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THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

:

X

THE

HARMONIES OF NATURE

LONDON

PRIMED BY Si-OTTISWOOCK AND CO.
NKW-STKKKT SQUARE

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LAMMERGEIER ATTACKING A STEINBOCK.

THE

HARMONIES OF NATURE

OR

THE UNITY OF CREATION.

BY

DE. G. HAETWIG

AUTHOR OF
' THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS ' AND ' THE TROPICAL WORLD.

WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS.

NEW YORK :
D. APPLETON AND CO., 445 BROADWAY.

1866.

PREFACE.

HARMONY is the universal law of Nature. Of all the number-
less forms of animals and plants that deck the surface of the
globe, there is not one that is not perfectly fitted for its peculiar
sphere. The configuration of our earth, and the physical laws that
govern the waters and the atmosphere, are in complete unison
with the wants of organic life ; and suns and planets wander
harmoniously through illimitable space. And as it now is, thus
it ever has been ; for the annals of our globe bear witness,
throughout all the changes of the primeval world, to the concord
which has constantly reigned between the physical condition of
the earth and its inhabitants at each successive epoch.

In the following pages I have endeavoured to point out some
of the most striking examples of this fundamental truth, which
so forcibly proclaims the unity of creation. May I have ac-
quitted myself of my task so as to strengthen my readers in
the conviction that an All-wise and All-powerful Legislator has
constantly presided over the destinies of the universe !

GK HARTWia.

HEIDELBERG :
9th April, 1866.

CONTENTS

CHAPTEE I.

THE STARRY HEAVENS.

The Setting Sun— The Splendour of the Starry Vault— The First Step to Astro-
nomical Science — The Planetary System — How hare we learnt to Measure its
Dimensions ? — Copernicus — Kepler — Newton — Laplace — The Planetary Pertur-
bations reduced to Harmony — Discovery of Neptune by Calculation — Shooting
Stars and Meteoric Stones — Their Composition — Spectral Analysis of the Sun's
Atmosphere by Kirchhof and Bunsen — A Glimpse into the Fixed-Star Heavens —
Enormous Distances of the nearest Fixed Stars — Our World-Island — Nebulae —
Motions of the Fixed Stars — Vast Prospects into Space and Time — The Univer-
sal Harmony of Worlds . ,v . . . . . PAGE 1

CHAPTER II.

HEAT AND LIGHT.

The various Sources of Heat— Effects of Heat — Dependence of Terrestrial Life on
the actual Distance of the Earth from the Sun — Relations of the various Bodies
to Heat — The Prismatic Colours — The Harmony between Colours and the
Human Mind — What is Heat ? — What is Light ? — Importance of the Ethereal
Spaces with regard to the Distribution of Heat and Light . ,: . 11

CHAPTER III.

THE ATMOSPHERIC OCEAN.

Immensity of the Atmospheric Ocean — The Component Parts of the Atmosphere —
Oxygen — Nitrogen — Wonderful Constancy in the Composition of the Atmosphere —

Antagonism between Vegetable and Animal Life— The System of the Winds

Dependence of all Terrestrial Life upon the actual Constitution of the Atmosphere
— Atmospheric Air but a Mixture, no Chemical Combination of Oxygen and
Nitrogen — Transparency of the Air— Its Influence upon the Mental Development
of Mankind — Air considered as the Bearer of Sounds — Voices of Nature 1 6

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTEK IV.

THE MAJESTY OF THE OCEAN.

The Immensity of the Ocean — Ebb and Flood — Causes of the Tides — Their In-
fluence on the Organic Life of the Seas — Ocean Currents — How produced —
Their Importance — Evidences of Unity of Design resulting from the intimate Con-
nection of the Phenomena of the Seas and the distant Celestial Bodies PAGE 21

CHAPTEK V.

THE ATMOSPHERICAL PRECIPITATIONS IN THEIR RELATION TO ORGANIC
NATURE.

The constant Sources of the Eivers — The Harmonies of the Ocean and the Atmo-
sphere— Distribution of Eain and Snow over the Surface of the Globe — The Voice
of Eivers — Dew — History of its Formation — Clouds and Eain — Snow and Ice
as Protectors of Vegetable and Animal Life — The Lavines — The Glaciers — The
Tornado 27

CHAPTEE VI.

THE HARMONIES BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH AND
ITS INHABITANTS.

The Terrestrial Eevolutions— The Formation of Alluvial Plains— Beneficial Effects
of the Inequalities of the Earth's Surface — "What do Petrifactions teach ? — Coal
Strata — The Subterranean Treasuries of Man — Influence of the Change of
Seasons on Organic Life , , , . ' , , '. 37

CHAPTEE VII.

THE CELLULAR CONSTRUCTION OF PLANTS.

Prodigious Variety of Plants — The Vegetable Cell — Its Metamorphoses — Its
Multiplication — Eapid Growth of the Lower Plants — The Mushrooms — The
Wonderful Products of the Vegetable Cell — Magnificence of the Vegetable
World ' . 49

CHAPTEE VIII.

THE ROOTS OF PLANTS.

The Eoots of the Algse, of the Zostera Marina, of the Sand-reed, of the South
African Creepers — The Eoots of the Forest Trees — Aerial Eoots of the Man-
groves— Their Influence on the Formation of Tropical Delta-lands — Eadical
Filaments — Spongioles — Properties of Vegetable Mould — The Fertilising In-
fluence of Winter ........ 54

CONTENTS. xi

CHAPTEE IX.

THE STEMS OF PLANTS.

The various Growth of Trees — Internal Structure of Plant-stems — Wood and
Fibrous Cells — The Shafts of Palms— Climbing Plants — Their various Modes
of Attachment — Tree Buttresses — Defences of Plants — Thorns — Prickles —
Harmonies between the Trunks of Trees and the Wants of Man — The Voices of
the Forest ....... PAGE 65

CHAPTEE X.

THE LEAVES OF PLANTS.

The chief Ornament of Spring — Internal Structure of Leaves — The Cuticle —
Stomata and Air-cells — Opening and Closing of the Stomata — Pliability and
resisting Powers of the Leaves — Their Stems — Dionaea Muscipula — The
Mimosas — Enemies of the Leaves — Their Defences — Hairs — Prickles —
Secretions — Harmonies between Leaves and Insects . . .71

CHAPTEE XI.

BLOSSOMS.

Their Functions — Their Accessory and Essential Parts — The Calyx— The Corolla —
The Pistils — The Anthers — The Pollen — Insects as Means of Fructification —
The Vallisneria Spiralis . : « . . . . . 79

CHAPTEE XII.

SEEDS AND THEIR MIGBATIONS.

Defences of Seeds — Their Dissemination over the Earth — Feathers and Wings —
Cotton — Influence of Watercourses — Mangrove Seeds — The Animals and Man
as Disseminators of Plants — Progress of Vegetation on the originally naked
Eock ......... 84

CHAPTEE XIII.

MICROSCOPICAL PLANTS.

Uncertain Limits between the Animal and the Vegetable World — The simplest
Forms of Plants — Protococci — Oscillatoriae — Volvocinge — Desmidise — Dia-
tomacese — Their Importance in the Household of the Seas — Their Geological
Agency . ....... 93

CHAPTEE XIV.

MICROSCOPICAL PROTOZOA.

Ehizopods and Foraminifera — Their Geological Importance — Phosphorescence
of the Sea — The Noctiluca Miliaris — Polycystina — Infusoria — Vorticellas —
Ophrydinse — Eapid Multiplication of the Infusoria . . .101

Xll CONTENTS.

CHAPTEK XV.

SPONGES.

Animal Nature of Sponges — Their remarkable Structure — Their Skeleton — Spicula
— Sensibility and Spontaneous Movements — Their Mode of Propagation — Their
Importance in the Household of the Seas . . v , . . PAGE 112

CHAPTEK XVI.

SEA-ANEMONES AND LITHOPHYTES.

Submarine Gardens — Internal Structure of the Sea-anemones — Tentacles —
Urticating Organs — Their remarkable Tenacity of Life — Their Modes of
Locomotion— Lithophytes — Social Eepublicans — Coral Islands , .116

CHAPTER XVII.

ACALEPEUE OR JELLY-FISHES.

Medusae and Ehizostomata — Their Internal Structure — Their Mode of Progression —
Alternation of Generations — Ciliograde Jelly-fishes — Their Wonderful Fishing
Apparatus — Diphyes — Agalma — Physalus — Velella — Importance of the Acale-
phae in the Economy of the Ocean $"• . , . . 125

CHAPTER XVIII.

ECHINODERMATA.

Primeval Sea-stars — Feather-stars — Snake-stars — Star-fishes — Their Suckers and
Mode of Locomotion — Their Skeleton — Their Victims and their Enemies — Sea-
Urchins — Structure of their Shell — Their Dental Apparatus — Pedicellarise, or
Sea-Cucumbers — Metamorphoses of the Echinodermata . . .132

CHAPTER XIX.

MOLLUSCA.

The Flustrse or Sea-Mats— Aviculari a— Metamorphoses of the Flustrse — Salpae
and Ascidise — Botrylli— Pyrosomata — Bivalve Shellfish— Free and Sessile —
The Byssus — The File of the Pholades — Respiration of the Bivalve Shellfish —
Their Nourishment — Snails — Their Masticatory Apparatus — Their Cautious
Habits — Pteropods — Conical Appendages of the Clio's Head — Its wonderful
Dental Apparatus — Cuttlefish— Sucking-disks — The Onychoteuthis — Number
and Importance of the Molluscs . .141

CHAPTER XX.

WORMS.

Are they in reality so helpless as is commonly supposed ? — Beauty of the Free
Marine Annelides — Their Mode of Life — Tubicolar Worms — Leeches — Earth-
worms Nemerta Gigantea — Rotifera — Their Complex Organisation and their

Habits 166

CONTENTS. Xlll

CHAPTER XXI.

CRUSTACEANS.

Cirripedes — Barnacles and Acorn-shells — Edriophthalmia — Decapoda — Their
Branchial Apparatus — Legs and Digestive Organs— Moulting Process — Meta-
morphoses— Enemies of the Crustaceans — Means of Defence, and Offensive
Weapons — The Birgus — Pinnotheres — Paguri — Migratory Instinct of the Land-
crabs ........ PAGE 175

CHAPTER XXII.

Their Integuments — Their Metamorphoses — Larvse — Pupse — Perfect Insects — An-
tennae— Eyes — Masticatory Organs — Chewing and Sucking Insects — Digestive
Organs of the Carnivorous and Herbivorous Insects — Motions of Insects —
Elateridse — Aquatic Insects — Foot of the Fly — Wings — Respiratory Organs-
Tracheae and Stigmata — The Butterfly's Wing under the Microscope — Defences
of Insects— Vitality — Concealments — The Caddice Fly — The small Ermine Moth
— The Clothes Moth — Hunting Manoeuvres of the Mantis — The Ant-Lion — The
Larva of the Tiger Beetle — Insect Plagues — Insects Useful to Man — -Their
Numberless Enemies — Their Wonderful Instincts — Care for their Young — The
Rhynchites Betulse — Dung and Sexton Beetles— Their Remarkable Intelli-
gence— The Sand Wasp — Ichneumon Flies — Breeze Flies — The Earwig— The
Mole Cricket— The Dirt Dauber and Trypoxylon — The Leaf-cutters — The
Carpenter Bee— The Chartergus Nidulans— The Hive Bee — The Ants and Ter-
mites 189

CHAPTER XXIII.

SPIDERS.

Venomous Apparatus — Spinnarets — The Spider's Web— Patience of the Spiders —
Hunting Spiders — Trap-door Spiders — Water Spiders — The Raft Spider —
Enemies of the Spiders — Their Fecundity — Their Maternal Affection — Th<>
Stalita Turn aria . . . . ...» . . - . !23o

CHAPTER XXIV.

FISHES.

The Waters a Scene of constant War — Fecundity of Fishes necessary to maintain
the Equilibrium — Migrations of the Salmon — Means of Defence and Attack —
The Dragon Weever— The Acanthurus— The Catfish— The Sting-ray— Dental
Apparatus of Fishes — Teeth of the Lamprey andScari — The Sawfish — Electrical
Fish — Fins — Air-bladders — Gills — Respiratory Apparatus of the Lamprey and
Hag — of the Frogfish and Hassar — The Star-gazer — The Angler — The Ros-
trated Chsetodon — The Senses of Fishes — Beautiful Construction of their Eye —
Care of the Stickleback for its Young — Parental Solicitude of the Black Goby
and of the Hassar .• . . . . 247

XIV CONTEXTS.

CHAPTER XXV.

REPTILES.

Defences of the Chelonians, Lizards, Frogs, and Toads — Locomotion of Serpents —
Legs of the Tortoise and Turtle — The Gecko's Foot — The Chameleon— The
Viper's Fang — How Serpents swallow their Food — Tongue of the Chameleon and
of the Crocodile — Vertebral Teeth of the Deirodon — Maternal Affection of the
Cayman — Hybernation — Usefulness of Reptiles — Their Enemies and their
Fecundity ........ PAGE 268

CHAPTER XXVI.

Their Wings and Rapidity of Flight— Quill-feathers— Wings of the Ostrich and
the Penguin — Feathers — Rump-gland — Legs of Birds — Waders — Swimmers —
Raptorial Birds — Perchers — Beaks of Birds — Black-skimmer — Boatbill — Spoon-
bill— Crossbill — The Flamingo's and the Toucan's Tongue — Digestive Apparatus
of the Birds — Strength of Vision — Services of Birds — Nests of Birds — The
Sand-martin — The Woodpecker — The Chaffinch — The Cassique — The Balti-
more Oriole— Weaver-birds — The Baya— The Social Grosbeak — The Tailor-
bird— The Tallegalla— The Sea-lark — Heroism of Birds in defending their
Young — The Lammergeier — Artifices of the Lapwing and Ostrich — Memory and
Intelligence of Birds — Migratory Instinct . . . .286

CHAPTER XXVII.

MAMMALIA.

Modifications in the Structure of the Limbs of Mammalia — Fins of the Whale, Walrus,
and Seals — Wings of the Bat— The Nycteris — The Flying Squirrel — Shovels of
the Mole — Limbs of the Cervine and Bovine Races — The colossal Pillars of the
Elephant— The Hare — The Jumping Hare— The Kangaroo— The Sloth — Mon-
keys— Leaps of the Wanderoo — The Squirrels — Soles and Toes — Sole-pads of
the Camel — Prehensile Tail of the American Monkeys and other Quadrupeds —
Tail of the Aquatic Mammalia, of the American Ant-Bear, of the Kangaroo and
Pengolin — Masticatory Organs — Teeth of the Carnivora, the Ruminantia, and the
Rodents— The Baleen of the Whale— The Ant-eater's Tongue — The Stomach of
the Ruminants — The Camel's Paunch — Water-pouches of the Elephant — Cheek-
pouches of the Hamster — Senses of the Mammalia — The Elephant's Proboscis —
Defensive and Aggressive Weapons of Mammalia — Burrows of the Prairie Dog—
The Hamster's Cave — Habitations of the Beaver and the Musquash — The Mole
and the Australian Duckbill — The Armadillo and the Hedgehog — The Porcu-
pine -The Skunk — Gregarious Quadrupeds — Guards — Bird-guardians of the
Rhinoceros and the African Buffalo — Friendships of Animals — The Tiger and the
Dog — Attachment of Domestic Animals to Man — Parental Affection — Pouch of
the Opossum and Kangaroo — Services of the Quadrupeds — Sagacity of the Dog,
the Horse, the Monkey, and the Elephant — Hybernation — Happiness of
the Wild Mammalia . . . . . . .317

CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER XXVIII.

MAN.

Pre-eminence of Man — His Greatness and his Weakness — The Brain of Man — The
Telegraphic System of the Nerves — The Optic Nerve — The Organs of Hearing,
Taste, Smelling, and Touch — Spinal Nerves — Motile Nerves — Sympathetic
Nerves — The Human Hand — Its Harmony with the Intellectual Faculties of
Man — Differences in the Limbs of the Ape and Man— Man's Upright Walk —
His Privileges and his Duties . , . . . PAGE 382

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE
Acalephse or jelly-fishes : —

Agalma Okenii . . .129
Cydippe . . . .128
Diphyes Campanulifera . 129
Medusa . .128

Physalus utriculus . .130
Khizostoma . . .126
Velella septentrionalis . .131
Birds :—

Baya sparrow, nest of the . 308
BoatbiU, beak of the . . 296
Crow, beak of a . " . 294

Falcon, head of a . . 293
Flamingo, bill of the . . 297
Fowl, digestive apparatus of

common . . . 299

Guinea fowl, beak of a . 294
Humming bird, beak of the . 294
Ibis, head and leg of . . 291
Lammergeier attacking a
Steinbock . frontispiece

This engraving represents
an attack made in the year
1 685, on the Cirx Berg in the
Tyrol, near the Martins
Wand, by a Lammergeier of
great size on a full-grown
Steinbock. Whilst the lat-
ter was standing near the
edge of a precipitous rock,
the Lammergeier pushed him
down a depth of 180 feet,
breaking his neck by the
fall. The bird was shot
whilst in the act of devour-
ing his prey.

Loxia curvirostra . 297

Pelican, foot of the . 292

„ beak of the . 293

Percher, foot of a . 293

Eecurvirostra Avocetta 296

Sand-martin's nest . 303

Skimmer, bill of the . 295

Spoonbill, beak of the 296

Swan, gizzard of a . 299

PAGE

Birds — continued.

Tailor bird and its nest . 309
Talons of a bird of prey . 292
Toucan, tongue of the . 298

Woodpecker, foot of the . 292
„ cranium and

tongue of the 298
„ nest of the . 304

Crustaceans : —

Acorn-shell . .175

Barnacles . . 175

Cirrhi . .176

Crab, larva of . .182

Sandhopper . .177

Sponge crab . .185

Whale-louse . .179

Echinodermata : —

Asterias rubens . .134

,, section of a ray of 135

Echinus, or sea-urchin * . 137

Pedicellarise . . .138

Sand-star . . .133

Warted Euryale . . 133

Fishes :—

Cod, eye of ... 265
Dental apparatus of shark . 252
„ ,, of lamprey 253

„ „ of Scarus

muricatus 253

„ „ of sawfish. 254

Electric eel, capture of the

to face 256

Frogfish . . . .262
Lophius piscatorius . .263
Ostracion .... 250
Perch, skeleton of the . . 257
Respiratory apparatus of the

lamprey . . . .260

Sawfish, rostrum of . . 254

Spine of the Siluridse . .251

Torpedo, muscles and electric

batteries of . , 253

XV111

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Fishes — continued.

Toxotes jaculator . . 263

Trachinus Draco . .251

Insects : —

Alimentary canal of tiger

beetle . .196
„ of cockchafer 197
Apple-moth, with caterpillar

and chrysalis . . .191

Ateuchus sacer . . .221

Boat-fly ... . .200

Caddice-worms . . . 209

Calandra longipes . . 220
Calosoma sycophanta, larva of 191

Carpenter bee . . . 228
Chartergus nidulans, nest of 230

Elater noctilucus . .199

Ermine moths . . .210

Eyes of insects . . .194

Feet of flies . . .201

Fungus ant, nest of . . 232

Gryllotalpa vulgaris . . 198

Hawk moth, caterpillar of . 208

Hornet, larva of . . .191

„ pupa state of . . 192

„ perfect insect . . 192

Hydrometra stagnorum. . 201

Lappet-moth . . . 205

caterpillar of . 207

Mantis religiosa . . .212

Necrophorus Vespillo . .221
Nests of the Trypoxylon and

Pelopseus . . .226

Peacock butterfly . . 206

Pimpla persuasoria . .223

Eaft spider . . .243

- Eed Admiral butterfly . 206
Spiders' spinnarets 226, 238, 239
Spiracle of common fly .203
Springtail . . . .199
Tiger-beetle . . .198
Termites, mounds of the . 234
Tortoise-beetle . . .198

- Walking-leaf insect . . 206
Wasp's nest . . .229

. Water-beetle . . .200
Water-scorpion, tracheal

system of ./.. . . 202

Water-spiders . . .241

Whirligig . . . .200
Mammalia : —

Ant-eater, head of the . 339

Balsena Mysticetus, bones of

the anterior fin. of the .318

Bear, dentition of the . . 340
Camel, water-cells in stomach

of the , f . . 347

Cat, dentition of the . .341

Cercoleptes caudi volvulus . 335

Deer, skeleton of the . . 326

Dipus sagitta . . .329

PAGE

Mammalia — continued.

Duckbill, burrow of the . 367
Elephant, stomach of . . 348
Hare, skeleton of the . . 328
Kangaroo, hunting the to face 352
Lion, skeleton of . .355
Mole, skeleton of the . . 325
Mules striking off the spines

of the melon-cactus to face 68
Pengolin . . . .337
Pteropus, skeleton of . . 321
Pthinolophus ... , . 354
Rhinoceros . . .361

„ and its bird-

guardian . to face 371
Rodent, dentition of a . 342
Seals catching fish to face 319
Seal, skeleton of . .319

„ hinder extremities of . 319
„ dentition of . . 342
Sheep, skull of . . .343
„ base of cranium of . 343
„ lower jaw . . 343
„ composite stomach of 345
Sloth, skeleton of the . . 329
„ hand of the . . 333
Spalax typhlus . . . 351
Squirrel, flying . . . 324
Walruses defending their

young . to face 370

Walrus, tusks of . . 344

Man : —

Acoustic nerve, expansion of

the . . . .385

Skull, human . . .390

„ of an Ourang-cetan . 391

Spinal nerve, origin of a . 387

Mollusca : —

Ascidia mammillata . .145
Botryllus violaceus . .146
Byssus, filament of a . . 150
Cellularia .... 144
Clio, prehensile organs of, 160, 161
Common cockle . . .150
Eolis . . . .157

Flustra, in its cell . . 142
Gasteropoda, digestive appa-
ratus of . . . . 158
Glaucus . .. .- , 157
Hyalea Globulosa . .159
Leaf -like sea-mat . .142
Onychoteuthis, arms and ten-
tacles of an . . .163
Pholades, respiration of . 151
Poulp, arm and suckers of a 162
Razor-shell . .153

Salpae . . 147

Scyllsea . . 157

Sepia . . . 162

Plants, leaves of " :." " 73

Desmidiacese 98

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XIX

Plants — continued.

Diatomacese

Microscopical forms of vege-
table life
. Pollen-grains

Volvox globator .
Protozoa : —

Amoaba

Infusoria

Leucophrys patula

Noctiluca miliaris

Ophrydium versatile

Polycystina . .

Kotalia ornata

98

94
80

97

101, 102
. 107
. 108
. 105
. 109
. 106
. 103
. 112

Stent'or Rceselii . . . 106
Vorticella cyathina . .108
Reptiles :—

Chameleo Africanus . .273

„ „ tongue of 275

Gecko's toe . . .273

Iguana defending itself from

the Jaguar to face 274

Reptiles — continued.

Serpent, poison teeth of

Tortoise, internal surface

carapace of
Sea-anemones and lithophytes :

Actinia alcyonoidea

Alcyonidium elegans .

Gorgonia nobilis

Pennatula grisca

Urticating organs
Sponges : —

Halichondria

Halina papillaris
Worms : —

Foot of an annelide

Hirudo medicinalis

Nereis

Philodina roseola

Ptygura melicerta

Sabella unispirata
„ alveolaria

Serpula contortuplicata

Terebella conchilega .

of

277
269

117
120
121
120
118

121
113

167

169
166
173
172
168
168
168
168

ERRATA.

Page 27, chapter head, for Ravines read Lavines.
, 43, line 1, for first read firs.

THE

HARMONIES OF NATURE,

CHAPTEE I.

THE STARRY HEAVENS.

The Setting Sun — The Splendour, of the Starry Vault — The First Step to Astrono-
mical Science — The Planetary System — How have we learnt to Measure its
Dimensions ? — Copernicus— Kepler— Newton — Laplace— The Planetary Per-
turbations reduced to Harmony — Discovery of Neptune by Calculation — Shooting
Stars and Meteoric Stones —Their Composition — Spectral Analysis of the Sun's
Atmosphere by Kirchhof and Bunsen — A Glimpse into the Fixed Star Heavens
— Enormous Distances of the nearest Fixed Stars — Our "World-Island — Nebulae
— Motions of the Fixed Stars — Vast Prospects into Space and Time — The Uni-
versal Harmony of Worlds.

THE SUN rests on the brink of the western horizon, sparkling
over the ever-restless surface of the ocean. Dazzled by the
excess of light, I turn my eyes from his brilliant orb and look
down upon the strand at my feet, where the indefatigable tide-
wave rolls upwards in broad sheets of foam, and then again falls
back in a thousand little rills and with a thousand delightful
murmurs.

My eye has rested, and once more wishes to enjoy the aspect
of the setting sun ; but the fiery globe has already sunk below
the margin of the waters, to cast its streams of light over other
lands and seas — to awaken millions to the labours and enjoyments
of a new-born day. A gorgeous canopy of clouds, glowing in
every tint of gold, scarlet, and purple over the evening sky, alone
remains to bear witness to the vanished sun's magnificence — as
after the death of a hero the memory of his deeds still lingers

2 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

behind in many a glorious tradition, and spreads a halo over his
tomb.

At length even the last faint glimmerings of light have
disappeared ; night has fully vanquished day, and an increasing
gloom seems about to cover all nature with a funereal pall. But
this triumph of death is only apparent and of short duration, for
as the darkness deepens, new worlds blaze forth from the dark
heavens, and open the portals of the Infinite to our astonished
gaze. Thus night, far from contracting our horizon, withdraws
in reality the veil which hid from us the wonders of a boundless
universe.

Who can describe the splendour of the starry heavens ? With
vivid colours the painter imitates the blushing morn or the
moonbeam dancing on the lake ; the forest, the sea, the moun-
tains appear on his canvas like reality itself; but the wonders
of the starry heavens mock the weakness of his art, for how
could he confine the boundless fields of ether within the narrow
limits of a painting ? *

In all times, in all zones, the aspect of the nocturnal firma-
ment has awakened feelings of pious awe in the breast of man ;
and surely the idea of a single and omnipotent God first dawned
in his soul while his eye was plunging into the depths of the
skies, and star after star shone down upon him from that
amazing dome whose cupola is everywhere extended and whose
pillars are nowhere to be found ?

The beauties of Nature are unequally distributed over the
surface of our earth ; some lands are gifted with all that can en-
chant the eye, while others are scenes of barren desolation : but
the starry heavens are equally magnificent at the equator and at
the poles, and wherever man exists their splendour is open to
his gaze. But how many centuries may have elapsed before he
first raised himself from the admiring contemplation of this
august spectacle to a more attentive observation of its mecha-
nism— before he first attempted to measure the orbits or to
calculate the size of the celestial spheres !

The first step to a more accurate knowledge of the starry
heavens was to ascertain the form and size of our earth, for it
was thus only that a measure could be gained for the dimen-
sions of the planetary system, a solid basis for the future deve-
lopment of astronomical science.

EISE OF ASTRONOMICAL SCIENCE. 3

History teaches us that this first step was taken by the
Greeks, who, judging from the facts that a vessel when coming
from sea into port first shows the tops of her masts, and then
seems to rise higher and higher out of the water as she
approaches, that the sun rises later and later as we travel from
east to west, and that the shadow of the earth, which appears
during lunar eclipses on the surface of the moon, always shows a
circular form, proclaimed its spherical shape, and even made the
first attempts to measure its size.

But as their geographical knowledge was very limited, and their
instruments of measurement imperfect, their calculations could
not but be extremely defective ; and thus it was reserved for
later times to ascertain that the earth is a globe flattened at
the pole, with an equatorial diameter of 6,864, and a polar
diameter of 6,852, geographical miles.

The dimeDsions of the earth being thus known, it was now a
comparatively easy task to measure the distances of the various
planets belonging to our Solar System ; for the mathematician
requires but to know the length of a line, and the angles which
its extremities make with a third point, to obtain a full know-
ledge of the dimensions of the triangle thus formed, and
consequently of the comparative distances of all its parts.
With triangles he invades the celestial space and subjects them
to the dominion of science, as surely as by means of triangles he
measures the extent of his fields or the height of his mountains.

By this means it has been calculated that the moon is about
208,000 geographical miles distant from the earth, while the sun
sends us his enlivening rays from a distance of 80,000,000
miles : and thus we know that while torrid Mercury, the planet
nearest to the sun, revolves at a distance of 32,000,000 miles
from his orb, frigid Neptune receives his scanty supply of
warmth and light from the amazing distance of 2,800,000,000
miles !

According to the delusive testimony of our eyesight, the sun
and all the planets move round our earth, as if it were the
centre of the universe. We see the sun and moon rise and set,
and the stellar canopy slowly revolving round the Polar Star.
But we seem to repose in majestic immobility, and thus it ap-
pears as if all those luminous worlds acknowledged the supre-
macy of our globe and paid homage to its superior power.

B 2

4 THE HAEMONIES OF NATURE,

For thousands of years Science itself remained enthralled by
these delusive appearances, until at length the master-mind of
Copernicus reduced our planet to the rank of an humble follower
of that sun which it had so long appeared to rule.

This great man first convincingly proved that the sun does
not revolve round the earth, but that we and all the planets cir-
cle round the sun ; and that the earth, by turning on her axis
every twenty-four hours from west to east, produces that
apparent movement of the starry heavens from east to west
which had deceived all previous astronomers. Where formerly
darkness and error prevailed, and the most ingenious and com-
plicated hypotheses had been unable to explain the intricate
motions of the planets, the mystery was now solved at once in
the clearest and most simple manner.

Building still further on the Copernican system, the illus-
trious Kepler next showed that the planets do not move in cir-
cles but in ellipses round the sun, and discovered the laws which
regulate the swiftness and proportions of their orbits. Twelve
years after this great man's death our immortal Newton was
born, who proved that the movements of all the celestial bodies
flow from the supreme law of universal gravitation, or the
mutual attraction of bodies according to the proportion of their
masses and distances.

By means of this fundamental law — which regulates the move-
ments of the stars as well as the fall of terrestrial bodies, the
course of waters, the motions of the pendulum, and the direction
of the load-line — it was now possible to solve many most diffi-
cult problems, which until then had baffled the sagacity of the
greatest mathematicians and astronomers, to explain the pre-
cession of the equinoxes, to determine the weight and the
masses of the various bodies of the solar system, and finally to
calculate the perturbations resulting from the mutual attrac-
tions of the planets.

The word perturbation might possibly lead us to fear, that at
a period however remote the laws which maintain the planets in
their course might ultimately be overcome by counteracting
forces, and an irreparable catastrophe be the consequence ; but
the calculations of Laplace have proved that all alarms on this
subject are perfectly groundless, for the planetary perturbations
are as subject to eternal laws as all the other motions of the

EISE OF ASTRONOMICAL SCIENCE. 5

heavenly bodies ; they never exceed a certain limit, they mu-
tually correct each other, and cannot possibly become dangerous.
Tims, by an admirable mechanism worthy of the Supreme Archi-
tect of worlds, even the deviations of the planets contribute
to the eternal harmony of the spheres.

When Herschel discovered Uranus, that dim planet, which re-
ceives the faint rays of the sun from a distance of 1,600,000,000
geographical miles, it was supposed that the utmost limits
of our solar system had been attained, and that beyond must
begin the vast solitudes which separate the dominions of our
sun from those of the nearest fixed star. But Uranus showed
perturbations in his path, which could not be accounted for by
the attraction of Saturn, and could therefore only be ascribed
to an unknown planet. The calculations of Le Verrier deter-
mined the position and the mass of this new celestial body ;
and scarcely had he pointed out the spot where, according to
all probability, it must be revolving through space, than the
telescope of the Berlin astronomer Gralle verified the accuracy of
his statements, and discovered Neptune, circulating as a star of
the eighth magnitude, 2,800,000,000 miles from the sun.

Truly a splendid triumph of mathematical science, a mag-
nificent victory of the human mind, thus to calculate the ex-
istence of an unknown world, and to see, as it were by the
light of reason, what no human eye had ever beheld !

Possibly other planets may still roll beyond Neptune, which
perhaps no telescope will ever be able to detect ; but from the
perturbations they may cause, their existence will be as evident
as if we could follow them on their lustrous path.

Besides the planets and moons and numerous comets, a vast
number of smaller planetary bodies, partly disseminated, partly
grouped in annular zones, revolve on elliptic orbits round the
sun. When these small planetary bodies come within the
sphere of the earth's attraction, they obey its influence, and,
darting down, give rise to the phenomena of shooting-stars
and meteoric stones.

On a bright night twenty minutes rarely pass, at any part of
the earth's surface, without the appearance of at least one
meteor. At certain times (the 12th of August and the 14th
of November, when in all probability our earth crosses the
orbit of one of those annular zones) they appear in enormous

6 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

numbers. During nine hours of observation in Boston,, when
they were described as falling like snowflakes, 240,000 meteors
were calculated to have been observed. The number falling in
a year might perhaps be estimated at hundreds or thousands
of millions, and even these would constitute but a small portion
of the total crowd of asteroids that circulate round the sun. As
these bodies, while obeying the earth's attraction, traverse our
atmosphere with planetary velocity, they would no doubt cause
a terrible bombardment, and from their vast numbers render
our planet absolutely uninhabitable, if their very speed had not
been made the means of neutralising their otherwise disastrous
effects : for, raised to incandescence by the atmospheric friction
engendered by this enormous velocity of from eighteen to thirty-
six miles a second, by far the greater portion of the aerolithes are
dissipated by heat, and a small number only reaches the surface
of the earth under the solid form of meteoric stones.

Interesting by their celestial origin, these masses are still
more so as the only tangible and ponderable proofs we possess
of the material existence of a world beyond our own — as teaching
us that the substances of which our earth is composed exist
also beyond its limits : for the chemist finds the meteoric stones
composed of iron, nickel, cobalt, silica, aluminium, and other
terrestrial elements, nor do they contain a single atom of any
substance that is unknown to us on earth. This circumstance
sufficed to render it very probable that our whole solar system
has been constructed of identical materials ; but the wonderful
researches of Bunsen and Kirchhof have raised probability to
certainty, by proving that sodium, calcium, magnesium, chro-
mium, iron, and other metals are constituents of the solar at-
mosphere and of the sun's central orb.*

However vast the scale of our planetary system, however inca-
pable our imagination may be to grasp its immensity, it still
forms but a minute portion even of the visible universe ; for
how insignificant in point of numbers, size, and distance are all
the satellites revolving round our sun, in comparison to the
countless hosts of the sidereal heavens ! So enormous are their
distances, that the immense diameter of the earth's orbit, as

* The reader will find an excellent account of the experiments which led to this
brilliant discovery in Professor Tyndall's admirable Lectures on Heat, pp. 408-415.

DISTANCES OF THE FIXED STARS. 7

seen from them, is only an indivisible point ; and it is only within
the last few years that instruments of a precision unknown to
former ages have at length brought a small number of them with-
in the reach of human calculation. In these immense regions
of space solar orbits are too small to serve as a unity of
measure ; we are obliged to travel on the wings of light, which
in a second leaves 200,000 miles behind, to be able to express,
in a few numbers, distances which exceed the utmost limits
of our conception.

A ray of light emitted from our earth would require three
years and a half to reach the nearest fixed star ; twenty years
long it would have to dart through the fields of ether before it
reached Sirius, and thirty years would have to pass before it
rested on the Polar Star.

Thus the distances of about thirty of the nearest fixed stars have
been measured ; but the remaining thousands which we are able
to see with the naked eye, and the millions which the telescope
reveals to our gaze, roll on at such immense distances from
our planet, that most probably no progress of astronomical
science will ever be able to bridge over the intervening gulf.
A reduction of stellar distances to a smaller scale will enable
us to form some faint idea of the enormous difficulties of their
calculation, and of the astonishing perfection of our instruments.
Supposing the sun to be of the size of an orange, and placing
it in the centre of the dome of St. Paul's, our pea-sized earth
will then be performing its orbit within the circumference of
the dome, while Neptune will be moving in the vicinity of the
Bank, and many of the comets extending their vagrant excur-
sions as far as Charing Cross. From these proportional distances
we may easily conceive how, the diameter of the cathedral dome
(which is here supposed to be the diameter of the earth's orbit)
being known, it must be comparatively easy to measure all the
angles necessary to calculate the distances of Neptune or any
other planet : but when we come to consider that, according to
the given proportions, the nearest fixed star would be sending us
its light from the vast distance of St. Petersburg, then indeed
we must be astonished at the perfection of the instruments
which from so narrow a basis have been able to measure the all-
but-imperceptible inclinations of the angles verging towards
that distant world.

8 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Before Bessel made the first successful attempt to determine
the distance of a fixed star, Sir John Herschel had already
taken the first steps towards the conquest of the sidereal heavens.
Through telescopes of an increasing range, he saw with their
growing power the number of the stars increase that presented
themselves before his field of vision, and thus gained a measure
for the form and the dimensions of the stellar system to which
our sun with all his satellites belongs.

This amazing cluster of worlds — this our ( world-island,' as
it has been appropriately called by Humboldt, consisting
of all the constellations seen with the naked eye, and of the
unnumbered stars that glimmer in the Milky Way — is of a
lenticular, flattened, oblong, or elliptic form, and swims like
a prodigious archipelago in the unmeasured realms of space.
We know the immense distances that separate us from the
nearest fixed stars, and can thus form a faint conception of the
vast dimensions of a group composed (according to Herschel) of
at least twenty millions of self-luminous stars. It has been
calculated that a ray of light would require at least six thousand
years to measure it from end to end, and fourteen hundred
years to traverse it in its breadth. But even this amazing
group of stars, vast and colossal beyond the bounds of human
imagination, forms but a point in the universe, for on all sides
similar clusters are seen looming out of the depths of the skies at
distances to which that of Siriusfrom the earth dwindles down to
one of our terrestrial measures. Many of these clusters, which
are either entirely invisible to the naked eye, or appear only as
nebular spots on the dark background of the celestial vault,
require Lord Rosse's great telescope to be dissolved into their
component stars ; while others resist even this powerful test,
and continue to appear as specks of mere luminous matter.

Hitherto it was supposed that the immensity of their
distances alone prevented them from being dissolved ; but the
true nature of some of them at least has been fully established
by recent investigations, which, by extending Bunsen's and
Kirchhof 's solar discoveries into the world of the fixed stars, have
not only been able to prove that the glowing atmosphere of
Aldebaran, for instance, contains quicksilver, and that of Sirius
antimony, but that many of the nebulae are in reality but
immense gaseous bodies, which we may suppose to be new

MOTION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 9

wo.rlds in the course of formation — worlds destined after in-
calculable ages to become the seat of sensitive and rational
beings.

At the beginning of the present century, the fixed stars, our
sun among the rest, were still supposed to be immovable, since,
as far as our astronomical annals reach, no change has ever
been observed in their mutual positions ; but the wonderful
precision of our modern instruments, and the progress of astro-
nomical observation, have taught us that they by no means
deserve their name. As we and all our brother-planets are
circling round the sun, thus also the sun with all his satellites
careers through space at the rate of 800,000 miles a day;
but the time of observation is as yet too short to be able to
ascertain the centre of hig prodigious orbit. Similar motions
have been discovered in other fixed stars, and thus we can hardly
doubt that all the spheres of our world-island are engaged in
constant motion — nay, that our world-island itself revolves round
another, and that thus eternal motion pervades all the recesses
of the universe.

The enormous swiftness of the fixed stars gives us an over-
whelming idea of the vast proportions of the starry heavens.
Every minute they leave several hundred miles behind — every
minute we are carried along with the sun at the same prodigious
rate through the celestial regions ; and yet the starry firmament
appears constantly unchanged, as it did to our fathers before us.

This boundless prospect into space opens to us a no less
boundless vista into time, for the sight of the distant heavens
does not exhibit their present but their past condition. The
rays of light which bear witness to the existence of these worlds,
circling in their unfathomable depths, have many of them
required millions of years to reach our planet. Many of those
brilliant orbs might have become extinct ages ago, and yet their
rays, sent forth up to the moment of their destruction, would
still announce their past glory to countless worlds. Thus with
every improvement of the telescope not only the magnitude, but
also the age, of the visible universe increases ; and as we dive
deeper and deeper into the abysses of celestial space, we also
plunge deeper and deeper into the ocean of the past. And if
we could fly to those islands of light, which even our giant
telescopes are scarce able to reveal, we still should be only on

10 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

the threshold of new worlds ; and how far should we have to fly
before we reached the regions of formless void, if such there be !
So much is certain — that all we can see is but as a speck in the
immensity of the creation, as our earth is but a speck in the solar
system, and the solar system itself but an imperceptible atom in
the stellar cluster of which it forms a part. The vastness of the
universe may well overpower the weakness of our comprehen-
sion— well may we feel humbled to the dust on comparing our
utter nothingness with the amazing grandeur of the surrounding
world ; but our heart soon recovers from its depression at the
consoling reflection, that the same bounteous Father who in-
stilled into us the breath of life, maintains all this vast universe
in constant harmony and beauty. As the planets revolve in
regular orbits round the sun — as the comets, however far they
roam in their erratic course, are yet obliged, in obedience to the
law of gravitation, to return to their central orb — as, within the
comparatively narrow confines of our solar system, the beautiful
spectacle of order, regularity, and unity strikes us in every
detail, thus also we cannot possibly doubt that the same order,
the same harmony, the same unity of plan pervades all the
unknown recesses of the universe, and that the whole of the
amazing structure proclaims in all its parts, throughout all time
and space, the infinite power and wisdom of Grod !

11

CHAPTEK II.

HEAT AND LIGHT.

The various Sources of Heat — Effects of Heat — Dependence of Terrestrial Life on
the actual Distance of the Earth from the Sun — Relations of the various Bodies
to Heat — The Prismatic Colours — The Harmony between Colours and the
Human Mind— What is Heat? — What is Light?— Importance of the Ethereal
Spaces with regard to the Distribution of Heat and Light.

SNOW covers the fields, the rivulets are ice-bound, the wintry
blast howls through the leafless forest, and at an early hour the
languid sun veils his weak rays behind the mists of the western
horizon. The songsters of the groves are mute, the insect
tribes have disappeared from the face of the earth, and every
freeborn animal seeks shelter in burrows or in caves.

Thus all nature seems to sink into lethargy and death — but a
wonderful resurrection is at hand. The sun rises higher and
higher in the skies, with every returning morn he gilds the
purple east sooner and sooner ; every afternoon he disappears
later and later to spread his floods of light over another hemi-
sphere— every day bears witness to an increase of his power.
The melting snow descends in a thousand rills from the moun-
tains, and the river, overflowing his banks, rushes with all the
energy of youthful liberty through the resounding valley. All
the dormant germs of organic nature burst forth in an endless
variety of forms : the naked forest clothes itself with a fresh
robe of verdure, thousands of flowers enamel the fields, thousands
of birds sing, and numberless insects buzz or dance in the balmy
air, and the wild denizens of the woods wander through the
thickets in the full enjoyment of freedom.

The heat of the sun is the wonderful agent of all these
various scenes of activity and happiness ; but the sun is
not the only source of heat, which may also be developed in a
variety of ways from all terrestrial bodies. Friction heats our

12 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

iron tools, and savage nations usually make fire by rubbing two
pieces of wood against each other. Percussion and compression
likewise produce heat. A cannon-ball, on striking a thick sheet
of iron with full force, will instantly raise its temperature to
red-heat ; and on suddenly compressing air to about one-fifth
of its previous volume it will set fire to cotton. Electricity,
chemical changes, the process of life, are also generators of
heat; it rises out of the craters of volcanoes, or gushes in
thermal springs from the bowels of the earth.

A very general effect of heat is its expanding force. With
a few remarkable exceptions, it universally appears as the mighty
opponent of cohesion, as the adversary of terrestrial attraction.
First it increases the volume of solid bodies, then it reduces
them into a liquid state, and finally converts them into gases —
a phenomenon which no other agent is capable of producing.
Hence the state of cohesion of all bodies solely depends upon
their temperature. Placed at a different distance from the sun,
our earth would offer a very different aspect : if considerably
nearer, enormous quantities of water would constantly be vola-
tilised, and then again precipitated in terrific showers ; if far
removed, the sea itself would be converted into a solid body,
and the circulation of fluids, the prime agent of vegetable
and animal life, be arrested. Thus our existence depends
upon the degree of heat resulting from the actual distance
of our planets from the sun ; and as we cannot possibly attri-
bute our origin to chance, thus also it is surely not this blind
capricious power, but the allwise providence of a Supreme
Being, which, myriads of years before the breath of life was
instilled into man, determined the distance of the earth from
the sun, that it might one day become his residence.

If, as is by no means improbable, Mercury and Venus or
Jupiter and Saturn are the abodes of rational beings, these must
inevitably be very differently formed from us, as they dwell
on planets where all the conditions of organic life are so totally
different ; but as harmony reigns everywhere on earth, we cannot
doubt that, whatever their form, they will in every respect be as
perfectly adapted to their various abodes as we to our terrestrial
habitation.

With respect to their relations to heat, we find a remarkable
difference in various substances or bodies. Some change their

COMPOSITION OF LIGHT. 13

temperature with great rapidity, others but slowly ; some are
good, others bad radiators of heat; some absorb it greedily,
others allow it to pass freely through their molecular tissues.
Thus the sun brings forth an infinite variety of actions and
reactions on the surface of the earth, for the atmosphere, the
waters, the solid parts of our globe are all variously affected
by his rays ; and as all bodies are constantly endeavouring to
equalise their temperatures, it may easily be imagined what
numberless interchanges of heat are constantly taking place
in all directions over the surface of the globe. But from these
perpetual oscillations, from this restless striving towards a
uniformity of temperature which can never be obtained (for not
a cloud passes, not a sunbeam falls, without creating some
new disturbance), arises that magnificent harmony between
organic life and the external world of air, water, and earth,
which can only have resulted from the design of a supreme
regulator.

If a beam of pure white light, admitted through a small hole
in a window-shutter into a darkened room, be made to pass
through a triangular prism of glass, it will be disentangled
and reduced into a number of splendid colours, similar to
those exhibited by the rainbow in all its beautiful gradations
of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. These
primitive tints, which are also called elementary or simple
colours, as they are incapable of any further division, will
reproduce colourless light, if concentred on one spot by a
lens — a proof of their being its component parts.

If the light of the sun were simple, then all bodies would
appear to us either black or white, by the absorption or re-
flection of its uniform rays, and thus Nature, instead of her
wonderful and many-coloured garb, would offer but a few dull
and monotonous tints.

As, however, but few bodies reflect or absorb the entire
sunbeam, while the majority retain only a part of the prismatic
colours and reject the remainder, which thus become visible to
the eye, that charming variety of colours is obtained, which we
admire in the glowing purple of the morning and evening sky,
in the brilliant reflections of the sea, in the foliage of the trees,
in the hues of flowers, in the splendid robes of the animal
creation, or in the lustrous tints of the mineral world.

14 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

The immense variety of colours with which the face of
Nature is adorned, not only affords the fullest gratification
to our sense of the beautiful, it is even essential to our very
existence, and to that of most of the higher animals ; for how
should we be able to find our food, or to escape from our
enemies, if all objects were uniformly black or white? Plunged
in a colourless world, man could never have become a civilised
being ; his fancy, his knowledge would have been crippled, his
mind torpid and inert. Thus there is an intimate harmony
between the coloured sunbeam and the wants of our spiritual
nature, evidently proving that both proceed from the same
divine source.

The successful investigation of the properties of light is one
of the proudest triumphs of human ingenuity. Light darts
through space with an utterly inconceivable rapidity, yet man
has been able to measure its speed. He knows that it undulates
at the rate of 192,000 miles a second, and that as no less than
39,000 waves of red light and 57,500 waves of violet light placed
end to end would be required to make up an inch, the vibrations
of the former within that minute space of time amount to the
truly astounding number of 474, and those of the latter to
699, millions of millions !

In passing through various media, or on striking their surfaces,
light is refracted or thrown back in angles of every dimension ;
yet man reduces all these deviations to fixed laws, and calculates
them with mathematical precision. He knows whether light
proceeds from a self-luminous star, or whether it is only reflected
by a planet — and thus obtains a measure for the various natures
of the celestial bodies.

To be able to make all these discoveries and observations, to
be able to track light to inconceivable distances, or to penetrate
by its means into the secrets of the microscopical world, be has
armed his limited eyesight with truly magical instruments, which
reveal to him both the existence of distant worlds and that of
creatures so minute that many thousands find room for their
activity in a single drop of water ! Within the last few years he
has even forced light to do him service as a painter, and to trace
portraits or landscapes with a delicacy and perfection of touch
such as the human hand would vainly strive to emulate.

What is heat ? — what is light ? These questions, so difficult to

NATURE OF HEAT AND LIGHT. 15

answer, naturally force themselves upon the attention of every
thinking mind which observes their astonishing effects. Formerly
the material theory, which regarded heat and light as fluids of
inappreciable tenuity stored up in the inter-atomic spaces of
bodies, and evolved under certain circumstances so as to become
sensible to the touch or vision, had the greater number of ad-
herents ; but recent discoveries leave no doubt of the truth
of the dynamical theory, according to which they are merely
accidents or conditions of matter — namely, motions of its ulti-
mate particles. These motions or vibrations communicate their
undulations to the highly elastic ethereal fluid which fills all
space, and in which the hosts of the celestial bodies are plunged,
like islands in an infinite ocean. Eays of heat and light without
number, proceeding as messengers of life from countless suns,
cross each other in that vast interstellar sea — itself the seat of
perpetual cold, of perpetual silence, of perpetual darkness, of
perpetual death. But are these silent realms mere useless voids,
mere dead and dreary wastes ? No ! for through them warmth
and light radiate from world to world ; they form a necessary link
in the chain of influences and motions from which life proceeds,
and without their night there would be no day, and no beings
to enjoy the day and its infinite variety and beauty.

16 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTER III.

THE ATMOSPHERIC OCEAN.

Immensity of the Atmospheric Ocean — The Component Parts of the Atmosphere —
Oxygen — Nitrogen — Wonderful Constancy in the Composition of the Atmosphere —
Antagonism between Vegetable and Animal Life — The System of the Winds —
Dependence of all Terrestrial Life upon the actual Constitution of the Atmosphere —
Atmospheric Air but a Mixture — No Chemical Combination of Oxygen and Nitro-
gen— Transparency of the Air — Its Influence upon the Mental Development of
Mankind — Air considered as the Bearer of Sounds — Voices of Nature.

OVER sea and land spreads the vast cupola of the atmospheric
ocean. You might fly twenty times higher than ever the condor
flies, you might pile fifty Mont Blancs one upon the other,
and yet you would not reach its confines.

In wondrous majesty the sea rolls its billows over three-fourths
of the surface of the globe, and the plummet has not yet revealed
to us all the mysteries of its depths ; but even the sea is small,
when compared with the vast domains of air that rise above it
to an unknown height.

Of what substances is this immense aerial ocean composed ?
It was a highly important step in the progress of human know-
ledge when this question was first answered, when towards the
end of the last century Lavoisier first discovered that the air we
breathe is not a simple elementary body, but a mixture of two
gases of very different properties, to which he gave the names of
oxygen and nitrogen.

As is well known, the first of these gases, which forms about
a fifth part of the volume of the air, is extremely combustible,
and has a great tendency to combine with other bodies ; while
nitrogen, which occupies the remaining four-fifths of the volume
of the atmosphere, is incombustible, and but little inclined to
sacrifice its independent existence ; and thus, while oxygen enters
largely into the composition of water, and of most of the sub-
stances which form the solid earth-rind, nitrogen is chiefly con-
fined to the aerial regions.

ANTAGONISM BETWEEN VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL LIFE. 17

All organised beings absolutely require oxygen for their
existence, and receive it from the inexhaustible sources of the
atmosphere. When we reflect on the countless millions of
animals which are constantly inhaling and consuming this prime
necessary of life, and as constantly evolving carbonic acid, a gas
destructive to life, we well may wonder how, in spite of this
enormous consumption and perpetual pollution, the composition
of the atmosphere still remains unchanged from age to age.

This immutability in the midst of eternal disturbance, this
constancy where so many changes are perpetually at work, can
only be the result of a wonderful order, of a masterly balance
between conflicting influences.

The opposite wants of animal and vegetable life are the chief
means which Providence uses for maintaining the purity of the
atmosphere. Animals consume oxygen and exhale carbonic acid,
while in the economy of plants the inverse operation takes
place. Thus, without the plants, the animals would soon decline
and perish, in consequence of the increasing impurity of the at-
mosphere ; and, on the other hand, the plants could not exist
without the carbonic acid, which the vital process of animals is
constantly imparting to the air.

Even in the narrow space of an aquarium we are able to per-
ceive the beneficial effects of this opposition between vegetable
and animal respiration. For if we enclose marine animals alone
— mollusks, annelides, star-fishes, crustaceans — in one of these re-
servoirs, they soon perish, in consequence of the want of oxygen
and the pollution of the water; but by adding a few plants —
ulvse or confervas — the equilibrium maintains itself, and while
the latter enjoy a vigorous growth, the former are able for a
long time to preserve an unimpaired health.

Yet, in spite of this admirable antagonism between the vege-
table and animal kingdoms, the purity of the air would have
been but imperfectly maintained if the atmosphere had not been
kept in a state of constant motion by the magnificent system of
the winds, which force the air to wander in perpetual currents
from the equator to the pole, and from the pole to the equator.

The unequal influence of the heat of the sun upon the atmo-
sphere between the tropics and in the higher latitudes is the
first grand cause of this immense aerial circulation. In those
favoured regions where the sun darts his vertical rays upon the

c

1« THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

earth, and pours floods of warmth into the bosom of the ocean,
the rarefied air, as if attracted by the great luminary, ascends in
vertical columns to the skies. But as the law of gravity tolerates
no void, cold air columns keep constantly rushing in from the
poles to replace the ascending equatorial air-currents, which,
on reaching the higher regions of the atmosphere, in their turn
gradually descend towards the poles, where, condensed by the
cold, they again resume their equatorial migrations.

While the sun thus perpetually ventilates the air on a truly
magnificent scale, the unequal warmth of the various bodies
which clothe the surface of the earth likewise causes a constant
agitation of the atmosphere. Grass, stones, the leaves of the
forest, the waters, are all unequally heated by the sun, radiate
with unequal power the caloric they have absorbed, communicate
to the contiguous air a higher or a lower temperature, and con-
sequently a diminution or an increase of weight. But the air
constantly strives to restore its equilibrium, and thus sweeps
along in constantly renewed currents over the surface of the
bodies which cause these constant perturbations.

The carbonic acid which we exhale with our warm breath is
carried to a distance before our breast expands for a new inspi-
ration, and, in the open air, not a single atom that has ever es-
caped our lungs will again return into their cells. Thus the sun,
the source of light and warmth, is also one of the chief pro-
moters of our health.

The organisation of all plants and animals is so intimately
based upon the existing composition of the atmosphere, that,
supposing a change to take place in the constitution of the air,
all beings actually existing must necessarily perish. If the
atmosphere contained a greater proportion of oxygen, the
current of our life would be accelerated for a time, but would
also be much more rapidly consumed ; and if, on the other hand,
its quantity was considerably reduced, the respiratory process
would languish, and life soon become extinct.

The petrified remains of birds and quadrupeds which we find
in the deposits of the primeval ocean prove that during an in-
calculable series of ages the composition of the atmosphere
cannot have differed in any notable degree from its present
condition, but they prove at the same time how perfect the
laws must be, which during such vast periods have constantly
maintained its uniformity.

TRANSPARENCY OF THE AIR. 19

It is a highly important fact that the air we breathe does
not consist, like water, of an intimate combination of elements,
but only of a mixture of gases which are not united together by
the close bonds of chemical affinity. The reduction or sepa-
ration of a compound body — whether solid, liquid, or gaseous
— into its component parts is in every case the more or less
violent disruption of a more or less intimate association, and con-
sequently cannot be effected without the waste or consumption
of a certain amount of power. Thus we see how greatly the
respiratory process of animals is facilitated by their being able
to obtain their supply of oxygen, without first being obliged to
separate it from an intimate connection with its accompanying
nitrogen, which, going in and out of the lungs unchanged, merely
performs the passive but highly important part of moderating
the action of its fiery partner.

The air of the atmosphere not only contains the substance
which our vital process absolutely requires for its maintenance
but its physical properties have likewise been made to harmonise
most beautifully both with the existence of organic life and the
development of our mental powers. What would have been the
consequence if, instead of allowing a free passage to the calorific
rays of the sun, it had been a ready absorber of their warmth ?
Then the heat which is necessary for the growth of plants would
never have reached the surface of the earth, but have been swal-
lowed up, and again radiated into space by the upper regions of
the atmosphere.

The wonderful transparency of the air not only allows us to
see terrestrial objects at a great distance, such as a ship rising
at the brink of the horizon, or a mountain-peak raising its snow-
clad summit above many miles of intervening country, but to
penetrate through the whole of its crystal depths to those far-
distant worlds which so magnificently bespangle the dark vault
of heaven, and whose study forms one of the noblest occupations
of the human mind.

As the bearer of sounds which undulate along on its elastic
waves, the air likewise largely contributes to the enjoyment of
life and to our intellectual improvement. Our eye might ever
so much delight in the aspect of a beautiful landscape, the scene
would still seem desolate and dreary if it lay before us in deep
uninterrupted silence.

The waving corn-field, the rustling grove, would be bereft of

c 2

20 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

half their charms if the breeze had no power to awaken their
dormant melodies. The picturesque beauty of the murmuring
brook, of the bubbling source, of the river bounding over its
rocky bed, or of the foaming cataract, is wonderfully enhanced
by the grace or sublimity of their peculiar music, and even the
ocean would be far less majestic if he had not voices harmonising
with all his humours, now gently rustling over the pebbles of
the sunny beach, now frantically raving against the rock-bound
coast.

Thus, through our ear and through our eye, the transparent
sound-bearing atmosphere holds sweet communion with our
soul, and opens to its contemplation the portals of another
world.

21

CHAPTER IV.

THE MAJESTY OF THE OCEAN.

The Immensity of the Ocean— Ebb and Flood— Causes of the Tides— Their In-
fluence on the Organic Life of the Seas — Ocean Currents — How Produced —
Their Importance — Evidences of Unity of Design resulting from the intimate
Connection of the Phenomena of the Seas and the distant Celestial Bodies.

WHERE are the boundaries of the sea? where is its beginning or
its end ? It rolls through every zone, and the continents are
but islands rising from its immeasurable bosom. . Day and
night, winter and summer, rule at one and the same time
over its vast domains ; the sun is ever rising and ever setting
over its restless waters. Here palm-groves wave their graceful
fronds over its ever-smiling margin ; there eternal ice blocks
up its melancholy strands; here the storm rages over the
mountain-wave ; there profound peace reigns over its surface,
and not a breath of air ruffles its glassy brow.

Sublime in space, the sea is no less sublime in time. The
present dry land bears everywhere the traces that it once rested
in the bosom of the waters, and how many continents and islands
may they not have swallowed in the course of unnumbered cen-
turies, how often may they not have changed their seat and dis-
placed their boundaries ? Countless forms of animal life have
one after the other appeared and perished beneath them ; they
have successively witnessed the birth and the death of the tri-
lobites, of the ammonites, of the encrinites, and of the giant
saurians. And how long may not the desert-ocean have rolled
its waves before organic life first dawned upon it, before the first
alga spread its fronds along the shore, or the first mollusk opened
its valves to the tide ?

What a majestic age ! what a past and what a future ! for the
ocean, the sepulchre of so many extinct forms of animals and
plants, is destined to be the grave of many others yet glowing

22 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

with all the energy of life ; and when perhaps nobler beings may
have taken the place of man, its waves will still sparkle in the
glittering sunbeam, or thunder against the coast of some land
now still reposing in its depths.

How numberless are the blessings we owe to the ocean, the
father and sustainer of all organic life ! He it is that feasts the
stream, that fills the lake, that bubbles in the spring, that
foams in the cataract, or rushes along in the mountain torrent.
Should his eternal fountains be dried up, then the blooming
surface of the earth would be converted into a naked waste.
To him we owe the magnificence of our forests, the verdure of
our meadows, the beauty of our fields. It is his waters we enjoy
in the luscious fruits of our orchards, or quaff in the juice of the
exhilarating grape. They circulate in the veins of numberless
animals, of the bee which offers us the sweet tribute of its honey,
of the bird that charms us with its melodious song, of the domes-
tic quadruped on whose flesh we feed, and whose services are
indispensable to our welfare. Nay, our own blood is originally
drawn from the wells of the ocean, and is constantly refreshed
and replenished from their exhaustless sources.

Far from separating from each other the nations of the earth
(as the ancients, still inexperienced in navigation, supposed), the
sea is the great highway of the human race, and unites all its
various tribes into one common family by the' beneficial bonds of
commerce. Countless fleets are constantly furrowing its bosom,
to enrich, by perpetual exchanges, all the countries of the globe
with the products of every zone, to convey the fruits of the
tropical world to the children of the chilly north, or to trans-
port the manufactures of colder climes to the inhabitants of the
equatorial regions. With the growth of commerce, civilisation
also spreads athwart the wide causeway of the ocean from shore
to shore; it first dawned on the borders of the sea, and its chief
seats are still to be found along its confines.

The same power of attraction which governs the course of
the stars, and compels the planets to wander in eternal ellipses
round the sun, is also the Supreme Arbiter of the tides. How
wonderful this regular undeviating alternation of ebb and flood,
this immutable constancy in the midst of eternal change ! — but
our wonder increases when we learn that the cause of the grand
phenomenon, which never fails to interest the observer, how-

INFLUENCE OF THE TIDES. 23

ever often he may have witnessed its charming recurrence, does
not reside in the bosom of the liquid element itself, but is to
be sought for far away, over the remote abysses of ether, in
the attractive power of the sun, and still more so of the moon,
who, as she rolls along, causes the obedient waters to follow in
her wake.

Thus Science teaches us : and surely no accusation was ever
more unfounded than the frequent reproach that she has
banished poetry from Nature, and prosaically robbed her of the
enchanted garb with which she had been invested by the
creative fancy of past ages, for even the brilliant imagination
of a Shakespeare could not possibly have conceived a greater
image than that of the ever-restless tide-wave, which, following
the triumphant march of the sun and moon, began as soon as
the primeval ocean was formed, and is to last uninterruptedly
as long as our solar system exists !

The influence of the tides upon the marine plants and
animals is of the greatest importance. A vast number of polypes,
mollusks, and crustaceans thrive only within, or but a few
fathoms below, the littoral zone (as the belt of rock or shingle
extending from high-water to low-water mark is termed), and
many of the commonest algae best flourish when alternately
bathed with floods of water and of air.

Many of these plants and lower animals could not possibly
live if the continual oscillations of the tides did not constantly
saturate the coast-waters with the oxygen which is necessary for
their existence; and, along with these, numbers of fishes,
sea-birds, and marine mammalians, such as seals, manatees, or
dugongs, that now feed upon the abundance of the shallow
waters, must also have been blotted from the book of life.

Thus the beautiful shells, the grotesque crustaceans, the plant-
like polypes and corals which thrive best among the roaring
breakers, the gulls and divers, and many other birds that dwell in
the littoral zone, or hover about its skirts, are, if not all of them,
yet mostly indebted for their existence to the friendly moon who
sends down her rays upon them from the distance of so many ,
thousand miles. She bears no sea on her arid volcanic surface ;
as far as we know, no atmospheric ocean rolls its billows over her
lofty mountain-peaks ; but although she herself is naked and
waste, she fosters life on the shores of the ocean of another

24 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

world, and thousands upon thousands of our marine animals
enjoy the light of the sun through her alone. Can chance or
blind physical laws have possibly caused this wonderful depen-
dence, or is it a divine power which has thus linked the desti-
nies of our globe to the influence of another world ?

As the atmosphere is constantly wandering from the equator
to the poles, and from the regions of perpetual ice to the sultry
tropics, thus also the waters of the ocean are hurried along in
perpetual migrations. From the deep abysses of the seas, im-
penetrable to the rays of the sun, they rise to the sunny surface,
or, after having revelled in the bounding wave, they again
descend into the silent darkness of the submarine regions. From
the coral gardens of the Pacific they are carried away to the
bleak coasts where the walrus heaves his ponderous mass upon
the ice, and from the desolate shores where the Esquimau
harpoons the wily seal, to the delightful bay where Naples smiles
upon the azure wave*

The causes which force the waters of the sea to wander thus
restlessly from place to place are identically the same as those
which forbid the floods of the atmospheric ocean ever to know
rest ; for the impulse of their migrations does not proceed from
their own bosom, but from the distant sun. Absorbing the
heat of his vertical beams, the expanding tropical waters are
constantly rising to the surface, whence they flow onwards to
the higher latitudes, where the opposite tendency takes place ;
for, chilled by the icy blasts of the Arctic regions and conse-
quently increasing in weight, the surface-waters are here carried
down to the bottom, and ultimately find their way to the equa-
torial regions.

Thus the repose of the seas is constantly disturbed by tropical
heat and polar frost, but the ocean has the same tendency to
restore the equilibrium of its temperature as the atmosphere,
and thus those numerous warm and cold currents are produced,
which, furrowing the bosom of the seas in opposite directions,
are constantly exchanging the waters of the different zones.

In its lowest depths, the influence of the sun is felt ; he con-
stantly covers the bottom of the tropical seas with frigid waters
and causes the warm equatorial floods to wander to the poles, —
a magnificent system based upon the simple physical law of the
expansion of bodies through heat and their condensation through

SYSTEM OF MARINE CURRENTS. 25

cold, How many thousands or even millions of cubic miles of
water may not the ocean contain, but these enormous masses,
too vast for the human imagination to conceive, are moved gently
but irresistibly by the power of a sphere 80,000,000 miles dis-
tant from our globe !

The influence of the oceanic currents upon the organic life,
not only of the seas but of the neighbouring lands, is quite incal-
culable. They moderate the heat of the tropical zone, and convey
a considerable portion of equatorial warmth into the higher
latitudes. Without the gulf-stream, whose influence may be
traced as far as the west coasts of Spitzbergen and Novaja
Sewlja, Scotland and Norway, where forests clothe the moun-
tain-sides up to a height of several thousand feet, would be
nothing but icy deserts ; and on the other hand, the tropical west
coast of South America owes its temperate climate to the cold
Peruvian stream, which constantly conveys refreshing coolness
from the Antarctic seas.

It may easily be conceived how this vast system of currents
and counter-currents, furrowing the seas in every direction, must
contribute to the dissemination of marine life. Countless spores
of algae, innumerable eggs and larvas, are transported by the
oceanic, streams from place to place, and many land-animals
attached to floating timber are in a like manner conveyed to
distant regions.

The ocean-currents are likewise extremely favourable to ma-
rine life, from their saturating the deep waters with atmosphe-
ric air ; for, as the colder superficial layers sink to the bottom,
they carry along with them the oxygen they have imbibed while
in contact with the air, and are thus able to impart this first
necessary of life to numerous animals dwelling in the deeper
waters.

As the winds purify the atmosphere, thus also the currents
purify the sea by- preventing the accumulation of putrefying
substances and spreading them over a greater surface, where they
are speedily devoured by hosts of hungry scavengers.

Besides all these beneficial influences, the marine currents
tend also to equalise the saline composition of sea- water, so
necessary to the welfare or existence of many of the denizens of
the ocean.

Their movements also contribute to the formation of sand-

26 THE HAEMONIES OF NATURE.

banks, where at certain seasons legions of fishes deposit their
spawn, and invite the persecutions of man.

The organic life of the ocean would thus be reduced to very
narrow limits, if the moon and the sun — the former by her
attraction, the latter by the unequal action of his warmth upon
the surface of the sea in different latitudes — did not perpetually
agitate its waters ; and this intimate connection between those
distant celestial orbs and the sea and its inhabitants cannot but
convince every reflecting mind that both derive their origin from
the same creative power.

27

CHAPTER V.

THE ATMOSPHERICAL PKECIPITATIONS IN THEIR RELATION TO
ORGANIC NATURE.

The constant Sources of the Eivers — The Harmonies of the Ocean and the Atmo-
sphere— Distribution of Bain and Snow over the Surface of the Globe — The Voices
of Eivers — Dew — History of its Formation — Clouds and Eain — Snow and Ice
as Protectors of Vegetable and Animal Life — Eavines — The G-laciers — The
Tornado.

THOUGH the voices of the rivers change with the varying sea-
sons— loud and menacing in spring, when their floods are
swollen by the melted snows, and softly whispering after a long
summer's drought — yet, over by far the greater portion of the
earth they never rest in total silence, nor does the rain ever
cease to replenish their sources or to quench the thirst of the
forests on the hills and of the meadows in the plains.

This uninterrupted flow of the rivers, this constant irrigation
of the fields and woods, evidently points to the agency of some
grand and constant law, to an admirable harmony between the
wide sea below and the still more ample atmospheric ocean
above.

Everywhere the air absorbs humidity, but chiefly over the
surface of the tropical ocean, where, volatilised by the vertical
rays of an ardent sun, the aqueous vapours ascend in amazing
quantities to the skies. Thus, the equatorial seas are the prin-
cipal sources which feed our brooks and fill our lakes; it is
from them that the greater part of the rain arises which refreshes
the verdure of our plains, and of the snow which covers the
northern mountains with a white mantle of dazzling brightness.

But how are these vapours distributed over the surface of the
globe ? how are they conveyed to the temperate zones, or even
still farther onward to the frigid poles ?

The same grand system of the winds which forces the air to
perpetual migrations carries also the evaporation of the ocean
to distant lands. I have already mentioned in a former chapter

28 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

that cold, and consequently dry, air-currents are perpetually
wandering from the poles to the equator to re-establish the
equilibrium of the atmosphere, which is constantly disturbed by
the mighty action of the tropical sea. The rotation of the
earth gradually imparts to these cold polar streams a direction
from east to west as they advance towards the lower latitudes,
and ultimately changes them into the constant easterly trade
winds, the mariner's delight as he crosses the tropical Atlantic
on his way to the New World. As during these wanderings
their temperature constantly increases, they are able to absorb
a constantly increasing quantity of aqueous vapours, until they
are completely saturated with moisture.

In their subsequent progress to the higher latitudes the con-
trary tendency takes place, for, as their temperature diminishes,
they become incapable of retaining the aqueous vapours they
had previously absorbed, and are thus compelled to discharge
them under the various forms of rain, snow, hail, or dew, until
having lost by far the greater part of their moisture, they
finally reach the polar regions, whence, thoroughly desiccated,
they begin again their grand circulating tour.

Thus evaporated and set in motion by the sun, the waters, ever
rising and ever falling, migrate through the air. Enormous
quantities of water constantly ascend from the ocean, but the
countless rivers which they feed are as constantly restoring
them to their source.

Though the atmospherical precipitations are very unequally
distributed over the surface of the earth, as they are favoured
or impeded by a variety of local causes, such as mountain-chains
or forests, both of which act as powerful condensators, the
prevalence of dry or moist winds, according to the geographical
position, the constitution of the soil, &c., yet, on examining
each land in particular, we find a remarkable uniformity in the
quantity of rain that annually falls to its share. Thus, though in
England some years are more moist than others, yet the dif-
ference in the annual quantity of rain only deviates a few inches
from the mean average, and the deficiency of one month is
generally repaired by the greater abundance of the next.

The clouds that pass over our heads pay us their regular
tribute, and the authority of a higher law reigns even in the
apparently free empire of the air.

THE VOICES OF RIVERS. 29

It is almost superfluous to point out ho\v necessary this con-
stancy in the meteorological character of a country is to the
well-being, or even to the existence, of its indigenous plants and
animals. If after prolonged periods of continual showers, such
as take place in the West Indies, equally long periods of an
African drought were to follow in our country, how would then
our fields and meadows be able to sustain so many millions of
men and of domestic animals ?

Our whole agricultural system, the whole organic life of our
island, is based on the alternations of moist and dry weather
which distinguish our moderate climate.

If the earth were everywhere covered with impermeable strata
of rock, the rains would either flow off so rapidly, or be so long
retained in extensive swamps and pools upon the surface, as
greatly to diminish the variety and luxuriance of vegetation.

But by far the greater part of the earth-rind is composed of
alternating beds or strata of impermeable clay and porous lime or
sandstone, originally deposited in horizontal layers at the bottom
of the primeval seas, but now more or less displaced and set on
edge by the volcanic forces, which have so frequently changed
the surface of the earth.

Wherever permeable beds crop out on the surface, the residuary
portions of rain-water, which are not disposed of by floods or by
evaporation, are absorbed into the fissures and small interstices
of the porous soil, and descending into their lower depths until
they reach an impermeable stratum, form the subterraneous
sheets or reservoirs of water from which our springs and rivers
are chiefly fed. The granite, gneiss, porphyry, lava, and other
unstratified and crystalline rocks of igneous origin, which cover
about one-third part of the habitable globe, are likewise inter-
sected by innumerable fissures and interstices, which collect and
transmit rain-water, and give origin to springs.

Thus the volcanic forces, which, in the course of countless
centuries have moulded the earth-rind into its present form,
have at the same time furnished it with the necessary filters,
drains, conduits, and cisterns, for the supply of the sources,
brooks, and rivers that run along its surface.

The geological convulsions of the globe, the evaporation
of the ocean, the circulation of the waters over the surface of
the earth, thus all harmoniously tend to the maintenance of

30 THE HAKMONIES OF NATURE.

organic life ; and truly, whoever reflects upon the manner how
streams originate, and how their waters are constantly replen-
ished, cannot fail to view them with a deeper interest than" that
which their mere beauty or utility inspires. To him they are not
only the melodious ornaments of the valley, the highways of com-
merce, the benefactors of mankind, but the effects of a wonderful
co-operation of physical laws, all tending to one common end,
and as they rush along he fancies he hears a voice proclaiming
the glories of their Maker.

Similar harmonies strike us when we examine the nature of
the various atmospherical precipitations with reference to the
requirements of organic life.

How beautiful is the morning dew, glittering in all the
colours of the rainbow ; how it refreshes the thirsty plains ; how
the plants raise their drooping heads under the influence
of its grateful moisture ! Poets have made it the emblem of
purity, but physical science, by revealing to us the simple laws
that preside over its formation, has rendered it more beautiful
still to the reflecting observer.

Everybody knows that, when in summer a bottle filled with
cold water is brought into a warm room, it soon gets covered
with thick dew-drops, which presently trickle down its sides,
although it was perfectly dry on entering. Whence does this
moisture proceed ? Not from the inside of the bottle, as
ignorant people might imagine, but from the surrounding atmo-
sphere, in consequence of the capacity of the air to absorb
or retain moisture, increasing or diminishing as its temperature
grows warmer or colder.

Thus, when the cold bottle is introduced into the room, the
warm sheet of air, which is in immediate contact with its
surface, immediately cools, and being no longer able to retain
the same quantity of aqueous vapours, is obliged to deposit
them on the sides of the vessel. As it cools, its weight also
increases, it flows downwards, warmer air takes its place to
cool in its turn, and thus there is a perpetual deposition of
moisture, until the temperature of the bottle has risen to that
of the surrounding atmosphere.

This familiar example suffices to explain the formation of
dew, and of all other atmospherical precipitations, such as
rain, hail, or snow, as they all result from the influence of

FORMATION OF DEW. 31

some refrigerating cause upon the air. After sunset, most
bodies, by projecting or radiating heat into free space, become
colder than the neighbouring air, and as soon as their refri-
geration has attained a certain point, they must naturally, in
consequence of the physical law above mentioned, get covered
with dew. The best radiators of heat part, of course, most
easily with their caloric, and for this reason grass, leaves, or
plants in general, get much sooner and more plentifully covered
with dew than slower radiators, such as stones, the soil, or
metals, which frequently still remain dry when the meadows
are already covered with plentiful moisture. Hence we can
understand why, in summer, every serene night (for clouds,
by reflecting or throwing back again upon the terrestrial
surface the caloric which would else have been dissipated into
space, prevent its rapid refrigeration) is accompanied with a
copious formation of dew ; why it is more abundant in autumn
and spring than at any other season, as then very cold and
starlight nights frequently follow upon warm days, and why
it is most copious in the torrid zone, as in those sultry regions
the air is more saturated with moisture than anywhere else, and
the comparatively cold nights are almost constantly serene and
calm.

Had naked stones been as good radiators of heat as leaves or
herbs, then the latter would vainly have thirsted for refresh-
ment, while the former would have been bathed in useless
moisture.

Had the dew been plentiful during violent winds, the plants
must frequently have suffered, or been frozen to death in con-
sequence of the rapid evaporation of their moisture.

Where the sun has most power, where during the day he most
thoroughly dries up the soil, there also the cool night is most
prodigal of dew.

Thus the history of dew gives us many opportunities of
admiring the wisdom that has presided over its formation and
distribution.

While dew is merely produced on the surface of solid bodies,
the refrigeration of large volumes of air forms clouds or fogs,
consisting of vast numbers of minute globules, or vesicles
of moisture, which float like soap-bubbles in the atmosphere,
until, their quantity increasing with the cold, or in consequence

32 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

of electrical discharges, they unite to larger drops, and fall to
the ground under the various forms of rain, snow, or hail.

The rain-drops grow as they fall from a greater height, and
traverse the warmer and more humid atmospherical strata,
which are generally nearer to the surface of the ground. It
is a well-known fact that there is a considerable difference
in the quantity of rain falling within the same time upon
the summit of a hill, or at its foot, and thus the elevated
clouds, from which the rain originally descends, are merely
its starting-points.

This gradually increasing weight of the rain-drops as they
fall is of great importance to vegetation. Had they at once at-
tained their full size at a considerable height, they would have
descended with terrific violence, and every shower of rain must
have been equal to a hail-storm in its destructive effects. So
much ground would also have been washed away from the hill-
slopes by these pelting floods, that large tracts of fertile country
must have been converted into naked wastes.

In the tropical zone the rain indeed frequently falls in such
dense torrents as to produce a painful impression on the skin ;
but here the structure of the plants harmonises with the
meteorological character of the climate. Genera with thick
compact leathery leaves, which even the strongest rain cannot
damage, are prevalent; and such plants as have a more delicate
foliage mostly grow under the protecting canopy of the forest.
The glasses and cereals, such as maize and the sugar-cane, are
of a more robust growth than our indigenous species, and the
fruits generally ripen after the rainy season is past, or grow
under the shelter of a dense crown of leaves.

The congelation of water at the comparatively moderate
temperature of + 32° F., when it either drops as snow from
the atmosphere, or covers the brooks and rivers with a sheet
of ice, is of immense importance to vegetation in the higher
latitudes ; for snow is so bad a conductor of heat, that under
its protecting mantle the plants of the Arctic regions are
able to resist the utmost rigours of the cold. Buried eight
or ten feet deep under its crystal pall, they pass the long
winter in a temperature not much below freezing point, while
without icy blasts — capable of converting mercury into a solid
body — howl over the naked wilderness. But for this protection,

DESERT OF ICE. 33

no flowers would ever bloom in Spitzbergen or Nowaja Semlya,
where now many a ranunculus or purple silene

' is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air

but for this, no trace of verdure could ever enliven the deso-
late shore of Melville Island, or fringe the estuaries of the
Mackenzie.

Many of the Arctic animals that have not been gifted with
the capacity, or the instinct, to undertake long journeys in quest
of a milder climate, likewise owe the preservation of their life
to the thick non-conducting snow-mantle under which they lie
concealed during the long winter months. Without this cover-
ing they would freeze in their burrows, or the iron soil would
refuse them the nourishment which they find by digging or
scratching in its entrails.

What would become of the migratory birds, which, at the
beginning of summer, arrive in countless swarms on the banks
of the northern waters, if the snow had not harboured an infinite
number of worms under its warm cover ? And what would be the
fate of the rude inhabitants of the Arctic world, who, after the
long penury of winter, anxiously are awaiting their arrival, if
their winged legions were to omit their visits ?

So much is certain, that if during the Arctic winter only cold
showers of rain fell upon the earth, or if the frozen aqueous
vapours of the atmosphere, instead of descending in light
flakes of snow, were to pour down in thick hailstones, vast
tracts of country now blooming with a rich summer vegetation,
and capable of affording nourishment to numerous animals,
would have been nothing but naked wastes.

The loose movable nature of snow greatly facilitates its re-
moval from the highlands of the earth. Scarcely have the
warm breezes of spring fanned the mountain vales of Switzer-
land, when numberless small lavines are seen to descend from
every declivity like streamlets of floating silver. Their loud
voices sound like delightful music to the herdsman, who greets
them as the heralds of approaching abundance. For wherever
they leave the slope uncovered, the sun and rain act with a
double force, and thus in a short time vast quantities of snow,
which would have given way but slowly to the unassisted efforts

D

34 THE HAEMONIES OF STATUKE.

of the sun, disappear from the hills, and soon make room for a
rich carpet of verdure.

Thus the lavines are of incalculable advantage to the Alpine
mountaineer, who now drives his herds on many a pasture-
ground which, but for them, would be condemned to perpetual
sterility.

It might be supposed that the snow, filling the deep gullies or
basins of the higher Alps, and thence pouring in streams of
solid ice into the valleys, must be eternally fixed on earth,
and that their imprisoned waters could never find their way back
again to the ocean. The glaciers of the Mont Blanc or of the
Bernese Oberland seem perennially to defy the warmth of sum-
mer; but their immobility is merely apparent, for the pres-
sure of the superincumbent masses is so great as to force them
perpetually downwards as if they were a viscous body, until at
length the consumption below equals the supply above.

Thus slowly, indeed — for the velocity of the great glaciers of
the Alps rarely exceeds two feet a day — but yet not less surely
than if they bounded in foaming cataracts down the valleys, or
rolled in rapid currents through the plains, the consolidated
waters above the snow-line are ultimately restored to their parent
seas.

In the same manner Greenland, Spitzbergen and many other
mountainous countries of the Arctic zone, divest themselves of
the snows which cover their dreary wastes, and thus an accu-
mulation is prevented which might have been dangerous to the
whole economy of organic nature.

The property of water to expand and thus to become lighter
on assuming the solid form of ice, is of the greatest importance
to the maintenance of organic life over a great portion of the
globe.

If ice were heavier than water, the beds of the rivulets and
rivers, of the ponds and lakes, in the higher latitudes would be
covered with a sheet of congealed water as soon as the first frosts
of winter appeared, and in a very few days the mightiest streams
would be converted, throughout their whole depth, into one solid
mass, which even a long summer would hardly have been able
to thaw, or which in many cases would have triumphed over all
its efforts. But ice remaining on the surface, and being, like
snow, a bad conductor of heat, increases but slowly in thickness
as the rigours of winter increase, and thus, even in Siberia, the

DESEET OF ICE. 35

rivers are only frozen to a depth of eight or ten feet. As soon
as the first warm days of spring appear, the thawed surface-
waters gather under the ice-cover, raise it with irresistible force,
and, bursting the bonds with which it enthralled the current,
bear its fragments along to the river's mouth, where they are
soon dispersed over the ocean.

In a short time all is life and activity in the liberated waters.
Millions upon millions of worms, mollusks, insects, and reptiles
awaken from their winter lethargy, the sweet-water fishes emerge
from the mud in which they lay plunged in torpor, and from the
sea other legions come pouring in to trust their eggs to the warmer
stream. All this would not have been possible, all this activity
and enjoyment could never have existed, if the weight of ice had
been superior to that of water.

Then also the Arctic and Antarctic seas would have been
converted into solid masses, which the sun would have been as
incapable to melt as he is unable completely to liquefy the
glaciers of the Alps. In consequence of the cold radiating from
their surface, these vast oceans of ice would have encroached
upon a great part of the temperate zones, and, by preventing
that beneficial system of maritime currents through which a
considerable portion of tropical heat is transported into the
higher latitudes, would have still further contributed to extend
the domains of perpetual winter. And, finally, the exhalations
of the tropical ocean which now regularly return to its bosom,
would have accumulated in such vast masses in the colder
regions, that in all probability the fountains of the sea would
have been finally exhausted of the greater part of their waters,
and the dry land converted into an arid waste. So much is
certain, that at best but a small portion of the globe would have
been a fit habitation for man, who, thus confined to a narrow
space and plunged in barbarism, could never have fulfilled the
higher objects of his existence.

Thus the physical laws on which the circulation and the
migrations of the waters over the surface of the globe depend,
have all been made to harmonise with the wants of animal life,
or the higher requirements of the human race ; thus they all
contribute to extend the domains of organic nature.

The meteorological phenomena are but exceptionally or locally

destructive ; their general effect is constantly beneficial. Vast

D 2

36 THE HARMONIES OP NATURE.

tracts of country are perpetually fertilised by refreshing showers
or copious dews ; the snow covers whole zones with his pro-
tecting mantle, while the pelting hail-storm generally devas-
tates only narrow districts. The winds are universal ventilators :
health and plenty sail along upon their invisible wings, and fleets
are unceasingly wafted by their breath from shore to shore ; but
the dreadful tornado is but a rare atmospherical crisis, and even
the ravages it causes are not unmixed with good, for many a
pestilential disease has been arrested by its appearance, and
many an insect plague has been swept away by its drenching
torrents. The greater violence of the tropical storms is counter-
balanced by a more vigorous vegetation, which effaces their
traces in a shorter time.

Thus everywhere the bounty of the Creator mitigates the
evils resulting from the perturbation of the regular course of
nature ; thus everywhere His apparent anger is but the means
of conferring new blessings upon His creatures.

37

CHAPTER VI.

THE HARMONIES BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE
EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS.

The Terrestrial Eevolutions — The Formation of Alluvial Plains — Beneficial Effects
of the Inequalities of the Earth's Surface — What do Petrifactions teach?— Coal-
strata — The Subterranean Treasuries of Man — Influence of the Change of
Seasons on Organic Life.

THE sun, the planets, or even our satellite the moon, are so
far removed from our sphere that we can never hope to ac-
quire an accurate knowledge of their structure ; but the earth,
our parent and our inheritance, lies open to our view. We traverse
it in all its zones, we measure the depth of its waters, we probe
its superficial strata, we examine the petrified remains of extinct
plants and animals which it harbours in its bosom as in a vast
sarcophagus of the past ; we study its annals in the deposits of
the primeval ocean, in the effects of its subterranean fires, in
its volcanic eruptions, in the heavings and subsidences of its
surface ; and thus many of the secrets of its history have been
revealed to us, and the eye of science is able to penetrate far
back into the times that have preceded the present configura-
tion of its continents and seas.

Thus we know that since immemorial ages water and fire,
these two hostile elements, have been constantly engaged in
modelling and remodelling its surface; each striving for the
mastery, each eager to destroy the formations of its opponent.

The subterranean fires have never ceased to react against the
solid earth -rind which confines them in iron bondage, to pile up
mountain- chains above the fissures caused by their expanding
force, to heave up continents from the bottom of the seas, to
pour forth torrents of liquid stone from the bosom of the
volcano, or to shake whole continents, like a lion impatiently

38 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

bounding against the gratings of his dungeon. But the waters,
in alliance with the disintegrating influences of the atmosphere,
have been as constantly active in destroying the igneous forma-
tions, in splitting and dissolving the mountain -peaks, in reducing
crumbled rocks into smaller and smaller fragments, and in
washing them down to a lower level, destined to be again and
again upheaved, and then again and again swept into the ocean.
Thus the actual state of the earth-rind is the result of in-
numerable elementary conflicts, whose records, written in pages
of stone and petrified remains, enable the geologist to recon-
struct the magnificent epic of its history, as the learned deci-
pherer of the hieroglyphics and cuneiform inscriptions of Egypt
and Persepolis is able to exhume from the tomb of past ages
the traces of an extinct civilisation.

Scarcely any branch of natural history is more interesting
than that which treats of the formation of our earth -rind ; but
undoubtedly the most important question which geology is called
upon to solve is, whether the conflicting powers of fire, water,
and air have evermore been acting and reacting upon each
other in blind confusion, building and destroying in chaotic
and fortuitous anarchy, or whether, from the first moment that
their strife began, their movements have constantly been
directed by a higher hand, and rendered subservient to the
establishment and progressive development of organic life ?

The answer cannot for an instant be doubtful. Every chapter,
every page of the annals of our globe, affords us the most con-
vincing proofs that the elementary forces have ever been the
docile instruments of a superior Power ; that, long before organic
life appeared on earth, fire and water were busy preparing for
its future residence.

On the hard impenetrable rock nothing grows but a lowly
race of lichens and mosses, while all plants of a higher order
absolutely require a loose soil for the insertion of their roots and
the supply of an adequate amount of nourishment.

On examining the structure of the earth, we find how much
the high mountain-chains have contributed to the formation of
considerable tracts of fertile land. On their naked brows the
disintegrating power of winter acts with the greatest energy.
There also the clouds chiefly concentrate their vapours, there
they condense most frequently into snow or rain, and there the

FORMATION OF ALLUVIAL PLAINS. 39

flowing waters carry the spoils of winter most violently along
in their precipitous course. Thus, in those elevated regions,
new surfaces of solid rock are constantly exposed to the cor-
roding atmosphere, and thus the first alluvial plains on which a
more luxuriant vegetation could arise, were formed at the foot
of the mountains out of the wrecks and ruins of their peaks.

According to a universal hydrostatic law, the velocity at
the bottom of a stream is everywhere less than in any part
above it, and is greatest at the surface. The superficial particles
in the middle of the stream also move more swiftly than those at
the sides. This retardation of the lowest and lateral currents is
produced by friction, and when the velocity is sufficiently great,
the soil composing the sides and bottom gives way. A velocity
of three inches per second at the bottom is ascertained to be
sufficient to tear up fine clay ; six inches per second fine sand ;
twelve inches per second fine gravel ; and three feet per second
stones of the size of an egg.

