be
mistaken at night for that more legitimate lantern-
bearer. The luminous property is common to both
sexes.

In writing of " Life under a Stone," we must not
confine ourselves to describing merely one or two of
the creatures seen in such localities. We have
spoken of woodlice, millepedes, and centipedes,
but our history would be incomplete did we not now
leave the subject of crustaceans and myriapods, and
devote ourselves to the consideration also of the
insects which may be found associating with them.
Foremost among these is that one of "Nature's fiat-
patterns," which of all others can adapt itself to the
tiniest crevice without risk of crushing a frame fear-
fully and wonderfully made. The earwig {Forficula
auricularia) is as common under stones as it is in
flower-beds, and though it cannot be denied that in
the latter place at least it is harmful, though it is
almost universally regarded with disfavour, not to
say disgust, yet its history presents points of interest
which the lover of Nature cannot choose but study.
The place of the earwig in natural history was for
long a vexed question, but, according to the latest
classification, a section of the Orthoptera has been
raised to the rank of a distinct order, called
Euplexoptera, on purpose for its reception.

The appearance of this insect is too well-known
to need description, but its habits are not so familiar
to most people. Many are even ignorant of the fact
that it has wings, of which it makes use at night. The
structure of the wings is very beautiful, and the
manner in which they are folded under the short
elytra most curious. On alighting after a flight the
earwig proceds to stow away its wings, and this it
does most cleverly, using the formidable-looking
forceps at the end of its tail to facilitate the process
of packing. The wings are folded, unlike other
insects, both longitudinally and transversely ; they
are very large and membranous, and it has been
suggested that to their shape, which somewhat re-
sembles a human ear, the insect owes its name, the
word earwig being corrupted from " ear-wing." This
is much more probable than the ridiculous statement,
invented to account for the name, that the insect
enters the ear, and thence penetrates to the brain of
a person, causing madness. Any one with any know-
ledge of anatomy knows that even if an earwig got
into the ear, it would find no passage to the brain.

The earwig is a vegetable feeder, and is apt to
choose the petals of flowers as its especial diet, hence
its destruction by gardeners. The female earwig lays
her eggs in a cavity in the ground beneath a stone,
and her care for her young is extraordinary, only
finding a parallel in that of a hen for her chickens.

She watches over her eggs incessantly, collecting
them if scattered, and moving them about from place
to place in order to obtain for them a suitable degree
of moisture. Some naturalists assert that she
actually incubates her eggs by sitting on them, but
the-] accuracy of this statement seems not to have
been conclusively proved. Even after the young are
hatched, the mother earwig remains a long time with
them, and does not cease to tend them until they are
able to shift for themselves. The young earwigs differ
slightly from the adult form in all the three succes-
sive stages of their development, but the differences
are not sufficiently striking to need description.

Other insects there are, such as some beetles and
spiders, which are sometimes found under a stone, and
about these much that is interesting might be said,
but they are generally only casual visitors, and not
regular inhabitants of this retreat, therefore we need
not enter upon their history here.

To those, however, who have been sufficiently in-
terested in what some may think a dull chapter in
natural history to wish to read farther in it, we may
offer the advice to go out into field and wood, and see
for themselves how much yet remains untold of " Life

under a Stone."

Lilian J. Gould.

ABNORMAL GROWTHS ON FOREST
TREES.

By Robert Coupar.

THE forester in his daily walks through woods
and plantations meets with many curious
growths on the stems and branches, roots and other
parts of hardwood and coniferous trees.

These consist of knots, swellings, cavities, en-
grafted trees and roots, as well as many other curious
growths. Queries are many times asked regarding
these growths, and great diversity of opinion exists
regarding them. I intend to offer a few remarks
respecting my ideas as to their cause and origin.

First of these is the effect of the ivy and woodbine
upon tree stems. The ivy is a beautiful evergreen,
seen growing upon any old wall or ruin, and also
upon decaying trees or stumps ; but there is a limit
to which it should be grown upon young trees. In
its young state, when the tendrils are small, there is
not much damage done, but when the stem becomes
of considerable thickness, and the foliage begins to
cover the whole top and branches, then serious
results accrue therefrom. In young plantations
under thirty years of age, supposing that ivy is
permitted to grow on the trees and allowed ample
freedom, its growth is remarkable, and will soon
overtop the trees, sadly interrupting the breathing
organs, the leaves, as well as the bark, which
manufactures, so to speak, the wood.

The natural habit of the ivy is to grow straight

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

275

>up the stem, seldom entwining in a screw-like
manner, as in the case, of the woodbine. The
smaller leaders of the ivy encircling the stem as they
increase in growth and thickness become so tight
upon the stem as to prevent the natural expansion of
the bark ; hence the annual layers of the wood are much
less should the ivy not be removed and allowed to
grow unchecked. The annual woody layers become
less and less, and ultimately become scarcely trace-
able. The ascending sap also becomes less and less,
•and the leaves turn smaller, paler, and decay sooner.
They also expand later, and feeble terminal shoots

Fig. no. — Stem of Common Alder showing bulges caused by
Woodbine. The arrows indicate the course of the descending
sap.

are produced, in short the whole system is affected
and sadly crippled, and as a natural result, the tree
dies.

Woodbine, or honeysuckle, differs in its growth
upon trees from taking quite a serpentine habit,
seldom growing upon the stem in a straight manner.
From the habit of growth, many curious turns and
bulges are found in woods where this twiner is
allowed to grow unchecked. The illustration given
herewith represents a correct drawing from a com-
mon alder growing by the water's edge. The wood-
bine had died away, and no traces of it could be

found ; but from the specimen, evident proof is shown
of its damaging effect. A b the stem, c the branches,
d ef ^ are bulges caused by the twining of the wood-
bine. By referring to d this bulge is nearly round
and round ; this is caused by the creeper being
almost directly round the stem, preventing the ex-
pansion of the bark, and checking the descending
sap ; e and g are in more of a slanting direction.
This sort of form is the commonest to be found ; g
is where the woodbine was in so much a longer circle
than either of these described, that the creeper did
not offer so much resistance to the bark when ex-
panding, hence there is less bulge. When the creeper
is nearly horizontal round the stem, the largest bulges

A

TO

1

Fig. in. — Tree stem showing the direction taken by Ivy
stems and branches, with which it is covered.

will be formed. Again, suppose a stem of ivy, three
inches diameter, to be growing up the side of the
stem of a larch or other tree, when the bark expands
to allow of the yearly deposit of wood, the ivy is
gradually pushed out with the bark, and no bulge is
produced on the stem ; but, again, should thick
branches ramify round the stem so as to completely
encircle either a stem or a branch, the bark will
expand so far yearly as the ivy will allow with free-
dom ; then gradually the ivy will offer great resistance
to the bark, and if not removed at this stage, bad
results are sure to be looked for.

In the case of the woodbine, however, the result
is somewhat different, as the stem of the tree increases
in thickness, as also does the stem of the woodbine.

276

HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCE- G O SSI P.

From the encircling nature of the climber, it will
present a greater resistance to the bark when ex-
panding, until the two become perfectly tight and
expand no longer at that part where the creeper is
pressing on the stem ; then a bulge is produced, as
shown in the illustration. This goes on yearly until
the creeper breaks or dies, or is enclosed in the growth
of the tree. The sap is prevented from descending
in a straight direction, but moves round in a screw-
like manner as shown in Fig. 1 10. Now, will this
bulge heal over when once this creeper is taken away ?
Well, in the case of small bulges, it will during a few
years ; but such swells or bulges as d ef will increase
for years, indeed during the whole life of the tree
sometimes. Now, how is this explained ? On
account of this bulge the descending sap will always
be checked at that part, and impeded in its flow from
the abundance of sap at this particular part ; more
wood will be formed at the broadest part above than
will be formed at the hallow or narrower part below ;
such bulges as that will rarely heal up while the tree
lives.

THE QUESTION OF NOMENCLATURE.

THERE is much discussion now going on on this
side of the water among botanists, about the
citation of authorities after specific names, and even
the right of priority of these names seems to be called
into question. For instance, in " Botanical Gazette,"
1 888, p. 234, we have some remarks by Mr. F. L.
Scribner — " Pursh described Stipa mcmbranacca ;
Thurber, ignorant (as almost every one was) of
Pursh's name, called it Eriocoma aispidata ; it turns
out to be an Oryzopsis ; ought Scribner to go back to
Pursh's specific name, mcmbranacca, or is he right
in calling it Oryzopsis aispidata, Scrib. ? " Now here
is a strangely confused state of affairs — the prior name
and prior author lost sight of altogether, and a new
name adopted simply because the original generic
determination was incorrect ! Surely, if there is to
be any uniformity between Zoological and Botanical
nomenclature, the grass must be called Oryzopsis
mcmbranacca (Pursh) — or if preferred, the authority
can be written " (Pursh) Scrib.," to show that
Scribner first called it an oryzopsis. Another
example occurs in the same journal (" Bot. Gaz."
1 888, p. 144), in which the prior name is put aside.
" Selimim grayi, n. sp.," is described by Messrs.
Coulter and Rose ; but they themselves state that it
is the species described as Archaugclica gmclini, &c.
in "Flora of Colorado," and in Coulter's Manual.
Now it is not an Archangelica, nor is it Ue Candolle's
species gmclini, but it is the gmclini of Porter and
Coulter, and later of Coulter, and as this specific
name appears not to be preoccupied in Scliuum, the
plant should surely stand as Scliuum gmelini. In
the face of these strange views of the question of

priority, it is refreshing to read a letter from A.
De Candolle (" Bot. Gaz." 1888, p. 244) insisting on.
the strictest priority of the specific name, unless it
has to be abandoned for any imperative reason, e.g.
a prior identical name in the same genus.

Zoologists seem fortunately almost all agreed on this,
question of priority— but there is one point which
seems still to demand attention. Is it permissible
that the generic and specific names should be
identical ? For instance, Linne described the black-
bird as Turdus mcrula ; it is now placed in the genus.
Mcrula, Leach ; should it be called Mernla nigra*
Leach, or Mcrula mcrula (Linn.)? Rightly, it
seems to me, many prominent ornithologists (in-
cluding Mr. Bowdler Sharpe of the British Museum >
have taken the latter view, so that the right of
priority may not be infringed, even though the genus-
and species are named alike.

It is hard to see, indeed, where the inconvenience
of these duplicated names comes in, and it is to be
hoped that in other branches of zoology and in botany
the same rule may be adopted.

Allowing the priority of the specific name, the
question now arises which author is to be quoted —
the author of the name, or (supposing it has beea
moved to a new genus) the author who first placed
it in the genus? I think all zoologists, and most.
Cryptogamic botanists, would say, "the author of
the name," but for some strange reason, almost
every student of phsenogamic botany has adopted
the latter alternative. For example, the house-
sparrow is Passer domcslicus, Linn., not P. domes ii-
cus, Leach, but Convolvulus scpium, Linn., on being
transferred to Calys/cgia, becomes C. scpium, R.
Brown !

