TIII:

HEBREW LANGUAGE.

THE

HEBREW LANGUAGE

VIEWED IN THE LKiHT OF

ASSYRIAN RESEARCH.

BY

D*{FREDERIc)j)ELITZSCH,

PROFESSOR OK A-*YIUt'MtOY IS THE I'XIVERSITY OF LEIPZIG.

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,

11. HENRIETTA STKKKT. CiiVKXT (SAIJDKN. I.(»M>«'\ AND 20, SOUTH FREDERICK >TI{KKT. KlUXISfKiiH.

1883.

All rights reserved.

Printed by MITZQER AND WITTIG at Leipzig.

PREFACE.

The Milistanee of the present treatise is a reprint, in a ivvi>i-il ami augmented form, of a series of article which appeared in Xos. 2897, 2898, 2900, 2902, 2908, 29u'J, 2913 "!' the Athenaeum.1 In reissuing these articles in the shape of a separate publication I have in view the double object

• it' making them accessible to a larger circle of readers and

• •I' elicitini: the opinions of scholars competent to judge of the soundness or otherwise of the principles here advocated. My esteemed teacher, Professor Dillmann. in his discussion on the site of Paradise, ironically refers to my owii solution of that difficult question as having been effected by "the \\vll known wand of cuneiform research."2 I am prepared to h.-ar the same remark applied to the present work, which endeavour to apply the iv>ults of Assyriology to the lexico- graphical treatment of the Hebrew language. I reject from the very outset the reproach that I am trying to explain

v.-ry thing" by Assyrian. It is true I have explained A — \ rian itself by its own help and it is no small satis-

1 The importance of Assyriology to Hebrew lexicography; see , May 5. 12. 26; Jane 9; July 21. 28; August 25. 1883. if, 4'h edition, p. 61.

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faction to me that I have arrived at results which have already met with the approval of scholars not biased in favour of Assyriology.

When I commenced the study of Assyrian, Assyriology was in a state of slavish dependency on Arabic lexico- graphy. People were happy to compare the Assyrian takdhi, "to trust," now recognised to mean originally "to be strong,"

with the eighth form of the Arabic J^l (JJot), and felt

only secure under the sheltering roof of Arabic lexicography. I soon became convinced that Arabic was less important to the study of Assyrian than the North Semitic languages, the Hebrew and the Aramaic dialects, a conviction which I regard as the fundamental principle of Assyrian research. When I undertook the compilation of my Assyrian dictio- nary and, in obedience to the first principle of lexicography, began to explain Assyrian by the rich and various stoivs of its own literature, I was first taught by the instructive instances of the verbs byi and bns that Assyrian assigns to these and other stems a meaning far different from that based on the comparison of Arabic, a meaning which not only admirably suits the context, but is also directly .con- firmed by the parattelismus membrorum. Thus the Assyrian dictionary, which embodies a world of ancient Semitic thought and speech, disclosed an entirely new foundation for the understanding of the sacred language of the Old Testament and created a new line ofinterpretation directly opposed to the old system of Assyrian as well as of Hebrew lexicography.

Lest it should be supposed that I am guided in thi> little work by a principle of unjust warfare against the ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary, I would remark that

VII -

my CCIIMUV is limited t«» tli-->.- .-.i^-s where the editor- have erroneously debated from the correct views nf <, nius himself. i.r have failed i<> vc»<:m&e what Fur>t and Levy had alivady anticipated. It is also to be deplored that in a book intruded to introduce young b«-Lriir tu tin- study of the Semitic languages the boundary <»f Inputhcsjs and certainty is not marked with suflicient clearness. On the other hand, 1 cheerfully acknowledge that th" ninth edition contains a good many improvements in matters of detail. In opposing my own views to those ex- I'l-.-ssed in the ninth edition nothing is more remote from my intention than personal controversy. The warm interest which my revered teacher, Professor Fleischer, has taken in the preparation of the two last editions of the dictionary excludes controversy, in the common sense of the word, on the part of an attached pupil. Xor am I so unreasonabl> to charge the editors with having taken no notice of results which they could not have known. I opp9se my own view in that of the ninth edition, because Gesenius's dictionary occupies the first and foremost place in Hebrew lexicography. and claims to represent the mental labour which men of different shades of theological opinion have devoted to the exegesis of the Old Testament. I have myself experience^ the greatest difficulty in breaking through the spell of idea- iml»il>ed at an early age. The disputes here raised are only concerned with tacts, and for them I am not responsible. unless I be reproached for having recognised and proclaimed them before the world. If, in spite of these assertion- the contrary, this treatise should- still be considered too controversial. 1 shall derive comfort from the thought, that this very character may induce the advocates of the old s\>tem to oppose their own views to my statements, and

VIII

thus to bring about the establishment of truth which is the desired end of all our efforts.

The facts here brought forward are of such fundamental importance, that I shall be grateful for any well-founded objections which may be urged against them. They mate- rially change our views of the different degrees of affinity between the Semitic languages, and assign chiefly to Ara- bic a position quite different from that which it has hitherto occupied. If we take a single Arabic verb like viLU> as compared with the North Semitic fbn, and consider the loss sustained by Arabic of so many ancient Semitic words (see Dillmann, Ethiopic Grammar, p. 5, note), and the nu- merous inflections of late origin, we are compelled to ad- mit that Arabic cannot be the prototype of the other Se- mitic languages, least of all of Hebrew. This opinion receives the fullest confirmation from Assyrian research. It is, therefore, time to abandon the ordinary practice of forcing the peculiar, often late, meanings of the Arabic words upon the much older Hebrew sister. The editors of the last editions of G-esenius's dictionary wrill perhaps now agree with me that in future it will no longer be sufficient to patch some new Assyrian pieces upon an old cloth, but that a thorough revision of every Hebrew stem and of every Hebrew word must be effected. This salutary refor- mation of the Hebrew dictionary by means of Assyrian, so far from increasing the bulk of the lexicon1, will save much useful space by the removaf'of a mass of erroneous statements and worthless speculations.

The transfer of the leading part in Hebrew lexico- graphy from Arabic to Assyrian is, however, only one point

1 See Preface of the ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary, ]>. I.

IX

of live, which justify, in my opinion, the compilation of a new Hel.rew dictionary. The Hebrew proper nanp-- occurring in the Old Testament require a thorough and iv\i-ion -earcely im.iirined by the continuator- of > work. I forbear mentioning here a con>ider- able number of Hebrew post-exilic names receiving the mo-t sati-factnry explanation by the corresponding Babylo- nian names; a number of Hebrew stem-; and words piv— rved only in proper names like zVw, rnbnP, ippb, C"»p, rrr. nST. which obtain the most surprising light by the A--y- rian lamniaire: and the illustration of many proper name- like -TP, rvoijp by parallel names in A— yrian. But I wi-h to draw particular attention to the mode of naming the children which is airain a point of essential agreement bet- ween Habylonian and Hebrew. An attentive study of the -•\eral thousand Babylonian and Assyrian proper nanie- cannot fail to sharpen our eye for a better understanding of the Hebrew names of persons. I do not mean here ex- planation- like bsr-sn, ''heat of god," c^crc. "killer of moth-." •jirpr, "perhaps like •ptt''Ch desert," "|Trn». ''brother of the water. /. e., dwelling near the water, or, perhap-. man of a watery heart. /. e., a coward," or bsTE. "<livine >implicity, if not for bsrrro" — thou-rli it seems to me im- |io-sible that a child ever and anywhere could have i. c.illed "desert" or "divine simplicity," or that the hereditary prince of the Hamathites was named '7R (I Chron. xviii. 9). nieaiiim: "madne-." N,,r ba\e I in view the names of prophetic import, which predict the future station ami avo- cation of a man. as snc^p, which, according to Dietrich, means "line of battle or general." an explanation by which that Canaanitic commander is inve-ted a- a li-lple— infant with the >tart' of militarv command. I rather refer to the

explanations of the purest and most easy Hebrew proper names given in Gesenius's dictionary, names like n^::n. rpjflec, EEEibs. It is no small difference whether these

T : - : ' T T • ••: t

names are interpreted with Gesenius's dictionary "Jahve is merciful," "Jahve hears," "my God judges," or, in ac- cordance with grammar and true Semitic thought, "Jahve has been gracious," "Jahve has heard," "my God has judged." The interpretations of Gesenius's dictionary express divine qualities in general, but the names simply relate to, and commemorate, facts connected with the birth of the child. It is difficult to understand, how that beautiful and easy department of Hebrew nomenclature could have been so carelessly treated. Thus, nni^b'a is rightly translated by ••my king is sublime," while DTS^S is wrongly rendered "lord of the height." The name rPT>, evidently a name like r,^"1, -Sp"!"1 and others, could never have meant "praising Jahve." How can the Qal rrp mean "to praise"? Nor does ''3TS mean "ear of Jahve." It has the same meaning as ^EC, "the hearing of my prayer," - the birth of the child is the divine fulfilment of the father's prayers. I assert with the fullest confidence that there are scarcely a hundred Hebrew proper names the explanation of which in Gesenius's dictionary do^es not challenge criticism. It is here out of place to seek an excuse by the convenient saying Dies diem docet, the truth could here have been seen main- years ago.

A second and still more serioirS- point of disagreement with Gesenius's dictionary is the treatment of the roots. The exasperating consistency with which all Hebrew stems are derived from a root of two consonants and the most various meanings deduced from one common primary mean- ing, is open to many serious objections. Even granted

— XI —

some ot the-e curious speculations on tin- mean- ing attached to tin- Semitic sounds arc rijrht. they tin imt •r\e a place in the Hebrew dictionary itself, but ou«:ht to be separately dealt with in an appendix. Hebrew lexicography in its present state has to supply desiderata of a far more solid and important character. A sharper understanding of the Hebrew stems themselves a- to their -nmidx and accurate meaning or shades of meanin.i: i> e-pe- cially required. I cannot see any real profit resulting from

such a Viiurne tl ry as that of the supposed roots. The

eighth edition of Geseniu^> dictionary derived the word 03T3.. "tribute", from 003, "to number," the root of which we are taught is 03, "to cut, to separate" ; counting is said to be separating, dividing. The ninth edition has given up this explanation; following Fleischer, it rightly states that 03tt is the stem. But Arabic ^^Joo means "to oppress. t» harm some one" ; how, then, could 0313 mean tribute? The editors of the ninth edition enlighten us on the subject. Going back to the root of the stem, "pa, which is said to mean "to press, comprimere" they state that "to count'' i- "to compress, nmniro (ttmpreheiidere" . 0313 is, therefore. "tribute" as that which is comprised in a certain number. I am at a loss to see the force of this mode of etjTnological reasoning. Is there any scientific value in the conjecture that rtP, "to kindle fire", may go back to the root nx, allied with HE, and mean originally "to lay the fire" ? Ac- cording to the preface of the ninth edition, the etymologies have been carefully revised and that which is certain has lieen separated, as far a- pu->ilile. fn.m that which is only probable. Nevertheless, npr is still identified with nnc (for the interchanire of p and n r.px. "thou". and the suffix 1 are compared!), which iNelf is derived from the root MD,

XII

"to sit down," and runic, "to drink," is stated to m< •..,: originally "to make the thirst sit down, sedare sitim." Yet. in another place, nj?tj is again derived from the root pTD and is said to be akin to the other verbs *J03, ppT, pr^! I could give many more instances of this kind. I think, all these speculations upon the roots and their vague mean- ings could be omitted without any harm to the Hebrew dictionary and the enormous space saved by this omission could be turned to a better and more useful account.

I have not yet decided whether I shall discuss these and other points in a special introduction or Prolegomena to a new Hebrew dictionary or publish at once my own Hebrew dictionary which I have compiled along with my A^yrian dictionary. In the meantime I submit this treatise to the judgment of Semitic scholars. Its publication was necessary, because the philological notes added in my As- syrian dictionary to every stem or word will be only under- stood in connexion with the principles expounded in this treatise. I am not bold enough to believe that, in this first attempt, I have shed light everywhere by the "wand" of Assyriology. I shall be satisfied if I have succeeded in unearthing from the mines of Babylonian and Assyrian anti- quity some material useful for a better understanding and appreciation of the sacred records of the Old Testament.

London, October 1883.

Ffederic Delitzsch.

THE

HEBREW LANGUAGE

viewed in the light of Assyrian Research.

I.

FEW departments of linguistic research have been so thoroughly investigated as that of the language of the Old Testament. As a natural consequence of such unremitting labour, the Biblical books written in that tongue are now better understood than perhaps any other sacred record handed down to posterity. Yet it is a fact well known to every serious student of the Old Testament that there still remains a large number of passages, some of them of the highest importance, which have received very divergent and far from satisfactory explanations at the hands of commen- tators. There is likewise a long list of single words of which the true sense is quite uncertain. We have here in view not only the names of some of the animals specified by the Levitical law1; the names of plants2 and precious stones3; the nouns and verbs of rare occurrence and the

1 For in.stain-1- nt:x.

1 K g. r^itan .

8 K. g. -irr. : ~.

Delituch, Hebrew and AMjrikn.

so-called a^a$ ASYojisva1, but also verbs of frequent use, including such as have a number of derivatives.2 There are, besides, certain grammatical problems, whose true solution has not yet been found.

These difficulties of interpretation are mainly due to the want of a tradition based on a minute and exact knowledge of Old Testament language and literature. Nor is it difficult to see why such a tradition is wanting.

The transportation of the ten tribes from Palestine to Mesopotamia and Media, and the close intercourse of those left behind with people of different nations, as the Elamites, Babylonians, and Arabs, who supplied the places of the exiled Israelites, struck a deadly blow at the ancient lan- guage of the kingdom of Israel. Nor was it destined to nourish much longer in the kingdom of Judah. In the year 701 B. c. Sennacherib carried away captive from the moun- tain districts of Judah no less than 200,150 inhabitants3, and Nebuchadnezzar afterwards completed the work com- menced by his Assyrian predecessor. Still, the language continued to live for a time in Babylonia, as is amply shown by the pure, classical Hebrew of that great national prophet whom modern criticism has styled the "Deutero- Isaiah."

The termination, however, of the Babylonian exile marks the beginning of that process by which Hebrew gra-

1 E. g. nbs; rwalsn, IOB? a-i

* For instance 1533, from which 1733, ..heathen priest", and ,,net" are derived.

8 See Sennacher. iii. 11 ff. It is difficult to understand, how Sennacherib was capable of transporting such a multitude after the destruction, which his army is reported to have suffered at the hand of the angel of the Lord.

<lually disappeared from among living languages. It is true that that small portion of the nation who availed themselves of the permission to return to the Holy Land still wrote and spoke Hebrew, but the Aramaic dialect, which had been favoured by the Persian kings and was almost regarded as the official language of the Western portion of the Persian empire, had already begun to bring its deteriorating influence to bear upon it, and, rapidly advancing, was conquering one portion of Palestine after the other. This process con- tinued under the dominion of the Greeks and was greatly hastened by the various wars and revolutions which the Jewish nation experienced during that period. Hebrew be- came more and more confined to the narrow circle of the learned, in whose hands it gradually assumed the character of an artificial language and was corrupted by an inter- mixture of Aramaic elements.1 It was still used for literary purposes at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes and the Macca- bees, but it had already ceased to be a spoken language. This is strikingly illustrated by the book of Daniel (com- posed about 167 B. c.) and the book of Chronicles (about 200 B. c.). Even so erudite a Jew as the compiler of the last-named work fails to grasp the import of the more diffi- cult passages and expressions in the older portions of the sacred code on which his own work is based. The learned among the Jews, during the last two centuries before Chri.-t. even preferred to write in Aramaic, and at the time of Christ that dialect reigned supreme as the adopted language of the country.