We can thus easily understand how mountain-torrents de-
scending with great velocity are able to sweep along vast
quantities of gravel, sand, and mud ; but a question naturally
arises, how the more tranquil rivers of the valleys and plains,
flowing on comparatively level ground, can remove the pro-
digious burden which is discharged into them by their
numerous tributaries, and by what means they are enabled
to convey the whole mass to the sea ? If they had not this
removing power their channels would be annually choked up,
and the valleys of the lower country and the plains at the base
of mountain-chains would be continually strewed over with frag-
ments of rock and sterile sand. But this evil is prevented by
a general law regulating the conduct of running water — that
two equal streams do not, when united, occupy a bed of
double surface. In other words, when several rivers unite into
one, the superficial area of the fluid mass is far less than
the areas previously occupied by the separate streams. The col-
lective waters, instead of spreading themselves out over a larger
horizontal space, contract themselves into a column of which
the height is greater relatively to its breadth. Hence, a smaller
proportion of the whole is retarded by friction against the
bottom and sides of the channel ; and in this manner the main
current is often accelerated in the lower country, even when the

40 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

slope of the river's bed is lessened. It not unfrequently hap-
pens, that two large rivers after their junction have only the
surface which one of them had previously ; and even in some
cases their united waters are confined in a narrower bed than
each of them filled before. By this beautiful adjustment, the
water which drains the interior country is made continually to
occupy less room as it approaches the sea, and thus the most
valuable part of our continents — the rich deltas and great
alluvial plains — are prevented from being constantly under
water.*

The inequalities of the earth's surface, the elevation of vast
tracts of country many thousand feet above the level of the sea,
and the deep valleys which the torrents have gradually scooped
out in the flanks of the mountains, are also prominent causes of
that wonderful variety of climate which gives birth to a no less
wonderful variety of plants and animals.

Fancy the mountains brought down to the level of a uniform
plane ; no peaks soaring aloft into the regions of perpetual snow,
no declivities leading the wanderer in a few hours from Arctic
coldness to the genial mildness of an Italian sky; no precipitous
streams, whose foaming waters as they bound along first reflect
the dark pine in their crystal mirror, then the sturdy oak, and
finally the noble chestnut or the graceful laurel ; and then how
monotonous would be the landscape, how uniform the character
of organic life over vast tracts of country where now vegetation,
thanks to the perpetual changes of elevation and aspect of the
soil on which it grows, is seen revelling in an endless multipli-
city of forms.

The actual distribution of sea and land over the surface of the
globe is likewise of the highest importance to the present condi-
tion of organic life. If the ocean were considerably smaller, or if
Asia and America were concentrated within the tropics, the tides,
the oceanic currents, and the meteorological phenomena on which
the existence of the vegetable and animal kingdoms depend,
would be so profoundly modified, that it is extremely doubtful
whether man could have existed, and absolutely certain that he
could never have risen to a high degree of civilisation.

The dependence of human progress upon the existing configu-

* Sir Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology.

GEADUATED FOEMS OF LIFE. 41

ration of the globe necessarily leads us to the conclusion that
both must be the harmonious work of the same Almighty Power,
and that a divine and immutable plan has from all eternity
presided over the destinies of our planet. It is almost super-
fluous to point out how largely the irregular windings and
indentations of the coasts, the numerous islands scattered over
the face of the waters, the promontories stretching far away into
the domains of the sea, and the gulfs plunging deeply into the
bosom of the land, have contributed to the civilisation of the
human race by multiplying its points of contact with the ocean,
the great highway of nations.

A survey of the petrifactions enclosed in the various strata of
the earth adds new force to the conviction, that one grand and
uniform plan has constantly presided over all the periods of its
history. For here we find no chaotic confusion, no arbitrary
oscillations from higher to lower, or from lower to higher grades
of existence (as would undoubtedly have been the case if organic
development had been left to casual influences), but a gradual
and constant progression from inferior to more perfect forms
of life.

Thus, in the oldest strata only the remains of the lower plants
and animals are found — of algaB and lichens, of corals, sea-
urchins, mollusks, and crustaceans.

At a later period the reign of the vertebrated animals begins
to dawn in the fishes. Then the reptiles appear in gigantic
forms, as tyrants of the coasts and the lagunes, while the empire
of the birds and quadrupeds belongs to the more recent forma-
tions ; and man, the most highly gifted of all the created beings
we know of, appears last upon the scene.

Throughout these vast epochs of time, numberless species of
vegetable and animal life are doomed to perish, but they are
constantly replaced by other and more perfect forms ; we see
constant changes, a constant decline and death, but also a con-
stant birth and resurrection, a new life perpetually springing
forth from the ruins of the past. How perfect must have been
the plan which has thus, through unnumbered ages, constantly
maintained the balance between the changes and revolutions of
the earth-rind, and the eternal progress of the organic world !

The elementary powers of fire and water might have continued
their strife for ever, and yet the higher grades of animal life

42 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

could not have been called into existence if vegetable life,
favoured by peculiar atmospherical conditions, had not previously
cleansed the air of the pernicious gases with which it was satu-
rated during the early period of our earth's history.

The ocean then rolled its waves over a far greater surface than
at present, for the large masses of land which now cover a con-
siderable part of the northern hemisphere were then still reposing
under the waters, which only appeared speckled here and there
with low and comparatively insignificant islands. Thus a mild
oceanic climate reigned far to the north, and its moist and
genial breath decked with a verdant robe even Spitzbergen
and Bear Island, where now winter with all his horrors holds
undisputed sway over the ice-bound soil.

Besides moisture and warmth, the immense quantities of car-
bonic acid which was at that time mixed with the atmosphere,
contributed to promote vegetation ;' for this gas, so deleterious
to man and to the higher animals, constitutes, as is well known,
the chief food of plants, which have the power of separating it
into its constituent elements — oxygen and carbon, restoring the
former to the air, and forming out of the latter the greater part
of their solid structure.

The immensity of the coal-fields affords convincing proof of
the abundance of carbonic acid which filled the air at that
primeval epoch, for before its carbon became condensed by
vegetation, it evidently must have existed in a gaseous state ;
and thus also we see that the forests of this carboniferous period
first paved the way for a higher development of animal life,
by purifying the air and substituting oxygen for the deleterious
vapours with which it was loaded.

Although the vegetable remains which constitute coal are
mostly in such a state of compression or transformation that no
trace of the original texture remains, yet the specimens which
one is able to distinguish from the mass plainly bear the cha-
racter of a swampy vegetation, and show that they must have
grown in submerged or at least extremely humid situations,
analogous to those in which the present peat or turf formation
takes place.

These relics of an extinct world chiefly consist of cryptogamous
or non-flowering plants, such as arborescent ferns, and reed-like
calamites, stigmarias and lepidodendra, along with a few palms

DURATION OF THE COAL-FORMING AGES. 43

and first ; but the beautiful and various forms of the dicotyledo-
nous plants, which constitute by far the greater part of the Flora
of the present day, were totally wanting in the swampy forests
of the carboniferous period, which, in spite of their amazing
luxuriance of growth, had but a monotonous and melancholy
character. No warm-blooded quadruped enjoyed their shade,
no bird enlivened them with his song. Their awful silence was
only interrupted by the tones of inanimate nature, the roaring
of the sea against the low beach, or the moaning of the wind in
their feathery fronds. But who knows whether spirits hovering
over their dreary expanse may not have whispered to each other
of the nobler creation for which they paved the way !

The great uniformity of climate which then reigned over the
globe caused at the same time a wonderful uniformity of vege-
tation in its various zones. In the eastern as in the western
hemisphere, between the tropics and beyond the Arctic circle,
wherever coal has been deposited the naturalist meets with the
same forms, often even with the same species of plant.

The space of time required for the formation of the coal-fields
is as immeasurable as the countless millions of miles that sepa-
rate us from Sirius.

We know by experience how thin the sheet of humus is
which the annual leaf-fall of our forests or turf-plants produces,
and how many decenniums must pass ere one single inch of solid
residuum is gained. But there are many coal-strata twenty to
thirty feet thick ; and if we consider besides the mighty pressure
of the superincumbent rocks which store them in the smallest
compass, we cannot possibly doubt that one such stratum must
have required thousands of years for its formation. Our wonder
increases when we reflect that, in many carboniferous basins no
less than a hundred thick and thin seams of coal alternate with
layers of sandstone and shale, so that the reckoning would swell
to millions, were we able to fathom the ages of their successive
growth.

Thus, for instance, at Sheriff Hill, near Newcastle, we find eight
strata of coal of a joint thickness of thirty-three feet and a half,
but these are separated by intervening stone strata of an average
thickness of from forty to sixty feet, so that the entire thickness
of these coal measures amounts to 345 feet.

But even these coal-bearing strata form but a small part of

44 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE. .

the whole carboniferous system, whose successive stages (lower
carboniferous shale, carboniferous limestone, millstone grit, coal-
measures, upper coal grits, lower new red sandstone) frequently
measure no less than from 6,000 to 8,000 feet in thickness ; or
even as in South Wales, Nova Scotia, and near Saarbruck, 13,000,
14,000, and 20,000 feet ! The wings of fancy fail to carry us
over the vast chasm which separates the first of these deposits
from the last ; and yet the whole system itself is but a link in
the chain of successive formations of which the earth-rind, as
far as we are able to sound its depth, is composed.

Truly man is but the creature of a day, and yet it is for him
that the primeval forests grew, that the mighty ferns waved
their fronds in the desert air, and that the marshy plants spread
their succulent leaves and stems, unnumbered ages before he
was to appear upon the scene.

The alternating strata of coal and stone of which the carbo-
niferous system consists, can hardly be explained in any other
manner than by a general slow subsidence of those coasts on
which the vegetation flourished, alternating with periods of rest.

During an epoch of subsidence, the humus-layer formed by
the deposits of ages of forest growth was inundated, and gradu-
ally became covered with a system of sand or mud, upon which
in the following period of repose a new swampy vegetation could
arise and continue to flourish until a new subsidence once more
whelmed it beneath the waters. Thus gradually coal followed
upon sand, or sand upon coal, until the whole mighty series was
built up !

Although all coal-fields must have originally been formed in
horizontal or slightly undulating situations, yet in many cases
they have undergone enormous derangements from the subsequent
action of volcanic powers. Thus, in the Belgian carboniferous
formation, the strata are not only violently contorted, but often
elevated through an angle greater than a right angle, and are
thus actually inverted, so that the basin -shaped depressions in
which the coal occurs are twisted out of place, and the whole
geology of the district apparently thrown into confusion.

Faults are in fact so common in coal-strata, that they are but
rarely missing. They occur in every possible dimension, so that
sometimes the severed parts of a field have been displaced many
hundred feet from their original position.

THE COAL-FIELDS. 45

One can easily conceive the difficulties which these disruptions
frequently throw into the miner's way, who, in following what he
considers a valuable seam of coal, is suddenly stopped by coming
in contact with a fault, and finds the coal shifted several yards
above or below, or even completely lost.

On the other hand they are productive of considerable advan-
tages, for by intersecting a large field of coal in all directions,
and by the clayey contents which fill up the crack accompany-
ing the fault, they become coffer-dams, which prevent the body
of water accumulated in one part of the field from flowing into
any opening which might be made in it from another. This
separation of the coal-field into small areas is also important in
case of fire, for in this case the combustion is prevented from
spreading widely, and destroying, as it would otherwise do, the
whole of the seam ignited.

6 The natural disposition of coal in detached portions,' says
the author of an excellent article in the c Edinburgh Eeview,' *
' is not simply a phenomenon of geology, but it also bears upon
national considerations. It is remarkable that this natural dis-
position is that which renders the fuel most accessible and most
easily mined. Were the coal situated at its normal geological
depth, that is, supposing the strata to be all horizontal and un-
disturbed or upheaved, it would be far below human reach.
Were it deposited continuously in one even superficial layer, it
would have been too readily, and therefore too quickly, mined,
and all the superior qualities would be wrought out and only
the inferior left ; but as it now lies it is broken up by geological
disturbances into separate portions, each defined and limited
in area, each sufficiently accessible to bring it within man's
reach and labour, each manageable by mechanical arrangements,
and each capable of gradual excavation without being subject to
sudden exhaustion. Selfish plundering is partly prevented by
natural barriers, and we are warned against reckless waste by
the comparative thinness of coal-seams, as well as by the
ever augmenting difficulty of working them at increased depths.
By the separation of seams one from another, and by varied
intervals of waste sandstones and shales, such a measured rate of
mining is necessitated as precludes us from entirely robbing pos-
terity of the most valuable mineral fuel, while the fuel itself is

* Vol. cxi. p. 80.

46 THE HARMONIES OF NATUEE.

preserved from those extended fractures and crumblings and
falls, which would certainly be the consequence of largely mining
the best bituminous coal, were it aggregated into one vast mass.
In fact, by an evident exercise of forethought and benevolence in
the Great Author of all our blessings, our invaluable fuel has
been stored up for us in deposits the most compendious, the
most accessible, yet the least exhaustible, and has been
locally distributed into the most convenient situations. Our
coal-fields are so many Bituminous Banks, in which there
is abundance for an adequate currency, but against any sudden
run upon them nature has interposed numerous checks ; whole
reserves of the precious fuel are always locked up in the bank-
cellar under the invincible protection of ponderous stone-beds.
It is a striking fact, that in this nineteenth century, after so long
an inhabitation of the earth by man, if we take the quantities in
the broad view of the whole known coal-fields, so little coal has
been excavated, and that there remains an abundance for a very
remote posterity, even though our own best coal-fields may be
then worked out.'

But it is not only in these inexhaustible supplies of mineral
fuel that we find proofs of divine foresight, all the other
treasures of the earth-rind equally convince us of the intimate
harmony between its structure and the wants of man. Com-
posed of a wonderful variety of earths and ores, it contains
in inexhaustible abundance all the substances he requires for
the attainment of a higher grade of civilisation. It is for his
use that iron, copper, lead, silver, tin, marble, gypsum, sulphur,
rock-salt, and a variety of other minerals and metals, have been
deposited in the veins and crevices, or in the mines and quarries,
of the subterranean world. It is for his benefit that, from the
decomposition of the solid rocks results that mixture of earths
and alkalies, of marl, lime, sand, or chalk, which is most favour-
able to agriculture.

It is for him, finally, that, filtering through the entrails of the
earth, and dissolving salutary substances on their way, the ther-
mal springs gush forth laden with blessings and enriched with
treasures more inestimable than those the miner toils for.

Supposing man had never been destined to live, we well may
ask why all those gifts of nature — useless to all living beings but
to him — why those vast coal-fields, those beds of iron ore, those

INFLUENCE OF SEASONS ON OKGANIC LIFE. 47

deposits of sulphur, those hygeian fountains, should ever have
been created ? Without him there is no design, no purpose, in
their existence ; with him they are wonderful sources of health
or necessary instruments of civilisation and improvement. Thus
the geological revolutions of the earth-rind harmoniously point
to man as to its future lord ; thus, in the life of our planet and
that of its inhabitants, we everywhere find proofs of a gigantic
unity of plan, embracing unnumbered ages in its development
and progress.

The obliquity of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit,
through which in its annual course round the sun each pole is
alternately presented to the rays of the great luminary, is like-
wise of such vast importance to organic life, that it must have
been from the beginning established with a view to the place we
were one day to occupy on earth.

Supposing the equator of our globe to have been invariably
exposed to the vertical sunbeams, then all the year round short
March or September days would have fallen to the share of the
temperate zones, and both the poles would have been plunged
in constant darkness. The higher latitudes, covered with per-
petual ice, must have been totally uninhabitable, and the nu-
merous plants which require the summer's heat for the ripening
of their fruits must have been banished from our fields.

The perpetual cold of the poles would no doubt have extended
the domains of ice and snow far beyond their present boundaries,
and man would have been restricted to a torrid belt, whose
narrow confines would have condemned him for ever to a mere
animal existence.

And now compare reality with this imaginary picture, and see
how beautifully, by the wanderings of the sun from one tropic to
the other in his apparent annual motion, his genial warmth is
widely distributed over the earth ; how the various seasons —
spring with his blossoms, summer with his nourishing corn,
autumn with his abundance of fruit, and winter with his cheerful
hearth — are made to follow each other in charming succession,
and to enrich the intellectual life of man by constantly opening
new scenes and prospects to his view. It was only thus that he
could become master of the earth and of its treasures, and that
organic life could develope itself in countless forms up to the
icy poles.

48 THE HARMONIES OF NATUEE.

The circumstance that the fruits of the earth are unequally
distributed over its surface, that each zone, each country, brings
its peculiar produce to the market of the world, is likewise of
vast importance to the improvement of the human race. If man
had everywhere found united in a small space all that is neces-
sary for the maintenance and enjoyment of life, he would never
have emerged from the low condition of the savage, who finds all
he requires for the gratification of his simple wants in his native
forest or in the neighbouring sea.

But, with a wise economy, the Almighty has given to one land
the fruits of Ceres and to another mineral wealth, to the tropical
regions the sugar-cane and the coffee-tree, to Italy the silk- worm
and the vine, to China the tea-plant, to the frozen north its huge
cetaceans and costly furs, that all the nations of the earth might
be united by the bonds of commerce, and the intellectual powers
of man roused to exertion by the stimulus of want or the love
of gain.

49

CHAPTER VIT.

- — —

THE CELLULAR CONSTRUCTION OF PLANTS.

Prodigious Variety of Plants — The Vegetable Cell — Its Metamorphoses-— Its
Multiplication — Rapid Growth of the Lower Plants — The Mushrooms — The
"Wonderful Products of the Vegetable Cell— Magnificence of the Vegetable
World.

THE immense variety of plants which decks the surface of our
globe is one of the great wonders of creation. Wherever we
wander, on the margin of the ocean or on the bleak and weather-
beaten mountains, new forms of vegetation constantly attract
our attention.

Skirting the shores, the algre wave their fronds in the restless
waters, while the lichens cover the naked rocks of the highlands
with their thin and lively-coloured patches. The rivers and
lakes abound with green filaments; mould spreads over putrefy-
ing organic substances ; wood crumbles into dust ; the potato,
the grape, are decomposed ; and all these phenomena result
from the development and rapid multiplication of microscopical
plants.

A cushion of soft velvet decks the bark of ancient trees, grey
beards hang from their boughs, and parasitical climbers feed
upon their -juices. Flowers of every form and colour adorn the
meadows, clothe the brown heaths with warmer tints, bloom
out of ruins, and cover even the dark morass with a garb of
beauty.

With every change of climate and soil, with every degree of
latitude, nay, from mile to mile, new plants make their appear-
ance. The mountain-sides and the deep valleys have their
characteristic vegetation, and sand, granite, chalk, and clay, all
nourish different herbs and trees.

The plants exhibit an amazing variety, not only in their

E

mental unity of the countless members of the vegetable king-
dom must disappear when we come to examine their internal
structure.

For, armed with the microscope, botanists have discovered that
every vegetable fabric consists simply of an aggregation of cells
or closed membranous bags or vesicles, and their unwearied
observations have been able to trace the gradual change of this
simple elementary form into every variety of tissue, fibre, and
vessel, which enters into the organisation of the most compli-
cated plants.

The permeable cell-wall absorbs the nutritious fluids with
which it comes into contact, and these, by the chemical processes
which are constantly going on in its interior, are changed into
new substances, which the cell partly appropriates to its own
uses and partly excretes, so as to be able to absorb fresh fluids
in their place. The constant succession of these simple physical
and chemical actions forms the whole life-history of the indi-
vidual cell — and consequently of every plant, which, however
complicated its structure may appear, is after all but an aggre-
gation of cells.

During the progress of growth the primordial form of the
originally globular cell assumes a great diversity of shape ; it
extends in length, it branches out, it is flattened by the pressure
of its neighbours, or compressed into a many-sided or prismatic
figure.

TITE VEGETABLE CELL. 51

Throughout all these changes the cell-wall may retain its
original thinness and transparency, but very frequently it
becomes thickened and opaque by the successive deposition of -
layers of solid matter, while at the same time its fluid con-
tents disappear and its individual growth is at an end. The
thickening is generally not uniform over its whole surface,
but presents frequent interruptions, so that the cell appears
punctured with numerous round pores, or creviced, or covered
with a network, or with a spirally wound-up band, or with
a succession of opaque rings ; and from all these modifica-
tions of solidification and growth result the endless varieties of
texture which we admire in the vegetable kingdom, and which
must appear the more astonishing when we consider the simple
elementary form from which they all derive their origin.

In most cases the growing cells multiply by duplicate subdi-
vision, each half increasing in length, and again dividing through
a transverse partition, or else new cells form in the interior of a
parent cell and expanding burst open the shell or case in which
they were contained. Thus the growth of all plants proceeds
by a constant multiplication of cells whose number frequently
increases to an incredible extent as a cubic inch of soft cellular
parenchyma contains more than 100,000,000 individual cells.
The simplest plants, the confervas, algse, lichens and mush-
rooms, consist only of soft cellular tissues, and in these, owing
to their loose nature, growth frequently proceeds with a most
marvellous celerity. In twenty-five minutes a mushroom —
the Phallus foetidus — shoots up three inches high, and in ano-
ther species — the Bovista gigantea — 20,000 new cells form every
minute, so that in a single night it swells from the size of a
pin's head to that of a large pumpkin. Thus also the Nereo-
cystis lutkeana, an alga occurring on the north-west coast of
America, which has stems resembling whipcord, three hundred
feet in length and terminating with a bunch of leaves each
thirty or forty feet long, is but the produce of a single summer,
so that it is hardly an exaggeration to say that one might see it
grow. A proper seed formation does not take place in these in-
ferior plants, they generally multiply by the emission of spores
— simple cells — which are often generated in truly incalculable
numbers. More than 1 0,000,000 of spores have been found in a
single specimen of Eeticularia maxima, a mushroom growing on

E 2

52 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

the trunks of felled trees — each of them most likely able to
produce a new individual ; and as every species of mushroom or
fungus is equally productive according to its size, we can easily
understand how these microscopical germs frequently float in the
air in countless myriads, until the casualties of wind and weather
again precipitate them upon the earth.

The well-known instances of the dry rot in timber, or of the
potato and grape diseases, sufficiently prove how disastrous the
enormous reproductive powers of the fungi may become when
circumstances favour their growth ; but in many cases they are
extremely useful, by promoting the decomposition of decaying or
putrefying vegetable and animal substances, and thus hastening
their transition into new forms of life.

The structure of the higher order of plants, such as have
flowers and seeds, is far more complicated than that of these
simple forms of vegetation, as they consist not merely of a more
or less closely aggregated or firmly woven cellular tissue, but
also of fibres and vessels that have grown out of that elementary
form, and minister to the wants of a more complicated organi-
sation.

One of the most wonderful properties of the vegetable cell is
its power of elaborating such an amazing variety of products.
It receives or imbibes but few substances from the outer world,
water, carbonic acid, ammonia, and some other soluble salts ; but
with these few it is able to bring forth in its secret laboratory
all that can gratify the eye, the smell, or the taste of man.

The beautifully tinted juices to which the flowers owe their
rainbow variety of colours, the sweet odours with which they
perfume the air, the gums, the balsams, and the resins, sugar
and starch, india-rubber and gutta-percha, medicines and poi-
sons in endless profusion, are all distilled or fabricated by the
vegetable cell.

Even the humblest lichen, the smallest moss which clothes
the weatherbeaten rock, is a truly miraculous production ; how
then can we find words to express our admiration of those
thousands upon thousands of flowering herbs, shrubs, and trees,
whose endless and picturesque variety inspires every feeling-
heart with delight and gratitude ?

While the northern bard praises the stately magnificence of
the oak, the Arabian minstrel sings the date-palm's stately

MAGNIFICENCE OF THE VEGETABLE WORLD. 53

crown ; and the poets of all lands and of all times never tune their
harps to sweeter melodies than when describing in rapturous
strains the balmy groves or the verdant meads of the beloved
country of their birth.

It is no caprice of chance or blind agency of mechanical or
physical laws which has so wonderfully decorated the earth, and
gifted us with such a deep-felt sympathy with the charms of
the vegetable world.

When Nature revives in spring, and thousands of birds make
the woods and fields resound with their song, then also a voice
awakens in our heart which tells us that all these lovely scenes
are but the visible revelation of an invisible (rod, an enchanted
mirror in which we see the reflection of His glory.

54 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE ROOTS OF PLANTS.

The Roots of the Algae, of the Zostera marina, of the Sand-reed, of the South
African Creepers — The Roots of the Forest Trees — Aerial Roots of the Man-
groves— Their Influence on the Formation of Tropical Deltalands — Radical
Filaments — Spongioles —Properties of Vegetable Mould — The Fertilising In-
fluence of Winter.

•EXPOSED to the influences of every climate and destined to grow
in every soil, children of the sea, the dry land, and the air, the
plants needed a wonderful pliability of organisation to be able
to adapt themselves to the numberless modifications of the ex-
ternal world, resulting from their universal distribution over the
surface of the globe.

As each animal is armed at all points against hostile attacks,
or provided with all the organs it requires for waging the battle
of life, thus also every plant, wherever it may grow, has been
endowed with the means of maintaining its existence against a
host of adverse influences ; and each of its parts and organs — its
roots, its stem, its leaves, its flowers, its fruit — is in every case
a masterpiece of adaptation to the circumstances under which it
is destined to flourish.

Thus also the study of each vegetable organ gives the philo-
sophical observer equal opportunities of admiring the profound
wisdom which presided over its formation, and in his eyes the
perfection of nature reveals itself as eloquently in the homely
root as in the gayest blossom expanding its gorgeous colours to
the sun.

See the vile seaweed, exposed to all the vicissitudes of the
tides; fixed on a solid rock, it is unable to plunge its roots into
the stone to which it adheres ; and yet they are such excellent
holdfasts, that even a violent storm is hardly able to sever the
connection, and cast the plant ashore like a ship torn from its

MARINE PLANTS. 55

anchors. Frequently a simple conical disc suffices to bind the
weatherbeaten alga to its native cliff; and as the hardy plant
advances in growth, and as new props are required to support
the additional weight, the branches of the root lengthen, and
others are gradually added, till a compact mass of interwoven
fibres is formed, each of which takes a separate gripe of the rock
by the disc at its extremity, so that their united powers of re-
sistance are able to bid defiance to the swelling flood.

The Laminariae, or Oar-weeds of our coasts, with their long
broad leaves cloven into a great number of ribbon-like segments,
sufficiently prove the strength of an adherence which enables
such vegetable masses to bid defiance to the rocking waves ; but
what are these to the submarine forests in the channels of Tierra
del Fuego, where the Macrocystis pyrifera rises from depths of
from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet, and then con-
tinues to float many fathoms on the surface of the sea !

f I know few things,' says Mr. Darwin, 'more surprising than
to see this plant growing and flourishing amidst those great
breakers of the western ocean, which no mass of rock, let it be
ever so hard, can long resist. The stem is round, slimy, and
smooth, and seldom has a diameter of so much as an inch. A
few taken together are sufficiently strong to support the weight
of the large loose stones to which in the inland channels they
grow attached, and some of these stones are so heavy that, when
drawn to the surface, they can scarcely be lifted into a boat by
one person.' Fancy how beautifully calculated the strength of
the resistance must be to withstand the vast strain of such a sea !
No doubt many a Macrocystis is torn from the spot on which it
grew and cast into the open ocean ; but in spite of storm and
breakers, the species maintains itself from century to century,
for the strength with which it clings to the naked rock, and faces
the fury of the elements, has been poised by the wisdom of a God.

Very different from the roots of the rock-bound Alga? are
those of the Zostera marina, or Grass-wrack, a flowering sea-
plant, which forms extensive submarine meadows on sandy
shores. On this loose soil a simple superficial attachment would
have been of no avail, but the long creeping stems of the Grass-
wrack send forth long roots at every joint, which, plunging
deep into the sand, are most admirably adapted for securing a
firm establishment on this unstable foundation.

56 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

As under the shelter of the Laminaria3rthus also a host of
marine animals and plants live and flourish under the green
carpet of the submerged meadows of the Zostera, and thus in
both cases the existence of a little world ultimately depends
upon the peculiar structure of the roots of the protecting
plant.

Ascending from these 'submerged forests and meads to the
sand-dunes which on many flat coasts oppose an invincible barrier
to the stormy ocean, we here also find plants eminently adapted,
by the structure of their roots, for flourishing on a loose and
drifting soil. Of these the sand-reed (Ammophila arundinacea),
which naturally grows on the sandy shores of Europe, is one of
the most remarkable. Its roots penetrate to a considerable
depth, ramifying in all directions and forming a complete system
of rope-work, which soon binds together the loosest sands and
firmly attaches the plant, while its strong tall leaves protect the
surface of the soil from drought, and afford shelter to small
plants, which soon grow between the reeds, and gradually form
a new green surface on the bed of sand.

But for the sand-reed the sea-winds would long since have
wafted the drift-sand of the dunes far into the interior of the
country, and converted many a fruitful acre into a waste ; but
that invaluable grass opposes its stubborn resistance to the most
furious gale. Like a radical democrat, the wind would willingly
reduce all to one common level, but the Ammophila, an obstinate
conservative, opposes an indefatigable resistance to its fury, and,
after a war of centuries, still lines the flat coast with long undu-
lating chains of protecting sand-hills.

In the deserts and steppes of South Africa we also find a
number of plants peculiarly fitted, by the formation of their
roots, for the arid soil on which they grow and flourish. Thus
creepers abound, which, having their roots buried far beneath
the surface, feel but little the effects of the scorching sun. Those
having tuberous roots are particularly abundant, a structure
evidently intended to supply nutriment and moisture to the
plant when, during the long droughts, they can be obtained
from no other source.

In his description of the Kalahari desert, Dr. Livingstone
mentions one of these plants, named Leroshua by the native
Bechuanas. It has linear leaves and a stalk not thicker than a

THE ROOTS OF THE FOREST TREES. 57

crow's quill ; but, on digging down a foot or eighteen inches
beneath, the root enlarges to a tuber often as big as the head of
a young child, which, on the rind being removed, is found to
be a mass of cellular tissue filled with fluid much like that in a
yonng turnip. Owing to the depth beneath the surface at which
it is found, it is generally deliciously cool and refreshing. Thus,
even in the desert, the bounty of the Almighty not only disposes
the organisation of the plants so as best to secure their own
existence, but also raises them as sustenance for man ; for with-
out their succulent roots these barren and poverty-stricken lands
would be all but uninhabitable.

The creeping plants of the desert serve, moreover, a double
purpose ; for besides their use as food, they fix, by means of the
extensive ramifications of their roots, the constantly shifting
sands, thus rendering services similar to those of the sand-reed
on the dunes along the sandy coasts of the North Sea.

Those trees which naturally grow in situations where they are
exposed to all the fury of the winds are invariably provided with
roots of a corresponding power of resistance. On the brow of
the northern hills the centenary fir defies the wintry blast; his
strong vertical root dives deep into the crevices of the soil, or
embraces the rock with sinewy arms. The proud columnar
trunk, with its vast crown of foliage, rocks to and fro in the
storm, but withstands its utmost efforts. The noble oak also is a
match for the most terrific tempests, until the decay of old age
has eaten its way into the trunk or roots, and undermined the
venerable giant's strength.

The large high-stemmed palms penetrate, while germinating,
to a depth of three feet before the roots begin to spread, while
the palms of lower growth, that do not require so firm an
anchorage in the soil, send forth their roots near to the surface.
When we consider that the cocoa-nut tree, which bears its mag-
nificent tuft of colossal fronds and heavy racemes on the top of
a slender shaft one hundred feet high, thrives best on the sea-
shore, where the tropical hurricane has full play for its utmost
fury, we can form some idea of the admirable foresight which
gave its roots the necessary strength to resist the leverage of so
prodigious a weight.

Trees with more superficial roots, such as the common pine,
which scarcely penetrates into the soil to a greater depth than

\
58 THE HARMONIES OF NATUEE.

two feet, grow either in less windy situations, or find mutual
protection in the social life of the forest. Surrounded by
comrades which break the power of the storm, their topmost
crowns alone bend under the blast, while the lower branches
remain unmoved : above, the legendary wild huntsman of the
woods may rave in pursuit of his phantom game ; below, the
wanderer threads his way through the green arcades, and
scarcely feels the motion of the air.

In the tropical forests the griping power of the roots is fre-
quently assisted by the climbing plants, which, like the rigging
of a ship, bind or unite as it were a large number of trees into
a single body. While in the East Indian thickets the ratans
ascend the highest summits of the forest, so as to be able to
spread out their palm-like topes in the sunshine over the waving
sea of verdure beneath, the paulinias, the bannisterias, the big-
nonias, and many other allied creepers, climb from branch to
branch in the Brazilian woods, until their blossoms mix with the
crowns of the giant trees. Often three or four of these bush-
ropes, like strands in a cable, join tree to tree; others, descend-
ing from on high, take root as soon as their extremity touches
the ground ; while others send out parallel, oblique, horizontal,
and perpendicular shoots in all directions, forming so intricate a
network, that in this maze of vegetation it is utterly impossible
to discover the trailing stem of the liana, whose flowers are seen-
expanding above in all their purple beauty. Frequently trees
more than a hundred feet high, uprooted by the storm or under-
mined by the swelling river, are stopped in their fall by these
amazing cables of nature, and are thus still enabled to send forth
vigorous shoots, though far from their perpendicular, with their
trunks inclined to every degree from the meridian to the hori-
zon. Their heads remain firmly supported by the bush ropes,
many of their roots soon refix themselves in the earth, and fre-
quently a strong shoot will sprout out perpendicularly from near
the root of the reclined trunk, and in time become a stately
tree.

In several plants whose original roots do not seem adequate
to support their increasing size, or which grow in situations
where great and peculiar powers of resistance are required, new
roots issue in a truly wonderful manner from the stem or the
lower branches, and, fixing themselves in the ground, serve as

MANGROVE FORESTS. * 59

additional props to the weatherbeaten trunk. On viewing this
miracle of nature, one might almost be tempted to adopt the
belief of the ancient Greeks, and imagine each of these wonder-
ful plants to be animated by a dryad, directing it to adopt the
best means for securing its existence.

Fringing the estuaries of rivers or the shallow lagoons of the
tropical zone, and incessantly exposed to the flux and reflux of the
tides, the mangroves would hardly have been able to maintain
themselves on so uncertain a soil, if the extraordinary growth of
their roots had not admirably adapted them for securing a
footing on the unstable brink of the ocean.

As the young mangrove grows upwards, pendulous roots issue
from the trunk and inferior branches, and ultimately strike into
the muddy ground, where they increase to the thickness of a
man's leg ; so that the whole has the appearance of a complicated
series of loops and arches from five to ten feet high, supporting
the body of the tree like so many artificial stakes. It may thus
easily be imagined what dense and inextricable thickets, what in-
comparable breakwaters, plants like these, through whose mazes
even the light-footed Indian can only penetrate by stepping
from root to root, are capable of forming.

Where plants of a peculiar growth spread over large tracts of
sea or land, we frequently find their influence extending far
beyond the limited sphere of their individual life. Thus we have
seen a whole little world of animals depend upon the existence of
the gigantic fuci of Tierra del Fuego, and have noticed the im-
portant agency of the Ammophila in fixing the drift-sands and
securing large tracts of fertile country, and thus also we find
that the peculiar growth of the mangroves has a vast influence in
promoting the increase of land at the expense of the maritime
domain. Their matted roots stem the flow of the waters, and
retaining the earthy particles that sink to the bottom between
them, gradually raise the level of the soil. As this new forma-
tion progresses, thousands of seeds begin to germinate upon its
muddy foundation, thousands of cables descend still further to
consolidate it, and thus foot by foot, year after year, the man-
groves extend their empire and encroach upon the sea. The
enormous deltas of many tropical rivers chiefly owe their im-
mense development to the unceasing expansion of these lit-
toral woods, whose influence deserves the full attention of the

60 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

geologist when describing the ancient and eternal strife between
the ocean and the land.

A similar formation of pendulous roots distinguishes the screw-
pines, those singular plants whose foliage resembles that of the
palm or bromelia, while their fruits remind one of the cones
of the fir-tree or the pine. The older trees which require this
additional support send forth their aerial roots in so opportune a
manner that one might suppose them gifted with a peculiar
instinct. For if the screw-pine, as is frequently the case, reclines
to one side, the pendulous roots not only exclusively grow in this
direction, which chiefly requires to be propped, but seem even
able to choose the most proper places for their attachment.

The screw-pines grow on a sandy as well as on a rocky soil,
for their roots spread out in considerable ramifications, and
penetrate into the smallest cavities or crevices of the stony
ground. They frequently grow in fantastic forms on the brinks
of precipices overhanging the abyss, and then again twist
their branches into a vertical position. Content with the most
meagre soil, their frugality and the ease with which they
strike root render them extremely serviceable in paving the
way for a more luxurious vegetation on rocks or sandy shores.
Thus they are widely spread on low islands and coasts
throughout the whole tropical zone, where the lively green of
their long ribbon-like leaves and the glowing crimson of their
fruits contribute in a great degree to the beauty of the land-
scape.

But of all the plants which support themselves by means of
pendulous roots, there is none more remarkable than the beau-
tiful and stately Banyan, the vegetable wonder of India. Each
of these marvellous trees is in itself a grove, and some of them
are of astonishing size, as they are continually increasing, and,
contrary to most other animal and vegetable productions, seem
to be exempted from decay, for every branch from the main body
throws out its own roots, at first in small tender fibres, several
yards from the ground, which continually grow thicker, until by
a gradual descent they reach its surface, where, striking in, they
increase to a large trunk and become a parent tree, throwing
out new branches from the top. These in time suspend their
roots, and receiving nourishment from the earth, swell into
trunks, and send forth other branches, thus continuing in a state

THE BANYAN TREE. 61

of progression so long as the first parent of them all supplies
her sustenance. No wonder that the pious Hindoos are par-
ticularly fond of this glorious tree, and that they consider its
long duration, its outstretching arms, and overshadowing benefi-
cence as emblems of the Deity, of whose wisdom and power it is
one of the most striking monuments.

Admirable as holdfasts or anchors, whose iron grasp enables
the giants of the forest to brave the storm, the roots are equally
remarkable as the organs which extract the nutritious particles
from the soil and provide the plant with its necessary food.
All our forest trees germinate with a chief or vertical root ; but
as lateral branches frequently acquire a more robust growth
than the central stem, thus also we find that in many cases the
lateral or side-roots become stronger and more extended than
the parent root from which they sprung. In older trees a
difference between the original or vertical root and its lateral
embranchments can thus with difficulty be traced ; and even in the
oak, the beech, and the fir, which during the first year of their
life possess a preponderating central root, this is not seldom at
a later period far outgrown by its embranchments, each of
which, under favourable circumstances, seems able to become the
chief food-provider of the plant : a most wise and admirable
provision, for as the trees are immovably bound to the soil,
and only able to find nourishment as far as their roots can
reach, they could riot possibly have attained a great age or
a colossal size, had they not been endowed with the faculty of
extending their subterranean organs of nutrition in all direc-
tions, of conquering as it were new tributary regions, correspond-
ing with the increase of their wants. It is only through the deli-
cate radical filaments which proceed from the larger root-fibres
that plants derive their nourishment from the earth ; for experi-
ment has proved that a herb will perish in the midst of water
if the ends of its roots are raised above the surface. Each
of these fibrils is enveloped in a sheath of cellular substances,
and terminates with a peculiarly succulent' tissue, forming what
is termed the spongiole, where the process of absorption
goes on with the greatest activity. Frequently the delicate
fibrils are also covered with extremely fine hygroscopic hairs,
destined to augment the absorbing surface. Thus endowed
with the property of appropriating the nutritious juices of the

62 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

earth in its immediate vicinit}7", the growing spongiole gropes
its way farther and farther, branches out in every direction,
and constantly coming into contact with new portions of soil,
extends the territory subservient to the wants of the plant.
Well may we praise the beauty of the green canopy of the woods
and the mighty columns which bear aloft those verdant domes ;
but let us also pay the tribute of our admiration to those
humbler organs, whose incessant activity gathers in obscurity
and darkness the materials of the grove, which but for them
would never have so proudly crested the hill or so beautifully
diversified the plain.

Yet the roots, although ever so well formed for providing
the plant with nourishment, still required the assistance of
peculiar physical and chemical agencies to be able to perform
their functions. All plants of a higher order can, as is well
known, thrive, only in a soil which partly consists of the remains
of a lower or preceding vegetation ; the stately monarch of the
woods rises upon the ruins of many generations of trees or
shrubs of a humbler growth, and the corn-field requires fertilis-
ing manure to be able to reward the labours of the husbandman.
The rain which irrigates the field, the meadow, or the wood,
penetrates into the ground, imbibes the soluble salts contained
in the vegetable mould or humus, is absorbed by the spongioles
of the roots, and, ascending into the vessels of the trunk and
branches, saturates the whole plant with nutritious substances.
But rain frequently falls either after prolonged intermissions, or
in much greater abundance than the immediate wants of vegeta-
tion require ; and in both cases the plants must have suffered
either from an insufficiency of moisture or from its excess, wash-
ing away the nutritious salts contained in the soil, if their healthy
growth, nay, their very existence, had not been protected by the
admirable properties of the humus. For this wonderful substance,
or rather mixture of mineral and vegetable substances, attracts
water so strongly that it not only prevents the too rapid
evaporation of the rain or dew, but actually condenses the
aqueous vapour contained in the air, and is thus enabled con-
stantly to renew the sources from which the thirsty plant
derives its sustenance.

As may be supposed, chemical decompositions and changes
are perpetually going on among the substances of which every

PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE MOULD. 63

fertile soil is composed. Thus, for instance, carbonic acid,
ammonia, and several vegetable acids are constantly forming,
while decomposition proceeds in the mould or manure, and by
combining with the lime, iron, magnesia, silica, and other
mineral portions of the soil, give birth to a variety of soluble
salts, all fit to nourish and enter into the composition of plants.
No human eye has as yet been able to pierce all the mysteries
of these chemical changes, but so much is certain, that they
perfectly agree with the wants of vegetation, and that this
beautiful coincidence between the chemical affinities of the soil
and the requirements of organic life is another evident proof
that the various powers of nature are all instruments of har-
mony in the hands of one Almighty power.

The nutritious salts thus formed would have been in a great
measure lost for the purposes of vegetation, if the humus had
not attracted them with a still greater power than that which it
exhibits towards water. However abundantly the rain may
fall, however greedily it may be absorbed by the inferior strata,
the soluble substances are retained by the superficial layers of
mould as by a sieve, and only the pure water percolates. The
fertility of our fields, the luxuriant foliage of our woods, the
perennial verdure of our meadows, depend in a great measure
upon this wonderful physical property ; for vegetation could
never have attained its full development, if mould, like sand,
had possessed no binding power over the nutritious particles of
the soil.

The decomposition of the mould and the chemical changes
that take place in the mineral substances of which it is partly
formed, naturally proceed more rapidly, when the loosened
and porous earth, which at the same time allows the spongioles
of the roots to ramify more easily in all directions, permits the
air to penetrate more freely into its interstices. Hence the
evident utility of ploughing and digging ; but these fertilising
operations, which the labourer imperfectly performs with so
much fatigue and expense, are executed with the utmost per-
fection and on the grandest scale by the power of winter.

As I have already mentioned in a previous chapter, water
possesses the remarkable property of expanding as soon as it
assumes the solid form of ice; so that when the humid soil
becomes hard under the influence of frost, the moisture con-

64 THE HAKMONIES OF NATURE.

tained in the minute crevices of the stones or the interstices of
the soil thoroughly loosens the cohesion of the ground. On
the return of spring, warmth, moisture, and air are thus better
able to penetrate below the surface, and to awaken the germs
of dormant life. In the Arctic regions, where winter fre-
quently holds vegetation for months in iron bondage, this
inclement season is at the same time one of its greatest friends,
not only through the protecting mantle of snow which it spreads
over the earth, but chiefly through the mechanical division of
the soil which it causes. Thus death becomes the parent of
life ; and thus divine wisdom has made dreary winter the active
helpmate of the short summer of the northern regions.

The roots of one plant do not rob the soil of the same mineral
substances as those of another, for the various families of plants
are not constructed of identical materials. Thus the grasses and
all our cereals chiefly require silica for their nourishment ; the
pea and the lupin, chalk ; the potato and the turnip, potash ;
the vine, soda; as the chemical analysis of their respective
ashes proves. If plants of the same class were cultivated
year after year on the same spot, the soil would soon be ex-
hausted of the particular mineral substances they require, while
by a judicious alternation of silica, potash, or chalk plants, it
gains time to replace the mineral particles that have been with-
drawn from it by the preceding crops.

If all plants absorbed the same mineral substances, the fields
which now yield an annual return must frequently have lain
fallow until the slow progress of mineral dissolution had repaired
their losses, and consequently the same extent of territory could
only have been able to feed a much smaller population. Thus
we see that the wealth and power of all agricultural nations,
and, consequently, also the progress of civilisation, depend in
a great measure upon the relative importance of the various
mineral portions of the soil to the different plants cultivated by
man.

CHAPTER IX.

THE STEMS OF PLANTS.

The various Growth of Trees. — Internal Structure of Plant-stems. — Wood and
Fibrous Cells. — The Shafts of Palms. — Climbing-plants.— Their various Modes
of Attachment.— Tree Buttresses.— Defences of Plants.— Thorns.— Prickles.—
Harmonies between the Trunks of Trees and the Wants of Man. — The Voices of
the Forest.

How different the growth and stature of our forest-trees ! Here
the fir symmetrically raises its stately pyramid to the skies;
there the oak widely extends its sturdy branches, like arms,
ready to give battle to the storm. The beech, the elm, the
poplar, the willow, the birch, have each their own well-defined
individuality, and enhance the beauty of the landscape by their
picturesque contrasts. The same pleasing variety strikes us in
plants of humbler pretensions. This shrub has but a few vertical
shoots, while its neighbour branches out in all directions ; here
growth tends ambitiously upwards ; there it humbly creeps
along the ground ; here it confronts you with a military stiff-
ness, as if determined rather to break than to yield ; there it
appears with a courtier-like pliability, ever ready to bend as the
wind blows.

But, however different its growth may be, the trunk or stem
of a plant is in every case admirably proportioned to the.
weight it has to carry or to the resistance it has to encounter,
and in every case its texture has been made to harmonise with
its task. Thus, on examining the internal structure of our forest
trees, we find their woody fibres, which are long and pointed at
both ends like spindles, firmly wedged into each other, an ar-
rangement which of course gives the fabric of the trunk or
branches a greater power to resist the violence of the wind.

Every year our forest trees add a new concentric layer or
ring to their circumference, so that the strength of their axis.

F

66 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

increases in the same proportion as the size of the crown ; but
the palms of the tropical zone have a different growth, as with-
out any very perceptible increase in the diameter of their stem,
they rear their colossal fronds higher and higher into the air.
Yet, in spite of their comparatively slender trunks, and their
towering stature, which is surpassed by that of but few other trees,
they as effectually withstand the pressure of the storm as our
firs or oaks, or as the dicotyledonous giants of their own zone,
for their fibrous cells, which unite a remarkable degree of tough-
ness with a considerable pliability, are interlaced so firmly at
or near the surface of the trunk, where they are most compactly
arranged, that they are enabled to bend without breaking, to
bow down before the hurricane, and to rise again as soon as its
fury has passed.

In the climbing or creeping-plants, whose thin and delicate
stems are quite out of proportion to their weight, this want
of self-supporting strength is compensated in various ways ;
so that, in spite of their apparent weakness, they are able to
carry their heads as high as if they rested on colossal trunks.
Some of them embrace other plants by growing in a spiral
direction, as, for instance, our beans and hops ; others, like the
ivy, emit from their stem short aerial roots, which serve as
hold-fasts in the crevices of old walls or trees ; and others, again,
like the vine, climb upwards by means of tendrils, which, grow-
ing out of the axillae of the leaves, wind round neighbouring
objects, and prop the plant as it ascends.

The tropical rattans, those remarkable climbing palms, whose
rope-like stems often consist of a couple of hundred joints, each
two or three feet long, and bearing at every knot a feathery leaf,
rest so firmly upon the branches of the trees by means of the
strong barbed thorns with which the petioles of their leaves are
armed, and interlace themselves so frequently, that it is extremely
difficult to detach them from their hold. Thus supported, they
climb to the summits of the highest forest trees, and while it is
impossible to distinguish their creeping stems from the intricate
tangles of the matted underwood, their palm-like topes expand
in the sunshine, the emblems of successful parasitism.

Other tropical climbers, again, have neither thorns nor
tendrils to support them, but, as soon as they have found a stay
in some neighbouring tree, they begin to extend over its surface

PAKASITIC PLANTS. G7

like a plastic body ; for, while the stems of most other plants
generally assume a cylindrical form, these wonderful climbers
have the peculiarity of divesting themselves of their rind when
brought into contact with an extraneous body, and of spreading
over it, until they at length enclose it in a tubular mass. When
during this process the powers of the original root are weakened,
the stem sends forth new props to restore the equilibrium, and
thus the parasitic race continually acquires fresh strength, while
the incarcerated trunk is stifled and destroyed.

Several species of fig-trees are peculiarly remarkable for this
destructive property, and from the facility with which their
seeds take root where there is a sufficiency of moisture to permit
of germination, are formidable assailants of ancient monuments.

In many tropical trees which, struggling for air and light in
the dense thicket of the forest, attain a prodigious altitude, or
from the colossal expansion of their branches require steadying
from beneath, we find buttresses projecting like rays from all
sides of the trunk. They are frequently from six to twelve
inches thick, and project from five to fifteen feet ; and as they
ascend they gradually sink into the bole and disappear at the
height of from ten to twenty feet from the ground, — a beautiful
provision, which effectually protects the trees from the leverage
of the crown, by which they would otherwise be uprooted.

Our annual herbs, which from their inconsiderable height are
less exposed to the fury of the wind, naturally require no solid
ligneous stem for their support. Many grow under the covering
shade of some powerful protector ; while others find adequate •
powers of resistance in the long and tough fibrous cells with
which their stems are furnished.

The flax and hemp plants of our northern Flora, the Phormium
tenax of New Zealand, and the Musacese and Bromeliacea3 of the
tropical zone, are peculiarly distinguished by this fibrous texture,
which, besides serving for their own preservation, renders them
also eminently useful to man.

Although unable to move from the spot, and thus to avoid by
a timely flight the attacks of their enemies, the plants have not
been left defenceless against man and the herbivorous animals of
the woods. Thus many of our native shrubs are guarded by
ramparts of thorns and prickles, but the spines of our hawthorns
and bramble-bushes give but a faint idea of the size which these

F 2

68 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

defensive weapons attain in the tropical zone. The cactuses, the
acacias, and many of the palm-trees, bristle with sharp-pointed
shafts, affording them ample protection against the attacks of
hungry animals, so that they might appropriately be called
vegetable hedgehogs or porcupines.

The melon-cactus of the South American llanos or savannahs
conceals its juicy pulp, pleasant to man and beast, under one of
these formidable panoplies. Guided by an admirable instinct,
the wary mule strikes off with his fore-feet the long sharp thorns
of this remarkable plant, the emblem of good nature unde/ a
forbidding exterior, and then cautiously approaches his lips to
feast upon the refreshing marrow. Yet, in spite of every pre-
caution, the attempt to quaff from these alluring sources is fre-
quently attended with danger, for mules are often met with that
have been lamed by wounds from the formidable prickles of the
cactus.

The black twigs of the buffalo-thorn (Acacia latronum), a low
shrub abounding in northern Ceylon, are beset at every joint
by a pair of thorns, set opposite each other like the horns of an
ox, as sharp as a needle, from two to three inches in length, and
thicker at the base than the stem on which they grow ; and the
Acacia tomentosa, another member of the same numerous genus,
has thorns so large as to be called the jungle-nail by Europeans,
and the elephant-thorn by the natives. In some of these thorny
plants, the spines grow, not singly but in branching clusters,
each point presenting a spike as sharp as a lancet ; and where
.these shrubs abound, they render the forest absolutely impassable
even to animals of the greatest size and strength.

The rattans and bush-ropes impede the wanderer's progress
not only by the tough cordage they twine from tree to tree, but
also by the strong hooks and thorns with which they are gene-
rally armed, so that every attempt to force a passage would be
severely punished with torn clothes and bloody hands, and large
knives or heavy scythe-like axes are necessary to clear the way.

Some plants are protected by thorns only up to a certain
height. The Caryota horrida, a palm which raises its crown
fifty feet above the surface of the soil, is so thickly studded with
formidable thorns to the height of six or eight feet, that it is
hardly possible to see the bark ; further upwards, where defence
is no longer necessary, the trunk is unarmed. The thorny

TEXTURE OF WOOD. 69

plants, which are frequently so inconvenient or injurious to man,
are often used to protect his fields and plantations against wild
beasts and robbers, or even as bulwarks against hostile invasions.
Thus, Sir Emerson Tennent informs us that, during the existence
of the Kandyan kingdom, before its conquest by the British,
the frontier forests were so thickened and defended by dense
plantations of thorny plants as to form a natural fortification
impregnable to the feeble tribes on the other side ; and at each
pass which led to the level country, movable gates, formed of the
same thorny beams, were suspended as an ample security against
the incursions of the naked and timid lowlanders.

The trunks and stems of the plants are far more important to
man than their roots, and in fact utterly indispensable to the
progress of civilization. The circumstance that a large propor-
tion of the cells of which they are formed acquire a ligneous
texture during the progress of their growth, or change into
tough and pliable fibres of a very considerable length, is of
paramount importance to the welfare of man ; for what would
have been his social condition if the reign of Flora had been
confined to plants of a humble growth or brittle texture. Navi-
gation would have remained unknown to him ; like a wild animal,
he would have been obliged to live in burrows or in caves ;
he would never have been enabled to manufacture any of the
instruments which agriculture, industry, and the mutual inter-
course of nations absolutely require ; he would always have re-
mained a miserable savage, the wretched lord of a wretched
inheritance.

The difference of texture and consistency in the wood of dif-
ferent trees is likewise an object of high importance to man.
One kind of wood recommends itself to his notice by its strength
and hardness, another by its pliability; a third by the ease
with which it can be worked ; a fourth by its lightness : and
thus the carpenter, the ship-builder, the coach-maker, the turner,
and many other artizans find each of them the most suitable
materials for their several purposes among the various trees of
the forest.

But the trunks of the trees are useful to man not only by their
solid and fibrous parts, but frequently also by the juices which
they contain, or the substances deposited in their cellular tissue.
Thus, they provide him with an amazing variety of dyeing

70 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

substances, of resins, and gums. In the rind of the Cinchona-
trees he finds quinine, the only substance which opposes an
effectual resistance to the fever and ague ; and that of the cinna-
mon tree surpasses all other spices in flavour. The bark of the
cork-tree gives him the necessary material for preserving the rich
produce of his vineyards, and that of the common oak with the
astringent juices he requires for tanning the hides of his cattle.
Whole nations live almost exclusively upon the pith of the sago
palm, and when a deep incision is made in the trunk of the
wonderful cow-tree of Gruiana, it pours forth an excellent milky
fluid in such abundance as to relieve the traveller's thirst. Thus
man finds innumerable treasures in the trunks of trees. Thus
there is a wonderful harmony between the various wants of
cultivation and the life of the forest.

When the wind swept through their sacred groves, our pious
ancestors fancied they heard in the moaning of the agitated
leaves, in the rustling of the branches, the voice of an invisible
(rod — and should these awful sounds awaken no echo in our
breasts, should we remain insensible to a language which so
eloquently proclaims the august Being, who, in his infinite power
and wisdom, has raised those beautiful temples of Nature for
the use of man ?

71

CHAPTEE X.

THE LEAVES OF PLANTS.

The chief Ornament of Spring. — Internal Structure of Leaves. — The Cuticle. —
Stomata and Air-Cells. — Opening and Closing of the Stomata. — Pliability and
resisting Powers of the Leaves. — Their Stems. — Dionsea Muscipula. — The
Mimosas. — Enemies of the Leaves. — Their Defences. — Hairs. — Prickles. —
Secretions. — Harmonies between Leaves and Insects.

How beautiful the lively verdure of spring, how it refreshes
the eye after the gloom of winter, and where shall we find in
summer a more delicious shade than under the green canopy of
the woods ? As the year declines, the autumn tinges the forests
with the richest colours ; and even in winter, the dark evergreens
form a picturesque contrast with the dazzling snow, so that at
all seasons of the year the landscape is adorned by the foliage
of the trees.

Were the leaves restricted to a few simple forms, to a small
number of tints, they would still be one of the chief ornaments
of Nature ; but their decorative power is wonderfully enhanced
by their endless varieties of shape, by their infinite shades of
colour. Of all the herbs we may gather on our excursions, not
one is like the other ; every new species of tree that meets our
eye has its own peculiar foliage, and were we to wander through
all the zones of the earth, every new plant on our way would
greet us with a new form of leaf.

Thus, the delicate organs of vegetable life have been made,
not only to minister to the wants of the plants of which they
form a part, but also to afford a constant gratification to our
sense of the beautiful, and to raise the mind by the delight
which their every varying contrasts afford, to Him who made
them.

Conjointly with the roots, the leaves serve to nourish the
plant ; they inhale and elaborate the gases and vapours of the

72 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

atmosphere, they are its respiratory organs, its lungs ; their
expansion and their number correspond with its vital activity.
Plants living in the shade, or restricted to a tardy growth, can
subsist with a few scanty leaves, but the monarchs of the woods,
or such plants as powerfully strive towards the sun, require a
vast extent of foliage to satisfy the wants of a widety-branch-
ing crown, or of a rapid vegetation. In a couple of months
the herbaceous juicy stem of the plantain shoots up as thick as
a man's body, to the height of fifteen or twenty feet ; but the
colossal leaves of the giant harmonise with this amazing rapidity
of growth, as they frequently attain a length of fifteen or
twenty feet with a breadth of two feet or more.

As in plants of such rapid growth as the Musaceas all the efforts
of vegetation must necessarily tend to develope as fast as possible
an immense foliaceous surface, the leaves of those colossal herbs
are remarkably thin ; but as they are also very much exposed to
boisterous winds, their middle rib contains a number of ex-
tremely long and tough fibres, so that, although a slight breeze
is able to tear them into transverse shreds, by which their own
nutrition and their serviceableness to the plant are by no means
impaired, yet even a storm cannot snap them asunder ; and thus,
by a wonderful provision, the extreme fragility resulting from
an extensive growth of uncommon rapidity, is found united with
immense powers of resistance.

The internal structure of the leaves is as wonderful as their
external variety and beauty. With the exception of such as
grow under water, the leaves of all the flowering or phanerogamic
plants are covered with a colourless cuticle consisting of cells, the
walls of which are flattened above and below, whilst they adhere
closely to each other laterally, so as to form a continuous stratum.
Their shape is different in almost every tribe of plants, and their
walls, especially on the side nearest the atmosphere, are generally
thickened by a waxy deposit, impermeable to fluids, the retention
of which within the soft tissues of the leaf is obviously the purpose
to be answered by the peculiar organisation of the cuticle.

In most European plants the cuticle contains but a single
row of thin-sided cells, whilst in the generality of tropical
species there exist two, three, or even four layers of thick-
sided cells, which give the leaf an almost leathery consistence.
This difference of structure is most beautifully adapted to the

CUTICLES AND POKES OF LEAVES. 73

various climates in which these plants have been respectively
destined to flourish, for the thin cuticle of a species indigenous
to temperate climates, would not have afforded a sufficient pro-
tection to the interior structure had it been exposed to the
vertical rays of a tropical sun, whilst the diminished heat of
this country would scarcely overcome the resistance of the
dense and non-conducting tegument of a species formed to
exist in tropical climates. Nor must we forget that the thick-
ness of the badly-conducting cuticle serves also to protect the
leaves of the equinoctial plants against the great difference of
temperature which frequently exists between the heat of the
day and the chilly coolness of the night, a difference much
greater than that which takes place in the temperate regions.

As the cuticle is impermeable to air, it may well be asked
how the leaves are able to perform their respiratory functions ;
but the enigma is soon
solved on examining a leaf
through a powerful micro-
scope, for then the cuticle
is seen to be pierced with
numerous pores, or sto-
mata, leading into lacunce
or air - chambers, small

onpn srmppcj m'tnatprl in HIP Vertical section of portion of a leaf of Iris
Open Spaces Situated m tne Germamca, taken in a transverse direction.

green Cellular tissue Of the «•«, cells of the cuticle ; 6.6, cells at the sides of the
, „ , , . rv 1 . stomata ; c.c, small green cells placed within these ;

leaf, and thus affording a d-d, openings of the stomata; e,e, lacuna? or air

cells ; /./, cells of the parenchyma.

passage to the atmosphere.

In general, the stomata are not so numerous on the upper as
on the under surface of the leaf; frequently even, as for instance
in the oak, the beech, the birch, and the alder, they are en-
tirely confined to the latter. In the erect leaves of the grasses
they are about equal on both sides ; in leaves floating on the sur-
face of the water they are found only on that side which is exposed
to the air ; and in submerged leaves they are, with but few excep-
tions, completely wanting. Generally, they are least numerous
in succulent plants, whose moisture is destined to be retained
in the system ; whilst they abound most in those species in which
a rapid absorption and exhalation of the fluids takes place. In
the Hydrangea, for instance, there are no less than 16,000
stomata in every square inch of the under surface of the leaves ;

74 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

in the black elder, 63,000 ; in Iris germanica each surface has
nearly 12,000 stomata in every square inch ; and in Yucca, each
surface has 40,000. What wonders does a close inspection thus
reveal in the structure of a leaf whose surface appears uniform
and unbroken to the naked eye. On that side of the leaf where
the stomata and the corresponding lacunae chiefly abound or
exclusively exist, the green cellular parenchyma is always of a
looser texture, whilst on the opposite side, where the stomata
are either less abundant or entirely wanting, it is more compact.
Hence the under surface of the leaves is generally of a less
intense green than the upper one, where the cells are more
closely congregated.

The stomata are destined to admit air, not water, which by
drenching the leaf would entirely interrupt the process of respi-
ration. This danger is effectually guarded against by the
boundary-cells of the stoma, (d.d,) which, from their swelling or
expanding in moist weather by the absorption of humidity, are
able entirely to close the opening, so that no rain can penetrate
into the air-chambers, and thus this simple hygroscopic property
renders here the services rendered by muscular contraction in
closing the cavities of the animal body.

Where shall we find pliability and firmness more beautifully
combined than in the structure of a leaf? A slight breath of
air sets it in motion, and this circumstance is naturally very
favourable to the respiratory process, as the perpetual agita-
tion of the foliage brings it into contact with new sheets of
air, and thus facilitates the exchange of oxygen and carbonic
acid. But as the green cellular tissue of the leaf, in which the
functions of respiration are carried on, is easily torn, a strong
framework or skeleton was needed to give it the necessary sup-
port, and this is amply afforded by its ribs, which, consisting of
bundles of strong, tough, and colourless vessels, proceed from a
chief middle-rib, and ramifying over the whole surface, support
the green-coloured cellular tissue as firmly as the trunk, sub-
dividing into numerous branches, supports a vast crown of foliage.

To increase the mobility of the leaves without detriment to
their strength, their mid-rib frequently forms a long stalk before
merging into the body of the leaf, which, being thus freely sus-
pended upon its slender and flexible support, easily gives way
to the slightest disturbance of the air, as a ship at anchor gently
rocks to and fro in the heaving and subsiding waters.

FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES. 75

Where the foot-stalk of the leaf has to bear a considerable
weight, and is moreover very much exposed to the wind, addi-
tional precautions have been taken for increasing its strength.
Thus, the foot-stalks of the huge fronds of the cocoa-palm are
inclosed in a tough web or network, which preserves them so well
from breaking, that even after death they remain attached to the
tree. In the flexible grasses we find the leaves embracing the stem
with a sheath, which gives to both a much greater power of re-
sistance, while in many herbs the sessile leaves are placed in such
a manner that the rain or dew collecting on their surface flows
down the stalk to the roots, where it is most needed. In several
aquatic plants, the stalks of the leaves are ventricosely distended,
so as to render them buoyant, and in many of the fuci, the large
air-vessels with which the stem or the fronds are furnished,
answer a similar purpose. These few examples sufficiently prove
that it is not by a mere caprice of growth that some leaves are
barely suspended from stalks, while others embrace the stem of
the plant, but that every variety of form is made to answer
an especial end. No plant has been neglected, none has been
encumbered with useless or unappropriate organs, but each has
received all that it required.

Some leaves have been gifted with a wonderful sensibility which
seems almost to raise them to the level of animal life. Thus the
Porliera hygrometrica foretels serene or rainy weather by the
opening or closing of its leaves. Large tracts of country in Brazil
are almost entirely covered with sensitive plants. The tramp
of a horse sets the nearest ones in motion, and, as if by magic,
the contraction of the small grey-green leaflets spreads in quiver-
ing circles over the field, making one almost believe with Darwin
and Dutrochet that plants have feeling, or tempting one to
exclaim with Wordsworth —

It is my faith that every flower
Enjoys the air it breathes.

The leaves of the Venus's Fly-trap (Dioncea muscipula), a
marsh-plant of North America, are still more curious, as their
wonderful contractility gives them an offensive power quite
unique in the vegetable world. They are oblong, and divided
by the mid-rib into two halves inclining" towards each other,
and beset on the upper surface and along the edges with
long and stiff bristles. At the slightest touch the two halves

76 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

instantaneously clap together, the bristles on both sides fitting
into each other, so that if a fly settles on an opened leaf it is
immediately caught as in a trap, and forced to remain in its
highly uncomfortable position as long as life lasts, for the least
movement stimulates the contraction of the leaf.

In the Hedysarum gyrans, a leguminous plant of the East
Indies, we even find something like voluntary motion, as the
wings of the ternate leaves are constantly oscillating upwards
and downwards, quite independently of any external stimulus,
so that this wonderful plant seems absolutely invested with one
of the chief attributes of animal life.

Thus, even in the vegetable kingdom, we find glimpses of a
higher order of existence ; as in our own natures we are able to
trace the dawn of a superior spiritual world.

In consequence of the delicacy of their structure the leaves
are exposed to innumerable hostile attacks ; but it may well be
supposed that organs of such vital importance have not been
left unprotected, and that bounds have been set to the voracity
of their enemies. Many are invested with a thick tomentose or
cottony covering, others with hairs, bristles, or prickles. Some-
times these hairs bear little glandular bodies at their extremities,
by the secretion of which a peculiar viscidity is given to the
surface of the leaf, as in the Sundew (Drosera) ; in other in-
stances the hair has a glandular body at its base, whose secre-
tion is of an irritating quality, as, for instance in the Nettle,
where the extremity of the hollow sting, being extremely brittle,
breaks at the slightest touch, and suffers this corrosive fluid to
escape.

The sharp, bitter, or acrid juices with which the substance of
many leaves is saturated, as well as the strongly-scented volatile
oils which others exhale from their surface, no doubt serve also
as powerful means of passive defence.

Another circumstance favourable to the leaves is, that the
attacks of many of their enemies are limited to a short space of
time. Some insects feed only upon the first tender foliage of
spring, so that a rapid vegetation outstrips their ravages : others
make their first appearance towards the end of summer. Dur-
ing all these attacks the plant is incessantly active in repairing
its incessant losses ; its leaves are constantly extending their
surface, or new ones are sprouting forth to replace those that

VEGETABLE AND INSECT LIFE. 77

have been devoured, and, thus in spite of the large number and
voracity of its enemies, the foliage is generally able to resist all
their efforts.

Week after week the pastures are cropped by numerous herds,
or mowed by the husbandman, and yet the grass never ceases
to flourish, and after countless caterpillars and beetles have
feasted upon the plenty of the forest, it still bears a luxuriant
crown, until finally the winter scatters its foliage to the winds.
This indomitable energy of vegetation, which not only supports
itself, but a whole world of animals, and sets the ravages of
centuries at defiance, is indeed one of the great wonders of
creation !

In all climates we find a harmonious balance between insect
and vegetable life. Towards the north, where the growth of
plants is confined to a few months or even weeks, they have
but few enemies to encounter ; in the temperate zones hostility
increases with the increase of vegetation, until finally, in the
damp tropical lowlands, the herbivorous insects take the field
in countless legions. But here, where the plantain raises its
colossal shaft in eight or ten months to a height of twenty feet,
where the bamboo grows at the rate of eighteen inches in
twenty-four hours, and the same field yields three harvests in the
course of the year, an amazing power of vegetation resists all
these devastations ; and here, also, the defences of the plants
increase with their increasing dangers; for nowhere are the
leaves better protected with hairs and spines, and nowhere do
they elaborate more pungent juices or exhale more penetrating
odours.

Thus harmony is everywhere maintained between the two
great divisions of organic life, and thus firmly established on
the laws of an All-wise Power, an eternal order reigns supreme
amidst the conflicting interests of all created beings.

Where we see so much care bestowed upon the leaves, which
are but simple individual organs, we may well expect to find
still greater precautions taken for the protection of the buds, in
which the foliaceous rudiments of a whole branch, or even of a
whole plant, are contained.

A bud is seldom naked ; generally it is invested with a pano-
ply of thick scales of a coriaceous or fibrous consistence, and,
moreover, frequently covered with hairs or impregnated with

78 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

resin. Under this comfortable mantle, which from its being a
bad conductor of heat opposes an effectual resistance to the
cutting winds or nipping night-frosts of early spring, the first
tender leaflets are developed by the influence of the warming
sun, as safely and securely as a brood of chickens under the
fostering care of a hen. Slowly they swell within the little
dungeon in which they are so providently inclosed ; but as soon
as they have burst their fetters, they expand with an astonishing
rapidity, and in a few days the tree appears in the full beauty
of its youthful verdure.

79

CHAPTER XL

BLOSSOMS.

Their Functions. — Their Accessory and Essential Parts. — The Calyx.— The Corolla.
— The Pistils. — The Anthers. — The Pollen. — Insects as Means of Fructification.
— The Vallisneria Spiralis.

NOTHING can equal the immense variety of flowers, their charm-
ing colours, or their delicious fragrance. How differently formed
are the radiate aster and the hooded wolf's-bane, the bell-shaped
campanula and the papilionaceous lupin, and yet it would be
difficult to say which of them most pleases the eye.

The colours with which the flowers are adorned baffle descrip-
tion. The snowy whiteness of our fruit-trees adds new beauties
to spring, and the purple heath invests the bleak and barren
Highlands of the north with a magnificence equal to the warm
tints of Italy or Spain. The humble daisy, the golden butter-
cup enamel our verdant meads, and every hue of the rainbow is
reflected in the gay parterres of our gardens, or in the conserva-
tories where Flora assembles her favourites from all parts of the
world.

The foliage of many plants exhales an agreeable odour, but
no leaf produces a balsam which can in any way equal the
aroma of the violet or the rose, of the pink or of the lily of the
valley. Without the flowers, the variety of perfumes which
regale our sense of smell would be but small ; without them its
faculties of enjoyment would not have harmonised with the
outer world.

But the corolla on which Nature has thus lavished all that can
gratify the senses, plays after all but an accessory part in the
economy of the vegetable kingdom, as, conjointly with the
calyx, it merely serves as a protecting cover, or as an orna-
mental envelope to the pistil and to the stamina, which, though
generally of a more humble appearance, are the essential organs

80

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

of fructification in all the higher plants. Thus, both the corolla
and the calyx may be wanting, as for instance in the vast family
of the grasses, which spreads in thousands of species over the
face of the globe.

The pistil or pistils— for they vary in number from one to
twelve, and sometimes more — commonly appear in the centre of
the corolla, from which they rise like so many green columns. A
pistil consists of three parts — the stigma at its upper extremity,
which is sometimes globular, sometimes cleft, sometimes cross-
shaped ; the style or hollow pillar which supports the stigma ;
and the germen, or seed-bud, which forms its pedestal or base,
and in which the germs or ovula are contained.

The stamens, which resemble threads, or pillars, usually stand
between the corolla and the pistil, but are extremely various in
their arrangement and number — a circumstance on which
Linnaeus founded his method of classifying plants. Some have
but one stamen, others two, three, and so on up to ten, twelve,
twenty, or even several hundreds. In some flowers we find the
stamina standing apart from each other, in others united by
their filaments into one or several sets ; here they are all of
equal length, there of unequal dimensions ; sometimes they are
attached to the inside of the calyx, sometimes to the corolla, to
the receptacle, or to the pistil. They invariably consist of two
parts, the anther and the filament. The anther is the summit of

the stamen, and contains
the mealy or powdery sub-
stance called pollen, which,
brought into contact with
the stigma, serves to fecun-
date the ovula contained
within the germ. When
come to maturity, the an-
thers open in various ways
— longitudinally or trans-
versely, or through the
raising of a lid, or through
numerous apertures, so that
the pollen contained in its
interior becomes free and
covers its surface with a fine generally yellow-coloured powder.

Pollen-Grams of

a, althaea rosea ; b, cobaea scandens ; c
ccerulea ; d, ipomcea purpurea.

POLLEN-GKAINS. 81

If these golden cushions carried on pillars of ivory afford an
agreeable spectacle to the naked eye, our admiration increases
when we come to view the pollen-grains under a magnifying-
glass — for every genus of plants has its own characteristic form
of this fructifying dust, the surface of which is often most
curiously marked. Its roughening by spines or knobby pro-
tuberances is a very common feature, and answers the purpose
of enabling it to adhere more readily to the stigma.

These elegant little globes are so small that they generally
attain a diameter of only l-l,200th or 1 -3,000th of an inch;
while they are so numerous that frequently many thousands are
brought forth by one single flower, and thus the seed we tread
under foot produces with a boundless prodigality objects so
exquisitely formed and modelled that the most skilful pencil
can hardly do justice to their beauty.

Even the pollen-grain which the vernal wind carries in count-
less billions through the air, and which man scarce ever deigns
to notice, is the work of a consummate master, a wonderful
monument of Almighty power !

Although both the pistils and the stamina are essential
organs of fructification, and seed can only be formed by their
mutual co-operation, yet they are not always united in the
same blossom. Sometimes, as in the birch, we find flowers of
different kinds on the same plant, some bearing pistils and
others stamens only ; or, as in the willow and poplar, stamens
on one plant and pistils on another ; or, even as in the common
ash, the same tree will bear flowers of three different kinds.

In most plants, however, the pistils and anthers are united
within the same corolla, an arrangement which greatly facilitates
the admission of the pollen to the stigma; and for the same
purpose the stamina of most plants surround the pistilla, an
arrangement which gives the pollen an opportunity of falling
upon the stigma at every breeze of wind. In those flowers
which stand upright, the stamina are higher than the top of the
pistil, so that, as the pollen is specifically heavier than air, some
of it must almost inevitably fall upon the stigma as soon as it-
detaches itself from the anther, while in those flowers which
hang down or incline to one side, the pistil is longer than the
stamina.

The flowers of most plants expand by the heat of the sun,

G

82 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

and close their petals in the evening or in rainy weather. The
final cause of this is to keep the moisture .from the pollen, lest
it should be thereby coagulated, and of course prevented from
falling or being blown upon the stigma. Thus, in the organisa-
tion of the hermaphrodite flowers, every circumstance which
could possibly favour their fecundation has been most admirably
attended to ; and though those plants where the stamina and the
pistils appear in separate flowers, or even on separate trees,
might at the first view seem less well provided for, yet here
also the pollen is made to reach the stigma as surely as if both
had been produced within the same corolla.

To effect this object, Nature has two most efficacious agents at
her disposal : the wind, and the insects, who by their friendly
intervention seem desirous of making amends to Flora for the
ravages they are perpetually committing on her domains. The
bees are particularly useful in this respect, for, while sipping the
sweet juice of the nectaries at the bottom of the flowers, they
brush off the pollen from the anthers of one flower with their
hairy bodies, and unconsciously convey it to the stigma of
another. In the extensive families of the Asclepiadeae and of
the Orchids, insect intervention is not merely of assistance but
absolutely necessary for their fecundation: as here the ripe
pollen, instead of being a loose powder, forms a wax-like adhe-
sive mass, which, sticks fast to the honey-gathering insect, and
could not otherwise be brought into contact with the stigma.
In these flowers the nectaries are disposed in such a manner
that, to be able to reach them, the insect must necessarily graze
the stigma, and thus bring the fructifying pollen to the place
where it is needed, an arrangement which plainly points to the
direction of a higher hand.

As the moistening of flowers generally prevents their fructi-
fication, (for the pollen of but very few water-plants, such as the
Horn- wort (Ceratophyllum demersam), and the Grass- wrack
(Zostera marina), is not damaged by wet), most of the plants
that grow below water emerge when their flowers begin to blow,
and swim upon the surface till they receive their impregnation,
and then sink down.

Thus in autumn, at the time of flowering, air is developed in
the bladders, which here and there distend the linear leaves of
the Utricularia vulgaris or Hooded Milfoil, a plant of frequent

FRUCTIFICATION OF FLOWERS. 83

occurrence in stagnant waters. Thus buoyed up, the blossom
rises to the surface, and expands its large yellow petals in the
atmosphere, but as soon as fructification is accomplished, the air
of the bladders escapes or is absorbed, and the sinking Utricularia
returns to its more congenial element. In other cases, where
the depth of the water in which it grows is too great to allow
the plant to rise to the surface, as, for instance, in many species
of Water-wort (Elatine), and Water-plantain (Alisma), a bubble
of air is secreted within the folded corolla at the time when
fructification is to take place, and forms a subaqueous atmo-
spheric chamber in which the process can be safely accom-
plished.

But the fructification of the Vallisneria spiralis, a common
plant in the ditches of the rice-fields in Italy, is beyond all
others curious. This herb grows in the mud, generally several
feet below the surface of the water, and has its stamens and
pistils on different flowers. The anthered flowers grow in short-
stemmed compact knobs at the basis of the leaves, while the
stigmate-flowers are seated on long stalks spirally contracted
like a corkscrew. When the time of fructification approaches,
the small anthered flowers detach themselves from their stalks,
and swim about upon the surface, where they freely emit their
snow-white pollen ; wrhile the stigmate flowers, in which a
similar separation from the maternal plant was not admissible,
gradually rise to the top by the unfolding of their spiral coils.
As if prompted by an animal instinct, they are constantly
moving on the surface, as though they were seeking the small
anthered flowers, which are at the same time swimming about
in considerable quantities. When fructification is completed,
their long stalk again contracts into a spiral, and the flower,
having no longer the contact of the water to fear, sinks again
to the bottom, where the fecundated germ grows to maturity.

Thus a despised and troublesome weed shows us wonders in
its organisation, which would be utterly incomprehensible if we
did not attribute them to a divine and all- wise Creator !

G 2

84 THE HAKMONIES OF NATUKE.

CHAPTEE XII.

SEEDS AND THEIR MIGRATIONS.

Defences of Seeds. — Their Dissemination over the Earth. — Feathers and Wings. —
Cotton. — Influence of Water-courses. — Mangrove Seeds. — The Animals and Man
as Disseminators of Plants. — Progress of Vegetation on the originally naked Eock.

CAN anything be more admirable than the provident care be-
stowed upon the seeds of plants ? See how the sweet kernel of
the walnut is inclosed, not only in a thick coriaceous astringent
skin, but in a solid case of almost stony hardness ; and how
snugly the chesnut lies concealed, like a hedgehog under its
bristly coat, until, when fully ripe, it bursts the bonds which
held it in salutary confinement.

The tender seminal germs are not only protected by a dense
envelope against the influence of the weather, so as to be able
to remain for years in a state of dormant vitality ; but they also
find within the seed itself the albumen, the oil, the starch, the
gluten, in one word, all the nourishment they require when
under favourable conditions they first awaken into active life ;
and thus nothing is wanting for their equipment when, dropping
from the parent stem, they launch forth to seek their own for-
tunes in the wide wide world.

From the sedentary nature of plants, they would have been
menaced with extinction if nature had not provided means for
the diffusion of their seeds over a vast area. As the spores of
mosses, fungi, and lichens consist of an impalpable powder, the
particles of which are scarcely visible to the naked eye, it
is not difficult to account for their being dispersed throughout
the atmosphere, and carried to every point of the globe, where
there is a station fitted for their reception. Lichens in particular
ascend to great elevations, sometimes growing two thousand feet
above the line of perpetual snow, at the utmost limits of vegeta-

DISPEKSION OF SEEDS. 85

tion, and where the mean temperature is nearly at the freezing
point. This elevated position must contribute greatly to facili-
tate the dispersion of those buoyant particles of which their
fructification consists.

' The sporules of fungi/ says Fries, 6 are so infinite that in
a single individual of Reticularia maxima I have counted
above ten millions, and so subtile as to be scarcely visible, often
resembling thin smoke ; so light that they may be raised per-
haps by evaporation into the atmosphere, and dispersed in so
many ways by the attraction of the sun, by insects, wind, elas-
ticity, adhesion, &c., that it is difficult to conceive a place from
which they may be excluded.'

Among the higher plants we find a great number of seeds
furnished with downy and feathery appendages, enabling them,
when ripe, to float in the air, and to be wafted easily to great
distances by the most gentle breeze. Thousands and thousands
may perish on the way, or fall upon a barren soil, but many,
favoured by fortune, find a new home far away from the spot
where their parents grew, and found new starting points for
further emigrations. Thus many a plant may have been extir-
pated in its original seat and yet flourish in another country,
reminding one of those ancient cities whose colonies still pros-
per, while they themselves have long since vanished from the
earth. >

It would be a difficult task to describe the various and elegant
forms of the feathery appendages which serve to waft the seeds
through the air. Nothing can exceed in lightness and beauty
the downy tufts which surmount the grains of the dandelion,
the thistle, the chickory, and so many others of our compound
flowers; and though not one of them resembles the other,
each fully answers its purpose. Here, as in every other case,
the Creator has not only provided for the utility but also for
the decoration of his works.

The seeds of many of our forest-trees are fitted for dispersion
by means of an attached wing, as in the case of the fir-tree, the
elm, the birch, the ash, the maple, so that they are caught up by
the wind as they fall, and are carried to a distance. As winds
often prevail for days, weeks, or even months together, in the
same direction, this means of transportation may sometimes
be without limits, and even the heavier grains may be borne

86 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

through considerable spaces in a very short time during ordi-
nary tempests ; for strong gales, which can sweep along grains of
sand, often move at the rate of about forty miles an hour. The
hurricanes of tropical regions, which root up trees and throw
down buildings, may carry even the heavier fruits and seeds
over friths and seas of considerable width, and doubtless are
often the means of introducing into islands the vegetation of
adjoining continents.

Whirlwinds are also instrumental in bearing along heavy
vegetable substances to considerable distances. Slight ones may
frequently be observed in our fields in summer, carrying up
haycocks into the air, and then letting fall small tufts of hay
far and wide over the country ; but they are sometimes so power-
ful as to dry up lakes and ponds, and to break off the
boughs of trees and carry them up in a whirling column of air.
As this cause operates at different intervals of time throughout
a great portion of the earth's surface, it may be the means of
bearing not only plants but animals to points which they could
never otherwise have reached, and from which they may then
begin to propagate themselves again as from a new centre.

The long downy filaments which are appended to the numer-
ous seeds of the Gossypias, or cotton-plants, deserve particular
notice, as they not only waft them easily through the air, but
serve also to clothe a large portion of the human race, and rank
as the very first of all the world-wide importations of England.
Liverpool arid Manchester, with their train of minor stars, un-
doubtedly the scene of the most gigantic industry known in
the history of man, owe their prosperity to the wings with which
Providence has furnished the seeds of a small and otherwise
unimportant family of plants.

Some seeds are dispersed by the sudden springing open of
the elastic capsule in which they are contained. In this manner
the seeds of the Balsam balsamine are jerked to a considerable
distance, and the Ura crepitans, an Indian shrub, accompanies
this action with an exploding noise which has been compared
with that of a pistol shot.

In the dispersion of seeds, rivers and marine currents arenot less
instrumental than the atmospherical agencies. The mountain-
stream or torrent washes down to the valley the seeds which
may accidentally fall into it, or which it may happen to sweep

MODES OF DISPERSION. 87

from its banks when it suddenly overflows them. Thus many
Alpine plants have found their way as far as Strasburg, and the
Erinus of the high mountains has been transplanted by the
Eh one into the neighbourhood of Toulon. The broad and
majestic river, winding along the extensive plain, and traversing
the continents of the world, conveys to the distance of many
hundreds of miles the seeds that may have vegetated at its
source. Thus the southern shores of the Baltic are visited by
seeds which grew in the interior of Germany, and the western
shores of the Atlantic by seeds that have been generated in
the central forests of America.

The marine currents even carry seeds over the broad bosom
of the ocean from continent to continent. Fruits indigenous to
America and the West Indies, such as that of the Mimosa scan-
dens, the cashew-nut, and others, have been known to be drifted
across the Atlantic by the Grulf-stream on the western coasts of
Europe, in such a state that they might have vegetated had the
climate and soil been favourable. Among these the Guilandina
bonduc, a leguminous plant, is particularly mentioned as having
been raised from a seed found on the west coast of Ireland.

On the shores of Orcadia, a sort of fruit commonly known by
the name of Molucca or Orkney beans are found in large
quantities, particularly after storms of westerly wind. These
beans are the produce of West Indian trees, and find their way
from the woods of Cuba and Jamaica by means of the Gulf-
stream.

As the seeds destined for long aerial migrations are light, and
frequently furnished with wings or with downy and feathery
appendages, thus the seeds of the littoral plants, whose dispersion
chiefly takes place through the instrumentality of aqueous
agents, are generally provided with hard water-proof shells, so
that they may be wafted over the vast ocean without losing their
germinating power. Islands, moreover, and even the smallest
rocks, play an important part in aiding such migrations ; for
when seeds alight upon them from the atmosphere, or are thrown
up by the surf, they often vegetate and supply the winds
and waves with a repetition of new and uninjured crops of
fruit and seeds. These may afterwards pursue their voyage
through the air or along the surface of the sea in the same
direction. The number of plants found at any given time on

83 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

an islet affords us no test whatever of the extent to which it
may have co-operated towards this end, since a variety of species
may first thrive there, and then perish, and be followed by other
chance comers like themselves.

Nothing can be more remarkable than the very peculiar
manner in which the seeds of the Mangroves, those wonderful
trees whose semi-aquatic reign extends along the margin of the
tides, have been made to harmonise with the locality in which
they are destined to thrive. They germinate on the branches,
and, increasing to a considerable length, finally fall down into
the mud, where they stick with their sharp point buried, and
soon take root. Other seeds are furnished with wings that the
winds may carry them far away ; others, enveloped in water-
proof shells, float on the surface of the sea, and are drifted by
the currents to distant coasts ; but here we have a tree whose
seeds were destined to remain fixed on an uncertain soil, close
to the parent plant, and surely this purpose could not have been
fulfilled in a more beautiful manner.

Besides the elementary agencies of the winds and currents,
nature has still other resources for conveying seeds to a distance
from their place of growth. The various tribes of animals are
busily engaged in furthering an object whence they themselves
derive such important advantages. Sometimes an express pro-
vision is found in the structure of seeds to enable them to adhere
firmly by prickles, hooks, and hairs, to the coats of animals
or feathers of the winged tribe, to which they remain attached
for weeks or even months, and are borne along into every region
whither birds or quadrupeds may migrate. Few have failed to
mark the locks of wool hanging on the thorn-bushes wherever
the sheep pass, and it is probable that the wolf or lion never
give chase to herbivorous animals without being unconsciously
instrumental in the diffusion of plants. A deer has strayed from
the herd, when browsing on some rich pasture, when he is sud-
denly alarmed by the approach of his foe. He instantly takes
to flight, dashing through many a thicket, and swimming across
many a, river and lake. The seeds of the herbs and shrubs,
which have adhered to his smoking flanks, are washed off again
by the waters. The thorny spray is torn off, and fixes itself
in his hairy coat, until brushed off again in other thickets and

ANIMAL AGENCY. 89

copses. Even on the spot where the victim is devoured, many
of the seeds which he had swallowed immediately before the
chase may be left on the ground uninjured and ready to spring
up in a new soil.

The passage, indeed, of undigested seeds through the stomachs
of animals is one of the most efficient causes of the dissemina-
tion of plants. Thus, a flight of larks will fill the cleanest
field with a great quantity of various kinds of plants, as the
melilot, trefoil, and others, whose seeds are so heavy that the
wind is not able to scatter them to any distance. Pulpy fruits
serve quadrupeds and birds as food, while their seeds, often
hard and indigestible, pass uninjured through the intestines?
and are deposited far from their original place of growth, in a
condition peculiary fit for vegetation. In this manner the
Gruava-tree, first introduced into the island of Tahiti about half
a century ago, has been so copiously disseminated by the birds
and cattle as to become the plague of the country. In their
greedy attempts to monopolise the spice trade, the Dutch
endeavoured to confine the Nutmeg-tree to the narrow precincts
of Banda, by extirpating it on all other islands where it
naturally grew ; but their baseness was defeated by the wild
pigeons, who, dropping the undigested nuts in their excursions
over the Moluccas and neighbouring islands, continually showed
them that man cannot possibly succeed when striving against
the intentions of nature.

The sudden deaths to which great numbers of frugivorous
birds are annually exposed must not be omitted, as auxiliary
to the transportation of seeds to new habitations. When the
ebbing sea withdraws from the shore, and leaves fruits and
seeds on the beach or in the mud of estuaries, it might by the
returning tide wash them away again, or destroy them by long
immersions ; but when they are gathered by land-birds which
frequent the sea-side, or by waders and water-fowl, they are
often borne inland ; and if the bird to whose crop they have
been consigned is killed, they may be left to grow up far from
the sea. Let such an accident happen but once in a century,
it will be sufficient to spread many of the plants from one
continent to another ; for in estimating the activity of these
causes, we must not consider whether they act slowly in relation

90 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

to the period of our observation, but in reference to the duration
of species in general.