Surely every one will agree that this want of
uniformity is unfortunate, but how is it to be
remedied ? Consider, for a moment, what is the
purpose of citing the authority after a name ? Is it
not as a guide to enable us to find the original
description on which the prior right of that name
to indicate the species is based ? If so, how can the
name of the author who only first placed the species-
in that genus help us ? Not at all, if the specific
name is allowed priority, as insisted upon by A.
De Candolle, whatever genus it is placed in,.
Oryzopsis aispidata, Scrib. has priority, perhaps, over
the combination " Oryzopsis mcmbranacca," but the
specific name mcmbranacca is ages antecedent to-
Scribner's or Thurber's appellation — a fact which is
entirely lost if we quote Oryzopsis mcmbranacca, Scrib.
instead of Pursh. So here again the question be-
comes, as before, which is to have priority, the
specific name alone, or the combined generic and
specific names?— and I trust the vast majority of
systematists, for uniformity's sake, if for no other
reason, will reply in favour of the first alternative,
and accept the necessary alterations of nomenclature
enforced by that rule.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

277

But whatever changes we are obliged to make, let
us make them as soon as possible, since every time
an error appears in print, it becomes more difficult
of correction, and more confusing to future genera-
tions.

T. D. A. COCKERELL.

West Cliff', Colorado.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
By John Browning, F.R.A.S.

THE Astronomical Society of France had a very
interesting meeting on the 3rd of October, with
Mr. Flammarion in the chair as president.

A description and drawing of the great Solar spot
of November the 12th, to the 25th, 1882, was com-
municated by M. Ricco, of Palermo. This was
the largest spot ever observed, its area being more
than fifty times as great as the area of the earth's
orbit. A drawing of the lunar crater, Eratosthenes,
was communicated by Mons. Gaudibert, which showed
twelve hills in the ring, and a considerable number of
small craters on the eastern side.

Mr. Isaac Roberts has contrived an admirably
efficient method of engraving the stars of astrono-
mical photographs in copper plates, so as to retain
the accuracy of the original negatives. Mr. Roberts'
stellar photographs are said to equal any produced in
France.

It is stated that the President of the University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, has applied to the
firm of Clark's respecting their ability to construct a
refractor forty inches in diameter. The discs for the
28-inch Greenwich refractor are completed.

Government has, it is said, accepted Earl Craw-
ford's offer to present his valuable instruments now at
Dun Echt to the nation, and the Treasury will furnish
the recpiisite funds for the erection of suitable
buildings to contain them, near Edinburgh.

In December Mercury will be an evening star in the
first half of the month.

Venus will be an evening star throughout the
month.

Mars will be an evening star during the whole
month.

December 3rd, Mars will be at the least distance
from the Sun, 6 hrs. aft.

December 20th, Mercury will be at the greatest
distance from the Sun.

December 31st, the earth will be at the least
distance from the Sun.

Meteorology. — At the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, the lowest reading of the barometer for the
week ending 20th October, was 29*82 in. at the
beginning of the week, and the highest 30*23 in. at
the end of the week. The mean temperature of the
air was 43*5 deg., and 7*5 deg. below the average.
The direction of the wind was variable. No rain was

Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets
at intervals of Seven Days in November.

Rises.

Souths.

Sets.

D.

h. m.

h. m.

h. m.

2

6 26M

IO 51 M

3 i6a

9

7 OM

II 7M

3 HA

Mercury 5 .]

16

7 34M

II 26m

3 i8a

23

8 2M

II 46M

3 30A

30

8 25 M

0 8a

3 5iA

2

10 4IM

2 28A

6 15A

j

9

10 42M

2 37A

6 32A

Venus ? . .<

16

10 38M

2 45A

6 59A

I

23

10 30M

2 52A

7 I4A

'

30

10 I9M

2 57A

7 35A

/

2

11 1 8m

3 24A

7 3oa

1

9

11 4M

3 19A

7 34A

Mars d . .1

16

10 52.M

3 HA

7 38a

I

23

10 34M

3 8a

7 42A

'

30

10 i8m

3 2A

7 46a

1

2

8 IIM

O I2A

4 I3A

9

7 5iM

II 5IM

3 5ia

Jupiter %. A

16

7 3iM

II 3OM

3 29A

1

23

7 I2M

II IOM

3 8a

'

30

6 52M

10 49M

2 46A

,

2

9 i6a

4 47M

0 14A

1

9

8 48A

4 19M

11 46M

Saturn T? . . j

16

8 20A

3 5iM

11 i8m

1

23

7 5oa

3 22M

10 50M

1

30

7 20A

2 53M

IO 22M

measured during the week. The duration of regis-
tered bright sunshine in the week was 24*5 hours,
against 35 '2 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 27th October, the highest
reading of the barometer was 30*28 in. on Monday
morning, and the lowest 29*80 in. on Thursday
afternoon. The mean temperature of the air was
49*2 deg., and 0*2 deg. below the average. The
general direction of the wind was S.W. No rain was
measured during the week. The duration of regis-
tered bright sunshine in the week was 25 * 5 hours,
against 23*6 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 3rd November, the highest
reading of the barometer was 30* 12 in. at the begin-
ning of the week, and the lowest 29*23 in. on Friday-
morning. The mean temperature of the air was 50*3
deg., and 3*0 deg. above the average. The general
direction of the wind was S.W. Rain fell on six days
of the week, to the aggregate amount of 2*68 in.
The duration of registered bright sunshine in the
week was 3*8 hours, against 4*0 hours at Glynde
Place, Lewes.

For the week ending 10th November, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*56 in. at the begin-
ning of the week, and the highest 29*71 in. on
Saturday morning. The mean temperature of the
air was 42* I deg., and 2*6 deg. below the average.
The general direction of the wind was easterly.

278

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Rain fell on three days of the week, to the aggregate
. amount of 0*20 of an inch. The duration of registered
bright sunshine in the week was 12*5 hours, against
10 • 6 hours at Glynde Pace, Lewes.

For the week ending 17th November, the lowest
reading of the barometer was 29*23 in. on Tuesday
morning, and the highest 39*01 in. on Thursday
evening. The mean temperature of the air was 50*5
deg., and 8*3 deg. above the average. The general
direction of the wind was southerly. Rain fell on
four days of the week, to the aggregate amount of
0*40 of an inch. The duration of registered bright
sunshine in the week was 8*6 hours, against 7*4 hours
. at Glynde Place, Lewes.

The isotherms or lines of mean temperature for
December again fall. On the east coast and in the
.midlands they are almost in the form of the letter U ;
while towards the west coast they run almost north-
east to south-west. The lowest isotherm 390, runs
from the Firth of Forth, through Sunderland and
York, nearly to Leicester, trends inland, and then
back northward through Derby, Bradford, and
Carlisle to Dumfries. 400 runs from Middlesbrough
along the east coast to Ramsgate then inwards
through London, and northward through Oxford,
Worcester, and Chester, to the Solway Firth. 410
runs southward through Liverpool, Hereford, and
Bristol, and then takes an easterly direction through
Salisbury and Winchester to Canterbury. 420 runs
from Denbigh through Devon and Dorset to the Isle
of Wight ; from 430 to 450 run nearly parallel to each
other, much farther towards the west, while 460 only
just crosses Cornwall near the Land's End.

The mean rainfall for December is two inches for
the east coast and Midlands, three inches for the
south coast, and from four to five inches on the west
coast.

MICROSCOPY.

The Royal Microscopical Society. — The
last Journal of the above society, in addition to the
usual summary of current researches relating to
zoology and botany, contains the following papers,
both copiously illustrated : — " On the Reproductive
condition of Orbitolites complanatus, var. laciniata,"
by H. B. Brady, F.R.S. ; and " Notices of New In-
fusoria Flagellata from American fresh waters," by
Dr. A. C. Stokes.

New Slides.— Mr. A. C. Cole has just brought
■ out some very remarkable new slides, mounted in his
well-known neat and clean manner. One is a
vertical transverse section of the human eye (stained)
showing all the parts from pupil to optic nerve. The
second is a similar section of the eye of greenfinch.
The third slide shows the optic nerve entering the
• eye of a greenfinch.

BOTANY.

A New Grass Fungus. — Last August I collected
a grass fungus, which I had not seen before, near Red
Creek, Custer Co., Colorado. The specimen was
sent to Mr. J. B. Ellis, who replied, " This seems to
be a Uromyces. It is quite different from U. grami-
nicola, Burrill, the spores being much like those of
Uredo graminis, but on distinct pedicels." This
I presumed new species is therefore called provisionally
U. castanens. Among the larger fungi, recent
additions to the Custer Co. flora are possibly new
species of Inocybe (/. occidentalis) and Mycenastrum
(M. fuscum), which, however, require further investi-
gation ; and Polyporus adustus, Fr., which was found
on a conifer. Mr. Ellis writes that it is common at
Newfield (New Jersey) on deciduous trees. — T. D. A.
Cocker ell, West Cliff, Colorado.

Colorado Alg^e.— Mr. F. Wolle has recently
examined a gathering of alga? from Short Creek,
Custer Co., Colorado, at about 8,400 feet alt., and
in it he finds four species new to my list, viz.,
Vaucheria geminata, Closterium auumis, Fragilaria
capucina, and Diatoma {Odonitidium) hiemale. He
has also kindly examined a gathering from near
Mace's Hole, Pueblo Co., in which he finds Cocconeis
pcdiculus, Gomphonema capitation, and Melosira
variatis, the two last being additional to my Colorado
list, which now numbers thirty species, against
twenty-five recorded for the neighbouring state of
Kansas. It should be stated that Colorado, from its
dryness and lack of many permanent pools or slow-
flowing rivers, is not favourable for the growth of
freshwater algae.— T. D. A. Coc/cerell, West Cliff,
Custer Co., Colorado.