It is true that the study of their sacred language re- mained a favourite occupation among the Jews, who trans-

1 See NOldeko, Art. Aram, in Schenkel's BiM-Lfxicon.

1*

mitted their knowledge to succeeding generations, but a deeper understanding of the sacred text was lost. The Greek translation of the Septuagint, some portions of which date as far back as the third century B. c., and the so- called Targumim, or Aramaic interpretations, though in some respects valuable for the understanding of the text, show unmistakable signs of an imperfect knowledge of the old Hebrew language. As Noeldeke justly remarks, "Those old translations are, at the present state of Biblical philo- logy, not very important for the recognition of the true sense. They rarely assist, where the usual philological resources fail, in the explanation of difficult words and passages, their translation being usually due to a mere guess." l

Fortunately another resource is available which supplies in some measure the want of a trustworthy tradition. We refer to the wonderful aid afforded by the language of the Old Testament itself by means of the context, parallel passages, and the so-called parallelismus mcmbrorinn. The comparison

1 ,,Fiir den jetzigen Standpunkt der biblischen Philologie sind jene Uebersetzungen zur Erkenntniss des waliren Sinncs nicht beson- ders wichtig. Man ist zu der Einsicht gekommen, dass in den Fallen, wo tins die sonstigen philologischen Hulfsmittel zur Erklaruug schwie- riger Worte und Stellen im Stich lassen, die alten Uebersetzungen selten fordern, denn gewohnlidi haben auch sie dann den Sinn nur errathen." See Noldeke, Alttestamentiiche 'Literatztr, p. 246. Even among the Jews themselves the necessity was sometimes felt of going beyond the traditional interpretation. The illustrious Abu'l-Walid often applies the Arabic language to the elucidation of Hebrew. The Karaite Jews, who naturally opposed the traditional mode of interpretation, wrote chiefly in Arabic and had frequently recourse to that language in explaining the sacred text.

— 5 —

of the kindred Semitic tongues is in this respect only of a secondary value and often misleading. And here it must be stated that the indiscreet use made of the cognate dialects, and more particularly of Arabic, has blinded the eyes of many distinguished labourers in this field against the native power of the Hebrew language.

The value of Arabic for Hebrew lexicography has been greatly exaggerated. It seems to me that the continua- tors of Gesenius's great and admirable work have fallen in this respect into errors, against which the original compiler had wisely guarded himself. The well-known fact that the Arabic language has preserved in numerous instances original forms of the Semitic idiom which are lost in the kindred dialects, combined with the enormous copiousness of its vocabulary, has led to the erroneous supposition that the same degree of unchanged originality is to be assumed for the meanings of the Arabic words. The common practice of arbitrarily forcing Arabic meanings upon Hebrew words constitutes a fundamental error of mo- dern Hebrew lexicography. A few instances will suffice to show the fatal consequences of this practice. Because Arabic J.gv means "to drink" ("primo haustu bibit camelus"), the same meaning is ascribed to Heb. bn:, and the Piel bn: i- explained to mean "to give to drink, to lead to water" — in general, "to lead, guide, protect"! We question whether this generally accepted sense of bn: can be entertained any longer. It is plainly indicated by the jMrdMiMMM »in»- brorum in Ps. xxiii. 2, and by the parallel passages 2 Chron. xxxii. 22 and 1 Chron. xxii. 18, that bn: is a synonym of ^3^, "to lie down," and ni:, "to rest," which is further confirmed by the fact that nadlu, na/jn. and are the equivalents of the same ideogram in the

— 6

old Babylonian bilingual texts.1 We therefore translate the passages Ps. xxiii. 2, "He maketh me to lie down in green pastures, he causes me to rest beside the still waters"; 2 Chron. xxxii. 22, "And the Lord gave them rest on every side" (as in 1 Chron. xxii. 18, not "And guided them on every side"); Ex. xv. 13, "Thou in thy strength Irnst placed them in safety in thy holy habitation"; 2 Chron. xxviii. 15, "And put all the feeble of them upon asses, and brought them to Jericho"; finally, Gen. xlvii. 17, "And he (Joseph) satisfied them with bread," not "And he fed them with bread" &c.

Another striking instance is afforded by the zoological name D»n or D"1^. We read in Job xxxix. 9 — 10: "Will the rem be willing to serve thee or abide by thy crib? Canst thou bind the rem with his band in the furrow, or will he harrow the valleys after thee?" What animal is the DSp? It is evident from the poet's words that it must be a wild animal, certainly one quite unfitted for the peace- ful labour of ploughing the field. The Authorized Version translates OSH by "unicorn." But even granting the existence of such an animal, it was surely never at home in Palestine. Besides, who does not see the obvious contradiction involved in the translation of Ps. xxii. 21, "For thou hast heard me from the horns [dual in Hebrew] of the unicorns," where more than one horn is ascribed to the wm'corn? The last two editions of Gesenius's dictionary explain OSTl by the Arabic <Jy, Antilope leucoryx, although that animal could never have lived in Palestine, since its home being in the sandy wastes of Arabia and of the north-eastern regions of

1 Compare for na'dlu = rabfifu, for instance, W. A. I. iv. 27, 19 and 20a with 17, 51 and 52a. 16 and 17 b.

Africa. Besides, in spite of its two spear-shaped horns, the Antilope leucoryx is known to be an animal of meek dis- position, directly opposed to the wild, hostile nature ascribed to tin- DSp. Gesenius, guided by the parallelismus membrorwn in passages like Deut. xxxiii. 17, translates buffalo; but the • \i-tence of the buffalo in further Asia is traceable only a short time before the Christian era. We know now, by the cuneiform inscriptions and the pictorial representations on the Assyrian sculptures, that the OKI is the Assyrian rimu, that strong-horned, fierce-looking wild bull, skilled in climb- in. ir the mountains1, whose colossal and formidable likeness \\:t> placed by the Assyrian kings before the entrance of their palaces to ward off and terrify the approaching enemy.2 1 1 may be expedient to mention here another deplorable error of modern Hebrew lexicography, which is centred in the common practice of representing the sense of Arabic words as the original meaning of their Hebrew equivalents, even in cases where each of the two languages exhibits a totally different usage of the word in question. Thus Hebrew 5T is explained by the Arabic c&*, "to deposit," «. e., to deposit in the mind, to know3; TIB, "to be fat,"

1 This character of the animal seems to be alluded to in the almve. mentioned passage: "will he harrow the ralleys after thee?"

* It may be interesting to enumerate here the synonyms of rfm«: 1 1 n-hu, i. e. the quick one (Pl*i8t "to be quick''). 2) p&r*, originally "•strong" (piyfar, a synonym of Jcarradu "strong", and probably pint* the Assyrian name of the "elefant," are derived from the same root). :<! tu, with its feminine form lit*, from the stem nxb, which is a onmnon Assyrian word fi.r "tu be strong."

' (fesenins in T/ietaunut, second edition, riphtly remarks ». r. 51": "\..n audiendi Mint 4111 sciendi potestatem apud Hebraeos repetant a sc. in aniino

Q

"to break," i. e., to be broken, to be languid, soft, fat; nbC, "to send," by ^JL**», "to skin," i. e., to draw out, to

extend, to stretch out, to send; "ijPflJ, "to lie," by CjLi, ,,to

be red," /. e., to redden, to paint red, to varnish the truth, i. e., to lie; yea, we are told that "IEJ3 means "to join," and is to compared to the Arabic ^S , "to break," because joining as well as breaking may be effected by striking one object against the other.

It must be owned that these combinations do credit to the ingenuity of their authors. Their plausibility becomes, however, seriously impaired when we consider the totally different history of the two languages. Hebrew became a literary language many centuries before the Christian era. Arabic was not used for literary purposes until the seventh century of our era. How, then, is it possible to make Arabic the prototype of a sister tongue so much older as Hebrew? Further, it must be taken into account, that the Aramaic dialect and, in some instances, even Ethiopic ex- hibit the same late meanings ascribed to Hebrew. If we admit that Arabic is the prototype of the other Semitic languages, we cannot but conclude, that they have passed side by side through the same phases of development to arrive at the same stage of decay as to the meanings of their words. How, then, can we account for the differences of sound by which one is separated from the other? These considerations alone suffice to shake our belief in a system of etymological research so exclusively based on Arabic. The whole fabric is, however, finally overturned by the mo- numental literature of Babylonia and Assyria.

On the other hand, the comparison of the kindred ton- gues is of inestimable value in the explanation of the He-

brew sounds. In this respect especially the Aramaic and Arabic dialects have done good service in advancing Hebrew lexicography. By their help a rigid philological method was for the first time applied to the treatment of the Hebrew roots. The comparison of the cognate dialects demonstrated clearly that certain roots — as 31? VT* "to m^x>" and a"^ Vr^ "to enter, to set" (of the sun) — which in spelling had come to be one in Hebrew, were originally distinct and of entirely different etymology. In this respect Arabic is very instructive for the roots containing one of the gutturals n (h, h= .) and f ( , g •==• e, e), and. combined with

Syriac, for those containing one of the sibilants TT, T and X. It is to be lamented that even in the latest editions of Gesenius's dictionary the necessity of consistently applying this fundamental law of Hebrew lexicography is not suffi- ciently recognized. To quote a few instances, n:tj, "year," is still explained as meaning the "repetition of the same natural phenomena" (the seasons), and is compared with the Semitic numeral for "two," though the latter has an original i) vi»- In like manner TWX, "woman," is represented, in accordance with the etymology set forth in Gen. ii. 23, as the feminine form of flhfct, "man," though it is clearly de-

e.

rived from the root vi*it, "to be feeble," denoting the woman as the feeble one, while ETK must be referred to a root "to be strong," marking the man as the strong one.1

1 Another derivative of the root 3TK is "pSTX, generally wrongly translated by "apple of the eye," because occurring in passages liki- Dout. xxxii. 10 ("he kept him as the apple of his eye") in connexion with 115, "eye." That this translation is wrong is evident from the passage in Ps. xvii. 8, where we read "pSTa V^SO ^lati, whk-h liavi- t<> !•«• translated "Keep me as the apple of the apple of

10

The Hebrew '23285, "finger", is still combined with *jue "to

dye" or "to dip," though this combination is contradicted

>- <>*• by the Arabic *JL*C\, which has a c, not a c. If such

plain etymologies fail to be recognised, what can be ex- pected in cases of a more intricate nature, such as the stems ITS or TOX?

The close relationship existing between the several Semitic languages naturally causes each of them to throw light upon the other. It was, therefore, clear from the very first that the Semitic idiom of the Assyrian and Babylonian literature, so recently brought to light by the excavations in Mesopotamia, would prove a valuable help towards a better understanding of the Hebrew language. It will now be our object to show that the language of the cuneiform inscriptions is a far greater aid to the advancement of Hebrew philology than the other cognate dialets. Indeed it will be seen that Assyriology is actually inaugurating a new era of Hebrew lexicography.

the eye," for 'pS'Pa certainly means the apple of the eye (see La- ment, ii. 18). And what sense does this translation of ")'il2''N yield in passages like Prov. vii. 9, "In the apple of the eye of the black and dark night"? The authors of the Authorized Version, rightly feeling the difficulty, have omitted to render 'p'ttjix in their translation of this passage and of Ps. xvii. 8. The true sense of "p^X has already been recognized by Levy in his dictionary of the Targumim. It is a syno- nym of D5C5, meaning ".strength," used lilip nxy in Ex. xxiv. 10, as is further confirmed by the Assyrian isunu. The above-quoted pas- sages are therefore to be rendered: "He kept him as Ms own eye" (Deut. xxxii. 10); "Keep me even as the apple of the eye" (Ps. xvii. 8) "Seen in the black and dark night" (Prov. vii. 9).

II.

IN one respect it was to be expected that a special advantage would accrue to Hebrew lexicography from Assy- rian research, inasmuch as the Babylonian and Assyrian proper names of persons and deities, and the geographical and official names, which are of such frequent occurrence in the Old Testament, could only receive a final and satis- factory explanation by the language of the cuneiform in- scriptions. It must be owned that Assyriology has fully realized these expectations.1 We know now the meaning of

1 Of course, there are still some dark points requiring to be cleared up. Thus, the true meaning of the names of the god ^"IXIO or of the river i^^n has not yet been settled with certainty. A the name of the goddess rntTIJS, we must insist upon its non-Semitic origin (see the German edition of George Smith's Chaldean Genesis, p. 273. 276 f.J. It-tar is a compound like Nam-tar and ai-tar; see W. A. I. v. 20, 17 a. b, where the sign lal is to be changed into tar. It is clearly a gloiw showing that the Assyrian aitartum (the name of the fastening "t a door) is borrowed from the non-Semitic ai "power" or "strength" and tar "to fix". The only obscure point in the name of Ittar is the first syllable. The meaning "light" (Unt), which George Smith _-ned to it, rests on an erroneous reading. The word Jitar had l>r<>t>ably a rather general meaning such as "fate-deciding." This is, at least, suggested by the ideograms of two inferior deities, one ele- ment of which is ii-tar (see Delitzscli, Assyritche Lftegtucke, 2nd edi- tion, p. 46, 1. 51; p. 47, 1. 53). The non-St/niitk- name Ittar passed

12

the names -of kings like ynn~lDSjj (Assyr. Asur-dlj-idilin, "Asur has given a brother") and TpTTa ^8 (Babyl. Avcl- Marduk, "Man or servant of Merodach"). We have learnt that the god Nergal (blVlD, Nergal), whom the men of Cuth made (see 2 Kings xvii. 30), is the deity represented by the colossal lions at the entrance of the royal palaces, and that his non-Semitic name, Ne-uru-gal, characterizes him as the governor of the "great city," or the empire of death.1 We have further been taught that the true meaning of blD, Balnlu is not "confusion," as explained in Gen. xi. 9, but "gate of God"; and we can now prove that Jlb3 (Gen. x. 11), the sister city of Nineveh and the Assyrian Kalhu, is "the strong, firm city," derived from the same root as Heb. H52 (see Job v. 26 and xxx. 2).2 Finally, the proper meaning of official names, as 1FHI?, is now plainly seen. The com- mander-in-chief of the Assyrian army, whom the books of Kings call tartan, is the Assyrian turtdnu — a genuine Se- mitic word, derived from turtu, a by-form of tertu, which is the common Assyrian word for law or commandment (comp. Heb. rn'lH?). Turtdnu thus answers exactly to the Hebrew term pJJHTQ. Heb. «"inB, the official name of the Chaldean

into the Assyrian language as Istdiiu, which, at the same time, became a general name of any female deity, and was finally applied to any female being, especially to the kadi&tu, fTIJ'lp. The Hebrew n"mJS in ",&«£ ninths (Dent. vii. 13; xxviii. 4. 18. 51) was even used of the females of the flock of sheep and goats; compare Deut. vii. 13, where 'y is clearly a synonym of "U1ZJ, which, ^gain, is a synonym of nrn, "womb'', Ex. xiii. 12.

1 See the German edition of George Smith's Chaldean Genesis, p. 275 f.

8 For similar names like Purutu, I"HD, "Euphrates," Kutu, n*l3, SiMS, "Cuth," Ninua, M^S, "Nineveh" see our book entitled Wo lag das Paradies? p. 169 f. 217 f. 260.