Let us trace the operation of this cause in connexion with
others. A tempestuous wind bears the seeds of a plant many
miles through the air, and then delivers them to the ocean; the
marine current drives them to a distant continent ; by the fall
of the tide they become the food of numerous birds, and one
of these is seized by a hawk or eagle, which, soaring across hill
and dale to a place of retreat, leaves, after devouring its prey,
the unpalatable seeds to spring up and flourish in a new soil.

But no bird or four-footed animal is so instrumental in
diffusing plants over the surface of the globe as man, that
restless wanderer who claims the whole of it as his inheritance.
He transports with him into every region the vegetables which
he cultivates for his wants ; through him the potato has been
conveyed from the New World to Europe, and the Cinnamon-
tree of Ceylon made to flourish in the Western Indies.

'When the introduction of cultivated plants is of recent date,'
says De Candolle, ' there is no difficulty in tracing their origin ;
but when it is of high antiquity, we are often ignorant of the
true country of the plants on which we feed. No one contests
the American origin of the maize, nor the origin in the old
world of the coffee-tree and of wheat. But there are certain
objects of culture of very ancient date between the tropics,
such, for example, as the banana, of which the origin cannot be
verified. Armies, in modern times, have been known to carry in
all directions grain and cultivated vegetables from one extremity
of Europe to the other ; and thus have shown us how, in more
ancient times, the conquests of Alexander, the distant expedi-
tions of the Eomans, and afterwards the Crusades, may have
transported many plants from one part of the world to the
other.' But besides the plants used in agriculture, or introduced
from foreign countries for the embellishment of our gardens,
the number which have been naturalised by accident, or which
man has spread unintentionally, is considerable.

' We have introduced everywhere,' observes De Candolle,
' some weeds which grow among our various kinds of wheat, and
which have been received perhaps originally from Asia along
with them. Thus, together with the Barbary wheat, the in-
habitants of the south of Europe have sown, for many ages, the

AGENCY OF MAN. 91

plants of Algiers and Tunis. With the wools and cottons of
the East, or of Barbary, there are often brought into France
the grains of exotic plants, some of which naturalise them-
selves. Of this I will cite a striking example. There is, at the
gate of Montpellier, a meadow set apart for drying foreign
wool after it has been washed. There hardly passes a year
without foreign plants .being found naturalised in this drying-
ground. I have gathered there Centaurea parviftora, Psoralea
palcestina, and Hypericum crispum.' This fact is not only
illustrative of the aid which man lends inadvertently to the
propagation of plants, but it also demonstrates the multiplicity
of seeds which are borne about in the woolly and hairy coats
of wild animals. Many plants have been naturalised in our
sea-ports by the ballast of ships, and others have spread through
Europe from botanical gardens, so as to have become more com-
mon than many indigenous species. In the seventeenth century
a ship from Japan was wrecked near Guernsey, and to this mis-
fortune the beautiful Amaryllis owes its origin, which now serves
to decorate the island.

It is scarcely two centuries since the Canadian Erigeron, or
flea-bane, was brought from America to the Botanical Garden at
Paris, and already the seeds have been carried by the winds over
France, the British Islands, Italy, Sicily, Holland, and Grer-
many.

The cereals, which we originally received from the distant East,
have followed our colonists to America and Australia, but along
with them the blue corn-flowers and scarlet poppies, the orna-
ments of our fields, have wandered to the prairies of Illinois, or
to the plains of Victoria, where their well-known sight awakens
many a fond recollection of former days in the heart of the emi-
grant. The plantain, or rib-wort, so common in our fields and
meadows, follows everywhere the 'pale-faces' into the backwoods
of America. Where the Indian sees this plant, he knows that
he has not long to tarry in the land of his fathers, for the
despoiling stranger is at hand.

Soon after the arrival of the Spaniards in Buenos Ayres, the
thistle invaded the Pampas, as the immense grass-plains of
that level country are called, and in course of time has covered
many square miles with its prickly vegetation. In this con-
genial soil its growth is so luxurious as frequently to overtop

92 THE HARMONIES OF NATUEE.

the rider on his horse, who is more at a loss to find his way
through the impenetrable thicket than through the mazes of a
primeval forest, as it prevents him from looking round, and
affords him no solid stem on which he might climb to ascertain
his position. Thus these thistle wildernesses, which owe their
origin to the casual introduction, perhaps, of a single seed, have
spread like a cancer over tracts of land larger than many a
German principality, and have become one of the great nuisances
of the country, as they not only usurp the place of useful grasses,
but afford, moreover, a secure retreat to the jaguar, and to the
still more dangerous banditti, who alone are acquainted with
their labyrinthine paths.

When we consider the variety and efficacy of the means which
Providence uses for the dispersion of plants, the lightness of
many seeds, particularly of the lower cryptogamous plants, the
feathery or wing-like appendages of others, the constant agency
of the winds and currents, and the scarce less active interference
of the birds, the four-footed animals, and man, we cannot
wonder that, wherever vegetation can possibly exist, it should
take possession of the naked soil. The process is more rapid
in the humid countries of the tropical zone, more tardy under
the chilling influence of the wintry north ; but in course of time
even the most desolate lava-fields, in the higher latitudes, hide
their black waves of rugged stone under a more friendly gar-
ment, for which they are originally indebted to the seed-bearing
winds.

First, lichens, mushrooms, mosses ; then, such thrifty herbs as
are content to feed upon nothing, have to prepare a scanty layer
of mould or humus for the reception of more pretentious guests.
Gradually some small stunted shrub makes its appearance here
and there in some peculiarly favoured spot, and, after all, re-
quires vast powers of endurance to maintain itself on the nig-
gard soil, exposed to the perpetual enmity of wind and
weather. This paves the way for a more vigorous and fortunate
race ; and as every year adds something to the vegetation on
the mountain's side, and opposes increasing obstacles to the
winds, the falling leaves and decaying herbage accumulate more
and more, until dwarfish trees first find a sufficiency of soil to root
upon, and finally the proud monarch of the forest spreads out
his powerful arms, and raises his majestic summit to the skies.

93

CHAPTER XIII.

MICROSCOPICAL PLANTS.

Uncertain Limits between the Animal and the Vegetable "World. — The simplest
Forms of Plants. — Protococci. — Oscillatorise. — Volvocinse. — Desmidiae. — Dia-
tomacese. — Their Importance in the Household of the Seas. — Their Geological
Agency.

THE limits between the vegetable and the animal world are
by no means so strictly denned as might be supposed when
merely considering the higher classes of both kingdoms. No
one can possibly doubt the vegetable nature of the tree which
he sees firmly rooted in the soil, or be inclined to reckon the
swift-winged bird among the plants ; but in the lowest and small-
est forms of organic life, spontaneous motion ceases to be the
distinctive character of animality. For the microscope has
taught us not merely that the spores of the algae, and many of
the minutest plants, possess a power of spontaneous movement,
but also that the instruments of motion, when these can be dis-
covered, are of the very same character in the plant as in many
of the lower animals, being little hair-like filaments, termed cilia
(from the Latin cilium, an eyelash), by w-ljose rhythmical
vibrations the body of which they form a part is propelled in
definite directions. The peculiar contractility of these cilia
cannot be accounted for in either case, any better than in the
other ; all we can say is, that it seems, in all probability, to de-
pend upon the continued vital activity of the living substance of
which these filaments are prolongations, and that this contractile
substance has a composition essentially the same in the plant as
in the animal. Thus, in the present state of our knowledge, it
is very difficult to lay down any definite line of demarcation
between the two kingdoms; the only character which appears
to establish a difference being that the simplest animals, like
the highest members of their class, depend for nutriment upon

94

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

organic compounds already formed, which they take, in some way
or other, into the interior of their body ; while the lowest plants,
in common with the highest, obtain their own alimentary matter
by absorption from the inorganic elements (water, carbonic acid,
ammonia, and various salts) on their exterior, and take in no
solid particles of any description. Judged by this criterion (the
only one which has any value in these days), the sponges, which
were formerly supposed to be plants, have been definitively
awarded to the animal kingdom ; while many minute organisa-
tions, which once figured among the ranks of the Protozoa, or
simplest animals, now find a more correct place among the
Protophyta, or lowest members of the vegetable world.

A cursory glance at a few of the most remarkable of these
minutest plants will give us some idea of the wonders evolved
by the process of life in spaces so small as to be invisible to the
naked eye, and show us that Divine power shines forth as
brilliantly in the myriads with which it peoples a single drop of
water as in the creation of worlds.

Among the simplest microscopical forms of vegetable life we

A Encysted ' still ' cell of Protococcus. B c D E P Divisions of encysted cells into two,
four, eight, and thirty-two. G Motile cells after their escape from the original cell.
H I K L Transformations of motile cells.

find the Protococci, globular cells surrounded by a gelatinous
envelope, and measuring scarce YoVo°f a ^ne ^n diameter, which

PROTOPHYT.E. 95

frequently spread themselves as a green slime over the surface
of ponds and ditches. Their multiplication by duplicate sub-
division is so rapid that, in spite of their minuteness, extensive
areas may be quickly covered, in circumstances favourable to
their growth, by the products of one primordial cell.

But the most remarkable passage in the life-history of the
Protococci is their alternation between a ( still ' and a f motile '
condition. A ( still' cell, consisting of a colourless matter,
through which green or red-coloured granules are more or less
uniformly diffused, forms, by repeated self-divisions, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32 new cells or segments, which are of a very different nature
from their inert parent, as they are provided with one or two
cilia whose rhythmical contractions propel them rapidly through
the water. For this reason they were formerly supposed to be
animalcules, and made to figure in treatises on natural history as
Monades, Astasiae, Uvellse, and under a variety of other names,
each change of form resulting from the development of their
growth being supposed to be a different genus of animal.

By the loss of their cilia, and the thickening of their envelope,
the f motile ' cells pass into the ( still ' form, and in this con-
dition they may be completely dried up, and remain in a state
of dormant vitality for many years. It is in this condition
that they are wafted about in atmospheric currents ; and being
brought down by the rain into pools and cisterns, they may
rapidly multiply and maintain themselves until the water is
dried up, or any other unfavourable circumstance occurs which
either kills them throughout or forces them to pass from the
active into the dormant condition.

The cysts of the animalcules, precipitated conjointly with them
by the rain, find, through their means, an abundant nourishment;
and thus a little world of animals and plants appears, as if by
magic, in the new formed waters. When the ponds dry up, then
the encysted and apparently lifeless animalcules, and the c still'
cells of the Protococci, rise on the wind into the atmospheric
ocean, all ready for a new precipitation, and the peopling of
some future pool.

The Oscillatorice, another tribe of microscopical plants, con-
sisting of continuous tubular filaments, formed by the elonga-
tion of their primordial cells, usually lying together in bundles
or in strata, and sometimes invested by gelatinous sheaths, are

96 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

chiefly remarkable by the peculiar animal-like movements which
they exhibit. If a piece of the stratum of an Oscillatoria be placed
in a vessel of water, and allowed to remain there for some
hours, its edge will first become fringed with filaments, radi-
ating as from a central point, with their tips outwards. These
filaments, by their constant oscillatory movements, are con-
tinually loosened from their hold on the stratum, cast into the
water, and at the same time propelled forward ; and as the oscil-
lation continues after the filament has left its nest, the little
swimmer gradually moves along, till it not only reaches the
edge of the vessel, but often, as if in the attempt to escape con-
finement, continues its voyage up the sides, till it is stopped by
dryness. Thus in a very short time a small piece of Oscilla-
toria will spread itself over a large vessel of water. This
rhythmical movement, impelling the filaments in an undeviating
onward movement, is evidently of a nature very different
from the truly spontaneous movements of animals, and must
be considered simply as the expression of certain vital changes
taking place in the interior of the cells.

The Oscillatoria3 are commonly of some shade of green, but
not unfrequently they are of a purplish hue, and sometimes so
dark as, when in mass, to seem nearly black. They frequently
form green scums on the surface of stagnant pools, but they
also occur in salt waters, and sometimes in such incredible quan-
tities that Professor Mayen once saw the ocean covered with
them over a space of seven hundred miles. The water swarmed
with small bodies of a stellar shape like snow flakes, which, on
being examined through the microscope, were found to consist
of bundles of Cscillatoria3.

Among the marvels of microscopic vegetation, the Volv ox
globator, or ( globe animalcule,' as it has been called, from a
false idea of its nature, holds a conspicuous rank on account
both of the animalcule-like activity of its movements, and of
the great beauty and regularity of its form. Attaining a dia-
meter of -gL- of an inch, it may be seen with the naked eye,
when the drop containing it is held up to the light, swimming
through the water which it inhabits. Its onward motion is
usually of a rolling kind, but it sometimes glides smoothly
along without turning on its axis ; whilst sometimes, again, it
rotates like a top, without changing its position, so that it might

TfiE DESMIDIACE.E. 97

easily be mistaken for a single animal. But the microscope,
the great revealer of hidden wonders, shows it to be of a
far different and far
more complicated na-
ture, as no less than
two or three thousand
minute green spots or
cells, often connected
by green threads, and
each enjoying its in-
dividual life, are here
united to a hollow
sphere. From each of
the spots proceed two
long cilia, so that the
entire surface is be-
set with these vibratile

Volvox Globator (much, magnified).

filaments, to whose

combined action its movements are due. Within the external
sphere there may generally be seen from two to twenty other
globes of darker colour, and of varying sizes. The smaller of
these are attached to the inner surface of the investing sphere,
and project from its cavity ; but the larger lie freely within, and
may often be observed to revolve by the agency of their own
ciliary filaments. After a time the original sphere, too narrow
to contain its growing progeny, is rent asunder, and the con-
tained spherules, swimming forth and speedily developing
themselves into the likeness of that within which they have
been formed, in their turn give birth to new colonies, the
parents of future generations.

Such is the wonderful history of the Volvox, whose countless
numbers frequently cover the surface of stagnant ponds and
ditches to the depth of several feet, in multitudes so dense that
the single spheres are hardly separated from each other by in-
tervals of three or four times their own diameter.

Another highly interesting form of minute vegetable life is
that of the Desmidiacece, simple cells generally independent of
each other, but sometimes joined together in linear series by
means of a gelatinous exsudation. The outer coat, which fre-
quently possesses an almost horny consistence, but does not

ii

98

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

include any mineral ingredient in its composition, is generally
divided by a sutural line into two equal halves, and often orna-

Desmidiacese.
A, Staurastrum vestitum ; B, S. aculeatum ; c, S. paradoxum ; D, E, S. brachiatum.

mented with spinous projections, presenting a very symmetrical
arrangement. These elegant little plants are fond of standing,
though not stagnant, water. Small shallow pools, that do not
dry up in summer, especially in open exposed situations, are
their most congenial homes. The larger and heavier species
commonly lie at the bottom, either spread out as a thin gela-
tinous substance, or collected into finger-like tufts. Other
species form a greenish or dirty cloud upon the stems and leaves
of other aquatic plants, where they serve as pasture-grounds for
Infusoria and other microscopic animals.

The Diatomacece are likewise simple vegetable cells encased

in a flinty envelope, consisting
of two valves, usually of the
most perfect symmetry, closely
applied to each other like the
valves of a mussel. The forms
of these minute organisms are
equally strange and beautiful,
exhibiting mathematical fi-
gures, circles, triangles, and
parallelograms, such as we find
in no other plants, while their
surface is often most elaborately sculptured and dotted with

THE DIATOMACE^E. 99

numerous apertures to admit the surrounding water into the
internal cell. Many species are always met with entirely free,
after the process of duplicative subdivision has once been com-
pleted; others remain adherent, forming stripes or bands or
spirals, or even plant-like structures of exquisite delicacy and
beauty, such as the Licmophora, or Fan-bearer, which is very
common .in April and May on the leaves of Algae, and is very
generally distributed round the British coasts, forming gela-
tinous masses of a clear brown colour on the plants it frequents.

The Diatomacea? are found in fresh water streams and pools,
but they chiefly abound in the ocean, no part of which is with-
out its share of this ever-springing vegetation. Within the
Atlantic circle, Dr. Hooker found them washed up in myriads by
the sea on to the f pack and bergs,' everywhere staining the ice
and snow of a pale ochreous brown. Floating masses of ice when
melted yielded them in countless millions, and the sounding-
lead constantly brought them up from depths that would have
engulphed Chimborazo.

The guano of the Chincha Islands contains innumerable
shells of Diatomacese, which the birds, through whose intestinal
canals they must have passed, drew forth with their prey out
of the abounding water ; and they are found in the dust which,
wafted from the Sahara by the hot breath of the desert, fre-
quently falls upon the decks of ships 300 miles from the African
coast.

The indestructible nature of their flinty coverings has also
served to perpetuate them from time immemorial. Man and
all the higher animals pass away, and scarcely a vestige of their
existence remains, but the Diatomacese build for eternity.
Without cessation their remains are deposited upon the bottom
of the sea ; without cessation they are raising submarine banks,
and filling up estuaries and channels. At first sight it may seem
a gross exaggeration to attribute so vast an agency to beings
so minute, but when we recollect how quickly they multiply by
division, and how their activity dates from the first dawn of
organic creation, their architectural powers no longer seem in-
credible. In forty-eight hours a single Diatomacea is able to
multiply to eight millions, and in four days to one hundred and
forty billions, when the silicious coverings of its enormous pro-
geny would already suffice to fill up a space of two cubic feet ;

H 2

100 THE HARMONIES OP NATURE.

no wonder then that, during the course of ages, these micro-
scopic plants have been able to form prodigious strata wherever
circumstances favoured their propagation.

Under the whole city of Kichmond in Virginia, and far
beyond its limits, over an area of unknown extent, they consti-
tute a stratum of eighteen feet in thickness ; and similar depo-
sits are found in the Island of Mauritius, in the province of Oran
in Algeria, in Bermuda, in the heaths of Luneburg in Hanover,
and numberless other localities, so that there is scarce a coun-
try on earth where their fossil remains have not left the traces
of their history in broad geological features. Nor are they of
less importance in the great household of living creation. In
the Antarctic Ocean, where there is a marked deficiency of
higher forms of vegetation, they supply the chief food of the
minor aquatic animals, which in their turn serve as prey to the
fishes and Cetaceans. And not only in the vast deserts of the
Polar Seas, but wherever they abundantly germ forth, under
the stones of mountain-streams or in shallow pools, or in
road-side ditches, they afford nourishment to an amazing multi-
tude of small creatures. It is not useless that their propagation
is so rapid, since enormous losses have constantly to be repaired,
and not in vain that they abound in the most inhospitable seas,
where but for them no sea bird would flap its wings and no dol-
phin dart through the desert waters.

101

CHAPTER XIV.

MICROSCOPICAL PROTOZOA.

Ehizopods and Foraminifera — Their Geological Importance — Luminousness of the
Sea — The Noctiluca miliaris — Polycystina — Infusoria — Vorticellse — Ophrydinse
— Eapid Multiplications of the Infusoria.

THE first traces of animal life, such as they dawn forth in the
Protozoa, are scarcely less interesting to the reflecting mind than
the study of its highest and most developed forms. They are
generally of a size so minute that the naked eye is either inca-
pable of discerning them, or unable to distinguish their several
parts; and one of the most splendid inventions of human inge-
nuity was necessary to make us acquainted with their existence.
As the astronomer at every improvement of the telescope
sees new worlds beam forth from yet more distant abysses of
space, thus, as the microscope increases in power, new forms of
hitherto invisible life reveal themselves to the zoologist in a
drop of water, in the sand of the sea, or in the dust wafted
together by the wind.

Armed with this marvel-
lous instrument, he has as it
were called forth an entirely
new creation out of nothing,
and discovered a little world
of animated beings, where to
his predecessors all seemed
blank and void.

As far as science has hither-
to ascertained, the Rhizo-
pods occupy the lowest grade Amceba.

in the scale of these primitive beings. They are partly naked,
partly enclosed in a shell, and owe their name to the filaments,

102

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

^

or feet, which they are constantly protruding either for loco-
motion or for the seizure of their food.

The naked Ehizopods consist of minute specks of a semi-
fluid, j elly-like, but
granular matter,
the particles of
which, when the
animal is in a state
of activity, are con-
tinually perform-
ing a circulatory
movement. This
substance, which

Showing the extemporaneous feet formed by evanescent pro- naS been termed
jections of the general plastic mass of the animal. ( -. , , , ,

naturalists, is so plastic that the filaments protruded from
the homogeneous mass, and again withdrawn into it, subdivide
into finer and still finer threads, and are capable of blending
with each other whenever they come into contact. Thus they
are able to cast a perfect network round their prey, and to
embed it in a living mucus until all its soluble parts have been
absorbed. They have no stomach, no mouth, no muscles, no
nerves, but each atom of their tiny composition is capable in
turn of seizing, of digesting, and of moving.

Other creatures excite our wonder by their complicated struc-
ture, these by the excessive simplicity of their organisation.

Between the families of the naked Khizopods and the shell-
clad Foraminifera there are groups of intermediate types, which
seemingly indicate the path of progress from the lower to the
higher forms of these simple creatures. Sometimes the shell
of the Foraminifera consists of only one chamber ; in most cases,
however, it contains a large number of cells, arranged in a vast
variety of forms. Sometimes the little animal protrudes its
filaments through a single aperture, sometimes through innu-
merable openings with which the shell is everywhere perforated ;
and when we consider that the diameter of these pores usually
ranges from 1 -3,000th to 1 -10,000th of an inch, we can form
some idea of the extreme delicacy of the foot-like threads to
which they afford a passage.

The elegance of shape of the Foraminifera is no less remark-

THE FORAMINIFERA. 103

able than their variety of form, which may well be called im-
mense, as no less than 2,400 living and fossil species have

A Forammiferi (Rotalia ornataj with its filaments extended.

already been distinguished by naturalists. Here we see a group
resembling exquisitely moulded flasks, or amphorae, with
beautifully fluted sides ; there another alternately dilating and
expanding like a string of chiselled beads ; whilst others again
exhibit the graceful spiral of the nautilus.

One of their most striking features is their marvellous minute-
ness. Janus Plancus, who first discovered them in the strand
of Rimini, in the year 1731, counted about 6,000 of their shells
in a single ounce of drift-sand ; and Professor Schultze, of
Bonn, found no less than a million and a half in the same
quantity of pulverised quartz, from the shore of Mola di
Gaeta. The Globigerinse, which have been found in such vast
numbers in the bed of the Atlantic, are each about 1-5 Oth part
of an inch in diameter, and the linear dimensions of recent
British species are said by Professor Greene to vary from
1 -5,000th to 1-5 0,000th of an inch ! But the diminutive world
of the Foraminifera has also its giants, particularly among the
fossil species, such as the Nummulites, which occur in such

104 THE HARMONIES OP NATUKE.

prodigious numbers in the limestone of the Egyptian pyramids,
and whose flattened coin-like forms attain the comparative
colossal diameter of from two to three inches. All the Foramini-
fera are aquatic. Some are found in sweet water, others attached
to sea-weeds or zoophytes, but by far the larger number in the
sand or mud dredged up from the bottom of the sea. Here
they frequently occur in such incalculable myriads as to form
no less than half the bulk of the sand with which they are
mixed. Thus, along the whole Atlantic coast of the United
States, the plummet constantly brings up masses of foraminife-
rous shells, so that this vast extent of ocean-bottom, which itself
forms but a small part of the domains they occupy, is literally
covered with their living legions or their tenantless exuviae.
And as the present ocean contains them in countless multi-
tudes, thus have they swarmed in the waters of the primeval
seas from the first dawn of creation, and piled up the monu-
ments of their existence in vast strata of limestone. A great
part of the rocky belt from Riigen to the Danish isles, the
white chalk cliffs, which, beginning in England, extend
through France as far as southern Spain ; the limestone for-
mations of Greece and Turkey, whose importance, as natural
features of the country, is by some supposed to be indicated by
the names of Greta and Albania, are chiefly formed of the
shells of Foraminifera ; and a zone of Nummulite limestone,
frequently a thousand miles broad, and in many places of a
prodigious depth, may be traced from the Atlantic shores of
Europe and Africa, through Western Asia, up to North India
and China. So important is the part which these beings, in-
dividually so minute, have performed and still perform in the
geological annals of the globe.

The phosphorescence of the sea is one of the most charming
phenomena that Nature in all her wide range of beauty offers
to our admiring gaze. Who that has sojourned on the coast,
or traversed the fields of ocean and witnessed it in its full
splendour, can ever forget the deep impression made upon his
mind when he first saw the dark waves curl over in flashing
crests of light — when his vessel's bows ploughed up the waters
in silvery furrows, or the rising flood broke in sheets of flame,
or spangles of diamond brilliancy, on the glowing beach ! Well
may we be lost in wonder at so marvellous, so fairy-like a

THE NOCTILUCA MILIARIS. 105

spectacle — well may we be astonished at seeing the cold
waters changed as it were by a magician's wand into cradles
of fire ! But our admira-
tion increases when on
enquiry into the causes
of the gorgeous specta-
cle we learn that it is not
the result of inanimate
agencies, magnetic or
electrical, but that it
derives its origin from a
living source, and that
the Noctiluca miliaris,

a globular gelatinous Noctihica mmaris (much magnified).

animalcule, nearly re-
lated to the Rhizopods, is the chief illuminator of the seas !

This wonderful little creature is just large enough to be dis-
cerned by the naked eye when the water in which it may be
swimming is contained in a glass jar exposed to the light ;
and a tail-like appendage marked with transverse rings, which
serves as an instrument of locomotion, becomes apparent under
a slight magnifying power. Near the point of its implantation
in the body is a definite mouth leading into a large irregular
cavity, apparently channelled out in the jelly-like substance of
the body. The external coat is denser than the contained sar-
code, and the former sends thread-like prolongations through
the latter, so as to divide the entire body into irregular cham-
bers. ( The nature of its luminosity,' says Dr. Carpenter, f is
found by microscopic examination to be very peculiar, for what
appears to the eye to be a uniform glow, is resolvable under a
sufficient magnifying power into a multitude of evanescent scin-
tillations; and these are given forth. with increased intensity
whenever the body of the animal receives any mechanical
shock.'

To fill up the length of an inch it would require 170
Noctilucse ranged in a line, and millions could be con-
tained in a wine-glass. And yet in every zone they make the
wide surface of the nocturnal ocean glow and sparkle with an
elfish light.

Among the microscopic wonders of the ocean, the Polycystina,

106

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE

first discovered by Professor Ehrenberg, at Cuxhaven, on the
North Sea, occupy a conspicuous rank, both by their numbers
and their beauty and variety of form. The
sarcode body of these minute siliceous shells
extends itself like that of the Foraminifera
into foot-like prolongations, which pass through
the larger apertures by which they are per-
forated. It is a peculiar feature of these ele-
gant shells (whose delicate sculpture frequently
reminds the observer of the finest specimens
of the hollow ivory balls carved by the Chinese),
that they are usually surmounted by a number
of spine-like projections, very frequently having
a radiate disposition. Some have an oblong
shape, others a discoid form, from the circum-
ference of which the siliceous spines project at
regular intervals, so as to give them a star-
They are generally of smaller size than even
the Foraminifera, and appear to be almost as widely diffused,
as they have been brought up by the sounding-lead from the
bottom of the Atlantic and from the abysses of the Antarctic seas.
They also have largely contributed to the structure of the
earth-mud ; their siliceous deposits abound in the marls of Sicily
and Greece, and a large proportion of the rock that prevails
through an extensive district of the island of Barbadoes is chiefly
composed of their remains.

Polyuystma.

like aspect.

Stentor Roeselii (highly magnified).

The Infusoria, which owe their name to the circumstance of
their having been first discovered in artificial infusions of organic

THE INFUSOKIA.

107

substances, occupy the highest rank in the Protozoic world.
They are all exceedingly minute, but of various dimensions ;
the greater number being individually in visible to the naked eye,
while some, like the Stentor, attain the comparattvely large
size of l-30th of an inch. This beautiful creature resembles a
gelatinous trumpet, and is flexible and contractile in all direc-
tions, either while swimming about freely in the water, or while
attached, as it frequently is, to some foreign body by means of
a little sucking disk which terminates the pointed extremity of
the tail.

The various species of Infusoria exhibit a great diversity
of form — globular, oval, cylindrical, thread-like. Most of them
are free in their movements, some permanently attached to
stalks; by far the greater number are colourless and trans-
parent, while some have a yellowish, greenish, or reddish tinge.
Compared with the Pro-
tozoic families already
described, their higher
organic development is
chiefly exhibited by their
possession of a mouth and
rudimentary digestive or-
gan, while well-marked
cilia or hair-like append-
ages,disposed either along
the entire margin of the
body, as well as around the
oval aperture, or limited
to the immediate vicinity
of the mouth, serve them as instruments of prey and loco-
motion. During the life of the animal these cilia are in
almost constant action, their motion consisting of bends in
rapid succession from base to point, and of an immediate
return to the original position, not unlike the undulating
motion of a cornfield under the influence of the wind.

Thus currents or vortices are produced which enable their
tiny possessors to ingulf the still more tiny prey that comes with-
in reach of their irresistible whirlpools. The exceeding minute-
ness, as well as the rapid movements of the cilia, often make it
difficult to observe them, though, when invisible, their existence

Various Forms of Infusoria.
. Coleps hirtus. 3, 4. Trachelms anas. 5. Tra-

chelms ovum.
o, mouth ; a, outlet of alimentary canal.

108 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

may be frequently inferred from the agitation of minute
particles in the currents they produce. Simple as these organs
are, they harmonise beautifully with the wants of the little
creatures to whom they have been given; they are useful as
oars, as arms, as tentacles ; they hurry along the food with-
out further trouble to the mouth ; they serve also for respira-
tion, by bringing successive portions of water into contact with
the surface of the animal, and are indeed no less admirable in
their way than the elephant's proboscis or the chameleon's tongue.
Sometimes instead of a multitude of short cilia, as, for instance,
in Leucophrys patula, we find a small number of long slender
filaments, usually proceeding from the vicinity of
the mouth, while in other cases the filaments are
comparatively short, and have a bristle-like firm-
ness, and instead of being kept in vibration they
are moved by the contraction of the substance
to which their bases are attached, in such a man-
ner that the animalcule crawls by their means

Leucophrys °V6r a SOlid SUrfaCC.

patuia. Thus in this little world of animalcules, which

still contains so many unravelled secrets, we find almost all the

modes of movement of the
higher aquatic animals —
the darting of the fish, the
hop of the Daphnia, the
gyrations of the water-
beetle, and the tardy
creeping of the leech.

The bell-shaped Vor-
ticella, one of the largest,
is also one of the most
beautiful and interesting
of the Infusoria. In its
first youth it swims freely
about in the stagnant
waters, but at a later
period it attaches itself
™ by a long stalk (g) to the

b,c,d,e,f, exhibit the various steps of fissiparous leaves of dlick-weed Or

reproduction in this animalcule

the carapaces or shells of water-fleas or lacustrine snails, where

THE OPHRYDIN.E. 109

it frequently presents the appearance of a group of exquisite
microscopic flowers. The rim of the vase-like body is tipped
with a spiral of cilia, one end of the circling row descend-
ing a short distance down the side of the vase to a point
where the oral aperture of the creature is placed. When the
Vorticella is in search of food with its cilia in active vibration,
the stalk is fully extended, but at the slightest disturbance it
shrinks into close spiral folds so as to draw the little bell as far
as possible from danger.

The Ophrydinse, another family of Infusoria, are remarkable

for their being usually found embedded in a gelatinous mass of

greenish colour, which is

sometimes adherent, some-
times free, and may attain

the diameter of four or five

inches, presenting such a

strong general resemblance

to a mass of frog's spawn

, -i • , i nn Section of a portion of the periphery of Ophry

as to have been mistaken dram versatile,

fr»r <ann"h "From fl POTTl- showing the manner in which the individual animal-
cules are implanted in the mass.

parison of the dimensions

of the individual Ophrydia, each of which is about -J±Q of an
inch in length, with those of the composite masses, some
estimate may be formed of the number included in the latter,
for a cubic inch would contain nearly eight millions of them ;
and many times that number must exist in the larger masses,
even making allowance for the gelatinous cushion which enve-
lopes the individual animalcule.

In the water all these congregated animalcules are disposed
in close rows, something in the same manner as in Volvox. On
shaking the mass, many others show themselves within, between
the former, so as to form from three to five different ranks.
At first all the gelatinous cells appear to be connected with the
centre of the mass by filamentary prolongations, but these dis-
appear as they proceed internally, so that the middle of these
wonderful animated little globes seems to be hollow and full of
water.

The Infusoria are almost exclusively aquatic ; most of them
live in ponds, morasses, pools, wells, or cisterns ; many are
marine, but a few are found both in sweet and saltwater. Some

110 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

exist in moist earth, others lead a parasitic life, not only in the
stomach of frogs and earth-worms but even in the body of other
Infusoria.

Of all animals they enjoy the widest range of habitation, and
several of them may well be called cosmopolites, as they have
been found in the Arctic and Antarctic seas, on the coasts, and far
away on the ocean, on high mountains, and deep in the mines
of Freiberg in Saxony.

Their reproduction is effected sometimes by eggs or by bud-
ding, but generally by spontaneous division, either longitudi-
nally or in a transverse direction, and as this operation is
capable of being repeated every six or eight hours, we can
easily comprehend how the surface of clear stagnant waters may
in a short time be covered with a green mass consisting of
billions of Infusoria. When we consider that these minute
forms of life most probably witnessed the dawn of animal crea-
tion, our imagination can form no idea of the number of gene-
rations that must have succeeded each other from their first
appearance on earth to the present day ; but as only a few of
these are enclosed in a solid shell, their geological importance
is far inferior to that of the calcareous Foraminifera or of the
flint-cased Diatomacese and Desmidiacese.

One of the most wonderful passages in the life history of the
Infusoria is the encysting process which at certain times they
undergo, and which serves to preserve them under circumstances
which do not permit the continuance of their ordinary vital
activity. Previously to the formation of 1?he cyst, the move-
ments of the animal diminish in vigour and gradually cease
altogether ; its form becomes more rounded ; its oral aperture
closes, and its cilia are either lost or retracted. The surface of
the body then exudes a gelatinous excretion which hardens
around it so as to form a complete coffin-like case in which the
torpid animal remains embedded, until the fostering influences
of warmth and humidity again recall it to an active life.

Incalculable numbers of these encysted Infusoria are con-
stantly wafted about in the atmosphere or carried by the winds
from land to land ; and thus we can readily comprehend how
pure watery infusions, when exposed to the air, soon begin to
swarm with a little world of the minutest animals and plants.

The ubiquity and perfectly astounding numbers of the

IMPORTANCE OF THE PROTOZOA. Ill

Protozoa are sufficient proofs of their vast importance in the
household of nature. Along with the Diatoms^ the Desmidias,
and other microscopical forms of vegetation on which their own
existence depends, they evidently constitute the bases on which
the superstructure of all the higher orders of animal life reposes.
Hosts of Kotiferse, minute Crustaceans, Annelides and Acalephae,
feed upon their inexhaustible legions, and serve in their turn
to sustain animals of a larger and still larger size, until finally
Man is enabled to feast on the teeming abundance of the lakes,
the rivers, and the seas.

112

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTER XV.

SPONGES.

Their Animal Nature — Their remarkable Structure — Their Skeleton — Spicula
— Sensibility and Spontaneous Movements — Their Mode of Propagation — Their
Importance in the Household of the Seas.

THE Sponges, which were formerly supposed to belong to the
world of plants, have been proved by modern researches to
form a peculiar group of Protozoa. Attached to a solid base,
they revel like the polyps in every variety of shape and tint,
imitate like them every form of vegetation, and adorn like them
the submarine grounds with their fantastic shrubberies. More
than sixty different species have been discovered in the British
waters alone, and as they go on, increasing in number and
beauty until they attain their highest development along the
shores of the Tropical Ocean, they no doubt hold a conspicuous
rank among the living wonders of the sea.

The first object that strikes
us in their organisation is
their skeleton, which is usually
composed of an irregular net-
work of tough horny fibres, so
arranged as to form a complex
aggregation of canals, the
flexibility of the fibres differ-
ing in different species of
sponge. Generally this fibrous
mass is interwoven with nu-
merous mineral spicules, which
serve to strengthen the fabric
Portion of a Sponge (Haiichondna) with and in some species entirely

spicules projecting from the fibrous -• ji r .ci i.i_

network. replace the horny fibre, though

they are still so arranged as to preserve the reticulated

SPICULA OF SPONGES.

113

character. These spicules are of a wonderful variety and elegance
of form, for their shapes are not only strictly determinate for
each species of sponge, but each part of the sponge, it is believed,
has spicula of a character peculiar to itself. Sometimes they
are pointed at both ends, sometimes at one only, or one or both
ends may be furnished with a head like that of a pin, or may
carry three or more diverging points, which sometimes curve
back so as to form hooks. Sometimes they are triradiate, some-
times stellar, in some cases smooth, in others beset with smaller
spinous projections like the lance of the saw-fish. As they are
generally composed of flint, it may well be imagined that our
household sponge entirely owes its value to their absence in
its highly flexible structure. The sponge-skeleton is covered
externally and along the internal surfaces of the canals with a
gelatinous or slimy substance, similar to that which constitutes
the body of the Rhizopod, and which, seemingly inert and unor-
ganised, is yet the seat of whatever life the sponge contains. It
is by this slime, which may be pressed out with the finger, that
the net-work is deposited, and from it the whole growth of
the mass proceeds.

On examining a sponge, the holes with which the substance
is everywhere pierced may be seen to be of two kinds: one
of larger size than the rest, few in number, and opening into
wide channels and tunnels which pierce the sponge through

Kalina papillaris.

Currents passing inwards through the pores (a.a), traversing the internal canals (6), and
escaping by the larger vents (c.d).

its centre; the other minute, extremely numerous, covering
the wide surface, and communicating with the innumerable
branching passages which make up the body of the skeleton.

114 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Through the smaller openings or pores the circumambient water
freely enters the body of the sponge, passes through the smaller
canals, and ultimately reaching the larger set of vessels, is
evolved through the larger apertures or oscula. Thus by a still
mysterious agency (for the presence of cilia has as yet been
detected but in one genus of full-grown marine sponges), a
constant circulation is kept up, providing the sponge with
nourishing particles and oxygen, and enabling its system of
channels to perform the functions both of an alimentary tube
and a respiratory apparatus.

Dr. Grant describes in glowing terms his first discovery of
this highly interesting phenomenon. 'Having put a small
branch of sponge with some sea-water into a watch-glass, in
order to examine it with the microscope, and bringing one of
the apertures on the side of the sponge fully into view, I beheld
for the first time the spectacle of this living fountain vomiting
forth from a circular cavity an impetuous torrent of liquid
matter, and hurling along, in rapid succession, opaque masses,
which it strewed everywhere around. The beauty and novelty
of such a scene in the animal kingdom long arrested my atten-
tion, but after twenty-five minutes of constant observation, I
was obliged to withdraw my eye from fatigue, without having
seen the torrent for one instant change its direction, or diminish
in the slightest degree the rapidity of its course.'

Subsequent observations have proved that the living sponge
has the power of opening and closing at pleasure its oscula,
which are capable of acting independently of each other,
thus fully establishing the animal nature of these simple organ-
isations, in whom latterly even traces of sensibility have been
detected, such as one would hardly expect to meet with in a
sponge. For these creatures, as we are entitled to call them, are
able to protrude from their oscula the gelatinous membrane which
clothes their channels, and on touching these protruded parts
with a needle, they were seen by Mr. Gosse to shrink immedi-
ately , — a proof that the sponge, however low it may rank in the
animal world, is yet far from being so totally inert or lifeless
as was formerly imagined.

The propagation of the sponges is provided for in a no less
wonderful manner than their respiration and nourishment.
Their young eggs or sporules germinate on the sides of the

PROPAGATION OF SPONGES. 115

canals, forming innumerable minute bud-like points. These, as
they increase in size, are gradually clothed with vibratile cilia,
and finally detaching themselves are cast out through the
oscula into the world of waters. Here their wanderings con-
tinue for a short time, until, if they be not devoured on the
way, they reach some rock or submarine body, on which, tired
of their brief erratic existence, they fix themselves for ever,
and bidding adieu to all further rambles, lead henceforth the
quiet sedentary life of their parents.

In this manner the sponges, which otherwise would have been
confined to narrow limits, spread like a living carpet over the
bottom of the seas, and in spite of their being utterly defence-
less maintain their existence from age to age. At the same time
they serve to feed a vast number of other marine animals, for
the waters frequently swarm with their eggs, and these afford
many a welcome repast to myriads of sessile shells, worms,
polyps, and other creatures small or abstemious enough to be
satisfied with feasting on atoms.

i 2

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTER XVI.

SEA-ANEMONES AND LITHOPHYTES.

Submarine Gardens. — Internal Structure of the Sea-anemones. — Tentacles. —
Urticating Organs. — Their Remarkable Tenacity of Life. — Their Modes of
Locomotion. — Lithophy tes. — Social Republicans. — Coral-islands.

WHO has ever sojourned on a rocky coast, worn and hollowed by
the breakers of a thousand years, without admiring the crystal
tide-pools, those charming relics of the receding flood, so full of
all that can fascinate the naturalist, or enchant the poet. For
the calm and transparent waters of these miniature lakes harbour
a little world of animals and plants of such wonderful variety
and elegance of form that the eye never tires of gazing on their
loveliness, and the memory reckons them ever after among the
chief beauties of the beautiful ocean. There, bathed in liquid
crystal, delicate sea-weeds spread their graceful fronds, or clothe
the naked rock with a velvet carpet ; there annelides, and crusta-
ceans, and molluscs of all forms and colours, reposing, wander-
ing, darting, creeping, or swimming, enliven the ever-changing
scene, and there, not the least ornament of these fairy gardens,
the radiate Sea-anemones, emulating the daisies of the fields,
expand their lustrous disks.

Desirous of plucking one of these elegant flowers of the ocean,
you extend your hand, but at the slightest touch its beautiful
coronet begins to curl and pucker its margin, and to incurve it
in the form of a cup. If further annoyed, the rim of this cup
contracts more and more, until the animated blossom, now
transformed into a shrivelled shapeless mass, and receding all
the time from the rude assault, retires under the cover of its
rocky fortress, or clings with such tenacity to the stone to which
it is attached that you will sooner tear it to pieces than make
it forego its grasp.

THE SEA -ANEMONE. 117

This wonderful daisy of the waters, this flower-like creature,
which thus evidently reveals its true animal nature, is dis-
seminated over the ocean in numerous genera and species,
forming one of the families of the wide-spread class of the
polyps. In all the Sea-anemones we find an oval or oblong

Actinia Alcyonoidea.

mouth, leading into a sack-like stomachal cavity, and surrounded
by a crown of tentacles, sometimes resembling a Gorgon's head
of long thick worms clothed in satin and velvet, and sometimes
forming a dense thicket of slender filaments. The colours of
these wonderful organs are as various as their dimensions —
scarlet, green, azure, orange, or milk-white, — but their beauty
only appears when in the expanded state, for the contracted
sea-anemone is grey or brown like the stone to which it clings.
Veiling its beauty under this homely disguise, it no doubt escapes
many dangers, and the sand and shell-fragments that frequently
remain attached to its viscid body still further help to screen it
from its enemies. Its flowery disk spreading over a carpet of
algae, the Actinia, seemingly as insensible as the surrounding sea-
weeds, might well be taken for the image of harmless innocence ;
but woe to the nimble cyclops, or to the wandering annelide,

118

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

that comes within its reach, for, seized by its irresistible arms,
it is soon conveyed to the gaping mouth, ever ready to ingulf
it in a living tomb. Yet it is not by brute force alone that the
rapacious polyp thus overpowers its prey, but by means of those
remarkable * thread, or urticating cells ' which have been given
to many others of the humbler submarine animals, but chiefly to
the polyps and acalephas, and, like the stings of the nettle or
the poison-fangs of the viper, not only wound but paralyse
resistance by a venomous secretion.

These urticating organs, which are disseminated in multitudes
over the tips of the tentacles, are composed of a delicate mem-
branous sac (a), enclosing a
much thicker one (b), which
is open at one extremity, the
aperture being stopped by the
end of a more or less irregular
short stiff sheath (c) some-
times giving attachment to
several distinct rays or spines
(cT) applied together, which is
fixed to the edges of the aper-
ture, and occupies the axis of
the inner sac. To the ex-
tremity of this sheath a long
frequently toothed filament (e)
is attached, and lies coiled up
round the central sheath, and
in close contact with the walls

of the sac. The latter are very elastic, and seem to be tensely
stretched by the conta'ned fluid during life, for on pressure the
sac suddenly bursts, and its contents are evacuated so rapidly as
hardly to allow of the process being traced. The violent protu-
sion of the serrated filament, accompanied by an acrid secretion,
causes many a worm or crustacean of equal or superior strength,
that might have gone forth as victor from the struggle for life,
to succumb to the insidious Actinia, and is even in many cases
exceedingly irritating to the human skin. Besides enabling
its possessor to derive his subsistence from animals whose
activity, as compared with his own, might be supposed to have
removed them altogether out of the reach of danger, these stings

VITALITY OF THE SEA-ANEMONE. 119

serve also as admirable weapons of defence, and many a rapacious
Eolide that would willingly have feasted upon a Sea-anemone is
repelled by the acrid properties of its urticating tentacles.

But even when in the power of an enemy, who does not
fear the poison of its sting, the Sea-anemone frequently owes
its preservation to its uncommon tenacity of life. Dip it into
water warm enough to raise blisters on the skin, or expose it
to the frost of winter, or place it under the exhausted bell of
an air-pump, and its powerful vital principle will triumph over
all these ordeals. Cut off the tentacles, and new ones sprout
forth ; nay, divide the animal in two, and, like the Lernsean
hydra, it will produce a reduplication of itself. Possessing such
wonderful powers of reproduction, the Sea-anemone may thus
be cruelly maimed or torn by tooth or claw, and yet repair its
losses and survive.

When desirous to wander, the Sea-anemones have several modes
of locomotion. Relaxing the tenacious grasp of their muscular
stalk, they glide slowly along ; or, turning themselves upside
down, they make use of their tentacles as feet ; or, inflating their
body with water, they diminish its specific weight, and allow
themselves to be drifted along by the current, until, tired of
exercise, they again fix themselves to some convenient spot.

The Actinias can neither hear nor see, for, as they are capable
of but slow progression, the possession of the higher senses
would have been of no use to avoid pursuit, or to capture a prey
which the sea brings to their mouth without the least exertion on
their part ; it would have been a torment, not a gift. The sense
of touch, which is principally concentrated in their tentacles, is
amply sufficient for the limited sphere of their existence; and thus
the organisation of the Actinia is as perfect in its way as that
of any of the higher animals, for each part and each faculty har-
monises with the whole, nor can we doubt that, where this har-
mony exists, even the humblest life has its share of enjoyment.

In spite of their numbers and their wide dispersion over the
seas, the simple or solitary Actinias form but a small part of
the world of polyps, which chiefly consist of aggregated or
compound animals, attached to one another by lateral append-
ages, or by their posterior extremity, and participatiDg in a
common life, while at the same time each member of the family
enjoys its independent and individual existence. But few of

ll'O

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

these compound polyps are at liberty to swim about in the sea,
as for instance the Pennatulae, or Sea Pens ; but few, like the

Alcyonians, are of a spongy
or cork-like nature, cover-
ing submarine bodies with
shapeless masses. The
majority, like the Ked
Coral of the Mediterranean,
consist of a living and
soft rind, enveloping a
solid calcareous axis, or,
like the reef- building
Lithophytes of the tropical
seas, form populous colo-
nies inhabiting cells, dis-
tributed over the surface
of stony polyparies.

The individual animals
of these social republics are
far inferior in size to the Sea-anemone, but their communities

Peunatula Grisea.

Alcyonidium

(a) Branch to which the polypary is fixed ; (6) foot ; c trunk ; (d) polype bearing branches ;
(e) polyps contracted within the foot.

frequently occupy a much larger space, so as to attain a diameter
or height of many feet. Like the plants which they frequently

THE PENNATUL.E.

121

resemble in outward appearance, these stone-corals grow by
germination, so that each polypary consists of a series of gene-
rations, constantly increasing and multiplying without ever
separating from the parent stock. A necessary consequence of
this mode of propagation is the intimate union of all the mem-
bers of these vast communities. Each polyp has its

own

Red Coral (Gorgonia Nobilis). A small detached portion magnified.

tentacles, mouth, and stomach ; each is capable of shrinking
within its cell, or of seizing its prey; but here its individuality
ceases, as it communicates by membranes and vessels with its
neighbours, and the juices which it elaborates are -made to con-
tribute to the nutrition of the whole community.

Thus we see in these humble associations the realisation of
an Utopian republic, in which all the citizens have their equal
share of the common property, and all equally labour for the

122 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

welfare of the state. Linked together by an indissoluble chain,
five millions of individuals live together in peace and harmony
in one single porite of ten feet diameter — a condition of tran-
quillity and ease which, no doubt, would soon give way to the
utmost anarchy if the tiny republicans were suddenly endowed
with human power of locomotion and human passions.

Only the outer rind or superficial structure of the larger
corals is alive, for as the progress of growth piles new genera-
tions and new layers of chalk over their heads, the older polyps,
cut off from the sources of supply, and suffocated, as it were, by
their children, inevitably perish. But the skeleton, which they
secreted during life, remains as an indestructible record of their
existence, for while, with rare exceptions, the bones of the higher
animals vanish after a few years from the surface of the earth,
leaving no trace behind, the stone polyp, firmly rooted to the
spot which it occupied while alive, mocks the lapse of centuries,
and seems to bid defiance to all time. The coral-reefs of the
primitive world form a conspicuous portion of the earth-rind,
and as they are frequently situated in the depths of continents,
or beyond the limits of the polar circle, lead us back to times
when the tides broke against the mountains of Switzerland, or
the shores of Spitsbergen were washed by a tepid sea.

The most ancient monuments erected by man to mark his
transient passage on earth — the pyramids of Egypt or the
temples of Meroe — do not reach perhaps beyond fifty or sixty
centuries; but here we have ramparts, to which the great wall of
China is a pigmy, erected at periods separated from the present
times by an incalculable series of ages.

On submarine cliffs in the warmer seas, where the tempe-
rature of the water never sinks below 60° Fahr., the reef-build-
ing corals rear their wonderful palaces of stone. The depth to
which they can live does not exceed twenty or thirty fathoms ;
but as large areas of the sea-bottom on which they grow are
gradually subsiding, while their growth is at the same time con-
stantly tending upwards to the level of the lowest ebb, their
structures may in many places rise from vertical depths of
many hundred feet. The coral-reefs thus raised in the course
of ages by these minute and individually so puny architects
are frequently of truly colossal dimensions, stretch for hundreds
of miles along the coasts, fringe or encircle whole islands or

CORAL-ISLANDS. 123

groups of islands, or form immense rings or annular break-
waters round an interior lake originally occupied by land, which
the gradual subsidence of the bottom has long since whelmed
under the waters.

As living coral-reefs do not grow above low-water mark, it
may well be asked how habitable islands, of which there are a
large number dispersed over the Pacific and Indian seas, can
form upon their crests. The breakers are here the agents of
construction. They rend fragments and blocks from the outer
border of the reef, and throw them upon the surface, corals
and shells being pulverised by their crushing grinding power,
and gradually consolidated into a compact mass. In this
manner the pile rises higher and higher, till at last even the
spring tides can no longer wash over it into the tranquillagoon
on the border of which the fine coral-sand accumulates undis-
turbed. The seeds which the ocean-currents carry with them
from distant continents find here a congenial soil, and begin to
deck the white chalk with an emerald carpet. Trees drifting
from the primeval forest, where they have been uprooted by the
swelling of the river on whose banks they grew, are also con-
veyed by the same agency to the coral shore, and bring along
with them small animals — insects or lizards — as its first in-
habitants.

Before the screw-pine raises its streaming tufts, or the stately
palm waves its broad feathery fronds, sea-birds assemble on
this new resting-place, and land-birds, driven by storms from
their usual haunts, enjoy the shade of the rising shrubbery.
At last, after vegetation has completed its work, man appears
on the scene, and calls himself the sovereign of this little
world.

Thus these wonderful coral-islands, with their plants and
animals, are the product of numerous agencies acting indepen-
dently of each other, and yet all directed to one common end.
The peculiar organisation of the reef-building polyps, the heav-
ing force of the breakers, the ocean-currents conveying seeds
and germs from vast distances over the surface of the sea, the
peculiar formation of the fruits of the cocoa and the screw-
pine, which enables them to remain steeped for a long time in
salt water and to perform immense sea voyages without losing
their germinating power, — all were necessarv either to raise

124 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

the coral-islands above the level of the waters, or to transform
them from naked cliffs into tropical gardens. Here surely
blind chance has not been at work, but the ineffable wisdom
of an Almighty Crod.

If these gems of the ocean required but a few hours for
their formation, if we could see them suddenly emerge from
the waves, and the white rocks rapidly cover themselves with
verdure, and the colonies of sea-birds hasten to their new
homes, and man erect his dwellings on these magic isles, — then
indeed our astonishment would know no bounds, and we should
look down with pity upon him who would attribute them to a for-
tuitous concurrence of physical causes : but are the coral-islands
less wonderful, or do they less clearly proclaim the glory of their
Maker, because centuries on centuries were necessary to raise
and to adorn them ?

125

CHAPTER XVII.

ACALEPH^E OR JELLY-FISHES.

Medusae and Khizostomata. — Their Internal Structure. — Their Mode of Progression.
— Alternation of Generations. — Ciliograde Jelly-fishes. — Their wonderful Fish-
ing Apparatus. — Diphyes. — Agalma. — Physalus. — Velella. — Importance of the
Acalephse in the Economy of the Ocean.

NOT less admirable than the coral- myriads which pave the
bottom of the ocean with petrified gardens and animated flower-
beds, are the soft crystalline hosts of the AcalephaB or Jelly-
fishes, whose incredible numbers excite the astonishment of the
mariner when for days together he steers through their in-
numerable shoals. The variety and singularity of their forms,
the brilliancy of colour which makes many of them true gems
of the ocean, their remarkable structure and wonderful trans-
formations, all contribute to delight the spectator, and to raise
the interest of the naturalist.

When walking on the beach we chance to see a Jelly-fish
abandoned by the retreating flood, we can hardly imagine
how this disgusting gelatinous mass can ever have had claims
to beauty ; but this collapsed and formless wreck was elegant
and handsome while it moved along in its own native ele-
ment, and its organisation shows no less the wisdom of the
Creator than the more complex though not more perfect struc-
ture of the higher stages of animal existence.

A soft gelatinous transparent or translucent body, without
a calcareous skeleton or intestinal duct, and whose parts, divi-
sible by four, are mostly ranged in a radiate manner round a
centre, is the common character of all the Acalepha? ; but their
chief divisions or groups — bell-shaped, ribbed, or tubular — show
such remarkable differences in their external forms and inter-
nal structures that it is hardly possible to comprise them in one

126

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

description. The Discophora are distinguished by a watch-glass
or bell-shaped body, generally pellucid, from the lower surface
of which various processes and filaments depend ; but there are
very many modifications in the structure of the various species.
The Medusae, for instance, are provided with a large central
mouth, leading directly into the stomach, and surrounded
by four brachial appendages, while numerous slender fibres or
tentacula hang from the border of the umbrella-shaped disk.

The Khizostomata, on the
other hand, have no tenta-
cles round the margin of the
disk, but are furnished with
eight arms in the centre pro-
ceeding from a common stalk,
and instead of a central oral
opening, we find here each
arm traversed by channels
(c), leading to the digestive
cavity (a), and dividing into
numerous branches with nar-
row openings at the lower ex-
tremity (d). Through these
minute apertures nourish-
ment is received, which

consequently must consist of very small animals indeed.
On injecting milk into the oral cavity of the Discophora,
vessels symmetrically arranged in a radiate manner, and
divisible by four, become apparent, which, proceeding to
the margin of the disk, there terminate in a circular vessel,
which is supposed to be a respiratory organ. Small reddish
or brownish eyes and tiny vesicles containing a limpid fluid
and chalky otolithes arranged along the margin of the disk, com-
municate the impressions of light and sound, and the sudden
retraction of their tentacles when seizing their prey sufficiently
proves them to be possessed of a high degree of sensitiveness.

Thus on a closer examination we find that the despised sea-
blubbers, from which even a naturalist like Reaumur turned
with contempt as from mere lumps of animated jelly, possess
in reality a highly interesting organisation, and our admiration
increases when we find that creatures endowed with con-

Rhizostoma.

FORMATION OF THE MEDUS.E. 127

siderable powers of perception, and some strength and agility,
are formed but of a few delicate tissues filled with a fluid to
all appearance not very different from sea water, and shrink-
ing to a mere nothing when deprived of their vital power.
Thus of a Medusa or Rhizostoma weighing from twenty to
thirty pounds but few traces remain after death, the ground
is covered with a light varnish, all the rest has been absorbed
by the thirsty sands.

The motion of the Discophora is performed by alternate con-
tractions and expansions of the umbrella, repeated at regular
intervals, something like the movement of the lungs in respira-
tion, each contraction forcibly expelling a jet of water, which,
impinging on the surrounding fluid, causes a reaction, through
which the animal is forced forward with a jerk in the opposite
direction. By contracting the whole or only part of its disk,
the Medusa has it in its power to direct its movements, and
while thus swimming along with the convex end of the um-
brella directed forwards, and its fimbriated vessels and tentacula
streaming behind, it may well rank among the most elegant
children of the sea. Nor are its long thread-like tentacles mere
accessorial ornaments or innocent organs of touch, for they are
generally armed with the same ' urticating organs ' which render
the Actinias and many other polyps formidable to the smaller
sea- animals, and after having thus paralysed resistance, are
admirably adapted for curling round their prey, and conveying
it by their retraction to the mouth.

But the most remarkable passage in the history of the Disco-
phora is the wonderful alternation of their generations. The
Medusa first gives birth to a multitude of minute gelatinous
bodies, in shape not unlike the eggs of a sponge, or the spores
of one of the lower algse, and like them furnished with a mul-
titude of cilia, which by their motion propel the little body
through the water. When emitted, the bud is of an oval shape,
broader at one end ; and it constantly keeps its broader end in
advance when moving. Internally it presents a cavity, so that
it is in fact a little bag of living jelly clothed with vibratile
hairs. After a while the bud attaches itself by its larger ex-
tremity or apparent front to any convenient object, such as a
stone or the stalk of a sea-weed, and this extremity henceforth
becomes the base on which all its future operations are con-

128

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

ducted. The body lengthens and becomes wider upwards,
tentacles form round the mouth (A) and then new buds sprout

forth successively (B), which,
finally detaching themselves
from the parent stock(c), swim
about as perfect Medusae,
whose eggs in their turn are
destined to perform a similar
cycle of changes. Many ma-
rine animals, which, before
this wonderful alternation of
generations became known,
were reckoned among the
polyps, have now been found
out to be mere sessile forms
of AcalephaB, and future in-
vestigations will no doubt
considerably add to their
number, and point out the
nearest relationship or rather
the identity of many species,
still supposed to belong to
distinct orders of animated beings.

The ribbed orCiliograde Jelly-fishes are distinguished from the
Discophora by their external generally globular or egg-shaped
form, and by their internal structure
and peculiar mode of progression.
While the Discophora move along by
propelling a jet of water against the
surrounding liquid, locomotion is here
produced by innumerable flat plates or
little paddles, attached to longitudi-
nal equidistant bands or ribs which
divide the crystalline body into equal-
ly large segments or fields. When
the animal wishes to swim backwards
or forwards, it sets all its paddles in

motion, and glides rapidly and gracefully through the water
by their united power. When it wishes to turn, it merely
stops the movement of its paddles on one side. When these

Medusa Larvae.

Cydippe.

THE ACALEPILE.

129

delicate little oars are in activity, their crystalline surfaces
reflect the sunlight in brilliant prismatic colours, or flash in
the darkness with a beautiful blue light.

The fishing apparatus of many of the ciliograde acalephse
is no less elegant than their locomotive organs. It consists of
two exceedingly slender tentacles emerging from the under
part of the body, which, though five or six inches long when
fully extended, are capable of being wholly withdrawn within
the body of the creature, where they are lodged in tubular
sheaths. On one side they are provided at regular intervals
with shorter and much thinner filaments, which roll together
spirally when the chief tentacle contracts, and expand when
it is stretched forth. Each of them might be compared to an
angle-rod, as it is armed with those urticating darts that prove
so formidable to many of the lower marine animals. In those
species which are unprovided with tentacles, such as the beroe,
a widely-gaping mouth supplies their place.

The tubular acalephae differ very much from each other in
form, and are generally so strangely constructed that descrip-

Diphyes Campaiiulifera.

tion is as inadequate to give a clear idea of them, as painting
is to do justice to their crystalline transparency and beauty of
colour. Thus the diphyaB consist of two tubular pieces fitting
one within the other, and the stephanomia) or agalmas of a

Agalma Okenii.

long chain of cut diamonds, some vesicular, and others with
numerous appendages and tentacles. At the least shock the

K

130

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

members separate and float about on the surface, when in
course of time they most likely, like the polype, reproduce a
new commonwealth.

In the Physalus, or Portuguese man-of-war, the organ of
locomotion is a large air-filled vesicle or bladder, which for
the most part rises above the surface of the water, displaying
every shade of purple and azure. Numberless short sucking-
tubes and long tentacles hang in beautifully blue and violet

Physalus utriculus.

coloured locks or streamers from the lower surface of the body.
The tentacles can at pleasure be rolled together or extended
to the length of many feet, and woe to the unlucky fish or
cephalopod that comes within their reach, for, embracing the
doomed creature with the rapidity of lightning, they paralyse
all resistance by means of the venomous secretion of their urti-
cating organs.

In the Velella, locomotion is effected partly by the move-
ments of the numerous tentacles which hang down from the
inferior surface, but chiefly, perhaps,, by the action of the

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACALEPELE.

131

wind on the thin transparent crest, which rises vertically along
the back and catches the moving breeze. The disk from which
the tentacles hang, and the
crest, are supported internally
by a calcareous plate contain-
ing numerous cells filled with
air, which renders the whole
animal so buoyant that it
floats on the surface of the
water and is wafted along by
the winds.

The importance of the acale-
phse in the economy of the ocean
corresponds with their vast
numbers and their wide geogra-
phical range ; for though many
are confined to the waters of
the torrid zone, yet even the seas of Spitzbergen have been found
scintillating with vast shoals of the cydippe. They supply in a
great measure the food of the whale, and, converted into blub-
ber, attract the bold mariner to the Arctic seas ; innumerable
molluscs and crustaceans prey upon their inexhaustible legions,
and are in their turn devoured by the herrings, whose capture
is a source of abundance to whole nations of fishermen. Who
can count the millions which every moment destroys, and who
can think without admiration of those prodigal sources of life
which constantly fill up the void, and maintain their hosts
from age to age ?

Velella Septen.trion.alis.

K 2

13-2 . THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTEK XVIII.

ECHINODERMATA.

Primeval Sea-stars. — Feather-stars.— Snake-stars. — Star-fishes. — Their Suckers
and Mode of Locomotion. — Their Skeleton. — Their Victims and their Enemies. —
Sea-Urchins. — Structure of their Shell. — Their Dental Apparatus. — Pedicellarise,
or Sea-Cucumbers. — Metamorphoses of the Echinodermata.

AT that far-distant period of the earth's history when the
swampy lowlands were covered with those thickets of calamites
and stigmarias whose remains have given birth to the coal strata
of the present day, the bottom of the ocean was paved in many
places with crinoid star-fishes, whose bodies, branching out into
delicately feathered bifurcated arms, were affixed like flowers
to a slender articulated stalk.

Their petrified skeletons, imbedded in countless numbers in
many of the calcareous strata of our island, bear witness to their
ancient importance ; but the beautiful and antique race of these
Lily Encrinites and Pentacrinites is now reduced to but one
single representative in the British seas — the rosy feather-star,
whose long and delicately fringed ray, and deep rose colour
dotted with brown, may serve to give us an idea of the beauty
of the submarine landscapes at the time when the bottom of the
sea was peopled with gigantic specimens of the same class.
Attached in its infancy to a stalk like its mightier predecessors,
it swims freely about at a later period, by alternately contract-
ing and extending its closely-feathered arms. It is found all
round our coasts, and is frequently brought up in from ten to
twenty fathoms water, attached to different kinds of seaweed,
which it lays hold of by means of the claws which tip the fila-
ments that clothe its body.

Thus the crinoid star-fishes have mostly disappeared, but the
asteroidea, forming the two great subdivisions of the snake-

THE ASTEROJDE.E.

133

stars and star-fishes, that have usurped their place, abound in
the modern ocean, and frequently, like their 'predecessors of
old, cover the bottom of the sea with a living carpet.

The snake-stars are essentially distinguished
from the true star-fishes by the long serpent
or worm-like arms which are appended to
their round, depressed, urchin-like bodies.
They have no true suckers with which to
walk, their progression being effected (and
with great facility) by the twisting or wrig-
gling of their arms, which are, moreover, in
many species furnished with spines on the sides,
assisting locomotion over a flat surface. These
arms are very different from those of the true
star-fishes, as they are not lobes of the body as
in the latter, but mere processes attached or
superadded to the body. In the sand-stars
and brittle-stars they are simple ; but in the
Scotch Argus or Warted Euryale, of which
the adjoining woodcut represents a segment,
each of the five rays is branched again and
again, so that the whole resembles a bunch of
serpents' tails. While swimming, this strange creature spreads
and stretches oat all its branches to their full length, but when
a desirable prey comes within their
reach, it suddenly contracts their
Grorgon coils and entraps its victim
as in the meshes of a net. "As the
expanded Argus measures about a foot
in diameter, it may well be supposed
that it is no contemptible enemy for
the small fishes it may meet with on
its way.

The brittleness of the snake-stars is
highly remarkable, for at the slightest
touch they separate themselves into
pieces with wonderful quickness and

Warted Euryale.

ease. Touch the common brittle-star,

and it flings away an arm ; hold it, and in a moment not a

process remains attached to the body. ' The common brittle

Sand-star.

134

THE HAEMONIES OF NATURE.

star,' says Edward Forbes, ( often congregates in great numbers
on the edges of scallop banks, and I have seen a large dredge
come up completely filled with them ; a most curious sight, for
when the dredge was emptied, these little creatures, writhing
with the strangest contortions, crept about in all directions,
often flinging their arms in broken pieces around them ; and
their snake-like and threatening attitudes were by no means
relished by the boatmen, who anxiously asked permission to
shovel them overboard, superstitiously remarking that "the
things wern't altogether right."' There can be no doubt that,
thanks to this facility of dismemberment, the brittle-stars disap-
point many a hungry foe of at least part of his meal, and wriggle
out of his reach while he feasts on one of their cast-off arms.

The locomotive appara-
tus of the true star-fishes
is of a much more compli-
cated structure than that
of the snake-star; for as
they are born not to swim,
but slowly to creep along
upon the bottom of the sea,
the grooved under-surface
of their arms is provided
with two or four rows of
small worm-like suckers,
which, alternately extend-
ing and contracting, serve
to drag the body after
them. The strength and
activity of these little or-
gans afford an entertain-
ing spectacle when a star-
fish is placed on its back
in a plate filled with sea-
water. At first the crea-
ture remains motionless ;

fo^ offended by the rough

treatment it has undergone, the feet have all shrunk into
the body, leaving nothing visible but a series of minute tuber-
cles, but soon they are seen to emerge like so many little worms

Tnferior view of Astenas Rubens,

At A part of the feet is removed. « mouth, c spines.

ORGANISM OF THE STAR-FISH. 135

from their hole, and to grope backwards and forwards through the
water, evidently seeking the nearest ground to lay hold of. Those
that reach it first, immediately affix their suckers, and, by con-
tracting, draw a portion of their body after them, so as to enable
others to attach themselves, until, pulley being added to
pulley, their united power is sufficient to restore the star-fish to
its natural position.

This act of volition is surely remarkable enough in an animal
which hardly possesses the rudiments of a nervous system, but
the simple mechanism by which the suckers are put into motion
is still more wonderful. Each of these little organs is tubular,
and connected with a globular vesicle filled with an -aqueous
fluid, and contained within the body of the star-fish, immedi-
ately beneath the hole from which the sucker issues. When
the animal wishes to protrude its feet, each vesicle forcibly con-
tracts, and propelling the fluid into the corresponding sucker,
causes its extension ; and when it desires to withdraw" them, a
contraction of the suckers draws back the fluid into the expand-
ing vesicles. All these little bladder-like cavities are connected

Section of a ray of Asterias Rubens,

Showing the arrangement of the calcareous pieces, a oblong calcareous plates united in the
median line, b smaller lateral plates.

with vessels, which communicate with a vascular circle surround-
ing the mouth ; while the internal walls, both of the suckers
and the system of communicating vessels, are furnished with
vibratory cilia, through whose agency a continual circulation of
the fluid they contain goes on within them, and serves to aerate
the blood.

Not only the suckers, but also the rays from which they pro-
ceed, are extremely flexible in every direction, for the skeleton
of a star-fish, or that part which remains when all the soft flesh
has been removed, is a wonderfully beautiful structure, consist-

136 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

ing of hundreds of nicely-fitted calcareous pieces arranged in a
regular pattern, perfectly symmetrical in all its parts ; so that
the supple animal finds no difficulty in making its way through
the crevices of a rocky shore, or in traversing the intricate tangles
in search of prey. The march of the sea-star is indeed but slow,
and hosts of little marine animals on which he would willingly
feed, no doubt escape his voracity, as they have been gifted with
a greater agility ; yet his table is richly furnished, for there are
hosts of molluscs that are not only more tardy than himself, but
even firmly rooted to the ground, and have nothing to oppose
to his attacks but the passive resistance of their closed valves.

This defence, however, is frequently of no avail, for star-fishes
are not unfrequently found feeding, on shell-fish, enfolding their
prey within their arms, and seeming to suck it out of its shell
with their mouths, pouting out the lobes of the stomach, which
they are able to project in the manner of a proboscis. Possibly
the stomach secretes an acrid and poisonous fluid, which, by
paralysing the shell-fish, opens the way to its soft and fleshy
parts. Thus the star-fish is a sworn enemy to oyster banks, and
consequently also an indirect enemy to man ; but fortunately he
himself is an object of pursuit to greedy crabs, cephalopods,
and fishes, who, however, are frequently at some pains to catch
him ; for it is no easy matter to detach him from the rock
to which he clings, and the spines which frequently cover his
coriaceous back are likewise no despicable means of passive
defence.

The sea-star might be called a flattened sea-urchin with
radiated lobe, and the sea-urchin a contracted or condensed sea-
star, so near is their relationship. Still there are notable dif-
ferences between them. Thus, in the sea-urchins, the digestive
organs form a tube with two openings, while in the sea-stars
they have but one single orifice. The mouth of the latter,
which may be so dilated as to admit large mollusca in their
entire shell, has only toothed processes projecting into its cavity,
but that of the sea-urchin is a masterpiece of mechanical con-
trivance. Fancy five triangular bones or jaws, each provided
with a long projecting moveable tooth. A complicated muscu-
lar system sets the whole machinery going, and enables the jaws
to play up and down, and across ; so that a more effective mill
for grinding down the food cannot well be conceived.

THE SEA-URCH1X. 137

The calcareous shell of the sea-urchin seems at first sight to
be composed of one simple crust, but proves on nearer inspec-
tion to be a beautiful piece of mosaic, consisting of several
hundred parts, mostly five-sided, transversely oblong, and dis-
posed in twenty vertical rays or columns. Ten of these are
narrower, and consist of smaller pieces, which are perforated
with holes for the feet or suckers ; they are thence termed ani-
bulacral : the other ten are broader, and consist of larger pieces.
The ten ambulacral columns are disposed in five pairs, with
which the ten larger columns, also disposed in pairs, alternate.
The number of plates in a row varies with the age of the ani-
mal, increasing as it grows older and larger. They are marked

Shell of Echinus, or Sea-Urchin.

on the outside with tubercles or knobs of various sizes, which
support the spines. The spines themselves have a cup-like
cavity at their base, which is connected with, and moves on, the
prominent tubercle. The pieces of which the shell is composed
are so closely united that their junctions are hardly visible, but
on allowing the shell to macerate for some days in fresh water,
it falls to pieces. This complicated structure is by no means a
mere architectural luxury, a useless exuberance of ornament,
but essentially necessary to the requirements of the animal's
growth. A simple hard crust would not have been capable of
distension, whereas a complicated shell, such as the sea-urchin
possesses, can grow in the same ratio as the internal parts, by
continual deposits on the edges of the individual pieces. On
closely examining a living sea-urchin, we find the whole surface

138 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

of the shell and spines covered with a delicate skin, which, in
spite of their close connexion, penetrates into the intervals of
the several pieces. This membrane secretes the chalk of which
the shell is composed, and deposits fresh layers on the edges of
the plates, so that in this manner the shell continually widens
until the animal has attained its perfect size. The spines are
secreted in the same manner by the soft integument which
effects their union with the shell at the circumference of their
articulation, and exhibit under the microscope an admirable
beauty and regularity of structure. So bountifully has the
Great Architect of worlds provided for the poor insignificant
sea-urchin !

Besides the spines there exist on his external surface multitudes
of exceedingly minute and* beautifully formed pincers, which as
long as the animal lives are in perpetual motion, bending about
from side to side, and opening and shutting their three-forked
apex continually. These most singular organs, which are also
found on IT, any of the star-fishes, (where,
however, they are simply forked like
the claws of a crab in miniature,) are
called by naturalists pedicellariae, and
were formerly regarded as parasitic
creatures; but from the accurate ob-
servations of Mr. Grosse, there can be
no doubt that, though their uses are still wholly unknown,
they are truly and essentially organic parts of the animal. Both
the suckers and the spines serve the sea-urchin as organs of
locomotion. With the former he firmly moors himself to the
ground, and with the latter some species are able even to en-
tomb themselves, pholas-like, in stone. Thus the Echinus
lividus inhabits circular cavities evidently formed by himself,
and so deep as to embrace two-thirds of his bulk. The burrow
is large enough to admit of the creature rising a little, but
not of its coming out easily. The echinus adheres so firmly
to this cavity by his suckers, as to be forced from it with extreme
difficulty when alive. On the coasts of the county of Clare thou-
sands may be seen lodged in the rock, their purple spines and
regular forms presenting a most beautiful appearance on the
bottoms of the grey limestone rock pools. How the boring is
performed has, like many other secrets of creation, not yet been

SEA-CUCUMBEKS. 139

settled by naturalists. The first perforation is most likely
effected by means of the teeth, and then the rock softened by
some secreted solvent.

On our coasts the common egg-urchin affords the poor a some-
what scanty repast, and throughout the Mediterranean its greater
size, and also that of its allies (Echinus melo, sardicus), render
them, when 'in egg,' conspicuous objects in the fish markets;
but as articles of food and trade they are far surpassed by the
holothurise, or sea-cucumbers, which are caught by millions,
and give employment to thousands of fishermen on the Indian
Ocean, or among the isle-clusters of the Pacific. These animals
may be regarded, in one light, as soft sea-urchins ; and, in an-
other, as approximating to the annelides or worms. Their
suckers are similar to those of the true star-fishes and sea-
urchins. Besides progression by means of these organs, they
move like annelides, by the extension and contraction of their
bodies. The mouth is surrounded by plumose tentacula, the
number of which is always a multiple of five. They all have
the power of changing their shapes in the strangest manner,
sometimes elongating themselves like worms, sometimes con-
tracting the middle of their bodies so as to give themselves the
shape of an hour-glass ; and then again puffing themselves up
with water so as to be perfectly globular. Under the influence
of terror they dismember themselves in the strangest manner.
Having no legs or arms to throw off, like their relations the
brittle-stars, they simply disgorge their viscera and manage to
live without a stomach, no doubt a much greater feat than if they
contrived to live without a head. The loss is, however, made up
in course of time by a wonderful power of regeneration, even if
the process of disgorgement was so complete as to leave but an
empty sack behind.

Nothing can be more curious than the developmental history
of the echinoderms, for here the embryonic mass is converted, not
into a larva, which subsequently attains the adult form by a
series of metamorphoses, but into a peculiar zooid9 which seems
to exist for no other purpose than to give origin to the
echinoderm by a kind of internal germination, and to carry it
to a distance by its active locomotive powers so as to prevent
the spots inhabited by the respective species from being over-
crowded by the accumulation of their progeny.

140 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

The larval zooids are formed upon a type quite different from
that which characterises the adults, for instead of a radial
symmetry they exhibit a bilateral, the two sides being precisely
alike, and each having a ciliated fringe along the greater part or
the whole of its length. Such are the changes they undergo in
the progress of their growth, that in the fully developed star-fish
and sea-urchin the only part retained is a portion of the stomach
and intestine, which is pinched off, so to speak, from that of the
larval zooid by the animal's forcible contractions.

Many of the details of this wonderful history are still unknown,
and undoubtedly belong to the most interesting secrets of the
life of the seas.

141

CHAPTEK XIX.

MOLLUSC A.

The Flustra or Sea-mats. — Avicularia. — Metamorphoses of the Flustra. — Salpae
and Ascidise. — Botrylli. — Pyrosomata. — Bivalve Shell-fish. — Free and Sessile.
— The Byssus. — The File of the Pholades. — Eespiration of the Bivalve Shell-
Fish. — Their Nourishment, — Snails. — Their Masticatory Apparatus. — Their
Cautious Habits. — Pteropods. — Conical Appendages of the Clio's Head. — Its
wonderful Dental Apparatus. — Cuttle-Fish. — Sucking-Disks. — The Onychoteu-
this. — Number and Importance of the Molluscs.

THE naked slug lazily crawling in damp weather over our
garden and forest-paths, the oyster firmly attached to the
bottom of the sea, the many-armed cuttle-fish rapidly darting
through the waters, and the ponderous whelk slowly dragging
along its heavy shell in the deeper waters beyond the recess of
the tide, are no doubt very dissimilar in their outward form and
in their mode of life; but on examining their internal structure
a close relationship becomes apparent, and thus they are all
comprised by naturalists under the vast class of the molluscs
which spreads in countless legions over the surface of the globe,
but chiefly inhabits the seas ; as of the living species, whose
number is estimated at 16,732, more than 10,000 are denizens
of the ocean.

The molluscs are distinguished from all other animals by the
following characters : — Their bodies are soft, but almost all of
them have a peculiar development of the skin which covers
their body like a mantle, and generally secretes a hard, inar-
ticulated, and consequently inflexible, calcareous or horny shell.
Their blood is white, flows from the heart to all parts of the
body, and finds its way back again to that organ after hav-
ing been refreshed either in lungs, or, more frequently, in a
branchial apparatus. Their muscles are attached to various
points of their skin, forming more or less dense and complex

142

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

tissues. The vegetative organs are very much developed, and
generally disposed in a curve, so that the mouth is proximate to
the opposite extremity of the intestinal canal. From the crus-
taceans and insects they are distinguished by the absence
of jointed feet, from the fishes by the absence of an internal
skeleton and spinal marrow. A view of the various subdivi-
sions of this great class, proceeding from the lowest to the
highest types of mollusc organisation, will show us that, though
generally weak and inert, they are all most admirably fitted out
for the battle of life.

While wandering on the beach we not seldom find, among the
relics of the retiring flood, pale-coloured leaf- like formations,
of a papery substance, which might be
mistaken for dried sea-weeds, blanched
by exposure to the air. But a narrower
inspection soon shows that the flustrae, or
sea-mats, as these marineproductions are
called, are of a much more complicated
structure than that of a simple alga,
as they are built up of innumerable little
oblong cells, placed back to back, like

those of a honeycomb ; and each crowned (as may readily be
seen with the help of a pocket lens) by four stout spines.

Before the stormy tide detached these foliaceous formations
from the bottom of the sea, and left them to perish on the shore,
each of these cells contained a living creature, whose mouth was
surrounded with a coronet of filiform and
ciliated tentacles, destined to produce a vortex
in the water, and thus to provide their tiny
owner with its food. The body was bent on
itself, somewhat like the letter V; the one
branch (a) being the mouth and throat, the
other (b) the rectum opening by an anus,
and the middle part (c) the stomach, probably
with some accessory organ. The tenant of
each cell, though enjoying an independent
existence, was linked at the same time by
a common circulation to the proprietors of
the cells above and below him, and thus the
whole formed a community of perhaps forty or fifty thousand

Leaf-like Sea Mat.

Flustra in its cell.
Highly magnified.

THE POLYZCLE. 143

individuals, similar to the social republics of the polyps.
But in spite of this apparent resemblance, the flustrse have a
far more developed organisation ; for besides the rudiments of
a nervous system, which directs the independent movements of
each individual, and establishes by connecting filaments the
unity of the colony, they possess a very complicated muscular
apparatus, a complete digestive canal, and when they draw back
their tentacles, they are able to close their little cells
a kind of moveable lid, which no doubt affords them, security
against a host of microscopical foes. When fresh, the whole
structure exhales an agreeable acid odour, somewhat like that
of the lemon-scented verbena or geranium, but less pure.

Besides the flustra?, the sea contains a great variety of allied
genera, some erected like them on short stalks (cellulariaB), while
others spread in concentric layers over sea-weeds or shells (lepra-
Iia3), and though appearing to the naked eye as rude and
unsightly scurfs, exhibit, when magnified, a wonderful diversity
and elegance of form. Other genera are tubular (tubuliporas),
others spongy (cellepora?). Generally the cellular extension is
unbroken, but sometimes (reteporaB) the leaf-like expansion is
pierced like net-work. Such is the exuberance of fancy dis-
played in the formation of the group of the polyzoa, as this
humblest subdivision of the great series of molluscous animals
has been named.

But a closer inspection reveals still greater wonders to the
marine microscopist, for most of the polyzoa, and particularly
the cellularise, possess very remarkable appendages or processes,
presenting the most striking resemblance to the head of a bird.
Each of these processes or <avicularia3 ' has two ( mandibles,' of
which one is fixed like the upper jaw of a bird, the other move-
able like its lower jaw ; the latter is opened and closed by two
?.ets of muscles, which are seen in the interior of the head, and
between them is a peculiar body, furnished with a pencil of
bristles which is probably a tactile organ, being brought forwards
when the mouth is open, so that the bristles project beyond
it, and being drawn back when the mandible closes. During
the life of the polyzoon, these tiny ( vulture-heads,' which are
either sessile or pedunculated, keep up a continual movement ;
and it is most amusing to see them see-sawing, and snapping
and opening their jaws, and then sometimes in their incessant

144

THE HARMONIES OF NATUKE.

activity even closing upon the beaks of their neighbours. No
one has yet divined the economy of these most singular organs,
but as several observers have noticed the seizure of small
roving animals by their pincer-like beaks, the conclusion is
pretty general that they are in some way connected with the
procuring of food.

But it seems to have been forgotten, not only that the ' avi-
culariae ' have no power of passing the prey thus seized to the

A Portion of a Cellularia magnified. B A bird's-head process, more highly magnified and seen in
the act of grasping another.

mouth, but also that the mouth is situated at the bottom of a
funnel of ciliated tentacles, and is calculated to receive only
such minute prey as is drawn within the ciliary vortex. Thus
they cannot possibly serve as immediate or direct purveyors of
food ; but Mr. Grosse explains to us, in a very satisfactory manner,
how the seizure of a passing animal, and the holding of it in
their tenacious grasp until it dies, may be the means of attract-
ing the proper prey to the vicinity of the mouth.

'The presence of decomposing animal substance in water,'
says this distinguished naturalist, f invariably attracts crowds of
infusory animalcules, which then breed with amazing rapidity
so as to form a cloud of living atoms around the decaying body,
quite visible in the aggregate to the unassisted eye ; and these

THE TUNICATED MOLLUSCS.

14-5

remain in the vicinity, playing round and round, until the or-
ganic matter is quite consumed. Now, a tiny annelide or other
animal, caught by the " bird's-head " of the polyzoa, and tightly
held, would presently die ; and though, in its own substance, it
would not yield any nutriment to the capturer, yet by becoming
the centre of a crowd of busy infusoria, multitudes of which
would constantly be drawn into the tentacular vortex and swal-
lowed, it would be ancillary to its support, and the organ in
question would thus play no unimportant part in the economy
of the animal.'

Besides the 'avicularise,' most of the polyzoa are furnished
with 'vibracula,' long bristle-shaped organs, each one springing
at its base out of a sort of cup that contains muscles by which
it is kept in almost constant motion, sweeping slowly and care-
fully over the surface of the polyzoary, and removing what
might be injurious to the delicate inhabitants of the cells when
their tentacles are protruded. So carefully have all the wants
of these humble creatures been provided for !

The nearest relations of the polyzoa
are the tunicated mollusca, so called
because their soft parts are enclosed,
not in a shell, like the majority of
the class, but in a tough leathery
coat or tunic. To this subdivision be-
long the various kinds of Ascidise, both
simple and compound, the Salpaa and
the Pyrosomas. The simple Ascidia?,
or sea-squirts, are sometimes found at-
tached to sea-weeds and stones in the
littoral zone, while others are fre-
quently thrown up from deeper water
on the beach. Some are of a large size,
several inches in length. Their outer
form is that of a bag with a smooth or
variously roughened semi-transparent
skin, furnished with two small open-
ings, from which, on the slightest pres-
sure, a jet of water is sent to a con-
siderable distance. These creatures lead a very inactive life.
Adhering by their base to rocks, shells, and other submarine

L

Ascidia Mammillata .

a branchial orifice, open, b anal

orifice, closed.

146

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

substances, they trust for nourishment to whatever small fry
are brought to their mouths by currents in the water. They have

not the elegance of form of the sea
anemones, but many are painted
with the most gaudy colours.

s If, when walking on the sea-
shore, about low -water mark,'
says Forbes in his History of
British Mollusca, 'we turn over
large stones, or look under pro-
jecting eaves of rock, we are
almost sure to see translucent
jelly-like masses of various hues
of orange, purple, yellow, blue,
grey, and green, sometimes nearly
uniform in tint, sometimes beau-
tifully variegated, and very fre-

B otryll us vioiaceus,highly magnified. J »\ •

a common test, bb some of the bronchial QUently pencilled as if with stars

orifices, c the common anal orifice of one

of the systems. ot gorgeous device ; now en-

crusting the surface of the rock, now descending from it
in icicle-like projections. These are compound Ascidians. A
tangle of broad-leaved fucus, torn from its rocky bed or gathered
on the sand, where the waves have cast it after storms, will show
us similar bodies, mostly those star-figured (botrylli), investing
its stalks, winding among the intricacies of its roots, or clothing
with a glairy coat the expanse of its foliated extremities. In
examining these bodies, we find that it is not a single animal
which lies before us, but a commonwealth of beings, bound to-
gether by common and vital ties. Each star is a family, each
group of stars a community. Individuals are linked together in
systems, systems combined into masses. Indeed, few bodies
among the forms of animal life exhibit such exquisite and
kaleidoscopic figures as those which we see displayed in the
combinations of the compound Ascidians.

Both in the solitary and compound Ascidians, the young
animal, when it first issues from the egg, has active powers of
locomotion, being provided with a large tadpole-like tail, by
the aid of which it is propelled through the water. Then the
tail disappears, and grasping fibres or roots spring from the
body, which gradually assumes the form and adopts the quiet

SALPJ3 AND SALPA-CHAINS.

147

life of the parent from which it sprung. It is thus, by giving
to the young animal a locomotive power which she denies to
the fully grown, that nature, in these and many other of the sta-
tionary marine animals, provides for the proper dispersion of the
species. Among more perfect animals, the old take care of the
young, and provide for them ; here we find the young possess
instincts and organs which they lose at an advanced period of
their life, when they would be no longer necessary, thus beauti-
fully balancing the wants and the means of satisfying them.

While the sessile Ascidise remind one of the polyps, the
transparent Salpse, freely swimming in the ocean, bear a great
resemblance to the pellucid jelly-fishes, or Medusae. Each

A. Salpa runcinata solitary. B. S. runcinata associate^, C. S. zonaria aggregated.

VD. S. maxima.

a posterior orifice, b anterior orifice, c abdomen, d branchial lamina, e heart. // pro-
longations of the test, by which the animal is adherent to its neighbour.

resembles a crystalline tube, through which one can distinctly
see the internal coloured parts. Sometimes these animals are
found solitary, at other times associated in circular or length
ened groups, termed garlands, ribands, and chains. The salpa-
chains, varying in length from a few inches to many feet, swim
through the tranquil water with a regular serpentine move-
ment, and are often regarded by sailors as sea-serpents ; but
when taken from the water, the individuals of the group are
easily detached. Thus, in consequence of accidents, separate
members of these chains are often met with in seas abounding
with these molluscs ; but other separate salpse are also met with
that have never been united to others, and differ considerably

L 2

148 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

in form from the associated ones. Yet, strange to say, these
solitary salpao are the young of salpse that have been chained,
and the progeny of these solitary ones will be chained salpse ;
consequently, as Chamisso, the first discoverer of this remark-
able alternation of generations, graphically observes, 'a salpa
mother is never like its daughter or its own mother, but
resembles its sister, its grand-daughter, and its grandmother.'

The tubular body of the salpae is open at both ends, the pos-
terior aperture being provided with a more or less perfect val-
vular apparatus, which can be opened or closed at pleasure.
They move slowly along by alternate expansions and contractions,
by admitting the water through the posterior aperture, and ex-
pelling it through the opposite orifice.

The Pyrosomes consist, like the compound Ascidians, of large
colonies of small individuals aggregated in the form of a cylin-
der open at one end. Their mouths or anterior extremities are
situated on the exterior of this hollow body, which they bristle
with large and longish tubercles, whilst the opposite or anal
orifices open into the cavity of the cylinder, whose smooth wall
they perforate with numerous small holes. By a simultaneous
action the central cavity is either narrowed or enlarged, and by
this means the strange social republic glides slowly through the
waters. They inhabit the Mediterranean, and the warmer
parts of the ocean. In the former, at times, their abundance is
a source of dread to the fishermen, sometimes even completely
clogging their nets ; and in certain oceanic regions they are met
with in almost incredible profusion. Their delicate and trans-
parent forms, their elegant tints, and their unrivalled phosphor-
escence render them the most beautiful of molluscs, and objects
of admiration to the naturalist and the voyager.

