THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

ILLUSTRATED HORSE-BREAKING

TROTTING OFF TO COVERT

ILLUSTRATED

HORSE-BREAKING

BY

M. HORACE HAYES, F.RCV,S,,

Late Captain u The Buffs?

AUTHOR OF

POINTS OF THE HORSE," " VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE OWNERS,
" RIDING AND HUNTING," ETC.

ILLUSTRATED BY

J. H. OSWALD BROWN,

AND BY PHOTOGRAPHS SPECIALLY TAKEN

Third Edition (Revised and Enlarged)

LONDON

HURST AND BLACKETT, LTD.,

182, HIGH HOLBORN, W.C.

1908
All rights reserved

To

Dear "QWife

WHO HAS BEEN MY BEST HELPER AND SOUNDEST

ADVISER WHEN I HAVE BEEN BREAKING HORSES

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

I OFFER this work to the favourable consideration of the public, as
an attempt to describe a reasoned-out system of horse-breaking,
which I have found, by practical experience, to be easy of execution,
rapid in its effects, and requiring the possession of no exceptional
strength, activity, pluck, or horsemanship by the operator, who, to
become expert in it, will, as a rule, need only practice. It is in
accordance with our English and Irish ideas on the subject ; for it
aims at teaching the horse " manners," and giving him a snaffle-
bridle mouth; so that he will "go up to the bridle," and "bend"
himself in thorough obedience to rein and leg.

As a personal explanation, I may mention that after having spent
many years racing and training in India, during which time I prac-
tised the ordinary methods of breaking, I returned to England,
where I learned the use of the standing martingale and long driving
reins, as applied specially to jumpers, from Mr. John Hubert Moore,
who was the cleverest " maker " of steeplechasers Ireland ever knew.
He, I may remark, obtained these methods, in his youth, from an
old Irish breaker, named Fallen, who was born more than a century
ago. I had also valuable instruction in " horse-taming " from Pro-
fessor Sample. Having read an account of MM. Raabe and
Lunel's htppolasso, as a means of control for veterinary operations, I
conceived, with happy results, the idea of utilising this ingenious
contrivance in breaking. I also learned, about the same time, how
to baiter a loose horse without running any danger of being kicked,
or bitten.

Having thus acquired a fair amount of information, on what has
always been to me a favourite subject, I naturally wished to put it
into practice.

As I knew, judging from my former ignorance, how much men in
India stood in need of instruction in horse-breaking, I determined
to return to that country with the object of teaching this art ; so as
to acquire the experience I needed, and to " pay my expenses " at
the same time. 1 am glad to say that I was successful in both re-
spects. During a two years' tour, I held classes in all the principal
stations of the Empire — from Trichinopoly to Peshawur, and from
Quetta to Mandalay — and, having met a very large number of vicious

xii PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

animals and fine horsemen, I obtained experience, and greatly added
to my stock of knowledge, which I shall now try to utilise for the
benefit of my readers. As I proceeded through India, I felt the
necessity of rejecting some methods I had formerly prized, altering
others, and adopting new ones ; so that the course of instruction
which I was able to give to my more recent classes, was far more
extensive, and of better proved utility, than what I had to offer at
the beginning of my travels. The great want which I had at first
felt, was a method by which a person could secure and handle, with
perfect safety, any horse, no matter how vicious he might be. How-
ever, after many kicks, a few bites, and several lucky escapes, I was
able to perfect the required method, which is so simple, that the
only wonder is that I did not think of it before. I may explain that
the Australian horses met with in India, where they form a consider-
able proportion of the animals used for riding and driving, are far
more dangerous and difficult to handle and control than British
stock. Had I remained in England all my life, I should not have
acquired a quarter of the experience of vicious horses I was afforded,
during the time I lately spent in India. It goes almost without say-
ing, that the more difficult the pupil is to teach, the greater chance
has the instructor of becoming expert in his business. I need hardly
say, that I shall always be very grateful to any of my readers who
may favour me with special information on this or kindred subjects.

I may mention, that, after returning from India, I held classes in
England, Gibraltar, Malta, Egypt, Ceylon, Singapore, and China.

I have much pleasure in giving, in the body of this work, the
sources from which I have taken various hints.

The chief claim I, here, make to originality, is, that in bringing
together the results of experience in different countries, I have endea-
voured to reduce the art of breaking horses to a more or less com-
plete system, many of the principles of which, I venture to think, I
have been the first to expound, and that I have made several im-
provements in existing methods. The new things which I have in-
troduced need no special mention here.

My best thanks are due to Mr. J. H. Oswald Brown for the faithful
and painstaking manner in which he has illustrated the letter-press of
this book. The drawings speak for themselves.

JUNIOR ARMY AND NAVY CLUB,
ST. JAMES'S STREET, LONDON, S.W.

October I, 1889.

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

THREE years' horse-dealing in India, a horse-breaking tour through
South Africa, a study of high-school riding in Paris and Berlin, and
two seasons' hunting in Leicestershire taught me so many new
things about horses, since writing the first edition, that the present
one is practically a new book. Its letterpress is more than twice as
much as that of its predecessor ; the arrangement of the material
has been entirely changed; and 75 new illustrations (reproductions
from photographs) have been added to 49 old ones. I have given
greatly increased prominence to mounted work for the breaking in
of horses ; and have added a description of the most modern de-
velopments of school breaking, for further information on which
subject I would beg to refer my readers to the writings of Fillis and
Barroil.

While writing for practical men, I have kept in view the fact that
by working on the principles of equine psychology and equine loco-
motion, we can make horse-breaking a science as well as an art.

I have been obliged to say so much about work in the saddle that
this second edition trenches to a large extent on what I had supposed
to be the special province of the subject of my book, " Riding and
Hunting." Riper experience shows me that breaking and riding
should be studied conjointly ; for we cannot break in a horse properly
to saddle unless we know how to ride him ; nor can we ride him to
the best advantage unless we know how he has been broken in.
Therefore, instead of writing these two works separately, I ought to
have brought out one book of two volumes on their respective subjects.
Although it is too late now to make the alteration, I shall bear this
fact in mind, when, at some future time, I shall have to write a new
edition of " Riding and Hunting " ; and shall avoid a good deal of
repetition by being able to refer to "Illustrated Horse-Breaking."

I may mention that Messrs. Champion and Wilton, 457, Oxford
Street, W., keep patterns of the breaking gear I use.

All the photographs in this book have been done either by my
wife or by myself.

The sad and untimely death of Mr. J. H. Oswald Brown has de-
prived me, when preparing this edition, of the invaluable help of a
friend to whom I owe the greater part of the success attained by the
books which he illustrated for me.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO THIRD EDITION.

THIS edition of " Illustrated Horse-Breaking " is identical with the
previous one, except for the addition of some ideas which the Author
mentioned to me a short time ago, and a few others which have
seemed to me helpful during much practical work.

As an old pupil, and a friend of Capt. Hayes, I feel that I have
lost much by his death, for I have the pleasantest recollection of
time passed in his genial company, when he has enthusiastically
entertained me with some of his many interesting experiences, and
has never tired of explaining to me things concerning horses, which
he has thought might help me. I used to find his clear reasoning
a pleasure to follow, and I was always greatly impressed by the
broad-minded way in which he would discuss new ideas.

I have enjoyed re-reading the second edition of " Illustrated
Horse-Breaking " greatly, and now more than ever have I been
impressed by the excellence of the book, but I must say I have a
higher opinion of the horse's intelligence than that expressed by the
Author. I also think that some people possess a much better in-
fluence on animals than others, and that Capt. Hayes was helped
greatly in educating horses by his gentle, perceptive and determined
nature.

R. HAROLD MEADE.
Jan. 5//*, 1905.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAPTER I.

MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

Mind — Consciousness, ideas, memory, habit, and instinct — Intelligence

and reason — Special instincts and senses — Vice ... . . I

CHAPTER II.

THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Objects and scope of horse-breaking — Requirements in the breaker — Desira-
bility of early training — Gaining the horse's attention — Accustoming
a horse to his surroundings— Making a horse understand our orders —
Punishment and reward — Effect of the voice — Emulation and imitation
— Fatigue — Necessity for exacting implicit obedience from the horse — •
Safety in breaking— Rapid methods of breaking— On the possibility
of overcoming any form of vice— Personal influence in breaking —
Advisability of possessing various methods of breaking — Selection of
breaking methods — Permanency in the effect of breaking — Summary
of the principle of making horses docile 29

CHAPTER III.

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

" Mouth " and " aids'' — Respective action of the aids — Suitability of the
horse to the application of the aids — Making a horse obey the aids —
Combined action of fore and hind legs, and distribution of weight on
them — Carriage and action of the head and neck of the horse when he
is in motion — " Collecting " the horse — Requirements of a good mouth
— Combined action of the aids in forming the mouth — Respective
action of the snaffle and curb — Direction of the pull of the reins —
Turning, circling and lunging the horse — Reining back — The standing
martingale — Bearing reins, running reins, side reins, and nosebands —
" Tying horses up," "reining," dumb jockeys, and the pillars . . 58

xviii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

The breaking enclosure — Gentling the horse — Holding and leading a com-
paratively quiet horse — Making a rope halter — Haltering a loose horse
— Teaching a loose horse to come up and to follow — Lifting up a fore
leg — Holding up a fore leg — Tying up a fore leg — Blindfolding a
horse— The halter-twitch— The rope-twitch— The noose-twitch— The
headstall-twitch— The bridle-twitch— The Indian war bridle— The
Comanche bridle — The Cavesson — The strait-jacket — Lifting up a
hind leg— Improvised hobble — The wooden gag — Making ahorse lie
down and keeping him on the ground — Major Woods' method of
throwing horses — Throwing a horse with a strait-jacket — The head
and tail method — Rareyfying a horse — Sample's horse-taming machine
— South African method of breaking ....... 95

CHAPTER V.

BREAKING ON FOOT.

Catching a horse and making him quiet to handle —Mouthing a horse with
the long reins on foot — Teaching a horse to turn on his forehand —
Teaching a horse to lead . . . . . . . . .163

CHAPTER VI.

ORDINARY MOUNTED BREAKING.

General remarks— Mounting a horse for the first time — Turning a horse
on the forehand at the halt when mounted — Reining back — The walk
— The trot— Turning a horse during movement — Teaching a horse to
carry his rider in a collected and well-balanced manner— The canter
— The halt— Whip and spurs — Time required for ordinary breaking to
saddle ............ 201

CHAPTER VII.

TEACHING HORSES TO JUMP.

General instruction— Jumping faults— The hunter — The chaser — The
hurdle racer — The show jumper — Time required to teach a horse to
jump 235

CHAPTER VIII.

BREAKING TO HARNESS .......... 253

CONTENTS. xix

PAGE

CHAPTER IX.

SCHOOL BREAKING.

General remarks on school breaking— The school horse— Collecting the
horse at the halt — Collecting the horse at the walk and trot — Teaching
the horse to strike off correctly into the canter — Changing the leg at
the canter— Figure of eight at the canter — Cantering falsely — Turn on
the forehand — Turn on the hind-quarters — The passage — The passage
with head to wall — The passage with tail to wall — Change of hand
by the passage — Counterchange of hand by the passage — Circling at
the passage — The halt — Change from one pace to another — Shoulder
in — Course of school instruction — Additional school movements —
Extension of a fore-leg — The Spanish walk — The Spanish trot — Turn
on the fore-hand on three legs — The canter on three legs — Changes of
leg at the canter — A circus high-school act. . . . . •• • . 260

CHAPTER X.

BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

The race-horse — The lady's horse — The cavalry horse — The polo pony —
The park hack — The fashionable harness horse — The shooting pony
— Mules and zebras . . . . . . . . . 288

CHAPTER XL

FAULTS OF MOUTH.

Boring — Pulling and running away — Throwing up the head and star-gazing
— Jibbing — Rearing — Shying — Running out to one side and difficult
to turn — "Keeping behind the bit," prancing, and ''breaking " when
wanted to walk or trot — Teaching pacers (amblers) to trot — Carrying
the hind quarters, in the canter or gallop, outside the line of pro-
gression, and refusing to lead except with a particular fore-leg —
" Putting too much weight on the fore-hand" when mounted — Plung-
ing forward when starting in harness — Pulling away from and hanging
against the pole when in double harness ...... 303

CHAPTER XII.

FAULTS OF TEMPER.

Difficult to catch — Difficult to handle, bridle, saddle, mount or dismount
from — Difficult to ball or drench — Unsteady with the whip, under fire,
when drawing swords, when touched with the heel, etc. — Difficult to
lead into a doorway, horse-box, etc. — Difficult to shoe — Buck -jumping
— Biting and savaging — Kicking and striking out in front — Pawing at

xx CONTENTS.

PAGE

night — Pawing back the litter — Rubbing the tail — Sleeping standing
— Difficult to harness and unharness — Getting the tail over the rein
and kicking when in harness — Lying down in harness — Hanging back
in the stall ........... 323

CHAPTER XIII.

CIRCUS TRICKS.

General remarks — " Begging " — Bowing and shaking the head — Circling
steadily at liberty — Teaching a horse to follow — Handkerchief work
—Jumping over another horse, etc. — Kicking— Kissing — Kneeling
down — Laughing — Liberty work — Limping — Lying down — Obeying
without reins — Polka, dancing the — Pushing a man out of the ring —
Rearing and walking on the hind legs — See-sawing on a plank, etc. —
Shaking hands — Waltzing ......... 341

INDEX 351

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE

1. Horse running out at a fence (A B), on account of

refusing to bring his hind quarters round in answer
to the pull of the reins ; although he bends his neck
to it . ..... . . . . 64

2. Horse going straight at his fence (A B), on account of

having answered the pull of the reins with his hind-
quarters as well as with his forehand . . . 65

3. Trotting . . . . . . . . .69

4. Cantering . . . . . . . . 70

5. Walking at ease . . ... .- . . 71

6. Collected walk . . . ... . 73

7. Reining-back ... . . . . -85

8- „ „ . . . . . 86

9. Maximum length for a standing martingale . . 88

10. Front view of leather-covered, unjointed snaffle . . 89

11. Leather-covered, unjointed snaffle, in horse's mouth . 89

12. Jumping with standing martingale . . . .91

13. Holding horse . . . . .... .97

14- „ „ . 98

15. „ „ . . . 98

16. „ „ .... - 99

17. First loop in making a rope-halter . . . . 100

1 8. Rope-halter completed . . . .. . .100

19. Rope-halter ready to put on . .;-. ; . . 101

20. Rope-halter with knot to prevent it pinching the horse's

jaws . . . . . . . ... 102

21. Rope-halter, put on pole to halter horse , . .103

xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE

22. Haltering loose horse . . . . . . .104

23- » » • I05

24. Rope-halter on horse . . . . . . .106

25. Pratt's method of putting halter on pole to halter horse . 107

26. Noosing horse's fore leg . . . . . .108

27. Pulling up horse's fore leg with rope . . . .109

28. Tying up horse's fore leg with rope . . .no

29. Lifting up a fore leg . . . . . . .in

50. Wrong way of holding up horse's fore leg . . .112

31. Proper way to hold up unshod horse's fore leg . . 112

32. Proper way to hold up fore leg of shod horse . . 113

33. Rarey's leg-strap . . . . . . . .114

34. A stirrup-leather utilised for tying up a fore leg . . 115

35. Tying up fore leg with stirrup-leather . . . .117

36. Suspending horse's fore leg to surcingle . . 117

37. Halter-twitch 118

38. Halter-twitch applied 119

39. „ „ . 120

40. Noose which will not run . . . . . .121

41. Pratt's twitch, first portion . . . . . .122

42. Pratt's twitch, completed . . . . . .123

43. Pratt's twitch on horse's head . . . . .124

44. Noose-twitch . . . . . . . .124

45. Head-stall twitch on horse 125

46. Bridle-twitch, front and near-side view . . . .126

47- M „ off-side view 127

48. Indian war bridle 128

49- „ „ . 129

50. First part of Comanche bridle 129

51. Comanche bridle, off-side 130

52. Comanche bridle, near-side. . . . . -131

53. Strait-jacket . . . , . . .132

54. Horse with strait-jacket on 133

55. Lifting up horse's hind leg . . . . . .134

56- „ „ „ • 135

57- „ „ „ . 136

58. Holding up horse's hind leg . . . . -137

59. First step in lifting up hind leg without assistance . 138

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxiii

FIG. PAGE

60. Second step in lifting up hind leg . . . .139

61. Third step in lifting up hind leg . . . . .139

62. Hobble 140

63. Holding up horse's hind leg 140

64. Gentling horse's hind leg . . . . . -141
.64A. Padded slip hobble ... .142
646. Leg fastened with slip hobble . . . 142

65. Double sheet bend on horse's tail .... 143

66. Pulling up horse's hind leg . . . . . .144

67. Hind leg pulled up with one rope on tail . . . 145

68. Method of fastening a rope to a short tail . . .146

69. Rope attached to short tail ...... 147

70. Hobble improvised with stirrup-leather and iron . .148

71. Wooden gag ........ 149

72. Horse ready to be made lie down . . . .150

73. Horse on ground . . . . . . -151

74. Making horse lie down ...... 152

75. Horse on ground with head pulled round . . . 153

76. Holding horse down on ground 153

77. Horse tied head and tail . . . . . 155

78. Horse tied down on ground. . . . . .167

79. Side view of bearing- rein 169

80. Front view of bearing-rein . . . . . -171
SOA. Standing martingale shortened . . . . .172

81. Horse with bearing-rein 173

82. Front view of driving-pad . . . . . .174

82A. Horse circling . . . . . . . 175

83. Side view of driving-pad . . . . . .175

84. Wooden driving-pad 176

85. Driving-pad, crupper, and rein-bearers on horse . .176

86. Driving horse on foot with reins through stirrup-irons . 177

87. Rein under cantle of saddle 178

88. Circling horse on foot to the right . . . .179

89. Circling horse on foot to the left . . . .180

90. Position from which to circle horse (to left, for instance) 181

91. Outward rein on driving pad ..... 182

92. Turning horse with rein on driving-pad . . .183

93. Removing head-stall without displacing bridle . .190

xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE:

94. Driving horse with running reins through stirrup-irons . 191

95. Making horse, on foot, turn on his forehand to left

with whip . . . . . . . .193

96. Crupper leading-rein . . . . . . .196

97. Knot in crupper leading-rein ..... 197

98. Teaching horse to " come up " by tapping him on chest

with whip . . . . . . . .199

99. Off rein passed through near ring of snaffle for leading

horse ......... 200

100. Horse mounted for first time ..... 203

101. Horse ready to be mounted for first time . . . 205

102. Mounting horse for first time ..... 206

103. Buckjumping saddle ....... 209

104. „ „ . 210

105. Rein and whip in each hand . . . . .211

106. Rein and whip in hand . . . . . .213

107. Teaching the horse to turn to the right on his forehand

by the whip . . . . . . . .214

1 08. Leg drawn back in turning horse . . . .215

109. Cantering with near fore leading . . . .225
no. Period of canter or gallop when weight of horse and

rider is borne by leading fore leg . . .227

in. Leicestershire cut and laid hedge 238

112. Teaching horse to jump with long reins . . . 239
IJ3- „ » „ „ . 241

114. Boots for protecting horse's legs when jumping . . 244
IJ5- » » „ „ ,, . 245

1 1 6. Driving horse in harness on foot . . . . .254

117. A jingle . . . 255
ii7A. Double hobble in use ....... 258

1 1 8. Passage to the right . . . . . . .274

TI9- . » . 275

120. Cantering with near fore leading ..... 279

121. The Spanish walk . . . . . . -285

122. The mountain zebra . . . . . . -297

I22A. A mountain zebra ....... 299

123. Pulling kicker's head round . ..... 335

124 Tail tied with tape to prevent horse rubbing it . . 336

ILLUSTRATED HORSE-BREAKING.

CHAPTER I.
MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

Mind— Consciousness, ideas, memory, habit, and instinct — Intelligence and
reason— Special instincts and senses — Vice.

MIND.

AN animal is distinguished from a vegetable by, among
other things, the possession of a nervous system, the
development of which appears to regulate that of the
mental capacity of the individual. In the lowest grades
of animal life, the nervous matter, instead of having a
definite form, is diffused generally throughout the body,
which, in this case, is gifted only with the power of con-
tracting on being touched and of absorbing nourishment
from its surroundings. In the next few upward steps,
we find the nerves arranged in a system of conducting
nerves and nerve centres by which the animal can receive
and combine impressions from without, and can transmit
to its muscles the stimulus for the movements which are
necessary to its welfare. By the nerves on the surface
of the body becoming modified by use, the senses of sight,
hearing, taste, and smell were gradually established.
Advance in nervous development is brought about chiefly
by the principles that use strengthens a function ; that
offspring more or less resembles the parent or parents,

2 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

according as there has been, respectively, one or two
engaged in its reproduction ; and that those beings which
are best fitted to their surroundings are the most likely
to survive in the struggle for existence. Thus, as we
ascend the scale of life, we find that the nervous system,
in becoming developed, endows the animal with many
faculties. Consciousness, memory, and instincts appear
early ; but the power of drawing conclusions latest of all.
As all these faculties, instinctive as well as intellectual,
are, as far as we can find out, manifestations of the nervous
system, it may not be unreasonable to regard what is
called mind and the nervous system as one and the same
thing. Degree of development seems to be the only
difference between the mind of man and that of brutes.

CONSCIOUSNESS, IDEAS, MEMORY, HABIT, AND INSTINCT.

Many of the actions of animals are performed in direct
response to stimuli applied to sensory nerves (those of
feeling, seeing, hearing, tasting, and smelling), as, for in-
stance, when we draw our hand back in the event of one
of our fingers being accidentally pricked, or when we
blink our eyes on some unexpected object suddenly ap-
proaching them. These automatic movements may be
comparatively simple, such as the two I have just cited ;
or complex, as when the touch, smell, and no doubt sight,
of its dam's teat stimulate the newly-dropped foal to
suck, or when a sleeping man brushes off a fly which is
irritating the nerves of the skin of his face. As consciousness
plays no part in automatic actions, we may infer that if
the actions of any animal were wholly automatic, such
animal would be devoid of consciousness ; in fact, it would
be an unconscious automaton. We know from observation
that in all the higher animals, actions which at first were
automatic, become in many cases largely modified by

CONSCIOUSNESS. 3

consciousness, by which impressions of past nervous stimuli
produce a more or less lasting impression on the brain
(or mind). I may point out that ideas are the effects
left on the mind by impressions. By being conscious, an
animal associates in its mind the idea of pleasure or pain
with past impressions ; and, consequently, in the future
seeks after impressions which it has learned by experience
to be pleasurable, and tries to avoid those which are
painful. For example, we may daily note that the young
of the higher animals, from experience, gradually increase
their ability to obtain and select their food, and to save
themselves from their enemies. We see in ourselves how
greatly experience in boxing and fencing perfects the
automatic movements which are necessary to guard us
from hurt by fist or sword-point. The necessary retention
of ideas (or memory) appears to be due to a modification of
the brain substance by which an impression of an original
idea is produced by means of another idea that has been
associated with it. Professor Lloyd Morgan aptly com-
pares this modification of brain substance to that under-
gone by a used phonograph, the cylinder of which has
become indented in such a way by the voice, that it is
capable of reproducing similar wave-sounds at a subsequent
time. Ideas, we must remember, are no more retained
in the mind than are sounds in the phonograph. Habits
are thus formed in the individual, and by the principle
of heredity are transmitted to the offspring as instincts.
We may define an instinct as a habit which has become
hereditary and automatic, and which can consequently
be exercised without teaching, imitation, or experience.
Or we might regard instinct, in its collective sense, as
hereditary memory. Granting, as we can scarcely help
doing, the truth of the principle of evolution, we must
admit the existence of mental progress by means of con-

i*

4 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

sciousness and association of ideas among the lowest
forms of animal life, if we prove it,- as we can amply do,
among the higher animals.

While giving full weight to the respective influences
of the principle of the survival of the fittest, and that
of selection, I think we must admit that instinct may
become greatly modified through generations by the in-
fluence of the association of ideas. Thus, there have been
frequent instances of the wild birds of recently-discovered
islands evincing extremely little fear of man on his first
appearance ; although they gradually acquired it as an
instinct under new influences later on. The Samoan
tooth-billed pigeon, which, before that island was brought
under the influence of Western civilization, used to sleep
and breed on or close to the ground, has, by the presence
of its imported enemies, acquired the habit of taking
refuge in trees, in which it now possesses the instinct of
roosting and building its nest. The fear of man, which
we have made instinctive in many animals, may by disuse
be rendered so slight as not to merit the title of an instinct,
as we may see by the difference in tameness between the
young of our domestic animals and the offspring of their
respective wild representatives of common ancestry. The
influence of use and selection on instinct gives us, in the
dog, members of the same species with such widely differ-
ing instincts as those of the foxhound, greyhound, pointer,
collie, and retriever, for example. The progeny of wild
horses, taken up young and reared under civilised con-
ditions, are far more difficult to break in and render far
less willing and less intelligent service than the offspring
of horses which have been bred for many generations in
close companionship with man. The semi- wild ponies of
the Himalayas (Spiti, for instance) being constantly ex-
posed, when grazing, to injury from falling snow, ice, stones

HABIT. 5

&c., and to the attacks of wild beasts, exhibit such ex-
treme watchfulness against danger, that, even in safe places,
they shy at the slighest provocation in a manner which
is highly unpleasant to the rider. This instinctive shying,
apart from fulness of " beans," " shortness " of work, or
love of displaying power, is a faculty which has become
comparatively dormant among highly civilised horses.

As instincts are in the species, so are habits in the
individual. The power of a habit in diminishing or
strengthening the force of instinct is, as we have seen,
well marked. In fact, a large portion of the art of horse-
breaking consists in establishing in the animal habits
which are opposed to his instincts, especially that of self-
preservation. Thus we have the habit of obedience to
man, under the influence of which the well-trained charger
will have lost his instinctive timidity to such an extent
that he will go through flames, or gallop up to a tiger or
other terrifying wild beast, on receiving the signal to do
so from the hand and leg of his rider. With age, the
instincts of every-day life grow stronger in the horse which
is in a wild state. He becomes more and more watchful
and difficult to capture ; and his love of freedom and
impatience of control increase with his years. Hence, the
later his education is attempted, the harder will it be to
impart.

A habit, to be fully established, must have become
automatic, in which process memory (or the power of
connecting ideas) plays a large part. The 'bus horse
which has learned to associate the sound of the bell or
of the conductor's foot on the platform, with the idea
of going on, will have acquired the habit of starting forward
the moment he hears the well-remembered signal.

Memory, as I have indicated, co-exists with conscious-
ness, and is possessed by all animals which are capable of

6 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

learning by experience. The study of animal life leads us
to the conclusion, I venture to think, that animals are
able to associate in their minds only concrete ideas ; and
that the association of abstract ideas is confined to man-
kind. Perhaps a more correct division of memory would
be : memory of facts, and memory of chains of reasoning.
Even fish possess good concrete memory. If we make a
practice of feeding fish which are kept in a pond, these
animals of low nervous development will quickly learn to
connect the impression which our appearance makes on
them, with the idea of food, and, on seeing us, will hasten
to place themselves in position to receive our gifts. In
fact, the fish will remember us ; and, furthermore, if we
select a particular hour of the day at which to feed them,
they will apparently bear it in mind. Although many men
of great intellectual capacity possess extraordinary good
fact-memory ; we find this faculty equally well developed
among persons of feeble mental grasp, and sometimes even
among idiots. Horses have extremely good fact-memories,
and, as remarked by Dr. Le Bon, would win all the com-
petitive examinations if they were able to talk and write.
On the other hand, there are many men who have great
power of keeping in remembrance long and complicated
problems, but are singularly deficient in fact-memory.

The vividness with which an event is retained in the
memory of man or beast depends on the intensity of the
impression, or repetition, or on both. Without intensity,
repetition has but little effect in fixing an impression on
the mind. For example, lessons which we have conned
over, perhaps, hundreds of times during our school days,
are often completely forgotten long before our hair turns
grey ; and yet some painful accident in our eaily child-
hood may remain permanently vivid in our remembrance.
The ordinary system of horse-breaking, by which repetition

MEMORY, 7

(without intensity) is chiefly relied upon for the formation
of habits of discipline, is defective ; because the nature of
the obedience thus obtained is too weak to oblige the
animal to yield himself absolutely to its influence. The
old, tedious methods of gradually inducing a horse to obey
the rein, take months to produce an effect which at any
moment is liable to be nullified by disturbing circumstances
of no great force. When, however, obedience to the rein is
taught (as I shall explain further on) in a manner which it
is impossible for the horse to resist, the intensity of the
impression produced will be superior to that of almost
any opposing agency. Here the action, which is the result
of the strongest motive, will, in almost all cases, be in
accordance with the teaching of the discipline which the
horse had previously found to be irresistible. We must
disabuse our minds of the old fallacy (which has done
much to retard progress in the art of horse-breaking) that
quick methods are necessarily less permanent in their
effects, than those which demand a much longer time
for their carrying out. In saying this, I in no way wish
to convey the idea that repetition is useless. On the con-
trary, it will be needed in almost all cases to confirm a habit,
no matter how strong the first impression may have been.
Acting on the principle of intensity of impression, with
suitable repetition, we shall obtain far better breaking
results in a tenth of the time required by those who depend
chiefly on repetition.

The power of memory is, like instinct, susceptible of
cultivation.

Connected with memory, there are three points to which
I would wish to direct the attention of my readers :
(i) With age, the power of making new associations of
ideas becomes diminished ; (2) fatigue, either mental or
physical, impairs this power ; and (3) the greater the

8 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

number of associations made with the same idea, the
weaker do each of them become. From this we learn,
that in teaching horses we should begin with them when
they are young ; that we should not continue our instruc-
tion so long as to fatigue their mind ; and that we should
restrict, as far as possible, the associations which we bring
about in the mind of the horse to their own respective
results. Some men hit a horse with the whip, "job "
him in the mouth with the rein, or speak to him in exactly
the same way for whatever fault he may commit, and then
wonder why they fail to keep him in control.

INTELLIGENCE AND REASON.

Consciousness is the beginning of intelligence, which
culminates in reasoning power. The intelligence of the
horse appears to me to be limited to the power of profiting
by experience obtained by association of ideas formed
from pleasurable or painful trial. When the association
of ideas is more or less complex, there is hesitation and
apparent reflection. Self-control being a necessary conse-
quence of consciousness, animals sometimes control the
promptings of instinct by association of ideas gained from
experience. Thus the civilized dog or cat, on observing
forbidden food, will often appear to be in a dilemma ; on
the one side being urged to obey its instinct of hunger ;
on the other, being restrained, probably, by the idea that
punishment will follow the commission of theft. In
obeying pure instinct, there would be no hesitation. The
dog that has sinned in secret will often betray himself
by his guilty look and abashed behaviour. We may assume
that he, just as a man might do, yielded to the temptation
of instinct, and afterwards associated in his mind the idea
of chastisement with that of his sin. We may note, to a
certain — though far slighter — extent, this feeling in a

INTELLIGENCE. 9

friendly disposed horse, who inadvertently gives his groom
or master a " nip," and then starts back in trepidation at
what he has done. The experienced horseman will have
frequently remarked in the horse he is riding or driving,
hesitation to act according to his instincts, especially if
the animal be in doubt if his rider or driver will stand
" nonsense." The horse's tentative efforts in this direction
seem to be controlled by a certain amount of reflection.
The apparently thoughtful manner in which some good-
tempered, intelligent horses will refrain, under great pro-
vocation, in cases of accident, from obeying their instinct
of self-preservation to the detriment of their rider or
driver, points to the fact of their being gifted with the
power of control. Most of us can call to mind instances
of high-couraged horses which, having fallen with their
rider in such a way, that if they had not remained perfectly
still while he was being extricated out of his difficulty,
he would in all probability have been killed. I have
known such animals, even during a run out hunting, and
without any special training, stop " dead " on their rider
failing off and getting hung up by the stirrup. In fact,
I have owned and known horses which, if they got into
any serious difficulty, out of which they could not safely
extricate themselves, would wait patiently for their rider
or driver to render them the necessary assistance. Other
horses which, on the contrary, appear to be guided solely
by instinct, will struggle and dash themselves about with
the utmost fury on finding themselves in any awkward
" fix." In this respect, mules, I think, generally show
more sense, as I shah1 point out on page 16, than most
horses.

A not very uncommon vice among horses is refusal to
go through a comparatively low doorway, on account of
the animal having knocked its head on some previous

io MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

occasion, against the top of such an entrance. Although
the man in charge may show the horse that by lowering
its head (which on such occasions it generally keeps raised
as high as possible), it can easily go under the supposed
obstruction, it will display an obstinate disbelief in the
efficacy of any such expedient. Other horses, wise from
experience, though not from having reasoned out the
problem, will display great intelligence in crawling under
bars employed to keep them prisoners, and even in opening
doors by lifting up the latch.

As intelligence restrains the action of instinct, it follows
that when these two faculties exist in an animal, they will
as a rule be in an inverse proportion to each other. Thus,
the bee and the spider have more highly developed instinct,
though less intelligence than the dog ; and vice versa. The
same remark would hold good when comparing civilised
nations with Bushmen or Australian blacks ; and English
and Arab horses with bronchos and zebras.

Although the horse has generally great difficulty in
associating cause and effect, unless the connection be par-
ticularly easy of perception, and the interval of time
between the two be extremely short ; he may be fully
alive to the fact, in particular cases, that the one cir-
cumstance follows the other. For example, we may every
day see horses which are accustomed to jump and prance
about immediately after making a stumble, and thus
betray the fact that they are old offenders in this respect.
Their alarm is evidently due to the remembrance that
punishment follows the making of a false step ; but they
have not intelligence enough to understand that the former
was the penalty of the latter ; for in no case which I have
seen, does the infliction of such chastisement render the
horse less liable to stumble. I have often remarked among
racehorses which I have been training, that plaiting the

INTELLIGENCE. n

mane previous to a race made some of the old ones so
excited, that they would refuse to eat after their mane
had been arranged in strands. They evidently connected
the idea of racing with this portion of their toilet. We
shah1 see further on how to induce the horse to make the
required mental connection, and even to teach him, for
our own ends, how to draw wrong conclusions as to cause
and effect.

I have been unable to trace any indication of reasoning
power in the horse, whose highest displays of intelligence
seem (to me, at least) to be the outcome of tentative or
accidental experience. He, like many human beings,
appears to lack the ability of acquiring new knowledge by
drawing conclusions from that which he already possesses.
If I am correct in this statement, association of ideas is,
therefore, the only means by which we are able to teach
him. Respecting the brain power of apes, Frank Buckland
says : "No monkey of any species, where the experiment
has been tried, would even put a stick or coal on to an
expiring fire ; he would sit down and shiver by the fire till
it goes out. His mind is not sufficiently acute to see the
connection between cause and effect, so as to put coal on
to keep the fire going." Cuvier, however, tells us of an
ourang-outang which, when at meals, if it was unable to
fill its spoon, would pass it on to the person next to it, in
order to get it filled. This clever ape, seeing, on one
occasion, that the glass which it had placed on the table
was on the point of toppling over, put out its hand and
prevented it from falling. I have noticed and admired
the intelligence with which dogs in charge of children
have sometimes prevented the little ones from going too
near the edge of a precipice, or the brink of deep water.
Newfoundland and other water dogs will often recognise
the fact of persons drowning, and will go to their assistance ;

12 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

although such animals might view with unconcern an
ordinary swimmer in the water. . The Indian elephant
can be easily taught to pile up logs of timber with almost
mathematical precision. Probably one of the best instances
of what we might call reasoning power in animals is
furnished by the fact that the sight of a dog being tied
behind a moving carriage is an almost irresistible tempta-
tion to other dogs to attack him, no matter how inferior
they may be to him in strength and size. The assaulting
parties appear to understand that an animal thus pulled
along by the head, is at a very serious disadvantage in
defending himself against an attack from behind.

Most of us, no doubt, have observed the artifice grooms
adopt, of showing a sieve of corn to a horse which is loose
in a field, and which they wish to entice within catching
distance. Although we may laugh at the simplicity of
the horse in this instance, we must not therefore conclude
that he is altogether wanting in sense ; for we may often
notice that if the groom presumes too far on the credulity
of the animal, and leads him off to the stable without
allowing him to eat some of the oats, he will in future
see through the imposition, and refuse to be caught. Here,
the sight of the man forms in the mind of the horse a
stronger association with the disagreeable idea of capture
than with the pleasurable one of food. The groom can
generally, however, restore the desired association by
judicious concessions. To explain the action of the horse
in this case, we in no way require to suppose that he is
guided by reason.

In many hilly countries where the mountains are high,
the bridle paths narrow and the cliffs precipitous, the pack
animals (horses, ponies, mules, and donkeys) which are
accustomed to carry bulky loads that overhang a good deal
to right and left, acquire the habit of travelling on the

CAN ANIMALS REASON? 13

extreme edge of the outside of the roadway, so that they
may not knock their burden against a jutting-out rock or
other prominent obstacle. I may explain that such an
accident might cause them to lose their balance and fall
over the precipice. We might accept the adoption of this
prudent precaution as a proof of forethought, were it not
for the fact that all practisers of this habit will adhere
to it when no such precaution is necessary. I have ridden
many ponies of this kind on wild mountain paths, with a
considerable amount of trepidation ; for do what I could
to keep them away from the dangerous edge of the cliff,
they would rigidly adhere to it, seemingly under the im-
pression that the load on their back (myself) projected
at least three feet on each side of them. Their prudence,
therefore, is the result of experience, and not of reason.
Most of my readers will no doubt recall many similar cases
among the horses of their acquaintance. I have never
seen a loose horse with a trap behind him refrain from
trying to go through a narrow gateway, because it was
not wide enough to admit the carriage.

While giving animals full credit for their manifestations
of intelligence, we should not forget that some of their
instinctive actions often simulate those due to reflection.
The extraordinary uniformity which animals of the same
species observe in performing actions that at first sight
appear to be prompted by reflection, would lead us to
ascribe them to blind instinct, rather than to thoughtful
intelligence, as, for instance, the ruses of the hare when
trying to baffle her pursuers.

To illustrate the manner in which we may mistake the
results of experience for those of reasoning, Professor
Lloyd Morgan cites the following case : " Some years ago
I was with a friend watching a horse which was dragging
a heavy load, zigzagging up a steep hill. ' How well,' said

14 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

my companion, ' that horse appreciates the principle of the
inclined plane.' I begged him to explain exactly what he
meant by this expression. ' He sees/ said my friend, ' that
the less the slope, the less intense, if more prolonged; the
labour to raise the load through a given height.' I told
him that my own view was that the poor animal was quite
unable to perceive the relation between the slope and the
labour, and to think, ' the less the slope the less the labour.'
Now I have noticed that when I am breasting a steep
grassy mountain slope, I have a tendency to slew off to
right or left, and thus to lighten my labour." We all, no
doubt, can easily call to mind many other instances of
mechanically advantageous results being obtained, even by
ourselves, automatically, and, consequently, without the
exercise of reasoning power.

Experience proves that the intelligence of the horse is
small as compared to that of the ape, monkey, dog, or
elephant ; although his memory is as good, if not better
than theirs. Our great difficulty in teaching the horse
arises from his dulness in associating cause and effect.

The chief difference between the mind of the horse and
that of man, is that instinct is far more highly developed,
and intelligence proportionately less developed, in him than
in us. His mind has, not very correctly, been compared
to that of a young child, whose instinct, however, is greatly
inferior to that of the horse, even if the child be in no way
superior to the horse in the matter of intelligence.

SPECIAL INSTINCTS AND SENSES.

The term, instinct of self-preservation, is used to express
a large number of instincts which serve to nourish the
animal's body and to protect it from danger, for which
duty we have love of freedom or impatience of control, fear
of surroundings, anger or resentment against inflicted or

ANGER. 15

threatened injury, hostility, revenge, &c. As a horse's chief
defence against foes, when in a wild state, is flight ; one
of the easiest signals to make him understand is that of
threatening him from behind, with a driving whip, for
instance, in order to induce him to go forward.

A horse shows his love of freedom by his tendency to
revert to a wild state. In this, he acts in marked contrast
to the ass, who seems to accept his lot of servitude with
resignation, probably on account of his having been longer
under the influence of domestication.

A horse may be easily excited to anger by the infliction
of pain, by threat, and by acting in a suspicious manner,
as a person might do even by running away from the
animal in real or assumed fear. A horse may display his
anger by active resentment or hostility, or by stubbornness,
which is of all faults the most difficult to overcome. His
memory of the successful indulgence of such feelings is
particularly long. I remember the case of a cavalry horse
which had incurred the dislike of the Colonel of the
regiment on account of jibbing and refusing to jump.
The commanding officer had on several occasions vainly
used the driving whip with the utmost severity in the
endeavour to make the animal clear the obstacles in the
riding-school. At last, the Colonel gave the delinquent up
as hopeless, and had him " cast." He was bought for a
very small sum by a friend of mine, who is a capable horse-
man, and who in a short time converted him into a willing
and reliable harness horse. Five years passed by without
incident as far as the horse was concerned, until it happened
that my friend drove him in his dog-cart to the neighbouring
railway station to meet the Colonel, who got into the trap,
and, as they drove off, began to express his thanks for the
"lift." The moment the horse heard the well-remembered
and hated voice, he instantly stopped and refused to pro-

16 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

ceed. My friend laughingly asked the Colonel to kindly
dismount, to go in front of the horse while continuing to
talk, then to cease speaking, and, when the horse moved
off again, to get into the dog-cart without uttering a word.
As soon as the horse thought that the owner of the detested
voice had gone away, he started on his journey in obedience
to the signal of his driver, and carried the two gentlemen
to their destination in his usual orderly manner.

When a horse is under the influence of either fear or
anger, he will often act with total disregard to his own
safety. I knew a case of a pony mare who, on getting by
accident over her head a bag which prevented her from
seeing, started off in a mad gallop, and dashed out her
brains against the first lamp-post she encountered. Some
jibbers have been flogged and spurred in the most cruel
manner, without being induced to proceed in the required
direction ; and others, which have thrown themselves down
in their sulky fit, have had fires lighted under them
without making them get up. From anger as well as from
fear, horses have kicked so violently against hard objects,
that they have not alone inflicted severe wounds on their
legs, but have even broken them. A dog, unless he was
mad, would do none of these things ; because he has
intelligence enough to recognise the folly of needlessly
hurting himself. I have observed that if a kicking mule,
when in harness, gets a hind leg over a shaft or trace,
he will, unlike what a horse would usually do under similar
conditions, keep quiet and allow himself to be released
as speedily as possible. This, I think, is a valid argument
in favour of the idea that mules are, as a rule, more intel-
ligent than horses.

Horses will sometimes treasure up the feeling of revenge
against those who have injured them, whether the offenders
be men or animals of their own kind. I once owned 3

IMITATION. 17

particularly inoffensive charger who never did anything
wrong for the three years I had him, until one day he got
bitten by the horse of a friend of mine who had come out
for a ride with me. As I had both hands on the reins,
and as the two animals were side by side, my horse was not
able to return the assault for the time being. After the
lapse of about an hour, during which time I had forgotten
all about the " nip " received by my mount, something or
the other obliged me to take the lead, when, just as I was
drawing clear, my horse kicked the other animal most
viciously and hurt him severely. I continued to own this
horse for about two years after that ; but on no subsequent
occasion did he show the slightest tendency to use his heels
against either man or horse.

The instinct of gregariousness in the horse, namely, that
which prompts him to herd with his fellows, causes him to
share the feelings of his companions, and is closely con-
nected with the instinct of imitation. He often copies his
mates in rearing and in other forms of " playing up," as
well as in the familiar stable vices of crib-biting, wind-
sucking, and weaving. We may often notice, when riding
in company, that if one horse, the leader as a rule, starts at
some object, which is frequently so trivial as to escape our
notice, that the others will follow suit with such quickness
that we might almost suppose that there was some kind of
electrical communication between them ; the fact, however,
being that their thoughts are chiefly devoted to watching
the movements of those in front of them.

As the horse is a gregarious animal, the breaker will be
able to engage his attentions far better when he has him
alone — in a riding-school, for instance — than when other
horses are present. The teacher may utilise the imitative
instinct by giving a " reluctant " one a lead over a fence, or
by placing an unruly pupil alongside a steady break-horse.

18 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

The habit of galloping about in herds has probably
developed the instinct of emulation, which in horses is
almost entirely confined to trying to outstrip each other in
trials of speed. A horse's affection towards his kind, irre-
spective of sexual relations, or perhaps more correctly, his
love of companionship with them, is a form of the instinct
of gregariousness, and is often strongly developed. When
parted from his equine friend (no matter what the respective
sexes may have been), he will frequently display his sorrow
by dejection and refusal to eat. I have known a horse, in
such a plight, die apparently from grief/ I have seen a
horse " chum " with a cow, which was the only other
quadruped in the field in which the two used to graze. In
obeying his instinct in this instance, he no doubt mistook
the ruminant for a kind of soliped. I have known dogs
and even goats become attached to horses ; but could
obtain no proof that the horse reciprocated the devotion—
at least, to judge by the sound test of the effect of separa-
tion on appetite. Cats sometimes select a horse as a
companion ; probably on account of the mice or rats which
come after the spilt grain, or because the horse's back forms
a warm couch for pussy. In such cases I have seen no
demonstration of love, beyond curiosity or good-natured
forbearance, for his feline companion on the part of the
horse. Mares without their young at foot, or when barren,
not unusually adopt orphan foals if they get the opportunity
of doing so. As a horse's affection, apart from sexual or
maternal motives, seems to be dependent on his instinct
of gregariousness, and as mankind can in no way become
objects of this instinct, his fondness for us rarely exceeds
cupboard love, or mere tolerance. Unless he be influenced
by fear, he will take the proffered carrot or other dainty
as readily from the hand of a stranger as from that of his
master or mistress, separation from whom has never been

AFFECTION. 19

known to injuriously affect his appetite. I think we must
accept the fact that his affection towards man, however
highly it might be cultivated, is too slight to admit of its
being utilised in our service. I have observed that horses
in whom the instinct of gregariousness is strongly de-
veloped, are frequently sulky, or at least have their hearts
somewhat " behind their work " when alone, evidently on
account of their thoughts being with their absent -com-
panion or companions, instead of with the business at
which they are engaged. The horse exhibits little or
no love for the admiration of man, which in the dog is a
valuable means of education. We may often find a dog
striving to win our approval by bringing us a stone to
throw away, and thus to give him an opportunity of showing
his cleverness by retrieving it.

The sexual or reproductive instinct is often a great hin-
drance to the success of equine education. Some mares
are always more or less " in season," or are liable to become
so if anything rubs against their hind quarters. When
afflicted with this form of nymphomania, they are, as a
rule, " jady," apt to kick, and otherwise unreliable. The
entire, from combativeness engendered by sexual rivalry,
sometimes shows a strong tendency to " savage." The ex-
perience I have had among wild and unbroken horses leads
me to think that the vice of attacking with the teeth is
either sexual or acquired ; for geldings, which have been
emasculated young, and which have not been brought
under the influence of man, exhibit it to a very trifling
extent ; although, under provocation, they will freely lash
out behind, cow-kick, or strike out with their fore legs.

Sense of hearing. — The horse, agreeably to the anecdote
told on page 15, and as we might infer from observing the
almost constant play of his ears when he is in the open,
pays great attention to sounds, and is very quick to mark

?*

20 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

differences of tone, although he has extremely little ability
to distinguish one word from another. As a rule, a loud,
harsh sound of the human voice frightens the horse ; but
a soft one calms him.

Sense of sight. — The horse is greatly affected by objects
which have to him a strange or suspicious appearance. It
is easy to understand that the survival of an instinct which
in former times helped to preserve him from his neigh-
bouring foes, makes him start with terror when he sees,
for instance, a bear skin in his path, or a trailing rope, the
serpentine motion of which might suggest the idea of a
snake. But I cannot fathom the motive for the fear with
which the approach of a camel invariably inspires him. He
will seldom take in good part the sight of a donkey (or
even a pony) with a bulky load on its back. Water and
white and glittering objects are generally sources of alarm
to him. The expression of the human face appears to have
no effect on the horse. " With respect to this subject I
have made many experiments on young and old horses,
and can certify that if the man moves only his eyes and
the muscles of his face, without stirring his body or arms
the horse will remain perfectly unconcerned. I have a
hundred times tried the effect of anger in my look, of smiles
on my lips, without the slightest result. You may make
the most horrible grimaces at your horse, or you may
stick your tongue out at them, but none of them will show
the smallest sign of being influenced by such means "
(Fillis). The reason for the horse being insensible to the
expression of the human face, however exaggerated it may
be, although keenly observant of the slightest movement
of the hand, for instance, appears to me to be that the
special feature which the horse looks at, as an index to the
mind, is the ears, which in man are too small and too little
gifted with mobility to afford him any clue to our thoughts.

SENSE OF SIGHT. 21

They are, in the horse, his most expressive feature, and
consequently he draws conclusions principally, in this re-
spect, from the nature of their movements. That, under
ordinary circumstances, an animal's ideas on facial ex-
pression are chiefly, if not wholly, derived from his studies
on that subject among individuals of his own species.
The mouth of the horse, as well as his ears, is capable
of expressing his feelings to some extent ; but it differs
so much from that of man in its position on the face, in
its power of laying bare the teeth, and in the mobility
and size of the upper lip, that our possession of a mouth is
a fact of which the horse is possibly unaware. In any case,
its expression is nearly, if not quite, meaningless to him.
With our organs of vision, the most threatening action is
that of knitting the eyebrows ; with those of the horse,
that of " showing the white of the eye." As we habitually
do the latter, but in a way different to that of the horse,
and as the horse is practically incapable of the former ;
it is reasonable to suppose that the play of our eyes would
be lost on him. The power of expression of a dog's features
resembles that of man to a certain extent. I have seen
dogs smile, wrinkle the skin on their noses when doing
so, in a manner not very unlike that by which some persons
show their pleasure at meeting an agreeable acquaintance.
We all know that a dog makes a special study of the ex-
pression of his master's face.

Sense of feeling and smell. — Although the horse's sense
of smell is acute, I have not observed that he, like the dog,
uses it to recognise persons. I certainly think that, when
a horse brings his muzzle up to anything he may wish to
examine, he does so with the object of using it more as an
organ of touch, than to smell the object in question. As a
rule, a horse which is in a doubtful mood with respect to a
person who wishes to approach him, will, as every horse-

22 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

man knows, feel considerably reassured it he be allowed
to touch with his muzzle the hand of the man, who, unless
he sees the danger signal of drawn back ears, should on
no account pull his hand abruptly away ; for the fact of
his doing so will usually be regarded by the horse as a
menace. The smell of a camel is extremely distasteful to
the horse, who, as a rule, does not at all object to that of
the elephant, which is quite as peculiar a looking animal
as " the ship of the Desert." The smell from a tannery
inspires almost all horses with fear.

Scratching his mane is the form of caress most appre-
ciated by the horse,, especially if he be in a wild state, in
which case his crest will be more or less itchy from the
presence of scurf and insects.

As the actions of the horse are prompted far more by
instinct than by intelligence ; one of his chief character-
istics is -uniformity of conduct, which fact can be utilised with
advantage by the breaker. What a horse does once, we
may generally count upon him performing a second time
under similar conditions. Hence, if his progress in educa-
tion be slow, it will, as a rule, be sure. The treachery
which is noticeable in many men and women, and even
in a few monkeys and dogs, is almost absent in the horse.
If we find that the horse which previously was quiet to
handle and ride, suddenly wants to take one's life, or
to " play up " in some outrageous fashion, we may be
certain that his change of demeanour is not due to the
fact of his having thought out some nefarious plan to
gain his own ends by our discomfiture ; but that it is
the outcome of provocation which he has had just reason
to resent on some previous occasion. The few treacherous
horses which I have met were, I feel certain, rendered so
by cruel or injudicious treatment.

The feeling of submission to superior power is the chief

UNIFORMITY OF CONDUCT. 23

one by which we can obtain mastery over the horse, who,
when he finds himself defeated, will generally " give in "
completely. Here, his small amount of intelligence will not
enable him to reflect that, although we have mastered him
on one point, he may be able to turn the tables on us under
different circumstances. The process of rendering a fero-
cious dog or savage tiger helpless for the time being, as
we might do to the horse by Rareyfying him, or by other
horse-taming methods, would not prevent either the dog or
the tiger from flying at us the moment he was free from
his trammels.

Courage or pluck in the horse. — A man, in the facing
of danger, may, by a purely intellectual effort, overcome
his instinct of self-preservation. Here we have the resultant
of two opposing forces. Thus, brave men have often,
even from motives of abstract right, faced certain death,
the terrors of which they have keenly felt the whole time.
Others have been equally self-sacrificing under the purely
instinctive influences of anger, jealousy, emulation, or love
of admiration. Although there are no words to exactly
express these two kinds of feelings, we may, for con-
venience sake, apply valour or bravery to the former ;
courage or pluck, to the latter. This, I need hardly ex-
plain, is an arbitrary use of words on my part ; yet the
distinction is worthy of consideration. The facing of
danger in the horse, as far as I have been able to observe,
is entirely the result of instinct, of habit, or of a com-
bination of the two ; and has consequently no intellectual
element. The term " courage," as used by horsemen,
signifies that feeling (whether simple or compound), under
the influence of which the horse will strain every effort
to obey the orders of his rider or driver. In its trans-
mission, the effect of heredity is often well marked. This
most valuable quality can be easily lost by mismanagement.

24 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

VICE.

The term vice in the horse is used in such various senses
that I am unable to supply an exact definition of it.
Perhaps I might be permitted, for convenience sake, to say
that, from a saddle and harness point of view, it includes
all unruly habits and tricks which militate against the
safety or comfort of the ordinary rider or driver. We
might therefore sub-divide it into deliberate vices, and
those arising from impatience of control or nervousness.
By deliberate vices, I mean those which the horse practises
for the gratification of his own ends, in direct opposition
to the well-understood and legitimate orders of man ;
and those which prompt him to make unprovoked and
hostile attacks on man or other animals.

Stable vices I may define as those which produce in-
jurious or unpleasant effects either on the horse or on his
attendants, while he is in his stall or loose box, or while he
is entering or leaving his abode.

What we are pleased, from our point of view, to call
vice in the horse, is, as a rule, manifestations of his instinct
of self-preservation, and has nothing to say to innate
turpitude. In combating, therefore, so-called vice in the
horse, we should not resent (as too many of us are inclined
to do) his non-compliance with our wishes as a personal
affront ; for he owes no allegiance to us beyond that of
the weaker mind to the stronger.

There is a pseudo form of nervousness which is a common
vice among horses that are well fed, underworked, and are
ridden or driven by timorous people. I may point to the
far greater tendency these so-called nervous horses have
to shy and " play up " when leaving their stable, than
when returning to it after a long journey.

The distinction between nervous and deliberate vice may

NERVOUSNESS. 25

be easily made, if we observe how a horse acts after we
have proved to him that he need have no fear of us.
For instance, if we fix up a horse, say, in a " strait-jacket "
(see page 129), so that he cannot kick, and continue to
" gentle " him over with one hand until he has ample
reason to believe that we have no intention of hurting
him ; we might justly term him vicious if he kicked out
at us, without our again touching him, the moment the
restraint was removed. Fear of the near approach of
man will often induce a purely nervous animal to kick
out, if a person, and especially a stranger, ventures to
come within reach. Although horses frequently kick from
nervousness, they rarely bite from that cause alone. I
think I might venture to define the more or less vicious
form of nervousness as the exhibition by the horse of
unfounded fear of surroundings which, however startling
their effect on him might be in the first instance, he has
proved by ample experience will not hurt him.

The more experience I acquire in the breaking of horses,
the more convinced I become that the so-called " nervous-
ness " of animals which have been handled some time, and
which have always been treated with kindness, is largely
made up of impatience of control, and, in many cases, of
active hostility. I make bold to assert that many crafty
dangerous brutes pose before their owners as ill-used
victims of a too highly-strung nervous system. Take, for
instance, an old saddle-horse, like many I have met, that
snorts with apparent terror at anyone who approaches
him, and is ready, on the slightest chance of reaching
his mark, to strike out in front, or lash out behind, if
saddling or mounting him be attempted. His nervous
emotion the first time he was taken in hand, or the first
time he performed his unpleasant tricks, may have been
thoroughly genuine ; but its exhibition enabled him more

26 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

or less successfully to resist control. This act of insub-
ordination having revealed to him the knowledge of his
own power, which is a pleasurable sensation to every
animal, was naturally repeated on every available occasion,
until the vicious habit became confirmed ; although its
necessity may have been disproved to him scores of times
by the fact that the saddling or mounting had been ac-
complished without the infliction of any pain or irritation
to him, however great the trouble may have been to the
groom or rider. As in horses, so do we find among dogs,
that nervousness often degenerates into ferocity. The
young dog who barks violently from nervousness, on seeing
that the noise he makes causes persons in his vicinity to
run away, is tempted to follow them, and, having dis-
covered his own power, is apt to exercise it, with the usual
result that he becomes bad-tempered and vicious.