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prefects, wliu were at the same time military governors, is the Babylonian pahritu or piftutu, originally a portione<l-off district or province (derived from Assyrian paljii, "to «hut, to enclose"), afterwards the governor (bel pafaiti) himself. The ngttin (Is. xxxvi. 2; 2 Kings xviii. 17), who com- manded the Assyrian army dispatched by Sennacherib against Hezekiah of Judah, is not the chief butler, an offi- cial little fitted to command a military expedition; he is the Assyrian rab-hlkf. or rab&uk, the "chief of the officers," the colonel. The Hebrew 0^5353 has long been compared with the Assyrian Saknuti, lit. "the appointed" and especially "the vicegerents." The Assyrian jfaknti is a synonym of ScUaf (lablD), "governor." The softening of the 1 to a is pro- bably due to the influence of the lingual. Further, the Hebrew "IOBE is the "scribe," Assyr. tupSarru (for t, not d, see our Assyrisclte Lesestucke, p. 60, 1. 38). This meaning suits admirably in the passage Nah. iii. 17 and gives at least a satisfactory sense in Jer. Li. 27. The "IDEE, who shall be appointed against Babylon, is the scribe who registers the different objects of the booty after the capture of the city.

I conclude this list1 by a few remarks on the etymo- logy of yo. Several attempts have been made to explain this name of the 312 or "Magi," its true etymology being expected to throw light on the origin of the magic arts and tin nationality of the old Medians, one of whose tribes is railed MO'YOI by Herodotus. Some scholars have tried to explain the name by an Aryan etymology, while others

1 The meaning and etymology of the difficult word ixifl (I)an. i. II. Iti i have been for the first time satisfactorily explained in Libri Daniel it, Ezrat ft Nehtwiae ed. S. Baer |L;|.-i > . xi.

14

maintain its Semitic origin.1 It is difficult to conceive how the true origin of that name could have remained so long undiscovered. The passage (Jer. xxxix. 3) which describes the 31Q~11 entering Jerusalem together with the other dig- nitaries of Nebuchadnezzar, and the well-known fact that Babylonia is the home of magic arts, point alike to the Babylonian origin of the name. Nor are the cuneiform in- scriptions deficient in evidence of such origin. The Assyrian nidhu is a synonym of a$ipu, "sorcerer,"2 and a text of Asurbanipal's published by George Smith3 mentions the interpretation of dream-visions as the particular business of the make. The Sumerian form of the word is magha, which has passed into Babylonian in the form mdhu, "the right reverend," a name respectfully applied to the Magi by the credulity of the people. This etymology, if accepted, furnishes a remarkable proof that the Hebrew 3 in 3E had the ad- spirated prononciation.

Passing over a host ot successful interpretations of similar names, we may here be permitted to make a few remarks on the Hebrew names of the months, which the Jews borrowed from the Babylonians during the time of their exile. It is indeed fortunate that the Semitic origin of the names •}0^3, 1*8, &c., which the Jews have kept to

1 Compare Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 2nd edition (1883), p. 417—421. Schrader's explanation of the word 3T3 by the Babylonian emlfv., Smgu "wisei1^ (pT35) has linguistic grounds against it.

2 Comp. W. A. /. ii. 32, 19 with 51, 49, and v. 23, 46. According to these passages mah-hu-u is a synonym of e$-$e'-pu-u (esepd) and dsipu (C]1Efct). Observe further the passage W. A. I. ii. 31 No. 5 col. ii, where the name of maM is placed next to the ideograms of the sor- cerers and the priests.

3 History of Asurbanipal, p. 128, 95.

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the present time, is now established, and that the far-fetched etymologies from the Sanskrit and the Persian may at last be dispensed with. It is, however, equally wrong to explain these Semitic names by the Hebrew or even by the Arabic language, and to do so partly in a manner which defies all principles of sound etymology. Thus, fir: is explained as the "budding month," and compared with Heb. 72, "bud, flower." It appears that Hebrew lexicography in its present state has not yet recognized the absolute necessity of ex- plaining Babylonian words according to the spirit, and by the laws of formation and the vocabulary, of the Babylonian language. Thus "jC^ (in Babylonian Nisdnu), the name of the first month, means undoubtedly "start, beginning" (from ;</.-•// = Heb. 702), which is also the meaning of "HflJPl (in Babylonian TiSrltu), the first month of the second half of the year. T^S (Bab. Aim-, Am) signifies the bright month, while IIS (Bab. Addant= February — March) is the dull, gloomy month1, the time from February till March being particu- larly rainy in Babylonia. The rainy season commences in P3I3 (December — January), the month of rain-showers ac- cording to Sennacherib's graphic description8, for Babylonian

1 The small fragment of a vocabulary which is one of the few Assyrian relics preserved at Zurich is of great importance to the mean- ing of the word adnrv. According to this tablet the word is used of the darkening of the moon by clouds as well as of a solar eclipse. The corresponding non-Semitic word is kern (see Assyritche Lcsettiickt, 2nd edition, p. 58, 1. 21. 22), meaning also "cloud" (urpitu); the Sumerian people called the month of Kislev Hi kankana as the "cloudy" month.

* See Sennach. iv. 75 ff. Sennaeh. Const. 42 f. Sennacherib is deterred from the pursuit ot' the Elamite king Kudur-Xachundu by the "fury" (raggv) of the torrents coming down from the Elamitc moun- tains, in the month of Tebet

16

Ti'l'ftu means .the "sinking in water" (from ftM=Heb. 37212). The devastation of nature occasioned by the incessant rains (zunne $a zunne) and inundations of the month of Tebet culminates in the month, of I31TJ3, Sabutu , where the fury of the weather reaches its highest pitch. This circumstance justifies the name Sabutu, by which the month is characte- rized as the "destroying" one.1 In like manner are almost all the other names most satisfactorily explained by the language of the people who first framed them.2

The three Babylonian local names compounded with bp, "hill"— namely, a^as bp. (Ezek. iii. 15), NTCnn bp, and nbtS bp (Ezra ii. 59; Neh. vii. 61) — are remarkable in- stances of the danger attending the rash explanation of such Babylonian names by Hebrew. It would be easy to prove that those words cannot mean in Babylonian corn-hill, for- est-hill, and salt-hill. The Babyl. TD^M never means "forest";

1 For the Assyrian stem sdbdtu see p. 46. According to his an- nals (W. A. I. iii. 15, col. i. 14), Esarhaddon received the intelli- gence of the murder of his father Sennacherib in the month of Shebat, while he was stationed in the vicinity of Melitene. It is expressly mentioned that his hasty return to Nineveh was not stopped by the "fury of the storm."

2 The months of •p£JPH33 (Bab. arah sdmna, "the eighth month") and of Man (Bab. Dtt'uzu, "the month of the god Tammuz") need no further commentary. The third month, Sivdnu Cp^O), is explained W. A. I. ii. 32 as the appointed time ^rom admu, DID). According to the cylinder-inscription of king Sargon (see Lyon, KeilscJn-iff- texte Sargons, Leipzig 1883, p. 9, 1. 58) it is the season appointed by divine authority for the making of bricks and the laying of the foundation of houses and cities, its heat being particularly favourable to this kind of work. The meaning of 2X is less evident. It may, however, be conjectured, that it is the Assyr. dbu, "hostile," an appel- lation fully justified by the excessive heat of this month.

17

in the numberless passages where it occurs it has invariably the meaning of "mountain-ridge." The translation "forest- hill," current in most Assyriological publications, is founded on a wrong etymology.1

These illustrations, which could be easily multiplied, must suffice for the present. Important as they are, they are nevertheless of a more subordinate character. For in all these respects Assyriology does only the same service to the Old Testament as Egyptology has done for Egyptian proper names, though the latter are far inferior in number. The importance of Assyriology to Hebrew lexicography is <>1 a far more solid and comprehensive character.

1 It cannot be denied that the Heb. Ci'n mean* "forest". Both meanings, "forest" and "mountain-ridge," may, however, easily be de- rived from the stem C">n as explained in W. A. 1. v. 18. Even in some passages of the Old Testament the meaning "mountain- ridge" is far preferable to that of "forest." Comp. 1 Sam. xxiii. 14 with verse 15, where "IH2 and ntinna exchange places, and especially v. 19, where r'lTMJ are mentioned as being PiB^ha. The most in- -trurtiv passage, however, is 2 Chron. xxvii. 4. The Authorized Ver- -i..n translates: "Moreover he built cities in the mountains of Ju-lali, and in the forents ho built castles and towers," but the proper site of castles and towers, which are built for the defence of the country, is not the forest, but the top of the mountain, whence the approach of the enemy can be espied.

Uelituch, Hebrew »ud AwyrUn

III.

THERE may be a diversity of opinion about the exact position which the old language of Babylonia and Assyria occupies among the Semitic sister tongues, but this much is certain, that it is more closely allied to the so-called North Semitic or the Canaanitic and Aramaic dialects than to the South Semitic or the Arabic and Ethiopian languages. It is true that Assyrian exhibits in some respects — as in the sibilants, the careless treatment of the gutturals X, H, n, and y, and some other striking points of agreement in grammar as well as vocabulary1 — a great family likeness to its Ethiopian sister, but these points of similarity are either remnants of that time when the great Semitic idiom had not yet split into dialects or linguistic phenomena due to similar causes. It would certainly be rash to build upon them the hypothesis of a closer affinity between the two languages, which is amply disproved by the want in Assy- rian of the inner plural formation and the peculiar vocabu- lary of Ethiopic. It is an undisputed fact, on the other hand, that the Assyrian language bears a strong resemblance to Hebrew. The sibilants are the same in both languages.

1 Comp. for instance ^ftftJM, Assyr. Jcisddu, "neck"; Assyr. haldkv, "to perish"; 'Pj&I, Assyr. md'tt, "praepollere."

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Compare Assyrian iuru, "ox," and fafnt, "gazelle," with Hebrew Sor and fetAn, and contrast these words with Arabic Ijmr, ;(M, and Aramaic taurd, fabyd. Turning to grammar, we find in Assyrian, as in Hebrew, andku, "I" CpiK), the conjunctions DK and ^fet, and the adverbial formations in C, as annama, "in vain," Heb. Din; pitlnia, "suddenly." Heb. Dfcr.B; miiidma, "by night," compare Heb. DITP, "by • lay."1 The use of the tenses is likewise analogous. Heb. bi3p^, with preceding O, TS, and 0")O, is used in the same aoristic sense as in Assyrian, and the Nifal is the passive voice in Hebrew as its corresponding form is in Assyrian. The resemblance is, however, actually overwhelming when we come to compare the vocabulary of the two languages. Leaving aside such words as "'RtiJ?, "one," Assyrian i&ten, in the known numeral for "eleven,"2 which were partly borrowed by the Jews during the Babylonian exile, I pro- pose to include in the following list only words which form part, as it were, of the original stock-in-trade of the lan- guage: such are ilu, "God"; dibu or dbu, "enemy"; aljnt, "ox"; amSatu, "eve, yesterday"; asdpu, "to gather"; eril»i. "locust"; ardru, "to curse"; ere&u, "to betroth" (ereiu, "bridegroom"; erelttu, "bride"); tipatu, "quiver"; n&£uru, "to cause to prosper"; itimdfi, tinutli, "yesterday"; bdmdtf, "high places"; dddu, "the beloved"; dudu, "basket"; daltu,

1 These Assyrian adverbs ending in ma decide for ever the* question as to the origin of the Heb. Q-f- in O'ST', O^"n, &c. For the former explanations comp. Stade, Lehrlwh der htbraitckt* Qi-ammatik^ p. 175.

1 "lis^n^y oi-cure eighteen times in the Old Testament, vii., eleven times in the exilic or post-exilic books, and six times in Exodus and Numbers in passages forming part of the so-called "C >dex of the Priests"; the sole remaining instance being in Deut. L 3.

2*

20

"door"; eru, "to be pregnant"; harddu, "to tremble"; Ini- raxu, "gold"; tatapu, "to encircle" (comp. rnsttit:); yduni, yam, "river"; yasdru, "to form"; kalutu, syn. unutu, "ves- sel"; bit ki-li,1 "prison" (Heb. xbs ma); kiru, "cistern"; kiretu, "banquet"; kalapu, Piel, "to bewitch"; litu (i. e. nnb), "to keep", e.g. clothes (comp. Heb. nnp.b'S, "wardrobe"); mt'kaltu (If. A. I. ii. 38, 19), "brook" (comp. bs^ti, 2 Sam. xvii. 20); marUj "to be fat"; nidbu, nindabu, "freewill offering";

, "progeny"; nasiku, "prince"; ndkidu, "shepherd"; , "property"; sapadu, "to mourn"; sardru, "to be refractory"; ddu, "time" (Heb. "hy); eru, "city"; erpitu, "cloud" (comp. D'1£i'|1l5'i) ; pdnu, "face"; siibbu, "waggon"; kakkadu, "crown of the head"; kirbu, "middle"; rapu, "to heal"; su'dlu, "Hades" (Heb. blSTC); Sarru, "prince"; Sardpu, "to burn"; Sahalu, "to roar"; stru, "flesh"; saldlu, "to lead captive"; Saldpu, "to draw," e. g. , the sword; Sapdtu, "to judge"; SurSu, "root, offshoot"; tdru, "to turn." Were I to aim at anything like completeness, this list would be found to comprise almost every single root in Hebrew, and to in- clude even peculiar Hebrew phrases, such as ^HD 5Bt3, in Assyrian tapdlu taskirti, "to invent a lie"; "P X572, in Assy- rian mullu kdtd, "to fill the hand of one," /. e.} to invest one with an office. As has been recently shown by Franz De- litzsch, the words of the sacerdotal benediction (Num. vi. 26) "The Lord lift up his countenance upon thee and give thee peace," receive a new significance from the common Assyrian phrase "to lift up one's face, one's e^es to any one," L e., to bestow one's love upon any one.2

Of course, though intimately connected, Assyrian and

1 W. A. I. i. 27 No. 2, 36.

2 See Zfifwfirift f'iir Jcii-chl. Wiss. u. Leben, Lfiji/icr 18S2. p. 125.

II

Hebrew are l>y n<> mean- identical. Assyrian ha.«. like Ilrhrew, peculiarities of its own, due chiefly to the fact that it became a literary language at an earlier period than any of its Semitic sister tongues (about 3000 B. c.). W'- refer here especially to the want of the article and to the rare use of the prepositions 3 and b, ba and la. which in Ass)Tian is restricted to the combinations Imsii and lapani. On the other hand, Hebrew must have undergone some changes before it was fixed in literature. All these peculiarities, however, do not loosen the ties of intimate relationship by which it is bound to its Hebrew sister.

Nor is it difficult to see the reason of such intimate relationship. The striking similarity, both in grammar and vocabulary, which the Assyrian and Babylonian langua.'- bears to Hebrew is a natural consequence of the fact that the Babylonian and Hebrew peoples at one time dwelt together in long continued and close intercourse. The sub- sequent emigration of the latter to Palestine was not calcu- lated to exert an alienating influence on their language, as the original inhabitants of that country spoke a tongue not entirely foreign, and the external conditions of life were very nearly the same in Palestine as in their original home. All these circumstances prove that Assyriology is destined to play a most important part in the history of Hebrew lexicography.

IV.