Mr. Bennett relates that, during a voyage to India, the ship,
proceeding at a rapid rate, continued during an entire night to
pass through distinct but extensive fields of these molluscs,
floating, and glowing as they floated, on all sides of her course.
Enveloped in a flame of bright phosphorescent light, and
gleaming with a greenish lustre, the pyrosomes, seen at night
in vast shoals upwards of a mile in breadth, and stretching out
until lost in the distance, present a spectacle the glory of which
may be easily imagined.

( In the evening of the 13th Frimaire,' says M. Peron, who

THE PYBOSOME8. 149

first discovered and established the genus, ' we experienced one
of the strongest of the short-lived storms peculiar to the region
of calms in the Atlantic. The sky was on all sides loaded with
heavy clouds ; all around the obscurity was profound ; the wind
blew violently, and the ship cut her way with rapidity. Suddenly
we discovered at some distance a great phosphorescent band
stretched across the waves, and occupying an immense tract in
advance of the ship. Heightened by the surrounding circum-
stances, the effect of this spectacle was romantic, imposing, sub-
lime; ri vetting the attention of all on board. Soon we reached the
illuminated tract, and perceived that the prodigious brightness
was certainly and only attributable to the presence of an innumer-
able multitude of largish animals floating with the waves. From
their swimming at different depths, they took apparently different
forms ; those at the greatest depth were very indefinite, presenting
much the appearance of great masses of fire, or rather of enormous
reddish cannon-balls ; whilst those more distinctly seen near the
surface perfectly resembled incandescent cylinders of iron.'

The Conchifera, or the molluscs contained within a bivalve
shell, comprise the two groups or orders of the Brachiopoda and
the lamellibranchiate bivalves. The former, which are chiefly
fossil, occur only in a few genera in the present seas, and are
characterised by the two long fleshy ciliated and spiral arms
which they use for opening their shell. Their mantle is
organised so as to be serviceable for respiration, and the numer-
ous cilia with which their arms are covered produce the cur-
rents that both provide them with food and aerate their blood.
They generally live in the deeper seas,, either attached to other
bodies by a sinewy stalk proceeding from an orifice at their
apex, or fixed, like the oyster, by their shells.

The lamellibranchiate bivalves, which are spread in several
thousand species over all the seas from the poles to the equator,
play a far more important part than the brachiopods in the
present economy of nature. Every flood casts their empty shells
upon all the coasts of the ocean, and their shattered valves. are
almost as numerous as the sands which line its shores. Their
forms and their colours are as various as their modes of life, but
their structure is in every case exactly suited to their wants.

Those which, enjoying a free life, are capable of wandering
from place to place, or at least of changing their position,

150

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Common Cockle.

possess a more or less developed and variously-shaped muscular
foot, which they protrude at will from between the folds of
their mantle. By means of this organ many are able to dig
a hole or furrow in the sand, which enables them to baffle the
pursuit of many enemies, others to ad-
vance with a crawling movement or even
to make jumps along the sand. Thus
the common cockle stretches its foot (a)
out as far as possible, presses it against
the ground, springs up by suddenly con-
tracting it, and, by repeating the process
again and again, hops along at a pace one
would hardly expect to meet with in a
mollusc. In other genera, where the foot exists but in a small or
rudimentary form, the sudden opening and shutting of the valves
supplies its place as a means of locomotion. In this manner
the scallop, which inhabits deep places where it lies on a rocky

or shelly bottom, swims or
flies through the water with
great rapidity, and the file
or rasp -mussel, a closely-
related genus, principally
occurring in the Indian
Ocean, glides so swiftly
along that even a light-
footed pursuer is hardly
able to catch it. In several
of the sedentary genera,
the foot, useless as an organ
of locomotion, is reduced
to the functions of spin-
ning a long lustrous and
silky fasciculus or bundle of
filaments called byssus or
beard, which serves to affix
the animal to any solid
body sunk in the sea.
Generally the connection is permanent, but some species,
among others the edible mussel, are able to detach the fila-
ment from the glandular pedicle situated at the inferior base

Filament of a Byssus, highly magnified.
aaaa disc-like expansions.

THE PHOLADES.

151

of the foot which originally secreted them, and then to attach
themselves anew to some other object. If the byssus be ex-
amined under a powerful lens, before any of the filaments are
torn, it is easy to perceive that these are fixed to submarine
bodies by means of a small disc-like expansion of their ex-
tremities of various extent according to the genus and species.

The pholades, which have very delicate milky-white valves,
burrow holes in limestone or sandstone rocks, though occa-
sionally they content themselves with houses of clay. How
shells as thin as paper and as brittle as glass are able to
work their way through hard stone has long been a puzzle to
naturalists, some of whom asserted that they attained their
object by means of an acid solvent, others that they bored
like an auger by revolving, but recent investigations have dis-
covered that their short and truncated foot is the chief instru-
ment they use in their mining operations. For it is not only
extremely muscular, but provided at its base with a rough
layer of sharp crystals of flint, which when worn off are soon
replaced by others, and act as excellent files. Thus we find in
the same class of animals the same organ most variously modi-
fied in form and structure, now serving as a foot, now as a
spade, or as a spinning-machine or a rasp, and throughout all
these modifications admirably adapted in every case to the
mode of life of its possessor. The bur-
rowing molluscs must have been in per-
petual danger of suffocation if their branchiae
had not been carefully protected against the
ingress of mud or sand. To prevent this
danger, their respiration is generally effected
by means of a double siphon (a 6), one for
the entrance and the other for the exit of the
water, a perpetual change of which is abso-
lutely indispensable to the life of the animal.
The interior of these tubes is lined with in-
numerable delicate cilia, by the action of
which the surrounding water is drawn to-
wards the entering orifice, and conveyed
in a strong current through the tube over
the surface of the gills. Then, having been deprived of its
oxygen, it is poured through the other tube, and expelled

152 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

in a jet at its extremity, by a similar machinery. As the
burrowing bivalve usually, if not always, dwells in the
interior of the passage it has excavated, it is needful that there
should be a communication with the external water, and hence
a hole is always found extending to the surface of the material
bored. The entering and departing currents keep this passage
clear, a process which in mud or sand might seem at first not
very easy of accomplishment. It is facilitated however by
the faculty which the boring bivalves have of lengthening the .
siphonal tubes at will, and the degree to which this may be
accomplished depends on the depth of the cavity which the
species is accustomed to make. Yet since many particles of
matter float, even in -clear water, which from their form or
other qualities might be hurtful to the delicate tissue of the
viscera to be traversed, how is the entrance of these to be
guarded against in an indiscriminating current ? A beautiful
contrivance is provided for this necessity. The margin of the
entering siphon, and sometimes, though more rarely, of the
ejecting one, is set round with a number of short tentacular
processes, expanding like feathery leaves and varying indeed in
their length, but the longest scarcely more than equalling half
the diameter of the mouth of the tube.

In Pholas dactylus, this apparatus, which is here confined to
the oral tube, is of peculiar beauty, forming a network of
exquisite tracery, spread across the orifice through the inter-
stices or meshes of which the current of entering water freely
percolates, while they exclude all except the most minute float-
ing atoms of extraneous matter. Thus admirably has the health
and comfort of the lowly shell-fish been provided for, that spend
their whole life buried in sepulchres of stone or sand !

The siphons, which are frequently connected or blended into
one tube, are shorter, or even reduced to simple perforations,
in those species which do not bury themselves so deeply; and
in the oysters, mussels, and other genera that are superficially
attached to submarine objects, the lobes of the mouth being
completely distinct, the water is admitted at once to the bran-
chiae as soon as the animal opens its valves. The chief use of
the shell is as a means of defence, and, to answer this purpose,
it must naturally increase in solidity the more its owner is
exposed to injury. The pholades and teredines which scoop

OYSTERS. 153

out their dwellings in stone or wood, and thus enjoy the pro-
tection of a retrenched camp, can do with a thin and brittle,
or even with a mere rudimentary shell. The Solens, which at
the least alarm are able to sink rapidly into the sand, and
indeed very rarely quit the hole in which they are comfortably

Razor shells.
a foot. b c siphons.

ensconced, require no closely fitting valves ; but the oysters,
which have no external fortress to retire to, would be in a very
bad predicament if they could not entirely conceal themselves
within their thick shells, and keep them closed by strong mus-
cular contraction. Even so,, they are exposed to many persecu-
tions, not only of man, or of the oyster-catcher who dexterously
opens them with his strong beak, or of the star-fish who clutches
them in a murderous embrace, but of a whole host of far more
minute though not less formidable enemies. Small annelides,
boring through the shell, attack them at all points, and though
they endeavour to parry these assaults by fresh depositions of
pearly matter, their strength is sorely taxed in the struggle.
Soon parasitic sponges establish themselves in the holes pierced
by the annelides, and eating deeper and deeper into the shell,
at length entirely exhaust the poor victim, who sinking under
his accumulated misfortunes gives up all further resistance, and,
breathing his last, allows the enemy to penetrate into his
gaping valves and to make a delicious meal of his remains.

The nervous system of the acephalous mollusca consists of
three pair of ganglia, which send their filaments to the respective
organs. The sense of touch appears to reside in every part of
the body and of the mantle ; that of hearing is lodged in the
foot, and consists of two globular capsulse inclosing a limpid
fluid, and a calcareous body or otolithe suspended from the
filaments of the auditory nerve, to which all its vibrations are
instantly communicated.

154 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

The eyes, in those species where they have been detected,
appear among the fringing processes of the margin as a number
of glittering studs of metallic brilliancy, and though of a very
simple structure, no doubt give their owner an agreeable
impression of light, and in many cases a timely warning of
approaching danger.

The whole construction, and generally the extremely re-
stricted locomotion of the bivalves, tells us at once that they
are unable to attack their prey, but must be satisfied with the
food which the sea-currents carry to their mouth. Yet they
have as little reason to complain as the equally slow or sessile
polyps, bryozoa, and tunicata, for the waters of the ocean harbour
such incalculable multitudes of microscopic animals and plants
that their moderate appetite never remains long unsatisfied.

The same streams which aerate their blood also convey to
their mouth all the food which they require.

The gasteropoda or snails are more highly organized than
the bivalve molluscs. The body is more symmetrical, there is
a greater distinction of parts, an obvious head, an evident tail ;
and, save that the body is without legs, we have often a con-
siderable outward resemblance to some vertebrate animal, in
the form of the body and in the expression of the countenance.
For here is a well-formed face, surmounted by two, four, or six
tentacula, commonly called horns, which either, as in the snail,
carry each an eye at its summit, or, as is the case in most of the
marine kinds, have an eye on a prominence at the base. But
very few remain firmly attached to some foreign body, and
make use of their rudimentary foot for no other purpose than
for opening or closing the lid of their shell ; generally a strong
muscular disk attached to the ventral surface of the body
(whence the whole order has derived its name of gasteropoda
or stomach-footers) serves either as an instrument by means of
which the animal can crawl, or, in rarer instances, is compressed
into a muscular membrane, useful in swimming. Some of the
gasteropoda are naked, while the majority are covered with a
shell ; some are formed for a terrestrial, others for an aquatic
life ; some are predacious, others herbivorous ; and thus it may
easily be imagined that their organization must offer numerous
modifications to suit such various modes of life.

Although a superficial view might lead us to believe that

SLUGS AND SNAILS 155

Providence had left the naked snails without any defence
against their enemies, yet they have many means of escaping
danger. The slug contracts itself into a heap, and throws from
the pores of its body a thick slimy mucilage, which renders it-
difficult to make any impression upon its body, and is no doubt
extremely offensive to many of its brute enemies. The crystal
transparency of many of the marine species, which renders them
almost undistinguishable from the clear sea water, screens them
from numerous persecutions. Those that creep, find excellent
places of concealment in the crevices of rocks, or among the
branches of the madrepores; and the dorides, on contracting, cast
off parts of their mantle, which they leave in possession of their
hungry foe, while they themselves make their escape.

However different the form of the shell may be, its use is
invariably the same, affording the soft-bodied animal a shield
or retreat against external injuries. In this respect it is not
uninteresting to remark that those species which inhabit the
coasts, and are most exposed to the rolling of the waves, have
thicker and stronger shells than those which live in greater
depths, and that the freshwater molluscs have generally a
much more delicate and fragile coat than those which live in
the ocean.

The ianthinge, however — who, unlike the generality of shell-
bearing gasteropods, pass a great part of their lives floating on
the water — form a remarkable exception to this rule, as in
accordance with their mode of life their transparent shell is
extremely light. Their foot also is provided with a vesicular
organ which they are capable of inflating with air, and thus
buoyed up ( like little wanton boys that swim on bladders '
they often appear in vast shoals upon the surface of the seas.
As soon as the winds ruffle the ocean, they immediately empty
their air-cells, and sink down into a more tranquil element,
and as a means of defence against their hungry foes they are
capable of pouring out a purple liquid which tinges the water
all around.

It is an invariable rule that, the greater the necessity of pro-
tection, the better has nature provided for the want. Thus
most of the larger sea-snails, besides possessing a stone-hard
dwelling, are also furnished at the extremity of the foot with an
operculum, or calcareous lid, which fits like a door upon the en-

156 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

trance of their house, and closes it like a fortress against the
outer world. But no animal exists that is safe against every
attack, for the large sea-birds sometimes carry the ponderous
snails, whose entrance they cannot force with their beaks, high
up into the air, and let them fall upon the rocks, where they
are dashed to pieces.

The limpets, slowly crawling over the stones under their
shield-like cover, have no operculum to close its entrance, but
their broad-soled foot renders a door perfectly unnecessary ;
for, acting like a powerful sucker, it clings with such tenacity to
the rock, that it requires the introduction of a knife between
the shell and the stone to detach them. It has been calculated
that the larger species are thus able to produce a resistance
equivalent to a weight of 150 Ibs., which, considering the sharp
angle of the shell, is more than sufficient to defy the strength
of a man to raise them. It is also said that crows, and other
birds, which endeavour to detach them for food, are sometimes
caught by the points of their bills, and are held there until
drowned by the advancing tide.

The land-snails have also no operculum, but before they fall
into their winter-sleep, they close the mouth of their shells
with a calcareous secretion which, stopping it up, entirely
protects it from every external injury. In the centre is an
extremely minute orifice, communicating with the lungs ; and
this minute hole, though not large enough to admit a drop of
water, is of sufficient capacity for the passage of air. Not
unfrequently, on removing this cover, a second or even a third
similar one will be found within, forming additional safeguards
against intrusion or the vicissitudes of temperature.

When the genial warmth of spring awakens the snail to a
state of activity, its covering, now no longer needed, drops off,
and the animal, protruding its horned head, sets out in quest of
food, anxious to make amends for its long abstinence by
feasting on the first tender leaves that fall in its way.

The respiratory organs of the gasteropoda are found to be
constructed upon very various principles, according to the
medium which they inhabit or the peculiarities of their mode of
life. The common land -snails, as well as the freshwater snails,
breathe air, which is received into a cavity lined with delicate
network, analogous to the lungs of air-breathing animals, and

THE GASTEROPODS.

157

the freshwater kinds are obliged to rise to the surface every
time they require to take in fresh air. Such a mode of aerating
the blood would obviously be unsuited to marine gasteropoda
which are consequently all furnished with branchiae or gills
differently placed. In the naked sea-slugs they expand freely
in the water, like the tentacula of the sea anemone, and nothing
can be more elegant than their forms or arrangement. In the
glauci and scyllaaa we see at each side of the elongated body long

Scylh

Glaucus.

arms branching out into tufted filaments ; while in the briarei a
hundred furcated stems serve for the aeration of the blood. In
the eolides they assume the shape of long riband-like lamellae,

Eolis.

disposed in imbricated rows ; in the dorides they form a wreath
or garland round the lower intestinal aperture. But whatever
their form, their structure is essentially the same, each tuft or
lamella containing the ramifications of the branchial vessels,
and effecting the oxygenisation of the blood by the extent of
surface which they expose to the water.

In the far more numerous gasteropoda provided with covered
gills, we find the same variety of arrangement as in the nudi-
branchiate genera. In some they are placed on one side of the

158

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

body, under the deep fold of the mantle ; in others they form
a fringe round the margin of the body, between the edge of the
mantle and the foot, while in all the spiral univalve molluscs
whose shells enrich our cabinets, they are shaped like the teeth
of a comb, and placed in a large hollow chamber in the animal,
communicating with the surface by a wide slit, through which
the water finds free access to the gills.

The digestive apparatus of the gasteropoda offers many
points of considerable interest. The mouth, in many species,

is furnished with sharp
and strong teeth, as for
instance in the tritonia,
where it is armed with
two cutting blades (6 6),
resembling in every re-
spect a pair of strong
curved shears, which, set in
motion by powerful mus-
cular fibres, are so effi-
cacious that few animal structures can resist their edge. The
lips which are placed in front of these teeth are strong and
very flexible, forming a muscular tube, by means of which the
food is seized and brought within the power of its formidable
jaws, and then the divided morsels, being seized by the horny
teeth which invest the tongue (d), are conveyed into the
oesophagus.

In others the process of digestion is facilitated by strong
bony gizzards, which bruise the food in its passage into the
stomach ; and in others the tongue is armed with spinous pro-
cesses obviously intended
to assist in the preparation
of the food. That of the
limpet, which is three
times the length of the
body, is supported by two
cartilaginous pieces (6 6)

A, limpet's tongue. B, portion magnified, placed On each side of its

root. From these arise strong and short muscles, which
wield the organ. The surface of this singular tongue, a mag-
nified view of which is given at B, is armed with minute though

THE PTEROPODS. 159

strong teeth, placed in transverse rows, and arranged in three
series ; each central group consists of four spines, while those
on the sides contain but two apiece. In the upper part of the
circumference of the mouth, we find a semi-circular, horny plate,
resembling an upper jaw, and the tongue, by triturating the food
against this, gradually reduces substances, however hard. On
opening the limpet the tongue is fodhd doubled upon itself, and
folded in a spiral manner beneath the viscera.

Although they are deprived of all higher instincts, yet we find
among the gasteropoda a few examples of concealment under
extraneous objects, which remind us of the masks and artifices
frequently employed by the insects and the crustaceans. The
agglutinating top (trochus agglutinans) covers itself with small
stones and fragments of shells, and, thus shielded from the view,
escapes the voracity of many an enemy but little suspecting the
savoury morsel hidden under the little mound of rubbish which he
disdainfully passes by. In animals whic^ are only provided with
passive means of defence, we may naturally expect a consider-
able degree of caution, and in this respect the gasteropoda
might give many useful lessons to man. See how carefully our
garden-snail protrudes her tentacles, as far as possible, to sound
every obstacle in her way before she drags herself farther
along, and how quickly she withdraws into her shell at the
least symptom of danger. What an example to so many of
us that leap before they look, and frequently break their necks
in the fall.

While the snails, whether terrestrial or marine, are proverbi-
ally slow, the pteropods, or wing-footers, swimming by the aid
of two muscular expansions resembling fins, and attached to
the opposite sides of the neck, are remarkable for the velocity
of their movements. They have no disk to walk upon like
the gasteropods, but resemble them by the
possession of a head distinct from the rest
of the body, which some, like the hyaleas
and cleodoras, conceal in a thin trans-
parent or translucent shell; while others,
like the blue and violet clios, beautifully
variegated with light red spots, are per-
fectly naked. They are met with in all
seas under the equator, as well as in the vicinity of the polar

160 THE HARMONIES OF NATUEE.

circle; and, being eminently constructed for a sea life, never
approach the shore. They are all, moreover, nocturnal or
crepuscular, voyagers agreeing that they are never to be seen
during a clear day, when the sun shines brightly ; but towards
five o'clock in the evening, when the weather is cloudy, two or
three species begin to make their appearance at the surface of
the water. Thence onwaMBs their numbers increase, but each
species seems to have its appropriate hour, or rather its ap-
propriate degrees of darkness. As the night sets in, all the
smaller species gradually disappear, as do the large ones a little
later ; and towards midnight a few stragglers only of different
kinds are to be met with. At sunrise not a single pteropod
is to be seen, either at the surface or at any depth to which the
eye can penetrate. They swim in a very peculiar manner.
Their cephalic fins are only able to support them by a constant
repetition of rapid movements, resembling those of the wings
of a butterfly. These fiffs are kept in motion continually ; and,
according to the direction of their stroke, the animal advances
horizontally, or mounts or descends, the body remaining all
the time either in a vertical position or slightly inclined. If,
while they are thus in motion, the appearance of any strange
body causes them alarm, their wings fold upon their bodies, or in
some species are entirely withdrawn into their shell, and the
animal sinks rapidly to a greater depth. They seize their prey
partly like the Pneumodermas, with tentacular arms; partly
like the Clios, by means of six conical appendages to the
head, which, when fully expanded, form a kind of star round
the mouth, and when strongly magnified, exhibit a truly
admirable structure, and indeed quite
unparalleled in the animal creation. For
each of these small cones is furnished with
about three thousand prehensile organs,
consisting of a transparent sheath (a)
enclosing a central body composed of a
stem terminated by a kind of tuft, which
last can be protruded at times beyond
the margin of the sheath. When viewed
laterally, it is apparent that this central
body consists of several filaments or
tubes, every one of which (6) expands at its extremity into a

TPIE CUTTLE FISH.

161

dilated portion terminated by a little disk, and about twenty
of these are enclosed in each sheath. Thus every one of
these little creatures, which
often crowd the surface of
the Polar Seas in incalcu-
lable numbers, and form
the chief nourishment of
the huge whale, is fur-
nished with no less than
three hundred and sixty -
thousand sucking disks —
a magnificent profusion,
which may well be called
one of the miracles £>f
Nature ! But we have
not yet done with the Clio,
for on opening its mouth
we shall find new occasions
to admire the care that
has been bestowed upon its
organisation. On each side
of the buccal aperture pro-
jects a hard shining sub-
stance, which is not a single
tooth, as it might appear to
the naked eye, but rather
a dental apparatus (a), consisting of a bundle of about thirty gold-
coloured crooked, stiff, and sharp hooks derived from a common
base, and forming a pair of lateral jaws, which, when protruded,
seize their prey like a couple of long tenacious combs. A tongue-
like organ (d) situated in the cavity of the mouth and studded
with about eight hundred booklets assists their functions, and
facilitates the propulsion of the food into the stomach.

As the sea-urchins are the first among the radiata, thus the
cuttle-fish are the most perfect specimens of the molluscar type.
These remarkable creatures consist of two distinct parts : —
the body, which in form of a sack, open to the front, encloses the
branchiae and digestive organs; and the well -developed head, pro-
vided with a pair of sharp-sighted eyes, and crowned with a ring
of feet, arms, or feelers.

M

Clio Borealis.

a dental apparatus, and 6 c single teeth, magnified 28
diameters, d lateral view of free portion of tongue
magnified 130 diameters.

162

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

All the cephalopoda are marine animals, and breathe through
branchiae or gills. These organs are concealed under the mouth

Cuttle -fish. (Sepia.)

in a cave or hollow, which alternately expands and contracts,
and communicates by two openings with the outer world. The
one, in form of a slit, serves to receive the water; the other,
which is tubular, is used for its expulsion.

According to the different number of their branchiae, the eepha-
lopods are divided into two natural groups, one with four, the
other with two gills. The former, which abounded in the primi-
tive ocean, is reduced in the present seas to the single genus

of the Nautili; the latter, which
is far more numerous, is subdi-
vided into the two great families
of the octopods and the decapods;
the former having only eight sessile
feet, the latter ten, two of which
are considerably longer than the
rest. The feet are studded on the
inner surface with acetabula or suck-
ers, either sessile or pedunculated.
The sessile cups of the octopods are
muscular disks with a soft and tumid
margin (e), and a circular aperture in
the centre (#), opening into a cavity
which widens as it descends, and con-
tains a cone of soft substance rising
from its bottom like the piston of a
syringe. When the sucker is applied to a surface for the purpose of
adhesion, the piston, having previously been raised so as to fill the

Section of an Arm and Suckers
of a Poulp.

THE ONYCHOTEUTI11S.

163

cavity, is retracted so as to produce a vacuum ; and such is the

muscular force of the animal that it

is easier to tear away the substance of

the limb than to release it from its

attachments.

In the decapods, which are not con-
fined to the coasts like the eight-footed
poulps, but have to contend with the
agile, slippery, and mucus-clad fishes,
we find the disks provided with a sharp
hook fixed in the centre, and to add
to their efficacy they are mounted on
stalks movable in every direction. Let
the reader picture to himself these
weapons, clustered at the expanded
terminations of the tentacles (/), and
arranged in a double alternate series
along the whole internal surface of
the eight muscular feet (c), and he
will have some idea of the formidable
nature of the Onychoteuthis.
Besides the hooked acetabula, a cluster
of small simple unarmed suckers may
be observed at the base of the expanded
part. These add greatly to the animal's
prehensile powers, for when they are
applied to one another (e), the tenta-
cles are firmly locked together at that
point, and the united strength of both
the elongated peduncles can be applied
to drag towards the mouth any resist-
ing object which has been grappled by
the terminal hooks. There is no me-
chanical contrivance which surpasses
this admirable structure.

The size of the arms and the ar-
rangement of the suckers differ con-
siderably in the various species. In
the octopods, which generally lead a more sedentary creeping life
and clinging to stones seize the passing prey, the arms, in ac-

M2

Arms and Tentacles of an
Onychoteuthis.

164 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

cordance with their wants, are, with rare exceptions, longer, more
muscular, and stronger than in the actively-swimming decapods,
where the two elongated tentacles or peduncles are the chief
organs of prehension. In some species we find the arms distinct
— in others they are united by a membrane. Some have a
double row of suckers on each arm, others four rows, others
again but one.

So wonderful are the variations which Nature, that consummate
artist, plays upon a single theme — so inexhaustible are the modi-
fications she introduces into the formation of numerous species,
all constructed upon the same fundamental plan, and all equally
perfect in their kind ! Besides their arms, by help of which the
cephalopods either swim or creep, the forcible expulsion of the
water through the air-tube serves them as a means of locomotion
in a backward direction. By those which have an elongated-
body and comparatively strong muscles, this movement is per-
formed with such violence that they shoot like arrows through
the water, or, even like the flying-fish, perform a long curve
through the air, so as not seldom to bolt right over a sailing
ship, like a sportsman over a five-barred gate. Finally, the fin-
like expansion of their mantle, which in some species runs along
the sides of the body, and in others forms a kind of terminal
paddle, renders the nimble decapods good service in propelling
them forwards in the water.

When a cephalopod has got hold of a fish or crab, the arms,
by sucking or hooking, instantly convey the luckless animal to
the mouth, where it is pitilessly crushed by two powerful
horny or calcareous jaws, fitting one over the other like the
mandibles of a tortoise. It might be supposed that the cepha-
lopods, by their swiftness, their arms, and their powerful jaws,
were sufficiently provided with the means of attack or defence ;
but Nature has besides favoured most of them with a remarkable
secretory organ, producing a black fluid and opening into the
air-tube. When pursued by its enemies, the animal ejects a
sufficient quantity of this inky liquid to form a thick cloud
in the water, which serves to conceal it from its foe.

The enormous numbers and prodigious variety of the mol-
luscs are sufficient proofs of their importance in the economy
of Nature. The terrestrial snails are disseminated in more than
2,200 species over the surface of the globe; the slimy slugs infest

PROPAGATION OF THE MOLLUSCS. 165

every field and garden ; hosts of Limnaese people every pond ;
and the sea absolutely swarms with molluscs which either graze
upon the submarine pastures, or, warring upon each other, serve
in their turn as food to countless enemies. Animals generally
so defenceless, and exposed to so many persecutions, must neces-
sarily multiply in an analogous ratio. The calamary produces
from forty to fifty thousand eggs in a single season ; a thousand
garden slugs are capable of rnultiplying in one year to the
number of five hundred millions ; and the oyster lays several
millions of eggs in the course of the summer. The germs of a
new generation become more numerous as the means of defence
are smaller ; and thus we find the sedentary and helpless mussels
more prolific than the cephalopods, which have been so admira-
bly equipped both for defensive strategy and for offensive
warfare.

166 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTER XX.

WORMS.

Are they in reality so helpless as is commonly supposed ? — Beauty of the Free
Marine Ann elides — Their Mode of Life — Tubicolar Worms— Leeches — Earth-
worms— Nemerta Gigantea — Kotifera — Their Complex Organisation and their
Habits,

WORMS are commonly supposed to be the very images of help-
lessness and degradation — their name is often used to express all
that is abject and low; but a closer inspection soon convinces us
that their organisation is far too wonderful to justify contempt,
and that, like every other work of their Divine Maker, they are
beautiful and perfect in their kind. Many of them, no doubt,
are so lowly placed in the scale of organic creation, that they
can only live, as parasites, upon the blood or juices of other
animals ; in many the structure of the body is reduced to very

Nereis.

simple elements, such as befit an indolent and inert existence;
but the higher members of the class, the vagrant marine anne-
lides, are richly provided with all the means of leading a life of
activity and enjoyment.

A red blood circulates in their veins ; thousands of muscles
direct the serpentine movements of their body, which frequently
consists of several hundred segments or rings ; and each ring

THE ANNELIDES. 167

has its delicately-formed branchiae (/), and its bristly feet (a 6),
serving both for locomotion, and for clasping their prey in a
deadly embrace. Clothed in robes of metallic brilliancy, these
beautiful worms of the ocean, to whom the naturalists have
given the most flattering names
of Greek mythology — Nereis,
Euphrosyne, Eunice, Alciopa, —
glide through the crevices of sub-
marine rocks, or conceal them-
selves among the water-plants,
or in the mud or sand at the
bottom of the sea. Here they
lie in wait for their prey, ready,
like the larger snakes of the dry
land, to dart forth suddenly upon
the first unfortunate crustacean

or naked mollusc that heedlessly Foot of an Anneiide.

swims by : but their care must be great not to be led too far
away by the ardour of the chase, for the sea swarms with their
enemies, and woe to the annelide that falls into the grasp of the
formidable cuttle-fish, or comes within the reach of the ferocious
crab, or meets the eye of the greedy eel — for, once in the power
of these inexorable enemies, it must bid farewell to life !

Besides the erratic ann elides, which must be considered as the
most perfect of their class, the sea contains a large number of
sedentary worms, leading a solitary hermit-life, in tubes formed
by the mucus which is secreted by the skin, and which, while
hardening, commonly agglutinates together fragments of shells
and sand. Some of these sheaths are of extreme tenuity, others
as tough as thick leather, and many possess very considerable
hardness, being composed, in great proportion, of carbonate of
lime, like the shells of molluscs. As these tubicolar annelides
lead so very different a life from that of their roaming relations,
their internal structure may naturally be supposed to be very
different : for where is the living being whose organisation does
not perfectly harmonise with his wants ? Thus we have here no
bristling feet, or lateral -respiratory appendages ; but instead of
these organs, which in this case would have been perfectly use-
less, we find the head surmounted by a beautiful crown of feathery
tentacula, which equally serve for breathing and the seizure of

168

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

a passing prey. Completely closed at the inferior extremity,
the tube shows us, at its upper end, a round opening — the only
window through which our anchorite can peep into the world,
seize his food, and refresh his blood by exposing the beautiful

Terebella Conchilega.

Serpula Oon-
tortuplicata.

Sab ell a Unispira.
Sabella Alveolaria.

plumes of his floating branchiae to the vivifying influence of the
water.

But how is the safety of these beautiful little creatures, inca-
pable as they are of flight, provided for — how do they manage to
escape their enemies ? Mark a serpula expanding its gorgeous
coronet in the water, and the question will soon be answered ;
for at the least shock, at the least vibration, you will see the
splendid tufts suddenly contract, and dive with the rapidity of
lightning into their stronghold, shutting at the same time the

LEECHES.

169

door after them, a small round richly-coloured lid, exactly fit-
ting the orifice, and hermetically closing it against all intruders.

The tubicular annelides (such as the terebellse, serpulaB, and
sabella}) have the greatest resemblance in their mode of life
with the sedentary polypes, the flustrse, and the barnacles ; for all
these animals, firmly linked to the spot on which they live, de-
pend for their food upon the prey which the sea, their bounteous
mother, wafts within their grasp, and all, at the approach
of danger, shrink within the hollow of their shells or cells.
Yet how different is their internal structure, as they not only
belong to different families of one class, but even to totally dif-
ferent classes of animals ! Thus we find a prodigal multiplicity
of form in creatures, whose sensations and enjoyments seem to
be entirely on a level, for it has been the Creator's will that the
beauteous variety of our flower-beds should adorn the sub-
marine gardens of the crystal deep.

The sweet water of the ponds and rivulets is far less abundant
in annelides than the briny sea. Here the small naides glide
swiftly about, by means of their long bristly feet, or attach
themselves to aquatic plants ; here also is the seat of the water-
leeches, a peculiar genus of worms, provided
with a sucker at both ends of the body, serving
them both for locomotion and for attaching
themselves to their prey.

The mouth, situated in the middle of the
cavity of the anterior sucker, is as admirable a
piece of mechanism as that of the sea-urchin.
Three jaws are disposed around it in such a man-
ner, that their»edges, forming an obtuse angle,
meet in the centre like the radii of a circle.
Each jaw has two rows of minute teeth at its
edge, so as to resemble a small saw, and is im-
bedded at its base in a layer of muscle, by the
action of which it is worked in such a manner as
to cut into the skin — and thus the well-known
triradiate form of the leech-bite is occasioned,
character of the wound is very favourable to the flow of blood,
which is still further encouraged by the action of the sucker.

Armed with a weapon so beautifully adapted to their wants,
the leeches not only attack the frogs and fishes, on whose fluids

Leeches (Hirudo
mecticmalis.)

The lacerated

170 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

they chiefly subsist, but also the quadrupeds — horses, cattle, wild
animals — that come to slake their thirst or to bathe in the pools
which they infest. But they, in their turn, have to encounter a
host of enemies : the large water-beetles and their larvae destroy
them by myriads; several of the fishes esteem them as dainty
morsels, and numerous water-birds and waders rejoice in their
capture.

While the land-leech besets the traveller in the rising grounds
of Ceylon, or on the lower slopes of the Himalaya, and is detested
as the greatest plague to be encountered in the humid forests,
the medicinal leech of Europe renders, as is well known, such
signal services as a remedial agent in inflammatory diseases,
that millions are annually used. This vast consumption has
already exhausted numerous lakes and ponds, in which it for-
merly abounded ; so that while a few years since the hospitals
of Germany, France, and Grreat Britain drew their chief supply
from the Hungarian marshes, they now receive their leeches
from the lagunes of the Volga and the Don.

On the dry land the chief representatives of the annelides
are the earthworms, which, piercing and traversing the ground
in every direction, subsist on roots, woody fibres, animal matter,
and other organised substances. Though small and despised
creatures, the part they perform in the operations of Nature is
highly important ; for insinuating their pointed head between
the particles of the earth like a wedge, and then drawing for-
wards the hinder parts by a shortening of the body, they forcibly
dilate the passage into which the head has been already thrust,
and thus by" the united labours of myriads the earth is light-
ened, and vegetation thereby wonderfully assisted.

Thus the obscure earthworm renders indirectly considerable
services to man, and giving a kind of under-tillage to the land,
performs below ground the same office that the spade performs for
the garden, and the plough for arable land. Compared with the
marine annelides, the organization of the earthworm seems but
rude and imperfect, as it has neither the numerous feet of the
elegantly-swimming nereids, nor the magnificent crown of the
serpulaB, and occupies about the same rank as the lob-worm,
so common on our coasts, where it is dug for by the fishermen
as bait. Along the rings of the middle part of the lob-worm's
body are gills of an arborescent form, corresponding with the

THE BAND-WORM. 171

semi-aquatic life of the animal, while the earthworm respires
through internal pulmonary vesicles. Both worms have neither
the eyes nor the antennae nor the well-armed jaws which dis-
tinguish the higher orders of the class, and are thus no better
than plebeians in the little commonwealth of the annelides.
The turbellarise and the intestinal worms, however, stand on a
still lower step of organic development ; for the former, which
are partly, like the nemertinse, of an elongated wormlike form of
body, partly of a flattened shape, like the planarise, show no
trace of segments or rings, and being entirely deprived of pecu-
liar respiratory organs, breathe merely through the entire out-
ward surface of their naked bodies.

The great band-worm (Nemertes gigas) is one of the most
remarkable examples of this low type of annelism. It is from
thirty to forty feet long, about half an inch broad, flat like a
ribbon, of brown or violet colour, and smooth and shining like
lackered leather. Among the loose boulders or in the crevices
of submerged rocks, where it feasts on minute shells and other
tiny creatures of the deep, this gigantic sea-worm forms a thou-
sand seemingly inextricable knots, which it is constantly un-
ravelling and tying. When after having devoured all the food
within its reach, or from some other cause, it desires to shift its
quarters, it stretches out a long dark-coloured ribbon, surmounted
by a head like that of a snake, but without its wide mouth or
dangerous fangs. The eye of the observer detects no muscular
contraction, sees no apparent cause or instrument of locomotion;
but the microscope, the mighty revealer of hidden wonders, shows
him that the innumerable vibratory ciliaB with which the whole
body of the nemertes is covered cause it to glide along. The
creature hesitates, tries here and there, until at last, and often
at a distance of fifteen or twenty feet, it finds a stone to its taste,
whereupon it slowly unrolls its length, to convey itself to its new
resting-place or pasture-ground ; and while the entangled folds
are unravelling themselves at one end, they form a new gordian-
knot at the other. Thus, in spite of the extreme simplicity of
its organisation, the band-worm is fully equipped with all the
means of existence, and the eye of its All-seeing Maker directs
it, though blind, to its food.

In spite of their abject mode of life, the intestinal worms
must be reckoned in many respects among the great marvels of

172 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

creation. We wonder at the immense variety of animals which
people the abounding land or the teeming waters ; but our
admiration at this exuberance of life rises to a still higher
point, when we consider that this visible world of animated
beings encloses another world of equally sensitive creatures, which
hidden from the eye lead a parasitic existence in their intes-
tinal recesses. Worms of the most various forms and sizes are
found within the bodies of all vertebrated animals, and even in
many molluscs and insects; and though above 1,400 species have
already been described, yet there can be no doubt that a far
greater number still remains undiscovered, as comparatively but
few quadrupeds, birds, or fishes have hitherto been accurately
dissected ; and as far as our observation reaches, every genus or
even every species of the vertebrate animals has been found to
possess its own peculiar parasitical worms, each of whom again
selects some favourite organ for his abode.

If size alone were a criterion of classification, the Rotifera

would have to be ranked
among the Infusoria, as
they are scarcely discern-
ible by the naked eye ;
but a more complicated
organisation separates
them widely from these
lowest members of the
animal kingdom, and as-
signs them a place among
the worms. Their most
striking external charac-
ter are the rotatory or-
gans or ciliary wheels
with which their head is
surmounted, and whose

Ptygura melicerta.

1. partially expanded, 2. completely expanded, the cilia Vibratory motions, whll'l-
in action causing currents indicated by the arrows, 3, • . , -, , .

contracted. ing the water about in

swift circles or eddies, engulf in a fatal vortex the micro-
scopic animals or plants on which they feed, or enable them
to swim from place to place. The great transparency of these
curious little animals permits their general structure to be
easily recognised. The mouth lies between the wheels, and

THE KOTIFEILE.

173

when once an unfortunate animalcule has been driven into its
gaping portals, it is presently crushed between a pair of formid-
able sharp-toothed jaws, which are constantly in motion, whether
the animal is taking food or not. The aliment, chewed .or
ground by this lively apparatus, passes into a slender canal or
tubular stomach, surrounded by a cushion-like mass of cells,
commonly coloured with the hue of the food, and therefore
concluded to be connected with the digestive system.

The rotifera are either naked, or covered with a gelatinous
or horny sheath ; and many inhabit a tube formed by themselves,
attached by its lower end to some water-
plant, and open at the summit, from
which the animal protrudes when it
would exercise its active instincts, and
into which it retires for repose from
labour, or for refuge from alarm. The
majority, however, have a single or
furcated foot, which is often capable of
contraction by a set of telescopic sheath-
ings or false joints, and by means of
which they are enabled to secure a hold
of the minute stems of water-plants.
This is their ordinary position, when
keeping their wheels in action for a
supply of food or of water ; but they
have no difficulty in letting go their
hold, and either creeping along like
a leech, by alternate contractions and
extensions, or swimming away in search
of a new attachment.

From the neck projects a telescopic
spur or tube (a), supposed to be an organ
of respiration ; and just below this are
seen two minute red specks, which are
the animal's eyes — rudimentary indeed,
and probably endowed with no more of
visual power than a slight consciousness
of the stimulus of light.

Some of the rotifera are inhabitants of salt water only, but by
far the larger proportion are found in collections of fresh water

Philodina roseola.
a respiratory tube, b alimentary
canal, d terminal intestinal
pouch, e anal orifice.

174 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

• — as, for instance, in the little pools left after rain, in the hollows
of the lead with which the tops of houses are partly covered, or
in cisterns which are not beneath roofs, or otherwise covered
over. Some species flourish attached to damp moss; others inhabit
the snows of the Alps, or the leaf-cells of Sphagnum, or the in-
testinal tube of the earthworm, or even the interior of the like-
wise microscopical Vol vox globator, devouring the colonies that
form within the cavity of its tiny globe, and replacing them,
cuckoo-like, with their own eggs. Several hundred species of
these interesting little animals have already been discovered, and
there can be no doubt of the existence of a vast number of still
unknown forms.

Their tenacity of life is most remarkable, for they can be kept
in a state of complete dryness for any length of time, and will
yet revive very speedily upon being moistened. This fact, taken
in connection with that extraordinary rate of increase which
characterises all microscopical animals and plants (according to
the estimate of Professor Ehrenberg, nearly 17,000,000 may be
produced within twenty-four days from a single rotifer), removes
all difficulty in accounting for the extent of their diffusion, and
for their occurrence in incalculable numbers in situations where
a few days previously none were known to exist: for their entire
bodies may be wafted in a dry state, by the atmosphere, from
place to place, and their return to a state of active life, after
a desiccation of unlimited duration, may take place when-
ever they meet with the requisite conditions — moisture, warmth,
and food. Thus the . insignificant Eotifera, the marvels of
whose organisation it requires the microscope to reveal, fully
exemplify the truth of the fine remark of Pliny, that Nature is
nowhere more admirable than in her smallest productions !

375

CHAPTEE XXL

CRUSTACEANS.

Cirripedes — Barnacles and Acorn-shells — Edriophthalmia — Decapoda — Their
Branchial Apparatus— Legs and Digestive Organs— Moulting Process — Meta-
morphoses— Enemies of the Crustaceans — Means of Defence, and Offensive
Weapons — The Birgus — Pinnotheres — Paguri — Migratory Instinct, of the Land-
crabs.

Barnacle,

As the dry land teems with infinite forms of insects, so the seas,
from the equator to the poles, are peopled with legions of crus-
taceans. Though all constructed on the same fundamental
plan, yet the various
subdivisions of this vast
and important class differ
so much in outward ap-
pearance, and their or-
ganization is so consi-
derably modified according to their various habits, that even
the eye of science has been long unable to distinguish the real
nature of several of their lowest forms.
Thus the Barnacles, which frequently
attach themselves in such vast numbers
to ships' bottoms as materially to ob-
struct their way, and the Acorn-shells,
which cover in scurfy patches the sur-
face of exposed rocks, often lining the
coast for miles and miles, were formerly
reckoned among the molluscs, until a
better knowledge of their early stages
of development proved them to be real
crustaceans, distant relations of the crab or lobster, whom when
full-grown they so little resemble.

While in the first stage of infancy, these ambiguous creatures

Acorn- shell,

*a first series of compartments,
b second series, c cirri.

176 THE HARMONIES OF NATUKE.

lead the vagrant life of the juvenile oyster or adolescent
sponge, bounding nimbly along by the simultaneous stroke of
their numerous legs, and possessed of open eyes to pilot their
course through the waters ; but, when once fixed, they remain
attached for the remainder of their lives, and then their struc-
ture undergoes a most remarkable change. The shell is gradually,
formed, the eyes are cast away as being no longer needed, and the
now useless feet are converted into extremely useful arms or cirri,
resembling a plume of purple feathers.
These cirri are constantly in motion
as long as they are bathed in water,
projecting outwards, and expanding into
an oval concave net — then retracting

A part of one of the arms

considerably magnified. inwards, and closing upon whatever
may have come within their reach. They are so judiciously
placed that any small matter which becomes entangled within
them can rarely escape, and finds a ready passage to the mouth.
The currents produced in the water by their perpetual motion serve
also to aerate the blood, so that these delicate organs act both as
gills and as prehensile arms. In spite of their sessile condition,
the Cirripeds, as these curious animals are named, have not
been left without protection against hostile attacks ; for at the
approach of danger they shrink within their shell, and close its
orifice against a host of hungry intruders. Living above low-
water-mark, the Acorn-shells are necessarily exposed to the air
for several hours during the recess of every tide — a proof of their
power to resist ungenial circumstances, and of the beautiful har-
mony of their organisation with the mode of life which has been
marked out for them in the plan of Creation.

While the Cirripeds grasp, as in a living net, any minute
creatures that may be roving withing their reach, the Siphono-
stomata (Fish-lice, lernese) lead a parasitic life chiefly upon
fishes, sucking their juices with a bloodthirsty proboscis. The
fish-lice wander about freely on the body of their victims, as
grazing animals on their pasture-grounds ; while the Lerneas,
after having, like the- barnacles, led a vagrant life in their first
youth, remain ever after clinging to the spot on which they once
have settled.

Both are blind, and have but an indistinct head ; while the

THE THORACOSTRACA. 177

numerous families and species of the entomostraca and branchio-
poda, their next superiors in rank, are generally well provided
with organs of vision.

Some of these minute animals, which are generally active in
their movements, have no special respiratory organs, the whole'
tegumentary surface being made to supply their place ; while in
others the foliaceous legs perform the office of gills, the skin or
covering of these limbs being so delicate that it admits the
vessels which ramify over it to have sufficient contact with the
water to allow of the perfect aeration of the blood. Thus these
little creatures may be said to breathe through their legs and
arms, which may be seen in constant motion playing through the
fluid, and causing a constant flow of new particles to the exposed
surface of the bloodvessels.

On a higher stage of crustacean life we find the Edriophthal-
mia, whose thorax and abdomen are distinctly composed of
articulated segments, or rings, which is not the case in the
above-mentioned orders. Here the legs no longer serve as
gills, but for the ordinary purposes of locomotion ; certain
portions of the extremities, however, are modified in their
structure so as to perform the functions of respiratory organs.
To this order belong, among others, the nimble Sand-
hoppers, who, when disturbed in their privacy,
bound into the air by thousands from the wet
sea-sand ; the Cyami, or Whale-lice, which fre-
quently feed by thousands on the skin of the
huge cetaceans ; and the terrestrial Onisci, or
Wood-lice, which, generally leading a life of sandnopper.
concealment under stones, in walls, in cellars, or in the cavities
of decaying trees, come forth from their retreat only in wet and
moist weather.

Thus, rising step by step, we come at length to the most per-
fect type of crustacean life— to the Thoracostraca, whose eyes
are moveable and fixed on stalks, whose head and thorax are
covered with a carapace or shield, and whose abdomen only re-
tains the annular structure.

This highest order of the crustaceans is again subdivided into
the Stomatopoda, with external branchiae and feet approaching
the mouth ; and the Decapoda, which are either long-tailed, like
the shrimp or lobster, or short-tailed, like the crab. In the

N

178 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Decapoda the branchiae are enclosed in two chambers, situated
one at each side of the under-surface of the carapace or broad
shelly plate which covers the back of the animal. Each of these
chambers is provided with two openings — one in front near the
jaws, the other behind. In the long-tailed species the posterior
opening is a wide slit at the basis of the feet ; in the short-tailed
kinds a small transverse aperture, before the first pair of feet. By
means of this formation — which, from its limiting the amount of
evaporation, prevents the drying of the branchiae — the crabs, like
those fishes that are provided with a narrow opening to their gill-
covers, are enabled to exist much longer out of the water than
the lobsters. Some of them even live habitually out of water ;
and, to fit them for this terrestrial life, their respiratory caverns
are provided with folds and lacunae, capable of serving as re-
servoirs of a certain quantity of water, or with a spongy mem-
brane equally well calculated to store up the fluid necessary to
keep the organs of respiration in the state of humidity neces-
sary to enable them to perform their functions. It is well
known, too, that the land-crabs never remove far from damp
and shady situations, where the moisture of the sultry air re-
duces evaporation to its lowest degree. While in fishes the
water that serves for respiration flows from the front backwards,
so as not to impede their motions, the stream of water traversing
the gills of the crustaceans is made to flow from behind forwards,
and thus harmonises perfectly with their retrograde or sidelong
movements. So wonderfully has the anatomical structure of
these animals, like that of all other living things, been suited to
their peculiar mode of life !

The same beautiful adaptation of means to end strikes us on
examining the locomotive apparatus of the various tribes of
crustaceans. Thus in the Grecarcini or Land-crabs, and particu-
larly in the Ocypoda or Sand-crabs, which inhabit the seashores of
warm climates in both hemispheres, the legs are extremely strong
in comparison to the weight of the body, and consequently able
to carry it along with great rapidity. In the burrowing Hippidae
they are short, thick, and awkward, but well formed for work-
ing in the sand, like those of the mole. In the Sea-spiders we
find them extremely elongated, so that the animal swims badly,
and is a very indifferent pedestrian. But its mode of life, which is
strictly confined to the shallow waters of the littoral zone — where,

SEA-CRABS. 179

concealed among the seaweeds, it wages war with annelides, pla-
narias, and small molluscs — requires no very active movements,
and they answer admirably either as holdfasts among the cliffs
and boulders, or for seizing their prey in the deeper crevices of
the rocks.

In the Portuni or true Sea-crabs, finally, we find the hind pair
of legs flattened like oars, so that they would cut but a sorry
figure on land, but are all the better able to row about in their
congenial element.

The comparatively short and weak though well-formed legs
of the lobster, and of the allied species of long-tailed decapods,
can evidently bear them along bj.it slowly when they attempt
to crawl. But the long flattened tail of these animals, ex-
panding laterally like a fin, serves, by its vertical strokes, to
propel them so rapidly through the water that the lobster
makes leaps of twenty feet at one single bound, and the
shrimp is seen to dart about in its native element with a
swiftness similar to that of the gnat or dragonfly in the lighter
atmosphere.

The elongated hind-legs of the sandhoppers, contracted while
at rest, enable them, when suddenly extended, to emulate
the leap of the flea or the bound of the podura ; while the feet
of the Whale-lice, or Cyami, are armed with power-
ful claws, which are evidently necessary, to pre-
vent their being washed away during the rapid
evolutions of their enormous victims. In the terres-
trial species of the Oniscidse, popularly known by
the name of Wood-lice, the large number of the
feet makes up for their smalmess ; in the aquatic Whale Louse
or natatorial members of the family, the last pair (°yamu3 Cet1-)
of legs and the last shieldlike segment of the abdomen form a
large fin ; while the short feet of the parasitical species, such as
the Bopyrus Squillarum, which passes its life under the tail of
the shrimp, is provided with strong claws, for the purpose of
securing a firm attachment to their living prey.

The digestive apparatus of the crustaceans is also most ad-
mirably modified, according to the respective wants of their
various tribes. Those which, in their state of perfect growth,
live almost invariably attached to their prey, without executing
any other motions than such as are performed by the latter, are

N 2

180 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

provided with a trunk or cylindrical tube of variable length,
adapted for sucking, and in the interior of which are lodged the
mandibles, prolonged so much that they form two slender
and pointed processes, the extremities of which serve as a
lancet. Thus these fortunate parasites, who never know what
it is to want a meal, are enabled to tap the vessels of their
victims, and to quaff, without any further trouble, the rich
juices they afford !

But in the higher orders of crustaceans, whose food is gene-
rally of a solid and not easily digestible nature, the structure of
the oral apparatus is very different. The mouth is here furnished
with at least eight pieces or pairs of jaws, which pass the food
through an extremely short gullet into a membranous stomach
of considerable size. This stomach is rendered curious by having
within certain cartilaginous appendages, to which strong grinding-
teeth are attached. These are placed at the pyloric extremity
or outlet of the stomach, so that the aliment, after being sub-
jected to the action of the jaws, is again more perfectly chewed
by the stomach-teeth before entering the digestive tube, where
it is exposed to the action of th.e biliary fluid of the liver. The
different pieces composing the masticatory apparatus of the
stomach vary considerably in the different genera, and even in
the several species of the same genus; but in every case they are
always singularly in harmony with the kind of food taken, and
the general habits of the animal.

The solid shell of the higher crustaceans completely encases
their body like a coat of mail. Unlike that of the sea-urchins,
which is formed of a multitude of small plates, constantly increas-
ing in diameter by the deposition of fresh calcareous matter
on their edges, and keeping pace with the growth of the animal,
it consists but of one piece, and is consequently incapable of
extension. Thus the lobster or the crab, after having once
attained their perfect form, would have been obliged ever after
to endure the confinement of a narrow garb, had not Providence
endowed them with the faculty of casting their shell from time
to time, and thus providing themselves with a new and more con-
venient tegument. A few days of fasting and sickness precede
the operation, during which the carapace becomes loosened
from the skin to which it adhered, and immediately begins to
secrete a new one — soft and membranous at first, but soon be-

CHANGES OF THE LOBSTER. 181

coming harder and harder, and finally completely calcareous.
In this way the animal before long finds itself free from all con-
nection with its old envelope, and it has only to make its escape.
This last operation is announced by symptoms of inquietude.
The creature rubs its legs one against the other, and then, throwing
itself upon its back, begins to shake itself, and puffs itself out so
as to tear the membrane which connects the carapace with th<?
abdomen, and to raise the carapace itself. After sundry intervals
of rest and agitation, of shorter or longer duration, the carapace
is raised completely, and the animal extricates its eyes, its head,
and its antennae. The operation of freeing its extremities ap-
pears to be the most difficult, and would even be impossible, did
not the covering of these parts split longitudinally. The abdo-
men is the last division of the body which clears itself of the old
envelope. It may easily be supposed that, after such a violent strug-
gle for freedom, the lobster is not a little exhausted. Feeling his
weakness, and aware of the very insufficient protection afforded
him by his soft covering, which requires a day or two to convert
itself into a firm calcareous shelf similar to the one which has
just been cast off, he prudently retires from all society, until he
feels himself able to meet his old friends again on terms of equar
lity, for he well knows how inclined they are to bite and devour
a defenceless comrade.

Like the sea-stars, the crabs and lobsters enjoy the faculty
not only of reproducing limbs accidentally lost, but also of volun-
tarily casting off not only their legs but even their heavy claws,
when under the influence of terror. This curious process of
self-amputation seems to be effected very easily, and without
apparent pain, as they run off upon their remaining legs as if
'nothing had happened. The separation is soon followed by the
formation of a cicatrice, from the surface of which sprouts out
a small cylindrical appendage ; this shortly after presents dis-
tinct articulations, and resembles, in miniature, the organ it is
destined to form ; but its growth is slow, and it does not for
some time attain its full size, and thus specimens are fre-
quently met with having one forceps much larger than the
other.

It is evident how important this power of reproduction and
self-amputation must be to animals whose fragile limbs are so
liable to be snapped off by an enemy, and how greatly they must

182 THE HAEMONIES OF NATURE.

be indebted to this invaluable privilege, which frequently enables
them to save the whole by the temporary sacrifice of a part.
Here also the wind is tempered to the shorn lamb !

The wonderful metamorphoses of the insects are universally
known, but the changes which the young crabs, lobsters, prawns,
and shrimps have to undergo, before they assume their definitive
shape, are no less astonishing ; for the forms of these larvaB are so
peculiar, and so entirely different from any of those into which
they are ultimately to be developed, that they were considered
as belonging to a distinct genus, Zoea, until their real nature

was first ascertained by Mr. T. V.
Thompson. These infant crabs look
very strange indeed. Fancy a prepos-
terously large helmet-shaped head,
ending behind in a long point, and
furnished in front with two monstrous
sessile eyes' like the windows of a lan-
tern. By means of a long articulated
tail, the restless chimera continually
Larva of dab. turns head over heels. Claws are

wanting, and while the old crabs crawl about on eight legs, the
young have only four, armed at the extremity with four long-
bristles, that are continually pushing food towards the ciliated
and ever-active mouth. Who could imagine that a creature
like this should ever change into a crab, to which it has not the
least resemblance ? But time does wonders. After the first
change of skin, the body assumes something like its perma-
nent shape, the eyes become stalked, the claws are developed,
and the. legs resemble those of the crab ; but the change is
incomplete, for the tail is .still longhand furnished with false'
feet, like that of a lobster. The swimming-habit has not yet
been laid aside. At the next stage, while the little creature is
still about the eighth of an inch in diameter, the crab-form is
completed, the abdomen folding in under the carapace. All
the subsequent changes are merely changes of coat, consequent
on the growth of the now complete animal.

In these several metamorphoses we see portrayed in succes-
sion the peculiarities of three different types, one rising above
the other in structure. In the first the crab is like one of the
lowest and most incomplete crustaceans ; further on it resembles

RANGE OF THE CRUSTACEANS 183

the lobster, and at last it appears in the compact shape which
constitutes the highest perfection of crustacean life.

Providence has ordained that each class of animals should not
only branch out into a multiplicity of forms, so as to be able to
adapt itself to an immense diversity of local circumstances, but
also that it should spread itself as far as possible over the surface
of the globe.

Thus, though the crustaceans have their chief seat in the
ocean and its littoral zone, yet several of their species ascend
into the regions of eternal snow, while others hide themselves in
the perpetual darkness of subterranean grottoes. The famous
cave of Adelsberg in Carinthia is tenanted by several crustaceans,
and the alpine-flea is found on the Aar-glacier, 8,500 feet above
the level of the ocean.

Many crustaceans, averse to the briny sea, delight in the
sweet waters of the river or the lake ; others, finding not even
sea-water salt enough to their taste, can only enjoy existence in
saline springs ; while others again entirely abandon the liquid
element and live on the dry land, either sojourning, like our
wood-lice, under stones and in cellars, or, like the land-crabs of
the West Indies, in shady forests, where though they breathe, like
their aquatic relations, through the medium of gills, the peculiar
construction of their respiratory organs and the perpetual mois-
ture of the climate render their existence possible.

While myriads of crabs people the slimy lagunes, or burrow
in the sands skirting the ocean, or seek a shelter among the
fronds of submarine forests, others love to sojourn in the deeper
waters, or even to perform long sea-voyages, like the Nautilo-
grapsus, which, though ill-formed for swimming, finds means
to satisfy its roving propensities by clinging to the back of a
turtle.

While the lower crustaceans abound in the Polar seas, crabs
are completely wanting in those gelid waters : their number
increases on advancing towards the equator, and attains its
maximum in the torrid zone. Here we find the most remark-
able and various forms ; here they attain a size unknown in our
seas ; and here they do not, as with us, inhabit the salt waters
only, but also people the brooks and rivers, or even constantly
sojourn on land.

With the exception of the terrestrial Onisci, which chiefly

184 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

feed on decaying vegetable matter, of the Birgus or robber-crab,
which delights in the sweet kernel of the cocoanut, of the
water-fleas, which feast on the tender fronds of the green sea-
weeds, arid of a few other species, the crustaceans are eminently
carnivorous. Their amazing numbers, their voracity, their
powerful claws render them the most formidable enemies both
of the weaker among their own class and of all the lower aquatic
animals. Even the fishes and cetaceans are not exempt from
their attacks ; and as the whale, the carp, the sturgeon, the
shark, the perch have each of them their peculiar crustacean
parasites, it can easily be imagined how large the number of the
still unknown species must be which feast on tha,t vast host of
fishes that has never yet been accurately examined. Some bore
or eat holes into the skin of their victims, others fasten on their
gills, and many settle in their entrails ; where, no doubt, they
lead a more pleasant life than that which, through their agency,
falls to the share of their involuntary entertainers.

On the other hand, the crustaceans constitute a great part of
the food as well of the sea-stars, sea-urchins, annelides, and
many of the molluscs, as also of the fishes and sea-birds ; and as
they are found of all sizes, from microscopical smallness to a
weight of several pounds, they are able to satisfy the wants of a
great variety of animals.

Man also is indebted to the crustaceans for many a savoury
morsel; and while the Europeans enjoy their lobsters, crayfish,
and shrimps, the islanders of the torrid zone not only feed upon
many marine crustaceans, but also upon the fat of the long-
tailed Birgus and the white flesh of the land-crab. The injuries
inflicted upon mankind by the crustaceans are certainly inferior
to their services, though several species (Chelura terebrans,
Limnoria terebrans) are great destroyers of submerged timber,
and others are said to be poisonous.

A carnivorous race exposed to so many persecutions necessarily
requires to be well furnished with the means of attack and defence.
Thus in all the higher crustaceans we find, with rare exceptions,
the anterior thoracic extremities terminating in pincers of greater
or less strength, armed with teeth and sharp hooks which give
them increased powers of prehension. Generally only the first
pair of legs is converted into these formidable weapons, but in
the crayfish the second and third pair of feet are likewise pro-

SEA-SPIDERS. 185

vided with smaller pincers, as a kind of reserve, in case the first

pair should be rendered unserviceable ; and

in the Dromise we find the two posterior

pairs of legs, which are of a much smaller

size and raised above the plane of the others,

similarly armed. These posterior claws,

however, are not intended for active war-

fare, but merely for strategical purposes, as

they serve to hold fast the pieces of sponge or other marine

productions under whose cover the wily crustacean approaches

and entraps his prey.

A singular Tahitian crab observed by Mr. Bennett makes use
of a similar artifice; but in this case the mask of decayed
vegetable substances and coral sand, which enables the lurking
ruffian to steal upon his victims unperceived, is not kept in its
position by the hind-legs, but by the rigid and incurved bristles
with which the back is covered. In these manoeuvres he is very
much assisted by the long ophthalmic peduncles, which, curving
upward to raise the eyes above the pile of materials, give him
the great advantage of seeing without being seen.

The sea-spiders do not indeed load themselves with a volun-
tary burden, which they are able to cast off again at pleasure,
but their back is generally clothed with a mass of parasites,
corallines, sponges, zoophytes, algae or molluscs, so that the
poor creatures have frequently to groan under a considerable
weight. To this, however, they are no doubt in many cases
indebted for their lives, as even a sharp-sighted enemy can
hardly detect them under the mound of plants and small
animals comfortably settled on their carapace. Besides the
strong and heavy pincers with which the forefeet of the Birgus-
latro are armed, this large tropical shore-crab has, like the
Dromiae, its last pair of legs terminated by narrow and weak
claws, which, however, it puts to a very different use, for, living
on the fruits of the cocoanut-tree, it requires no mask or artifice
to surprise its prey. After having selected a nut fit for its dinner,
the crab begins its operations by tearing the husk, fibre by fibre,
from that end under which the three eyeholes are situated ; it
then hammers upon one of them with its heavy claws until an
opening is made. Hereupon it turns round, and by the aid of
its posterior pincers extracts the white albuminous substance.

186 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

In this wonderful instance of animal instinct, one knows not
what is most to be admired — the beautiful adaptation of the
animal's structure to its peculiar mode of life, or its almost
incredible ingenuity.

The crustaceans have various modes of escaping the attacks
of an over-powerful enemy. Some, like the shrimp or the lob-
ster, bound rapidly through the waters ; others, as we have seen,
are excellent runners on the land. Many form deep burrows,
into which they retire at the first alarm ; others hide themselves
quickly under boulders or tufts of algae, to avoid a disagreeable
meeting with a voracious fish or hungry kinsman. Some feign
death, contracting their claws, and allowing themselves to be
thrown about like inert bodies ; others, like the small pea-crab,
claim the hospitality of large bivalve shells, as a substitute for
the softness of their own integuments. In this safe retreat
they live upon the minute animals which their involuntary
protector engulphs on opening his folding-doors ; for it is of
course but a poetical fiction that a friendly connection exists
between them — that the mussel is warned of the approach of in-
quisitive cuttlefishes, or prying sea-stars, by a gentle pinch of
his little lodger — and that the latter, when after an excursion he
finds the premises closed, has only to knock to be again ad-
mitted !

Another large family of crabs is likewise indebted for
a dwelling to another and a lower class of animals. The
hermit-crabs or paguri have, indeed, the forepart of their
body armed with stout claws and covered with a shield,
but terminate in a long, soft, and utterly defenceless tail. This
cumbersome and exposed hind-part is not formed for swim-
ming, and its weight prevents them from running, so that
nothing remains for the poor creatures but to look about them
for some shelter ; and this is afforded by several conchi-
form shells — buccina, neritse — in which they take up their
abode, attaching themselves to their interior by a sucker with
which the tail is furnished at its extremity, and also holding by
the six false legs which they bear at their hinder portion.
When they are feeding or walking, the head and thorax project
beyond the mouth of the shell ; but when they are alarmed they
draw themselves in, closing the mouth with one of the claws,
which is much larger than the other, and fits the opening of

THE PAGURI. 187

the shell as exactly as the lid or operculum of its original pos-
sessor. It is surprising how rapidly they will rim about with
the dwelling they have appropriated on their back ; and when
by the progress of their growth it becomes uncomfortably
narrow, the remedy is easy, as convenient shells abound
wherever hermit-crabs exist.

Thus we find a wonderful harmony between the organization
of the paguri and the structure of the alien domicile to which
they owe their safety, and which serves to complete their exist-
ence. Evidently the same creative idea has given birth to the
mollusc and the crab, for how could mere fortuitous circum-
stances have produced so marvellous a relation between animals
belonging to two classes so widely distinct ?

In point of intelligence the crustaceans are far inferior to the
insects. Their instincts are confined to the violent seizure or
the cunning entrapping of their prey, to the burrowing of a
hole in the ground, or to the seeking of a shell fit for the con-
cealment of their otherwise defenceless body : in them we find
no care for their young, no mutual affection, no joint labours
for the welfare of a large community, no love — but frequent out-
bursts of an angry and quarrelsome temper.

The land-crabs, however, afford us a remarkable instance
of that wonderful migratory instinct which in the following
chapters we shall have frequent occasion to admire. These
animals generally spend their days in holes and cavities
among the mountains ; but when the season for spawning
arrives, vast armies of them set out from the hills, marching in
a direct line towards the sea-shore, for the purpose of depositing
their eggs, which are attached to the lower surface of the abdo-
men and are washed off by the surf. On this grand expedition
they pursue so direct a line to the place of their destination
that scarcely anything will divert their course ; even the most
formidable obstacles are overcome by their unyielding perse-
verance. When they have effected the purpose for which they
undertook their journey, they recommence their toilsome march
to their upland retreats. They set out after nightfall, and
steadily advance until the approach of daylight warns them to
seek concealment in the inequalities of the ground, or among
any kind of rubbish, where they lie ensconced until the stars
again invite them to pursue their undeviating course. Of the

188 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

thousands that originally left the damp forest-grounds, com-
paratively but a small number return, emaciated and exhausted,
to their mountain-burrows, and a few weeks after, millions of
the little crabs which have been hatched on the shore may be
seen making their way up to the hills. Who can explain to us
the mysterious voice which prompts them to seek an unknown
home, so different from the scene where they first drew breath ;
who tells them that far from the torrid shore they are sure to
find a more congenial retreat in the cool shades of the forest ;
and who, throughout countless years, directs these constant mi-
grations from the sea to the uplands, and then again from the
mountains to the brink of the ocean ?

189

CHAPTER XXII.

INSECTS.

Their Integuments — Their Metamorphoses — Larvae — Pupse — Perfect Insects-
Antennae — Eyes — Masticatory Organs — Chewing and Sucking Insects— Digestive
Organs of the Carnivorous and Herbivorous Insects — Motions of Insects — •
Elateridse— Aquatic Insects — Foot of the Fly — Wings — Respiratory Organs —
Tracheae and Stigmata — The Butterfly's Wing under the Microscope — Defences
of Insects — Vitality — Concealments — The Caddice Fly — The Small Ermine Moth
— The Clothes Moth — Hunting Manoeuvres of the Mantis — The Ant Lion — The
Larva of the Tiger Beetle — Insect Plagues — Insects Useful to Man — Their
Numberless Enemies — Their Wonderful Instincts — Care for their Young — The
Rhynchites Betulae — Dung and Sexton Beetles — Their Remarkable Intelli-
gence— The Sand Wasp — Ichneumon Flies — Breeze Flies — The Earwig — The
Mole Cricket — The Dirt Dauber and Trypoxylon — The Leaf Cutters — The
Carpenter Bee — The Chartergus Nidulans— The Hive Bee — The Ants and Ter-
mites.

THOUGH small in size, the Insects are great, by their infinite
varieties of form, their prodigious numbers, their wonderful
organization, their astonishing metamorphoses, and their truly
marvellous instincts. From whatever point of view we may
consider them, they constantly afford new subjects of admira-
tion and delight ; for all that is either beautiful and graceful,
interesting and alluring, or curious and singular in every other
class and" order of the animal world has been combined and
concentrated in these miniature masterpieces of Nature, a
glimpse into whose economy opens to every reflective mind the
portals of the spiritual world, and plainly reveals the Deity who
called them into life.

A thick and weighty harness of chalk, like that of the crus-
taceans, would have been far too cumbersome for delicate and
tiny creatures, generally destined for rapid motions; and thus we
find the insects covered with a thin vestment of incorruptible
chitine, a hornlike substance equally light and strong, which,
without considerably adding to their weight, answers every

190 THE HARMONIES OP NATURE.

purpose of protection, and, shaped into myriads of graceful
forms, frequently glows with the most vivid colours. A robe
more beautiful and appropriate than this cannot possibly be
imagined.

A closer examination of the insect-skeleton shows us that it
consists of a number of rings or segments, either distinct or
soldered together, and forming three principal parts — the head,
the breast or thorax, and the abdomen. The head, which has
generally the form of a hollow globe, is the product of at least
three segments moulded into one, and contains the organs of
mastication, the antennae, and the eyes ; the thorax invariably
consists of three rings or segments, and bears the single or double
pair of wings which most of the perfect insects possess, as well
as the three pair of feet with which all of them are furnished ;
the abdomen, finally, is formed of a larger number of distinct
segments, freely moveable one above the other.

Such is the ground-plan according to which the skeleton of
all insects is constructed, but their forms are varied to answer
an infinite variety of wants : for the insects gnaw and devour
all organic substances without exception ; they feed upon the
whole vegetable kingdom, from the palm to the lichen, and
from the hardest root to the most delicate blossom. They
are not only at perpetual feud among themselves, but engaged
in constant war with the higher animals ; they inhabit every
climate ; they select every conceivable dwelling-place, from the
caverns of the subterranean world to the pinnacles of the Alps ;
and thus we can conceive the endless varieties of structure,
of instruments, and weapons which the immense range of
their existence naturally requires.

More than one hundred thousand different species of insects
have already been described by entomologists, and each of them
is distinguished from its nearest relations by some modification
of structure best adapted to its peculiar sphere of life. The
most retentive memory would be utterly unable to embrace
this amazing variety of forms ; and yet a vast number of insects
is still utterly unknown, and their countless legions constitute
but a part of the animated beings that people our little earth
— itself but a speck in the boundless universe ! How wondrous
are the works of the Creator — how beyond all human conception
His wisdom and His power !

METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS.

191

The immense gallery of insect life swells into still grander
proportions when we reflect that each insect passes through
several metamorphoses or stages of development before it
assumes its perfect form, exhibiting as it were several distinct
beings during the course of its existence. At first it issues from
the egg either as a head-and-footless maggot (a\ or provided with
a head and six thoracic legs like a true larva (6), or possessing a
still larger number of feet like a caterpillar (c). A boundless appe-
tite, an insatiable voracity characterise this first juvenile age of
insect life. Thus, to mention but one instance, the silk worm, which
at its birth weighs but the hundredth part of a grain, devours
in thirty days more than an ounce of leaves, sixty thousand
times more than its original weight ! According to this mea-

Maggot of Hornet.

Larva of Calosoma
sycophanta.

Apple Moth, with the

Caterpillar and

ChrysaLi?.

sure a child, which when born weighs about ten pounds, would
consume during the same period no less than 6,000 hundred-
weight of food, to the amazement and terror of its parents. No
wonder that so vast a supply of aliment produces a rapid growth,
and that, during the thirty days of her existence the silkworm
larva increases 9,500 times in weight ; no wonder also that she
soon feels her dress too narrow, and more than once sheds her
skin to provide room for the swelling proportions of her body !
But now a period of inactivity succeeds, and, generally after the
fifth shedding of her skin, a great change takes place in the

192

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE,

habits of the gormandizing larva. A total want of appetite
succeds her voracious hunger, she seems to loathe the succulent
leaf on which she had feasted, and seeks a quiet retreat to
undergo her next transformation.

In the pupa state she now does penance for her previous ex-
cesses, and, like an Indian fakir, remains in a motionless con-
dition. Frequently the skin she last has shed,
forms a dry and shrivelled covering in which
she remains encased, or she spins for herself a
silken dwelling in which she awaits her trans-
formation, or prepares a little cavity in the
earth and lines it with silk for the same pur-
pose, or suspends herself from the under-
surface of a leaf. But during this period
of apparent rest, this total seclusion from
the outer world, the greatest activity prevails
within ; all the organs needed by the perfect
insect are developed, and when their formation
is completed, she bursts her bonds, and, armed
with wings, emerges to the light of day as a

Nymph or Pupa state » > a a.

of Homet (magnified). ]ustrous beetle or as a gay butterfly — the

symbol of immortality.
But the changes of form in passing from one state to another

are not in all instances so complete : frequently the larva bears

a more or less close resem-
blance to the perfect insect ;
and many pupae continue to
feed, or to move about, or ex-
hibit rudiments of wings, when
winged in the perfect state.
This incomplete metamorpho-
sis, confined to repeated shed-
dings of the skin, takes place
for instance with the dragon-
fly, the grasshopper, and the
cockroach ; while a complete
transformation characterises

"the beetles, the butterflies, the flies, ants, wasps, and bees.
The perfect insect ceases to grow ; its appetite is moderate,

or even totally fails. Its chief care is the preservation of its

The Hornet. (Vespa crabro.)

USES OF THE ANTENNAE. 193

species, and after having laid its eggs it generally lies down
and dies.

The jointed antennae of the innumerable insect tribes exhibit
a wonderful diversity of form ; now drawn out into a thread,
and now ending in a knob — now pectinated like a comb, and now
expanding like a fan. We find them smooth or hairy, simple
or divided into branches, projecting or recurved — sometimes
short, sometimes of a length far surpassing that of the body.
When the insect is in motion, they are stretched out and ex-
panded to their fullest extent; but by many species they are im-
mediately retracted on the occurrence of any loud or sudden noise
— and then there is in many cases a channel or groove ready to
receive, to hide, and to protect them against many injuries.

That organs so beautifully constructed and so carefully pro-
vided for, must necessarily be of the highest importance, is
evident ; but strange to say, their use has not yet been fully
ascertained. The late Professor Erichson of Berlin discovered
their solid case to be perforated by a number of little holes lined
internally with a delicate membrane; and as the air can thus
easily penetrate into their cavity, this distinguished entomologist
considered their function to be that of smelling. Others, again,
are of opinion that they are auditory organs, and in many cases
there can be no doubt that their office is that of touching or
feeling other objects. Thus the honey-bee when constructing
its cells ascertains their proper direction and size by means of
the extremities of its antennaB, while the same insect, when
evidently affected by sounds, keeps them motionless in one
direction as if in the act of listening.

Wherever the sense of smelling in insects may reside, there can
be no doubt of its exquisite acuteness, particularly in those species
that live on decayed or putrid animal substances, and occupy a
high rank among the scavengers of Nature. Scarcely does a sub-
stance answering their wants drop to the ground, than the dung-
beeties are seen hurrying along from distances proportionally
as remarkable as the vast spaces measured by the vulture's eye.
A loud and joyous hum accompanies their active flight, which
in strength and duration, surpasses that of all other beetles, and
materially assists them in the performance of their useful labours.

Sir Emerson Tennent was once present at the death of an
elephant, and saw how the flies, of which not one was visible

194

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

but a moment before, arrived in clouds and blackened the
body by their multitude : scarcely an instant was allowed to
elapse for the commencement of decomposition, no odour of
putrefaction could be discerned ; yet some peculiar smell of
mortality, instantly spreading to a distance, must have struck
the sharp scent of the insects and summoned them to the feast.

The sense of smelling is no less
acute in the ants. When in a
tropical climate — where, as is
well known, these active little
creatures chiefly abound — a small
piece of sugar covered with pa-
per is placed in the centre of
a table, not many minutes will
elapse before a troop of ants is
seen to approach, and to form
a long line in order to convey
the booty in safety to the floor of
the room. The sense of smell-
ing can have been their only
guide to a substance which to our
grosser olfactory nerves seems
but faintly scented even at a
short distance. While nothing
positive is known about the or-
gans which are the seat of this
remarkable faculty, the eyes of

A. Section of eye of Cockchafer. insects Strike US at OnCe by

B. Section of eye of Dragonfly. . .

c. section of the same still more magm- their large size and brilliancy.

c facets, 6 external convex surfaces, d base, They do not tlim in their
a anterior chamber between facet and -iris, i , 1-1 nnvo >,,,+ +V>i'o

e pupillary aperture, / cones filled with SOCKCtS IIKC GUIS, DUt tniS

want of motion is amply com-
pensated for by their amazing number; for the microscope
teaches us that they are not simple like ours, but composed of
a multitude of distinct organs of vision, divided from each other
by interstices covered with a dark pigment, and converging to the
centre of the eye, each possessing its separate cornea, and each
provided with a separate filament of the optic nerve. Exter-
nally they form a network of transparent facets, generally of
an hexagonal shape, which by the refraction of the light produce

THE EYES OF INSECTS. 195

the peculiar satin-like lustre of the insect's eye. Their number
is almost incredible, for in the domestic fly there have
been reckoned 4,900, in the cockchafer 6,300, and in some
butterflies no less than 60,000 eyes, each receiving its separate
ray of light and transmitting the impression to the brain !

The use of this compound structure of the organs of vision is
evident, for had the eye of the insect been simple as ours, it
would have required a large number of muscles, occupying a
considerable space and adding greatly to the weight of the
head, to turn it in its socket, and a constant attention and
change of position to protect its owner from the manifold
dangers to which he is exposed ; while now, with its thousands
of eyes collected into two prominent and immoveable groups, and
economizing both space and labour, the insect without any effort
constantly commands a vast horizon.

Who would not have imagined that instruments so prodigally
endowed would have sufficed for every purpose? but in many cases
two or three minute and simple eyes, situated on the forehead
or summit of the head, have been superadded to their number.

The celebrated physiologist Professor Miiller is of opinion that
the function of these simple eyes is confined exclusively to the
perception of near objects, and that of the compound eyes to
more distant ones ; so that we thus find the sight of many insects
as capable of embracing every range of vision, as civilized man
with the artificial assistance of his near and farsighted spectacles.

The simple eyes or ocelli constitute the only organs of vision
in the larva state, where the compound eye would clearly have
been superfluous ; as at this early stage of their development
insects are not obliged to seek their food at any great distance,
and, were they able to perceive an enemy from afar, have not the
power of escaping by a rapid flight.

As the food of the different orders of insects is extremely
various, it may easily be imagined that their mouths must also
be very differently constructed. In those which bite, tear, or
lacerate, it is furnished with very strong jaws, often notched or
serrated on the inner side into the appearance of teeth, and
sometimes decussating like the blades of a pair of scissors ; in
others it consists of a tube or instrument for suction, either simple
or armed with various kinds of appendages.

Thus in the Tabanidae it is furnished with sharp lancets, to

o 2

196

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

enable these parasitic blood-suckers to pierce the skin of other
animals; while in the common house-flies, whose food is entirely
fluid and easily accessible, all the parts of the mouth are soft
and fleshy. In the bee the part employed in gathering or
sucking honey is not tubular but solid, and consists of a long
tapering tongue formed of an immense number of short annular
divisions, and densely covered throughout its entire length with
long erectile hairs. Closely packed up and concealed when at
rest, it reaches to a great distance when actively employed, and
laps up the sweet juices concealed at the bottom of the flowers
by a constant succession of short and quick extensions and
contractions.

In the moths and butterflies the sucking-tube, tongue, or
proboscis is rolled up like a watch-spring when at rest, but
capable of being darted forth in an instant, and sucking up with
great rapidity the nectareous fluids on which its gay volatile
possessor lives.

The carnivorous dragonfly is armed with a kind of flat pro-
boscis, with a joint in the
middle and a pair of strong
hooks or prongs at the end.
This proboscis, when the dra-
gonfly is at rest, is folded
or turned up in such a
manner as to lap over the
face like a mask; but when
the creature sees any insect
which it means to attack, it
springs suddenly for ward, and
by stretching forth the jointed
proboscis readily obtains its
prey.

The digestive apparatus of
the carnivorous insects differs
considerably from that of the
vegetable -feeders. In the for-
mer the intestine passes nearly
straight through the body
with few enlargements in its
course, and the glandular organs have a simpler structure.

Alimentary Canal of the carnivorous
Green Tiger-beetle.

DIGESTIVE POWERS OF INSECTS.

197

The wide and glandular crop (a) passes the food into a compara-
tively small stomach (h c\ and the liver (d) consists of a few
simple biliary ducts. All this corresponds with their easily diges-
tible food, while in the vegetable-eating insect the alimentary
canal is more lengthened, convoluted, and capacious, with
numerous dilatations, and the glandular organs are more
developed in order to subdue the resistance of more re-
fractory aliments. Thus in the cockchafer the stomach (6) is
extremely long ; the intestine has several enlargements or sup-
plementary stomachs, as they
might be called, for extract-
ing every nutritious particle
from the tough leaves on
which this destructive beetle
subsists ; and the liver (c c\
which is here of great mag-
nitude, has its secreting sur-
face much extended by the
development of innumerable
minute casca from its pri-
mary ducts.

In the class of insects we
find all the various modes of
motion united that are but
partially scattered among
other animals. They walk,
they run, they jump, they
climb, dig, and burrow
with the quadrupeds; they
rival the birds in rapidity of
flight, they glide along with

Alimentary Canal of the vegetable -eating

the agility of serpents, and Cockchafer.

the fishes are not more perfect swimmers ; so that it may be
said without exaggeration that these restless little creatures,
formed alike for the earth, the waters, and the air, give life to
every portion of our globe, The construction of their feet
corresponds in an admirable manner with their various
modes of motion, so that a mere glance at an insect's legs
suffice to give us an idea of its way of life. Thus the exces-
sively strong forelegs of the mole-cricket, with their broad

198

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Gryliotalpa vulgaris.
(Mole-cricket).

feet divided into sharp and claw-shaped segments, evidently
belong to an animal made for burrowing in the earth ; while

the enormous hind -legs of
the grasshopper point at
once, by their great length
and the robustness and
thickness of their thighs, to
the vast leaps which their
predaceous owner is capable
of executing. A flea is
known to clear at a single
jump a space equal to two
hundred times its own
length ; but this almost in-
credible feat is at once ex-
plained by the great size
and strength of its muscular
legs, the joints of which are,
moreover, so adapted that
it can fold them up one

within another, and in leaping they all spring out with pro
digious force.

How small and tiny are the feet of the indolent tortoise-
beetles, who, clinging to leaves, require no great agility of

motion ; how long and well-
developed those of the nimble
Cicindelidse, whose life is spent
in the constant pursuit of prey !
The racehorse and swiftest grey-
hound would be distanced by
many an insect runner, were the
size of the little creature but
equal to the strength and agility
of its limbs.

Several insects execute prodigious feats in jumping by means
of other organs than their legs. Thus the maggot of a little
black fly (Tephritia putris\ common in our richest cheeses,
accomplishes its enormous leaps somewhat in the same manner
as salmon, by taking the tail in the mouth and then suddenly

A..

a Tiger-beetle.
6 Tortoise-beetle.

THE LEGS OF INSECTS.

199

letting it go again. S warn mer dam relates that he beheld one,
which was not more than the fourth part of an inch in length,
jump out of a box six inches in depth ; which is as if a man six
feet high should raise himself in the air by jumping 144 feet,
a piece of agility evidently far surpassing the powers of Leotard
himself !

The Podurinse, or springtails, make use with a similar effect
of the long-forked process with which their body is terminated :
while at rest, it is bent forwards be-
neath the abdomen, but on being
suddenly extended backwards it jerks

its owner high into the air.

The Elateridse leap in a still more sprmgtaii.

extraordinary manner. Their legs are so short that they are
unable to right themselves again when placed on their back ;
but Providence, which leaves none of its creatures unprotected,
has given them another means to ex-
tricate themselves from this unpleasant
situation. A strong spine situated be-
neath the thorax fits at pleasure into a
small cavity on the upper part of the ab-
domen, and having been withdrawn from
its socket, springs back with consider-
able, force; thus jerking the body seve-
ral inches high into the air, and enabling
it to regain its natural position. If the
elater does not alight upon his feet
in the first instance, he repeats his leap
until he has gained his point.

Legs such as those of the grasshopper or mole-cricket would
have been but of little use to insects dwelling in the water ; but
as we find the feet of the seals and walruses, which likewise
spend the greater part of their existence in water, con-
verted into fins which enable them to emulate the fishes in
swimming, thus also the feet of the aquatic insects are admira-
>bly adapted to their peculiar mode of life.

The four posterior legs of the Dytiscidse or water-beetles are
not only broad and flattened like oars, but ciliated along their
internal margin, by which means the rowing surface is still more

Elater noct'ihicus (C]iek-
beetie).

200

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

a Water-beetle.
6 Boat-fly.

increased. A great development of thigh gives the move-
ments the necessary force, and the
broad, flat, sharply-margined body is
well adapted for cleaving the waters
with facility. Thus equipped, these
voracious insects, resting motionless
on the surface of the water with their
heads downwards, in order to watch
for their prey beneath, dart down
upon it with surprising swiftness, and
make great havoc not only among other water-insects, but
even among the smaller fishes. Their larvaB, distinguished
,by a long shrimplike body, and using their tail as their chief
instrument of locomotion, are no less active and voracious
than the full-grown insects, so that in both forms the
Dytisci are among the most mischievous animals that can infest
a fishpond.

The NotonectidaB, or boat-flies, are no less beautifully formed
for rapid progression in the water. They generally swim on
their backs, which are shaped like the bottom of a boat ; and
the hind-legs, which are thrice as long as the forelegs, have like
those of the Dytisci a fringe of bristles along their edge, by which
the surface with which they strike the water in swimming is
greatly increased. Their eyes are so placed that they
are able to see both above and below the surface of the
water, so that at the approach of danger they instantly descend
and vanish from the sight. Woe to the unfortunate snail or
aquatic Oniscus they descry in their excursions, for with the
rapidity of lightning they dart upon their victim from a distance
of several inches, and kill it almost instantaneously with a
venomous sting !

Curveting about in every direction, the small whirligigs or
Gyrini animate, during a fine summer's day,
the surface of quiet waters. The rapidity
with which they skim in undulatory circles
is not less admirable than the precision with
which they thread the mazes of their aquatic
dance, so as never to encounter and seldom
to touch each other. Their flattened and
oar-shaped hind-feet are peculiarly adapted for these graceful

Whirligig.

SUCKERS OF INSECTS.

201

evolutions, which they frequently continue for hours together
with unwearied zest, while their far longer forefeet are no less
admirably formed for seizing their prey.

Like them, the Hydrometridse may be met with in every pond
or stream, skimming along the surface,
and turning with the greatest rapidity.
The body is boat-shaped, the hind-feet
serving a§ a rudder ; while the two middle
feet brush along the surface of the water,
and give the required motion. The under
side of the body is clothed with a thick
coating of fine hairs, evidently intended to
prevent the insect from coming in contact
with the water.

By means of the strong hooks or
claws with which their feec are usually
armed, most insects are able to climb with great facility on
a rough surface ; while others are provided with a more com-
plicated apparatus, which enables them to ascend vertically on

Hydrometra stagnorum.

Foot of Domestic Fly.

Foot of Bibio febrilis.

the surface of glass, or to remain suspended in an inverted
position from the ceiling. We have a familiar example in
the house-fly, which has the extremities of its feet furnished
with two funnel-shaped membranous suckers, moveable by
muscles in every direction, by which they are capable of ex-
hausting the air on very smooth surfaces — thus causing the
pressure of the atmosphere to sustain the weight of the body.
The area of these suckers is so beautifully adjusted to the

202

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

weight of the insect, that the pressure of the air alone
is more than sufficient to sustain it without exertion, and,
as it were, to set the force of gravity at defiance. In the
Bibio febrilis the foot is furnished with three suckers, and
in the Cymbex lutea with five. Many other species, amongst
which is the common wasp, are similarly furnished with cushions
and analogous suckers, which enable them to ascend vertically
on glass.

Most of the perfect in-
sects have their body most
admirably organised for
flight. In all its parts it
is traversed by numerous
air-tubes, communicating
with several external open-
ings or spiracles, and not
only branching out into
numberless ramifications,
so as to penetrate even
the smallest and most
delicate organs, but fre-
quently also dilating into
vesicles or sacklike expan-
sions, the size and number
of which is always in exact
proportion to the powers
of flight ; their development
being most considerable in
the bees, flies, and butter-
flies, while there is not
the slightest trace of them
in the wingless larvae, or
in insects that constantly
reside on the ground.
Thus by a most beautiful mechanism the tracheae or air-
vessels not only abundantly supply the insect with all the
oxygen needed for its active habits of life— they not only act as
lungs or respiratory organs, but diminish at the same time the
specific gravity of its body, and enable it to support itself on
the wing with less muscular effort. The spiracles, stigmata, or

Tracheal System of Water Scorpion.
a head, 6 first pair of legs, c first segment of the
thorax, d second pair of wings, e second pair
of legs, / tracheal trunk, g one of the stigmata,
h air-sac.