Floral Monstrosities. — Some twenty years
ago, in a botanical ramble in company of Mr. A.
Grugeon and Mr. R. G. Keeley, both of the
Working Men's College in Great Ormond Street,
I saw several examples of the abnormal form of
Lamium galcobdolon mentioned by H. W. Moning-
ton. The locality was that part of Epping Forest,
known as the Hawk Wood, near Chingford ; and
the discovery was first made by one of my friends,
I think, Mr. Grugeon. On that occasion we ob-
tained ten or twelve specimens, in each of which the
stem terminated with a flower having a corolla of
five regular and equal lobes. The other parts of the
flower— calyx, stamens, &c. — were not so constant,
the stamens ranging from five to seven or eight in
different plants, the calyx teeth varying also in
number, and I think the pistil was absent or im-
perfect in all of them. In every instance it was a
solitary, terminal flower that deviated thus from the
ordinary form. In three or four successive years, a
few similar specimens were found by myself in the
same vicinity, but none with perfect carpellary
organs. Specimens were forwarded by Mr. Keeley

HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

279

to the late Professor Darwin, who courteously
noticed and commented on them in his work on
"Variation in Plants and Animals under Domesti-
cation." Several years subsequently I became
possessed of a copy of De Candolle's '"'Vegetable
Organography," and discovered that that eminent
botanist had, at least as early as 1836, noted and
described this form, and given its simplest and most
feasible explanation as the fusion of two opposite
axillary flowers terminating a stem which, under
unfavourable conditions, had failed to produce the
usual ultimate internode terminating with a pair of
leaves. — C. J. Savage.

White Flowers. — I have had in my garden this
summer several beds of Eschscholtzia Donglassi, and
in one of them I noticed a plant bearing two white
flowers, an occurrence I believe to be very un-
common, and one which may perhaps interest Mr.
Cockerell and others. Both flowers were much
inferior in all ways to their more conspicuous and
brilliantly-attired companions. Each flower measured
one inch and a half in diameter ; and the petals in
each case were smaller than those of the common
variety. At the base of the petals of the first flower
a tinge of pale yellow was faintly perceptible ; but on
the petals of the second flower not the slightest tinge
of yellow was visible ; this I consider is rather
singular. Both flowers were proterandrous, and
diurnal, usually closing at sundown. — J. H. A. Hicks.

Clifton Botany. — In your last issue there
appears a bright and chatty account of some of the
autumnal wild flowers to be seen during "a day's
weeding at Clifton " at the end of August. If I may
judge from his concluding paragraph, the writer does
not lay claim to critical knowledge of the plants, and
it is much to be regretted that his notes upon them
were not compared with the recently published
flora of the district ; or submitted, before publication,
to some competent friend who would have pointed
out the errors they contain. I beg permission to
make the following comments in correction. 1.
Pimpinella magna does not grow within many miles
of Bristol, and has never been found upon the cliffs
of the Avon gorge. 2. It is very improbable that
Anthriscus vulgaris was seen near Chfion. Hitherto
it has been quite unknown in the locality. 3. The
calamint found by "Wayfarer" in the deserted
quarry is either the menthifolia form of C. officinalis,
or C. Acinos. C. Ncpeta would be gladly welcomed
if it could be proved to exist at Clifton. 4. The
"wormwood" noticed at the same spot is mugweed
{Artemisia vulgaris). A. absinthium is not a Clif-
ton plant. 5. The Diplotaxis so common by the
Avon below Clifton is D. muralis. Its woody-
stemmed biennial variety is often mistaken for D.
tennifolia, which species is also abundant on the
other side of the city in St. Philip's marsh, and
occurs on walls elsewhere. 6. Thalictrum alpinum

is of course not to be seen nearer than the Welsh
mountains. Nor does the meadow-rue (T. Jlavum)
"meet the eye " upon our downs, though it grows in
the next county a couple of miles down the river, on
the other bank. Mistakes of this kind are the bane
of naturalists engaged in working out local botany,
and when published in a scientific journal they
continue to give trouble for generations, a con-
sideration which has induced me to pen these
remarks. — James Walter White.

Unusual Germination. — Under the above
heading I find, in the November number of
Science-Gossip, an account of lemon pips ger-
minating in the lemon. I remember observing a
similar occurrence some years ago. All the pips in
a lemon were germinating, and many had pushed out
the radicle, and the plumule was appearing. I
planted them and placed the pot in a hot bed, where
they flourished for some time. Two or three which
escaped the ravages of the slugs grew into fine little
bushes. I have also at other times seen pips ger-
minating in oranges and lemons — the fruit being in
good condition. — A. E. Mahood, M.B.

Notes on the Flora of the North Downs. —
In the above notes (Science-Gossip, Sep. 18S7), I
made two mistakes in the list of plants. The firsts
Gentiana campestris, I named from a specimen of
Amarella which had four sepals, and a four-lobed
corolla. I have since found one or two other
specimens like it. The other, Orc/iis militaris, should
be O. fusca. — Henry Lamb, Maidstone.

Var. of Asplenium ruta-muraria. — While
collecting in Headley Lane last October, I found on
a wall well-known to me from its luxuriant growth of
interesting mosses, a form of Asplenium ruta-
mtiraria which is quite new to me. It was growing
with the commor form of the plant, and differs from
it in its smaller size and in the character of its fronds..
Each frond consists of a solitary pinnule, reniform
and obscurely tri-lobed, with margins and sori like
those of the ordinary form. The pinnules measure
from 5-inch to 3-inch broad, and about j-inch long.
The appearance of the plant is very different from
that of Ruta-muraria. — H. W. Monington.

ZOOLOGY.

Argynnis Adippe. — During August of 1887 I
caught a specimen of Argynnis adippe, in worn con-
dition, near the river and Midland Railway in Wis-
bech, Cambs, and having seen in the " Fenland " that
only one previous capture is recorded, viz. in 1876, 1
thought it might be interesting to mention it.

II. Virgata, var. alba. — I have lately been for-
tunate in finding a locality near Llandaff for the
transparent-banded variety of Helix virgata, called

2So

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

var. alba. It occurs in company with H. caperata,
and it is interesting to record that I have taken a
single specimen of Caperata similarly banded on the
same bank. In September I also took this variety
of H virgata at Brixham (Devon), sparingly, and
observed that the banding of the transparent shells
was exactly the same as that of the coloured forms
with which it lived. Sufficient specimens were
obtained of either kind to distinguish the predomin-
ance of vars. bifasciata and leucozona. Next to these
ranked the type. The only other locality where I
have ever met with H. virgata var. alba is near
Bordeaux Harbour, Guernsey, also I believe an un-
recorded habitat. — Brockton Tomlin.

H. Nemoralis, var. sinistrorsum. — While
collecting shells at West Drayton this summer I came
across a sinistral Helix nemoralis. The specimen is
a dead one, and has a small hole punctured in the last
whorl, otherwise it is in fairly good condition and
scarcely bleached. Besides varieties of Nemoralis I
have found here //. arbustorum and sericea in profusion.
— F. G. Fenn, Isleworth.

Helix Nemoralis, var. Hortensis. — The shell
thus labelled in the Hartley Museum, Southampton,
is a well-known form, and the name appears in all
standard works on Conchology and in most of the
reputed lists — sometimes as a species and sometimes
as a variety. It differs from Helix nemoralis in
being smaller, in having a white lip, and with a
dark stain on the columella. Opinion is about
equally divided as to jits being a good species, but
having regard to the intermediate forms, and for the
convenience of systematists, I think the balance is in
favour of according it generic rank. — J. T. Marshall,
Sevenoaks, Torquay.

Helix Nemoralis (var. Hortensis). — In
answer to Mr. McBean, this shell should be Helix
hortensis. It was customary with the older workers
to consider it merely a variety of Helix nemoralis and
not a distinct specific form. That will account for
the discrepancy of the nomenclature of the land and
fresh-water shells used in the Hartley Museum and
in our more modern text-books. To-day it is
recognised as a distinct species, not only on account
of the smaller, and more conoidal form of its shell
and its white or rose-coloured peristome, but also on
account of the differences between the two forms in
their internal anatomy, especially in the odonto-
phoral membrane or radula, the shape of the
spicnlum amoris, and the number and character of
the digitate glands. In my " Handbook," to which
Mr. McBean refers, Helix hortensis and its varieties
will be found described on p. 1 1 1 ; Helix nemoralis and
its varieties on pp. no and in.— J. IV. Williams.

Anodonta Cygnea and Anatina. — I had ex-
pected Mr. Williams replying to Mr. W. M. Webb
on this subject touching the distinctness of Anodonta

cygnea and anatina. Failing any answer from Mr.
Williams I may just point out, that the "weight of
evidence " is greatly in favour of the two forms being
separate species. Mr. Webb has adduced Gray,
Forbes and Hanley, Isaac Lea and Dr. Henry
Woodward as authorities holding that anatina is but
a variety of cygnea. Against Mr. Webb's authorities
I set the following : Lamarck, Fleming, Mac-
gillivray, Alder, Bean, Jeffreys, Taylor and M.
Drouet. I believe all these well-known concho-
logists have regarded the smaller, angular, winged,
and usually greenish form of anodon we call anatina
to be a distinct species. Dr. Woodward and a few
other antediluvians, who have a strong dislike to
the trouble and expense of rearranging their cabinets,
might as well argue that all the species of conti-
nental anodons are one, and that Unio tumidus,
Unio pictorum and Unio ovalis are all one, because
there are a few difficult graduating forms be-
tween each two species. Helix nemoralis and Helix
hortensis were one till proved by their darts to be
two. — George Roberts.

Sense of Smell.— Anent the opinions lately ex-
pressed in our daily papers and journals as to the
value of dogs as trackers of criminals, I am of
opinion that even the feeble trials of indifferently
trained, and in some cases altogether untrained
animals, have been sufficient to prove that some of
our canine friends are eminently qualified for detec-
tive work. Sensory impressions are very strong in
the canine race, and although traffic and other causes
may have obliterated in some places the scent to be
followed and given rise to other effluvia— yet (especi-
ally in well-trained dogs), the impression first made
upon the organ of smell, is, I believe, retained
sufficiently long to enable the animal to pick up the
trail under great and seemingly insurmountable
obstacles. The extremely moist state of the mucous
membrane lining the nasal passages in the dog
intensifies the various odours which are conveyed by
the respiratory current through the nostrils, and this
is especially so in connection with the thin delicate
olfactory mucous membrane which is supplied with the
special nerves of smell whose function is to receive
odorous impressions and transmit them to the ence-
phalon. In blood or sleuth hounds, and also in the old
southern hound, the olfactory mucous membrane is
highly sensitive— thus accounting for the keen sense
of smell in these breeds and their adaptability for
tracking "by nose." ' — Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Ferns. — The proliferous ferns described by your
correspondent, E. E. Lowe, may have been planted
there by the owner, who might have been collecting
such varieties. It is rather surprising that Scolopen-
drium was not amongst the number of sports, as it is

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

281

very prone to produce a proliferation of the apex of
the' frond.— J. A. Whcldon.

Mists and Mice. — I have noticed that the mist
forming on the river Medway (and, doubtless, the
same on other rivers) at night smells strongly of
mice. What is the cause ? — H. L. D.

Penarth Entomological Society.— It maybe
interesting to your readers to hear that, at a meeting
■of the Penarth Entomological Society, held on the
1 8th inst., Mr. J. L. Howe exhibited two specimens
of Colias Ednsa caught on the 16th about two miles
from here, he having seen no less than six specimens
and also one Grapta e-albicm. Allow me to report
that Plusia gamma has been very abundant about here
this summer, specimens appearing at sugar being re-
markably bright and well marked. P. cardui has also
been very plentiful. — G. A. Birkenhead, Hon. Sec.