BEFORE considering the various advantages resulting to the understanding of the Old Testament from this intimate relationship between Assyrian and Hebrew it may be appro- priate to mention here an accidental merit of Assyriology which, though secondary, is of very high value. The pos- session of literary documents dating from periods of the Babylonian and Assyrian empire the most varying in time is certainly no small privilege of Assyriology. By the help of these authentic documents the origin of many hitherto doubtful Hebrew words has been explained, and a wholesome check has been put on the pernicious practice of forcing foreign etymologies upon genuine Semitic words. I am referring here to those Hebrew words concerning which great uncer- tainty exists whether they are Semitic or borrowed from the Persian or Greek. Thus n^PSt, "fortress or castle," applied to the castle of Susa in the book of Esther, is explained in the ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary by the Persian bdru, "wall or fortress," and the Greek {3<xpt<;. Now birlu, "castle," is often to be met with in the inscriptions of Shalmaneser II (860 — 824 B. c.), as in the black obelisk, 1. 34, and occurs about twenty times in the annals of Ti- glath-pileser II, Sargon, and Sennacherib. It is, moreover,

— 23 —

mentioned in the dictionaries of the royal library of Nine- veh as a synonym of fjdlxii. "fortification," or "fortified place, fortress." Compare rait birti and rob hul.su. both meaning "governor of a fortress." The Semitic origin of the word is, therefore, no longer doubtful.1 Again, rn$K, "letter," in the post-exilic books, the usual term applied to official cor- iv-pondence or decrees issued by the king, is not derived from the Persian eiu/arMen, "to write." It is a Semitic word, as is proved by the Assyrian fyirtu.) the name given to an official letter addressed by an Assyrian officer stationed in the city of Erech to "the king, his lord," probably king Esarhaddon.2 We meet with the word also elsewhere, as in the lists of synonyms, where tipirtu, "missive," is mentioned as a synonym of egirtu (see W. A. I. v. 32, 5—7). There is little doubt that these and similar words are of a late date in Hebrew, but

1 As a Babylonian word, l.irtu demands of course a Babylonian etymology. It would, therefore, be wrong to connect the word with a root 11:. The Babylonian and Assyrian birtu, which passed into Hebrew under the form rvya, must be referred to the common Assyrian root ianJ "to bind' (a synonym of rakdsu), from which birttu "bond" or "fetters" is derived. Birtu denotes a strong fortification and is espe- cially applied to a castle. Compare the passage Khors. 139: Ularlri* lirtam "I caused a fortress to be built," where uiarlrit literally means "I caused to be joined together." The Hebrew D'tja") "mounds of earth" or "hills," from D3*i "to bind," has an exact equivalent in the Assyrian >>i,-iif<> "hills," from barA "to bind." Sddd u biruti "moun- tain and hills" is a phrase of frequent occurrence in the inscriptions, see Sennach. Rass. 87. The Assyrian half*, "stronghold," a synonym «.t liirtu, and the Hebrew f&n, "armed" and B^n, "loins" are de- rived from the root ybn "to be strong", which in both dialects is distinct from the root ^D, Assyr. fraMfu, "to pluck out"

1 See W. A. I. iv. 54 No. 2.

— 24 —

we need not- therefore have recourse to Persian or Greek etymologies. Words that occur on the tablets of Asurbani- pal's royal library are exempt from the charge of such origin. l

As to some other Hebrew words, their foreign origin is disproved by their mere occurrence in Assyrian. It is scarcely credible that the ninth edition of Geseuius's dictio- nary still doubts the Semitic origin of ^iX, "ship," and ad-

1 The light we gain in this respect from the cuneiform inscrip- tions is not confined to Hebrew; it extends to Semitic lexicography in general. A considerable number of Targumic and Talmudic words, which Levy derives from the Greek in his dictionaries, occur in the Assyrian and Babylonian language, some in the very oldest documents. xblSX, "city gate"; XJfiOX, "north wind"; XB"J, "board, plank"; XIQIQ or XJO^G, "sign," O^X, "overseeer" or "watchman," which have been too rashly explained by the Greek dfx^oXTj, o&svoj, odreoov, ofjjAa and oirj[Aeiov, oupo?, have their ancient Assyrian equivalents in abulu, istrini<. dappu, simtu, svmdnu and urdsu (for the latter word see Asurn. ii. 90. 100). The Aramaic laftd, "carrot," which, in spite of its genuine Semitic type (from nsV, "to wind"), has been derived from the Greek paz-j;, occurs in the form lapti in a small Babylonian'tablet containing about seventy names of plants, which the Babylonian king Marduk- bal-iddina ordered to be set in certain sections of his garden (ganndti). Among the plants there enumerated we find also such names as buklu. yarkanu, "vegetables," ku-uk-ka-ni-tum, i. e., kukdnitu (from an Assyrian stem pip, synonymous with sahdru and lapdtu, "to wind" comp. tlip well-known "I'^p^p in the book of Jonah), lisdn kalbti, (comp. Arabic

_JUCM -jL**J)> and pikkuti (nsnpQ). !%en words the foreign ety- mology of which seemed to be tolerably certain have vindicated their

t> ^ "i Semitic character. Thus the Aramaic "p"nx, poj?], "chamber," which

is generally compared to the Persian ender&n, is proved to be Semitir by the Assyrian idrdnu, "dark chamber" or "room," derived from 11N, "to be dark"; comp. Addaru, "the dark month," in chapter ii.

mils the possibility of an Egyptian etymology. All doubt IB removed by the Assyrian uniitu, pi. nnati, "utensil, vessel," a synonym of kalu, kaKttu, Hebrew ibs, "vessel," also "boat," as in Is. xviii. 2. If we except the geographical names and the proper names, including the title Pharaoh, there is hardly a single word of certain Egyptian origin to be found in the vocabulary of the old Hebrew language.1 The word of which the Egyptian origin seemed to be most certain is the well-known IJpSS in Gen. xli. 43, of which there are about ten different explanations from the old Egyptian and Coptic languages, the most plausible of them being Ben- fey's a-bor-k, "fall down." It ought not to be forgotten, however, that this word, called out before Joseph riding in the royal chariot and adorned with all the insignia of a grand vizier, might just as well be his title, as is, indeed, the opinion of many ancient and modern translators, who render it, like Luther in the last edition of his version (is- sued 1545), " Landesvater" (pater tenerrimus, T% patriae, in

1 Kven lio, "river" or "channel," which is commonly regarded as an Egyptian word and explained by the Egyptian aur "Nile," is un- doubtedly a genuine Hebrew word. This opinion is supported hy the passage Job xxv'iii. 10, where D^SO means "fountains in the rocks" or, according to some commentators, "subterraneous passages hewn out in tin- rocks." See also my remarks in Paradiet, p. 312. The Assyrian form of the word, ya'ilrS "streams," occurs in an inscription of Raman- nirari I (c. 1320 B. C.). Another derivative of the same root 1JO or IX', which I believe means "to send," may be seen in the large in- scription of Nebuchadnezzar (col. vi. 46), where the vast ocean ti'iimfu gallatu, is called ya-ar-ri, i. e., ydri marti "the bitter stream" on account of its salt-water. The Hebrew name of the Nile, "X^ i A>- syr. Yaru-'u-v), is probably an adaptation of the Egyptian word to the good .Semitic name for "stream," yo'iirw, y«rw, ~X"

26 —

the Enarrationes). Luther comments on the word as fol- lows: "As for the meaning of abreck, we will let the grumblers search till doomsday. Let us meanwhile understand it as we have rendered it in German." l We will not grumble about this word nor try to increase the number of hypo- theses, but no one can expect us to break our Assyrian tablets and shut our eyes intentionally against the light. It is a fact which, in spite of Schrader ( Keilinschriften und das AUe Testament, p. 152), cannot be disputed, that abarakku is the Assyrian name of the grand vizier, that high official who holds also the office of eponym, and, together with the turtan, is the highest dignitary of the empire — higher in rank than the Salat, or head of all pro- vincial governors. His ideographic form characterizes him as "the friend of the king." The. reading of his well known ideogram, which is composed of the two signs Si and um, as abarakku is confirmed by the tablet Sm. 61, where, among a number of charming Sumerian and Assyrian proverbs, we read: Naddnu Sa Sarri tubbu Sa Sake, "The liberality of the king ensures the liberality of the magnate"; and Naddnu Sa Sarri dummuku Sa abarakki (in Sumerian Sima lugalakii Saga Sedkit), "The liberality of the king ensures the bene- volence of the abarakku," an exact equivalent of the Eng- lish proverb "Like master like man." Also the feminine abarakkatu is applied to goddesses as the highest adminis- trators of the sanctuary.3 As has already been seen by others, the original meaning of th$ Babylonian abarakku is "father of the king," analogous with the Turkish title ata-

1 " Was Abrech heisie, lassen icir die Zanker suchen bit an den j&ngsten Tag; wollent dietceil verrtehen, trie en gcdevtscht isf." * Compare, for instance, W. A. I. iv. 63, 15.

27 —

bek, "father-prince," and Seurepo; Tranjp, according to the Septuagint a name given to Hainan as grand vizier of Artaxerxes.1

1 Those who object to this explanation of •;~~x on the ground that a Babylonian word is not likely to occur in the history of Joseph may be reminded of C'fflO^n, a word common both to the Egyptian episodes in Genesis and Exodus and to the book of Daniel i i. 20 and ii. 2).

V.

WE now proceed to consider the immediate advantages resulting to the understanding of the Old Testament from the close affinity between Assyrian and Hebrew.

Most of the so-called oaro^ XeYop,sva and such words as chance to occur rarely in the Old Testament have pre- sented special difficulties to commentators. Thanks to the enormous extent and great variety of the monumental lite- rature of Assyria these difficulties are considerably dimini- shed. The Assyrian texts often furnish us with plentiful illustrations of these difficult words, and sometimes support textual readings which some commentators in their per- plexity had tried to emendate. Thus, to quote a few in- stances, various explanations have been proposed for the expression 3"jri"nH3S in Ezek. xxi. 20 (verse 15 of the Authorized Version): "I have set the point of the sivord against all their gates." The translation "point of the sword" is merely guessed from the context. Hardly more successful is the rendering, based on the Arabic ^o., "threat

of the sword" or "threatening sword." Smend, the latest expositor of Ezekiel's prophecies, following Abu'l-Walid, translates "fulgor of the sword."1 The context requires

1 Smend, Der Prophet Ezechiel (Leipzig 1880), p. 141.

some such rendering as "slaughUT," which is actually the translation to be ioimd in the Septuagint (390710 pop^afa;) and in the Tin -n mini. The question whether this translation is due to a mere guess or based on the textual emen- dation Tirrnnap is here immaterial. That both versions have hit the true sense is proved by the Assyrian aba/in, a synonym of tnln'tlin, "to slaughter," from which unhnhn. "rack," a synonym of muhasu (from kdfii, "to flay"), is • If rived.1

One of the many Assyrian names for "trap" or "snare" is ttadiln. We meet with the word in the bilingual text // . /. /. iv. 2(5 No. 2, where we read: saddu ina pat ktiti /•////, .N'< '-/// x/tjHirrurtu (or saparu) Sa ana tdmtim tarpu, itani fa nunu ul uppu, i. e. "a trap placed at the edge of the forest, a ued spread out over the sea, a net which allows no fish to escape." The meaning "trap" is secured not only by the context, but also by the non-Semitic equivalent y///-.«or, i. e., "evil sling." I mention this word2 because it appears to me of great importance to a right understanding of the passage Jud. ii. 3: "and they (the peoples) shall be unto you D^Sb, and their gods shall be a snare (tjjsitjb) unto you." It is beyond our comprehension how the ninth • « lit ion of Gesenius's dictionary can approve of Bachmann's translation: "they shall be unto you as "sides," i. e., "neigh- bours pressing on all sides." The Authorized Version, evi- dently guided by passages like Num. xxxiii. 55, translates:

1 See W. A. I. ii. 23, 9.

* Compare also Sarg. Cyl. 57, where the moongod is called faddt, i. e., he who reveals by his shining light the snares by the demons in the dark recesses of the earth to the de- struction of men. See, for instance, W. A. I. iv. 16 No. 2.

— 30 —

"they shall be as thorns in your sides." The words "a* thorns" which are printed in italics, prove that the trans- lators felt the difficulty of the expression and tried to remove it. There can be no doubt, that D*nS is the Hebrew equivalent of the Assyrian saddu: O'HB means, therefore, "traps," as is already indicated by the parallelismus mem- brorum, and the passage is to be translated: "they shall be unto you as traps, and their gods shall be a snare unto you."1

Passing over other instances like the verb S"1T Job vi. 17, whose meaning "to burn" or "to scorch" is based on the wrongly assumed connexion with 312Z and Cpto, or Port Deut. xxxiii. 3, which Assyrian proves to be a synonym of SID:2, I conclude this series of illustrations by a few remarks on the Hebrew nouns IflJS and miDS. These words are generally combined with the Syriac J*), "to pour out" or "to shed." In accordance with this etymology, "JCX Q^nsn Num. xxi. 15 is translated "the stream of the brooks."

• T : ~

This meaning, though appropriate in the passage just quoted, cannot be applied to passages like Deut. iii. 17. iv. 49 (naOBSl rntJS). The ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary translates in Num. xxi. 15 "the pouring forth of the brooks" (Ergiessung der Uticke), but adopts the reaso- nable rendering "under the slope of the Pisga" in the passages of Deuteronomy. The Assyrian i$du, Plur. isddti,

1 Like the Heb. is, the Assyr. faddu means also "side," for in- stance, the back of a chair is called ?addv. The stem is TiX, "to en- circle" or "to surround," from which both meanings, "side" as well as "snare," may easily be derived.

1 Observe how closely the two words follow each other in the passage Deut. xxxiii. 3.

— 31 —

"base" of anything, shows that "slope" or "foot of the mountain" is the proper meaning of rnTDK. Udu is used of the foundation of a house, of the base of a throne and the lower part of the sky; compare, for instance, the hymn // . //. /. iv. 20 No. 2 , where the rising sun is adreased : SaniaS ina Hid Same tappuha, i. e. "Oh Samas, thou hast come forth from the horizon of the heavens."

VI.

THE names of animals, plants, and precious stones, which constitute a separate class of words among the a:ra$ XeYOjjLEva and words of rare occurrence in the Old Testa- ment, may be conveniently discussed in a special chapter. An invaluable aid is here afforded by the extensive lists of names of animals, plants, and precious stones, which the industry of the Assyrian scribes has bequeathed to us. We feel persuaded that these lists, when completed by future discoveries, will one day prove a rich mine of Semitic lexicography, in as much as the synonymous words which they contain and the ideograms or Sumerian symbols which they explain embody valuable suggestions as to the true meaning of these obscure words. The ideograms by which these names are designated usually express the characte- ristics of the respective animals or objects which they re- present. Thus it is easy to see that the bird hililu (kulili), which is characterized by its ideogram as one riding on the trees, must be the woodpecker. Again, such designations as "bird of the night," "queen of the river side," "golden bird," "star-eyed bird," "bird of the thornbush," "bird of the caves," "long-leg," "smasher of bones," which we gather from their respective ideograms, greatly aid us in identifying the animals in question. Some of the unclean birds specified

— 33 —

in Levit. xi. are also included in these lists. Thus nr:s, verse 19, occurs in the form anpatu (W. A. L v. 27, 38 d), and means, according to its ideogram, "the bird of the li.L'ht" (ijtpur nuri). If we may venture to identify the ideo- gram of this bird with that occurring W. A. 1. i. 28, 24 a. Asurn. iii. 49, the anpatu was hunted by the Assyrian kinirs on the right bank of the Euphrates near Karkemish. Asurnazirpal boasts of having captured with his own hand twenty of these birds.1

It has been long supposed that the bird CT mentioned in Pss. cii. 7 as dwelling on ruins, is a species of owls. The Assyrian lists of birds confirm this supposition. Kasusu is there given as a synonym of the non- Semitic surdu, "bird of the night," which is borrowed from the Accadian (II . A. L ii. 37, 15. 64 b. o).2 It is worthy of note that Onkelos translates 013 (Lev. xi. 17. Deut. xiv. 16) by &T$.> which occurs in the form kadu (syn. dkfy, in the list just quoted immediately before the explanation of kasusu.