FLIGHT OP INSECTS. 203

breathing-pores through which the air enters and is discharged,
and which are generally visible on the exterior of the body of the
insect as a series of pores along each margin of the wider-sur-
face, are also most admirable instances of Provident Wisdom.
For to prevent the entrance of minute particles of dust or soot —
which, were their orifices widely open, would be continually enter-
ing and disturbing the functions of respiration — they are generally
furnished with a sieve,
consisting either of an
interlacement of minute
branches, as in the com-
mon fly, or of a mem-
brane perforated with
minute holes, as in the
larva of the cockchafer ;
and thus in every detail

of insect economy We Spiracle of Common Fly.

find models of perfection worthy of an Almighty Hand.

The articulated abdomen, extremely moveable in those
insects which sustain the longest and most powerful flight,
serves as a rudder, like the tail in birds ; and the wings are
invariably situated as near as possible to the centre of gravity, so
that the weight they have to carry may be equally balanced, and
their task rendered more easy. These organs, so fragile and
seemingly so weak, are frequently endowed with wonderful
powers, so that in point of celerity many insects, comparatively
to their size, fly much quicker than any birds. It has been
calculated that the common fly in its ordinary flight makes with
its wings about 600 strokes, which convey it five feet every
second; but if -alarmed, their velocity can be increased six or
sevenfold, or to thirty or thirty-five feet in the same period— a
speed which emulates even that of the greyhound or the hare.
The strength of muscle and nerve requisite for such a rapid
action is truly amazing, and beautiful indeed must be the
structure capable of exertions such as these !

As in the birds, the powers of flight are very unequally dis-
tributed among the insects, but always in strict accordance with
their wants. Wings would have been perfectly useless to the
numerous parasitic tribes, whose sphere of existence is confined
to the narrowest limits ; and the countless hosts of creeping or

204 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

running larvae, from which, after incalculable losses, 'the winged
legions of the beetles and flies emerge, are likewise doomed to a
wingless state. Where food is always near at hand in inexhausti-
ble quantities, or w7here, as in the grasshoppers, the leaping
faculty is extremely developed, the powers of flight are propor-
tionally less active, while they appear to perfection in such vege-
table-feeders as are obliged to roam about constantly from flower
to flower, or in those predaceous insects that feed upon a
volatile prey scarcely less active than themselves. Thus we
see the dragonfly darting with the velocity of a hawk over
rivulets and ponds, over meadows and hedges, and rivalling the
sparrow in the extermination of gnats and flies. While it
performs its evolutions, the delicate transparent tissue of its
large gossamer pinions gleams in the broad sunshine with
all the colours of the rainbow; but still richer tints, a still
more gorgeous metallic brilliancy adorns the wings of many
beetles and butterflies.

We admire the mosaic works of the Italian artists, where
thousands of minute stones are joined together with such con-
summate skill as to deceive the eye, and rival the finest
pictures in harmony of outline and colours ; but yet how coarse
are these masterpieces of human skill when compared with the
texture of the butterfly's wing, where countless scales, undis-
tinguishable by the naked eye, form patterns of the most ex-
quisite beauty!

On examining a plate of mosaic through a microscope of very
moderate strength, it looks no better than the roughest patch-
work of a savage, while the unparalleled perfection of the butter-
fly's wing first comes to light under a strong magnifying power.
Then it is seen covered with regular rows of scales, each row
overlapping a portion of the next, so that the surface appears
tiled like the roof of a house ; and each scale shows itself regu-
larly marked by narrow longitudinal ribbings, and furnished
with a sort of handle at one end, by which it is fitted into a
minute socket attached to the surface of the insect. Each scale
consists of two superficial coloured laminaa, inclosing a central
lamina of structureless membrane, the surface of which is
highly polished, and which acts as a foil to increase their bril-
liancy by reflecting back the light that passes through them.

Thus each scale is in itself a masterpiece of art, and many

THE WINGS OF INSECTS. 205

thousands of these minute gems are required to deck the wings
of a single butterfly. No monarch is more richly robed
than this mean little insect, which each summer brings forth in
millions !

Pursued by a thousand enemies, encompassed by a thousand
dangers, the insects must long since have perished, had not the
Beneficent Creator provided them with defences sufficient to
counterbalance the perils which continually menace their exist-
ence. Many, without being obliged to use the least exertion,
are protected by their colour or their form against numberless
attacks. The grey darkly-spotted Curculio nebulosus is so like
the soil upon which he is generally found, that he will de-
ceive even the searching eye of the entomologist; and the
Cassida viridis or common green tortoise-beetle, often seen
during the summer months in gardens on the leaves of mint,
is so like in colour to the herbs on which it lives, that, still fur-
ther protected by its usual immobility and flattened form, it
can hardly be distinguished from an excrescence of the plant.

The wings of almost all the moths are mottled, and variegated
with dull colours, so that these hesperian or nocturnal insects
need not shelter themselves under cover, but securely repose
during the day in the crevices of the bark of trees, or on old
walls and palings; and being perfectly motionless, their colours
harmonise so exactly with these objects that they are over-
looked by their enemies. To cite but one example, the wings of
the English lappet-moth so ex-
actly resemble, both in shape and
colour, an arid brown leaf, as
to deceive the most inquisitive
eyes.

Even the brightest of our but-
terflies are similarly protected.
The beautiful Van essse, the upper Lappet -moth.

surface of whose wings is so richly illumined, are on the under-
side all black or brown, or striped with grey, so that it is difficult
to distinguish them from the ground or the trunks of trees, on
which they repose with folded wings.

Several of the beetles belonging to the families of the Trogidse
and Curculionidse, by the spinelike protuberances and deep
sulcations of their wing-cases, resemble the dried hispid seeds

206 THE HARMONIES OP NATURE

of plants. But the delusion of form and colour is nowhere
carried to such perfection as in the family of the Phasmidse,

Peacock Butterfly. Red Admiral Butterfly.

(Vanessa Io.) (Vanessa alalanta.)

popularly known under the name of c walking-sticks' and c walk-
ing leaves.' The latter, exhibiting the
most cunning of all Nature's devices for
the preservation of her creatures, are
found in the Indian jungles in all varie-
ties of hues, from the pale-yellow of an
opening bud to the rich green of the
full-blown leaf, and the withered tint of
decay. So perfect is the imitation of a
leaf in structure and articulation, that
these amazing insects, when at rest, are
. almost undistinguishablefrom the foliage
around ; not only are the wings modelled

to resemble ribbed and fibrous follicles, but every joint of the
legs is expanded into a broad plait, like a half-opened leaflet.
They rest on their abdomen, the legs serving to drag them slowly
along, and thus the flatness of their attitude adds still further
to the appearance of a leaf. This wonderful plantlike semblance
extends even to the eggs, which might at first sight be mistaken
for the deeply-ribbed seeds of various umbelliferous plants.

Many insects are defended by the extreme hardness of their
external coverings, which, though not capable of resisting the
powerful beak of a raptorial bird, still shield them against the
attacks of many an enemy of their own class. The- flinty hard-
ness of a beetle's coat-of-mail will frequently set the pin of
the entomologist at defiance, and even the skin of the common
horse-fly is so tough that the utmost pressure of the finger and
thumb will hardly deprive the little creature of its life.

Others are endowed with so wonderful a vitality that they
resist for a length of time, or survive almost incredible injuries.

VITALITY OF INSECTS. 207

Thus grasshoppers will sometimes outlive immersion in boil-
ing-water, or bear, without expiring, the removal of their intes-
tines ; a mite has been known to live eleven weeks, without
food, gummed to the point of a pin; and Swammerdam
affirms that the chameleon-fly will retain its vital powers for
forty-eight hours after being immersed in spirits of wine.
The wonderful vitality of insects is shown also in the compa-
ratively little pain they appear to feel from injuries, which to us
would occasion excruciating torment, or instant death. This
insensibility is manifestly a wise and merciful provision of the
Almighty towards those of His creatures which, of all others,
are most liable to accidents from the number and variety of their
enemies.

Many insects seek to escape from danger by feigning
death. The larva of Hydrophilus piceus becomes suddenly flac-
cid and soft on being touched, as if it had long ceased to live ;
and the common dungchafer, when touched, or in fear, sets out
its legs as stiff as if they were made of iron-wire, and remains
perfectly motionless. At the approach of danger the Buprestida?
and many of the weevil-beetles drop down from the leaf on
which they feasted, and then even the keenest eye is frequently
unable to distinguish them from the ground on which they fell.
The caterpillars of the looper-
moths when at rest support ^

themselves for hours by means
of their hinder-feet only, rais-
ing the body high in the air,
and preserving it in a stiff
straight line, or in a curve.
The colour of the skin exactly
resembles that of the stem or
bark of the tree upon which

the caterpillar feeds, and so caterpillar ef Looper-moth.

complete is the deception tnat

a person, after having had one of these deceiving masqueraders
pointed out to him, can hardly be persuaded that it is anything
else than a twig. Thanks to its attitude, it deceives the numerous
small warblers which are constantly searching for insects among
foliage ; while other caterpillars, such as those of the hawk-
moths, endeavour to repel the attacks of their enemies by

208 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

assuming attitudes of a threatening or terrific character. A

considerable number of insects
defend themselves by the secre-
tion of poisonous or foetid scents
or fluids. Thus many of the
tropical ants emit a corrosive
acid, which, infused into the wound
caused by their mandibles, pro-

Caterpillar of Hawk-moth. dUC6S the m°St excruciating pain.

Woe to the naturalist who, ig-
norant of the fact, endeavours to break off a shoot of the Tri-
plaris, or merely knocks against this tree, whose hollow branches
harbour one of the most ferocious ants, for thousands will in-
stantly issue from small round lateral openings in the plant, and
fall upon him with fury ! The touch of a red-hot iron is not
more painful than their bite, and the inflammation and pain
last for several days after.

But the most extraordinary insects possessing this species of
defence are the beetles called bombardiers. The most common
species (Brachinus cr^pifcms), when pursued by some formidable
enemy, seem at first to have no mode of escape, when suddenly a
loud explosion is heard ; and a blue smoke, attended by a very
disagreeable scent, is seen to proceed from its anus, and this
immediately stops the progress of its assailant. When the latter
has recovered from the effects of this discharge, and the pursuit is
renewed, a second in like manner arrests its course. The little
artilleryman can fire his gun twenty times in succession, if
necessary, and so gain time to effect his escape. The smoke
has a strong and pungent odour, very similar to that of nitric
acid ; it is caustic, and produces on the skin the sensation of
burning. Other insects, to whom such energetic means of defence
have been denied, have recourse to concealment for their safet}^.
Thus the small aquatic beetles creep under the mud, to be
secure, while feeding, from the larger predaceous sorts which
surround them. The Keduvius personatus, a species of bug,
hides itself under a thick coat of dust, which answers the double
purpose of stratagem and protection ; and some of the tortoise-
beetles have the still more singular custom of sheltering them-
selves under a canopy affixed to their tail, and formed of their
own excrement ; this they elevate in the air, bringing it over

CADDICE-WORMS.

209

their body, precisely the same as we should hold an um-
brella.

Though caterpillars are frequently protected against injury
by tufts of hairs, by acrid secretions, by stinging properties, or
by closely resembling in colour the leaves upon which they feed,
yet concealment is their most ordinary mode of defence. Some-
times the whole brood spins a common web, like a large tent,

Caddice-worms.

under which all the community for a part of their lives reside ;
sometimes every individual rolls himself up in a leaf, like a
solitary hermit, so as to be completely hidden, and inaccessible
to his enemies.

The caterpillars of the caddice-flies, so common in streams and
ponds of water, enclose themselves in moveable tubes, and crawl
about, like their representatives the hermit-crabs, at the bottom

210 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

of the liquid element. During the inactive chrysalis state, it is
necessary that the open end of these cylindrical cases should be
sufficiently closed to prevent the intrusion of enemies, and still
admit the water necessary for their existence ; but a most admira-
ble instinct has taught the sagacious little creatures to provide
for this want by the interweaving of a grate, or portcullis, at
each end of their fortress, which at the same time keeps out
intruders, and admits the water. Several dendritic caterpillars
arm their cases in a no less curious manner with thorns taken
from the tree itself on which they dwell, thus causing the
nest to harmonize so perfectly with surrounding objects that it
is not very easily perceived. The thorns are all disposed with

Small Ermine Moths.

their points outwards, and are stuck into a strong glutinous
material of which the body of the case is composed, like the
spikes of a chevaux-de-frise. As long as the caterpillar remains
in its larval state, and is obliged to feed, it traverses the
branches freely, carrying with it the prickly home, and bearing
the whole of its weight as it moves. But when the pupal stage
has nearly arrived, the nest is suspended to the branch by
strong silken threads, and thenceforth remains immoveable.

Among the social caterpillars those of the Small Ermine
Moth deserve particular notice. They live in large tents, placed

ERMINE MOTHS. 211

among the branches of some tree, and composed of silken
threads, which are loosely crossed and recrossed in various
directions. From this citadel the caterpillars issue in vast
numbers, each individual spinning a strong silken thread as it
proceeds, which acts as a guide to the nest, just as the thread of
Ariadne led Theseus through the mazes of the Cretan labyrinth.
When once these caterpillars have taken possession of a tree,
they are sure to strip it of its leaves as completely as if the
breath of winter had laid them low.

It is a very curious sight to watch the systematic manner in
which these troublesome insects set about their work ; how they
send out pioneers, which lead the way to new branches, either by
crawling up to them, or by lowering themselves to them by means
of their silken cordage ; and how the vanguard is soon followed
by a troop of ever-hungry companions.

Though very conspicuous, especially when making their way
from bough to bough along their silken bridges, they are secure
from the attacks of sparrows or other small birds; for their
threads, traversing the branches in all directions, act as an
effectual barrier, by striking against the wings and terrifying
their aggressors. These threads are very elastic, and of marvel-
lous strength, considering their tenuity, producing most uncom-
fortable sensations when they come across the face. Thus these
destructive caterpillars are able to rob the orchards with com-
parative impunity, and the only way to prevent their damages
is to destroy their nests in early spring, before they have had
time to sally forth.

The industry of the clothes-moth in weaving its little den of
refuge is no less remarkable. Having spun a thin coating of
silk round its body, it cuts filaments of wool or fur close to the
thread of the cloth, and applies the pieces to the outside of its
case, which covering it never leaves except in cases of urgent
necessity. When it wishes to feed it puts out its head at either
end of the case, as best suits its convenience. When inclined to
change its position, it protrudes its head and about half its body,
dragging its case by fixing its hind-legs firmly in it ; and when,
from its increase in size, the case becomes too small, it makes
an addition to it at each end. This operation can be readily
traced by transferring it from cloth of one colour to another, when
each addition will be conspicuous from the difference of colour.

p 2

212 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

The insects are not only provided with abundant means of
defence — -they are equally well equipped for aggressive warfare.
The herbivorous genera, which are by far the most abundant,
require, of course, no extraordinary weapons or stratagems for
procuring their subsistence ; wherever they are called into exis-
tence they find the table richly furnished, and their innume-
rable legions peacefully share in the countless fruits, leaves,
blossoms, stems, and roots of the forests and the fields.

The parasitical insects likewise lead an easy life, sipping the
juices which others have elaborated, and indolently quaffing at
perennial fountains ; but the case is very different with the
predaceous insects, which, like the carnivorous quadrupeds
and birds of prey, can only maintain themselves by artifice or
violence, by swiftness or patience, and, after long delays and
exertions, are frequently only rewarded with a meagre repast.
Yet no soldier enters the field better equipped than they ; and
though they have greater trouble in obtaining their food than
their herbivorous or parasitical relations, they are amply re-
warded by the pleasures of the chase. Many, like the carabi
and cicindela?, have strong muscular legs, which enable them
to overtake their prey, before it can conceal itself in some
crevice ; others, like the numerous genera of the hydrophili and
dytisci, trust to their expertness in swimming ; while others
again, like the libellulae, cleave the air with lightning-like
rapidity.

Many are provided with venomous stings, or with a poison
ejected through the mandible, so that their bite is fatal; in
others, the forefeet are converted into admirable instruments
for the seizure of their prey. Thus, in the common gyrinus or
water-flea, these members are much longer than the hind-legs,
and seize the smaller aquatic animals with the same dexterity
and force as the claws of the crab. In the mantidse they are

developed to an enormous length,
and formed in such a manner that
the tibia closes like a clasp-knife, on
the sharp edge of the thigh. Thus
armed, the mantis, like a cat ap-

Mantis. preaching a mouse, and under the

(Mantis religiosa.) ° ... '

cover of her leal-like disguise, moves
almost imperceptibly along, and steals towards her pre}^, fearful

LARVA OF THE ANT-LION. 213

of putting it to flight. When sufficiently near, the forelegs are
darted out to their full length, and, suddenly closing on their
unfortunate victim, cut it into two, as if it had been mowed with
a scythe.

The larva of the ant-lion, an insect which, in its perfect state,
bears no inconsiderable resemblance to a small dragonfly, has
long been famous for the manner in which it obtains its food.
Though totally unfit for the chase (as only the hinder pair of
its very feeble legs are employed for locomotion, and these
can only drag it slowly backwards), yet its industry in exca-
vating the pitfalls, which are without a parallel in the animal
kingdom, enables it fully to supply the want of speed, and
to triumph over the most active insects. Depressing the end
of its abdomen, and crawling backwards in a circular direction,
it traces a shallow trench in some sandy spot, where the soil is
as free as possible from stones, and continues this motion until
it reaches the centre, scooping up the sand all the time with
its head, and jerking it over the margin of the trench; nor
does it rest in its labours until it has at length completed a
smooth-sided conical pit, varying from one to three inches in
diameter at the top, and gradually tapering to the bottom. In
the course of its labours it frequently meets with small stenes ;
these it places upon its head, one by one, and jerks them
over the margin of the pit. If the weight happens to be too
considerable, a new plan is adopted; for, poising the stone upon
its back, it carefully walks up the ascent, with the inten-
tion of depositing its burden outside the margin. But it not
seldom happens that, before it reaches the top, an unfortunate
stumble or a jolt mocks the efforts of the little Sisyphus, and
sends the liliputian rock to the bottom of the precipice.
Any less patient workman would abandon the case as hopeless ;
but the ant-lion is not so easily disheartened, and has been seen
six times patiently to renew his attempts, until at last his
resolution was rewarded with success. It is only when the
task is utterly impracticable that the persevering engineer at
length gives in, and, leaving his half-finished pit, seeks a more
favourable spot for the formation of another.

When all obstacles are overcome, and the work is completed,
the ant-lion, eager to reap the fruits of his labour, now takes
his station at the bottom of the pit, and, to avoid scaring his

214 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

intended victims, buries himself entirely in the sand, with the
exception of the points of his expanded mandibles. It is not
long before some curious ant or inquisitive little beetle approaches
the yawning abyss ; but no sooner does it step upon the margin
of the pit, than the treacherous sand gives way under its feet;
its desperate struggles only hasten its descent, and, rolling down
the yielding sides of the pit, it is precipitated headlong into the
jaws of its concealed devourer.

Sometimes, when a more powerful insect chances to fall into
the pit, the ant-lion does not obtain a meal on such easy terms,
and a regular battle ensues; the victim, in its furious endeavours
to escape, bringing down the sand in torrents, which the ant-
lion, to avoid being overwhelmed, flings up again as fast as he
can. During this conflict a fortunate shower of sand striking
the intended prey may knock it over, and bring it within reach
of the devourer's terrible jaw, or it may give over through sheer
fatigue ; but sometimes, the pit gradually filling up, and render-
ing the slope of the sides shallower, it succeeds in making its
escape from the den, leaving the baffled 'ogre' to mourn
over the desolation of his shapeless and ruined dwelling.

Though it does not dig an artificial pitfall, the larva of the
tiger-beetle catches its prey in a somewhat similar manner. It
lives in perpendicular burrows, about a foot in depth, which it is
able to traverse with great rapidity, and which are only just of
sufficient diameter to permit the inhabitant to pass up-and-down ;
ascending to the upper portion of its burrow by means of the pair
of bent hooks that rise from a humplike projection on the lower
part of its back, and then laying its jaws level with the soil. While
in this attitude it is almost invisible, and as soon as an insect
passes by the ambushed larva the sickle-like jaws grasp it, and
it is dragged to the bottom of the tunnel, where it is devoured.
Not only is the larva carnivorous, but it is combative in pro-
portion to its voracity; so that if a straw be thrust into its bur-
row, it will fasten upon it with the obstinate fury of a bulldog, and
suffer itself to be dragged out of its home rather than let go its
supposed enemy. The burrow, which is the larva's own work,
costs it both time and trouble; the earth being loosened by means
of the feet and jaws, and then carried to the surface or the flat-
tened head.

Of the insects it may truly be said that the part they play in

RAVAGES OF INSECTS. 215

the household of Nature seems quite out of proportion to their
minute size, and that, though small in body, the miseries they
inflict on mankind are on a truly gigantic scale. They destroy
and devastate our dwellings, our fields, our meadows, our gar-
dens, and our forests : they feed upon our winter provisions,
they devour our clothing, they attack our libraries, they torment
or even kill our cattle ; and, not content with all these various
attacks upon our property, they even venture to assail our
persons, as if to mock our pretensions to the lordship of the
earth !

The celebrated entomologist Eatzeburg enumerates 650
species of insects injurious to the forests of Germany alone, and
this number may give us some idea of the innumerable hosts
which prey upon the vegetable kingdom all over the world. In all
their organs, in every stage of their development, the children
of Flora are attacked, or even utterly destroyed, over vast tracts
of territory by these omnivorous and ubiquitous creatures.

Locust-swarms often change miles and miles of fruitful fields
into a dreadful desert. In the year 1773 the larvaa of the
bostrychus xylographicus, or the typographer-beetle, of which
about 80,000 were collected on a single tree of moderate
size, destroyed above two millions of firs on the Harz moun-
tains ; and in the year 1479, the cockchafers were so numerous
in Switzerland that they caused a famine, and having been cited
before the ecclesiastical court of Lausanne to answer for their
misdeeds, were excommunicated by their enlightened judges !

These few instances suffice to show how destructive the im-
mense multiplication of the herbivorous insects may become:
and when we consider how many millions of tiny mandibles
are continually at work, grinding, sawing, cutting, maiming,
and devouring all plants, from the most humble grasses to
the stateliest, trees, we well may wonder how in spite of such
attacks our forests still bear such shady canopies, and our fields
and meadows such plentiful harvests.

But Providence, which so admirably maintains the balance
throughout the whole economy of the organic world, and com-
mands the tides to go thus far and no farther, has also set limits
to the ravages of the herbivorous insects. A rainy and change-
able spring is alone sufficient to sweep away countless myriads of
larvse while casting their skin, and thus rendered more sensitive

216 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

to the influences of the weather. Besides, they are con-
stantly decimated by legions of enemies. Carnivorous and
parasitical insects of all sorts — carabidae and hemiptera, telephori
and coccinellae, crabronidae and sphegidae, ichneumonidse and
tachini, libellulae and hemerobii — are constantly chasing them;
all the warblers — the swallow and the sparrow, the goat-sucker
and the woodpecker, the crow and the cuckoo — devour them by
thousands ; the hedgehog and the mole, the bat and the hog,
the myrmecophaga and the armadillo, annihilate myriads
of larvae, caterpillars, ants, and termites ; and finally man, with
whom they are at constant war, strains all the resources of his
genius for their destruction.

Thus, though they occasionally sweep over a country like a
hurricane or a pestilence, yet generally their ravages are
restrained within moderate bounds, and frequently prove
more beneficial than hurtful to the economy of the vegetable
kingdom.

Many species chiefly attack such plants as are already diseased,
and by hastening their destruction promote the growth of a
more vigorous generation.

An innumerable army of dung-beetles and stercoraceous flies,
of ants and termites, is constantly at work, removing the decay-
ing substances which would otherwise pollute the atmosphere ;
and even the gnats and mosquitos, whose bristly stings inflict
such misery upon man, are in another respect his benefactors, as
their larvae cleanse the stagnant waters of the swamps and
morasses, and thus prevent many noxious exhalations.

The existence of numerous birds and quadrupeds depends
upon that of the insects, which are their exclusive food; and if
the caterpillars often prove a source of great annoyance to the
gardener, we must not forget that were the insects removed, the
nightingale, the redbreast, and other delightful songsters of
the fields and groves would likewise perish.

Thus the insects indirectly contribute to our enjoyments, and
several of them are of such direct importance as to play a
considerable part in the annals of commerce. The silk-
worm, the cochineal, and the bee enrich whole nations, and
give employment to numberless artisans. The gallnuts, a not
unimportant article of trade, are produced by the sting of a
wasp (Cynips tinctoria) on the leaves of the gall -oak ; and the

INSECT LIFE. 217

punctures of the manna-fly on the bark of the manna- ash,
cause, in a similar manner, a sugary exudation extensively used
in medicine.

Many savage tribes live partly upon insects ; the termites and
several of the larger species of ants are considered a delicacy ;
and the Bushman and the Bedouin of the desert hail with de-
light the approach of the locust-swarms which fill the husband-
man with dismay. Insects are also used as ornaments. The
golden elytra of the sternocera chrysis serve to enrich the em-
broidery of the Indian zenana ; and the ladies in Brazil wear
necklaces composed of the green-and-azure wings of lustrous
chrysomelid8&, whose brilliancy rivals the costliest gems in beauty.

Thus the insects gratify in various ways the wants or the
vanity of man; and if they frequently prove a source of
annoyance or even of loss, it is in many cases only the well-
deserved punishment of human cruelty or folly. Thought-
lessly he destroys the innocent mole, the devourer of countless
grubs — the bat, whose eager appetite cleanses the land of moths
and cockchafers ; nor does he spare even the lovely songsters
of the groves, that not only charm us with their notes, but are
constantly at work preventing the dangerous increase of the
herbivorous insects.

Insect life gives us the most convincing proofs not only of
the wisdom and power of the Almighty, but also of His ineffable
goodness ; for these numberless species, so variously gifted, have
all been born for a far greater share of happiness than of sorrow.
The pangs of death are generally short — a fleeting moment ;
while their life, which, at least in the larval state, is frequently
prolonged during several years, is almost entirely devoted to
agreeable occupations. When a caterpillar is feasting on a
succulent leaf, or a bee is sipping the nectar of a flower, they
are surely enjoying life ; and who can doubt of the happiness
of a swarm of gnats maintaining for hours together their
dances in the air, or of the butterfly lightly hovering through
the forest-glades in the warm sunshine ? The hum of the beetle
and the shrill tone of the cicada, the cricket's chirp, and the
buzz of the bee give expression to sensations which are evidently
of no gloomy nature ; and as every moderate exertion of our
mental or bodily faculties calls forth agreeable feelings, we can
be well assured that the rapid course of the tiger-beetle, the

218 THE HARMONIES OP NATUKE.

prodigious leap of the grasshopper, or the aerial velocity of the
dragonfly are continual sources of enjoyment for these active
little creatures. Thus every tree, every shrub, every flower by
the roadside is the residence or the food of numbers of tiny
beings to whom existence is a pleasure. We surely do not
require the dryads or the nymphs of the ancients to animate
our groves and fields, or to lend a voice to dumb Nature; the aid
of mythological fictions is superfluous where such an exuberance
of life bursts forth from every plant, and sings the praises of the
Creator. As soon as the morning sun gilds the summits of
the mountains, millions of insects awake and stretch their limbs,
or expand their wings to enjoy the light of day ; the evening
calls forth new legions from the shady recesses of the forest, and
even the dark night rejoices in children of her own.

In the glowing noonday heat of summer all nature seems
indeed to sleep : the birds are silent, and the wild beasts of the
forest retire to their lairs ; but even then an attentive ear is still
able to distinguish among the shrubs and herbage the low con-
fused hum of numberless insects. Thus at all hours their voices
eloquently proclaim the universality of life, and the grandeur of
the Deity from whom all life proceeds !

On surveying the distribution of the two great divisions of
the insect world over the face of the earth, we find new reasons
to admire His wisdom and beneficence. Thus in the loftier
Alps, where the growth of trees is reduced to stunted proportions,
but where the meadows are still covered with a variety of beauti-
ful sweet-scented flowers, and afford the finest pasture to nume-
rous herds, the species of the carnivorous insects are at least four
times more numerous than the herbivora, many of which do not
ascend into the higher regions. This predominance of the
former is evidently intended to keep in check the enemies of
vegetation, which at this considerable elevation, where the sum-
mer is but short and insectivorous birds are rare, requires a
greater protection than in the lowlands. Supposing the propor-
tion reversed, then the Alpine meadows would no longer be able
to sustain those numerous herds which are the pride of Switzer-
land ; and regions which now largely contribute to the welfare
of the human race would lose a great part of their value, and be
converted into the worthless feeding-ground of a lower class of
animals.

INSTINCT OF INSECTS. 219

In the insect world the wonders of instinct may truly be said
to have reached their highest development, as if Providence had
wished to indemnify these little creatures for their want of phy-
sical strength by the sharpening of their intellectual faculties.
Like the protecting aegis of Minerva, instinct preserves the
insect from a thousand dangers, teaches it to seek its food in
the most profitable manner, accompanies it throughout the
various phases of its life, watches over the infant brood, and
even compels the individual to subordinate his whole exist-
ence to the welfare of the state or community of which he forms
a part.

How beautiful is the care which the insects bestow upon their
progeny ! — how admirable the instinct which teaches them to
lay their eggs in those places where the larvae as soon as they
come forth are sure to find the most appropriate food !

At the beginning of August, when the fruits of the nut-tree
are still young and tender, the nut-weevil (Balaninus nucum)
pierces the soft rind with her long slender snout, deposits
her egg in the puncture, and continues this operation until her
whole provision is exhausted. The nut, being but slightly injured,
continues to grow and ripen for the benefit of the larva, which
feeds deliciously upon the kernel in which it is imbedded.
When in autumn the nut drops upon the ground, it creeps out
of its snug little nursery, and immediately burrows into the
earth, where it assumes the pupa state, and in the following
summer comes forth as a perfect insect.

Another species of rynchophorous insects, the rynchites
auratus, seeks the sunny side of an apple, detaches a small
piece of the skin, lays an egg in a little hole which it hollows
out, and then covers it again so carefully with the detached rind
that it is almost impossible to find out the place. The larva
does not live upon the fleshy part of the fruit, but bores its way
to the kernels ; and after having devoured them again pierces
the apple, and dropping down undergoes its pupal transforma-
tion in the earth.

The rynchites betulae divides the borders of the birch-leaves
in a most artistical manner, so as to be able to roll them up
into a funnel, in which it deposits an egg. At the same time it
also partially cuts through the middle rib of the leaf, so as to
cause it gradually to wither. When the larva comes forth, it thus

220 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

finds the dried leaf-substance on which it feeds ready prepared for
its use ; and after having exhausted its stores, drops down to
seek a new refuge in the bosom of mother earth. The rynchites
betuleti, which is very destructive in the vineyards of the Ehine
and the Moselle, is equally clever in rolling together several of
the top-leaves of a branch like a cigar, by covering their borders
with a glutinous substance, and then smoothing them down with
the hind-part of its body.

A great number of similar examples might be cited among
the rynchophorous insects alone, of which more than 7,000

Calandra longipes.

species have already been described by entomologists : but not
to tire the reader I shall merely remark, that wherever they
deposit their eggs, in blossoms or in leaves, in fruits or in seeds,
in branches or in roots, it is al way s% done with the same admira-
ble prevision, as if they were endowed with an intuitive know-
ledge of the development of vegetation and the progress of the
seasons.

The dung-feeding lamellicorns provide in a different but no
less ingenious manner for the future wants of their progeny, by
rolling balls of excrementitious matter in which they enclose
their eggs. These balls are at first irregular and soft, but by
degrees, and during the process of rolling along, become rounded
and harder ; they are propelled by means of the hind-legs ; and
the insects occasionally mount to the top when they find a
difficulty of urging them along, probably in order to destroy the
equilibrium. Sometimes these balls are an inch and a-half or
even two inches in diameter, and in rolling them along, the

THE SEXTON-BEETLE. 221

beefles stand almost on their heads, with their heads turned
from the balls. These manoeuvres have for their object the
burying of the balls in deep holes, which the insects have pre-
viously dug for their reception, and it is upon the dung thus
deposited that the larvae when hatched feed.

Sheltered from the frosts of winter in their subterraneous re-
treats, they lead a life of darkness in the midst of the abundance
which the labours of their parents have stored
up for their use ; but as soon as warm spring
knocks as it were at their door, to invite them to
exchange their gloomy abodes for the light of day?
they eagerly creep forth in a more perfect form
to enjoy the cheerful rays of the sun, and to labour
in their turn for the wants of a new generation.

Sacred Beetle.

On account of this provident care for its young, CAteuchua sacer.)
the ' Ateuchus sacer' was revered by the ancient Egyptians as
one of their sacred animals, and its image, carved in stone or
metal, is frequently found rolled up in the mummies of that
remarkable race.

The necrophori, or sexton-beetles, inter in a similar manner
the bodies of small animals in which they lay their eggs.
During the day they are generally quiet,
but in the evening they begin to be
active. To dig a hole, and then to drag
the bird or mouse they may have selected
as the object of their labours into it,
would be a task far beyond their powers,
and they therefore employ another plan.
They entirely burrow beneath the car-
case, emerging every now and then to Necrophorua
scrape out the loose soil, walk round it,

mount as if to see how the work is proceeding, and then dis-
appear afresh and renew their labours until the hole is large
enough to allow the bird to sink into the required position.
The time occupied in the transaction naturally varies according
to the size of the object, the number of the labourers, and
the nature of the soil ; but, on an average, an ordinary finch or
a mouse can be buried in the course of a day. When the task
is completed, a number of eggs are laid upon the buried animal,
and then the beetles emerge, cover it with earth, and fly away.

222 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Astonishing but well-authenticated accounts have been given
of the sagacious industry with which these little creatures ac-
complish labours which must be to them enormous. They will
bury not one but a whole series of corpses; and in the well-
known experiments of Mr. Gleditsch, four beetles buried in a
small piece of earth four fishes, three birds, two grasshoppers,
one mole, the entrails of a fish, and part of the lungs of an ox.
Now the mole is at least forty times as large as the beetle, so
that we can estimate the strength and perseverance of the beetle
by calculating the labour which would be necessary for a man
to inter in two days an animal forty times as large as himself.

But these indefatigable insects are remarkable not only for
their industry but also for their intelligence, of which truly sur-
prising instances have been observed.

Thus Clairville once saw a sexton-beetle, which, finding a dead
mouse too heavy to be removed, flew away and soon after re-
turned with four others, who with united strength now dragged
away and buried the mouse.

Grleditsch relates that one of his friends being desirous to
dry a toad tied it to the upper end of a stick, which he fixed in
the ground to prevent the necrophori from getting hold of it.
But this precaution proved perfectly vain ; for the intelligent
insects, finding the toad beyond their reach, dug up the earth
round the stick, and having thus caused it to fall, buried it
together with the toad.

The same intelligence was shown by a dung-beetle (Gymno-
pleurus pUlularius), who being unable to move a stercoraceous
ball on which he had been labouring from a hole into which it-
had fallen, immediately flew to a neighbouring heap of dung,
whence he fetched three other beetles, who having lent their
assistance returned to their own work.

Like their parents, the larvae of the necrophori live only upon
animal substances, so that the mother has merely to provide her
offspring with the food she relishes herself; but in other cases
we find, by a still more astonishing instinct, insects herbivorous
in the perfect state supplying in a similar manner the wants of
their carnivorous larvae.

In her full-grown state the sand-wasp (Sphex) lives upon the
nectareous secretions of flowers, but her larvas have a far grosser
appetite, and, like the meat-fly, delight in sipping animal juices.

SAND-WASPS.

223

Who would not expect that the mother, judging of her offspring's
appetite by her own, would set before them her favourite
dainties of roses or apple-blossoms ? But she is taught that
her little ones have a far different taste ; and thus, after having
dug a hole with her forefeet, scratching the earth like a terrier
in pursuit of a mouse, she fetches a spider or a caterpillar, and,
not seldom after a hard scuffle, drags her victim to the grave
she has provided for its interment. She bites it in the neck, so
as to paralyse its resistance, but takes good care not to kill it ;
and having laid a single egg upon its body, covers it up and
flies away.

The maggot on creeping forth immediately bites a hole in the
body of the spider, which her mother — a disinterested assassin !
—had wounded for her sake, and begins to suck the juices of
the victim with the same eagerness as a leech feasting on
human blood. In a few days the exhausted spider expires, and
then the maggot devours the flesh and skin, leaving nothing but
the hardest parts untouched.

The ichneumon-fly does not give itself the trouble to
overpower the victims destined for the food of its larvae, and
to drag them away to a subterraneous den,
but follows the easier plan of depositing
its eggs in the bodies of other living insects,
particularly those of caterpillars. For this
purpose many species are provided with a
strong and sharp abdominal tube or ovi-
positor, which is used to insert their eggs
in the bodies of caterpillars that live beneath
the bark or crevices of wood. This is gene-
rally long, and capable of piercing almost
any substance ; while such as have a short
ovipositor place their eggs in or upon those
caterpillars to which they have easy access.

Some which select the eggs of butter- ichneumon-fly. <pimpia
flies for the residence of their ova are so
small that they are scarcely perceptible with the naked eye,
while others again from their size and strength are formida-
ble even to the large spiders, destroying them with their
powerful stings. Someplace their eggs within the aurelia of
a nascent insect—others deposit them within the nest which

224. THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

the wasp has contrived for her young ; and as both are produced
at the same time, the offspring of the ichneumon not only
devour the young wasps, but also the whole supply of larva)
which the parent had carefully provided for their support.

Thus these active flies, which in their perfect state feed
solely upon the juices' of flowers, render almost the whole of the
insect world tributary to the wants of their larvae ; and as Ger-
many alone possesses above 5,000 species of ichneumonidae,
it may easily be imagined how terrible they must be to the
other insect-tribes, and consequently also how useful to man-
kind, by their destruction of myriads, which would otherwise
be left to banquet on the fruits of the earth ! The ichneu-
mon larvae, thus born in a living body, subsist on the juices of
their victim, but without absolutely destroying it — in fact, the
animal they infest may continue to live for some time, thus
affording them a continued supply of nutriment ; but when the
ichneumons are ready to undergo their last metamorphosis, they
pierce the skin of their now useless victim, and each, spinning
itself in a small oval case, changes into a chrysalis — the whole
number forming a group on the shrivelled body of the unfortu-
nate caterpillar.

The oestri or breeze-flies likewise deposit their eggs in or upon
living animals, but instead of choosing, like the ichneumon-
flies, other insects for their victims, they ambitiously select
large quadrupeds for the future provision of their young — each
species almost invariably confining its attacks to a certain
species of animal. The larvae of the equine breeze-fly, or bot
as it is usually termed, can only be developed in the stomach of
the horse, and it may well be asked how they are able to reach
these hidden pasture-grounds, so indispensable to their exist-
ence. But Providence has found the way by teaching the
breeze-fly to deposit her eggs on those parts of the horse's body
which are most likely to be nibbled by the animal. When the
eggs have remained on the hairs four or five days, they become
mature, after which time the slightest application of heat and
moisture is sufficient to bring forth in an instant the latent larva.

At this time if the lips or tongue of the horse touch the egg,
its operculum is thrown open, and the young larva liberated ;
which readily adhering to the moist surface of the tongue, is
from thence conveyed with the food to the stomach, when it

PARENTAL AFFECTION OF INSECTS. 225

has full leisure to acquire maturity. Having attained this
object, it abandons the dwelling of its youth, and falling to the
ground, soon finds a convenient retreat for undergoing its change
into a chrysalis.

Generally the insects, after having once provided for the
future wants of their progeny, by laying their eggs on (or in)
such substances as will afterwards afford them a fitting suste-
nance, take no further care of them ; yet many instances may be
adduced, in which they give marks of a real parental affection.
Thus the earwig sits on her eggs in the manner of a hen until
they are hatched, and then continues to brood over her young
with affectionate assiduity, continuing frequently in the same
sitting posture for hours, allowing them to push her about, and
cautiously moving one foot after another, for fear of hurting them.
Baron de Greer, a distinguished pupil of the celebrated Linnaeus,
finding one in this position, removed it into a box, in different
parts of which he scattered the eggs. The mother, however,
speedily gathered them in her jaws into a heap, and sat on them
as before.

A species of field-bug (Cimex griseus) brings up her family,
which generally consists of thirty or forty young, leading them
about as a hen does her chickens, and never leaving them for a
moment.

De Greer having once, with all the cruelty of an inquisitive
naturalist, disturbed one of these happy families, which had
settled upon the branch of a birch-tree, the mother showed
every symptom of excessive uneasiness, and far from attempting
to escape from her tormentor, who to her must have seemed a
terrible monster, continued close to her little ones, incessantly
flapping her wings as if to preserve them from danger.

Many insects are not satisfied with burrowing holes, in which
they deposit their eggs, but evince a remarkable architectural
skill in building cells for their reception. Thus the mole-cricket
forms a cavity of clammy earth, in which she deposits about
150 eggs; this nest, which is about the size of a common hen's
egg, is carefully closed up on every side, as well to defend its
contents from the injury of the weather, as to guard them from
the attacks of common beetles; which, being themselves un-
derground inhabitants, would certainly, but for this precaution,
either devour or destro them.

226

THE HARMONIES OP NATUEE.

Nothing can exceed her care in the preservation of her young.
Wherever a nest is situated, fortifications, avenues, and entrench-
ments surround it; there are also numerous winding byways
which lead to it, and a ditch encompasses the whole, which few
insects are capable of passing. But the diligence of these
little animals does not end here : at the approach of winter, they
move their nests entirely away, and sink them deeper in the
ground, to prevent the frost from retarding the progress of their
young brood to maturity. When the weather grows milder, they
raise their habitations in proportion, till at last they are brought
as near the surface as possible without being wholly exposed to
view, in order to receive the genial influence of the sun ; but
should the frost unexpectedly return, they again sink them to
their former depth.

The Pelopseus or Dirt-dauber constructs earthen cells, arranged

Nests of the Trypoxylon and Pelopseus.

side by side, which it sticks on walls and rafters ; and the Try-
poxylon figulus makes similar nests, with necks so very narrow
in proportion to their size, and the rim so neatly turned over,
that the work would do credit to the most skilful potter.

Several other genera of wasps and bees are remarkable for
their clay-built constructions ; but the manner in which the

NESTS OF THE MEGACHIL^E. 227

Megachilse or Leaf-cutters form their nests, is still more admir-
able. After the insect has bored a hole of suitable dimensions
in some old tree, she sets off in search of the materials for the
cells, and mostly betakes herself to a rosebush or laburnum.
Her process, in cutting the pieces of leaf that compose her nest,
is worthy of attention. Nothing can be more expeditious — she
is not longer about it than we should be with a pair of scissors.
"After hovering for some moments over a rosebush, as if to recon-
noitre the ground, the bee alights upon the leaf she has selected,
usually taking her station upon its edge, so that the margin
passes between her legs. With her strong mandibles she cuts
without intermission in a curve-line, so as to detach a triangular
portion. When this hangs by the last fibre, she balances her
little wings for flight, lest its weight should carry her to the
ground, and the very moment it parts from the leaf, flies off with
it in triumph ; the detached portion remaining bent between her
legs, in a direction perpendicular to the body. Thus without rule
and compass do these diminutive creatures mete out the materials
of their work, into portions of an ellipse, in ovals or circles,
accurately accommodating the dimensions of the several pieces
of each figure to each other. What other architect could carry,
impressed upon the tablet of his memory, the entire idea of the
edifice which he has to erect, and, destitute of square and plumb-
line, cut out his materials in their exact dimensions without
making a single mistake ? Yet this is what a little bee invari-
ably does!"*

The fashion after which she arranges her nest is equally
curious. Bending each leaf into a curved form, she presses
them successively into the burrow, in such a way that they fit
into one another, and form a small thimble-shaped cell. At the
bottom of the cell she places an egg and some bee-bread, a
composition of pollen and honey, and then sets to work upon
another cell ; and in this manner she proceeds, until she has
made a series of cells, some two inches in length. The leaves
are adjusted together so admirably, that although not covered
with any coating of gum, they are honey-tight.

The tunnels of the carpenter-bees are likewise most wonder-
ful instances of instinct. When the little architect has fixed
upon a piece of wood which suits her purpose, she first bores

* Kirby and Spence's Entomology.
O 2

228 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

a circular hole, in a horizontal direction, and large enough to
allow her to pass ; then turns at an angle, and drives her tunnel,

frequently above a foot
long, parallel to the grain
of the wood, and with a
passage at the lower end
similar to the entrance at
the top. None of the
detached fragments are

wasted, but all are care-
carpenter Bee.

fully laid aside in some

sheltered spot. The tunnel being completed, the industrious bee
now sets forth in quest of honey and pollen, and making a
little heap at the bottom of the excavation, deposits an egg
upon the store. Over this she then proceeds to build a ceiling,
which shall be also the floor of another cell.

For this purpose she goes off to the magazine of wood-chips,
which she has laid by with such provident care, and cementing
them together with a glutinous substance, probably secreted by
herself, fixes them in a ring, above the heap of pollen. A
second ring is then placed within the first, and so on, till the
flat ceiling is completed. In this manner at least a dozen com-
partments are made, one above the other, and all completed by
the mandibles alone, which are admirably formed for the pur-
pose of working out the tunnels required — being short, stout,
and usually furnished at the tip with two teeth, which are
rounded somewhat into the form of cheese-cutters. These,
when brought into operation, cut out the wood in the same way
as a carpenter's double gouge, the teeth being more or less
hollowed out within. When the larvas are full-grown, they
assume their pupa state, head downward, so as to allow the
oldest and lowermost to make its way out of the bottom of the
burrow as soon as it becomes winged, an event which consequently
takes place earlier than in those which occupy the upper cells.

If all these burrows and buildings in earth and wood, this
leafy tapestry made by single insects, may well be called master-
pieces of animal industry, what terms must we use to express
our admiration of the labours of the sociable wasps, bees, ants,
and termites, the mysteries of whose architectural instinct
human understanding is utterly unable to fathom ! Implicitly

WASPS AND TERMITES.

229

obeying the laws which Divine Providence has engrafted in
their little brain, these truly wondrous creatures devote their
whole life to the welfare of the next generation ; and either
to protect the young from the inclemencies of the weather and
the assaults of their enemies, or to secure the provisions

Wasps' Nest.

which they accumulate for their use, build or raise, by the
united efforts of many thousands, habitations which equal the
most artificially-constructed birds' nests, or even surpass
them by the complication and mathematical precision of their
structure !

To add to the wonders of these marvellous buildings, it should
be remembered that the species of their constructors are very
numerous, each species indulging in its own modifications of

230

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

architecture — some rearing their palaces in caves, others sus-
pending them from trees ; some covering them with domes,
others attaching them to roofs or rafters ; so that we have here,
not three or four, but a whole series of insect-towns, varying
according to circumstances, but in each case impressed with the
stamp of perfection.

Among the various structures of the social wasps, one of the
most interesting is that of the Chartergus nidulans, a native of

Nest of Chartergus Nidulans.

America, which is formed of a beautifully-polished white and solid
pasteboard, impenetrable by the weather. These nests are pen-
dulous, and attached to branches of trees ; the hole through which
the branch is passed being very large, £o as to permit the nest
to swing freely in the wind. The dimensions are extremely vari-
able, from a few inches to several feet in length, each structure
appearing to be capable of unlimited enlargement; for when
the increasing population of the commonwealth renders addi-
tional accommodation necessary, the little architects, taking the
bottom of the nest as the starting-point, build upon it a new
series of hexagonal cells, opening downwards, as in most other
nests constructed by the Vespidse. At each enlargement of the
colony, they take care to add another row or two to the circum-

HABITATIONS OF ANTS. 231

ference, so as to increase the diameter in proportion to the
length ; then fresh material is added to the outer wall, which
is lengthened so as to include the new tier of cells ; and thus the
bottom is closed with a new floor (about half an inch distant from
the opening of the cells), which in its turn will become the
ceiling of the next storey. Each of the combs which thus rise
tier above tier in the cavity of the bell- shaped nest, has a central
hole, through which access is obtained to the uppermost stories
of the edifice ; and though darkness reigns within, yet such is
the instinctive order which prevails, that thousands move about
without one disturbing the other.

The history of the wonderful domestic economy of the hive-
bee has been too often described, and is too well known to be
repeated here ; whole volumes have been written on the sub-
ject without exhausting its mysteries, many natural philoso-
phers have devoted half their lives to its study, and yet every
new observer finds occasion to point out some fresh marvel in
these wonderful annals. Indeed, the whole life of these little
creatures is nothing but a continued series of wonders.

When we consider that the family of ants, undoubtedly the
most numerous of any in the whole circle of winged insects,
spreads in several thousands of species over almost every part
of the habitable globe, and that each species delights in its own
modifications of structure, we cannot wonder that the architec-
tural details of these insect-cities are but imperfectly known,
(particularly when we bear in mind that most of them are
situated in the wilds of the torrid zone, which are frequently
all but inaccessible to the naturalist, and that they are more-
over extremely well-guarded by the formidable mandibles or
pungent stings of their builders); yet from the little we do
know of them, there can be no doubt that they occupy a
high rank among those homes without hands, which animal
instinct rears as so many monuments of Divine goodness and
wisdom.

Some form globular nests (of the size of a large Dutch-cheese)
of small twigs artistically interlaced ; others use cotton, and
through the chemical agency of their pungent secretions con-
vert it into a spongy substance. Other species, still more in-
genious, construct their domicile out of a large leaf, bending
the two halves by the weight of united thousands, till the

232 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

opposite margins meet at the under-surface of the midrib,
where they are secured by a glutinous matter.

Nests of the Fungus Ant.

The Coushie or Sauba Ant, which exists in Tropical America
in boundless profusion, will in a very short time strip off the
leaves of an entire field and carry them to its subterranean
abodes. Even where their nest is a mile distant from a planta-
tion, these depredators know how to find it, and soon form a
highway about half a foot broad, on which they keep up the
most active communications with the object of their attack. In
masterly order, side by side, one army is seen to move onward
towards the field, while another is returning to the nest, each
individual carrying in its jaws a circular piece of leaf, about the
size of a sixpence, which is held vertically by one of its edges —
a circumstance from which the creature is also called the parasol
or umbrella ant. If the distance is too great, a party meets the
weary carriers halfway and relieves them of their load. Al-
though innumerable ants may thus be moving along, yet none
of them will ever be seen to be in the other's way, and all goes
on with the regularity of clockwork. A third party is no less
actively employed on the scene of destruction, cutting out cir-
cular pieces of the leaves, which as soon as they drop upon the

MOUNDS OF THE TERMITES. 233

ground are immediately seized by the attentive and indefati-
gable carriers.

The use of the leaves is to thatch the domes of their curious
edifices, and to prevent the loose earth from falling in. Some
of these domes are of great size, measuring two feet in height
and forty feet in diameter ; and yet they are still far surpassed
in extent by the subterranean galleries which these indus-
trious little creatures form, and whose extent may be con-
jectured from the fact, that when sulphur-smoke was blown
into a nest, one of the outlets was detected at a distance of
twenty yards. Division of labour is carried out to a wonderful
extent in these buildings, for the labourers which gather
and fetch the leaves do not place them, but merely fling them
down on the ground, and leave them to a relay of workers, who
lay them in their proper order. As soon as they have been
arranged, they are covered with little globules of earth, and in
a very short time they are quite hidden by their earthy covering

These structures, however wonderful, are far surpassed by
those of the termites. Their cone-shaped or domelike edifices
rise to the height of ten, twelve, or even twenty feet, with
a corresponding diameter ; and although made merely of clay,
which the termites excavate with their mandibles from a con-
siderable depth underground, moistening it with tenacious
saliva, their strength is such that hunters are accustomed
to mount upon them for the purpose of looking out for
game ; and even the intense rains of the monsoons, which no
cement or mortar can long resist, fail to penetrate their surface.
Only the underpart of the mound is inhabited by the white
ants, the upper portion serving principally as a defence from
the weather, and to keep up in the lower part the warmth and
moisture necessary to the hatching of the eggs and the cherish-
ing of the young ones. In the centre and almost on a level
with the ground is placed the sanctuary of the whole commu-
nity—the large cell, where the queen resides with her consort,
and which she is doomed never to quit again, after having been
once enclosed in it by her faithful subjects, since the portals
soon prove too narrow for her rapidly-increasing bulk. En-
circling the regal apartment extends a labyrinth of countless
chambers and nurseries, all connected by arched galleries,
long passages, and doorways of the most intricate and elaborate

234

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

constructions. The subterranean passages which lead from the
mound are hardly less remarkable than the building itself.
Perfectly cylindrical, and lined with a cement of clay similar to
that of which the hill is formed, they sometimes measure a foot
in diameter. They run in a sloping direction under the bottom
of the hill, to a depth of three or four feet, and then ramifying

Mounds of the Termites.

horizontally into numerous branches, ultimately rise near to the
surface at a considerable distance. At their entrance into the
interior of the hill, they are connected with a great number of
smaller galleries, which ascend the inside of the outer shell in a
spiral manner, and winding round the whole building to the
top, intersect each other at different heights, opening either
immediately into the dome in various places, and into the
lower part of the building, or communicating with every part
of it by other smaller circular passages.

If the colossal structures of the termites are worthy of our
highest admiration, our wonder increases when we consider that
all these labours are performed in total darkness, for the aston-
ishing little animals are constantly working underground.

CHAPTER XXIII.

SPIDERS.

Venomous Apparatus — Spinnarets — The Spider's Web — Patience of the Spiders —
Hunting Spiders — Trapdoor Spiders — Water Spiders — The Haft Spider —
Enemies of the Spiders — Fecundity — Maternal Affection — The Stalita Tsenaria,

INCAPABLE of muscular exertion, and of a texture so loose and
soft as to be torn to pieces or crushed by the slightest degree of
force, the spiders seem exposed to every attack ; and yet, help-
less and harmless a§ they appear to be, they are able to subdue
animals much larger than themselves ; for as a compensation
for their weakness, they are endowed with a most admirable in-
dustry, an exemplary patience, an indomitable perseverance,
and the power of secreting two liquids which fully answer all the
purposes of offence or defence which their mode of life requires.
One of these liquids is a poison which at once paralyses the
resistance of their prey, and acts with the same instantaneous
and fatal effect upon a fly or a beetle as prussic-a
acid on the human economy ; the other, a gluti-
nous fluid, which, concreting in the air, forms
those silken threads which their wonderful instinct
turns to so many valuable uses.

The structure of the venomous apparatus of the
viper is justly admired, but that of the spider is a
no less beautiful piece of mechanism. It is by means
of the two mandibulse or forciples with which their
mouth is armed,that they inflict their deadly wound.
These mandibles are each armed with a moveable
and extremely sharp claw (a), near to the point of spider's n
which is a minute orifice (6), from which there es- fj&ajf*
capes a drop of poisonous liquid, that spreads itself over the
whole wound the instant that it is inflicted. This orifice, which

236 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

is so extremely minute as to require a high magnifying power
for its perception, communicates with a fine or narrow excretory
canal (c) situated in the interior of the mandible, and given off
from the true secreting organ — a gland (d) lodged in the inter-
space of the muscles of the thorax, or breast, whose compression
causes the immediate propulsion of the liquid.

A still more wonderful apparatus is that which serves the
spiders for the formation of their threads. The spinnarets, or
organs which emit the glutinous fluid, are generally six in num-
ber, and situated at the posterior part of
the body. Each of the spinnarets is pierced
by an infinite number of small holes, or
beset with hairy appendages terminating in
fine-drawn points, from each of which there
escape as many little drops of a liquid, which
becoming dry the moment it is in contact
spmnareis with the air, forms so many delicate threads.
Immediately after the filaments have passed
out of the pores of the spinnaret, they unite first together and
then with those of the neighbouring spinnarets to form a com-
mon thread; so that the thread of the spider, which measures
only l-4000th or even l-8000th of an inch in diameter, is com-
posed of an immense number of minute filaments, perhaps
several thousand, of such extreme tenuity that the eye cannot
detect them until they are all twisted together into the
working thread*

But why this complicated process, it may be asked ; why this
original excessive subdivision of a filament, which, when com-
plete, far surpasses in fineness the finest thread which can pos-
sibly be spun by machinery proceeding from human hands ?
The reason is obvious, for it was absolutely necessary that as
soon as the glutinous fluid emerged from the body, it should
instantly consolidate into a thread firm enough to be worked or
not to give way too suddenly under the spider's weight ; and it
is evident that by its extreme division, so beautifully provided
for by the microscopical perforation of the sievelike spinnarets,
the process of desiccation, having a larger surface to act upon,
must be considerably hastened. Thus there is nothing super-
fluous in this wonderful mechanism, which, perfect in design

SPINNING OKGANS OF SPIDERS. 237

and in every detail, could only have been planned and formed
by the power and wisdom of God !

On examining the uses to which the spiders put their admir-
able spinning organs, we shall find in every case the workman
worthy of his tools. When a house or common spider is about
to form a web, it first selects some commodious and secure spot,
where insects appear to be in sufficient abundance. It then distils
a small drop of its glutinous liquid, and creeping up the wall and
spinning its thread as it proceeds, darts itself in a very surpris-
ing manner to the opposite station, where the other end of the
web is to be fastened. The first thread thus spun, drawn tight and
fixed at each end, the spider runs on it to and fro, still assiduously
employed in doubling and strengthening it, as on its force the
stability of the whole fabric depends. The scaffolding being thus
completed, the spider draws a number of threads parallel to and
within the first in the same manner, and then crosses them with
others, the adhesive substance of which they are formed serving
to bind them together when newly spun. This operation being
completed, the industrious little architect doubles and trebles
the thread that borders its web, by opening all its papillaB at
once, and so secures the edges as to prevent the wind from dis-
placing the work. The edges being thus fortified, the retreat is
next to be attended to ; and this is formed like a funnel, where
the little workman lies concealed. To this there are two pas-
sages or outlets, one above and the other below, very artfully
contrived to allow the animal an opportunity of making excur-
sions in every direction. Frequently also, from the main web,
there are several threads extended at some distance on each
side, like the cordage of a ship ; this may be considered as the
outworks of the fortification, which whenever touched from
without, instantly communicate the intelligence by the vibration
of the net, and bid the lurking spider prepare for attack or self-
defence. If the insect impinging happens to be a fly, the con-
cealed assassin instantly springs forward to pierce it with his
murderous mandibles ; but if, on the contrary, he perceives an
enemy stronger than himself, he then, considering discretion to
be the better part of valour, keeps quietly within his fortress,
and never stirs till the storm is blown over.

If the web has been destroyed, the spider is able to renew it

238 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

twice or thrice from its glutinous stores ; but after that its sup-
plies are exhausted, and then it must either die of hunger, or
conquer another net, after having defeated the rightful owner
in mortal combat; or endeavour to find an empty web, which is
not so very difficult, as the young spiders construct two nets.

The Grarden Spider, which suspends its vertical or oblique
web in open space, works in a different manner. It spins a large
quantity of thread, which floating in the air in various directions,
happens from its glutinous quality at last to adhere to some ob-
ject near it — a wall or the branch of a tree. The spider is
anxious to have one end of the line fixed, that it may be enabled
to secure and tighten the other ; it accordingly draws the line
when thus fixed, and then by passing or repassing it, strengthens
the thread in such a manner as to answer all its intentions.
The first cord being thus stretched, the spider walks along a
part of it and there fastens another ; and dropping from thence,
affixes the thread to some solid body below; then climbs up
again and begins a third, which it fastens by a similar con-
trivance.

Witjrin this framework, which unites strength and elasticity
in a remarkable degree, and though yielding to the slightest
pressure immediately recovers its position, the spider now
begins to spin its beautiful network, composed of a number of
straight lines radiating from a common centre, and having a
spiral line wound regularly upon them.

The radiating lines are smooth, whereas the spiral line is
thickly studded with minute knobs, to which the efficacy of the
net is due, for they are composed of a thick
adhesive and viscid substance, and serve to
arrest the wings and legs of the insects that
happen to touch the net. It has been
observed that these viscid threads are of
uniform thickness when first spun, but
that undulations soon appear in them, and

Sievelike Spinnaret that the viscid matter S00n accumulates in

of the Garden Spider. g^^es at regular intervals.

As the spinnarets of the garden-spider are of a different

anatomical structure — one pair presenting on its surface a num-

ber of small perforations, the edges of which do not project, and

which therefore resemble a sieve, while the other is studded with

THE GARDEN SPIDER. 239

hollow tubes perforated at the extremity — there is reason to
suppose that each kind of thread is produced by its own pair
of spinnarets.

Another point in the construction of these webs, so exactly true
in all their proportions, is that they are executed entirely by the
sense of touch. The eyes are situated on the front of the body
and on the upper surface, whereas the spinnarets are placed
at the very extremity of the body on the
under-surface, the threads being always
guided by one of the hind-legs, as may be
seen by watching a garden-spider in the act
of building or repairing her web. To place
the fact beyond a doubt, spiders have been
confined in total darkness, and yet have
spun webs as perfect as if they had been Tubular spinnaret
suspended in the open daylight.

All spiders require patience, for they have often a long time
to wait before they entrap their prey, and even the garden
spiders are subject to long privations, in spite of their consum-
mate skill. Continual stormy wea.ther destroys their nets, and
frequently prevents their making a new one for many a day ; so
that during the protracted period of involuntary fasting, not
even a gnat can be caught to satisfy their hunger. And when
at length the new net is suspended, a colossal wasp or huge bee
comes flying against it, and tears a prodigious breach in its deli-
cate texture. But the philosophic spider bears all the bufferings
of adverse fortune with exemplary patience, and instead of
breaking out into useless complaints, immediately sets to work,
and in a short time the damage is fully repaired.

Besides the netmaking spider, there are many others that
are satisfied with less artificial snares for entrapping their prey.
Some draw their threads over the surface of a leaf, and thus
catch the insects that heedlessly wander over the treacherous
ground ; others spin them under stones or in the fissures of the
soil. In hollow walls, in the crevices of windows, the fero-
cious Segestria conceals her body in a cylindrical tube, open at
both ends, from which only her forefeet project, ready to rush
upon her prey. She weaves no web, but merely draws a few
threads about the hole in which she has fixed her abode. As
soon as an unwary fly touches one of them, she immediately

240 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

pounces upon it and seals its doom. Even wasps, which other
spiders are averse from attacking, either on account of their
sting or of the hardness of their integuments, are fearlessly
encountered and defeated by this formidable spider ; for its
breast and feet are very hard, and the abdomen is covered with
a thick skin, so that it does not fear their sting, and its strong
and hard mandibles are able to crush their horny coverings.
So beautifully is the organization of the spiders modified, ac-
cording to the various prey which has been destined for their use !

The Salticus scenicus, a common black-and-white spider,
which may always be seen in summer upon walls and windows,
disdains the use of any snare, and, like the tiger, relies upon his
spring alone for the overpowering of his prey. When he spies a
fly at a distance, he approaches softly step by step, and seems to
measure his distance from it by the eye; then if he judges that
it is within reach, first fixing a thread to the spot on which he
is stationed by means of his forefeet, which are much larger
and longer than the others, he darts on his victim with such
rapidity and so true an aim, that he seldom misses it. He is
prevented from falling by the thread j list mentioned, which acts
as a kind of anchor, and enables him to recover his station.

The subterranean labours of the large trapdoor spiders, of
which many species abound in the warmer climates, are no less
admirable than the nets of the weaving arachnidse. These
hideous brown or black-haired creatures, which sometimes
attain a length of three inches, while their legs embrace a circle
of half a foot in diameter, dig deep tubular holes in the earth,
from which they sally forth after sunset in quest of prey,
or to which they retreat in case of danger. The interior of the
nest, which is sometimes nine inches deep, is lined with a double
coat of tapestry — the one nearest the wall, which is of a coarser
tissue, being covered with a pure white silken substance like
paper — but it is chiefly in the construction of the trapdoor
which secures its entrance that the little architect displays a
remarkable ingenuity. This lid is a flap of the same substance
as the tube, of a circular shape, so as to fit the orifice with
perfect accuracy ; and attached to the tube by a tolerably wide
hinge, so that on closing it does not fall to either side, but
comes true and fair upon the opening which it guards. A cu-
rious instinct teaches the spider to make her tunnel in some

THE WATER SPIDER,

241

sloping spot with the hinge at the upper end, so that when she
leaves her home, or returns into her burrow, the door closes of its
own accord ; nay, what is still more admirable, on the interior
side opposite to the hinge, about thirty small holes, arranged
in a semicircle, may be perceived, which enable the spider to
hold her door down in any case of emergency against external
force by the insertion of her claws into some of them. The

Water Spiders.

outer surface of the door being on a level with the ground,
and covered with earth taken from the soil in which the tunnel
is excavated, it is evident that all traces of the burrow are lost,
so that a more perfect hiding-hole cannot possibly be imagined.
By a no less admirable instinct, the water-spider has been
taught to fabricate a kind of diving-bell, for which purpose she

242 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

usually selects still waters. Her house is an oval cocoon lined
with silk, from which threads issue in every direction, and are
fastened to the surrounding plants ; in this cocoon, which is
open below, she watches for her prey, and even appears to pass
the winter, when she closes the opening. It is most commonly
entirely under water, but its inhabitant has filled it with the
air needful for respiration, and breathes as easily in her sub-
aquatic home as if her wonderful nest were suspended in the
atmosphere. The manner in which she fills her cell is very
curious. She ascends to the surface slowly, assisted by a thread
attached to the leaf or other support below. As soon as she
comes near the surface, she turns with the extremity of the
abdomen upwards, and exposes a portion of the body to the air
for an instant; then, with a jerk, she snatches as it were a bubble
of air, which is not only attached to the hairs which cover the
abdomen, but is held on by the two hinder legs, which are
crossed at an acute angle near their extremity — this crossing of
the legs taking place the instant the bubble is seized. The
little creature then descends more rapidly and regains her cell,
always by the same route, turns the abdomen within it, and
disengages the bubble. In this way more than a dozen journeys
are performed — sometimes two or three very quickly one
after another, at other times with a considerable interval
between them, during which period the industrious little animal
is employed in extending and giving shape to her silvery dome,
getting into it, pushing it out at one place, and amending it at
another, and strengthening its attachments to the supports. At
length, when satisfied with her work, she settles in her den
head downwards, and, undisturbed by the wind that ruffles the
surface of the pond, lies in wait for her prey, or, having dragged
it to her cavern, leisurely devours it.

She also places her eggs in this cell, spinning a saucer-shaped
cocoon, and fixing it against the inner side and near the top.
In this cocoon are about a hundred eggs, of a spherical shape,
and very small. The cell is a true home for the young spiders,
who, when sufficiently strong to provide for themselves, are
turned adrift by the mother, and, prompted by their wonderful
instinct, soon construct a subaquatic home similar to that in
which they first drew breath.

The raft-spider is another aquatic or rather semi-aquatic

RAFT SPIDERS.

243

species ; but ID stead of living beneath the water, it only makes
a temporary and moveable residence on the surface of fens and
marshes.

Not content with chasing insects on land, it follows them in
the water, on the surface of which it can run freely. It needs,
however, a resting-place, and to supply this want it has been
taught by instinct to form a kind of raft, by collecting a quan-
tity of dry leaves and similar substances, which it fastens with
silken threads. Here it sits, and allows itself to be blown about
the water by the wind, ever ready to seize the first aquatic
insect that comes within its reach, or to pounce with the rapidity

€%'* .-

The Raft Spider.

of lightning upon some unfortunate moth or beetle that has
fallen into the water, and vainly endeavours to extricate its
wings from the uncongenial element. It can even descend
below the surface by crawling down the stems of aquatic plants,
and this capability of existing some time beneath the water is
often the means of saving its life ; for when it sees an enemy
approaching it quietly slips under the raft, and remains con-
cealed until the danger has passed.

Thus we find the spiders uniting every mode of attack or
variety of warfare — the bold onslaught of the lion, the tiger's

R2

244 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

spring, the patient artifice of the lynx, the poison of the adder,
and the diving agility of the otter. But if they thus render
themselves extremely formidable to the insects, and essentially
contribute to keep them within due limits by the destruction
they cause among their ranks, they in their turn are exposed to
the assaults of numberless enemies. Independently of those
which they find in their own class, the centipedes seize them
beyond the possibility of escape ; while several species of ichneu-
mons and wasps, more savage and poisonous than themselves,
will rush upon spiders eight times their size and weight, and
benumbing them with their sting, triumphantly bear them off
to their nests, to serve as food for their larvae.

In spite of their citadels, the trapdoor spiders frequently
succumb to the ants, the most formidable enemies of their
youthful progeny ; and while the water-spiders are hunting the
aquatic insects, they themselves are chased by the water-scorpions
and the larvae of the dragonfly.

Several species of monkeys, squirrels, lizards, tortoises, frogs,
and toads catch and devour them wherever they can. In the
islands of the Indian Archipelago we even find several sparrow-
like birds, that have been named arachnotherae, from their
living almost exclusively on spiders. Armed with a prodigiously
long and arcuated beak, they know how to pursue them and
drag them forth from their obscure recesses.

To resist so many attacks which menace their existence, the
spiders have been endowed with a variety of passive defences.
Their shy and solitary habits are a safeguard against many
dangers. Many feign death and thus deceive the voracity of
an enemy or the caution of their prey, while others are enabled
by their colour to enjoy the advantages of concealment. Thus
those that spend their lives in the trees and bushes are frequently
green like the foliage on which they dwell, or brilliantly tinted
like the gaily-coloured flowers which serve as their abode;
while those which are in the habit of frequenting gloomy places
appear in a dark-coloured and dingy garb, harmonizing with
their dreary mode of life.

An exception to the general rule is, however, found in those
large and powerful species, which, if not rendered somewhat
conspicuous to the sight of other insects, might do too much
damage to the tribes which they keep in check, and endanger

SPIDERS AND THEIR YOUNG. 245

the balance of Nature. Most of these therefore have the thorax
and abdomen margined with a light colour, which contrasts
strongly with that of their bodies, and in many cases gives timely
warning of their approach,

The tropical genera gasteracantha and acrosoma are invested
with large angular spines, sticking out of their bodies in every
kind of fashion. Temptingly suspended in mid-air in the forest-
glades, they would long since have been destroyed by the sharp-
sighted birds, if Providence had not effectually protected them
by this defensive armour, which prevents them being swallowed
with impunity.

An amazing fecundity and a strong maternal instinct essen-
tially contribute to shield the spider race from destruction. The
arachnidse are in all other respects extremely unamiable crea-
tures, of a morose irascible temper, and utterly insensible to
the charms of connubial affection ; but their tenderness for their
young brood, the only thing they love on earth, is truly exem-
plary, nor will the greatest personal danger ever induce them to
forsake their cocoons. When a seizure of this precious burden
is threatened, the theridion tumbles together with it to the
ground and remains motionless ; while the thorinsa covers it with
its body, and when robbed of it wanders about disconsolate.

Ant el me relates how he once put the maternal fondness of a
spider to the test. Having robbed her of the little silken bag
in which her infant progeny was contained, he observed how
anxiously she ran about, evidently seeking her lost treasure.
Her tormentor having restored the bag, she seized it hastily, and
endeavoured to escape as fast as she could. But the cruel
naturalist, not satisfied with this first experiment on her feelings,
robbed her once more, when she again exhibited the same symp-
toms of despair. He now reached her small bullets of cotton
and bread-crumbs, made to resemble her cocoon, but these were
indignantly rejected ; for the heart of a mother is not easily
deceived, and the poor spider only regained her tranquillity
when she was at length allowed to depart in peace with her
recovered treasure.

Bonnet, an eminent Swiss naturalist of the last century,
delivered up the little silken bag of the aranea saccata to that
cruel insect the ant-lion, when the distressed mother, far from
deserting her charge, made the most extraordinary efforts to

246 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

recover it, — persevering regardless of her own danger,, and reso-
lutely remaining on the spot, in spite of every effort to force her
to leave it.

As the chief use of the spiders in the household of Nature
consists in their checking the inordinate increase of the insect-
tribes, they may naturally be expected to be most numerous
where they are able to find the most abundant prey. Thus their
headquarters are in the torrid zone, and here also, where so
many beetles, flies, and moths attain a size unknown in the
temperate regions, we find by a beautiful harmony of Nature
the spiders growing to similar gigantic dimensions, and forming
webs proportioned to the bulk of the victims which they are
intended to ensnare. But their numbers are also very great in
the temperate regions of the globe, and the morning dew fre-
quently shows the hedges and meadows covered with their
countless webs, brought out in silvery relief.

Extending in gradually diminishing numbers to the North,
they ascend" the slopes of high mountains, and even dive into
the darkness of nightly caves, where, though deprived of sight,
they manage to catch their prey in a manner which to us is
totally incomprehensible.

Thus the eyeless stalita taenaria dwells in the Grotto of Adels-
berg, where she lies in ambush for the yellow cave-beetle (Lep-
todirus Hohemvartii), which has likewise been doomed to pass
its life in subterranean darkness. Even on the insect-teeming
surface of the earth, the patient spiders are frequently obliged
to wait a long time for a repast ; here in this thinly-peopled
cave the stalita must have brought patience to perfection. Her
appearance on the snow-white stalactites, which she resembles
in colour, and where she becomes visible only in a strong light,
is remarkably striking. Like a vision she sweeps away in her
ivory robe, accompanied by the lengthening shadow she throws
back in her flight, so that a superstitious or fanciful observer
might easily take her for the spirit of the place.

247

CHAPTER XXIV.

- —

FISHES.

The Waters a Scene of constant War — Fecundity of Fishes necessary to maintain
the Equilibrium — Migrations of the Salmon — Means of Defence and Attack —
The Dragon Weerer — The Acanthurus — The Catfish — The Sting-ray — Dental
Apparatus of Fishes — Teeth of the Lamprey and Scari — The Sawfish — Electrical
Fish — Fins — Air Bladders— Gills — Respiratory Apparatus of the Lamprey and
Hag — of the Frogfish and Hassar — The Star Gazer— The Angler — The Rostra-
ted Chsetodon — The Senses of Fishes — Beautiful Construction of their Eye —
Care of the Stickleback for its Young — Parental Solicitude of the Black Goby
and of the Hassar.

IN the wide ocean, under the tranquil surface of the lake, in the
majestic river that pays the tribute of its waters to the sea, in
the brook rushing down the valley — as far as the domains
of the fishes extend, there is a constant war, a constant pursuit
and flight, a constant alternation between victory and death.

A great proportion of the vertebrated animals of the dry land
consists of gentle herbivora — almost the entire race of rodents :
the stag, the ox, the horse, the sheep, the giraffe, the elephant,
the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and many others, all live on
vegetable food ; but the vast majority of fishes, from the smallest
to the largest, from the tiny stickleback to the shark, are per-
petually intent on rapine and murder, and, except in the breeding
season, the sole occupation of their life is to pursue a prey or to
escape from a pursuer.

Amidst all these scenes of anarchy and destruction the super-
ficial observer might almost be inclined to imagine that Moloch,
and not a beneficent Deity, had established his throne in the
ocean ; but a deeper insight into the life of fishes soon proves to
us that here, as everywhere else, apparent discord is but the
means of promoting harmony.

In spite of their perpetual losses, the many thousand species
of fishes that people the empire of the seas maintain themselves

248 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

against their enemies : the herring still rises in legions from the
deeper waters, as soon as the coasts are warmed by the genial
influence of the vernal sun ; the salmon still Wanders up the
streams that witnessed the migrations of his forefathers in far-
distant ages, and the cod never ceases to fulfil the expectations
of the fisherman.

Under the protection of an Almighty Lawgiver the equilibrium
of the inhabitants of the ocean is thus constantly preserved
though constantly assailed ; and though the scythe of death is
indefatigably mowing throughout Neptune's domains, it is but
to celebrate the eternal triumph of life.

In various ways Providence has found means to preserve the
persecuted races of the fishes : particularly among those that
annually congregate on sandbanks or on the coasts, or are ex-
posed during their migrations to numberless attacks, a surpris-
ing fecundity makes up for exorbitant losses. Five hundred
thousand eggs have been found in a single mackerel, a million
and a half in a flounder, six millions in a sturgeon, ten millions
in a cod, and twenty millions in a salmon. Thus myriads of
eggs may be devoured by other fishes; seals, sea-birds, and
man, the most rapacious of all carnivorous beings, may feed for
months upon millions of the herring or the cod before they retire
again to the depths of the ocean ; and yet the species resists
every storm, and continually reappears in undiminished numbers.

The wonderful instinct which forces the salmon, the sturgeon,
and other fishes periodically to leave the sea, for the purpose of
depositing their spawn upon the shallow beds of rivers, is another
of the great agencies which Nature employs for the maintenance
and wide dissemination of many of the finny tribes that would
otherwise have been confined to narrow limits, or would long
since have been extirpated by their enemies.

Generally inhabitants of the cold and temperate zones, these
fishes find during the winter, in the deeper waters of the sea, the
warmth and nourishment which the frozen streams no longer
can afford them ; but in spring and summer, when the rivers
teem with numberless worms and insects, and their tepid waters
afford the necessary warmth for the hatching of their eggs, they
begin their wanderings stream-upwards, frequently ascending
many hundreds of miles from the river's mouth in regular array;
the largest individual, which is usually a female, taking the

MIGRATIONS OF SALMON. 249

lead, and the others following two-and-two, each pair being at
the distance of from three to six feet from the preceding one.
The numerous bands of salmon will thus force themselves
against the most rapid streams, and even considerable cascades
are unable to stop their progress ; for placing their tail in their
mouth, and letting it go suddenly, they raise themselves in
the air to the height of from twelve to fifteen feet, or even
more, and so clear the cataract that impedes their course ; nor,
if they fail in their first attempt, do they allow themselves to be
discouraged, but continue their efforts till they have accom-
plished their task.

It is a remarkable circumstance that the salmon on his wan-
derings never tarries in the deep lakes any longer than is neces-
sary to reach the rivers that flow through them. Who teaches
him the way? Who tells him when entering the Lake of
Zurich that at its farthest extremity he will find the narrow bed
of the Linth, or that, after traversing the long and sinuous Lake
of Lucerne, he will again reenter the rapid stream of the Eeuss ?

And how surprising is the memory which annually leads him
back from the ocean to the spot in which he has been bred,
though while tarrying in the sea he may have roved for miles
along the coast ! Deslandes, a French naturalist, attached a
copper ring to the tails of twelve salmon, and shortly after
restored them to liberty in the River Auzun, in Brittany.
They soon disappeared, but in the following year five were
caught again at the same spot ; the year after, three ; and three
again in the third year. To explain these miracles of instinct
is impossible — all we can do is to admire them!

The frequent return of the salmon to his old haunts, and the
large size he often attains, prove that, in spite of the many
dangers to which he is exposed during his migrations, he not
seldom reaches a good old age. Salmon weighing forty, fifty,
or even eighty-three pounds have found their way to the
London market ; and when we read of sturgeons twenty-five feet
long, and of halibuts of three hundredweight, we cannot doubt
that these colossal individuals had long outgrown their youth,
and were in the enjoyment of a truly patriarchal longevity.

Not all the members of the finny tribes are endowed with the
prodigious fecundity of the cod or the sturgeon, of the mackerel
or the salmon ; for where it is not so necessary, or where a too-

250 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

rapid increase might have destroyed the balance of marine
existence, propagation has been providently reduced to narrower
limits. Thus the gaudy filefish that swim like animated gems
among the coral -gardens of the tropical seas, and are not only
able to seek a ready refuge among the dense branches of the
lithophytes, but whose skin is moreover covered everywhere
with minute spines, are far less prolific than the migratory
fishes; and the voracious rays and sharks, whose inordinate
increase would have given them a dangerous supremacy in the
maritime domains, bring forth but a few young at a time.
As the length of the newly-hatched white shark — which at a
later period is, in size and voracity, the most formidable of all
the species — does not exceed a few .inches, we also may be
sure that numbers of these young monsters are swept away
before they are entitled to rank among the tyrants of the deep.
In their double quality of predaceous and persecuted animals,
the fishes are well provided with those means of attack or
defence that are absolutely necessary for their maintenance
on a scene of perpetual warfare. Many of them trust to the
wonderful velocity of their movements ; while others, conscious
of inferior agility, conceal themselves in the mud or among the
rocks and sea-plants — either to escape pursuit, like the hare, or
to pounce, like the falcon, upon their unsuspecting prey. In

the ostracion and
lepidosteus we
see a solid cui-
rass of hexagonal
scales, inclosing
the animal in an
ostracion. (Tortoise Fish.) almost impreg-

nable citadel ; while the tetrodons and diodons have the power
of inflating their body at pleasure, and thus raising the long
acute spines dispersed over their side and abdomen, in such a
manner as to form a defence as excellent as that of the hedge-
hog or porcupine.

The little stickleback not only makes use of its dorsal spines
as a means of defence, but as a formidable offensive weapon ;
for the males are exceedingly pugnacious, and in their pigmy
broils use them with such fatal effect, that one occasionally rips
up and kills the other.

WEAPONS OF FISHES.

251

Common Weever
(Trachmus Draco).

The strong spines of the dragon- weever, a small silvery fish
frequently occurring on our shores,
are capable of inflicting such trouble-
some and painful wounds that they
are the objects of the fisherman's
dread; and the lancet-like moveable
spines, not unlike the very large

thorns of the rose-tree, with which the tropical surgeon-fishes
(or Acanthuri) are armed on each side of the tail, inflict a most
terrible gash on the hand of anyone so imprudent as to come
within their reach.

Several of the siluridse, or catfish, use the sharp spine
of their dorsal fin (a), in a very peculiar manner, for the ob-
taining of their food. Getting beneath the
fish they have selected for their meal, they
suddenly rise and wound it repeatedly in
the belly. Michaux several times observed
this ingenious piece of strategy in the clear

Waters Of the Ohio. Dorsal fin of Catfish.

One of the most formidable of the numerous spine-armed
fishes (of whom, not to tire the reader, I have mentioned but a
few) is beyond all doubt the sting-ray. Its weapon is a long
bony and rather flattened process, placed on the tail, of great
hardness, and very sharp, the sides being armed with numerous
barbs, like the head of an Indian spear. Whether the fish, at
the time of inflicting a wound with this instrument, discharges
some poisonous liquid, or whether the laceration of the wound
indisposes it to heal kindly, is still a matter of doubt ; but so
much is certain, that the sting of these rays has often been
attended with fatal consequences, and that the pain it causes
is such as to deprive the sufferer of consciousness.

The fishes rely chiefly upon their dental apparatus for the
capture of their prey, as they have neither feet nor hands to
lay hold of it ; and as the creatures they pursue through the
waste of waters are generally of a slippery nature, we find their
teeth, by their sharpness, position, and numbers, most admirably
adapted for their seizure.

In many of the larger fishes these instruments of destruction
are as formidable as those of the lions or tigers of the dry land.
Thus the .shark will at one grip cut a man in two, swallowing

252

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

one half, and leaving the other for a second morsel ; and such is
the power of the seawolf s jaws, that he will crunch a cutlass as
if it was made of glass.

The teeth of the fishes are not, like those of the quadrupeds,
consolidated with certain bones of the mouth, or implanted into
the jaws, but, like the scales, prickles, and spines, are of merely
cuticular origin. Hence they afford an amazing variety of form
and position, being attached to any or to every part of the
mouth, according to the necessities of the given species ; hence

also their numbers are often
very large, and capable of
constant renovation. Some-
times they are so minute
as only to be perceptible by
the rough or scabrous sur-
face which the parts of
the mouth to which they
are attached present. If of
larger size, they exhibit
the appearance of a file or
rasp, or they may have the
shape of small cones or
hooks thickly scattered over
the mouth.

In the sharks, they con-
sist of several rows of
broad arid trenchant lami-
nae, the anterior row of
which (a) stands up per-
pendicularly from the jaws,
ready for use, while the
succeeding layers (6) are re-
cumbent, being covered over by a fold of the mucous lining of
the mouth. These teeth, like those of the rays, are perpetually
renovated, new and sharp rows behind being constantly ready to
replace the old and worn ones in front, as soon as the latter fall
out or become useless.

In the lamprey, which does not sever its victims by a powerful
bite, but sucks their blood like a leech, the teeth are very differ-
ently though not less admirably arranged; for here they are

Teeth of Shark.

c divided tooth to show that it is hollow, d fibro-
mucous layer, which by its growth brings the
successive rows progressively into use.

TEETH OF FISHES.

253

composed of horny plates or tubercles of different forms, which
are disposed with great regularity over the whole surface of the
sucker-shaped mouth, so as evidently to secure a deadly hold of

Dental apparatus of the Lamprey.
b fang fixed to the roof.

any victim seized upon. The tongue (d\ which is very moveable,
and capable of being retracted and protruded by means of strong
muscles, is likewise armed with serrated teeth, with which, as
with a rasp, the lamprey tears through the flesh of its prey.

In the scari, which have to feed upon the numerous lithophytes
that clothe the rocks at
the bottom of the ocean,
the dental apparatus
given to protect their
jaws from injury is very
remarkable. These fishes
have their jaws (a, 6),
which resemble the beak
of a parrot, covered ex-
ternally with a kind of
pavement of teeth, an-
swering the same pur-
pose as the horny invest-
ment of the mandibles of
the bird, and succeeding
each other, from the rear
to the front, in such a
manner that the bases of the newest form a cutting edge.
Thus armed, the parrot-fish browses without difficulty on the

Beak of Parrotfish. (Scarus nmricatus.)

254 THE HARMONIES OP NATURE.

newest layers of the stony corals, digesting the animal matter
therein contained, and setting free the carbonate of lime in a
chalky state.

The maxillary teeth of the sawfish, which is an active and
predatory shark, are notwithstanding its habits extremely
small, simple, obtuse, and wholly inadequate to destroy and
secure the prey requisite for its subsistence. But this seemingly
imperfect armature of the mouth is compensated by the de-
velopment from the anterior part of the head of a horizon-
tally flattened process, equalling one-third of the entire fish in
length, and provided with strong teeth,
deeply lodged in sockets excavated on
each of its lateral margins. With this
formidable weapon, which is quite unique
among the whole finny race, the sawfish
does not fear to engage even the monstrous
whale in deadly combat. The whale,
whose only defence is his tail, endeavours
to strike his enemy with it ; and a single
blow would prove mortal. But the saw-
fish with astonishing agility shuns the
tremendous stroke, bounds into the air,
and returns upon his huge adversary,
plunging the rugged weapon with which
he is furnished into his back, or ripping
up his skin with a tremendous gash. The
whale is still more irritated by the wound,
which becomes fatal only when it pene-
trates the fat ; and thus, pursuing and
pursued, striking and stabbing, the en-
gagement only ends with the death of
one of the unwieldy combatants.
Rostrum of Sawfish While most fishes rely only upon their

(Pristis antiquonirQj, show-

mg the marginal teeth, teeth, their physical strength, or their
rapidity for attack or defence, some have been gifted with the
wonderful power of stunning their enemies or their victims by
electrical discharge. In no other class of animals do we find
creatures similarly armed; and it is indeed one of the inscrutable
mysteries of creation, that the powerful weapon of a galvanic
battery, which man lias, learned to wield only after attaining

ELECTRICAL FISHES.

255

a high degree of civilisation, should have been bestowed, most
likely long before man appeared upon the stage of life, upon a
few members of the finny race, and to these alone of all created
beings.

The electrical organs vary considerably in situation and form
in the different fishes to which they have been given. Thus in
the electric eel (Gymnotus electricus), which inhabits the large
rivers of South America, they run along the tail, while in the tor-
pedo of the Mediterranean
they are situated on each side
of the anterior part of the
body. In this formidable
ray they consist of a mul-
titude of small prismatic
columns (E), invested with
strong fascial coverings.
These prisms lie close toge-
ther, parallel with one ano-
ther, and perpendicularly
between the dorsal and ven-
tral surfaces of the fish, so
that their extremities are
separated from these sur-
faces only by their fascial
and common integuments.
When these are removed

the Columns present Some- Muscles an<3- Electric Batteries of the Torpedo.
r (Owen's Lectures.)

thing of the appearance of

a honeycomb. Each column is again divided into numerous
distinct compartments, by delicate membranous partitions
placed horizontally at very short distances from each other
(150 to an inch), and covered with a fine network of arteries,
veins, and nerves. The interstices between them are filled with
a gelatinous mass.

In the electric eel a similar subdivision takes place by means
of longitudinal plates and transverse membranes, which how-
ever are placed much more closely together than in the torpedo,
as 240 of them have been counted in an inch. By this structure
an immense discharging surface is obtained ; for in a torpedo of
ordinary size, where the electrical organ is seven or eight inches

256 THE HAKMONIES OF NATURE.

long, it is equal to fifty-eight square feet, and in an electrical
eel four feet in length, it is at least 123 square feet in extent.

In both these fishes the electricity generated by the action
of these wonderful batteries, besides its benumbing and stun-
ning effects on living animals, renders the needle magnetic,
decomposes chemical compounds, emits the spark, and in short
exercises all the other known powers of the ordinary electricity
developed in inorganic matter, or by the artificial apparatus of
the laboratory.

Electrical fishes exert their peculiar power only occasionally and
at irregular intervals, and chiefly when excited by the approach
of some animal, or by the irritation of their surface by some
foreign body. The discharge, both with regard to time and
intensity, seems to be dependent on an exertion of the will.
Sometimes the torpedo buries itself in the sand left dry at ebb-
tide, and it has occasionally happened, according to some natu-
ralists, that persons walking across the sand and treading upon
the spot beneath which the electrical fish lay concealed, have
received a discharge strong enough to throw them down.