I am inclined to think that nervous horses are not as
" game " as their more placid fellows, and am thoroughly
convinced that the majority of so-called nervous horses
are sulky, treacherous brutes. Although there are ex-
ceptions to this rule, it would be most unwise to ignore
the fact that the repetition of any trick which tends to
render an animal difficult of control, whatever way it may
have been contracted, has an increasingly bad effect on him
the longer it is continued.

Sulkiness or obstinacy in the horse, which we may regard
as the antithesis to " courage " (see page 23), is of various
forms, is produced by many different causes, and is often
complex in its nature. It may be entirely due to natural
impatience of control, as I have frequently seen in freshly-
caught animals, which, when haltered for the first time, on
finding that they could not escape, have thrown themselves
down on the ground and refused to move. In such cases,
as indicated on page 7, it increases with age, It may be

AGGRESSIVENESS. 27

acquired, as we may find any day on the racecourse among
animals which have been rendered " faint-hearted " by
" punishment." Many of these poor things show by the
tumultuous beating of their hearts that fear — from the
mental association of their surroundings with the idea of
pain — and also, most probably, the feeling of injustice, are
the causes of their not " trying." A tendency to " faint-
heartedness " is often inherited ; stubbornness may be the
result of a habit which, for instance, a timid rider or driver
has allowed the horse to acquire by giving it too much of
its own way. In jibbers, we may see many degrees of this
particularly bad habit, which, other things being equal, is
difficult to overcome in proportion to the severity and
frequency of the successful contests which the horse has
had with his would-be master. Here, the employment of
ineffectual punishment or of unavailing force serves only to
increase the horse's knowledge of his own power, which we
should always strive to withhold from him. If horses could
reason better than they do, the vice of jibbing would un-
doubtedly be more common among them than it is at
present. Laziness is often akin to obstinacy, as we may
find in some horses which, without actually jibbing, are
always ready to slacken their speed, even if they do not
stop entirely, the moment the rider or driver ceases to
stimulate them ; although the task required of them may
be well within their compass. On the other hand, some
of the " gamest " horses require a great deal of " rousing
up " in order to make them exert themselves to the utmost.
I may define jibbing as refusal to move or to go in a re-
quired direction by a horse which understands the. order
given, and which is well able to execute it if he wishes.
Long-continued privation in youth renders a horse more
or less spiritless and inclined to be sulky.

Aggressiveness. — By this term I wish to express the vice

28 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

some horses have of attacking men or other animals with-
out sufficient provocation. Horses are said to " savage "
when they use their teeth as weapons of aggression. Entires
are specially prone to this mode of assault, and, if they
succeed in overthrowing their opponent, to increase their
advantage by kneeling on him. Mares delight most in
kicking. My expeiience — gained chiefly in South Africa
— of absolutely unhandled horses is, that when caught
for the first time, they will strike out freely in front, lash
out behind, or cow-kick, but that they will very rarely
attempt to bite. The acquisition of that fatal knowledge
of his own power to injure or terrify his enemy, especially
if resentment for the infliction of pain be added to it, is
without doubt the chief cause of aggressiveness. A here-
ditary tendency to aggressiveness is often well marked.
Teasing a horse is usually effective in developing that un-
desirable quality.

Treachery, as I have stated on page 22, is a rare vice
in the horse. It is fortunate for horse-owners that it is
seldom met with ; for of all equine failings, it is the most
dangerous and the most difficult to cure. The treacherous
horse, after having gained one's confidence by a more or
less prolonged course of docility, may in a moment, without
any warning and apparently without the slightest provoca-
tion, buck one off its back, kick the trap to pieces, bolt
madly away in saddle or harness, savage one, or kick one.
And yet, the instant it has effected its deliberately planned
purpose, it may assume an air of innocence, and act as if it
were the impersonification of virtue. I cannot help giving
treacherous horses credit for the possession of a com-
paratively large amount of intelligence.

CHAPTER II.
THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Objects and scope of horse-breaking — Requirements in the breaker — Desirability
of early training — -Gaining the horse's attention — Accustoming a horse to
his surroundings — Making a horse understand our orders — Punishment and
reward — Effect of the voice — Emulation and imitation — Fatigue — Necessity
for exacting implicit obedience from the horse -Safety in breaking — Rapid
methods of breaking — On the possibility of overcoming any form of vice —
Personal influence in breaking — Advisability of possessing various methods
of breaking — Selection of breaking methods — Permanency in the effects of
breaking — -Summary of the principles of making horses docile.

IN this chapter I shall limit myself chiefly to the theory
of making horses quiet and obedient, without special refer-
ence to the formation of " mouth " and paces, which I shall
consider in Chapter III.

OBJECTS AND SCOPE OF HORSE-BREAKING.

The objects of horse-breaking are : (i) to make the animal
quiet, both in and out of the stable ; (2) to teach him to
obey the orders of his rider or driver with promptness and
precision ; and (3) to establish in him the habit of applying
his powers to the best advantage.

The scope of breaking is wider than might generally be
thought ; for it includes not alone the education of the
untutored animal, bat also the correction of faults which,
while seriously detracting from the horse's value, are usually
looked upon as unavoidable dispensations that have to be

30 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

borne with becoming resignation ; as, for instance, prancing,
chucking up the head, star-gazing, boring, refusing to jump
particular kinds of fences, refusing to jump in " cold blood,"
showing excitement in harness when the whip is cracked,
shying off the ball at polo, disinclination to stand steady
when being mounted, etc. The knowledge (which I shall
endeavour to supply to my readers) of the way to give a
horse a good " mouth," and to render him steady and
reliable, is of infinitely more value to everyone, except a
showman, than instruction (which I shall try to afford) in
methods for taming man-eaters and other exceptionally
dangerous animals. The art of mere " horse-taming "
is of little practical use ; for the need of its application is
of but rare occurrence, especially in countries where horses
have been brought up under civilised conditions. Even
the celebrated Rarey, after subduing three or four
" savages," when in England, had to content himself with
exhibiting them about the country as reformed characters,
for lack of new subjects on which to show his skill. When
wishing to form a class for practical instruction in horse-
breaking, during my various tours, I have frequently met
with the objection that there were no vicious horses in
that particular place. But as I always replied that I
needed animals with only common faults of mouth and
temper, I have never been at a loss, on such occasions,
for subjects to demonstrate the fact that there are but
few horses entirely free from some riding or driving fault
which more or less impairs their value, and which, as a
rule, can be readily corrected. Besides the formation of
" mouth " and " manners " in the unhandled horse, as
well as in the " spoiled " one ; breaking comprehends the
special education of the horse in many different capacities.

REQUIREMENTS, IN THE BREAKER.

REQUIREMENTS IN THE BREAKER.

To break-in a horse properly, one requires to have know-
ledge, patience, readiness of resource, sympathy, skill,
coolness, and pluck. Horse-breaking, I may state, is
partly an art and partly a science. In its former relation,
dexterity to carry out its mechanical details is necessary.
In the latter, acquaintance with the laws which respec-
tively govern the working of the animal's mind and body is
needed. All such indispensable knowledge will, however,
be in vain, unless the breaker has patience to apply it in an
exact manner, and without allowing himself to be influenced
in any way by feelings of impatience, anger, or resentment.
Horses vary mentally as much as they do physically.
Some are quick and docile ; others, stupid and stubborn.
If their lack of comprehension or wilful disobedience causes
their teacher to lose his temper, the exliibition of his annoy-
ance will assuredly frighten out of the timid ones whatever
sense may have been in their heads, and will provoke the
sullen ones to resistance, if not to retaliation. To be suc-
cessful, he should adopt the maxim of patience, patience,
and still more patience. Not alone are horses of infinite
variety as regards their dispositions ; but the causes of their
failings or vices differ so much that the breaker must be
essentially a man of ready resource, and not a mere follower
of routine. Again, he must have sympathy with weakness,
and must be quick to appreciate and reward progress in
learning and compliance with his wishes. Skill can be ob-
tained, and " the magic touch " developed, only by long
practice. The handling of bad horses in breaking, cer-
tainly demands a large amount of coolness and pluck,
both of which can also be improved by practice.

32 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

DESIRABILITY OF EARLY TRAINING.

As those instincts of the horse which are opposed to obedi-
ence to man, increase in strength with age, it is a great
advantage to begin the education of a horse as early as
possible. Horses which from their birth have roamed
about in freedom for several years, have their instinct of
independence so strongly developed, that it is proportion-
ately difficult to make them learn that it is their duty
to obey, and not to dictate. I have met many such cases
among South African and under-bred Australian horses
which had been " taken up " late in life. Although it
is easy to make these old pupils lose their fear of man, it
is often impossible to induce them to render willing service;
in other words, if not actually sulky, their hearts, so to
speak, are generally behind, instead of in front of, their
work. Not alone do these rebellious instincts grow stronger
with years, but their possessors become less capable of
being influenced by new impressions.

Whether the pupil be a child or a horse, the first step
which the teacher will have to take in imparting instruc-
tion is to make him attend to his lesson. As the horse is
a gregarious and roving animal, whose instinct of self-
preservation prompts him, when in the open, to keep a
sharp look-out against the attacks of enemies ; the breaker
will be able to keep him far more attentive and obedient
in some convenient enclosure, such as a riding-school,
which contains no other horses and men, and which is free
from disturbing external influences, than in the open.
When the habit of obedience has been confirmed (but not
till then), the animal should be gradually accustomed to

RIDING-SCHOOLS. 33

work outside, and in company. As horses in the army,
owing to their large number, are broken in " rides " of
several at a time, a certain proportion of them contract
the vice of refusing to leave the ranks or to act inde-
pendently, which, I need hardly say, is a form of jibbing.
The same detestable vice is often met with in the hunting
field, from the fact of timid or incompetent riders seeking
for a lead. The instinct of imitation in the horse is far
more of a hindrance than of an aid to the breaker who
aspires to teach a horse to implicitly obey his rider or driver.
Even the most experienced will require no argument to
understand that a horse which will not take his own line,
or will not, for instance, jump in " cold blood," is not
half broken.

To many persons who regard horse-breaking as a purely
empirical art, the mention of a riding-school as a place of
instruction for a young hunter, race-horse, or chaser, is like
the showing of a red rag to the proverbial buh1. We must,
of course, bear in mind, that mere personal opinions have
no part in the science of horse-breaking. The prejudice
against riding-school work has no doubt arisen from the
fact, that as a rule, the manage has been used for the train-
ing of horses only for military, school, or circus purposes ;
and has not been hitherto utilised to any great extent for
preparing them for the field or road. I can say from
experience, that anyone who has used a suitable enclosure
for the preparatory teaching of, for instance, 'cross-country
horses and hacks, and has had subsequently to do the work
without a school of this kind, will keenly appreciate the
great advantage the use of a manage gives him in gain-
ing the attention of his pupils, and in rendering them
obedient.

I may here allude to the fact that over-stimulation of the
nerves, whether in a mental or physical respect, tends to

3

34 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

insensibility. Thus, the too frequently excited muscle
ceases to contract ; and the overwrought brain, to think.
The miller remains unconscious of the din of the machinery
around him ; and the horse, of the admonitions of the rider
or driver who keeps constantly speaking to him. Continued
pressure of the bit on the bars of the horse's mouth is far
less effective in restraining the animal, than pressure which
is judiciously intermitted. The stimulus of whip, spurs,
or mouthpiece, if repeated in a monotonous manner, is at
last more or less disregarded.

ACCUSTOMING A HORSE TO HIS SURROUNDINGS.

To render the horse capable of instruction, it is not suffi-
cient to arrest his attention ; but we must also gain his con-
fidence by proving to him that he need not fear injury
from anything we do to him, or from the surroundings in
which we place him. To render him steady under future
provocation, it is well to make him bear with equanimity
all possible kinds of terrifying sights and sounds and to
oblige him to endure being touched all over without flinch-
ing. The higher we try him in these respects — it being of
course understood that the causes of alarm do not entail
pain — the quieter will he be if anything startling happens to
him during actual work. The mere accustoming a horse to
unfamiliar sights, sounds and feelings, is not a reliable
method for making him steady ; because, if permitted to do
so, he will often, particularly when he is fresh, assume a
frightened demeanour which may be pure affectation on his
part, but which may be fraught with danger to his rider or
driver. On the contrary, he should be taught to devote his
entire attention to carrying out the orders of his master, and
not to attempt to take the initiative, unless he receives the
signal that he can act for himself for the time being.

UNDERSTANDING OUR SIGNALS. 35

MAKING A HORSE UNDERSTAND OUR ORDERS.

We know from experience that the horse, to be well broken
in, must not alone be quiet ; but must also thoroughly
understand the meaning of the various orders we give him.
Although his intelligence is not developed highly enough to
enable us to teach him our spoken language ; we may by
the establishment of certain signals render him capable of
knowing our wishes, in the carrying out of which their clear
comprehension is naturally the first step. Our conventional
language or signals should be those which he can best
understand. Hence, in this endeavour we should work on his
most highly developed mental faculty, namely, his memory,
in the exercise of which, association of ideas is the most
effective stimulus. It is evident that we should give these
signals in as clear and uniform a manner as possible, and
that their effect should not be complicated by that of
other influences, such as fear, anger, excitement, or desire
to go to a companion. We shall see further on that almost
the entire education of the horse depends upon association
of ideas. I may give the following instance of the working
of this principle : — A friend of mine had a horse which
became so increasingly difficult to mount, that at last he
was unable to get on him by ordinary means, on account
of the animal " breaking away " the moment he attempted
to put his foot into the stirrup. Living near a river, he
hit on the expedient of placing the horse with his off side
" broadside on," and close to, a steep part of the bank,
and then made a feint of mounting on the near side. As
usual, when the man's foot touched the iron, the horse
swung round, and, on this occasion only, fell down twenty
feet into the water. The mental effect of this lesson,
which was harmless from a physical point of view, was

3*

36 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

to make the animal perfectly steady to mount, so long
as he stood on the bank of the river and in a position
similar to that from which he had had his tumble, but he
was just as difficult as ever to mount anywhere else. It is
evident that any such method to be perfect should be
of universal, and not of local, application. No doubt this
unruly horse would, by many, be deemed a nervous creature
and a worthy recipient of a large amount of kindness and
petting. I may state that probably the most effective
means of applying the principle of association of ideas to
the breaking of vicious horses, is one by which the animal
arrives at the right conclusion from wrong premises, as with
the rope-twitch (see page 324), when making a horse
steady to mount. Evidently mistaking the cause of the pain
inflicted on him, he connects the idea of punishment with the
word " steady," and not with the application of the rope.
Were he able to argue rightly on this subject, he would re-
main quiet only when the twitch was on, and would entirely
disregard the verbal admonition, for which he entertains
marked respect.

If a horse does not understand our signals, and we
continue to force them on him, he will, as a rule, become
impatient, violent or stubborn. In the horse world, we hear
every day the remark that a horse knows when he has a
timid rider on his back. My opinion, after long and careful
investigation, is that the animal draws no conclusion what-
soever as to the state of mind of the man in the saddle ; but
that any unaccustomed " defence " which he may make in
such a case is due to his becoming confused by the ill-
regulated signals which the rider gives him. Although the
unhappy man may be entirely unaware that he is transmit-
ting these signals ; it is impossible for him to avoid doing
so, if he makes the slightest movement with hand, leg, or
body. Every such movement is made by the accomplished

PUNISHMENT. 37

horseman with the purpose of giving a definite and easily
understood signal to his mount.

A horse's respect for signals which he understands, is
well proved by the fact that many horses which are
habitually " difficult " with ordinary riders, will obey with
steadiness and precision the behests of a capable horseman.
I have known horses which, after they left their breaker,
became almost unrideable by the majority of people from
having been " spoiled " by bad management ; and yet
whenever their breaker happened to ride them again, they
appeared almost instantly to forget their lately-acquired
tricks, and comported themselves as sedately as they had
previously done with him.

PUNISHMENT AND REWARD

Are the two great means by which we can establish, for
purposes of education, the required association of ideas
in the mind of the horse, whose affection for us and
whose love of our admiration are, as I have already said,
too slight to be profitably utilised. Punishment is far
more effective than reward, which, I regretfully feel com-
pelled to say, might be altogether laid aside without any
appreciable interference with the progress of a horse's
instruction. I make this statement from practical experi-
ence, and not from sentimental considerations, with which
I have at present no concern. In deference to long-estab-
lished stable usage, I here employ the expression " punish-
ment " for the infliction of pain, independently of its ob-
ject. Thus, a race-horse is often said to run gamely under
punishment, which in that case means the application of
whip, or spurs, or of both, as a stimulus to increased exer-
tion. We should bear in mind that humanity, as well
as self-interest, enacts that the breaker is justified in

38 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

inflicting suffering on the horse only as a means of edu-
cation, but not as a penalty for wrong-doing, which is
a question of morality that does not concern him. In
breaking, the sole benefit to be derived from the infliction,
or from fear of pain, is to induce the animal to mentally
associate with it the particular idea which the breaker
wishes to convey, either as a stimulus or as a warning.
The horse, following his instinct of seeking safety from
danger by flight, tries, as a rule, to escape from threatened
or inflicted pain. Thus, the horse goes forward when we
raise the driving whip behind him, or touch him on the
quarters with it. If we threaten him with the whip in front,
he will usually recoil from it. I think we may take for
granted that if the horse yielded to instinct, uninfluenced
by previous training, he would, on being struck on the front
part of the body, be more inclined to go back than to go
forward. By association of ideas, however, we can teach
him to increase his pace almost as well by hitting him on
the shoulder as on the hind quarters. The latter method
is much to be preferred to the former, on account of its
being more in harmony with the animal's instinct. If
an irritating fly happens to pitch on the horse's side behind
the girths, he will instinctively try to dislodge it by
whisking it off with his tail, or, failing that, by kicking
at it. As we wish him to employ neither of these means on
being touched with the spur, we should teach him to regard
its application as an indication of our wishes, and not as a
cause of irritation. Pain as a warning may be illustrated
by the use of the wooden gag (see page 329), to make the
biter connect in his mind the idea of pain with the practice
of his pet vice, which he will forsake as soon as the sug-
gested thought becomes habitual to him.

The chief practical reasons against the employment of
punishment in the breaking of horses are : that it is very

PUNISHMENT. 39

liable to fail in its object ; and that it is calculated to break
the spirit of high-coufaged animals, and to increase the
sulkiness of stubborn ones* When the horse is under the
influence of anger, to which he can be readily provoked
by punishment, he will be incapable of instruction, and
may exhibit dangerous resentment, or determined passive
resistance, with utter disregard of painful or even fatal
consequences to himself. A victory obtained by him when
in this state of feeling will naturally produce a powerful
effect on his excited mind, and will consequently aggravate
any tendency to resistance far more than the exhibition of
timidity or weakness on the part of the rider or driver. Of
course I do not mean to say that a vigorous " shaking up,"
and a sharp cut or two with a stick (for preference) or whip,
is not sometimes advisable with a " reluctant " horse, or to
stop the " calfish " tricks of a youngster ; but even in this
we should carefully remember the danger we run in being
unsuccessful in our attempted enforcement of discipline.
The history of the Turf furnishes us with an appalling
number of instances of race-horses which have had their
tempers permanently spoiled, by jockeys or stable-lads
punishing them severely for some act of disobedience which
the thrashing and spurring was unable to prevent. Person-
ally, / make it a rule never to hit a horse, so as to hurt him,
when breaking. Mares are far more liable than entires or
geldings to be spoiled by punishment. If the breaker be
obliged to employ coercive measures, he should apply them
in such a manner (as I shah1 explain later on) that the horse
will not connect him with the inflicted pain.

In making a horse quiet, or in regulating his movements,
we should naturally avoid, as far as possible, the use of any
kind of pain which, while accomplishing its special purpose,
produces in other respects a bad effect on the horse. The
ordinary twitch furnishes us with a good illustration ; for

40 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

although it may make the horse stand steady while it is
being employed, its application, whether on upper lip or
ear, will almost certainly render him subsequently more or
less difficult to handle near the former seat of pain. The
same object may be urged against the use of the cavesson
(see page 131) for inflicting blows on the horse's nose,
with a like object. The practice of jerking the reins so
as to hurt the " bars " of the animal's mouth, with the
intention of punishing him for unsteadiness, is still more
reprehensible ; for as long as the reins are associated in his
retentive mind with the idea of pain, so long will he receive
with suspicion, fear, or resentment, all orders conveyed to
him through the reins, and consequently his usefulness will
be more or less impaired for any service that demands
pluck and " cleverness." These remarks apply to the
employment of the spurs, and to the whip in all its forms.
In fact, the use of all such " aids " or indications, as we
shall see more fully in the following chapters, should be
reserved, as far as practicable, for their legitimate work of
telling the horse what his master wishes him to do. If we
accept the axiom that one of the chief duties as breakers
is to establish a clearly understood code of signals between
ourselves and the horse, we should not increase the
difficulty which all horses have in comprehending these
signals, by rendering their meaning ambiguous to him, as
we would do, were we sometimes to use them as definite
orders, and at other times, as the means of inflicting punish-
ment for faults which the horse may or may not know he
has committed.

The fact that a horse, like a child, has a keen sense of
injustice, fully accounts for the readiness with which his
temper may be spoiled by punishment unconnected in his
mind with the committal of a fault. Nothing can be more
opposed to reason than to reward a horse for doing wrong,

PUNISHMENT. 41

and to punish him for obedience, as we may frequently
see done by the driver of a jibber, who pats the animal on
the neck and speaks encouragingly to him when he stops,
and flogs and rates him as soon as he starts.

In the judicious use of the voice as a punishment by
threatening, or as a reward by the expression of approval,
there need be no fear of ambiguity ; for the horse is in no
way likely to mistake a harsh tone for a caress, or a soft
one for a rebuke. As I have previously pointed out, the
horse's power of, drawing conclusions is so small, that, as a
rule, he is unable to associate in his mind one event with
another, unless their connection is well marked and ex-
tremely close as regards duration of time. We all, know
that pain inflicted in the ordinary way with whip or spur,
for, say, biting, or unsteadiness when being mounted, is far
more likely to aggravate the particular fault than to cure
it. But if the correction be carried out as explained
respectively on pages 118 and 329, the horse as a rule will
readily associate the idea of punishment with that of
wrong-doing, on account of the sensation of pain instantly
following the committal of the offence. The infliction of
punishment for aggressiveness, such as " savaging," may
be beneficial, provided always that it is rewarded only
during the attack, and is not continued after the horse
has ceased the assault.

Reward may be conveyed by the voice, by patting and
caressing the animal with the hand, by giving him some
favourite dainty, such as a carrot or lump of sugar, and by
the cessation of discipline. The last mentioned means of
gaining the good-will of the horse is particularly effective,
and may be utilised with great advantage in the manage-
ment of the reins, and in many cases in which we wish
to inform him that he has done to our satisfaction the task
we have set him.

42 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

EFFECT OF THE VOICE.

The horse's keen perception of sound makes the human
voice a powerful means, by association of ideas, of con-
trolling and guiding him. As he readily recognises change
of tone (see page 19), but not of words ; we should reserve
a particular tone for each of our different orders, the
number of which should, in this respect, be kept as small
as possible, so that ambiguity may be avoided. Also,
it is of course well to have only one unvarying word or
expression for each order. M. James Fillis says : — "To
teach a horse ' at liberty ' [in a school or circus] to advance
at the walk, trot, or canter, one says ' walk ' in a com-
paratively low tone ; ' trot' while slightly raising the
voice ; and ' canter' in a loud, commanding tone. If you
utter the word ' canter ' softly, the horse will remain at the
walk ; if loudly, he will immediately strike off into the
canter." I have seen very dangerous animals approached
and handled with impunity, merely by " shouting at "
them, and terrified ones rendered tranquil by a few gentle
words. To obtain the full effect of the voice, we should,
while employing it, utilise the principle of association of
ideas. As cases in point, I may mention teaching horses
to halt (see page 182), and to stand steady (see page 324).
As suggested on page 34, we should avoid wearying the
attention of the animal by needlessly speaking to him. In
fact, we should reserve the use of our voice for occasions
on which it is needed to produce a definite effect.

EMULATION AND IMITATION.

In breaking, emulation may often be useful by, for instance,
infusing " life " into a lazy pupil by " company." We
find the benefit of imitation when a frisky youngster, on
being put into double-harness, copies the staid demeanour

FATIGUE. 43

of a well-broken companion. In giving a " reluctant "
horse a lead over a fence, both these influences come into
play.

The effect of imitation is particularly well seen in young
horses, who love to copy the action of their companions.
When riding in company, I have frequently noticed the
newly-born colt or filly imitate the tricks or peculiarities
of those near her. For instance, if a companion has the
habit of throwing up his head, or boring it down, she will
probably try to follow suit ; though she will be more than
usually circumspect in her demeanour when restricted to
the society of a steady old horse. I recognise this prin-
ciple so fully that I make a point of not having young
horses which I am breaking-in, ridden in the company of
unsteady ones.

FATIGUE

May be used as a valuable adjunct to other means of
control, but should seldom be employed alone ; for its
effects usually are as transitory as the sensation itself.
Thus, if we, while riding or driving a bolter, allow him,
in order to cure him of his vice, to run himself to a stand-
still, we shall in all probability find the animal quite as
ready, if not more so, to run away the next time he is
" fresh." In such a case, the fact of the horse having been
allowed to do the very thing he wanted to accomplish, in
defiance of the wishes of his would-be master, can produce
no good effect in forming in him the habit of obedience.
Fatigue may often appear to be the sole cause of the quiet-
ness evinced by an animal under treatment of some of the
breaking methods I shall describe ; but this on examina-
tion will be found to be incorrect. Even the fatigue caused
in, say, rendering an unruly horse quiet to shoe behind, by
keeping him on the ground and " gentling " him (see page

44 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

153), is out of all proportion small compared to the amount
of control obtained. One of the best examples of the fact
that it is the feeling of powerlessness to rebel, and not the
sensation of fatigue, which compels obedience by these
methods, is furnished by the experiment of making a
violent horse, like an Australian buckjumper, quiet to
mount by tying him head and tail (see page 328) ; the
effect produced being striking ; the feeling of helplessness
evident ; and the amount of fatigue small.

At the same time, we must not forget that the effect
of exercise is very useful in making a horse which is full
of spirits and " beans," attend to the work we give him
to do.

NECESSITY FOR EXACTING IMPLICIT OBEDIENCE FROM THE

HORSE.

As the horse takes little, if any, delight in obeying the
orders of man, who is his physical inferior, it is not suffi-
cient for him to clearly understand them ; but he must
be made, if possible, to believe from the commencement of
his instruction that he cannot resist them. The con-
venience and safety of the rider or driver may often require
that the horse, in yielding himself absolutely to the guidance
of man, shall perform actions which are opposed to the
promptings of his instincts, particularly that of self-
preservation. The system of trying to induce a horse to
obey merely by humouring and petting him is altogether
wrong from a practical point of view ; for the horse being
a selfish animal as far as we are concerned, can, under
such circumstances, be made compliant to our wishes
only when they tally with his own.

While fully admiring the kindness of heart of those
enthusiasts who regard a horse as a friend to be won by
affection, I must say that the better plan for making him

NECESSITY OF OBEDIENCE. 45

a useful member of society is to treat him as a servant who
has to be taught his work, and from whom, implicit
obedience has to be demanded. Until he does his work
honestly and well, the less petting he gets the better ; for
he is apt to become headstrong and fractious by a small
amount of indulgence in his own way. I entirely deprecate
punishing a stubborn horse with whip or spur, which he can
resist ; but I insist on the necessity — after proving to him
that he has nothing to fear, and after teaching him to
understand the meaning of our signals — of impressing on
him the fact that he must obey. I shall endeavour, in due
course, to explain how such obedience can be peremptorily
enforced.

If we have a dispute as to discipline with a horse, we
should not part company with him before making him
yield, lest he may carry away the mischievous impression
that he has got the best of the battle. The breaker need
not attempt to do too much at any one lesson ; but what he
undertakes he should succeed in performing before quitting
his pupil. For instance, with a horse that will not allow his
hind legs to be touched, the breaker may reasonably content
himself with making him quiet to handle about those parts,
without insisting on his standing submissively to be shod
" behind," which is an operation that might be attempted
on the following day. Also, we should make use of our
knowledge of the limited scope of the horse's reasoning
powers, to change the subject of contention if we fear that
there is any chance of our being worsted in a pitched battle
with the animal, so that the victory, even if it does not
affect the original cause of dispute, should always remain
on our side. As an illustration, I may mention the advis-
ability of forcibly making a determined runaway lie down
until he thoroughly " gives in," in order to make him yield
the more readily to the indications of the reins.

46 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

As the teacher requires cheerful as well as implicit
obedience to his commands, he should be careful to
judiciously regulate their character and frequency, and to
reward the pupil for complying with them.

In enforcing obedience, we should never employ a
general effect when a particular one would answer our
purpose, lest we might spoil the animal's pluck and " light-
heartedness." Thus, instead of Rareyfying a high-couraged
horse which had on previous occasions been made difficult
to mount by a bad rider prodding him in the side with his
toe when trying to get into the saddle ; it would be better
to attain our object by means of the rope- twitch (see page
118), or by the head and tail method (see page 155), so as to
prove to him that he need not in future fear being touched
by the toe when being mounted. In fact, we should regard
the application of irksome means of control as a necessary
evil to be employed as little as practicable. The method of
reducing a horse to discipline by getting on his back and
sticking on until he gallops or bucks himself to a standstill
is not scientific ; for no matter how plucky and adhesive the
rider may be, the terrified or vicious horse may unseat him
by running into some obstacle, falling down, or throwing
himself back when rearing, in which case he will probably
acquire the evil knowledge of his own strength, and will
consequently be much worse than he was before. Even if
the man gets the mastery ; the effect, to become permanent,
has to be repeated several times, and, in many instances, is
disregarded after a rest of a few days in the stable, or with
a different rider. This rough style of breaking is, of
course, good only as far as it goes, and has no claim to
teach the manners which make the horse, as well as they
do the man.

SAFETY IN BREAKING. 47

SAFETY IN BREAKING.

It is manifest that the methods adopted in breaking
should not alone be free from physical danger to the horse,
but should also be in no way calculated to spoil him.
Judging by the large proportion of pullers, borers, refusers
and one-sided mouthed animals there are to well-broken
horses, we might not unreasonably conclude that more
horses are marred than " made " in breaking.

In order to fulfil the necessary condition of safety for
himself, the breaker should be able by the system under
which he works — to quote the words of that clever horse-
tamer, " Professor " Sample — " to make the animal
rideable and driveable before he is either ridden or driven."
The breaker who employs the ordinary English method is
not alone exposed to danger when mounting, or even when
driving his pupils for the first few times, but also in the
preliminary handling. The advice, which is freely tendered
on such occasions, to go boldly up to the horse and show
him that you are not afraid of him, should be treated by
its recipient as a piece of " cheap swagger," or the outcome
of mere ignorance ; for even granting that such a proceed-
ing would effectively soothe a terrified animal, or cow a
treacherously disposed one — suppositions which are alto-
gether absurd — such counsel should in no way supply the
necessary foolhardiness for such an undertaking. My
advice, to either amateur or professional, is never to give a
horse a chance of doing wrong. Hence, in order to be
consistent, I shall endeavour to describe in the following
pages how any horse, no matter how wild or vicious he may
be, can be brought under complete control with, practically,
no risk to the breaker.

48 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

RAPID METHODS OF BREAKING.

We are greatly indebted to American horse-tamers, from
Rarey down to Sample, for having furnished us with labour-
saving methods of breaking. If we examine the work-
ing of these methods, we shall note that they are founded
on intensity of impression in the association of ideas (see
page 6) ; on the principle of showing a horse his power-
lessness to resist our orders ; or on a combination of the
two. The ordinary English, French, and German systems
are based on repetition for the formation of a habit ; but
without special intensity of effect. Consequently, the
desired result takes a long time (say, from six months
to two years) to be obtained, and is liable under trifling
provocation to be lost. The " horse-tamers " and their
followers make three blunders : in claiming that their
respective systems are infallible ; in asserting that the
effects are permanent ; and in failing to recognise the
great importance of a " good mouth " and obedience
to the " aids." While fully admitting that no system
of education is infallible, and that the best broken horse
is capable of being spoiled at any moment by an incom-
petent attendant, rider, or driver, I must say that, with
extremely few exceptions, any unhandled or spoiled horse,
no matter how wild, vicious, or old he may be, can be
made, by quick methods, quiet to ride and ready to obey
the ordinary indications of the reins in from two to four
hours. Such a horse, to become a reliable " conveyance,"
would probably require about twelve more lessons — two a
day — of an hour's duration each. He ought by that
time to have acquired a fairly good mouth, steady paces,
and " cleverness " to jump any ordinary fence. Army
remounts which have never had even a halter on them, might

RAPID METHODS OF BREAKING. 49

on an emergency be made fit for the riding-school in a
couple of days. I need not dwell on the value of such
expedition in military exigencies, and in all cases where
time is an object. " Spoiled " horses which have learned
to know their own power, would naturally take longer
to break than entirely unhandled animals ; although a
limit of a week need not usually be exceeded even with
them. The possibility of reclaimed horses going back to
their old tricks should be provided against by a judicious
repetition of the necessary discipline, which would rarely
be needed after the first three or four days, if the animal
be mouthed and suppled in the manner I shall hereafter
describe. Without using any forcible methods, which, as a
rule, would not be required with a valuable horse, the
breaker ought not to need more than a week to make any
ordinary horse fit for all the usual requirements of saddle
or harness, as far as quietness and obedience go. His
higher education, especially in the formation of his paces,
and, if a cross-country horse, in teaching him to collect
and extend himself properly when jumping, would probably
occupy the breaker's time for another month or two.

" Spoiled " horses are not, as a rule, satisfactory subjects
for a breaker to tackle ; because although the instructor
may succeed in reducing the large majority of them to
submission, they will often revert to their old tricks when
they leave his hands and find they can do so with impu-
nity. The owners of " spoiled " and vicious horses are
generally bad tempered, irritable men, who would be
incapable of displaying the patience of a good breaker,
however hard he might try to instruct them in his
methods. My wife once saw a man dismount from his
horse, tie up a fore-leg, and beat him most brutally.
When she asked him what he was doing, he replied
that he was " Hayesifying " the animal, and her indigna-

4

50 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

tion was great on hearing that he had attended one of
my breaking classes.

To those who might advance the argument that because
the ordinary course of breaking takes more than ten times
as long as the methods I advocate, it must therefore be
more permanent in its influences, I would beg to submit
that such a contention would hold good only on the un-
tenable supposition that the effects of the respective pro-
cesses were equal in force. I see no possible benefit, except
the questionable one of giving the animal an exaggerated
opinion of his own powers of resistance, in taking a month
to accomplish what may be done quite as efficiently in an
hour ; as, for instance, making a fractious horse steady to
mount, or quiet to shoe behind, or a sulky refuser to jump
" kindly." We must surely admit that the intensity of an
effect, and not the time occupied in its production, is the
measure of its permanency.

ON THE POSSIBILITY OF OVERCOMING ANY FORM OF VICE.

Our problem here is to establish a new habit that will have
a stronger influence on the vicious animal's mind than the
old habit which had impaired his usefulness. If the " pain
in the temper " is due to the horse failing to understand
our wishes, we may easily eradicate the fault by utilising
the principle of association of ideas. When, however, the
dispute is one as to supremacy, our last and great resource
is to impress on his mind the erroneous conviction that he
cannot resist our orders. If, however, he finds out by
experience that he need not obey our orders unless he
chooses, our labour will be in vain ; supposing that he
makes up his mind, which he is fully capable of doing, not
to " give in." Herein lies the whole question of success
or failure, in making vicious horses docile. The fact of

TREACHERY AND STUBBORNNESS. 51

our gaining our point, by the application of whip or spurs,
with some sulky horses, only proves that these particular
animals had not the necessary amount of resolution to
resist the coercion applied to them. There are, however,
many other horses upon which the only effect of such
punishment would be to still further increase the rebellious
state of their minds. Man-eaters, like the historic Cruiser,
the taming of whom made Rarey famous, being actuated
almost entirely by instinctive hostility, yield far more
readily to man's authority than the sulky animal, who,
having found out a method by which he can thwart the
wishes of his would-be master, craftily adheres to it, and
thereby lays claim to the possession of a large amount of
intelligence. From this we may see that the assertion made
by many " horse-tamers," that they can cure any form of
equine vice, is absurd. Youatt tells us that Cruiser
was never actually " tamed," but had to be " Rareyfied "
by a specially-trained breaker whenever he was required
for use, a process which would be far too tedious and expen-
sive for the ordinary horse-owner.

Of all kinds of vice, treachery and stubbornness are the
most difficult to eradicate ; for the horse who sets his will
in deliberate opposition to ours, questions the validity
of our erroneous assumption of physical supremacy, the
acceptance of which is our strongest means of horse control.
Or we may say that such an animal fights us with the
weapons — those of intelligence — by which, alone, we can
bring into subjection our physical superiors. Vices due to
nervousness or impatience of control can be readily over-
come, and as a rule, " refusing " and jibbing in the saddle.
A jibber in draught, however, is apt to find out, although
the breaker may be all-powerful in the absence of the cart,
the advantage is all the other way as soon as the horse gets
between the shafts. Besides, it is impossible in many cases

4»

52 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

to apply, on the spot, breaking methods to animals which
have played up in harness. For instance, if a trapper be
accustomed to jib as soon as he comes to a stiff incline, to
back into the ditch or fence, and then to proceed to kick
the vehicle to pieces, all the breaker can do is to take him
out, and try to indirectly counteract the fault in some con-
venient place. He may apparently succeed ; but the old
association of ideas may influence the mind of the pupil
more strongly than the new one, in the event of anything
going wrong ; as, for instance, an accidental halt the first
time the horse is driven up a hill through a crowded
thoroughfare. In such a case, if the animal " shows fight,"
he will gain the victory almost to a certainty, and the
attempted association of ideas will become proportionately
weakened. For vices unconnected with harness, the breaker
can, on the contrary, generally find some suitable place in
which to work his will on the disobedient one, under ad-
vantageous conditions. I say this with every reasonable
reserve ; for we may sometimes meet with cases of saddle
vices, such as running away on a racecourse when galloped,
or when close to hounds that are in full cry, to which it. is
difficult to directly apply efficient breaking remedies.

Vices caused by undue sexual excitement, defects of
vision, pain in the legs or feet which might make a horse
refuse to jump, and other infirmities and diseases, do not
come within the scope of the breaker. Castration is, in
both sexes, an admirable means for rendering quiet those
animals which are vicious from sexual causes. Although I
have had many hundreds of horses with various forms of
" pain in the temper " pass through my hands, I have met
with very few which, so far as I could judge, were incapable
of being made serviceable on account of mental aberration,
which, in the horse, usually takes the form of extreme and
causeless excitability. I have known only one or two

PERSONAL INFLUENCE. 53

healthy horses which were so listless and stupid that they
might be regarded as idiots. My good friend, Mr. Harry
Abbott, of Calcutta, owned a horse called Echo, which ap-
pears to have been half idiotic. Of this animal, Mr. Abbott
wrote : — " He was thrown out of training into a large
paddock, where he was a source of amusement to every-
one, for he appeared half cracked. He used to pick up
sticks in his mouth, take them to a corner and make a
pile of them ; sometimes he would trot round with his
head against his flank for half an hour at a stretch ; he
would run after crows or other birds that alighted in the
paddock, and chase them with his mouth open." Despite
his madness the horse won several races for his owner ;
but his wild excitement in trying to break out of his stable
on being left behind, when he heard his stable companions
going away to a race meeting, was the cause of his being
shot as raving mad.

As the breaker has to work on the material at hand, and
as he has no power to change the nervous organisation of
the animal, however firmly he may establish the habit of
implicit obedience, it is impossible for him to make a
naturally sulky horse work with the gaiety of heart and
pluck which an honest one will display. This is particularly
true out hunting with " faint-hearted " horses, which, no
matter how carefully they may have been broken, and how
well they are ridden, are often apt to refuse if they get
interfered with, or to hang back in a crowd, when we want
them to go boldly forward and give a lead over some
awkward fence.

PERSONAL INFLUENCES IN BREAKING.

I do not believe in the possession of any special power
over horses, with which some people are supposed to be

54 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

gifted, apart from skill, knowledge, pluck, and physical
advantages.* The great objection to the practice of per-
sonal influence as a breaking agent is, that although the
animal may be perfectly obedient to the man who has
had the exclusive handling of him, he may be refractory
with other people, and may even jealously resent inter-
ference from anyone else. I have frequently been struck
with this fact when breaking savage horses who would
not, if they could help it, allow anyone except their groom
to meddle with them ; and have always found that they
were more vicious to approach when their stable attend-
ant was near them, than when he was absent. We may
often see the same feeling evinced by dogs which would fly
at any stranger who dared to touch them, as long as they
were with their master ; although they might be fairly
amiable if he were not present. However much we may
admire to the abstract this fidelity to one, it is apt, in the
horse, to detract from the animal's usefulness under civi-
lised conditions ; especially if the owner be not regarded as
the confidential friend in question. When the groom is the
object of this exclusive form of affection, it is generally
advantageous to have him changed for a new man.

ADVISABILITY OF POSSESSING VARIOUS METHODS OF
BREAKING.

As horses differ greatly in temper and intelligence, and
as the removal of the cause is the best plan for the treat-
ment of either disease or vice ; the breaker, to be success-
ful in the instruction of young horses, or in the reforma-
tion of " spoiled " ones, should be provided with various

* Despite this statement, the fact remains that Captain Hayes possessed an
extraordinary amount of patience with difficult horses, and has been known to
spend more than six hours with a jibber without showing the least display of
temper.

PERMANENCY IN BREAKING. 55

methods for enforcing his commands. Hence, we may
rest assured that the horse-tamer who advertises his own
particular " system " as a certain cure for all forms of dis-
obedience or vice, is as arrant a quack as the man who tries
to foist on the public a pill for the removal of every kind of
disease. In the following pages I shall describe various
breaking methods, from which my readers can select those
which they deem most suitable for particular cases.

SELECTION OF BREAKING METHODS.

The most useful methods of breaking are those which we
can readily and frequently apply, so as to establish the de-
sired habit. Hence, the "indications" conveyed by the
reins, voice, and whip, and also by the leg, in saddle, should
be specially relied upon in forming the horse's " manners "
and paces. In other words, the horse's " mouth " (using
the expression in its most comprehensive meaning) should be
the foundation of all good breaking. A horse which has
been trained to obey the " aids " (see page 58) with
precision, can be relied upon to remain steady and obedient
under very trying circumstances. As it is impracticable
to be constantly repeating taming methods, such as
Rareyfying, or tying a horse head and tail and making him
go round (see page 155), and as they afford us no assistance
in the guidance of the horse or in the formation of his
paces ; we must disregard them as means for the mainten-
ance of a permanent state of discipline, however useful they
may be for enforcing authority in the first instance. The
" aids," on the contrary, are ever present, whether riding or
driving, to keep the horse mindful of his duty.

PERMANENCY IN THE EFFECTS OF BREAKING.

The role of the breaker is to establish in the horse certain
habits, which, being for the most part opposed to his in-

56 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

stincts, can be easily subverted by accustoming him to
practices opposed to them, or even by allowing his instincts
to resume their former and natural sway over him. We
must remember that, however firmly held in check by train-
ing instincts may be, their influence on the mind remains
constant ; and that the influence of discipline may become
gradually effaced by the opposing action of these instincts,
unless repeated from time to time. Consequently, in order
that the effects of breaking may be permanent, the state
of discipline induced by them should be rigidly preserved.

However well a horse may have been broken of a bad
habit, he will be far more likely to acquire it again under
injudicious management than he would have been had he
been originally free from it ; for no course of discipline,
although it may keep him under perfect control, can efface
out of his mind the memory of the practice of a former
habit. Hence, a teacher of breaking will be wise to confine
himself to showing " how it is to be done," and not risk his
reputation in making the impossible attempt of " curing " a
vicious horse for other people. Besides, it is only " human
nature " for the owner, rider, or driver of a wayward horse
which has reverted from a state of discipline to his former
evil courses, to tlame the breaker and not himself.

The correct method, as I have already explained, in estab-
lishing the habit of obedience, is first to make the horse
obey, and then to repeat the process as may be needed.
Although, in a few exceptional cases, one victory over a
horse may produce a permanently good effect on his mind,
as far as mere obedience or docility is concerned ; the effect,
however strongly it may have been enforced, will, in the vast
majority of instances, soon wear off unless it be repeated.
I have often, and I think unjustly, incurred blame after I
had practically demonstrated to the members of a class I
was teaching, the feasibility of making a confirmed jibbei\

SUMMARY. 57

obstinate refuser, or violent buck jumper, quiet and. obedient
in one lesson ; because such an animal had afterwards
become just as bad as before, on account of his owner not
taking the trouble, as advised by me, of repeating the
lesson I had given. I may point out that the reason why
men usually fail to subdue " difficult " horses, is because
they do not know how to take the first step, namely, that
of enforcing obedience. If they be supplied with this all-
important information, their task will be one of increasing
facility after each repetition, and, if persevered in, will be
rapidly completed. But to be successful, it must be re-
peated until the desired habit is established.

SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPLES OF MAKING HORSES DOCILE

may be stated as follows : —

1. To obtain control over the animal.

2. To prove to him that he has nothing to fear from us,
or from the surroundings in which we place him ; in other
words, to give him confidence and to cure him of nervous-
ness.

3. To teach him to understand the meaning of the
signals by which we desire to convey our orders to him.

4. To make him obey our orders with promptness,
precision and willingness.

5. To instruct him how to use his powers to the best
advantage.

6. To convert by repetition those acts of obedience and
" cleverness," thus taught, into confirmed habits, so that
he may become a permanently useful servant.

CHAPTER III.
THEORY OF MOUTHING.

" Mouth " and " aids " — Respective actions of the aids — -Suitability of the horse
to the application of the aids — Making a horse obey the aids — Combined
action of fore and hind legs, and distribution of weight on them — Carriage
and action of the head and neck of the horse when he is in motion —
" Collecting " the horse — Requirements of a good mouth — Combined action
of the aids in forming the mouth — Respective actions of the snaffle and curb
— Direction of the pull of the reins — Turning, circling, and lunging the horse
— Reining back — The standing martingale — Bearing reins, running reins, side
reins, and nosebands — " Tying horses up," " reining," dumb jockeys, and
the pillars.

A HORSE may be said to have a good mouth when he obeys
the aids with promptness and correctness. In riding, the
aids — if I may be allowed to adopt the definition — are the
signals afforded by the reins, whip, legs (and spurs), voice,
and changes of position of the rider's weight. In driving,
they are confined to the reins, whip, and voice. I am of
course aware that the term " aids " is applied, in the
manege, only to the action of the reins and legs for guiding
and regulating the movements of the horse. As the other
forces which I have mentioned, act in the same direction,
and are valuable adjuncts to the reins and legs ; I venture
to include them in a definition which is as suitable to them,
as it is to those whose recognition has obtained the sanction
of custom.

THE AIDS. 59

As the riding-school term, " aids," is not generally under-
stood by horsemen in this country ; I regret that I am forced
to employ it (modified as I have explained) from the ab-
sence of any popular synonym. The stable expressions,
" mouth " and " mouthing," are misleading ; for they
wrongly imply that the horse is to be controlled exclusively
by his mouth, that is to say, by only one end of his body,
instead of by both ends, as he ought to be, and as we shall
see further on. In deference to custom I shall, however,
use these expressions in the following pages ; but with the
understanding that " mouth " signifies capability of answer-
ing the aids ; and " mouthing," instruction in their appli-
cation.

RESPECTIVE ACTIONS OF THE AIDS.

The reins can be used to bend the head and neck ; to
restrain the forward action of the horse by exerting pressure
on the mouth in a direction opposite to that in which he is
proceeding or in which he is placed ; to turn the head and
neck to the right or to the left ; to lower them ; to raise
them ; or to combine, when practicable, two or even three
of these actions, as is done when the head is drawn to one
side and lowered by the action of one rein, and when the
movements of the horse are checked at the same time by
the pressure of both reins.

The whip or stick may be used either as a local or as a
general stimulant to movement. The local effect may be
converted, by association of ideas, into a general one.
Thus, although the purely instinctive result of a cut of the
whip on the hind-quarter or on the shoulder might respec-
tively be a kick or a bite at the supposed aggressor ; it will
be taken by many saddle and harness horses as a signal to
go on. independently of the position of the seat of pain,

60 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

The same remark applies to the application of the legs, feet,
or spurs, the effect of which may be the same, whether they
prick the stifles, score the sides, or rip the shoulders. Here
we have a manifest loss of useful power, in that, with either
the whip or feet, we can obtain with the properly broken-in
horse at least seven valuable indications (or signals) instead
of only one. Thus, the application of the drawn-back foot,
or of the whip when used in a similar manner, will, for
instance, check the tendency of the hind-quarters from
swinging round when a turn is being made to the opposite
side (two indications, one for each side). When the rider's
foot is advanced and the shoulder is touched by the front
and inner edge of the boot, an indication similar to the one
behind is given in front (two indications). The application
of both drawn-back feet will cause the horse to bring his
hind legs under him — that is, to the front (one indication).
A similar use, in front, of both feet advanced will make him
extend his fore legs to the front (one indication). The
application of both heels or spurs at a point midway between
the respective spheres of action of the fore and hind limbs
may be fairly accepted as a stimulant to both (one indica-
tion). As I shall later on attempt to investigate the intelli-
gent application of the aids, with illustrations, I shall abstain
for the present from further discussing this subject, which I
have here introduced, principally, with the object of im-
pressing on my readers that it is not enough for them to
know when they should touch their horse with whip or foot ;
but that they should also know where and why they should
apply such aids.

The voice is a general stimulant. The riders weight, by
its change of position, is naturally a local indication.

THE AIDS. 61

SUITABILITY OF THE HORSE TO THE APPLICATION OF THE

AIDS.

The five following facts are the principal ones which
render the horse amenable to control by the aids : —

1. His instinct of self-preservation prompts him to fly
from the infliction of pain.

2. The " bars " of the lower jaw (that portion of the
gums which is devoid of teeth, and which is between the
molars and the tushes, or the place which the tushes usually
occupy) being sensitive and smooth, readily lend themselves
to the application of restraining pressure.

3. The lateral muscles of the neck are so weak that the
ordinary rider or driver can easily pull the horse's head
round to whichever side he likes.

4. When the horse carries his head in the best manner
for facilitating his movements (see page 69), the mouth-
piece, whether of snaffle or curb, will be in a good position
for the rider or driver to control the animal by the reins.
The breaker will therefore be under no necessity of trying,
for bitting purposes, to make the horse carry his head and
neck in any other way than a perfectly natural one.

5. When the saddle horse is in motion, the balance of his
body is readily disturbed by changes in the position of the
rider's weight. Hence, such changes, when appropriately
made, are readily accepted by the horse as signals for
altering the nature or direction of his movements.

MAKING A HORSE OBEY THE AIDS.

In teaching a horse to obey the aids, we should act on
the principle advocated on page 44, of making our equine
servant accord ready obedience to our commands, after he
has learned to understand our wishes when they are ex-

62 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

pressed by the proper signals. The breaker will do well
to bear in mind the maxim, that a horse should never get
the chance of pulling successfully against the reins, or
unsuccessfully against the collar. As a man on foot has as
thorough command over a horse, as the horse has over his
rider (supposing that both know how to exercise their
respective powers) ; the breaker should naturally commence
his lessons on foot, and should, as a rule, refrain from giving
the horse the advantage of having him in the saddle until
the habit of obedience to the aids (or to their breaking
substitutes, such as the pressure of the long rein on the
quarter, for that of the rider's outward leg) be fully con-
firmed. In all this, we act on the principle of association
of ideas in the mind of the horse to guard ourselves from the
evil consequences which might ensue from the exercise
of the animal's instinctive impatience of control.

With some horses, and especially with those which have
learned to know their own power, the process of inculcating
the habit of obedience to the aids by their mere application,
may be ineffective, or may be too tedious for practical
requirements on account of the impression produced being
lacking in intensity (see page 6). In such a case, I would
advocate the advisability of exacting obedience, in the first
instance, by some ready method, for instance, making the
horse lie down (see page 152), or keeping him on the ground
(see page 153), so as to impress him with the idea of our
supreme power, and to banish from his mind any thought
of resisting our will, even on a point concerning which he
would always prove victorious, had he sufficient intelli-
gence to see through our artifice. Our power over the
horse when we are on his back, being necessarily limited
in extent, may, with all our teaching, fail us at times. I
in no way wish to say that competent riding or driving
cannot in time accomplish the object in view, in the case

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 63

of ordinary horses, without the work on foot ; but it will
take very much longer to do so, and will require far more
skill in the operator. According to my experience, the work
on foot, which I shall describe later on, can produce on
difficult horses good effects which, without its assistance,
are unattainable by any rider or driver, however excellent
his " hands," and however great his pluck may be.

COMBINED ACTION OF FORE AND HIND LEGS, AND DISTRI-
BUTION OF WEIGHT ON THEM.

The locomotive machinery of the horse should be viewed
as a whole in its working, and not as made up of independent
portions ; and that, in all forms of useful movement, there
should be perfect harmony between the respective action of
both fore and hind limbs, and even of each separate limb.
In the ordinary course of turning the saddle horse, for
instance, it is therefore illogical to act only on the mouth ;
for by doing so, the tendency will be to cause the hind legs
to revolve round the pivot formed by the fore ones, which
bear the greater proportion of weight, instead of the revolu-
tion being made by both pairs of legs on a pivot somewhere
between them. Riders who attempt to guide the horse
entirely by the reins treat him as if he had only one end,
namely, the forehand. An admirable illustration of the
evil results of this incapable method is afforded by the
trick many horses have acquired, when they refuse or run
out, of yielding only the head and neck to the pull of the
reins, and not, as they ought to do, bringing their hind-
quarters round at the same time. It is manifest that the
control of the head and neck which the rider has in Fig. i,
is of no use to him in putting the horse straight to the fence,
so long as the animal retains command over the action of
his hind legs. The horse which has been taught to answer

64

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

the pull of the rein with both ends of his body will, on the
contrary, in the event of shying off or refusing to the left,

Fig. i. — Horse running out at a fence (A B), on account of refusing to bring
his hind-quarters round in answer to the pull of the reins ; although he
bends his neck to it.

turn his hind-quarters round to the left at the same time as
his head is pulled to the right by his rider, and will thus

TURNING A HORSE. 65

place the direction of his body at right angles to the obstacle,
as in Fig. 2.

AX B

c

Fig. 2. — Horse going straight at his fence (A B), on account of having
answered the pull of the reins with his hind-quarters as well as with his
forehand.

As the conformation of the horse meets his grazing
requirements as well as his locomotive ones ; we find, as a

5

66 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

rule, that for saddle purposes he is too heavy in front.
The goat, being a browsing animal, appears to be much
lighter in front than the horse, if we may judge by a com-
parison between their respective powers of rearing. I am
inclined to think that the custom of feeding horses from a
manger which is raised off the ground, tends to make a horse
light in front. A prevalent idea among experienced men is
that a young horse " fines down " about the withers and
shoulders after he has been taken up from grass and has
been stabled and worked under ordinary conditions. This
" fining down " would, I think, chiefly consist in increased
obliquity of the shoulder blade. I may remark that the
conformation of boys and girls is usually susceptible of
considerable change for the better by a course of judicious
gymnastics and " setting up " drill.

However much or little the proportion of weight borne by
the fore legs, as compared to that carried by the hind limbs,
is in excess of that which would be most suitable for mere
purposes of locomotion ; experiment proves that the pro-
portion of weight in front is considerably increased by the
fact of a man being placed on the horse's back. Hence, in
any case, the breaker should try to teach the horse which
is intended for saddle work, to carry himself in such a
way that, when mounted, the weight of horse and rider
will be so distributed that the weight on the forehand, as
compared with that on the hind legs, will be less in pro-
portion to that borne under similar circumstances by the
untaught horse when at liberty. Unfortunately it is
impossible to give exact rules as to obtaining the most
advantageous distribution of weight, which must be left
to the judgment of the breaker, and which will evidently be
different to that naturally adopted by the animal. I may
point out that the expressions, " making a horse bring his
hind-quarters under him," and " lightening his forehand,"

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 67

mean the act of increasing the weight on the hind limbs, by
taking it off the fore ones. It follows from the fact that
the presence of a rider alters the proportion of weight in the
manner mentioned ; that the heavier the intended rider, the
more should the weight be brought back. The well " set
up " soldier gives us an admirable illustration of the great
influence which training has on gait.

We know from experience that muscles which are
practised at one particular kind of work, gradually acquire
the ability to perform it in the easiest possible manner.
Thus, a man who has to carry heavy burdens on his back,
will in time unconsciously acquire the action most suitable
to his task. It might therefore be argued that any attempt
to teach a horse to carry himself in the manner described, is
useful merely for saving time, and that the horse would,
after a while, automatically rectify matters. Even if this
were true, which it might not be in the large majority of
cases, we must remember that horses which are allowed
to go " heavy in front," especially at fast paces, are particu-
larly liable to become unsound from injuries to their fore
legs, which injuries greatly exceed in number all the other
accidents that incapacitate saddle horses, and especially
racehorses, from " standing " work. In this country little
or no attempt is made, except in the Army, to form the paces
of riding horses. Despite the influence of careful selection
in breeding, we cannot ignore the fact that the legs of the
average horse are but ill adapted to bear, under ordinary
conditions of work, the strain of a greater weight than that
of his own body. The old adages that any horse is able
to wear out four sets of limbs, and that a horse is as old as
his legs, are unhappily too true. Therefore it behoves the
careful horseman, by judicious breaking, to diminish as far
as possible the chances of his animals becoming unsound.