Another zoological name of very doubtful meaning on which light is now thrown by the Assyrian monuments is , occurring in the pathetic description of the future

1 TheTargumim render riBDX by nn*03» and sia», translations which are of little use as we are unacquainted with the meaning of these words. I may here mention that rwsax occurs W. A. I. ii. 37, 34 c in the form ibnitu as a synonym of dudu, not of anpatu. I'u- fortuuately the ideogram is not perfectly preserved.

3 The ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary combines C'2 with 0^3, "bag", and mentions the obsolete explanation ofBochart, accord- ing to which 013 is the pelecan, as the bird which has a bag attached to its head. I am of opinion that O^3 is a form like 3VT.

8 The meaning of cx~. which falls under the same category, has boon already discussed on p. 6.

Delltzich, Hebrew and Assyrian. 3

34 —

desolation of Babylon in Isaiah xiii. 21. The translation of the Authorized Version, which vaguely renders it by "doleful creatures," is not satisfactory. This aira£ XeYOfJ-svov is generally translated by "owls" and derived from a sup- posed stem nnj?, "to howl." There is no equivalent in the kindred dialects, except in Assyrian. The Assyrian dhu (syn. barbaru) is, however, not a bird, but a wild quadruped described as sacred to the god of fire, and feared on ac- count of its haunting the farmer's courtyard to carry off kids. Its name dhu characterizes the animal as the evil one. It is most likely the jackal.1

Among the names of plants, of which some of these lists consist, one is of especial interest to us, being the Assyrian equivalent of the Hebrew flbsian. The name haba- sillatu occurs in the list W, A. I. v. 32 No. 4, containing all the different kinds of kdnu, "reed," and of objects made of it. The corresponding ideogram characterizes it as Susu, zikpu or pirhu $a jtdne, i. e. "the stalk of the reed." 5 The

1 Houghtons interpretation of ahd by "hyena" (see Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, vol. v. p. 328), which is adopted by Cheyne, is based on the erroneous supposition, that the ideogram vr-bara means "the beast (dog) stripped." We know now, that bara is the non-Semitic equivalent of dku, "evil" or "hostile" (see W. A. I. iv. 10 , 27 — 28 b, where bara (sic!) sabdzw is translated by libbukl a-feu-u; the following words are to be read: ana aSriSu litur). The jackal is written ur-bara, i. e., the evil dog, just as the lion is written ur-maya, i. e., the big dog.

3 The ideogram iS-du (or rtt) occurs both with the determinatives of wood and of reed, sometimes without either (see W. A. I. iv. 7, 56 a. Paul Haupt, Akkadische und sumeri&che Keilschrifttexte, p. 124, 1. 16). Its invariable meaning is "that which shoots up from the root of a plant"; it is contrasted by sur&u, "root," and by subultu, "ear" (of corn). Mr. Theo. G. Pinches (see Athenaeum, 2. June, 1883)

36

ubiial translations, which waver between lily, narcissus, rose, and crocus (comp. ft-^^*-, "meadow-saffran , colchicum autumnale), are mainly based on the supposed connexion of nbstan with bxa, "onion," and can, therefore, no longer be entertained. The two passages (Isaiah xxxv. 1 and Cant. ii. 1), where nbsan occurs, are to be translated, "The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them , and the desert shall rejoice and sprout like the reed" ; "I ara tlte reed of Sharon and the lily of the valley." Observe espe- cially the passage in Isaiah, where particular stress is laid on the germinating (me) of the reed. According to its ideogram and in full agreement with this passage in Isaiah, the Assyr. habasillatu means pirfju $a kdne. Though it is not impossible that fyaliasillatii, nbjian, may be a particular species of reed, it is extremely improbable, the explanation by lubhi Sa hone", i. e., "husk (lit. garment) of the reed," conveying too general a sense to admit of a more definite

erroneously supposes that I misread XASu for lubSu, which is men- tioned, together with kabbdnt and udltu, as a synonym of hnbn*iil<ifu in the text above quoted. It is not probable that any Assyriologist would ever mistake the sign l« for lub, least of all on a tablet so clearly written as W. A. I. v. 32 No. 4. The synonyms WJfw and tikpu are taken from W. A. I. v. 26, 29 e. f., 27 g. h. The lines 26. 27 g. h. prove that the non-Semitic f4-du (or nt) is as general a term as the Assyrian pirhu, which is explained by twenty-one synonyms on the tablet K. 4375, published in part H'. A. I. ii. 23. — I may here suggest that SiU* is probably coimrctcil with nsiatiJ, "lily." If this suggestion be correct, the lily would derive its Hebrew name, not from the whiteness of its flower (comp. ia?'i5, "white marble"), but from the stiff, reed-like appearance of its stalk. As to frabburu, I doubt the correctness of tin- opinion advanced by Mr. Pinches, that the word is borrowed from the Acca- ili.'in, fcabdr* being a synonym of labiu according to W, A. I. v. '_'-. 1'i/itu is tin- ffiiiiuiu form of nd , the name of a special kind of aro- matic reed.

3*

— 36

application. Besides, the general meaning "reed" fits ad- mirably in the passages quoted.

Another botanical name of high interest occurring in the list of plants ordered to be set by king Merodachbaladan (see p. 24, footnote) is hambakuku, the Assyrian equivalent of the name of the prophet plpnn, the more correct form of which would be p1p3H (LXX 'Ap.[3axou|j., 'A[i.(3axoox). Other instances of names of plants used as proper names will readily occur to every student of the Old Testament.

Less substantial is the help to be obtained from the Assyrian monuments for the names of precious stones men- tioned in the Old Testament. Still, it is interesting to know that names like «"lBtt£ (Ex. xxviii. 20; xxxix. 13; Ezek. xxviii. 13) and rnnb (Esth. i. 6) occur in the Assyrian vocabularies and other texts in the forms d$pu (W. A. I. v. 30, 6 Oh) and sihru (sihirtu? ii. 21, 9 d).1 Many of the ideo- grams, by which, in Assyrian, the precious stones are de- signated, convey too vague a sense to assist in the identifi- cation of the objects intended. Thus, the ideogram of Subu, the Assyrian equivalent of ilTS (Ex. xxviii. 19. xxxix. 12), denotes the shining or the precious stone (abnu nasku or abnu akru) xat' ££oj(7]v. If we compare, however, the hymn published in our Assyrische I/esestiicke, 2nd edition, p. 73 ss.,

1 As to the frabttX, mentioned along with the 12UJ in the pas- sage Exodus xxviii. 19, we submit the following explanation. Starting from the well known fact, that many pa^cious stones received their names from the countries where they are found, it is not improbable that iTcbriX is the stone found in the country of Ahlamil, which is often mentioned in the Babylonian and Assyrian texts as an Armenian people and district. This conjecture is countenanced by the circum- stance that Sennacherib repeatedly praises Armenia and the adjacent countries of Nai'ri as a rich mine of certain precious stones; see W. A. I. i. 7, No. E. 44, 72 ss.

37 —

where Tatar, the goddess of the morning star, is described as "arising over the earth like a fire" and "adorned with &ubl- stones," or if we remember that the channel of Tam- muz is written by the same ideogram with the determinative "river," we perceive at once that fatbu, iatD, must be a stone of light colour like the topas. Thus, the usual ren- dering "achat" becomes rather improbable. It is a point of extreme interest, that the hymn W. A. I. iv. 18 No. 3 mentions by name, as it seems, twelve precious stones of transcendent splendour, "enchased in gold and destined to adom the shining breast of the king," the "precious stone" xat' the ^M^" or nisifcU) being* of course, amongst them.

VII.

IT has been already pointed out by Cheyne, in his excellent commentary upon the prophecies of Isaiah (vol. ii, 1882, p. 160 f.), that the common rendering of the Hebrew root bat by "to dwell" can no longer be maintained. Owing to the unsatisfactory translation of >'3bap, Leah's words after being delivered of her sixth son Zebulon, in Gen. xxx. 20, "God hath endued me with a good dowry; now will my husband dwell ivith me, because I have born him six sons," do not give a good sense. Cheyne rightly remarks that "the word is commonly so rendered, not to suit the context, but in obedience to a prejudice as to the meaning of b^OT." The latter word is usually translated by "dwell- ing," and bit is thought to be a denominative verb of it. The ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary states that "it occurs in all dialects only as a denominative verb." The incorrectness of this statement is proved by Arabic, and especially by the Assyrian language^ In Assyrian zabdlu is a very common synonym of na$u (Heb. KtD2), "to lift, to raise, to bear," — the very meaning, as St. Guyard has shown1, wanted in the passage above quoted. The trans- lation "Now will my husband exalt or honour me" not

8 See Journal Asiatique. aoilt-sept. 1878, pp. 220 ff.

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only suits the context, but agrees in substance with the rendering of the Septuagint, atpertei fie, "he will prefer me." Light is also thrown by Assyrian on the meaning of *"ZT itself. The original meaning of that word is not "<lw< •lliii'j-" in general, but "elevated or high dwelling." It is, therefore, especially applied to the heavenly dwelling- places of the sun and the moon (see Hab. iii. 11) and to the high temple of God. "How suitably does Solomon, after alluding to Jehovah's dwelling in thick clouds, refer to the newly built temple as a b*3T rP3, 'a house of height' (1 Kings viii. 13), a house which by its elevation pointed men upwards to the heavenly temple!" (Cheyne.)1

Again, Hebrew bin means "banner"; but what is the meaning of the verb bn (Psalm xx. 6; Cant. v. 10)? The modern lexicographers and interpreters say that btt is de- rived from the Arabic JL».t>, "to cover," the banner being "the cover of the stick," and that the Hebrew bjrt is again a denominative verb, meaning "to erect a banner" or "to provide with a banner."2 Now, in the first place, it does not seem very probable that the banner should have been called in any language "cover of the flagstick." In the second place, the rendering of b*3TJ by "one provided with a banner" in Cant. v. 10, "My beloved is white and ruddy, conspicuous among ten thousand like a man provided with a banner," is most unnatural. The general import of ^IM, which the Authorized Version translates well "the chiefest,"

1 The non-Semitic name of the famous temple of Bel in Babylon, JS-tayila, ha* just tho same meaning as Hebr. bl3T P^S; cornp. W. A. I. ii. 15, 45 c. d.

: Fiir-t's explanation, who ascribes the meaning "to shine, to exalt" to the Hebrew stem bjl, would be far preferable.

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is clear, but what is the original meaning? Assyriology solves the riddle. In Assyrian the banner is likewise called diglu. We read in a hymn addressed to the sungod, "Thou art the light of the furthermost ends of heaven, thou art the banner (diglu) of the vast earth; the vast nations look upon thee and rejoice."1 The verb from which diglu is derived occurs hundreds of times in the Assyrian texts, its simple meaning being "to see." The banner is, therefore, the object to which the eyes of the soldiers are directed — undoubtedly a far better explanation than "cover of the flagstick." blJH in Cant. v. 10 is, therefore, to be trans- lated, "My beloved is looked up to among ten thousand" — among ten thousand the eyes of every one are directed only to him. In the same manner the translation of the paren- thetic words in Psalm xx. 6, expressing the cheerful con- fidence of the believer in Jehovah's name and help, "We will rejoice in thy salvation, and in the name of our God we will set up our banners," had better be replaced by "We will rejoice in thy salvation, and keep our eyes directed upon the name of our God." The passage forcibly reminds one of an oracle sent to the king Esarhaddon from the goddess of Arbela : "Do not trust in men, direct thy eyes upon me, dugulanl, i. e., look upon me, keep thy eyes directed upon my name."2

Another verb that has been explained in the most divergent manner is TQD (see Gen. xliii. 30; Lam. v. 10), from which the names of the heathe'n priest ("TQS) and of

1 W. A. I. iv. 19 No. 2. The Assyrian words are: attdma nur- Sunw Sa Jcippdt sdmS rUMtum, $a irfitim rapaitim digiUina attdma; ina- faldkdma ihddd ni$3 rapSdte.

2 W. A. I. iv. 68, col. ii : ina til amSldti Id tatdkil, mutuh indka ana dsi, duguldni.

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the net (rntJDtt) are derived. The last edition of Geseniua's dictionary, partly following the Septuagint, gives three diffe- rent meanings to this one root: firstly, "to hide," by which rPVCDE, "net," is explained as the object hidden in the water or on the earth; secondly, "to be dark or black," by which "fl23, "priest," is interpreted to mean originally "blackness," then the "dark-dressed man" (Gesenius, "qui atra veste incedit, lugens, hinc asceta, sacerdos"); thirdly, "to contract," therefore, Gen. xliii. 30, "His bowels were drawn together towards his brother." The two different meanings thus ascribed to one and the same form, "V03:, and the etymological explanation of its derivatives, will hardly satisfy any critical reader. How plain and simple becomes the difficulty by the comparison of the Assyrian dictionary ! The verb kamdru occurs very often on the As- syrian monuments, meaning everywhere "to strike down, to throw down, to overpower." An Assyrian vocabulary which we have lately examined shows that kamaru is a synonym of dakit (IC1, PDl) and labdnu (comp. the phrase laban appi, "to throw down the face, to adore"). By applying this meaning to the Hebrew passages in question every difficulty is removed. Who can deny that the following translations are at once the most simple and the most satisfactory? Gen. xliii. 30: "And Joseph made haste; for his love teas overpowered towards his brother, and he sought where to weep."1 1 Kings iii. 26: "Then spake the woman whose the living child was unto the king, for her love was over- powered towards her child," &c. Hos. xi. 8: "How shall I give thee up, Ephraim? mine heart is turned within

orn means love as well as bowels; the following passage Hos. xi. 8 teaches that it had better be taken in the former sense.

— 42 —

me, my sympathy (not "repenting") is totally overpowered" Turning to the explanation of the passage Lam. v. 10, it will be remembered that images taken from the oven are not unfrequently used in Assyrian proverbs. Thus we read1 Kzma tinwri labiri ana nukkurika marts, "Like an old oven he is too weak to do thee much harm," z. e., like an oven he has no strength, or, in accordance with the Eastern custom, like a pot the sides of which are burst by too long use and by exposure to violent heat, he is powerless. The passage in Lam. v. 10 is therefore to be translated "Our skin Jias been overpowered like an oven," z. e., has become powerless, or lost its vigour and power of resistance, "by the burning of the famine." Finally, as to the name of the net and the heathen priest, the former is called rnttStt as the instrument by which the prey is overpowered or thrown down (compare the frequent Assyrian phrase "Like a net ashup-hb" "I threw him down," from ^HD); while the priests, or DVTCD, are the persons who throw themselves down on their faces and adore (comp. 'ISO and labdn appi). The Syriac l^oa, "sad, dejected," confirms the correctness of my view.

