Ullip i. H. Bill iCtltrara 5?artt| (Taroliua i^tate MiuuprBity QH431 D225 S00083575 S THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. NOV 121D30 JUL ~ ^P APR 2 4I9S5 »OEC 1 1 W5 MAY 1 3 1987 '^S 1 3 jggc JUrt4 1991 JADEC f m^ ; c ; "1 lOOM 5-79 PLATE I / -i. Pigment of Chc RoiD Coat and Pigmen OF Iris Absent. 1. Tlj A^LBixo eye. Red fror unobscured blood vessels B. Pigment of Chqi ROID Present. i a. Iris without Truj Pigment. 2. Blue. Dul to a purple layer on baclj af eve. p. iHI.-i ^\1TH TlU'Jj Pigments. Lipochrome or yello; i"-yiiierd. 3. Green or c eye. Yellow pigment blue background. '' Mtianic or black pii " ' 4. Hazel or gnil ?ye- Dilute brown pit inont around pupil only!] 5. Brown eye. MelaniJ pigment; various shadel from varioiLs dilutions. 6. Black eye. An abundance of melanic pig- ment. EYE COLORS IN MAN. HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS "^ BY CHARLES BENEDICT DAVENPORT fci. «■«• -^ CARNEGIE INSTITDTION OP "WASHINGTON DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OP EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION COLD SPRING HARBOR, LONG ISLAIO), N. Y. SECRETARY OF THE EUGENICS SECTION AMERICAN breeders' ASSOCIATION NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY ^9 COPYHIOHT, 1911 BY HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY' Printed September, 1923 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA ' k)^ et n ■»•■' Hr TO MRS. E. H. HARRIMAN IN RECOGNITION OF THE GENEROUS ASSISTANCE SHE HAS GIVEN TO RESEARCH IN EUGENICS THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED J. PREFACE Recent great advances in our knowledge of heredity lave revolutionized the methods of agriculturalists in im- )roving domesticated plants and animals. V^It was early ■ecognized that this new knowledge would have a far- •eaching influence upon certain problems of human society —the problems of the unsocial classes, of immigration, of )opulation, of effectiveness, of health and vigorJ Now, ;reat as are the potentialities of the new science of heredity n its application to man it must be confessed that they are lot yet realized. A vast amount of investigation into the aws of the inheritance of human traits will be required )efore it will be possible to give definite instruction as to fit narriage matings. Our social problems still remain prob- ems. For a long time yet our watchword must be investi- gation. The advance that has been made so far is chiefly n getting a better method of study. In this book I have sought to explain this new method. in application of this method to some specific problems, ispecially to the transmission of various human traits and usceptibilities to disease, has been attempted. The sug- ;estions made are by no means final but are made to illus- rate the general method and give the most probable con- tusions. Only with much more accurate data can the aws of inheritance of family peculiarities be definitely de- er mined. Some general consequences of the new point of view for he American population have been set forth in Chap- ers IV to VI. Their essential truth will, I trust, be generally • • • m iv PREFACE recognized. In any case it will not be amiss to point out the fundamental difference between the modern eugenical and the contrasted or ''euthenical" standpoints. As a matter of fact the eugenic teachings that we think of as new are very old. Modern medicine is responsible for the loss of appreciation of the power of heredity. It has had its atten- tion too exclusively focussed on germs and conditions of life. It has neglected the personal element that helps determine the course of every disease. It has begotten a wholly impersonal hygiene whose teachings are false in so far as they are laid down as universally applicable, fit has forgotten the fundamental fact that all men are created hound by their protoplasmic makeup and unequal in their powers and responsibilities, j As indicated, it is the aim of this book to incite to further investigation. Some space is devoted to the eugenics move- ment— a movement which it is hoped will, in this country, for the present, take mainly the form of investigation. To this movement the Eugenics Record Office (a branch of the work of the American Breeders' Association) is dedicated. The Eugenics Record Office wishes to get in touch with all persons interested in the eugenics movement. It invites every person who is willing to do so to record his heritage and place the record on file at the Record Office. "Drop a postal card" at once to the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, and ask for the blank schedule they furnish. It is understood that all data deposited in this way will be held as confidential and be used only for scientific purposes. The data received are carefully pre- served in a fireproof vault and indexed so as to be avail- able to the student. Specifically, the Record Office seeks pedigrees of families in which one or more of the following traits appear: — short stature, tallness, corpulency, special talents in music, art, literature, mechanics, invention and PREFACE V mathematics, rheumatism, multiple sclerosis, hereditary- ataxy, M^ni^re's disease, chorea of all forms, eye defects of all forms, otosclerosis, peculiarities of hair, skin and nails (especially red hair), albinism, harelip and cleft palate, pecuharities of the teeth, cancer, Thomsen's disease, hemo- philia, exophthalmic goiter, diabetes, alkaptonuria, gout, peculiarities of the hands and feet and of other parts of the skeleton. We do not appeal primarily to physicians for this information but to the thousands of intelligent Americans who love the truth and want to see its interests advanced. At the same time, physicians can aid in the work by in- ducing persons with bodily or mental peculiarities that run through their families to send to the Record Office for blank schedules on which to record the method of inherit- ance of the trait in question. Thus every one can share in the eugenics movement. The Eugenics Record Office will be glad to assist in the establishment of local eugenics societies which shall become centers for the study of local blood-lines and for local in- struction. The Office seeks to assist state officials in the study of the classes which are supported and protected by the State, and to assist the States to locate the centers in which their defectives and delinquents are being bred. It is believed that a Httle money spent in studying the sources of reproduction of persons who are destined to become state wards will prove a highly profitable investment, since it may lead to steps that will diminish such reproduction. In the preparation of the present volume the author has been aided by many hands. Professor James A. Field, of the University of Chicago, has kindly read the proof and made valuable suggestions. The bibliography and the pedi- gree charts were largely prepared by Miss Amey B. Eaton, of the Eugenics Record Office. Professor E. B. Wilson has generously granted me the use of Figures 1 to 6 from his vi PREFACE invaluable book, "The Cell in Development and Inherit- ance." Hundreds of persons have voluntarily contributed the data upon which the conclusions that have been drawn i are based. My friend and colleague, Mr. H. H. Laughlin, 1 Superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office, has assisted ' in many points and has contributed the frontispiece. My wife has, as usual, revised the manuscript and prepared it for the printer. The Trustees of the Carnegie Institution have granted me exceptional opportunities for the prosecu- tion of the work. Last, but by no means least, this work and the collection of data out of which it has grown have been made possible by the financial assistance and by the personal stimulus and advice given by the lady to whom, in insufficient recognition, this book is, with her permis- sion, dedicated. To all those who have so kindly assisted me I return thanks. I trust the book will be useful to hu- manity, so as to justify them for the pains they have taken to bring it to pass. C. B. D. Carnegie Institution of Washington Station for Experimental Evolution Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. CONTENTS CHAPTER I EUGENICS: ITS NATURE, IMPORTANCE AND AIMS PAGE 1. What Eugenics is 1 2. The Need op Eugenics 2 3. The General Procedure in Applied Eugenics 4 CHAPTER II THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 1. Unit Characters and Their Combinations 6 2. The Mechanism of the Inheritance of Characteristics . . 10 3. The Laws of Heredity 16 4. Inheritance of Multiple Characters 20 5. Heredity op Sex and op "Sex-limited" Characters .... 21 6. The Application op the Laws op Heredity to Eugenics . . 23 CHAPTER III THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 1. Eye Color 27 2. Hair Color 32 3. Hair Form 34 4. Skin Color 36 5. Stature 38 6. Total Body Weight 43 7. Musical Ability 48 8. Ability in Artistic Composition 51 9. Ability in Literary Composition 54 10. Mechanical Skill 55 11. Calculating Ability 59 12. Memory 59 13. Combined Talents and Summary op Special Abilities ... 60 14. Temperament 61 15. Handwriting 63 Vll I viii CONTENTS PAGE 16. General Bodily Energy 63 17. General Bodily Strength 65 18. General Mental Ability 65 19. Epilepsy 72 20. Insanity 77 21. Pauperism 80 22. Narcotism 82 23. Criminality 83 24. Other Nervous Diseases 92 a. The General Problem 92 b. The Neuropathic Makeup 93 c. Cerebral Hemorrhage 97 d. Cerebral Palsy of Infancy 97 ^ e. Multiple or Disseminated Sclerosis 99 ( /. Hereditary Ataxy 99 g. Meniere's Disease 101 h. Chorea 101 i. Huntington's Chorea 102 \ j. Hysteria 103 25. Rheumatism 104 26. Speech-Defects 105 27. Defects of the Eye 107 a. Anomalies of Iris 108 h. Reduction in Size of the Eyeball 109 c. Atrophy of the Optic Nerve 110 d. Cataract HI e. Displaced Lens 112 /. Degeneracy of the Cornea 112 g. Glaucoma 113 h. Megalophthalmus 115 i. Nystagmus 115 k. Paralysis or Imperfect Development of the Muscles of Eye and Lids 115 I. Pigmentary Degeneration of the Retina 116 m. Night blindness 118 n. Color blindness 120 0. Myopia 121 p. Astigmatism 123 28. Ear Defects 123 a. Deaf Mutism 124 h. Otosclerosis 129 c. Catarrhal Affectionss 130 29. Skin Diseases 131 a. Congenital Traumatic Pemphigus 132 b. Psoriasis 133 c. Ichthyosis 134 CONTENTS ix PAGE d. Thickening of the Outer Layer of the Skin 135 Epidermal Organs 136 a. The Skin Glands 136 h. Hair 138 c. Nails 139 d. Teeth 139 e. Harehp and Cleft Palate 144 Cancer and Tumors 146 Diseases of the Muscular System 149 a. Thomsen's Disease 149 b. Certain Muscular Atrophies 149 c. Trembling 151 d. Hernia 151 Diseases of the Blood 152 a. Chlorosis 152 b. Progressive Pernicious Anemia 153 c. Nosebleed 153 d. Telangiectasis 153 e. Hemophiha 153 /. Splenic Anemia with Enlargement of the Spleen 157 Diseases of the Thyroid Gland 158 o. Cretinism * 158 b. Goitre 158 c. Exophthalmic Goitre 159 Diseases of the Vascular System 159 a. Heart 160 b. Arteriosclerosis 162 Diseases of the Respiratory System 163 Diseases of the Alimentary System 166 a. Diabetes Insipidis 167 Diseases of Excretion 168 a. Alkaptonuria 168 b. Cystinuria and Cystin Infiltration 169 e. Hematuria 169 d. Urinary Calculi 169 e. Gout 169 Reproductive Organs 170 a. Cryptorchism 170 b. Hypospadias 170 c. Prolapsus of the Uterus and Sterility 171 Skeleton and Appendages 171 a. Achondroplasy 172 b. ScoUosis 172 c. Exostoses 1"3 d. Absence of clavicles 1 "<^ e. Congenital Dislocation of the Thigh Bone — Pelvis Joint . . 174 X CONTENTS PAGE /. Polydactylism 175 g. Syndactylism 176 h. Brachydactylism 177 i. Other Deformities of the Hands 177 41. Twins 180 CHAPTER IV THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 1. The Dispersion of Traits 181 2. Consanguinity in Marriage 184 3. Barriers to Marriage Selection 189 A. physiographic barriers 189 a. Barrier of Water 190 b. Barrier of Topography 196 B. social barriers 198 c. The Barrier of the Social Status 199 d. The Barrier of Language 200 e. The Barrier of Race 202 /. The Barrier of Religious Sect 202 CHAPTER V MIGRATIONS AND THEIR EUGENIC SIGNIFICANCE 1. Primitive Migrations 204 2. Early Immigration to America 205 .3. Recent Immigration to America 212 a. Irish 213 b. Germans 214 c. Scandinavians 214 d. Austro-Hungarians 215 e. Hebrews 215 /. ItaUans 216 g. Poles 218 h. Portuguese 218 4. Control of Immigration 220 CHAPTER VI THE INFLUENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL ON THE RACE 1. Elizabeth Tuttle 225 2. The First Families of Virginia 228 CONTENTS xi PAGE 3. The Kentucky Aristocracy 230 4. The Jukes 233 5. The Ishmaelites 234 6. The Banker Family 237 CHAPTER VII THE STUDY OF AMERICAN FAMILIES 1. The Study of Genealogy 239 2. Family Traits 241 3. The Integrity op Family Traits 249 CHAPTER VIII EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS 1. Heredity and Environment 252 2. Eugenics and Uplift 254 3. The Elimination of Undesirable Traits 255 4. The Salvation op the Race Through Heredity 260 5. The Sociological Aspect of Eugenics 261 6. Freedom op the Will and Responsibility 264 CHAPTER IX THE ORGANIZATION OF APPLIED EUGENICS 1. State Eugenic Surveys 267 2. A Clearing House for Heredity Data 269 Bibliography 273 Append Lx: List of Places Referred to, Geographically Arranged 289 Index 291 PLATES I. Eye Colors in Man Fronlispiece II. Wave op Immigration into the United States, prom all Countries, 1820-1910 218 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS CHAPTER I EUGENICS: ITS NATURE, IMPORTANCE AND AIMS 1. What Eugenics Is Eugenics is the science of the improvement of the human race by better breeding or, as the late Sir Francis Galton expressed it: — ''The science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of a race." The eugenical standpoint is that of the agriculturalist who, while recog- nizing the value of culture, believes that permanent advance is to be made only by securing the best ''blood." ( Man is an organism — an animal; and the laws of improvement of corn and of race horses hold true for him also. Unless people accept this simple truth and let it influence marriage selection human progress will cease. \ Eugenics has reference to offspring. The success of a marriage from the standpoint of eugenics is measured by the number of disease-resistant, cultivable offspring that come from it. Happiness or unhappiness of the parents, the principal theme of many novels and the proceedings of divorce courts, has httle eugenic significance; for eugenics has to do with traits that are in the blood, the protoplasm. The superstition of prenatal influence and the real effects 1 2 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS of venereal disease, dire as they are, lie outside the pale of eugenics in its strictest sense. But no lover of his race can view with complaisance the ravages of these diseases nor fail to raise his voice in warning against them. The parasite that induces syphilis is not only hard to kill but it frequently works extensive damage to heart, arteries and brain, and may be conveyed from the infected parent to the unborn child. Gonorrhea, like syphilis, is a parasitic disease that is commonly contracted during illicit sexual intercourse. Conveyed by an infected man to his wife it frequently causes her to become sterile. Venereal diseases are disgenic agents of the first magnitude and of growing importance. The danger of acquiring them should be known to all young men. Society might well demand that before a marriage license is issued the man should present a certi- ficate, from a reputable physician, of freedom from them. Fortunately, nature protects most of her best blood from these diseases; for the acts that lead to them are repugnant to strictly normal persons; and the sober-minded young women who have had a fair opportunity to make a selec- tion of a consort are not attracted by the kind of men who are most prone to sex-inmioraUty. 