As the preponderance of weight on the forehand increases

5*

68 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

as the speed, the liability of injury to the fore legs, as
compared to that of the hind ones, will vary in the same
proportion. Bringing too much of the weight back, especi-
ally when jumping (see page 243), is apt to throw an injurious
amount of strain on the hind legs.

In rearing, there is extreme preponderance of weight
on the hind legs ; in kicking with both hind feet, on the
fore ones. The rider can lighten the forehand : (i) by
leaning back in the saddle ; (2) by raising the horse's head ;
(3) by moderating the speed ; and (4) by applying the
drawn-back heels or spurs, so as to make the horse bring
his hind legs well under him, and at the same time check-
ing with the reins any increase of speed. When increased
action of the fore legs is prevented from being utilised in a
forward direction, it is expended in a more or less vertical
one, as we may see in the case of fashionable harness horses
which are broken on the " hit 'em and hold 'em " principle.
As the instability of the centre of gravity increases propor-
tionately to the speed (see Points of the Horse) ; the slower the
pace, other things being equal, the lighter will be the fore-
hand ; and vice versa.

The rider can increase the weight on the forehand : ( i ) by
leaning forward in the saddle ; (2) by lowering the horse's
head ; (3) by increasing the speed ; and (4) by applying the
feet to the horse's shoulders.

As the effects of " work " show far more frequently in the
fore legs than in the hind ones of our hunters, racehorses,
chasers, troopers, and hacks, we may, I think, infer that
our horses are as a rule too heavy in front. If the correct
proportion of weight between the two sets of limbs was
maintained more accurately, these horses would undoubtedly
last longer. Consequently, the adoption of improved
methods of breaking would effect a large saving of money
to individuals, and also to the State.

CARRIAGE OF HEAD.

69

The harness horse has to put on his forehand an extra
amount of weight proportionate to the load he has to draw.

CARRIAGE AND ACTION OF THE HEAD AND NECK OF THE
HORSE WHEN HE IS IN MOTION.

When the horse takes a stride to the front, the fore limb
is drawn forward and upward by certain muscles of the neck,

Fig. 3. — Trotting.

the action of which is regulated by the depression or eleva-
tion of the head. If the head be unduly raised, the forward
reach of the fore legs will be curtailed by this high attitude,
and the speed will consequently suffer. If, on the contrary,
the head be brought down too low, the animal, if at the
gallop or canter, instead of " going level," will have a more
or less pitching motion, from too much weight being thrown

70 THEORY OF MOUTHIiNG.

on his forehand ; and will lose time in his stride by excessive
bending of the knees, which is necessary in that case to
enable his feet to clear the ground.

Owing to the variety in the conformation of different
horses, and in the work they are called upon to do, it is

Fig. 4. — Cantering.

impossible to lay down any fixed rule as to the angle at
which the head and neck should be carried ; a fact that
is of little moment, for experience will enable us to form
a sufficiently near approximation for all practical purposes.
The neck muscles which draw the fore limb forward, will
act to the best advantage when the neck is held straight ;

WALKING AT EASE. 71

for in that position the muscles are stretched out as much
as possible, and, consequently, when they contract, they
have their utmost forward pull.

The chief muscle which draws the fore limb to the front,
is attached to the head in such a manner that it acts best
during movement, when the head is carried more or less at

Fig. 5. — Walking at ease.

right angles to the neck. We may also assume that, as a
rule, the head and neck are best placed for all ordinary re-
quirements of paces faster than the walk, when the condition
just stated is observed, and when the head is carried at an
angle of about 45° to the ground (see Figs. 3 and 4). When
the horse walks at ease (see Fig. 5), the head will be
lowered, and carried more perpendicularly. For mere
purposes of control by the bridle, the most generally

72 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

advantageous position is when the line of the face makes an
angle of about 90°, or a little less, with the ground (see Fig.
6) ; because, in that case, the pull of the reins is more or less
at right angles to the bars of the lower jaw against which
the mouthpiece of the bridle presses, and the forward reach
of the fore legs is somewhat checked by the legs being bent.
Neither for control nor for movement, is it well for the
head to be flexed to a greater extent than this. The
more the chin is drawn in beyond this limit, the more will
the pull of the reins be transferred (from the bars of the
lower jaw) to the poll of the animal's head ; the more oblique
will become the direction of the pressure of the mouthpiece
on the bars ; and the more will the horse be obliged to lower
his head, thereby unduly increasing the weight on the fore-
hand. Thus, by bringing his chin into his chest, the horse

(1) more or less deprives his rider of control over him;

(2) disturbs the proper distribution of weight between his
fore and hind legs ; and (3) hampers the movements of his
fore limbs.

COLLECTING THE HORSE.

By the somewhat iD -defined term, " collecting the
horse," I wish to express the act by which the animal is
made to bend his neck and bring his hind legs under him ;
so that his spinal column will be more or less regularly
arched, and his muscles will continue to contract and relax
at short and regular intervals. He will then " play "
with the bit by yielding his neck as well as his jaw, and
will advance his hind feet more under his body than he
usually does. When fully collected, he will be in the best
possible state of general readiness to perform any legiti-
mate form of work, such as going forward, reining back,
turning, circling, or leaping. In fact, he will be " bent "

COLLECTING THE HORSE. 73

before and behind, like a spring, with his forces collected
together and ready to be applied in any legitimate manner
which his rider may demand. As, by collecting the horse,
we deprive him of taking the initiative ; we find that the
practice of frequently collecting him is the best possible

Fig. 6. — Collected walk.

means for curing him of hardness of mouth and stiffness of
neck. A horse can be collected at any pace ; but if I may
venture to say so, he should not be collected at the halt ;
for then there will be no harmony of action between the
muscles of the head and neck, and those of the hind-
quarters ; the former being in a state of alternate contrac-
tion and relaxation ; the latter, motionless. In collecting

74 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

the saddle horse, the reins bend the neck and check the
advance of the fore limbs, while the pressure of the rider's
legs, spurs, or whip makes the horse bring his hind legs
under him. As I have already said, the line of the face,
when the horse is fully collected, will be at right angles to
the ground, or a little less ; but the chin should not be
drawn in more than this. We may accept the fact that
teaching the horse to collect himself is the foundation of all
good mouthing, whether for the formation of the mouth of
a young animal, or for the correction of a puller or a borer.

It is manifest, that in checking a horse's speed, we should
more or less collect him ; the collection being proportionate
to the alteration in the speed ; for the faster the pace, other
things being equal, the greater the weight on the forehand.
Whether we make the horse adopt a slower gait, or bring
him to a halt more or less abruptly, it is necessary that we
should collect him so that he may be ready to apply his
powers to the best advantage, either for stopping himself,
or for moving on again in the same or in a new direction.
If the preponderance of weight be on the forehand, the hind
limbs will be more or less thrown out of action, and vice
versa. Hence, when checking the speed of a horse, and
especially when bringing him to a halt, the rider should
close his legs and should lower his hands when taking a pull
on the reins, so that the horse may bring his hind legs well
under him, and at the same time bend his neck.

The popular expression " in hand " may be used for
" collected." We must be careful to understand that a
horse may be " light in hand " without being in any way
" collected," as, for instance, a star-gazer which will not go
up to his bridle. When a horse is galloping through heavy
ground, the fact of his fore feet sinking more deeply into the
soil than the hind ones, will make him unduly heavy in
front. We should here try to more or less collect him. If,

COLLECTING THE HORSE. 75

at the same time, we were coming up to a high fence, to
safely negotiate which, the animal would require to have
his neck straight, so as to have full freedom of action with
his fore legs ; he should, at least for the last few strides, be
light in hand, instead of being collected. The expression,
" getting a horse's hind legs well under him," appears to be
used indiscriminately for collecting a horse, and for making
him light in hand. The distinction I have indicated is,
however, worthy of attention.

It is evident that when breaking the horse, we should
teach him to collect himself according to the indications we
give him, and to an extent which may be out of all propor-
tion to the requirements under which he is receiving his
lesson, although similar to those of actual work.

NOTE. — During breaking too much care cannot be taken
in teaching collection and a willing obedience to the aids ;
for the more perfectly they are mastered, the more easily
and harmoniously will the horse be able to move with us.
The well-trained horse and horseman should be able to
move together as harmoniously as two good dancers, the
horseman moving with his " mount " and guiding it as
easily and imperceptibly as the good waltzer with his
partner. I wish that many horseowners understood this
better, for by so doing they might be saved much disap-
pointment with expensive purchases. How often do we
not hear (especially at shows) charges of unfairness from a
disappointed exhibitor who has become the owner of a horse,
which previously was almost unbeaten, and afterwards
passed over.

The discontented one, in many cases, possibly believes
the judges are treating him unfairly, while in reality, he has
ignorantly spoilt his horse's action and thrown the animal
entirely out of balance by employing some severely unsuit-
able bit, or a groom, who by his bad riding causes the show
animal nothing but discomfort. Horsemen are nowadays

76 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

greatly handicapped, because riding schools usually teach
only in the stiff uneasy military way to which the hunting
man rightly objects, and boys are therefore allowed to pick
up riding as best they can, being accompanied in many cases
at first by some ungainly old coachman, who possibly gives
them only a good illustration of what not to do. The young
rider, unless he is naturally active, graceful, and observant,
thus contracts bad habits, which cling to him for the rest
of his riding days. Surely eating is a much more natural
and easy thing for a boy than riding, yet most parents
recognise the advisability of having a child taught how to
use properly its knife, fork and spoon while they totally
ignore the riding.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD MOUTH.

A horse may be said to have a good mouth when he obeys
the aids with promptness, accuracy, and precision, and
when he carries himself in the manner most suitable to the
work he has got to do. The combined weight of the body
of the saddle horse and of his rider must, therefore, be
properly distributed between the fore and hind legs. If the
animal leans strongly on the mouthpiece of the bridle, he
will be " heavy in front." If, on the contrary, he refuses
to " go up to his bridle " (remains " behind his bridle ''),
he will have an undue proportion of weight on his hind legs.
In order that the rider or driver may keep in touch with
the horse, it is necessary that the animal shall allow him to
maintain a certain amount of " feeling " on the reins, and
of pressure by the legs, so that he may remain in communica-
tion with both ends of the horse. For ordinary require-
ments, and especially for 'cross country work, the amount
of feeling on the reins which the animal should bear with
equanimity, might naturally be somewhat in excess of that
which would be needed for mere purposes of communica-
tion between horse and rider. It is evident that the more

A GOOD MOUTH. 77

incapable the rider, the broader should be this margin, which
is an evil, though a necessary one, with men of light seats
and heavy hands. It must, however, in no case exceed the
controlling power of the rider or driver. The habit of
refusing to go up to the bridle not alone cuts off the com-
munication which we should constantly maintain by means
of the reins between ourselves and the horse ; but is ex-
tremely liable to degenerate into the dangerous combined
vice of rearing and jibbing.

A horse with a good mouth, as I have already indicated,
will be capable of being readily collected ; that is, while
having his hind legs well under him, by the action of
the rider's heels or spurs, he will freely bend to the rein
with his head or neck. He will then keep the muscles
which close his jaws more or less relaxed ; but without
losing touch with the reins, and will often show, at slow
paces, this obedience to the rein by the familiar play of the
lower jaw and champing of the bit. The relaxation of the
jaw is useless, as we know from practical experience, un-
less the horse also yields with the muscles of his neck.

As the manner in which a horse moves under the guid-
ance of his rider or driver, is the true test of the state
of his " mouth " ; it is evident that to have a good mouth,
the horse should carry himself in well-balanced style, that
is, with the weight distributed in due proportion between his
fore and hind legs ; with the line of his face, at an angle of
about 45° to the ground, unless we wish to " collect " him,
or unless he is at a walk (see page 71) ; and with the
direction of his neck favourably placed for the movements
of the fore legs. For the same reason, we may infer that
all mouthing instruction, or, at least, by far the greater part
of it, should be given when the horse is in movement. If we
seek to impart it while the animal is stationary, we shall, in
doing so, have constantly to strive against the tendency of

78 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

the horse to keep one part of his body fixed, while we are
" suppling " the other end. The horse, as I have already
said, should be taught to move as a whole, and not in parts.

NOTE. — When riding or driving a young horse in a field
for mouthing instruction, decide in your own mind exactly
where you wish him to go, and then try to take him over the
ground you have chosen. By doing this you will accustom
him to the aids and be able to see how his education is
progressing. When a horse is exercised on a road or definite
track, there is slight occasion for applying the aids, and the
rider may think his mount most handy until he gets him
into a field, and finds he cannot guide him where he wishes
with any certainty.

COMBINED ACTION OF THE AIDS IN FORMING THE MOUTH.

From an examination of equestrian pictures, we may learn
that "the knights of old," and in fact all European military
horsemen up to the commencement of the present century,
rode in such a position that they could use their legs as an
aid only by means of the ends of their sharp and long
spurs. Hence they controlled their horses almost entirely
by the bridle. The result of this method of equitation, as
we may see from the extremely severe nature of the bits
they used to employ, was to make their horses heavy in
hand. Even when the animal arched his neck in obedience
to the bit, he would naturally seek to relieve his mouth by
abstaining as much as possible from bringing his hind legs
under his body. The horse makes the same " defence "
when he is " tied up " by side -reins (see page 93). Baucher
(see page 261), who was the great reformer in school break-
ing and riding, insisted on the principle of beaucoup de
jambes et pen de main. By this he meant that the pressure
of the legs (with a touch of the spurs when necessary)
should be used in order to bring the horse's hind legs under

ACTION OF THE AIDS. 79

him, and consequently to relieve the forehand of weight. In
this way he obtained le rassembler (collection of the horse),
which he justly regarded as an indispensable means of
breaking. The maintenance of the horse's head in a
vertical position, which is a condition of Baucher's ras-
sembler, is a refinement of no practical utility. As I have
already remarked, the large number of our saddle horses
which are " heavy in front," is the best proof that the
majority of Englishmen who get up on horses, " ride the
bridle," and neglect the use of the legs as an " aid." At
the same time, I must say that every fine horseman in our
midst is quite as alive as Baucher was, to the importance
of riding more by the legs than by the hands. The breaker
should constantly bear in mind the necessity of teaching
his saddle pupils to obey the indications of both legs and
reins, so that they may be able to be collected when
required.

RESPECTIVE ACTIONS OF THE SNAFFLE AND CURB.

The indications of the curb are complex and indirect, and
prompt the horse either to fight against them, or to unduly
lower his head and to bring his chin into his chest, in either
of which cases his movements are interfered with by the
position assumed by the head and neck. The action of the
snaffle, especially when it is un jointed (see page 168), is
more direct, and its indications are consequently freer from
ambiguity. The breaking in of a horse with a curb is apt
to spoil him for subsequent work in a snaffle, the use of
which can in no way hinder him from being taught that of
the curb. Hence the snaffle should be the only bit employed
by the breaker for all ordinary requirements, until his pupil
is perfect in it. After that, he may teach the animal to go in
a curb. When riding under the usual conditions of field or

8o THEORY OF MOUTHING.

road, the snaffle should act on the " bars " and not on the
" corners " of the mouth ; for the former are more sensitive
to pressure than the latter, and by acting on the bars we
prompt the horse to bend his neck (to save his mouth), and
consequently to yield to the rein. If, however, the pressure
falls on the corners of the mouth, the animal will as a rule
keep his head and neck stretched out and raised, so as to
prevent the bars being touched, in a manner which will
more or less deprive the rider or driver of control, and
which will hamper the movements of the horse. I may
point out that the only practical advantage which the curb
has over the snaffle, is that of severity. As high school
and circus riders require their horses to execute various
lofty airs de manege, they use the snaffle to act on the
corners of the mouth, when they wish to make the animal
carry his head in an unnaturally high position, so that he
may be able to raise his fore legs with exaggerated freedom,
as in the Spanish trot or Spanish walk (see page 284).

For further information on snaffles and curbs, I may refer
my readers to Riding and Hunting.

DIRECTION OF THE PULL OF THE REINS.

The movements of the neck are made on the column of
bones (vertebra) of the neck, and on the suspensory ligament
of the neck, which is a strong elastic ligament that extends
from the withers to the top of the head. The centre of
motion of the neck will therefore be about four or five
inches below the top of the withers ; its position varying
somewhat according to the nature of the movement. In
order that the restraining action of the reins should inter-
fere as little as possible with the carriage of the neck, the
direction of the reins should naturally pass through the
centre of motion in question. If the reins pass above that

LUNGING THE HORSE. 81

point, the tendency of their pull will be to raise the head,
and consequently to lighten the forehand ; if below it, to
lower the head and increase the weight in front. For sim-
plicity sake, I am here assuming that a snaffle is used. As
the point of application of the mouthpiece (the bars of the
mouth) is not in the line of the balancing pole (the neck),
my remarks, here, on the action of the reins are made only
in general terms ; although they are sufficiently exact to
bear out the truth of the well-recognised rule that the hands,
when riding, should be held a littJe below the withers.

TURNING, CIRCLING, AND LUNGING THE HORSE.

In order to maintain the proper distribution of weight
between the fore and hind limbs, the horse, as I have pointed
out on page 63, should turn more or less on his centre,
without making a pivot of, and consequently throwing an
undue proportion of weight on, either his forehand or his
hind-quarters. Although it appears to me impossible to
work out the problem mathematically, I venture to state
that both theory and practice confirm the supposition that in
turning, or in circling, which is merely a form of turning, the
track of the hind feet should be the same, or as nearly as
possible the same, as that of the fore ones. If the curves be
concentric, instead of coincident, the pair of limbs which
describe the inner curve (or smaller circle) will naturally
bear an undue proportion of weight. We have a practical
proof of this in the fact that almost all the strains to tendon
and ligament which arise from the ordinary method of
lunging with one rein, occur in the fore legs. In this form
of circling, the turn being made by acting on the head of
the horse by means of the cavasson and leading rein ; the
head is pulled in towards the centre of the circle and the
hind-quarters are allowed to fly out, with the result that the

6

82 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

fore feet describe a smaller circle than the hind feet, and
consequently have an undue amount of weight thrown on
them.

The fact of a horse turning his head round to one side
causes the position of his centre of gravity to be shifted
towards that side, the fore and hind leg of which will con-
sequently bear more weight than their respective fellows
under all ordinary conditions. We see this illustrated when
the horse is tied head and tail (vide Fig. 77), in which case
it is far more difficult for him to lift up either of the legs
of the side to which his head is turned, than either of the
corresponding limbs of the other side. In turning or
circling, this power of altering the position of the centre of
gravity is very useful to the horse for preserving his stability
by neutralising the effect of the centrifugal force generated
by the more or less circular motion. In this way, the head
and neck act as the balancing pole of the body. The applica-
tion of this principle is illustrated by curved portions of
railway lines, in which the outer rail is made higher than
the inner one, so as to tilt the centre of gravity of the train
inwards, as well as to offer a more effectual resistance to
the tendency the carriage might have of being carried off
the line. The track of circuses and even of running
grounds are banked up in a similar manner. The circus
rider, when standing on a pad or on the horse's back as the
animal canters round the track of the arena, leans inwards,
proportionately to the speed, with the object in question,
and so does his horse, as we may see if we observe the
animal closely. We may therefore conclude, apart from the
obvious reason that the horse should look where he is
going, that his head and neck should be in the direction in
which he is moving, whether he is turning, circling, or
travelling in a straight line. In fact, the animal, from the
muzzle to the end of the tail, should be bent more or less

LUNGING THE HORSE. 83

into the form of the curve upon which he is . travelling.
Although his body from the withers to the root of the tail
is capable of but little flexion, the head and the neck have a
large amount of lateral " play." The degree to which the
horse should bend himself will of course be proportionate to
the sharpness of the turn. <* i

From the remarks just made, we may see the necessity,
in the turn, of the hind-quarters following the movements
of the head and neck. Being impressed with the correctness
of this principle, I would venture to condemn those
" suppling " lessons by which the horse is taught to bring
his head round to one side or the other, while his hind-
quarters remain fixed. The horse, as I have said before,
should learn to obey the side pullfc of the rein with his hind-
quarters, as well as with his head and neck.

In most Continental maneges, an attempt is made, when
lunging a horse, to counteract the tendency the hind-
quarters have of flying outwards, by tightening the out-
ward side-rein more than the inward one, or by using only
the outward side-rein, so as to turn the head outwards.
Although the hind feet can be made by this arrange-
ment to describe the same circle as the fore ones ; the
head and neck, being bent outwards, are carried wrongly.
In the method of circling the horse with the long reins
(see Fig. 89), the two necessary conditions are fulfilled ;
for the head and neck are bent inward by the inward rein,
and the hind-quarters are prevented from flying outwards
by the outward rein. The same principle is adopted by thr
capable rider who preserves the bend of the head and neck
with the inward rein, and keeps the hind-quarters in position
by means of the pressure of the outward leg, which is drawn
back as may be required. One pre-eminent advantage
which circling the horse with the long reins has over any
method of lunging with leading rein and cavasson, is that

6*

84 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

by it we can not alone exercise the horse ; but can also
" mouth " him at the same time. Besides, by it we can
regulate and control the animal's movements in a manner
unattainable in any other way. By this style of riding and
by the use of the long reins on foot, the proper distribution
of weight can be maintained when turning or circling the
horse. I may here explain that when turning or circling a
horse to the right (in the direction in which the hands of a
watch move), the right rein or right leg is the inward rein
or inward leg, and the left rein or left leg, the outward rein
or outward leg ; and vice versa.

Apart from the turn on the centre, which I have just
described and which preserves as far as possible the natural
distribution of weight between the fore and hind legs, the
turn may be made on the forehand or on the haunches,
either as a suppling exercise, or as a movement necessary
on certain occasions to which I shall refer later on.

REINING-BACK.

Combined ability to comprehend and willingness to obey
the application of the appropriate aids for reining-back, are
useful in all horses, both as an end and as a means. Even
on the racecourse, it is well for a jockey to be able at times
to rein his horse back at the start, instead of having to turn
round, go back, and come up again, in doing which he
might easily lose a good position. Also, among a crowd of
horses in the hunting field, when waiting for one's turn
to go through a gate or at the only practicable part of a
fence, a like command over a horse is to be appreciated.
Reining-back is, however, even still more valuable as a
means of teaching the horse to obey the aids. There are
two forms of the rein-back : one, in which the preponder-
ance of weight is placed on the hind legs ; the other, in
which it is put on the forehand. We see the former when

REINING-BACK. 85

the carter tries to make his draught animal push back a
heavy load by raising the animal's head and by forcing him
to throw all his weight into the breeching. In the latter,
which is alone applicable to saddle work, the horse increases
the proportion of weight on his forehand by lowering his

Fig. 7. — Reining-back.

head, and consequently gives freedom and lightness to his
hind legs in the backward movement. If it be right for a
horse to be light in front when going forward, it is surely
correct for him to be light behind when reining-back. Ex-
perience teUs us that the best way for a horse to rein-back is
in diagonal two time (that of the trot), namely, near fore and
off hind ; and off fore and near hind. The most effective

86

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

method of obtaining this movement is to bend the head
and neck away from the side of the least advanced hind leg,
so as to fix the other hind leg, for the moment, by placing
the preponderance of weight on it. On both reins being
then felt, and the hind-quarter of the side opposite to that
to which the head is turned, being prevented by some

Fig. 8.— Reining-back.

suitable aid from swinging round, the horse will readily lift
and draw back the hind leg which bears the least weight,
and will follow it by the opposite fore leg. To obtain the
next step, the head is turned to the opposite side, and the
reversed aids applied. Thus, if we wish to commence the
rein-back with the off hind — supposing that both hind legs

REINING-BACK. 87

are equally advanced — we turn the head to the left by a
stronger feeling on the near rein, and having applied some
appropriate aid (such as the leg or whip, if riding ; or rein,
if using the long reins) to the off flank or quarter in order
to keep the hind-quarters straight, we " feel " both reins, so
as to make the horse step back with his off hind and near
fore. To obtain the step to the rear with the near hind and
off fore, we apply the opposite aids. In Fig. 7, the horse
is beginning to take the left diagonal step (near fore and
off hind), and is completing it in Fig. 8. For further infor-
mation on the rein-back, I beg to refer my reader to Points
of the Horse, in which I have discussed this pace at some
length. The subject of reining-back is dealt with very ably
in Barroil's admirable book, UArt Equestre.

By practising the horse at the rein-back we teach him
to obey the pressure of the reins with his head and neck
and with his hind-quarters at the same time ; in fact, to
obey it with both ends of his body, and not with the front
end only. This work has also a strong moral effect on
the animal in teaching him discipline. It is, as we might
naturally infer, specially applicable to the breaking in of a
horse which bears too much weight on the reins. We may
take for granted that until a horse has learned to rein-
back with facility and precision, he cannot be considered
to have a good mouth.

THE STANDING MARTINGALE.

The use of this martingale, from a breaking point of view,
is to teach the horse, if he be inclined to throw up his head
as a " defence " against the action of the bit on the bars of
the mouth, to abstain from doing so. The principle by
which we gain our end in this respect is by making the animal
associate in his mind the idea of pain with the act of throw-
ing up his head. We can put this principle into practice

88

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

by attaching the standing martingale to the rings of the
snaffle, at such a length that it will prevent the horse from
shifting the mouthpiece off the bars and on to the corners
of the mouth. When he finds that every time he " chucks "

Fig. 9. — Maximum length for a standing martingale.

up his head, he gives the bars of his mouth a severe shock,
he will soon cease doing so, even, as a rule, without a mar-
tingale. The use of this gear should not, however, be dis-
pensed with before it has produced a more or less permanent
effect on the animal's mind. When that has taken place, he

THE STANDING MARTINGALE.

89

will often be apparently unable to distinguish whether the
martingale be absent or present. In any case, I feel certain
from long and careful observation that the intelligence of
the horse is not sufficiently developed to enable him to

Fig. 10. — Front view of leather-covered, unjointed snaffle.

understand that the presence of the martingale is the cause
of the inflicted pain. If he were able to connect cause and
effect to such an extent as this, it would be impossible for
us to subordinate his will to ours as completely as we are

Fig. n. — Leather-covered, unjointed snaffle, in horse's mouth

able to do. By the employment of this martingale the
horse will readily learn the important lesson of bending his
head and neck to save his mouth. Finding that it is im-
possible for him to successfully pull against the standing

90 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

martingale by holding his head high, he will be all the
more inclined to " bend " to the rein, even when there is no
martingale on. When we wish to give full freedom to the
head for all legitimate purposes, short of its being carried
so high as to act as a " defence," we may lengthen out this
martingale to such an extent that it will only just prevent
the horse from being able to shift the mouthpiece of the
snaffle off the bars and on to the corners of the mouth (see
Fig. 9). If we want to get more power over him, we
may shorten it within this limit as may be required. The
correct principle of punishment and reward in the education
of the horse is admirably illustrated by the use of the
standing martingale ; for, with it, pain continues as long as
the defence ; but ceases the moment the animal yields.
This useful experience is not afforded by the application of
the running martingale ; for with it no saving of the mouth
is obtained by any yielding of the head and neck to the
rein. When the running martingale is on, whatever relief
is procured must be the result of the action of the rider's
hands, which, however good they may be, cannot give the
reward (and consequently cannot aid in the desired associa-
tion of ideas) with the quickness and precision of the auto-
matically acting standing martingale, the exact length of
which is rigidly fixed. Its use undoubtedly diminishes the
difficulties of breaking by at least one half. It is easy to
improvise a standing martingale with a piece of rope.

If the standing martingale be connected with the nose-
band, as is often done, it will fail to act in the manner
described, owing to the fact that the pressure thus exerted
on the nose causes little or no pain ; unless, indeed, it be
arranged in the way described on page 308. When, how-
ever, the too long continued use of a standing martingale
attached to the snaffle causes the corners of the mouth to
become sore, as may happen with horses which carry their

UNJOINTED SNAFFLE. 91

heads too high, and which are kept on the turn a good
deal — like polo ponies, for instance — we may fix this martin-
gale to the noseband instead of to the mouthpiece. While
breaking in the horse, it is always well to employ leather
guards, either as a portion of the leather mouthpiece (see

Fig. 12. — Jumping with standing martingale.

Figs. 10 and n), or like those used by London cabmen,
so as to prevent the corners of the mouth from being hurt.
I give Fig. 12 to show that a moderately tight standing
martingale will not interfere with the movements of a horse
even when jumping. The horse which I was riding on that
occasion was a bad star-gazer and very hard puller. Having
had a couple of lessons with the standing martingale, he

92 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

learned to bend his head to the rein, as we may see by the
fact of the martingale being loose.

As I have made the foregoing observations entirely
from a breaking point of view, I need hardly say that
we should teach our pupil to carry himself so well, that
on leaving our hands he would not require a martingale of
any kind.

BEARING REINS, RUNNING REINS, SIDE REINS, AND NOSE-
BANDS.

With a horse which keeps his head too low down, a
bearing rein which makes him hold his head up to the
required height, without interfering with his mouth (see
page 173), is often of great help with the long reins. When
using them and when driving a horse in harness, I have
found no benefit from running reins or side reins, especially
when the pull they exert on the bars of the mouth is, as is
usually the case, below the centre of motion of the neck
(see page 80). The benefit of a noseband is to prevent a
horse " giving " to the pull of the reins only with the lower
jaw ; instead of also yielding with the joints of the neck
and with the joint which connects the head with the neck.

" TYING HORSES UP," " REINING," DUMB JOCKEYS, AND
THE PILLARS.

Horses are frequently " mouthed " (" reined " or " tied
up ") by having their heads more or less drawn in by reins
which are attached to a dumb jockey or roller, and 'by
being kept thus confined for a certain period of time in
the stable, or while they are being led about at exercise.
I consider this system objectionable ; because only the head
and neck are acted upon, and no provision is made, as there
ought to be, for'^bending the other end of the body (see

DUMB^ JOCKEYS. 93

page 63). Horses which are tied up in this manner will
seek to relieve the muscles of the head and neck by
abstaining as much as possible from bringing the hind
legs under the body. There is also to be considered the
error of bending the horse's head and neck at the halt
(see page 73). Consequently, the result — as we may, for
instance, see with fashionable carriage horses, which of
all animals get the most of this kind of mouthing — is exces-
sive bending of the head and neck, and dragging of the
hind legs. This absence of collection " behind " might be
somewhat remedied during the stationary process of tying-
up, if the breaker would stand behind the horse and would
keep the animal's hind-quarters under him by means of the
whip, according to the principle of the " pillars," which are
two upright posts, between which the horse is placed, and
to which he is attached by pillar reins. The pillars have
fallen almost entirely into disuse, on account of their
tendency to make the horse too light in front, thereby
causing him to be disinclined to go up to his bridle, and
to be ready to rear on slight provocation. One great
objection to the use of dumb jockeys, the pillars, and all
similar contrivances, is that, even supposing they had a
good effect, it would be impossible for the breaker to
tell its amount without trying the horse in saddle or
harness. Consequently, with any of them he would be
working more or less in the dark. With the " long reins,"
on the contrary, he is in constant touch with the horse's
mouth, and can learn at any moment the extent of the
progress his pupil is making, so that he is safeguarded
against the blunder of doing too much. Again, none of
these contrivances are of any use for correcting the ex-
tremely common fault of one side of the mouth being
harder or softer than the other ; the reason being that their
bending is applied only in a straight line, namely, from front

94 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

to rear. So inadequate are they to the purpose of giving a
horse a good mouth, as compared to the " long reins," that
I mention them only to warn my readers against their em-
ployment.

Elastic reins, which are sometimes used with a dumb
jockey, are wrong in principle and useless in practice, for
they do not allow the complete freedom from pressure which
the horse should experience as a reward for obedience when
he bends his neck and yields to the reins ; unless, indeed,
they are so loose as to fail to perform their intended work.

95

CHAPTER IV.
METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

The breaking enclosure — Gentling the horse — Holding and leading a compara-
tively quiet horse — Making a rope halter — Haltering a loose horse — Teach-
ing a loose horse to come up and to follow — Lifting up a fore leg — Holding
up a fore leg — Tying up a fore leg — Blindfolding a horse — The halter-twitch
— The rope-twitch — The noose-twitch — The headstall-twitch — The bridle-
twitch — The Indian war bridle — The Comanche bridle — The cavesson —
The strait- jacket — Lifting up a hind leg — Improvised hobble — The wooden
gag — Making a horse lie down and keeping him on the ground — Major
Wood's method of throwing horses — Throwing a horse with the strait- jacket
— The head and tail method — Rareyfying a horse — Sample's horse-taming
machine — South African method of breaking.

I PROPOSE in this chapter to describe a number of methods
and appliances which the breaker will find useful in making
the horse docile. In it I shall say nothing about the sub-
ject of mouthing, which I shall reserve for subsequent
chapters.

THE BREAKING ENCLOSURE.

For breaking in horses it is a great advantage to have
an enclosure of about 20 yards square, with walls around
it at least 7 feet high, and if possible roofed in, so that the
breaker may be independent of the weather. I find that
for convenience and control it should not exceed 25 yards
square, except for breaking to harness, when it might be
a little larger (see page 253). The minimum size for only
saddle work may be put at 12 yards each side. A square

96 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

arena is to be preferred to a circular one, or to a rectangu-
lar one which has two of its sides longer than the other
two. The ground inside should be soft ; so that the legs
and feet of animals worked in it may not get jarred, and
that horses which are made to lie down on it may not run
any chance of hurting themselves.

I may here impress on my readers the danger there is
to the breaker of having anyone standing right behind him
when he is handling vicious horses ; for, in such a case, if
the animal makes an offensive movement, the breaker
will probably knock up against the other man, and will
thus fail to get out of harm's way.

GENTLING THE HORSE.

The term " gentling the horse " signifies the act of
handling him in a soothing, though firm manner, while he
is under such restraint that he will be unable to resist our
friendly advances. For instance, after having made the
horse lie down (see page 144), and while preventing him
from getting up, we may gentle him by running our
hands over him, patting him, and massaging his muscles,
especially those which he keeps in a contracted condition.
While standing at his back (when he is on the ground), so
as to be out of danger, we may bend forward and gentle
his legs, and draw them towards us with our hands or by
a hobble and rope, with the object of forcing him to readily
bend the joints of his limbs.

When a horse " fights " us, he will more or less stiffen
his muscles (keep them in a state of contraction) against
any movement demanded from him by us. Hence, the
more we induce him to relax them, the nearer shall we be
to our object of making him " give in." Gentling is there-
fore a valuable means for making horses docile, and for
giving them confidence.

HOLDING THE HORSE. 97

HOLDING AND LEADING A COMPARATIVELY QUIET HORSE.

The best way to hold a fairly docile horse while standing
at his near side, is to draw the snaffle reins over his head,
hold them in the centre in the full of the left hand, and
catch both reins near the rings of the snaffle with the right
hand, having the little finger between them (see Figs. 13
and 14). While holding the reins in this way, we shall

Fig. 13. — Holding horse ?

have good command over the horse when leading him. If
we wish to hold him for examination or for gear to be put
on him, we may place ourselves in front of him, catch the
off rein with the left hand and the near rein with the right
hand, close to the rings of the snaffle ; and hold the horse's
head up (see Fig. 15). If a somewhat difficult horse has
to be handled behind, say, about his near hind leg, we may,
while standing alongside his near shoulder and while

7

98 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Fig. 14. — Holding horse.

Fig. 15. — Holding horse.

ROPE HALTER. 99

holding both reins in the left hand, press our right fist hard
against the base of the neck, over the course of the neck
vertebra (see Fig. 16). The fact of keeping the head and
neck bent in this way, will prevent the animal, if so inclined,
from turning round and kicking anyone who may approach
his near hind quarter. The reversed precautions will be

Fig. 1 6. — Holding horse.

observed when working on the off side. If a double bridle
be on the horse, the snaffle reins only should be used.

MAKING A ROPE HALTER.

The simplest way to do this is to take a rope about half
an inch in diameter, and about 9 yards long ; make it
double for about 3 ft. 6 in., and put a knot on the doubled
part, so as to form a large loop (see Fig. 17), in which to
make a small loop (see Fig. 18), for the leading rein to pass

7*

100

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

through. The second knot should divide the large loop,
so that the head-piece may be about twice as long as the
nose-band. The halter will now be ready to be put on (see
Fig. 19). The nose-band may be made sufficiently long,

Fig. 17. — First loop in making
a rope halter.

Fig. 18. — Rope halter completed.

and the loop through which the loose end passes, tight
enough, to prevent the nose-band and leading rein (the
free end of the rope) forming a running noose, which might
hurt the horse. Or, if required, a knot may be made with
that part of the rope which^ serves as a leading rein, at the
ring through which it passes ; so that the nose-band of

HALTERING HORSE

101

the halter may not squeeze the horse's jaws together (see
Fig. 20).

The rope employed should be soft, and not too thick ;
so as to allow the knots to be made with facility.

The reader will observe that this halter which I have de-
vised is only an improvised adaptation, which need not take
half a minute to make, of the ordinary halter. I have no

Fig. 19. — Kope nailer, ready to put on

doubt that others, prompted by necessity, like myself,
have hit on this rough-and-ready method ; although I
have never seen anyone else make a halter in quite the
same manner as I have described.

HALTERING A LOOSE HORSE.

Let us suppose that the animal is in some suitable en-
closure, such as a yard, loose box, or small paddock ; for
it is almost needless to say, that if he were at liberty in the

IO2

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

open, and averse from being captured, no man unaided
could possibly capture him. The first thing to do is to make
the rope halter — as already described — if an ordinary
halter be not at hand, and then to get the horse to stand
quietly in some convenient corner. We may make him move,
or stop, as may be required, by gently working a long pole
held in the hands across the body, alternately, behind and

in front of him ; and, having got
him into the proper position, we
may induce him to stand steady,
as I have found by experience, by
touching him on the neck, and
then rubbing it with the end of
the pole. I have hardly ever
known this plan to fail in its
object. Horses, almost always,
like having their crest scratched.
As soon as the animal will stand
still, while his neck is being
"gentled" with the stick, the
halter may be put on the end of
the pole by three turns (see Fig.
21), and the free end of the rope
may be twisted once or twice
round the pole to prevent it hang-
ing down too low. The operator will now take the pole,
with the halter rigged on to it, and will endeavour to bring
the crown-piece of the halter behind the ears, without
frightening the animal, while holding the end of the pole
a little above its head (see Fig. 22). He can repeat the
precautions I have described for making the horse stand
still, as he may think necessary. As soon as the crown-
piece of the halter comes behind the ears, he should swing
the pole smartly down in front of the animal's nose, and then

Fig. 20. — Rope halter with
knot, to prevent it pinching the
horse's jaws.

HALTERING HORSE. 103

under the lower jaw ; thus bringing the halter into its
proper place (see Fig. 23). Nothing now remains except to
withdraw the pole, on doing which, the operation will be
complete (see Fig. 24). Care should be taken not to bring
the pole under the lower jaw before the nose-band is in
front of the ears ; for, if it remains behind them when the
end of the stick is brought down, the horse will be lassoed,
not haltered. The precautions necessary to be taken in

Fig. 21. — Rope halter, put on pole to halter horse.

haltering the horse will depend on the amount of his vice,
or timidity. A horse can be thus caught best when he is
standing in the corner of a wall which is too high for him to
look over. In a circular enclosure, the animal will be
able, by turning round, to defeat the intentions of his
would-be captor much more easily than he could in a
rectangular one. In a roped-in arena, the horse can get
his head away from the halter easier than he could do when
close to a wall. There is no fear of a horse, however vicious
he may be, attacking the operator, if the man keeps the
pole across the animal's face, ready, if need be, to give him

104

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

a tap or two on the muzzle. The larger the enclosure, the
less inclined will a horse be to " savage " anyone approach-
ing him. In extreme cases, a blow on the forehead might
be necessary. I may mention that the brain is covered
at the forehead by only a thin plate of bone. Mr. O. S.
Pratt, the American " horse-tamer," gives in his book a

Fig. 22. — Haltering loose horse.

method for haltering a loose horse by putting the crown-
piece of the halter on the end of a pole (see Fig. 25). In
applying this, the horse is very apt to shy away from the
halter, which has to be put on from the front. I have
found from experience that the manner of haltering
which I have described, and which was shewn to me by
Mr. G. A. Banham, F.R.C.V.S., is much better than
Pratt's plan.

HALTERING HORSE.

105

TEACHING A LOOSE HORSE TO COME UP TO AND TO

FOLLOW US.

If a horse is difficult to catch when loose, we may make
him come up to us, by putting him in a suitable enclosure,
and then cutting him with the lunging whip — which may

Fig. 23. — Haltering loose horse

resemble the long whip used in circuses for regulating the
movements of horses, or that employed by carters — below
the hocks whenever he presents his hind-quarters to us.
Having got him into a corner, we should prevent him from
escaping out of it, by showing him the point of the whip.
As soon as he understands that he exposes himself to

Io6

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

punishment by turning round, he will abstain from doing
so, and can be readily induced to stand still by the point of
the whip preventing him from getting away ; and, by the
fear of punishment, from turning round. By a few dex-
terous flourishes of the whip we shall have no difficulty in
making him come up to us, so as to avoid punishment.
He should then be rewarded by having his crest scratched
by the end of the whip, and, if he will take it, by being pre-

Fig. 24. — Rope halter on horse.

sented with a carrot or other dainty. By working in this
manner, while we continue to walk backwards, we can
easily teach him to follow us. After a time, by merely
raising the whip, he will run up to us, so as to avoid being
hit with it. The foregoing method is the one which is
practised in circuses.

NOTE. — Care must be taken that this is not practised in
an enclosure, such as a loose-box where there are any pro-
jections from the wall, as for instance a ring or manger,

HALTERING HORSE.

107

for the horse may strike his head against the ring or bang
his knees against the manger when the whip is used. As
there are these dangers I would put on knee-caps and try to
arrange all safely, but would not discard this lesson, as I
consider it one of the most useful for inspiring respect.
It also saves trouble ; because afterwards, when you enter
the loose-box with the harness, etc., you can call the horse

Fig. 25. — Pratt's method of putting halter on pole to halter horse.

up to you to stand quietly while you put the things on to
him.

This treatment should appeal to a horse very strongly,
for when a strange horse is turned into a field amongst
others, one or two of the leading spirits will always come
up to him and try conclusions in a kicking match, in much
the same way as the new boy has to find his own level
with his fists when first sent to school, and in both these
cases we know the winner is afterwards treated with the
utmost respect.

io8 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

LIFTING UP A FORE LEG.

Having haltered the horse, we may, in order to gain
further control over him, take up a fore leg in one of the
following ways :—

i. If we are afraid that the horse on our approaching
him will " strike out " or kick, we may, as Colonel Rawlings,
R.H.A., showedjne, form a noose about two feet and a half
in diameter, with a rope ; and having laid it on the ground,
give the free end to an assistant to hold. We may then

Fig. 2^. — Noosing horse's fore leg.

make the horse move about until he places one fore foot
within the noose (see Fig. 26), when the assistant should
pull the rope, and thus lasso the pastern. Or a rope with a
loop at one end of it may be worked round the near
fore leg (supposing we are standing on the near side)
by means of a stick, and brought back to the hand ; the
other end of the rope may be passed through the loop, and
the pastern noosed. The end of the rope may now be
thrown over the animal's back to the other side, and the
leg pulled up (see Fig. 27) and secured by passing the rope
round the base of the neck (see Fig. 28) ; or the leg may

NOOSING FORE LEG. 109

be pulled back by the rope, and lifted up by another
assistant. If the horse " shows fight," it may be necessary
to blindfold him at this stage of the proceedings. The
long pole may also be called into requisition to " gentle "
the horse, and thus render him comparatively quiet.
The operator can always quickly accomplish his object, in
the manner described, if he will only exercise a little
patience.

Fig. 27. — Pulling up horse's fore leg with rope.

This method of noosing the leg is similar in principle to
that employed in securing the limbs of wild elephants, in
India, when they have been driven into a stockade.

2. The best way of pulling up a fore leg with the hand
is, as I have found out, to grasp, say, the near fore at the
back of the leg and just above the knee, with the left hand ;
pinch it with the fingers to stimulate the flexor muscles of
the knee to contract ; turn the elbow in, and press it against
the upper part of the fore arm, so as to throw the weight
from the near on to the off fore, and thus render the

I 10

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

picking-up of the near fore a very easy matter (see Fig. 29).
If required, an upward pull is given with the left arm, and
the foot is caught with the right hand as the horse lifts it
up. I may add that the muscles against which the man's
elbow presses, assist in raising the foot from the ground.
By this plan the breaker can stand at the side of the leg
which has to be raised, and a little away from it, thus keep-

Fig. 28. — Tying up horse's fore leg with rope.

ing out of danger as much as possible. If he tries to lift
up the fore leg of a bad cow-kicker by catching hold of the
pastern, he will run a great risk of getting hit on the head
or body, on account of having to stoop down while stand-
ing close to, and a little behind, the fore leg.

3. The usual way carters lift up the fore leg of a heavy
draught animal is by catching the hair of the fetlock, and
then drawing up the leg. The slight irritation caused by
the pull at the roots of the hair will make the horse readily
bend the knee.

PICKING UP FORE LEG.

ii

HOLDING UP A FORE LEG.

If the fore leg be held up by the hand passing under the
fetlock or pastern (see Fig. 30), as is frequently done, the
horse, by bearing a portion of his weight on the man's hand,

Fig. 29. — Lifting up a fore leg.

can easily kick with either hind leg. The foot of the
unshod horse should, on the contrary, be held by the
spread-out fingers grasping the front part of the hoof (see
Fig. 31). The shod foot may be held up by the front part
of the hoof, under which -the fingers pass, while the thumb

12

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

presses down on the sole (see Fig. 32). In either of these
cases, the animal will avoid placing weight on the man's
hand ; for by doing so, the joints of the foot would become
bent in a painful manner.

TYING UP A FORE LEG.

Having " picked up " the foot, we may secure it in either
of the two following ways : —

Fig. 30- — Wrong way of holding up
horse's fore leg.

Fig. 31. — Proper way to hold up
unshod horse's fore leg.

i. By Rarey's leg-strap, which is about 3 ft. long, and is
furnished at one end with a buckle, below which a leather
" keeper " is placed on both sides (see Fig. 33). To apply
it, the free end is passed round the pastern, from the outside,
through the keeper at the back of the buckle, thus forming a
loop. Another turn is taken round the fore arm, and a
second loop is made by passing the end through the buckle.
The strap can now be tightened up as may be required, and

HOLDIJSTG UP FORE LEG. 113

the end run through the second keeper. Figs. 34 and 35
show how this can be done equally well with a stirrup leather,
with which two or three turns have been taken round the

Fig. 32. — Proper way to hold up fore leg of shod horse."

pastern, so as to bring the punched holes sufficiently near
the buckle. The objections to the employment of this
method of tying up the leg, whether with a Rarey's strap

8

114

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

or with a stirrup leather, are : (a) That it is apt to irritate
the animal by the compression needed to keep the strap
in its place ; (b) That, when the leg is thus fixed, the horse,
in the event of his " coming down," is liable to hurt his knee ;
" capped knee " being the usual result of the injury, on
account of the extensor tendon of the knee being at that

moment tightly stretched over the
part : I have had this accident
occur on several occasions, when
making horses lie down, even when
they had knee-caps on, and when
the ground was soft ; (c) The heel
of the shoe, if the horse be shod,
is apt to bruise and cut the elbow ;
(d) The compression exercised by
the strap on the fore arm numbs
the leg, and tends to make the
animal fall awkwardly, if he is
made to lie down ; (e) Unless the
strap is kept very tight, it is apt to
slip down the fore arm, and thus
exercise an injurious strain on the
fetlock joint.

2. By far the best way for tying
up a fore leg is the one described by
Mr. Saunders in 'Our Horses,' by

which the leg is simply suspended, at any length required,
from the surcingle. Mr. Saunders advises the use of a small
loop to connect the surcingle and strap together (see Fig. 36),
with the object, I presume, of keeping the limb in a plane
parallel to the general direction of the horse's body. This
is certainly an advantage when making a horse lie down ;
although I have found, for ordinary purposes of control,
that the employment of the small loop may be dispensed

Fig- 33- — Rarey's leg-strap.

LEG STRAP.

with, and the leg-strap passed through the surcingle or
girth. This method of suspending the leg is very useful
when gentling the fore limb, and when shoeing a " diffi-
cult " animal ; as the foot can be retained at any convenient
height from the ground without irritating the horse, and,
consequently, without inciting him to " fight."

I have learned, on more S\
than one occasion, by pain-
ful experience, that it is
possible for a horse to
effectually cow-kick with
the hind leg of the side on
which a fore leg is tied-up.

A stirrup leather, with
two or three holes punched
at convenient distances,
will, as I have said on
page 113, make a capital
leg-strap (see Fig. 34). It
has the advantage of
having, at the back of the
buckle, no leather keeper,
which is always liable to
give way, by reason of the
strain exerted on it.

For suspending a fore
leg, we need punch no extra
holes in the stirrup leather, if we take, as already described, a
few turns with it round the pastern, before passing its end
through the lower part of the buckle. An ordinary stirrup
leather would, therefore, require a few seconds longer to
apply, than if more holes had been punched, which it is
prudent to do, in order to save time, if we have got to
tie up the leg of a difficult or dangerous horse.

3*

34- — A stirrup leather utilised for
tying up a fore leg.

ii6 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

NOTE. — If we use a stirrup leather for fastening up a fore
leg, it is perhaps best to buckle it so tightly that the foot
remains near the elbow ; then the horse, on trying to free
it, cannot strike the foot against and injure the other knee.

BLINDFOLDING A HORSE.

After the animal has been secured in the manner described,
or after he has been simply haltered, a further step in the
process of rendering him helpless may be taken by throwing
a rug or other convenient cloth over his head, and then
applying the rope-twitch (see page 120). If he be dangerous
to approach, the rug may be placed on the end of a long pole,
and then brought over his head, or a blindfolding halter
may be put on, now, or in the first instance. This appliance
is, I believe, of French origin. It consists of an ordinary
headstall, with a cloth filling up the space between the
cheek-pieces, brow-band, and nose-band, so as to cover the
horse's eyes.

Blindfolding is an efficient means of control with the
majority of horses ; although it excites some to offer more
vigorous resistance than they would otherwise do. I have
never found a horse which would, when blindfolded, at-
tempt to kick or strike out on the chance of hitting his man,
unless he was touched about the limbs or body ; nor bite,
whether touched or not, under similar circumstances. I
therefore think that the breaker runs no risk whatsoever in
going up to the animal's head when it has thus been tem-
porarily deprived of sight, no matter how vicious the horse
may be.

THE HALTER-TWITCH.

With an ordinary halter, or with the improvised halter
which I have shown in Fig. 19, the breaker may apply a
modification of the rope-twitch (see page 120), by making

SUSPENDING FORE LEG.

Fig. 35. — Tying up fore leg with stirrup-leather.

Fig. 36. — Suspending horse's fore leg to surcingle

n8

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

a half-hitch with the free part of the rope of the halter,
passing the loop over the ears (see Fig. 37), bringing the
lower part of the loop under the animal's upper lip, and
then pulling it tight (see. Figs. 38 and 39). He may jerk

the rope (leading rein) three or four
times, accompanying the action
on each occasion with the word
" steady ! " The part of the rope
which passes under the upper lip
should be kept slack, except when
the jerk is given, and that any
other suitable word may be substi-
tuted for that of " steady ! " No
horse, when thus secured, will at-
tempt any aggressive movement
towards the man who holds the
leading rein. The rope may be
jerked and the word "steady!"
used as may be required. The pain
inflicted by the application of this
twitch is a necessary evil which may
well be disregarded ; for its amount
is trifling in comparison with the
extent of control obtained by its
means. If employed carefully, no
mark need be left on the mucous
membrane. The proper use of this
twitch is thoroughly rational ; for it
keeps the horse quiet by its de-
terrent effect, and not by retaining him in a continued state
of suffering, as is done by the ordinary twitch. The word
" steady ! " or any convenient substitute for it, should
never be omitted ; for after the animal has learned, as he
will do in a minute or two, to connect it with the idea

Fig- 37- — Halter-twitch.

HALTER-TWITCH. 119

of pain, the twitch may be removed, and the word alone
used, in order to keep him in subjection. In this experi-
ment, it is evident that the horse fears the word, and not the
twitch ; for, no matter how often the rope is put on, he will
not resent its application more than he did on the first occa-

Fig. 38. — Halter-twitch applied.

sion. The oftener, on the contrary, the ordinary twitch
is employed, the shyer will the animal become of having his
muzzle touched. The chief advantages of the halter- twitch,
or of the rope-twitch (which is the more effective appliance
of the two), over the ordinary twitch are : that it can be
easier procured and applied ; it does not inflict so much

120 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

pain, which, with it, is momentary, and not continuous, as
with the other ; it is not so liable to slip off ; it can be
retained in position for any reasonable length of time, to
be used as required ; it has a good effect on the horse's
temper, and not a bad one, like the ordinary twitch ; by its
application we can dispense with its use in favour of a
simple word of command ; and it does not make the horse
shy of having his muzzle or mouth touched. The fact of
numbers of horses being rendered difficult to bridle by the

Fig- 39- — Halter-twitch applied.

employment of the ordinary twitch will naturally occur to
the reader. The general substitution of the rope-twitch
(see following paragraph) for the ordinary one is highly
desirable. I may point out that if, when the ordinary
twitch has been twisted up tightly, its stick be struck or
jerked, on the animal moving, it will doubtless have a
deterrent effect, as well as that produced by the needless
infliction of continued pain.

THE ROPE-TWITCH.

Everything I have said in the preceding paragraph in
favour of tjie halter-twitch, applies still more strongly tg

ROPE-TWITCH.

121

the rope-twitch, described in Mr. O. S. Pratt's book, " The
Horse's Friend," which was published at Buffalo in 1876.
Mr. C. G. Frasier, who was Pratt's assistant for some years
in America, tells me that this twitch was not invented by
Pratt, long before whose time it was in use. He thinks
that it was probably the idea of the " horse-tamer," Fan-
chion, who practised his art many
years ago in the States. Pratt
calls it "the double-hitch Bona-
parte bridle." It is made as
follows : take a rope and make a
simple knot with it at one end,
at a distance of about eighteen
inches from which make another
knot loosely, and pass the first
knot through the second, so as to
form a loop which will not draw
tightly (see Fig. 40). Make a
halter by taking a turn of the
rope through the fixed loop (see
Fig. 41). Place this halter over
the horse's head, and the loop in
his mouth. Make a half hitch
with the free part of the rope,

pass it over the horse's head and under his upper lip, and
draw it moderately tight (see Figs. 42 and 43). By making
the fixed loop long, one can obtain more power than with
the halter-twitch.

If there be much difficulty in applying the rope-twitch,
the best plan, as I have found, is to try the effect of the
noose-twitch (see following paragraph). Or the horse may
be tied head and tail (see page 135), and it can then be
put on without trouble ; the animal being, of course, re-
leased immediately after, this js 4onef

Fig. 40. — Noose which will
not "run."

122

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

THE NOOSE-TWITCH

(see page 165) is applied by means of a rope, at one end of
which a loop that will not run (see Fig. 40) is made. The
other end of the rope is thrown over the upper part of the
horse's neck and passed through the loop ; a stick with a
crooked handle being utilised if necessary. While keeping

Fig. 41. — Pratt's twitch, first portion.

the fixed loop high up on the animal's cheek, the noose is
manipulated so as to come under the upper lip, when it
should be drawn tightly (see Fig. 44). It may be used in
the same manner as the rope-twitch or the halter-twitch.

THE HEADSTALL-TWITCH.

Fig. 45 will explain this ready and effective method of
applying the twitch. The rope is passed through the upper
ring of the cheek-piece of the head-stall, and is tied on to

NOOSE-TWITCH.

123

the lower ring. The turn over the ears and under the upper
lip is then taken, with the portion of rope which, after being
drawn out, is included between the two rings.

Fig. 42. — Pratt's twitch completed.

THE BRIDLE-TWITCH.

This is a useful and ready means for making the horse
stand quietly after he has been bridled, and is applied by
passing one of the snaffle-reins under the upper lip, and

i24 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Fig. 43. — Pratt's twitch on horse's head.

Fig. 44. — Noose-twitch.

BRIDLE-TWITCH. 125

drawing it tightly to the opposite side (see Figs. 46 and 47).
I was shown this twitch by Mr. Esa, of the firm of Shaikh
Ibrahim and Co., Poona, India. ,

THE INDIAN WAR BRIDLE 1

is a kind of twitch which appears to have been invented by
the North American Indians many years ago. To apply
it, make a loop which will not run (see Fig. 40) at the end

W

Fig. 45. — Headstall-twitch on horse.

of a rope ; place this loop in the horse's mouth ; pass the
other end of the rope over the animal's neck from the of!
side (supposing that the operator is on the near side) and
through the loop ; tighten the rope, so as to make the horse
draw his head in, and fix it by a running knot. It will then
form a very severe means of restriction (see Figs. 48 and
49), by reason of the painful pressure which the rope will
exert on the bars of the mouth. It can be loosened in
a moment by pulling on the free end of the rope. I have

126 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

given up the use of the Indian war bridle ; because its
effect, like that of the ordinary twitch (see pages 119 to
121), is due to the continued infliction of pain.