In the same manner other Hebrew verbs of frequent occurrence, for instance mo2, could be explained, not by any hypothesis, but merely by following the invaluable vocabularies of the old Babylonian and Assyrian scholars as Avell as the context.

1 W. A. I. ii. 16, 10—13 d.

2 The verb bna has been already discussed on p. 5.

vm.

HEBREW lexicography is bound to look for help to the Assyrian dictionary chiefly in those cases where a verbal root is only preserved in derivatives. In the majority of these cases Hebrew lexicography is quite unable to give the original meaning of a word. Thus we know that ]nh is the father-in-law, but we cannot tell why he is so called, the verb ]nn occurring only as a denominative verb. Again, we know that oatD means "staff," but we are quite in the dark about the original meaning of the root tJ2T05. Of course, no blame of any kind attaches to Hebrew lexico- graphy for having recourse in such cases to the kindred dialects. What I do censure is the indiscreet use made of Arabic, the pernicious practice of forcing Arabic meanings on Hebrew words with an obviously different sense, an error which is greatly aggravated by the bold confidence with which these etymological speculations are put forward. Could any linguist, however little acquainted with the laws of comparative philology, think it possible that the eighth edition of Gesenius's dictionary proposes in right earnest the following development of meanings for "jnh, "father-in- law" ? "Jfin, like the Arabic .Tvx^, means "to circumcise," and, further, "to incise, to penetrate, to go into" another

44 —

family. Both, father-in-law and mother-in-law, are called frh and rcrih, because through the marriage of their daughters they press, or gain entrance, into another family. Is it possible to conceive such a strange idea? And is it not to be regretted that young beginners in Hebrew, who look upon Gesenius's dictionary as their safest guide, are thus misled, and that ideas of so preposterous a character are instilled into their minds concerning "Semitic modes of thought"?1 Arabic scholars are perfectly justified in reject- ing all those hazardous explanations 'of Assyrian words by the Arabic dictionary2; but why do they not stop, for the sake of Semitic science in general, such an abuse of Ara- bic in the treatment of Hebrew? The Assyrian language, which, as we have seen, is not only intimately related to Hebrew, but possesses a literature three times larger than the Old Testament, supplies all these verbal stems which are wanted, showing them in living use in numerous in- stances. The truth of this statement will be fully proved by our Assyrian dictionary, which, we hope, will demon- strate conclusively that the sacred tongue of David and

1 Compare what is said in the preface of the eighth edition of Gesenius's dictionary about the "Semitischen Torstellungskreise." We remark with satisfaction that the ninth edition has given up the above mentioned explanation of the name of the parents-in-law. According to the ninth edition they are thus called as those who decide, the decision as to which husband their daughter is *i be given being left to them.

4 As ablu, "son," by JuJ&, "to be childless"; situ, "the other," sittu, "the rest," by ou«f> ma'dltu, "bed," by JuuO, "inclination,"

u —

puhru, "total number" or "body" (of people), by ,.,SXJ. "sea, &c.

— 46 —

Isaiah haa no longer need to languish in the fetters of Arabic lexicography. 1

The Assyrian verb ffabinn, from which the words for affinity are derived, meant originally "to surround, to pro* teet." The Assyrian magician sees in a dream the king Asurbanipal fighting in the midst of his enemies, but he sees at the same time the goddess Istar protecting him and surrounding him (hatinat) on every side.2 The verb tyttuini is very common in the sense of "to protect, to help, to support"8; the parents-in-law are called ]nh and n:nh as

1 The excessive comparison of Arabic has frequently induced the continuators of Gesenius's work to set aside the correct views of the original compiler, which are often confirmed by the evidence of Assyrian research. Thus, the Hebrew name of the mule, TB, is explained in

the two last editions of the dictionary by the Arabic ^Jo, "to be

single" or "to live apart," the mule being called T^D as the isolated .•mimal , incapable of propagating itself. Gesenius rejects this expla- n:iti"ii as \vi-ll as the improbable opinion of Bochart ("quia natus sit ex parentibus qui a consorte natural! separati cam alienis copulentur") with the judicious remark: "Utrumque longius petitum est" According to his own view, the mule derived its Hebrew name from its extreme celerity. This etymology, which is based on the comparison of the

r Svriac ?r», "to fly, to flee," is further strengthened by Assyr. parddtt,

"to be impetous," from which the well-known noun and adjective puridu, "impetuosity, vehemence, power" and "impetous, quick" is de- rived ; comp. W. A. I. iv. 5, 47 b : "the messenger ana Ea puridu illik went speedily to the god Ea." For analogous change of the two meanings "powerful" and "quick" comp. Heb. "WO 1 Sam. xx. 19.

* Smith , Asurbanipal p. 125 f. : ina kirimmiia fdbti tahfinkdma taMi-na gimir Idntka, pnnuia ifdtv innapife ttfii ana kaSdd nalcireka, fc., i. f., ,,by her fair body she shielded thee and encompassed thee on all sides; out of her face fire was kindled to vanquish thy enemies," &c.

» See W. A. I. ii. 89, 2 f. Sarg. Cyl. 4 and other passages.

— 46 —

those who. protect and support the young family. That this explanation is in harmony with "Semitic thought" is con- firmed by the synonyms on, "father-in-law," rfittn, "mother- in-law," which are derived from the same verb STan, "to surround," as STain, "the surrounding and protecting wall."

Why is the stick called I3STZJ in Hebrew ? Gesenius's dictionary combines the word, without putting any query,

with the Arabic fa.|.Wj "to be lank" (of the hair). It

cannot be questioned that a stick or a rod, especially one used for punishment, may be "lank"; still, this etymology must now be given up, because Assyrian shows clearly that sibtu, "the stick," is derived from Sabdtu, "to strike, to beat, to slay," the stick being the instrument of beating.1 We may add that Fiirst, aided by the Targumic and Tal- mudic idiom, has already proposed this etymology.

Like all Semites, the Hebrew people called the flock, both of sheep and goats, I&MZ. We did not know why, be- cause no Semitic language has the verb "}fc?2 in living use. The latest editions of Gesenius's dictionary think it probable that the name of the flock is to be compared with the

Arabic _JL«o, "to be small, sick, emaciate." Poor Semitic

people! Indeed, if anything could point to the desert as their original home, small and emaciated sheep and goats would do so. The Babylonians «iand Assyrians , like the other Semitic nations, called the flock senu, but they have

1 For the verb Sabrftu, "to beat, to slay, to kill" compare W, A. I. IT. 16, 9 b; 21, 21 b. Assyr. Sibfu means both, "scepter" and "slaughter."

47

preserved at the same time the verb ^KS in numerous passages. It is one of the most common synonyms of l&bu, "to be good, benevolent,"1 the flock being called fettu be- cause of the lameness and gentleness of the animals com- posing it; this is real "Semitic thought," as is shown by

the Arabic

The verbal root W , from which V^y, "bed," is de- rived, is not preserved in Hebrew. The word is generally

e „

compared to the Arabic .i^c, "booth" or "shed" or "throne"; , "wooden structure made for a grape vine"; and

"to erect a 'ari or 'orW." 'try is therefore ex-

plained as a bed having a canopy, or a booth made of branches, in which people used to sleep during the hot summer months, and J. Low2 thinks that he can trace this meaning in Cant. L 16. TB"$ means, however, only "couch" or "bed," and the Syriac \ja;L has the additional sense of "bier." It is certainly very improbable that the He- brews, Babylonians, and Aramaeans had such luxuries as four-post beds at that remote period when they still dwelt together. Also in Assyrian ir$u or frht is "bed," and the verbal root ereht means, like ropddu (TC'l), "sternere," or "to spread out." TD"17 is, therefore, simply "stratum."

To quote some other instances, Hebrew lacks the ver- bal root from which rntD, "beloved" (Eccles. ii. 8), is de- rived. We have already shown in another place that

1 Compare our remarks in Wilhelm Lotz, Die Intckriften

I, p. 86 f. * AramaucAf 1'flanzenmame*, p. 89.

Assyrian possesses a root TIC, "to love," from which hidddu, "lover," is derived. The ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary, though taking notice of this etymology of PttUJ, keeps to the old explanation, according to which the word meant originally "lady," and is to be compared to the

*•* ** .-

Arabic s'Juu*. The same edition alleges also the Tal- mudic mtJ, "chest" or "chestlike seat for the women on

T • '

the back of the camel." All these explanations are at variance with the principles of grammatical formation, common sense, and the plain fact that PHIZ? means "the beloved," not "lady."1

A word common both to Hebrew and the Aramaic dialects is bn:, "valley" or "brook." This word is usually derived from a supposed verbal root bn:, which is said to be related to bbn, "to hollow out." This is, however, a mere conjecture. The Assyrian nahlu or nahallu means likewise "valley" or "ravine" or "brook." The verb nahdlu, "to compress" or "to confine," is, however, preserved at

1 We may here be permitted to propose a new explanation of the well known divine attribute iWS , which is usually combined with

the Arabic Jo<Xiw, "strong," the form itself being defined as an ab- stract noun terminating in ai (see Stade, Hebraische Grammaiik, §. 301 a). In the Assyrian list of synonyms W. A. I. v. 28, 82 h sadu is ex- plained as a synonym of sakn, "to be high," and the succeeding line is devoted to the definition of &dd4, "mountain," syn. gdblum. We doubt whether any linguistic grounds can be urged against the analysis of

the word iTO as the form J<JL£ from JTTCJ, "to be high or to be ele- vated." Assyrian phrases like Btl sddu rabu, "Bel, the great rock or mountain" and proper names like Ilu-sadd'a, "God is my rock," are in favour of this etymology.

— 49 -

the same time. The Assyrian mihlu and the Hebrew bn:, "valley," is, therefore, the space confined between two hilli <>r mountains. The word was afterwards applied to the brook flowing in the valley.

Hebrew "V^nB, "price," has an exact Assyrian equi- valent in matym. In Hebrew iflB as a verb is not in use; in an Assyrian dictionary at least ten pages could be filled with verbal forms of mahuru, "to receive" — the price, the wages is simply that which is received.

In like manner K"O2, "prophet," "HD, "vow," and many other words, are for the first time supplied with a satis- factory etymology by the Assyrian dictionary. Reserving the explanation of these curious words for future discus- sion, we cannot forbear expressing our entire agreement with the interpretation of the important word rP"13, put forth in the two latest editions ofGesenius's dictionary. It is no small merit of the editors to have discovered that the primary meaning of ITH3 is "decision or ordinance or de- cree," and that "covenant" is the secondary signification. There is, indeed, in Assyrian a verbal stem baru, "to de- cide," which occurs, for instance, in an invocation to Izdu- bar (Sm. 1371). The whole passage deserves to be tran- scribed: flana-ta-ma ki-ma Hi ta-bar-/ri/, ta-az-za-az ina ir si-tint ta-gam-mar di-/naj, di-in-ka ul in-nett-ni nl im-meS tr /-iii<if-ka/, ta-Sal ta-/ja-fi ta-da-ni ta-bar-ri u tef-fMir, SamaS Sib-fa u puritxa hu-tuh-hti i/i-kid, Sarrdni hikkanake u rubute hdin-sii, tii-hni-ri tf'-rv-ti-&u-nn purusa-hwiu tu-par- i. e. "Thou art a judge and decidest like a god; thou staudst upon the earth, holding judgment; thy judg- mfiit is not reversed nor [thy sentence] ignored; thou rulest, thou examinest, thou judgest, thou decidest and governest, Sauias has put the scepter and decision into thy hand.

Delltuch, Hebrew and AmjrUu. 4

50

Kings, potentates and magnates bow before thee; thou fixest their laws, thou directest their decrees."1

Assyrian is of equal value in those instances, where a Hebrew verb is only preserved in derived conjugations, while the meaning of the Qal is obscure. One instance may suffice. The well-known Hebrew verb D^bpn , "to treat any one ignominiously , to insult him," not occurmg in the Qal, we cannot tell the original meaning of the Hifil. The ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary says, "The

verb means 'to hit, ferire,'1" and compares Arabic IJX "*°

wound," in the second form "to speak, to address anybody" (originally to lash, see 2t2H in the eighth edition). Now the Assvrian has the two verbs kaldmn and kaldmu, "to

1 As we have had occasion to remark in chapter iv, the advan- tages to etymological research resulting from the study of Assyrian extend also to the Semitic sister tongues, more especially to the Ara-

. 0 S> V

maic dialects. Thus the well-known Syriac word f 1Vj* * ' } "inter- preter," of which the Assyrian form targumdnu has been recently dis- covered by Mr. Theo. G. Pinches (see Procedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, Feb. 6, 1883, p. 73), receives for the first time a satisfactory etymology by the Assyrian verbal root ragdmu, "to speak," from which rigmu, "word," is derived. Targumdnu is "the speaker," who speaks for others by interpreting their words. Even the ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary keeps to the traditional ety- mology, according to which targumnnu is to be derived from nil, "to

^w ~ T

throw with stones" or "to stone," the transition of meaning being ex- plained by the comparison of the Latin jacere, "to throw," with it- compound trajicere, "to translate." Again, the Qal of the Aramaic b^iui, "to persuade," is proved by the Assyrian saddlu to be a syno- nym of patu, "to be open." Irfitu isddiltn is "the wide earth'': bMtv xridiltu is a "wide door." Vro thus answers exactly to the Hebrew

rwe.

51

be small"; kalumu is a child (If. A. I. ii. 30, 43 o; kal- matu and kalmatu are, as in Aramaic, the uames for the smallest beasts, like the worms; the vocabularies call ex- pressly kalmu (kalmu) a synonym of Imlln. Heb. 3£ (II .!. /. ii. 36. 40. 41 a). Thus Assyrian knllumu, "to treat any one ignominiously," meant originally "to estimate lightly. " parvi aestimare, leve habere. Hebrew O^bpn is therefore the exact synonym of b!jp, 5J5H.

IX.

THE Assyrian verb is frequently used in a sense dif- fering from that of its Hebrew equivalent, thus showing the original meaning of the latter. The Assyrian nabatii means "to be bright" or "to shine," and in the causative form, "to cause to shine" or "to make bright." The ideas of brightness and sight being so intimately related, we can see at once the true etymology of the Hebrew 1325, Hifil E^an, "to look." The ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary

compares the Arabic Jaju, "to spring forth," and the Tal- mudic t32D, "to sprout forth," thus, it appears, thinking it possible that t2^an, "to look," is literally "to cause to spring forth," sc. "the looks from the eyes." But by such arbitrary additions many other actions could be called E^PI. The same edition states that the original meaning of nbo, "to forgive" or "to remit sins," is "to loose." This explanation is given without a query, and the Arabic equivalent is not even referred to. Now the Assyrian saldhu means "to sprinkle," and is used with reference to sacrificial purification. This etymology is at once simple and in full accordance with Hebrew modes of thought.

The etymology of TO, "to cultivate a field," and TO, "cultivated field," is still explained in the latest edition of Gesenius's dictionary by the curious assumption that TO is

— 63 —

much the same as "^?n, the Hifil of T:, and that "': literally means den Acker lichten, or "to till the Held." There is, however, no analogy for such a mutilation of a Hifil form. A single glance at the glossary of any Assy- riological publication would have shown the editors of the dictionary whence a much more likely etymology of T: is to be obtained. In Assyrian TJ means "to subjugate/' and is used of the cultivation of the ground. JVfrw is "yoke." The expression has an exact equivalent in the Latin "do- mare" and "subigere."