The effects produced by the gymnotus are more severe, for
those eels are able when in full vigour to kill the largest animals,
when they suddenly unload their electrical organs in a favoura-
ble direction. All other fishes, aware of their power, fly at the
sight of the formidable gymnotus. They stun even the angler
on the high river-bank, the moist line serving as a conductor
for the electric fluid.

The capture of these eels affords a highly entertaining and
animated scene. Mules and horses are driven by the Indians
into the streams or marshes which they infest, until the un-
wonted noise and splashing of the waters rouse the fishes to an
attack. Gliding along they creep under the belly of the horses,
many of whom die from the shock of their strokes ; while others,
with head erect and dilated nostrils, endeavour to flee from the
electric storm which they have aroused. But the Indians, armed
with long poles and uttering wild cries, drive them back again into
the pool. Gradually the unequal contest subsides. Like spent
thunderclouds the exhausted fishes disperse, for they require a
long rest and plentiful food to repair the loss of their galvanic
powers. Their shocks grow weaker aud weaker. Terrified by
the noise of the horses, they timidly approach the banks, when,

FORMS OF FISHES. 257

wounded with harpoons, they are dragged on shore with dry and
nonconducting pieces of wood, and thus the strange combat
ends.

In no class of the animal kingdom do we find such diversity
of form as in that of fishes. Some amongst them are perfectly
spherical, others flat or circular ; but generally they are of an
elongated oval shape, a figure which enables them with greater
celerity and ease than any other to pass through the water.
Their viscera are packed in a small compass in a cavity brought
forwards close to the head, and whilst the consequent suppres-
sion of the neck gives the advantage of a more fixed and resisting-
connection of the head to the trunk, a greater proportion of the
body behind is left free for the development and allocation of
the powerful muscular masses which are to move the gradually-
tapering tail, whose lateral rapidly-alternating strokes are its-
chief means of progression through the water. We wisely
endeavour to imitate this peculiar shape in the construction of

Skeleton of the Perch.

our ships, yet the rapidity of our fastest clippers is nothing to
the velocity of animals that have been specially formed for
natation by an All wise Hand. The energetic action of the tail
is assisted by the dorsal (A), caudal (B), and anal (c) fins, which
serve by their vertical position to increase the rowing surface,
and thus add considerably to the rapidity of motion; while
the pectoral (D) and ventral (E) fins, which correspond to the fore
and hind limbs of the higher vertebrates, are of the greatest
importance in directing the movements of the animal. With
the help of these highly flexible organs, fishes can turn about

258 - THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

in the water as they please ; and it is curious to observe how,
alternately expanding or contracting one fin or the other, they
gracefully plough the liquid element in every direction.

It is no less wonderful how perfectly the size and texture of
the fins correspond with the habits and necessities of the dif-
ferent species of fishes. Those which traverse vast spaces of the
ocean are furnished with large and strong fins, to enable them
to struggle against swelling waves and rapid currents ; while
these organs are soft in the species which confine themselves to
more tranquil waters, or habitually reside in greater depths un-
troubled by the winds which agitate the surface.

In the snake-formed fishes, where the whole vertebral column
is extremely flexible, and consequently renders the assistance of
the fins less necessary, these ancillary organs are reduced in
size and number; while in the exocoeti or flying-fishes, the
pectoral fins are of so great a length as to be able to carry them
like wings a great distance through the air. Thus they frequently
escape into another element from the pursuit of the arrowy
bonito or the darting dolphin ; and though gulls and frigate-
birds may seize them now and then during their aerial flight,
yet there can be no doubt that they have good reason to be
thankful for the gift of their pinion-fins, without which they never
could have maintained themselves on the high seas along with
their predaceous pursuers.

To enable the fish to rise and sink in the water without
continued muscular effort, they have been provided with the
air-bladder. This hydrostatic apparatus is of various shapes, -
but always of sufficient dimensions to contain, when it is dis-
tended, as many cubic inches of air as will render the fish spe-
cifically lighter than water ; and as the specific gravities of air
and water are to each other nearly as 1'815, a small volume
is sufficient to render the lesser fishes lighter than the me-
dium they inhabit. When they contract this remarkable
gas-reservoir, or press out the included air by means of the
abdominal muscles, the bulk of the body is diminished, its
weight in proportion to the water is increased, and the fish
swims easily at a greater depth. The contrary takes place on
relaxing the tension of the abdominal muscles, and thus we see
fishes rise and fall in their denser element by the application of
the same physical law which is made use of by our aeronauts

AIK-BLADDER AND GILLS OF FISHES. 259

to scale the heavens or to descend again upon the earth. The
position of the air-bladder immediately under the spine and
above the centre of gravity, causes the fish to rise without the
danger of turning over on its back. Thus the air-bladder is a
highly important auxiliary organ of locomotion, and affords an
illustration of one of the many evidences of design in the primary
formation of aquatic animals.

In the flying-fishes, whose peculiar habits rendered a greater
lightness of body extremely desirable, it is of enormous size, so
that when distended it fills almost the entire abdominal cavity ;
while in those fishes which are destined to live at the bottom of
the sea, or habitually to conceal themselves in the mud, it is
either very small or entirely wanting — for economical Nature
constantly regulates her gifts according to the wants of her
creatures.

The gills of the fishes are as beautifully constructed for aquatic
respiration as the lungs of the terrestrial vertebrate animals for
breathing in the air. In most fishes, comprising all the bony
fishes and the sturgeons, among those which have a cartilaginous
skeleton, we find, in the interior of the mouth at each side, five
apertures separated from each other by four crooked parallel
and unequal bones, and leading to a cavity which is closed on
the outside by an operculum or cover. In this cavity, and to
the external convex surface of each of the four bones or branchial
arches, is attached a double series of flat elongated cartilaginous
Iamina3, tapering gradually towards their extremities ; the whole
forming a crescent-shaped framework toothed like a comb, over
which is spread the delicately- fringed and highly vascular mem-
brane that constitutes the respiratory surface. Over this the
water taken in at the mouth is made to pass as it issues through
the opercular cavities, and in this way the branchias, being per-
petually bathed with aerated water, perform the same office as
the lungs of an air-breathing animal.

This transmission of the water in one direction is in more
than one respect a most wise provision of Nature, for if the
fishes were obliged to receive and reject the water by the
same aperture (as we do the air), each respiration would evi-
dently drive them backwards, and consequently retard their
movements. It is also evident that the delicate fringes of the
gills must have been liable to perpetual derangement, if the

260 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

water had been made to pass through them in two opposite
directions.

In the sharks and rays we find a different arrangement of the
gills, as here the branchial arches are not freely suspended in
the branchial chamber, but stretching across its cavity divide it
like so many bulkheads into five distinct compartments, whose
walls are tapestried with the innumerable folds of the branchial
membrane. The water entering the mouth does not escape
through an opercular opening, but through five distinct orifices
situated on each side of the body.

In the lamprey and hag the branchial apparatus on each
side is similarly divided into seven compartments ; but these
fishes, from the peculiarities of their
habits, require another modification in
the construction of the organs of respira-
tion, seeing that while they rest fixed by
their suctorial mouths to the surfaces of
stones or other foreign bodies, or while
they are compelled to remain with their
heads deeply plunged into the flesh of the
prey upon which they live, the admission
of water into the mouth and its subsequent
expulsion through the gill-openings (i)
would in their case be impracticable. Here,
therefore, a framework of cartilaginous
pieces forms a kind of elastic thorax around
the regions of the body where the bran-
chia? are situated, and by its alternate
movements of contraction and dilatation
perpetually sucks in the water and again
expels it through the external openings.

In the myxine or hag these orifices are
moreover situated very far back in com-
parison with the usual situation of the gill-
OpeningSj so that the creature is able to
a cavity communicating with respire while deeply plunging into the

the respiratory sacculi of r J

both sides. soft parts ofits unfortunate victim. Thus

even in this meanest and lowest of all vertebrate animals we
find a remarkable adaptation of its construction to its wants,
and the proof that it has been as well taken care of by the Creator
as the highest members of its class.

RESPIRATION OF EELS. 261

Though the whole breathing apparatus of a fish is comprised
in a small compass, its surface if fully extended would occupy
a very considerable space — that of the common skate, for in-
stance, being equal to the whole external surface of the human
body. This single fact may convince us of the numberless
ramifications and convolutions of the gills, and how wonderfully
Nature has contrived to multiply within very narrow limits the
points of contact between the minute bloodvessels and the
aerated water that flows along their sides. It may seem strange
that when fishes are taken out of their native element they
generally die almost immediately from want of air : such, how-
ever, is the case, for the gills being no longer floated out col-
lapse, and thus, by preventing the passage of blood through the
delicate branchial arteries, put a stop to the circulation as com-
pletely as strangulation could do.

In some genera, however, a provision is made to permit of a
more lengthened existence out of the water, where the habits of
the fish render such an arrangement necessary. In the whole
tribe of eels, for example, the external fissure is removed very
far back and reduced to a very small vertical slit, converting the
cavity in which the branchiae are lodged into an elongated
chamber, in which a sufficient quantity of water can be retained
to allow respiration to continue for a considerable time in the
air. Thus the eels are able to travel during the night over the
moist meadows, in search of frogs or other suitable food, or to
change their situation.

In several tropical fishes we find the gills communicating with
a cellular labyrinth containing water, which serves to keep them
moist. It is owing to such an apparatus, without which they
could not possibly exist during the long-continued droughts of
the arid season, that the climbing perches of India (Anabas),
the hassar of Gruiana, and the frogfishes of Ceylon are able to
wander overland in search of their natural element, when the
ponds or rivers in which they sojourned are dried up. An
admirable instinct teaches them to shape their course towards
the nearest pool, and the peculiar formation of their fins assists
them in their migrations.

Thus in the frogfish the bones of the carpus form arms that
support the pectoral fins, which thus perform the office of feet ;
and the hassar, projecting itself forwards on its bony pectoral

262 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

fins by the elastic spring of the tail, exerted sidewise, proceeds in
this manner nearly as fast as a man will leisurely walk. The
strong scuta or bands which envelope the body, in the manner
of the plates under the belly of serpents, also greatly facilitate
its march, as they can be raised or depressed by a voluntary power.
When the pools and rivers are everywhere dried up, these
migratory fishes bury themselves in the mud as a last resource,

Frogfish.

and fall into a kind of asphyxia, or lethargy, till the rainy season
recals them again to life.

In general the manner in which the fishes procure their food
is extremely simple, and requires but a very small amount of
intelligence or art : they see their prey, rush furiously upon it,
and devour it with greedy haste.

Some species, however, have recourse to stratagem for this
purpose. Thus the stargazer ( Uranoscopus scaber), hidden in
the mud, exposes only the top of the head, and waving the beards
with which his lips are furnished in various directions, decoys
the smaller fishes and marine insects that mistake these organs
for worms.

The position of the eye, placed on the upper surface of the

ARCHER-FISHES. 263

nearly cubical head, and directed towards the heaven, is no less
admirably adapted for this ' artful dodge ' than the vertically -<
cleft mouth which enables the cunning fish to swallow his prey
without deranging his position.

The angler or sea-devil (Lophius piscatorius), a slow swim-
mer, who would very often be obliged to fast if he had merely
the strength of his fins to rely upon,
uses a similar deceit. Lying as it
were in ambush at the bottom of the
sea, he stirs up the mud and sand, and,
hidden by the obscurity thus produced,
attracts many a prize by leisurely Angler (Lophms plscatOT1U3)>
moving to and fro the two slender

and elongated appendages on his head — the first of which, the
better to deceive, is broad and flattened at the end, inviting
pursuit by the shining silvery appearance of the dilated part.

But of all the fishes that prefer artifice to violence for the
obtaining of their food, there are none to equal the chsetodons
and archer-fishes of the Eastern seas. When the rostrated
chastodon, a native of the fresh-waters of India, sees a fly
alighting on any of the plants which overhang the shallow
stream, he approaches with the utmost caution, coming as per-
pendicularly as possible under the object of his meditated
attack ; then placing himself in an oblique direction, with the
mouth and eyes near the surface, he remains a moment im-
moveable, leisurely taking his aim, like a firstrate marksman.
His eyes steadfastly fixed on the insect, he darts at it a drop of
water from his long tubular snout, ex-
pressly formed for his feats of archery,
but without protruding his mouth
above the surface, from which only
the drop seems to rise, but with such
effect that, though the distance may Archer-fish

be four or five or six feet, it seldom (Toxotes

fails to bring down its prey into the water. As their name
indicates, the archer-fishes are equally expert. The Javanese,
who take a delight in seeing them show their skill, keep them
as a kind of household animals, and frequently amuse themselves
by bringing flies or ants within a convenient distance of their
almost unerring aim.

264 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

As fishes breathe by the medium of water, and thus profit only
by the small quantity of oxygen contained in the air it has
absorbed, we cannot wonder that the circulation of their blood
is extremely slow. Their heart, in comparison with ours, is
in fact but half a one, as it merely serves to force the venous
blood into the gills, whence the aerated blood does not flow back
to the heart as with us, to be rapidly and strongly propelled
through the body, but proceeds immediately to the arteries,
which are merely aided by the contraction of the surrounding
muscular fibres. As respiration is a species of combustion, it is
evident that only a cold blood could be formed under such cir-
cumstances, and, as may be expected, the blunt sensations of the
fishes harmonize with the torpid nature of the fluid from which
their organs derive their sustenance. Fishes, in fact, of all
the vertebrates, give the least evidence of sensibility. Having
no elastic air at their disposal, they are dumb or nearly so, and
all the sentiments which voice awakens are unknown to them.

Being only able to support themselves by pursuing a prey
which itself swims more or less rapidly, and having no means
of seizing it but by swallowing, a delicate perception of savours
would have been useless if Nature had bestowed it ; but 1 heir
tongue, almost motionless, often entirely bony, and only furnished
with a few slender nerves, shows us that this organ is as obtuse
as its little use would lead us to imagine it to be.

Their sense of smell is equally imperfect, and their touch —
almost annihilated at the surface of their body by the scales
which clothe them, and in their limbs by the want of flexibility
in their rays — is confined to the ends of their lips, and even
these in some are osseous and insensible. Their ear, which is
entirely enclosed in the cranium, can hardly suffice to distin-
guish the most striking sounds. Their eyes finally are motion-
less as it were, and void of all that fire and animation which
gives so much expression to the physiognomy of the higher
animals ; but the structure of these organs is admirably adapted
to the element in which they live, by the spherical form
and great size and hardness of the crystalline lens, which by
concentrating the rays of light enables them to see with distinct-
ness even through so dense a medium as that which surrounds
them. This is, in truth, one of those wonderful provisions made
for the particular necessities of every living thing.

THE EYE OF FISHES.

265

On a closer examination, the lens is found to be composed of
several thousands of regular transparent laminae or spherical
coats of uniform thick-
ness: each of these la-
minaB consists of about
2,500 fibres, extending
from pole to pole of the
sphere, and being conse-
quently widest at the
equator. The mode in
which these fibres are
fastened together, so as
to resist separation and
form a continuous spheri-
cal surface, is very cu-
rious ; the contiguous

0 Direction ot Fibres in Crystalline Lens of Cod

fibres being united by (magnified).

means of teeth, about 12,000 in each fibre, exactly like those of
rackwork — the projecting teeth of one fibre entering into the
hollows between the teeth of
the adjacent one. As the
fibres gradually diminish in
size towards the centre of the
lens and the teeth in the same
proportion, so that the number
of fibres or teeth in any spheri-
cal coat or lamina is the same
from whatever part of the lens
it is detached, it is not diffi-
cult to calculate their number.
Thus the lens of a small cod,
four-tenths of an inch in dia-
meter, contains no less than
five millions of fibres and sixty-
two thousand five hundred millions of teeth ! ' A transparent
lens exhibiting such a mechanism,' says Sir David Brewster,
who was the first to investigate its wonders, *' may well excite
our astonishment and admiration ! '

As the eyes of the fishes are perpetually bathed by the water in
which they live, we cannot wonder at the lachrymal apparatus

Teeth of Fibres in Crystalline Lens of Cod
(highly magnified).

266 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

being totally wanting in their whole race ; and as they are
neither exposed to extreme variations of light, nor to the contact
of dust, they generally also require no eyelid for their protec-
tion. In the common eel however, which bores cavities in the
sand and mud at the bottom of the water, the eye is supplied
with a hard and transparent membrane, which it can draw over
the pupil at pleasure, thus effectually guarding these organs from
injury. The eyeball of the herring is also defended by two vertical
and transparent folds of the skin ; and it is worthy of observation
that where these folds decussate one another at their inferior ex-
tremities, the anterior one overlaps the posterior — so slight an
impediment to progressive motion as the contrary position
would have occasioned, having thus been foreseen and avoided.

As the external senses of fishes give them but few lively and
distinct impressions, their pleasures are little varied ; but, on the
other hand, the painful impressions they receive from the ex-
ternal world are likewise circumscribed within narrower limits
than those which bound the sensations of the birds and quadru-
peds. Though often subject to the terrors of flight, they in their
turn enjoy the excitement of pursuit : and a life of liberty makes
them amends for the violent end to which they are generally
doomed. Many a domestic animal or captive bird would willingly
exchange its hard lot for the free life of the fish, who from the
greater simplicity of his structure, his want of higher sensibili-
ties, his excellent digestion, and the more equal temperature of
the element in which he lives, remains free from many of the
diseases which torment the higher animals.

The affections of fishes are cold as themselves ; but, though the
vast majority evince no sign of parental affection, and abandon
their offspring to the mercy of the sea and their predatory
companions, from the instant that the ova are shed, yet some at
least show glimpses of that self-denying instinctive love for
their young which often beams forth in so touching a manner
among the birds or quadrupeds.

Thus, to preserve his eggs from the voracity of his brothers,
the male stickleback collects the delicate fronds of water-plants
or bits of grass that have been blown into the river, and forms
them into a nest, the entrance of which he guards with the
most sedulous care — repelling with tooth and prickles all other
sticklebacks that approach the nest. If the enemy is too power-

INSTINCTS OF NATUKE. 267

fill, he has recourse to artifice — darts forth, seems actively
engaged in the pursuit of an imaginary prey, and often succeeds
in diverting the aggressor's attention from his nest.

The black goby, an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, likewise
deposits its spawn in burrows dug among the roots of the sea-
grass, and, watching over the entrance of the house, opposes
sharp rows of teeth to every intruder ; and the hassar, which I
have already had occasion to mention for his extraordinary
land-excursions, is no less remarkable for his habit of constructing
nests, which are quite as well-formed as those of the stickle-
back, and are made of grass blades, straws, and leaves. These
nests are very plentiful in the little muddy streamlets that in-
tersect the sugar-marshes of Guiana, so that the habits of the
fish can be easily watched. The parent-fish is very jealous of
the eggs, and waits near them until they are hatched, and the
young family committed to the water. The parental solicitude
of the hassar is shamefully misused by man for his destruction :
a small basket is held before the entrance, then the nest i$
gently struck with a stick; and furious, with extended fins, whose
sharp points are able to inflict a painful wound, the poor
hassar darts into the fatal basket.

268 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTER XXV.

REPTILES.

Defences of the Chelonians, Lizards, Frogs, and Toads — Locomotion of Serpents —
Legs of the Tortoise and Turtles— The Gecko's Foot— The Chameleon— The
Viper's Fang — How Serpents swallow their Food — Tongue of the Chameleon and
of the Crocodile— Vertebral Teeth of the Deirodon — Maternal Affection of the
Cayman — Hybernation — Usefulness of Reptiles — Their Enemies and their
Fecundity.

UNSOCIAL, indolent, obtuse, the friends of darkness and solitude,
as if ashamed of exposing their hideousness to the broad light of
day, the Reptiles seem to be fit objects both of abhorrence and
pity ; and yet their structure is as perfect and harmonious in
its way as that of the most highly-gifted among the birds and
quadrupeds, and all their wants have been as carefully provided
for.

Who, on seeing a tortoise slowly creeping along, would not
suppose that so slothful an animal must, necessarily, succumb
to the attacks of enemies infinitely its superiors in swiftness,
in cunning, or in strength ? And yet it has, in most cases, but
little to fear from their violence or speed, for its spine, ribs, and
breastbone are wonderfully developed and soldered together,
so as to enclose the whole animal in a solid panoply of bone.
This harness, as trustworthy as any in which the knights of old
encased their limbs when about to plunge into the tumult of
battle, is covered by the skin, which in its turn is plated with
large scales, while all the muscles and viscera are contained
in the inner cavity. Only the head, feet, and tail protrude
through openings between the dorsal shield or carapace and the
ventral cuirass or plastrum, but can at the creature's will be
withdrawn entirely under the former. Thus, at the approach of
danger, the tortoise need only shrink under the cover of its im-

AKMOUR OF THE TORTOISE.

269

penetrable bulwark to resist every attack by tooth or nail. The
ventral part is less strongly plated, but most of the creature's
enemies find it no easy task to turn it on its back, and thus to
assail the fortress on its weakest side. As several species attain

a good defence ;
could, after all,
Ifity the want of

head °ut °f its

well provided for.

.ill!. Id €

270 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

their reach. Thus the loggerhead turtle roams like a famished
tiger through the tropical ocean, and the river-tortoises are the
terror of the fishes or even of the water-birds, whom they fre-
quently surprise by suddenly darting their long necks at them,
when they incautiously fly too near the surface of the treacherous
stream. Though deprived of teeth, the turtles and tortoises are
able to inflict a, severe bite with their horny jaws, which fit one
over the other like a pair of shears, and whose working surface
is trenchant in the carnivorous species, but variously sculp-
tured and adapted for both cutting and bruising in the vegetable-
feeders.

Like the turtles and tortoises, the lizard tribes are spread far
and wide over the sea and the land ; and one genus — which,
though harmless and inoffensive, bears the formidable name of
dragon — is furnished with large expansile cutaneous processes,
which enable it, like the flying-squirrel, to vault through the air,
and spring from branch to branch among the lofty trees in which
it resides. In this order also those that frequent the rivers or
lagunes, such as the terrible crocodiles or the water-lizards of
the Indian Archipelago, are slow and awkward when they creep
on land, swift and alert in their own element; but the land-
lizards, unlike the tortoises, are almost all distinguished by the
swiftness of their motions, so that they can, if pursued, disappear
with the rapidity of lightning in the crevice of a rock or a hole
in the ground — and thus they make up by their agility for the
want of a protecting harness.

The frogs and toads, though naked, and without claws or sharp
teeth to offer an active resistance to hostile assault, are still suf-
ficiently protected against a number of enemies.

Thus the strong muscular legs of the edible frog, who loves
to warm his green livery on the sunny banks of his pond,
render him as good services as he could possibly expect from the
best suit of armour. There he will sit motionless for hours toge-
ther, enjoying his refreshing air-bath, and imbibing heat and
light at every pore ; but as soon as his sharp ear detects the
approach of man or beast, one single bound sends him plump
into the water, and a few energetic strokes propel him far out
of reach. Such is his muscular power that, with one leap,
he can jump twenty times his height, or vault over a space
fifty times his length. What would have become of him if this

MOTH7E POWER OF SERPENTS. 271

wonderful elasticity of limb did not assist him in the hour of
need?

The toad has no agility to depend upon ; but by day he
perfectly understands the art of concealment under stones or
mosses, or in the roots of trees ; and the acrimonious fluid
which he suddenly discharges when disturbed, or which, on irri-
tation, exudes from his skin, may also serve to keep off many
an enemy.

The snakes seem, at first sight, more defenceless than all the
other reptiles, as they are altogether deprived of feet ; and yet we
see them glide along with great celerity, and apparently without
an effort. Thus it is evident that a most excellent locomotive
apparatus must lie concealed within their cylindrical and naked
body ; and a closer inspection teaches us that, by an admirable
mechanism, their ribs are made to perform the office of legs.
For while we only possess twelve pairs of these bones, joined
together in front by means of the breastbone and cartilaginous
processes, and serving merely to assist respiration, the ribs of
serpents are exceedingly numerous, varying, according to the
proportions of the species, from fifty-one pairs to three
hundred and twenty. There is no vestige of a breastbone, so
that each rib is capable of individual motion ; and this faci-
lity of action is still further increased by each pair of ribs being
moveably articulated, by means of two slight concave surfaces,
with the corresponding vertebras, forming a kind of double ball
and socket-joint. Numerous strong muscles attach these long
levers to the scuta or scales of the skin, while others run from
scale to scale and from rib to rib ; and thus we can easily com-
prehend how, with such a complicated system of pulleys and
points of attachment, the reptile — bringing up the tail towards
the head by bending the body into one or more curves, and then
again resting upon the tail and extending the body- — is able to
shoot rapidly along, not only upon smooth ground or over the
rough bark of trees, but even from branch to branch ; as the
smallest hold suffices for its stretching-out its body at a foot's
length into the air, and thus reaching another sallying-point for
further progress. Thus, also, the serpent does not feel the want
of legs, which would indeed have been a great source of inconveni-
ence while creeping through the dense bushes or tangled roots, or
the masses of dead leaves that form its favourite haunts ; and

272 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

thus, finally, the wisdom of its Divine Author shows itself in
every movement of a creature we are accustomed to despise and
loathe !

In those reptiles which possess limbs, we find* these organs
harmonising in every respect with their mode of life. In
the land-tortoises the feet are mere awkward stumps; but
these short and seemingly distorted members, terminating in
obtuse claws, answer every useful purpose, while long and fleet
limbs would not only have been superfluous to creatures who find
in abundance the vegetable food they require, or who possess a
sufficient defence against their enemies in the impenetrable har-
ness which Providence has given them, but would, moreover,
have been at variance with the remaining structure of the animal,
as they could not possibly have been withdrawn under the pro-
tecting cover of the carapace.

In the turtles the feet, in perfect harmony with a different
mode of life, are flattened out into the shape of fins or oars ; and

as in moving the principal efforts fall
to the share of the forefeet, these are
much longer and far more developed
'than the hinder extremities, whose
action consists less in propelling than in
steering. They are also assisted in
swimming by a longer tail, which

Loggerhead Turtle. , & J

serves them as a rudder.

In the emydae, or marsh-tortoises, which form as it were
the connecting link between the land and river-tortoises,
the toes are moveable, and furnished with long nails, so
that these animals are well-fitted for moving on land, while at
the same time their webbed feet are equally well adapted for
swimming.

According to the more or less aquatic habits of the various
species, the feet are more or less webbed ; for in those that
habitually remain on the banks of the lagunes, the connecting
membrane is confined to the base of the toes, while in those which
rarely frequent the shore it sometimes reaches to the extremity
of the claws ; and thus the inspection of the feet of a marsh-
tortoise gives us at once a full insight into its habits.

Among the lizards the Geckoes are distinguished by the

THE GECKO S TOE.

273

Under- surface of
Gecko's Toe
(magnified;.

facility with which they climb up the vertical plane of walls, and
walk in an inverted position on the ceilings of rooms. For this
wonderful faculty, which, to all appearance, sets the laws of gra-
vitation at defiance, they are indebted to an admirable pneumatic
apparatus, which they employ in a manner similar
to that of the house-fly. The under-surface of
each of the five toes, which, with the exception of
the thumb, terminate in a sharp claw, is furnished
both in the fore and hind-feet with as many as six-
teen transverse folds or plica3, which open into as
many cavities or sacks. The contraction of the
muscles acting upon these plicae and sacks erects
the former, and dilates the cavities of the latter ;
the serrated edges being at the same time accu-
rately applied to any smooth surface, a vacuum
is produced, and by this structure the animal is
enabled to perform its wonderful equilibristic
feats without fatigue or any extraordinary effort.

The graceful anolis, which are peculiar to America, are simi-
larly provided with suckers and long claws for the purpose of
climbing, and moreover their strong muscular hind-legs enable
them to leap with singular agility.

The chameleon is as perfectly fitted for maintaining itself
with perfect ease and safety on the agitated branches of trees
as the gecko for climbing on sur-
faces at every possible angle of
inclination ; for its short, strong, and
muscular limbs are so constructed
that two thumbs opposite to three
fingers on the anterior extremity, .chameleon.

and three thumbs Opposite to two (Chameleo Africanus.)

fingers on the posterior, form as it were a kind of pincers or
hand, admirably suited for a holdfast. This strange animal
possesses further a strong flexible and prehensile tail such as
has been given to no other reptile, and which of course renders
it material assistance in the maintenance of its arboreal station.
The skinks, a family of lizard-like reptiles in which
there appears to be a gradual transition from the form
of the lizards to that of the serpents, have but very short leas -

274 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

but these are well formed for burrowing, and, with the addi-
tional assistance of their flat wedgelike snout, enable them at
the approach of an enemy to disappear under the sand almost
as quickly as the mole burrows in the ground, or the seal
dives under the water.

During the summer months, the tree-frog lives chiefly on
the upper parts of trees, where it wanders among the foliage in
quest of insects, which it catches with extreme celerity, either
stealing softly towards its prey, or springing upon it with a
sudden leap. For this arboreal life it is well fitted by the
peculiar formation of its toes, all of which are terminated
by round, flat and dilated tips, whose under-surface being
soft and glutinous, allows it to climb with perfect security
and ease ; it can also adhere to any substance by its abdomen
(which is covered with small glandular granules), by merely
pressing itself against it. It is often seen suspending itself by
its feet to the under parts of the leaves to enjoy their shade,
while its green colour harmonising with that of the foliage
masks its presence from its prey, and enables it to escape the
notice of its enemies.

Thus, however different in form or structure, the locomotive
organs of the reptiles constantly agree with their mode of life,
and a further examination of the passive or active defences of
these animals shows us that everywhere the want of some
faculty is compensated by the possession of another.

The large American iguana, for instance, when overtaken by
one of its arch-enemies, the various species of the formidable
cat tribe, makes use of its long and powerful tail as a most
effective weapon of defence, lashing about with it to the right
and left in such a manner as to make even the jaguar pause in his
attack. When the* monitor-lizard is pursued by the huntsman,
it runs as fast as it can to its burrow; but when intercepted
in its flight, it defends itself courageously. Its sharp teeth
are able to bite through a strong boot, and its powerful tail
sends the dog whom it hits howling from the field of battle,
or lays him prostrate in the dust. Besides the activity of
their movements, which enables them to dart suddenly from
their place of concealment upon the beetles flies or gnats on
which they principally feed, the insectivorous lizards are
furnished with an extensible tongue, fissured at the extremity,

THE CHAMELEONS TONGUE. '27 o

and thus forming an excellent apparatus wherewith to catch
their prey.

But perhaps in no animal is this organ more remarkable
than in the chameleon, where by its extraordinary power of ex-
tension, and by the rapidity of its movements, it is made to
compensate for the extreme sluggishness which characterises
the muscular system of that singular creature. The chameleon,
fixed firmly by means of its bifid feet and prehensile tail upon
the bough of a tree, has no occasion to move in quest of insect
prey, but waits patiently until its victims approach sufficiently
near to be within reach of its tongue, which, though "generally

Tongue of Chameleon.

concealed within the cavity of the mouth, is capable of being
elongated until it exceeds in length the whole body of the
animal. No sooner does a fly approach within five or six inches
of the chameleon, than the tongue is slowly protruded for the
length of about an inch, so as to expose its thick fleshy
extremity, the end of which is divided into two prominent lips,
and copiously lubricated with a thick viscid secretion. The
whole tongue is then launched out, with a rapidity that is per-
fectly amazing, to the length of six or seven inches, and a fly
glued to its extremity is brought into the creature's mouth so
quickly, that the eye can scarcely follow the movement.

Besides the possession of this unique tongue, the chameleon is
very much assisted in its chase after insects by its singular faculty
of voluntarily changing colour, which enables it to conceal itself
by adopting that of the branches around, and by the peculiar
structure of its enormously projecting eyes. Although the
movements of its head are very limited on account of the

T 2

276 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

shortness of its stiff neck, this deficiency is amply compensated
by the wide range of its vision, each eye being able to move
about in all directions independently of the other. Thus, while
one of them gazes upon the heavens, the other minutely ex-
amines the ground ; or while one of them rolls in its orbit,
the other remains fixed : nay, their mobility is so great, that
without even moving his stiff head, this wonderful saurian, like
Janus, the double-faced god of ancient Rome, can see at the
same time all that goes on before and behind him. This
mutual independence of the eyes is owing to the imperfect
sympathy which subsists between the two lobes of the brain and
the two sets of nerves which ramify throughout the opposite sides
of its frame. Hence, also, one side of the body may be asleep
while the other is vigilant — one may be green while the other
is ash-blue ; and it is even said that the chameleon is utterly
unable to swim, because the muscles of both sides are inca-
pable of acting in concert. Thus, whatever to the ignorant eye
seems strange or grotesque in the organisation of the chameleon,
is in reality most admirably adapted to its wants.

In the crocodile the structure of the tongue is no less remark-
able than in the chameleon, though of a very different character ;
as, far from being extensile, it has not even a moveable extremity,
but is attached by its whole circumference to the under-jaw.
At the posterior part of the organ a broad fold of the skin can
be applied against a corresponding fold of the palatal membrane
that descends from the roof of the mouth, so that the two when
approximated form a valve that completely closes the commu-
nication between the mouth and the posterior fauces. By this
curious and provident arrangement, the crocodile is enabled to
keep its mouth open under water, without danger of suffocation
from that fluid getting into its windpipe ; whilst by means of its
long tubular nostrils, which open at the very apex of its snout
and are continued backwards to behind the valvular apparatus
above described, it is enabled to breathe with facility whilst
only the tip of its nose is above the surface of the water.

As the crocodile preys chiefly on fish, it is admirably organised
for swimming, by means of its long oarlike tail, and its short
strong webfpoted legs; while the length of the body, which mate-
rially assists its progression in the water, renders it unwieldy on
land. Thus this large and ferocious monster, which when full-

THE SERPENT'S POISON -TEETH.

277

grown is more than a match for any of its enemies, is prevented
by the wise ordinance of Providence from becoming as formidable
on land as in the water ; for when on shore the difficulty it has
in turning, or of advancing otherwise than directly forward,
enables men and animals readily to escape from it.

The colossal pythons and boas require no other means
for overpowering the assaults of their enemies or the resistance
of their prey than their prodigious muscular strength, for
even the tiger and the jaguar are unable to resist their murde-
rous embrace. They climb trees with great facility, the scuta of
various segments through their enormous length laying hold
of the bark, and aided by the great flexibility of their vertebral
column, they are enabled to ascend in opposition to the force
of gravity.

They select trees in the vicinity of streams and rivers, and
suspending themselves from the branches in an inverted posi-
tion by means of their prehensile tail, seize and crush quadru-
peds even of great size as they approach to drink.

The active colubridse, all of which are perfectly innoxious,
dart suddenly upon the insects, lizards, or mice, for whom they
lie in wait among the
bushes or in heaps of rub-
bish, or escape from their
enemies with wonderful
velocity; while the venom-
ous snakes, which are gene-
rally slow and indolent in
their motions, and would
thus become an easy prey
to their enemies, have
been endowed, as a com-
pensation for their slug-
gishness, with so formidable a weapon as to make even the
boldest opponent quail at their sight — for the slightest scratch
of one of their fangs is certain death. A small canal runs
through the centre of a great part of these" needle-like teeth,
and opening in a groove near the apex, terminates on the
anterior surface in an elongated fissure. Towards the basis
of the tooth a similar slight groove or longitudinal indenta-
tion communicates with the duct of the poison-gland. This is

Structure of the Poison-teeth

of the Serpent.

a longitudinal section of poison-fang, I shows a
hair inserted into the poison-canal, c transverse
section of fang, x pulp -cavity, y poison-canal.

278 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

surrounded by a double aponeurotic capsule, of which the outer-
most and strongest layer is in connexion with a muscle, by
whose contraction the gland is compressed and emptied of its
secretion, which is thus conveyed by the duct to the basal
aperture of the poison-canal of the fang. We may suppose that
as the analogous salivary glands in other animals are most
active under particular emotions, the rage or hunger which
stimulates the venom-snake to use its deadly weapon must
be accompanied with an increased secretion and great disten-
sion of the poison-glands ; and, as the action of the compress-
ing muscles is contemporaneous with the blow by which the
serpent inflicts its wound, the poison is at the same moment
injected with force into the wound by the apicial outlet of the
perforated fang.

Strange to say, this deadly liquid has no acrid or burning
taste or smell to announce its fatal properties ; the tongue would
pronounce it in offensive, and it can even be swallowed with im-
punity ; yet the smallest quantity introduced into an open wound
suffices to dissolve the blood, and to paralyse the stream of
life with an almost incredible rapidity. No chemist has yet
been able to solve the enigma of its action, to explain the reason
of its deadly effects !

Had the poison-fangs been immoveably fixed they would
have been great hindrances to the act of swallowing, but this
inconvenience has been obviated by the great mobility of the
superior maxillary bone to which they are attached, so that they
can voluntarily either be concealed in the gum with their point
turned backwards, or pushed forwards and erected.

Lancets of needle-like dimensions must necessarily be fragile,
but here also precautions have been taken against an irreparable
loss, as an aftergrowth of supplementary fangs is constantly in
readiness to replace them when broken. Thus even the terrible
poison apparatus of the viper is full of wonders, and equally
worthy of admiration and of fear.

In spite of their proverbial 'wisdom' and the frequent pos-
session of a weapon of such annihilating power, the serpents,
among whose two hundred and sixty- three known species
fifty-seven are venomous, would never have been able to main-
tain their existence had they not possessed the faculty of
swallowing at one meal enormous masses of animal food.

THE DEIRODON. 279

For although generally agile in their movements, the deer,
rodents, lizards, or insects on which they feed, according to
their size, are frequently still more active, and thus they are
obliged to lie in wait and seize the favourable opportunity
for darting unawares upon their prey. This is frequently of a
more considerable volume than the body of its captor, and as
their small teeth are incapable of diminishing or masticating
their food, they would have been condemned to perish in the
midst of abundance had not their mouth been capable of enor-
mous distension. For this purpose the two sides of the lower
jaw do not coalesce like ours into one solid mass, but are only
loosely connected with each other, thus allowing each part to
be moved separately. The bones of the upper jaw and palate are
also loosely attached or articulated one with the other by liga-
ments, so as to allow the aperture of the mouth to be considerably
widened.

By this mechanism, aided by the numerous sharp teeth which
are generally fixed both in the jaws and on the roof of the mouth,
and, having their points curved backwards, serve as so many
little hooks for seizing and holding their prey, each side of the
jaws and mouth, being able to act as it were independently of
the other, alternately hooks itself fast to the morsel or advances
to fasten itself farther on in a similar manner ; and thus the
reptile draws itself over its prey, somewhat in the same way as
we draw a stocking over our leg, after having first, by breaking
the bones, fashioned it into a convenient mass and rendered its
passage more easy by lubricating it with its saliva. Slowly the
huge lump disappears behind the widening jaws, descends lower
and lower beneath the scales, which seem ready to burst asunder
with distension, and then the satisfied monster coils himself up
once more to digest his meal in quiet. The time required for
this purpose varies of course according to the size of the morsel ;
but often weeks or even months will pass before a python rouses
himself from the lethargic repose in which he lies plunged
after a superabundant meal.

While the venomous snakes are armed with formidable fangs,
and most other serpents are well furnished with teeth, those of
the genus Deirodon are so small as to be scarcely perceptible. An
acquaintance with the habits and food of this species has shown
how admirably the apparent defect is adapted to its wellbeing.

280 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Its business is to restrain the undue increase of the smaller birds
by devouring their eggs. Now, if the teeth had existed of the
ordinary form and proportion in the jaws and palate, the egg
would have been broken as soon as it was seized, and much of
its nutritious contents would have escaped from the lipless
mouth of the snake in the act of deglutition ; but owing to the
almost edentulous state of the jaws, the egg glides along the
expanded opening unbroken ; and it is not until it has reached
the gullet, and the closed mouth prevents any escape of the
nutritious matter, that the shell is exposed to instruments
adapted for its perforation. These instruments consist of pro-
cesses growing out of the last cervical vertebrae, the extremities
of which are capped by a layer of hard cement, and penetrate
into the interior of the oesophagus. The shell being sawed open
longitudinally by these vertebral teeth, the egg is crushed by the
contractions of the gullet and is carried to the stomach, where
the shell is no doubt soon dissolved by the acid gastric juice.

The intellectual powers of the reptiles are confined to very
narrow limits, yet these lowminded animals possess many of the
passions and instincts which we have had occasion to observe
among the fishes. The same imperative impulse which forces
the salmon to quit the salt -waters of the ocean and ascend the
rivers, compels also the turtles at the beginning of the dry season
to seek the sandy shores of desert islands or solitary bays, or
directs the marsh and river-tortoises to the warm flat islands
which dot the surface or crowd about the estuaries of the colossal
tropical streams. There they select a place in which their eggs
can be hatched by the heat of the sun, and dig holes before
depositing them for their protection. As soon as they burst
their shell, the young immediately crawl towards the water,
in obedience to the instinct which tells them that this is their
proper element, and that the dry sands, after having once done
their office in bringing them to life, can afford them neither
security nor food.

The lacertine and ophidian tribes also select proper places for
their eggs, either in the warm sand or in heaps of fermenting
substances. Thus several of the American alligators, after having
scraped together a little mound on the banks of rivers, hollow it
out in the middle and fill up the rest with vegetable matter, as
if a professor of chemistry had taught them that the process of

AFFECTIONS OF REPTILES. 281

putrefaction engenders heat. One species of salamander com-
mits a single egg to a leaf of persicaria, protects it by carefully
doubling the leaf, and then proceeding to another, repeats this
manoeuvre till her whole stock is provided for.

Nor are the reptiles so totally devoid of all sentiments of affec-
tion as is commonly supposed. The Singhalese remark that if one
cobra be destroyed near a house, its companion is almost Certain
to be discovered immediately after ; and Pliny notices the affec-
tion that subsists between the male and the female asp, and that
if one of them happen to be killed, the other seeks to avenge its
death. The she-alligator watches over the safety of her young
for a long time after their birth, and endeavours to protect them
from her voracious mate, who it must be confessed has but little
of a father's tenderness ; and the male iguana is strongly attached
to the female, whom he will defend with the most obstinate fury.
Even the ill-famed crocodile appears to be better than its repu-
tation— instances having been quoted of its becoming tame and
in some degree gentle to its keeper.

Of the memory of lizards we find a curious instance in Sir
E. Tennent's ( Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon.' In
the officers' quarters in the Fort of Colombo, a gecko had been
taught to come daily to the dinner-table, and always made its
appearance along with the dessert. The family were absent for
some months, during which the house underwent extensive re-
pairs, the roof having been raised, the walls stuccoed, and the
ceilings whitened. It was naturally surmised that so long a
suspension of its accustomed habits would have led to the dis-
appearance of the little lizard; but on the return of its old
friends, it made its entrance as usual at their first dinner the
instant the cloth was removed.

Although frogs are found both at the mouths of the Mac-
kenzie and at the Straits of Magellan, and lizards dwell both
in Scotland and Kamtschatka, yet the reptiles are chiefly
confined to the tropics, as from their cold blood they are in-
capable of supporting a low temperature.

Were they possessed of wings, there can be no doubt that our
northern snakes, lizards, frogs, and toads would fly to a warmer
climate as soon as the first cold nights of autumn cover the
meadows with a silvery sheet of hoarfrost ; but though deprived
<>f wings, these animals are taught by an admirable instinct to

282 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

brave the winter in their own domain, and to seek a refuge either
underground, or under stones or timber, or under the bark of
trees — where, sheltered from the cold, they sink into a deep
lethargic sleep, which lasts until the first warm days of spring
enable them to resume -an active life.

The slow or blind worm (Anguis fragilis), as it is falsely
called, its small brilliant eyes being capable of seeing very dis-
tinctly, burrows itself a complete winter residence, consisting of
a tunnel from about thirty to thirty-six inches in length, the
mouth of which it plugs up with grass and earth. Close to the
entrance lie the young, farther on the more full-grown snakes,
and finally in a small recess an old. male and female — the
patriarchs of the community, which frequently consists of twenty
or thirty individuals, all in a deep trance — partly twisted to-
gether, partly stretched out at full length.

In the equatorial regions the extreme aridity of the dry season
is as hostile to animal life as the extreme cold of the north.
Thus many reptiles, unable to procure their ordinary food from
the drying-up of the watercourses, must necessarily have perished,
had not an admirable instinct prompted and their organisation
allowed them to bury themselves in the mud, and remain in a
state of torpor till released by the recurrence of rain.

Sir Emerson Tennent, whilst riding across the parched bed
of a tank, was shown the recess still bearing the form and im-
press of a crocodile, out of which the animal had been seen to
emerge the day before. A story was also related to him of an
officer who, having pitched his tent in a similar position, was
disturbed during the night by feeling a movement of the earth
below his bed, from which on the following day a crocodile
emerged, making its appearance from beneath the matting.

After the first rains have moistened the arid llanos, the
parched clay of the dried-up morass is sometimes seen to rise a,s
if upheaved by subterranean power. The Indian, fully aware
of the cause, takes to flight, for a gigantic water-boa or a huge
crocodile is slowly arising from the tomb in. which it, had volun-
tarily embedded itself.

Man generally avoids the reptiles, which are equally solicitous
to fly from his presence; and yet they are far more useful than
noxious. They devour an immense quantity of mice, insects,
worms and snails, and in many countries their services as de-

USES OF KEPTILES. 283

.stroyers of vermin are duly appreciated. In South Spain and
Africa the chameleon is kept in the rooms to catch flies, and in
hothouses lizards and even toads are frequently made use of to
cleanse the premises of vermin. In the torrid zone snakes are
sometimes domesticated for a similar purpose. Thus the rat-
snake of Ceylon (Coryphodon blumenbachi) is often kept as a
household pet by the natives ; and what is still more remarkable,
even the dreaded cobras are domesticated in the place of dogs.
They glide about the house, going in and out at pleasure, a
terror to thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates.

Several of the reptiles afford an equally agreeable and
healthy food. The flesh of the turtle needs no special encomium ;
one single specimen of the elephantine tortoise of the Gralapagos
will provide a ship's company with a supply of fresh meat for
several weeks ; and the common or Greek tortoise, which also
renders good services in gardens by the destruction of insects,
is frequently brought upon the provision market in the coast
towns of the Mediterranean.

The white flesh of the iguana is one of the great delicacies
of the West Indies, and on the Continent frogs' legs are the
epicure's delight. But it is not merely as food that the reptiles
are valuable to man : tortoise-shell — which ought rather to be
called turtle-shell, as it is furnished by a denizen of the ocean
(Hawksbill-turtle)— is one of the most elegant articles for various
ornamental purposes, and the tough skin of the crocodiles and
alligators make excellent sandals and saddles.

On comparing with all these services the injuries which the
reptiles inflict upon man, it will be found that the balance
inclines very much in favour of the former. It is but seldom
that he falls a prey to crocodiles and alligators, or that the boa
crushes him to death, or that the poison-fang of the rattlesnake
dooms him to almost instantaneous destruction. No venomous
snake will ever attack him unprovoked ; the boas and pythons,
far from seeking the opportunity of assailing him, are glad to
escape his notice ; and the crocodiles are so awkward on land
that they are but little inclined to seek their prey out of the
water..

Both the noxious and the far more numerous harmless reptiles
are kept in check by a host of enemies. The storks, herons,
and buzzards are constantly thinning their ranks ; the ostrich

284

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

is a determined serpent-hunter ; and the secretary-bird is so
renowned for his exploits as a snake-killer that he has been
introduced into the West Indies for the purpose of exterminating
the terrible trigonocephalus, which, before he came to the rescue,
rendered working in the sugar-plantations so dangerous to the
negroes.

In their combats with the snakes the birds evince an admir-
able instinct. Thus the buzzard is fully aware of the dangerous
bite of the adder, even when he has been caught quite young,
and has never before seen one of these terrible reptiles. He
aims at once at the head, and only begins to feast upon the body
after having previously crushed it. Harmless serpents, on the

Mongoos (Herpestes Vilticollis).

contrary, he will hold a long time in his talons, enjoying their
vain endeavours to escape or to molest their persecutor, and
then bite them indiscriminately either in the tail or in the head.
Who taught him this lesson ? — who enabled him to distinguish
between creatures apparently so similar? — who informed him
that here only an impotent rage exhausts itself in ineffectual
efforts, while there a deadly poison is to be avoided ?

In the backwoods of America the rattlesnake everywhere dis-
appears before the advance of man, as the hog, the squatter's
invariable companion,, is its most formidable enemy, whom it
dreads so much that, on seeing one, it immediately loses all its

ENEMIES OF REPTILES. 285

courage, and instantly takes to flight. But the hog, who smells
it from afar, draws nearer and nearer, his bristles erect with
excitement, seizes it by the neck, and devours it with great com-
placency, though without touching the head.

On account of his activity in destroying crocodile-eggs and
snakes the ichneumon was ranked by the ancient Egyptians
among their numerous divinities. The Indian mongoos also
attacks without hesitation the most venomous serpents. The
cobra, which puts even the leopard to flight, rises before the
little creature with swelling hood and fury in its eye ; but,
swift as thought, the mongoos, avoiding the death-stroke of the
projecting fangs, leaps upon its back, and, fastening his sharp
teeth in the head, soon despatches the helpless snake.

Even in their own ranks the reptiles have many enemies,
who take care to keep their numbers in check, and prevent
them from acquiring a dangerous ascendancy over the other
animals. Thus the Trionyx ferox, a river-tortoise of South Caro-
lina, lies in wait among the rushes for the young alligators ; and
one serpent frequently devours the other.

Against these manifold attacks the reptile race maintains
itself, not only by the various defences I have mentioned, but by
a great fecundity. Frogs and toads often lay above twelve
hundred eggs — tortoises and turtles above four hundred, during
the course of the dry season — crocodiles and snakes from fifty to
sixty. Thus the reptiles not only supply food to a Vast number
of animals, but keep on flourishing from generation to generation
and from age to age.

286 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTER XXVI.

BIRDS.

Their Wings and Eapidity of Flight — Quill-feathers — Wings of the Ostrich and
the Penguin — Feathers — Rump-gland— Legs of Birds— Waders — Swimmers —
Raptorial Birds — Perchers — Beaks of Birds— Black-skimmer— Boatbill — Spoon-
bill— Crossbill — The Flamingo's and the Toucan's Tongue — Digestive Apparatus
of the Birds — Strength of Vision — Services of Birds — Nests of Birds — The
Sand-martin— The Woodpecker— The Chaffinch— The Cassique— The Balti-
more Oriole — Weaver-birds — The Baya — The Social Grossbeak — The Tailor-
bird — The Tallegalla — The Sea-lark — Heroism of Birds in defending their
Young — The Lammergeier— Artifices of the Lapwing and Ostrich — Memory and
Intelligence of Birds — Migratory Instinct.

WHEN the word reptile is mentioned, a host of loathsome forms
rises before our fancy. The slimy toad seems to distend its
repulsive body, the wily adder hisses and menaces us with its
venomous fangs, the boa uncoils its enormous folds to stifle us
in its embrace, and the dreadful crocodile snaps at us with its
formidable jaws.

ETow different the picture when our thoughts turn to the
Birds, the light-winged denizens of the air ! There all was
dismal and dreary, clothed in dull melancholy tints such as
befit the putrid swamp or the pestilential morass ; here all is
broad daylight and cheerful sunshine. The groves resound with
harmonious voices ; the brilliant hummingbird darts from
flower to flower ; the golden pheasant rears his beautiful crest ;
the swan, robed in his spotless garb, draws furrows through the
crystal lake ; the peacock, in the full consciousness of his
beauty, strides proudly over the lawn ; and high above, almost
beyond the reach of human vision, the eagle sweeps in majestic
circles through the sky.

Other animals likewise quit the solid earth, or the waters of
the sea, to seek food, or refuge from their enemies, in the light

WINGS OF BIRDS. 287

regions of the air ; the buzzing bee and the silent butterfly
hover from flower to flower ; the flying-fish, darting into another
element, eludes the dolphin's pursuit ; and the bat, expanding
his broad wings, wheels like a demon of the night in quest of
his insect prey. But the low flight of all these creatures is con-
fined either to a few moments, or to a narrow sphere ; while
the feathered races roam far and wide through the vast realms
of the atmosphere, and defy both height and distance with their
powerful and unwearied wings.

According to Humboldt, the condor soars to an elevation of
48,000 feet, from whence he would be able to overlook the whole
of Great Britain and Ireland, and then again in a few minutes
darts down to the level of the sea ; the albatross, quietly facing the
gale, bids defiance to the fury of the 'unshackled elements; and
the frigate-bird, though frequently met with at the distance of
four hundred leagues from land, is said to return every night
to his solitary roost. To perform these prodigious flights, these
monarchs of the air have been gifted with an enormous spread
of wing. Thus the pinions of the albatross extend from ten to
thirteen feet, and those of the condor and the frigate-bird
measure even still more from end to end ; but even among the
smaller birds we find many that divide the air with an astonish-
ing swiftness and length of flight. The carrier-pigeon has
been known to travel in less than six hours from London to
Liege in Belgium ; the fleetest greyhound would be unable to
overtake the swallow; and the tiny hummingbird, although
generally averse to long migrations, darts from flower to flower
with such lightning-like velocity, that the most attentive ob-
server is unable to distinguish the rapid vibrations of its wings.

A glimpse at the organisation of the birds shows us how
admirably they are constructed for an aerial life. As their
wings, which correspond to the forefeet of the quadrupeds or
to the arms of man, are in most cases the chief organs of loco-
motion, and their use consequently requires the greatest concen-
tration of strength, their muscles are generally far more powerful
than those of the legs. The breastbone is also enormously
developed, so as to serve as a fit point of attachment for the
muscular masses which set them in motion ; and its dimensions
correspond so exactly with the strength of the wings, that on
comparing its size with that of the remaining skeleton, we can

28a THE HARMONIES OP NATURE.

at once judge of a bird's powers of flight. Thus in the ostrich
and cassowary, whose wings are incapable of raising them into
the air, the keel, or osseous crest — which in most birds arises
from the centre of the breastbone, and serves to increase the
surface of muscular attachment — is absent, while it projects
enormously in the diurnal birds of prey, in the swallows, and in
the hummingbirds.

To assist the action of the wings, they are provided with a
crest of quill-feathers, more or less elongated, and decked with
6 coverts ' imbricating over each other like the tiles of a roof.
When expanded, these feathers press like a light fan upon the
elastic air-wave beneath, and considerably increase the surface
of the bird without materially adding to his weight. Not only
the size, but also the form 'and texture, of the quill-feathers has
a material effect on the powers of flight. Thus in the falcons,
each primary quill-feather is elongated, narrow, and gradually
tapers to a point ; the webs are entire, and the barbs closely and
firmly connected together. In the owls, the plumage is loose
and soft, and the outer edge of the primaries is serrated ; so that
while they are debarred from a rapid flight, which would be
dangerous in the gloom in which they go abroad, they are
enabled by the same mechanism to wing their way without
noise, and steal unheard upon their prey. In the ostrich, the
barbs of the quill-feathers have so little adhesion to each other,
that the air can pass readily between them, and thus the wings,
even by their most energetic action, are totally incapable of
raising the bird from the ground. Their flapping, however,
materially assists the action of the legs, and serves to increase
the speed of the giant bird when, flying over the arid plain, he
' scorns the horse and his rider.'

The penguin is totally deprived of quill-feathers, like the
cassowary or the kiwi ; but, though incapable of flight, this strange
bird makes use of its small featherless wing-stumps as excellent
paddles in the water, and on land as forefeet, with whose help
it scales so rapidly the grass-grown cliffs, as to be easily mis-
taken for a quadruped. Wherever great powers of flight have
been given, they constantly correspond with some peculiar
want. The food of the oceanic birds is to be sought for at a
great distance from land ; their prey, which consists entirely of
marine animals, is constantly shifting its quarters, and it is

FLIGHT OF BIRDS. 289

therefore necessary that their pursuers should be such perfect
flyers as to be constantly on the wing, either following or
seeking them. They also require a prodigious strength of wing
either to brave the storm or to soar to such an elevation as to
rise above its fury, like those Alpine travellers who from the
serene height of a giant mountain look down upon the thunder-
clouds below. Had not the swallows been endowed with a
lightning-like rapidity,- they would never have been able to
catch a sufficient quantity of the insects, winged like themselves,
on which they feed; and the tiny hummingbird, constantly
hovering from flower to flower, must have fallen an easy prey
to every more powerful carnivorous bird, if he had not been
able to dart along with the swiftness of a meteor. Besides the
expansive wings, the small head, the pointed beak, the long and
pliant neck, the gently-swelling shoulder, the tapering tail
(acting like the rudder of a ship, and enabling the bird to
rise or fall, or remain in a horizontal position), are all wisely
calculated to assist and accelerate motion through the yielding
air.

The internal structure of birds is no less beautifully adapted
to the same purposes : all the bones are thin, and frequently
hollow ; and all the muscles, except those which are appropriated
to the purpose of moving the wings, are extremely delicate
and light ; the lungs are placed close to the backbone and ribs ;
the air, entering into them by a communication from the wind-
pipe, passes through and is conveyed into a number of membran-
aceous cells, which occupy a considerable space of the breast and
abdomen, and which can be voluntarily distended with air, like the
bladder which enables the fishes to rise in their native element.
The feathers with which the birds are invested are so appropriate
to their mode of life, that anything more perfect cannot possibly
be imagined. Not only are they peculiarly fitted by their
lightness as a raiment for creatures destined to hover through
the air, but from their being very bad conductors of heat they
afford the birds the best protection even against the extremes of
cold. Under the cover of its dense white plumage, the snow-
goose braves the terrific winters of the North, and the Antarctic
petrel endures the freezing winds of its inhospitable seas.

Even under the equatorial sun, the condor soars high above

u

290 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

the limits of perpetual snow : like the lammergeier of the Alps,
he roosts on pinnacles where even in summer nights the ther-
mometer sinks many degrees below the freezing-point of water ;
but under their feathery mantle, these birds of prey feel not
the cold. Even in the tropical forests the temperature of the
air falls considerably after sunset, and then the parrot and the
toucan, the tangara and the cotinga, enjoy the benefit of a
vesture which prevents the heat of their bodies from radiating
into the cold atmosphere.

To brave therigours of theNorth,theeider-ducks are furnished,
under their external cover of feathers, with a soft cushion of
down, which serves them also to line their nest, and in many
birds a lighter summer plumage alternates with a warmer winter
covering.

As but few birds sleep under cover, and many of them are
exposed to every weather, they necessarily require a waterproof
mantle. For this purpose they have been provided with a gland
at the rump, from which they express an oily matter, which
spread over the plumage renders it impermeable to the wet.
The lubricating of their feathers with this unctuous fluid is one
of the chief occupations of many birds, particularly of the water-
fowl, in whom the gland by which it is secreted is, as might be
expected, particularly large, while it is totally wanting in the
ostrich, who in his arid home does not require its aid.

Admirable as a most appropriate vestment, the feathers of
birds are scarcely less so from the splendour of their hues or the
elegance of their arrangement. What an astonishing variety of
shape and colour ! The plumage of the colibri rivals the
sapphire and the ruby in brilliancy. Which robe is most
pleasing to the eye, that of the snow-white swan, or that of
the scarlet macaw ? And who has the richest raiment, the
bird of paradise of New Guinea, or the mandarin-duck of
the Chinese lakes ? Can anything surpass the beauty of the
menura's tail, the diadem of the tody, or the gorgeous train
of the peacock ? Among such a host of competitors, it is diffi-
cult indeed to award the prize, or to select a prime favourite
among so many forms of beauty.

An examination of the legs of birds opens new wonders to our
view, for here also we see masterpieces of adaptation of means
to end. Thus in the ostriches and cassowaries — who, unable

FOOT OF BIRDS.

291

Head and Leg of the Ibis.

to fly, would otherwise have been left without defence against
the more powerful beasts of prey— they are extremely robust and
muscular, so as to enable these colossal birds to scour the sandy
plains with such velocity, that their feet scarcely appear to touch
the ground.

In the waders, who are also most excellent runners, they are
not so strongly built, but
their uncommon length
is extremely well-suited
for walking on swampy
ground, or for fording
shallow estuaries and
marshes. A greater mus-
cular strength would have
been superfluous, as the
body they have to carry is
proportionably small and
light, and, besides, a more
robust construction could only have been obtained by a greater
weight, which would have been a serious inconvenience to birds
which pass so great a part of their lives on a treacherous and
unstable soil.

Planted in the centre of the body, they are thus enabled to
carry its equally-distributed weight with the least possible
amount of exertion ; and as they are only feathered as far as the
middle of the thigh, they are the better enabled to wade deep
into the water, particularly as their straight and elongated toes,
which are also frequently lobed or webbed, prevent them from
sinking too deeply into the mud.

A most remarkable example of the provident care with which
the formation of the toes of the waders has in every case been adap-
ted to the peculiar circumstances of their life, is afforded us by the
yacana, in which they are distinguished by extraordinary length,
and armed, moreover, with equally long spinelike claws, espe-
cially that of the hinder toe. For a bird destined to pace the
ground, toes such as these would have beeD as inconvenient as the
snow-shoes of a Laplander ; but to the Tacana they are extremely
serviceable, as from the wide surface over which they extend, they
enable this extremely light bird to pursue its food, consisting of

u 2

292

THE HAKMONIES OF NATURE.

worms, small fishes, and insects, by walking unsubmerged on the
leaves of aquatic plants which float on the water. In the Swimmers
or Palmipeds, the legs are as beautifully adapted for cleaving
the water, as in the Waders for marching over a swampy ground.
The toes are webbed so as to form a broad
oarlike surface, and the short and muscular
legs are placed behind the point of equi-
librium— a peculiarity which occasions an
awkward gait on land, but is extremely favour-
able to birds ' whose business is in the deep
waters.'

In the birds of prey the legs are likewise
robust and short, but here the toes are armed
with long, strong, and crooked talons, so as to
be able to tear their prey, and carry it easily
to the lofty situations in which they build
their nests. For this reason the eagles
have been endowed with comparatively far stronger legs and
claws than the owls^ whose prey consists only of small birds,
mice, or even insects, and who are not obliged to carry it
to high rocks and mountain pinnacles.

Foot of the Pelican.

Talons of a Bird of Prey.

Foot of the Woodpecker.

In the scansorial birds — the woodpeckers and parrots — we
find the feet with two toes before and two behind ; a disposi-
tion which, though it proportionably impedes their progress on
level ground, and would, for instance, have been highly incon-
venient to the ostrich, gives them great facility in climbing
the branches of trees, or ascending perpendicular stems.

BEAK OF BIRDS. 2«J3

The strong and muscular legs of the gallinaceous birds,
with three toes before, furnished with short, blunt,, and robust
nails, render them good service in scratching up their food,
which mostly consists of grains and seeds;
while the slender and short feet of the per-
chers, being more especially adapted to the
delicate labours of nidification, have flexible
and moderately-elongated toes, with long,
pointed, and slightly-curved claws. FootofaPercher.

The beak of birds shows us, in its various forms, the same
wisdom of plan and construction. In the birds of prey it
is strong, curved, sharp-edged, and sharp-
pointed, and often armed with a lateral
tooth ; in the eagles, however, where it is
destined to lacerate a living prey, and has
consequently to overcome a greater resist-
ance, it is more powerful than in the carrion-feeding vultures ;
and were we to examine all the species of the raptores, from
the smallest falcon to the imperial eagle, and from the burrow-
ing owl to the highflying condor, we should find that in every
case it is exactly suited in strength and form to the bird's pecu-
liar prey or food. In the woodpeckers, the end of the large and
strong bill is sharp and formed like a wedge, so as to be able to
pierce the bark of trees, and penetrate through the outside sound
wood of the tree to the inside decayed part, where the food is
lodged ; and in the parrots, we find the upper mandible termi-
nating in a strong tooth, and curving over the smaller lower
mandible, equally well adapted for cracking the hardest nuts.

Those sea-birds which live upon fishes too large to be swal-
lowed whole, have compressed beaks, with sharp edges, and a
hooked extremity similar to that of the birds of prey, where,
however, it is comparatively shorter and stronger ; while in the
storks and cranes, which feed on smaller fishes and reptiles, it is
generally straight, and longer than the head, like a pair of
tongs — a form well adapted for seizing a prey that seeks con-
cealment on a muddy ground. The hardness of the bill
invariably corresponds with the resistance to be overcome ;
thus in the larger species of woodpeckers it acquires the
hardness of ivory, while it changes to a soft skin in those

294

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Beak of the Gmneafowl.

Rostrum of a Crow.

which feed on tender substances, or which have occasion to
probe for their food in muddy or sandy soils — such as ducks,
snipes, or woodcocks.

The short conical and vaulted beak of the Gallinaceous birds
serves to pick up with due rapidity the
vegetable seeds or grains, as well as the
worms or grubs they scratch up out of the
ground; while the bills of the small In-
sessorial or Passerine birds present every
gradation of the conical form, so as to cor-
respond with their various habits. The
short and strong-billed crows and finches live on seeds and

grains; the beaks of the shrikes
and flycatchers are more or less
notched, curved, or emarginated at
the point, so as to be able to dis-
member the small birds, mice, or
insects on which they feed ; the
hummingbirds have an extremely long and slender bill, with

which they extract ants, flies, or
nectareous juices from the very bot-
tom of the long tubular corollas so
common among the tropical flowers ;
and the goat-suckers and swallows,
who are in the habit of catching and
devouring insects on the wing, have
a very short and very deeply-cleft
beak, which enables them to receive
their prey in full flight into the
cavity of their mouth, while fre-
quently a viscous exudation within,
and a strong fence of vibrissse on the
exterior, assist in securing the victim.
In many cases the bill presents a
strange anomaly of form, as if Nature
had indulged in some wild vagaiy
or caprice ; but on a closer inspection
it will almost invariably be found that these deviations from the
ordinary types are of great use to their possessors.

Long-tailed Hummingbird.

BILL OF THE PELICAN AND SKIMMER.

295

The naked elastic pouch (a), depending from the two bony
branches of the lower mandible of the pelican's bill, enables
the bird to dispose of the superfluous quantity which may be
taken during fishing-excursions, either for its own consumption

Bill of ihe Pelican.

Bill of the Skimmer.

or for the nourishment of its young, while the nail or very
strong hook of the upper mandible is of great assistance in
securing its slippery prey.

The bill of the black skimmer or cutwater is quite unique
in its kind ; the
under mandible,
which is in fact
nothing but a
wedge, being about
an inch longer
than the upper
one, by which it is clasped. With this curious apparatus the
bird, while on wing, skims the surface of the sea in search
of small fish, shrimps, or young fry, whose usual haunts are
near the shore and towards the surface, dipping only the sharp
under-mandible into the water, while the upper mandible is
raised above. A vast expansion of wing enables it to sail along
with sufficient speed, so that whoever (says Wilson) has observed
the facility with which the rynchops procures his food, cannot
but consider it a mere playful amusement, when compared
with the dashing immersions of the tern, the gull, or the fish-
hawk, which to the superficial observer appear so much better
equipped.

296

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Beak of the Boatbill.

Beak of the Spoonbill.

The boatbill owes his name to his very remarkable beak,
resembling a boat with its keel up-
wards ; the mandibles are very stout
and sharp-edged, and the upper one
has a projecting point at the ex-
tremity. This strangely-formed bill
is as serviceable to its possessor,
in seizing the fish upon which he

pounces from his seat on the branches of trees by the side of
rivers, as is the long and flat beak of the spoonbill in fishing for

small crustaceans and molluscs
along the edges of the water, or
in the mud left exposed by the
ebbing tide.

The bill of the avoset, which
is about three times as long as the head, turns up like a hook
in an opposite direction to that of the
hawk or parrot, and is flat, thin, sharp,
and flexible like whalebone. An instru-
ment like this would of course have been
very unfit for cracking nuts, picking up
grain, or lacerating a larger prey, but
it answers admirably for scooping
smaller marine animals out of the sand
or from among the pebbles of the shore.

The toucans and hornbills are remarkable for the enormous
size of their bill, which is sometimes equal to that of the body
itself, and might seem rather adapted to birds of ostrich-like
dimensions than to volatiles not much bigger than crows. Were
they of a strong and solid texture, these huge beaks would in-
fallibly weigh them to the ground ; but being of extremely light
and cellular structure the birds carry them easily, and leap
with such agility from bough to bough, that they do not then
appear preposterously large.

Of all beaks, perhaps the most extraordinary is that of the
crossbill, in which the extremities of the mandibles curve towards
opposite sides, and cross each other at a considerable angle ;
a disposition which, at first sight, seems so opposed to the
natural intention of a bill, that even Buffon characterised it
as an error and defect of nature, and a useless deformity.

Avoset (.ttecuivirostra
Avocetta).

THE CROSSBILL AND FLAMINGO.

297

Crossbill

Curvnostra).

But a more accurate observation has shown that this appa-
rently awkward shape is in fact most ad-
mirably adapted to the habits of the bird.
For the crossbills live mostly on the seeds
of the cones of the fir, in procuring which
they exhibit wonderful instinct, as, holding
the cone in their claws, they bring the points
of their beak immediately over each other,
and insinuate them between the scales, when,
forcing them laterally, the scales open, and
then again bringing the points in contact,
they pick out the seed with the utmost ease.

Thus, where even an eminent naturalist ventured to find
fault, we meet with a most beautiful and interesting example
of Divine foresight and wisdom, which may well teach us to be
humble and cautious in attempting to question His ways, or
to pass judgment on His works.

The flamingo, one of the most remarkable of all the aquatic
birds for its beauty, and the great length of its neck and legs,
is also possessed of a most
singularly-formed beak,
nearly seven inches long,
higher than broad, and
suddenly curved down-
wards from the middle.
This extraordinary shape
corresponds with an
equally extraordinary
mode of feeding, for
when fishing for its prey in
the teeming shallows, the
flamingo twists its long neck in such a manner that the upper
part of its bill is applied to the ground, while the trampling
feet at the same time disturb the water, so as to raise up the
worms, molluscs, or crustaceans which form the bird's repast.

~".ie structure of the tongue assists in an admirable manner
tin.' action of the bill and feet, for the spines with which its
upper surface is armed are arranged in an irregular and alter-
nate series, and act with the notches on the edge of the upper
mandible, in which they press when the bird feeds with the

Bill of the Flamingo.

298 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE,

head reversed. In this position the weight and size of the
tongue become a very efficient instrument for entrapping the
food. The bird waddles and clatters the bill, and dabbles about,
and the tongue receives and holds as a strainer whatever the
water offers of food.

In many of the insectivorous birds the tongue is equally well
adapted for seizing its nimble prey before it has time to secrete
itself in some impenetrable citadel. Thus after the strong
beak of the woodpecker has dislodged the insects from their
hiding-places, they are immediately transfixed with the hard,

horny, and sharp point of
its tongue (a), which it is
capable of darting forth
with amazing rapidity, and
held fast by the sharp -
pointed processes directed
backwards, which arm its

Cranium and Tongue of a Woodpecker.

sides and thus convert it

into a barbed harpoon. In the hummingbirds it is divided at
its extremity into a pencil of fine hairs, well-fitted for imbibing
the nectar and farina of flowers; while in the toucan, stiff

Tongue cf the Toucan.

bristle-like processes project forwards from its sides, and the
tongue so provided becomes an instrument for testing the soft-
ness and ripeness of fruit, and the fitness of other objects for
food, thereby acting as a kind of antenna or feeler.

In the parrots it is thick and fleshy, serving admirably to keep
steady the nut or seed upon which the strength of the mandibles
is exerted, and is applied to the kernel so extracted, as if to
ascertain its sapid qualities.

The birds are unable to chew or masticate, but this defect is
amply supplied by the peculiar construction of their digestive
apparatus, which in every case is admirably modified, according
to the nature or volume of the food. Thus in those species
which devour but small quantities at a time, and without any
considerable intermission, or where the aliments are of easy

DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OF BIRDS

299

Digestive Apparatus of the ComtLon ~Fo\

digestion, the gullet presents no enlargement ; while in the eagles
and vultures, which gorge themselves at uncertain intervals
from bulky carcasses, it undergoes a lateral dilatation, to serve
as a temporary reservoir or macerating apparatus.

In those birds whose food consists of grains and seeds this
enlargement or crop is still further developed, and assumes the
form of a large-sized single
pouch (6), as in the fowl,
or of a double one, as in
the pigeon. Here the
food will frequently re-
main for sixteen or twenty
hours, until it becomes
softened with the abundant
secretion of the salivary
glands ; and being thus
duly prepared, it passes on
to the proventriculus (c),
the first or glandular divi-
sion of the stomach, where
it is submitted to the solvent action of the gastric juice. The
proventriculus varies in form and magnitude in different birds,
but is largest in those which have no crop, as if to compensate
for the want of this preparatory macerating cavity.

The third and last act of the digestive process is performed
in the gizzard (e\ which
in the birds of prey as-
sumes the form of a mere
membranous sack, in
accordance with the ani-
mal and easily digesti-
ble nature of their food ;
but in those which de-
vour thick-coated seeds
or other hard substances,
it is of so dense a texture,
that its horny callous
sides (gg) are able to
grind the aliments as
between two millstones. Gizzard of a s\\ an.

300 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

The cavity of the gizzard being necessarily very small, a crop
is as essential an appendage to this structure as the e hopper ' to
the mill ; it receives the food as it is swallowed, and supplies it
to the gizzard in small successive quantities as it is wanted.
To assist the triturating power of the gizzard, the birds have
been taught by an admirable instinct to swallow hard foreign
bodies, such as sand, gravel, or pebbles. Fowls grow lean if
deprived of stones, and no wonder, since experiment shows
that, unless the grains of corn are bruised and deprived of
their vitality, the gastric juice will not act upon or dissolve
them.

Birds necessarily require an uncommon strength of vision,
both for discovering their prey and avoiding their enemies ;
for their prey is frequently small, and not easily to be dis-
tinguished from the surrounding objects, or is itself engaged
in rapid motion, so that often even the greatest velocity of
flight would have been unavailing, without the assistance of a
piercing eye. A bird hovering in the air can be seen from a
vast distance by a sharp-sighted enemy, and thus also needs a
keen vision, to be able to escape in due time from the impend-
ing danger.

Besides the faculty of embracing a vast field of vision is the
essential adjunct of considerable powers of locomotion ; for it is
evident that short-sighted and at the same time swiftly-flying
birds must soon have perished from this want of harmony
in their structure, their obtuse vision being a constant im-
pediment to the full exercise of their vigorous wings.

For all these reasons the birds have been gifted with a sharp-
ness of vision vastly superior to that of the quadrupeds. A
sparrow will detect a grain of corn at the distance of eighty
feet ; a hawk soaring in the air distinguishes a lark from the
similarly-coloured ground ten times farther than the eye of man
or dog can reach ; and from a height at which he himself is
totally lost to human vision, the falcon pounces down upon the
lizard or the field-mouse which he has chosen for his repast.

Sweeping in majestic circles through the skies, the lammer-
geier embraces at a glance a whole world of Alpine solitudes
and glaciers. The quadrupeds which inhabit these high regions —
the goat or the chamois — heedlessly graze the mountain herbage,
unconscious of the enemy above; but suddenly, with folded

USES OF BIRDS 301

wings, the monarch of the air sweeps down upon them like a
meteor, and, even before they can think of flight, bears them
aloft in his talons.

Scattered in countless numbers over all the lands and seas,
from the poles to the equator, the birds occupy a conspicuous
rank in organic creation. They may well be called the guardian-
angels of the forest and the field; for though they consume
many of the fruits of the earth, yet the damage they may cause
is far outweighed by their services in clearing tne woods and
meads of hosts of insects, which but for them would gain a
fatal preponderance over the vegetable world. Thus indirectly
useful to man, they offer him, moreover, the tribute of their
soft feathers, their savoury eggs, their nutritious flesh, or their
fertilising guano ; and not only largely add to his wealth or to
his comfort, but contribute also to his spiritual or imma-
terial enjoyments; for without their enlivening presence our
groves would be but gloomy solitudes, and even the loveliest
landscape would lose half its charms in the absence of the
feathered songsters.

The birds are also the soul, the Life of stormy coasts and
lonely islands ; they animate the surf-beaten rocks, and the
boundless wastes of the high seas. Far to the north, or in the
unfrequented deserts of the Antarctic waters, on shores where
no human being dwells, their cries are heard mingling in wild
but not inharmonious concert with the hoarse rolling of the
surge and the moaning wind ; and hundreds of miles from land
the mariner hails with delight the high-soaring frigate-bird, or
the indefatigable albatross, winging his flight or hovering with
graceful ease over the agitated ocean.

Even above the highest mountain -tops, where vegetation has
long ceased, and the naked rock or snowclad pinnacle alone
occupies the dreary scene, man still finds birds to cheer his
solitary path ; for the lammergeier and the condor sweep in
circles thousands of feet above Chimborazo or Mont Blanc,
and high over the giant peaks of Kintschingow and Kintschin-
ginga, flocks of wild geese are seen to migrate to unknown regions.

Thus, wherever he turns, man derives either profit or
pleasure from the company of birds; and everywhere, in the
woods and in the fields, on the plains and on the mountains,
on the coasts and on the high seas, he welcomes them as friends.

302 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Although most birds are able to seek refuge in an element
where none but those of their own class — their most dangerous
enemies with the exception of man — can pursue them, yet they
are exposed to the attacks of many terrestrial animals. The
martens and weasels, a number of rodents, the smaller felidse
and the tree-snakes, are constantly endeavouring to surprise
them in their retreats ; and even still more ignoble foes im-
peril their safety, for the brilliant hummingbird has been seen
to expire under the jaws of the hideous trapdoor spider.
Thus they are encompassed with dangers on all sides, both
during their aerial flight and when they seek repose on land :
but they are chiefly menaced in their eggs or their callow young,
who, incapable of flight and self-defence, have nothing but the
tenderness and the foresight of their parents to rely upon. But
never has confidence been better placed ; for Providence, which
in every case proportions the means of resistance to the great-
ness of the peril, and nowhere shows its power more evidently
than in the protection of the weak, has inspired the birds with a
more than common share of affection for their helpless young,
and taught them to build those wonderful homes without hands,
where they bring up their dearest treasures with such touching
self-denial, and in case of need defend them with such heroic
courage.

The situations where the birds place their nests are as
various as the materials of which they compose them, or the
degrees of skill they evince in their construction. Many, for
better protection against wind and weather, fix themselves in
the deserted burrows of quadrupeds, or dig tunnels on their
own account. Thus the gregarious sand- martin perforates steep
gravelly or sandy banks, whose hardness frequently seems
quite out of proportion to its tiny bill. But perseverance will
do wonders ; for turning round and round upon its legs as upon
a pivot, and pecking away as it proceeds, the martin soon chips
out a tolerably circular hole, which it prolongs to a depth of
two or three feet with a gentle upward slope, so as to prevent
the lodgment of rain.

At the farthest extremity is placed the nest — which, as an
effectual protection has been already obtained, is a very primi-
tive structure, hardly better than a mass of dry herbage and
soft feathers. The burrowing puffin takes even less trouble

THE SAND-MARTIN S NEST.

303

than this, for having dug its hole, .it simply lays its eggs on the
earth at the extremity ; while the sheldrake, more regardful of
the comfort of her young, lays them on down picked from her
own breast.

Other birds establish themselves in the trunks of trees, and,

The Sand -Mar tin.

like the earth-burrowers, either form their tunnels with their
own beaks, or appropriate to their use the excavations made by
other animals, or the hollows formed by natural decay. Among
these dendrobites, the woodpeckers, who by means of their
pickaxe- like beak scoop out deep caves in decaying trees, or
even in sound wood, hold a conspicuous rank. These nests are
frequently most ingenious, the burrow sloping for six or eight
inches, and then being driven perpendicularly down the tree.

304

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE

The bird takes care to make the sloping tunnel only just large
enough to admit the passage of its body, so as to render its
defence more easy, but the perpendicular hole in which it
resides is quite large and roomy, so as to deserve the name of a
chamber.

The Woodpecker's Nest.

Many European birds, such as the chaffinch or the pensile
warbler, are remarkable for the neatness or ingenious con-
struction of their dwellings. 'The nest of the chaffinch,' says
the late venerable sage of Walton Hall, ' is a paragon of per-
fection. He attaches lichens to the outside of it by means of
the spider's slender web. In the year 1805, when I was on a
plantation in Guiana, I saw the hummingbird making use of
the spider's web in its nidification, and then the thought struck
me that our chaffinch might probably make use of it too. On
my return to Europe, I watched a chaffinch busy at its nest ; it
left it and flew to an old wall, took a cobweb from it, then con-
veyed it to its nest, and interwove it with the lichen on the out-
side of it. The pensile warbler shows equal architectural skill ;

. PENSILE NESTS OP THE CASSIQUES. 305

her nest is formed of dry blades of grass, the ribs of leaves, and
very small roots, all twined together in the most ingenious
manner into a compact ball, and suspended to a netting which
she has previously drawn from tree to tree, so that this curiously-
constructed mansion rocks to and fro with the wind, secure
from the assaults of her numerous enemies.'

But however skilful our native workmen may be, their con-
structions are surpassed by those of many of their relatives ii
the torrid zone, where a more energetic development of
animal life naturally renders the struggle for existence more
intense, and increases the danger to which every species is sub-
ject. Thus the American cassiques suspend their large pendulous
nests, which often exceed a yard in length, at the extremities
of lofty branches, as far as possible from all enemies that might
by climbing reach the brood ; and frequently choose, for still
further protection, trees on which the wasps or maribondas
have already built their nests, for these are adversaries whose
sharp stings no monkey or tiger-cat would desire to face.

The crested cassique, the largest of the family, builds his
pensile nest, artificially woven of lichens, bark, fibre, and the
filaments of the tillandsias, on the tallest trees close to the
habitation of man; while that of the tupuba (Cassicus ruber),
which is always suspended over the water, consists of dry grasses
with a slanting opening in the side so that no rain can penetrate
it. On passing under a tree which often bears hundreds of
cassique nests, one cannot help stopping to admire them, as
they wave to and fro, the sport of every breeze, and yet so well
constructed as rarely to be injured by the severest storm. Often
numbers of one species may be seen weaving their nests on one
side of a tree, while numbers of another species are busy forming
theirs on the opposite side of the same plant ; and what is
perhaps even still more wonderful than their architectural skill,
though such near neighbours, the females of these contiguous
colonies are never observed to quarrel.

The Baltimore oriole (Yphantes Baltimore), a bird closely
allied to the cassiques, builds his wonderful nest on the tulip-
tree, whose leaves and flowers are his chief hunting-grounds for
caterpillars and beetles. When the time is come to provide a
cradle for the future progeny, the male gathers the long filaments
of the tillandsia or other threadlike materials, and fastens one

306 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

of them with both ends to two neighbouring branches. Soon
after the female comes, inspects his work, and places another
fibre across that of her companion. Thus by their alternate
labours a net is formed, which soon assumes the form of a
pensile nest, and as it advances towards its completion, the
affection of the tender couple seems to increase. Although so
strongly constructed that it will bear a good deal of rough
handling without losing its form, the tissue is at the same
time so loose as to allow the air to pass through its meshes ; and
as the parents know that the excessive heat of summer would
incommode their young, they suspend their nest so as to catch
the cooler breeze of the north-east, when breeding in Louisiana ;
while in more temperate regions, such as Pennsylvania and
New York, they always give it a southern exposition, and take
care to line it with wool or cotton. The movements of these
ingenious little architects are uncommonly graceful, their song
is sweet; they migrate in winter towards more southerly
regions, such as Mexico or Brazil, and return after the vernal
equinox to the United States.

The wonderful pendulous nests of the American cassiques are
emulated by the labours of the African ploceidse or wea,ver-birds.
Most of the numerous species of this ingenious family likewise
suspend their fabrics to the ends of twigs, small branches,
drooping parasites, palm-leaves or reeds, and many always
hang their nests over water, and at no very great height above
its surface. This serves as an effectual protection against their
enemies the monkeys and tree-snakes, under whose weight the
slender basis of the nest, were they to attempt its capture,
would infallibly give way and precipitate them into the water
beneath. ( In building,' says Captain Drayson, ( the birds first
commence by working some stout flags or reeds from the
branch, so as to hang downwards. They then attach the upper
part of the nest to the branch, so as to form the domelike roof.
By degrees they complete the globular ball, still working down-
wards, and lastly the neck is attached to the body of the nest.
Great skill is required to keep the neck even and open, and yet
no machine could accomplish the work better than do these
ingenious little architects. The upper part of the nest is very
thick and firmly built, more than twice as thick as the neck,
and the material of which it is made is far stronger. In some

THE BAYA SPAKROW. 307

instances I have seen one nest attached to another ; and when
this is the case, the second builder strengthens the first nest,
and then attaches his own work thereto. Should by chance a
hawk or monkey venture into the vicinity of a colony of these
birds, it is chased and chirped at by hundreds of the little
creatures, who make common cause against the intruder and
quickly drive him off. During the building of the nests, the
riverside is a most interesting place, as the intelligence and
diligence of the birds are most remarkable. '

f If the hand,' says the author of ' Homes without Hands,'
' be carefully introduced up the neck of one of these nests, its
admirable fitness for the nurture of the young birds is at once
perceived. When merely viewed from the outside, the nest
looks as if it would be a very unsafe cradle, and would permit
the young birds to fall through the neck into the water. A
section of the nest, however, shows that no habitation could be
safer, and even the hand can detect the wonderfully ingenious
manner in which the interior is constructed. Just where the
neck is united to the ball, a kind of wall or partition is made
about two inches in height, which runs completely across the
ball, and effectually prevents the young birds from falling into
the neck.'

Among the pensile nest-builders of India, the -baya sparrow
yields to none in ingenuity. These clever little birds are found
in most parts of Hindostan ; they have no song, and can only
chirp in a monotonous manner, but the want of voice finds its
compensation in the brilliancy of the plumage ; for though the
back and wings are brown, the head and breast are of a bright
yellow, so that in the rays of a tropical sun the bayas have a
splendid appearance when flying by thousands in the same
grove. For they are fond of associating in large communities,
and cover clumps of palmyras, acacias, and date-trees with their
nests. These are formed of long grass, woven together in the
shape of a bottle, and suspended, like those of the cassique and
African weaver, to the end of flexible branches — for throughout
the whole tropical world the same instinct has been given
to guard against the same dangers. Sometimes the nest is
made only for incubation, sometimes it is intended merely
as an arbour in which the male sits while the female incubates

x 2

308

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

her eggs, and sometimes the nest and arbour are woven into
one.

The Hindoos are very fond of these birds for their docility
and sagacity ; when young they teach them to fetch and carry,
and when the young women resort to the public fountains,
their lovers instruct the baya to pluck the tica or golden orna-
ment from the forehead of their favourite, and bring it to their
master.

Nests of the Baya Sparrow.

Generally each pair of the numerous species of weaver-birds
constructs its separate nest, but the social grosbeak forms a
remarkable exception to the rule ; for here we find not one
single pair but hundreds living under the same roof, perfectly
resembling that of a thatched house, and with a projecting ridge
so that it is impossible for any reptile to approach the entrances
concealed below. These lead to avenues within, with nests
ranged on both sides about two inches apart ; and thus, though
inhabitants of the same aerial city, each pair enjoys its own
private dwelling. The tree usually selected for these nests is
the giraffe-acacia, which derives its name from its constituting

TAILOR-BIRDS. 309

the chief food of the camelopard ; for the instinct of the birds
seems to have pointed out to them that it is peculiarly adapted
for the purpose, as its smooth and polished bark effectually
secures them from the attack of many enemies, who, could they
but ascend the trunk, would be but too happy to suck the eggs
and destroy the young.

The Tailor Bird and its Nest.

The art of sewing is considered as one of the oldest inventions
of man ; but long before a human artist ever thought of using
needle and thread, the birds had instinctively been taught the
virtues of a fibre thrust through holes. Thus the Sylvia Cysti-
cola, or fan-tailed "war bier of Italy, constructs its nest among
sedges and reeds, which it unites together by real stitches ; and
the edge of each leaf is pierced by this tailor-bird with minute
holes, through which it passes threads formed of spiders' web,
particularly from the silk of their egg-pouches. The tailor-
birds of India are still more expert sewers, for, choosing a con-
venient leaf (generally one which hangs from a slender twig),
they pierce a row of holes along each edge, using their beaks in
the same manner that a shoemaker uses his awl. When the

310 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

holes are completed, the feathered tailor next procures his thread,
which he takes care to choose of a sufficient length and solidity,
and begins to pass it through the holes, drawing the sides of
the leaf towards each other, so as to form a kind of pouch or
purse open above. Generally a single leaf is used for the pur-
pose, but whenever the bird cannot find one that is sufficiently
large, it sews two together, or even fetches another leaf and
fastens it with the fibre. Within the hollow thus formed, the
bird next deposits a quantity of soft down, and having com-
pleted her nest, leaps from branch to branch to testify her
happiness by a clear and merry note.

The mounds in which the tallegalla or brush-turkey deposits
its eggs are in their way no less remarkable than the most in-
genious nests. Like the thatched dwellings of the republican
grosbeak, they are not the work of a single pair, but of a large
number of birds, who have been taught by a beautiful instinct
to direct their labours to a common end. Tracing a circle of
considerable radius, the birds begin to travel round it, continu-
ally grasping with their large feet the leaves and grasses and
dead twigs which are lying about, and flinging them inwards
towards the centre. Each time that they complete their rounds,
they narrow their circle, so as ultimately to form a large and
rudely conical mound. The heap being accumulated, and time
allowed for a sufficient heat to be engendered, the next process
is to form a cavity, in which the eggs, each measuring not less
than four inches in length — an enormous size in comparison to
that of the bird — are deposited, not side by side, as is ordinarily
the case, but planted or arranged perpendicularly, and nearly in a
circle, with the larger end upwards. They are then covered up,
and are hatched by the joint effects of fermentation and hot
sunbeams. By adopting this process the bird does not escape
any of the cares of paternity, for the male is very watchful
over the eggs, being gifted with a wonderful instinct, which
tells him what temperature is proper for them. Sometimes he
covers them with a thick layer of leaves, and sometimes he
lays them nearly bare, repeating these operations several times
in a single day. After six weeks of burial, the eggs give up
their chicks — not feeble but full-fledged and strong, so that at
night they scrape holes for themselves, and lying down therein
are covered by the old birds, and thus remain until morning.