Fig. 46. — Bridle-twitch, front and near-side view.
THE COMANCHE BRIDLE

is the name given in America to a kind of gag which is
made as follows : Tie one end of a rope round the horse's
neck, close to his head, in such a manner that the noose thus
formed will not " run " (see Figs. 40 and 50). Pass the

INDIAN WAR BRIDLE.

127

other end through the horse's mouth from the off side, and
through the loop on the near side (see Figs. 51 and 52). By
pulling the horse by the free end of the rope to one side and
then to the other, we can quickly teach him to lead or follow.

Fig. 47. — Bridle-twitch, off-side view.

The principle upon which it acts appears to be that the
animal obtains relief from painful pressure by the rope on
the corners of his mouth the moment he approaches the
man who is pulling at the end of the rope, and consequently

128 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

accepts the pull (or word accompanying it) as a signal to
follow.j

THE CAVESSON,

which consists of a strong leather headstall with a heavy
leather-covered noseband, is largely used in Continental
riding-schools as a means for making horses steady to
handle, mount, lead, etc. Its effect is produced by the

Fig. 48. — Indian war bridle.

breaker jerking the leading rein which is attached to it, so
as to inflict blows of varying intensity on the nose as a
punishment for disobedience. As its application tends to
render the animal difficult to handle about the face, and
as its results, with the single exception of teaching a circus
horse to circle (see page 342), can be better obtained with
the rope-twitch ; I would not advise its employment in the
breaking in of horses, except in the one case just men-
tioned.

STRAIT-JACKET.

129

THE STRAIT- JACKET.

For English readers, I venture to apply this term to the
hippo lasso of MM. Raabe and Lunel. It consists of a

Fig. 49. — Indian war bridle.

Fig. 50. — First part of Comanche bridle.

breeching and breast-band, supported by straps passing
over the back, and connected by traces, which proceed from

9

130 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

the breeching, through Ds, with rollers on them, at the end
of the breast-band, back again through similar Ds on the
breeching, and then forward, to become finally attached to
buckles on the sides of the breast-band (see Fig. 53). A
strap and buckle, laid along the top of the back, connect the
two back-straps together. A piece of felt may be used with
the supporting strap of the breast-band, as a guard to pre-

Fig. 51. — Comanche bridle, off side.

vent the strap hurting the back. The breeching should be
lined with felt ; the back-straps should be made of strong
stirrup leather, and the traces should be particularly strong
close to the breeching. The breeching and breast-band
should be provided, at their respective centres, with a D,
to which ropes may be attached in order to keep the animal
steady before and behind.

This gear may be applied in the following way : If the

STRAIT-JACKET. 131

horse is quiet, the breast-band and breeching may be
put on separately, with the back-straps supporting them,
and may be connected together by the strap on the top of
the back, and by the traces on each side. The breast-band
should rest high up against the fore arms, and the breeching
behind and a little below the level of the stifles (see Fig. 54).

Fig. 52. — Comanche bridle, near side.

If the animal be dangerous to handle only behind, the
breast-band may be put on and the breeching attached to
it in the manner just described ; but without putting it over
the quarters. A rope can now be fixed to the D in the
centre of the breeching, which, by the aid of the rope, can
be pulled over the croup into its proper position by an

9*

132

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

assistant from behind. Before doing this, the traces should
be let out, to be pulled tightly the moment the breeching
slips over the tail. In this and other cases of difficulty,
ropes may be attached to the ends of the traces, so that
the assistants who hold them need run no risk of getting
kicked.

When the horse strikes out as well as kicks, the different
parts of the strait-jacket may be connected together, with
the exception of, say, the near trace, the end of which may

Fig- 53- — Strait-jacket.

be held by an assistant while another helper holds a rope
attached to a D which is on the near side of the breast-
band. The loop formed by the breast-band and its back-
strap is now passed over the horse's neck, the end of the
near trace passed through the near side D of the breast-
band, and the remaining fixings accomplished. If the
animal be not very violent, the gear may be connected
together, the loop made by the breast-band and its back-
strap passed over the head and neck, and the breeching
pulled over the croup by a rope.

LIFTING UP HIND LEG. 133

If the precaution of putting on the rope- twitch be taken,
no difficulty need be experienced in subsequently applying
the strait- jacket.

LIFTING UP A HIND LEG.

The usual " confidential " method for lifting up a horse's
hind leg, the near one for instance, is, while standing by the
side of the near quarter, to run the left hand down the limb,
take hold of the canon bone with the fingers pointing to the
rear (see Fig. 55), and pick the leg up. Or we may run the

Fig. 54. — Horse with strait-jacket on.

right hand down the leg, place the flat of the hand on the
back tendons (see Fig. 56), and lift up the leg by drawing
it forward. If we have any doubt as to the steadiness
of the animal, we may, while standing clear of the forward
action of the hind leg in the event of the horse cow-kicking,
and while pressing the left fore arm against the quarter,
so as to avoid the chance of being struck, run our left hand
down the leg and catch the tendo Achillis (the hamstring),
our grip on which will more or less prevent the animal from
bending his hock and " lashing out " behind, if he is so in-
clined. We may then catch the pastern, back-handed,

134

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

with the right hand (see Fig. 57) ; lift the leg ; and place it
resting on our left thigh (see Fig. 58). If we have an
assistant, we may get him to hold up the near fore leg, as
well as to hold the horse. As soon as we get our left hand
on the hamstring, and our right hand on the pastern, we
should tell him to let go the near fore, and we can then try
to lift up the hind leg as before described.

ig- 55- — Lifting up horse's hind leg.

If we have no one to hold up the near fore, we may " pick
it up " with the left hand ; grasp the toe of the hoof with the
right hand, while facing to the horse's rear (see Fig. 59) ; take
a step forward with the right foot ; catch the hamstring with
the left hand (see Fig. 60) ; let go the near fore ; at the
same moment, seize the pastern, back-handed, with the right
hand (see Fig. 57) ; and place the horse's leg on the left thigh
(see Figs. 61 and 58). This method, which I believe I have
been the first to devise, ensures almost complete immunity

LIFTING UP HIND LEG. 135

from danger. As long as we have hold of the fore hoof with
the hand, we can get forward out of danger if the horse tries
to kick. The grasp of the left hand deprives the hind leg of
the greater part of its action, and the hind pastern is caught
so quickly after, even if not before, the near fore reaches the
ground, that the animal has not time to make an offensive
movement. By catching the pastern in the way described,

Fig. 56. — Lifting up horse's hind leg.

we aid in preventing the animal from cow-kicking, to do
which, he must bend his hock ; for the muscle which flexes
the foot, extends the hock. Were we to catch the canon
bone instead of the pastern, we should, besides losing this
advantage, have less ability to act on the lever formed by
the bones below the hock, by reason of our shifting the
point of application of the " power " closer to the fulcrum
(the head of the tibia). The irritation caused by the grasp

136

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

of the hand on the hamstring — which is composed of two
tendons — stimulates their muscles to contract, and thus to
keep the hock extended. In this operation, we should
follow the principles, already laid down, of removing the
cause of any pain or irritation inflicted by us on the horse,
the moment he yields to our wishes. If the horse over-
powers the grip of our hands on his hind leg and kicks out

Fig. 57. — Lifting up horse's hind leg.

behind, he can do us no harm ; for we are then in front of
his hind leg. If he will not submit, we may apply the rope-
twitch (see page 121) ; and by its aid and a little " gentling,"
proceed as before described. Instead of lifting up the hind
leg with the hand, we may, while the fore leg of that side is
tied up, place on the hind pastern a hobble with a D attached
to it (see Fig. 62), and after the fore leg has been let down,
lift up the hind leg with a rope or stirrup leather (see Fig. 63).
If the horse be too bad a kicker to allow a hind leg to be

HOLDING UP HIND LEG.

137

lifted up by the comparatively gentle means just detailed ;
we may, while the horse is being held by an assistant, tie
up one fore leg ; put on the pastern of the hind leg of the
same side — say, the near hind — a hobble ; fix a rope to its
D ; and give the rope to a second assistant. We may then
gentle the leg, while the assistant keeps it off the ground
(see Fig. 64), or lets it down, according as we see fit. When
held in this way, the animal is powerless to hurt us or the

Fig. 58. — Holding up horse's hind leg.

assistant who is behind him. If the horse is very trouble-
some, we may get the assistant who is at his head to correct
him with the rope- twitch, until he " gives in " and allows his
leg to be lifted up. Or we may give the leg-rope to the
assistant and manipulate the rope-twitch ourselves. If we
have not got a hobble, we may fix one end of the rope
round the hind pastern by a noose which will not run (see
Fig. 40), in which case it is well, by the application of a
bandage, or piece of cloth, to protect the pastern from

138-

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

getting chafed. Or we may employ the following method,
which was shown to me by General Gatacre : — Having

Fig- 59- — First step in lifting up a hind leg without assistance.

taken a strong cord about 20 ft. long, we may tie with it —
to the end of the tail — a " double sheet bend " (see Fig. 65)

LIFTING UP HIND LEG.

139

in the middle of the cord, and pass one end through the D
to the near side, the other end through it to the off side, and

Fig. 60. — Second step in lifting up hind leg.

Fig. 61. — Third step in lifting up hind leg.

give the respective ends to an assistant on each side to hold
(see Fig. 66). If the fore leg has been tied up, it should now

140

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

be let down. The assistants should stand at right angles to
the horse, and can lift the leg by pulling equally on their
respective cords. In this manner, the leg will be brought
straight up under the body, so as not to throw the animal

Fig. 62.— Hobble.

off his balance. The fact of thus keeping the joints of the
leg flexed will obviate any chance of his straining himself
while struggling, which he might do by the old method of
using only one cord (see Fig. 67), which would necessitate

Fig. 63.— Holding up horse's hind leg.

the leg being pulled back, and would consequently disturb
the animal's equilibrium. By the other and better plan, the
foot may be lifted up and put down again without causing
him any inconvenience. It is a most valuable means for

GENTLING HIND LEG. 141

" gentling " the hind limb ; for its action is irresistible, and
it causes no irritation. If the horse's tail is too short to
make a knot in its hair, we may pass a loop made in the
middle of a doubled cord over the dock, and further secure
it by a half hitch (see Figs. 68 and 69).

It sometimes happens that a horse which is difficult to
handle behind, will, when we try to lift up one of his hind
legs in any of the ways I have mentioned, bear all his weight

Fig. 64. — Gentling horse's hind leg.

on that limb, or even throw himself down. In such cases, and
when he has been very violent, I have succeeded in making
him " give in," by keeping him on the ground with his head
pulled round (see page 153), until the desired effect had been
produced.

NOTE. — Another simple way of taking up a hind leg, is to
get a rope about 9 ft. long and have a slip hobble at one end
which is padded, so as not to draw too tightly or injure the
skin when the animal struggles to get its leg free. Next get

142

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

a strong harness collar, preferably one large enough to pass
quite easily over the horse's head. Put it on, and if it is
dangerous to touch the horse's hind leg, open out the loop,

Fig. 64A. — Padded slip hobble.

and arrange it on the ground so that the hind foot will step
into it, after which pick up the rope and pull it so that the
loop will tighten round the pastern. Now pass the rope

t'

Fig. 646. — Leg fastened with slip hobble.

twice round the collar, and it will be quite easy to draw the
captured leg forward off the ground, and retain it as we wish
even if the horse struggles its hardest to get the leg free.

IMPROVISED HOBBLE.

I have devised the following substitute for a hobble by
which to lift up a hind leg : Place a stirrup iron, foot part

IMPROVISED HOBBLE. 143

pointing to the rear, at the back of the hind pastern, take
a few turns with the stirrup-leather round the pastern and
iron, and buckle up (see Fig. 70).

Fig. 65. — Double sheet bend on horse's tail.
THE WOODEN GAG.

This is useful for preventing the animal from biting, and
also for breaking him of this objectionable habit. It may
be made out of a block of hard wood, five inches long and
two inches square, with the corners planed off, so as to form
an octagon in section (see Fig. 71). It may have a semi-
circular groove (which is not shown in this illustration),

144 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

about a third of an inch broad, running down the centre of
each face of the octagonal, in order to make it more
" punishing." A hole is bored down the centre for a chain
which is attached to the head-stall. I use leather guards
on each side to prevent the animal from getting the gag out
of his mouth. This is a modification of Rarey's wooden
mouthing bit, which was a round block of wood.

General Peat suggested to me the advisability of having
the gag made with sharp edges, and not round ; so as to

Fig. 66. — Pulling up horse's hind leg.

teach the horse, by the pain inflicted on his gums, not to
bite.

MAKING A HORSE LIE DOWN AND KEEPING HIM ON THE

GROUND.

f , For making a horse lie down, the following method, which
" Professor " Sample informs me was invented by the
American " horse-tamer " Hamilton, is the best I have seen,
and may be described as follows : Place on the horse a
surcingle which has two or three iron rings on its pad, and
attach a crupper to the rearmost ring. Put on the horse's

MAKING HORSE LIE DOWN.

H5

head a strong head-stall, and fix to its near (for instance)
side D an iron ring. Tie a strong cord or rope by one end to
the front (if there be two rings) or middle (if there be three)
ring on the pad ; pass the other end through the ring on
the side of the head-stall, and back through the front ring
of the pad. Put knee-caps on, and suspend to the sur-

Fig. 67. — Hind leg pulled up with one rope on tail.

cingle the fore leg of the side away from which the head
will be turned (see Fig. 72). The buckle of the leg strap
should be on the inside, so that when the horse lies on his
off side there may be no difficulty in undoing the strap in
order to let him get up. I have found that it is a good plan
to tie a rope to the horse's tail for an assistant to hold, so
that he may be able to pull the animal over on to the proper
side if he appears likely to fall the wrong way. Then, all

10

146 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

being ready, take the free end of the cord, draw the head
round to the near side, with the cord across the base of the
neck, and keep up the tension until the horse rolls over to
the off side (see Fig. 73), either by " giving in " or by being

Fig. 68. — Method of fastening a rope to a short tail.

forced to do so. We may find it convenient in some cases,
instead of having the rope across the animal's chest, to bring
it over the back as in Fig. 74. As a rule, the operator will
find it best to stand on the off side and a little to the front
of the horse's shoulders. No attempt should be made to

MAKING HORSE LIE DOWN.

147

throw the animal forcibly down ; for the effect we should
aim at is that to be produced by his " giving in " to power

Fig. 69. — Rope attached to short tail. - 'm

which he finds irresistible. Hence the more he " fights "
and pits the strength of his muscles against the action of
our mechanical appliances, the better will be the result of

10*

148

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

our victory. If the horse appears likely to fall on his near
side, the assistant who holds the tail rope should pull him
over on to his off side ; for, if he were to fall on the near

side, he would be in
the awkward position of
having his neck doubled
under him. Although this
position looks dangerous
to the horse which gets
into it, I have never seen,
in many scores of cases,
any injury result from it.
The horse may now be
kept, say ten minutes,
on the ground with his
head pulled round to his
side (see Fig. 75), and
"gentled." When "gent-
ling " the horse on the
ground, the breaker should
remain at his back (as I
have already mentioned),
so as to keep out of reach
of his heels.

Having carefully at-
tached a rope-noose to
the off hind pastern, the
breaker may pull that hind
f, limb towards himself and

Fig. 70. — Hobble improvised with stirrup- &

leather and iron.

The " gentling " is per-
formed by passing the

hand over the various parts of the body, gently rubbing,
kneading or bending them as may be required to make the

MAKING HORSE LIE DOWN.

149

horse relax his muscles, when the touch of the hand causes
him to contract them from fright or from resentment. The
object of the gentling is to show the horse that he need fear
nothing from the touch of man, and that he must submit to
it. To carry out the latter part of this condition we may,
if the horse shows fight while we are gentling him, pull his
head sharply round to his side by the cord (see Fig. 75) so
as to punish him ; and when he gives in, we may, as a
reward, relax the tension.

Fig. 71. — Wooden gag.

It is quite immaterial to which side the horse's head is
drawn, provided that in either case the opposite leg be
tied up.

If the animal goes down without a struggle, and sulks on
the ground, he should be forced to " show fight " by keeping
him in the constrained position depicted in Fig. 75, until he
has got rid, by ineffectual struggling, of most of his
" temper." When a horse begins to groan, and to con-
siderably moderate the violence of his struggles, we may
feel confident that " the sulk " has been taken out of him

150 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

more or less, and that he is fit to be allowed to get on to his
feet again. If an error happens to be made with respect to
the amount of the effect produced, it should be on the side
of leniency rather than on that of severity ; for the opera-
tion can be always repeated and more time given on the
next occasion, without running any risk of unduly cowing
the animal. Whatever punishment we employ should

Fig. 72. — Horse ready to be ma(

never be pushed beyond the point necessary to gain our
required object, which, in this case, is the attainment of
authority over the horse.

My own practice with animals that are simply impatient
of control, is to produce the desired effect by making them
lie down several times ; and, with stubborn ones, by keeping
them down with their heads pulled round. The latter
method might alone be employed, if the ground be hard or
slippery, or if the back tendons or suspensory ligaments of

HOLDING ^HORSE ON GROUND. 151

the horse's fore legs appear unfit to bear severe tension.
In such cases both the strait-jacket and throwing gear
might be put on the horse, which might be made to lie down
with the former and have his head pulled round by the
latter ; after doing which the strait-jacket could be taken off,
so as to give the animal entire liberty to kick as much as
he pleases. We might use body clothing on the horse to
save the point of his hip which is on the ground, from
getting chafed.

Fig. 73. — Horse on ground.

I wish to impress on my readers the great value, for
overcoming stubbornness, of the foregoing method of
keeping a horse on the ground.

The throwing gear is exactly similar in its action to that
described in Pratt's book, although differing from it in its
construction. Pratt used to employ a rope which was
looped round the neck and passed through the mouth, for
pulling round the head. He also had a single rope to form
both surcingle and crupper. The chief objection to Pratt's

152

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

method, as far as I can see, was that the ropes passing
through the mouth and under the tail were apt to hurt
those parts.

The employment of the tail-rope (see Fig. 74) is an
improvement which I have devised, and which I have
found very useful ; although it is by no means indispens-
able, especially if the operator be expert. As the surcingle
has to be girthed up tightly, I like to use a felt saddle-

Fig. 74. — Making horse lie down.

cloth or numdah under it, to prevent it slipping forward, in
which case it might squeeze the withers, or the crupper
might rub the root of the tail.

In order to make a horse " give in " to the required
degree, after he submits to lie down readily with one leg
tied up, I like to continue the process with both fore legs
free until he goes down without any trouble.

When horses are properly thrown they suffer no pain from
the process. I remember treating a horse for actinomy-
cosis, which necessitated my throwing him, when dressing

HOLDING HORSE ON GROUND.

153

the affected part. After a few times the animal, on seeing
me, would lie down of his own accord.

The attempt to obtain control over the horse, as a rule,

Fig- 75- — Horse on ground with head pulled round.

had best be completed in one lesson, which can be repeated
as may be required.

Out of the many hundreds of horses which I have made
lie down, I have had only one accident from this cause.
The exception was a China pony which went down vei y

Fig. 76. — Holding horse down on ground.

gently on soft and sandy ground. When I tried to make
him get up, I found that he had broken his back.

We may utilise the knowledge that a horse cannot get

154 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

up off the ground when his head is pulled round, in keeping
him down — for instance, when he has fallen in harness — by
holding his- head in an upward and backward direction,
while keeping his neck bent by aid of the pressure of the
knee (see Fig. 76). We should employ this plan only when
the animal attempts to get up ; for the position which it
entails, is very irksome to him.

MAJOR WOODS' METHOD OF THROWING HORSES.

I have seen Major Woods, late of the R. M.L.I., throw
several horses very cleverly without any special gear, in the
following manner, which I believe he invented. Having
placed himself on the left side of the horse, which was
provided with a head-stall and leading rein, he took up the
animal's near fore foot and held it in his left hand, while
he drew the horse's head round to the right side by the
leading rein, which he kept in his right hand. By forcibly
keeping the animal in this constrained position, he obliged
him to come down on the near knee, and finally to roll
over on the ground. Major W^oods claims that throwing
the horse in this manner convinces the animal of the
ascendency of man more than if special tackle were used.
It goes without saying that to apply this method success-
fully on violent horses, a man must be, like Maj or Woods, an
athlete, and gifted with presence of mind and pluck. Even
if we doubt the superiority of its moral effect on a horse, as
compared to the plan on the same principle, but with the
aid of special gear, we must acknowledge that to carry it
out on a really difficult horse is a very clever feat.

THROWING A HORSE WITH THE STRAIT-JACKET.

To do this, one assistant should stand at his head,
another should hold a rope attached to his tail, so that he
may not throw himself forward on to his head, while an

HEAD AND TAIL METHOD.

155

assistant at each of the traces should pull them tight, and
then bring him down. As soon as he is on the ground, he
should be gentled and handled all over for a few minutes.
The process may be repeated or prolonged as may be
required. If, say, the off trace be tightened up and
buckled, the aid of the assistant, who would otherwise have
held this trace, may be dispensed with. This method of
throwing the horse is the gentlest in its action of any I have
seen. If the appliances and help be at hand, and time be
no object, I would recommend that it should be always

Fig- 77- — Horse tied head and tail.

used as a preliminary to that of making a horse lie down
by pulling his head round (see page 144), so as to take some
of the " fight " out of him, and to prevent him, as much as
possible, from " knocking himself about."

THE HEAD AND TAIL METHOD.

The earliest mention of this method which I can find, is in
Mr. R. Jennings's " Horse Training Made Easy," published
in 1866. In this book it is referred to as if at that time it
was a well-known plan for subduing horses. Whoever was
its inventor, Sample merits the credit of having introduced

156 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

it into Australasia and England. I am inclined to think that
he utilised it in a more competent manner than did any of
his predecessors, The principle of its application, as ex-
pounded by Sample, is to place the horse in such a position
that the only movement of which he will be capable, while
in it, will be a more or less circular one ; and then to induce
the animal by every possible means, short of striking or
otherwise hurting him, to go round and round, so that he
will at last find that this involuntary form of waltzing is
more irksome to him than having to bear unaccustomed
though innocuous, sights, sounds, and touches. The
feeling of having, under strong provocation, to submit to
irresistible control, often helps in this case to form the
habit of obedience. The carrying out of this method, which
had best be practised in a suitable enclosure or in the
corner of a field, is as follows : — Having put a headstall on
the horse, tie one end of a rope or cord by a double sheet
bend (see Fig. 65) to his tail, draw the head about a third of
the way round, and tie the free end of the rope to the head-
stall, so that the head may be kept in this position.
The longer the tail, the thicker may be the rope ; and
the rope or cord should be so fixed to the head-stall
that it can be readily loosened or tightened. I have
found that it is a great improvement to attach a short
rope or strap (a stirrup leather will do) to the side of the
headstall away from which the horse's head is turned (see
Fig. 77), so that the operator may catch it and thus stop the
revolving horse, when he sees that the animal is getting
giddy and in danger of falling. To begin with, the length
of the cord which connects the head and tail should be so
regulated, that it will be just sufficient to make the animal
turn round without being able to go forward. In order to
obtain increased control, the cord should be gradually
tightened from time to time, according as the pupil becomes

HEAD AOT) TAIL METHOD. 157

accustomed to the movement ; but on no account to such an
extent as would cause him to be in danger of falling down ;
for our object here is to avoid giving him just reason for
alarm. Besides, a fall, when the animal is in this position,
is not without danger to neck or back.

When the horse has been fixed up in this manner, we
may begin operations by gently cracking a whip while
standing a few yards away from him, and may continue to
do so, if he expresses impatience or alarm by going round
and round, until he pays no attention to the noise made by
the whip, although we may crack it all over him. We
should gradually shorten the cord which connects his
head to his tail, and, at the same time, should continue
to approach nearer to him, and to increase the noise of the
cracking of the whip. Out of hundreds of " nervous "
horses which have passed through my hands, I have never
seen a single one which, by this head and tail plan, would
not, within an hour at the outside, allow the whip to be
cracked all over him without evincing the slightest fear,
even when the connecting cord had been removed from the
headstall and tail. While using the whip in the manner
described, we should carefully refrain from hitting the
animal with it. After the pupil has lost all fear of the whip,
we may proceed in a similar manner to make him bear
without flinching being touched with a long pole of con-
venient thickness and weight. We should begin by placing
the pole on the least sensitive part of his body (his " crest,"
on which the mane grows), and should work up by degrees
to the more ticklish ones, such as under the belly, down the
legs, in front, behind, and between them. In this way, we
should go over the whole of the animal's body with the pole.
When he submits to be touched all over, we may try the
effect of noise on him, as, for instance, that produced by
beating an empty paraffin oil tin, and we may finally

158 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

endeavour to frighten him by flourishing in front of, and all
over him, a white banner or other cloth fixed to the end of
the pole. In doing all this, our object should be to make
him go round as much as possible, by startling him, though
without hurting him in the slightest ; for the more trying
will have been his experience, the less likely will he sub-
sequently be to become startled at anything unusual
happening. When he has thoroughly given in, the cord
may be taken off his head and tail.

The foregoing method of rendering horses quiet, or of
impressing on their minds the idea that they cannot resist
the power of man, is applicable only to excitable horses
which, under the various kinds of provocation I have
described, will go round and round until all the " nonsense "
has been taken out of them for the time being. It is
not suitable to sulky horses, whose defence against punish-
ment would be to jib. It is useful for curing biters and
kickers of their respective vices ; supposing that these
animals are not also afflicted with stubbornness, in which
case a course of making them lie down (see page 144)
and keeping them on the ground (see page 149), would
be more appropriate. While using the head and tail
method, I have never had a horse hurt himself, even when
he has fallen on the side to which his head is turned, as will
sometimes happen.

After having given the head and tail plan a trial of
several years in hundreds of cases in various parts of the
world, I now rarely employ it, except as a means for
saving labour. Its chief weak point is that it teaches
nothing except quietness, which can, as a rule, be better
obtained by the use, for instance, of the long reins and
rope- twitch. We can also inculcate by the former, obedi-
ence to the " aids " ; and, by the latter, obedience to the
voice, which can also be taught to a considerable extent

HEAD AND TAIL METHOD. 159

by the long reins. If the horse. is quiet enough to carry
a man on his back, riding him round and turning him in
small circles will certainly improve his manners more than
letting him, with his head tied to his tail go round and
round until he sees fit to stand still ; to say nothing of the
instruction he gets at the same time in control by hand
and leg. I have known several instances of aggressively
vicious horses, which had apparently " given in " during
a head and tail lesson, become in a few hours far worse
in their temper, seemingly from resentment at having
been rendered temporarily helpless, and from knowledge
that, with their freedom, they had regained their power of
inflicting injury on those whom they, rightly or wrongly,
regarded as their tormentors.

RAREYFYING A HORSE.

The method by which Rarey used to tame vicious horses
was to tie up one fore leg (as in Fig. 35), and then pull up the
other by means of a strap attached to the pastern and pas-
sing through the surcingle, which had previously been put on.
The operator stands on the side of the tied-up leg, and
draws the horse's head by the rein to the opposite side
as soon as the horse comes down on his knees. Having
got into that position, the animal is supposed to struggle to
get up, until at last, confessing the superior power of the
man, he " gives in " and rolls over on his side. He is
then " gentled " (see page 148), and, finally, on the straps
being removed, he is allowed to get up and to commence
life as a supposed reformed character. As the operator
has to stand close to the animal while it plunges and fights
for its liberty, this process of taming has been adopted
by very few. Its non-success as a breaking method was
further increased by the fact that it was efficacious only
with those vicious horses which would " fight to the bitter

1 60 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

end." These animals, I can assure my readers, form only a
small proportion of the horses whose vices make them fit
subjects for taming. I have met with many horses which
were very dangerous to approach, but which were so sulky
that the mere act of tying-up a fore leg was sufficient to
make them lie down without their attempting the semblance
of a " fight." Others would similarly adopt the recumbent
position if they obtained the additional incentive of having
their head drawn round to the side of the fore leg which
alone supported the weight of the forehand. To make any
such method perfect, it is necessary to provide it with
means, as described on page 149, for forcing the horse to
" fight," when, from sulkiness, he refuses to do so. His
refusal to fight, in such cases, is a " defence " which we have
got to combat.

Mr. Norton Smith adopted, from " Professor " Gleeson I
believe, a modification of Rarey's system, by attaching a
long strap or cord to each fore pastern, passing these lines
through the surcingle (or through rings on the surcingle),
and then canying them back behind the horse, so that the
operator, while keeping out of harm's way, could pull up
one or both fore legs of the animal, as he deemed fit. When
I saw Mr. Smith performing, he made the horse lie down
by pulling both legs off the ground at the same time. Al-
though such a method might do for a show, and especially
with a horse that had been taught to "go down " in this
way, it is unworthy of serious consideration from a breaking
point of view, on account of the danger there is, by it, of the
animal injuring himself by coming down violently on his
knees or on his head. A breaker cannot be expected to be
provided with ground softer than an ordinary grass field.

Sample tells me that Denton Offett taught Rarey the
system which now goes by Rarey's name. I see from a
leading article in the Evening Standard of 3Oth June, 1893,

RAREYFYING HORSES. 161

that " This horse- taming business is very, very old.
Mortals who have been privileged to view the glorious
collection of Greco-Scythic art in St. Petersburg will see it
there in practice — exactly the same twenty-five hundred
years ago, as that with which Mr. Rarey made such a pro-
digious sensation in the days when most of us were young.
There, on a silver vase in relief, is a Scythian warrior
lassoing a horse ; there he is strapping its fore leg up ;
there, again, he has it on its knees ; and, finally, in the
last group, it stands, saddled, bridled, c tamed.' Probably
there is not one Of these latest methods which could not be
traced in ancient times. And still somehow we go on
breaking horses in the accustomed way, and vice is as
common as ever."

SAMPLE'S HORSE-TAMING MACHINE.

As a development of the head and tail system — of which
he was a great admirer — Sample brought out and patented
in 1891 a machine by which he proposed to tame horses. It
consisted of a box, which was supposed* to hold the horse,
and which he rotated either by hand or steam at a speed
sufficient to render the enclosed animal so giddy that
on being taken out, it would be perfectly quiet to handle
for the time being, no matter how wild it had previously
been. The exhibition of this machine in London was a
failure ; partly because its inventor did not provide him-
self with a supply of wild horses, with which to demonstrate
its power. I feel certain that it would be a valuable means
for saving labour in rendering quiet freshly-caught horses
which have been brought up under uncivilized conditions.

SOUTH AFRICAN METHOD OF BREAKING.

The usual way adopted by the Boers of the Cape Colony,
Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal for breaking in

ii

1 62 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

their horses, is to put a strong head-stall on the young one
and another on a steady break-horse, which has a saddle
on him, and, having placed the two animals side by side,
to tie them securely together by their head-stalls. Fixed in
this way, the pupil is unable to run away, rear or buck.
The breaker mounts the old horse, whose " company "
gives the young one confidence, and in a short time makes
his pupil accompany him wherever he likes. After a few
days, another man mounts and rides the }roung horse,
which, during these lessons, continues to be attached to the
other animal, and thus soon makes his mount quiet to ride.
This method is safe and expeditious ; but has the drawback
of being liable to make the pupil disinclined to act indepen-
dently of his fellows. It affords no instruction in mouthing
or in the formation of the different paces. The success
which I had during my South African tour showed that
those Boers whom I had the pleasure of meeting, liked
the system of breaking which I taught them better than
their own.

163

CHAPTER V.
BREAKING ON FOOT.

Catching a horse and making him quiet to handle — Mouthing a horse with the
long reins on foot — Teaching a horse to turn on his forehand — Teaching a
horse to lead.

IN this chapter I shall describe the breaking of the horse
preliminary to his being either ridden or driven, whatever
may be the purpose for which he is intended. I assume
that he has not been handled, and that he is in sufficiently
good condition to stand the fatigue of breaking. I shall
provide, as far as I can, for difficult cases, which, I need
hardly point out, often occur even in England ; to say
nothing of countries in which colts and fillies are brought
up under wild conditions. Those of my readers who are
fortunate enough to have only quiet horses to break in, can
skip the description of precautions and methods which
others less favourably placed will find useful, if not indis-
pensable for the attainment of success.

It will be observed that by the system I adopt, the
manners of the horse are, as far as possible, made con-
currently with his " mouth." In fact, a few days' driving
with the long reins (see page 168) would make the wildest
or most vicious horse (supposing that the vice did not
proceed from disease, as in the case of a mare suffering
from nymphomania) quiet to handle, as well as obedient
to the bridle.

11*

1 64 BREAKING ON FOOT.

CATCHING A HORSE AND MAKING HIM QUIET TO HANDLE.

If the horse is in the open, and is difficult to approach
and handle, the first thing we have got to do is to drive
him into some suitable enclosure, such as a straw yard,
empty barn, or loose box. We may then make a rope
halter (see page 99) and put it on with a long stick (see
page 101). I have used this plan successfully in England
with colts driven into a farm-yard to be docked or
castrated ; in South African kraals, with wild horses which
had never before been approached by man ; in India, with
broken-loose man-eaters whose attendants dared not go
near them ; and under many other circumstances of more
or less difficulty, if not danger. Lassoing a horse in order
to catch him, is not a good plan ; because it is liable to
injure him by causing him to fall violently on the ground,
and does not give the operator the command of his head,
which is obtained by the other method. If the horse is
wild, and the enclosure is small enough to keep him within
easy reach, I like to make him stand still in a corner, by
means of the lunging whip (see page 105), and then gentle
him about the legs (in front and behind), head, neck, back
and belly by passing the end of the whip or long stick
over these parts. If he makes any attempt to turn round,
to kick or to get away, I flick him with the whip below
the hocks until he turns his head towards me and stands
still. I then make him come up to me, and I put the
halter on him. At this stage of the proceedings, we may
for safety sake noose a fore leg (see page 106), say, the near,
and give the rope to an assistant to hold, while we take
charge of the halter rope. In most cases we can now
go up to the horse, and apply the rope-twitch by means of
the rope halter which is already on the horse's head (see
Fig. 39). If this cannot be done without risk, we may,

CATCHING A HORSE. 165

by means of a stick or pole, pass a blanket or similar article
over the horse's head, so as to blindfold him. We may then
put on the twitch over the cloth, and after we have ad-
justed it, we may remove the cloth from underneath it.
With the twitch on, the man who holds it is safe from
being bitten by the horse, or from being struck by a fore
leg. If the attempt to blindfold the animal makes him, as
it sometimes will do, outrageously violent, and if he also
furiously resists any approach being made to his head ;
we may obtain control by applying the noose-twitch (see
Fig. 44). The great difficulty I had experienced in going
up to some of the wild horses I had to break in South
Africa, prompted me to invent this twitch. In getting it
or the rope-twitch on the horse, we may expedite matters
and save ourselves from being bitten, by putting a stick
into the horse's mouth. He will seldom offer resistance
to this being done. In fact he will generally like to
get the stick between his teeth. Its presence in his mouth
will greatly help to distract his attention from his breaker,
and will consequently make him less troublesome than he
might otherwise be to handle. Although the noose-twitch
is not so effective as Pratt's rope-twitch (see page 120),
the fact remains that its power is ample for control in
this case. With either the noose-twitch or rope-twitch
applied, and with a rope attached to a fore pastern, we
may consider that the most vicious horse in the world
is entirely at our disposal. At this period or even before
it, I have known horses throw themselves down from
combined rage and obstinacy at finding that they were
mastered. If the horse adopts this defence, tying his
head to his tail and keeping him in that position (see Fig.
78) until he has "given in," will, I have found, be the
readiest and most effective means of taking the " non-
sense " out of him. If he does not try to defeat us in the

1 66 BREAKING ON FOOT.

manner just mentioned, we may proceed to tie up one
fore leg, and put on the long-reins driving gear (see page
168) ; and may circle, turn, and rein him back, for about
half an hour. Or we may employ the head and tail plan
(see page 155). When the horse has been thus fixed up,
we can easily tell the state of his temper ; for if he be
nervous or excitable, he will go round and round at the
slightest provocation. If, on the contrary, he be sulky,
he will " take as little as he can out of himself " ; but
when released will be as bad, or nearly as bad, as before.
The more he " fights," the more good will the lesson do
him, and the sooner will he give in. Our object, therefore,
should be to make him " fight " ; not by punishment,
but according to principles I have already discussed. For
sulky horses, and for them alone, would I advocate the
taming means of making them lie down and keeping them
on the ground with their heads pulled round. No matter
how violent or how aggressively vicious a horse may
be, he can be made, for the time being, perfectly quiet
to handle in a couple of hours, or, if need be, in one
hour, by the methods I have just mentioned. A few
repetitions — say, half a dozen at the outside — will even in
the worst cases confirm the habit of obedience ; always
supposing that the animal remains in the hands of fairly
capable people. It is almost needless to point out that by
injudicious management, even placid-tempered horses may
be made difficult to handle ; to say nothing of temporarily
reformed characters, out of the minds of which the good
effects of a previous victory of discipline over vicious habits
are rapidly fading.

After the horse has been gentled all over and rendered
as quiet as practicable by the foregoing measures, any
unsteadiness, nervousness, or renewal of resistance may
be readily conquered by the employment of the rope-

HORSE ON GROUND. 167

twitch (see page 120), which is particularly useful for
making horses stand absolutely steady by word of command.
Horses brought up under ordinary civilised conditions
will not, as a rule, require any of the strong means of
subjection already described. Having haltered one of
them, noosed a fore leg, and applied the halter-twitch
(see page 116), we can generally put on the gear described
in the following section, and make him quiet by mouthing
him on foot with the long reins, so that he may acquire

Fig. 78. — Horse tied down on ground.

both " mouth " and " manners " at the same time. To
make him " stand " being girthed up, we may have to
tie up a fore leg (see page 112) ; or may hold him with one
hand on the rein or on the twitch, and the other hand
pressed hard against the lower part of his neck so as to
bring his head round, and at the same time to prevent
him striking us with the fore leg of that side. While held
in this manner (see Fig. 16), it will be difficult for him to
kick the man who is girthing-up either the driving-pad or
the saddle.

1 68 BREAKING ON FOOT.

MOUTHING A HORSE WITH THE LONG REINS ON FOOT.

Taking a fairly quiet, though unbroken horse, or a wild
one which has been reduced to obedience according to the
directions given in the preceding paragraphs, we may
proceed to mouth him with the long reins in the following
manner.

The gear which I use for driving horses on foot, consists
of a snaffle bridle ; a standing martingale ; long reins ; a
driving-pad, which may, or may not, have a crupper
attached to it for preventing it from shifting forward ;
and a bearing-rein, if the animal is inclined to carry his
head too low down.

I have found it an excellent plan, when giving young
unbroken horses their first lessons in long-rein driving,
to teach them to obey the indications of the reins before
placing a bit in their mouths. In order to effect this,
I attach the long reins to the D's of a strong head-
stall, and can thus turn the animal in any direction I
like without the least injury to his mouth. I would
strongly recommend the adoption of this plan in all cases,
when giving a horse his first mouthing lesson ; because,
however gentle the handling of the reins may be, it is
almost impossible to avoid the action of the bit causing
some slight injury to the sensitive mouth of an unbroken
colt. When the horse has learnt to obey the indications of
the reins on the headstall, the subsequent chances of injury
to his mouth by the pressure of the bit are considerably
lessened. When a young horse finds that his instructor
is not teaching him a literally painful lesson, he will display
his confidence by readily obeying understood orders.

The snaffle which I prefer to all others, for riding as
well as breaking, is a flat, slightly curved, unjointed one,
covered with leather, and having a strap to buckle behind

MOUTHING BY LONG REINS. 169

the lower jaw (see Figs. 10 and n). My objections to the
ordinary snaffle are : (i) it pinches the sides of the lower
jaw, by reason of the joint in its centre ; and (2) by being
round, its pressure is confined to a very small surface of the
gum, the extent of which surface is at least quadrupled
by the employment of a flat snaffle not less than an inch
broad. The greater the surface over which the pressure
is distributed, the less liable will such pressure be to irritate

Fig. 79. — Side view ot bearing-rein.

the horse, or to render insensitive the part upon which
it is applied. The snaffle I use has a flat, steel core, to
give it the required stiffness. The addition, at the back
of the lower jaw, of a strap which is a continuation, on
both sides, of the leather that covers the mouthpiece,
prevents the bit from being liable to be drawn through
the mouth, and enables the driver (whether on foot or
in a trap) or rider, to pull the horse's head round by acting
on the lower jaw. The bearing-rein (see Figs. 79, 80 and

170 BREAKING ON FOOT.

81) has a nose-band which comes under the lower jaw,
in the chin-groove, below the mouthpiece of the snaffle,
and is connected to the bearing-rein by a strap running
down the centre of the face. The bearing-rein can be
fixed to the driving-pad or saddle. This form of bearing-
rein keeps the head up by acting on the chin-groove, the
bony surface of which is smooth and rounded. As it in
no way interferes with the mouth, it is much superior
to the ordinary kind, which raises the head by pressing on
the corners of the mouth. As a substitute for a bearing-
rein, we may employ an ordinary pair of riding reins put
over the driving-pad.

NOTE. — It is important that the horse does not hold
the bit with a rigid jaw, or put his tongue out over it,
for if he continues to pull on one of the gentlest of snaffles,
he will harden his mouth. Therefore, if the above-
mentioned snaffle does not suit a particular pupil, change
it at once, and try one of the common thick breaking
snaffles. Some colts which pull on a straight, unjointed
snaffle, will play lightly with a jointed one, and vice versa.

The standing martingale is attached to the rings of the
snaffle and to the girth of the driving-pad, and is lengthened
out as much as is compatible with its preventing the animal
from getting the snaffle off the bars of the lower jaw, and
on to the corners of the mouth (see page 87, and Fig. 9).
I like the reins to be about twenty-two feet long, and made
of one and a half inch " circular " (or " pipe ") webbing. I
have them buckled on the rings of the snaffle, and separate
from each other ; so that, if the horse tries to bolt away
when being driven on foot, he can be pulled round and
held fast, by letting go one rein and holding the other
tight. With an ordinary snaffle, we may employ leather
guards similar to those used by London cabmen, in order

BEARING-REIN. 171

to give increased effect to the side pull of the rein, and to
prevent the corners of the mouth from becoming chafed.
Each guard is made of a circular piece of stiff cowhide,
about four and a half inches in diameter, and having, from
the centre to the circumference, an opening, which can
be laced up. Or it may consist of two pieces of leather
sewn together, and will then be a fixture.

Fig. 80. — Front view of bearing rein.

NOTE. — When using the long reins, the driver's move-
ments are so very noticeable each time he reaches forward
to turn the horse, that many colts will watch and turn
as they see him step forward, instead of waiting for the
signal from the rein. Therefore, we might, in these cases,
as a prevention, drive our pupils in blinkers.

Just at first when the horse is likely to show fight, we
might make the standing martingale shorter, as by so
doing, we can drive him more easily where we wish.

i;:

BREAKING ON FOOT.

The driving-pad, which is an invention of mine, consists
of an iron plate to which a piece of rod-iron of suitable size
and shape is securely riveted (see Figs. 82 and 83). The
plate is about twenty-six inches long, one-eighth of an
inch thick, five inches broad at its widest part, and is
made to fit the back. The rod is about two-thirds of an
inch in diameter, and is curved in a special manner, so as
to prevent the " outward " rein from going over the withers

Fig. SOA. — Standing martingale shortened.

and also to keep it, when required, on about a level with
the withers. Above, and on each side of the top of the
arch of the iron plate, is attached an iron ring, through
which to pass the outward rein, in the event of the breaker
wishing to obviate any possibility of this rein slipping
over the pad, as might happen in the case of a particularly
wild horse that was driven on foot for the first time. If
this precaution be adopted, the breaker, when he desires to
change the direction of the circle on which he is driving

DRIVING-PAD. 173

the horse, will have to take the rein out of the ring in which
it is, and place the other rein in the other ring. Thus,
when circling to the right, the left rein will pass through
the left ring, and vice versa. In no case will the inner
rein be passed through either of the rings ; for unless it is
kept well away from the pad, the operator will be unable
to obtain full control over the horse. The ends of the
iron plate fit into the pockets of a suitably stuffed panel,

Fig. 81. — Horse with bearing-rein.

and the girth-straps, on each side, are riveted to the iron
plate. Before I invented this pad, I used to employ
crosstrees (see Fig. 84) ; on each side of which was placed
a leather strap for the rein to run over. The iron pad is
less cumbersome than the crosstrees, serves its purpose
better, and is practically indestructible. I generally
dispense with a crupper, unless the horse has thick low
withers, and is particularly wild. As will be seen in
Fig. 85, I used to have rein-bearers (about three and a

174

BREAKING ON FOOT.

half feet long, and made to lengthen or shorten as might
be required) hanging from the crupper. They are useful
for preventing the reins getting entangled in the horse's
legs. The fact of my having discarded them as an article
of breaking gear, is no doubt due more to laziness on my
part, than to the possession of such skill that would make
me independent of their aid.

If circular webbing cannot be obtained for the reins,
ordinary driving reins or ropes of suitable length will do.

A standing martingale

can be improvised from
a running martingale, or
with a piece of cord.

When a driving-pad
or an efficient substitute
for it cannot be obtained,
we may use instead of it
an ordinary saddle, the
stirrups of which, with
their leathers well
lengthened out, will serve
as rein-bearers (see Fig.
86). Although the cantle
of the saddle (see Fig. 87)
Fig. 82.— Front view of driving-pad. may at times succeed in

preventing the outward

rein from going over the back ; the breaker cannot — as he
is able to do with my pad — when using a saddle for a
substitute, circle the horse, as is often necessary, with the
outward rein on a level with the withers.

NOTE. — When the stirrups are used as rein-bearers, we
should let them out so as not to interfere with the direct
pull on the bit with the inside rein, as without a direct

LONG REIN GEAR.

175

Fig. 82A.
Horse circling.

pull on the inside rein it is impossible for us to prevent
the horse from running back and becoming wound up
in the reins on those occasions when he is a trifle rebel-
lious ; for, as we pull the rein we
force him back instead of round.

At first, our object in driving the
horse with the long reins should be
to get him to circle round us in
well-balanced style. Hence, he should
be bent from muzzle to tail in the
direction he is going ; the inward
rein leading him off, and preserving
the inward bend of his head and neck,

while the outward rein passes round his hind-quarters

(see Figs. 88 and 89) and thus makes the track of his hind

feet the same as that of his fore

ones, instead of — as would usually

occur if this support were re-
moved from the untrained horse

— its forming a concentric circle

outside that described by the fore

feet. To obtain this effect, we

should stand to the side, and a

little to the rear, of our pupil

(see Fig. 90), and should regulate

the comparative tension of the

reins so as to make the fore feet

and the hind feet describe the

same circle. We shall find that

Fig. 83.

Side view of driving-pad.

the lighter the horse is in front (as in the case of a star-
gazer), the more must the pull on the inward rein exceed
that on the outward rein ; and vice versa. Any tendency
to star-gaze or to keep the head too low should be cor-

176

BREAKING ON FOOT.

reeled, respectively, by the standing martingale or bearing-
rein. If the animal be excitable, it is well to commence

Fig. 84. — Wooden driving- pad

Fig. 85. — Driving-pad, crupper, and rein-bearers on horse.

with the outward rein on the pad, as in Fig. 91. Then
by turning him, bringing the reins down, touching him

DRIVING ON FOOT.

177

on the quarters with them, and reining him back, we may
gradually make him bear their contact without his becoming
nervous or fretful. Twenty minutes will be ample to
enable us to effect this, even with the worst horse ; pro-
vided that the animal is not a mare " in season." We
may start the horse by " showing " the lunging whip,
and we may at the same time " click " to him ; so that by
continuing the clicking and by diminishing the threatening
with the whip, we may soon teach him to move off on

Fig. 86. — Driving horse on foot with reins through stirrup-irons.

hearing the sound of the click alone, or we may teach him
to do so by raising our right hand. Having got him to
circle quietly for a few times, say, to the left, we may turn
him to the right-about with the right rein, which, in this
case, will pull his head round to the right, and his hind-
quarters round to the left ; making him, in fact, turn on
his centre. He should then be circled to the right and
turned to the left-about on the same principle. Every now
and then we may halt him by feeling both reins, and when
doing so, may accustom him to the word " whoa ! " or any

12

i;8 BREAKING ON FOOT.

other convenient substitute, so as to teach him in a very
few lessons to stop the moment he hears this signal without
needing any hint from the reins. By acting on similar
principles, we may teach the horse, when riding, or driving
him, to halt in this way. While driving the animal on
foot, we should adjust the length of the standing martin-
gale or bearing-rein as may be required. The more he

Fig. 87. — Rein under cantle of saddle.

is inclined to " play up," the shorter, as a rule, should
this martingale be, so as to afford increased control. Its
use will be needed at first in the large majority of cases,
and is of great service in preventing the rein from getting
over the back, as well as in giving the breaker command
over refractory subjects. In only a few instances, the
employment of a bearing-rein, for keeping the head up, will
be found necessary ; and much more often with " spoiled "
horses than with young ones. The severity of either of

CIRCLING HORSE ON FOOT.

these forms of restraint should be lessened according as the
horse learns to obey the rein, and may be dispensed with
when their use is no longer required. Before turning the
horse, say, to the left, I change the reins into my right hand
with the right rein crossed under the left rein. I then
take a long step to the front with the left foot, slide my
left hand forward on the left rein, and, having got the
proper length, pull the left rein (see Fig. 92), while letting

Fig. 88.— Circling horse on foot to the right.

the right one slip through the right hand, until the horse
is made to turn to the left. As soon as he is in the new
direction, I pass the right rein into my left hand and
crossed under the left rein. We should continue the turns
until the horse answers the rein as readily with his hind-
quarters as with his head ; that is, until he learns to turn
on his centre.

In turning the horse at the walk or trot, it is necessary
in order that the movement may be executed with precision,
that the head of the horse should be turned towards the

12*

i8o BREAKING ON FOOT.

new direction by the rein, at the moment, or immediately
before, the fore foot of the opposite side comes down on
the ground, so that, when turning, he may not cross his
fore legs. When making the turn, we should be careful to
prevent, by means of the outward rein, the hind-quarters
from swinging so far round, that the hind feet will be
carried outside the track of the fore feet. Preparatory to
turning the horse at the trot and canter, we should check

Fig. 89. — Circling horse on foot to the left.

the speed, as may be required, by feeling the reins, so that
he may come round collectedly.

After the horse has learned to do the circles and turns in
good form with the outward rein round his quarter, he
should be made to execute them with it on the driving-pad
(see Fig. 92) ; so as to accustom him to its action in the
position it would occupy in saddle or harness. The breaker
should, as before, place himself to the side and a little
behind his pupil (see Fig. 90). If he refuses to turn his
hind-quarters round, when the rein is on the pad, a light

CIRCLING HORSE ON FOOT.

181

touch or two with the whip below the hocks, so as to
prevent him fixing his hind legs on the ground as a
" defence," will soon teach him to come round quickly.
If he be found to be " harder " on one side of the mouth
than on the other he should be turned more sharply to

Fig. 90. — Position from which to circle horse (to left, for instance).

the former than to the latter, until he turns equally well
to both sides. I advise hitting the horse, when using the
lunging whip, below the hocks ; for he is less liable to
show the marks of the lash on that part of his legs, than
above the hocks, where the bones are covered with muscle.
Besides, I am inclined to think that a cut below the hocks

182

BREAKING ON FOOT.

is more likely to prompt a horse to go on, and is less apt
to make him kick, than one above them.

NOTE. — If the horse seems harder at one side of his
mouth than at the other, we should make sure that the
mouth is not in a painful state, before we try to remedy
it by sharp pressure. During a dispute the horse may
have got his mouth or tongue hurt, and this would naturally

Fig. 91. — Outward rein on driving-pad.

cause him to hold the bit towards one side and carry his
head in what seems to us an awkward way while he is
trying to save the injured parts from pressure. In this
case we should give his mouth a rest till it recovers.

The circling with the long reins on foot, should be per-
formed on the same principle as that adopted by a capable
rider, the pressure of whose drawn-back outward foot is
replaced by that of the outward rein. Practice in driving

TURNING THE HORSE.

'83

on foot is an admirable means for improving one's " hands ; "
whether for riding or driving.

I should give my first lesson, as I have already mentioned,
with the long reins buckled on to the D's of the headstall,
and should make the horse thoroughly obedient to the
indications of the reins, before putting a bit into his mouth.
This lesson should not exceed twenty minutes in length,
during which time the horse should have learned to move

Fig. 92. — Turning horse with rein on driving-pad.

off at the walk on being shown the whip or " clicked "
to ; to readily turn to the right, left, right-about or left-
about, on receiving the proper indication of the rein, and
to halt. This will be enough under ordinary circum-
stances ; although, on an emergency, this modest limit
of instruction may be greatly exceeded. After the horse
has thoroughly learned to obey the driver's orders con-
veyed to him by the reins on the headstall, he may be
driven in a snaffle without danger of injury to his mouth.

1 84 BREAKING ON FOOT.

The breaker should be thoroughly proficient in the art
of long-rein driving and should have obtained the necessary
practice on steady, broken horses, before attempting the
instruction of a young one. He should also bear in mind
the absolute necessity of, outwardly at any rate, keeping
a serene, unruffled temper with horses, under even the
most trying provocation, and especially in breaking young
horses. On more than one occasion I have had a stubborn
argument of over six hours' duration with obstinate jibbers ;
for I knew that if I had punished them with the whip,
my labour would have been entirely in vain. Therefore,
as I have already mentioned, success in horse-breaking
can only be obtained by an unlimited amount of patience
on the part of the instructor.

If the horse be inclined at any time to make too large
a circle, we can cause him to describe a smaller one by
drawing on the inward rein and slackening off the outward
one, the proper amount of feeling on which we should
gradually restore according as we gain control over the
animal. Sometimes the horse, to avoid the action of the
reins, decreases on his own account the size of the circle
on which we are driving him. To nullify this defence, we
should feel the outward rein the stronger of the two and
should drive the horse away from us, so as to get more
behind him than previously, and should then gradually
lead him off by the inward rein into the desired circle. If
he shows " fight," which he will very seldom do with the
long reins, we may have to rein him back (see page 186),
turn him from one side to the other, or threaten him with
the lunging whip.

The whole of the long-rein work should, as far as possible,
be done in the circle ; for that is, from my experience, the
only way by which the driver on foot can preserve a light
feeling on the reins. If he drives the horse straight on in

LONG-REIN DRIVING. 185

front of him, he can hardly prevent himself, for the greater
part of the time, from keeping too heavy a pull on the
animal's mouth. The objectionable practice of driving
youngsters on foot for miles along a road, as may be seen
in full operation at Newmarket and other training resorts,
is a fruitful cause of the dead mouths and habit of boring
possessed by the majority of racehorses. The animal,
to relieve the bars of his mouth from the constant and
painful pressure of the mouthpiece, naturally gets his chin
into his chest, in order to transfer a portion of the pull of
the reins to the crown of his head. Instead of acting in
this fashion, the breaker, if he wants to give his pupil a
walk on foot, might, after having mouthed and exercised
him in the manner I have described, take him out with
the crupper leading-rein (see page 195), the use of which
contrivance would obviate any risk of spoiling his mouth.