The question as to the primary signification of the Heb. T1K, "to curse," has often been raised, but all at- tempts at a satisfactory explanation have proved unsuccess- ful. Now, the Assyrian verbal stem araru, though com- monly meaning "to curse, to lay under the ban" (compare urrniii. "curse"), is frequently used in the sense of "to bind" or "to catch." Compare als\> am/, "fowler," in-ibi, "sling or fetter." We are inclined to believe that this is the ori- ginal meaning of the Heb. "HX, an opinion which derives con- siderable support from the analogy of the Heb. "On, "to bind" and "to bind by means of charms" or "to charm."

By an attentive study of the Assyrian dictionary doubts are often created as to the correctness of etymologies apparently genuine and long since accepted. Thus, the current etymology of Heb. TXp, "to reap" and "to be short," which is based on the comparison of the Arabic -,^'t, "to cut," is both simple and satisfactory. By means

of the cutting scythe the harvest is accomplished. The in- strumentality of cutting is required to shorten that which is long. Turning to Assyrian, however, we find a verltal stem kasarn, "to bind" or "to collect." *^SJ5, "harvest"

— 54 —

might, therefore, with equal right be defined as the time of gathering (compare CppS), and ^£jx, "to be short" would literally be "to be srictum" or "cmvtrictum." So far both etymologies are equally natural and convincing. In addition to "harvest," however, "lnXj? means also "bough," which is explained, in accordance with the former etymology, as the "cut off" object. But are we to imagine "cut oft" boughs in passages like Isaiah xxvii. 11, Job xiv. 9 or Ps. LXXX. 12: "She (the vine) sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river"? Gesenius, perplexed by the difficulty of explaining "HSJJ, "bough," by ~2p, "to cut," is inclined to separate "HSj? entirely from ISp. By adopting the Assyrian etymology of "I2p ("to bind") every difficulty is removed. Analogous with :pTD, PDlfe and fh$ the bough was called "^Sp on account of its twisted condition.

Few etymologies have so much exercised and vexed the ingenuity of Semitic scholars as that of btBTS, with its two discrepant meanings "to be similar" and "to govern." The ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary, adopting the conjecture of Fleischer, explains bCB by the Arabic Juuo, "to stand" or "to stand erect" like the servant who stands

erect (Jo'L+Jt) before his master. The following develop- ment of meanings is proposed for Jowo: "to place, to place oneself or a thing in a certain position, to represent, to place a thing by the side of another, to compare." btf'n is, therefore, said to mean "representation" and ^tDtt, "go- vernor," is represented as "he who stands in the govern- ment" (msbtta is boldly supplied, with the comparison of the Arabic phrase xXJU-JU *UO- We think that many an objection could be brought forward against this etymology. The same verbal stem, masahi, exists in Assyrian. We frequently

read in the annals of the Assyrian kings: "I planted a park tinnsil i<'n/it Jliinnnii "in the likeness of the mountain of Chaman" (>r "I Imilt a palace tam&il ekal tlatte "in the likeness of a Hittite palace." Mi&IAni are "two equal hal- ves," and xnmhihi means "to divide into two equal halves." MaSdlu means, however, also "to shine." MuSalu, "spk-ml- «>ur," is a general term for anything of a shining character. bcT3 is the governor as the person who is distinguished by the splendour of his appearance.

The Hebrew and Assyrian "TO, Sarru, "prince, king," exhibits the same primary signification. The Hebrew word is usually derived from a supposed stem TWO, "to govern," this meaning being obtained by the assumption that "to govern" is literally "to divide" or rather "to dispose," the root being "ito, "to cut." Sarru being the name of the king in Babylonia and Assyria, we naturally look for an Assy- rian etymology of the word. Now in Assyrian Sardru is "to <liin<-," Ziiriiru is the magnificent splendour of the stars, of the rising sun (Sarur SamSi). It is a synonym of the common Assyrian word melammu (see W. A. I. ii. 35, 7 e. f), especially applied to the splendour of royal majesty. Compare phrases like : pulhe melamme belufi'a ishupu&i "the fear of the splendour of my majesty threw him down." Tiglathpileser I styles himself "the bright day, whose splendour overthrows the four quarters of the Universe." Observe also the proud appellation Samak mdti, "the Sun of the country," often used by the Assyrian and Babylonian raonarchs. It can, therefore, hardly be doubted, that our explanation both of btJtt and -1C is in full accordance with Oriental modes of thought.1

1 The objection raised by Paul Haupt (see Nackrichten rom der Gtittittgfr Ot». d. W., 25. April 1883, p. 105 f.) that the meaning "to shine"

56

The Heb. "ntD, "to govern," is evidently formed from "ITB, just as Sfbti, "to be king," is derived from tfbtt, "king." The king is called -fbtt, malik, as he who decides. The Arabic

meaning of dLLo, "to take possession of a thing," seems to be the latest development of the meanings of the stem

is assumed for too many Assyrian words, is not valid. All languages are rich in such terms. The only difficulty consists in discovering the shades of difference between the various synonyms. The verb nasdku, by which this objection was occasioned, cannot mean "to string to- gether"; aban nisikti or simply nisiktu is not the pearl, but the precious stone. Nasdku is a synonym of akdru (Ipl), "to be precious"; aban nisikti and aban akartu mean both "precious stone." What sense does that supposed meaning "to string together" yield in passages like W. A. I. i. 7 E. 44, 72. v. 33 b, or on the newly discovered monu- ment of Nebuchadnezzar I., where the king styles himself rubu nddv nasku, "the great, the sublime, the magnificent"?

X.

I N some instances even the rich stores of the Assyrian vocabulary fail to provide us with the verbal roots of certain derived nouns common to Assyrian and Hebrew. The Assy- rian language, however, amply compensates for this defect by a number of derivative forms, from which valuable sug- gestions as to the original meaning of the root in question may be gathered. Thus the word for "stone" is formed from the root ps< in all the Semitic languages, except in Arabic,

where a special word, «^£V^>, is in use. Nevertheless the

Arabic verbal root 'o&zna, "to clot" (of the blood), is stated to represent the original meaning of the root pX, the stone being called pX as the hardened object. I doubt the cor- rectness of this etymology. In addition to ahnu, "stone," Assyrian possesses other derivatives of the same root, e. g., iihanii, "point of a rock" or "tip of the finger." It is, therefore, very probable that the original meaning of the root p« is "to be pointed," and that pS is the stone as the pointed object.1

1 The etymology of C5S, "bog," proposed in the latest editions of Gesenius's dictionary is another instructive instance of the danger attending the injudicious comparison of Arabic verbs, with obviously late meanings. Hebrew phrases like EJB: "vsax, "troubled in spirit".

58 —

The question concerning the original meaning of "cake made of pressed figs," is likewise satisfactorily ans- wered by the Assyr. dublu, which is given W. A. I. ii. 35, 43 e as a synonym of iMu and nirmu, the synonyms of u$se, "foundation." «"lb;n is, thus, an expression analogous with mclDX, "cake made of pressed raisins."

The etymology of few words has been the subject of so much discussion as that of Dltf, "man." It has been supposed that D*lit is connected with HE'li*, "ground," which is prima facie not improbable. The translation "earth- born," however, is not admissible, as Ewald has conclusi- vely shown on grammatical grounds. It is impossible to mention here the numerous explanations of the word which have been put forward. An account of them will be found in any linguistic commentary on Genesis. Dillmann rightly remarks: "A certain etymology for C"S has just as little been found as for homo." D"!S is in Hebrew and Phoenician

T T

the generic name of man. It is also preserved in Himyaritic, but lost in Arabic. In Assyrian a verbal root DTK is pre- served in a number of derived nouns, which show that the original meaning of the root is synonymous with that of , "to build" or "to beget." Thus we have adman u,

and the analogy of the Aramaic and Assyrian dialects (compare the Assyrian agdmu, "to be sad") plainly indicate that the original mean- ing of the root O2X is "to be troubled." The "bog" is, therefore, called O5X, Assyr. agammu, from the "troubled"«fcr "turbid" state of its water. It is surprising that so simple an etymology should have failed to re- commend itself to the attention of the editors of the dictionary, who

„ f- assert that the Arabic iy*^t; "to stink," which is undoubtedly a deno-

^*

minative verb derived from *^», "bog," represents the original mean- ing of the root CSX.

— 59 —

"building" or "dwelling-place," and m//////, "child," which is expressly stated to be a synonym of Uilaiin (ibl), and is especially used of the young of a bird.1 Compare also the analogous expression abal iffuri, "young bird," with Hebrew "r'^'p. "young pigeon." 0"W is therefore synonymous with ]a, meaning "the begotten one" or "the created one." The verbal root DTK was then used of the cultivation of the ground2; STaii* is therefore "the cultivated ground," as in Gen. iv. 2, and nBTO anfc (2 Chron. xxvi. 10) is "the lover of agriculture" or "the agriculturist." The Assyrian reduplicated root dadam (coin)), hdbaln, "to bring," aside of abalu, bai) means likewise "to cultivate," and dadmu is "dwelling-place" or "cultivated land," or "country" in general.

Another word whose true etymology has hitherto been vainly sought for is HK, "brother." Now the Assyrian equi- valent, <///«, has the additional sense of "side." Aim. "brother," may therefore be defined as the person who >tands liy the side of the firstborn or as the next kinsman, or, again, both words may be derived from the same ver- bal stem nn&t, "to surround" or "to protect." The Hebrew name of the brother would thus be analogous with the San.-krit hhrntar.

The etymology of 01*, "mother," set forth in the latest edition of Gesenius's dictionary is a characteristic specimen of modern Hebrew lexicography. OS is there mysteri- ously explained as the person who precedes the child, the

1 See W. A. I. ii. 37, 21 e. f.

* It may be interesting to note that in the Talmud the participle

• •t' the I'linl of n:s is used in the same sense, see Sota 34 b: n:rr, •vultivated" (Rashi: P"h*Ba P3Ep«, "covered with fruita").

— 60 —

** Arabic verbal root +\ meaning "to precede" or "to go

before." The mother certainly precedes the child in point of time, but the same may be said of the father. Another derivative of the root DTOS5, namely JTQK, "cubit," is ex- plained as meaning originally "forearm," the forearm being the mother of the arm. If the forearm be the mother of the arm, the upper arm is probably the father. Where is, then, the child? Finally, «TQX, "nation," is defined, in strict accordance with the explanation given by the native lexico-

&*> legists of the Arabic equivalent &ot, as the collective body

of men following a common leader, or *Ucf- It must be

r &

owned that these explanations possess a certain degree of ingenuity, but they are hardly satisfactory. The Assyrian verbal root DEN means "to be wide" or "spacious." Ummu is therefore "the womb" (in which sense it often occurs in Assyrian), as the roomy receptacle of the child, then "the mother." Compare the analogous use of Hebrew nrn, "womb," in the sense of "woman," in Judges v. 30 (D^Piarn). Ammatu, "cubit," signified originally "width" or "length," like the Hebrew rniS and similar terms, and was afterwards applied to a definite measure. HT2S5, in Assyrian ummu, is "the nation," as a vast or numerous body of men. NiSe rapsdte, "the vast nations," is one of the commonest expressions occuring in the annals of the Assyrian kings.

XL

HAVING thus shown that the Assyrian language reveals t'nr tin- first time for a large class ofisolated Hebrew nouns the signification of the stems from which these nouns are derived, we now proceed to prove that the very rich cuneiform litera- ture unlocks for us not only the meaning of many word-stems, but also in a large number of cases reveals the stems themselves. It is impossible here systematically to present all the various classes of words whose true etymology is for the first time obtained, and to illustrate them by ex- amples. We must confine ourselves to a few cases, but these will suffice not only to show how necessary is a revision of the Hebrew lexicon by the aid of the lexicon <>!' the nearest related Semitic language, the Assyrian, but also to show how revolutionary such a revision must prove.

It is well known that the Hebrew, like the South Semitic languages, had two n's, which were, indeed, repre- sented by the same character in writing, but which in pro- nunciation differed considerably from each other, and were certainly kept distinctly apart. Wherever the Arabic lacks an equivalent (I omit the Ethiopic intentionally), it has been until now simply impossible to pronounce the Hebrew stem correctly. The Assyrian, which has reduced its weak n to a .xjiiri'itx Irnis, but has firmly preserved its strong n,

— 62 —

puts an end to all doubt. It proves the incorrectness of a whole list of assumptions which were only too hastily based on Arabic stems with similar, or even in part with quite different meanings. All Arabic comparisons which the ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary makes for such words u~

rnn, "pnn, »in, thn, ben, mr, rima, yms, qno, and

rPTD are unquestionably proved to be wrong by the Assyrian equivalents liadu, "to rejoice"; liarisu, ,,moat"; hd$u , ,,to hasten"; hur$u , "forest"; lic&alu, "to crush"; xardhu, "to rise" (of the sun, for instance); mahdzu, "town"; maljnxn. "to strike" (used as in Hebrew of smiting the thighs as a gesture of grief); sahdpu, "to overthrow"; Mhu, „ to sprout" (&htu, "a sprout"). In most cases no blame is to be laid on Hebrew lexicography; still, the mistake might easily have been avoided of giving a A to the Hebrew word for

"to rejoice" (rnn) on account of the Arabic tj^., "to urge camels by singing to them," or to the word for "to rise" (mT) on account of a rare Arabic equivalent meaning "to strew" (—^6). Further, the Assyrian elucidates with surpri- sing clearness stems whose numerous meanings have often been brought into connexion in the strangest manner, by showing that the supposed single stem represents really two, one with h, the other with h. Thus the Assyrian shows that Heb. "pi, "arrow" (Assyr. ussu), and T^n, "to cut off, to pierce" (Assyr. /jasdsu), go back to quite different stems; that tins, "to open" (Assyr. pitu), and nnB, "to carve, to engrave/' for instance on wood* or stone (Assyr. patdhu), have nothing at all to do with each other. Assyrian is helpful in still other ways. The Hebrew verb nH5T3 has the two meanings "to anoint" and "to measure." It has been supposed that we have here a single verb, because in Arabic

63

the surveyor is called _LLc, with , and the two meaning*

have been united in a characteristic manner by saying that mCT2 means |>r<»|i»'Hy to stroke, to spread, either with dye or oil = to anoint, or by passing the hand over anything = to measure. But in Assyrian "to measure" is ma&nhu , the ..measure" is mf'siljtn, the "surveyor" is musiljn. It appears at once that the Arabic proves nothing at all ; that , on

the contrary, _L»Jc, precisely like ,SLo (Assyr. mal>

^•- ^"

"boatman," is simply borrowed in Arabic.

1 We must jiiTsi>t in tlie non-Semitic origin of the Semitic word mala hu (malltihu), wliicli is expressly attested by the Assyrians them- selves, see W. A. I. V. 21, 5c.d. Assyr. matAhu cannot be connected with the Semitic word for "salt," nbr, with h. The fact that Hebrew rr~ occurs only in passages of the books of Ezekiel and Jonah is in favour ..t the late indroduction of the word into Hebrew.

XII.

PASSING on to other illustrations of the same fact, we find that the Assyrian often leads to an entirely different stem from that which has been until now accepted.