2. The Need of Eugenics The human babies born each year constitute the world's most valuable crop. Taking the population of the globe to be one and one-half billion, probably about 50 milHon children are born each year. In the continental United States with over 90 million souls probably 23/^ milhon children are annually born. When we think of the influence of a single man in this country, of a Harriman, of an Edison, of a WilUam James, the potentiality of these 2}/^ milhon annually can be dimly conceived as beyond computation. But for better or worse this potentiaUty is far from being ITS NATURE, IMPORTANCE AND AIMS 3 realized. Nearly half a million of these infants die before they attain the age of one year, and one-third of all are dead before they reach their 20th year — before they have had much chance to affect the world one way or another. How- ever, were only one and a quarter million of the children bom each year in the United States destined to play an important part for the nation and humanity we could look with equanimity on the result. But alas! only a small part of this army will be fully effective in rendering productive our three million square miles of territory, in otherwise utilizing the unparalleled natural resources of the country, and in forming a united, altruistic, God-serving, law-abiding, effective and productive nation, leading the remaining 93 per cent of the globe's population to higher ideals. On the contrary, of the 1200 thousand who reach full maturity each year 40 thousand will be ineffective through temporary sickness, 4 to 5 thousand will be segregated in the care of institutions, unknown thousands will be kept in poverty through mental deficiency, other thousands will be the cause of social disorder and still other thousands will be required to tend and control the weak and unruly. We may estimate at not far from 100 thousand, or 8 per cent, the number of the non-productive or only slightly produc- tive, and probably this proportion would hold for the GOO thousand males considered by themselves. The great mass of the yearly increment, say 550 thousand males, constitute a body of solid, intelligent workers of one sort and another, engaged in occupations that require, in the different cases, various degrees of intelligence but are none the less valuable in the progress of humanity, Of course, in these gainful occupations the men are assisted by a large number of their sisters, but four-fifths of the women are still engaged in the no less useful work of home-making. The ineffectiveness of 6 to 8 per cent of the males and the 4 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS probable slow tendency of this proportion to increase is ^serving of serious attention. It is a reproach to our inteUigence that we as a people, proud in other respects of our control of nature, should have to support about half a million insane, feeble-minded, epileptic, bhnd and deaf, 80,000 prisoners and 100,000 paupers at a cost of over 100 milHon dollars per year. A new plague that rendered four per cent of our population, chiefly at the most productive age, not merely incompetent but a burden costing 100 milHon dollars y^arjy to support, would instantly attract universal attention) f But we have become so used to crime, disease and degeneracy that we take them as necessary evils. That they were so in the world's ignorance is granted; that they must remain so is denied. \ ,3. The General Procedure in Applied Eugenics \The general program of the eugenist is clear — it is to improve the race by inducing young people to make a more reasonable selection of marriage mates; to fall in love in- telligently. It also includes the control by the state of the propagation of the mentally incompetent. It does not imply destruction of the unfit either before or after birth.) It certainly has only disgust for the free love propaganda that some ill-balanced persons have sought to attach to the name. Rather it trusts to that good sense with which the majority of people are possessed and believes that in the life of such there comes a time when they realize that they are drifting toward marriage and stop to consider if the contemplated union will result in healthful, mentally well-endowed offspring. At present there are few facts so generally known that they will help such persons in their inquiry. It is the province of the new science of eugenics to study the laws of inheritance of human traits and, as ITS NATURE, IMPORTANCE AND AIMS 5 these laws are ascertained, to make them known. There is no doubt that when such laws are clearly formulated many certainly unfit matings will be avoided and other fit matings that have been shunned through false scruples will be happily contracted. CHAPTER II THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 1. Unit Characters and their Combination When we look among our acquaintances we are struck by their diversity in physical, mental, and moral traits. Some of them have black hair, others brown, yellow, flaxen, or red. The eyes may be either blue, green, or brown; the hair straight or curly; noses long, short, narrow, broad, straight, aquiUne, or pug. They may be hable to colds or resistant; with weak digestion or strong. The hearing may be quick or dull, sight keen or poor, mathematical ability great or small. The disposition may be cheerful or mel- anchoHc; they may be selfish or altruistic, conscientious or liable to shirk. It is just the fact of diversity of character- istics of people that gives the basis for the belief in the practicabihty of improving the qualities of the "human harvest." For these characteristics are inheritable, they are independent of each other, and they may be combined in any desirable mosaic. The method of inheritance of these characteristics is not always so simple as might be anticipated. Extensive studies of heredity have, of late years, led to a more precise knowledge of the facts. The element of inheritance is not the individual as a whole nor even, in many cases, the traits as they are commonly recognized but, on the con- trary, certain unit characters. What are, indeed, units in inheritance and what are complexes it is not always easy 6 THE METHOD OF EUGENICS g to determine and it can be determined only by the results of breeding. To get at the facts it is necessary to study the progeny of human marriages. Now marriage can be and is looked at from many points of view. In novels, as the climax of human courtship; in law, largely as a union of two lines of property-descent; in society, as fixing a certain status ; but in eugenics, which considers its biological aspect, marriage is an experiment in breeding; and the children, in their varied combinations of characters, give the result of the experiment. ( That marriage should still be only an experiment in breeaing, while the breeding of many animals and plants has been reduced to a science, is ground for reproach. \ Surely the human product is su- perior to that of poultry; and as we may now predict with precision the characters of the offspring of a particular pair of pedigreed poultry so may it sometime be with man. As we now know how to make almost any desired combina- tion of the characters of guinea-pigs, chickens, wheats, and cottons so may we hope to do with man. At present, matings, even among cultured people, seem to be made at haphazard. Nevertheless there is some evi- dence of a crude selection in peoples of all stations. Even savages have a strong sense of personal beauty and a selec- tion of marriage mates is influenced by this fact, as Darwin has shown. It is, indeed, for the purpose of adding to their personal attractiveness that savage women or men tattoo the skin, bind up various parts of the body including the feet, and insert ornaments into lips, nose and ears. Among civiUzed peoples personal beauty still plays a part in selec- tive mating. If, as is sometimes alleged, large hips in the female are an attraction, then such a preference has the eugenic result that it tends to make easy the birth of large, well-developed babies, since there is probably a correlation between the spread of the iliac bones of the pelvis and the HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS size of the space betw^n the pelvic bones through which the child must pass. (^Even a selection on the ground of social position and wealth has a rough eugenic value since success means the presence of certain effective traits in the stock. The general idea of marrving health, wealth, and wisdom is a rough eugenic ideal.) A curious antipathy is that of red haired persons of opposite sex for each other. Among thousands of matings that I have considered I have found only two cases where both husband and wife are red headed, and I am assured by red haired persons that the antipathy exists. If, as is sometimes alleged, red hair is frequently associated with a condition of nervous irri- tability this is an eugenic antipathy. In so far as young men and women are left free to select their own marriage mates the widest possible acquaintance with different sorts of people, to increase the amplitude of selection, is evidently desirable. This is the great argument for coeducation of the sexes both at school and college, that they may increase the range of their experience with people and gain more discrimination in selection. The custom that prevails in America and England of free selec- tion of mates makes the more necessary the proper in- struction of young people in the principles of eugenical matings. The theory of independent unit characters has an im- portant bearing upon our classifications of human beings and shows how essentially vague and even false in con- ception these classifications are. A large part of the time and expense of maintaining the courts is due to this anti- quated classification with its tacit assumption that each class stands as a type of men. Note the extended discus- sions in courts as to whether A belongs to the white race or to the black race, or whether B is feeble-minded or not. Usually they avoid, as if by intention, the fundamental THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 9 question of definition, and if experts be called in to give a definition the situation is rendered only worse. Thus one expert will define a feeble-minded person as one incapable of protecting his life against the ordinary hazards of civili- zation, but this is very vague and the test is constantly changing. For a person may be quick-witted enough to avoid being run over by a horse and carriage but not quick enough to escape an automobile. A second expert will define a feeble-minded person as one who cannot meet all (save two) of the Binet test for three years below his own; if he fail in one only he is no longer feeble-minded. But this definition seems to me socially insufiicient just because there are moral imbeciles who can answer all but the moral question for their proper age. Every attempt to classify persons into a limited number of mental categories ends unsatisfactorily. The facts seem to be rather that no person possesses all of the thousands of unit traits that are possible and that are known in the species. Some of these traits we are better off without but the lack of others is a serious handicap. If we place in the feeble-minded class every person who lacks any known mental trait we extend it to include practically all persons. If we place there only those who lack some trait desirable in social life, again our class is too inclusive. Perhaps the best definition would be: "deficient in some socially important trait" and then the class would include (as perhaps it should) also the sexually immoral, the crim- inaUstic, those who cannot control their use of narcotics, those who habitually tell Ues by preference, and those who run away from school or home. If from the term ''feeble- minded" we exclude the sexually immoral, the criminal- istic, and the narcotics such a restriction carried out into practice would greatly reduce the population of institutions for that class. Thus one sees that a full and free recogni- 10 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS tion of the theory of unit characters in its application to man opens up large social, legal and administrative ques- tions and leads us in the interests of truth, to avoid classify- ing persons and to consider rather their traits. 2. The Mechanism of the Inheritance of Characteristics That traits are inherited has been known since man be- came a sentient being. That children are dissimilar com- binations of characteristics has long been recognized. That characteristics have a development in the child is equally obvious; but the mechanism by which they are transmitted in the germ plasm has become known only in recent years. We know that the development of the child is started by the union of two small portions of the germ plasm — the egg from the mother's side of the house and the sperm from the father's. We know that the fertiUzed egg does not contain the organs of the adult and yet it is definitely destined to produce them as though they were there in miniature. The different unit characters, though absent, must be represented in some way; not necessarily each organ by a particle but, in general, the resulting characteristics are determined by chemical substances in the fertilized egg. It is because of certain chemical and physical differences in two fertilized eggs that one develops into an ox and the other into a man. The differences may be called determiners. Determiners are located, then, in the germ cells, and recent studies indicate a considerable probability that they are to be more precisely located in the nucleus and even in the chromatic material of the nucleus. To make this clear a series of diagrams will be necessary. Figure 1 is a diagram of a cell showing the central nucleus in which runs a deeply staining network — the chromatin. In the division of a cell into two similar daughter cells the t THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 11 most striking fact is the exact division of the chromatin (Fig. 2). We know enough to sa}^ that the nucleus is the center of the cell's activity and for reasons that we shall see immediately it is probable that the chromatin is the most active portion of the nucleus. Attraction-sphere enclosing two ct-ntrosomea ^^fiJl ^o Nu- cleus Plasmo- some or true nucle- olus Chro matin- network Linin-net- ■ work Karyosome, net-knot, or' chromiitir;- nucleolus ^^^vPCXVi m Ty ^'i-^r^x:: V-iJ Plaatids lying in the cytoplasm AT^ 0's:>y1 ■■^■:jy H ^>-W'-V/>-V^ ; >• N-/ y ;- ; i^-ii ,'._/---;/ •.-'Ji' — Vacuole Passive bodies (metaplasm or paraplasm) sus- pended in the cytoplasmic meshwork Fig. 1. — Diagram of a cell. Its basis consists of a meshwork containing numerous minute granules (microsomes) and traversing a transparent ground substance. From E. B. Wilson: "The Cell in Development and Inheritance." The fertilization of the egg (Fig. 3) brings together de- terminers from two germ plasms and we know that, on the whole, the two germ cells play an equal role in carrying determiners. Now the germ cells are of very different size in the female (egg) and the male (sperm). Even the nuclei are different; but the amount of chromatic substance is the same. Hence it seems probable that the chromatic substance is the carrier of the equal determiners. But if determiners from the male are added to those from the female in fertilization it would seem necessary U HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Fig. 2. — Diagrams showing a series of stages in the process of division of the chromosomes during cell division. A. Resting cell in which the chromatic material lies (apparently) scattered through the nucleus: at c is a pair of recently divided central bodies (centrosomes) which come to be the centers of the forces that separate the chromosomes. B. The chromatin has fallen into the form of a thick ribbon or sausage-hke body, outside of which hes a dark body which is called the "nucleolus." The centrosomes are moving apart. C. The centrosomes now lie far apart and the thin membrane around the nucleus is beginning to disappear — a process completed in D, where a "spindle" is seen lying between the two centrosomes. The chromosomes are beginning to move under the influence of the new forces centered at the centrosomes. E. A later phase in which changes of two sorts are taking place in the chromosomes; first, they are moving to an equatorial position between the two poles, and, Secondly, they show their double nature by virtue of which the subsequent THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 13 that the number of these determiners should double in every succeeding generation. There must be some special mechanism to prevent this result. An appropriate mechan- ism is, indeed, ready and had been seen and studied long before its significance was understood; this is the elimina- FiG. 3. — Three stages in the fertilization of the egg of a marine ringed worm (Tfialassema). As seen in thin dyed sections. A. At the top of the egg there is occurring a division of the chromosomes that constitutes the ripening or "maturation'' of the egg, illustrated in greater detail in Fig. 4. At the bot- tom a sperm cell (c^) has entered the egg and is penetrating through it toward its center. B. The nucleus of the egg is now returning toward the center to meet that of the sperm. C. The egg and sperm nuclei are now in contact; henceforth they work in unison; fertilization is completed. After Griffin from E. B. Wilson: "The Cell in Development and Inheritance." tion from both the immature egg and the immature sperm of half of the chromatic material (Fig. 4). Thus if the im- mature sex-cell contains four chromatic bodies (chrom- osomes) each mature sex-cell will contain only two chromo- somes. Moreover, each of the chromosomes in the im- mature sex-cell is double; one half having originated long before in its maternal germ plasm and the other half in its paternal germ plasm. The mechanism for maturation is process of splitting takes place. F. The processes just preceding chromosome division are now completed; the activity of the centers is at its height; the chromosomes now constitute an "equatorial plate," e. p. G. The chromosomes at the equatorial plate are now beginning to move apart. H. The separation of the chromosomes is continuing and in / is completed; meanwhile the ac- tivity at the centers has declined and division of the body of the cell is begin- ning. J. Division of the cell completed; the nuclei and centrosomes at the condition with which we started at A. From E. B. Wilson: "The Cell in Development and Inheritance." 