During the second lesson, which may be given on the
afternoon of the day on which the first one was imparted,
we may repeat the previous instruction, and then teach the
animal to rein back. This is done by bending his head,
say, to the left by the left rein, while preventing his hind-
quarters, by the pressure of the right rein, from turning
round. When we obtain this bend, which will naturally
put more weight on the legs of the near side than on those
of the off side, we should feel both reins, so as to make
him take a step to the rear. He will of course do this,
other things being equal, more readily with the more
advanced hind leg, than with its fellow, supposing that
he is not standing " level." Hence his head in the first
instance should be turned to the side of the least advanced
hind leg. When we obtain this step, we should turn
the horse's head to — say, in this case — the right by the
right rein in order to obtain the next step ; and so on.
While working in this way we should try to get the near

1 86 BREAKING ON FOOT.

fore to move simultaneously with the off hind, and the off
fore with the near hind, so that the rhythmical pace of the
rein-back will be a diagonal one of two time (namely, a
trot : see Points of the Horse, and not a walk) ; for the
horse is found to rein-back in an easier and more collected
manner at the former than at the latter pace. If he is
inclined to get his head up, it is best to stand directly
behind him. If he lowers it as a defence, we may rein
him back with one rein on the driving-pad (see Fig. 91),
or, what is probably the better plan, we may use a bearing-
rein to keep his head in proper position. Although we
should in no way make the work unduly irksome to the
horse, we should not be contented unless we get him,
in this second lesson, supposing, of course, that he is not
a particularly stupid pupil, to rein-back in well-balanced
style, twenty or five-and-twenty yards, three or four
times. Such a demand will, I feel certain, be considered
outrageously severe by those who are unacquainted with
the possibilities of the long-rein system ; but it is, as I
have proved many hundreds of times, with a competent
long-rein driver, a thoroughly legitimate one. If the
horse, as a defence against the rein-back, fixes his hind
quarters, we may render them mobile by cracking the whip
or by touching him lightly below the hocks with the lash.
We may also take some of the weight off the hind-quarter
by shortening the standing martingale. If we cannot
effect our purpose by these means, we may place an
assistant in front of the horse to threaten him on one side
of his hind-quarters and then on the other, while we are
occupied with the long reins. Or he may, while standing
in front of the horse, take hold of the reins, one in each
hand, close to the rings of the snaffle, and aid our efforts
in regulating the height of the horse's head and in pressing
him back. The presence of the assistant in front of the

TEACHING THE REIN-BACK. 187

animal will naturally tend to make him rein-back easier.
Although I have never found it absolutely necessary, we
might at this stage teach the horse the turn on the fore-
hand (see page 193), so as to give mobility to the hind legs.
In solving the question of adjustment of weight in the
rein-back, we should fully utilise our power of placing the
horse's head in whatever position we like (whether by
lowered rein, rein on pad, standing martingale, bearing-
rein, or by the help of an assistant), and that of mobilising
the hind-quarters by means of the whip. In executing
the rein-back, the horse should be light behind and should
lift up his hind feet well, so that his movement to the rear
may be executed with safety and freedom. Consequently
his head, which is the weight at the end of the balancing
pole of his body, should be kept considerably lower (see
Fig. 7) than if the movement was to the front. We should
here particularly avoid the run-back, in which the horse
is liable to fall down on account of the preponderance
of the weight being on the hind-quarters. In this case
the centre of gravity of the horse's body is brought to an
undue extent to the rear, and the ability of the hind legs
to form new bases of support is diminished in proportion
to the weight imposed on them.

After we have obtained the correct rein-back, we should
practise the horse — with the outward rein round his quarter
or on the pad, as may be required — at walking in a col-
lected manner, using the whip as a stimulant, the outward
rein as a substitute for the drawn back outward leg of the
rider, and both reins as a restraint and as a guide. The
outward rein, if shaken against his hind-quarters, may
serve as a slight though useful incitement for making
the horse collect himself. Reining him back from time
to time, as may be required, will often be found serviceable
in this " setting-up drill,"

i88 BREAKING ON FOOT.

When the horse is able, say, after two or three lessons,
to go through in a competent manner at a walk the long-
rein work which I have described, he may be made to do it
at a trot and canter. At both these paces, the size of the
circle should be gradually diminished in order to teach the
horse to collect himself.

Although the horse will, after a time, learn to strike off
from the walk or trot into the canter with the leg appro-
priate to the circle on which he is being worked, it is well
to teach him to do so on receiving a suitable signal, which
can be utilised when riding the horse in a straight direction.
Thus, when circling the horse to the right, for instance, at
the walk or trot, with the outward rein round the quarters,
I would, in order to give the animal the signal to strike off
into the canter with the off fore leg leading, feel the left
rein the stronger of the two, so as to turn the horse's head
a little outside and his hind-quarters a little inside the
circle, and then make him strike off correctly by feeling
the right rein, and by " showing " him the whip, or clicking
to him. The lead with the near fore, while going on the
left circle, would naturally be obtained in the reversed
manner.

A dozen lessons, two a day, will under ordinary circum-
stances be ample for teaching the horse the work with the
long reins up to this point. The discipline gone through
during that time, combined with the " gentling " action of
the reins on the hind-quarters, will in the large majority of
cases have taken all, or nearly all, of the nervousness,
impatience of control, or aggressiveness out of vicious, wild
or otherwise " difficult " animals.

By circling, turning, and reining back a horse with the
long reins, we can readily form a good idea of his manners,
mouth and temper.

When putting on the long-rein driving gear, we should

LONG-REIN DRIVING. 189

be careful to place on, first of all, the bridle and long reins ;
then the driving pad with one girth tightly buckled up ;
the standing martingale through which the second girth
passes ; the bearing-rein, if required ; and finally the
crupper. When removing these articles, the reversed
order of procedure should be observed. These precautions
are necessary in order that excitable or vicious horses
may not be prompted to kick or " play up," after the girths
of the driving-pad have been undone, but before the con-
nection of the pad with the martingale and crupper has been
severed. While on the subject of adjusting gear, I should
point out that if we want to put a bridle on a horse which
has a headstall on, and which we cannot depend upon
standing still with the headstall off, we can place the
bridle over the headstall, and then take off the headstall
without shifting the bridle in any way, by undoing the
buckle of the headstall and by taking off the browband
and the strap which goes through the buckle. If we then
draw the noseband forward (see Fig. 93), we can easily
detach the headstall by passing the noseband into the
mouth, over the snaffle, and finally out of the mouth.
On more than one occasion, I have had difficult horses
break away from me at the critical moment, between the
removal of the headstall and the putting on of the bridle,
which has to be passed through, unless the foregoing
precaution be adopted.

NOTE. — If the headstall is removed from the head and
instead buckled round the horse's neck, it will be found
sufficient to hold him safely while the bridle is put on, and
will be out of the way of the bridle.

American " horse-tamers," none of whom I have as yet
found to be horsemen with any knowledge, scientific or
otherwise, of the art of riding, use the long reins without a

190

BREAKING ON FOOT.

standing martingale or driving-pad, and" pass them through
rings on a specially constructed surcingle, or through the
shaft rings of an ordinary single harness pad, or through
the irons of a riding saddle. Men who try to mouth horses
in this manner are apt to frequently fail in teaching their
pupils to bend their necks to the rein, and at the same time
to go up to the bridle ; for the majority of animals thus

Fig. 93. — Removing headstall without displacing bridle.

treated would resist the action of the mouthpiece by chuck-
ing up the head in the attempt to get the mouthpiece off
the bars and on to the corners of the mouth. Besides, the
horse omits to learn the valuable lesson which the use of
the standing martingale inculcates, namely, that of bending
his head and neck to save his mouth. When both reins
pass through rings on the surcingle, or through the shaft
rings of a harness pad, the driver on foot is prevented, by
the fact of the inward rein going back to the surcingle

REMOVING HEADSTALL.

191

instead of coming straight from the ring of the snaffle to
his hand, from standing in the centre of the circle on which
he drives the horse, and is consequently obliged to more
or less follow the animal, and by doing so (see page 185)
is apt to bear unduly on the reins, and make the horse's
mouth " dead." The absence of a driving pad deprives
the breaker of the great advantage of being able to raise or
lower the outward rein at will. In breaking for harness,

Fig. 94. — Driving horse with running reins through stirrup-irons.

and especially for fast trotting on level ground, the neces-
sity for teaching horses to bend the neck, to get the hind-
quarters under them, to moderate the speed in response to
a puU on the reins, is not nearly so imperative as in edu-
cating the hunter, chaser, and charger, which should always
have a " spare leg " for any emergency. The method of
long-rein mouthing is as applicable to " spoiled " horses as
it is to entirely unhandled animals. To my thinking, one
great beauty of it — apart from its immense advantage of
never giving the pupil the chance of getting the upper

192 BREAKING ON FOOT.

hand, which he might easily do if the breaker were in the
saddle — is that the breaker can at any moment tell how
his pupil is progressing by the feeling of the reins, and can
accordingly, with well-grounded confidence, use his own
judgment in regulating the amount or the nature of the
instruction. I am aware that I am repeating myself in
dinning this fact into the ears of my imaginary pupils. The
man who, on the contrary, tries to mouth a horse by
" tieing him up " by means of side reins, dumb jocke\^s, or
pillar reins, must necessarily work, as I have already said,
more or less in the dark and by rule of thumb ; for he can-
not gauge the progress which his pupil is making, except
by trying the animal in saddle or harness. Besides, he
commits the two grave faults of working only one end
of the body (see page 63), and of endeavouring to " supple "
the head and neck of a stationary animal (see page 72).
With the long reins we avoid both these errors, and remain
in constant touch with our pupil.

Colonel Wardrop showed me a method he practises of
driving horses over jumps with long ropes which pass
through the stirrup-irons and rings of the snafHe, and are
fixed on tightly to the girths and stirrup-irons on their
respective sides (see Fig. 94). This excellent authority on
the art of training horses to safely " negotiate " the difficult
country met with in Ireland, tells me that he has found
this method of great use for teaching horses to collect
themselves when coming up to the big banks and ditches
which are to be seen in the counties of Kildare, Tipperary
and Cork. After the horse has been thoroughly taught the
long-rein work according to the system I have described,
Colonel Wardrop's plan might be useful for giving him
a few practical lessons over the obstacles in question.

All I know respecting the antiquity of long-rein driving
on foot is that Fallen, an Irish breaker, who was an old

TURN ON THE FOREHAND.

193

man at the time, taught, more than sixty years ago, this
method of mouthing to the late Mr. John Hubert Moore,
the famous trainer of steeplechase horses.

TEACHING A HORSE TO TURN ON HIS FOREHAND.

Having taught the horse by means of the long reins to
understand and obey the aids for turning on his centre, we

Fig. 95. — Making horse, on foot, turn on his forehand to left with whip.

may proceed to make him equally proficient in those for the
turn on the forehand, which is a particularly useful means
for teaching him to go up to his brdile, by transferring
weight from his hind-quarters to his forehand, and for
giving increased mobility to the hind-quarters — of the
rearer for instance. The turn on the forehand is the
normal way in which a horse changes his direction when
at liberty in an open space.

13

i94 BREAKING ON FOOT.

The turn on the forehand is made on the off fore as a
pivot (moving or fixed), when the hind-quarters move
from right to left (in the direction taken by the hands of
a watch). This I shall call the turn on the forehand to the
right; and the movements of the hind-quarters from left
to right, with the near fore as a pivot, the turn on the
forehand to the left. Respecting the " school " acceptation
of these terms, see page 271.

To teach the horse on foot the turn on the forehand to the
left, we may, while facing him and standing close to his
near shoulder, take hold of the near rein of the snafHe,
not far from the mouthpiece, in the left hand, and the off
rein, passed over the lower part of the neck, in the right
hand, which also grasps a cutting whip or cane (see Fig.
95). Our object here, as I have already indicated, is
to cause the horse to circle his hind-quarters from left
to right (in a direction opposite to that in which the
hands of a watch move) round the near fore foot, which
at first should describe a small circle (that is, it should be
a moving pivot) ; but may, when the animal's education
is further advanced, perform the more difficult task of
turning round on its own axis without quitting the ground.
At first the horse's head should be turned to the left, so
as to -render the near fore leg more or less stationary, by
increasing the amount of weight on it ; but later on, it
should be kept in the same line as the body, or it may be
even slightly turned to the right ; for if it be held in either
of these directions, the balance of the animal's body will
be better preserved than if his head were turned to the
left. By lightly touching the near quarter with the whip
we should endeavour to make the horse move his hind
legs to the right. To prompt him to describe, as he
ought to do, a circle round his near fore with his off fore,
we may, as often as may be required, touch with the

TEACHING HORSE TO LEAD. 195

whip the back part of the fore arm of the off fore.
We should strive to obtain precise movements without any
approach to hurry, and by justly meted-out punishment
and reward should make our wishes clearly intelligible to
our pupil. After a few lessons, the horse may be made to
turn on his forehand while holding the head and neck
straight, in which position, as I have just said, his equi-
librium will be better preserved than if the head were
turned to the left. The left rein will, if required, prevent
the horse from reining back, and will also keep his head
at the desired height. The off rein will stop him from
going round too quickly ; and both reins will aid in
checking any forward advance on his part.

In teaching the turn on the forehand to the right, we
should place ourselves near the off shoulder of the horse,
and should use the reins and whip in the reversed manner
to which we did for obtaining the turn on the forehand
to the left. As the action of the whip in this case is
preparatory to that of the drawn-back foot of the rider ;
we should gradually advance its point of contact with the
skin until we gain our object by touching the horse with
the whip on that portion of his side which the heel or spur
would reach.

Teaching the horse to turn on the forehand in obedience
to the proper aids, is, I think, essential to the education
of all saddle horses ; for it is the best preparatory means
for making them readily obey the leg.

TEACHING A HORSE TO LEAD.

After giving the horse his lessons with the long reins, and
making him turn on his forehand, there will be little or no
difficulty in getting him to lead, which he may be taught to
do by using the crupper leading-rein (see Fig. 96) and the
words " Come here ! " or any convenient substitute, when

196

BREAKING ON FOOT.

pulling the rope, so as to make the horse connect in his
mind the idea of having to come up to us with the verbal
command. The crupper leading-rein can be readily made
by taking a long rope, doubling it, making a loop in the
middle by knotting it, and passing the loop under the
horse's tail, and the ends of the rope through the halter,
or rings of the snaffle. To prevent this slipping over the
tail when it gets slack, we may put a knot in it, in front of
the rings of the snaffle, or of that part of the headstall

Fig. 96. — A crupper leading-rein.

(see Fig. 97) through which it has been passed. Or we
may employ the Comanche bridle (see page 126), which I
think is the best means for teaching a difficult horse to
lead. I have also found the use of the rope halter
(see Fig. 24) very effective ; for the pain which the
pressure of the rope round his jaws will cause him when
he hangs back, will be instantly relieved the moment
he goes forward. For making a horse merely come up
to one, I like Baucher's method, which is as follows :
Hold the reins in the left hand, as in Fig. 98, or the
crupper leading-rein, and continue to lightly touch the

CRUPPER LEADING-REIN.

197

horse on the breast with the end of a cutting whip or
switch, until he " comes up," when he should be imme-
diately rewarded by the cessation of the punishment,
by being patted on the neck, and by being spoken to
in a caressing manner. As a rule, the horse will at first
try to avoid the blows by running back, or by swerving
to one side or to the other ; but failing to escape from

Fig. 97. — Knot in crupper leading-rein.

the inflicted pain, he will almost invariably go forward.
This desired effect is obtained usually in not longer than
ten minutes. Three or four lessons will generally be suf-
ficient to make the horse come up to one the moment the
whip is pointed towards his breast.

Learning to obey this signal, and that of standing still
as a statue on hearing the word " steady," are two very
desirable accomplishments in the horse.

198 BREAKING ON FOOT.

We are all aware that the tendency of a horse when
being led by an ordinary leading-rein or by the bridle reins
is to " hang " on them, and if jerked by them, to resist the
pull given. The use of the crupper leading-rein, on the con-
trary, prompts the animal to move collectedly on account
of the pressure of the rope under his tail stimulating
him to bring his hind -quarters under him. I do not know
who invented this form of leading-rein, which was em-
ployed by Fanchion, Magner, Pratt, Rockwell, and other
American " horse-tamers." It is also an admirable means
of making — and consequently teaching — a horse to follow a
cart or trap behind which he is tied, and also for getting a
nervous horse into a railway box. When pulled by the
head the natural tendency of a horse, as I have just said, is
to resist ; but when drawn forward by a rope or other simi-
lar material passed under his tail, he is strongly prompted
to go on. If a horse which is attached by his head to a car-
riage in motion happens to make a stumble, the rein or lead-
ing rope on becoming tight will have the effect of increasing
the weight on the forehand, with the probable result of
pulling the animal down on to his knees. If, on the
contrary, the horse be attached to the back of the vehicle
by the crupper leading-rein, the pressure of the rope will
fall on the hindquarters without any interference with
the head.

When a man on foot leads a horse, he should, supposing
that he is on the near side of the animal, bring the reins
over the horse's head, hold both reins at a convenient
distance from the mouthpiece in his right hand with the
little finger between them, and should have his left hand
between the reins at their centre (see Figs. 13 and 14).
When the reins are held in this manner by the right hand,
the right rein can be tightened by the action of the little
finger on it ; and a far firmer hold can be obtained, es-

TEACHING HORSE TO LEAD.

199

peciaily if the little finger be turned towards the body by
the rotation of the wrist (see Fig. 14), than if the reins were
separated by the first finger, as directed in Cavalry Drill.

Horses should be taught to lead on the off as well as on
the near side. As it is customary to lead a horse only
on the near side, and as the man who leads him along a
road should in all cases keep himself between his horse

Fig. 98. — Teaching horse to " come up '' by tapping him on chest
with whip.

and any passers-by, so as to be able to prevent the
animal swinging his hindquarters round into danger ; led
horses are supposed to keep to the right side of the road.
With a horse which leads equally well on both sides, the
better plan, when leading him along a road, would be
for the man to remain on the off side of the animal, and
keep him on the left side of the road.

20O

BREAKING ON FOOT.

For leading young horses, a circular mouthpiece is
sometimes employed. With it the pressure on the bars
is evenly distributed on both sides of the mouth. Or
we may use a leading-rein with a pair of spring hooks
at one end.

When a mounted man leads a horse which has on a
snaffle or double bridle, and which he wants to lead on
his off side by the snaffle, he should pass the off snaffle
rein through the near side ring of the snaffle (see Fig. 99).

Fig. 99. — Off rein passed through near ring of snaffle for leading horse.

201

CHAPTER VI.
ORDINARY MOUNTED BREAKING.

General remarks — Mounting~a horse for the first time — Turning a horse on the
forehand at the halt when mounted — Reining back — The walk — The trot
— Turning a horse during movement — Teaching a horse to carry his rider in
a collected and well-balanced manner — The canter — The halt — Whip and
spurs — Time required for ordinary breaking to saddle.

GENERAL REMARKS.

THE work described in the preceding chapter is applic-
able to all kinds of horses. In the present one, the whole
of the course laid down is suitable to hunters, hacks,
chasers, and race-horses. The amount of collection prac-
tised should be proportionate to the purpose for which
the animal is intended ; the maximum, with respect to the
horses just mentioned, being observed with the hack ;
the minimum, with the race-horse. The lady's hack and
hunter, besides the work herein detailed, should have a
certain amount of special training, to which I shall allude
further on. The trooper and high school horse, before
being taught any of the airs de manege, may get all the
instruction given in this chapter with the exception of
the changes of leg at a canter in the figure of eight, to
which subject I shall more particularly allude in Chapter
IX. I shall reserve the consideration of the breaking of
harness horses for Chapter VIII.

202 MOUNTED BREAKING,

MOUNTING A HORSE FOR THE FIRST TIME.

Having put the horse through the preceding course of
discipline, we may test his readiness to bear a rider by—
after having saddled him — placing across the saddle a half-
filled sack of corn or earth, while using the rope-twitch to
correct him in the event of his evincing any resistance or
alarm, pretended or real. Having attached the sack firmly
to the saddle, we may keep circling, turning, and reining
back the horse with the long reins (see page 175), until he
becomes quite steady. We may now remove the sack and
apply the rope-twitch without shifting the bridle. While
the breaker holds the rope-twitch in one hand and the long
reins in the other, an assistant may prepare to mount ; any
unsteadiness being corrected by the rope-twitch. Although
I have never known of a case of a horse, however violent
he may have been, breaking away when held only by the
rope-twitch ; still the long reins will be useful as a further
precaution in the event of the animal trying to get away.
With this object, it is well to pass the right long rein
through the left ring of the mouthpiece of the snaffle, as
in Fig. 99. The assistant should quietly mount and dis-
mount several times, the horse being rewarded or punished
according to his conduct. When he has become accustomed
to these operations, the man should mount, and the breaker
having given the rope-twitch to another assistant, should
arrange the long reins so that he may be ready to drive
the horse on foot. He should take a short and firm hold
of the reins, so as to get good command over the animal,
and should order the rope-twitch to be removed. The
mounted assistant, to steady himself, may catch hold of
the neck strap of the standing martingale (see Fig. 100),
which in all such cases should form a part of the breaking

MOUNTING HORSE FOR FIRST TIME. 203

gear. The breaker may now proceed to circle and turn
the horse. If the animal attempts to " play up " he
should be reined back, turned sharply from side to side,
and held well in. As soon as the pupil takes the presence
of a man on his back as a matter of course, while he is
being circled and turned at a trot, as well as at a walk, the

Fig. 100. — Horse mounted for first time.

mounted assistant may be given a pair of ordinary reins to
hold and to guide the horse, while the breaker manipulates
the long reins, which may be removed after a few minutes,
and the entire guidance of the animal confided to the rider.
By degrees the rider should accustom the horse to the feel
of his drawn-back and unarmed heels, and may stimulate
the animal to go on by " clicking " to him. He should be
careful while circling, turning, reining back, walking and

204 MOUNTED BREAKING.

trotting the horse, to use the reins in as nearly as possible
the same way as the breaker did on foot.

In the following description of mounting the horse for
the first time, I have mentioned some precautions which,
like the use of the heavy sack and rope-twitch, would be
necessary only in exceptional cases. If we err, we should
certainly do so on the side of prudence ; for one of the
worst possible lessons which the horse can learn is that
of finding out that he can throw his rider.

In cases of difficulty, or when great expedition is de-
manded, we may adopt the following method, which I
believe I have been the first to think out and put 'into
practice. Having made the horse go round and round
according to the head and tail method (see page 155), and
having by it taken any remaining " nonsense " out of him,
put over the headstall — which I take for granted has a
short strap or rope attached to its off-side D, see page 156
— a snaffle bridle, and knot the reins to the animal's neck,
so that they will not hang down. Place the saddle on the
horse's back, pass the outer girth of the surcingle over the
cord which connects the head with the tail, and girth up.
The requisite extent to which the head should be turned
round by the action of the cord, will be attained when the
animal is tied up just short of what would cause him to fall
down, if he were allowed to go round on his own account.
Having taken in the left hand the leading rein which is
fixed to the off D of the headstall, we should walk the
horse round and round several times, and should test his
amenability to discipline by stopping him with the leading
rein (see Fig. 101), and then pulling him round again. If
he resists us, we may feel convinced that he is not under
proper control, in which case we should, before proceeding
further, render him thoroughly docile according to direc-
tions already given. We should satisfy ourselves (see

MOUNTING HORSE FOR FIRST TIME. 205

page 325) that the horse will not resent his sides being
touched with the heels of the rider later on. When we
think that the animal is fully under control, we should get
an assistant, while standing on, say, the near side, to catch
hold of the mane about half way up the crest with his left
hand, the stirrup-iron with his right hand, and go through
the various stages of mounting, beginning with putting his
left foot in the stirrup (see Fig. 102), catching the pommel
or cantle of the saddle, as he sees fit, with the right hand,

Fig. 101. — Horse ready to be mounted for first time.

and hopping round on the right foot, while we keep the
horse revolving by means of the leading rein. The Aus-
tralian rough-riders, who are marvellously expert at
getting up on difficult horses, place the right hand on
the pommel of the saddle, and not on the cantle, as is
usually the practice in England and Ireland, and conse-
quently put the left hand high up on the neck, and thereby
keep their hands well separated, so as to preserve their
balance when mounting. When the horse has shown his
perfect tolerance of the assistant keeping his foot in the
stirrup and the hands respectively on the saddle and mane,

2O6

MOUNTED BREAKING.

while he hops round on one foot, the assistant may raise
himself up, so as to stand by means of the left foot in the
left stirrup, with his weight to a certain extent on his hands.
The next step will be to bring his right leg over, and take
up the right stirrup with his right foot. While all this is
being done, the breaker, who has hold of the leading rein,
should keep the horse circling round, so that the animal
may not get the chance of resisting. When fixed up
in this manner, the horse's " defence," if rebelliously

Fig. 1 02. — Mounting horse for first time.

inclined, will be to throw himself down to the off side,
either forwards, sideways, or backwards. Such an accident
should not happen once in five hundred times, if the pre-
liminary work has been properly carried out, and if the
horse has been rightly fixed up. The assistant, however,
should be ready to jump off to the near side in case such
an untoward event takes place. If the horse happens to
come down in the manner described, the cord connecting
his head and tail should be loosened out, the animal made
to get up, and the gear re-adjusted, or further discipline

MOUNTING HORSE FOR FIRST TIME. 207

employed, as circumstances may demand, before recom-
mencing the mounting lesson. A very efficient method of
reducing to obedience horses which deliberately throw
themselves down when secured in the way in question, is
to keep them on the ground, tied head and tail (see page
167), until they have given up all idea of resistance.

When the horse has got accustomed to the presence and
weight of a man in the saddle, the rider may touch him
with his heels, lightly at first, and gradually with more
pressure, but without hurting him, so as to teach him to
bear the contact without resentment or fear. We may then
slacken off the cord a little, make the horse go round and
round again, and so on, until it will be safe to let him
altogether loose. Before doing this, we should, as before,
test -his quietness by stopping him with the leading rein,
and then pulling him round again. When we have loosened
out the cord to about half its full extent, we may give the
leading rein to the rider, to hold in his right hand, so that
he can stop the horse from turning round, if necessary. By
holding the near side of the headstall in the left hand and
by lightly touching the animal on the near quarter with the
whip, we can make him go round, as may be needed.
After the cord has been removed, the long reins may be
put on, and the breaking proceeded with as described on
page 203 et seq. Three-quarters of an hour will be ample, in
the large majority of cases, for completing the process of
mounting. A second lesson of the same kind, which will
take far less time than the first one, may be given on the
same day. As a rule, no further discipline in mounting
will be required, beyond the occasional use of the rope-
twitch to correct unsteadiness.

In all my experience with scores of horses which had
for years successfully resisted every effort to mount them,
I have never failed to accomplish this object within an

208 MOUNTED BREAKING.

hour by the method just described ; nor has any horse,
after I have removed the cord, shown the slightest return
to unruliness during the subsequent portion of the lesson.
The use of the rope-twitch is specially valuable for render-
ing a horse steady to mount. The head and tail plan, by
producing a powerful moral effect, makes the horse not
alone easy to mount, but also quiet to ride. We should
not forget to confirm, by repetition, the habit of obedience.

Mr. Litchwark, who is a New Zealand horse breaker,
invented the following admirable method of making a
horse stand still when mounted for the first time. Put
a hobble with a ring on the off hind pastern, put a loop
round the animal's neck with one end of a rope, pass the
other end of the rope through the ring on the hobble, draw
the horse's off hind leg forward by the rope, and when that
hind foot is nearly off the ground, tie the loose end of the
rope to the loop. The animal will then be unable to buck,
plunge, rear or run away, and can be easily mounted on
the near side. After finding that the process of mounting
is accompanied by friendly pats on the neck, caressing
words and no pain, he will, as a rule, soon " give in." The
great secret of obtaining perfect control over a horse is to
avoid giving him any chance of " playing up."

The practice of all the " horse-tamers " whom I have
seen, or heard of, using the head and tail method, is, when
they suppose the animal to be sufficiently quiet from the
effects of this process, to get an assistant to vault on to the
horse's back from the side opposite to that to which the
head is pulled round by the cord that connects it with the
tail. If the cord be unconfined by girth or surcingle, the
rider, whether he has or has not a saddle under him, will
be placed in the uncomfortable dilemma of being obliged
to ride without any grip by having one leg pulled outwards
by the cord, or of having the leg imprisoned between the

MOUNTING HQRSE FOR FIRST TIME. 209

cord and the animal's side. In either case the man will be
in a most dangerous position on an animal which is revolv-
ing round and round with but little control over its own
movements. Without the headstall being furnished with a
short strap or rope, which is also an improvement of mine, the
breaker will require to be unusually active and skilful, when
the animal is revolving rapidly round, to run in and catch
the horse by the headstall, so as to stop or diminish the rota-
tory movement. When the leading rein is on the headstall,

Fig. 103. — Buckjumping saddle.

the breaker can with perfect safety catch it while the horse
is spinning round ; for it will at that time swing clear of
the fore legs and in a convenient position to be laid hold of.
In the foregoing paragraphs of this chapter, I have
described methods of mounting on the assumption that the
breaker has had one or two assistants. If he be single-
handed, he may, in the case of a violent or otherwise
difficult horse, make him quiet by a pretty stiff turn at the
head and tail (see page 155), lying down, or tying-on-the-
ground plan (see page 150), and mount before the good
effect of the discipline has passed off. In this way an

210

MOUNTED BREAKING.

expert breaker could within an hour and a half make any
horse quiet to mount for the time being ; only a few repeti-
tions being usually needed to make the effect permanent.
With ordinary horses, the resources of the breaker need
not exceed those to be obtained from the long reins and
rope-twitch. The precaution of using a saddle in which
one can obtain a firm grip, should not be neglected.

Fig. 104. — Buckjumping saddle.

Having mentioned the subject of a saddle for breaking
purposes, I may state that I have designed one out of
which it is almost impossible to fall. It is provided on each
side with " leaping heads," which give a grip with both
legs similar to that afforded to the left leg in a side saddle.
The seat in it is far more secure than in any Australian
buckjumping saddle I have ever ridden in. With it, I ride
with the stirrups rather long, so that I might have no

BUCKJUMPING SADDLE.

211

difficulty in getting out of the saddle in the event of the
horse falling with me. In Figs. 103 and 104, I have taken
off the leather covering of the leaping heads (or horns),
so as to show their action more clearly.

After the horse has been mounted, the rider, in order to

Fig. 105. — A rein ahd'whip in each hand.

confirm the habit of obedience, may walk and trot the
animal on the circle round which he had been previously
worked, using only the reins and clicking with his tongue
as aids. If the horse be sluggish, the breaker or man on
foot may stimulate him to go on by " showing " the lunging
whip, or by lightly touching him with it below the hocks.
If the breaker be single-handed and has to ride the horse,

14*

212 MOUNTED BREAKING.

he may take a rein and cutting whip or cane in each hand
(see Fig. 105), and in the event of his mount being lazy, he
may make him go on by lightly touching him with the points
of both whips on the sides or hind legs. At this stage of
the breaking, I think it is well to defer all further instruc-
tion in the aids, until the turn on the forehand has been
taught ; for it is the quickest and most precise means by
which to teach the horse the indications given by the rider's
legs, which instruction should now be our chief object, so
that our pupil may answer the leg as readily as he has
already learned to do the rein. If we continue to ride him
without special instruction in leg work, we can hardly
fail to get him into the vile habit of depending almost
entirely on the reins for guidance. I may here point out
that precision in turning can be obtained only by acting on
both ends of his body, namely, on his hind-quarters, as
well as on his mouth.

TURNING A HORSE ON THE FOREHAND AT THE HALT WHEN

MOUNTED.

Having, on foot, taught the horse to make this turn, we
shall have little difficulty in doing so when mounted ;
and may commence by taking a rein and whip in each hand
(see Figs. 105 and 106). If we wish to make the turn on the
forehand to the right (see page 193), we should depress the
right hand and keep it well away from the shoulder, so as
to give the indication of pulling the head round as clearly
as possible. As the flexibility of the neck increases ac-
cording to its distance from the withers, the left hand,
which holds the left rein, should be carried somewhat to
the right and raised, so as to aid in preserving the bend
of the neck. We should lean a little forward in the
saddle in order to lighten the hind-quarters, and a little to

TURNING HORSE ON FOREHAND.

213

the right so as to help in fixing the off -fore. We should
begin, as on foot, by lightly touching the off quarter with
the whip (see Fig. 107), to make the horse circle his hind
legs from right to left round his off fore foot, and should

Fig. 106. — Rein and whip in hand.

gradually advance the point of contact of the whip with the
skin until it will reach the spot that would be pressed upon
by the drawn-back heel of the right foot. As soon as the
horse obeys the touch of the whip on the quarter, we should,
while using the whip, gently apply the drawn-back right
foot to the side, and continue to do so, until the whip is

214

MOUNTED BREAKING.

brought up by degrees to the foot ; supposing of course
that the horse yields perfectly to the touch of the whip
when in that position. Then, by gradually increasing the
effect of the heel, and diminishing that of the whip, we
may after a time dispense altogether with the latter in

Fig. 107. —Teaching the horse to turn to the right on his forehand
by the whip.

favour of the former. The remarks previously made as to
precision without hurry, and the way in which punishment
and reward should be respectively meted out, apply equally
well here. If the movement of the hind legs be made in
a precipitated manner, it may be checked by the application
on the near hind-quarter, of the whip which is held in the

TURNING HORSE ON FOREHAND. 215

left hand, or by the heel, and by " feeling " the left rein
and easing off the right rein. If the horse attempts to go
forward, he should be checked by both reins. If he tries
to rein back, he may be kept up to his bridle by the appli-
cation of both whips or of both heels. The turn on the

Fig. 108. — Leg drawn back in turning horse.

forehand to the left is taught in the same manner, but with
reversed aids. . A turn through an angle of 90°, first to one
side and then to the other, will be sufficient at first. Ability
to turn on the forehand through a complete circle, while
keeping the appropriate fore foot fixed on the ground, will
demand a high degree of training.

216 MOUNTED BREAKING.

A quarter of an hour, with frequent intervals of rest, will
be long enough for a lesson of this kind.

The position of the leg, in, for instance, turning the horse
on his forehand to the right, is shown in Fig. 108.

REINING BACK.

To obtain the rein-back from the mounted horse, we should
work on the principle which guided us in teaching him
on foot (see page 186) to execute this movement at our
bidding. To get the right diagonal step (off fore and near
hind), supposing that both fore feet are equally advanced,
we should feel the right rein so as to turn the horse's head
to the right ; should apply the drawn-back left foot to
the horse's side to prevent his hind-quarters from swinging
round to the left and to keep more weight on the off hind
than on the near hind ; should lean a little forward in
the saddle and should lower our hands so as to lighten
the hind-quarters ; and having produced these effects,
we should take a pull at the right rein while keeping the
left hand steady, so as to obtain the desired step to the
rear. For the left diagonal (near fore and off hind) step,
we should use the reversed aids. During the rein-back,
the driver should draw his right foot back and apply it
the moment the right fore foot comes down ; for at that
moment, the right hind being more advanced under the
horse's body than the left hind leg, it is the proper one
with which the horse should take a step to the rear. When
the rider applies his drawn-back right foot in this manner,
he may touch the left shoulder of the horse with his left
foot, so as to give the animal the signal to raise and draw
back the left fore leg at the same time as he raises and
draws back the right hind leg. The reversed aids are to
be applied to obtain the other step. We should here,

REINING BACK. 217

for applying the foot, take our time from the respective
supports of the fore feet ; because they are easier felt than
those of the hind feet. If at the commencement of the
rein-back from the halt, one fore foot of the horse be more
advanced than the other, we should turn the animal's
head towards it, apply the drawn-back leg of the opposite
side, and proceed as before directed. If he fails to obey
the aids, he should get a repetition of his previous in-
struction on foot in them.

THE WALK.

The horse uses his head and neck as a balancing pole in
no pace so much as in the normal walk, in which, forward
progression is obtained as much as possible by displace-
ment of weight with a minimum of propulsion. The horse
accordingly brings his head down so as to increase the
instability of his equilibrium, and sways it from side to
side at each step, which is taken with extremely little
fatigue to the limbs, and which covers a comparatively
long distance of ground. If, however, the rider by main-
taining a tight hold of the reins, keeps the horse's head
up and prevents it from exercising its natural function of
a balancing pole, the horse will step short and will be in-
clined to break into a trot, at which pace the head is
normally held in a raised and nearly immovable position.
Owing to a wrong system of breaking and riding, the
majority of our horses are bad walkers. I must here
make a distinction between the normal walk and the col-
lected walk, which artificial pace I shall describe later
on, as a preliminary exercise to the trot.

We should, as we may see from the foregoing observa-
tions, teach the mounted horse to walk with the reins loose
enough not to interfere in any way with the movements

2i8 MOUNTED BREAKING.

of his head and neck, and should lean the upper part of
the body slightly back so as to readjust the distribution o4
weight between the fore and hind legs.

THE TROT.

In the trot, as I have just said, the horse should carry his
head in a raised and nearly immovable position, to attain
which we should regulate the height of our hands, and
should keep a steady feeling on the reins.

TURNING A HORSE DURING MOVEMENT.

Having taught the horse to turn on his centre by means
of the long reins, on his forehand by the whip and reins
on foot, and by the aids when mounted, we may teach him
to turn at the walk and trot.

The body of a quadruped being supported at two ends
by limbs ; it follows that, when a horse turns of his own
accord, the point round which the revolution takes place
will approach the heavier end according to the difference
of weight on the two ends. As the weight on a horse's
forehand, which at the halt is only slightly more than that
on the hind-quarters, increases as the speed ; so will the
tendency to turn on the forehand, when a turn is being
made, similarly increase. If the weight were equally dis-
tributed between both ends of the horse, his balance during
a turn would be preserved in the best possible manner, and
the track of the hind feet would follow that of the fore feet.
In proportion, however, as the weight on the forehand
exceeds that on the hind-quarters (or in proportion to the
speed) ; the greater will be the liability of the animal to fall
or to have his balance unduly disturbed, when turning, by
his hinder end describing a larger arc than the fore part of
his body ; or, in other words, by the track of the hind feet

ACTION OF DRAWN-BACK LEG. 219

going outside that of the fore feet. To correct this ten-
dency, we should, when about to turn the horse during
movement, slacken speed, lean back in the saddle, hold the
horse's head up (so as to bring the weight back), apply the
outward (the left if the turn is being made to the right, and
vice versa) drawn-back leg to the animal's side, and lean
the weight of the body inwards (to the side to which the
horse is being turned), so as to oppose the centrifugal force.
In order to turn the animal's head and neck in the most
effective manner, we should carry the right (if the turn is
being made to the right, and vice versa) hand away from
the side of the horse, as well as backwards, and raising the
left hand a little higher than the right (so as to bring the
left rein against the most flexible part of the neck), should
carry it across the body, so as to obtain the desired pressure
against the neck. We find from experience that a horse
will turn best, other things being equal, when the reins are
manipulated in the manner I have pointed out, and when
their tension is the same on both sides of the mouthpiece
which, under this condition, will have no tendency to be
pulled through the mouth, as might occur if one rein were
tight and the other slack.

In referring here to the application of the drawn-back
outward leg when turning the horse, I take for granted
that the turn is made under ordinary conditions. If, how-
ever, the animal refuses to bring round his hind-quarters —
as he does when he " runs out " at a fence, while we are
doing our best to " straighten " him — we ought, instead of
using the outward (the left, if the turn be to the right)
leg, to apply the drawn-back inward leg, or the whip.
It is evident that the more the leg is drawn back (see
Fig. 108), the more effective will its application be in
bringing round the hind-quarters, or in checking their move-
ment in the direction of the applied leg. While sitting

220 MOUNTED BREAKING.

" square " in the saddle, which is imperative in military
equitation, it is impossible to exercise, to any appreciable
extent, a stronger pressure against the horse's side with
one leg than with the other, owing to the fact that the rider
can obtain no fixed point on the side opposite to that on
which he may wish to apply pressure. Any slight differ-
ence between the lateral pressure of one leg and that of its
fellow can be gained only by means of the friction between
the rider's seat and the saddle. Even if such " stronger
pressure " were practicable, it would fail to be effective,
unless perhaps it was far superior to any muscular effort
of which the human leg is capable ; for its centre of ap-
plication would be little, if anything, behind the centre of
gravity of the weight to be moved. Granting that the
mechanical effect even of the drawn-back leg, as in Fig.
108, is not great ; we must remember that the horse, by
the method I have indicated, has been taught to accept
it as a signal for moving his hind-quarters away from it,
of for checking their advance towards it. The presence
of a spur on the drawn-back foot will increase its effect
both as regards intensity of impression and by bringing
the point of application still further back. At the same
time, the more we eliminate the element of pain from the
signals which we habitually employ with the horse, the
less likely shall we be to render him unsteady, and conse-
quently unsafe to ride or drive.

It is reasonable to say that in turning the horse at the
walk or trot, we should feel the inward rein as the out-
ward fore leg comes down. At the trot, the pace would
have to be very slow and collected to allow this to be done
with precision.

COLLECTING THE HORSE. 221

TEACHING A HORSE TO CARRY HIS RIDER IN A COLLECTED
AND WELL-BALANCED MANNER.

While the breaker is in the saddle he should constantly
keep in mind the maxim that one should ride more by
the legs than by the hands, so as to teach the horse to go
collectedly (see page 72) when required. This collection
can be obtained by using the drawn-back heels as a stimulus
to the respective hind legs, so that the hind feet may be
brought further under the animal's body at each step than
they would be were the heels not applied to the horse's
sides. Their effect, combined with that of the hands in
preventing any increase of speed, will naturally be to
lighten the forehand. The manner in which the legs should
be applied so as to produce the best effect, is described on
page 59. As the extension of the neck will be proportionate
to the forward reach of the fore legs, and, consequently,
other things being equal, to the speed ; the position of the
hands should remain fixed while the animal's speed remains
uniform. Thus, the horse, on finding that he cannot extend
his head and neck beyond the limits allowed him by his
rider, will, in response to the application of the heels, bend
his head and neck as well as his loins, and will become
" collected." As the hands have to regulate the move-
ment, the impulsion must be excited by the legs, whip, or
voice, before the reins are " felt." Hence, in no case should
these stimulating aids and the regulating and controlling
one of the hands be used simultaneously. A worse mis-
take, in that it renders the meaning of the rider still more
ambiguous to the horse, is to feel the reins and then to
apply the heels, the only interpretation of which proceed-
ing possible to the horse would be that the rider wished
him to halt and rear up. It must be patent to every
instructed observer that the vast majority of persons who

222 MOUNTED BREAKING.

bestride horses in England and Ireland, to say nothing of
other countries, " ride the bridle," and altogether neglect
the use of the legs as an " aid." Consequently their horses
are heavy in front, become prematurely unsound in their
fore legs, and are wanting in handiness. The breaker
when mounted, should be careful to alternate his lessons
of " collection " with well-regulated periods of relaxation
so that nervous as well as muscular fatigue may be avoided.
I have dwelt in particular upon lightening the forehand
and on collecting the horse ; as horses are generally more
wanting in these respects, than in being too light in front.
If, however, the horse does not go up to his bridle, we may
try to correct the faulty distribution of weight by the use
of the standing martingale for lowering the head ; and by
employing a general stimulus, such as that of the voice or
" company," instead of that of the drawn-back feet, we
may hope in a short time to effect our purpose. We
should also give frequent lessons in the turn on the fore-
hand (see page 212). For further remarks on teaching a
horse to go up to his bridle, or to abstain from boring on it,
see Chapter XL

The breaker when riding his pupil should be careful to
make him go in the required direction without deviating
from it to one side or to the other. A lively' horse, when
newly broken in, is liable to shy away from and start at
all kinds of objects which he may meet in the field or on
the road. To teach him that such behaviour will not be
permitted, the breaker when in the saddle, and while
walking, trotting or cantering along, should take rather a
short hold of the reins, so that if the horse makes any
attempt to "play up," the breaker may bring him in an
instant under control by closing his legs (flat of the foot or
heel as may be required) firmly against his sides, and holding
his head tight by the reins. If the shy be made, say, to the

THE CANTER. 223

light, the animal while looking at the cause of alarm will
endeavour to swing his hind-quarters round to the right ;
consequently the breaker should turn the horse's head and
neck round to the right by the right rein aided by the pres-
sure of the left rein on the neck, and the hind-quarters
to the left by the drawn-back right foot, or by the whip or
cane held (as well as the right rein) in the right hand and
applied to the right side of the horse's hind-quarters. The
extent of the turn on the centre or on the forehand will
naturally be regulated by the amount required to bring the
horse's head, neck, and body into their original direction.

THE CANTER

(see Points of the Horse) is a pace of three time in which
the sequence of the steps are : (i) near (or off) hind ; (2)
near (or off) fore and off (or near) hind ; and (3) off (or
near) fore. As the horse will naturally lead with the in-
ward fore leg when cantering on a circle, he is said to be
going to the left when leading with the near fore (see Fig.
109), and to the right when leading with the off fore. He
is said to be " false " if, when circling to the right, he leads
with the left fore leg, and vice versa. The term " disunited "
is applied to the canter when the two legs of the second
period of the stride belong to the same side, and not to
different ones ; as for instance : (i) near hind ; (2) off
fore and off hind ; (3) near fore. If this faulty sequence
were adopted when going to the right, the horse would
be false and disunited. The reverse of this would, of
course, apply to the left circle. When riding a horse
at a canter or gallop, we can easily find out with which
leg he is leading, from the fact that the leading shoulder
is more advanced than the non-leading one, and that our
knee which is on the side of the leading leg is carried more
to the front than the knee of the opposite side.

224 MOUNTED BREAKING.

Before beginning work at the canter, I think it well to
repeat the long rein practice on foot for teaching the horse
to strike off from the walk or trot into the canter with the
proper leg leading (see page 188). When he does this
readily, we may mount him and take him at the canter to
the right and also to the left on the same circle which we
used with the long reins. The drawn-back outward leg,
aided if necessary by the spur, will replace the outward
long rein for preventing the hind-quarters from being
carried outwards when circling or turning. As the presence
of a rider in the saddle increases the proportion of weight
borne by the fore legs, we should lean our body a little
back. To preserve the bend of the head and neck in the
direction in which the animal is going, we should depress
the inward hand and carry it a little inwards ; the outward
hand (see page 212) being somewhat raised, and also carried
a little inwards. As an indication, and as a necessary
adjustment, we should lean our body a little inwards. An
additional indication may be supplied by the touch, on the
shoulder, of the inward foot, which may be kept in an
advanced position for this purpose. We may teach the
horse to lead off, from the walk or trot, into the canter with
whichever leg we wish, by acting according to the principles
by which we obtained this object with the long reins. If,
for instance, we are walking or trotting the horse on the
right circle, and wish him consequently to strike off with
the off fore, we should turn him a little to the left, so as to
bring his right shoulder in front of his left one ; lean our
body a little to the right ; strongly apply the drawn-back
left leg ; and bring the horse back again into the track of
the circle by turning him to the right with the reins, while
at the same time raising the hands a little and leaning the
body slightly to the rear so as to lighten the forehand. The
reversed aids would be used on the left circle for making

THE CANTER.

225

the horse lead off with the near fore. As the animal
improves in his acquaintance with these signals, we may
diminish the amount of the preliminary outward turn, so
that we may obtain the desired lead without altering the
direction of his body. We may then gradually increase the

Fig. 109. — Cantering with near fore leading.

size of the circle until we can make the horse lead off with
whichever leg we like while he is walking or trotting in a
straight line.

When he has learned the foregoing lesson thoroughly, we
may take him back to the old circle, and ride him at a walk
and then at a trot in a figure 8, so that he will describe
two small circles inside the old circle. We should be
careful to change the aids on entering the new circle,

15

226 MOUNTED BREAKING.

which would be at their point of contact, so that the horse
may not canter falsely during any portion of the figure
8. Under ordinary circumstances, the imperfectly-broken
horse would not change until he had gone falsely for about
a quarter of the new circle. This want of precision may
be disregarded, except in the " school " horse ; for to
obviate it, the animal would have to be taught to go in
such a collected manner, that in acquiring this style his
freedom of action might be injuriously affected. Having
made the horse fairly proficient at changing the leading leg
in the figure 8, we should try similar turns away from the
circle upon which we have been working, so as to prevent
him from becoming routin:. By keeping him attentive to
the change of aids as a signal for a change of lead, we
shall soon teach him to change, on feeling the change of
aids, when he is cantering on a straight line. Here, again,
we need not exact absolute precision as regards the moment
at which the change is made. To meet the requirements
of ignorant riders, of " bad " ground over which the horse
should be allowed to exercise his natural watchfulness
against danger, of high speed, and of other disarranging
circumstances which are to be met with, especially when
going over a " country," I think it well for the horse to be
taught to make, when necessary, the required change of lead
on his own accord, in the event of his rider failing to give him
the signal by a change of aids to do so. I need hardly point
out to the experienced horseman that the habit of readily
changing the leg at the canter or gallop when a turn is
being made to the side opposite to that of the leading fore
leg, is valuable in hunters, racehorses, chasers, hacks,
troopers, and every other kind of animal, except the high
school horse, which is supposed never to take the initiative
in any movement. As his work is confined to the manege
we need not consider him here.

CHANGING LEG AT GALLOP. 227

One of the clearest signals which we can give to the horse
to make him change his leg at the canter, is shifting the
weight of our body from the side of the leading fore leg,
to that of the non-leading one ; for by doing so, we dis-
turb the balance of the horse's body so much, that to regain
it, he will be obliged to change his leg.

Fig. 1 10. -Period of canter or gallop when weight of horse and rider is
borne by leading fore leg.

In circling, as well as in turning, the track of the hind
feet should be the same as that of the fore feet, and the
animal's head, neck, and body should as nearly as possible
follow the direction in which the circle or turn is being
made.

Some people think that a horse, when cantering, should
lead only with the off fore, and that breakers should train
their equine pupils to invariably do so. A slight study of

15*

228 MOUNTED BREAKING.

this pace (see Points of the Horse) will show us that when
circling or turning to the left at the canter or gallop,
the horse to preserve his balance will have to incline his
body inwards, with a corresponding displacement, in that
direction, of the centre of gravity. As the weight of
the horse and rider has to be borne at one period of
each stride by the leading fore leg (see Fig. no) ; it
follows that the inward fore leg (in this case the near
fore), which is more nearly under the centre of gravity
than the off fore, is the proper one with which to lead.
Besides, by leading with the off fore whilst circling or
turning to the left, the horse will be obliged to more or
less cross his fore legs, and will consequently move in
an awkward and mechanically disadvantageous manner ;
to say nothing of the chance of an accident by the near
fore striking the off fore, if the turn be made sharply. As
the leading fore leg at either the canter or gallop has to do
far more work than the non-leading fore leg, the judicious
horseman will have his saddle animals broken to lead indif-
ferently with either fore leg, so that one of the two may
not become prematurely worn out.

To meet the exigencies of practical work in the field
and the requirements of different kinds of riders, I think
it is well to provide, as far as possible, against mistakes
being made by the horse on receiving imperfect signals.
For instance, the horse which has been trained according
to the precepts of the " high school," will simply turn his
head round to the side on which he feels the pull of the
rein. Agreeably to the principles of breaking for every-
day use, which I am trying to explain in this chapter, I
maintain that the fact of the horse answering the lateral
feeling of the rein only with his head and neck serves no
useful purpose ; but that the habit of his obeying it with
his hind-quarters as well as with his head and neck is most

THE CANTER. 229

.valuable. I may here go back to the remarks made on
page 63, and point out that if we wish to " straighten " a
horse on his shying to one side or " running out at a
fence," our object will be to make him turn on his centre,
and not merely to turn his head round without altering
the direction of his body. Even supposing that it was
always possible to apply the drawn-back leg at the right
time so as to make the horse bring his hind-quarters round,
it would surely be an advantage for him to do so of
his own accord, on feeling the pull of the rein ; for the
indication thus given by the leg, which can be applied to
the side, but not to the hind-quarters, is naturally feeble.
Besides, under discomposing circumstances, the rider may
not be able to bring his leg back, or may be ignorant. In
any case, he will have sufficient firmness of seat, knowledge,
or presence of mind to pull the rein of the side, to which he
wishes his mount to turn. If, by chance, the rider of a
horse which has been broken according to the system I am
describing, wants to make the animal turn his head to one
side without altering the direction of his body, all he will
have to do will be to apply the drawn-back foot of the
side opposite to which the bend of the head and neck is
being made, so as to arrest the revolution of the hind-
quarters.

As the shoulder of the leading fore leg, in the canter or
gallop, is more advanced than that of the non-leading fore
leg, the natural tendency of the horse, when going at
either pace, will be to carry his hind legs more or less side-
ways. Thus, if the off fore is leading, the tracks made by
the hind feet will be somewhat to the right of those made
by the respective fore feet. An excess of this tendency,
which decreases according as the speed increases, and which
is usually displayed only when one particular fore leg leads,
should be guarded against during the breaking in of the

230 MOUNTED BREAKING.

horse ; for it detracts from the beauty of his action in the
paces in question, and interferes with his handiness and
speed. The more a horse, at the canter or gallop, carries
his head to the side opposite to that of the leading fore
leg, the more will he be inclined to bring his hind-quarters
round to the other side. Hence, to obviate this objection-
able tendency, we should bend the animal's head slightly
to the side of the leading fore leg. The best means for
correcting this fault, if for instance it is apparent when
he leads with the near fore, is frequent practice at turning
on the forehand (see page 212) to the left, and passaging
(see page 273) to the right ; and vice versa.

I may repeat that, when mounted, we should handle the
reins as nearly as possible in the same manner as we did
the long reins, while circling the horse on foot.

THE HALT.

If we examine the anatomy of the horse, we shall find that
the fore legs, being connected to the body by muscles,
are far better able to bear the shock of weight suddenly
imposed on them than the hind limbs, which are attached
to the body by ligaments. We see that the fore pastern
is more oblique than the hind, and that the bones from
elbow to fetlock are practically straight when bearing
the weight of the body, while the analogous column of
bones of the hind extremity, from stifle to fetlock, are more
or less bent at the hock under similar conditions. In normal
jumping, the weight of horse and rider is received by both
of the fore legs before either of the hind limbs come to the
ground. The attempt of the rider to interfere with this
natural sequence by means of a severe bit will often be
followed by sprain of one or both of the hind legs. Horses
which are moving at liberty in the open, will, if they

THE HALT. 231

happen to halt suddenly, purposely receive the weight
principally on their forehand ; a fact which they will
notify by lowering their heads at the moment of stopping.
At this instant, the hind legs will be brought under the
body to receive their smaller share of the burden. The
faster the pace from which a sudden halt is made, the more
will the head be brought down. As the weight of the
rider adds to the natural preponderance of weight on the
forehand, it follows that, to obtain the just distribution of
work between the forehand and hind-quarters, in the case
of the mounted horse coming to a sudden halt, the animal
must put more weight on his hind legs than he would
normally do ; the rider must carry his weight back ; or
both horse and man must contribute to the re-adjustment.
According to these principles, it appears that in coming to
the halt from a fast pace, the rider should grip tightly with
his knees to prevent his seat being shifted forward in the
saddle ; should apply his drawn-back feet to make the
animal bring his hind legs under him ; should carry the
upper part of his body back, so as to prevent the forehand
from being unduly charged with weight ; should lower his
hands ; and should take a steady pull of the reins. Ac-
cepting this as a typical case, we may vary the applica-
tion of the aids according to circumstances. Precautions
as to infirmity behind or in front should naturally be taken.
Although the most sudden halt possible from a high rate of
speed may at times be absolutely required, I need hardly
say that the more gradual the halt, the less liable will it
be to injure the horse. Believing that the horse knows
more than his rider about the manner in which the weight
on his legs should be adjusted, I am a strong advocate of
teaching him to stop by a signal (for instance, the
voice) unconnected with the aids, which may or may not
be rightly applied. With a horse thus instructed the

232 MOUNTED BREAKING.

capable rider would content himself with giving the signal,
and with looking after the adjustment of his own weight
(by sitting tight on the saddle and leaning back), over
which the animal could, of course, exercise no control.

WHIP AND SPURS.

These articles of riding gear may be used as aids or as
stimulants. Their function as aids is to make the horse
remove from their contact that portion of his body which
is touched or threatened by them, or to check its approach
if it happens to come in their direction. Thus, in the
turn on the forehand, we cause the hind-quarters to revolve
in the desired direction by the pressure of the drawn-back
heel ; and in the turn on the hind-quarters (see page 272),
we check that movement by the same means, in which
case the pressure has to be patiently borne — not avoided.
When we use whip, spurs, or unarmed heels as a general
stimulant, we should manifestly apply them, as nearly
as possible, at a point midway between the respective
actions of the fore and hind legs ; that is, close behind
the girth.

When teaching the horse to obey the whip, either as an
aid or as a stimulant, we should be careful to use it in such
a way that he will not become unsteady in the event of
his rider carrying anything in his hand.

As the horse's natural impulse on being touched is to
remove the offending object by twitching his skin, brushing
it off by his tail or mane, kicking it, biting at it, rubbing
it against some hard substance, or other similar means,
none of which will assist us in breaking ; we have got to
teach him to interpret, agreeably to our conventional code,
and not according to his instinct, the signal we give
with whip, spur, or heel. As I have already said, on

WHIP AND SPURS. 233

page 38, the whip and spurs should never be used as a
punishment. To avoid making the horse regard the spurs
as a means for inflicting pain, we should gradually teach
him their use ; at first, by pressure of the flat of the
foot or heel, by that of the spur without a rowel or with
a blunted rowel, and finally by the ordinary spur. We
should thus make him so obedient to them, that when
riding him we may dispense with their use, the contact
of the heel being sufficient to remind him of indications
which they had impressed on his memory. Referring to
school riding (see Chapter IX.), Baucher justly said that
a horse which had been brought to properly bear the ap-
plication of the spurs is three-parts broken.

TIME REQUIRED FOR ORDINARY BREAKING TO SADDLE.

Supposing, as I have already said, that the horse is in
sufficiently good condition to stand the fatigue and strain
of breaking, and that the breaker is competent, the time
for making the animal quiet to ride and obedient to the
aids, under ordinary conditions, need not usually be pro-
longed, no matter how wild and " green " he may be,
beyond the following course : —

One day, in which two lessons may be given, to make
the horse sufficiently quiet to be handled, and to be circled
with the long reins.

Six days' work (twelve lessons) on foot with the long
reins and whip (for teaching the turn on the forehand,
etc.), and teaching the horse to carry a rider quietly.

Fourteen days (twenty-eight lessons), for riding the horse
at home and outside under various conditions. One-third
of the morning lesson (say, half-an-hour) might be devoted
to teaching the horse the rein-back, circling, figure 8,

234 MOUNTED BREAKING.

changing the leading leg at the canter, etc., on the breaking
ground, before taking him out.