Mimicry in Plants. — I found numerous speci-
mens of Geranium molle in one clump near Penzance.
These were on the roadside and there were no white
flowers near, except a few late specimens of Capsella
bursa -pastor is. The central flowers of the clump
were completely white, but the outer ones had the
exterior of their petals slightly tinged with pink.
This may assist your correspondent in deciding
whether the colour arises from mimicry or poorness
of soil. These specimens were of quite the average
size, but they were certainly growing on a thin soil. —
IV. P. Winter.

Pauca Verba. — On Prof. Drummond's Natural
Law. 1. In "Conformity to Type," he says the
protoplasm of plant, animal, and man cannot be
distinguished one from the other, and further on,
The mineral furnishes the material for the vegetable ;
the vegetable for the animal, etc. I. Then how is it
possible that the vegetable and animal protoplasms
are indistinguishable ? 2. All life is correspondence
with environment. 2. With what environment does
original thought correspond ? 3. The whole organism
out of correspondence with the whole environment
is death. Part of the organism out of correspondence
-with its environment is dead. 3. The whole and the
part are not alike dead ; in the latter case the
correspondence may be restored ; in the former,
never. Partial paralysis may throw certain organs
of the brain out of correspondence with their en-
vironment, but there is a possibility of its being
restored, strictly speaking, they are not dead ;
whereas life once departed cannot be recalled.
4. Prof. Drummond cites a deaf man, as being in-
sensible or dead as regards sound. 4. Part of the
body other than the brain, out of correspondence
with environment, scarcely implies that the organism
is in that relation dead ; the organ of the power in
the brain is not even insensible ; it is out of corre-
spondence, because the indirect organ or instrument
of communication is impaired ; this is seen in a case
of injury to the drum of the ear, when the substitu-
tion of an artificial one immediately re-establishes
correspondence. All conscious correspondence is
dependent on the brain ; thus it is suspended during
sound sleep or a swoon ; in insanity correspondence
is imperfect, because the brain is impaired. In this
world the spiritual correspondence is no exception to
this. The spiritual does not supersede the organic as
the organic does the inorganic, it is carried on in
connection with it. All correspondences appear to
cease at death. There is no trace of the organism
which is to correspond, "post-mortem," with the
same spiritual environment ; it must be carried on
under different conditions. Finally this theory of

correspondence seems to involve conditional im-
mortality ; future life depending on spiritual corre-
spondence.— Charlotte Helbnann.

Water-Spider. — I read the article on the water-
spider, in your issue for September, with much in-
terest. I have at present a specimen of this creature
which has made a good-sized nest, and I expect it
will soon breed. The writer of the before-mentioned
article says that the spider is very ferocious at this
time, and on the approach of a water-snail (Planorbis
corneus) as the animal was too large to attack, the
spider turned it from its course by tickling its horns.
This morning (Oct. 10th) I observed one of the same
snails on a stalk of Anacharis alsinastrum just by the
nest. As soon as the spider noticed the mollusc, it
came out of the nest and gave the snail a few "pecks "
with the spine-like organ in front ot the mouth. This
caused the planorbis to draw in its horns, and at
length it altered its course, when the spider returned
to its nest. The snail was not very large, but of
moderate size. — F. P. Perks.

Teeth of Glow-worm. — Mr. Arthur Ayling is
incorrect in saying that the teeth of a glow-worm are
unable to pierce the skin. When living in Surrey,
where they especially abound, I kept one for some
months, and can attest, from my own personal ex-
perience, that little Anguis fragilis can draw blood,
though in my case it was not followed by any in-
flammation.— Laon.

A Queer Place foe Shells.— On Saturday,
October 20th, the manager of the Gannow Weaving
Shed, Burnley, told me they were cleaning out the
engine cistern, and that if I went down I might find
something interesting to me, as he had noticed a
number of shells in it. Being curious to know what
they might be, I took my apparatus, and was soon on
the spot. We ascended to the cistern which is on the
top of the engine-house, and about sixty feet above
the canal from which the water is pumped. The
water had been drawn off, leaving a few inches of
mud, among which were Sph. corneum and Sph.
lacustre. The sides were covered with long silky con-
fervoids, among which were numbers of V. piscina/is,
B. tentaculata, a very pretty form of L. pe/egra, very
much like succinea, both in form and texture, P. albus,
P. corneus, P. nitidus, a few P. glaber, and the very
local P. dilatatus occurred in thousands, of which I
obtained some immense specimens. This species is
very small in the canal below, but here they were
much larger than the specimens mentioned by Mr. J.
Russell Wildman, in the September number, as in-
habiting the paper-works lodge. I attribute their
large size to the fact, that the water is kept at an equal
temperature all the year round. The vegetation in
the cistern consisted of the before-mentioned confervae
and Anacharis alsinastrum, among which were any
number of beetles, caddis-worms, &c. — F. C. Long,
Burnley.

Battle between a Snake and Hedgehog.—
A friend in America has sent me a very interesting
account of a battle between a hedgehog and snake.
His account is as follows : While I was up in the
woods I witnessed a most remarkable fight. It was
nothing less than a pitched battle between a snake
and a hedgehog. I was sitting on a rock in the
shade, when I saw the hedgehog. I had my gun in
my hand, and was about to fire at the animal, when
something peculiar in his actions caused me to wait
and see what he was up to. He was crawling along
the ground cautiously. Looking ahead of him a few
feet, I saw a big snake coiled up, evidently asleep.

282

HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP.

The hedgehog stole up noiselessly within about three
feet of the reptile, then suddenly sprang forward and
caught the snake's tail in his teeth. Then quick as a
flash he rolled himself into a ball, and seemed to be
awaiting an attack. The snake so rudely awakened
from its slumber came angrily towards its enemy and
began striking at him with its fangs. At each bite
the snake's mouth was lacerated by the hedgehog's
quills. This, of course, made the reptile furious, and
it darted back and forth, first to one side and then
the other of its assailant. The latter watching a
favourable opportunity sprang forward and again
seized the snake's tail in his teeth, then rolled himself
up as before. The snake struggled and bit and
twisted this way and that, but the hedgehog still
held on. The reptile was bleeding at the mouth and
began to show signs of exhaustion, but it kept up the
struggle as long as it was able to move. Finally, when
it was completely played out, it became still. The
hedgehog then unrolled himself, ripped the snake open
and proceeded leisurely to devour it. — Dipton Burn.

Liparis salicis. — My experience in breeding this
moth is that when fresh from the pupa the wings
are tinged with yellow, which very soon changes to
pure white. I believe this is caused by the fluids
contained in the wings (when fresh) not being
completely absorbed into the wings, for if you handle
them at this time, the wings are quite limp. This
year I have bred and examined a very large number
of these moths. In August, I found them in all the
stages at Southport, viz. :— ova, larvae, pupa, and
imagos. The specimens before me at present do not
show any signs of the yellowish appearance, but are
all pure white. — F. IV. Faple, Bolton.

Helix Nemoralis var. Hortensis. — The shell
referred to by Mr. McBean is a well-known one
which he will find fully described in Jeffrey's " British
Conchology," vol. i. pp. 186-187. The variety
differs chiefly in colour, the mouth of the shell being
white-lipped while the type (nemoralis) is reddish-
brown or black. — J. Mac Naught Campbell, Glasgow.

[At one time I remember having seen little bottles
of coloured sand arranged like pictures. If I re-
member aright they are sold in some of the watering
places on the south coast of England. Can any
reader of Science-Gossip say where they are to be
obtained ?— J. M. C.\

White Sparrow. — The sparrow observed by Mr.
Hannan Watson is no unusual sight in Glasgow.
White and pied varieties of the common sparrow
have for many years been familiar to me here in
Kelvingrove Park, where I have from time to time
seen them, for the past eighteen years at least. In
the exhibition grounds yesterday (Sunday 4th Nov.)
I noticed a female, whose flight feathers were entirely
white, contrasting strongly with the soot-begrimed
colour of its companions with whom it was feeding,
and in the month of August last I saw four pied
birds, probably from the same nest, in a group of
about a dozen feeding near the museum in the park.
— J. Mac Naught Campbell, Glasgow.

Preserving Gault Fossils. — Can any of your
readers suggest a method of preserving fossils of the
Gault from decay ? I find that those which I have got
from the coast (Folkestone) are crumbling away of
heir own accord. Is there any solution they can lie
coated with that will prevent this ? — J. H. A. Vcrinder.

Depila.tion. — Would you kindly inform me,
through the medium of your valuable paper, the best
means, to your knowledge, for the prevention of
human hair falling out in large quantities? — IV. M.

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

To Correspondents and Exchangers.— As we now
publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un-
dertake to insert in the following number any communications
which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month.

To Anonymous Querists.— We must adhere to our rule of
not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names.

To Dealers and Others.— We are always glad to treat
dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general
ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair
exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply
Disguised Advertisembnts, for the purpose of evading the cost
of advertising, an advantage is taken of oxx gratuitous insertion
of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated.

We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or
initials) and full address at the end.

Special Note.— There is a tendency on the part of some
exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow
this in the case of writers of papers.

EXCHANGES.
~ Duplicates.— Blackbird, thrush, missel thrush, hedge spar-
row, house Sf arrow, starling, robin, whitethroat, swallow,
greenfinch, and chaffinch ; also in shells, L. stagnate (hne),
H. virgata, and var. submaritima of same.— Desiderata, very
numerous other eggs, shells, and many butterflies.— N. Hewett,
3 Wilton Terrace, Fulford Road, York.

Wanted, Helix fusca, H. revelata, H. pygmwa, Bu. mon-
tanus, &c. in exchange for other land and freshwater shells.—
John Radcliffe, m Oxford Street, Ashton-under-Lyne.

For exchange, land and marine shells from Gibraltar and
Tangier, and freshwater from the Engadine. Desiderata, rare
British forms, or any foreign shells not in collection. Lists on
application to— F. W , Drapers' College, Tottenham.

Offered, darts of Helix aspersa, nemoralis, hortensis,^
caperata, &c. Desiderata, L. involuta, several species of
Vertigos, Acme lineata, &c— W. Hy. Heathcote, M.C.S.,
East View, Preston.

Wanted, Vols. IV. Morris's "British Birds," and Bree s
"Birds of Europe," also Wallace's " Malay Archipelago," in
exchange for Vol. I. Morris's "British Birds," mounted birds,,
coins, &c— H., 26 Market Place, Newark.