14 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS 01 Fig. 4. — Diagrams illustrating the process of reduction of the chromosomes by which half of the chromatic material is eliminated from the sex-cell. A. The germ cell is beginning its penultimate division — there are four chromosomes but each of them has already begun to divide to go to their respective poles, as seen at B. C. The last division is taking place, but the four chromosomes do not he side by side in the equatorial plate as in A, but they unite in two pairs and, in the division, the elements of these pairs are sundered again. Thus out of the original cell four ripe sperm-cells (D) each with only two chromo- somes arise. From E. B. Wilson : "The Cell in Development and Inheritance." such that either the paternal or maternal component of any chromosome is eliminated in the process, but not both. (Fig. 5). Beyond the condition that one half of each kind of chromosome must go to each daughter cell it seems to be a matter of chance whether the portion that goes to a particular cell be of paternal or of maternal origin. It is even conceivable that one germ cell should have all of its chromosomes of maternal origin while the other cell has all of a paternal origin. The important point is that the number of chromosomes in the ripe germ cell has become reduced to half and so it is THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 15 ready to receive an equal half number from the germ cell with which it unites in fertilization. d" B *>--:-' '/)m- ^■-"^.-.■ Fig. 5. — Diagram illustrating the mechanism in the chromatic bodies that secures the segregation of determiners. The determiners are assumed to be packed away in the chromosomes. There are equivalent chromosomes (a' and a", h' and h", etc.) in the nuclei of the male (cf ) and female (9) germ cells that unite in the fertiUzed egg (Fig. 3) and these two sets of chromosomes pass into all the embryonic cells — whether of the soma or germ gland — that develop in the young individual. In the division of ordinary body-cells, as illustrated in Fig. 2, each rod a', a", h', h", etc., splits lengthwise and half of each goes to each daughter cell. But in a division just before the germ cells become ripe, as in Fig. 4C, the like chromosomes unite in pairs as at B. Thus a' unites with a" to form a; h' unites with h" to form b; etc. Conse- quently, the number of chromosomes is reduced to half the tyjiical number. When cell-division thereupon occurs (C) and the chromosomes si)lit, either the chromosomal element that was derived from the father (black) or that de- rived from the mother (white) goes, indifferently, to either daughter cell. Consequently, each germ cell contains some chromosomes of maternal and some of paternal origin but not two chromosomes of the same kind. Since, by hypothesis, each chromo.soino contains particular kinds of determiners it follows that the same germ cell does not contain the (sometimes contnisting) characters of both parents, but some have the paternal character and others the corresponding maternal character. 16 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS 3. The Laws of Heredity We are now in a position to understand the modern laws of heredity. First of all it will be recognized that nothing is inherited except the determiners in the germ cells; the characters themselves, on the contrary, are not directly inherited. A clear grasp of this fact gives the answer to many questions. Thus the possibility of the transmission of somatic mutilations is seen to depend upon the capacity of such mutilations to modify the determiners in the germ plasm, and such capacity has never been proved. On the other hand, the germ cells receive nutritive and other par- ticles from the blood and they may receive also poisons from it. Hence arises the possibility of depauperization of the germ plasm and of ''race poisons;" but these are exceptional and little known phenomena. To understand the way heredity acts, let us take the case where both germ cells that unite to produce the fertihzed egg carry the determiner for a unit character, A. Then in the child that develops out of that fertilized egg there is a double stimulus to the development of the unit char- acter A. We say the character is of duplex origin. If, on the other hand, only one germ cell, say the egg, has the determiner of a character while the other, the sperm, lacks it, then in the fertilized egg the determiner is simplex and the resulting character is of simplex origin. Such a char- acter is often less perfectly developed than the corresponding character of duplex origin (Fig. 6). Finally, if neither germ cell carries the determiner of the character A, it will be absent in the embryo and the developed child. A per- son who shows a character in his body (soma) may or may not have the determiner for that character in all of the ripe germ cells he carries, but a person who lacks a given unit character ordinarily lacks the corresponding determiner THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 17 (Red aiK«stnl ronn). iWhite ucestrdfoiBt. Zyg Ind 1 (Second filial generation) ^^^m zyg 00 Ind (Third filial generation' Fig. 6. — Illustration of laws of inheritance drawn from the crossing of red (a) and white (6) flowered four-o'clocks {Mirabilis jalappa). The offspring of this cross, having the determiner for red from one side only, produced pink flowers only (c). But when these pink-flowered plants were bred together they produced plants of which one in four had red flowers (duplex, d), two in four had pink flowers (simplex, e. /.), while one in four had no red pigment (nulliplex, g). In the lower part of the chart is a diagram showing for each generation the sort of germ cells involved in the union (zygote), the color of the adult, and the nature of the germ-cells he produces; all carried out to the third generation of descendants. From V. Haeckek: "Wandtafeln zur all- gemeinen Biologic" (Nageli: Leipzig). 18 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS in all of his germ cells; for, were the determiner present anywhere in his organization (including his germ cells) the corresponding character would ordinarily show in his soma. In connection with the so-called Mendelian analysis of heredity a nomenclature has grown up which is somewhat different from that here employed. Thus the absent char- acter is often called recessive, the present character domi- nant and the condition in the offspring resulting from a crossing of the two is called heterozygous, which is the equivalent of simplex. It is to be kept in mind that in this work " absence " does not always imply absolute but only relative absence. Thus the pigmentation of light brown hair is " absent " to " black," and " tow " is absent to light brown; but pigment is present in all these grades of hair. To avoid the confusion between relative and absolute ab- sence the terms recessive and dominant are often used to advantage, wherever a series of grades of a character is under consideration. These general principles may be rendered clearer by means of a Table of the different sorts of matings of germ cells. And, to focus attention, let us have in mind a con- crete example; that of pigment of the iris of the human eye. In the following table P stands for the determiner of brown pigment and p for its absence. Six sorts of unions are possible. See also Plate I, frontispiece. Table I Laws of inheritance of characters based on conditions of the deter- miners IN THE PARENTAL GERM PLASMS determiners Case One parent Other parent Offspring Characteristics of offspring 1 PP PP PP, PP All with pigmented iris (brown-eyed) 2 PP Pp PP, Pp All pigmented, but haK sim- plex I THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 19 DETERMINERS — Continued Case One parent Other parent Offspring Characteristics of offspring 3 PP pp Pp, Pp All pigmented and all simplex 4 Pp I^ PP, Pp, pP, pp }4 duplex pigmented; }4 sim- plex; J^ unpigmented (blue- eyed) 5 Pp pp Pp, PP 3^ simplex; 3^ unpigmented (blue-eyed) 6 pp pp pp, pp All unpigmented (blue-eyed) In the case of an individual who has received the deter- miner for one of his unit characters from one side of the house only (say from mother), not only is the character simplex, but when the germ cells mature in that person they are of two types, namely, with the determiner and without the determiner; and these two types are equally numerous (Fig. 5). This is the phenomenon known as segregation of presence and absence in the germ cells. If both parents are simplex in a character, so that they produce an equal number of germ cells with and without the character then in a large number of offspring, 1 in 4 will have the char- acter duplex; 2 in 4 simplex, and 1 in 4 will not have the character at all (nulliplex). This gives in the offspring of such a pair the famous 3 to 1 ratio, sometimes called the Mendehan ratio. Table II LAW OP CONDITION OP EYE-CHARACTERS IN CHILDREN BASED ON THE CHARAC- TERS OF THEIR PARENTS One parent Other parent Cases Offspring brown brown 1, 2, 4 Either all of the children have brown eyes, or one fourth have blue eyes brown blue 3, 5 Either all children brown-eyed (though simplex) or half blue-eyed blue blue 6 All blue-eyed Now the foregoing rules, which we have illustrated by the case of eye-color, hold generally for any positive determiner or its unit character. 20 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS 4. Inheritance of Multiple Characters In the foregoing section we considered the simplest case, namely that in which a single character is taken at a time — I. e., one parent has some character that the other lacks. We have now to consider the cases which are still commoner in nature where the parents differ in respect to two independ- ent characters. Let, for example, the two characters be eye-pigment and hair curliness. Then each one of the six matings given in Table I for eye-color may occur com- bined with any one of the six matings for hair form; so that there would be a total of 6 times 6 or 36 possible combina- tions of matings. Similarly Table II would be replaced by one of 9 entries as follows. Table III LAW OF COMBINED INHERITANCE OP EYE-COLOR AND HAIR FORM One parent Brown eye, curly hair Other parent Brown eye, curly hair Brown eye, curly hair OffspriTig Either all browTi-eyed and curly-haired ; or one- fourth blue-eyed and also one-fourth of all straight- haired (with or without blue eyes) Brown eye, straight hair All (or all but one-fourth) brown-eyed, and either all or one-half straight-haired Brown eye, straight hair Brown eye, straight hair All (or all but one-fourth) brown-eyed; all straight- haired All (or one-half) brown-eyed; all (or three-fourths) curly- haired All (or one-half) brown- eyed; all (or one-half) curly-haired All (or one-half) brown- eyed; all straight-haired All blue-eyed; all (or three- fourths) cm-ly-haired All blue-eyed; all (or one- half) curly-haired All blue-eyed; all straight- haired Brown eye, curly hair Blue eye, curly hair Brown eye, curly hair Blue eye, straight hair Brown eye, straight hair Blue eye, straight hair Blue eye, curly hair Blue eye, curly hair Blue eye, curly hair Blue eye, straight hair Blue eye, straight hair Blue eye, straight hair THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 21 The lessons that this enforces are: first, that characters are often and, indeed, usually, inherited independently and, secondly, that the outcome of a particular mating may be predicted with some precision; indeed, in many matings with certainty. This study might be extended to cases of three or more independent characters but the tables in such cases become more complex and httle would be gained by making them as the principle has been learned by the cases already given. In view of the great diversity of parents in respect to their visible characters the variability of children is readily accounted for. 5. Heredity of Sex and of '^Sex-limited" Characters In most species, as in man, there are two sexes, and they are equally numerous. For a long time this equahty has been a mystery; but of late years, through the studies of McClung, Wilson, Stevens and Morgan, the mystery has been cleared up. For there has been discovered in the germ plasm a mechanism adequate for bringing about the observed results. We now know that sex is probably determined strictly by the laws of chance, like the turn of a penny. The cytological theory of the facts is as follows. One sex, usually (and herein taken as) the female, has all cells, even those of the young ovarj'-, with a pair of each kind of chromosome, of which one pair is usually smaller than the others and more centrally placed. The chromo- somes of this pair are called the X chromosomes. In the male, on the other hand, the forerunners of the sperm cells have one less chromosome, making the number odd. This odd chromosome [exceptionally paired] is usually of small size and is also known as an X chromosome. In the cell- division that leads to the formation of the mature sperm- 22 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS | atozoon, this odd chromosome goes in toio to one of the two ' daughter cells (Fig. 5). The X chromosomes are commonly ' regarded as the *' sex-chromosomes." With them are asso- | ciated various characters that are either secondary sex i characters or ''sex-limited" characters. Consequently in j respect to each and every such character the primordial egg cells are duplex and all the ripe eggs have one sex de- i terminer and its associated characters. The primordial \ male cells are simplex and consequently, after segregation ' has occurred, the spermatozoa are of two equally numerous . kinds — with and without the sex-determiner. The fertiU- zation of a number of eggs by a number of sperm will result in two equally common conditions — namely a fertilized , egg, called zygote, that contains two sex determiners — such i develops into a female; and a zygote that contains only one sex determiner — such develops into a male. The nature of the germ cells in the germ gland of the future child and of the associated secondary sex-characters thus depend on which of the two sorts of sperm cells go into the make-up of the zygote. | Whenever the male parent is characterized by the absence of some character of which the determiner is typically lodged in the sex chromosome a remarkable sort of inherit- ance is to be expected. This is called sex-limited inherit- ance. The striking feature of this sort of heredity is that the trait appears only in males of the family, is not trans- mitted by them, but is transmitted through normal females of the family. Striking examples of this sort of heredity are considered later in the cases of multiple sclerosis (Fig. 64) ; atrophy of optic nerve (Fig. 77) ; color blindness (Fig. 88); myopia (Figs. 90, 91); ichthyosis (Figs. 106, 108); muscular atrophy (Fig. 125); and haemophilia (Fig. 134). The explanation is the same in all cases. The abnormal condition is due to the absence of a determiner from the THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 23 male X chromosome. Its inheritance can be followed from Figure 7, adapted from Wilson, 1911. If the trait be a positive sex-limited one, originating either on the father's or the mother's side, its inheritance gametes X zygotes gametes zygotes XS 1 2 Fig. 7. — Diagram illustrating the method of inheritance in sex limited heredity. A', the sex chromosome, double in the female individual, single in the male. When ripe germ cells are formed in the female, each contains the sex determiner, but in the male half of the germ cells have and half lack the deter- miner (represented by the dash — ). Let X' represent the sex chromosome of the original male that showed the defect (absence of some unit character). Let such a male be mated with a female of an unaffected strain. Then all children will have the determiner for the positive condition (Gen. 2, zygotes, i. e., fertihzed eggs and the individuals that develop from them). In the third generation four kinds of zygotes will appear: 1, the normal female who is not capable of transmitting the defect; 2, the normal female who is capable of transmitting the defect; 3, the normal male who is incapable of transmitting the defect; 4, the defective male. Baaed on E. B. Wilson, IQIL will be more irregular; but it can be worked out by the aid of Figure 7. 