At the end of the three weeks which I have allowed for
breaking-in the ordinary horse (hunter, hack, racer, or
chaser) to saddle, he ought to be thoroughly steady and
have a good snaffle mouth.

My readers will observe that I have added to the usual
course of English and Irish breaking, reining-back, circling,
figure 8, and changing the leg at the canter or gallop.
I would advise, for all saddle horses, instruction in the
passage (see page 273). By refraining from including
it in this chapter, I desire to show that I am not altogether
unwilling to make concessions to prejudice.

I reserve the question of jumping for the next chapter.

235

CHAPTER VII.
TEACHING HORSES TO JUMP.

General instruction — Jumping faults — The hunter — The chaser — The hurdle
racer — The show-jumper — Time required to teach a horse to jump.

GENERAL INSTRUCTION.

ALTHOUGH I strongly advocate the practice of giving a
horse his first saddle lessons in a small enclosure, such
as a riding-school, I think it is advisable for the hunter
or chaser to obtain all his jumping instruction in a field
or other open place, work in which would be less liable
to get him into a " cramped " style of fencing than in
a manege. The tendency of horses to become routine,
to which I shall make further allusion on page 263, is often
well shown in jumping. Hence, I would advise, that
practice over a particular line of fences should be restricted,
in the case of an intended hunter, to teaching him the
necessity of clearing them, and that his subsequent schooling
should, as far as possible, be over strange obstacles. I
have known some animals become so " tricky " from
being frequently ridden over the same jumps, that they
would not negotiate a new one, however small, without
a refusal or two. The less plucky a horse is, the more
inclined will he be to acquire this very grave fault. It is
comparatively easy to teach a horse an effective, though
" sticky " style of timber jumping ; but it is difficult

236 JUMPING.

to get the generality of young ones to learn the free and
" flippant " method which will enable them to go from
one field into another without any fear of their dropping
their hind legs into a ditch on the far side, or catching
their feet against a guard rail, or perchance a wire. To
acquire this essentially Leicestershire style, to which I
shall chiefly devote my attention, a horse must learn
to lift himself well off the ground and spread himself out.
I in no way wish to deny that a horse can be taught to
adapt his style to the nature of the fence ; but such a
degree of excellence is difficult to attain, and the attempt
to reach it may end by spoiling the animal for both kinds
of work. Lest any of my readers may misunderstand
my meaning in this connection, I may explain that the
one style of jumping to which I refer is that practised
in the Shires and on our steeplechase courses ; the other,
in Galway for getting over big stone walls, and in Australia
for clearing very high posts and rails. In the former,
the animal always covers a considerable width and can
also jump fairly high when required. In the latter, if
the horse jumps high, he will cover but little ground. At
horse-jumping competitions in England, such as those at
Islington, several very high timber jumpers will show
ability to clear water of good width ; but if asked to jump
a four-foot hedge, they would not, unless greatly stimu-
lated, leave much margin on the other side. In both
styles, the respective horses should, of course, learn to
regulate their pace and measure their distance, according
to the nature of the fence.

I might suggest the following obstacles over which to
practise the beginner :—

1. A hurdle (commencing at 2-J- feet, and ending at
3^ feet) bushed with gorse.

2. A hurdle similar to No. i, with, in front of it, a

STYLE OF JUMPING. 237

drain 2 feet broad at first, and gradually widening out to
4 feet.

3. A 2j foot hedge, with on the landing side a drain,
say, 3 feet broad, increased up to 10 feet.

4. A heavy log " served " with hay-bands to prevent the
animal seriously injuring his legs. It may be gradually
raised up to 3 feet 9 inches. I like to place another log a
little in front of it, so as to show the horse where to take
off, and to prevent him from getting too close.

Before any jumping is attempted, the horse should be
made thoroughly obedient to the aids. Beginning with the
long reins, we may circle and turn him on foot, with the
outward rein round his quarters, at a smart trot or well-
collected canter. We may put up any suitable small fence,
say, a rounded, heavy log of wood served with hay bands,
or a hurdle, neither of which need be more than 2 feet high.
If our pupil is reluctant in facing the obstacle, we may
work him up to it with the reins, keeping him straight by
the pressure of the outward rein against his quarter, as
he turns from one side to the other, and stimulating him
with the voice and sound of the whip. If he persists in
refusing, we may put on the crupper leading-rein (see
page 196), and after running him about, and pulling him
from side to side by it a few times, in order to make him
understand its use, we may try to lead him over by it. Or,
having handed it to an assistant to go on in front, we may
give him another trial with the long reins. In this, as
in all other breaking operations with the horse, we should
exercise great patience, and should renew our efforts again
and again if we do not at first succeed. If the animal
" shows fight," I would advise that the whip should be
put aside altogether ; for, according to my experience,
the moment its cut, or even crack, fails to prompt him
to go on, it will incite him to offer increased resistance.

238 JUMPING.

Instead of its effect, we should employ that of the long reins,
in circling him, turning him sharply and backing him,
until he gives in, or until we are forced to employ stronger
means. Mr. John Hubert Moore, the great Irish trainer
of steeplechase horses, who taught me this admirable
method for curing refusing and other forms of jibbing,
considers that its efficacy is chiefly due to the punishment

Fig. ill. — Leicestershire cut and laid hedge

inflicted on the animal's mouth and hocks. It is possible
that the animal which has been put through this discipline
may imagine that he has no power to resist the command
to go forward, after having been forced to turn as the
breaker wished. It is not, however, the act of turning
a jibber to the right and to the left which will overcome
his sulkiness, but its continued repetition ; especially
if the turns be made sharply. Hence, I am inclined to
think that the punishment theory is the right one. The

CURING REFUSERS. 239

horse seems, as with the rope-twitch (see page 116), to fail
to connect the idea of pain, in this case, with the man
who inflicts it, as he undoubtedly does when whipped or
spurred ; and, probably on that account, yields the more
readily to its influence.

If the animal prove thoroughly stubborn, and time be of
consequence, he may be made to lie down, and held with
his head pulled round (see page 149), until he appears to
" give in." The driving gear should be again put on, and

Fig. 112. —Teaching horse to jump with long reins.

another trial given. This process may have to be repeated.
Such strong measures will hardly ever be necessary if we
commence with the fence low enough.

When putting the animal through the course of discipline
which I have described for overcoming stubbornness by the
use of the long reins, I have found that the good effect has
been greatly increased by utilising the action of the outward
rein on the pad.

The fence may be gradually raised to a height of 3 feet,

240 JUMPING.

which will be sufficient for the first lesson, and the horse
made to jump freely when circling to the right as well as
to the left. A second fence may be made on the other side
of the track, opposite to the first one. When the horse has
learned to jump with the outward rein low down, he should
be taught to do so with it resting on the pad ; as it will
then be, more or less, in the position it will occupy when
held by the rider. The horse should be taught to take
the fence at the walk, trot, and canter. In getting him to
jump width, we may bring him up to it on a large circle,
and straightening him as he approaches it at a fast canter,
we may let go the reins, which can be caught by an assistant
on the other side. The same remark would apply to par-
ticular kinds of fences, such as Leicestershire " cut and
laid " hedges (see Fig. in), and Irish banks, which one
might not be able to construct in one's breaking enclosure.
If it were possible to have a gap made in a fence of the kind
about which I am writing, one might be able to drive a
horse over it on a circle in the usual way without having
to let go the reins.

By this method, horses, as a rule, will quickly learn
to jump (see Figs. 112 and 113), and not alone to clear
the obstacle, but also to negotiate it in the exact style
they are required to do when a man is on their back. The
more horses are practised in this manner, the more will
they appear to like jumping, and will very rarely exhibit,
as they are apt to do with a rider, any dislike to the work,
from numerous repetitions, backwards and forwards, over
the same fence.

The old plan of teaching a horse to jump by leading him
over fences with a cavesson and one or two leading-reins
should not be employed ; for its tendency, by throwing too
much weight on the forehand, will be to make him slow at
getting away from his fences. Besides this, horses are apt

JUMPING WITH LONG REINS. 241

to resist any forward pull on either cavesson or head-stall.
The action of the crupper leading-rein, on the contrary,
while leaving the head entirely free, is to make the horse
get his hind legs well under him. One great beauty, to
which I have already alluded, of the long-rein system is
that by it the horse's movements, as regards pace, speed,
and direction, are more under the control of the breaker
than by any other method.
A tendency to put too much weight on the forehand

Fig. 113. — Teaching horse to jump with long reins.

when landing, may be corrected by the use of a bearing-
rein (see page 169), which will be very seldom required for
this purpose.

The system of turning horses loose into a circular en-
closure (see page 243), fenced in and provided with obstacles,
and then making them jump with a long driving whip,
is good as far as it goes ; but neither it, nor the plan of
lunging with a leading rein and cavesson, has any pre-
tensions to teaching obedience to the reins when jumping,
without which a safe and clever style is unattainable.

16

242 JUMPING.

It is well to make the fences stiff or unpleasant (by the
use of gorse, for instance) to hit, so as to teach the pupil
not to chance them. Two or three lessons of this sort will
be sufficient to make the generality of horses clever enough
to carry a rider in good style. The horse should then be
saddled, a man or boy put up, without giving him at first
any reins to hold, and the horse driven over the fences as
before. When the breaker finds that the animal jumps as
well with the man in the saddle as he did without him, he
may take off the long reins, put on the ordinary ones, and
hand them to the rider, who should then take the horse
over the fences as before ; the breaker using the crack of
the whip, as a stimulus, if required. The rider should not
be given spurs, unless he is a fine horseman, and unless
the horse requires them to make him more lively ; but
not as a means for overcoming any reluctance he may
have to jumping, which should be accomplished in the
manner I have laid down.

A horse should not be jumped if he is at all sore on his
legs or feet.

One great advantage, among many others, of teaching a
horse to jump in the way I have detailed is that, by circling
and turning the animal in front of the fences, we can cure
him of all impetuosity caused by their proximity, and at
the same time make him willing to jump, with thorough
light-heartedness, the moment he receives the indication
from the rein to go straight and to clear the obstacle. We
can easily understand that such training is particularly
valuable for the hunter.

After the animal has learned all we can teach him in the
breaking field, he should be schooled over a " natural "
country ; and after he has learned to take his own " line "
and jump cleverly in " cold blood," he may be considered
qualified to go in " company."

THE SNAFFLE FOR JUMPING. 243

The snaffle (an unjointed one for preference, see page
1 68) should be the only bit used with the jumper — whether
hunter, chaser, or trooper — when riding him up to a jump ;
for the shock which the curb is apt to inflict on the lower
jaw when landing, and which is frequently difficult to
obviate, tends to make the horse afraid to face the bit ;
the result being that he becomes unduly liable to
injure his hind legs. The fore legs, I may explain,
being connected to the body by muscles, and the hind
legs by bone ; it follows that the former are much better
adapted to receive the weight of the horse and rider on
landing, than the latter. I have seen many cases in hunters
of injury in the hind legs to tendon, ligament, and joint,
caused by the injudicious use of a curb. If the horse
be too impetuous with a snaffle, he should be again taken
in hand by the breaker to be taught obedience to the aids.
If the art of breaking were better understood than it is,
we would meet with far fewer inquirers after special kinds
of bits, with which to hold their horses, than we do ; for
they would solve the difficulty by getting their animals
properly broken.

If we have the facilities for doing so, we might construct
a line of fences in the interval between two concentric
circles which have been enclosed so that the horse cannot
get out, except at the appointed exit. As a convenient
size, I might suggest that the outer circle should be about
35 yards in diameter, and the inner circle 30 yards in
diameter. On this circular ride we might put, say, five
fences of different kinds, and, by means of the lunging
whip, we might drive our pupil at liberty over them, with
or without a lead. It is well to have these jumps made
particularly stiff, so that the horse will learn that he can-
not chance them with impunity. Without going to the
trouble of constructing an enclosed line of fences in the

16*

244

JUMPING.

manner just described, we may practise horses at liberty
over obstacles placed round a riding-school or other suitable
enclosure.

The two most difficult things in teaching a horse to
jump, are to get him, when coming up to a fence, to
regulate his speed of his own accord, and to " take off "
at the proper distance from his fences, to do which he
will have to acquire the ability to put in a short stride,
or lengthen his stride, as may be required. This comes
naturally to some horses, and in many cases is undoubtedly
an hereditary gift. The clever sort appear to have an
instinctive dislike to striking their legs against, or catching

Fig. 1 14. — Boots for protecting horse's legs when jumping.

them in, anything. Other horses, on the contrary, despite
careful instruction and severe blows and falls, seem in-
capable of remembering that they should not chance their
obstacles, especially when they become excited.

As horses are apt to hit themselves and over-reach
when jumping, especially when they are new at the work ;
I like to protect their legs with boots or bandages. Figs.
114 and 115 show the kind of boots which I use. They
are made of strong leather, lined with thick woollen cloth.

JUMPING FAULTS.

That dangerous fault of chancing fences may be corrected
by driving the horse with the long reins over fences which

BOOTS.

245

are too stiff to take liberties with ; but which are not
too " big." Or we may practise him at liberty over them
in the manner described under the preceding heading.

Jumping too slowly. — Many horses commit this fault
without attempting in any way to refuse. It is generally
caused by the rider hanging on to the animal's head, or
by instruction in jumping by means of the cavesson and
leading rein, by which method, the weight is unduly thrown

Fig. 115. — Boots for protecting horse's legs when jumping.

on the forehand, and consequently the horse, not having
his hind legs well under him when he lands over the fence,
is unable to get quickly away from it. Besides this, the
animal has to moderate his speed in accordance with that
of the man in front of him. By driving him with the
long reins on foot we may teach him to go collectedly
at any pace we like, and can quickly get him out of the
habit of dwelling at his fences. We should, of course,
supplement this with judicious schooling, especially in

246 JUMPING.

company, and should be careful not to interfere with the
animal's mouth.

Putting too much weight on the forehand when jumping.
—This may be corrected by using a bearing rein (see page
169) when practising the horse over jumps with the long
reins, or at liberty (see page 243).

Putting too much weight on the hind legs when landing.
—As far as my experience goes, this fault is induced in
sound horses only by the use of a severe bit, or by the
severe use of an ordinary bit. It may be corrected by
mouthing lessons with the long reins, by the use of the
standing martingale, and by removal of the cause.

With respect to refusing and running out at fences, see
page 317.

To break a horse of rushing at his fences, we should put
him through the course of instruction recommended for
pulling (see page 304), and should give him plenty of
practice over stiff fences with the long reins, so as to make
him regulate his pace without showing any impatience.

THE HUNTER.

Special attention should be paid to giving the hunter
a good mouth and making him temperate, so that he may
use his powers to the best advantage, and avoid bringing
either himself or his rider to grief. To meet the various
conditions in which he may be placed out hunting, es-
pecially in a large field and in a difficult country, he ought
to be taught to take his fences faultlessly, either fast or
slow as his rider wishes, and equally well with or without
a lead. He ought to be capable of being quickly stopped
or readily turned, even when going at a jump, and to
bear such a disappointment without his courage being
thereby affected. This valuable attention to his rider's

THE HUNTER. 247

signals can be cultivated by practice with the long reins
on foot. Above all things it is necessary to teach him
that when he gets the signal to go at a jump, he must
face it boldly without a thought of pulling up or refusing,
no matter how formidable it may appear. A horse broken
and schooled in this manner will know, if he be prevented
at any time from jumping, that his rider acted from
reasonable cause, and not from timidity. The ill effects
which the presence of a timid rider has on the temper
of a horse is due, I feel certain, not to the supposed dis-
covery by the horse that the man on his back is in a
" funk " ; but to the animal failing to understand the
wishes of his rider. The horse will trust himself to no one
whose signals are not clearly intelligible to him. Further-
more, the weU-broken horse, if kept facing a fence, while
waiting, for instance, his turn at the only practicable spot,
will stand without impatience until he receives the well-
understood signal from hand and leg to go forward ; and,
even with a short " run," will get into his stride in a
moment from the walk or halt, so that he may acquire
sufficient speed to clear, if necessary, a ditch or guard
rail on the other side. The man who schools a horse should
have sufficiently good hands to avoid hurting the animal's
mouth, especiaUy when landing over a jump.

The gregarious instinct of the horse, which prompts him
to follow his leader instead of taking an independent
" line," should be combated by the breaker of the hunter ;
for unless a horse will go in the direction he is put, he will
be neither safe nor reliable. The horse which will jump
only when hounds are running, is just the kind of brute to
leave one " pounded " in front of some small fence in the
event of one becoming separated by chance from the field ;
to slay one by swerving off to take some seemingly easy,
but dangerous, spot ; or to kill one's neighbour by jumping

248 JUMPING.

on or cannoning against him. We all know that if a horse
will leap in " cold blood," he will fence in hot blood ; but
the converse to this in no way holds good. Therefore,
I say, teach the horse which one wishes to make into a
hunter, to jump faultlessly by himself, and to take what-
ever line of country his rider puts him to, before bringing
him into the field.

For a country of stone walls, posts and rails, or double
banks, a hunter should be taught to check his speed and
collect himself far more than he would require to do in a
country of hedges and ditches, like Leicestershire for
instance.

The preliminary breaking of the hunter will take far less
time than experience in the hunting field, without plenty
of which he cannot be regarded as a safe conveyance over
a country. For this reason, hunters of seven or eight years
of age are valued in Leicestershire more highly than those
of four or five, other things being equal. Supposing that
a horse fresh to the game gets five weeks' cub-hunting,
and regular hunting from the first Monday in November,
at Kirby Gate, to the second Wednesday in April, with the
Belvoir ; he will, as a rule, require all that time, with a
competent man and an average of three or four days a fort-
night, to learn his business. We should initiate the young
one very gradually ; should leave him a good deal to his
own devices ; should keep him out a long time, say, to the
change to second horses, so as to prevent him from becom-
ing impetuous ; and, above all things, we should impress
upon him the necessity, when put at a fence, of getting to
the other side. In order not to disgust him with the work,
ne should always be taken home before he is tired. In the
Shires, instruction in making him steady when opening
gates and when holding them open, is imperative.

THE CHASER. 249

THE CHASER.

All the remarks I have made in this chapter respecting
the jumper in general and the hunter in particular apply
to the steeplechase horse. Although his final test will
be racing over fences, we should not attempt to take him
fast at them until he can negotiate them faultlessly at
a steady canter ; for the slower the speed, the easier will
it be for him to collect himself and to accurately measure
his distance, which are two of the chief tasks for him to
learn ; the third being to make the necessary effort to
clear the obstacle ; the fourth, to take his fences at nearly
full speed ; and the fifth, to get quickly away into his
stride again after landing. The third is a question of
practice, for the solving of which the rider may at times
give a hint with leg, voice, or whip. As jumping too
" big " is a fault on the right side, and as experience will
generally correct it, I do not think any attempt should be
made to remedy such a tendency by the restraining in-
fluence of the reins ; for the effect of such a proceeding
would not improbably be to make the horse slow at " getting
away " on landing. The power of jumping while going
at a high rate of speed is also a matter of practice, though,
of course, some horses acquire it far faster than others.
The ability to get quickly away from a fence will in no
way be marred by practice in jumping at a slow canter,
so long as the moderation in speed is due to the inclination
of the horse, and not to the fact that the rider has a tight
hold of him by the head. In steeplechasing, and to a
lesser extent in hunting, the horse's imitative faculty, if
indulged, is liable to cause him to make " mistakes " ;
one of the most common being that if he is galloping along
with another horse, but slightly behind him (say, half a
length or so), his instinct will prompt him, on nearing

250 JUMPING.

a fence, to " take off " at the same moment as his leader
does, with the frequent result of a fall. " Running out "
or swerving in imitation of the leader may also be often
observed. I would therefore advise that the intended
chaser should be schooled by himself until he has
thoroughly acquired the habit of taking his own line and
measuring his own distance when going at speed over a
" made country " of orthodox size, before sending him in
company. During his first lessons with one or more horses,
he ought, according to the argument given, to take the
position of leader ; and not until he has been found to
be fully capable of acting independently, should the other
horse or horses be brought alongside of him, or taken
in front. I need hardly point out that it is far easier
to fix the attention of the horse on his work when he is
alone, than when he is under the distracting influences
of " company."

THE HURDLE RACER

should be taught to take his fences at racing speed
with only just sufficient collection at the three foot six
or three foot nine obstacles to make him clear them, even
if he " chances " them a little. No matter how clever
a horse may be at " timber- topping," it is impossible for
him to clear a hurdle in his stride ; for the period of sus-
pension of the gallop (see Points of the Horse) is far too brief
to allow this to be done. For his particular kind of work,
he has, just as much as the hunter or chaser, to be taught
to jump, but in a different style ; the chief requirements
of which are to leap quickly, to avoid jumping too high,
and to get away again with the least possible delay.
The directions which have been already given in this
chapter, will point out how the necessary instruction may
be imparted.

THE SHOW-JUMPER. 251

THE SHOW-JUMPER.

The subject of show-jumping is a difficult one to
approach ; for the judging at one place is often conducted
under totally different principles to those at another ex-
hibition. Speaking generally, I think I may say that the
chief requirement of the show-jumper is to be able and
willing to jump a great height without touching the
obstacle. As he is not required, like the hunter, to jump
high and wide at the same time, he is trained to go up
to his obstacles, with the exception of the water-jump,
at a very short and greatly collected canter, so that he
may take off as near the proper spot as possible, and raise
his forehand to the required height before projecting
himself upwards and forwards with his hind legs. The
angle of elevation of his centre of gravity would conse-
quently be greater and better adapted to his work than
that of the free-striding hunter or chaser. As I have
analysed, in Points of the Horse, the movements in leaping,
I need not go into the subject here. Although attempts
are made at Ball's Bridge (Dublin) and elsewhere to make
the jumping ring a mimic hunting field, the usual con-
ditions of such contests agree with what I have said. In
the training of the show-jumper, we should first of all
teach him the short canter by collecting him and making
him circle and do the figure 8 at that pace on very small
circles. For example, he ought to be able to canter steadily
round a circle of eighteen feet in diameter, and to take
a stride of not more than five feet in length. My readers
will, I trust, understand that I am here writing about his
training, and not about his performance in the ring. In
teaching him to jump I would supplement the long rein
work with a good deal of practice " at liberty," over stiff
bars and gates placed on a small circle, say, one of twenty

252 JUMPING.

yards in diameter, and gradually raised until he could
easily clear five and a half feet without touching the timber.
I would suggest the use of a walled-in circle ; as in it the
breaker could more easily control the movements of the
loose horse with the lunging whip than if he were in a
rectangular enclosure. The whip should be employed to
indicate to the animal what he has got to do, or at most to
stimulate him ; but in no way to punish him. The horse
intended for show- jumping should have a good deal of
practice at water ; for the judges always attach much
importance to the way in which the competitors negotiate
the "brook."

TIME REQUIRED TO TEACH A HORSE TO JUMP.

An ordinary horse in good condition and of suitable
conformation can be taught in one or two lessons of three-
quarters of an hour's duration, to carry his rider over, say,
a three foot six hurdle or hedge, or a six foot ditch, in fair
style. But the teaching a horse to measure his distance
and to shorten or lengthen his stride, as may be required,
on coming up to a fence, is much more difficult ; for horses
greatly vary in " cleverness." Although a month will be
sufficient to make some apt pupils perfect, other animals
seem incapable of learning to keep their feet out of harm's
way. Long experience has proved to me that if a horse
is sound on his feet and legs, we run no risk of spoiling
his temper by jumping him over ten or a dozen fences
every day, or that number of times over the same obstacles ;
provided always that we don't pull his mouth about, and
that we don't irritate him with whip or spur. A horse
requires frequent practice to learn to jump ; and, after he
has acquired that accomplishment, to keep his muscles in
jumping order.

253

CHAPTER VIII.
BREAKING TO HARNESS.

I WOULD advise that light harness horses, before being
placed between the shafts, should be put through the
course of instruction laid down in Chapters V. and VI.,
with the exception of those parts which refer to cantering
and galloping. We might omit, in the case of the heavy
cart horse, the training described in Chapter VI. My
reason for advocating a certain amount of saddle-work
with light harness horses is that it makes them more
handy and less inclined to jib, than they would be without it.

The place which I prefer for breaking a horse to harness
is a circular enclosure of about thirty yards in diameter,
the ground of which is level and hard enough to allow the
wheels of the breaking-cart to run smoothly. I would use
an " open " (one without blinkers) snaffle bridle.

Before putting the horse in, we may, if in doubt, test his
steadiness by the head and tail method (see page 155),
gentling him under the belly and about the hind legs with
a long pole, and cracking a whip all over him. Having
put on the harness, we may circle him for half an hour or
more with the long reins on foot (see page 168), and turn
and rein him back until he is thoroughly " supple." We
may then put him into some suitable, light, two-wheeled
trap, and take up our position on the near side on about a

254 BREAKING TO HARNESS.

line with the axle-tree and a little away from the cart,
with the oft long rein passing under the rail of the splash-
board and the near one free (see Fig. 116). As a precaution
against possible mishap, we may put on a kicking strap,
and may place an assistant holding a separate rein attached
to the snaffle on each side of our pupil. We may now start
the horse off as before to circle to the left. In the event of
being so pressed for time that we could not give the horse
a sufficiency of preliminary breaking, we might, if we had
the necessary gear, after circling him on foot with the long

Fig. 1 1 6. — Driving horse in harness on foot.

reins, place a strait-jacket (see page 129) over the harness,
buckling it up just tight enough to prevent him kicking if
so inclined ; and after circling and turning him in it for a
short time, put him in the trap as before described. After
the horse has been circled to the left at the walk and trot
and has been found to go steadily, we should change the
reins to the off side and circle him at the walk and
trot to the right, in a manner similar to that which we did
on the near side. We may now, with all proper precautions,
put an assistant on the driving seat, and circle the horse to
the right and left. After a short time, we may give the

DRIVING IN HARNESS ON FOOT.

255

assistant a pair of ordinary driving reins attached to the
snaffle, and passed through the rings of the harness pad. If
we have seen fit to employ assistants on foot and a strait-
jacket, we may dispense with their aid, and get one helper
on the box to gradually assume command, while we follow
the horse round without interfering with his mouth. As
soon as he appears to be reliable, we may take off the long
reins and confine the guidance of the animal to the man on
the box, or get on to it ourselves. Nothing further remains,
before taking the horse on the road, than to teach him to

Fig. 117.— A jingle.

start off, go steadily from the walk into the trot, or from
the trot into the walk, turn, rein-back, and pull-up. I think
this method of breaking a horse singly is much to be pre-
ferred to putting him first of all into double harness ; as it
teaches him to work independently of a companion, and the
fact of not having another horse near him, secures his atten-
tion. Besides, being more under the control of the breaker,
he is less inclined to contract the vices of jibbing or of
hanging back from the collar, than if he were put in double
harness. The breaker, if expert, and with only one assistant,
can make any horse which has been well broken to saddle,

256 BREAKING TO HARNESS.

and has not had his temper spoiled by injudicious
attempts to put him into harness, steady enough to go out
for a quiet drive after giving him, say, a two-hours' lesson on
the principles I have just laid down. Having learned the
single horse method of breaking, my readers will be fully
competent to put a horse into double harness alongside a
steady break-horse. There are many horses which go well in
double harness, but will not pull by themselves ; although
almost every animal which will go singly will, as far as I
have seen, go in double harness. On this account, and
from what I have already said, I would advise that all
horses which are intended for harness should get their first
lessons singly.

For " rough-and-ready " breaking, a " jingle " (see Fig.
117) is an American contrivance which may be useful. It
consists of a two-wheeled cart with such long shafts that
the horse, when harnessed, cannot, if inclined to kick, hit
any part of the body of the trap. Proving the impossibility
of striking the object aimed at, tends to quickly eradicate
his pet vice out of the kicker, who, on becoming convinced
of the futility of his attacks, will seldom, if ever, renew
them when he is put into an ordinary cart, the body of
which he might easily kick to pieces if he were aware of
his power of evil. This fact does not say much for the
intelligence of the horse. My readers will see that the rail
on the splash-board, over which the reins pass, is made
specially high, so that the horse may not get his hind legs
or tail over it. The jingle is balanced so that under
ordinary conditions no weight is put on the shafts ; but by
filling with stones, or any other suitable material, a box
which is placed for this purpose in front of the body of the
cart, weight may be put on the back of the horse as may
be required. The placing of weight on the back is the chief
incitement to plunging, bucking, and kicking which horses

FORMING A HORSE'S PACES. 257

receive while being broken to harness. If the animal has
been previously broken to saddle, he will of course not mind
weight on his back. A third good point about the jingle
is that the door at the back of it is so arranged that, in the
event of any mishap or impending danger, the driver can
readily slip out behind, and leave the horse and jingle to
their fate !

An Irish outside car, owing to the facilities it offers for
getting on and off it, is far more convenient and much less
dangerous for breaking-in horses to harness than a gig or
dog-cart.

When we take out on the road the recently " put-in "
horse, we should attempt to form his paces by getting him
to go in a thoroughly steady and well-balanced manner.
We should pay special attention to preventing him from
trotting at a speed faster than that at which he can go with
ease and precision ; and should keep him collected by
holding the reins at a fixed length, and by making him
go up to his bit by the voice or whip. Before using either
of these stimulants, a slight extra pull of the reins should
be taken, so that the horse may increase the tension on the
traces gradually, and not with a jerk by suddenly springing
forward.

NOTE. — If the young horse is hot-headed and inclined
to be abnormally flighty, I prefer to accustom it to all
manner of noisy movement behind, before attempting to
drive it, for if there should be a slight accident, and this
has not been done, the horse will probably bolt and break
the trap.

To quieten the horse quickly and safely, I put on a
Comanche bridle, then the harness, after which I lead
it to the breaking enclosure and apply hobbles such as are
used commonly at stud farms. They are made up of two
ropes, one about 5^ feet long, the other about 7 feet long.

l?

258 BREAKING TO HARNESS.

Each has a padded slip-loop at one end to encircle the
pastern, or leg below the hock. If they are put just below
the hocks the horse will not be so likely to step over the
ropes from them.

At equal lengths, about a foot from each leg or pastern,
the two ropes are twisted together and so brought up
together, till they have passed between the fore legs at

Fig. H7A. — Double hobble in use.

the brisket. Then the shorter rope, which has a loop
spliced in its end, is passed over the neck from one side.
It should be so long that its looped end just passes over
the neck to the other side, where it is met by the longer
rope, which is passed through it, drawn tightly and retained
by a knot which can easily and quickly be unfastened
at any time. In my illustration I have left off the harness,
because I thought, with it, there might be greater difficulty
in seeing the position of the hobbles.

The man who is at the horse's head holding the
" Comanche bridle " should be as gentle and reassuring

HOBBLES. 259

in his manner as possible. An excitable, fidgety man
does not improve any horse, and should never be allowed
near a young one. He should talk to the horse as though
nothing unusual was about to happen, and not keep
repeating " Whoa ! Steady, boy," etc. Such nervous
excitement frightens the horse by warning him that some-
thing unusual is about to be done, to which we fear he will
object.

When the horse is fast and all ready, the breaking-cart
can be wheeled round, the shafts lowered, raised, and backed
away again, till at last the horse, finding he is fast, and that
nothing is hurting him, loses all fear and stands quietly
while the shafts are rattled against his sides and people
jump about in the breaking-cart. After this the hobbles
can be removed to allow the horse to be led about attached
to the cart, and turned gently in every direction while
being continually stopped and started again. When the
horse refuses to start, a steady pull on the cord of the
" Comanche bridle " will soon cause him to jump forward
and do as we wish. If the animal seems unusually irritable,
the hobbles and leading lessons may be repeated for a few
days before he is driven from the cart.

17*

26o

CHAPTER IX.
SCHOOL BREAKING.

General remarks on school breaking — The school horse — Collecting the horse at
the halt — Collecting the horse at the walk and trot — Teaching the horse to
strike off correctly into the canter — Changing the leg at the canter — Figure
of eight at the canter — Cantering falsely — Turn on the forehand — Turn on
the hind quarters — The passage — The passage with head to wall — The pas-
sage with tail to wall— Change of hand by the passage— Counlerchange of
hand by the passage — Circling at the passage — The halt — Change from one
pace to another — Shoulder in — Course of school instruction- — Additional
school movements — Extension of a fore leg — The Spanish walk — The
Spanish trot— Turn on the forehand on three legs — The canter on three legs
— Changes of leg at the canter — A circus high-school act.

GENERAL REMARKS ON SCHOOL BREAKING.

THE necessity for cavalry horses, whether acting in masses or
singly, being " collected " to an unusual extent, so as to
make them as handy as possible, initiated at an early period
of military history a special training for war horses, which,
while accomplishing its own purpose, was obtained by
sacrificing to some extent their general usefulness. As in
early times the horseman was a mounted fighting man ;
the arts of breaking and riding were then cultivated from a
purely military point of view. By degrees the system of
breaking became elaborated from a means into an end, so
that we find many of its most eminent professors absolutely
ignorant of riding as a practical art. For instance, Baucher,
the great high priest of V Equitation savante, was never known
to ride a horse outside of a manege or circus. As riding

BAUCHER. 261

became more common among civilians, the fact was
recognised that the long and arduous training of the
manege could not alone be dispensed with in the ordinary
riding horse ; but that it was not sufficient in itself to fit him
for rough and ready work outdoors, and especially in the
hunting field. Riding-school teaching has accordingly fallen
into disrepute — in France almost as much as in England.
Like in many other changes of opinion, the good points of
the old style were lost sight of by those who went to the
opposite extreme. While relegating to the circus such
wholly useless airs as the Spanish trot and walk, and
cantering on three legs, we must not ignore the fact that
school work, judiciously applied, is an admirable system of
equine dancing, deportment, drill, or gymnastics (whichever
way we look at it) for teaching the horse to carry himself
in a well-balanced manner, and to obey the aids promptly
and with precision. We may regard it under three heads :

(1) For forming the horse's mouth, paces, and manners ;

(2) For show work, as in a circus ; and (3) for the require-
ments of military service. In the present chapter I shah1
treat of the first and second divisions, in which the cavalry
element is so far ignored that the rider holds a rein in each
hand. Both the " knights of old," who used exceedingly
long stirrups, and Eastern horsemen, who had extremely
short ones, being unable to apply their legs as an aid, rode
their horses chiefly by the bridle, and having consequently
made them heavy in hand, were obliged to employ ex-
tremely severe bits to collect them. Baucher introduced
into school practice the admirable system of keeping the
horse light in hand by the use of the leg, or, if need be, of
the spur. Without wishing in any way to detract from the
credit due to Baucher in this matter, I may mention that the
system of riding a horse more by the legs than by the hands
appears to have been known in England and Ireland long

262 SCHOOL BREAKING.

before the great Frenchman was born. Sam Chifney, who
was the George Fordham of the latter end of the eighteenth
century, certainly knew it by the way in which he speaks
in Genius Genuine of riding a horse in a race " as if you
had a silken rein as fine as a hair, and that you were afraid
of breaking it." Custance in Riding Recollections says :
" Fordham sat back in his saddle, and, as it were, drove his
horse from him." He also tells that " WeDs was a very
strong man on a horse, and used to lap his long legs round
them at a finish." This style of riding has been traditional
among jockeys who never heard either of the " high school "
or of Baucher. It was taught to me in Ireland more than
forty years ago when I was a boy, as the old, orthodox
method to follow.

One of the first maxims of the high school is that the
horse must yield up the initiative entirely to his rider ;
that is, he should do nothing of his own accord. Hence
the rider must remain constantly in close touch with him
by hand and leg. If the pressure of the unarmed heel be
not sufficient, the spurs will have to be kept close to the
horse's sides ; if possible, brushing through the hair with-
out touching the skin, unless required. To enable this to
be done, the knees have to be kept a little away from the
flaps of the saddle, with the result that their strength of
grip is considerably diminished. As the maintenance of
this delicate touch is impossible under conditions of rough
work in the open, and as its strain on the attention and
muscles of the horse would be unduly severe, to say nothing
of the loss of grip ; this method of riding is applicable only
to the manege, the circus, the parade ground, and on special
occasions, such as those of single combat between cavalry-
men, when the maximum amount of control over the
horse is required. As I have before said, school work,
from a breaking point of view, is a means, but not an end.

SCHOOL RIDING. 263

That being the case, we should allow the horse to resume
his natural attitude or gait (permitting him to " stand at
ease " or " march at ease ") after performing any of his
school tasks, none of which should be prolonged to such an
extent as to tire him. I shall consider, in Chapter X., the
relations of school breaking to military riding.

In order that the school horse may be maintained
absolutely under the control of his rider, we should avoid
giving him set tasks of an unvaried nature ; we should not
commence, stop, or alter the work at particular places ; and
we should not aUow him to act for himself, without receiving
a signal from his rider, so that he may not become routin/.
As a case in point, we should on no account, when teaching
a horse to strike off correctly in the canter, always begin
at one spot, whether on a circle or in a straight line ; for
if we do so, the animal will look out for his arrival at that
point, to start off of his own accord, and thus, by taking
the initiative, to deprive us of command over him. We
here touch on a weak point of school breaking, namely,
that a horse whose instruction is confined to the manege,
becomes routine to the school, so that he will perform his
work properly only in it, and would require, in order to
fit him to act outside, a further (though, necessarily, a
much shorter) course of teaching, which would have the
effect of more or less impairing his cleverness indoors.
Hence, high-school horses are, as a rule, exercised only in
the manege. I have seen this tendency to become routing
to a certain place well shown by horses which I practised
at various school airs on a particular part of my paddock ;
for although they would do this work with precision and
brilliancy on the improvised manege, they would, until I
had accustomed them to the change, try to " play up " the
moment I took them off the well-remembered track.
Therefore, school breaking, however valuable it may be,

264 SCHOOL BREAKING.

can be regarded only as preparatory to instruction in
the open.

Our military riding-schools are twenty yards wide by

sixty yards long. For the school training of single horses,

the manege need not be larger than twelve yards by

twenty-four yards, or even a circle of twelve yards in

diameter will do. With single reins, one rein is held in

each hand. With a bit and bridoon, apart from the

ordinary application of the bridle, the snaffle is used to

keep the head sufficiently raised by acting on the corners

of the mouth, and the curb to depress it. The use of

the curb is not indispensable for obtaining the airs of

the high school ; but from its severity it is, as a rule, more

effective than that of the snaffle. The collection to be

obtained from the latter bit is in every way to be preferred

to that by the former, the indications of which are complex

and necessarily confusing. For instance, we have with it

pressures, respectively, on the bars of the mouth, on the

chin-groove (by means of the curb-chain), on the top of

the horse's head (through the headstall of the bridle), and

in some cases on the roof of the animal's mouth (through

the agency of a high port). The indications of the snaffle

are simple, and as nearly as possible, direct. If its effects

are obtained slower than those of the curb, they are far

less liable to arouse the opposition of the horse, who will

generally resent punishment that appears to him to be

unmerited.

THE SCHOOL HORSE.

The chief physical points which are required in the
school horse are : light forehand, well-pi aced-on head
and neck, sloping shoulders, oblique pasterns, strong
loins, and powerful hocks. The principal mental ones
are : light heartedness, so as to give brilliancy to his move-

THE SCHOOL HORSE. 265

merits, and entire absence of any tendency to be sulky.
Well-bred horses are the best for this work. A horse
to shine in the manege should be broken exclusively for
that object, so that he may not acquire the habit of
taking the initiative. School work greatly tries a horse's
temper. Hence, while engaged in it, we should be con-
stantly on our guard not to unduly annoy our pupil. If
he " plays up," we should assert our authority ; but with a
minimum of force ; and, having gained our point, should
suitably reward the animal for his compliance, which, as a
rule, is best done by ending the lesson, and by giving him
some coveted dainty. The acquisition of serious " defences,"
such as rearing, prancing, and refusing to turn to one
particular side, is generally the result of the breaker
demanding too much, continuing his demands too long,
treating the animal harshly, and especially applying the
aids in a confusing manner.

M. James Fillis justly points out, in his Principes de
Dressage et d? Equitation, that geldings are more suitable
for high-school work than either mares or entires ; the
former being specially liable to jib and to become irritable
on being touched with the spur ; the latter, to rear, and to
become unduly heavy on the forehand.

COLLECTING THE HORSE AT THE HALT.

To teach a horse to collect himself at the halt, we may,
while holding the reins and whip, as in Fig. 95, place our-
selves to the left of the near shoulder and make the horse ex-
tend himself by tapping him with the whip behind the fore
legs. To prompt him to relieve himself out of this constrained
position, we may tap him with the whip on the croup, so as
to make him bring up his hind legs, which, on account of the
remembered relief, he will soon learn to do. on being

266 SCHOOL BREAKING.

touched with the whip in this manner, without having pre-
viously brought his fore legs to the front. To be precise,
we should touch the near or off side of the croup to make
the horse bring up, respectively, the near or off hind leg.
If necessary, we can prevent him by the reins from
going forward, or from turning round. Having taught
him on foot to collect himself at the halt, we may mount
him, and by holding the reins in one hand and by touching
him on the croup with the whip held in the other hand, we
may make him bring his hind legs under him as before
described. Or we may hold in each hand a rein, and a
whip to be applied to the side. By using the drawn-back
heel, with or without spurs, at the same time as the whip,
by increasing the effect of the heel while diminishing
that of the whip, and by restraining with the reins any
forward movement, we can soon teach the horse to collect
himself at the halt by means of the heel and rein. If one
hind leg be less advanced than the other, we should give the
horse the signal to bring it forward by touching him with
the drawn-back foot of the same side, and should place a
preponderance of weight on the stirrup of the opposite side.
When attempting to collect a horse, we should, as a rule,
raise his head, so as to bring the weight back.

COLLECTING THE HORSE AT THE WALK AND TROT.

Having collected the horse at the halt, we may put him
into the walk by increasing the pressure of the drawn-back
feet, and slightly yielding the reins. We may obtain collec-
tion at either the walk or trot by applying the drawn-back
foot at the same moment as the forefoot of that side comes
down, by placing more weight on the opposite stirrup, and
by feeling the opposite rein the stronger, while checking
the forward movement with both reins. By this manner

SCHOOL COLLECTION. 267

we arrive at the school-walk (pas d\'cole). In it the horse
raises his knees higher and advances his feet less than in
the ordinary walk, between which and the short collected
trot it is intermediate. If, while proceeding at the school -
walk, we increase the action of the legs, and continue
the alteration of weight from side to side, without adding
to the tension of the reins or only slightly yielding them,
the animal will break into the trot ; and from the trot into
the canter. My readers, on referring to Fig. 3, will see
that at the moment when a fore leg is placed on the ground
during the trot, the hind leg of that side is off the ground,
and being ready to be brought forward, is consequently the
proper one to be stimulated to obtain collection. The same
remarks apply to the walk, except that the hind leg, say, of
the off side, quits the ground at a time when the off
fore is bearing a full share of weight and the near fore is
being brought forward (see Fig. 6) ; and vice versa. The
quicker the hind legs are brought forward at the walk, the
nearer will that pace assume the character of the trot.

Having thus obtained a short, well-collected trot, we
should go on until we get it slow, lofty, in perfect time, and
with a slight pause when the knee is raised to its greatest
height. This form of cadenced trot is known in French as
le passage. By continuing the stimulating effect of the leg
and by increasing the restraining action of the hand, we
check the forward movement, and get the piaffer, which is
a high-actioned trot without gaining ground, or le passage
sur place. For the passage and piaffer to be brilliant, there
should be a moment of suspension (all four feet off the
ground at the same time) between each step. In the
passage, there is necessarily more knee action than forward
reach. If when attempting the passage or piaffer, the
movements of the horse become hurried, he should be
halted, " made much of," and collected afresh, so as to

268 SCHOOL BREAKING.

give him confidence, without which it is impossible to make
him understand our wishes. Both the piaffer and passage
(which give brilliancy to the trot and walk) can be obtained
either by stimulating the horse from the walk to the trot
and holding him in, or by drawing him in from the ordi-
nary^trot to the slower and_more elevated paces. The
comparative action of the fore and hind legs can be in-
creased by respectively raising or lowering the hands, and
by bringing the weight of the body backward or forward ;
and vice versa. As the piaffer is useful only as a prepara-
tory exercise for the collected short canter, and for change
of leg, we should not check the horse if, when at the
piaffer, he breaks into this canter. Although the piaffer
is, in itself, of no practical utility, the collected short canter
is indispensable for cavalry purposes, especially in single
combat with sword or lance.

Although to obtain the desired effect quickly, we may in
our first few lessons bend the horse's head to one side or the
other when proceeding in a straight direction, we should
avoid doing so later on ; for elegance of carriage is incom-
patible with any rocking movement of the body.

TEACHING A HORSE TO STRIKE OFF CORRECTLY INTO THE

CANTER (see page 223).

We may begin from the trot, and should in all cases first
collect our horse. Just before turning a corner of the
school, when trotting for instance to the right, we should
touch the horse with the drawn-back left heel at the moment
when the near fore comes down ; and, as described on page
224, apply the other aids for obtaining the canter with the
off fore leading. By starting the horse at a corner when
he is oblique to the track upon which he is about to travel,
by turning him round, and by leaning to the off side, the

STRIKING OFF IN CANTER. 269

utmost freedom is given to the near hind leg to be brought
forward, so as to commence the change of pace. I have
pointed out on page 267 that when a fore leg comes down
in the trot, the hind leg of that side is off the ground.
Accepting the remarks made on page 267 with reference to
the walk, we may apply the aids for making a horse strike
off into a canter from the walk, in the same manner as we
did for getting him to lead off from the trot. If the horse
tries to revert from the canter into the trot, we should keep
him up to the canter by applying the outward drawn-back
heel or spur. Having attained our object when going to
the right, we should seek it in the same way to the left.

The utility of placing the horse obliquely to the direction
in which we wish him to canter, depends on the fact that
when a horse canters (or gallops), the leading shoulder is
somewhat in advance of the non-leading one. Hence, it is
easier for him, when placed obliquely to the track, to lead
off with the more advanced fore leg, than with the other
fore leg.

To teach the horse to strike off into the canter from the
halt, say, with the off fore leading, we may place him in a
corner of the school obliquely to one of the long sides and
on the right rein ; we should, by touching him with the
drawn-back left heel, make him advance the off hind more
under him than the near one ; and having thus prepared
him, should make him strike off in the way described in the
two preceding paragraphs. When he has learned to do this,
we should give him similar instruction on the left rein.
When we have thus got him to strike off correctly with either
fore leg, we should gradually bring him to do so, when
placed in a straight line and away from the walls of the
manege. This air requires a horse to be thoroughly
obedient to the aids, and demands a preparation as well as
a stimulus.

2;o SCHOOL BREAKING.

Although, to facilitate instruction, the horse may at first
be placed with his head turned away from the direction in
which he is to proceed, he should be taught later on to
strike off into the canter from the trot, walk, or halt, with
his head straight, or even slightly bent to the side of the
fore leg with which it is intended for him to lead off. He
will then have to rely almost entirely on the respective
signals given by the legs and by the displacement of the
weight of the rider's body.

CHANGING THE LEG AT THE CANTER.

Having taught the horse, without changing his direction,
to strike off steadily and promptly into the canter with
either fore leg, as may be required, from the trot, walk, and
halt, we may canter him down the centre of the school, say,
with the near fore leading, and at the moment when he brings
that leg down on the ground, we should apply the drawn-
back left leg, feel the right rein, place the weight on the right
stirrup, and make the horse turn more or less sharply to the
right, so as to oblige him to change his leg. We should
gradually work him in this way, and with the off as well as
the near fore leading, so that he will make the change on
receiving the signal from the aids, without deviating from
a straight line. By practising him at this and by keeping
him well in hand, we may finally get him to change his leg
at each stride, at every second stride, or at every third stride
as may be desired.

We select the moment the horse brings down the leading
fore leg (namely, the third period of the canter, see Fig.
120) as the one at which to give the signal for the change ;
because the hind leg of the same side as the leading fore
is about to quit the ground at that time, and conse-
quently, on being stimulated by the rider's foot, it can be
brought forward under the animal's body with the least

CHANGING LEG. 271

possible delay, so as to make the required change. It may
be objected that it is impossible to tell, when in the saddle,
the exact periods of the canter ; that school riders, long
before the horse's movements at the canter had been
investigated, were able from practice to give the signal for
the change ; and that, in attempting to do so, we must be
guided solely by the inspiration of the moment. Although
the necessary skill can be obtained only by practice, one
certainly is greatly helped in one's endeavour by knowing
the principles upon which one should work.

FIGURE EIGHT AT THE CANTER.

We should teach the horse the figure 8 at the canter in
the manner described on page 225, except that we should
make the horse change his leg immediately on entering the
new circle.

CANTERING FALSELY.

Purposely making a horse canter falsely is the best
possible practice for teaching him to obey the aids and for
preventing him from becoming routin: ; for it forces him
to subordinate his natural inclinations to the aids. I
may point out that up to this we have made the aids con-
formable to the movements of the animal. When he canters
in this manner, say, with the near fore leading when on the
right circle, he should have his head turned to the left, and
the rider should place more weight on the left stirrup than
on the right one. Having taught him to canter falsely
on both circles, we may make him do so on the figure 8>
in which the changes of the leading leg will also be false.

TURN ON THE FOREHAND.

After having obtained this movement in the manner
described on page 212, we should try to do the complete
circle on both turns, with the respective pivot foot being

272 SCHOOL BREAKING.

fixed on the ground, and the head slightly bent towards the
side to which it is being turned. The movement which I
have called the turn on the forehand to the right is the
pirouette renversee a gauche ; and the turn on the forehand
to the left, the pirouette renversce a droite.

TURN ON THE HIND-QUARTERS.

This movement should be taught to the horse with a great
deal of discretion ; for it is apt to make him rear as a
" defence." We may begin on foot, by holding the reins
and whip in the same way as in the turn on the forehand (see
page 193). We should, for obtaining the turn, say, to the
right, bend the head to the right with the right rein, push the
forehand round to the right with the left rein, and check any
rotatory movement of the hind-quarters by the application
of the whip (see Fig. 95), which may be used to press against
the left thigh or lightly tap it. The horse should be relieved
and " made much of " (patted on the neck) at each step
gained. In the turn on the hind-quarters to the right, the
off hind will act as the pivot, which at first should be a
moving one ; that is to say, instead of, in this case, the off
hind remaining fixed on the ground, it may describe a circle
of, perhaps, a couple of feet in diameter. The nearer ap-
proach there is made to fixity of pivot, the more inclined
will the horse be to rear. If the fixed pivot be demanded,
its accomplishment should be delayed to a late period of the
breaking ; for the horse will then be less liable to " play
up " than he would have been when his education was less
advanced. In the turn on the hind-quarters to the right,
when mounted, we should draw back and apply the left foot,
advance the right foot, lean a little back and to the right side,
raise the left hand a little higher than the right hand, and
turn the horse's head and neck to the right. The opposite

VuRNING ON FOREHAND. 273

aids are used for the turn to the left. We should be parti-
cularly careful against putting young horses too much on
their haunches, so that we may not strain their hocks.

I may mention as an interesting point that if a horse
makes a sharp turn when at liberty in an open space, he
will do so on his forehand ; but when in a cramped position,
as in a narrow pathway with walls on each side, he will
probably turn on his hind-quarters ; for he can shorten the
horizontal space occupied by his body much easier by
raising his forehand than by raising his hind-quarters.
We all know that the ordinary horse can readily turn round
when standing on his hind legs ; but is unable to do so if
he tries to balance himself on his fore legs. On the other
hand, as the fore legs bear a larger proportion of weight
than the hind ones, it is easier for the horse to turn on the
former than on the latter, when his movements are not
cramped by want of space. The turn on the hind-quarters
through a complete circle is the pirouette ordinaire of the
high school.

THE PASSAGE

(to use the term employed in English military riding-schools)
is a side movement in which the track made by the hind
legs is apart from and parallel to that of the fore ones. It
can best be done when the horse is collected at the walk,
trot, or canter. If uncollected, especially at the walk, the
animal may fail to raise his outward feet high enough to
clear his inward ones. The horse is placed obliquely to the
direction in which he is to proceed ; his head is turned
towards that direction, and his outward feet (the near if he
is going to the right, and vice versa), both fore and hind,
cross in front of their respective fellows (see Figs. 118 and
119). Instead of two tracks (fore and hind), the animal
really works on four tracks, namely, one for each foot.

18

274

SCHOOL BREAKING.

The passage is not alone useful in itself for enabling a
side movement to be made, without the necessity for turning
the horse round ; but when executed at the canter, it is a
valuable practice for teaching the horse to lead off and
change his leg in a well-balanced manner at that pace.

The English term, passage, must not be confused with

Tig. 1 1 8. —Passage to the right.

the French one, which is written in the same way, and
which is a short and lofty trot (see page 267).

THE PASSAGE WITH HEAD TO WALL.

We may obtain the passage by gradually converting the
straightforward advance into a side movement by the aids.
Thus, when going round the school to the left at a walk, we
may check, to a certain extent, the forward movement by the
reins, and place the horse in an oblique direction to the track

TRE PASSAGE.

275

and with his head to the wall by the action of the drawn-
back right leg. The horse's head and neck should be slightly
bent in the direction he is going. The pressure of our
right leg, which should be .used only at the instant the
near fore comes down, gives the horse the signal to carry
his off hind in front of and across his near hind. As he

Fig. 119. — Passage to the right.

will naturally readjust his own balance by lifting up and
carrying his near hind to the left when the off hind has been
placed on the ground across it ; the pressure of our right
leg, to be effective, should be reserved as a signal for the
off hind, and consequently should not be continuous. We
should place our weight on the left stirrup, and should
apply the advanced left foot to the horse's shoulder to aid
in balancing the animal. If he retreats from the track, we

1 8*

2;6 SCHOOL BREAKING.

should bring him up to it by closing both legs, and should
make him strike off into the passage by feeling the left rein
and by applying the drawn-back right foot. When the
movement has been executed for the required distance, we
should apply the drawn-back left leg, and should straighten
the horse. We may then try the right pass on the other
hand, and with the opposite aids. After the animal has
gained some proficiency, we should commence the passage,
if going to the left on the track, by turning the horse on
the forehand to the right through an angle of 45° ; if to the
right, the turn should be made to the left. It is necessary
that the horse be placed obliquely to the track ; for if he is
put at right angles to it, it will be impossible for him to
cross his outward legs in front of their inward fellows, and
at the same time move in a direction parallel to the track.
When passaging to the left, the right is the outward side,
and vice versa. In " making " the corners of the riding-
school, a quarter pirouette (turn on the hind-quirters) to
left or right (according as the passage is to the left or right)
should be executed, so as to bring the horse into the proper
position for his new direction.

The passage may be done at the walk, trot, " passage"
or canter. When performed at the last-mentioned pace,
the outward and drawn-back leg should be applied only at
the moment when the non-leading (and outward) fore leg
comes down, which it does at the same instant as the
inward hind leg. For instance, when attempting the left
pass at the canter (with, naturally, the near fore leading), we
should apply the drawn-back right foot at the moment when
the off fore comes on the ground, so that the off hind,
which is in the air at that time, may be readily crossed in
front of the near hind. We should begin by placing the
horse at only a small angle to the track, and gradually
work him on until he can do the passage at an angle of

THE PASSAGE. 277

45°, or even less. We must remember always to keep more
weight on the inward stirrup than on the outward stirrup.

THE PASSAGE WITH TAIL TO WALL.

After the horse has learned to do the passage with his
head towards the wall, the presence of which has the natural
effect of regulating the movement to a considerable extent,
we may teach him the more difficult evolution of doing the
passage with his tail to the wall. Being, say, on the right
rein, we may turn the horse on his haunches to the right
through an angle of 45° (one eighth pirouette), and make him
pass to the left as before directed, with his hind feet on the
track. Having gone the required distance, we may halt
him, turn him on his haunches through an angle of 90°
(quarter pirouette), and make him pass to the right. We
may change the passage with tail to wall to passage with
head to wall, or vice versa, by turning the horse on his
centre.

A school horse should be able to passage down the centre
of the manege or in the open, and without the assistance of
any wall by which to regulate his direction.

CHANGE OF HAND BY THE PASSAGE.

We may change the hand to which we are going by making
the horse move diagonally across the school at the passage.
The direction of the passage should be at an angle of 45° to
the side of the school from which the departure was made ;
the body of the horse should be kept parallel to the sides of
the school, and the horse may resume his straightforward
direction on regaining the track after his diagonal march.

COUNTERCHANGE OF HAND BY THE PASSAGE

is executed in the same manner as the preceding evolution,
except that when half the diagonal movement has been

278 SCHOOL BREAKING.

made, the aids are reversed, and the horse is brought back
to the side of the school which he has just left, by a passage,
the direction of which will be at right angles to that of the
first one. Practice of this air at the walk, trot, and finally
at the canter, is a valuable preliminary to instruction in
change of leg at the canter.

CIRCLING AT THE PASSAGE.

This can be done either with the head or with the tail
turned towards the centre of the circle, the diameter of
which will usually be half the length of either of the short
sides of the school, say, ten yards. This circle, when the
head is turned towards the centre, is in reality a turn on the
forehand (a pirouette renvers/e) on a movable pivot ; when
the tail is turned in that direction, it is a turn on the hind-
quarters (a pirouette) on a movable pivot. Instruction in
these circles is essential to the education of the cavalry
horse.