For exchange, eggs of cuckoo, kingfisher, ptarmigan, wood-
cock, goldfinch, dunlin, hawfinch, and many others, in clutches
or separate. Wanted, one-holed eggs of the common British
birds. — Jas. Ellison, Steeton, Leeds.

Splendid collection of moths and butterflies, over 300 dif-
ferent species; list sent on application. Will exchange for
Rover bicycle.— Fiennes A. N. Beasley, Ardenham House,
Aylesbury.

T. caput-serpentis (attached), Cr. anomala (on stones), P.
7-radiatus, Lima elliptica and subauriculata, Nuc. nitida and
tenuis, Leda pygma-a and minuta, Luc. spini/era, Ax.ferru-
ginosus, Ast. sulcata and triangularis, S. siliqua, V. arcuata
(6i inches), Th. prcetenuis. Dent, entalis (live), Tr. mille-
granus (small), Trick, borealis, in exchange for other Brituh
marine species not in collection. — A. Somerville, 34 Granbjr
Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

Choice Wenlock limestone, and other good fossils, in ex-
change for scientific books, chalk fossils, or offers. — A. Y.
Ovant, Cottesville, St. Oswald's Road, Small Heath, Birming-
ham.

West Indian and West African specimens, about sixty
kinds, mostly in glass-top boxes, including various seeds, shells,
sugar-cane, &c, also snake in spirits, suitable for exhibition or
private collection. What offers? safety bicycle wanted, good
make. — W. Pix, 167 St. Thomas's Road, Finsbury Park,
London. . .

Natural history books in exchange for microscopic slides
or cabinet. Microscopic slides for exchange. — S. Harrison,
Dalmain Road, Forest Hill. _

For test scales of podura {Lepidocyrtus curzncollis), send,
stamped envelope to— Joseph Wall, 42A Everton Brow, Liver-

Wanted, micro slides in exchange for Rutherford's freezing
microtome.— Suter, 5 Highweek Road, Tottenham.

Darts of several species of helix offered for British and
foreign land and freshwater shells.— W. Hy. Heathcote, M.C.S.,
East View, Preston.

Wanted, wings of damaged butterflies of a brilliant cha-
racter 'exotic), which will do for microscope mounting, in
exchange for mounted or unmounted parasites.— 28 Haver=tock
Hill, London, N.W.

Wanted, a good book on spiders ; will give good exchange.
— W. J. Fuller, 91 Tamworth Road, Croydon.

Fossils troni all British formations wanted, in exchange for
fossils, minerals, shells, &c— John Hawell, M.A., Ingleby
Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton.

Wanted, S. vircscens, S. oblonga, Z. radiatulus, Pupa
ringens, H. carthusiana, all the vertigos except antivertigO"
and pygma-a, and many varieties. Offered, large examples of

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

28-

jV. pictorum (4I inches), and many other land and freshwater
shells. — W. A. Gain, Tuxford, Newark.

Science-Gossip, from 1868-87, inclusive, handsomely bound,
ten vols, perfect. What offers in microscopic accessories, a
good objective preferred?— G. Horn, 57 Bell Street, Calton,
Glasgow.

For exchange, V. piscinalis, P. albus, P. eorneus, P.
spirorbis, P. glabcr, L. truncatula, H. sericca, &c. Wanted,
H '. hortcnsis, var. incarnata, and varieties of H. virgata and
ericetorum. — F. C. Long, 8 Cog Lane, Burnley, Lanes.

Wanted, Isocardia cor, and Cardium norvegicum. Land
and freshwater shells given in exchange, many rare. — F. C.
Long, 8 Cog Lane, Burnley, Lanes.

Wanted, a few dozen Argulus foliaccus (parasite of pike,
trout, &c), in exchange for good slides, and marine specimens
in any section. — J. Sinel, Cleveland Road, Jersey.

Duplicates. — L. icarus, P. chi, P. gamma, L. dispar.
Desiderata numerous. — W. Turnbull, 1 Horm Terrace, View-
fourth, Fdinburgh.

Fine specimens of foreign shells — helix, mya, clausilia,
tellina, venus, cardium, anodon, pecten, bulla, pupa, cyclo-
stoma, haliotis, turbo, nerita, ampullaria, harpa, fusus, cyprasa,
conus and others, offered for others not in collection ; Aus-
tralian shells wanted. Foreign and Colonial correspondence
invited. — Dr. Reed, jun., Ryhupe, Sunderland.

Wanted, leaf stick and moss insects, pterochroza, kallima,
phyllium, phasmidae, &c. ; trap-door spiders and nests, ant
lion (myrmeleon) larvae. State desiderata. — Mark L. Sykes,
New Lane, Winton, near Manchester.

PL dila'atus and Sph. ovale, from new Lancashire locality,
and other land and freshwater shells to exchange. Desiderata
.numerous. — T. M. Harvard, 41 Union Street, Leyland, near
Preston.

Offered, cone in cone. Wanted, shells, recent and fossil.
Send lists. — J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning.

Wanted, a polished pine tray cabinet, for micro slide. Will
give twenty-four well-mounted slides in exchange, including
foraminifera, spicules, plant seeds, scales of fish, plants, &c.
— George T. Reed, 87 Lordship Road, Stoke Newington,
London, N.

Exotic butterflies, duplicates : Pap. sinon, agestor, epycides,
Paris, vernalis (.new species), M. adonis, &c. ; also wings of
inorphos and uranias. Special desiderata, Pap. ascanius (Rio),
tuontrouzieri, dwdalus, criuo, arjnna, &c. — Hudson, Railway
Terrace, Cross Lane, Manche-ter.

Wanted, dentalium and entale ; will exchange for either
marine or land and Ireshwater shells, also curios and memorial
brass rubbings. Will send list. Other eggs than birds' wanted.
— Archibald Hy. McBean, S. Denys, Southampton.

Helix arbustorum and H. hortensis in exchange for marine
shells. — Robert Walton, 44 Canning Street, Burnley.

Micro mounts in exchange for crystalline rocks or minerals.
— J. H. Lewis, F.L.S., 145 Windsor Street, Liverpool.

Conchologv. — About 400 specimens of Unto tumidus, U.
J>ictorum, and Anodonta cygnea, and numerous varieties of
helices, offered in exchange for antiquarian books or pamphlets
relating to Yorkshire, or old Yorkshire newspapers published
before 1820. — Geo. Roberts, Lofthouse, Wakefield.

Wanted, Bythinia leachii, Helix Cantiana, and H. car-
tusiana, for other land and freshwater shells. — John Radcliffe,
11 Oxford Street, Ashton-under-Lync, Lancashire.

Ordkal bark of New Guinea, ordeal beans ot Calabar, kava
kava, mate, tappa cloth, and henna, in exchange for lepid-
optera in any stage. — Tunley, Powerscourt Road, Landport.

Exchange. — Withering's " British Plants," 14th ed., 1877,
for any similar work or flora. — B. Prosser, 7 Coronation Road,
Bristol.

Wanted, British and foreign ova and pupae, also foreign
correspondence. — H. W. Head, Norwood Street, Scarborough.

Upwards of 400 numbers of "Band of Hope Review," in
fair condition ; would make a good volume, if bound together,
of interesting reading. Will exchange for rare foreign stamps :
list preferred. — A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., Bank Street, Teign-
mouth.

Solecurtus a?itiquattts, Thracia pubescens, Solen vagina,
Saxicava Xorvegica, Phola Candida, P. crispata, Pholadidea
papyracea, Xylophaga dorsnlis, Mya arenaria, Diplodonta
rotnndata, Pecten glabcr ( Tigrinus), Pinna rudis, P.pectinata,
Pandora ina>quivalvis, P. v. obtusa, Lima loscombii, L.
subauriculata, Venus chione, V. casina, Donax vittatus,
and Isocardia cor, wanted in exchange for fossils, minerals,
polished specimens of Devonian corals and sponges, and other
British shells.— A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., Bank Street, Teign-
mouth.

Specimens of rocks (150), mostly metamorphic, from eastern
Perthshire, collection of nodules from post-glacial clay, and a
few old red sandstone fossils, in exchange lor modern works on
geology. — John Smith, Kirtrench, Meigte, Peithshire.

Offered. — "Longman's Magazine" for 1887-8, "English
Illustrated Magazine" for 1888, "Welcome" for 1888, all
complete; "Walden," "Leaves from a Naturalist's Note-
book," by Dr. A. Wilson; "Half-Hours in Green Lanes," by
Dr. Taylor; "Electricity and its Uses," by C. E. Munroe ;
Liassic and other fossils offered for exchange.— John Hawell,
Ingleby Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton.

The first six parts of " Naturalist's Monthly." Wanted. —
Briti-h birds' nests and eggs, and British and foreign species of
unionidx. — J. R. Fitzgerald, Clifford House, Harrogate.

Wanted, grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs, cockroaches and
crickets (British and European). Offered, lepidoptera, marine,
land and freshwater shells, star-fishes, sea-urchins, algas dragon-
flier, natural history books and pamphlets, &c. — W. Harcourt
Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Wanted, Biitishand European dragonflies, European butter-
flies, and land shells. Offered, same as above. — W. Harcourt
Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Cabinet to dispose of, twelve cases, each 24 X 16 X 2 in.,
with glass, varnished, black knobs, quite new ; what offers? —
W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham.

Wanted, a well-set specimen of a hornet [Vespa crabro), in
good condition, in exchange for good specimens of British
land and freshwater shells, or unmounted specimens for micro-
scope, &c. — J. R. P. Masefield, Rosehill, Chcadle, Stafford-
shire.

Books wanted. — Kingsley's "Town Geology," any of Rus-
kin's works, " Grevillea," Nos. 2, 4 and 6, or vol. i., 1872,
and "Journal of Botany" for April 1888. Will give good
exchange in mounted diatoms. — J. B. Bessell, 8 Elmgrove
Road, Bristol.

Wanted, to exchange good micro slides for others. Lists
exchanged. — Suter, 5 Highweek Road, Tottenham.

Wanted, rare British shells ; foreign specimens offered in
exchange. — J. T. T. Reed, Ryhope, Sunderland.

Land and marine shells from Gibraltar and Tangier, and
freshwater shells from the Engadine, wanted to exchange for
British marine, or any foreign shells not in collection. Lists
exchanged.— F. W., Drapers' College, Tottenham.

Engadine butterflies offered in exchange for any shells not
in collection. — F. W., Drapers' College, Tottenham.

Offered. — Howitt's "Book of the Seasons," Ordoyno's
"Nottinghamshire Flora," parts 1-33, and Cassell's "Familiar
Wild Flowers." Having duplicates of these, I should like to
exchange for other natural history works or specimens, espe-
cially entomological, or works on angling. — H. Fisher, 26 Stod-
man Street, Newark, Notts.

Wanted, to exchange British dried plants for North or
South American, or Australian. Printed list sent on receipt of
address. — H. Fisher, 26 Stodman Street, Newark, Notts.