6. The Application of the Laws of Heredity to Eugenics If one is provided with a knowledge of the methods of inheritance of unit characters it might seem to be an easy matter to state how each human trait is inherited and to show how any undesirable condition might be eliminated from the offspring and any wished for character introduced. y^tf 24 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Unfortunately, such a consummation cannot for some time be achieved. The reason for the delay is twofold. First, we do not yet know all of the unit characters in man; second, we can hardly know in advance which of them are due to positive determiners and which to the absence of such. Unit characters can rarely be recognized by inspection. For example the white coat color of a horse is apparently a simple character, but experimental breeding shows that it is really due to several independently inheritable factors. The popular classification of traits is often crude, lagging far behind scientific knowledge. Thus insanity is frequently referred to a single trait. It is clear, however, that insanity is a result merely and not a specific trait. Some cases of insanity indicate an innate weakness of the nervous system such ag leads it to break down under the incidence of heavy stress; other cases of insanity are due to a destruction of a part of the brain by a wound as, for instance, of a bullet. In some cases, through infection a wide-spread deteriora- tion of the brain occurs; in other cases a clot in a cerebral blood vessel may occlude it, cut off nutrition from a single locahty of the brain and interfere ^vith movements that have their centres at the affected point. Now these four results cannot be said to be due to the same unit defect; and they can hardly be compared in the study of heredity. On the other hand, the original expectation that progress must wait on a complete analysis of unit characters proves not to be correct. There are a number of forms of insanity that are sharply separable symptomatically and structurally which have a common basis in that they are due to a nervous weakness; and "nervous weakness" may behave in heredity with relation to "nervous strength" like a lower grade, or the absence, of a highly developed character. Even with- out a complete analysis of a trait into its units we may still make practically important studies by using the principle THE METHOD OF EUGENICS 25 that when both parents have low grades of a trait-complex the children will have low grades of that complex. The matter of dependence of a character on a determiner or its absence is of great importance and is not easy to anti- cipate. For instance, long hair as in angora cats, sheep or guinea pigs is apparently not due to a factor added to short hair but rather to the absence of the determiner that stops growth in short-haired animals. One can only conclude whether a character is due to a determiner or to its absence by noting the effect of breeding likes in respect to the given trait. If all offspring are like the parents in respect to a trait, the trait (if simple) is probably a negative one. But if the offspring are very diverse, the trait (if simple) is probably due to a positive determiner and the germ cells of the parents are of two kinds; some with and some without the deter- miner. The determination of unit characters is complicated by the fact that a character due to a simplex determiner often differs from one due to a duplex determiner. In the former case the character is slow in developing and frequently fails of reaching a stage of development found in the latter case. The offspring of red and black-eyed birds may have at first a Ught iris which gradually darkens. This fact is spoken of as the imperfection of dominance in the simplex condition. Despite the difficulties in analysis of units of heredity and despite the compUcations in characters it is possible to see clearly the method of inheritance of a great number of human traits and to predict that many more will become analyzed in the near future. CHAPTER III THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS Before any advice can be given to young persons about the marriage that would secure to them the healthiest, strongest children it will be necessary to know not only the peculiarities of their germ plasms but also the way in which various characters are inherited. The work of the student of eugenics is, consequently, to discover the methods of inheritance of each characteristic or trait. After we get precise knowledge of the methods of inheritance of the conunoner important traits we shall be in a position to advise, at least in respect to these traits. It would seem a self evident proposition, but it is one too little regarded, that knowledge should precede teaching. In this chapter an attempt will be made to consider many of the traits that are known to run in families and to set forth, so far as known, the laws of their inheritance. We shall begin with some of the general characteristics of man that have been best studied and then pass to a consideration of some human diseases. In the study of many of these traits I have made use of data that have been furnished by numerous collaborators, chiefly on questionaires known as "Family Records." These are frequently referred to in the following pages, but always anonymously. The Family Records or " Records of Family Traits," as they are also called, are largely derived from professional circles, but not a few from farmers and business 26 THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 27 men. In respect of several of the special abilities the col- laborators have volunteered a numerical grading as follows : 1, poor; 2, medium; 3, exceptionally good. These grades are frequently referred to below. 1. Eye Color This depends upon the condition of pigmentation of the iris — the colored ring around the pupil. According to Mr. Charles Roberts (1878, p. 134) ^ the iris has on its inner surface "a layer of dark purple called the uvea . . . and in brown eyes there is an additional layer of yellow (and, perhaps, brown-red) pigment on its outer surface also, and in some instances there is a deposit of pigment amongst the fibrous structures. In the albino, where the pigment is entirely absent from both surfaces of the iris, the bright red blood is seen through the semi-transparent fibrous tissue of a pink color; and in blue eyes, where the outer layer of pigment is wanting, the various shades are due to the dark inner layer of pigment — the uvea — showing through fibrous structures of different densities or degrees of opacity. ''The eyes of new born infants are dark blue, in conse- quence of the greater delicacy and transparency of the fibrous portion of the iris ; and as these tissues become thick- ened by use and by advancing age the lighter shades of blue and, finally, gray are produced, the gray, indeed, being chiefly due to the color of the fibrous tissues themselves." Yellow pigment is laid down upon the blue, forming yellow- blue or green eyes. " In the hazel and brown eyes the uvea and the fibrous tissues are hidden by increasing deposits of yellow and brown pigment on the anterior surface of the iris, and when this is very dense, black eyes are the result." While in most races of the globe brown pigment is heavily ' For titles of works referred to in text, see Bibliography, at end of book. 28 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS RELATIVE f REQUENCY OF BRUNEI Traits. Fig. 8. — Map of southwestern Europe showing the relative frequency of "brunet traits," e. g., brown eye color. On the whole, the darker the shade the greater the proportion of brunet persons in the given area. The hghtest areas represent about 20 to 25 per cent brunetness; the darkest European areas over 90 per cent brunetness. At the northern limit of the map "about one third of the people are pure blonds, characterized by light hair and blue eyes;" on the other hand, in the south of Italy the pure blonds have almost entirely disappeared. From W. Z. Ripley: "The Races of Europe." THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 29 PURE Fig. 9. — Distribution of pure blue eyes among Scottish boys. About 15 per cent of all boys have blue eyes. The relative density is indicated by depth jf shading as indicated in the key at the left. A very high density (21 to 24 per cent) occurs in the lower Spey Valley in the northwest. This is the region )f the Norse invasion which brought in much protoplasm that was defective n pigmentation. The highest density (over 24 per cent) exists in the coal and ron districts of East Lanarkshire and "this is probably due to the Irish immi- jrants." J. Gray, 1907. 30 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS secreted in the iris, in northwestern Europe blue, gray or yellow-bkie eyes are found. It seems probable that, once upon a time, or perhaps at many times, an individual was born without brown pigment in the iris. The offspring of such prospered and spread throughout northwestern Europe and migrated thence to America and Australia (Fig. 8). This defect, lack of eye pigment, has had a wonderful history. By noting its distribution the migrations of peoples can be traced. Thus Gray (1907) has shown that, in Scot- land, pure blue eyes are most abundant in the coal and iron districts. ''This is probably due to the Irish inami- grants, it being well known that blue eyes are very common among the Irish." In the Spey valley of Scotland the dens- ity of pure blue eyes is high — probably owing to the Norse invasion at that point. (Fig. 9). So in our country the pigmentation survey that will some day be made will show a high percentage of blue eyes where the Scandinavians and north Germans have settled. Thus eye color, just because it shows no tendency to blend in heredity, is a most valuable aid in history. Our loiowledge of heredity of eye color depends on studies made by Galton, 1899, who noted its alternative nature but otherwise overlooked the true method of its inheritance; more recently, by three studies car- ried on simultaneously and independently and pubUshed by G. C. and C. B. Davenport, in November, 1907; by C. C. Hurst in 1908; and by Holmes and Loomis in December, 1909. Since 1907 the present author has collected additional data. Hurst's data have the advantage of having been collected from personal observation, hence the chance of error due to a diversity of collaborators was eliminated. In the other studies the data were supplied by unprejudiced, if not always critical, recorders. Applying the test of the 6 (strictly 5) kinds of unions we get the results shown in Table IV. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 31 Table IV Hurst Daven- port Holmes a LOOMIS Total P'OBTION One Parent Other Parent Blue Pig't Blue Pig-t 1 1 1 Blue Pig't^Blue^.Pig'l Blue Pig't pure blue pigmented (Pp) pigmented (PP) pigmented (Pp) pigmented (PP) pure blue blue blue pigmented (Pp) pigmented (Pp) 101 137 0 18 0 0 121 66 45 195 77 428 0 0 0> 500 70 169 99 51 89 5 1 85 34 229 654 0 121 0 1 712 136 248 294 99.5 48.0 0 33 0 0.5 52.0 100 67 100 Table IV supports the following conclusions: 1. When both parents have pure blue eyes all of the chil- dren will have pure blue eyes (the discorciant case is prob- ably due to an error). 2. When one parent has pigmented iris while the other has blue, either the fraternity of children will show no blue eyes or else half of them will be blue-eyed. The sura of the latter class, the second case, gives 654:712 or 48 per cent to 52 per cent. 3. WTien both parents have bro\Mi ms either all the children will have brown iris (last case in Table IV) or else about a quarter will lack brown pigment and so will be blue-eyed. The eugenic value of the inheritance of eye color lies in the consideration, advanced by Major Woodruff, that pig- mentation of the eye, skin, etc., better fits a child for Hfe in the tropics or in a country, like the United States, of bright sunhght. Brown-eyed children can be secured from blue-eyed stock by mating with pure brown-eyed stock. We have heard of two blue-eyed parents regretting that they had no brown-eyed children. They wished for the impossible. 1 Eight hundred and sixty-six additional cases collected subsequently are not included b«« cause unchecked. 2 A number of these blues are doubtless destined to become pigmented in later life. 32 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS 2. Hair Color This character is due to the presence of brown granules in the hair and sometimes also to the presence of a diffuse reddish pigment. The study of heredity of hair color is complicated — more than that of eye color — by the fact i that the hair grows darker with age, at least until maturity is achieved. If you compare the light browns and the blacks in children under 16 and over 16 you will find twice as many light browns in the younger lot as in the older; but only half as many blacks. In other words, half of the persons who will eventually have black hair still have light to medium brown at 16 years of age.^ While this tends to| obscure the result yet the general fact of segregation in hair color cannot be gainsaid. Let us examine the results of various matings. (Table V). One parent Other parent Little brown Little brown pigment pigment Brown pig- Little or no ment brown pigment Brown pig- Brown pigment ment Table V The hair-color op the offspring of parents with different classes OF hair pigment. Offspring All with tow, yellow, golden or red hair. HaK with light hair, half with brown; in other families all children may eventually gain brown hair Most children have brown hair; some (about one-quarter) have light hair. In some families all children eventually gain brown hair. The most striking result is that dark-haired children prob- ably never come from flaxen-haired parents. Indeed, a good practical rule is that the children will not acquire hair darker than that of the darker parent. The inheritance of red-hair color has a certain eugenic importance. There can be little doubt that a young person 1 Holmes and Loomis, 1909, p. 55. I THE INHERITANCE OF EA^HLY TRAITS 33 Fig. 10. — Wavy hair; a Segumbar, female, Philippine Islands. (Lent by the American Museum of Natural History.) who has red hair has a strong antipathy to a red-haired person of the opposite sex. This testimony comes to me from the father of a red-haired daughter. It is confirmed by the fact that, despite prolonged inquiry among thousands of families I have succeeded in obtaining only two cases where both parents had red hair. Though the red was not a clear red in all parents all of the 8 children had red hair. If one parent only forms "red-hair" germ cells ex- clusively while the other forms exclusively germ cells con- taining the determiner for black pigment the offspring will show no red; still less will red-haired offspring appear if neither parent forms "red-hair" germ cells. Red-haired offspring may come from two brown or better from glossy black-haired parents provided both form red-hair germ cells. In that case both dark-haired parents will probably 34 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Pig. 11. — Frizzy or kinky hair; a Soudanese male. (Lent by the American Museum of Natural History from a photograph in the Philadelphia Museum.) have ancestors or other close relatives with red hair. Glossy black hair in the parents is especially apt to produce red hair in the children because the glossiness is usually due to red hidden by black pigment. 