The well-known measure "113, "G, xopo?, having the same meaning as "IEH, can per se be derived from "HS or from "113; the Assyrian kdru, from which the name of the inspector of measures and weights, rob kdre1, comes, decides for 113, not T13, which the ninth edition of Gesenius's dictionary prefers. Be it incidentally remarked that STTS, "feast," is not to be derived, with the ninth edition, from "'"D, but from m3, as the Assyrian kiretu, having the same meaning, teaches. On the other side, the ninth edition derives the word for hole, cave, "11H, "|J1, whose stem might be either "111"! or Tin, from 1TI, although already the Arabic

w 9

^s* might have led to the correct etymology. The Assyrian

hurru, with the same meaning, settles the question, and it is but fair to say that Levy has already recognized the correct stem both for "113 and fof' lin.

For the derivation of J"Qj2, "stomach of the ruminating animals" (Deut. xviii. 3), where Gesenius's dictionary is

1 See W. A. I. ii. 31, 48c and compare the Talm. -n-s Kiddushin, 76 b.

uncertain whether to adopt the stem 3~" or nip, and of P3p, "belly" (Num. xxv. 8;, for which ap is prop •..-.-! a.-*

tha stem, we need not refer to Assyrian, the Aramaic tLe with its derivatives showing ch-arly that the stem of both words is

The Hebrew name of the bullock, ir, IB, fem. may come from TB or me. The Assyrian j>uru teaches that the stem is me, the same stem as that from which "^E, "fruit," is derived. The original meaning of tin- .~trm in (juestiou is "to spring, to spring up," a.s the ninth < -i lit ion rightly supposes, although it takes "HE for this stem. It may be interesting to note here another stem, namely 2IX, "to spring," from which both the names for "fruit"' and for "hare" are derived; S3IS, N2S denoting the fruit, as that which springs forth or bursts out, while raps sig- nifies the hare as

The Hebrew 2S, which is used in Job viii. 12 ard Solomon's Song vi. 11 of the germinating or shooting of plants, may, as is accepted by every one, come from the same root as the Aramaic S2:x, "fruit," found in the book of Daniel. But if this be so, it is impossible any long*-: consider 32X as the stem; for Assyrian inJnt , "fruit," st. constr. /////;. as well as the verb in Piel, unnulii, "to bear fruit," and other derivatives like iiannabu= pirhu, "a sprout. ' lead undoubtedly to a stem a:S, from which, as our original dictionaries expressly inform us, the hare antiabu (Arab.

^"6

as l'ie springer, received its name.

The etymology even of the most common Hebrew words is changed by the Assyrian. It is still to-day usual to say that the Hebrew preposition PS, "with" ("FIX, "with m

Del I Inch, Hebrew and Auvriin. .",

— 66

corresponds to an original r:X, so that "'F^, "with me," meant originally "a meeting Avith me." The Assyrian itti, "with," destroys this hypothesis, for the Assyrian itti, ittu is clearly the feminine form of itti, "side," pi. itnti. Itti, ,,with me," means simply "at my side." Itti and ittu, "side," are among the commonest Assyrian words. Certainly no one would dare to adduce the Ethiopia enta against this ex- planation. On the other hand, the Assyrian confirms the derivation of rtf, "time," as equivalent to P2S; (a derivation first correctly recognized by Fleischer); for in Assyrian by the side of ittu, cttu, ,,time," we meet the still commoner masculine form enu, mu, which corresponds to the Aramaic ]< (]<?)> but has nothing at all to do with the Arabic ,.»

In cases like CVP or "X12 we admit that without the aid of Assyrian it was difficult to say whether the D and "Q were radical or merely prefixes. In the face of Assyr. tiimtu, tfinntu, "sea," and ma'ddu, "to be much (miidn, "multitude"), the radical nature of n and tt can no longer be denied.1

1 With respect to the solution of .such difficult questions, the constant effort to compare Hebrew with Arabic has again been a bar- rier to the recognition of the truth even in easy cases like the stem rbr, with its derivative -b"P, "worm." The ninth edition combines this word with &* (Arabic AV), "to lick," a stem having no existence

in Hebrew. Besides, who ever saw a worm that licks ? A dog licks, not a worm. In three passages of the Old Testament (Job xxix. 17, Joel i. 6, Ps. xxx. 14) the teeth are cafted n'strr; but in spite of this the form rSspbr, which occurs only once (Ps. Iviii. 7) and arises from the evident transposition of i and /, is declared to be the original form, and is explained from the Arabic ixj, "to prick." But a tooth

<!'ifs not prick anything. Could not the Hebrew of itself teach that

r.7

The Hebrew \vi.nl fur "d<-!;i "'-^ i* universal}'

derived fr.iin ba'V Hut apart from the fact, that the form would be without analogy, we deny that Heb. ba^ ever means "to llo\\" like the Arabic Jo.. Heb. ^y has, like th< A—yr. nliiilu (trfilnilii), invariably the meaning "to lead or to briii'.'." C'XT*'-;" d>. xxx. •_'.'.. xr.iv. 4) are aqueducts /«?/////// th.- water- I" tin- tii-ld-.1 The obscure word ~2"S in Dan. viii. 2. 3. 6 does not disprove this statement. Just a« ~'f3'G, "sjirinu'" c'lines I'min 73:, b^STS may be derived from -;:. The stem bs: has in Assyrian as well as in Hebrew tin- ineanin^ "to spoil" or "to destroy"; compare Heb. nbs:, A»yr. nu/iii/fi/ (syn. ni'itii, II . .1. I. \. 31, 38 d) , "corpse." The intransitive Hebrew verb b3: is used of the witherin.- aml destruction of the leaves; Assyr. nnl»ihi, the usual verb for "to destroy." is especially applied to the destruction of nature occasioned by the ravages of storms and incessant rains. Compare mililmltn. "huricane" and phrases like nal>lu iisir.niii ill /ml. In" a. "I caused destruction to rain on my enemies."

The well-known word "pIX, "b >x, ark," is by Muchluu and Volck rightly pronounced to be of doubtful ori«rin. Th« Assyrian dictionary ajrain settles the question by the simple fact that I'n'iti/, tlie full equivalent of the Hebrew ""X. has as synonym t'n'i. The stem is therefore m&C, and

tin- .-tcni rbr iiican> "t-> ^-iiau." >.. that tin- \\»n\\ \\oiild l»t,- tin- gnawer, ami tin- t«'eth the gnawers? Tin- A»vrian i-<nitiriii> tlii.-* fully, ju^t a» in general .snuinl A>*vrian rtvni-il-iyy i» in i-mnplete harmony \\itli Miiuiil Hebrew etyinnl.,^ .

1 Compare die analogous name* of Assyrian chumalB Bkfl /!••" i.f al.Minlaut \\atcr" (11'. A. I. i. 27 No. 2, 6).

5*

68

If we bear in mind the fact that the Assyrian language was fixed in literature many centuries before the oldest known Hebrew texts and thousands of years before Arabic, we cannot be surprised that Assyrian has preserved in not a few cases the oldest forms of stems lost or disguised by the process of decay in the kindred tongues. Thus the true meaning of the Semitic word for "bride," Heb. ~>I, is obscured in the cognate dialects. According to Hebrew as well as Aramaic the name can only be derived from bbs, "to encircle;" but none of the different explanations which have been put forward, as "the girl provided with a wreath" or "the veiled," has yet met with general approval. The Assyrian puts an end to all doubt. In Assyrian the bride is called kaJhttii, with a long a in the second syllable. That shows at once that the stem cannot be bbs. We are further taught that the original meaning of the word is not "bride," but "the bride's chamber," its ideogram denoting "the shut -up room." The stem is clearly the same stem J*'~D, "to shut up," from which in Hebrew as Avell as in Assyrian the prison is called xb2 r^Sj, bit kill. Kallntu, "bride chamber," was afterwards applied to the bride.

Compare the analogous use of the Arabic ^CT "harem," and the German Frauenximmer.

As we have had occasion to remark p. 24, footnote, a number of Targumic and Talmudic words, formerly regarded as being of Aryan origin, are now proved by the cuneiform literature to be good Semitic, namflly Babylonian, borrowed chiefly in or since the time of the exile. We stated at the same time that these words cannot be derived according to Hebrew laws of formation, but must be understood as Ba- bylonian words. Now, we are of opinion that the Old Testa-

nit-lit contain.- ,ikt-wise a number of words which an llaliyloniaii origin, because they have a satisfactory explana- tion only it ih. v are understood as Babylonian words.1 One in-: ii. may suffice. The Hebrew and Aramaic name of the I'K-i.i Is is rflTS (Amos v. 8; Job. IX. 9, xxxvm. :il).

The word is generally combined with the Arabic

"i • have a large hump" (said of the camel), and explained

I iy the Arabic x*JT, "heap," so that the Pleiads would lie callf«l rr"~ as an accumulation of stars. I do not think that any of my readers will find this interpretation of that \\oml.-rful .irroup of stars poetical or even true; those seven stars, which arc compared by Persian poets with a necklace or a bouquet of jewels, could hardly be compared with a heap of earth. Babylonia is the home of astronomy, and most of those names of stars, that occur in the Old Testa- ment, as of .Saturn, ""I, htiiirann, are of Babylonian origin.2

1 The Aramaic dialects exhibit a considerable number of such I'>:iliyl»nisiii8. The two verbs -l"- (.the Babylonian Shafel from tsfbn, 2tr) and X3rr (tlie Babylonian Sliafel from atf, XX") rank among the

rurioiis and instructive examples. Observe tlie !C of the last- named form, which alone disproves Aramaic origin. As Paul Haupt :;rst shown, tlie words for "tribute" or "tax" that occur in the hunks ..i' K/.r.-i. Nehemiah, and Daniel — iba and nTi (_rn:i:i — are simply the Babylonian words littu, "tax'' (literally, "what is brought," from -~- and iHHiiiliitfu , mandantu , "tribute" (lit. "what is given," from •p; = -(r:i: i-mnji. Aram. XS'1;, "salil»ath." These Babylonian or Amy- rian words had been adopted by the nations on whom the tribute was iin}>oM<<l hv th<- monarchs of the Babylonian and Assyrian empire.

1 The same is the case with most of the names used up to the |irc-.-iit .lav t'.r tli>- various constellations, as "tin- Wa^jjmi." "the Limi." "the Twin-," which are to be found in the long lists of stars handed down to u* through AMirhani]>al's library.

70

So the word rTC^S is evidently nothing but the Assyrian kimlu, "family," borrowed by the Hebrews as rveis, just as birfu was 'changed into rrP3. The stem is kamu. "to tie," the family being called kimtit because its members are con- nected by one common tie. It would even seem that the Hebrew poet himself was still conscious of that original meaning; this is at least suggested by the words of the author of the book of Job (xxxviii. 31): "Dost thou bind the bands of the Pleiads?"

In concluding this treatise we venture to offer with due reserve a few suggestions as to the etymology of the He- brew word "pB, usually translated by "species" or "kind." the etymology of which Wellhausen rightly 'pronounces a riddle. We formulate our objections to the translation "spe- cies" in the following propositions: 1) In phrases like Gen. vi. 20: "of fowls after their kind, and of cattle after their kind, of every kreeping thing of the earth after his kiml" or Dent. xiv. 13. 14: "the vulture after his kind and every raven after his kind." AVC feel the want of the plural form.1

2) The explanation of the word "pE by the Arabic ~\ Lo

-c*"^

• jcj^l, "he has divided or opened up the earth by the plough for the purpose of sowing," is far-fetched. — Guided by As.-y- rian phrases like "The gods created the living creatures mala bam "as many as there are" or mala Sitma ixihd "as many as have a name," we have long thought that ~**2 simply means "number," a meaning which tits admirably whereever the word occurs. If we consider that the use of the word is confined to the so-called Code of the priests,

1 The e in Cn5^~ Gen. i. 21, which is not the Plural-'', i> ex- plained by KwaM in his Grammar, §. 247 d.

71

K/i-k. \T,vii. in ami t«» four pannages in Deur. xiv, which mooVni eritiei-m places in the lime of the exile, we may venture to identity tin- Hebrew "pr with the Baby- lonian ini/ni, ••number," which ia a pure Babylonian form ei.ntraeteil from //////////, as bitnn, "chihl," /">". ••mi«l>t " and many others are contract! <1 from //«/////< ami /tin/if.

Index

of the Hebrew words explained.

H	2	52-J 20.
3X 16.	^=.= 12-	-3sa 13.
3X 65.	n-n-'a 22 f. 70.
nnax 28 f.	r-i-a 49 f.	•>
•)3X 57.		-X-. 25.
---x_ 25 f. MX 57 f.	- nban 58.	bai' 67. ri'i'^ 36.
r-ax 23. ^ 39 f.
c-x, n^nx 58 f. . Tnx 15. ; ^ 3S f	D 0-3 33.
T.-h~-b"X 12.	1'3 64.
nx 59.	rrc-«a 69 f.
D*nx 33 f. n	x'; 3, x'-3 n->
nrbnx 36. TJX 15.	rbsan 34 ff. — • — -»— Qfi	nfer 63. nba 12.
'i;^X 9.	nnn 62.	^3 25.
......^ q .'	•r-'W 62.	0=3 50 f.
ex, nrx, nsx 59 f. i:x 24Y	ybn 23.	-~3 40 ff. n-ja 64.
rcix 33.	vsn 62.
•p^n-^DX 12. rz^x 10.	-in (Tin) 04. y*-\r> 62.	nx - 66.
-,1~X U7.	•i!^hTl7. 62.	b^a-2 67.
nnx 53. Tix, nnrx 30 f.	Wn62. •jrn 43 ff.	3^3 13 f. m 69. T^ma 62.
n'^x 9.	12	T^n-a 49.
n^rs; r»s.	ra-j 15.	1'H T 62-
rx <;5 f.	r-ri-a 20.	bs^ia 20.

20. 68.

V- To i.	y	JD
-- x:-: I'M.	• __«_ .. . ti . M t '» —U.	mr 62.
ni« •	_-:• 47.	-TO 55C
T^bV: 56.	•-•'•• n\m t 1 f
nnnb-c 10.	r- 1:1;.	V
•_--•: 16.	E	b'x3 20.
rrcna 63. .4 f.	nno 12 i. nsipp 24. no 65.	lar 36 f. •j-J 46. •JU 16.
2	•np 45.	mnd 47 t
*	nnis 62.	^td 48.
•jz: .")2. nba: 67.	s	rwihd 35.
bnY'sf.	•jXS 46 f.	•--
brw 48 f.	n^a •_".!.
•jo"1: 15.
1^3 52 f. W* — » 1 • '	nap, nap 64 f.	oinn 66. sbin' 66 f.
3*1 >J IM.	ypp^p •_'».	nan 30. .
0	•oj? ;•:; f.	M-n bn 16 t
o-'jaq 13.	1	nan 16.
rrp 62.	OX") 6 f.	-,Fnn 12. 1 r : -
rinb 36.	npia-i 13.
•j^p 16.	D-«PD-I 23.
Index
of the Aramaic words explained.
xrx ixs:x) 65.	O"^X 24.	x^n^ 33.
x'sr-.x 21.	iba 69.	b^r 50.
rr-:zx :i:!.	XM 24.	— »•••• t'«l ^i M O»».
•p-inx	xnub 21.	X^^O 69
xanpx 24.	s-:-r. x:-:^p 24.	oa-*n 50.

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