Science-Gossip for 1885-6 (unbound), complete, in exchange
for Wallace's "Canary Book," Green's "Birds I have Kept,"
aid Arnold's "Bird Life in England," or offers. — R. Finn,
2 Archcliffe Road, Dover.

Wanted, perfect and in fair condition, Aaron Penley's
" English School of Painting in., Water Colours," published by
Leighton Brothers, in exchange for good British land and
freshwater shells, fossils or plants. — E. R. F., 82 Abbey Street,
Faversham.

Wan 1 ed, good dissections, well displayed, in either glycerine
or spirit, of the reproductive organs, of Helix pulcltclla, his-
pida, fusca and reve/ata. State desiderata. — W. E. Collinge,
20 Blenheim Place, Leeds.

Wanted, any literature (American, German, &c), having
reference to the dans of the helicidx : can offer in exchange
Flower's "Osteology of the Mammalia," Lyell's "Students'
Elements of Geology," Juke's "Geology," "Observations on
the genus Unio," by Isaac Lea, with 28 coloured plates, Klein's
" Elements of Histology," and eight bound vols, of Science-
Gossip, &c. — W. E. Collinge, 20 Blenheim Place, Leeds.

Helix ritpcstris, showing that this species is ovo-viviparous,
with young in situ, offered for Testacellas, S. oblonga, H. ob-
voluta, V. Moulinsiana, tumida, augustior or Acme lineata.—
Edward Collier, 74 Yurburgh Street, Moss Side, Manchester.

Zonitcs glabcr, fulvus, H. aculeata, aspersa, rufescens,
sericca, ericetorum, var. minor, rupestris, lapicida. B. acutus,
var. bizona, B. perversa, C. rugosa, var. dubia, C. tridens,
S. vivicola, P. amnicum, A. anatina, P. dilatatus, &c. &c,
offered for S. ovale, P. roseum, U. margaritifer, B. leachii,
L. glutinosa, glabra, Z. radiatulus, nitidus, H. revelata,
fusca, pygmcea, B. monianus, P. rtngens, &c. &c, or any
named vars. of the commoner species. Send list to — Edward
Collier, 74 Yurburgh Street, Moss Side, Manchester.

Wanted, works on geology; palaeontology, and mineralogy,
also magazines and proceedings, any date, in exchange for
micro-rock and mineral sections, &c. — J. G. Dufty, 140 Devon-
shire Street, Sheffield.

Duplicate rock sections. What offers in rocks, fossils or
minerals? — J. G. Dufty, 146 Devonshire Street, Sheffield.

Offered, fine collections of clausilia and foreign mironidae ;
unacceptable offers of exchange not replied. — Miss F. M. Hele,
Fairlight, Elmgrove Road, Cotham, Bristol.

A gentleman returning to America has a most perfect black
flint arrow-head, found by himself in Utah, U.S.A.; very
valuable. Also some beautiful specimens of rich silver ore.
What offers or exchange? — E. Cavan-Dance, Glencora, Lome
Park, Bournemouth.

Wantkd, H. hortensis, and vars. lilicina and subalbida,
also vars. of H. ncmoralis and clausilia. Offered, Z. alharius,
H. pisana, cartusiaua, lapicida, virgata, capcrata, and
"Journal of Conchology " for 1878. — Thos. H. Hedworth,
Dunston, Gateshead.

284

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Exchange. — 3 vols, of Science-Gossip, 1875, 1876, 1887
4 nos. missing ; 8 nos. " Monthly Microscopical Journal," 1874 '•
6 nos. "The Annals and Mag. Natural History," also vol. for
1874, complete, with plates; vol. i. "The Naturalist ' (1851),
and a few others. Wanted, a youth's portable microscope,
microscopical mounting apparatus, photographic outfit, or offers.
— James B. Beckett, Trinity Place, Friars Lane, Great Yar-
mouth.

What offers for a collection of British marine, land and
freshwater shells (named), over 70 species. — James B. Beckett,
Trinity Place, Friars Lane, Great Yarmouth.

Wanted, micro material in exchange for micro slides. —
Ernest O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

Wanted, L. involuta, P. roseum, T. haliotidea, S. zurescens,
S. oblonga, 2 ' . radiabulus, H. pygmaa, H. obvoluta, B. mon-
tanus, Vertigoes, A. lineata, in exchange for fossils, shell-, &c.
— John Hawell, M.A., Ingleby Greenhow Vicarage, North-
allerton.

Wanted, micro slides. Offered, air-pump with bell glass,
also cyclostyle apparatus for printing circulars, lists, &c, both
new. — Henry Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Road, London.

Exchange, 4-plate camera, long focus, universal swing, and
all the latest improvements, and three double backs ; will
exchange for piano. — W. Shead, 2 St. Andrew's Road, Higham
Hill, W althamttow.

Slugs wanted (living) from all parts of the country, in
exchange for land and freshwater shells. — F. G. Fenn, Syon
Lodge, Isleworth.

British shells. — Duplicates of over 100 species of land,
freshwater and marine for exchange, many uncommon. Lists
exchanged. — J. W. Cundall, Carrville, Redland, Bristol.

Wanted, well-mounted botanical and histological micro
slides; will give in exchange excellent named specimens of the
rarer musci and hepaticae. — William Smith, 6 Addison Place,
Arbroath, N.B.

Foreign lepidoptera wanted ; British lepidoptera, shells,
minerals and fossils offered in exchange. Correspondence
invited. — A. H. Shepherd, 70 Brecknock Road, London, N.

Wanted, rock and stock doves (C. livia and anas'), skins or
in flesh. Offered, "Naturalist's World" for 1884-5, two bound
vols., nearly new.— J. H. K., 18 Church Street, Commercial
Street, E.

Wanted, a good histological microscope, with or without
objectives. Give particulars. — Frank L. Tanner, Waterloo
Place, Oxford Road, Manchester.

Offered, British zoophytes and marine shells. Wanted,
zoophytes, land, freshwater and marine shells. — J. Simpson,
51 Lock Street, Aberdeen, N.B.

Leiidopteka, well set and in good condition, also about
1000 duplicate stamps, in exchange for other stamps, in order
to increase a collection of 4000 varieties. — H. C. Lilley, Lincoln
Road East, Peterborough.

Wanted, Grant Allen " On the Colour of Flowers," second-
hand, in fair condition. — Chas. A. Whatmore, Much Marcle,
Gloster.

Wanted, pups or imagos of American silk-producing bom-
byces, and other lepidoptera. I shall be pleased to hear from
any American entomologist who would be willing to exchange
American insects for British. — Robt. Laddiman, Upper Hel-
lesdon, Norwich.

What offers in micro apparatus for any of the following, all
quite new: Weismann's " Studies in the Theory of Descent,"
2 vols., Martin's " Microscopic Objects Figured and Described,"
McAlpine's "Life Histories of Plants," Dr. Hamilton's " His-
tory of British Fishes," 2 vols., coloured plates, Bowditch's
"Suffolk Surnames," Badcock's "Vignettes from Invisible
Life." — D. Adamson, 172 Watson Street, Motherwell.

Wanted, a cabinet for micro slides. State requirements.
A collection of foraminifera, consisting of over 100 species,
selected and named, offered. — A. Earland, 3 Eton Grove,
Lee, S.E.

Wanted, any dredgings or shore sands containing foramin-
ifera. Exchange offered in similar material, or in named and
mounted specimens. Duplicates offered : Clavulina parisiensis,
var. humilis, Spiroplccta annectens, Lagena lagenoides, var.
iennistriata (British specimens), and many other rarities.
Send lists. — A. Earland, 3 Eton Grove, Dacre Park, Lee, S.E.

For exchange, micro slides, various objects. Wanted, Hob-
kirk's " Synopsis of British Mosses," Lowe's " British Grasses,"
and all books relating to grasses and mosses. Also John's
" Forest Trees of Britain;" micro slides in exchange. — Ernest
O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

Wanted, gramineae, mu?ci, and micro fungi from all parts of
Britain, in exchange for micro slides. — Ernest O. Meyers,
Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

For exchange, a small collection of British land and fresh-
water shells, many rare, also British and foreign marine shells.
Wanted, natural history books, micro slides, material and
plants. — Ernest O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W.

Science-Gossii', vols. 4-ri, inclusive, wanted; will give
liberal exchange in slides, illustrating most branches of micro-
scopy.—Fred. Lee Carter, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Mounted or unmounted parasites wanted, in exchange for
others, or general slides.— Fred. Lee Carter, Gosforth, New-
castle-on-Tyne.

Foreign correspondents wanted to exchange mic o slides or
material. — Fred. Lee Carter, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Will harden and cut the tissues, and send well-mounted
slides in return, for physicians' and surgeons' own pathological
material. Correspondence invited. — Fred. Lee Carter, Gos-
forth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Offered, "The British Herbal," by Rich. Culpepper, and
"Gen. Student in Physic and Astrology," 2 vols., with many
coloured plates of plants. Wanted, Woodward's "Geology of
England and Wule>," 2nd edition. — J. Smith, Monkredding,
Kilwinning.

Offered, carboniferous limestone fossils for others, or for
marine shells. — F. C. King, Bank Villa, Fulwood, Preston.

Wanted, good British and foreign zoophytes ; must be
correctly named, also marine alga? ; good exchange in mounted
or unmounted material, micro material, or micro apparatus.
State wants and list of above, also what quantity can be
supplied. — R. M., 24 Park Road, Clapham, S.W.

Wanted, ith or ith object glass for microscope, good defini-
tion and universal screw, in exchange for sixty-seven species of
dried plants collected by the owner on the steppes of Russia,
south of Moscow. — G. E. Gavey, 7 Westbourne Villas, West
Brighton, Sussex.

Rare butterflies and moths wanted in exchange for good
opera-glass. — John J. Holstead, 19 Millholme Terrace, Upperby
Road, Carlisle.

What offers for the following books? P. H. Gosse's "Year
at the Shore" (a leaf replaced by a sheet of note-paper),
Lindley's ''School Botany," and "Notes on Collecting and
Preserving Natural History Objects," by J. E. Taylor and
others, slightly soiled. — J. W. B. Rodgers, c.o. Green and
Lloyd's, Cadman Lane, Norfolk Street, Sheffield.

A good duplicate (nearly complete) of British mosses offered
in exchange for foreign mosses, hepaticae or algae especially
wanted. Marine alga:, named or not, from any part of the
world, or exchange of specimens of these plants. Collectors
having any of these to dispose of are requested to write for
particulars to — J. Miles, Sudely Place, Kemp Town, Brighton.