3. Hair Form The form of the hair varies from straight through wavy and curly (Fig. 10) to kinky (Fig. 11) and woolly (Fig. 12), depending largely upon the closeness of the spiral. These different types of hair have a different form on cross-section ; i. e., the cut end of a straight hair is nearly circular while THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 3o Fig. 12. — Woolly hair; a Congo negro. (Lent by American Museum Natural History.) that of woolly hair is much flattened, being only half as thick as it is broad. Both the flattening and the curving of hair are due to a modification of the cup or "hair folUcle" in which the hair develops. Thus, while straight hair devel- ops in a plain, cylindrical foUicle that of the flattened types is curved and inclined in relation to the surface of the skin. Straight hair is the simple condition; curving is due to a special modification. What, now, is the method of inherit- ance of this special modification? First, if both parents have hair that from childhood up has been straight, without natural tendency toward curving, then all of the children will have straight hair. There are exceptional cases reported of wavy haired children from straight haired parents, but the exceptions constitute less than 2 per cent. 36 hp:redity in relation to eugenics If one parent has wavy hair while the other has straight I hair then, since in wavy haired persons half the germ cells j are without the determiner for curved hair, half of the off- spring will have straight and half curved hair. If both parents have wavy (simplex) hair about 75 per cent of the children will have curved hair and the others straight hair. But two curly haired parents, both of curly haired stock on both sides, will probably have all curly or wavy haired children. In a word, when either of the germ cells that unite to form the fertilized egg contains the curly determiner the offspring will have curved hair. 4. Skin Color ' The pigment of the skin is due to brown granules lying in the deep stratum of the skin. Such granules occur in most people, are common in brunets and still more abundant in negroes. Besides the brown granules a yellow-red pig- ment is present, but this has been little studied. Now when both parents are clearly blonds most, if not all, of their offspring are blonds. In 513 offspring reported as derived from this sort of mating 91.4 per cent are recorded as blonds and 6.8 per cent as intermediate, while only 1.8 per cent are stated to be brunet — quite within the limit of error due to inaccuracy of the collaborators. If one person is blond and the other darker, about half of the children will, on the average, be blond and half pigmented but rarely darker than the darker parent. If both parents be dark the percentage of brunets ranges from about 25 to zero. In general, whatever the mating, the children will not be darker than their darker parent. When one parent is white and the other as dark as a full- blooded negro the offspring are, as is well known, of an intermediate shade (mulatto, mezzotint). If two such mulattoes marry their offspring vary in color. In one fra- I THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 37 ternity derived from two such mulattoes having 45 poi- cent and 13 per cent respectively of black in the skin, the proportion of black in the 7 offspring whose color was measured ranged from 46 to 6 (Fig. 13). The lighter limit was as light as most Caucasian skins. In another fraternity whose parents had 29 per cent and 13 per cent of black respectively, the children ranged from 28 per cent to 8.5 per cent of black in the skin color. ^ Here, again, the light- W. Family ^(white)= 9 (negro) ,? (mulatto) = 9 (mulatto) I . I ' ^ (mulatto ; = 9 (mulatto ; color $ (mulatto) = 9 (loulatto) *' color of I of 12-jear old grand- i 8on") I daughter) I $ (mulatto ;= 9 (mulatto, "very dark": 13-17-35-35) I 45-12-33-10) i I I ' 1 • i 1 1~ 19yrs. 17yr8. 15 yrs. 13 yrs. 12yr8. 10 yrs. 8 yrs. 7 yrs. 5 yrs. absent; "color of N 25 32 46 31 6 23 83 color of father" Y 20 14 7 15 4 17 16 12-year absent R 30 37 40 30 30 35 28 old 618- W25 17 7 24 60 25 33 ter Fig. 13. — Pedigree chart of " W" family of mulattoes, showing the percent- ages of the four colors; black (A^), yellow (F), red {R) and white (W) that combined (as in the color wheel) will give the skin color. cf, male; 9, female. For fuller details see Davenport, G. C, and C. B., 1910. est child has practically a white skin. In the case of the two other families, in which the parents were dark mulat- toes (30 to 40 per cent black) none of the children were lighter than 27 per cent black. The germ cells of the parents probably lack the lower grades of pigmentation. fOn the other hand two very light '^ colored" parents will have (probably) only light children, some of whom "pass for whites" away from home. So far as skin color goes they are as truly white as their greatgrandparent and it is quite * All colors were determined by means of the Bradley color top. 38 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS v I conceivable that they might have mental and moral qual- ities as good and typically Caucasian as he had. / Just as perfect white skin color can be extracted from the hybrid, so may other Caucasian physical and mental qualities be extracted and a typical Caucasian arise out of the mixture. However, this result will occur only in the third, or later, hybrid generation and the event will not be very common. Albinism. This is an extreme case of blondness — all pigment being lost from skin, hair and eyes. The method of inheritance resembles that of eye color. When both parents lack pigment all offspring are likewise devoid of pigment. \Mien one parent only is an albino and the other is um'elated the children are all pigmented. Whenever albinos occur from two normals the proportion of these albinos approaches the ideal and expected condition of 25 per cent (Fig. 14). Albinism is not a desirable peculiarity, despite the beauty of complexion and hair, because the lack of pigment in the retina makes it hard to bear strong light. Albinos may avoid transmitting albinism by marrying unrelated, pig- mented persons. Pigmented persons belonging to albinic strains must avoid marrying cousins, even pigmented ones, because both parents might, in that case, have albinic germ cells and produce one child in four albinic. Albino com- munities, of which there are several in the United States are inbred communities; but not all inbred communities contain albinos.^ 5. Stature The inheritance of stature has long been a subject of study. It has great interest both because it is easily deter- mined and because it has a great racial range, namely, j| 1 This matter is discussed more fully in the "American Naturalist," Decem- ber, 1910. » » a. (» •I 0) 8 o B "" B § • D O £>. '*> cr 2. o • pr 2. H a !=^ "> (T •73 S to O - o -""^ o' i « P CO - o g B 2 o 2 a CO C ■-1 P P B CO b: ok; e: to w p 3 40 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS from 138 centimeters (or 54 inches) in the negrilloes of Africa to 180 centimeters (or 71 inches) in the Scotch. Among European males, stature ranges from 150 centimeters (60 inches) to 190 centimeters (75 inches), while that of women rarely exceeds 180 centimeters (71 inches).^ The importance of stature as a definite character is seen in its distribution in Europe. Apart from the variations | ascribed to environment there are clear racial {i. e., inherit- 5TATVRE: ah:> hEAUTH JN FIN15TERRE Ann CHAUACNC FiQ. 15. — Two maps of Brittany, France. On the left is shown the dis- tribution of the various mean statures ranging from 1.62 meters to 1.64 meters. On the right is shown the distribution of rejection of recruits for constitutional defects. Ripley: "The Races of Europe." i able) differences. The rugged hills of Scotland harbor a race that are, relatively, giants; the mild and productive shores of the Gulf of Tarent, Southern Italy, hardly more populous, are inhabited by a people that are, relatively, dwarfs. Conditions of life cannot account for the difference; there is a difference of blood. It is easy to go astray iu assigning environmental causes for stature. Thus Ripley (1900, p. 85) referring to a map of Brittany says: "In the interior cantons, shorter on the average by an inch than the population along the sea coast, there is a corresponding » Deniker, "Races of Man," p. 584. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 41 increase of defective or degenerate constitutional types. The character of the environment is largely responsible for this." (Fig. 15). Two maps are given of this territory showing the practical coincidence of the areas of shortest stature and greatest number of rejections of recruits for physical defects. Fifteen pages later, however, practically the same map is used (Fig. 16), the greater height of the tASTtRN BOVNDAKV or CELTIC Speech ^ PERONT LS6«Firas (5 Ft I^INSj W6-8 ■ 14^1 7 LOWER AFTER BROCft BRITTANY (I850-59; Fig. 16. — Map of stature in Brittany showing smaller proportion of men whose stature is under 1.56 meters in the region subject to Teutonic invasions. Ripley: "The Races of Europe." coastal people referred to, and explained by Teutonic inva- sions. "The result has been to infuse a new racial element into all the border populations in Brittany, while the ori- ginal physical traits remain in undisturbed possession of the interior." It appears, then, probable that the greater rejection of recruits in the central country is due less to its unfavorable environment than to its i'nadequato blood. Recognizing the inheritable nature of stature it remains 42 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS to inquire how it is inherited. First of all it must be con- ceded that stature is hardly a single unit. It is composed of three elements that would seem to be unrelated, namely, the height of the cranium, the length of the neck and trunk, and the length of the legs. Sitting height is a more signi- ficant measure from the standpoint of heredity; but, unfor- tunately, few persons know their sitting height. A second complication is dependence of stature on age. It increases up to 20 years in the male and about 19 years in the fe- male. Beyond these ages the increase may be neglected. A third complication is that stature is, to a certain degree, dependent on sex. To transmute female measurements to corresponding male measurements Galton (1889) used the method of multiplying them by 1.08 since the mean of male stature is that much greater than the mean of female stature. We can avoid this complication by using, in place of the absolute or transmuted measures, the deviation in each sex from its own mean. The mean stature for the adult males of the white population of the United States may be taken at 69 inches (175 cm); that of females at 64 inches (163 cm). Despite all these complications, which tend to obscure the result, we can still seek an answer to the question: What general laws are there of inheritance of stature? The first general law is that, in case the four grandparents are very unlike, the adult children will vary greatly in stature, whereas when the grandparental statures are closely alike those of the children will be also. This is shown in the following Table : Inches Difference between the shortest and the tallest child : 3 4 5 6 7 8 Difference between the shortest and the tallest grandparent: 4.6 5.0 6.0 6.5 6.9 7.2 This law seems to indicate that the reason why in some THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 43 families the children vary greatly in stature while in others they vary Httle is because more diverse elements have entered into the make-up of the children in the first case than in the second. In the first case long and short blood are commingled in the ancestry while in the second case exclu- sively long or exclusively short ancestry as the case may be. The second general law is that when both parents are tall all of the children tend to be tall; but, on the contrary, if both parents are short some of the children will be short and some tall in ratios varying from 1:1 up to 2:1. If all of the grandparents are short then there tend to be twice as many short children as tall; but if one grandparent on each side be tall there will tend to be an equahty of short and tall offspring. The evidence for the foregoing is found in the study of 104 families which furnished quantitative data as to stature for children, parents and grand- parents. To illustrate the inheritance of extreme short stature in a family I may quote from C. F. Swift (1888) . He says (p. 473) *'I am unable to give a particular account of the Little Hatches of Falmouth. [Mass.] They were children of Barna- bas, who married in 1776 his relative Abigail Hatch and had two sons and seven daughters. Six daughters were less than 4 feet in height. None married. The seventh daughter Rebecca was of common size and married Robert Hammond. The two sons, Barnabas, born in 1788, and Robinson, b. 1790, were both of low stature, one, scarce 4 feet in height, was a portly gentleman almost as broad as long." It may be pre- dicted that the tall daughter who married had only tall chil- dren. 6. Total Body Weight Adult weight (assuming density to be constant) depends upon stature and circumference. It is, therefore, still more 44 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS complicated than stature and still further removed from any semblance of a unit character. Moreover, it is much more dependent upon conditions of life, for, as is well known, a sedentary life with overfeeding and drinking tends, in persons so disposed, to increase weight, even as strenuous activity and dieting favor the reduction, within certain limits, of weight. Despite this dependence of weight on environment we may attempt to learn if it shows any trace of heredity. First, it is necessary to avoid the use of absolute weights on account of sex differences. So we find the mean weight of American fathers and mothers and calculate our weights as deviations from these means. The mean weight of fathers in our data is 162 pounds; of mothers 131 pounds. The range in weight of fathers is from 110 to 250 pounds. The range in weight of mothers is from 90 pounds to 360 pounds.^ In our study we are, however, concerned less with absolute deviations in weight from the average than in the deviations in corpulency and so we make our starting point the weight for a given stature and calculate in each case the deviation from the weight that is normal for the given stature. The table of normal weight that we employ is Table VI. Table VI NORMAL WEIGHT, IN POUNDS, FOR EACH INCH OF STATURE AND EACH SEX Inches of stature 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 Normal weight in i male 131 132 134 137 140 143 147 152 pounds for | female 107 112 117 122 126 131 136 139 141 Inches of stature 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 Normal weight in j male 157 162 167 172 177 182 190 198 pounds for ) female 144 150 155 160 165 170 The first result is that when both parents are slender in build or of relatively light weight the children will tend all to be slender. ' This maximum occurred in a single case of our records; the next lower weight is 225 pounds. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 45 The evidence for this has never been fully set forth. It rests on five fraternities in which the ten parents diverged (in pounds) from the nor- mal as follows: 1, 1, -2, -7, -7, -9, -11, -12, -33, -47. Every grand- parent was below normal in weight except one who was just normal. Of 23 children only 3 are above normal. Their total excess weight amounts to 25 pounds, while the total deficiency of the 20 remainmg children is 374 pounds — an average deficiency for the 23 children of 15 pounds. Truly, a slender population. If both parents are heavy and of heavy ancestry their childi-en tend, on the whole, to be heavy (Fig. 17). QO qonp DO >t'"' + j5 o V. c orp. $t oMi fiMi t48 *5o stout FiQ. 17. — Pedigree of family with corpulency. Great -grandparents, grandparents and one of the parents are much above normal weight for their stature and the same tendency is found throughout the fraternities to which they belong. The father is slender. His daughter is, at an early age, inchned to stoutness. F. R.; Hal. 3. I have data on four families that meet these conditions and give in Table VII all the data concerning their deviations in weight from the nor- mal. Table VII THE DEVIATIONS FHOM NORMAL STOUTNESS (WEIGHT -f- ST ATURe) OF tAe AN- CESTORS AND CHILDREN WHEN BOTH PARENTS ARE HEAVY Reference 13 18 letters FF FM MF MM F M C^ C2 C' C* Ave.— 2 23 25 24 28 27 35 —10 —6 23 Gan.— 1 1 23 3 9 IS 21 — 6 8 8 9 Eld.— 1 8 11 21 33 33 5 —12 32 38 53 Elt.— 1 3 11 3 44 8 18 —22 —2 C, child; F, father or father's; M, mother or mother's. 46 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS It is to be kept in mind that the children are mostly young, 18 to 25, and consequently do not show their potentiahties in weight. Neverthe- less, while there are 6 children below the normal in weight, giving a de- ficiency of 58 pounds, there are 9 above the normal with an excess of 202 pounds. When both parents are heavy (disregarding grandparents) the numbers of Ught and heavy children are practically equal (39 light to 34 heavy or 465 pounds total deficiency to 490 pounds total excess). When one of the parents is heavy and the other slender both heavy and slight ofifspring occur and, in youth at least, the sHght are more numerous than the heavy. Table VIII gives the data on this mating. Table VIII THE DEVIATIONS FROM NORMAL STOUTNESS (WEIGHT -f STATURE) OP THE ANCESTORS AND CHILDREN IN SIX FAMILIES WITH ONE SLENDER AND ONE HEAVY PARENT In Table VIII are included 27 children, 7 above the normal stoutness and 20 below, or a total of 30 pounds excess to 324 pounds deficiency. A pedigree of a family with hereditary obesity is described by Rose (1907). A girl of 15 with a stature of 145 centi- meters (57 inches) weighed 75 kilograms (165 pounds). The father and his parents were not obese, ^ The mother, on the other hand weighed 88 kilograms and her father 99 kilograms, while the mother's mother is slender. Of the four children * There is no evidence that they did not carry the factor that favors obesity or that they were wholly unrelated to the maternal side. Reference letters FF FM MF MM F M Ci C2 C3 C* C^ C« Bab. 21 44 —32 29 10- - 7- -10 —6 23 Bra.