INSTINCT OF THK CUCKOO. 311

The extraordinary strength of the newly-hatched birds is ac-
counted for by the size of the egg, since in so large a volume
it is reasonable to suppose that the young ones would be much
more developed than is usually the case.

Even where architectural skill is totally wanting, and no nests
are built or no leaf-mounds raised, the birds evince an admi-
rable care for the welfare of their future progeny.

The sea-lark contents herself with laying her four eggs in a
small cavity on the ground, but places them with the small
ends touching each other as a centre, so as to occupy the least
possible space, and thus to be more easily hatched. No mathe-
matician could have solved the problem in a more perfect
manner ; and is not this instinct, after all, as wonderful as that
which prompts other birds to construct the most complicated
dwellings ? Even the auk, who lays her single egg upon the
bare edge of lofty rocks hanging over the sea, invariably selects
the safest spot against wind and weather ; and though numbers
of birds may be breeding on the same ledge, yet no confusion
ever takes place, for every mother, guided by an unerring in-
stinct, knows her own egg, and is able to find it among
hundreds.

The parental instinct of birds might be supposed to have
reached its lowest ebb in the cuckoo, who never hatching her
own eggs, deposits them in the nests of other and smaller birds,
such as the hedge-sparrow, the titlark, or the water-wagtail ;
but it would be doing the parasitical intruder injustice to
attribute this shifting of her own burden upon the shoulders of
another to a peculiar coldness of disposition, or to a culpable
neglect of duty ; for as the caterpillars on which the large bird
feeds do not afford sufficient nourishment for a rapid evolution
of germs, the cuckoo lays but one egg every eight days, from
the beginning of June to the middle of July, and it surely
would be a grievous task were she obliged to incubate during
the best part of the summer. But a most admirable instinct
has taught her to seek a substitute for a duty she is unable to
perform herself; and it is not the least wonder of this strange
history, that the eggs of the cuckoo are of an unexampled
smallness, so as to differ but little in size and appearance from
those of the skylark and titlark, though the disparity of the
bulk of the birds is very great. Thus we see that though the

312 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

young of the cuckoo miss a parent's fostering care, nothing
has been left undone that might lead to their benefit.

When a breeding bird is attacked by an enemy, it exhibits
either a brilliant heroism or an admirable courage. In de-
fending their young, the large birds of prey display the same
fury which agitates the wild beasts of the forest when menaced
in their tenderest affections, and it is scarcely less danger-
ous to rob the lammergeier of its young than to deprive the
tigress of her cubs ; for though this magnificent bird will never
attack man when unprovoked, yet there are numerous in-
stances on record where he has boldly engaged in mortal combat
with the despoiler of his nest. Of these I shall cite but one,
mentioned by Tschudi in his work on the Animal Life of the
Alps.

Joseph Scherrer, a famous chamois-hunter, once climbed
barefoot up a rock, with his fowlingpiece slung over his
shoulder, to plunder a lammergeier 's nest. Before he reached
the roost, the male bird attacked him and was shot. Scherrer
reloaded his gun a,nd continued to ascend. But now the
female bird rushed upon him with inconceivable rage, buried
her talons in his thighs, and endeavoured to hurl him down the
precipice, wounding him at the same time with her sharp beak.
His situation was most critical, for he required all his strength
to keep his ground and to ward off the infuriated bird. His
uncommon presence of mind saved him, however, from what
seemed inevitable destruction. With one hand he directed the
barrel of his gun upon the bird, and pulling the trigger with
his naked toe, lodged a fatal bullet in its breast.

The adjoined facsimile of a print of the celebrated Eidinger,
representing a large chamois hurled from a rock by a lammer-
geier, gives us an idea of the Alpine bird's strength, and shows
how truly formidable he must be, even to the most vigorous and
expert huntsman, when agitated by parental rage.

Yet not only the powerful raptorial birds, but even the weakest
of the class become inspired with a lionlike courage when the
safety of their progeny is at stake. On the approach of an
intrusive bird, though ten times bigger than himself, the male
colibri will not hesitate a moment to attack the disturber of his
rest; his bravery adds a tenfold increase to his powers, the
rapidity of his movements confounds his enemy, and finally

PARENTAL INSTINCT OF THE OSTRICH. 313

puts him to flight. Proud of his victory, the little champion
returns to his partner, and flaps triumphantly his gemlike
wings.

The artifices employed by the partridge, the lapwing, the
ringplover, the pewit, and numerous other land-birds, to blind
the vigilance and divert the attention of those who may come
near their little ones, are equally curious. When the sea-lark
sees the enemy — man or dog — approach, it does not await
their arrival but advances to meet them. Then suddenly rising
with a shrill cry, as if just disturbed from its nest, it flutters
along the ground as if crippled, and entices them farther and
farther from its young. The dogs, expecting to catch an easy
prey, follow the lame bird, which suddenly, however, flies off
with lightning speed, and leaves its disappointed pursuers on
the beach.

Calumny has been very busy about the ostrich, accusing it of
stupidity and want of parental feeling ; but it is now fully
proved that no bird has a stronger affection for its offspring, or
watches its nest with a greater assiduity. Contrary to the
general opinion, she always broods over her eggs at night, and
only leaves them during the hottest part of the day.

Her instinct in providing food for her young appears to be
without parallel, and is thus noticed by Le Vaillant : ' During
this day's journey I met with the nest of an ostrich, upon which
the female was hatching ; there were three eggs, deposited on
the bare ground, lying before her, and she was sitting upon nine
others, the young of which were in so advanced a state as to be
ready to burst the shell.' This wonderful provision, when we
consider how difficult it would be for the brood to find any
other suitable food in its sterile haunts, was considered in-
credible when first announced as a fact by this well-known
traveller ; but subsequent observations have, in this instance as
in many others, fully proved Tris veracity.

To protect her young, the ostrich has recourse to the same
artifices which we admire in the plover, endeavouring to divert
attention from her nest by feigning lameness or inability to
fly ; so that, far from being the cold-hearted and stupid creature
she is frequently supposed to be, she in reality affords us a
wonderful example of the power of parental affection in rous-
ing the intelligence of an animal to higher exertions at the

314 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

approach of danger, and raising it, as it were, above its usual
level.

Although the brain of the birds is far less developed than
that of the quadrupeds, yet in point of intelligence they are
scarcely inferior. Their memory is truly surprising, for after
a long absence, and a voyage of many hundred miles, the mi-
gratory birds return with unerring certainty to their former
haunts. The stork, who passes his winter on the banks of the
Nile, knows where to find again the Dutch peasant's roof,
where the comfortable box at the top of the chimney is pre-
pared for the reception of his nest; and year after year, the
swallow, after revelling in the orange-groves of Italy, or among
the palms of Africa, revisits the same English cottage, ever
ready to welcome him under the same hospitable thatch.

D'Orbigny relates a remarkable instance of memory in an
American turkey-buzzard. Eelying on their inviolability, for
being extremely useful as scavengers they are under the pro-
tection of the law, these disgusting birds are uncommonly bold ;
and during the- distributions of meat to the Indians, which
regularly take place every fortnight in the South American mis-
sions, they not seldom come in for their share by dint of impu-
dence. In Concepcion de Mojos an Indian told M. d'Orbigny,
who was present on one of those occasions, that he would soon
have the opportunity of seeing a most notorious thief, well
known by his lame leg ; and the bird making his appearance
soon after, completely justified his reputation. The traveller
was also informed that this ill-famed urubu knew perfectly well
the days of distribution in the different missions ; and eight
days later, while witnessing a similar scene at Magdalena, twenty
leagues distant, he heard the Indians exclaim, and looking up,
saw his lame acquaintance of Concepcion hurrying to the spot
with the anxious mien of a famished traveller, afraid of coming
too late for his share. The padres in both missions assured him
that the vulture never failed to make his appearance at the
stated time.

The parrot gives numberless proofs of intelligence ; he not
only imitates the voice of man, but has also a strong desire to
do so, which he manifests by his attention in listening, and by
the continuous efforts he makes to repeat the phrases he has

MIGRATORY INSTINCT OF BIRDS. 315

heard. He seems to impose upon himself a daily task, which
even occupies him during sleep, as he speaks in his dreams. His
memory is astonishing. Le Vaillant says that he heard a parrot
repeat the Lord's Prayer from beginning to end in the Dutch
language ; and M. de la Borde told Buffon he had seen one that
was fully able to perform the duty of a ship's chaplain. This
intelligent bird is also susceptible of great attachment to his
master, and, like the elephant, does not easily forget the insults
he has received, and knows how to resent them.

The stork also has a most wonderful memory, and soon learns
to understand the actions and even the language of man. Dr.
Schinz, a Swiss naturalist, kept during several years a couple
of tame storks, and thus had frequent opportunities of noticing
their remarkable intelligence. They knew their names as well
as a dog, and on being called, would immediately come to their
master. During the season of the cockchafers, they followed
him to pick up the beetles he shook down from the trees, and
evidently invited him by their gestures to do so. They are
very fond of earthworms, and when anyone took a spade in
his hand, they immediately understood what was meant, and
ran up to him while digging, as if well aware that they had a
treat to expect.

The migratory instinct, although sometimes occurring in
other classes of animals, is much more general among the birds,
who, thanks to their light wings, possess the enviable privilege
of enjoying the delights or avoiding the inclemencies of every
climate. They do not wait till the cold becomes intolerable —
they are not gradually driven away by the increasing severity of
the autumnal blasts ; but before necessity makes itself felt, a
strange restlessness seizes them, an invincible impulse to wing
their flight to distant regions. Then the storks assemble in large
flocks, and though usually silent, make a loud clattering noise,
as if consulting before the journey they are about to undertake ;
when they are actually on the point of leaving, the whole
troop becomes silent, and moves at once, generally in the
night, to alight in a few days in Egypt or Nubia, on the
sunny banks of the abounding Nile. There they enjoy the
temperate warmth of a tropical winter ; but when the heat in-
creases, their travelling instinct revives, and forces them to
return to the northern lowlands, where genial spring awaits

316 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

them, with the plenty and the mild temperature they require
for the rearing of their progeny.

While numerous birds leave us in autumn, others, which
have brought forth their young in the Arctic regions, seek our
shores at that season of the year, or pass over our heads on
their way to more southern lands : for the icebound lakes,
the frozen rivers, the deserted channels, and the snowclad
shores of the hyperborean zone are no longer able to afford
them any nourishment, and in spite of their thick downy
mantle, a temperature which converts mercury into a solid
body may render a change desirable. But as the days again
lengthen, and the sun, rising higher and higher in the heavens,
dissolves the iron bonds of winter, the dispersed legions of
ducks, geese, swans, strand and sea-birds advance once more
from the south to feast upon the abundance of the softened
earth or of the prolific waters, and to rear their young under
the grateful influence of a continuous day.

Thus the living tide ebbs and flows in everlasting succession,
and as the floods of the ocean obey the behests of distant
celestial bodies, thus also the migrations of the birds are ruled
by immutable and eternal laws !

317

CHAPTER XXVIT.

MAMMALIA.

Modifications in the Structure of their Limbs — Fins of the Whale, Walrus, and
Seals — Wings of the Bat — The Nycteris — The Flying Squirrel — Shovels of
the Mole — Limbs of the Cervine and Bovine Eaces — The colossal Pillars of the
Elephant— The Hare— The Jumping Hare—The Kangaroo— The Sloth— Mon-
keys— Leaps of the Wanderoo — The Squirrels — Soles and Toes — Sole-pads of
the Camel — Prehensile Tail of the American Monkeys and other Quadrupeds —
Tail of the Aquatic Mammalia, of the American Ant-Bear, of the Kangaroo and
Pengolin — Masticatory Organs — Teeth of the Carnivora, the Kuminantia, and the
Rodents— The Baleen of the Whale— The Ant-eater's Tongue— The Stomach, of
the Ruminants — The Camel's Paunch — Water-pouches of the Elephant — Cheek-
pouches of the Hamster — Senses of the Mammalia — The Elephant's Proboscis —
Defensive and Aggressive Weapons of Mammalia — Burrows of the Prairie Dog —
The Hamster's Cave — Habitations of the Beaver and the Musquash — The Mole
and the Australian Duckbill — The Armadillo and the Hedgehog — The Porcu-
pine— The Skunk — Gregarious Quadrupeds — Guards — Bird -guardians of the
Rhinoceros and the African Buffalo — Friendships of Animals — The Tiger and the
Dog — Attachment of Domestic Animals to Man — Parental Affection — Pouch of
the Opossum and Kangaroo — Services of the Quadrupeds — Sagacity of the Dog,
the Horse, the Monkey and the Elephant — Hybernation — Happiness of the
Wild Quadrupeds.

THE Mammalia, the last-born of creation, exhibit the highest
types of organic development, a greater harmony between the
various parts of the nervous system than is found in any of the
preceding classes, an increasing preponderance of the brain.
Several of them — such as the Rodents or Opossums — are, no
doubt, inferior to many of the birds in point of intelligence and
instinct ; but even the most perfect among the feathered tribes
are not to be compared in this respect to the horse, the dog, the
elephant, or the ape ; and although civilized man delights in the
song of birds, or in the beauty of their plumage, yet his con-
nection with the domestic mammalia is far more intimate;
for without the assistance of these humble companions, his own

318

THE HAKMONIES OF NATURE.

existence on earth would be reduced to the low level of -the
wretched Fuegian or of the wild Indian hunter.

As the mammalia bow to the supremacy of man, thus also,
with rare exceptions, all other animals are subject to their
dominion : swimming, they pursue the fishes of the sea ; flying

and burrowing, they give chase
to insects and worms ; climbing
and springing, running and lying
in wait, by cunning or by violence,
they prey upon the birds that
nestle in the trees of the forest or
seek concealment in the fields.

Although their internal parts
are very similarly organised, -yet
so vast a difference in their mode
of life necessarily required cor-
responding modifications in the
structure of their limbs, which,
though formed upon the same fun-
damental plan, have in every case
been most beautifully adapted to
answer a peculiar end.

The whales and dolphins, to
whom the wide ocean has been
given as a home, naturally require
no fingered hand for climbing,
no legs for bounding with elastic
spring. A mighty horizontal
tail stretching sideways into an
enormous fin, and striking up
and down, impels the giant body
through the waters ; the hind-
feet, which here would not only
have been useless but a positive
incumbrance, are wanting; and
the anterior extremities assume
the form of large pectoral fins,
which, besides performing the offices of oars, serve also to protect
and guide the helpless young. The anatomical structure of
these members, externally so totally different from the human

Bones of the Anterior Fin of
Whale (Balasna Mysticetus).

To face p. 319.

SEALS CATCHING FISH.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF MAMMALIA.

319

arm and hand, shows us, however, that they are both intrinsically
alike — as in the anterior fin of the whale we distinctly perceive
the bones which belong to our own anterior extremities. But
the arm, which in all its parts is freely moveable in man, is here
closely attached to the body; and the hand — which, obedient
to our rational will, performs so many wonderful works — is in
the whale covered with a thick skin, which prevents all in-
dividual action of the fingers, and converts the member into a
simple oar, such as best suits the animal's peculiar mode
of life.

The same absence of hind-legs characterises the manatees and
dugongs, but here the paddles or forefins are more free in their
movements, and exhibit rudiments of nails, by the aid of which

Skeleton of Seal.

these unwieldy creatures drag themselves along the shores of
gulfs and estuaries, to browse on the marine
algae which constitute their food.

In the walrus and the large family of seals,
which have been formed to inhabit both the sea
and the land, the forelimbs are still more deve-
loped ; and short hinder extremities, with distinct
toes, joined by a swimming membrane, and well
adapted both for rapidly cleaving the waters
and slowly progressing on solid ground, assume
the part of the receding tail.

Among the other mammalia which seek their prey in the

Hinder Extremities
of Seal.

320 THE HAKMONIES OF NATURE.

waters, we find the construction of the extremities equally well-
fitted for swimming. Thus .the legs of the otter are short
and strong, but so loosely articulated as to turn in every direc-
tion while swimming — the feet broad, to act as paddles, and
the toes connected by a complete web. Provided with such excel-
lent oars, which are moreover assisted by the flat and broad
tail and the elongated and much-flattened body, the otter is
able to breast the stream for hours together — raising its head
from time to time out of the water, to draw breath or to look
about him.

The amphibious beaver and the extraordinary inullingong, or
duck-billed platypus, whose existence as a mammalian was long
a matter of doubt, likewise show by the formation of their
extremities how well their peculiar wants have been provided
for. In its webbed hind-feet the former possesses most excellent
rudders, while the unw ebbed toes of its forefeet are no less
admirably adapted for seizing the branches and trunks of trees,
which it uses for the construction of its huts, or on whose bark it
feeds.

In the mullingong, on the contrary, we find the forefeet
provided with a web, which not only unites and fills the inter-
spaces of the long toes, but even extends beyond the ex-
tremities of the claws ; while the web of the short and narrow
hind-foot, terminating at the base of the claws, is far less deve-
loped. But as the mullingong is not only an aquatic but also a
burrowing animal, the large web of the forefeet, which else
would have been very much in the way, is loose, so a§ to fall
back when its possessor is scratching the earth ; and thus, by a
most ingenious contrivance, the same organ serves equally well
as an oar and as a shovel.

While in all these cases the limbs are most admirably fitted
for an aquatic or amphibious life, those of the bats are no less
beautifully adapted for aerial locomotion. For here the slender
delicate bones of the forearm, and particularly those of all the
fingers excepting the thumb, are extremly elongated, so as to serve
like the frame of an umbrella for the expansion of an enormous
wing or thin membrane, which reaches also to the hind-legs, and
from them to the tail. It is evident that with forefeet like
these, the walking or creeping movements of the bat must be
exceedingly awkward, and that the strange creature is far from

THE BAT.

321

being a model of grace, when with folded wings it crawls slowly
along on its projecting elbows. To fly upwards from the ground
is a still more difficult task, and in the large-winged species
is impossible. In this case the bat is obliged to crawl up
a wall or a tree, which it can easily do by means of its sharp
claws, and then dropping down it expands its wings in the air.
Its organization would surely have been very imperfect were it
always obliged to prepare for flight in this inconvenient and

Skeleton of Pteropus.

circuitous manner, but it is only by accident that it ever sets foot
on the ground, where many dangers would await it, and where
it has nothing to seek. Whenever it wishes to rest from flight
it can at all times hook itself with its thumb-nail to a tree, a
rock, or any other rough surface ; and during sleep it suspends
itself by its hinder-claws with the head downwards, under the
roofs of houses and churches, in caverns, ruined buildings, and
similar situations, so as to be able to spread out its wings im-
mediately, whenever it desires to do so. Its forearm is incapa-
ble of rotating like the human arm, in consequence of the union
of the bones of which it is composed, and this is another admira-
ble adaptation to its peculiar habits. Not only would the pro-
nation and supination of the hand be wholly useless to the bats,

322 THE HARMONIES OP NATURE.

but at every impulse of their flight such a motion would de-
prive the whole limb of its resistance to the air ; or it would
require the constant exertion of such a degree of antagonising
muscular force to prevent it, as would be incompatible with the
essential structure of these organs of flight.

As we have seen in the preceding chapter, the natatorial birds
have a large gland situated at the extremity of the back, with
whose unctuous secretion they lubricate their feathers, and thus
render them impermeable to the wet. A similar protection has
also been afforded to the bats in the oily secretion of their wings,
so that in damp weather the rain, which otherwise would very
much impede their flight, drops from them as from a weather-
proof mantle.

But it is not only by their winglike arms that the bats are
admirably formed for flight — the whole structure of their body
harmonises as well with their peculiar mode of life, as the long-
tapering shape of the seals or whales with their aquatic habits.
All their bones, not merely those of the arms, are extremely thin
and slight ; the breastbone is provided, like that of the birds,
with a keel, serving for the attachment of the powerful muscles
which perform the movements of flight ; the head is singularly
diminutive and the neck short, so that the centre of gravity falls
below the wings. In the genus Nycteris the specific weight of
the body, and consequently the labour of flying, is still more
diminished by the curious faculty possessed by these animals of
inflating the subcutaneous tissue with air. The skin adheres to
the body only at certain points ; it is therefore susceptible of
being raised from the surface on the back, as well as on the
under-parts. These large spaces are filled with air at the will
of the Nycteris, by means of large cheek-pouches, which are
pierced at the bottom, and thus communicate with the subcu-
taneous spaces just mentioned. When the animal therefore
wishes to inflate its skin, it inspires, closes the nostrils, and then,
as it contracts the cavity of the chest, the air is forced through the
openings in the cheek -pouches, under the skin, from whence it is
prevented from returning by means of muscular contraction,
and by large valves on the neck and back. By this curious
mechanism, the bat has the power of so completely blowing up
the spaces under the skin as to give the idea of a small balloon,
with wings, a head, and feet. In Johnson's well-known tale of

THE FLYING-FOXES. 323

c Rasselas,' we meet with a mechanician who, wishing to try a pair
of artificial wings which he had invented, fell headlong into a
lake a short distance from the tower whence he had first taken
his adventurous flight. Had this unfortunate man been able to
render his bones comparatively as light as those of the bat — had
he been able to reduce the weight of his body to a tenth part,
and to render, at the same time, the muscles of his arm ten
times thicker and more powerful than they were, then, perhaps,
he might have been more successful : or, had he studied the
anatomy of the bat, he surely would have given up all idea of
ever rivalling a creature of a construction so different from
that of his own body !

All the European bats are insectivorous, but the large kalongs
or flying-foxes of India, the Eastern Archipelago, and the tropical
islands of the Pacific, chiefly live upon fruits. Certain modifica-
tions in the structure of the instruments of flight have been
made to harmonise with this difference of diet. Thus the
clavicle and the keel of the breastbone are more developed
in the insectivorous than in the herbivorous bats, for the very
obvious reason that the former are obliged to use greater exer-
tions in the pursuit of their swift and active prey, than the
latter in merely flying from place to place in search of their
stationary food. The existence of a tail, for the support and
extension of a broad membrane extending between the hind-
legs, compared with its absence or comparative inefficiency
in many of the frugivorous bats, also points out an interesting
relation to the different habits of the two groups — the former
structure being calculated to afford a powerful and effective
rudder in guiding their rapid and varying evolutions in the pur-
suit of their insect food.

Besides the bats, there are several other mammalia which,
although incapable of a prolonged flight, are assisted or sup-
ported in their movements by winglike expansions of the skin ;
and all these animals have a comparatively slender and light
body, for Providence would never have committed the mistake
of investing a huge bulky creature with so useless an ap-
pendage.

Thus, by means of a parachute-like extension of its skin be-
tween the anterior and posterior limbs on each side, and between

Y 2

324

THE HARMONIES OF NATUKE.

the posterior limbs and the tail, the flying lemur or galeo-
pithecus of the Eastern Archipelago takes long sweeping leaps
from tree to tree; and the flying-squirrels, which inhabit both
the interminable forests of the North and the woods of Ceylon
and India, are assisted in a similar manner by a fold of the

Flying Squirrel.

skin of the flanks, which on the extension of the limbs, front
and rear, is literally expanded from foot to foot. Thus buoyed
up in their descent, the spring which these elegant little
creatures are enabled to make from one lofty tree to another,
always directing their flight obliquely downwards, resembles
the swift aerial sailing of a bird rather than the bound of a
quadruped.

THE MOLE. 325

The forefeet, which in the seals and bats do service as oars
and wings, are in the mole converted into powerful shovels.
Situated obliquely outwards, they are excessively strong and
broad, and moreover furnished with very large and stout claws ;
so that they are able to work their way through a favourable
soil with astonishing rapidity, while the diminutive hind-feet
are employed in throwing back the previously-excavated earth.
The long and moveable snout, which acts in some measure as a
wedge, assists the mole in pushing along through the soil : and
every worm and larva it meets on its way is instantly devoured
with greedy haste, for no animal is less able to endure fasting,
and hence it may be inferred how great a destruction it causes

Skeleton of the Mole.

among the grubs of noxious insects. The services it thus ren-
ders are far greater than any detriment it may cause to the roots
of garden-plants ; and if the husbandman knew better how to
distinguish his friends from his enemies, he certainly would be
more anxious to protect the mole, than mercilessly to destroy it
wherever he meets with it.

Though not seeking their nourishment under the earth like
the mole, many other mammalians prefer a subterraneous abode,
or endeavour to escape from pursuit by quickly burrowing in
the earth, and in all these cases we invariably find short stout-
legs and powerful claws ; for wherever Providence has given a
creature a particular instinct, it has also taken care to provide
it with the instruments that are necessary for bringing it into
action. Thus armed, the armadillos burrow with such asto-
nishing rapidity, that it is almost impossible to get at them
by digging ; and the African aardvarks are no less expert, for
when once their muscular forefeet have penetrated into the
ground, the strongest man cannot draw them back.

326

THE HAKMONIES OF NATURE.

Long and yet muscular legs characterise those quadrupeds
which are most remarkable for their agility in running. They
do not tread upon the whole sole of their foot as we do, but
only upon the extremity of their toes ; so that the foot con-
tributes to elongate their limbs, and enables them to make
greater strides without any increase of exertion. It is to this
peculiarity of gait and structure that the cervine and equine
races owe both the elegant form and the unrivalled celerity of
their limbs.

Skeleton of the Deer.

The bovine races being of a more robust shape, and lower in
proportion to their bulk, are of inferior swiftness ; but these also,
particularly in their wild state, unite considerable strength with
a remarkable agility. The bison is so strong, that sometimes
when pursued it has been known to knock down trees as thick
as a man's arm in its flight, and yet so quick as to plunge even
through deep snow faster than an Indian can run upon it in
snow-shoes.

The limbs of the elephant are necessarily constructed more

THE ELEPHANT. 327

with a view to ensure strength, adequate to sustain its pro-
digious weight, than to permit of agile and active movements ;
but these massive pillars, seemingly so unwieldy and uncouth,
have been made to unite strength and flexibility in a remarkable
degree ; so that their possessor is able to ascend and de-
scend steep acclivities, to climb rocks, and traverse precipitous
ledges, where even the surefooted mule would hardly venture.
The first manoeuvre of an elephant descending a bank of too~
acute an angle to admit of his walking down it direct (for, were
he to attempt this, his huge body, soon disarranging the centre
of gravity, would certainly topple over), is to kneel down close
to the edge of the declivity, placing his chest to the ground ;
one foreleg is then cautiously passed a short way down the
slope, and if there is no natural protection to afford a firm
footing, he speedily forms one by stamping into the soil if
moist, or kicking out a footing if dry. This point gained, the
other foreleg is brought down in the same way, and performs
the same work, a little in advance of the first, which is thus at
liberty to move lower still. Then first one and then the second
of the hind-legs is carefully drawn over the side, and the hind-
feet in turn occupy the resting-places previously used and left
by the forefeet. The course, however, in such precipitous
ground, is not straight from top to bottom, but slopes along the
face of the bank, descending till the animal gains the level
below. This wonderful faculty necessarily points to a no less
wonderful organisation, and the columnar legs of the elephant,
which the ancients supposed to be without joints, are in reality
masterpieces of mechanical contrivance.

While walking or running, the weight of the body rests upon
part of the locomotive organs, while the other moves it forwards,
so that the animal constantly remains in contact with the earth ;
but in springing the body is thrown upwards into the air, so
as to alight again upon the ground, at a greater or less distance.
This kind of motion is performed by the sudden extension
of the hinder extremities, after they had been previously bent,
and the energy and strength with which it is executed naturally
depends upon the development of these parts. The feline races
generally surprise their prey by suddenly darting forth upon it
from concealment, like lightning from a cloud, and it requires
but a single glance at the anatomical structure of their powerful

328 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

hindiegs, to show us how well they are adapted for throwing
the body forwards in a tremendous bound. Thus the lion is able
to make a spring of thirty feet, and the tiger leaps from a still
greater distance upon the deer or the antelope that comes within
his reach.

The chamois and the European steinbock or ibex are like-
wise remarkable for their amazing dexterity and agility in leap-
ing, a faculty essential to their existence among the rocks and
precipices of their mountain homes. Without any hesitation
the chamois will spring over crevices sixteen or eighteen feet
broad, and vault over walls fourteen feet high. If, when pur-
sued by the huntsman, it is driven to an abyss, where a leap
would be inevitable destruction, it pauses for a moment, and
then, surmounting the fear which prompted it to fly from its
persecutor, suddenly turns round upon him, and retraces the
way by which it came. The huntsman may then esteem himself
fortunate if he has time to throw himself flat upon the ground,
or to hold fast to the rock while the chamois dashes over him.

In the hare, which springs along in successive leaps or bounds
with a proverbial celerity, the hinder legs are considerably

Skeleton of the Hare.

longer than the fore ; and this difference is still more strongly
marked in the jerboa, the jumping hare of the Cape, and the
kangaroo, where the forefeet are so small as to take no part

THE SLOTH.

329

Jerboa (Dipus

whatever in the rapid progression of the body, which solely
devolves upon the mighty posterior
extremities. How well these are suited
for their task is proved by the fact
that the African jumping hare, which
is about the size of a rabbit, will
clear a space of thirty feet at one
bound ; that the tiny jerboa can
hardly be overtaken by a horse ; and
that the great kangaroo (Halmaturus giganteus), although weigh-
ing above two hundred and twenty pounds, tires even the grey-
hound by the rapid repetition of its prodigious springs.

While browsing on the herbage, the kangaroo is seen in a
crouching position, resting on its diminutive forepaws as well as
on its ponderous hinder extremities, and hopping gently along ;
but at the least alarm it raises itself on its hind-legs, and
bounding away is soon out of sight.

What a difference in the construction of the sloth, where all
the vigour of the body is concentrated in the long and sinewy

Skeleton of the Sloth.

arms, while the short hind-legs are but scantily developed I On
seeing the animal, when by chance removed from its native
haunts, painfully creeping along on even ground, sighing and
piteously moaning, and scarcely advancing a few steps after

330 THE HARMONIES OF NATUKE.

hours of awkward toil, it might at first sight be taken for the
most wretched and ill-formed of beings — a flaw among the
general beauty of the Creator's works. But this hasty judg-
ment would soon be retracted on viewing it in the trees, the
real seat of its existence, where it moves and rests and sleeps,
suspended from the boughs ; for then it would at once become
apparent that these strong, muscular, and preposterously long
forefeet are as well adapted for this peculiar mode of life as
the limbs of the springing kangaroo, the burrowing mole, the
swimming seal, or the flying bat, for their various spheres of
action. When the sloth wanders, it first stretches out one of
its forepaws as far as possible, and then the other ; drawing for-
wards at the same time its short hind-feet, which are armed
with similar strong crooked claws, and from the inverted posi-
tion of their soles have a power of grasping a branch which no
other mammal possesses. Thus, without any painful exertion
whatever, it creeps or climbs along from branch to branch,
and from tree to tree ; nor does it ever, in the vast primeval
forests where it dwells, require to set its foot on the ground ; so
that, although the worst walker among all the terrestrial quad-
rupeds, it has as little reason to complain of this deficiency as
the whale or the dolphin of not being able to bound over the
plain, or to roam through the forest. The muscular power of
the sloth's forearm is so great that the animal can remain
suspended for hours together without moving its position,
expressing all the time its satisfaction by a kind of purring,
which is surely no sign of misery.

The monkeys are also most admirable climbers but indifferent
walkers, though in a less degree than the sloth. Both their
hind and fore-feet are shaped as hands, generally with a thumb
opposed to the other fingers and toes in the feet as well as in
the hands, by which peculiarity they are enabled to grasp ob-
jects both with their anterior and their posterior extremities.
The arms are generally longer and stronger than the legs, and
the body slender and comparatively light — a structure which,
though ill-suited for pedestrian exercise, is evidently in perfect
unison with the mode of life of these arboreal creatures, and
enables them to bound with such elastic energy through the
green canopy of the woods.

' When the Ceylonese wanderoos are disturbed,' says Sir

THE SQUIRRELS. 331

Emerson Tennent, 'their leaps are prodigious; but generally
speaking, their progress is made not so much by leaping as by
swinging from branch to branch, using their powerful arms
alternately ; and when baffled by distance, flinging themselves
obliquely, so as to catch the lower boughs of an opposite tree,
the momentum acquired by their descent being sufficient to
cause a rebound of the branch that carries them upwards again,
till they can grasp a higher and more distant one, and thus
continue their headlong flight. In these perilous achievements,
wonder is excited less by the surprising agility of these little
creatures — frequently encumbered as they are by their young,
which cling to them in their career — than by the quickness of
their eye, and the unerring accuracy with which they seem
almost to calculate the angle at which a descent will enable
them to cover a given distance, and the recoil to attain a higher
altitude.'

The squirrels, which in the forests of the temperate and
frigid zones perform the part of the monkeys in the tropical
woods, are likewise most admirable climbers. They have no
long arm, it is true, no hands to seize the branches with forcible
grasp, and the trace of an anterior thumb, armed with a nail,
is the only point of resemblance to remind one of the simias of
the equatorial regions ; but with equal agility they tread the
mazes of their arboreal paths, and it is equally difficult to shoot
them when in motion. They have been seen when hard-
pressed, and when the distance to the next tree has been beyond
their most extravagant leaps, to throw themselves off, spreading
abroad their limbs, so as to make their body as parachute-like
as possible to break their fall ; and on reaching the ground
without harm, bound along for the few intervening paces, and
ascend the tree with a celerity almost too quick for the eye to
follow.

Thus the Almighty has created mammalia of the most dissi-
milar forms for an arboreal life, and yet, however different their
organization, none can be said to surpass the other, for each of
them is perfect in its kind. In the perennial foliage of the
tropical forests the sloth finds an abundant and never-failing
supply of food, so that he requires no great agility, and
can well afford to miss the faculty of leaping from tree to tree.
But the fruits of the forest are more thinly scattered — they

332 THE HARMONIES OP NATURE.

ripen far apart and at different times ; and thus the monkeys
and squirrels absolutely required a greater celerity of motion, to
be able to seek at a greater distance the food which the
exhausted neighbourhood no longer afforded. In this instance,
as throughout the whole of the animal kingdom, we therefore
find the mode of life and the organization, the want and the
means of supplying it, in perfect unison. The trees correspond
to their fourfooted inhabitants, and these again to the trees on
which they dwell; and the climbing sloth, the leaping mon-
key, and the nimble squirrel, however dissimilar in form, prove
all alike that one grand harmonious idea pervades the woods and
every creature existing beneath their shades.

With regard to the formation of the soles and toes, we like-
wise find in every case the same beautiful adaptation of means
to end. In all the burrowing mammals the toes, as we have
already observed, are provided with strong claws, which render
them good service in scratching away the earth through
which they dig their way. These useful implements of
peaceful labour serve them also as powerful means of defence,
while the feline races use their claws as offensive weapons, for-
midable to every creature that comes within their reach. To
keep their sharpness unimpaired, and to prevent them at the
same time from impeding the animal's walk, the terminal
phalanx on which the claw is fixed is capable of being retracted
when in a state of rest by means of elastic ligaments ; while a
strong flexing muscle, subservient to the will, is ever ready to
thrust it out, and consequently to protrude the talon whenever
its services are required.

This weapon, thus beautifully constructed for action and repose,
with which our tiny domestic cat is capable of inflicting painful
wounds, acquires in the larger felines so prodigious a force that
the tiger will draw furrows five inches deep through the flesh
of his victim, and the lion tear open with one single stroke the
breast of an antelope.

The claws are likewise of great assistance in climbing. In
the sloth, where they are very long, powerful, and recurved,
they serve as hooks for suspending the animal from the branches ;
and in the squirrel, where they are smaller and extremely sharp,
they penetrate into the bark of the trees, and thus secure the
nimble creature from falling as he bounds along. The monkey,

HAND OP MAMMALS. 333

provided with four grasping hands, and frequently also with a pre-
hensile tail, did not require this accessory aid — flat nails sufficed
to give the soft finger-ends the solid support they needed ; and
it is only in the American squirrel-monkeys, where the fore-
feet are not hands (as in the other monkeys) but mere paws, that
the fingers are armed with claws. In the dog, the hare, and
several other animals, where the claws are used neither for

Hand of the Sloth.

burrowing nor climbing, nor for defensive or offensive war-
fare, they afford the advantage of giving the feet a greater
steadiness while running ; and in the jerboa, which required a
particular contrivance to be able safely to execute its enormous
leap, we find, besides the strong claw with which the three toes
of the hind-feet are provided, a very small spur or back-toe
with its corresponding claw, which naturally breaks the impetus
of the fall.

The cloven condition of the hoof in the cervine and bovine
races is evidently designed to impart lightness and elasticity to
the spring ; and in order to give full effect to such an arrange-
ment, many species are provided with a special glandular seba-
ceous follicle between the toes, whose office is to furnish a
lubricating secretion, calculated to prevent injury from friction
of the digits one against the other. In the stag and antelope
the hoofs are compact and vertical, to heighten the firmness of
the spring when bounding through weedy thickets and on
grassy moors ; but in the reindeer the joints of the tarsal bone
admit of lateral expansion, and the front hoofs curve upwards,
while the two secondary ones behind (which are but slightly
developed in the fallow-deer and others of the same family) are

334 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

prolonged vertically, till in certain positions they are capable of
being applied to the ground ; thus adding to the circumference
and sustaining power of the foot, a structure which, by giving
the animal a broader base to stand upon, prevents it from
sinking too deeply into the snow, and thus greatly facilitates its
movements. A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo
seems to point to a corresponding design. The ox, whose life is
spent on firm ground, has the bones of the foot so constructed
as to afford the most solid support to an animal of its great
weight ; but in the buffalo, which delights in the morasses on
the margin of pools and rivers, the foot has a construction
similar to that of the reindeer. The toes spread apart widely
on touching the ground; the hoofs are flattened and broad,
with the extremities turned upwards ; and the false hoofs
behind descend, till they make a clattering sound as the animal
walks.

The cloven form of the hoof is attended with the additional
advantage of aiding the voluntary elevation of the foot when
it has sunk deeply into soft ground. 'We may observe,' says
Sir Charles Bell, ' how much more easily the cow withdraws
her foot from the yielding margin of a river than the horse.
The round and concave form of the horse's foot is attended
with a vacuum or suction as it is withdrawn, while the split
and conical-shaped hoof expands in sinking, and is easily ex-
tricated.'

The elastic sole-pads with which several of the ruminants are
furnished afford likewise a most striking example of the adap-
tation of structure to the exigencies of the creature. It is this
formation which enables the chamois to execute its prodigious
leaps on a rocky ground, which would dash the hard hoof of the
horse to pieces, and permits the camel to travel with peculiar
ease and security over dry, stony, and sandy regions.

In this animal the digits are more or less completely embedded
in a broad elastic cushion, which extends, for a considerable dis-
tance laterally, on either side of the foot, binding and fixing the
toes immoveably together; while the hoofs are merely repre-
sented by two rudimentary nails, situated on the dorsal surface
of the tip of each toe.

The llamas are similarly provided with a sole-pad, but here
it is double and narrow, each division being limited to one side

TAIL OF MONKEYS. 335

of the cloven foot ; while the nails, instead of being weak, are
very powerfully developed and strongly curved. The easy sepa-
ration of the toes, combined with the modifications of the pad and
hoof here referred to, is of manifest utility to an animal whose
life is destined to be spent, unlike that of his more valued con-
gener, on the rugged slopes and precipices of a mountainous
district.

The tail of the mammalians likewise undergoes many modi-
fications of form, according to the services it is required to
render. In many quadrupeds it is of stunted proportions, or
even entirely wanting, as in the anthropomorphous apes — the
chimpanzee, the gorilla, the orang, and the gibbons — in others
it serves as an ornament, or merely to drive away or punish
troublesome insects ; but in many cases its functions are of a
much more important nature, or even completely indispensable.
Thus the powerful prehensile tail of many of the American
monkeys is fully entitled to be called a fifth hand, which emi-
nently contributes to the celerity of their movements, and is
hardly less wonderful in its structure than the proboscis of the
elephant. Covered with short hair, and completely bare under-
neath towards the end, this admirable organ rolls round the
boughs as though it were a supple finger, and is at the same
time so muscular that the monkey frequently swings with it
from a branch, like the pendulum of a clock. Scarce has he
grasped a bough with his long arms, when, immediately coiling
his fifth hand round the branch, he springs on to the next,
and, secure from a fall, hurries so rapidly through the crowns
of the highest trees that the sportsman's ball has scarcely time
to reach him in his flight. When the miriki, the largest of
the Brazilian monkeys, sitting or stretched out at full length,
suns himself on a high branch, his tail suffices to support him in
his aerial resting-place ; and even
when mortally wounded, he remains
a long time suspended by it, until,
life being quite extinct, his heavy
body, breaking many a bough as it
descends, falls with a loud crash to KinkajoUv?i?S?i1Sptes caudl"
the ground.

The coandu (Cercoleptes coandu), a kind of American porcu-
pine, and the kinkajou or potto, a mild inoffensive plantigrade,

336 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

both leading an arboreal life in the forests of South America,
are likewise provided with long prehensile tails, which afford
them great assistance in wandering from branch to branch.

Among the mammals of the Old World we find the pos-
session of a prehensile tail confined to the phalangers, a singular
genus of marsupial animals, peculiar to Australia and the
adjacent isles. These creatures lead an indolent retired life
in the forests, and feed partly upon the fruits of trees, partly
upon the insects they manage to catch during their nocturnal
rambles.

The tail, which in all these cases renders such essential ser-
vices in climbing, is so made as to be of great assistance to the
kangaroos in the performance of their enormous leaps. Extremely
thick and muscular at the base, and gradually tapering, they
rest upon it when assuming an erect or sitting posture, and its
powerful action when springing jerks their body into the air
with a force hardly inferior to that of their limbs. If the caudal
appendage of the American monkeys deserves the name of a
fifth hand, the tail of the kangaroo may thus well be called a
third or additional hind-leg.

In the cetaceans the tail is of still greater importance, as here
it is the chief organ of locomotion. The two horizontal fins
which terminate the tail of the Greenland whale attain a width
of twenty-four feet, and cover a space of two hundred square
feet, and these extraordinary dimensions may serve to give an
idea of the extraordinary muscular power requisite to set them
in motion.

Among the other mammalia leading a semi-aquatic or am-
phibious life, the tail is likewise a highly important locomotive
organ. Thus the otter, the duck-billed platypus, the beaver,
are indebted to their long and powerful caudal appendages for a
great part of their velocity in swimming; and although the
hind-legs of the seals chiefly impel them through the water, they
also derive considerable assistance from their tail.

The long-tailed manis, a native of Africa, makes use of this
organ, which is more than twice as long as the body, and en-
tirely covered with scales, as a covering or a shield for its head,
neck, and back.

The East Indian perigolin derives great assistance from the
tail in reconnoitring, resting upon it and its hind-legs, and

THE PEXGOLIN. 337

holding itself nearly erect to command a view of its object. The
strength of this appendage, which likewise serves to secure the
rolled-up animal in a powerful fold, will be perceived from the
accompanying illustration, which shows it to be equal in length

The Pengolin.

to all the rest of the body, whilst the vertebrae which compose it
are stronger by far than those of the back.

A perfect forest-vagabond, the great ant-eater has no den to
retire to, nor any fixed abode ; but his immense bushy tail ren-
ders all other shelter unnecessary, as it is long enough to cover
his whole body. Serving him as a tent during the night, or as a
waterproof mantle against the heavy rains of the wet season, he
might boast, with still greater justice than Diogenes, of carrying
all he requires about him. The tail is very differently constructed
in the smaller American ant-eaters, who, leading an arboreal life,
seek their prey among the species of ants that build their nests
in the trees ; for, like that of the monkeys of their native forests,
it is long, short-haired, and prehensile.

The skin of the mammalians is no less admirably adapted
to the peculiarities of their way of life than the various organs
we have hitherto noticed. Thus, in the armadillos, pengolins,

z

338 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

and manides, who have no other means of defence, it is covered
with a complete coat-of-mail, formed of transverse shelly zones or
of large imbricated scales, while in the porcupine and hedgehog
we find it bristling for a similar purpose with long sharp quills
or spines. How different the smooth oily skin of the cetaceans,
who evidently required neither bristles nor scales to protect them,
and who cleave the waters all the more readily from the slippery
nature of their naked integuments !

By far the greater number of the mammalians are more or
less thickly covered with hair, an excellent defence against the
inclemencies of the weather. A visit to a furrier's stores suffices
to show the variety, softness, and beauty of these hairy coverings,
at whose sight we might almost be tempted to complain of
Nature's stepmotherly neglect of man, to whom no such mantle
has been given.

But when we reflect that his manual skill, guided by a'superior
reason, gives him every means of making up for this deficiency,
and that the necessity of providing himself with clothing is, in
reality, one of the chief promoters of civilization, through the sti-
mulus it gives to his industry and his inventive genius, we find
that we have as little reason to envy the fur-clothed quadruped
as the naked tropical savage, who, rendered almost independent of
raiment or exertion by the genial mildness of his skies, scarcely
rises above the level of the brutes with whom he disputes the
empire of the primeval forest or the boundless savannah.

The masticatory organs of the mammalia exhibit as great a
variety of structure as the food on which they live. Instead of
pursuing the larger fishes, the whales, the giants of organic
creation, are satisfied with game of the humblest description —
crustaceans, pteropods, medusae. Fancy how many millions of
these tiny worms must be required to satisfy the wants of a
colossus, whose heart at every beat sends whole tons of blood
in powerful streams through arteries thicker than the body
of a man ! Kows of sharp teeth would evidently have been
unable to perform the task, and thus we see their place supplied
by plates of whalebone or baleen, fixed in the upper jaw and
ranged side by side, so as to resemble a frame of saws in a saw-
mill. Their interior edges are covered with fringes of hair, and
from the palate are suspended many other small laminae of the

THE ANT-EATER. 339

thickness of a quill, a few inches long*, and likewise terminating
in a fringe ; so that the whole roof of the vast mouth resembles
a shaggy fur, under which lies the soft and spongy tongue, a
monstrous mass often ten feet broad and eighteen feet long.
Thus when the whale, after having skimmed with open mouth
the surface of the ocean, closes the wide gates of his prodigious
jaws, his tiny prey remains entangled by thousands and tens of
thousands in a fringy thicket, where it is crushed and bruised
by the tongue.

To satisfy a giant's appetite, this admirable apparatus required
to.be constructed on a gigantic scale; hence the enormous
dimensions of the cavity of the mouth, and the seemingly dis-
proportionate size of the head, which attains about a third part
of the length of the whole body, and forms a case or box well-
fitted for the reception of a straining or filtering mechanism,
suited to the wants of a leviathan.

The mouth of the great ant-eater is no less wonderfully or-
ganized for the seizure and swallowing of minute insects, which
paws, however sharply armed or however active in their move-
ments, could never have captured in sufficient numbers; and as the
bulky jaws of the whale cease to appear uncouth when we come
to consider their uses, thus also the snoutlike elongation of the
ant-eater's diminutive head no longer seems preposterous when
once we know that this singular form is in exact accordance
with the strange animal's
mode of life. Here no spa-
cious cavity was required
for the reception of two

rOWS Of powerful teeth Or Head of the Ant-Eater.

of a large filtering appa-
ratus, but a mere furrow for a long and extensile tongue,
which renders all other instruments for seizing its prey super-
fluous— as we find on following the animal into the Brazilian
savannahs, where the cities of the white-ants are dispersed in
such vast numbers. Approaching one of these wonderful
structures, the ant-eater strikes a hole through its wall of
clay with his powerful claws ; and as the ants issue forth by
thousands to resent the attack, stretches but his tongue for
their reception. Their legions, eager for revenge, immediately

z 2

340 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

rush upon it, and, vainly endeavouring to pierce its thick
skin with their mandibles, remain sticking in the glutinous
liquid with which it is lubricated from two very large glands
situated below its root. When sufficiently charged with prey,
the ant-eater suddenly withdraws his tongue, and swallows the
poor victims of an impotent fury.

The duck-billed platypus has likewise a singular tooth-
less mouth, which very much resembles the flat and sensitive
bill of a lamellirostral bird ; but this strange anomaly of form
and structure entirely harmonises with the animal's food, as it
subsists on aquatic insects, larvae, molluscs, and other small
invertebrates, which conceal themselves in the mud and banks of
rivers, where its flattened beak well knows how to find them.

The want of teeth, or the possession of mere dental rudiments,
is, however, confined but to a small number of the mammalia,
for these organs are as necessary to the carnivora in tearing
their prey as to the herbivorous quadrupeds in chewing, grinding,
or gnawing their vegetable food ; and so perfectly are they
in every case adapted to the peculiar wants of their possessor,
that a naturalist need only view the teeth of a quadruped to
know at once upon what it feeds.

Thus in all the carnivora we find the incisor teeth only mo-
derately developed, while the
canine teeth are large, strong,
and pointed, well-formed for firmly
seizing and planting themselves
deeply into the flesh of their
victims. The molar teeth situated

Dentition of Bear. behind these formidable instru-

^ ments of destruction are of three

naasial. e tuberculate or true molars. kindfl . ^^ wMch immediately

follow the canines (false molars) being more or less pointed ; the
next, or the carnassial tooth, being specially adapted for divid-
ing and lacerating animal muscle by the sharp edge of its
summit, while the last or hindmost are more or less rounded or
tuberculated.

The proportions which these different classes of molar teeth
bear to each other in degree and development, accord with the
relative carnivorous propensity of the different families. Thus
in the cats the canine teeth are preeminently strong, long, and

TEETH OF MAMMALIA. 34 1

sharp, and are evidently adapted for seizing and holding their
prey, and afterwards tearing in pieces the flesh and other soft
parts of the animals. The conical and very slightly-curved
form of these teeth, united with their sharpness and strength, is
the best that can be imagined for effecting this object. The

Tentition of Cat.

cheek-teeth have for the most part only cutting edges, and
those of the lower jaw shut within the upper, passing them so
closely as to form an accurate instrument either for shearing off
pieces from the flesh, or for subdividing the portions which have
been torn by the canine teeth. On each of them are sharp
triangular processes, which greatly facilitate the entrance of the
tooth into the flesh. The range of these teeth is short, as is
also the whole jaw, by which great power is gained in this par-
ticular direction. The articulation of the lower jaw is also cir-
cumscribed to a perpendicular motion, the only one which the
structure of the teeth would permit; and the masticatory muscles
are of enormous size and strength, particularly in the hysena, to
enable these ignoble violators of the grave to crush the bone and
cartilages which form a considerable part of their bill-of-fare.

The animals of the bear tribe on the other hand, whose diet
is chiefly of a vegetable nature, have an elongated jaw, canine
teeth very large and strong, yet less so than in the cats, and
molar teeth the surfaces of which instead of being raised into
cutting edges are depressed, tuberculated, and require a certain
degree of lateral motion in the jaw to bring them into action.

In the seals a very different structure of the teeth is observed.
The canines are not particularly large and prominent, as there
are no hard substances to be cut or broken, and the molar

342

THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

Dentition of Seal.

Dentition of a Rodent.

teeth — adapted neither for shearing on the one hand, nor on
the other for grinding their food, either of which actions

would be unavailable in
their particular case — are
numerous, and furnished
with several angular points
extremely well-fitted for
holding the slippery scaly
surface of fish, and equally
so for crushing them be-
fore they are swallowed.

The peculiar food of the rodents, which generally consists of
hard vegetable substances, naturally required a very different

dentition. Here the canine teeth,
which would have been worse than
useless, are suppressed ; while the
incisors, which play a very im-
portant part, are converted into
powerful chisels. Their confor-
mation is beautifully adapted to
the purpose they have to fulfil:

they are required to have a sharp edge, in order to make
their way through tough vegetable substances, and they must
at the same time be very strong and firm ; this is effected by
the principal substance of the tooth being composed of very
tough ivory, with a plate of hard enamel in front only, which
latter, wearing away more slowly, is always left as a sharp pro-
jecting edge. The molar teeth, which are separated from the
incisors by a wide interval, are composed of alternate plates
of enamel and ivory, which, wearing unequally, stand up
in ridges, and give them a rasplike surface. The ridges are
always transverse, or in a direction from side to side of the head ;
and as the jaw has considerable facility of moving backwards
and forwards, it greatly increases the power of trituration. In
the frugivorous species of the order, however, the surface of the
molar teeth is raised into rounded tubercles — as in the squirrel,
for instance ; whilst in those animals which have any carnivorous
tendency (as in the rat), they are raised into sharp points, thus
bearing some resemblance to tHose quadrupeds which are wholly
carnivorous.

CRANIUM OF THE SHEEP.

343

The ruminants, who principally live on green leaves or tender
shoots, naturally required a very different dentition from that

Skull of the Sheep, viewed laterally.

of the rodents, who have been specially appointed to devour the
hardest substances, generally living upon the wood and bark of
trees, as well as upon nuts and other shelled fruits. Here the
lower jaw only is provided with six shovel-formed incisors, pro-
jecting almost horizontally, and pressing against the upper jaw,-

Base of the Cranium of the Sheep.

Lower Jaw of the Sheep.

which in nearly all cases is destitute of incisor teeth ; their place
being supplied by a kind of callous pad, a formation exceedingly

344 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

well adapted for plucking or nibbling the herbage. The canines are
inconstant, and the molars, usually six on each side of both j awe,
have flattened crowns surmounted by two double and irregularly
crescentic folds of enamel, formed for affording the greatest pos-
sible extent of triturating surface. The lower jaw of the ruminants
is not so broad as the upper one (as we see in the accompanying
illustration), so that the surfaces of the upper molars project on
both sides beyond those of the corresponding inferior rows ; but
both have been made to cover each other by the alternating
lateral movements of the lower jaw to the right or to the left, a
motion as admirably calculated for assisting the grinding or
triturating process, as the hingelike and vertical motion of the
lower jaw of the carnivora for shearing or cutting.

Several mammals are distinguished by the enormous develop
ment of their canine teeth. Thus in the walrus they constitute
formidable weapons of defence, and no less useful levers with
which the unwieldy animal raises his huge body upon the ice-
blocks and precipitous shores where he loves to bask in the sun.
The long curved and sharp tusks of the wild-boar are capable
of inflicting the most severe and painful wounds, and serve
likewise for the digging-up of roots. In the narwhal only one
of the upper canines projects in the shape of a formidable horn,

while the other remains in a
rudimentary condition. This
horn, which is harder and
whiter than ivory, is from six
to ten feet long, spirally
striated throughout its whole
length, and tapering to a point.
We know but little of the habits of the narwhal,
but have no reason to doubt that this power-
ful horn, which is restricted to the males, is
an admirable weapon of defence. The upper
incisors of the elephant, developed to an extra-
ordinary size, form the tusks of this wonder-
ful animal, and not only surpass other teeth in
size, as belonging to a quadruped so enormous,
Tusks of wahus. hllt are fae largest of all teeth, in proportion to
the size of the body. Their possessor uses them for plough-
ing up the earth in quest of nutritious roots, or as a protection

STOMACH OF THE SHEEP. 345

for his trunk, which when menaced he retracts between them,
employing them at the same time to repel an aggressor. Thus
in every deviation from the ordinary forms of dentition, we
find that the attainment of some useful purpose was in view.

An examination of the digestive organs of the several orders
of the mammalia, shows that in every case they are no less
beautifully adapted to the peculiar food of the animal than the
construction of the dental apparatus. The carnivora feeding
on aliment which requires but little elaboration to convert it
into nourishment, the whole process of digestion appears to be
as rapid as possible, the stomach is simple and almost straight,
the intestines short, and without any structure to retard the
passage of the food. The ruminants, on the contrary, living on
crude vegetable matters, containing but a small quantity of nu-
tritious particles in proportion to their bulk, required a far more
complicated alimentary canal for the elaboration of their food.

Composite Stomach of the Sheep.
« oesophagus. / duodenum.

Here, therefore, the stomach consists not of one but of four
distinct cavities. The first compartment, or paunch (6), is the
largest of the four stomachs, and in the typical species, such as
the sheep or ox, its internal surface is densely beset with pro-
minent and pedunculated villosities. The second stomachal
viscus, or the reticulum (c), is of much smaller dimensions than
the paunch, and forms a kind of cul-de-sac between it and the
third cavity. It is distinguished internally by the presence of
a multitude of polygonal cells, and from this circumstance has
been vulgarly denominated the honeycomb bag.

346 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

The third stomach, commonly called the psalterium or many-
plies (d)9 owes its name to the remarkable folding of its internal
lining, the duplicatures of which resemble the leaves of a book.

The fourth stomach, technically termed the reed or abomasus
(e\ secretes the gastric juice, and is thus analogous to the simple
stomach of the non-ruminating quadrupeds.

The three first stomachs communicate directly with the
oesophagus by an elongated channel or groove, whose margins
when distended open into the paunch and reticulum, but
otherwise form a tube leading along the superior part of the
reticulum to the psalterium, which in its turn communicates
with the fourth stomach.

The food, coarsely divided by a first mastication, accumulates
in the paunch, where it undergoes a prolonged maceration.
This process is continued in the second stomach, whose con-
tractions force it back again into the mouth ; and it is only
after having been chewed a second time, or ruminated, that it
penetrates into the manyplies, and thence into the fourth
stomach, which is the real seat of digestion. At first sight it
seems so astonishing that the aliments should thus enter the
first or the third stomach, according as they are swallowed
for the first or the second time, that one might be inclined to
attribute the phenomenon to a kind of intelligent selection
possessed by the openings of the various paunches ; but the
anatomical structure of the parts explains the mystery in a far
more simple and satisfactory manner. When the animal swal-
lows coarse and bulky aliments, such as those which form its
usual food, the bolus, on arriving at the point where the oeso-
phagus begins to form the muscular channel above mentioned,
mechanically distends the lips of the groove, and drops at once
into the paunch. But when the animal swallows smaller quan-
tities of semifluid aliments, such as those which have undergone
the process of rumination, their pressure does not suffice to
open the margins of the ossophageal groove, which consequently,
retaining the form of a tube, conveys them at once into the
third stomach.

The structure of the intestines of the ruminants corresponds
with the complex arrangement of the stomach, for they are ex-
ceedingly long (in the ram twenty-eight times the length of the
body), very large, and tucked up into folds and sacks throughout

PAUNCH OF THE CAMEL. 347

their whole length. Thus in the digestive organs of the rumi-
nants everything is most beautifully arranged for the thorough
comminution and maceration of the food, and for the greatest
possible retardation of its passage through the body, as well as
for an immense extent of absorbing surface for the extraction of
every particle of the nutritious matter it contains.

In the camel the organization of the paunch differs very ma-
terially from that of the ordinary ruminant, as its internal surface
is subdivided into numer-
ous small pouches, spe-
cially fitted for the recep-
tion and retention of water.
The apertures of these
cells, which have some-
times a depth and width
of three inches, are nar-
row, and closed by strong
muscular sphincters, so
as to form little cisterns
capable of guarding their Water.cell3 in the gtomacb of the Camel. '
contents for a lengthened

period. It is this apparatus which enables the camel to abstain
from drinking for seven or eight days together without injury,
and to render those invaluable services to the Eastern merchant
which have procured it the' well-earned and significant name of
the 'ship of the desert.' Had its stomach been differently
formed, it is highly probable that the caravan-trade of North
Africa and Syria, upon which the prosperity of a not inconsider-
able portion of the human race depends, could never have
existed. Thus the structure of the camel's stomach has not
only a reference to the animal's individual wants, but also to
those of man who uses its services ; and surely this harmony
between the various actors on the stage of desert-life must con-
vince every unprejudiced truth-seeker that it is founded upon
a grand and uniform plan, in which nothing has been left
to chance, but every detail poised and arranged by Divine
Wisdom !

The camel is not only provided with water for his long
desert-voyages, but also with liberal stores of fat, which are
chiefly accumulated in the hump, so that this prominence, which

348

THE HARMONIES OP NATURE.

gives it so deformed an appearance, is in reality of the highest
utility ; for should food be scarce — and this is almost always the
case while journeying through the desert — internal absorption
makes up for the deficiency, and enables the camel to brave for
some time longer the fatigues of the naked waste.

The cam elides of the New World (the llamas) have a stomach
similarly formed to that of the dromedary of the East, though
the pouches are more feebly indicated ; and the left end of that
of the elephant is likewise adapted by several wide folds of
lining-membrane to serve as a receiver of water. This division
is of sufficient dimensions to contain ten gallons, and by means
of a valve formed by the fold nearest the orifice can be shut off
from the chamber devoted to the process of digestion. By this
arrangement, which surely must be regarded as more than a

Stomach of Elephant.

common coincidence, the elephant, like the camel and the
llama, is enabled to traverse arid regions in the service of man.

The structure of the tongue undergoes considerable modifica-
tions according to the habits and kind of aliment of the various
mammalia.

The way in which the great ant-eater uses his long and exten-
sile lingual organ to entrap his multitudinous prey has already
been noticed ; but all the other quadrupeds that feed on ants,
such as the Asiatic manides, the American armadillos, the
Australian echidna, and the African aardvark, are similarly
equipped. Thus in the four quarters of the globe we find the
same peculiar formation of the tongue corresponding to an an-

THE TONGUE OF BATS. 349

alogous food; and as a considerable adhesiveness of this organ was
absolutely indispensable for the securing of the prey, the secretion
of a glutinous mucus destined to cover its surface has in every
case been amply provided for. Thus two enormous glands are
situated below the retractor muscles of the echidna's tongue, and
the base of that of the pengolin is surrounded by a gland
almost as long as the neck. This wonderful uniformity of
structure in animals not only separated from each other by
such vast tracts of sea and land, but belonging to different
orders and only resembling each other in their food, must
surely convince every one that they all proceed from the same
Master Hand !

The graceful giraffe is likewise provided with a very long ex-
tensile tongue, but for a very different purpose, as it is used to
grasp and hook down the branches of the prickly acacia or
camel's- thorn, which constitute the animal's chief food. The
better to lay hold of the tender shoots, the surface of this pre-
hensile organ is as rough as that of a rasp, while a glutinous
covering, like that of the ant-eater's tongue, would, moreover,
have been a great hindrance to the mastication of vegetable food.
Thus, wherever we look throughout the domains of Nature, we
find instances of an admirable prevision extending to the
minutest details, while there is not a single work of the human
hand so perfect but that a sharp critic's eye may not discover
numerous faults in its structure or conception !

In the phyllostomas, a tropical genus of bats, the tongue
presents a peculiarity which is worthy of being particularly noted.
It consists of a number of wartlike elevations, so arranged as to
form a complete circular suctorial disk when they are brought
into contact at their sides, which is done by means of a set of
muscular fibres having a tendon attached to each of the warts.
By means of this curious sucker these bats are enabled to suck
the blood of animals and the juice of succulent fruits, their little
sharp teeth having first made a slight incision in the skin or
rind they have selected for their operations.

In some other tropical bats the horny tip of the long and
extensile tongue is provided with barbed bristles, probably for
the purpose of extracting the insects on which they feed out of
otherwise inaccessible crevices'.

While grazing, the rough tongue of the ruminants presses the

350 . THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

grass against the horny pad in the front part of the upper jaw,
upon which the incisors of the under-jaw perform their part ;
the sharp tongue of the felidse is furnished with rough horny
papillae directed backwards (these serve a very important pur-
pose in enabling the animal to scrape off the minute particles
of flesh adhering to the bones of its prey) ; and, finally, the
enormous soft tongue of the Greenland whale fulfils most ad-
mirably the office of crushing the numberless crustaceans or
pteropods that remain entangled in the fringes of the baleen.

The tongue of the mammalians is generally endowed with a
wonderful delicacy of feeling. This enables it to detect any
extraneous matter — a piece of bone or stone — that may have
been mixed with the food, and thus it resembles a trusty door-
keeper, whose watchful attention prevents any unwelcome or
dangerous visitor from entering the mansion confided to his care.

Several of the mammalia have received a most useful gift in
a pair of large cheek-pouches, serving as provisional storerooms.
The monkeys of the New World, luxuriating in the exu-
berant plenty of the boundless primeval forest, do not possess
them ; but they are frequent among the African monkeys — an
organization which evidently indicates a home where fruit is
less abundant or more thinly scattered, and advantage must be
taken of a favourable opportunity for securing the supply of a
future repast.

The cheek-pouches of the hamster are a great convenience
to this destructive animal for carrying home its winter-provisions.
They form two enormous sacks, extending from the cheeks to
the shoulders, between the skin and the muscles of the neck,
and when filled give the head a monstrously swollen appearance.
They will contain each about a thousand grains of wheat or rye,
and the hamster has merely to draw the ears of corn through
his rnouth to fill them, while they can be emptied with equal
facility by pressing them with the forepaws.

The senses of the mammalia are developed in very different
degrees, but everywhere in perfect accordance with their indivi-
dual wants. Thus the carnivora, who are generally destined to
live upon a cautious, vigilant, and active prey, possess a very
keen sight, and even more so by night than by day ; their power
of hearing is delicate, while they also smell their victims with
incredible acuteness.

VISION OF RUMINATING ANIMALS.

351

To balance these advantages of attack, the stags, the antelopes,
the bisons, and other ruminants are equally well equipped for
defensive warfare. Their eyes are placed at the side of the
head, so that their range of vision is greatly extended. The
ears also are placed far back, and are very moveable, so that
they can be turned to catch sounds in any direction, and their
sense of smell enables them to detect the lurking enemy from a
considerable distance.

Compared with these sharp and farsighted denizens of the
forest and the mead, the mole, whose eyes are so very minute
and well concealed by its fur that popular opinion supposes it
to be entirely deficient in these important organs, seems to be
but ill provided for ; but its limited powers of vision perfectly
agree with its subterranean life ; and when during the summer
months it sallies forth in quest of nocturnal prey (such as birds,
mice, frogs, and snails), its eyes, which are furnished with a
muscle that enables the animal to withdraw or to employ them
as circumstances may prompt, render it all the services it requires.
Though it has no external ears, as these would very soon be
choked up with earth, yet it is amply provided with the means
both of hearing and smelling — senses which, in its peculiar situa-
tion, are of far more importance than sight.

The Slepetz (Spalax typhlus), a small subterranean rodent

Spalax typhlus.

of Eastern Europe, is even totally deprived of vision, as its rudi-
mentary eyes, scarcely larger than a pin's head, are completely
covered with the skin, and hence we may infer that this deter-
mined burro wer hardly ever leaves his underground domains.
The most acute sense of the chamois is, beyond all doubt,

352 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

that of smelling. From a surprising distance these swift-footed
ruminants of the Alpine world scent the huntsman standing in
the wind, both at the same elevation as themselves and from
the lower regions, as the warmer air-currents ascending from
the deeper valleys bring along with them the emanations of man.
Then, at this first symptom of danger, every sense is exerted to
the utmost to find out the exact spot of impending peril. They
restlessly hurry to and fro, or, anxiously on the watch, huddle
together with far-outstretched necks. The ear and the eye strive
to emulate the distended nostrils. When at length the chamois
espy their enemy, they are more calm ; while as long as they
merely scent without seeing him, their agitation is excessive,
from not knowing where to direct their flight. While the
huntsman remains motionless, they likewise stand still, eyeing
him all the time with the keenest attention ; but as soon as he
moves, they dart away with arrowy speed.

The scent of the dog is likewise of wonderful acuteness, and
perhaps unrivalled among the quadrupeds. It directs, as it were,
all his actions, and renders his services invaluable to the hunts-
man ; for, with the assistance of this unerring guide, the dog
smells the emanations of the game, which totally escape the
grosser human sense, and follows exactly the path the object of
his pursuit has taken. By means of his scent he knows how to
find out his master among thousands, and to trace him for miles.
It is, in one word, the most perfect of his senses ; for, though he
can hear well, his eyesight is not remarkably good. The internal
structure of his nose gives his scent this extraordinary sharpness,
as the convolutions of its cavity, which the air traverses in the act
of inspiration, are exceedingly complicated, and it moreover
branches out into sinuses or hollows of considerable extent, so
that the olfactory nerves spread over a vast surface.

The kangaroo and the bison are indebted for many a timely
warning to the great acuteness of their scent ; and the thirsty
camel, well nigh sinking under the weight of his privations on
his long march through the sandy desert, frequently detects by
its means the distant stream or fountain. Then new vigour
animates his weary limbs, with distended nostrils he sniffs the
air, and, hastily rushing to the spot, quaffs in long draughts the
refreshing waters.

In other quadrupeds the sense of feeling is particularly acute.

THE SENSE OF FEELING. 353

The thick skin of the elephant is indeed far from being distin-
guished in this respect, nor has he reason to regret its obtuse -
ness while roaming through the thickets; but the termination of
his long hollow trunk is endowed with an exquisite delicacy of
touch, so that by means of this wonderful organ, which combines
a giant's strength with the flexibility of a willow-wand, he is able
not only to uproot trees and to raise prodigious weights, but
pick up the minutest objects from the ground. Its length supplies
the place of a long neck, which would have been incompatible
with the support of the large head and its weighty tusks ; he
makes use of it as efficiently as a hand in the performance of
many important offices ; it pumps up the enormous draughts of
water, which, by its recurvature, are turned into and driven down
the capacious throat, or spouted in refreshing showers over the
body ; it serves him to strike down the assaulting tiger with one
tremendous blow, or to raise with delicate attention a child
upon his back; and, to sum up its capabilities in one word, it
combines every function and renders every assistance which the
intelligent elephant required to raise himself above the level of
the brutal rhinoceros or the stupid hippopotamus.

The long whiskers of the felidae are delicate organs of the sense
of feeling; but those of the shrews even surpass them in sensi-
tiveness of touch, and seem to make amends to these active little
creatures for the smallness of their eyes, which are almost hid-
den in the surrounding hairs, and formed but for twilight vision.
Thus armed, they feel at a distance of eight or nine inches the
slightest motion of the air, and the mere bending of a finger
held out to them unseen suffices to alarm them. The utmost
delicacy of touch, so as almost to reach the limits of credibility,
is however possessed by the bats, who need no collision with
any object to be advertised of its vicinity, but in the midst of
darkness avoid any object that presents itself with the same
unerring certainty as in the light.

Spallanzani, having observed this wonderful power, instituted a
series of experiments, the results of which proved that bats
when deprived of sight by the extirpation of the eyes, and as
far as possible of hearing and smell by the obliteration of the
external passages of those senses, were still capable of direct-
ing their flight with the same security and accuracy as before.

A A

354 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

steering their course through passages only just large enough to
admit them without coming into contact with the sides, and even
avoiding numerous small threads which were stretched across
the room in various directions — the wings never, even by acci-
dent, touching any of them. These marvellous results led him
to believe that these animals are endowed with a sixth sense, the
immediate operation as well as the locality of which is, of course,
unknown to and inappreciable by us; but the sagacity of Cuvier
removed the mystery without weakening the interest of these
curious facts, by referring to the flying- membrane as the seat of
this extraordinary faculty. According to his view of the subject,
the whole surface of the wings on both sides may be considered
as an enormously-expanded organ of touch of the most exquisite
sensibility; and it is, therefore, by the varied modification of the
impulsion of the atmosphere upon this surface that the know-
ledge of the propinquity of foreign bodies is communicated.

But touch is not the only sense which is highly developed in
the bats, for the vast extent of the shell of the ear in the in-
sectivorous species is undoubtedly of great assistance in the
collection of sounds, and their smell is also wonderfully acute.
In many of them, particularly in the rhinolophidse — whose habits
are more completely lucifugous and retired than any others,

and who are found in
the darkest penetralia
of caverns, and other
places where there is
not even the imperfect
light which the other
genera of bats enjoy —
the nose is furnished
with foliaceous append-
ages, formed of the inte-
gument doubled, folded,

Khmolophus.

and cut into the most

curious and grotesque forms — an organisation evidently intended
to give increased power and delicacy to the organ of smell, and
thus to supersede the sense of vision in situations where the latter
would be unavailable. Thus admirably equipped for nocturnal
flight, the bats launch forth in quest of their insect prey,

STKUCTUEE OF CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS.

355

which, though screened by the veil of darkness, vainly endeavours
to escape detection.

According to their various modes of life, the quadrupeds are
amply provided with the means of defence or aggression. The
carnivorous animals, destined to prey upon others, required, of
course, to be specially equipped for active war; and as the seal
of perfection is stamped upon all the Almighty's works, their
structure exhibits, in the greatest imaginable degree, every
quality which a life of rapine and violence requires.

Thus, for instance, the skeleton of the lion shows, in all its
parts, a masterly combination of lightness of form with colossal
power. The spine is flexible yet of great strength, while the

Skeleton of Lion.

extent and robustness of the lumbar portion of the vertebral
column seem at once adapted for that flexibility, and for the
location of powerful muscles. The ribs are narrow and far
asunder, the limbs so constructed as to afford the greatest facility
and extent of motion, and the massive proportions of the cranium
and jawbone give evidence of the enormous development of
muscular power necessary for cutting and tearing in pieces the
hard tendinous portions of the animal's prey.

A A 2

356 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

The smaller felidse, less formidable by their muscular strength, •
make up for this deficiency by a still greater activity in their
movements,, and a considerable expertness in climbing. The
leopard creeps through the thickets with a serpent's flexibility,
and when pursued by a more powerful foe frequently escapes
upon the trees. There also the wild-cat seeks his prey, and the
ferocious lynx, lying in ambush among the branches, springs
down upon the back of the unsuspecting deer, and soon brings
him to the ground.

In the weasel tribe the legs are shorter, the vertebral column
elongated and in the highest degree flexible, the head small
and slender ; a structure by which they are enabled to creep
through extremely narrow holes and crevices, in quest of the
rats, mice, moles, and small birds on which they prey.

The bears, who live both on vegetable and animal food, require
neither the retractile claws of the felidse, nor their prodigious
spring. The plantigrade form of their foot enables them to
walk with firmness and solidity, to climb trees, or to dig the
ground in quest of the food from which they derive their
nutriment. In spite of their uncouth appearance and clumsy
gait, they are capable of great activity ; and the larger terres-
trial species know how to defend themselves against the most
formidable enemies, either felling them with a blow of their
forepaws, or stifling them in a murderous embrace.

The elongated form of the Polar bear, and his short broad
paws, enable this tyrant of the Arctic shores to swim with
the greatest facility ; and thus every member of the family is
admirably fitted out for his peculiar field of action.

Destined to perform an important part in the economy of
Nature, by cleansing the earth of the decaying carcases of the
larger beasts, whose remains might otherwise infect the atmo-
sphere with pestilential effluvia, the hyaenas are not so well
armed for active war as the felidse, having neither their
retractile talons nor their terrific bound. Their hind-legs are
comparatively feeble; for, in harmonious accordance with their
mode of life, the chief strength of their body is thrown into their
forequarters, so as to enable them to disinter corpses from their
graves, or to make themselves burrows in the earth, into which
they retire during the daytime. For this purpose their claws
are extremely strong, and the enormous power of their jaws and

MODES OF DEFENCE OF CETACEANS. 357

solidity of their teeth are equally well adapted for crushing the
hardest bones, so as to leave undevoured no part of the carrion
on which they chiefly feed. Their nocturnal habits protect them
from many a hostile collision, though when attacked they are
far from being contemptible opponents.

The seals play among the fishes a part similar to that of the
cat tribes among the herbivorous quadrupeds. For this pur-
pose they are not only beautifully formed for swimming, both
by the structure of their finlike limbs, their tapering body,
and the strong muscles of their spine, which bend it with con-
siderable force, and thus greatly assist propulsion ; but they are
also furnished with sharp and many-pointed teeth, excellently
adapted for seizing, holding, and tearing the fishes, the activity
of whose motions, no less than their scaly surface and even
rounded form, render such a structure absolutely necessary.
When on land or on masses of ice, where they love to bask in the
sun, their slow and awkward movements expose them to many
dangers ; but they make up for this deficiency by their caution and
watchfulness, seldom venturing from the shore, so as to be able
at the approach of danger to plunge immediately to the bottom
of the water, and seldom sleeping longer than a minute without
moving their heads to ascertain whether anything suspicious is
going on.

The cetaceans, particularly the whales, are in general of a
pacific disposition, and will rather avoid a hostile encounter
than boldly face it ; but when attacked by other monsters of the
deep, by the terrible swordfish or the formidable thresher,
their tail becomes a terrific weapon of defence. The annals of
the whale-fishery are full of instances where a single blow of
this monster club has cut the pursuing boat down to the water's
edge, or hurled the unfortunate harpooner high into the air.
The sperm-whale sometimes also uses his enormous head as a
kind of catapult or ram, to stave a boat, or, turning on his
back, he endeavours to crush it between his jaws.

Though destitute of claws, the monkeys find ample means of
safety in their arboreal life, their cunning vigilance, and their
amazing agility in climbing. Bounding from bough to bough,
they will pass through the most entangled forests with surprising
swiftness, and mock the tiger-cat in his pursuit, or baffle the
huntsman's aim. The apes upon the Rock of Gibraltar, although

358 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

close to the town, can never be approached by the most cautious
sportsmen ; they climb with the greatest facility among frightful
precipices, where neither dogs nor men can follow, and thus
their preservation is effected by the possession of one single
faculty.

Although destitute of defensive weapons, the bats are secured
from many hostile attacks by their nocturnal habits and their
peculiar mode of flight. Their evolutions are so rapid, that the
owl, who is supposed to be their greatest enemy, is quite unable
to catch them on the wing ; though, as he inhabits the same
lonely spots — caves, grottos, ruins — he may chance to surprise
them while they are reposing in their dismal haunts. The cats
and the weasels, unable to follow them through the air, can only
seize such of them as by some accident have fallen to the ground ;
and thus, although seemingly so helpless, they have in reality
scarcely any foe to dread but man, who, instead of protecting
and fostering these highly useful animals — whose services are
the more to be valued as they chiefly, with their companions the
goatsuckers, prey upon crepuscular and nocturnal insects —
foolishly persecutes and destroys them.

The ruminants, whose tender flesh so mightily excites the
appetite of the felidse, frequently evade or baffle these for-
midable enemies. In addition to great swiftness, which soon
carries them out of the reach of danger, they have also the
means of repelling it. Their heads are furnished with strong
pointed horns, by which they can not only rebut their adver-
sary and keep him at bay, but even toss him in the air and
pierce him to death.

The power of the bovine races is well known even in their
domesticated condition, but in the wild state they are much
more formidable. The East Indian buffalo will set even the
savage tiger at defiance ; for though singly he may find it difficult
to withstand the sharp claws and furious onset of his for-
midable enemy, yet when belonging to a herd, his companions
immediately come to his assistance and put the brute to flight.
The Indian herdsman, trusting to the spirit of these courageous
ruminants, is therefore not in the least afraid of leading them
into a jungle infested by tigers. Captain Eice once saw a
troop of buffalos, excited by the blood of a tiger he had wounded,
throw themselves furiously into the thicket where the beast had

HORNS AND HOOFS OF RUMINANTS. 359

suught refuge, beat about the bushes, and tear up the ground
with their horns. Their rage became at length so ungovernable,
that they began to fight among each other, to the great despair
of the herdsman.

The bison of the North American prairies is equally dan-
gerous when excited, and the aurochs of Lithuania defies every
carnivorous animal of his native forest. The long, twisted,
and pointed horns of the eland (Damalis orcas) are sufficient
to pierce a man through-and -through by one thrust, and even
the horns of the goat can inflict severe wounds.

It may be observed as a general rule among the cervine and
antelopine races, that in proportion to the smallness of their
horns they seem endowed with an additional degree of speed.
The roebuck and the chamois are proofs of this : the horns of
both are but ill-calculated for vigorous defence, yet both are
proverbial for their swiftness, and thus avoid many dangers
with which they would be unable to cope. The graceful dark-
eyed gazelle, the favourite of the poets of the East, whose weak
horns can hardly afford the slightest resistance to attack, bounds
across the desert with such amazing fleetness, that it seems
to skim over the surface like a bird.

The horses, to whom a horned front has been denied, find
compensation in their hard and solid hoofs, with which they
deal out such blows as to make many an enemy repent having
approached them too nearly. Moreover, in the wild state the
various species of this noble animal live in wide-extended
plains, avoiding forests and steep places; so that, with the aid
of their acute senses and wonderful speed, they can both per-
ceive danger at a considerable distance, and avoid it by a rapid
flight.

The giraffe seems at the first glance a rather helpless animal,
ill-provided with the means of escaping the crafty attacks of
the lion or the panther, particularly as in the vast arid plains
through which he roams his towering height makes him
conspicuous from an immense distance. His colossal stature,
however, is far less frequently a source of danger than of
security; for his large, dark, and lustrous eyes are able, by
their lateral projection, to take in a wider range of the horizon
than is subject to the vision of any other quadruped ; and their
efficacy must naturally be much increased by their sweeping

360 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

over the plain from a height of seventeen feet or more. During
the hours of darkness, the large, erect, and pointed ears of the
giraffe no doubt render him as trusty services as the keenness
of his vision by day. When flight becomes necessary, he bounds
away in a graceful undulating canter ; or, when driven to battle,
strikes out so powerfully with his well-armed feet, as to defeat
even the lion. His horns, small as they are, and muffled with
skin and hair, are likewise no contemptible weapons, when, with
a sidelong sweep of the neck, he levels them at full swing against
his adversary's head.

Of all the quadrupeds the sloth was supposed to be the most
helpless; but modern travellers, who have had occasion to observe
him in his native haunts, have fully corrected this erroneous
opinion. The colour of his hair so strongly resembles the hue
of the moss which grows on the trees, that even the falcon-
eyed Indian, accustomed from his earliest infancy to note the
slightest ' signs of forest- life, is hardly able to distinguish him
from the branches to which he clings. This no doubt serves
him as a protection against many enemies, and when discovered
he defends himself most vigorously with his formidable claws ;
and woe to the tiger-cat or tree-snake that comes within their
reach !

The great ant-eater, to whom Nature has denied sharp teeth
and a rapid flight, who is unable to burrow or to roll himself up
in a ball, still ranges through the wilderness in perfect safety,
and fears no hostile encounter, for he has full reliance on his
powerful forelegs and their tremendous claws. Dr. Richard
Schomburgk had an opportunity of witnessing how a young
ant-eater made use of these formidable weapons. On the enemy's
approach it assumed the defensive, but in such a manner as
to make even the boldest aggressor quail ; for, resting on its left
forefoot, ifc struck out desperately with its right paw. Assailed
from behind, it wheeled round with the rapidity of lightning ;
and on being attacked from several quarters at once, threw itself
on its back, and fought with both its forepaws, uttering at the
same time an angry growl of defiance. In fact, the great ant-
eater is so formidable an opponent, that he is said not unfre-
quently to vanquish even the jaguar ; for the latter is often found
weltering in his blood, with ripped-up bowels — a wound which
the claws of the ant-eater alone are able to inflict.

DEFENSIVE AEMOUE OF QUADEUPEDS. 361

The monstrous pachydermata or thick-skinned quadrupeds—
the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus — are gifted with
other means of defence. Relying on his enormous weight, the
elephant first strikes down his assailant with his trunk, and
then crushes him into a shapeless mass by the pressure of his
foot.

Though naturally of a quiet and inoffensive disposition, the
rhinoceros when provoked or attacked charges with great
impetuosity, and either tramples
his adversary underfoot, or rips
him up with his horn, which,
though short and blunt, is a
most effective weapon. To all
these means of preservation may
be added an extraordinary acute-
ness of smell and hearing, and
that remarkably thick skin which
furnishes a name to this order. In The Rhinoceros.

the rhinoceros particularly this

characteristic is so highly developed that its hide is musketproof,
and becomes as effectual for defence as if the animal were en-
cased in a coat>of-mail.

The hippopotamus, on the other hand, although possessed of
a very thick skin, is destitute either of proboscis, tusks, or horns.
His habits are aquatic, and he retreats into deep water in
the moment of danger, and bids defiance to all enemies of the
land. To add to his security, his ears, nostrils, and eyes are all
on the same plane, on the upper level of the head ; so that the
unwieldy monster, when immersed in his favourite element, is
able to draw breath, and to use three senses at once for hours
together, without exposing more than his snout.

The rodents, the smallest and the weakest of the quadrupeds,
have indeed but feeble arms to oppose to the larger animals of
which they are the prey ; yet their caution, agility, and nocturnal
habits preserve them from many perils. The hare is probably, for
its size, the most defenceless quadruped yet discovered. It has
neither tooth nor claw to repel an enemy ; it can neither climb
the trees nor burrow in the earth, nor dive into the water nor
fly into the air, like the squirrel or the mole, the beaver or the
bat ; yet how admirably has Nature provided for its safety ! Its

362 THE HAKMONIES OF NATURE.

whole organisation seems to indicate the extreme of watchfulness
in perceiving danger, and of speed and cunning in avoiding
it. Similar qualities characterise the squirrels, who may be
called the hares of the trees, from their great agility in climb-
ing, and their prodigious leaps from bough to bough. As is
well known, the squirrel is an admirable nest-builder. His
summer cage, in which the young are born, is placed nearly
at the extremity of a slender bough, and is comparatively frail ;
while his winter residence is almost invariably situated in the
fork of some tree, generally where two branches start from the
trunk, and is so well concealed by the boughs on which it rests,
that it requires a practised eye to detect it. Thus the squirrel
never forsakes the trees, which afford him both food and shelter.

Most rodents, however, seek a refuge from their enemies in
subterranean burrows, frequently driving a whole labyrinth of
tunnels through the soil. The rabbit is a familiar example ; but
however active he may be in excavating sandy heaths and downs,
his labours are inferior both in extent and ingenuity to those of
the prairie-dog (Arctcmiys ludovicianus), a species of marmot
which inhabits the vast grass-plains of North America, and owes
its popular name to the short yelping sound it is fond of uttering.
These pretty little rodents frequently assemble in such num-
bers that thousands of their burrows are dug in close proximity
to each other, and honeycomb the ground to such an extent
as to render it quite unsafe for horses. The scene presented by
one of these * dog-towns' or villages is extremely curious, and
well repays the trouble of a visit.

'The prairie-dogs,' says the Hon. C. A. Murray, 'burrow
under the light soil, and throw it up round the entrance to
their dwelling like the English rabbit; on this little mound
they generally sit, chirping and chattering to one another like
two neighbour-gossips in a village. I do not know what
their occupations are, but I have seen them constantly running
from one hole to another, although they do not ever pay any
distant visits. They seem on the approach of danger always to
retire to their own home; but their great delight apparently
consists in braving it, with the usual insolence of cowardice, when
secure from punishment; for, as you approach, they wag their
little tails, elevate their heads, and chatter at you like a monkey,
louder and louder the nearer you come ; but no sooner is the
hand raised to any missile, whether gun, arrow, stick, or stone,

BURROWING RODENTS. 363

than they pop into the hole with a rapidity only equalled by
that sudden disappearance of Punch, with which, when a child,
I have been so much delighted in the streets and squares of
London.'

Many rodents burrow not only for safety, but for the purpose
of establishing subterranean provision-stores. Among these
provident little animals none is more famous than the hamster,
whose enormous cheek-pouches have already brought him under
our notice. His dwellings are formed under the earth, and con-
sist of more or fewer apartments, according to the age of the
animal. A young hamster makes them hardly a foot deep, an
old one sinks them to the depth of four or five feet ; and the
whole diameter of the residence, taking in all its habitations, is
sometimes eight or ten feet. The principal chamber is lined
with dried grass, and serves for a lodging ; the others are vaults
destined for the preservation of provisions. Each hole of the
male hamster has two apertures — the one descending obliquely,
which serves him to escape in case of a forcible irruption into
his premises ; and the other perpendicularly, through which he
makes his usual ingress and .egress. The holes of the females,
who never reside with the males, have more numerous passages,
and frequently six or eight perpendicular openings.

In the beaver the burrowing faculty expands into a \vonderful
building instinct, such as no other quadruped possesses. In
summer, this interesting rodent leads a solitary life, in burrows
which he digs along the banks of the lakes and rivers of Northern
America ; but as soon as the first night-frosts signalize the ap-
proach of chilly autumn, he leaves his summer seat, and forms
n society with other individuals of his kind, for the purpose of
erecting his winter lodge. The associates select, if possible, a spot
where the water is always so deep as not to freeze to the
bottom in winter ; but in small rivers and creeks, in which the
water is liable to be drained off when the back-supplies are
congested by the frost, they, with wonderful sagacity, provide
against that evil by raising a dam across the stream, almost
straight where the current is weak, but where it is more rapid
curving more or less with the convex side opposed to the current,
so as to break its violence. The materials made use of are drift-
wood, green willows, birch, and poplars, intermixed with mud
and stones. As if it had been planned by a skilful engineer,
this dam opposes a sufficient barrier to the force both of

364 THE HAEMONIES OF NATURE.

water and ice ; and as the trees employed in constructing it
generally take root and shoot up, it forms in time a green hedge
in which the birds build their nests.

By means of these erections the water is kept at a sufficient
height, for it is absolutely necessary that there should be at
least three feet of water above the entrance of the lodge,
without which, in the hard frosts, it would be entirely closed ;
for the entrance is not on the land-side, but always under water,
so as to secure the inmates from the attacks of wild animals.