CI. laminata, C. itala, C. lineolata, C. parvu'a, C. plicatula,
Cyc. elegans, H. caperata, CI. Rolphii, D. polymorplia, and
L. peregra, L. stagnalis, and Auodonta cygnea, and Anatina,
from numerous localities, in exchange for Spli. ovale, L. involuta,
L. glutiuosa, U. tumidus, T. haliotidea, or Vertigoes. — F. R.
Fitzgerald.

helix aspcrsa, nemoralis and hortensis, in exchange for the
same species from other localities. — F. R. Fitzgerald.

BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED.

" Fossils of the British Islands," vol. 1, Palaeozoic, by Robt-
Etheridge, F.R.S., &c. (Oxford : Clarendon Press). — " Invisible
Powers in Nature," byE. M. Caillard (London: John Murray).
— "Planetary and Stellar Studies," by J. E. Gore (London:
Roper & Drowley). — " Entomology for Beginners," by Dr.
A. S. Packard (New York: Holt & Co.).— " Primer of Micro-
Petrology," by W. Mawer I London: 4 Essex Street, Strand).
— "Class-Book of Elementary Chemistry," by W. W. Fisher
(Oxford: CLrendon Press). — "Practical Geometry," by John
Carroll (London: Burns & Oates). — "Illustrated Manual of
British Birds," Parts 4-7.— " Book Chat."— "The Amateur
Photographer." — "The Garner." — "The Naturalist." — "The
Botanical Gazette." — "Journal of the New York Microscopical
Society." — " Belgravia." — "The Gentleman's Magazine." —
"American Monthly Microscopical Journal." — "The Essex
Naturalist." — "The Midland Naturalist." — "Feuilles des
Jeunes Naturalistes." — " The American Naturalist." — " Journal
of Microscopy and Nat. Science." — " Ottawa Naturalist." —
" Scientific News." — " Wesley Naturalist." — " Report of
Botanical Exchange Club for 1887." — " Tyneside Review." —
"Proceedings of Norwich Science-Gossip Club." — "Address
by Dr. C. C. Abbott on Anthropology." — "Trans. Dumfriesshire
Nat. Hist, and Antiquarian Soc," &c. &c.

Communications received up to the 13TH ult. from :
G. F.— F. C. L.— C. P.— A. E. W.— J. T. T. R.— J. K.— J. S.
— M. L. S.— W. T.— W. A. G.— D. W. B.— J. W.— T. S. M.—
L. W. L.— J. H.- W. J. F.— W. H.— A. R. O. S. G.— J. W. 0.
— T. D. A. C— J. A. vV.— F. G. F.— S. H.— G. D.— J. W.—
W. H. H.— B. T— J. C— W. P.— J. M. H.— H. McB.— J. S.
—A. J. O.-F. A. N. B.— J. E.-W. P. H— A. S.— G. T. R.
-F. P. P.— A. J. H. C— F. W— F. C. L— Dr. J. W. W.—
R. W.— H. W. M— C. J. S. B.— W. E. C— J. W. W.—
J. B. B.-E. C— R. S.— R. F.— J. T. T. R.— E. R. F.—
W. H. B.— H. F.— F. W. P.— W. H. T.— A. J. R. S.—
A. E. M. J. M. C— H. W. H.— D. B.— K. E. S. -W. G. W.
_j. s.— J. R. B. M.— E. B.— J. R. F.— N. L— J. W. O.—
T. O. A. C— F. G. F.-J. A. W.— A. N. O. S. G.-W. T. B.—
N. H.— F. G.— VV. I. F.— R. C— J. G.— F. L. C-W. S. J. S.
—J. H. K.— C. A. W.— D. A.— A. E.— A. H. S.— J. H. A. V.
— W. M.— R. L.— F. L. T.— H. C. L.— J. G. D.-J. T. M.—
H. E.— F. M. H.— E. C. D.— T. H. H.-J. B. B.— J. H.—
E. 0. M.— R. W. H.— G. K. G.— W. S— F. G. F.-C. J. S.—
J. W. C.-G. E. G.— J. M.— H. A. F.— R. M.— J. J. H.—
J. W. B. R.-F. C. K.-W. H.— W. J. S., &c. &c.

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

285

INDEX TO VOL. XXIV.

Abnormal Growths on Forest Trees,

274
Absolute Alcohol, 200
Achatina octona, 188
Action of Caffeine, 106
Action of Coal-tar Dyes, 222
Aftergrowths among Hardwood and

Coniferous Tree Stumps, 203
Air of Coal Mines, 267
Albino Rook, 43
Aluminium, 33, 179
Amber Hunting in the Baltic, 261
An Evening at the Royal Microscopical

Society, 19
An Old Experiment, 154
Ancient Yews, 46
Animal Psychology, 39
Annals of Botany, 22, 140, ait, 237
Anodonia cygnea, Linne, 235, 280
Anstey's Cove, Flora of, 211
Answer to Query at p. 100. .190
A rgyn?iis adippr, 279
Artificial Silk, 134
Astronomy and Meteorology, 15, 39, 64,

in, 136, 160, 230, 277, 306
Australasia, Science in, 267
Australian Fly, Nest of, 42
Australian Sponges, 256
Autocopyi>t Illustrations, 116
Autumnal Migration of Birds, 39

Badges Worn in Time of War, 23

Balanoglossus sarniensis, 124

Ballast Bags of Seals, 90

Bats in Scotland, 91

Beauty of the Lichen Mark, 257

Bedfordshire Clays, etc., 141

Bee, and the Development of Honey in

Flowers, 102
Bees and Jubilees, 215
Bees and Lime-trees, 43
Before Darwinists were Metamorphosists,

214 i_ •

Benzoylsulphonicionide, or Saccha ine,

Chapter on, 51
Big Meteorite, 221

Biological Laboratory at Plymouth, 251
Blue John, Colouring Matter of, 134
Boar Fish, 210
Bombyx Rttbi, 118
Book Worms, 163, 210
Boreal Flora in Colorado, 189
Botanical Examination, 236, 260
Botanical Excursion in Switzerland, 14s,

211
Botanical Notes at Hastings, 199
Botany, 21, 39, 70, 82, 116, 140, 164, 189,

211, 236, 258, 278
Botany, Annals of, 22
Botany Examination of the Science and

Art Department, South Kensington, 190,

258

Boulders in the Carboniferous Limestone

of Dublin, 117
British Achatinae, 166, 188
British Association, Cat Day at, 268
British Slugs, 115
Bruce, 169
Butterflies, Localities for, 142

Caffeine, Action of, io5
Calcutta, Microscopical Society of, 38
Camera Lucida, Measurements by, 209
Campanula gloinerata, 21
Campanula glomerata and Gentiana

campestris, 39
Caprices of Lightning, 63
Capture of a Spider new to Great Britain,

188
Carboniferous Limestone of Dublin,

Boulders in, 117
Carduus setosus, lyj
Carex frigida, All., 70
Castor, 71

Cat Day at the British Association, 268
Cats and Violets, 45
Celloidin, 263
Chaffinch and Blackbird, Early Nesting

of, 141
Chapter on Benzoylsulphonicionide, or

Saccharine, 51
Chapters on Colour, 6, 29
Chats about Rotifers, 27
Cholera, the Propagation of, 33
Clifton Botany, 279
Clouds, forms of, 4
Clouds of Land and Sea, 247
Coal Mines, Air of, 267
Coal-tar Dyes, Action of, 222
Colorado Algae, 278
Colour, Chapters on, 6, 29
Colouring Matter of Blue John, 134
Colours of Cocoon Silk, 20
Colours of Leaves and Flowers, 121
Combined Use of Celloidin and Paraffin,

162
Conchology, 115

Consumption of Muscle by Exercise, 221
Convolvulus Hawk Moth, 43
Convolvulus, Night Flowering, 166
Copepod, A New Parasitic, 32
Corrections to Notes on Eighth Edition of

London Catalogue, 189
Correlation of Eocene Strata of England,

Belgium, and the North of France, 40
Croaking of Frogs, 71
Crystal Making, 154
Cuckoo, 43
Cuckoo's Mate, 43
Curious Creature, 124

Daisies, Purple-eyed, 140
Daphnia, Unrecorded, 36

Day's Shell Collecting, 202

Day's Weeding at Clifton, 258

Depilation, 282

Depraved Appetites, 95

Development of Gnat, Notes on, 132, 1C4,

189
Dicynodon in the Elgin Sandstones, 93
Dielytra speciabilis, 40
Discovery of a Gigantic Turtle by Dr.

Donnegan, 40
Dissolving Gum Tragacanth, 213, 256
Drying Plants, 189
Drying Plants on a Tour, 80
Ducklings, 118

Early Nesting of the Chaffinch and

Blackbird, 141
Eccentricities of Insect Life, 93
Ecdysis of Insects, 219
Economical Products of Plants, 84, 196
Educational Collection of Insects, 43
Eighth Edition of London Catalogue of

British Plants, 59
Electric Fishing, 33
Electricity, Maturing Wines by, 105
Elements in the Sun, 106
Encroachments of the Sea, 22
Enock's Sketches, 116
Enock's Slides, 19

Entomological Society of London, 115
Eozoon Canadense, 141
Erroneous Reputations of Reptiles, 218
Exhaustion of Soils, 201
Eyes of the Stomatopoda, 253

Fasciation in Pyrethrum, 269
Feeding Frogs and Newts, 43, 119, 143
Field Vole, 239
Fish Culture in France, 23
Flies and Ants, 44, 119
Flies in Windows, 190
I Flint Implements, 237
Flora of Anstey's Cove, 211
Flora of Newfoundland and Labrador, 47
Flora of the South Downs, Notes on, 170
Floral Monstrosities, 259, 278
Floscularia annulata, 8
Flowers and Fruits, 21, 39
Forest Trees, Abnormal Growths on, 274
Forms of Cloud in Relation to their Com-
ponent Particles, 4
Fossils, Gault, 282
Four-footed Bird, 143
Fox Eggars, 42, 94
Freezing Water-pipes, 63
Fresh-Water Polyzoa, Development of, 107
Frontal Sac of the Muscidae, 265
Fungus Crop of 1887. .22
Fungus Forays in France, 255
Fungus hunting, 260
Further Notes on the Toothwort, 10

286

HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP.

Galls on Ground Ivy, 236, 239
Genitalia campeslris and Campanula glo-

inerata, 39
Genus Clausilia, 114
Geographical Distribution, Notes on, 25,

49. 115
Geological Progress during the last Fifty

Years, 98
Geologists' Association, 93
Geology, &c, 40, 70, 93, 116, 140, i6s>

237, 261
Germination, Unusual Case of, 165
Gigantic Turtle, Discovery of, by Dr.