— 3 —2 —6 8 44 —17 9- - 8 —16 —16 —33 7 7 Cro.— 2 3 33 —43 3 58- -26 3—7 —17 —25 8 - -28 „, Elk.— 1 8 48 —20 2 33- -14- -13 —26 —10 —13 J How.— 1 —32 —17 63 78 —45 78- -27 —26 —10 —12 19 1 Ran.— 1 17 —11 —40 44 13—17— 4 i THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 47 two (including the girl of 15) are very obese, one normal and ■one under weight. This result accords with the hypothesis that obesity is due to a defect. It is noted that the mother's mother had a goitre; and it is probable that in this family there is an hereditary deficiency in growth control. not obese — not obesecf cf wt. 275 lbs. not obese? has goitre slender wt. 180 to 240 lbs. cT, large 9 , large at 16 — c?" wt. 160 lbs. — r~ 9 , slender 9 , at 15 75 kilos simple meningitis obese, at 15 months, 36 lbs. 1 slender Longevity. When Dr. 0. W. Holmes was asked for specifi- cations for a long life he advised, in effect, first to select long- lived grandparents. This advice accords with a widespread opinion that longevity is inheritable. But length of life is not a unit character. It is a resultant of many factors ; especially DrO n t9i t82 r over IJ LJ I I tW +70 77 bU but one lived to 70 or over Fig. 18. — A short pedigree (early 19th century in United States) illustrat- ing "inheritance" of longevity. F. R.; Att. 1. of those factors that resist causes of death. Such factors are absence of defects of bodily structure, resistance to the com- moner virulent germs of disease, and environmental conditions that maintain at its highest point internal resistance. The first two factors are ''inlieritable" and the last remains tolerably 48 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS uniform for the people of a certain social class such as the members of one and the same family belong to; so it is not strange that some families with perfect structure and high resistance should be long lived (Fig. 18) and others, with organic defects and low resistance, should be short lived DtQ .^DtQ appendici'tis +50 t42 , fubercolosis m^-T6 t72 heajrt disc&se dcfsciive h«art-valves t44 tuberculosis 6 6 6 6 6 6 t2yr» Fig. 19. — Fragment of pedigree of a high class f.amily with slight longevity due in part, to heart defects and non-resistance to tuberculosis. The latest generation comprises only young children. F. R.; Fyn. 1. (Fig. 19). Thus, while longevity is not a biological unit of inheritance a person belonging to a long lived family is a better ''risk" for a life insurance company than a person belonging to a short lived family. 7. Musical Ability This quality is one that develops so early in the most marked cases that its innateness cannot be questioned. A Bach, matured at 22; a Beethoven, publishing his composi- tions at 13 and a Mendelssohn at 15; a Mozart, composing at 5 years, are the product of a peculiar protoplasm of whose tenacious qualities we get some notion when we learn that the Bach family comprised 20 eminent musicians and two score others less eixdnent. The exact method of inheritance of musical ability has not been sufficiently analyzed. Hurst (1908) suggests that it behaves as a recessive, as though it depended on the absence of something. The "Family Records" afford some data on this subject. A statement of the grade of musical ability of each person, whether poor, THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 49 12 3 _4 DrO PlO dhb h dn h 3 3 3! 2« Z 3 3 5 3 5 young Fig. 20. — Pedigree of an American family of singers. Numbers below symbols designate grades; thus: 1, little or no musical ability; 2, medium ability; 3, exceptionally high ability. Numbers above the individual symbols are for reference. I, 1. Extremely fond of music, had organ and piano in his home; a very c. tivated man of artistic tastes. Married I, 2, non-musical, belonging to an utterly non-musical family. Their son, II, 2, is not musical. I, 3. Fond of music, could "carry a tune" easily. A mathematician and astronomer. His wife, I, 4, was sufficiently musical to sing in such a simple church choir as was to be found in the State of Maine in the middle of the nineteenth century and her mother and mother's sisters were singers. All of their four children were musical. One son, II, 7, who died unmarried had a fine voice and was a good singer. The other son, II, 4, had a musical ear and a fine voice; he sang much without ha\nng taken lessons. His wife is non- musical and their 14-year old daughter is as non-musical as her mother. One of the daughters, II, 5, had a fine voice and still keeps up her music ; she mar- ried an utterly non-musical man and they have one son who cannot even "carry a tune" and one daughter who is a famous opera singer. The other daughter, II, 3,|is a fine singer, and plays the piano, organ and guitar. She married the above-mentioned non-musical man, II, 2. They had six children all of whom have fine voices; III, 1, has a fair baritone voice; III, 2, has an unusually deep bass voice; III, 3, died at 27 years. Her voice was said by good judges, such as the De Reszkes, Anton Seidl, etc., to be more beautiful even than that of III, 7. Ill, 4, is organist and choir master in a large church in New York City. Ill, 5, is very musical; III, 6, died young but had ah-eady developed much musical talent and could read music with wonderful ease. F. R.; H. medium or exceptionally good was asked for. Altogether data were obtained for 1008 children, their parents and most of their grandparents. The following rules are deduced from these data. When both parents are exceptionally good in music 50 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS (whether vocal or instrumental) all the children are medium to exceptionally good. There were 48 cases where both parents showed exceptional musical ability. Of the 202 children 81 had exceptional ability and 120 fair musi- cal ability. Only one is returned as being poor in music; and this case may be cast aside as quite within the probabihty of an error due to care- lessness in making the returns or to bad classification. These results come out so smoothly as to indicate that high attainment in vocal and instru- mental music are due to the same defect in the protoplasm. I D|0 D]0 DrO (5b|0 m is: 6^U FiQ. 21. — Pedigree of singing ability and peculiar form of toes. I, 7. (X) has bones of both fifth toes cartilaginous and toe crossed over upon fourth toe; and her granddaughter III, 7, has exactly the same peculiarity; II, 12, has an exceptionally good bass voice; his daughter III, 6, cannot sing; but III, 7, has a beautiful soprano voice; III, 8, has an exceptionally good baiitone voice; III, 9, has a ' beautiful contralto voice' and III, 10, has great musical ability. On the other side of the house. III, 1, has good musical ability. But in the fourth generation there is no musical ability. F. R.; Ait. 1. To illustrate inheritance of musical ability by a concrete example the pedigree of a noted New England singer is ap- pended (Fig. 20). This particular example alone could not be used to demonstrate either the hypothesis that musical ability is due to a new unit or that it is due to a defect. When both parents are poor in musical abihty and come of ancestry that lacks on one or both sides such ability the children will all be non-musical. Four families of this sort are given in the Records. All 29 children are poor in music. Compare Fig. 21. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 51 When one parent has high musical ability and the other has Uttle the children will vary much in this respect. Thus of 257 offspring of such matings 45 are without musical ability, 84 are exceptionally good at music while 128 are intermediate. T\\v. re- sult indicates a partial blend iii the musical ability of the offspring of mixed origin. As an example that illustrates the law approximately may be cited the Hutchinson family (Hutchinson, 1876). Ac- cording to the statement of Wm. Lloyd Garrison, Jesse and Mary L. Hutchinson, progenitors of the tribe, lived in Milford, N. H., 1777-1863. The father possessed a rare baritone, the mother a sweet and mellow contralto voice. Of the sixteen children, three died young. The remaining thirteen are described as follows: David, deep bass voice; Noah, tenor voice; Andrew, baritone and bass voice, deeply interested in music; Zephaniah, passionately fond of music; Cabel, baritone voice; Joshua, very musical, sang; Jesse, editorial work; Benjamin, also gifted musically; Judson, musical genius; Rhoda, high contralto; John, most conmiand- ing vocal talents of all ; Asa, inherited a large share of musi- cal gift; Abbe, contralto voice, one of quartette. Details are lacking concerning the voice of Jesse, and the description of Benjamin is all too vague, considering the importance of this case, and so too much emphasis cannot be laid on these two cases; but aside from them the uniformity of testimony as to vocal talent of the family is striking. 8. Ability in Artistic Composition Like musical ability, artistic talent shows itself so early as to de'monstrate its innateness. Thus extraordinary talent was recognized in Francesco Mazzuoh (though ill taught) at 16, in Paul Potter at 15, in Jacob Ruj^sdael at 14, in Titian Vecelli at 13. Galton gives the following pedigree of the Vecellis. All the persons named were painters. ''The con- 52 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS necting links indicated by crosses are, singularly enough, every one of them lawyers" (Fig. 22). X I 1 X X X X 1 X I I Francisco Titian X I Fabricio Cesare Marco X Pomponio Horatio Tizianello Tomasco Fig. 22. — Pedigree of the painter family Vecelli.X, father (always a lawyer). — | Galton, 1869. » The data furnished by the Family Records seem to justify the following conclusions. When both parents have exceptional artistic abihty their children will, in most cases, all have high artistic ability (Fig. 23). The data for this generalization are sparse. Four matings of this sort furnished 13 children of whom 10 had a high grade, 1 is recorded as medium and two as poor; but both of the latter occur in one record that gives in- ternal evidence that the question was not clearly understood. When both parents are devoid of artistic talent and come from an unartistic ancestry none of the children show exceptional ability in art. From 103 such matings (grade 1) there were derived 391 children of whom 185 are given as of grade 1 and 206 as of grade 2, while to none was ascribed grade 3. When one parent is artistic and the other neither himself artistic nor of artistic ancestry then probably none of the THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 53 TI O w studenli L&wycr nLiteikry N.YAcademy <''" Fig. 23. — Pedigree of artistic ability (solid black for high talent, oblique shading for talent of a less degree). The family shows also the traits of taste for history (dots), of mechanical talent (vertical Unes), and of wood carving (horizontal lines). II, 3, Nathan P, had son Wra. F. (Ill, 2) who was grand- father of an artist, V, 3; and a daughter Mary (III, 4) who was the great grandmother of artist J. W. F. (VI, 3). This brother and sister (III, 2, and III, 4) married a brother and sister, (III, 1 and III, 3) and it is in this stock that we first find the inheritance of artistic ability. IV, 4, married John E. F. (IV, 5) a man who through life had a love of historic research. This love of history appeared again in George E. F. (V, 6) who became a journalist and subsequently author of several valuable works on Indian history. In liis son (VI, 3) in turn this love of history cropped out, as shown both in his Art History researches and as a painter of Indian history scenes. On his father's side, the hneage of VI, 3, has been traced back to 1630. No art- istic genius was found in the male Hue except in V, 6 and VI, 3. His grand- mother (IV, 4) displayed artistic tendencies, painting notable pictures through- out life. We turn now to the mother of VI, 3, and her family. Her great-grandfather, Joel L., II, 5, married Jerusha, sister of Noah Webster, II, 7. Their son Chester's second son, Edward, IV, 15, a distinguished clergyman marri«'Nr. MOS- wos. k k Fig, 33. — Here a feeble-minded woman (of the first generation) has married a normal man and has 4 normal children (except that 1 is alcoholic); then she marries an alcohohc sex-offender (who is probably also feeble-minded) and has 4 feeble-minded children. Here the mental strength of the first husband brought the required strength into the combination, so as to give good children. GODDAKD, 1910. THE INHP:RITANCE of family traits 6J) Ch-O a-i-o ivo5<^^ §m (N)i^ik o €m Bi^ k k k ALMSHOUSC Fig. 34. — An alcoholic man of good family but probably simple.x in men- tality has by a normal woman 2 normal cbdldren and by a feeble-minded woman 2 normals and 1 feeble-minded. He has had 4 other children by I feeble-minded women, all feeble-minded. Sx, sex-offender. Goddakd, 1910. ^ Eh Si "o^ ' o ChrO FFF G)-liVSn n"^ musmno d 4 « tj - *. &•-' ° • - a o *-- -je ^ c o ^= ^ S o I-, t. o o 13 3 O > v -;3 -a - o 3 cr o >> > 3 iD ».1|S.| 3 c3 TS C o CJ > CO — ' Wn c3 O _ ;s t, o -^ o c h-r 3 = ^ O • •: ^ T-l t£ =3 _ 3 — H >— I 3 c3 oj -rt I— I -^ ii Sea o= a H -i !* .^ CJ - (h D. C S 3 ~ 3 a, t— I o3 '^ - a IT 2 «J o 3 a.2 S3 s a - — cS o'- 3 ^ S "^ a _a o — cr c c3 ^ 03 -i ., i-H -3 1^ *? f -M •c CJ .ii, J ^ H-1 l-l ^ p— r 00 r3 ^ I— Ti—Tk-T * rt q H-i ►-. 1— I 82 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS both parents are very shiftless practically all children are ''very shiftless" or ''somewhat shiftless." Out of 62 oflf- spring, 3 are given as "industrious" or about 5 per cent (Fig. 48). When both parents are shiftless in some degree about 15 per cent of the known offspring are recorded as industrious. When one parent is more or less shiftless while the other is industrious only about 10 per cent of the children are "very shiftless." It is probable that both shiftlessness and lack of physical energy are due to the absence of something which can be got back into the offspring only by mating with in- dustry. 22. Narcotism The love of alcoholic drink, opium, etc., is commonly re- garded as due solely to its use. It has even been asserted that the "taste" is usually an acquired one; and we are assured that drunkenness results from bad associates and imitation of bad habits. Cases are cited of persons who, after an exem- plary youth, have suddenly through drink been started on the downward road. On the other hand there are those who maintain that the desire for narcotics is a symptom of a neur- asthenic tendency. "So long as there is a call for these narcotics must our race be stamped as degenerate" (Gaupp quoted by Mason, 1910). Says Lydston (1904, p. 200) "Practically, then, inebriety means degeneracy, the subject being usually primarily defective in nervous structure and will-power. It is a noteworthy fact that the family histories of dipsomaniacs are largely tinctured with nerve disorders. Hysteria, epilepsy, migraine and even insanity are found all along the line. In such cases inebriety is but one of the vary- ing manifestations of bad heredity." Each of these con- trasted views is partial. Whether a person who has taken a first glass of alcoholic liquor shall take another is determined largely by the effect upon him of the first. If the alcohol is THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 83 very distasteful he will probably not continue to drink; if it wakens a strong desire for more he will probably become (or is) a dipsomaniac.^ The result in these extreme cases is deter- mined by innate tastes which are doubtless hereditary. But in most cases the person who takes a first glass finds it indiffer- ent. His subsequent relation to alcohol depends largely upon his associates; but his selection of associates again depends on innate tastes. Some like the steady, quiet, serious youth for their companions; others select the reckless, jolly fellows, careless of the proprieties and — "birds of a feather flock together." The influence of precept is not to be overlooked; this is, however, most important in determining the first drink. No doubt a strong susceptibihty to social sentiment restrains many of the border line cases. A strong hereditary bias toward alcohol runs through not a few famihes of the United States. A pedigree of one such is given in Fig. 49. The neighbors say: "It is a family of drunkards," yet some of the individuals never touch hquor. The bad environment has its result first and chiefly on those individuals with an hereditary predisposition toward nar- cotics and this hereditary bias is stronger in some famihes than others, depending on the nature of the family trait, and it occurs in a larger proportion of the cases in some families than others, depending on the nature of the matings that have occurred in that family. 