THE HALT.

The remarks made on page 230, et seq., respecting the
halt, apply equally well to arrest of movement when made
under school conditions. The moment for the halt from
the canter appears to me to be that at which the non-leading
fore leg comes to the ground (see Fig. 4) ; for then the shock,
due to the sudden stoppage, will be fully borne by both hind
legs, and by one fore one. The weight-bearing function of
the non-leading fore leg will have practically ceased at the
moment when the leading fore leg is brought down (see Fig.
120).

CHANGE FROM ONE PACE TO ANOTHER.

To change from the canter to the trot, we may, as the leading
fore leg comes down (see Fig. 120), apply strongly the drawn-

CHANGE OF PACE.

279

back outward foot ; feel both reins ; lean a little forward ;
and put weight on the stirrups. By the application of the
drawn-back foot we prompt the horse to bring the hind leg of
that side quickly to the front ; by feeling the reins we
check the advance of the leading fore leg so as to get the
feet of these two legs to come to the ground at the same

Fig. 120. — Cantering with near fore leading.

moment ; and by leaning forward we facilitate the advance
of the hind leg ; the result being that the canter becomes
changed into a trot. The trot is a pace of two time, in
which the near fore comes on the ground at the same
moment as the off hind ; and the off fore, as the near hind.
In the canter, the non-leading fore leg and the opposite
hind leg move together ; consequently all that we have to
do to convert it into a trot is to check the action of the

280 SCHOOL BREAKING.

leading fore leg and hasten that of the opposite hind, so
that they, also, will move together.

To change from the canter to the walk, we may, at the
moment the non-leading fore leg comes to the ground,
apply the aids in the same manner as for the halt (see
page 278), and then instantly slacken the reins.

SHOULDER IN.

I In the " Bending Lesson " of Cavalry Drill, there is taught
a movement to one side, called " shoulder in," which is
similar to the passage, except that, when doing it, the
horse's head is turned away from the direction in which he
is going. It is practised, in our military riding-schools,
only with the tail to the wall ; and the passage, only with
the head to the wall. The imposition of such a restriction
on the passage is unreasonable ; for it is a movement which
is frequently required to be performed by cavalry in the
open, where there is no wall to guide the direction of the
horse. In the French school, from which the English and
Germans have derived their notions of military equitation,
the appuyer (passage) epaule en dedans (shoulder in) is
synonymous with the passage croupe au mur (croup to the
wall), or, as I have called it, passage tail to the wall. The
English author, or authors, of the " bending lesson "
evidently thought that the term Epaule en dedans had
reference to the way in which the horse was " bent," and
not to the fact that his shoulders, and not his tail were
turned towards the inside of the school. My readers will
have seen that the passage " head to wall " is preparatory
to the more difficult movement of the passage " tail to
wall " (epaule en dedans}. The fact of the regulation
" shoulder in " being executed with the head turned away
from the direction in which the animal is proceeding, con-

SHOULDER IN. 281

demns it as a movement to be employed outside of a riding-
school. If it be thought fit to retain it as a means for
teaching the use of the aids, it (like the passage) should be
practised head to wall as well as tail to wall. Personally,
I abominate it ; for it is the defence which the majority of
refusers adopt when they " run out " at an obstacle, and
when their riders vainly try to pull them straight.

COURSE OF SCHOOL INSTRUCTION.

The foregoing details of school training might be im-
parted more or less in the following sequence, supposing, of
course, that the horse has gone through the preliminary
work treated on in Chapters V. and VI.

1. Collecting the horse at the halt, walk, and trot, with-
out going so far as to obtain the passage or piaffer.

2. Circling and figure 8 at the collected walk and trot.

3. Turn on the forehand.

4. Turn on the haunches.

5. Passaging : change of hand and counter-change of
hand at the collected walk and trot.

6. Circling at the passage at the collected walk and trot.

7. Passage and piaffer.

8. Collected canter.

9. Starting in the canter from the trot, walk, and halt.

10. Circling at the canter.

1 1 . Passage : change of hand and counter-change of hand
when cantering.

12. Figure 8 at the canter.

13. Change of leg at the canter.

14. Cantering falsely.

15. Circling at the passage when cantering.

If the turn on the haunches provokes the horse to rear,
we may correct such a tendency by practice at the turn on
the forehand (see page 271).

282 SCHOOL BREAKING.

Three months would be ample for teaching the horse
the course of instruction laid down in Chapters V. and VI.
and in the present one.

ADDITIONAL SCHOOL MOVEMENTS.

As all the airs which I have written about in the preceding
pages of this chapter are of use from a breaking point of
view ; I have thought fit to separate their description from
that of the following school exercises, which, though in-
teresting to look at, are of no practical value. As the work
of learning them is apt to make restive, from excessive
collection, horses which have not had a careful school
training, I would advise that they should not be attempted
until the pupil has mastered all the movements previously
described in this chapter, and is ready to go freely forward in
obedience to the pressure of the legs. Those of my readers
who wish to obtain further information about these airs
should consult Fillis's Principes de Dressage, and Barroil's
Art Equestre, in which they will find them lucidly and ex-
haustively described.

EXTENSION OF A FORE LEG.

Our object here is to make the horse, when at. the halt,
extend either of his fore legs, according as we wish, straight
out to the front, and hold it motionless, in a more or less
horizontal position, for a short time.

Having placed the horse on the track of the riding-school
with, say, his off side towards the wall, we may, while
standing on the ground and facing him, take hold of the
reins by the left hand under the chin, raise the animal's
head up, and turn it towards the off side, so as to relieve the
near fore of weight, and begin to lightly tap the front of the
cannon bone (or fore-arm, as may appear most efficacious)

EXTENSION OF FORE LEG. 283

of the near fore, in order to induce the horse to raise that
leg and extend it to the front. Having gained our object
with one fore leg, we should try to obtain it by reverse
methods with the other, so that the horse will extend either
leg and keep it stretched out to the front on being threatened
with the whip. As soon as he will readily accede to our
demands while standing close to the school wall, we should
take him to the middle of the school, in order to obtain like
results there. This will be a task of several days' duration,
and will demand a great deal of patience and tact. In it we
should " hasten slowly," and should be guided by the
principles which I have already laid down for equine
instruction. We may facilitate our work by having at
first an assistant to lift up and raise the operated-on leg
by means of a cord or strap attached to the pastern. The
use of this appliance should, of course, be gradually discon-
tinued, according as the horse learns to obey the touch of
the whip.

When the horse is perfect in the lesson which we have
been giving him on foot, we may mount him, and sub-
stitute by degrees the appropriate aids for the action of
the whip, with which we at first obtain the extension of
the off fore, for instance. We should collect the horse ;
raise his head, so as to place the muscles of the neck in
an advantageous direction for lifting up the limb ; turn
his head to the left and lean on the left stirrup to transfer
weight from the off fore to the near fore ; and apply
the left drawn-back heel, at first cautiously, so as not
to make him revolve round. The turning of the animal's
head to the left is only a temporary measure to hasten the
extension of the off fore ; and that in the perfect form of this
air the head and neck will be held straight, or slightly turned
to the right, at which time the pressure of the drawn-back
left foot will be indispensable for preserving the true balance

284 SCHOOL BREAKING.

of the animal's body. The reversed aids are required for
the extension of the near fore.

THE SPANISH WALK

(see Fig. 121) is a walk in which each fore leg is extended
straight out to the front in a direction as nearly as possible
parallel to the ground, kept in that position for a brief mo-
ment, and placed on the ground without bending the knee,
after the body has been brought forward the requisite dis-
tance for the step.

Having made the horse perfect in the extension of a
fore leg to the front, we may commence instruction in
the Spanish walk on foot, by holding the reins in the
left hand, as before, close to the chin while facing the
horse. Having obtained extension of one fore leg in
the manner described, we should bring the animal for-
ward by the reins, assisted, if need be, by " clicking "
with the tongue, so that he will take a step forward.
While he is doing this we should, by the whip, prevent
him from bending the leg at the knee. After rewarding
him for his correct performance with one leg, we should
proceed to obtain a similar step with the other, and by
diminishing the interval of time between the steps, we
shall at last arrive at the Spanish walk. While using
the whip we should face the horse and walk backwards,
and should at each step turn his head to the side of the
leg which is at that moment on the ground. When
mounted we should apply the same aids as we did for the
extension of a fore leg, and having obtained it, should
make the animal go forward by the action of the legs,
and, if necessary, by " clicking," which we should dispense
with as soon as practicable. We must bear in mind that
at each step there should be a change of aids.

THE SPANISH TROT.

285

THE SPANISH TROT.

The only difference between the Spanish trot and the
Spanish walk is that of pace. At the Spanish trot there
should, if possible, be a moment of suspension (all four
feet off the ground at the same time) between each step, so
as to give brilliance to the air. The transition between the
walk and the trot in this case is made by increasing the

Fig. 121. — The Spanish walk.

effect of the drawn-back left heel when the horse extends
his off fore to the front, and that of the right heel when he
extends the near fore. " If, as almost always happens, the
horse moves one leg in a lazier fashion than the other, I
work only with it, which is the best way to act on the
memory of the horse, and to make him understand, by my
touches of the spur, that he moves this leg too indolently."
(Fillis.) This great master of r equitation savante warns us

286 SCHOOL BREAKING.

to demand from the horse, at first, only a few steps (not more
than four) of the Spanish trot, lest the animal may acquire
the habit of doing it in a listless and slovenly manner.

TURN ON THE FOREHAND ON THREE LEGS.

In this exercise the horse turns his quarters from left to
right while holding his right fore leg raised off the ground
and extended to the front, and vice versa. To begin, we
make him turn his hind-quarters, say, from left to right,
with his near fore as a centre, through about a quarter of a
circle, using the aids as before directed (see page 212).
We halt him by applying the drawn-back right foot, make
him extend his off fore, and when he has brought it down,
we make him continue the turn ; and so on until he will do
the complete turn with the off fore straight out and more
or less parallel to the ground. We obtain by the reversed
aids the turn of the hind-quarters from right to left with
the near fore en jambette (raised and extended).

THE CANTER ON THREE LEGS

consists of a canter in which the fore leg of the side to which
the canter is made, is kept off the ground and extended to
the front. The principle, as taught by M. Fillis, of obtain-
ing this air, is while cantering the horse very collectedly, say,
to the right, to halt him and make him do the jambette
(more or less horizontal extension of a fore leg) with his off
fore. Start him again on the same leg, and continue halting
him and obtaining the jambette, until we get him to canter
for a stride or two without putting the off fore on the
ground. We should then caress him to show him that he
did what we asked him to do ; should begin again, and work
with him in the same way until he does the exercsie per-
fectly. By the reversed aids we may obtain the canter on
three legs with the near fore en jambette.

A HIGH-SCHOOL ACT. 287

CHANGES OF LEG AT THE CANTER.

As circus airs, the horse may be taught at each stride
(au temps or tac au tac) while advancing, and even without
gaining ground. The horse may then be vulgarly said to
dance the polka. In these movements, care has to be taken
to prevent him swinging his body from side to side.

Among other airs which I may mention are the trot to
the rear, passage to the rear, and canter to the rear.

A CIRCUS HIGH-SCHOOL ACT.

As a specimen of high-school work I give the following
num-.'ro, which I saw M. James Fillis execute in the Circus
Renz at Hamburg on his famous high-school horse Germinal.

1. Deux pistes au trot (passage at the trot) ; trot allongJ,
serpentine.

2. Galop (canter) : deux pistes (at the passage), voltes
ordinaires (circles on the hind-quarters) et renvers 'es (on
the forehand) ; galop sur trois jambes, a droite et a gauche.

3. Passage : piaffer ballot/.

4. Galop : changements de pied a deux temps (change of
the leading leg at every second stride) en changeant de
main ; changements de pied a un temps ; allure mod.'rc'e,
ralentie sur place et au grand galop.

5. Galop a gauche, sur place et en arriere.

6. Galop a droite , sur place et en arriere sur trois jambes.

7. Trot espagnol ordinaire a un temps.

8. Trot espagnol nouveau a deux temps sur chaque jambe.

9. Trot espagnol nouveau, alter natif a un et deux temps.
The serpentine is a passage at the trot of four steps to

the left, four to the right, and so on ; or vice versa. In fact,
it is a successive counter-change of hand of four steps at a
time. In the piaffer ballot:, a step forward and a step
backward is alternately taken with one fore leg and the
opposite hind leg.

288

CHAPTER X.
BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

The race horse — The lady's horse — The cavalry horse — The polo pony — The
park hack — The fashionable harness horse— The shooting pony — Mules and
zebras.

FOR convenience sake, I have grouped the description of
the breaking of certain classes of horses in this chapter
without regard to similarity of method.

THE RACE HORSE.

As race horses are generally " tried " as yearlings in
November or December, their breaking cannot usually be
deferred beyond the age of eighteen months. As their
trial will probably not be beyond three furlongs, and as
it will be given merely to see if the youngsters are worth
persevering with and entering for future events, the break-
ing need not be more than what will be sufficient to make
them handy to ride. In order to imperil the soundness of
their legs as little as possible by having no weight on their
backs, they should be broken chiefly by means of the
long-reins, and by the whip, on foot. Having been handled
from the time they were dropped, there will be but little
difficulty in rendering them quiet and obedient. Between
their trial and the following racing season, which com-
mences at the latter end of March, there will be plenty

BREAKING THE RACE HORSE. 289

of time to teach the two-year-olds the whole of the in-
struction contained in Chapters V. and VI. I wish here
to draw attention to what I have said on page 226
respecting the desirability of having every animal (ex-
cept the school horse) taught to readily change, of his
own accord, the leading fore leg at the canter or gallop,
when a turn is made to the side opposite to it. As a case
in point, I may mention that the great difficulty experienced
by many race horses in coming round certain sharp turns
on particular racecourses, such as Tattenham Corner at
Epsom, or when galloping on a more or less circular track,
is generally due to the fact that these animals lead with the
wrong fore leg (gallop " falsely," see page 223) while making
the turn, instead of changing the leg when they come up
to it, or starting with the fore leg nearest to the inside of
the course, and continuing to lead with it. This tendency
makes some horses act well only on a right-handed track ;
others, only on a left-handed one. The muscular strain
entailed by having to gallop falsely militates against the
animal's chances of success far more than the momentary
diminution of speed which a change of leg would cause.
Besides, when galloping falsely, it is impossible for the
horse to make a turn sharply.

In order to change the leading leg at the gallop or fast
canter, it is necessary for the horse to slacken his speed
for a stride or two. The habit of a horse galloping or
cantering always with the same fore leg leading is extremely
liable to cause that leg to become prematurely worn
out ; because nearly twice as much work will, on that
account, be imposed on that limb as on its fellow. On
a comparatively straight course, or on a course the turns
of which lend themselves to the purpose, and especially
over a long distance, it would be manifestly an advantage
for a race horse to do half of the journey with one fore

19

290 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

leg leading, and the other half with the other fore leg
leading, provided that he could gallop equally well in both
cases. The fact that very few race horses can do this,
proves the necessity for such instruction.

When a horse is about twice as tired on one fore leg
as he is on the other, he ought to be able to gallop far
better if he could ease the tired limb at the expense of
the fresh one. Horses which habitually lead with one par-
ticular fore leg at the gallop or canter, generally lose the
ability of extending themselves properly when they happen
to change the lead to the other fore leg. The cause of this
• incompetence is, I think, due to the fact that, in the canter
or gallop, the centre of gravity of the animal's body is
more or less shifted to one side — namely, to that of the
leading fore leg. Hence, the horse which has been accus-
tomed to travel with more weight on, say, the right side,
when the off fore leg is leading, will naturally try to bear his
weight on the right side when the near fore is leading,
and will consequently go in an ill-balanced manner.
Besides, when such horses happen to change to the un-
accustomed fore leg, they sometimes omit to change the
leading hind leg, and consequently go disunited. I do not
think I need say more on the advisability, when breaking
in race horses, of teaching them to gallop equally well on
either fore leg, and to change the leading leg when
necessary. If such an improvement in the breaking of
race horses was substituted, it would be also requisite to
give special tuition to the jockeys who were to ride them.
As the subject of riding, except as regards its connection
with breaking, is not within the province of this book,
I have dealt with it fully in Riding and Hunting.

Ability to rein-back, and even to passage, will in many
cases be valuable at the start of a race. Considering that
five or six short and easy lessons would be generally suf-

THE "LADY'S HORSE. 291

ficient to teach these accomplishments, as far as they are
needed for the purpose in view ; ignorance can alone be the
cause of neglect to impart them. The remarks made in
Chapter VI. on collecting the horse apply equally well here.

THE LADY'S HORSE.

Any horse which has been broken in according to the
principles I have laid down, will carry a lady quietly ;
although some animals will need circling with the long
reins, turning to the right on the forehand, and work at
the figure 8, to teach them not to " edge away " from
the skirt to the right with the hind-quarters. The follow-
ing points will also need attention : — (i) As the lady,
from the peculiarities of her seat, is unable to keep her
hands sufficiently low, her horse should on no account carry
his head too high. (2) As a lady has not the advantage
of a leg on each side of her mount, her horse should " bend "
himself readily to the rein, and go collectedly without
requiring to be " pulled together." (3) He must be taught
to answer the touch of the whip behind the girth on the
off side in the same manner as he would do on feeling the
pressure of a man's right foot. (4) He should be made
as easy to turn to the right as to the left, which is the lady's
weak side. (5) He must not have the slightest tendency
to rear ; as that is a " defence " which is peculiarly dan-
gerous to a lady, and which she is comparatively power-
less to resist. (6) He must not pull hard ; for an
amount of " catching hold " of the bridle which might
be prized by many a feeble-kneed man, would be repre-
hensible in the horse intended for the weaker-armed, but
stronger-seated lady. The desired carriage of the head
and neck may be obtained by the long-reins, standing
martingale, reining back, circling, and figure 8-

19*

292 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

The lady's park hack may have to be taught to strike
off in the canter always with the off fore leading. It is
certainly an advantage for a lady's horse, whether hunter
or hack, to readily obey the signal to go off into the canter
with either fore leg leading, or to " change " the leading leg
when required.

The tendency which all horses have at the canter and
gallop to carry their hind-quarters outside the track of
their respective fore legs, is as a rule increased in the lady's
horse by the fact that he leads far more often with the
off fore than with the near fore, and that the lady's legs and
skirt are on the near side. To correct this fault, he should
be practised at passaging (see page 273) to the left, and
at turning on his forehand (see page 212) to the right.

If it be desired to put a lady on a horse which has never
before carried a side-saddle, but which has been broken in
for a man in the ordinary rough-and-ready style, it is well
to accustom the animal to the habit by putting a side-
saddle on him, attaching a skirt or rug to it, and circling,
turning, and reining him back with the long reins until he
ceases to pay attention to the loose cloth on his left side.
We should also make him, by means of the rope twitch
(see page 120), stand perfectly steady while an assistant
wearing a skirt is mounted like a lady on the saddle. I
have never found that it required more than half-an-hour's
tuition to make a horse which was quiet for a man to ride,
equally quiet for a lady. It is well to know that a horse
which is mounted for the first time by a lady, is apt to
be frightened chiefly by the right leg and the portion of
the skirt that covers it, being brought over his shoulder
and lower part of his neck.

For a secure seat, a lady requires to ride with the stir-
rup leather so short (see The Horsewoman) that she cannot
use a spur with ease and precision. Hence, if she wishes

THE CAVALRY HORSE. 293

to practise high school riding (see Chapter IX.), she will
have to ride with as long a stirrup leather as a man. The
whip, which may have a spur attachment on it, performs
on^the off side the duty of a spur.

THE CAVALRY HORSE.

As the work of the trooper has often to be carried out
under rough conditions which demand the cleverness of
the hunter more than the precision of the school horse, I
would advise that, although his education should comprise
the course laid down in Chapter IX., with the exception of
the " Additional School Movements " (see page 282), he
should also be taught to turn on his centre by the pull of
the rein without the pressure of the leg, and to make the
necessary changes at the canter, of his own accord, without
the signal from the rider's heel (see page 229). Thanks to
the admirable memory of the horse, it is easy to teach him
both systems. He should also be taught to jump well, and
for that reason should be thoroughly broken to the snaffle
before using the curb. As the cavalry soldier in action will
have his right hand occupied with his sword or lance ; per-
fection in one-handed riding should, above all things, be
demanded from his horse, which, being obliged at times to
cross a " difficult " country, will be all the better for know-
ing the direct indications of the two-handed system of rid-
ing, as well as the reversed ones of the one-handed style.
In this there need be no chance of confusing the horse,
which is fully capable of correctly answering direct and
reversed indications, as we may any day see in the case
of young horses ridden in a halter without a bit and with
a single rope as a substitute for the reins. In teaching a
horse to obey the indications of the reins held in one hand,
we may begin by taking a rein in each hand, and then pro-

294 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

ceed, while making the turns and circles, to gradually
dimmish the lateral effect of the inward rein on the mouth,
and increase the effect of the outward rein on the neck,
until the latter can be used to the almost entire exclusion
of the former.

We should endeavour to finally obtain the turn by
merely laying the outward rein on the neck ; for the more
we pull on it, the more will we draw the muzzle away from
the side to which the horse is being turned ; and, conse-
quently, the indication on his mouth will be contrary to
that on his neck.

Men who think, when riding with the reins in one hand,
and separated, according to the Cavalry Regulations, by
the little finger, that they can turn the horse merely by
shortening the inward rein, should try to do so when sitting
on the box-seat of a one-horse carriage, and holding the
reins in one hand. They will then find that, as the reins
are prevented by the terret-rings from being brought
against the neck, they will be unable to effect the turn in
the manner asserted. In turning the horse with the reins
in one hand, the hand has to be held higher than when both
hands are used ; for the effect of the outward rein on the
neck in turning increases according to the distance, from
the withers, of its point of contact. As the troop horse
may have to go over a country, he should go up to his
bridle more freely than the school horse. A state of
collection should be maintained with cavalry horses only
during the time it is necessary for the execution of some
particular manoeuvre and to keep their place in the ranks.

THE POLO PONY,

like the cavalry horse, should be ridden always with one
hand, except during his first lessons. He may be put
through the same course of instruction as the trooper (see

THE; POLO PONY. 295

preceding section), except that he need not be taught to
jump, and his paces should be confined to the walk, canter,
and gallop. He should be practised at starting off into
full gallop and halting as quickly as possible. He should
be taught to carry his head high, and to avoid going up
to his bridle, so that he can be halted and turned in a
moment, when required. He ought to have a good deal of
work with the long reins and at passaging, so as to prevent
him from acquiring the habit of shying off the ball by
yielding his head and neck to the rein without altering the
direction of his body. He should, of course, be taught to
disregard the polo stick being flourished about him, which
we can do by using the rope twitch and the word " steady "
(see page 120), or the head and tail method (see page 155).
I may mention that the subject of breaking in and training
polo ponies is fully discussed in Capt. E. D. Miller's recent
work, Modern Polo, which I have edited.

THE PARK HACK.

A course of school training will greatly add to the bril-
liancy of this animal, in whom we require particularly
springy and showy action without any of the exaggerated
knee action of the hackney. The body of the park hack
should be accurately placed in the line of progression, out
of which we should not deviate during movement. The
showy walk (which should approach the French passage)
and the well-collected and brilliant canter are more his paces
than the trot.

THE FASHIONABLE HARNESS HORSE.

The " extravagantly " high trot is the special pace of
this animal. Although it should be as lofty as possible,
it must be free from " dishing " (turning either or both of

296 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

the fore feet outwards when off the ground), or from any
rocking movement of the body, and the legs must have
a certain amount of forward reach, so as not to give the
idea of the feet being lifted up and placed down on the
same spot. In this artificial gait the action of the hind
legs will have to be sacrificed to some extent to that of the
fore ones. His school work may be limited to the walk
and trot, at which we should collect him sharply, and at
the same time press him forward with the legs, while hold-
ing the hands high. While riding this horse at a trot the
rider should not rise in his stirrups ; for if he does so, he
cannot fail to more or less disturb the balance of the ani-
mal's body. The use of heavy shoes will increase the knee
action. In driving him, the principle of collecting him
with whip and hand and keeping up his head should be
observed.

THE SHOOTING PONY.

Having thoroughly broken the shooting pony according
to the principles already discussed, we may make him steady
to the gun by the rope- twitch and the word " steady "
(see page 120). A turn at the head and tail method (see page
155) might be used as a preliminary to the education by
the rope-twitch. It may be well to teach the animal to
lie down (see page 144).

MULES, ZEBRAS AND THE PRJEVALSKY WILD HORSE.

These animals are so stiff in the neck that there is great
difficulty in giving them a good mouth. Mules, as a rule,
are timid animals which take time to make up their minds
to do anything unusual, and are consequently apt to be
misunderstood by men who treat them as if they were
high-couraged and impulsive horses. Mules, I have found,
possess more affection than horses for those who are kind

MULES AND ZEBRAS. 297

and sympathetic to them. Many of them are fine natural
jumpers, and show particular care to avoid " chancing "
their fences. I don't think that mules are harder to make
quiet than horses. Of all asses, the mountain zebra
(see Fig. 122) is the most difficult to break ; as he is sulky,
stupid, and has an almost immovable neck. I have found
the BurchelTs zebra, which is more nearly akin to the horse
than any other ass, comparatively easy to break.

Fig. 122. — The mountain zebra.

I did some interesting breaking in of zebras at the
Zoological Gardens last March. The first animal I took
in hand was Jess, a Grevy zebra mare, which was about
nine years old. She stands nearly fifteen hands high and
is a very powerful animal. The first problem was how to
get a head-stall or halter on Jess in her loose box. A
peculiarity about zebras is the extreme sensitiveness of
their ears, in which respect they are entirely different
from the normal horse. In South Africa and on the Rus-

298 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

sian steppes I never had any difficulty in haltering a semi-
wild horse, which had been driven into a krall or small en-
closure, by the aid of a halter on a long pole, as already
described. But the slightest touch on the ears drives a
zebra almost mad. Consequently, this horse-haltering
plan is not successful with zebras, unless they are lassoed
in the first instance, and thus brought more or less under
control.

Having haltered the zebra, the next step in her breaking
was to take her outside into a small enclosure, which was
considerably hampered by the presence of trees in the
centre. To obtain more control, it was necessary to put
the loop of a rope round the fore pastern, so that the
striped lady might not give me a playful or vicious pat
when I went up to her. With horses there is no trouble
in adjusting this loop, by, as I have already described,
placing it on the ground and making them step into it, at
which moment a pull on the rope promptly lassoes the
pastern of the too confiding fore-leg. Every zebra I have
handled has viewed this loop with great distrust, and
evidently understood the purpose for which it was placed
on the ground. Consequently, a breaker has to be very
artful in order to circumvent these reasoning Equidae.
In their struggle for existence they have to be much more
intelligent than the domestic horse, a fact which we can
readily see by their larger brain capacity, which is well
shewn by their broad and " bumpy " forehead.

When a fore-leg has been noosed, it is safest to raise it
off the ground, which can be easily done by passing the
rope over the animal's back, under its breast, and then
pulling it. Having thus secured the zebra I tied her " head
and tail " in the manner already described, and after a short
exhibition of play, she readily submitted to driving by
means of the long reins. The " leading rein crupper "

MULES AND ZEBRAS.

299

quickly taught the mare to lead, and the young soldier
attendant was soon riding her about the enclosure and on
friendly terms with his mount.

In the afternoon of that day I adopted similar tactics
with another but younger Grevy zebra mare, and before
evening she allowed herself to be ridden quietly.

Next morning, Jess, who had been haltered during the

Fig. 122 A. — A mountain zebra.

night, so as to save the trouble of catching her, was
produced in the enclosure, and seemed so amiable that I
trusted her too much, as I saw when the very badly-fitting
saddle came too far forward and pinched her withers,
with the result that she promptly bucked her rider off. In
this respect I made a mistake in not providing myself
with my Australian buck-jumping saddle ; for our ordinary
English saddles are of comparatively little use when a
horse or zebra starts bucking. We must bear in mind that

300 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

the greatest difficulty in subduing zebras is their extreme
cunning in refusing, under ordinary circumstances, to
exhaust themselves by " playing up," which horses do in a
way that would make a zebra smile. I found it expedient
with this powerful animal to make her lie down until she
arose submissive and quiet to be ridden without any
trouble. The younger zebra evinced very little desire to
assert her authority. Jess, however, was far less trouble
to break in than a Mountain zebra stallion which I made
quiet for my wife to ride in Calcutta, probably because
my Calcutta pupil had only been in captivity a short
time.

After the mares were reduced to obedience I was asked
to handle a Grevy zebra stallion, which gave me some
trouble in his efforts to bite and kick. He finally allowed
himself to be mounted, and made no attempt to bite my
hand when I placed it in his mouth. I was very sorry to
hear that this zebra died about four days after his breaking
lesson. As I knew nothing about this unfortunate occur-
rence, I cannot do better than give the following extract
from a letter I received from Mr. Pocock, who is the
Superintendent of the Zoological Society's Gardens :—
" I was very much astonished to hear on Sunday morning
that our zebra stallion was down, because he seemed all
right on the Thursday and Friday following the breaking,
and it was not till Saturday that signs of weakness began
to show themselves in the fore-quarters, as was testified by
his toppling and dropping momentarily on to his knees.
He was not handled at all after the Wednesday when you
broke him. To what extent the death was attributable
to the breaking, if indeed it was at all connected with it,
it is quite impossible to say. The post mortem examination
revealed no sign of any internal injury, though the organs
were carefully examined. However, the comparative

MULES AND ZEBRAS. 301

brittleness of the ribs showed the animal to be consider-
ably older than was supposed, and his death casts no
reflection upon your skill, judgment and gentleness."
One of the keepers subsequently informed my wife that the
zebra had been ailing for some time. If I had been aware
of this fact, I need hardly say that I should not have attemp-
ted to break an animal so infirm.

The Prjevalsky wild horse, as we can see by Salensky's
Russian book, is supposed by the large majority of Contin-
ental naturalists to be untameable, and I was delighted to
have the opportunity of disproving this assumption, when
staying recently with Professor Cossar Ewart at Penicuik. I
met with much the same passive stubborn resistance as
I had experienced with mules and zebras, and after an
argument of a couple of hours duration, I got no striking
reply out of Prjevalsky, except a sharp kick on my left
shin. He husbanded his strength all through the inter-
view, and finally concluded in a very logical manner that
submission was the best policy. Although he consented
to be ridden, he refrained from cantering, and imitated
the trot only by a very lazy form of shuffle. The chief
distinguishing characteristics of the Prjevalsky horse are
absence of forelock ; short mane, which in summer is
erect like that of the donkey, and partly hangs down in
winter ; and a tail, which for about four inches down the
back of the dock (solid portion of the tail) has short and
bristly hairs.

The Russian naturalists G. E. and M. E. Groom-
Grjeemailo tell us that " The Mongolians have made many
attempts to tame these wild horses,- but have always been
unsuccessful. These animals refuse to obey man, whom
they fear, and consequently they cannot be utilised. The
Mongolians capture these horses in a very simple manner.
At foaling time, each of the Kalmucks goes with two horses

302 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

to the desert, and, having found the herd, follows it up
until some of the weak foals fall down on the ground from
fatigue, and are then captured and put with the Kalmuck's
horses." For information concerning the different
varieties of zebras I would refer my readers to Points of
the Horse.

CHAPTER XL
FAULTS OF MOUTH.

Boring — Pulling and running away — Throwing up the head and star-gazing —
Jibbing — Rearing — Shying — Running out to one side and difficult to turn —
"Keeping behind the bit," prancing, and " breaking " when wanted to walk
or trot — Teaching pacers (amblers) to trot — Carrying the hind-quarters, in
the canter or gallop, outside the line of progression, and refusing to lead
except with one particular foreleg — " Putting too much weight on the fore-
hand " when mounted — Plunging forward when starting in harness — Pulling
away from and hanging against the pole when in double harness.

THE classification of vices and faults adopted in this and
the following chapter is necessarily somewhat arbitrary,
as their causes are more often complex than simple. The
arrangement adopted in both of these chapters has been
made solely for the sake of convenience. The fact that
all equine vices do not possess generally accepted names
has obliged me, in some cases, to sacrifice elegance of ex-
pression to clearness of meaning.

BORING.

When the horse has got into the habit of carrying his
head too low, we may get it into the correct position by
circling and turning him with the long reins on foot (see
page 1 68), while keeping the outward rein on the driving
pad, or while using a bearing-rein (see page 169). We
may then mount him, and by the action of the legs and
hands make him go collectedly (see page 219), so that

304 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

he will be obliged to hold his head at a proper height.
To aid him in this, we should keep our hands higher than
usual. Practice at the rein-back (see page 215) and at
the turn on the haunches (see page 272), will probably
be of use. When the animal bores on one rein more than
the other, we may adopt the same procedure, except that
we should devote our attention chiefly to getting hrm to
turn to the side on which his mouth is " hard," until he
will do so as easily to it as to the other.

PULLING AND RUNNING AWAY.

I can draw no line of distinction between these two vices,
except one of degree ; for animals which would be un-
controllable runaways with some men, would be only hard,
or even moderate, pullers with other men. Besides, cir-
cumstances alter cases : for instance, I have ridden horses
which it would be impossible for me to pull up in a race,
chase, or sharp burst with the hounds ; but which I could
easily control when hacking, even in company, or on
parade. I shall, therefore, for convenience sake, consider
running away as an extreme form of pulling. Before
beginning a discussion on this subject, I must candidly
state my disbelief in any system of pure breaking by
which a violent, masterful puller can be made permanently
quiet for an indifferent rider to keep in control at fast
paces under exciting circumstances. It is worthy of
note that a fine horseman not alone holds an unruly animal
in check ; but also teaches him habits of discipline by the
application of the " aids."

A large number of hunters and other saddle horses
unjustly acquire the reputation of being pullers ; because,
when under excitement, they like to start off in a gallop ;
but if they were " given their head " for, say, two or three

PULLING. 305

hundred yards, they would bend to the rein and settle down
under perfect control. The fact of checking them at first
upsets their temper and makes them fight. If allowed to
" jump into their bridle " and go off gaily at first, they seem
to be so well satisfied at having gained their point, that
they do not resent being asked to go slower afterwards.
The same remarks apply to many harness horses. Patient
and capable riding and driving, as the case may be, are the
best remedies for such pseudo-pullers.

Horses which are hard pullers may be divided into two
classes, namely, those whose defence is to put weight on
the fore-hand, and those who try to assert their will by
placing it on the hind-quarters. The large majority of
runaways practise their pet vice from a spirit of pure oppo-
sition to the wishes of their would-be master. Any ner-
vousness which they may exhibit is, in almost ah1 cases,
only a cloak for their sin. Eagerness to return to the
stable, or excitability when approaching ground on which
the animal has been previously exercised, may be mistaken
by inexperienced persons for a desire to run away. The
least dangerous form of pulling is that which is caused
by the horse leaning unduly on his bit, to the action of
which he is abnormally insensitive. I have known a
horse which used to run away (if I may employ the ex-
pression) at a walk. Harness-work, by inducing the
animal to increase the weight on his forehand, often gives
rise to the passive (if I may employ the word) form of
pulling in saddle. As long as this boring on the rider's
hands is unaccompanied by a feeling of disobedience, the
fault can be easily cured by teaching the horse to under-
stand the meaning of the " aids " (see Chapters V., VI.
and IX.). The form of pulling which is most difficult
to remedy is that in which the defence is made by lighten-
ing the forehand. As a common example, I may cite

20

3o6 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

horses which, in their attempts to get away, carry their
heads as high as they can, prance and dance about if the
rider tries to make them walk, especially when their heads
are turned towards home, and rear on slight provocation.

In all those forms of pulling in which " temper " plays
a part, the animal should, above all things, be taught that
he must obey. Although instruction in the aids will have
a general good effect on the animal's mind in rendering
him docile, as well as attentive to our signals, our efforts
in gaining the mastery will be greatly facilitated by taking
the " nonsense " out of the rebel by, for instance, making
him lie down and keeping him on the ground (see page 149),
or by putting him through the head and tail system (see
page 155). We may repeat this discipline as often as may
be needed, and may employ it conjointly with instruction
in the " aids." We should also utilise the good effect of
work. It is a significant fact that pullers which are put
to long-continued work, such as being kept out hunting
for, say, five or six hours, or for a still longer period in a
hansom cab or " growler," generally give up after a short
time their desire to run away, the futility of which is no
doubt impressed on their minds by the thought of the
weary hours which are before them. The good effect of
hunting in curing pulling may be often seen by the fact that
although the animal was in the early part of the day greatly
excited by the hounds and field ; he gets so much sobered
down in the afternoon, that when his head is turned home-
ward, he walks or trots along in more lively fashion than he
had previously adopted a few minutes before, when going
from one cover to another. To produce a salutary effect
on a puller by hunting, we should take him out as often as
possible (at least, three times a week), and should keep him
out as long as we can without unduly fatiguing him.

A puller which puts too much weight on the forehand

PULLING. 307

should be taught to go in a collected manner (see page 221),
for when collected he will be unable to resist the control
of hand and leg. We should circle, turn and rein him
back by means of the long reins (see page 168) ; and
having got him obedient and." supple " to them, we may
put him through a large portion of the school work
described in Chapter IX., especially that which has refer-
ence to collection. Cantering the horse in circles of
gradually decreasing size will have a good effect in breaking
him of pulling, by teaching him to go collectedly.

A horse whose defence in pulling is to lighten the fore-
hand will carry his head high in the air. After taking
the " nonsense " out of him in the manner already des-
cribed, we should endeavour to correct the defective
carriage of the head by circling the animal with the long
reins while using a standing martingale on the rings of
the snaffle, and while keeping the outward rein round the
hind-quarters. Frequently turning him, especially at the
canter, will have a good effect in making him lower his
head and bend his neck. When circling such a horse with
the long reins, we should confine ourselves almost entirely
to the use of the inward rein, so as to place as much weight
as possible on the forehand. The size of the circle should
be gradually diminished. Such horses should not be
practised in the rein-back. A course of harness- work, so
as to accustom the animal to put an increased amount of
weight on his forehand, might be useful with a horse of
this kind.

The question of what is the best bit for holding a puller,
is a difficult one to answer. Personally, I am entirely in
favour of an unjointed leather-covered snaffle (see page 168)
used with a standing martingale attached to its rings. In
a few instances, I find a curb (with a low port) useful ; but
only when it is placed low down in the mouth (just clear

20*

308 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

of the tushes), so that the curb chain will have no tendency
to work up out of the chin-groove. I am no believer in
the saying, with reference to various kinds of bits, that
there is a key to every horse's mouth. Experience tells
me that the great cause of pulling lies in the brain, upon
which, rather than on the jaw, an impression has to be made
in order to correct the vice. Besides, we must remember
that in hunting and other forms of 'cross-country riding, it
is not enough to be able to control a horse's speed ; but we
must also use a bit which he will " face."

THROWING UP THE HEAD AND STAR-GAZING

are difficult habits to correct. By working the horse in
the manner described in the preceding paragraph, and
by riding him in a properly adjusted standing martingale
(see page 87), I have always succeeded in making the most
inveterate practiser of these tricks bend his neck to the
rein as long as I used this martingale, against which the
animal invariably ceased to bear after a time. But in
some instances, even after being for months under the
influence of the standing martingale, I found that if I re-
moved this appliance, the animal, on quickly becoming
aware of its absence, would resume his old game of throwing
up his head on slight provocation. The object, as I have
already explained, of the standing martingale is to teach
the horse to abstain from carrying his head too high, by
learning that if he does so, he will save the bars of his mouth
from the painful pressure of the bit.

Mr. Kemp, A.V.D., tells me that horses may be broken
of this objectionable habit by using a noseband, inside
the front part of which three or four cowrie shells (small
marbles would have the same effect) are sewn ; the
noseband being kept in position by a standing martingale,

STAR-GAZING. 309

which should be of such a length as to keep the line of the
face at an angle of about 45° to the ground. This plan
is on the same principle as that of the standing martingale
attached to the rings of the snaffle ; for in both, the object
is to make the horse relinquish his favourite trick on
finding out that its practice inflicts on him pain, from which
he can save himself by bending his neck to the rein.

The term " star-gazing " may be applied to the habit of
continually keeping, or trying to keep, the head raised to
an undue height. That of " chucking up the head " seems
appropriate to the habit of throwing up the head only when
excited, or at intervals. Both require similar methods of
treatment.

JIBBING.

Although jibbing is far oftener a fault of temper than
of mouth, I prefer to discuss it in this chapter than in the
following one ; because it can, as a rule, be best corrected
by lessons in mouthing.

A jibber is a horse which, without just cause, refuses to
proceed in any required direction, although he may be
willing to go in some other direction. As a rule, a jibber
will turn to one side, but not to the other. Acting on the
fact that the horse is an animal possessed of but little
intelligence, we shall generally succeed in overcoming the
defence of the jibber in saddle, if we force him to circle
several times to the right and to the left with the long
reins on foot (see page 168), or in the turn on the forehand,
both on foot (see page 193) and when mounted (see page
212). Failing to fix his hind-quarters, which we can easily
move round his forehand by means of the whip or cane, if not
by the leg ; he will usually go off in the desired direction.
The rebel should be turned to one side and then to the
other, and reined back pretty sharply, so as to convince

3io FAULTS OF MOUTH.

him that we are able to make him move even against his
will. Were he able to reason, he would not accept the
fact, which he appears to do, of our being able to make
him circle and turn to the right and to the left as a proof
that we are able (which we are not) to make him go for-
ward. After the discipline on foot with the long reins
or whip, or with both, it is always well, on mounting the
animal, to use the whip or stick on his hind-quarters to
obtain the turn on the forehand if needed. The applica-
tion of the whip with this object should be restricted to
light flicks (a little above the hock for preference), just
sufficient to act as a signal to the horse to move his hind
legs away from the whip or cane, which, in such cases,
should on no account be used as a punishment. For the
present purpose, I would disregard the spur in favour of the
whip ; for the former cannot be applied so far back as the
latter, and is much more liable to irritate the horse to
resistance. Instead of at once proceeding to ride the horse
after giving him a lesson with the long reins, we may put
an assistant in the saddle merely to accustom the horse (as
a further mark of our success) to the weight ; and continue
to drive the animal until he will move freely in any direction.
The mounted assistant may then take the reins, and may
circle and turn the horse several times before taking him
for a regular ride. If the rider be capable, the horse will
seldom, if ever, perceive the change made in the manage-
ment of the reins. If he were intelligent enough to do so,
he would, knowing that he had his rider at his mercy,
refuse to accord him the obedience which he had been
compelled to yield to the driver on foot.

If the horse resolutely sulks, the breaker, to expedite
matters, may take the " nonsense " out of him by making
him lie down (see page 144), or by keeping him on the
ground with his head pulled round (see page 149), until he

> JIBBING. 311

apparently gives in. He may then get another trial at
circling and turning. If he still resists, he should be put
down again ; and so on for three, or even four, times.
The change of discipline, from circling and turning, to the
distressing one of being made to lie down, and of being
kept in a very irksome position on the ground, is most
efficacious for the jibber, who seems to quickly recognise
the fact that the restraint on the ground is a punishment
for his misbehaviour. Having failed, after putting forth
all his powers of opposition, to resist this painful form of
coercion, he will have but little energy left to stiffen his
neck against a demand which is attended by no incon-
venience, except that of " giving in." As soon as I find,
on taking the jibber first in hand, that he refuses to turn
round to one particular side when the rein is on my driving
pad (see Fig. 92), I try to pull him over on his side, which
will generally be an easy task, and I then tie his head to
his tail by means of a rope or cord connecting his tail to
the head-stall, which I have previously put on over the
bridle. When I have not been able to procure a head-stall,
as has often happened to me in foreign countries, I have
improvised a halter out of a piece of rope (see page 99),
put it on the horse's head while he was lying down, made a
knot (see Fig. 20) in the part of the rope which passes
under the chin, so as to prevent the rope acting as a
running noose round the jaws, and attached the end of the
rope to the tail at such a length as to pull the horse's head
round to his shoulder. I would then keep him in this un-
pleasant position (see Fig. 78) until I thought he had given
in sufficiently, say, for twenty minutes, during which period
he would generally, from time to time, struggle desperately
to get up. His repeated failures to do so would naturally
impress him with the idea of his powerlessness to resist
my wishes. One should be very careful not to carry this

312 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

painful form of discipline to a point which might be dan-
gerous to the animal. I believe I have been the first to
employ the method of making a horse lie down, in com-
bination with driving on foot, as a remedy for jibbing.
By adopting the means I have described, the breaker, if
he be patient and expert, ought to succeed in making any
jibber obedient in saddle after a lesson of a couple of hours'
duration. Each succeeding lesson would be of decreasing
difficulty, until the habit of obedience is established in a
short time. All such desired effects can be produced much
easier in a secluded enclosure than in the open.

It is not uncommon to meet with, especially in the
mounted branches of the Army, horses which will go any-
where in company, but which will refuse to quit their
companions, or to act as single riding horses. This pecu-
liarity, the habit of trying to press the rider's leg up against
a wall, tree, or other convenient object, and all other forms
of jibbing, may be treated in the manner just described.

Jibbing in harness is a far more difficult fault to over-
come than jibbing in saddle ; for the presence of the cart
greatly favours the " defence " of the horse. Before trying
to eradicate the vice, we should satisfy ourselves that it
is not caused by any ailment, such as sore shoulders,
which should be cured before we proceed further. As
our first object, when contesting the question of supremacy
with the horse, is to gain the best kind of victory we can
over our opponent, even if he has no direct bearing on the
point at issue ; we should put the horse (of course, without
the cart) through exactly the same course of discipline
as I have recommended for the jibber in saddle. We may
then harness him to a light, empty, two-wheeled trap —
inside a manege or other suitable enclosure, if possible —
and working him on the track on which we had previously
handled him, try to circle him with the long reins (see

JIBBING. 313

page 168), open snaffle bridle, and standing martingale,
to the side to which he more readily bends. Having
accomplished this, we should endeavour to get him, by
taking a wide sweep, to turn to the other rein, and, if we
are successful, should circle him freely on it, turning him
and changing the direction of the circle so as to produce
the best result. If he remains obstinate, we should take
him out of the cart, and put him through the previous
discipline, as we may deem advisable. As soon as we
think he has given in, we may put him again between the
shafts, and give him another trial. In attempting to start
or turn the animal, we should on no account use the whip,
except to raise it as a signal for the horse to go on, or pos-
sibly to crack it. Having accustomed him, while using
the long reins, to receive the click of the tongue or the
sight of the raised whip as a signal to start, he will almost
always obey it at this period of the lesson. While the horse
is on the circle, a light feeling of the inward rein will also
be an indication for him to move on. When the horse
circles and turns, with the cart behind him, in perfect
obedience to our signals, we may gradually load it with
any suitable objects, so as to accustom him to weight
on his back. When he takes all this in good part, we may,
while keeping him at a walk, get an assistant to quietly
mount into the trap, and give him the reins, as soon as
the animal shows that he does not mind the presence of a
person behind him. The horse may now be taken into the
open, and circled and turned by the driver a few times
before being taken on the road.

We should be careful not to employ any words or other
signals that might remind the animal of previous acts of
disobedience which, presumably, had been successful in
their object. When breaking a jibber, I like to use an
open bridle ; because I find that horses go " kinder " with^

FAULTS OF MOUTH.

out blinkers than with them. If it be imperative that
our pupil should be driven in an ordinary harness bridle,
we may accustom him to it after we have got him to go
steadily in an open one.

If a jibber appears afraid of the whip, it is well, in the
first instance, to prove to him, by giving him a turn at
the head and tail method (see page 155), that we are not
going to hurt him, when we crack it or flourish it about in
his vicinity.

The jibber in double harness may be cured of his vice in
the manner already described. If a pair jib, they should
be broken of this vice separately, before being tried to-
gether.

REARING

is of two kinds ; one, the less common, the manifestation
of impatience to go on by a horse which is too " light in
front " ; the other, a form of jibbing. Horses whose vice
comes under the first heading are naturally " free goers,"
and are willing to proceed in any direction, though they
resent being kept in the same spot. As a rule, they ex-
hibit this " defence " only under occasions of excite-
ment. They are extremely liable to be converted into
jibbers by bad management. Rearing jibbers, as I may
call those horses which practise the second form of rearing,
are often light-mouthed horses ; though I have met many
hard pullers among the number. When a horse which is
" heavy in hand " rears, we may conclude that he com-
menced his tricks as a jibber, and finding, probably by
accident, that an attempt at rearing discomfited his
would-be master, he cultivated the art of standing on his
hind legs from that time. I might mention a third form
of rearer who deliberately tries to crush his rider by
throwing himself backwards on him. He appears to be

REARING. 315

vindictive as well as rebellious. There are, I think, ex-
tremely few rearers of this kind ; as in all my experience
of bad equine characters in various parts of the world, I
can remember only one rearer of this description. I am
inclined to think that such animals are very seldom met
with, and that the majority of horses which have the
reputation of throwing themselves back on their riders
would do so only under provocation from the man or
woman on their back.

In breaking a rearer, if we find that his fault arises from
his being " behind the bridle," and probably from being at
the same time too impetuous, we may try to put him straight
by teaching him the turn on the forehand, both on foot
(see page 193) and mounted (see page 212), and by turning
with the long reins. It is often beneficial, supposing, of
course, that the ground is soft, to provoke the rearer to rear
when reining him back with the long reins, the outward
one being on the driving pad (see Fig. 91), and then try
to pull him over in order to practically demonstrate to him
the unpleasantness of such a reversal, so that he may
abstain for the future from placing himself in any such
position. As a further means of obtaining good behaviour,
I would take, with all rearers, this opportunity of having
them on the ground, to tie them head and tail and keep
them down, as I have described on page 311, until any
remaining " nonsense " which might have been lurking in
their minds had been removed. Since I adopted the
method, which I copied from the French Scuyers, of
teaching rearers the turn on the forehand (pirouette
renversee) with the whip, I have as a rule very little diffi-
culty in making even the worst rearers stop their pranks
and go in any direction in which I wished to ride them,
after giving them a lesson of this kind for, say, a quarter
of an hour. After succeeding perfectly in this manner.

316 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

it would not be safe to trust such a horse to the guidance
of a rider who did not know how to manage him before
giving the pupil several (say, a dozen) similar lessons in
order to confirm the habit of obedience. To insure this
object, I would advise that a further effect should be made
on the mind of the animal by making him lie down (see
page 144), and, if necessary, by keeping him on the ground
with his head pulled round (see page 149). Although I
advise reining-back with the long reins on foot as a means
of reforming the rearer, I do not think that, in such cases,
it should be practised when mounted ; for when the man
is in the saddle, he is too much at the mercy of the horse
to be justified in provoking the animal (as reining-back
often does) to rear. All our trouble, tact, and judgment
will be of no use, unless the person who rides the tem-
porarily reformed character refrains from using the " aids "
in a manner which would be liable to prompt him to re-
commence his old tricks. Among the best means for
attaining that undesirable object are : striking the horse
on the shoulder with the whip and holding the hands high.
The vices of rearing, jibbing, and bolting are sometimes
combined in the same animal.

SHYING

may be caused through "light-heartedness," desire on the
part of the horse to show off his power over his rider or
driver, fear, defective sight, or the natural timidity which
almost all young horses display towards unaccustomed
objects. As the commission of this offence is, as a rule,
rendered possible only by the fact of the animal not being
obedient to the " aids," instruction in them will prove the
best general treatment. Leaving out those cases which
are due to defective sight, I would advise that the shyer

DIFFICULT TO TURN. 317

should have a few sharp lessons in circling, turning, and
reining-back with the long reins, by which means his
" nonsense " and nervousness will not alone be taken out
of him ; but he will also be made amenable to the reins.
Besides this, we may teach him the turn on the fore hand
on foot (see page 193), and when mounted (see page 212).
If the horse is very nervous or very unruly, we may give
him a course of head and tail work (see page 155). Unless
the shying is combined with jibbing or determined rearing,
the severe discipline of making a horse he down and
keeping him on the ground (see page 149) will- not be re-
quired. For shying off the ball at polo, off the peg at
tent-pegging, and other forms of this vice, see following
paragraph.

RUNNING OUT TO ONE SIDE, AND DIFFICULT TO TURN.

Here, as in shying (see preceding paragraph), our great
means of reformation will be work with the long reins, and
practice at the turn on the forehand. After having given
our pupil one or more effective lessons in the manege or on
the breaking ground, we may test his steadiness as follows.
Supposing that he runs out to the left when coming up to a
fence or on some particular part of a race-course, we should,
when mounted, take a rein in each hand and hold the
cutting-whip or ash plant in the right hand (see Fig. 106),
ready, the moment he attempts running out to the left, to
pull his head round to the right, and to bring at the same
moment his hind-quarters round to the left by the applica-
tion of the whip or stick, so as to place him again in the
direction from which he tried to deviate. As the turn can
be made far easier on the forehand than on the hind-
quarters (see page 271), it follows that the whip, or its
substitute, should be applied to the latter in preference to

3i8 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

the former. This is a point of breaking which is well worthy
of attention, especially as it is opposed to the practice
of the large majority of riding men. We must remember
that, when a horse makes good an attempt to bolt away
from the direction in which we wish to retain him, he
does so on account of our inability to turn his hind-quarters
to that side. Therefore, with a horse which refuses to
the left on coming up to a fence, I hold the whip (as well
as the rein) in my right hand, and apply it to his hind-
quarter ; instead of, as is the usual custom, applying the
whip (whichever hand it may be held in) to the near side
of the horse's head, neck, or shoulder. With a horse which
refuses to the right, the reversed aids would be required.
I have found this method to be as successful in practice as
it is sound in theory. After having made the horse obedient
to the application of the whip, we should gradually substi-
tute that of the drawn-back heel ; so that, finally, we may be
able to keep him straight by the rein and leg alone. The
practice adopted by some hunting men and hunting ladies
of striking their horses down the right shoulder for refusing
(almost always to the left) and other faults, appears to be
admirably calculated to make them run out to the left on
slight provocation.

To break a horse of " whipping round " (turning sharply
round) at some sudden or pretended cause of alarm, we
should make him, according to methods already described,
obedient to the leg. Thus, suppose the animal on seeing
some (to him) terrifying object to, say, his right front tries
to " whip round " to the left, we should pull his head to
the right, and try to bring his hind-quarters round to the
left by the pressure of the drawn-back right leg.

KEEPING BEHIND THE BRIDLE. 319

KEEPING " BEHIND THE BIT," PRANCING, AND " BREAKING "
WHEN WANTED TO WALK OR TROT.

There are two kinds of horses that will not "go up to
their bridle " ; the one, which refrains from doing so on
account of laziness ; the other, on account of temper, or
eagerness to go forward. The former may be improved
by the stimulus, judiciously applied, of whip or spur, and
of " company " ; the latter, by teaching them to put an
increased amount of weight on their forehand, and by
showing them that they must obey. In an impetuous
horse, we may correct the failing by practising him in
turning on the forehand, and by the use of the standing
martingale when working him with the long reins, and
also when riding him. When driving him with the long
reins on foot, we should gradually decrease the size of
the circle, and should bear almost entirely on the inner
rein, so as to make him put an increased amount of weight
on the forehand. I have found that, as a rule, it is not
advisable to give such horses work at the rein-back.
Keeping behind the bridle, when practised by an im-
petuous horse, is almost always a " defence " against the
authority of the rider or driver, and is then an extremely
difficult vice to cure. The animal affected with it will
be liable to rear, " star-gaze," prance about, and " break "
when wanted to walk or trot. We should use the various
remedial means described in the preceding lines of this
paragraph, and when riding the horse should avoid applying
the legs to his sides ; for doing so would have the effect
of lightening his forehand. I would strongly advise
that the " nonsense " should be taken out of him by one
or more fairly severe lessons in the head and tail system
(see page 155), or, better still, by making him lie down

320 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

and holding him on the ground with his head pulled round
(see remarks on pulling, page 306).

Horses which do not go up to their bridle sufficiently
when jumping are apt to injure their hind legs by putting
too much weight on them. Long rein work over fences
(see page 240) with a fairly short martingale, and riding
over obstacles with a large smooth snaffle and plenty of
" rein," will soon break the animal of this vice.

TEACHING PACERS (AMBLERS) TO TROT.

We may modify the gait in the desired direction by circling
the pacer with the long reins on foot in a ring sufficiently
small to compel him to trot instead of to amble. I may
explain that as the amble is a lateral gait (near and fore
hind, and off fore and off hind), the horse which adopts it
on a circle will have to step shorter with the inside pair of
legs than with the outside, and will consequently be incon-
venienced by this mode of travelling, proportionately to
the smallness of the circle. As the steps of the trot, on the
contrary, are composed of one inside and one outside leg
(near fore and off hind, and off fore and near hind), the
size of the circle will not affect the regularity of this
diagonal gait. Having obtained a well-balanced trot to
both reins (right, as well as left) in a small circle, we may
gradually increase it, until it is from 15 yards to 20 yards
in diameter. We may then put the animal into a light
two-wheeled cart, and circle him on foot with the long
reins, until he trots as steadily with the cart behind him as
he did without it. We may now get into the cart, and trot
him on the circle to the right as well as to the left. We
may gradually enlarge the circle, do figures of eight, and
end by working the horse on a straight line.