Donnegan, 40
Girdling, Tree Growing after, 21
Glaciation of the Isle of Man, 165
Glasgow, Zoological Society of, 20
Gossip on Current Topics, 16, 33, 62, 105,

J34. i54> 179. 2°°> 221, 249. 267
Gossip, Science, iS, 37, 67, 88, 114, 138,

161, 186, 208, 232
Grapta C- album, 115
Grass Fungus, New, 278
Green Rose, 70
Green Tortoise Beetle [Cassida viridis),

106, 137, 150
Green Tree Frogs, 41
Ground Ivy, Galls on, 236, 239

H. Arbustorum, var. Sinistrorsum, 20

H. nemoralis, var. horiensis, 280

H. nemoralis, var. scalariforme, 209

H. nemoralis, var. sinistrorsum, 279

H. virgata, var. alba, 279

Hanging, Philosophy of, 105

Hardwood and Coniferous Tree Stumps>

Aftergrowths among, 203
Hardy's Flat Bottle, 92
Hastings, Botanical Notes at, 199
Hawaiian Butterflies, 139
Height of Waves, 268
Helix hortensis, 91
Helix pomatia at Lucerne, 263
Heron and Water-Rat, 118
Hint to Teachers, 106
Hyalina glabra, var. bicolor, 20
Hybrid Zebras, Notes on, 214

Ice-Graving in thb Isle of Man, 140

Imperfect Combination, 201

Improved Wine, 222

In the Isle of Man, 73

Influence of Geology on Population, 177

Influence of Sound on Animals, 191

Insect Life, Eccentricities of, 93

Insects, &c., at Gibraltar, 38

Insects, Educational Collections of, 43

Insects, Section-Cutting Applied to, 1

Ipomoea, &c, 215

Iron, Recalescence of, 180

Irruption of Pallas' s Sand-Grouse, 164

Ivy, the, 44

Journal of Morphology, 38

Kangaroos on Leith Hill, 118

Lacuna Pallidula, 22, 91, 116
Land Subsidences, 97
Lapidary Work, 22
Lathyrus tuberosus in Sussex, 224
Leaves and Flowers, Colours of, 121
Leith Hill, Kangaroos on, 118
Lesser White-Fronted Goose, 69
Lesser White-Fronted Goose in Somerset,
91

Life under a Stone, 267

Limmea palustris, var. albida, gi

Liparis saliiis, 261

List of British Tabanidae, with Notes, 184

Localities for Butterflies, 142

Lundy Island, 151

Lychnis dioica, 165

Magnesium Flash Photography, 154

Magnification in Photo-Micrographs, 162

Mandrake, 179

Margate Flints, 116

Marigold {Calendula), 147

Marine Copepod, 119

Maturing Wines by Electricity, 105

May Ramble at Prinsted, 164

Measurements by Camera Lucida, 209,

23S
Meat Preserving, Surgical, 267
Meteorology and Astronomy, 15
Microscopical Society of Calcutta, 38
Microscopy, 19, 38, 68, 92, 116, 139, 162,

187, 209, 234, 256, 278
Migration of Birds, Autumnal, 39
Mimicry in Plants, 189, 211, 280
Mister Pup, 39
Mollusca in Colorado, 257
Mont Blanc, Science on, 34
Morphology, the Journal of, 38
Mountain Finch, 119

Mounting Perishable Crystal Sections, 69
Mr. Cole's Slides Redivivus, 116
Mr. Ruskin's Museum at Sheffield, 215
Munchausen Science, 22, 23, 142
Muscidae, Notes on Frontal Sac of, 2^5
Muscle, Consumption of, by Exerci-e, 221
Museum doings in New Zealand, 105
Mutability of Species, 64
Muzzling Oysters, 105
My Telescope, 67, 86

Names of Fishes, 43

Natural Grafting, 165

Natural History Jottings, 106, 137, 150

Natural History Notes, 213

Natural History Notes in Norway, 172

Natural History Queries, 263

Naturalist all at Sea, 197, 217

Naturalist Outward Bound, 81

Nest of Australian Fly, 42, 94

Nest of Short-Tailed Field-Vole, 191

New Books, Notes on, 125, 194

New British Earth-worms, no

New British Fossil Carnivora, 70

New Gra s Fungus, 278

New Method of Classifying Bryozoa, 209

New Parasitic Copepod, 32

New Slides, 163, 187, 209, 234, 278

New Zealand Spider-wasp, or Mason Fly,

94
Night-flowering Convolvulus, 166
Nomenclature, the Question of, 276
Notes and Queries, 166, 190, 212, 238
Notes from Wales, 262
Notes on the Division of the Vorticella,

252
Notes on the Flora of the South Downs,

!7i
Notes on Flying Fish, 243
Notes on the Frontal Sac of the Muscidas,

265

OUSERVATION ON YOUNG CUCKOO, IQI

Observations on the Unionidae, 127
Observations upon the Turtle ;>nd their
Artificial Propagation, 103

Odostomias at Herm, 38

(F.cidium aquilegia in America, 92

On the Distribution of Aquatic Form?, 182?-

On Various Rotifers, 172

Optical Effect of Focussing Up or Dowa

too much in the Microscope, 248
Ornithological Voracity, 43, 71
Our much-abused Climate, 155
Oyster Cultivation, 34

Pagb of the Life-history of Ste-

phanoceros Eichornii, A, 76
Pallas's Sand-grouse, 164, 188, 236
Papers on Dragon-flies, 66
Pecten tigrinus, 263
Peculiar Sun-flowers, 37
Fenarth Entomological Society, 2S0
Philosophy of Hair Culling, 64
Philo-ophy of Hanging, 105
Physa elliptica, 163
Pilgrimage to Down, 262
Pin-hole Photography, 238
Planorbis dilatatus, 209
Plants, Economical Products of, 196
Plants, Preserving the Colour of, 165
Pliocene Beds of Cornwall, 129
Plymouth, Biological Laboratory at, 25r
Poisonous Fungi, 23
Police Telegrams, 106
Pond-dredging and Collecting, 45, 54, 69.
Popular Science, 45
Post-glacial Time, 93
Preserving Bats, 215
Preserving Flowers, 140
Preserving the Colours of Plants, 165
Prism of Flame, 134
Propagation of Cholera, 33
Protection for Fishes, 180
Purification of Alcohol, 200
Purple-eyed Daisies, 140
Pyrethrum, Fasciation of, 269

Quekett Microscopical Club, 92, 116,.

187 .
Question of Nomenclature, 267

Rabbit Swimming a River, gr

Raising of Egyptian Monoliths, 6^

Raphides, 40

Rapid Evaporation, 181

Recalescence of Iron, 180

Red Leaf again : a Reply, 231, 241

Re-growth of Fins and Scales in Fishes,

257
Relative Nutritive Value of Starch and

Fat, 221
Relic of the Ages, 70
Remarkable Adulteration, 33
Remarkable Frost Phenomenon, 166
Remarks on British Botany and on Plant

Collecting, 170
Revelations concerning the Bass (Labrax

Lupus'), 60
Rose Pests, 195
Rotifers at Staines, 256
Rotifers, Chats about, 27
Royal Microscopical Society, an Evening

at, 19, 187
Royal Microscopical Society, 92, 139, 235,

278
Rudiments and Vestiges, 14, 42, 46, 123,-

223

Saccharine, roi, 167, 238

Sand Grouse, 188

Scales on Red-currants, 187

HA RD WICKE ' £ SCIENCE- G 0 SSI P.

287

Scarcity of V. atalauta in 1887. .20, 38
Science-Gossip, 18, 37, 67, 88, 114, 138,

161, 186, 208, 232
Science in Australasia, 267
Science in China, 34
Science on Mont Blanc, 34
Science in Turkey, 1S0
Scientific Millinery, 133
Scotland, Bats in, 91
Sea, Encroachments of, 22
Seals, Ballast Bags of, 90
Section Cutting applied to Insects, 1
Section Cutting, 28, 69
Sensational Cure, 201
Sense of Smell, 280
Several Natural History Queries, 190
Shag and Gull, 39
Shells from Niagara, 237
Shooting Immigrant Birds, n3
Sightseer's Headache, 155
Silkworm Cocoons, 67
Singing of the Kettle, 44
Snow in August, 62
Social Instinct in the Rabbit, 236
Soils, Exhaustion of, 201
Specific Gravity of Liquids, 181
" Spectre of the Brocken" on Snowdon, 215
Sphczrium rivicola, vzx.jlavcsccns, 91
Sphinx conzwlvidi, 44
Spiders' contrivances, 118, 143
Spider's Deadly Foe, 159
Sponge nurseries, 1 33
Starling in Trouble, 190
Stature and Climate, 155
Steering Instinct, 62

Strange Nesting Place, 263

Stoats and Weasels for Australia, 190

Storm Clouds, Types of, 23

Story of the Great Auk, 112

Studies of Common Plants, 147

Sugar Refining by Electricity, 105

Sun, Elements in the, 106

Sunflower, 193, 237, 246

Sunflowers, Peculiar, 37

Surgical Meat Preserving, 267

Switzerland, Botanical Excursion in, 5, 14

Tailed Men, 93

Temminck's Stint, 44

Tennyson's Natural History, 139, 238

Term "Rudimentary," as used by Darwin,

Thrush's Nest on the Ground, 191, 214, 261,

268
Tin, Trickery on, 133
Tipula plumosa, 132
Toad's Spawning, 143, 191
Toothwort, Further Nptes on, 10
Topics, Gossip on Current, 16
Tree growing after girdling, 21
Trickery on Tin, 135
Trifolium stellatum, Notes on, 148
True Advancement of Science, 222
Types of Storm Clouds, 23

Unrecorded Daphnias, 36, 90, 1S8
Unusual Case of Germination, 163, 189, 190,

279
Unusual Germination, 262
Ustilago rcceptacidorum, 165

1 'anessa C -album, 44

I'aitessa antiopa in Kent, 236

/ 'anessa antiopa, 262

Varnishing Photo Gelatine Dry-plates, 166

191
V. atalanta in Dundee, 46, 142
Very Rare Fish, 210
Vestiges and Rudiments, 14, 223
Vinegar Eel, The, 52, 91
Volapiik, 200
Voracity, Ornithological, 43

Wagtail yellow (or Kay's) 22.

Water Spider [Argyroneta aquatica), 227,

281
Waves, Height of, 268
Weather, The, 26
What Insect? 238
White Flowers, 211, 278
White Rocks of Castille.and Red Rock of

Moselle, 213
White Sparrow, 263, 282
Wing of a Species of Termite, Note on, 229
Winter in Massana, 226

Yellow (or Ray's) Wagtail, 22, 43, 70
Yews, 70

Yew-tree, poisoning Cattle, 44, 93, 142
Yew-trees, their Size and Age, 21, 43,

167, 213
Yew-Trees of Kingley Vale, 189

Zoological Society of Glasgow, 20.
Zoology, 20, 38, 69, 90, 114, 139, 163, 188,
2°9. 235. 257, 279

LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, Limited,

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