The lodges, each of which is made large enough to contain
about four old and six or eight young ones, are erected either
along the dyke or on the banks of the river or lake, and plas-
tered over with mud, which soon freezes as hard as stone, and
prevents the wolverine from disturbing them during the winter.
They are built of the same materials as the dam, of an oval or
beehive shape, and of a diameter of six or seven feet. The
interior forms only a single chamber, resembling an oven ; and
at a little distance is the magazine for provisions, where they
keep in store the roots of the yellow waterlily and the branches
of the black spruce, the aspen, and the birch, which they are
careful to plant in the mud. Their magazines .sometimes con-
tain a cartload of these articles, and the beavers are so indus-
trious that they are always adding to their store. They convey
the mud and stones with their small forepaws, holding their
load close up between them under their throat, while they always
drag the wood with their teeth.

When the beavers settle on the banks of a stream, they cut
their wood above the spot which they have selected for their
lodges, and use the current to convey it where it is wanted.
The precautions they take in felling trees are truly wonderful.
When the trunk has been cut all round and is near its fall,
they measure every bite, so that it must necessarily fall into the
water, and not towards the land, which would render all their
labour useless. Thus, throughout all the building operations of
the beaver, we find an attention paid to physical laws which
is not always displayed in the works of human architecture.

The ondatra, musquash, or muskrat, a rodent common
throughout Canada and the Hudson's Bay territories, and well
known in England by its valuable fur, so greatly resembles the
beaver in its way of life, that the Indians, who are keen ob-

THE MUSQUASH. 365

servers of nature, call them brothers, but allow the latter the
rank of primogeniture from his superior building abilities.

Essentially a bank-haunting animal, the musquash is never
to be seen at any great distance from the water, where it swims
and dives with consummate ease, aided greatly by the webs
which connect the hinder toes. It drives a large series of tunnels
into the bank, branching out in various directions, and having
several entrances, all of which open under the surface of the
water. The tunnels are of considerable length, and they all
slope slightly upwards, uniting in a single chamber in which
the inhabitants repose. If the animal happens to live upon a
marshy and uniformly wet soil, it becomes a builder, and shows
great judgment in the selection of the site, invariably choosing
some higher ground above the reach of inundation, or else rais-
ing its hut on an artificial foundation ; for, though obliged to
reside near flat submerged banks, where the soft soil is full of
nourishing roots, it requires a dry home to rest in.

The huts are about two-and-a-half or three feet in diameter,
plastered with great neatness in the inside, and covered externally
with a kind of basket-work of rushes, carefully interlaced
together so as to form a compact and secure guard imper-
meable by water. They are sometimes built in such num-
bers together, that they may be compared with villages. In
winter they are generally covered with a thick mantle of snow,
under whose shelter the industrious musquash is able to procure
water, or to reach the provisions stored up in its subterranean
home. Thus it lives in abundance and security, for the marten
and the minx are too averse to the water, and the otter too
bulky, to be able to penetrate into its tunnels. But when the
snow melts, and the diminutive huts of the musquash appear
above the ground, the Indian steals up, and, dashing them to
pieces with his spear and tomahawk, secures the unfortunate in-
mates. Great numbers are also destroyed by the spring inunda-
tions, and in severe winters they are almost extirpated from some
localities by the freezing of the swamps which they inhabit.

Besides the generality of the rodents, we find many other
burrowers among the more helpless or timid quadrupeds — such
as the armadillos, the manis, the smaller ant-eaters — or even
among the carnivora, such as the fox or the badger ; but as it
would lead me too far were I to follow the whole number in their

366 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

subterranean labours, I shall confine myself to a short description
of the underground residences of our native mole and of the
Australian duckbill. The former not only digs tunnels in the
ground, but forms a complicated residence, which may rival
the more celebrated erections of the beaver.

4 The district or domain,' says Mr. Bell, in his ' History of
British Quadrupeds,' 'to which an individual mole confines
himself, may be termed his encampment. Within its limits, or
at least in immediate communication with the district, all the
labours of the animal are pursued. It consists of the habitation
or fortress, from which extends the high-road by which the
animal reaches the opposite end of the encampment, and of
various galleries or excavations opening into this road, which it
is continually extending in search of food. The fortress is
formed under a large hillock, which is always raised in a situa-
tion of safety and protection — either under a bank, against the
foundation of a wall, at the root of a tree, or in some similar
locality. The earth of which the dome covering this curious
habitation is composed, is rendered exceedingly strong and solid
by being pressed and beaten by the mole in forming it. It
contains a circular gallery within the base, which communicates
with a smaller one above by five nearly equidistant passages ;
and the domicile or chamber is placed within the lower and
beneath the upper circular gallery, to which last it has access by
three similar passages. From the chamber extends another road,
the direction of which is at first downwards for several inches ;
it then rises again to open into the high-road of the encamp-
ment. From the external circular gallery open about nine other
passages, the orifices of which are never formed opposite to those
which connect the outer with the inner and upper galleries ;
these extend to a greater or less distance, and return, each taking
an irregular semicircular route, and opening into the high-road
at various distances from the fortress.'

Being a peculiarly aquatic animal, the duckbill always makes
its home in the bank of some stream, almost invariably at a
wide and still part of the river. There are always two en-
trances to the burrow, one below the surface of the water, and
the other above, so that the animal may be able to regain its
home either by diving or by slipping into the entrance which is
above the surface. This latter entrance is so well hidden by

THE DUCKBILL. 3f>7

overshadowing grasses and drooping herbs that even the keenest
inspection frequently fails to detect it. The burrow itself ex-
tends in numerous curves and windings to a length of thirty or
forty feet, and at its upper extremity is placed the nest, an
excavation of a somewhat oval form, much broader than the
width of the burrow, and well supplied with dry weeds and
grasses, upon which the young ma-y rest.

Burrow of the Duckbill.

Most of the mammalia whom Nature has clothed with
spines or strong bony scales, increase the efficiency of their
armour by the faculty of rolling themselves up into a ball, and
thus opposing on all sides to the enemy a forest of spears or an
impenetrable coat-of-mail. Contracting the strong muscular
fibres with which its skin is interwoven, the hedgehog, when
molested, presents nothing but its prickles to the foe, and the
more the animal is irritated and alarmed the more firmly
does it contract itself, and the more stiff and strong does
its bristly panoply become. Thus rolled up, it patiently waits

368 , THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

till the danger is past ; and however desirous the cat, the weasel,
the ferret, and the martin may be to taste its tender flesh, they
soon find out the uselessness of tooth or claw to force the strong-
hold ; and though a well-trained terrier or a fox may now and
then be found to overcome the resistance of a hedgehog, it
generally remains secure — scarcely anything but a cold-water
bath obliging it to unfold itself.

Kolling itself in like manner into a perfect sphere, the arma-
dillo completely conceals its head and tail under its tesselated
armour, so that no dog can force it to unfold itself; and the
African long-tailed manis, hiding every vulnerable part under
a rampart of trenchant scales, repels the assaults even of the
panther.

Though unable to roll itself up so completely as the hedge-
hog, the 6 fretful ' porcupine makes up for this want by the
greater power and length of its sharp quills, which, when at-
tacked, it raises on every side like so many chevaux-de-frise;
so that a beast of prey is hardly ever able to force the bristling
phalanx, and man is almost the only enemy it has to fear.
When driven to extremities, it is not satisfied with a passive
resistance, but rushes upon its adversary, and always sideways,
thus bringing into action the longest and sharpest of its quills.
Notwithstanding its vigorous defence, it is frequently hunted
in the sandy districts of Barbary. Well-beaten paths, and here
and there a quill it may have lost, direct attention to its burrow
among the prickly shrubs. The huntsmen widen the entrance
with their swords, until a hoarse prolonged growl and the peculiar
noise which the enraged porcupine makes on raising its quills
warn them to be on their guard. Suddenly the creature rushes
forth, but the well-aimed . blow of a .poniard stretches it into
the dust. A fire is then kindled, and the animal buried under
the embers; the quills are then easily separated from the
roasted and excellently-flavoured meat.

In several quadrupeds the emission of scents or fluids of an
offensive character constitutes an important means of defence.
Thus, most of the members of the weasel tribe — as, for instance,
the ferret or the polecat — emit, when irritated, a very disagree-
a,ble odour, which no doubt cools the warlike impetus of many
an enemy ; but the most highly-gifted animals in this respect
are the skunks, which do full justice to their Latin generic

GKEGARIOUS QUADRUPEDS. 369

name — Mephitis. Their various species inhabit the cold and
temperate regions of North and South America ; and, implicitly
relying on the strength of their talisman, they fly from no enemy,
not even from man. Such is the intolerable odour of the
secretion from their glandular pouches, which they have the
power of ejecting on their pursuers, that the least quantity
suffices to produce nausea and a sense of suffocation.

Prompted by the powerful instinct of self-preservation, many
of the quadrupeds, singly too weak to oppose an effectual resist-
ance to the attacks of their enemies, find an additional strength
in the power of union. Thus, when assaulted by the jaguar,
the wild oxen of the American llanos or grass-plains of the
Orinoco form a ring, in the centre of which they place their
calves, while the stronger animals turn their horns towards the
enemy.

The wild horses of America likewise march in columns — these
troops being headed by a vigorous male chief, who is constantly
at their head, on travel or in battle, and is invariably followed
under all circumstances. When the herd is disturbed by any
object, they approach it within a certain distance, having the
strongest individuals at their head, examine it attentively, and
describe one or more circles round it. If it does not appear dan-
gerous, they approach with precaution ; but if the chiefs recog-
nise any danger, and give an example of flight, they are instantly
followed by the whole troop.

The peccari, a small hoglike pachyderm of South America,
roams in herds of several hundreds through the tropical forest.
When attacked, the whole band rushes furiously upon the
enemy, so that even the puma and the jaguar do not venture
to assault the main body, but merely hang on the outskirts
ready to catch some unfortunate straggler.

For greater security the gregarious quadrupeds frequently set
out a watch, upon whose steady attention they implicitly rely.
When a troop of chamois is grazing in some Alpine solitude,
one of the band, stationed at a short distance, is seen to cast an
inquisitive glance around, or to raise its head, carefully sniffing
the air, while the others are grazing or tilting at each other
with their horns like frolicsome goats or deer. But as soon as the
sentinel, espying danger, utters his shrill note of warning, they

BB

370 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

suddenly stop, and rapidly follow him as tie bounds away from
the scene of peril.

In the Peruvian or Bolivian highlands, the she-vicunas roam
about in small herds, under the protection and guidance of a
single male, who always remains a few paces apart from his
harem, and keeps watch with the most sedulous attention. At
the least sign of danger, he immediately gives the alarm by a
shrill cry, and rapidly steps forward. The herd, immediately
assembling, turns inquisitively towards the side whence danger is
apprehended, advances a few paces, and then, suddenly wheeling,
flies, at first slowly, and constantly looking back, but soon with
unrivalled swiftness. The male covers the retreat, frequently
standing still and watching the enemy.

Many of the monkeys likewise set out guards while plunder-
ing the fields. Thus, a troop of baboons will sometimes form a
long chain, extending from the vicinity of their ordinary habi-
tation to the garden which they happen to be engaged in rob-
bing, and pitch the produce of their theft from hand to hand till
it reaches its destination in the mountains. Should any dis-
turbance occur, the guard utters a loud cry, and the whole band
is out of sight in an instant.

In the Alpine solitudes, just below the region of perpetual snow,
the social marmot enjoys its short summer under the protection
of a watchful sentinel, who, at the approach of any danger, gives
a shrill whistle, when they all retire into their burrows. Trusting
to the attention of their guard, they are seen sporting in fine
weather about the neighbourhood of their retreats, where they
delight in basking in the sunshine, and frequently assume an
upright posture, sitting on their hind-feet.

In a very different scene, on the waveworn rocks and desolate
shores of the Polar seas, we find among the walruses and the
seals the same protective instinct. In fine weather the former
love to assemble on the ice, where they may be seen in herds,
consisting occasionally of upwards of a hundred animals each.
In these situations they appear greatly to enjoy themselves,
rolling and sporting about, and frequently making the air
resound with their bellowing, which bears some resemblance
to that of a bull ; but these wary animals take the precaution
of having a sentinel to warn them of any danger to which
they may be liable. So universal seems the observance of

BIRD-GUARDIANS OF QUADRUPEDS. 371

this precaution amongst their species that Admiral Beechey,
who had many opportunities of observing them in Spitsbergen,
scarcely ever saw a herd, however small, in which he did not
notice one of the party on the watch, stretching his long neck
in the air every half-minute, to the utmost extent of his muscles,
to survey the ground about him. In the event of any alarming
appearance, the sentinel begins by seeking his own safety ; and
as these animals always lie huddled upon one another, the
motion of one is immediately communicated to the whole group,
who, scrambling to the edge of the ice as fast as their awkward-
ness permits, tumble into the water, head first if possible, but
otherwise in any position in which chance may have placed them.

Some quadrupeds find a remarkable protection in the com-
pany of animals belonging not only to the same genus but to a
totally different class. Thus the rhinoceros is frequently ac-
companied by a bird (Buphaga africana), which feasts upon
the larva? that settle in his skin. As the range of his small and
deep-set eyes is impeded by his horn, he can only see what is
immediately before him, so that, if one be to-leeward of him, it is
not difficult to approach within a few paces. But the bird sees
all the better, and flying away at the first approach of danger,
awakens the short-sighted brute's attention by a shrill cry of
warning. In this manner the insects which plague the rhinoceros
become the indirect means of his preservation from many
perils, as, but for them, his winged monitor would have no in-
ducement to seek his company*

The African buffalo possesses a similar guardian in the Textor
erytkrorynchus. When the beast is quietly feeding, the bird
may frequently be seen hopping on the ground, picking up food,
or sitting on its back, and ridding it of the insects with which its
skin is infested. The sight of the bird being much more acute
than that of the buffalo, it is soon alarmed by the approach of
any danger ; and when it flies up, the buffalos instantly raise
their heads to discover the cause which has led to the sudden
flight of their companion.

The smaller monkeys of the tropical forests of America are
fond of associating with their more powerful congeners, in whose
friendly assistance they find a compensation for their own weak-
ness. Thus the saimiri clings to the back of the maquisapa,

B B 2

8712 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE. '

who, at the beginning of their acquaintance, endeavours to shake
off his burden ; but, finding it impossible, soon learns to love his
companion, so that, when the saimiri is busy chasing insects, his
friend, before leaving the spot, first gives him notice by a
gentle cry.

A still more remarkably disinterested friendship is sometimes
found to unite quadrupeds belonging to different families. There
are many examples of lions having spared the life of dogs that
had been thrown into their dens for food, and of the strongest
affection having been formed between them. One of these
couples existed a few years ago in the Zoological Gardens at
Antwerp, and it was most interesting to see the mighty African
throwing himself on his back, and playfully tossing his tiny
friend between his enormous paws. The dog — a regular spoilt
child — frequently plagued his mighty comrade, though without
ever making him impatient or angry.

Even the breast of the tiger has been known to expand to
the genial influence of friendship, and to entertain feelings
supposed to be totally alien to its nature. Captain White, the
commander of an English merchantman, having been presented
with a tigress, during a voyage to Cambodia, used to feed her
every day with a live dog. After playing some time with its
victim, as the cat with a mouse, the tigress, seizing it by the
neck, divided the arteries, and walked up and down, lashing with
its tail, and holding it in its mouth while sucking the blood.
One day a young dog was thrown into the cage, who, pos-
sessed of a more than common courage, and resolved not to
submit quietly to his fate, jumped up to the tigress, and bit her
in the nose. An instant death might have been expected to be
the punishment of this audacity ; but the impotent fury of the
little dog seemed to please the formidable brute, who, gently
warding off the attack, endeavoured by her caresses to gain the
confidence of her pigmy adversary. In a short time friendship
was established, and the two became inseparable.

The instinctive attachment of the domestic animals to man
is of the highest importance to his welfare, as otherwise they
would hardly have so patiently submitted to bis yoke, or so
willingly obeyed his commands. How could he have tamed them?
How could he have trusted them, if they had not been impelled
by their nature to seek his company — to become, not his unwil-

THE AFFECTIONS OF BRUTES. 373

ling slaves, but his grateful and affectionate servants ? Hence
there can be no doubt that this feeling has been implanted in
them with a view to his benefit, for their services are all the
more valuable for being cheerfully rendered. The dog is pre-
eminent for this inborn attachment to man. In South America
there are numerous wild dogs that have enjoyed the liberty of
the savannah for several centuries ; they descend from European
dogs, and have multiplied in the wilderness, where they roam
about like beasts of prey. In the East, particularly in Egypt,
there are also many masterless dogs, almost equally savage ; but
in both places these wild dogs, -when caught, and treated with
kindness, soon become tame, and as attached to their masters as
those dogs which have been the trusty companions of man
through a long series of generations. A similar affection is
testified by the horse ; and even the poor ass is not only a pattern
of submissive meekness, but is susceptible of great attachment
towards his master, whom it will scent at a considerable dis-
tance, distinguish in the midst of a crowd, and faithfully
follow.

But besides the animals which are particularly formed to
be the companions of man, even the wild denizens of the forest,
whom he has deprived of their liberty, soon grow attached
to his rule when treated with humanity and kindness. Many
instances of the attachment of lions and other carnivorous
animals to their keepers might be cited, and it is very much
to be doubted whether any mammalian exists of so ferocious
or so stubborn a nature as to be totally untameable.

Quadrupeds, being thus open to friendship, may also naturally
be expected to display the sentiments of parental, filial, and con-
nubial affection. Monkeys are peculiarly fond of their young ;
they tend and watch them in the most singular manner, arid
appear to pursue a plan both as to their nurture and educa-
tion, often severely correcting them if stubborn or disinclined
to profit by their example.

The ice-bear, the dread and terror of all other animals
that come within its reach, is remarkable for the strength
of its parental affection; and this same passion inspires the
most timid ruminants in the hour of danger with an almost pre-
ternatural courage. Then the hind forgets her usual caution
in the resolute defence of her offspring, and boldy confronts the

374 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

hunter for the purpose of diverting his attention from her
young ; then the she-buffalo will rush at the tiger, and baffle
the monster by the fury of her onset.

The marine tribes are no less distinguished for parental
affection than the land quadrupeds. The females of the Arctic
walrus, if attacked on the ice, always first secure the safety of
their young by casting them into the sea, and then, return-
ing to their enemy, give vent to their rage. The Greenland
whale is extremely attached to her young, and often rushes into
the most imminent danger, and even upon certain death, to
rescue or defend it. The whalers take advantage of this affec-
tionate attachment, and strike with the harpoon the young
whale, quite sure that the mother will before long approach for
the purpose of saving her offspring, but too frequently, in fact,
to perish with it.

The affection of the female opossum and of the other mar-
supial quadrupeds is aided by the pouch which Nature has so
curiously contrived within herself. Here the young — which,
when first born, are in a very undeveloped state, being minute,
blind, naked, and shapeless — remain constantly adhering to the
teats, which their mouth is just large enough to embrace, for
fifty days, until they have attained the size of a mouse, at
which period their eyes are opened, and their bodies are covered
with hair. They may now be seen venturing occasionally from
their hiding-place, which, however, still continues to afford
them nourishment and shelter; there they find a warm bed
during the cold nights ; there, when they are hungry and thirsty,
they seek the sources of refreshment ; there they fly, as into a
harbour of refuge, at the least apprehension of danger.
. Our admiration increases when we come to examine more
closely the beautiful harmony between the structure of the
mother and that of her new-born offspring — a harmony designed
with especial reference to each other's peculiar condition, and
thus affording the most conclusive evidence of Creative fore-
sight.

Although the new-born opossum or kangaroo is enabled by
the muscular power of its lips to grasp and adhere firmly to the
nipple, it seems to be unable to draw sustenance therefrom by
its own unaided efforts. The mother is therefore provided with
the peculiar adaptation of a muscle to the mammary gland, for

MAESUPIALS AND THEIR YOUNG. 375

the evident purpose of injecting the milk from the nipple into
the mouth of the adherent foetus. But, as it can scarcely be
supposed that the efforts of suction should always coincide with
the maternal act of injection, and thus suffocation might easily
ensue unless the aperture of the windpipe were guarded by
some special contrivance, we find the latter projecting, as in
the cetaceans, into the nasal cavity, where it is closely em-
braced by the muscles of the soft palate. The air-passage being
thus completely separated from the fauces, the injected milk
passes in a divided stream on either side the windpipe to the
gullet ; and the little creature breathes and sucks at the same
time, without one of these vital functions ever interfering with
the other !

A circumstance well worthy of remark is, that in the animals
parental affection and filial attachment last no longer than the
necessity of maternal care. As soon as the young are able to
provide for themselves, as soon as they can play their part in
the world without any further assistance, repulsive coldness, or
even enmity, takes the place of former tenderness, and creatures
until then inseparable depart from each other as perfect
strangers. This limited extent of animal feeling is in perfect
harmony with the limited sphere of animal existence.

The services which the quadrupeds render to man are of
such paramount importance that without their assistance he
never could have become a civilised being. As the existence
of the animals in general depends upon that of the vegetable
kingdom, and as among the animals each higher grade of
organisation rests upon the foundation of an inferior type, so
without the possession of his domestic cattle, man could never
have risen to the superior rank he occupies among the denizens
of the earth. In fact, they are almost as essential to the per-
fection of his being as his reason itself, as without them he
never could have developed his rational faculties; and thus
there can be no doubt that they have been specially formed for
his service. What would agriculture be without the horse or
the ox ? and what would England be without agriculture ? — the
dwelling-place of a few skin-clad barbarians !

In many countries the very existence of man depends upon
the possession of a single mammalian. The Bedouin cannot be
thought of without the dromedary, or the Samoyede without the

376 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

reindeer ; the life of the Eskimo is bound to that of the seal
or the walrus, and the Indian hunter would disappear from the
face of the earth if the deer were no longer to range the forest,
or the bison to scour the boundless prairie. The chase of the
whale, of the seals, and of several other animals, not only plays
an important part in the annals of commerce but forms a con-
spicuous feature in the history of the human race, as it has
influenced the destiny of numerous nations, and contributed
more than anything else to bring the remotest parts of the
earth within the influence of European civilisation. The sable
was the magnet which led the Eussians from Siberia to Kamt-
schatka, and the still more valuable sea-otter conducted them
to the Aleiitic chain, and to the opposite coast of America, as
the seal attracted them to the desolate solitudes of the Sea of
Behring. The English and American whalers have followed
the huge cetaceans both into the icy channels of Baffin's Bay
and the Antarctic Ocean ; and it is highly probable that, but
for the sperm-whale, the South Sea islanders would have re-
mained until now in total seclusion from the rest of mankind.
Thus Providence has made use of a few animals as the in-
struments for extending the intellectual horizon of man, and
for rendering the most inhospitable countries tributary to his
wants !

As the mammalia are his nearest relations, in a physical
point of view, they are also endowed with an intelligence
superior to that of the other animals, and not seldom prompting
them to actions which seem rather to belong to the sphere of
reason than to that of brutal instinct. The chimpanzee, for
instance, will lock and unlock a door or drawer, will thread any
needle, and cannot be taken in by the same thing twice.

A dog in a monastery, perceiving that the monks received
their meals by rapping at a buttery-door, contrived to do so like-
wise, and, when the allowance was pushed through, and the door
shut, ran off with it. This was repeated till the theft was detected.

Another dog, belonging to Mr. Taylor, a clergyman who lived
at Colton, near Wolseley Bridge, was accused of killing many
sheep. Complaints were made to his master, who asserted that
the thing was impossible, because he was muzzled every night.
The neighbours persisting in the charge, the dog one night was
watched, and he was seen to draw his neck out of the muzzle,

SAGACITY OF THE HORSE. 377

then to go into a field and eat as much of a sheep as satisfied
his appetite. He next went into the river to wash his mouth,
and returned afterwards to his kennel, put his head into the
muzzle again, and lay very quietly down to sleep.

Mr. Morand, a surgeon in Paris, had taken into his house
the dog of a friend which had broken its leg, and good-
naturedly cured it. Some time after, this dog scratched at the
door of Mr. Morand's study, and, on being admitted, introduced
another dog, to whom the same accident had happened, and who
could hardly crawl along after his guide. The first dog plainly
showed by his caresses what he wanted, and the surgeon, admiring
his sagacity, took charge of his protege and cured him likewise.

Whole volumes might be filled with similar well-authenticated
instances of the dog's intelligence ; and it is surely not one of
the least interesting Harmonies of Nature that the animal which,
by its courage, fidelity, attachment, and obedience, is most
fitted to be the companion of man should also have been gifted
with a sagacity necessary to give their full value to all its other
qualities. The ox is able to perform his patient duties without
any great display of intelligence; docility and obedience, in
addition to considerable muscular strength, were all the qualities
he required to play his part among our household animals ;
while the nobler horse, destined for more brilliant though not
more useful services, has been endowed with a sagacity very
superior to that which has been allotted to the bovine races.
His courage, strength, and fleetness, his symmetrical form and
grandeur of deportment, are unalloyed by any quality injurious
to other creatures, or calculated to create the aversion of man,
whose orders he implicitly obeys, whose severest tasks he under-
takes with a cheerful alacrity, and to whose pleasures he con-
tributes with animation and delight. He understands the
words and the signs of his rider ; he knows exactly the road
he has once travelled, and is able to find his way home through
the darkness of the night. Like the dog, he is sensible of praise
or reproof, and is filled with a generous emulation to vanquish
his competitors in the race. Nor is this all, for, when called to
bear our warriors to the battlefield, nothing can exceed his
martial ardour. 6 His neck is clothed with thunder ; the glory
of his .nostrils is terrible ; he paweth the valley, and rejoiceth
in his strength; he goeth on to meet the armed men; he

378 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

mocketh at danger, and is not affrighted, neither turneth he
back from the sword.'

As the elephant surpasses all that breathes on dry land in
bulk and muscular power, his mental faculties also assign to him
one of the first places in the animal creation. When tamed he
becomes the most gentle and obedient of all domestic quadru-
peds, and in most cases is exceedingly fond of his keeper, and
soon learns to distinguish the various tones of the human voice,
as expressive of anger, approbation, or command. His strength
is rendered doubly serviceable to man by the intelligence he
evinces in its use. He will load a boat with amazing dexterity,
carefully keeping all the articles dry, and disposing them where
they ought to be placed. In propelling wheel-carriages heavily
laden up a declivity, he pushes them forward with his forehead
and supports them with his knees.

In Ceylon, where the elephants are frequently employed in
dragging and piling felled timber, they manifest an intelligence
and dexterity which is surprising to a stranger, because the
sameness of the operation enables them to go on for hours dis-
posing of log after log, almost without a hint or direction from
their overseers. Sir E. Tennent mentions two elephants thus
employed in the yards attached to the Commissariat Stores at
Colombo, who accomplished their work with equal precision
and with greater rapidity than if it had been accomplished by
dock-labourers. When the pile attained a certain height, and
they were no longer able by their conjoint efforts to raise one
of the heavy logs of ebony to the summit, they had been taught
to lean two pieces against the heap, up the inclined plane of
which they gently rolled the remaining logs and placed them
trimly on the top.

The docility of the elephant is all the more surprising, as he
is always originally the freeborn son of the forest (for he never
propagates in a state of captivity), and is often advanced in
years before being obliged to change the independence of the
woods for the yoke of thraldom ; while the dog has been the
companion of man through many ages, and the acquired habits
of successive generations have gradually moulded his physical
and moral type to domesticity. What services might not be
expected from an animal so sagacious as the elephant, were we
able to train the species as we do the individual !

WINTER SLEEP OF ANIMALS. 379

The mammalia are protected in various ways against the
severe winter of the higher latitudes. Although they cannot,
like the birds, exchange in a few days the chilly north for the
mildness of a southern sky, yet many of them wander at the
approach of the dreary season of cold and famine to a more
hospitable clime. Then the musk-ox leaves the naked barren
grounds of Arctic America for the less inclement forests ; and
the wild reindeer quits the flat coasts of the Polar Sea, where the
mosses of the tundra provided him with his summer food, to seek
in the thick pinewoods of Siberia a better shelter against the
terrible blasts of the snowstorm.

Other quadrupeds fly from the winter into caverns or burrows,
where they partly live upon the provisions which an admirable
instinct taught them to collect during the summer, and partly
fall into a profound sleep, from which they only awaken at the
return of spring.

What would become of the slow marmot during the winter,
when Alpine vegetation lies buried under a thick bed of snow,
if bounteous Providence had not protected it by a deep lethargy
both against the pangs of hunger (for its scanty pasture-grounds
can only provide for the summer) and the attacks of the
numerous enemies to whom it would infallibly have fallen a
prey if obliged to migrate from its mountain solitudes?
In early autumn it begins to excavate its winter dwelling,
into which it retires with its whole family after the first snow-
fall; and, after having closed the opening from within with
stones, earth, and moss, lies down for its long rest of many
months.

By a most admirable ordination of Providence its life is now
reduced to the lowest ebb, that it may be preserved from total
extinction. Its respiration becomes so slow that, during its six
months of sleep, it draws its breath less frequently than during
two days of its active existence, so that the fat which, during
the abundance of summer, had collected upon its bones, suffices
to keep up the glimmering spark of life. The palpitation of
the heart is scarcely perceptible ; the temperature of the body
sinks to a few degrees above the freezing-point; the limbs are
stiff, and almost totally insensible to injury.

Thus in their deep burrows, imbedded in soft hay, the
marmots remain from October to the end of April, when they

380 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

are awakened from tlieir torpidity by the warm sun of spring.
But who tells them in their nightly caverns that the snow has
disappeared from the turf where they spent a summer of en-
joyment? How do they know that it is now time to exchange
darkness for light, and that the aromatic Alpine herbs — their
delightsome food — are once more clothing the mountain-ledge
with verdure ? Their awakening at the right time from their
lethargy is as wonderful as their faculty of falling into that
deep sleep which carries them so softly over the dreary winter,
and changes distress and want into repose and ease. Though
buried for months under the snow, winter is to them an un-
known season, and, like the animals of warmer climates, their
whole active life is spent in pleasure and abundance. Thus
Providence has consulted not only their safety but their happi-
ness ; and indeed, on examining the whole series of the quad-
rupeds, we shall find that the chequered scene of their existence
inclines to the sunny side.

The sloth, clinging to his branch, will express his satisfaction
for hours together by a kind of purring ; and even the bats—
the emblems of melancholy — may frequently be seen chasing
each other in some secluded spot, and merrily piping during
their playful evolutions.

The sprightliness of the dolphin is proverbial, and has fre-
quently been celebrated by both ancient and modern poets.
His lively troops often accompany, for days together, the track
of a ship, and agreeably interrupt the monotony of a long sea-
voyage. As if in mockery of the most rapid sailer, they shoot
past so as to vanish from the eye, and then return again with
the same lightninglike velocity. Their spirits are so brisk that
they frequently leap into the air, as if longing to enjoy them-
selves in a lighter fluid.

The leviathan cetaceans likewise love to indulge in sportive
humours. A crowd of gregarious sperm-whales may be seen
gambolling about on the vast wastes of the Pacific as lightly
as the dolphin in the more confined waters of the Medi-
terranean. They will often swim in long lines, rhythmically
sinking and rising as they rapidly proceed in their undu-
lating course, or bask and sleep upon the surface, spouting
leisurely, and exhibiting every indication of being at home.
Sometimes a peculiarly high-spirited individual will jump out

HAPPINESS OF THE BKUTE CREATION. 381

of the water and remain suspended for a moment in the air, as
if desirous of exhibiting his colossal size to the astonished sea-
birds. On falling back again into his congenial element, high
foam- crested fountains spout forth on all sides, and great
waves spread in widening circles over the sea. Or else he
raises his bulky head vertically on high, so that the deceived
mariner fancies he sees some black rock looming out of the
distant waters. But suddenly the fancied cliff begins to
move, and brandishes .playfully its enormous flukes in the
air, or lashes the waters with such prodigious power that the
sound rolls far away like thunder over the deserts of the ocean.

On the icy shores of Spitzbergen, the walrus bellows with
delight while basking in the sun, and the sea-caves of Orcadia
frequently resound with the joyful bark of the seal. On
ascending from the banks of the ocean to the Alpine snows,
we meet with similar expressions of happiness among the
brute creation. There the timid marmot is seen playing
with his comrades ; and there, amidst precipices almost inac-
cessible to man, the chamois sportively push each other with their
horns, or gambol about, revelling in their mountain liberty.

In one word, wherever we roam over the surface of the globe,
we find that in their wild state the quadrupeds are in the
enjoyment of a large share of happiness. They have indeed
frequently to suffer from illness, privation, or the persecutions
of their enemies, for no created being is exempt from pain ;
but much more frequently they enjoy the present without being
troubled, like man, either by cares for the future, or the remem-
brance of the past. It is only in the domesticated state that the
life of many a poor horse or dog is an uninterrupted chain of
misery, to the shame of his barbarous master. When will at
length the reign of justice begin also for the animals ? When
will the precepts of our Divine Eedeemer be so universally and
deeply engrafted in the breast of man, that he will learn not
only to love his brother but to extend his charity to every
creature dependent on his power ?

382 THE HAEMONIES OF NATURE.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

MAN.

Pre-eminence of Man — His Greatness and his Weakness — The Brain of Man — Tho
Telegraphic System of the Nerves — The Optic Nerve — The Organs of Hearing,
Taste, Smelling, and Touch — Spinal Nerves — Motile Nerves — Sympathetic
Nerves — The Human Hand — Its Harmony with the Intellectual Faculties of
Man — Differences in the Limbs of the Ape and Man — Man's Upright Walk —
His Privileges and his Duties.

THE star-spangled heavens, the brilliant sun, the magnificent
ocean with its constantly-returning tides, the numberless plants
which ornament our earth, and the vast hosts of animals that
find their subsistence upon her teeming surface, are all most
splendid monuments of the Creator's power ; but, as far as we
are able to probe the secrets of the universe, Man is beyond all
doubt the most wonderful, the most perfect of His works. For
the stars wander through the heavens unconscious of their own
magnificence ; the sun knows not that but for him countless
beings would sink into night and death; the ocean is blind
to the majesty of his rolling waves, and deaf to their awful
music ; the flower spreads its sweet odours, or enrobes itself in
every hue of the rainbow without any conception of its loveli-
ness ; the animal's feelings are confined to the present moment
with its joys or sorrows: but the eye of man darts into the
boundless future and the illimitable past, and the vast range of
his mind embraces the universe, and rises from the visible world
to the throne of the invisible God — from whose unspeakable
goodness, wisdom, and power all those stupendous works have
emanated ! And it is not only the infinite external world that
lies open to the mind of man ; he also penetrates into the mys-
teries of his own being, watches attentively all the movements
of his soul, and carries in himself the judge of all his actions,
thoughts, and sensations.

THE HUMAN BEAIN. 383

A wonderful organ — the brain — is the seat or the instrument
of the astonishing mental faculties of man, the link or mediator
between our body and our soul, between the material and the
immaterial, the external and the internal world. Here resides
our memory, which so marvellously resuscitates the past ; our
fancy, whose constantly-changing pictures enliven and beautify
our life; our judgment, which penetrates the mysteries of
Nature, and weighs causes and effects ; our sensibility, with its
multifarious passions and feelings ; our will, whose commands
flash with electric speed through our whole body, or oppose a
strong barrier to our inclinations.

How small is our brain, and yet how immense the sphere of
its activity ! How many thoughts and pictures, and resolutions
and sensations, cross it in the space of a single day ! And as on
the bosom of the sea, sunshine and shade, and storms and calms,
are perpetually alternating, thus also this restless organ, in which
so many divine powers and noble aspirations are blended with
so many base desires, is the scene of perpetual changes !

And how various its scope and bias in different individuals :
in the assassin, planning his midnight murder, so that the blow
may not recoil upon himself; or in a Newton, meditating on the
laws that govern worlds ; in the sober man of business, who
carefully shuts out all fancy from his reasonings ; or in the
poet —

Whose eye in a fine frenzy rolling,

Glances from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven !

Who can paint the happiness, the bliss, that finds room in the
little human brain; or the nameless sorrow, the comfortless
despair, which there takes up its abode ?

An organ so wonderfully gifted for the extremes of light and
shade may well be called a little world in itself; but as the most
costly vases are most liable to injury, thus also a trifle suffices
to destroy the faculties of this masterpiece of creation. Whilo
wafted along by the full-tide of his successful ambition, or soar-
ing aloft in the highest flight of his fancy, or plunged in his
deepest meditations, or fascinating his hearers by the noblest flow
of his eloquence — the statesman, the poet, the philosopher, the
orator, is suddenly struck with apoplexy; and that masterly
policy, that blooming imagination, that profound wisdom, that?

384 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

sublime power of speech, which raised their gifted possessors so
high above the vulgar crowd, are blotted out at once ; for
though death may delay to strike its victim, yet the mental
powers are generally laid low for ever, and the object of uni-
versal admiration or envy lives but to be pitied. Thus in the
brain, both the strength and the weakness of man appear in
their fullest light ; and, should his vast superiority over the
animal creation, his exalted position as lord of the earth, awaken
his pride, the rapidity with which an accident — a blow, a con-
cussion, the rupture of a bloodvessel — may precipitate him
from the pinnacle of his intellectual life may well teach him to
be humble.

We know with the utmost certainty that the brain is the seat,
the physical or material organ, of our intellectual faculties ;
but the internal mechanism of this admirable laboratory of
thought and feeling is totally unknown to us.

We know that from the fishes and reptiles upwards, through
the long series of birds and mammalian quadrupeds to man,
the brain increases in size and development with the growth of
intelligence, but science has not yet been able to sound the
depth of its recesses.

The knife of the anatomist shows us no remarkable difference
between the brain of the greatest and of the lowest of mankind ;
the chemist finds in every cerebral organ the same substances ;
and the microscope sees everywhere the same inextricable
labyrinth of delicate fibres and intermingled globules, that unite
and separate, and appear and disappear again in a formless
mass. In one word, the brain so well conceals its secrets
that their discovery seems totally impossible, and man may
perhaps sooner be able to fathom the structure of the universe
than that of the mysterious instrument of his own thoughts and
sensations.

Inclosed in a shell of solid bone, and thus shielded from many
dangers, the brain receives the impressions of the external
world, or reacts against them through the agency or channel
of the nerves — whose delicate filaments, ramifying through
the whole body, either transmit its orders or act as faithful
messengers of what is going on without. The nerves which
communicate external impressions to the brain are called sensi-
tive nerves, and of these the optic nerves command the widest

THE EYE OF MAN. 385

range of observation. Originating in the optic thalami, two
round eminences situated to the right and left at the basis of
the brain, they cross each other ; and then each of them, proceed-
ing to the eye for which it is destined, spreads out into a mem-
brane gifted with marvellous powers — a truly magical mirror,
which, assisted by the most wonderful optical contrivances, ex-
hibits to the mind a faithful picture of the external world in all
its infinite varieties of form and colour. On this small surface a
vast prospect reflects itself with photographic distinctness, and
our mind receives the impression, and translates immediately the
little picture into the vast reality, and steps, as it were, out of
its own frame into the wide space submitted to its view. The
charms of a splendid landscape, the magnificence of the ocean,
the awful grandeur of the heavens, may well strike us with
admiration ; but if custom had not made us too familiar with
the inexplicable wonders of our own organisation, we should
be no less enraptured with the amazing instrument which
thus wonderfully reveals to us the beauties of the external
world. What a surprising delicacy of sensation \ how perfect
a structure ! and how admirable the strength of the healthy
eye, before whose crystal mirror picture follows upon picture
for hours together, without its ever being fatigued, or losing
anything of the sharpness of its perceptions !

From another part of the basis of the brain proceed two other
nerves, differently though
no less admirably gifted.
These penetrate on each
side into a cavity of the
skull, forming the hard
solid case of a most cu-
riously-constructed appa-
ratus, which every vibra-
tion of the air sets into
a corresponding motion.
Here, in a bony struc-
ture very similar to a

, ,- . . Expansion of the Acoustic Nerve. (Magnified.)

snails shell, the innu-
merable filaments of the acoustic nerves expand into a spiral
membrane, which, stimulated by the vibrations of the sounding

cc

386 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

apparatus, instantly communicate the impressions they have
received with the most admirable precision to the brain.

While the optic nerve holds up to us the magic mirror in
which Nature appears in all her beauty, the auditive nerve
opens to our perception the wondrous realms of sound. The
undulating atmospherical vibrations produced by the voices of
a choral band, or by the instruments of an orchestra, strike its
delicate membranes and awaken musical sensations, which,
transmitted to the soul, attune it to joy or to sorrow, rouse
it to martial ardour, or exalt it to feelings of the deepest
piety.

In a similar manner the olfactory and gustative nerves,
proceeding from other parts of the brain, spread out like
pieces of tapestry over the nasal cavities, or over the surface
of the tongue and palate, and, stimulated by the smelling
gaseous particles that may be mingled with the air we respire,
or by the sapid liquid substances we swallow, communicate
their various impressions to the brain.

While the senses of vision, hearing, taste, or smell thus each
depend upon a single pair of nerves seated in the brain, and
confined to a comparatively narrow space, the sense of feeling
extends over the greater part of the body. The face, the mouth,
the nasal cavities feel by means of a pair of nerves proceeding,
like those already mentioned, immediately from the brain ; but
all the other sensitive nerves that ramify over the body, though
communicating with that central organ, first pass through the
spinal marrow, whose posterior columns they form, and which
runs like a thick cord from the brain downwards through the
spinal canal. From the spinal marrow they then emerge at
regular intervals in thirty-one pairs, which, branching out, each
supply a certain part of the body with the necessary power of
feeling external objects. In those parts where a greater nicety of
touch or acuteness of sensation is unnecessary, or would have been
more irksome than useful, the sensitive fibres are more thinly scat-
tered— as, for instance, on the back ; or they may even be entirely
wanting, as in many internal parts of the body. Their chief
distribution is in the skin, where they not only enable us to
distinguish many of the physical properties of external objects —
such as their degree of solidity, their weight, the soft or rugged
nature of their surface — but preserve us, moreover, like trusty

THE NERVES OF SENSATION,

387

sentinels, from countless injuries. For how many dreadful
wounds would be constantly ensuing if the sensation of pain
communicated by the cutaneous nerves to the brain did not
warn us to be careful, or teach us by repeated experiences to
guard our movements !

Thus the senses connect us in a truly marvellous manner with
the various phenomena of the external world ; but the brain is
meant to be not merely a recipient of sensations, but also to impel
our limbs to action; and. this highly important function is
likewise performed through the agency of peculiar nerves, which
partly emerge from various small orifices at the basis of the
skull, partly run through the spinal cord whose anterior columns
they form. From these their fibres emerge, in a similar manner
with the sensitive filaments, in thirty-
one pairs, which, soon after their emis-
sion, commingle with the corresponding
sensitive fibres, and form a compound
nerve, which distributes its branches
to the muscles, or to the integuments
of a part of the body or the limbs.
Thus each spinal nerve has two roots, a
sensitive and a motile one, and each
root is composed of a large number of
independent fibres. The sensitive fila-
ments, destined to lead impressions to
the brain, and utterly incapable of exe-
cuting its orders, chiefly terminate in
the skin; while the motile filaments,
destined to transmit commands from the
brain, and utterly insensible, terminate
exclusively in the muscles, which at their
bidding contract or relax their hold.

Thus each nervous filament has its
peculiar task to perform, and the salu-
tary effects of the division of labour
are nowhere more apparent than in the economy of our body.
What a dreadful confusion if the optic nerve, for instance,
had to be the mediator of feeling, or if the motile nerves
had to perform the functions of smelling or tasting !

c c 2

Origin of a Spinal Nerve.
(Magnified.)

A. Anterior root; P. posterior root ;
G. ganglion on the posterior roct ;
C. compound nerve resulting from
the commingling of the fibres
both roots.

of

388 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

But by the wisdom of Providence the optic nerve can only
see, the auditive nerve only hear, the sensitive nerve only feel,
the olfactory nerve only smell, the gustatorial nerve only taste,
the motile nerve only move ; and thus as each messenger has
only one thing to do, he cannot possibly interfere with the
work of his neighbour, and all goes on in the most beautiful
order.

Every nerve of our body is ultimately connected with the
brain, but not every nerve obeys its mandates, or communicates
to it distinct sensations. For all the vegetative functions of our
body, such as the digestive process, the circulation of the blood,
the secretions of the glands, are under the control of a peculiar
system of nerves, which, though connected with the brain, is in
a great measure independent of that central organ, and executes
its highly important task without our feeling it, or without our
being able to control its execution.

Thus, as long as we are in health, our digestion goes on with-
out our being aware of it; we cannot bid our heart to stand
still ; we breathe without paying any attention to the respiratory
process ; the liver and the kidneys secrete without our perceiving
their activity in the least. This is evidently a most bene-
ficial arrangement, for how could our mind have found time
or repose for reflection and mental improvement — how could
it properly have fixed its attention on the outer world, if
the brain, besides its actual tasks, had also been burdened with
the direction of our internal economy ?

But as soon as our organs become affected with disease, then
the slumbering sympathies of our brain are called forth ; then
sensations of pain, awakening in parts of whose existence we
have but a dim feeling, inform us that the wonderful mechanism
of our body is out of order, and claims repose or medical assist-
ance.

In spite of his vast mental superiority, man would have con-
stantly remained a most helpless and miserable creature if his
limbs, like those of the animals, had been merely made to serve
for motion, for climbing, or digging, or as offensive and defen-
sive weapons. But Providence, which gave man an intelligence
befitting him to be the master of the earth, could not possibly
have left him without the mechanical means necessary for
asserting his dominion ; and thus the anterior extremities, which

MAN AND THE APE COMPARED. 389

in the animals only serve for locomotion, or for the prehension
of food, or for aggressive or defensive purposes, have been raised
in his economy to be the instruments of higher purposes, and
formed so as to be able to execute the orders of a rational
j udgment.

The arms of the apes or anthropomorphous monkeys (as they
are termed in systematic phraseology) have indeed some resem-
blance to those of man ; but a closer inspection of their internal
structure soon brings to light a considerable difference. Thus
the lateral movements of the forearm, which produce the
pronation and supination of the hand, are far more confined
even in the highest apes, who are incapable of turning the palm
of their hand completely outwards, and of extending their thumb
to a considerable distance. The thumb of the human hand can
be brought into exact opposition to the extremities of all the
fingers, whether singly or in combination ; whilst in the apes the
thumb is so short, and the fingers so much elongated, that their
tips can scarcely be brought into opposition, and the thumb and
fingers are so weak that they can never be opposed to each
other with any degree of force. While man is able to move
each finger separately, those of the ape can only be bent or
extended conjointly, since the small flexor and extensor muscles
of the individual fingers existing in the human hand are either
entirely wanting or joined together. Hence, although admi-
rably adapted for clinging round bodies of a certain size, such
as the small branches of trees, the extremities of the apes can
neither seize very minute objects with such precision, nor sup-
port large ones with such firmness, as are essential to the dex-
terous performance of a variety of operations for which the
hand of man is beautifully formed.

His naked skin leaves man defenceless against the inclemen-
cies of the weather, against heat and wind ; but the dexterity
of his hand amply makes up for this deficiency, and spins and
weaves an immense variety of dresses, which it adorns, more-
over, with all the colours of the rainbow, so as to combine the
useful with the agreeable. His weak arm is incapable of coping
with the brutes of the forest, but with steady hand he hurls
the deadly arrow, or sends the far-reaching bullet through
the air. Though a very imperfect swimmer he overtakes all
the denizens of the ocean, pursues them into their remotest

390 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

haunts, strikes them with his harpoon, or entangles them in his
fatal net.

His hand is not fossorial, like that of the mole, but deep into
the bowels of the earth he sinks his shafts, and makes himself
master of her hidden treasures. With the spade and the
plough he loosens her surface, and forces her to pay him
the rich tribute of her harvests. In vain do rivers and moun-
tains throw their obstacles in his way — he spans his bridges
over the stream, or drives his tunnels through the rock. In
vain the deeply-rooting forest strives to take possession of the
soil — his sharp axe strikes the giants of the woods, and levels
them with the dust.

And the same hand which gives him such power over the
remainder of creation fixes upon the canvas all the beauties
of Nature with a truth of colouring equal to reality itself, trans-
forms a rough block of marble into the divine form of an Apollo,
or f wakes to ecstasy the living lyre.'

As the anterior extremities of man are adapted for prehension
alone, while the posterior limbs serve exclusively for support
and progression — an organisation which belongs to him alone —

thus also he is the only mammal
formed for an erect attitude.
His head rests upon his spinal
column in such a manner that
he can maintain it in an upright
position for a whole day with so
slight and involuntary an effort
that no fatigue is produced
by it, while that of the orang,

Human Skull. J . . . &'

havmg its centre of gravity in-
clining to the front, would require the constant action of mus-
cular power to keep it upright. The position of the face
immediately beneath the anterior portion of the cranial cavity,
so that its front is nearly in the same plane as the forehead, is
peculiarly characteristic of man; for, as we see in the adjoining
illustrations, the cranium of the orang is entirely posterior to
and not above the face. This projection of the apeish muzzle is
another evidence of want of adaptation to the erect posture,
whilst the want of prominence in the face of man shows that
none but the erect position can be natural to him. For, sup-

UPKIGHT WALK OP MAN.

391

Skull of the Orang-oetan.

posing that, with a head formed and situated as at present, he
were to move upon all-
fours, his face would then
be brought into a plane
parallel with the ground,
and as painful an effort
be required to examine
with the eyes an object
placed in front of the
body, as is now necessary
to keep the eyes fixed on
the zenith. Then also the
nose would be almost inca-
pacitated for receiving any
other odorous emanations
than those proceeding from
the earth, or from the body
itself, and the mouth could not touch the ground without
bringing the forehead and chin also in contact with it.

Though the apes are able to adapt the inclination of their
heads without much difficulty either to the horizontal or to
the erect posture, yet the natural position in the highest among
them is unquestionably one in which the spinal column is
inclined ; the body being partially thrown forward so as to rest
upon the anterior extremities, and in this position the face is
directed forwards without any effort.

The different formation of the pelvis in man, and in the apes
likewise, shows that, as the former has been made for an upright
walk, so the latter are condemned by nature to a grovelling
position ; for while in man it is peculiarly broad, and curving
forwards and upwards, so as to give a wide basis of support to
the abdominal viscera, it is much longer and narrower in the
apes. The human foot is, in proportion to the size of the whole
body, much larger, broader, and stronger than that of the ape ;
its short stiff toes enable it to plant itself more firmly on the
ground, and its sole is concave ; so that the whole weight of the
body falls on the summit of an arch, of which the heel-bone
and the middle part of the foot anterior to the toes form the
two points of support. This arched form of the foot and the
habitual contact of the heel-bone with the ground are peculiar

392 THE HARMONIES OF NATURE.

to man alone ; for all the apes have the heel-bone small, straight,
and more or less raised from the ground, which they touch,
when standing erect, with the outer side of the foot only. The
longer and more moveable feet and toes of the apes enable
them to serve as more efficient prehensile organs, but this
advantage is obtained at the cost of their capacity to sustain the
weight of the body when it simply rests upon them.

Many other anatomical details might be pointed out to show
how man's superiority of mind has been made to harmonise
with its material instruments, while the structure of the ape
corresponds with this animal's inferior intelligence ; but, not to
fatigue the reader with what might be considered a superfluous
minuteness, I shall merely mention how strikingly the vast
difference between the two shows itself in the muscular appa-
ratus of the face. In man we find a number of distinct and
separately moveable facial muscles, which, by their infinite
variety of action, are able to give a rapid and faithful picture
of all the various emotions that cross the soul, even as the sur-
face of the sea reflects each passing cloud ; while in the ape the
facial muscles, being far less individualised, are restricted to
the gnashing of the teeth, or to the pointing and shutting of
the mouth ; so that the animal is only able to cut a few dis-
gusting grimaces, while numberless shades of passion, emotion,
and thought are all mirrored in the expressive countenance of
man!

Thus we see a deep chasm separating our race even from
those animals which approach it the nearest in their outward
form ; for though the ape is undoubtedly capable of short and
simple processes of reasoning or of imagination, yet the range
of his intelligence is poor indeed when compared with that of
the human mind.

Man alone of all created beings earnestly pursues a higher
aim ; he alone possesses an innate moral law ; he alone is capable
of self-improvement, and preserves his intellectual conquests for
the benefit of his posterity ; he alone rises from this material
earth into the immaterial regions of the spiritual world ; he alone
has the consciousness of a future state ! And for what purpose
have these eminent faculties been awarded to man ? Why has
the vista of a brighter futurity been thus opened to his gaze ?
Is he to rest satisfied with merely providing for his bodily

THE AIMS OF HUMAN EXISTENCE. 393

wants ? Then, indeed, the animals of the field are far better off
than he, for they are able to find their food with far less trouble,
and know no care for the morrow.

But no ; the nobler faculties of man evidently point out to
him a more exalted path and higher duties. Self-improve-
ment, self-ennoblement, emancipation from the bonds of sensu-
ality and egotism — these must be the chief aims of his existence,
and prepare him for that more perfect state of being of which
he bears the promise in his breast, and which has been re-
vealed to him by the Divinity itself !

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INDEX.

AAR

A ARDVAKKS, their burrows, 325
JJL Acacia latronum, or buffalo thorn,
thorns of the, 68

— tomentosa, jungle-nails of the, 68
Acalephse, or jelly-fishes, 125

— their internal structure, 126

— their mode of progression, 127

— alternations of their generations, 127

— ciliograde jelly-fishes, 128
their fishing apparatus, 129

— tubular acalephse, 129

— importance of acalephse in the eco-

nomy of the ocean, 131
Acorn-shells, structure of, 175

their habits, 176

Actinia Alcyonoidea, 117

Adelsberg, cave of, crustaceans of the,

183
Aerolithes, 5

— enormous number of, 6

— substances of which they are com-

posed, 6

Africa, roots of plants of South, 56
Agalma Okenii, 129
Air, the atmospheric ocean, 16

— its component parts, 16

— constancy in its component parts, 16

— its purity maintained by the winds,

17

— dependence of all terrestrial life upon
the actual constitution of the air, 18

— atmospheric air but a mixture, 19

— no chemical combination of oxygen

and nitrogen, 19

— transparency of the air, 19

— its influence upon the mental deve-

lopment of mankind, 19

— air considered as the bearer of sounds,

19

— the atmospheric precipitations in

their relation to organic nature, 27

— harmonies of the ocean and the at-

mosphere, 27

Albatross, his prodigious flight, 287
Aldebaran, constituents of the atmo-
sphere of, 8
Alluvial plains, formation of, 38, 39

AVO

Alpine-flea, 183
Alps, lavines of the, 33

— their importance to the verdure of the

Alps, 34

— glaciers of the Alps, 34
Amaryllis, origin of the, in Europe, 91
Ammophila arundinacea, or sand-reed,

its singular roots, 56
Amoeba, the, 102
Anabas, respiration of, 261
Angler-fish, its mode of taking its prey,

263

Anguis fragilis, its hybernation, 282
Animals, importance of oxygen to the

life of, 16, 17

— antagonism between animal and vege-

table life, 17
Annelida, 166

— See Worms

Anolis, locomotion of the, 273
Ant-bear, tail of the, 337

— his masticatory organ s, 339

— his means of defence, 360
Ant-lion, larvae of the, 212
Ants, instincts of, 231

— their nests, 231
Apple, maggot of the, 219
Aquarium, an, 17
Aquatic insects, 199
Archer-fishes, their mode of taking their

prey, 263

Arctic regions, vegetables and animals
of the, 33

— influence of the snows of the, 33, 64
Armadillos, their burrows, 325

— their armour, 368

Ascidise, solitary and compound, 145,

146
Asteroidea, 132

— snake-stars, 133

— star-fishes, 134

Astronomy, first step to the science of, 2

— knowledge of the Greeks, 3

— form and dimensions of the earth, 3

— the planetary system, 3
Ateuchus sacer, or sacred beetle, 221
Avoset, bill of the, 296

396

INDEX.

BAN

CHE

BAND-WOKM, the gigantic, 171
Banyan tree, the roots of the, 60
Barnacles, structure of, 175
Bat, formation of the, 321

— its wings, 321

— its cheek-pouches, 322

— its tongue, 349

— its flying membrane, 354

— organs of smell, 354

— their caution, 358

Baya sparrow, nest of the, 307

Beaks of birds, 293

Bear, dentition of the, 340, 341

— his weapons of aggression and de-

fence, 356

— parental affection of the ice-bear, 373
Beaver, formation of the, 320

— its burrows, 363

— and lodges, 364

Bee, domestic economy of the, 231
Birds, 286

— their wings and rapidity of flight,

286, 287

— their organization for aerial life, 287

— quill feathers and their uses, 288

— internal structure of birds, 289

— their beautiful colours, 220

— their legs, 290

— waders, 291

— swimmers, 292

— raptorial birds, 292

— perchers, 293

— beaks of birds, 293

— their tongues, 297

— their digestive apparatus, 299
the crop, 299

the gizzard, 299

— their strength of vision, 300

— their uses in creation, 301

— their enemies, 302

— their nests, 302

— their heroism in defending their

nests, 312

— their artifices in diverting the atten-

tion of their enemies, 313

— their memory and intelligence, 314

— their migratory instinct, 315
Birgus latro, its mode of obtaining its

food, 185
Bison, its strength and swiftness, 326

— its acuteness of smell, 352

— danger to be apprehended from him,

359
Blossoms, 79

— their functions, 80

Boas, their colossal strength, 277
Boatbill, beak of the, 296
Bombardier-beetles, their defences, 208
Botrylli, 146

Bovista gigantea, its marvellously rapid
growth, 51

Brachinus crepitans, its means of de-
fence, 208
Brachiopoda, 149

Buenos Ayres, thistle forests of, 91
Buffalo African, its bird guardian, 371

— East Indian, his attack of the

tiger, 358

Buffalo-thorn, spikes of the, 68
Bunsen and Kirchhof, their discoveries
of the constituents of the solar atmo-
sphere and of the sun's central orb, 6
Burrowing rodents, 362

— other burrowers, 363, 379
Butterfly, wing of a, under the micro-
scope, 202

— its defence, 203

Buzzard, his instinct in attacking snakes,

284
Byssus, the, 150

riADDICE-WOBMS, their means of
Ij defence, 209
Calyx of a plant, 79
Camel, stomach of the, 347

— his water-cells, 347

Carbonic acid, its importance to the life
of plants, 17

— immense quantities of, in the early

ages of the world, 42
Carnivora, teeth of, 340
Carpenter-bees, their nests, 227
Caryota horrida, formidable thorns of

the, 68

Cassida viridis, its defence against ene-
mies, 205

Cassique, nest of the, 305
Cat, dentition of the, 341

— whiskers of the, 353
Caterpillars, their modes of defence,

207, 208

Cayman, its maternal affection, 280
Cephalopoda, their mode of taking their

prey, 164

Cereals, origin of the, 91
Cetaceans, tails of the, 336, 357

— their happiness, 380

Ceylon, natural fortifications of thorn-
trees in, 69

Chaetodons, their mode of taking their
prey, 263

Chaffinch, its nest, 304

Chameleon, its mode of locomotion, 273

— its tongue, 275

— its facility of changing colour, 275

— its eyes, 276

Chamois, agility of the, 328, 369

— its sole-pads, 334

— its sense of smell, 352
Chartergus nidulans, nest of, 230
Cheek -pouches of mammalia, 350

INDEX.

397

CHE

Cheese-maggots, their jumping powers,

198

Chelonians, their means of defence, 268
Cimex griseus, its parental affection,

225

Cinnamon-tree, 70
Cirripeda, 175
Click-beetles, 199

Climate, causes of the varieties of, 40
Climbing perch, respiration of the, 261
Climbing plants of the tropical forests,

58

— stems of, 66

— their various modes of attachment,

66

Clio, its conical appendages of the head,
160

— its dental apparatus, 161
Clothes-moth, the, 211
Clouds, formation of, 31

Coal, conditions of the earth under which
the formation of, took place, 42, 44

— character of the vegetable life of

which the coal-fields consist, 42

— space of time required for the forma-

tion of the coal-fields, 43

— thickness of the coal-bearing strata

and of the carboniferous system,
43, 44

— faults in coal-strata, and their advan-

tages and disadvantages, 44, 45
Cockchafer, alimentary canal of the,

197

Cockle, the common, 150
Cocoa-nut tree, roots of the, 57
Conchifera, or bivalve shell-fish, 149

— nervous system of, 153

— their food, 154

Condor, his prodigious flight, 287
Copernicus, his discovery of the rotation

of the earth, 4

Coral islands, formation of, 122
Corals, 120
Corolla of a plant, 79
Cotton, filaments of, 86
Cow- tree of Guiana, 70
Crabs, feet of, 178

— their moulting process, 180

— their faculty of reproducing lost

limbs, 181

— changes of crabs, 182
larva of the crab, 182

— land-crabs, 183

— their food, 184

— their enemies and means of defence,

184

— Birgus latro, 185

— hermit-crabs, or paguri, 186

— instinct of crabs, 187
Creeping plants of the desert, 57

— stems of, 66

EAR

Crocodile, tongue of the, 276
— , its means of swimming, 276
Crops of birds, 299
Crossbill, beak of the, 296
Crow, beak of the, 294
Crustaceans, 175

— barnacles, 175

— acorn- shells, 175

— edriophthalmia, 177

— thoracostraca, 177

stomatopoda, 177

decapoda, 177

— legs of crustaceans, 178

— their digestive apparatus, 179

— their moulting processes, 180

— their food, 184

— their enemies, 184

— their means of attack and defence,

184

— their modes of escaping attacks, 186

— their instincts, 187
Cuckoo, instincts of the, 311
Curculio nebulosus, defence of the, 205
Cuttle-fish, 161

— its sucking disks, 162
Cyami, or whale-lice, 177

— claws of the, 179
Cydippe, 128

DECAPODA, arms and tentacles of
the, 163

— their structure, 177

— their branchial apparatus, 178
Deer, structure of the, 326
Deirodon, vertebral teeth of the, 279
Desmidiacese, the, 97

Dew, causes of, 30

Diatomacese, the, 98

Dionea muscipula, or Venus's fly-trap,

sensibility of the leaves of, 75
Diphyes campanulifera, 129
Dog, sense of smell of the, 352

— his affection for man, 373

— his intelligence, 376
Dolphin, playfulness of the, 380
Dromiae, means of defence of the, 185
Duckbill, burrow of the, 366
Dugong, fins of the, 319
Dung-beetles, instincts of, 220

— their intelligence, 222
Dytiscidae, or water-beetles, legs of the,

199

EARTH, its form and dimensions, 2, 3
_ — Copernicus's discovery of its rota-
tion round the sun, 4
— dependence of terrestrial life on the
actual distance of the earth from
the sun, 12

398

DsTDEX.

EAR

Earth — continued .

— relations of the various bodies to

heat, 13

— dependence of all terrestrial life upon

the actual constitution of the atmo-
sphere, 18

— the harmonies between the physical

constitution of the earth and its in-
habitants, 37

— effects of water and fire on the earth, 37

— formation of alluvial plains, 39

— beneficial effects of the inequalities

of the earth's surface, 39, 40

— importance of the actual distribution

of sea and land to the present con-
dition of organic life, 40

— gradual and constant progression

from inferior to more perfect forms
of life shown by the petnfactions in
the earth, 41

— the coal-forming ages, 42, 43

— preparation of the earth for the re-

ception of man, 42

— awful silence of the earth during the

coal-forming ages, 43

— time required for the formation of

the coal-fields, 43

— wise distribution of the fruits of the

earth, 48

— influence of the mangrove in the for-

mation of tropical delta-lands, 59
Earth-worms, 170

— their services to man, 170
Earwig, its parental affection, 225
Echinodermata, 132

— primeval sea-stars, 132

— feather-stars, 132

— snake-stars, 133

— sand-stars, 133

— star-fishes, 134

— echinus, or sea-urchin, 137

— sea-cucumbers, 139

— metamorphoses of the echinoderms,

139
Echinus, or sea-urchin, 137

— structure of its shell, 137

— its dental apparatus, 138
Eels, respiration of, 261

Eel, electric, organs of the, 255

— Indian mode of capturing them, 256
Egg-urchin, 139

Elateridse, their jumping powers, 199
Electrical fishes, 255 •
Elephant, limbs of the, 327

— stomach of the, 348

— his sense of feeling in his proboscis,

353

— his mode of destroying his assail-

ant, 361

— his mental faculties, 378

— his docility, 378

FOR

Elephant-thorn, 68

Eolis, 157

Erigeron, origin of the, in Europe, 91

Ermine-moth, its means of defence, 210

Euryale, warted, 133

FALCON, head of, 293
Feather-stars, 132
Feathers of birds, 286—289

— their beautiful colours, 290
Felidse, their whiskers as a means of

feeling, 353

— their weapons of offence and ag-

gression, 355
Fig-tree, parasitic, 67

stems of, 67

File-fish, 250

Fir-tree, roots of the, 57

Fire, effects of, on the formation of the

earth, 37, 38
Fishes, 247

— their constant wars, 247

— their fecundity necessary to main-

tain the necessary equilibrium, 248

— their migrations, 248

— their means of attack and defence,

250

— their dental apparatuses, 251

— electrical fish, 253

— diversity of the forms of fishes, 257

— skeleton of fishes, 257

— their fins, 258

— their air-bladders, 258

— their gills, 259

— their migrations, 261

— their mode of taking their prey, 262

— senses of fishes, 264

— their eyes, 264, 265

— parental affection of fishes, 266
Flamingo, beak of the, 297

— tongue of the, 297

Flax plants, usefulness of the, 67
Flowers, variety of, 79

— fragrance of, 79

— the calyx and corolla, 79

— the pistils, 80

— the anther and pollen, 80

— means of fructification, 82
Flustrse, or sea-mats, 141

— avicularia, 144

— their metamorphoses, 144
Fly, domestic, foot of the, 201

— spiracle of the, 203
Flying-fishes, 259
Flying-foxes, 323
Flying-squirrels, 324
Fogs, formation of, 31
Foraminifera, the, 102

— their minuteness, 103

— their geological importance, 104

INDEX.

399

FOR

Forest trees. See Trees; Vegetable

Life

Forest, voices of the, 70
Fowl, digestive apparatus of the, 299
Frigate-bird, his prodigious flight, 287
Frog-fish, its mode of progression, 261,

262
Frogs, their means of escape from

enemies, 270
Fungi, their enormous reproductive

powers, 51, 52, 85
— their sporules, 85

PALL-NUTS, origin of, 216

U Garden spiders, 238
Gasteropoda, or snails, 154

— their internal structure, 154

— their shells, 155

— their operculum, 155

— their masticatory apparatus, 156

— their digestive apparatus, 158

— their caution, 159

Gecarcini, or land-crabs, legs of the,

178
Gecko, toes of the, 273

— memory of the, 281

— his means of escape from his enemies,

359

Gibraltar, Kock of, apes of the, 357
Giraffe, tongue of the, 349
Gizzards of birds, 299
Glaciers, their importance to the valleys,
34

— rate of their progress, 34
Glauci, 157

Goby, the black, its parental affection,

267
Gravitation, Newton's discovery of the

universal law of, 4
Greeks, their knowledge of the form of

the earth, 3

Grosbeak, social, nest of the, 308
Guinea-fowl, beak of the, 294
Gyrini, or whirligigs, 200

HAG, respiratory "apparatus of the,
260

Hail, causes of, 28, 30
Halibut, immense size of the, 249
Halichondria, 112
Halina papillaris, 113
Hamsters, cheek -pouches of the, 350
— their burrows, 363
Hare, formation of the, 328

— jumping hare, 329

— provisions for its safety, 361
Hassar, its mode of progression, 261

— its parental affection, 267
Hawk-moth, caterpillar of, 208

INS

Heat, various sources of, 11

— effects of, 12

— nature of heat, 15

— heat the first grand cause of the

winds, 17

Hedgehog, armour of the, 367
Hedysarum gyrans, motion of the leaves

of, 76

Hemp-plants, usefulness of the, 67
Herbs, stems of, 67
Hermit-crabs, or paguri, 187
Herschel, Sir W., his discovery of

Uranus, 5

Hippidse, legs of the, 178
Hippopotamus, senses of the, 361
Hirudo medicinalis, mouth of the, 169
Holothurise, or sea-cucumbers, 139
Hoofs of ruminants, 359
Horns of animals as defensive weapons,

359
Horses, hoofs of, as a defensive weapon,

359

— caution of wild horses, 369

— affection of the horse for man, 373

— his sagacity, 377
Humming-bird, bill of the, 294
Humus, or vegetable mould, properties

of the, 62

Hunting spiders, 240
Hysenas, their mode of life, 356
Hyalea globulosa, 159
Hybernation of animals, 379
Hydrometridse, 201

TANTHIN^E, their air-bladders, 155
J_ — their means of defence, 155
Ibis, head and legs of the, 291
Ice, its protection of animal life, 32-34

— effects of a desert of ice on the earth,

35
Ichneumon, his destruction of reptiles

and their eggs, 285
Ichneumon-fly, instincts of the, 223
Iguana, its means of defence, 274
Infusoria, 106

— various forms of, 107

— their range of habitation, 110

— their mode of reproduction, 110

— their encysting process, 110
Insects, 189

— harmonious balance between leaves

and, 77

— as a means of fructification of plants,

— their integuments, 189

— the insect-skeleton, 190

— their metamorphoses, 191
larvae, 191

pupse, 192

the perfect insect, 192

400

INDEX.

INS

Insects — continued.

— antennae of, 193

— sense of smelling, 193

— eyes of insects, 194

— anasticatory organs, 195

— chewing and sucking insects, 196

— digestive organs, 197

— motions of insects, 198

aquatic insects, 199

foot of the domestic fly, 201

— tracheae, or air-vessels, and stigmata

of insects, 202

— their wings, 203

— their defences, 205

— their vitality, 206

— their modes of feigning death, 207

— their concealments, 208

— their ravages, 215

— insects useful to man, 216

— their numberless enemies, 217, 218

— their instincts, 219

— their parental affection, 225

— their architectural skill, 225
Instinct of insects, 219
Intestinal worms, 171

TELLY-FISHES, 125

d — ciliograde, 128

Jerboa, or jumping-hare, its structure,

328
Jungle-nails, or thorns of the Acacia to-

mentosa, 68

KANGAROO, its sense of smell, 352
— its parental affection, 274
Kinkajo'u, prehensile tail of the, 335

T AMELLIBRANCHIATA, 149
J_J Laminariae, or oar-weeds, 55
Lammergeier, his lofty nights, 300
Lamprey, dental apparatus of the, 253

— its respiratory apparatus, 260
Land-crabs, 183
Land-leeches, 170

Laplace, his calculations of planetary

perturbations, 4
Lappet-moth, the, 205
Lavines of the Alps, 33
Leaves of plants, 71

— leaves, the chief ornament of spring, 71

— uses of leaves to plants, 71

— internal growth of leaves, 72

— cuticles and pores of leaves, 73

— pliability and resisting power of

leaves, 74

— their functions, 75

— their stems, 75

— sensibility of leaves, 75

MAM

Leaves — continued.

— their enemies, and defences, 76

— hairs, prickles,, and secretions, 76

— harmonies between leaves and in-

sects, 77
Leech, mouth and foot of the, 169

— their enemies, 170

— the land-leech, 170
Leucophrys patula, 108
Lichens, 52

Light, composition of, 13

— the prismatic colours, 13

— the harmony between colours and the

human mind, 14

— what is light? 15

Limpet, strength of its sucker, 156

— its tongue, 158

Lion, his means of defence and aggres-
sion, 355

— skeleton of the, 355
Lithophytes, 120

— social republicans, 120

— coral islands, 122

Lizards, their means of defence, 270, 274

— toes of the gecko, 273

— tongues of lizards, 274
Llama, sole-pads of the, 334
Lobster, legs of the, 179

— its moulting process, 180
Lob-worms, 170

Locusts, ravages of, 215
Looper-moth, caterpillar of, 207
Lophius piscatorius, its mode of taking
its prey, 263

TVTACROCYSTIS PYKIFERA, its
ILL wonderful stem and roots, 55
Mammalia, 317

— modifications in the structure of their

limbs, 317

— fins of the whale, walrus, and seal,

318, 319

— wings of the bat, 32 1

— the Nycteris, 323

— flying squirrels, 324

— moles, 325

— limbs of the cervine and" bovine

races, 326

— the elephant, 327

— the hare, 328

— the kangaroo, 329

— the sloth, 329

— monkeys, 330

— wanderoos, 331

— toes and hands of mammalia, 332
the cloven hoof in the cervine

and bovine races, 333

— sole-pads of ruminants, 334

— tails of mammalians, 335

— their skin, 337

INDEX.

401

MAM

Mammalia — con tinned '.

— their masticatory organs, 338

— stomachs of ruminants, 345

— intestinal structure of ruminants,

346

— tongues of mammalia, 348

— cheek- pouches, 350

— the senses of mammalia, 350
their eyes, 351

smell, 352

feeling, 352

— defensive and aggressive provisions

for quadrupeds, 355

— provisions for their safety, 361

— habitations of quadrupeds, 361

— gregarious quadrupeds, 369

— friendship of quadrupeds, 372

— their affection for man, 373

— and for their young, 373

— their services rendered to man, 375

• — protection of quadrupeds against the
severity of winter, 379

— their winter sleep, 379

— happiness of the brute creation, 380
Man, preparation of the earth for the

reception of, 42

— his subterranean treasuries, 46

— influence of the seasons on him, 47
• — his pre-eminence, 382

— his greatness and his weakness, 382

— his brain, 383

— the nerves, 384

the optic nerve, 385

the acoustic nerve, 385

the olfactory and gustative nerves,

386
the spinal nerves, 386

— man and the ape compared, 389

— his hand, 389

— his skull, 390

— his pelvis, 391

— his foot, 391

— muscular apparatus of the face of

man,.392

— the aims of human existence, 392
Mangrove, aerial roots of the, 59

— their formation of new land, 59
Manis, tail of, 336

Mantis, hunting manoeuvres of the, 212
Marmot, its protective instinct, 370

— its happiness, 381

Marsupialia, parental affection of the,

374

Medusae, structure of the, 126
Moitfichilae, or leaf-cutters, their nests,

227

Melon-cactus, prickles of the, 68
Meteoric stones, 5

— great numbers of, 6

— composition of, 6
Microscopical plants, 93

NES

Microscopical plants — continued.

— uncertain limits between the animal

and vegetable world, 93

— simplest form of plants, 94

— protococci, 94

— oscillatorise, 95

— volvocinse, 96

— desmidise, 97

— diatomacese, 98

— protozoa, 101

rhizopods and foraminifera, 101

Milky way, the, 8

Mole, structure of the, 325

— its eyes, 351

— its burrows, 366

Mole-cricket, its means of burrowing,
198

— its architectural skill, 225
Mollusca, number of living species of,

141

— characters of molluscs, 141

— flustra, or sea-mats, 142

— solitary and compound ascidians,

144

— salpse, 147

— pyrosomata, 148

— conchifera, 149

— gasteropoda, 154

— pteropoda, 1 59

— onychoteuthis, 163

— number and importance of the mol-

luscs, 164
Mongoos, his destruction of serpents,

285
Monkeys, structure of, 330

— prehensile tails of some, 335

— their vigilance and cunning, 357,

370

— their protective instincts, 370, 371

— man and the apes compared, 389
Moon, its distance from the earth, 3

— its influence on marine life, 23
Mountains, their contributions to the

formation of tracts of fertile land, 38
Mullingong, formation of the, 320
Musacese, leaves of the, 72
Mushrooms, marvellous rapidity of their

growth, 51
Musquash, habitations of the, 365

"VTAEWHAL, horn of the, 344

.IN Nebulse, constituents of many of

the, 8

Necrophori, or sexton-beetles, 221
Nemertes gigas, 171
Neptune, the planet, discovery of, by

Le Verrier, 5
Nereocystis lutkeana, its marvellously

rapid growth, 51
Nests of birds, 302

D D

402

INDEX.

NES

Nests of birds — continued.

— sand-martin, 302

— burrowing-puffin, 302

— woodpeckers, 303

— chaffinches, 304

— cassiques, 305

— tupuba, 305

— the Baltimore oriole, 305

— weaver-birds, 306

— bay a sparrows, 307

— social grosbeak, 308

— tailor-bird, 309

— tallegalla, or brush-turkey, 310

— sea-lark, 311

— cuckoo, 311

Newton, Sir I., his discovery of the
universal law of gravitation, 4

Nitrogen, as a constituent of our at-
mosphere, 16

Noctiluca miliaris, 105

Notonectidse, or boat-flies, their method
of motion, 200

Nummulites, 103

Nut-weevil, 219

OCEAN, its immensity, 21
— its past and future, 21

— blessings it gives us, 22

— its ebb and flood, 22

— causes of the tides, 23, 24

— their influence on the organic life of

the seas, 23

— system of ocean-currents, 24, 25
- — their importance, 25

— evidence of unity of design resulting

from the intimate connection of
the phenomena of the seas and the
distant celestial bodies, 26

— submarine meadows of grass-wrack,

55

— causes of the luminousness of the

sea, 104, 148

— submarine gardens, 116
Octopoda, arms of the, 163
Ocypoda, or sand-crabs, legs of the,

178
Oestri, or breeze-flies, their instincts,

224
Onisci, or wood-lice, 177

— feet of the, 179
Onychotenthis, arms and tentacles of

the, 161
Ophrydinse, 109

Opossum, parental affection of the, 374
Orang-oetan, skull of the, 391
Oriole, Baltimore, nest of the, 305
Oscillatorise, the, 95
Ostracion, cuirass of the, 250
Ostrich, wings of the, 288

— its parental affection, 313

PRO

Ostrich — continued.

— its artifices in deceiving its enemies,

313

Otter, formation of the, 320
Oxen, wild, of the llanos, their mode of

defence, 369
Oxygen, its combustibility, 16

— its importance to animal life, 1 7
Oysters, 153

PAGURI, habits of the, 187
Palm-trees, roots of, 57

stems of, 66

thorns of the Caryota horrida, 68

Parasitic plants, 66, 67
Parrots, intelligence of, 314
Parrot-fish, dental apparatus of the,

253

Peccari, mode of defence of the, 369
Pelican, foot of the, 292
- bill of the, 295
Pelopseus, or dirt-dauber, its earthen

cells, 226

Pengolin, tail of the, 336
Penguin, wings of the, 288
Pennatulae, 120
Pentacrinites, 132
Perching birds, 293

Phalangers, prehensile tails of the, 336
Phallus foetidus, its rapid growth, 51
Philodina roseola, 173
Pholades, 151

— their burrowing apparatus, 151
Phyllostomas, tongue of, 349
Pine, roots of the, 57, 58
Pistils of plants, 80

Planetary system, the, 3

— Kepler's discovery of their motions, 4

— planetary perturbations, 4
Plantain, gigantic size of the stem and

leaves of the, 72
Plants. See Vegetable Life.
Platypus, duck-billed, its masticatory

organs, 340

Podurinse, or spring-tails, 199
Poison-fangs of serpents, 277
Pollen of plants, 80
Polycystina, the, 105
Polyzoa, 143

Porcupine, its means of defence, 368
Porliera hygrometrica, the, 75
Poulp, sucking disks of the, 162
Prairie-dogs, burrows of the, 362
Protococci, the, 94

— their still and motile cells, 95

— their mode of propagation, 95
Protophyta, 94

Protozoa, microscopical, 101

— rhizopods and foraminifera, 101, 102
their geological importance, 10

INDEX.

403

PRO

Protozoa — continued.

— noctiluca miliaris, 105
— polycystina, 105

— infusoria, 106

— importance of protozoa in the house-

hold of nature, 111

— sponges, 112
Pteropoda, 159

— conical appendage of the Clio's head,

160

— its dental apparatus, 161
Pteropus, skeleton of, 321
Ptygura melicerta, 172
Puffin, the burrowing, 302
Pyrosomata, structure of, 148
Pysalus, or Portuguese man-of-war, 130
Pythons, their colossal strength, 277

— their mode of taking their prey, 277

Q

UININE, 70

EAFT SPIDERS, 241
Rain, origin of, 27, 30

— difference in the quantity of, at vari-

ous heights, 32
Raptorial birds, 292
Rattans, root of the, 58

— stems of the, 66
, Razor shells, 153

Reptiles, 268
I — their defences, 268

— chelonians, 268

— lizards, 270

— frogs, 270

— toads, 271

— snakes, 271

• — intellectual powers of reptiles, 280
— maternal affection of some kinds,
280, 281

— memory of lizards, 281

— hybernation of reptiles, 281

— their uses to man, 282

— their enemies, 283

— their fecundity, 285

Reticularia maxima, immense number

of its seed spores, 51, 85
Rhinoceros, armour of the, 361

— its protector bird, 371
Rhinolophus, organs of smell of, 354
Rhizopods, 101

Rhizostomata, structure of the, 126
Rivers, the constant sources of, 27-29

— voices of the, 30
Rodentia, dentition of, 342

— provisions for their safety, 361

— their burrows, 362
Roots of plants, 54

— of the Algae, 54, 55

— of the creepers of South Africa, 56

SEE

Roots — continued.

— of forest trees, 56, 57

— of the climbers, 58

— of the mangrove, screw-pine, and

banyan, 59, 60

— radical filaments and spongioles, 6 1
Rotifera, 172

— their complex organization and

habits, 172, 173

— their tenacity of life, 174
Ruminantia, dentition of, 343

— power and anger of the bovine races,

358
Rynchophorous insects, 219

SABELLA UNISPIRATA, 168
— alveolaria, 1 68
Salmon, their migratory instincts, 248

— their longevity, 249
Salpse, 147
Sand-hoppers, 177
Sand-martin, nest of the, 302
Sand-reed, the, 56
Sand-star fishes, 133

Sand- wasp, instincts of the, 222
Saw-fish, maxillary teeth of the, 252
Scari, teeth of the, 253
Screw-pine, roots of the, 60

— their services to more luxuriant vege-

tation, 60
Scyllsea, 157
Sea-anemones, 116

— their animal nature, 116

— their internal structure, 117

— tentacles, 117

— urticating organs, 118

— their vitality, 119

— their modes of locomotion, 119
Sea-cucumbers, 139

Sea-lark, nest of the, 311

— its artifices to deceive its enemies,

313

Sea-mat, leaf-like, 142
Seasons, their influence on organic life,

47
Sea-stars, primeval, 132

living, 133

Sea-urchins, 137

Seal, skeleton of the, 319, 357

— teeth of the, 341, 342

— its protective instinct, 370
Seeds, and their migrations, 84

— their defences, 84

— their dissemination over the earth,

85

— their feathers and wings, 84

— seeds dispersed by jerking, 86

— influence of water-courses, 86

— seeds of littoral plants, 87

— mangrove seeds, 88

404

INDEX.

SEE

Seeds — con tin ued,

— the lower animals and man as the

disseminators of plants, 88-90
Sensitive plants, of Brazil, 75
Sepia officinalis, 162

— its sucking disks, 162
Serpula contortuplicata, 168
Sexton, or burying-beetle, 221

— its intelligence, 221, 222
Shark, teeth of the, 251, 252
Sheep, dentition of, 343

— stomach of the, 344
Siluridse, spines of the, 251
Siphonostomata, 176

— their habits, 176

Sirius, its immense distance from the
earth, 7

— composition of its atmosphere, 8
Skimmer, black, bill of the, 295
Skinks, their mode of locomotion, 273
Skunks, their offensive fluid, 368
Sloth, structure of the, 329

— hand of the, 333

— its means of defence, 360

— its happiness, 380

Slow, or blind worm, its hybernation,

282

Slugs, 155
Snails, 154

— their winter defence, 156
Snake-stars, 133

their means of separating them-
selves into pieces, 133
Snakes, their locomotion, 271

— the active colubridse, 277

— poison teeth of the serpent, 277

— their enemies, 284
Snow, causes of, 28, 30

— its protection of animal life, 32, 33

— importance of its loose moveable

nature, 33

Social wasp, nest of the, 230
Sounds, the air considered as the bearer
of, 19

— the voices of nature, 19
Sphalax typhlus, his blindness, 351
Spiders, 235

— their venomous apparatus, 235

— their mandibles, 235

— their spinnarets, 236

— uses of their spinning organs, 236,

237

— the garden spider, 238

— the patience of spiders, 239

— hunting spiders, 240

— trap-door spiders, 240

— water spiders, 241

— the raft spider, 243

— enemies of spiders, 244

— their fecundity, 245

— their parental affection, 245

SWI

Spiders — continued.

— their use in the household of nature,

246

— the eyeless kinds, 246
Sponge-crab, 185
Sponges, 112

— their animal nature, 112

— their organisation, 112

— their skeletons, 112

— their oscula, 113

— their sensibility and spontaneous

movements, 114

— their mode of propagation, 114

— their economy in the household of

the seas, 115

Spoonbill, beak of the, 296
Springs, formation of, 29
Squirrel, structure of the, 331
Stalita tsenaria, instincts of the, 246
Star-fishes, 134

their locomotive apparatus, 134

mechanism of their suckers, 135

their skeleton, 135

their prey and their enemies,

135
Star-gazer, its mode of taking its prey,

262
Starry vault, splendour of the, 2

first step to a knowledge of the,

2

our ' world-island,' 8

vast prospects into space and

time, 9
Stars, fixed, their enormous distances

from the earth, 7

— their swiftness of motion, 9
Stars, shooting, 5
Steinbock, agility of the, 328
Stems of trees, 65

Stentor Kceselii, 106
Stickleback, defences of the, 250

— its parental affection, 266
Sting-rays, 251

Stomach of ruminants, 345

Stomatopoda, 177

Storks, intelligence of, 315

— their migratory instincts, 315
Sturgeon, their migratory instincts, 248

— their size, 249
Sun, the setting, 1

— its distance from the earth, 3

— Bunsen and Kirchhof s discoveries

of the composition of the solar
atmosphere and of the sun's cen-
tral orb, 6

— motion of the solar system, 9

— the heat of the sun the cause of the

ventilation of the atmosphere, 17,

18

Swan, gizzard of, 299
Swimming birds, 292

INDEX.

405

TAI

rpAILOR-BIRD, nest of the, 309

JL Tallegalla, or brush-turkey, nest of

the, 310

Terebella conchilega, 168
Termites, nests of, 233, 234
Thistle forests in South America, 91
Thoracostraca, 177

— stomatopoda, 177

— decapoda, 177
Thorns of plants, 67, 68
Tides, causes of the, 22

— influence of the, on marine life, 23
Tiger and the dog, friendship between

the, 372
Tiger-beetle, alimentary canal of the,

196

larva of the, 214

Toads, their concealment from their

enemies, 274

Tongues of mammalia, 348
Tornado, its beneficial effects, 36
Torpedo, electrical organs of the, 255
Tortoise, defences of the, 268

— legs of the, 272
Toucan, tongue of the, 298
Trapdoor spiders, 240
Tree-frog, habits of the, 274
Trees, roots of forest, 57

— the various growth of, 65

— the stems of trees and their struc-

ture, 65

— characters of the wood of .different

trees, 69

— harmonies between the trunks of

trees and the wants of man, 69
Trogidse, defences of the, 205
Trypoxylon, nest of the, 226
Tupuba, nest of the, 305
Turbellaria, 171

Turkey-buzzards, memory of, 314
Turtles, defences of, 269

— loggerheads, 270

— legs of the turtle, 272

URANUS, discovery of, by Herschel,
5
Utricularia vulgaris, fructification of, 82

TTALLISNERIA spiralis, curious fruc-
V tification of, 83
Vanessse, defences of the, 205
Vegetable life, antagonism between

animal and, 17
snow and ice as protectors of, 32,

33
character of the vegetation of the

coal-fields, 42
prodigious variety of plants on

the surface of the earth, 49

WIN

Vegetable life — continued.

the vegetable cell, and its meta-
morphoses, 50, 51

mode of growth of plants, 51

rapidity of growth of some of the

inferior plants, 51

structure of the higher order of

plants, 52

magnificence of the vegetable

world, 53

roots of plants, 54

stems of plants, 65

defences of plants, 67

leaves of plants, 7 1

blossoms, 79

seeds, 84

progress of vegetation on the

originally naked rock, 92

Vegetable mould. See Humus

Velella, locomotion of the, 130

Venomous apparatus of spiders, 235

Venus' s fly-trap, leaves of, 75

Venus's chariot, 159

Vicuna, its caution and swiftness, 370

Viper, poison apparatus of the, 278

Volvox globator, the, 96

Vorticella cyathina, 108

WADING-birds, 291
— head and legs of, 291
Walking-leaf insect, 206
Walking-stick insect, 206
Walrus, its protective instinct, 370

— its happiness, 381
Wanderoo, leaps of the, 331
Wasp, nest of the, 229

— nest of the social wasp, 230
Water, effects of, on the formation of the

earth, 37, 38

— effects of running water at various

velocities, 39

Water-beetles, legs of the, 199
Water-plants, fructification of, 82
Water-scorpion, tracheal system of the,

202

Water-spiders, 241

Weasels, their weapons of aggression, 356
Weaver, defence of the, 251
Weaver-bird, nest of the, 306
Webs of spiders, 236
Whale-lice, 177, 179
Whales, tails of, 336, 357

— their weapons of defence, 357

— their parental affection, 374
Wild boar, tusks of the, 344

Winds, importance of the, to the purity
of the atmosphere, 1 7

— causes of the, 17, 18

— winds as a means of disseminating

seeds, 85, 86

406

INDEX.

WIN

Wings of insects, 203

— of birds, 287

— quill-feathers, 288

— wings of the bat, 321
Winter, fertilising influence of, 64
Wood, characters of the, of different

trees, 69

Woodpecker, nest of the, 303
Worms, 166

— are they helpless ? 166

— beauty of the free marine annelides,
166

— their feet, 167

ZOS

Worms — continued.

— sedentary or tubicolar worms, 167

— naides, 169

— water-leeches, 169

— land-leeches, 170

— earth-worms, 170

— intestinal worms, 171

— rotifera, 172

'TOSTEEA marina, or grass-wrack,
LJ submarine meadows of, 55

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