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 321

CARRYING THE HIND-QUARTERS, IN THE CANTER OR GALLOP,
OUTSIDE THE LINE OF PROGRESSION, AND REFUSING TO
LEAD EXCEPT WITH ONE PARTICULAR FORE LEG.

On page 222, I have discussed appropriate means for
correcting the tendency which some horses have of keeping
the body in a position more or less oblique to the direction
in which they are going, when cantering or galloping.
When a horse persistently chooses to lead with one par-
ticular fore leg, at these paces, we may neutralise this predi-
lection, supposing that the preference does not arise from
unsoundness or malformation, by practice at circling (with
the long reins and when mounted) to the opposite side.
For instance, to the right, if the near fore be the favoured
one, in which case we should also work him at turnings on
his forehand to the left and at passage to the right, until
he is equally handy with both fore legs. If the animal's
habit be to lead with the off fore, similar, though reversed,
movements should be executed. Making him canter
" falsely " (see page 271) with the less used fore leg will
be of service in " suppling him."

PUTTING TOO MUCH WEIGHT ON THE FOREHAND WHEN

MOUNTED.

We may correct this fault by practice at reining back
with the long reins, and when mounted, by teaching the
horse to turn on the hind-quarters (see page 271), and
by collecting him (see page 221). With horses which put
too much weight on the forehand when landing over a
jump, we may use a bearing rein (see page 169), when
practising them with the long reins at leaping (see page
240).

21

322 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

PLUNGING FORWARD WHEN STARTING IN HARNESS.

Having put on an open snaffle bridle, give the horse a good
lesson with the long reins (see page 168), practising him at
circling, turning, reining back, starting and pulling up.
Then put him into a light two-wheeled trap and circle him
on foot (see Fig. 116) in the same manner as we did before
we had put him between the shafts. We may then gradually
work him in the way described on pages 253 and 254, until
we can start, drive, and pull him up without his showing
any impatience.

PULLING AWAY FROM AND HANGING AGAINST THE POLE
WHEN IN DOUBLE HARNESS.

Having seen that the gear is all right, we may proceed
to drive him on foot, and form his mouth and manners in
the manner already described in this chapter.

323

CHAPTER XII.
FAULTS OF TEMPER

Difficult to catch — Difficult to handle, bridle, saddle, mount, or dismount from —
Difficult to ball or drench — Unsteady with the whip, under fire, when
drawing swords, when touched with the heel, etc. — Difficult to lead into a
doorway, horse-box, etc. — Difficult to shoe — Buckjumping — Biting and
savaging — Kicking and striking out in front — Pawing at night — Pawing back
the litter — Rubbing the tail — Sleeping standing — Difficult to harness and
unharness — Getting the tail over the rein and kicking when in harness —Lying
down in harness — Hanging back in the stall.

UNDER this heading, I shall put all the faults due to
nervousness, impatience of control and aggressiveness,
which I have not noticed in the preceding chapter.

DIFFICULT TO CATCH.

If a horse is difficult to catch when loose in the open,
or in an enclosure, such as a loose box or yard, we may
break him of the annoying trick by teaching him to come
up and follow us on our giving him a signal to do so (see
page 343). We should then reward him with some dainty,
such as a piece of carrot, for his compliance — after having
punished him for his disobedience.

DIFFICULT TO HANDLE, BRIDLE, SADDLE, MOUNT, OR
DISMOUNT FROM.

We may take the " rough edge " off a horse's nervousness
or impatience of control, by driving him with the long

21*

324 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

reins, or by giving him a good turn at the head and tail
method, the effect of which may be completed by the use
of the rope-twitch. By teaching obedience to the word
" steady ! " (see page 118) we can, with a degree of
certainty unattainable by any other means, make the
horse stand like a statue, by mere word of command.
The rope-twitch can be so readily and easily applied,
is so effective in its results, and is so free from evil con-
sequences, that its application is of the utmost value in
rendering horses docile. Having made the refractory
horse acquainted with the meaning of the word " steady ! "
we may take hold of the loose end of the rope-twitch and
direct an assistant to proceed to handle, saddle, mount, or
otherwise try the temper of the animal, whom we should
punish by jerking the rope and uttering the word " steady ! "
the moment he makes the slightest refractory movement.
Each time the punishment is inflicted, the objected-to
action should be recommenced, and the punishment re-
peated until obedience is obtained, when a caress and
encouraging word should testify our approval. We should
continue this instruction until we have made the 'animal
thoroughly obedient. The noose-twitch (see page 122),
from the ease with which it can be applied and taken
off, is particularly useful for making horses steady for
mounting and dismounting. If time is pressing, or if
we are unable to accomplish our purpose by less severe
methods, we may make the horse lie down and keep him
on the ground (see page 149) until he "gives in."

DIFFICULT TO BALL OR DRENCH.

Aided by the rope-twitch (see preceding paragraph),
I have never had any trouble in making refractory horses
take a ball or drench. Mr. D. C. Pallin, A.V.D., informs

UNSTEADINESS. 325

me that he has invariably succeeded with horses which
were deemed impossible to drench, in making them drink
by mounting them, sitting well forward, drawing the head
round to the off-side by the headstall with the left hand,
and then giving them the draught out of a bottle with
the right hand. This gentleman also advises to have a
man on the back of a horse which is difficult to ball, while
the operator is giving the bolus. The aim of these ex-
pedients is to make the horse take the drench or ball
at the time, and not to render him permanently docile
in either of these respects.

UNSTEADY WITH THE WHIP, UNDER FIRE, WHEN DRAWING
SWORDS, WHEN TOUCHED WITH THE HEEL, ETC.

These manifestations of nervousness or of impatience of
control may be corrected, either wholly or for the most
part, by putting the horse through a course of long-rein
work on foot, while subjecting him to the effects of the
causes of his impatience. Or we may use the head and
tail method, or teach the animal the word " steady ! " with
the rope-twitch. For making a horse steady while the man
on his back draws a sword, especially from a steel scabbard,
we should, after having saddled the horse, attach the sword
to the saddle by the waist belt, so as to leave it and the
sabretache (if used) hanging down the near side of the
horse. Then, while using either the rope-twitch or the
head and tail method, we may, with the aid of a long stick,
move the sword from side to side, and withdraw it more
or less out of the scabbard, so as to make it rattle. For
accustoming a horse to stand the pressure of the heel,
we may, in the same manner, teach him first of all to bear
being gently poked in the side with a long stick, the end
of which has been covered with some soft substance. When

326 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

we have got the unmounted animal quiet in this respect,
we may put an assistant on his back, and complete his
education with the rope-twitch, while the rider flourishes,
or cracks, a whip about him, draws a sword, touches him
with the heel, etc.

The use of the rope-twitch will be found a ready means
for making a horse steady while his rider cracks a hunting
whip. An animal which has to carry a huntsman or whip,
must bear this being done without " playing up."

DIFFICULT TO LEAD INTO A DOORWAY, HORSE-BOX, ETC.

For overcoming this fault we may employ the means
detailed on page 195. Sometimes the horse, as a defence
in this case, places himself more or less at right angles to
the direction in which we want him to go. We may then
get him straight by making him turn on the forehand (see
page 193) to the required extent. He will, as a rule, make
no further resistance, as soon as he is straight. If he
still resists, we may reduce him to order by circling,
turning, and reining him back with the long reins (see
page 185). In very exceptional cases it might be necessary
to take the " nonsense " out of him by making him lie
down and keeping him on the ground with his head pulled
round (see page 149).

DIFFICULT TO SHOE.

Horses are frequently made " difficult to shoe," especially
behind, by the practice some smiths employ of pulling
the leg away from the body, so as to upset the animal's
equilibrium. If the horse which is thus treated, gets
punished for making a natural attempt to retain his
balance, we need not be surprised, after a few such repeti-

DIFFICULT TO SHOE,

tions, at finding him difficult, if not dangerous, to shoe.
The principles upon which we should act in correcting
this fault are : (i) to avoid, as much as possible, altering
the animal's equilibrium, while lifting a leg off the ground
and holding it up ; (2) to make the horse- understand that
if he disobeys us we shall punish him, and that if he
complies with our wishes we shall reward him ; and (3), in
the event of his displaying determined resistance, to show
him that he must obey.

In these cases it is, as a rule, best to put on the rope-
twitch in the first instance. To avoid throwing a horse off
his balance when lifting up his hind leg, it is well to help the
horse to place more weight on the other side, by turning
his head towards it, and by gently shoving him over to it.
Thus, if we wish to have the off hind lifted up, we may
get the animal's head bent round to the near side by an
assistant holding the twitch or rein in his left hand, and
pressing his fist against the base of the neck on the near
side (see Fig. 16) ; while the man who lifts the off hind,
or another assistant, presses against that limb. If the foot
which is to be operated upon be a fore one, we may lift
it up (see page 108) and suspend it from the surcingle (see
page 114). If it be a hind one, it is well, first of all, to tie
up the fore leg of that side, and then put on the hind pastern
a hobble (see Fig. 62), or one improvised out of a stirrup-
iron and leather (see Fig. 70). We may then get command
over the leg by pulling it back (see Fig. 64) ; and finally
raise it by a doubled cord attached to the tail or dock (see
Figs. 65, 66, and 68). If we have got a strait-jacket
and find it inconvenient to attach a rope or cord to the
animal's tail, we may deprive him of his power to kick
us, if we put on him the strait- jacket, which should
be loose enough for its presence not to interfere with the
horse preserving his balance ; and may then lift up the hind

328 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

leg by a rope or strap attached to the pastern, preferably
by means of a hobbte. We should gentle the limb, whether
it be a fore or hind one, and should gradually accustom
the foot to the hammer ; correcting the horse with the
twitch, if obliged to do so. For further directions on this
subject, see page 133.

BUCK JUMPING.

I have seen very many cases of this vice among Australa-
sian, South African, and South American horses ; but
none among European horses, Arabs, Barbs, or East Indian
horses. The means which I have found to be most effica-
cious in eradicating or in preventing it are : giving the
horse a good " mouth ; " proving to him that, despite
all his efforts to do so, he will be unable to buck while
a man is on his back ; and producing on his mind a strong
impression of our power over him. It is evident that the
worst possible lesson which a horse that is inclined to buck
can receive, is that of throwing his rider ; and that the
next worse one is that of bucking. We may begin
by giving the animal one or more sharp lessons with
the long reins (see page 168), circling, turning, and reining
him back, until he is thoroughly " supple." We may
make him lie down and keep him on the ground with his
head pulled round (see page 149), until he apparently
gives in. Having allowed him to get up, we may tie his
head to his tail, saddle him with one girth over the cord (see
page 204), make him revolve round, and gentle him on
the ribs with the end of a stick (see page 325) until he
stands its touch. The horse may now be mounted in
the manner described on page 202. Or we may omit
the head and tail work, and have the horse saddled and
mounted with the long reins on him, as soon as he gets

BUCKJUMPING. 329

on to his feet after undergoing his discipline on the ground.
While holding the long reins with a firm grip, we should
pull the horse round from side to side and rein him back,
the moment the assistant gets into the saddle, so that the
animal may not be able to buck ; and having obtained
control over him, we should circle and turn him at the
walk, trot, and canter, until he goes quietly. The long
reins may now be taken off, and the ordinary reins given
to the rider, who, previous to this, should not touch the
reins, although he may use the breast-plate, neck strap
of the standing martingale, or other convenient object,
as a help, in case of accident, for retaining his balance.
Or we may omit the discipline on the ground, and trust
to the effect of the long reins and head and tail method.
In mild cases, mouthing with the long reins, and using
them in the manner just described, for controlling the horse
when the assistant mounts him, will be sufficient for an
expert.

BITING AND SAVAGING.

Apply the wooden gag (see page 143), and, if necessary,
tie up one fore leg, or put on the strait- jacket. Then
handle the horse, and give him every opportunity to bite,
so as to show him that he cannot effect his purpose, and
that, when he vainly attempts to do so, he will hurt his
mouth by the pressure of the gag on his gums. On this
account, its action is most salutary, and differs entirely
from the muzzle, which simply protects the object of the
animal's resentment, without either checking the practice
of the habit, or punishing him for indulging in it. With
the gag on, the horse is unable to bring his teeth together.
The fore leg may be let down, or the strait- jacket taken
off, as soon as the horse is quiet to handle with the gag
alone. This appliance may be kept in the horse's mouth

330 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

for an hour or longer, during which time he should be
handled with gentleness and freedom ; particular care
being taken not to irritate the animal, whose confidence
and affection we should now endeavour to win. The worst
biter ought to be rendered safe to handle, when the gag
is out of his mouth, by giving him a week's course of three
of these lessons daily, with a subsequent lesson, now and
then, if necessary. For safety sake, the breaker should teach
the horse the meaning of the word " steady ! " (see page
118) with the rope-twitch. Though many bad, treacherous
biters have passed through my hands, I have never met
one which would attempt to bite, immediately after the
gag has been taken out of his mouth, if he had been handled
with it on for a quarter of an hour, or even less. It might
be advisable, with very vicious horses, to make them lie
down, to gentle them on the ground, and, if necessary, to
keep them with their heads turned round (see page 149),
until they had " given in." It is also well to teach them
the word " steady ! " with the rope-twitch.

If the horse under treatment is inclined to " savage,"
that is, to rush at and worry the object of his dislike,
we may render him docile by putting him through the
discipline described in the preceding paragraph, and by
keeping the wooden gag (see page 143) in his mouth during
his lessons with the long reins, and also when riding or
driving him with an ordinary snaffle. Savaging in com-
pany, as at polo or with troops, can generally be cured in
a short time by this treatment. In bad cases, we may
employ the wooden gag instead of the snaffle for con-
trolling the horse with the reins. We can have no con-
fidence in riding or driving a horse which has been inclined
to savage, until we have made him obedient to the aids.

An expert breaker, when driving a vicious horse on foot
with the long reins, can, if the animal rushes at him, always

SAVAGING. 331

turn him round by pulling the outward rein. If he backs
and kicks, he should punish him by pulling him sharply
round, alternately, with each rein.

As the horse instinctively uses the action of biting to
remove or drive away irritating objects, he will sometimes
bite without any vicious intention, and will often, in such
a case, evince his concern, if not regret, at finding that he
has inadvertentlv hurt a human friend.

KICKING AND STRIKING OUT IN FRONT.

We may reduce the kicker to obedience by making him
lie down (see page 144), by keeping him on the ground with
his head pulled round (see page 149), or by the head and
tail plan (see page 155) until he " gives in " ; and then
by thoroughly mouthing him on foot (especially at the
rein-back) with the long reins, so as to make him more
attentive to the indications of the rein than to the practice
of his favourite vice. Teaching the horse the meaning
of the word " steady ! " (see page 118) with the rope-
twitch will also be of use. I have found that long-rein
work on foot is specially applicable to kickers. It not
alone teaches them to obey the aids, but also accustoms
them to be touched about their hind-quarters. When
the breaker is using the long reins, he can always save
himself from being kicked by pulling the horse's head
round with the inward rein.

It is advisable to teach a kicker to turn his hind-
quarters away from us (see page 164) when we approach
him, supposing of course that he is free to do so, as he
would in a loose box for instance.

One of the most objectionable vices a hunter can have
is kicking at other horses or at hounds. The presence of
the orthodox danger signal, in the form of a red bow on the

332 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

animal's tail, is no excuse for bringing into a large field of
horses a brute which will resent^being touched behind ; for
such accidental contact is often unavoidable when going
through gates, or when waiting in a lane or road outside a
covert which is being drawn. Making the horse attentive
to the aids, by putting him through a strict and long course
of instruction, both on foot and when mounted (see Chap-
ters V., VI., and IX.), is certainly the most effective means
of getting such a kicker under control ; for when he has
acquired the habit of not alone obeying the signals given
by hand and leg, but also of keeping his attention fixed
on looking out for them, as long as the rider is on his back,
he will have neither the inclination nor the time to commit
assaults on his neighbours, even under a fair amount of
provocation. To make doubly sure, the rider of the well
broken-in horse which was formerly a kicker in the hunting
field, should, in case of doubt, collect him with hands and
legs, and should lighten his forehand by raising the animal's
head. Here, a touch of the curb and a sharp word of
reproof will aid in maintaining discipline. As a rule,
immediately before a horse kicks with both hind legs,
he transfers a considerable portion of the weight borne by
them to his fore legs, and to do this the more easily, he
lowers his head. As far as I have seen, horses which
kick in the hunting field generally lash out with only one
hind leg, and often do so without the slightest provocation
or warning either to their rider or to the object of their
malice. Also, my experience is that kickers out hunting
strike their victims more frequently without being touched,
than by being stimulated to do so by contact. If to
this indictment we add the fact that when horses which
are strangers to each other, get turned out into a field
together, they are very apt to kick each other, even though
they be usually good-tempered ; we cannot help coming

KICKING. 333

to the conclusion that kicking in the hunting field proceeds
far more often from deliberate vice than from mere tick-
lishness. When a rider gets kicked, he should console
himself by the thought that his broken or contused leg
was the result of faulty aim on the part of the aggressor.
To supplement the effect of hand and leg, it is well to teach
the kicker the meaning of the word " steady ! " (see page
118). With hand, leg and voice we shall have three effec-
tive means of control always at our disposal to remind the
kicker of his duty ; supposing that we commit the sin of
taking him into the hunting field.

Besides the discipline described in this chapter, we may,
with the kicker in harness, use the strait-jacket loosely
put on over the harness to prevent him from doing any
mischief, while giving him sufficient freedom to walk or
trot. I have found that making him lie down by means of
the strait-jacket a few times before putting him between
the shafts has always a very good effect. If he persists in
kicking, there is nothing that will render him so quiet as
keeping him on the ground with his head pulled round (see
page 149) until he gives in. Mr. Mitchell, A.V.D., who is
an excellent breaker, tells me that he has obtained
admirable results with bad kickers, by fixing, parallel to
their sides, two stout poles, each about 7 feet long, secured
in front of the chest and behind the quarters, so that the
animal cannot get free from them, and then letting him
kick until he is tired. This method, and the employment
of a " jingle " (see page 256), by giving the horse nothing
to kick at, will have a good effect in teaching him the
uselessness of doing so. In most cases, I would use the
rope-twitch, to make him connect in his mind the idea of
punishment with the practice of his vice.

An excellent method of curing or preventing the practice
of kicking in harness is to attach, at each side, a rope or

334 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

rein to the crupper, say, four or five inches from the dock,
pass it through a pulley or ring on the shaft, at about
right angles with the point of attachment to the crupper ;
carry it forward, and fix it to the ring of the snaffle, at such
a length that if the horse tries to kick he will give his
lower jaw a violent blow. While acting as a kicking strap,
it will be the means of making the horse associate in his
mind the idea of pain with kicking in harness. We might
connect it to a gag bearing rein, which, besides punishing
the corners of the animal's mouth, would pull his head up,
and thus tend to check the elevation of his hind-quarters
every time he attempted to kick.

The old expedient of tying a kicker's tail to the splinter
bar is often successful in breaking the animal of his vice.
In other cases, it serves only to aggravate the objectionable
habit. For this object, the tail may be secured by a double
sheet bend (see Fig. 65).

I believe it is impossible, even with the most careful
instruction, to render safe in harness some bad-tempered,
treacherous horses which have had a successful trial or two
at kicking a trap when between the shafts. The memory
of such an experience appears to be particularly lasting in
the equine mind.

For striking out in front, we may tie up one fore leg
(see page 112), put the strait-jacket on (see page 129),
apply the rope-twitch (see page 120), or tie the horse's
head to his tail (see page 155), and gentle both fore legs.
The use of the rope-twitch is generally the quickest method.

The vice of kicking in the stable at persons or horses
may be cured or kept in check by a few sharp lessons in
making a horse come up to us with the whip (see page 343) ;
for by such instruction we can teach the an;mal to turn his
quarters away from us, the moment we raise our hand in
a threatening manner. We may also teach, him to obey

KICKING.

335

the word "steady! " (see page 118) with the rope-twitch,
and while that is on his head, we may bring horses close up
behind him, and correct him sharply by jerking the rope.
We should on no account forget to use the word " steady ! "
every time we jerk the rope. As a precaution, we may
make the horse "stand over" in his stall, by pulling his
head round with a cord attached to the side of the head-
stall, passed through a ring on the top of the roller, and

Fig. 123. — Pulling kicker's head round.

carried outside of the stall (see Fig. 123). Whenever we
pull this cord in order to make the horse turn his quarters
away from us, we should employ some appropriate verbal
order, such as " over ! "

Although I have had but little experience of breaking
horses of the vice of kicking at night in the stable, I might
suggest the use of the strait-jacket (see page 129), which
should be loose enough to allow the animal to lie down
and get up. .1 have seen it recommended, in such cases,

336

FAULTS OF TEMPER.

to hang some soft object, such as a large bag filled with
hay, behind the animal, so that, when he kicked, it would
give to the stroke, and would then swing back and hit
him, without hurting him ; the effect being that the horse
would get tired of kicking the inoffensive object, and he
would accordingly drop the habit. If this method be
adopted, I would suggest that the animal should, before

Fig. 124. —Tail tied with tapes to prevent horse rubbing it.

being left for the night, be accustomed to the stuffed bag,
or whatever else is used, touching him. Tying up one
fore leg, or applying the rope-twitch, will keep him quiet
while this is being done. I take for granted that he has
been previously made thoroughly docile, with the excep-
tion of this particular vice. The strait-jacket, loosely put
on, would, I have no doubt, prevent the kicking. If it was
properly applied, and gradually let out, say, a hole or two
each night, it would, in all probability, break the horse of

KICKING. 337

this trick. Connecting together by a rope the near fore
with the near hind, and the off fore with the off hind, or
connecting together both hind legs, passing a rope from
the coupling rope, between the fore legs, round the base
of the neck and securing it, would effectively prevent
kicking ; but such gear would not be safe to be left on at
night ; as the horse might get " cast " in his stall by his
legs becoming entangled in it. The habit of abruptly
kicking from time to time with one hind leg, is a symptom
of the presence of a particular kind of mange insect
(symbiotes) which infests the legs. I have known horses
to kick at night from being disturbed by rats, in which
case a cat should be kept in the stable.

PAWING AT NIGHT.

We may prevent the practice of this vice by employing
a spancel (coupling strap) to connect the animal's fore
legs together, so as to give him freedom to lie down, but
not to paw. The use of this strap would, no doubt, in
time cure the vice.

PAWING BACK THE LITTER.

I note that a correspondent, replying to a query in The
Field, as to some means of stopping this practice, which
causes the horse to sleep more or less on the bare floor,
states that connecting the fore legs in the manner I have
described in the preceding paragraph, will accomplish
the object in view, and, after a few repetitions, will wean
the animal from the habit.

RUBBING THE TAIL.

Although this vice comes more within the province of
the veterinary surgeon than within that of the breaker ;
it may not be out of place if I mention that a bandage

22

338 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

wrapped round the dock, or Mr. D. C. Tallin's plan of
tying round the animal's tail two separate pieces of tape (see
Fig. 124), will almost always make him stop the practice of
this habit. If the rubbing be due to disease, appropriate
remedies should be employed.

SLEEPING STANDING.

There are many horses that will never, voluntarily, lie
down — a habit which seriously detracts from their capa-
city for work. Such animals might be taught to lie down
(see page 144), and made to do so in their stall. Having
no experience in this matter, I offer this advice merely as
a possibly useful suggestion. In all cases, a good, deep
bed of straw will be a strong inducement for a horse to lie
down.

DIFFICULT TO HARNESS AND UNHARNESS.

We may circle the horse on foot, with the long reins
(see page 168), and rein him back while he is in the shafts,
so as to accustom him to them. We may then tie up one
fore leg, apply the rope-twitch, and have the horse har-
nessed by drawing up the cart, while he is kept standing
still. After repeating this once or twice, the leg may be
let down, and the harnessing performed as before. After
the horse has become quite steady, he may be backed into
the shafts. Or we may put the strait-jacket on over the
harness, make the horse lie down two or three times with
it, and having got him on to his feet again, draw the
traces of the strait-jacket so tight that, if he attempts to
move, he will fall down. While keeping him standing
with the strait-jacket on, we may try to bring the shafts
over his back, letting him fall if he begins to struggle.
In the great majority of cases, the horse will quickly
learn to regard the fact of falling down as an irresistible

DIFFICULT TO HARNESS. 339

punishment for his unsteadiness ; and will accordingly
give in, and stand quietly. After he does so, we may
gradually slacken out the traces of the strait- jacket, until
we can remove this apparatus altogether. For safety
sake, in single harness, we should use the kicking strap,
or a " jingle," if we can get one. If the animal be very
determined in his resistance, we may take the obstinacy
out of him by making him lie down, and keeping his
head turned round (see page 149).

If the animal is difficult to unharness, we may use the
rope-twitch, which wih1 be sufficient in almost ah* cases. To
prevent the horse springing forward, we may make him lie
down a few times by means of the strait-jacket, and we
may put it on him before taking him out of the shafts ; or
we may take the " nonsense " out of him by making him
lie down (see page 144), or by keeping him on the ground
with his head pulled round (see page 149).

GETTING THE TAIL OVER THE REIN AND KICKING WHEN IN

HARNESS.

I regret to say that I know no means of permanently
breaking a horse of the habit of whisking his tail over
the reins at times when it is within reach. We may,
however, by driving the animal on foot, and accustoming
him to bear the rein under the tail, or by using the rope-
twitch (see page 120), teach him not to kick when he
finds the rein in that position. I presume that the
horse might be taught, by the rope-twitch, not to whisk his
tail over the rein on feeling it touch his hind-quarters ;
although, not having practically tested this expedient, I
cannot speak positively as to its merits. I have rendered
several animals which were previously addicted to the habit
in question, quiet when the rein got under their tails, or
touched their quarters, by the means described ; or by

22*

340 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

gentling those parts when the animal was tied head and
tail (see page 155). I have met some cases in which the
kicking was caused by pain, due to pressure on melanotic
tumours that were on the under surface of the dock.

LYING DOWN IN HARNESS.

We should make the animal obey the indications of the
reins, by driving him on foot with the long reins ; at first
by himself, and finally in a trap. If he lies down, a sharp
slap on his muzzle will generally make him jump up. The
most effective means for curing this vice is making the
horse lie down and holding him on the ground with his
head pulled round (see page 149) until he gives in.

HANGING BACK IN THE STALL.

To prevent, if not to cure, the vice of hanging back
against the chain or rope which connects the horse's head-
stall to the manger, we may substitute for the head-stall
a rope halter (see Fig. 19), which will hurt the horse (see
page 196) if he pulls against it, but will relieve his jaws of
painful pressure the moment he comes forward ; or we may
attach the horse to the manger by the crupper leading rein
(see page 196).

In any case the rope should not be so short as to prevent
him from lying down in comfort. I have, been told that
a good way to cure this trick is to shorten the chain by
tying together, with a piece of thin twine, two of its links
which are some distance apart, so that when the animal
pulls on the chain he will break the twine, and will then
cease to pull, because he will then .believe that he has
broken the chain. For a horse with this habit, a broad
band may be placed across the entrance to the stall, so as
to allow him to rest against it if he likes.

341

CHAPTER XIII.
CIRCUS TRICKS.

General remarks — " Begging " — Bowing and shaking the head — Circling steadily
at liberty — Teaching a horse to follow — Handkerchief work — Jumping over
another horse, etc. — Kicking— Kissing — Kneeling down — Laughing —
Liberty work — Limping — Lying down — Obeying without reins — Polka,
dancing the — Pushing a man out of the ring — Rearing and walking on the
hind legs — See -sawing on a plank, etc. — Shaking hands — Waltzing.

GENERAL REMARKS.

ALTHOUGH circus tricks have little or no connection with
horsemanship ; many of them are interesting from the
fact of their showing how horses can be trained on the
principle of association of ideas, which is employed by all
successful breakers, however much they may differ from
each other as to details.

In teaching these tricks, it is well to accustom the animal
to some invariable and suitable signal, whether manual or
vocal, for each separate feat, and to reward his obedience
by a piece of carrot, lump of sugar, crust of bread, bite of
lucerne, bit of sugar-cane, caress, or other appropriate mark
of approval. Having taught the horse one signal, we may,
for show purposes, gradually substitute for it another signal
which will be less evident to the public. Thus, instead of
making a horse bow (see next page) by pointing our hand,
whip or stick towards his chest, we may obtain the same
result by advancing a foot. The beauty of a performance

342 CIRCUS TRICKS.

like that of Mr. Probasco with his " talking horse,'*
Mahomet, is that the signals are so skilfully arranged and
given that they cannot be detected by the spectators. I
may mention that a " talking horse " is one which bows to
say " yes," shakes his head to signify "no," and paws the
ground to indicate numbers. In this way he can answer
questions in the affirmative or negative, count, do " sums,"
and, when his master has the aid of an accomplice, per-
form " thought-reading " feats. For such work we require
a horse which has a natural aptitude for the business.

BEGGING.

The horse may be taught to " beg," that is to stand
with one fore leg bent and off the ground, by tapping
the leg with a whip or cane, or by pulling up the foot by
means of a strap or cord, while at the same time repeating
the word " beg." As soon as the horse's foot is off the
ground he should be rewarded with some dainty, the very
sight of which, after a short time, will make him " beg " ;
or he will do so if the whip be pointed towards the part.

BOWING AND SHAKING THE HEAD.

These tricks are taught by lightly pricking the horse on,
respectively, the breast or the crest, so as to make him bite
at the offending object, or try to remove it by shaking
his head and neck. He will thus soon learn to make his
bow (to say " yes "), or to shake his head (to say " no ")
at the mere advance of the hand in the direction of the
indicated part. The pin may be held in the hand or fixed
to the end of a stick.

CIRCLING STEADILY AT LIBERTY.

After having taught the horse to circle with the long reins,
we may fix his head in position by side reins so as to obtain

HANDKERCHIEF WORK. 343

adequate control, and lead him round the ring with a lead-
ing rein attached to a cavesson. When we want to make
him halt, we should jerk the leading rein so as to make
the noseband of the cavesson strike his nose, and should
at the same moment bring the point of the lunging
whip in front of his face. By diminishing the painful
action of the cavesson and by continuing the threatening
use of the whip in front of the animal, we shall soon be
able to make him halt, rein back or turn, by the whip alone.
Having previously taught him to go on by raising the whip
behind him, we may, while lunging him with the leading
rein and cavesson, make him go forward, vary his pace,
or halt, by merely altering the position of the whip. After
a few lessons we may dispense with the cavesson and lead-
ing rein, and work him " at liberty."

TEACHING A HORSE TO FOLLOW.

Besides the whip method (see page 105), we may teach
the horse to follow us by the use of the Comanche bridle
(see page 126), by making him turn round towards us,
first at one side and then on the other, always accompany-
ing the pull of the cord with the words " Come here ! " or
some similar expression. Mr. C. G. Frasier taught me this
method.

HANDKERCHIEF WORK.

We may teach a horse to pick up a handkerchief by,
while standing at his side, pricking him on the ribs with
a pin or pinching him so as to make him turn round and
snap, and, consequently, to seize with his teeth a hand-
kerchief which is held in a convenient position for him
to take it. When he catches hold of the handkerchief, we
should gently remove it and should substitute some
appropriate dainty, such as the usual carrot, for it. In

344 CIRCUS TRICKS.

this way the horse will soon learn to recognise the
fact that he gets a reward for taking hold of the hand-
kerchief, and can then be readily taught to pick it up or to
take it off one of his legs, to which it has been loosely tied.
Horses that are naturally ticklish and inclined to snap are
the quickest to learn this trick in this manner. Instead of
getting the horse to catch hold by irritating him, the same
object may be attained by tying up in the handkerchief a
piece of carrot or other bonne bouche, and inducing the
animal to lift up the handkerchief in his endeavour to get
at the contained delicacy.

When a horse has learned to catch hold of a handker-
chief, he may be taught to fire off a gun, placed on a stand
or on his back, by attaching a handkerchief to its trigger,
and by indicating with the whip or hand the object to
be seized and pulled.

JUMPING OVER ANOTHER HORSE, ETC.

Let us suppose that we want to make one horse stand
perfectly still and unheld, while another jumps over him.
We might then adopt the following procedure. Take
an enclosed ring, like that of a circus, and close to its side,
and on one of its diameters, construct a trench about 3
feet deep and 2 feet 6 inches wide, with a ramp leading
down to it. Within this trench place a clothes-horse or
other convenient stand, with rugs over it, and teach the
jumper to go round the circle by means of the whip, and
jump this obstacle. We may then substitute for the
dummy the real horse, which we can teach, by means of
the rope-twitch (see page 118), to stand perfectly still.
All that now remains is to gradually fill up the trench while
continuing the lessons. We may dispense with or retain
the side reins.

LIBERTY WORK. 345

KICKING.

A horse can be taught to kick by touching him on the
croup with the whip, and patting him on the neck when
he kicks, which he will soon learn to do, if he be that way
inclined, on being merely " shown " the whip.

The tricks by which the unridable mule of circuses gets
rid of his would-be riders, are, generally, rearing and
kicking in quick succession ; followed, if necessary, by
lying down and rolling. He will do any or all of these
antics in obedience to signals given with the whip.

KISSING.

This is done by accustoming the horse to take some
coveted bit of food out of one's mouth. In teaching a
horse to do that part of the Dick Turpin " act," in which
Black Bess, while lying exhausted on the ground, turns
round and kisses her master before dying, the animal is
made to lift up her head by pricking her with a pin on the
shoulder.

KNEELING DOWN.

See " Lying down."

LAUGHING.

This meaningless trick is accomplished in the same way
as a horse is taught to shake its head, by pricking him
with a pin ; except that the irritation is applied to the
muzzle. The horse thus learns, on the signal being given,
to turn up his upper lip, and show his teeth.

LIBERTY WORK.

In a circus, horses are said to work " at liberty " when
they perform their " turns " loose in the ring and without

346 CIRCUS TRICKS.

a rider. Side reins are generally employed in order to
obtain the desired control. I need hardly say that
the various feats look much more effective if side reins are
not put on. As a rule, the only indications which such
horses obey are those of the whip ; although the ring-
master will often make them appear to carry out his verbal
orders. For ordinary work at liberty we want to make
the horse go round the ring at the walk, trot, canter or
to halt at word1 of command (see page 343) ; to come up
to us (see page 343) ; to turn round ; to rear (see page 349) ;
to kick (see page 345) ; to kneel down (see page 345) ; to
lie down (see below) ; to pick up a handkerchief, or to
remove a handkerchief from any leg on which it has been
tied (see page 343) ; to limp on any required leg (see
next paragraph) ; to fire off a gun (see page 344) ; and
other kindred acts, all of which are done in obedience to
the whip, and possibly in memory of the carrot which
on previous occasions has been given as a reward.

LIMPING.

A horse can be taught to go lame on any particular
leg when at liberty by making him keep it off the ground
by tapping it with a whip, and continuing to do so when
he is in movement. After a time, the animal will obey
the signal of merely pointing the whip in the direction
of the limb which the operator wishes the horse to
favour.

LYING DOWN.

Make the horse lie down in the manner described on
page 144. When he does so, without offering any resist-
ance, let down the strapped-up leg, and repeat the
lesson, until perfect obedience is obtained. We may
then take off the throwing gear, and make him lie down

OBEYING WITHOUT REINS. 347

by drawing his head round to, say, the near side, with the
rein, while standing alongside the off shoulder. The horse
will now easily learn to lie down, on receiving a signal to
do so, as for instance by bringing his head round. It is
well to conduct these lessons on a soft piece of ground with
plenty of litter on it, so as to afford the animal an induce-
ment to lie down. Colonel Salkeld, of the 2nd Bengal
Cavalry, has suggested to me the advisability of giving this
instruction to army horses, when ordered, after parade, at
a time when they are more or less tired.

Having taught the horse to lie down in the foregoing
way, we shall have little difficulty in making him do so by
touching his fore legs with a whip. With this signal we
may teach him to kneel down on either fore leg, or on both
fore legs, and, while in the latter position, to place his face
on the ground. We may also teach him to sit up on his
haunches like a dog.

In circuses, horses are generally taught to lie down and
to kneel down by means of the whip. To do this we may
first of all teach the animal, as in " begging " (see page
342), to hold up either fore leg on its being touched with
a whip, then strap up one leg, and make him hold up the
other, and thus come down on his knees. Or we may
pull his fore legs from under him (a la Norton Smith, see
page 160), one after another, while giving him the signal
with the whip.

OBEYING WITHOUT REINS.

Mr. Rockwell, the American horse-tamer, instructed
three horses so well, that he was able to drive them to-
gether in a trap, and make them moderate their speed,
turn, stop, and go on, in perfect obedience, by signals
without reins. " Professor " Sample used to drive

348 CIRCUS TRICKS.

tandem with a leader that did his work without either
reins or traces ! The following would be appropriate
signals for performing Rockwell's feat : — " Clicking "
with the tongue, for "go on " ; " steady," for " moderate
speed " ; holding up whip, or saying " whoa ! " for
" stop " ; holding whip to the left, for " turn to the left " ;
holding whip to the right, for " turn to the right."
Sample's tandem leader did his " act " without in-
struction.

The right-about-turn and left-about-turn might be in-
dicated by bringing the whip round to the right rear,
or to the left rear, as the case might be. The signals
should be taught the horse by employing them, on all
occasions, when using the equivalent indications of the
rein, which, to be additionally impressive, should be given
sharper than usual.

It is comparatively easy to teach, when mounted, a suit-
able horse to obey without reins a number of indications,
the effect of which is good in proportion to the difficulty
experienced by the observer in seeing their application.
Here, alteration of the position of the rider's weight comes
largely into play. The effect of the voice may be restricted
to obtaining the halt. The horse should be light-mouthed,
and of a generous and observant disposition. We may
commence in a riding-school or other suitable enclosure.

POLKA, DANCING THE.

A circus horse at liberty is said to dance the polka when
he changes the leg at every stride (see page 287) at the
canter. This movement, which is particularly difficult to
teach, may be obtained by the use of the long whip in
getting the required changes of leg.

SEE-SAWING. 349

PUSHING A MAN OUT OF THE RING.

The familiar circus trick of a horse putting his forehead
against the back of the clown or ringmaster and pushing
him out of the ring, can be taught the animal by making
him, by means of the whip, follow us (see page 343), while
our back is turned towards him. We should then gradually
make him come up close to us, in which endeavour it is
well to use a whip in each hand, until we get him to rest
his head against our back. We must, of course, regulate
the direction in which to proceed ; for we cannot do
more in this case than to make the horse follow close
behind us.

REARING AND WALKING ON THE HIND LEGS.

In a circus a horse is taught to rear by taking the
snaffle reins over his head and jerking them, so as to hurt
his mouth, and by touching him with the whip in front.
Many animals are unintentionally taught to rear, by
precisely similar treatment, outside of circuses. In a
short time the circus horse will stand up on his hind legs
and walk about in obedience to the mere flourishing of a
whip. When a horse is trained to walk on his hind legs
with a rider (generally, some misguided woman) on his
back, the jerking of the reins, rather than the action of the
whip, will have to be utilised. Such performances are as
much opposed to the principles of true horsemanship, as
they are stupid to look at.

SEE-SAWING ON A PLANK, ETC.

Employ the rope-twitch (see page 118) and Comanche
bridle (see page 126).

350 CIRCUS TRICKS.

SHAKING HANDS.

Teach, as in " begging," q.v., the animal to advance
his foot, by pulling it forward.

WALTZING.

Tie the horse head and tail (see page 155), and make
him go round by flourishing the whip. As the animal
obeys, gradually slacken out the cord, until it can be re-
moved. For teaching two horses to waltz together, we
may at first tie them together head to tail, and make them
go round with the whip.

INDEX.

INDEX.

ADDITIONAL school movements, 282

Admiration, love of, 19

Affection, 18

Aggressiveness, 27

"Aids," the, 48, 55, 58, 61, 78

Amblers to trot, teaching, 320

Anger, 15

Angle of face to ground, 70-7 1 , 78

Ape, 11, 14, 16

Appuyer, 280

Arab horses, 10

Army horses, 33, 48, 312

Association of ideas, 3, 7, 35, 38, 41,

48

Attention, gaining horse's, 32
Australia, 236
Australian Blacks, 10

horses, 32, 328

rough riders, 205

Automatic actions, 2, 5

BACK, breaking pony's, 153

Balancing pole of body, 82

Ball, difficult to, 324

Ball's Bridge, 251

Banham, Mr., 104

Banks, Irish, 240

Barroil, M., 87, 282

Bars of the mouth, 40, 61, 80

Baucher, 79, 196, 233, 260, 261

Bearing reins, 92, 169

Bearskin, 20

Beaticoup de jambes, etc., 78

Begging, 342

Behind work, heart, 32

Belvoir, 248

Bit, keeping behind the, 319

Biting, 38, 158, 329

Black Bess, 345

Blindfolding horse, 116

Boers, the, 161, 162

Bolting, 318

Boots for jumping, 244

Boring, 185, 303

Bowing, 342

Breaker, danger of standing behind, 10

— , requirements in the, 31
Breaking methods, selection of, 55

, variety in, 55

Breaking, ordinary, 48

, objects of, 29

, scope of, 29

" Breaking " when wanted to walk or

trot, 319
Bridle, Buonaparte, 121

— , difficult to, 323

, keeping behind the, 76, 77, 319

, twitch, 123

Bronchos, 10
Buckjumper, 44
Buckjumping, 328
Buckland, Frank, 1 1
Buonaparte bridle, 121
Bushmen, 10
'Bus horse, 5

CABMEN, London, 91, 170
Camel, 20

Canter, 188, 223, 268
Cantering falsely, 223, 271

, on three legs, 286

— , with off fore, 223

23

354

INDEX.

Cantle of saddle, rein under, 174

Capped knee, 114

Carriage of head and neck, 69

Carrot, 18, 41

Castration, 52

Cat, 8, 1 8

Catch, difficult to, 323

Catching loose horse, 101, 164

Cause and effect, 10, 89

Cavalry Drill, 199, 280, 294

Cavalry horse, 15, 201, 293

— riding, 78
Cavesson, 40, 128, 241, 343

Chance of doing wrong, not giving, 47
Change of pace, 278

— of leg in canter, 227, 270, 293
Charger, 17

Chaser, the, 249
Chifney, Sam, 262
Children, 11, 14, 40, 66
China pony, 153
Chucking up the head, 308
Circling at liberty, 342

— at the passage, 281

— horse, 81

Circular enclosure with jumps, 241
Circus, 42, 80, 82, 260, 287, 347

— tricks, 341
Civilisation, effect of, 4
Cold blood, jumping in. 33, 248
Collecting horse, 72 221, 265-268
Colonel, 15

Comanche bridle, 126, 196
Come up, making horse, 196

— , teaching to, 105, 343
Companionship, horse's love of, 18
Conformation, 65
Consciousness, 2
Control, impatience of, 14
Corn, sieve of, 12
Counterchange of hand, 277
Courage, 23
Cow, 1 8

— kicking, no
Crib-biting, 17

'Cross country horses, 49

Crosstrees, 173

Cruiser, 51

Crupper leading rein, 196, 198

Curbs, 79, 243, 264

distance, 262

Cut and laid hedge, 240

Cuvier, 1 1

DANGER of standing behind breaker,

96

Discipline, 45
Diseases, 52

Dismount from, difficult to, 323
Disunited in canter, 223
Dogs, 4, 8, 11, 14, 16, 19, 21, 23, 54
Donkeys, 12, 20
Doorway, refusal to enter, 9
Double sheet bend, 138
Drench, difficult to, 324
Driving on foot, 175, 253

— pad, 172
Dublin, 251
Dumb jockeys, 92

EARLY training, 32

Elastic reins, 94

Elephant, 12. 14

Emulation, 18, 42

Enclosure, breaking, 95

Ends of body, answering rein with

both, 64

England, 222, 236
Entires, 19, 28, 39, 265
Epaule en dedans, 280
Esa, Mr., 125
Evening Standard, 160
Experience, 3

FACE, angle of, 72

Faintheartedness, 27

Fallon, 192

Falsely, cantering and galloping, 223,

271, 289

Fanchion, 121, 198
Fatigue, 43
Feeling, sense of, 21

INDEX.

355

Fences, refusing, 246
, running out at, 246

— , rushing at, 246
Field, The, 337

" Fight," forcing horse to, 149
Figure of eight, 225, 271
Fillis, 20, 42, 265, 282, 285, 286, 287
Fire, unsteady under, 325
Fly, 38

Follow, teaching to, 105, 127, 343
Foot, breaking on, 163
drawn back, 60

— , driving on, 175
Fordham, George, 262
Forehand, lightening, 66, 67

— , too much weight on, 321

— , turning on, 193, 212, 271, 315
Foreleg, extension of, 282

— , holding up, 1 1 1

— , lifting up, 108

— , noosing, 109

— , tying up, 108, 112, 114
Frasier, Mr., 121, 343
Freedom, love of, 14
"Funk," 247

GAG, wooden, 38, 143, 329
Galway, 236
Gatacre, General, 138
"Game" horses, 27
Geldings, 19, 39, 265
Gentling horse, 96, 148

— hind legs, 136
Germinal, 287
Gleeson, " Professor," 160
Goat, 1 8, 66

Grazing requirements, 65
Gregariousness, 17, 32
Groom, 12, 54
Ground, keeping horse on, 149, 154,

166

Guards, leather, 91
Gun, firing off, 344

HABITS, 3, 4, 55
Hack, park, 292, 295

Half hitch, 141

Halt, collecting at the, 72, 77, 93,

265

— , the, 74, 230, 278

, by word, 177

Haltering loose horse, 101
Halter rope, 99

— twitch, 116
Hamilton, 144
Handkerchief work, 343
Handle, difficult to, 323
Hands, shaking, 350
Hanging against pole, 322

— on headstall, 340
Harness, breaking to, 253, 295

— , difficult to, 338

— , falling in, 154

— , hanging against pole in, 322
horses, 69, 93

— , jibbing in, 312

— , kicking in, 333 s~
, lying down in, 340

— , plunging when starting in, 322

— , pulling away from pole in, 322

— work making horse pull, 305
Head and neck, carriage of, 69

and tail method, 82, 121, 155,

204, 208, 319

— pulled round on ground, 150
— , shaking the, 342

stall, hanging on the, 340

stall, removing, 189

stall twitch, 132

, throwing up the, 308

Hearing, sense of, 19
Heart behind work, 32
Heavy in front, 67, 74
Hedge, cut and laid, 240
Heel, accustoming horse to, 325

— , unsteady when touched with, 325
High school, 80, 228, 260

school horse, 201

Hill, zigzagging up, 13
Hilly countries, 12
Himalayas, 4
Hind legs, gentling, 136

356

INDEX.

Hind legs, lifting up, 133

— , walking on, 349
- when jumping, injury to, 68,

230, 243, 320
Hind-quarters away from us, teaching

to turn, 164, 331

sideways, carrying, 321

, turning on, 272

— under horse, bringing, 66
Hippo lasso, 129

Hobble, 136

— , improvised, 142
Holding horse, 97

— horse on ground, 153

— up fore leg, 1 1 1
Horse-breaking, objects of, 29

— , ordinary system of, 6
— , scope of, 29
— , 'bus, 5
control, theory of, 29

— control, methods of, 95

— tamers, 48, 51, 55, 189, 198, 208

— taming, 30

taming machine, 161

Horses, wild, 4
Humouring horses, 44
Hunters, 33, 201, 246, 304, 331
Hunting, 52, 53, 84, 306, 308, 332
Hurdle-racer, the, 250

IDEAS, 3

Imitation, 17, 33, 42

Indian war bridle, 126

Initiative, depriving horse of, 73, 262

Instinct, 4, 56

Intelligence, 8, 22, 28, 35

Intensity of impression, 6, 48

Ireland, 192, 222, 262

Irish outside car, 257

Islington, 236

TAMBETTE, 286
Jealousy, 54
Jennings, Mr. R., 155
Jerking the reins, 40

Jibbing, 15, 16, 27, 33, 41, 51, 77, 309,

3M

Jingle, a, 256
Jumper, show, 251
Jumping, 74, 91, 235
competitions, 236, 251

— faults, 244
over another horse, 344

— , strain on hind legs in, 68

KEMP, Mr., 308

Key to horse's mouth, 308

Kicking, 19, 68, 136, 158, 331, 334,

345

Kindness, 44
Kirby Gate, 248
Kissing, 345
Kneeling down, 345
Knights of old, 78, 261
Knot which will not run, 126
Knowledge of his own strength, 46, 5°

LADIES' horses, 291

Lamp-post, 16

Language, horse understanding our, 35

Lassoing horse, 164

Laughing, 345

Laziness, 27

Lead, difficult to, 326

, teaching to, 127, 195

Leading horse, 97, 199, 240
• off in canter, 224, 268

-- rein, crupper, 196, 198

— with wrong leg, 321
Leather guards, 91
Le Bon, Dr., 6

Leg, changing, 188, 224, 226, 270
Leg strap, 112
Legs as an aid, 60, 220, 222
Leicestershire, 236, 248
Liberty work, 345

Lie down, making horse, 144, 319, 346
Lightening forehand, 66, 68
Light in hand, 74

INDEX.

357

Limping, 346

Litter, pawing back the, 337
Long reins, 83, 168, 237
Lunging horse, 81

MACHINE, horse-taming, 161

Magic touch, 31

Magner, 198

Mahomet, the talking horse, 342

Mane of racehorses, plaiting, 10

, scratching, 22

Mange provoking kicking, 337
Mares, 18, 28, 39, 177, 265
Martingale, running, 90
— , standing, 87, 190
Memory, 2, 5

Mental qualities of the horse, I
Military exigencies, 49

riding, 67, 78

Miller, Capt. E. D., 295

Mind, i

Mitchell, Mr., 333

Monkey, II, 14, 22

Moore, Mr. J. H., 193, 238

Morgan, Professor, 3, 13

Mount, difficult to, 323

Mountain paths, 13

Mounted breaking, 201

Mounting, Australian method of, 205

horse for first time, 202

Mouth, 48, 55, 59, 76

, hardness of, 73

Mouthing, theory of, 58
Mules, 12, 1 6, 296

NECK muscles, 70

— , stiffness of, 73
Nerves, i

— , over-stimulation of, 33
Nervousness, 24-26

— and vice, distinction between, 24
Nervous system, I
Newmarket, 185
"No!" 342
Noose twitch, 122, 165

Noose which will not run, 121
Noosing fore leg, 109
Nose-bands, 90, 92
Nymphomania, 19, 163

OBEDIENCE, necessity of, 44, 57, 62,

306

Obstinacy, 26

Off fore, cantering with, 227
Offett, Denton, 160
Orders, making horse understand our,

35

Ourang-outang, n
Outside car, 257
Over-reaching, 244

PACERS to trot, teaching, 320

Pad, driving, 172

Pain (see also punishment), 38, 41

Pallin, Mr., 324

Park hack, 292, 295

Pas (Thole, 267

Passage, the, 273, 278, 290

Passage, le, 267

Pawing at night, 337

back the litter, 337

Peat, General, 144
Permanency in breaking, 55
Personal influence, 53
Petting horse, 44
Phonograph, 3
Piaffer, 267, 287
Piaffer ballote, 287
Pigeon, tooth-billed, 4
Pillars, the, 92, 192
Pirouette ordinaire, 273

renversee, 272

Plaiting mane of racehorses, 10
Plank, see-sawing on, 349
Pluck, 23

— , spoiling, 46
Plunging in harness, 322
Points of the Horse, 78, 87, 186, 223,

228, 250, 251

358

INDEX.

Pole, hanging against, 322
— , pulling away from, 322

Polka, dancing the, 2865.348

Polo ponies, 91, 294, 317, 330
— , Capt. E. D. Miller's book on, 293

Ponies, hill, 4, 12

Pony mare, 16

Prancing, 319

Pratt, Mr., 104, 121, 151, 198

Probasco, Mrs., 342

Pulling, 304

Punishment, 27, 37

Pushing man out of ring, 349

QUICK breaking methods, 7, 48

RAABE and Lunel, 129

Racecourses, 27, 58, 84, 288, 317

Race-horses, 10, 39, 67, 185, 288

Railway lines, 82

Ranks, refusing to leave, 33

Rapid methods of breaking, see quick

Rarey, 30, 48, 51, 112, 144, 159, 160

Rassembler, 79

Rawlins, Colonel, 108

Rearing, 68, 77, 314, 319, 349

Reason, 8-n

" Refusing," 64, 237, 317

Rein-bearers, 173

Rein, getting tail over, 339

" Reining," 92

back, 84, 185, 216, 290, 319

Reins, 59, 170 '

— , bending to the, 77

— , elastic, 94

, jerking the, 40

, long, 83, 1 68

, obeying without, 347

— , pull of the, 80
Removing gear, 189

— headstall, 189
Renz, Circus, 287
Repetition, 6
Revenge/i6

Reward, 37

Rideable and driveable, 47

Rider, timid, 36

Riding school, 17, 33, 235, 264

the bridle, 222

River, 35

Rockwell, Mr., 198, 347

Rope-halter, 99

• , trailing, 20

— twitch, 120, 165
Routing 226, 235, 263, 264, 271
Rubbing the tail, 337
Running away, 45, 304

— grounds, 82
— out, 317

— out at fences, 63, 317

— reins, 92
Rushing at fences, 246

SADDLE, buckjumping, 210

— , difficult to, 323
Safety in breaking, 47
St. Petersburg, 161
Salkeld, Colonel, 347
Sample, "Professor," 47, 144, 155,

160, 161, 347
Saunders, Mr., 114
Savaging, 19, 28, 329
School breaking, 260

— horse, 264, 277

— instruction, course of, 281
— movements, additional, 282

— walk, 267

See-sawing on plank, 349
Self-control, 8

— preservation, 14
Serpentine, 287
Sexual instinct, 19, 52
Shaking hands, 350

-•- the head, 342
Sheet bend, double, 138
Shires, the, 236
Shoe, difficult to, 45, 326,
Shooting pony, 296.
Shoulder-in, 280

INDEX.

359

Shoulders fining down, 66

Show-jumper, the, 251

Shying, 5, 222, 316

Side reins, 92, 192

Sieve of corn, 12

Sight, sense of, 20

Signals, horse understanding our, 35,

37, 40 -

Sleeping standing, 338
Smell, sense of, 21
Smith, Mr. Norton, 160
Snaffles, 79, 168, 243, 264, 307
Snake, 20
Soldier, 67
South Africa, 28, 32, 161, 164, 165,

328
Spanish trot, 80, 261, 285

— walk, 80, 261, 284
Speed when jumping, regulating, 244
Spiti, 4

Splinter bar, tying tail to, 334
Spoiled horses, 49, 54
Sprain of hind legs, 68, 230
Spurs, 232

Stall, hanging back in, 340
Standard, Evening, 160
Standing behind breaker, danger in

96

Stand still, making horse, 106
Star-gazing, 74, 91, 175, 308, 319
"Steady!" 36, 118,324
Stick, 59, 165

Stirrup leather for leg strap, 113
Stopping by word, 177
Strait-jacket, 129, 154
Strength, knowledge of his own, 46, 50
Stubbornness, 51, 151 -
Stumbling, 10

Submission to superior power, 22
Sulking, 26, 27, 32, 51, 149, 158, 166
Surroundings, 34
Sword, unsteady with, 325

Tail rope, 145, 152

— , rubbing the, 337
, short, 141

— to splinter-bar, tying, 334
— : with tape, tying, 337

" Taking off," when jumping, 244
Talking horse, 342
Tattenham Corner, 289
Temper, faults of, 323
Tent- pegging, 317
Tiger, 5, 23

Time required for breaking, 233
Touch with horse, keeping in, 76
Treachery, 22, 28, 51
Trooper, 201, 293
Trot, the, 218, 266, 279
-Trying yearlings, 288
Turn, difficult to, 317

hind - quarters away from us,

teaching horse to, 164, 331

— on forehand, 193, 212, 271
on hind-quarters, 272

on three legs, 286

Turning at liberty, 273

horse, 63, 81, 179, 218, 220, 294

Turpin, Dick, 345
Twitch, bridle, 123

— , halter, 116
, headstall, 122

— , noose, 122, 165

— , ordinary, 116, 118, 120, 125

— , rope, 118, 165
" Tying horses up," 92

UNDERSTANDING our orders, horse, 35
Unharness, difficult to, 338
Uniformity of conduct, 22
Unsteadiness, 325

VARIETY in breaking methods, 55

Vice, 24, 50

Voice, effect of, 41, 42, 60

TAIL, bandaging, 337
over rein, 339

WALK, the, 71, 217
Waltzing, 350

360

INDEX.

Wardrop, -Colonel, 192

Weaving, 17

Weight, distribution of, 63, 66, 187,

218, 321

— , rider's, 60, 63, 64, 68, 227
Wells, 262
Whip, 39, 105, 181, 232

— , unsteady with, 325, 326
Whipping round, 318
Whips, using two, 312

"Whoa!" 177
Woods, Major, 154

YEARLINGS, 288

"Yes," 342

ZEBRAS, 10, 296
Zigzagging up hill, 13

Printed at The Chapel River Press, Kingston, Surrey.

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