23. Criminality In connection with the subject of nervous defect and dis- ease the topic of an hereditary tendency to crime must be ^ Dr. L. D. Mason, head of the Inebriates' Home for Kings County (N. Y.) tells this story from his experience. He knew of a young man of such ancestry that a dipsomaniac was predicted. For years the youth refrained from drink, and led an exemplary life. Finally, he was operated on for appendicitis and, to hasten recovery, the surgeon gave him some brandy. An uncontrollable appetite was awakened and the man soon died from alcoholism. 84 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 85 alluded to. Despite the conservatism of the courts, despite the fact that scientifically ascertained general principles usu- ally weigh less than precedent, the treatment of the criminal has made progress during the past century. It is stated that "Mackintosh speaking in the English House of Commons so late as March 2, 1819 said 'I hold in my hand a list of those offenses which at this moment are capital, in number two hundred and twenty three' " (Johnston, 1887, p. 106). Phys- ical severity, frequent floggings, chaining to the floor, unsani- tary surroundings, insufficient and improper food were the elements of a treatment by a society that was exasperated into severity by the realization of its impotent ignorance. Only slowly has the idea of hospitals for insane criminals spread; but though several states maintain great institutions of this sort they still receive a quite insufficient proportion of those convicted of crime. A few pictures of the youth with hereditary criminal in- stincts may properly be quoted here. 1. 0. L., female, father and jnother both intemperate and degenerate, and always on the verge of pauperism. The patient is cruel to animals and childi'en; thus, she put a cat on a red hot stove, threw knives and stones at playmates, wished to have a small baby to strike and kick; and helped drown a comrade in a bath tub. She is very untruthful and a chronic thief; has fits of temper when she screams, tears clothing, and pulls out her hair; is in a state of chronic re- bellion against the constituted authorities, a trouble maker and inciter of mischief. She talks fluently, is sly and cunning, vain as to her personal appearance and boastful to attract attention. Age 16. This person has committed the crimes of wanton cruelty to animals, petty larceny, truancy, assault and murder. She is a moral imbecile. 2. 0. K., male, entered a school for feeble-minded at 9, at the time of the description is 11. He has a bright, knowing, 86 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS intelligent manner, has a fund of general information and is very talkative. He is very cruel to younger children, has an ungovernable temper, is an inciter of discontent and rebellion among the other patients, lies maliciously, ingeniously and convincingly, and steals inveterately and without motive. This child, removed into an excellent school with the best of surroundings, at the tender age of nine reveals striking criminalistic traits which no care can correct. In this case the hereditary history is unknown. In those that follow it has been precisely ascertained. '■^^ t *6 Fig. 50 3. Figure 50, III, 4 is an eleven year old boy who began to steal at 3 years; at 4 set fire to a pantry resulting in an explo- sion that caused his mother's death; and at 8 set fire to a mattress. He is physically sound, able and well informed, polite, gentlemanly and very smooth, but he is an inveterate thief and has a court record. His older brother, 14, has been full of deviltry, has stolen and set fires but is now settled down and is earning a living. Their father is an unusually fine, thoughtful intelligent man, a grocer, for a time sang on the vaudeville stage; his mother, who died at 32, is said to have been a normal woman of excellent character. There is however a taint on both sides. The father's father was wild and drank when young and had a brother who was an invet- erate thief. The mother's father was alcoholic and when THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 87 drunk mean and vicious. Some of the mother's brothers stole or were sexually immoral. 4. A healthy man (Fig. 51, 11,1) employed on a railroad as a fireman and using neither alcohol nor tobacco married a woman who was born in the mountains of West Virginia near the Kentucky line and who shows many symptoms of defectiveness. She has epileptic convulsions as often as 2 or 3 times a week, has an ungovernable temper, smokes, chews and drinks, is illiterate and sexually immoral. There 1 Sx Sx E tchorea fchorea Fig. 51 are 10 children, of whom something is known about 7. One died early of chorea, one of the others (III, 8) seems normal; III, 1 has killed two men including a policeman; III, 4 had her husband killed and lives with his slayer; III, 6, an epi- leptic and cigarette fiend, convicted of assault; III, 12 has hysterical convulsions and is afraid in sleep; III, 15 has migraine. The combination in the fraternity of migraine, chorea, hysteria, epilepsy and sexual immorality and tend- ency to assault is striking and appalling. 5. A 10 year old boy (Fig 52, IV, 4) who was precocious as a raconteur at 22 months, does well at school except for inat- tention; is fond of reading and athletics, cheerful, and polite. But he prefers the companionship of older, wild boys and cannot be weaned from them. He lies, runs up accounts in his parents' name, is acquiring bad sexual habits, and runs 88 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS i away from home. He has two fine, studious brothers. His father is a strong character and a successful lawyer, his mother an excellent woman, intelligent and firm. She has a brother who left home at 14 to seek a life of adventure. He finally settled down to a steady life. Their father's father was erratic. He loved Indian outdoor life, always used an Indian blanket and at over 70 years swam the Mississippi River. He traced back his ancestry to Pocahontas. He has another grandson, III, 2, who is an unruly character with a I nt^^'^'^'tto66te M F t m ffi"ti4 Fig. 52 roving disposition; he joined the navy and his whereabouts are unknown; his father was a lawyer and a fine character. 6. Another case of truancy (Fig. 53, III, 2) is a 7 year old boy whose home conditions are not favorable. His selfish father consorts with lewd women so that his mother has left her husband and now conducts an employment agency. She has hysterical attacks with blank periods during which she may wander. The boy is bright and able but is subject to hysterical attacks; he runs away from school and home and says he does not know why; goes for a long period without food or sleep. His father's father was erratic, a soldier, very superstitious, used to walk in a graveyard and perform in- cantations at Christmas time. The mother's father was also THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 89 erratic and disappeared from home about the time his mother was born. Two of his sons have hysterical fuges and one of them served a term in prison; he is now quite lost to the fam- ily. This is a remarkable history of hysteria with a slight criminalistic tendency. 7. An intelligent and esteemed physician (Fig. 54, II, 2) with training abroad as well as in this country and of a good family (his brother, II, 1, is a college professor and his father a methodist preacher) married a lady (II, 3) of good family, 11 2l 3' 41 51 61 7 5iM55555ii' fiK) t9mos. Fig. 53 with much musical talent, but subject to migraine and for- merly to chorea. They have two sons born in the best of en- vironments. The younger (III, 3) is still in the kindergarten, seems wholly normal, truth-telling and lovable; the other, (III, 2) now 13, developed normally, has had no convulsions, and has never been seriously sick and ordinarily sleeps well. He has regular, refined features and a normal alert attitude and is very industrious. He attends Sunday school regularly, has excellent talent for music. At 3 years of age he walked to a near by railroad, boarded a train and was carried 12 miles before the conductor discovered him ; since then he has run away very many times. From an institution for difficult boys, where he was placed, he ran away 13 times. He es- capes from his home after dark and sleeps in neighboring door- ways. His mother used to make Saturday a treat day. She 00 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS would take a violin lesson with him and spend the afternoon in the Public Library which he much enjoyed but he would slip away from her on the way home and be gone till mid- night. He is an unconscionable liar. He contracts debts, steals when he has no use for the articles stolen and has bieen i convicted for burglary. Much money and effort have been spent on him in vain. His mother's father, (I, 3) (of whom he has never heard) was a western desperado, drank hard and was involved in a murder, but finally married a very good w® n Bl Ei-r-%) i® yy® h '^ IB b "[£] la t2yrs. Fig. 54 woman (I, 4) and has 2 normal daughters in addition to this boy's mother. The typical skipping of a generation, seen in these pedi- grees of the wandering instinct, suggests that it is a recessive, like most neuroses — and strengthens the probability that it is due to a real mental defect. The following case suggests the inheritance of an extremely erotic instinct also as a defect (Fig. 55). A large, healthy man (II, 4) engaged in an engineering pro- fession, has much ability in music and is an inventor. He drinks very little alcohol, has always been a good worker and is highly esteemed by those who employ him. But he is THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 91 "crazy about women." He left his first wife and married another, was convicted of bigamy and served a term in prison; later he married a third wife without undergoing the formal- ity of a divorce from the others and was again imprisoned for bigamy. He has had also other, even looser, relations with women. His second wife (II, 5) was a healthy young girl who comes from a long lived family. Since her husband deserted her she has had to work very hard to support their children and is much broken down in consequence. She is I tl-AD th^ np^6^0%-r<)l!)D^ tt'tl ni i^f0 Fio. 55 not a strong character, she keeps boarders and is currently beUeved to be sexually immoral. Nothing is known about her parents nor those of her husband. The daughter of this pair (III, 1), is thirteen years old. She is wilful, refuses to study, runs on the streets, has stayed out all night on two occasions and has been in court as a delinquent. The son, (III, 2), eight and a half years old, has a fair physical develop- ment, but his face is unsymmetrical and his mouth open despite removal of adenoids when he was 5. His speech is thick and rough. He seems dull at times but can brighten up. He has had convulsions. Like his sister he is wilful, won't learn, and runs on the streets where he sells papers and where he has stolen many articles. He throws stones and 92 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS garbage and despite his tender years he indulges in vile lan- guage, exposes his person to Uttle gu'ls, masturbates and is sexually misused by men. All attempts at reformation have failed, — orphan asylum, home for boys, life on a farm; from all these he runs away and returns to the life he loves. The foregoing cases are samples of scores that have been collected and serve as fair representations of the kind of blood that goes to the making of thousands of criminals in this country. It is just as sensible to imprison a person for feeble-mindedness or insanity as it is to imprison criminals belonging to such strains. The question whether a given person is a case for the penitentiary or the hospital is not primarily a legal question but one for a physician with the aid of a student of heredity and family histories. 24. Other Nervous Diseases a. The General Problem. — The marvellous complex of neurones (nerve cells and fibres), sustentative tissue, and blood vessels that constitute the central nervous system forms, perhaps, the most wonderful mechanism in nature. Little wonder that it should vary greatly in different indi- viduals, or that it should become easily deranged. Such variations in structure and such derangement though ordinarily hidden from view can be inferred from the be- havior of the person. For the general principle holds that every psychosis (or peculiar mental manifestation) has its neurosis (or aberrent nervous basis). Peculiar or abnormal behavior, then, is an index of peculiar or abnormal brain condition. That heredity plays a part in nervous disease is indicated by the famiUar fact of high incidence of some or otheT psychic disturbance in the members of a single family. We have already seen how incomplete mental development is a consequence of the absence of a definite inheritable THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 93 defect in the germ plasm, such that when the factor that stimulates to complete mental development is absent from the gexm plasm of both parents it will be absent from all their offspring. Varied as are the mental conditions of the persons in a family containing feeble mindedness the chil- dren do not ordinarily surpass in mental development the better developed parent. In considering heredity of mental disease we must not forget that what is inherited is not, as in imbeciUty, a tendency to incomplete mental development, but rather a tendency such that a completely developed and apparently normal mentality is liable under ordinary, or still more under extraordinary, conditions to show disturbance of a temporary or permanent nature. The more intimate nature of this inherited tendency is probably varied. In some cases there is doubtless an idiosyncrasy in the neurones, in other cases there is a lack of resistance to infection or specific poisons, again the trouble may be outside the neurones in the supporting tissue or even in the blood vessels whose walls may be peculiarly liable to weaken and burst; to waste away; to thicken, occluding the lumen and shutting off nutrition to a part of the brain. Before considering the inheritance of specific nervous diseases it may be pointed out that what is inherited is often a general nervous weakness — a neuropathic taint — showing itself now in one form of psychosis and now in another. Especially the lower types of mental defect may be carried in the higher, i. e., departing least from the normal. b. The Neuropathic Makeup. — We have seen (page 77) that imbecility, epilepsy and many forms of insanity are due merely to the absence of some factor. It remains to be considered how they behave amongst each other in heredity. A pedigree worked out by Barr (1907) gives the desired information (Fig. 56). 94 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS sffi 2 M B ^ t> ^ ^ -^^ ^ nO J- -^ ^^ f fei P> P ^ THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 95 >> 3 o » S i ^ ^ .u ^ ^ ,,-.-S o » *- J -S a i ^ l^^cl^l §.^:a g^^-s a^« g o •H-2^-sSoO ^■foo!>.'§^*'^ ^ 2 J 3 « -oTI I ^ 3 ^ o a " 3 fe g ^-> -^ 53 a «■!•;; i Sis §"s ;^2-^s^s«| "^ tS a .a ^-^ a ?; • -^ O) CD a> IS ^ o -O 35 o g ^° eg I^ a 3 s| I - . ^ o ~ 5 am o^^ 118 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS parents produce no abnormal children. The condition that makes for retinitis is something added to the normal con- dition. The extent of the degeneration varies with the family. In a pedigree recorded by Leber (Fig. 85) the characteristic, throughout the family, was an increasing dimness of vision accompanied by night bhndness; but later the degeneration was stayed. The eugenic instruction is clear. An affected man or woman should not marry even into stock without taint of retini- tis. Above all, in retinitis stock, cousins, 1 I especially if affected should by no means ■■ " marry. Fig. 85.— Pedigree m. Night BUndness (hemeralopia) . — of retinitis pigmentosa ^m • t • in a family in which This disease IS accompamed by no loss of the disease becomes perception of form, but at sunset the af- checked before bhnd- ^ ^ ' ness becomes com- fccted persous must cease working. Ar- plete. Leber, 1871. ^-g^-^j j-gj^^ j^^jp^ j^^^j^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ -^^_ tense. The lamps of the street are of no assistance in guid- ing these people at night. Eventually, in most strains, the affected persons become totally bUnd often with a retinitis. This disease is probably due to a defect in the brain and not as has been suggested merely to lack of the visual purple of the retina (Bordley, 1908). Through the researches of Cunier (1838) and Nettleship (1907) we have a pedigree of a night blind strain that is the most extensive that has yet been compiled for any disease. It includes 2,116 persons. A part of it is reproduced in Fig. 86. Fig. 87 is a pedigree of an American (colored) family furnished by Dr. Bordley. The disease is due to a positive factor. The normals lack this factor. Usually, however, the factor must be duplex THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 119 1 44 44 On i so 5! Fig. 86. — Pedigree of chart of an European strain with night blindness (black symbols). The rectangles indicate numerous normal individuals. Two normal parents have only normal children. Nettleship, 1907, from Gbuber and Rudin, 1911. 120 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS I I in w\ Y , , , ^ , 6 ^ b,^ "^ Fig. 87. — Pedigree of night blindness in a negro family, many of whom were personally examined by Dr. Bordley. IV, 18, 19, are doubtful. All solid block symbols stand for affected persons; clear symbols unaffected. The blindness is progressive and ends in death within 16 months after blindness becomes complete. All affected persons have an affected parent. Night blindness is a positive trait. Bordley, 1908. in females in order to develop; but in both Nettleship's and Bordley's families even simplex females have night blind- ness. Ordinarily, consequently^, while night blind people should not reproduce, normal males from such stock may do so with impunity, but normal females may have children only when all their brothers (more than two) are without the defect; for normal females, in most night blind families, may carry the disease. n. Color Blindness. — The inability to distinguish certain colors, notably red and green, is not a rare condition but much less common in women than men (in Europe, 4 per cent males, 0.5 per cent females) . The method of inheritance of the condition is much the same as that of atrophy of the optic nerve and night blindness; namely, that color blind males do not have color blind sons but that females free from color blindness may have sons with it (Fig. 88). The eugenic conclusion is that while color blind males will have no color blind sons and, typically, no color blind offspring of either sex yet their daughters, married to men of normal stock, will have color blind sons. To the ordinary rule there are various exceptions. Daugh- THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 121 I H 50 K30 BoJiiiSoi Fig. 88. — Ideal scheme, showing method of inheritance of color blindness. Typically it appears in sons only of simplex females, represented by a heavy ring. The third mating in second generation is illustrated in Fig. 89, II, 6. I iBitD bjb I m more thanl )t^¥ll^ IV "ill lit!) Fig. 89. — A remarkable and exceptional pedigree of color blindness. The fraternity, II, 1-5 (which comprises the grandfather, his brothers, and his 3 sisters), were said all to be color blind. The grandmother, II, 6, had the normal color sense but had an afifected brother. The entire fraternity, III, 1-5, including 4 females, has impaired color perception. Details are given about III, 5, as follows: She is about 50 years old, a physician's wife, and a test shows complete confusion of dark green, dark red and brown. While lighter tints are better distinguished, rose and blue arc confounded. The sons show exactly the same conditions. Reber, 1895. ters may inherit color blindness from fathers. At least such is the history given by Reber (1895), Fig. 89; an exceptional history that is not entirely without precedent. In the case of these exceptional families a color blind parent may have color blind offspring of either sex. o. Myopia. — That the shape of the eyeball is largely 122 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS I too M^lflMi'SbS^ w ii Fig. 90. — Pedigree of a family with myopia. In the first generation the man had myopia and strabismus while his wife was normal. Their son, II, 1, had myopia and died unmarried. His normal sister married a normal man and had 7 children. Ill, 1 and 2, had both myopia and strabismus; the eyesight of III, 3 and 4, was defective but in what waj'^ is unknown. A normal sister, III, 7, had a son with defective sight — probably myopia. From Oswald, 1911. Note that males only are affected and are derived only from 2 normal parents. Simplex mothers indicated by heavy circles. tO! t£^% itS4™ Fig. 91. — Pedigree of myopia. Members of the 3 youngest generar tions were personally examined. Nearly all males of the family are myopic, and none of the females, but myopia is transmitted through the female line. Myopia is about the same in all cases, 10 or 12 D, with some astigmatism. From Worth. The defect shows in males only and these are always descend- ants of normal females. Their simplex mothers are represented by heavy circles. THE INHERITANCE OP FAMILY TRAITS 12a controlled by heredity has been shown by Hertel (1903), as a result of measuring the refraction in children and their parents. That myopia, or near sightedness, is inheritable has long been known. A typical case has been recorded by Oswald (1911), Fig. 90, and a second pedigree is given by Worth (Fig. 91). In both pedigrees inheritance is sex-limited as in color blindness. A normal female has some, at least, of her DiO ^iMiXi • ■ □ O Fig. 92. — Pedigree of astigmatism, afifected persons represented by black symbols. F. R. ons myopic, but all daughters are normal. In such a family, then, normal daughters in a myopic fraternity may expect nyopic sons. p. Astigmatism. — This condition of improper curvature of the lens belongs to the Hst of family traits. A corre- spondent submits the pedigree of his family shown in Fig. 92. From this pedigree it appears that, in this family, astigma- tism is a recessive trait, since normal persons may transmit it and since it is equally apt to appear in either sex. It would 3e desirable, other things being equal, for a person belonging ;o an affected strain to seek a partner from a strain that las normal eyes. 28. Ear Defects The ear is the most complicated of the sense organs and ;hough its important elements are deeply hidden in the lead yet the lining of the middle ear is continuous with the 124 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS mucous membrane of the throat — in some respects the most vulnerable portion of the human body. Hence it is subject to the weaknesses of that membrane. On account of its very complexity it is especially liable to exhibit deformations or deficiencies.^ In view of the great variety of changes any one of which may result in deafness it is clear that deafness can hardly be a unit defect. Consequently it will not be inherited as a simple character. The facts justify the a priori conclusions. Deafness of certain sorts is clearly hereditary but it is not possible to predict certainly the outcome of a particular mating. Never- theless something can be done; and it will be worth while to learn what is known of the actual incidence of deafness in the offspring of deaf parents. Inheritable deafness is of three general types, (a) That due to defects or changes before birth or shortly after, giving rise to deaf mutism; (b) otosclerosis, or hardness of hearing, with usually progressive symptoms; (c) catarrhal weakness of the mucous membranes, rendering them Hable to infection with inflanmiation and suppuration. a. Deaf Mutism. — This kind of deafness is characterized by its early appearance in life, before speech has been ac- quired. It is the less likely, consequently, to be due to dis- ease and, as a matter of fact, it is that form which shows clearest evidence of pure inheritance. So clear is the evi- dence of inheritance of congenital deafness that some coun- 1 Politzer (1807) gives among others the following anatomical causes of con- genital deafness: impaired development or absence of middle ear, defects and rachitic deformities of the labyrinthine windows; narrowing of the recess of the round window to a cleft with connective tissue; atresia of the same; atrophy of the cochlear nerve and spinal ganglion in the first turn of the cochlea; ab- normahties of the membranes^of the otoliths, organ of Corti and ductus coch- learis; faulty development of the sensory epithelium; defects of the crista and sulcus spiralis; lack of development of the labyrinth and of the auditory nerve; malformations of the central nervous system. In addition there are numerous changes in structure due to inflammations. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 125 tries have forbidden the marriage of persons of this class. Yet the inheritance of deaf mutism has been disputed and, indeed, without careful consideration of the separate family histories the method of inheritance seems truly obscure. I The most extensive data on the marriage of deaf are those collected by Fay (1898). He finds that, when both parents are congenitally deaf (Figs. 93, 94), of the 335 matings 25 Fig. 93 Fig. 94 Fig. 93. — Pedigree of deaf mutism. Parents both deaf; the father at 3 years; the mother before birth. The first two children died shortly after birth; the other two are deaf mutes — one born so; the other following a slight blow on the head. Saint Hilaire, 1900, p. 31. Fig. 94. — Pedigree of deaf mutism. Father mother, and 3 children, all deaf mutes from birth. Saint Hilaire, 1900, p. 31. per cent yield some deaf offspring; and of the total of 77D offspring 26 per cent are deaf. It is clear that such marriages are, in the long run, dangerous. That all children of such marriages are not deaf is doubtless due to the fact that the parents are not deaf in the same way and that one parent brings into the combination what the other lacks. The contrast between the result of marriages of two congenitally deaf parents and two who are adventitiously deaf is shown by the fact that the latter yield only 2.3 per cent deaf chil- dren. If, on the other hand, the partners belong to the same deaf mute strain, i. e., are related, the percentage of mar- riages yielding some deaf mute offspring rises to 45, and the proportion of deaf offspring to 30 per cent (Fig. 95). But that is not the whole story, for the closer the relation.^hip 126 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS of the parents the larger the proportion of deaf children as the following table shows : — Per cent deaf offtpring Partners "cousins," degree unreported 19.4 " first or second cousins 34.6 " nephew and aunt (1 family) 75.0 The interpretation of this fact would seem to be that the nearer the relationship the greater the chance that both parents lack the same element and so all of their children I n D D D D HtW D D OriiiK:) m Fig. 95. — Pedigree of deaf mutes. Two deaf mute cousins each belonging to fraternities having several deaf mutes marry one another. Both of their children (II) are deaf. Each child marries a hearing wife and of 4 children aU hear. Fay, 1898, No. 2621. tend to lack it. In Figs. 96 to 100 are given some pedigrees of deaf mute families. They show that, under certain cir- cumstances, probably identity of defect in parents, the children will all be similarly defective. The studies of Bell (1906) based on the census returns of a large proportion of the deaf population of the United States show the importance of consanguineous marriages in favoring the production of deaf mute offspring. He finds (p. 17) ''of the 2,527 deaf whose parents were cousins, 632, or 25 per cent, are congenitally deaf, of whom 350, or 55.4 also have deaf relatives of the classes specified; while among the 53,980 whose parents were not so related the number of congenitally deaf is 3,666 or but 6.8 per cent, of whom only 1,023 or 27.9 per cent have deaf relatives." THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 127 afi' OiO N N N ^ No deaf descendants in~~i^^ii n N N I Deaf Mute* N Dp N an Fig. 96. — Three sisters (Gen. Ill), deaf mute from birth, had several per- fectly normal brothers and sisters. Their mother's uncle had been a con- genital deaf mute. The first sister married a hearing man and had 3 children, i hearing son and 2 mute daughters, who married hearing men and had only hearing children. The second sister was educated and married an edu- cated mute but died soon after the birth of her normal child. The third sister married, first a hearing man and had a normal daughter whose children were in turn normal. But she married for a second husband a deaf mute belonging to a fraternity with 2 other deaf mutes and all 4 children who survived infancy were deaf mutes. Report, N. Y. School for Deaf and Dumb, 1853, p. 96. a cousins 1111111 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I N N N N N D IH-^D DDDNNNNNNNN mn IN t I J J J I . N NNNND ¥D »T#D i^i D mf ri m rrr D NNNN NNN 51 rrn NNNN Fig. 97. — Pedigree of deaf mutes — black symbols or D. Note the fraternity of deaf mutes derived from the central mating of cousins. Most of those who outmarried, even though their consorts were deaf, had hearing children. Fat, 1898, No. 810. In view of the foregoing data the first eugenic recommen- dation clearly is that two deaf mutes should not have chil- dren, especially if they come from the same long-settled community or are known to be blood relatives. 128 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS If one partner be congenitally deaf and the other have no ear defect and knows of none in his family the chances for deaf offspring are small. In 72 such marriages considered cousins •iloioa 1 DDDDDNNNNNNN Ul^ aoii Fig. 98. — Pedigree of deaf mutism. In the first generation 2 hearing cousins marry. They have 14 children of whom 7 are dead. Two of these marry deaf wives belonging to fraternities with other cases of deafness. Of 9 children, altogether, all are deaf. Fay, 1898, No. 7. by Fay only 5 resulted in deaf offspring. It is quite likely that in some even of these five matings the normal parent had unknown deaf relatives. fliofto cousms # 2D n N N. Fig. 99. — Pedigree of deaf mutism. Two deaf mutes, first cousins, marry and have 4 children, all deaf mutes. One of these marries a wife whose father, an uncle and two nephews or nieces were deaf mutes, and two out of three children were deaf mutes. Another child of the original pair married a deaf mute and had two hearing children. Fat, 1898. Nos. 3292, 2260, 442, 3290, 3291, 3234. But if the hearing partner have deaf relatives then the proportion of resulting fraternities containing deaf mutes increases to 35 per cent. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 129 Even though both partners hear, if they belong to the same strain with a tendency to deafness the hability to deaf offspring is so high as to warrant warning strongly against such a marriage (Fig. 99). Finally if one or both partners are adventitiously deaf and have no deaf relatives then there is no eugenic obstacle to marriage, for such marriages result in a negligible propor- tion of deaf offspring — in Fay's statistics only 2 out of 552. b. Otosclerosis. — This disease consists of a progressive rigidity of the mucous coat of the tympanic membrane: Fig. 100. — Pedigree of "fistula auris congenita." Both of the original pair were affected with a congenital aural fistula, with a fistulous canal anterior and close to the ear; all persons represented by black symbols had a similar fistula. Hartman, p. 56. usually associated with adhesions in the inner ear and altera- tions of the windows (fenestra). It shows itself in an ever increasing difficulty in hearing conversation. The inheritance of otosclerosis is a familiar fact. Most persons know families many of whose members become ''hard of hearing" as they grow older. The deafness is fre- quently attributed to climatic causes and this belief is in- creased by the presence of many cases in the same locahty. But it will be found on inquiry that the afifected persons are relatives and that their unrelated neighboi-s are not affected by the same climate. This makes it clear that a severe climate merely brings out the latent weakness of the n£n 130 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS mucous lining of the ear. Some examples of strains showing otosclerosis are given in Figm-es 101-104. An examination of the available pedigrees indicates that otosclerosis is due to a defect — perhaps to the absence of a resistance to infection and in- flammation of the lining mem- brane of the inner ear. Like I — -. other defects it is relatively com- j— . X fJ-i/->^ nion in the progeny of cousin " — "l^ I— nvy marriages. The eugenic indications then are, two persons with a tend- ency towards otosclerosis should Fig. 101. — Pedigree of oto- << • r • i sclerosis. In this pedigree all refrain from marrying, as prob- affected individuals, so far as ably all of their children will he known, are females. Luc^, 1907. , , - , . -r, , hard of hearing. But a person with otosclerosis and an unaffected person of an untainted strain may marry with impunity as their children will prob- ably all have strong hearing. Ui 0|i~io DiOD aoo iiiiiiiii Fig. 102. — Pedigree of a family with otosclerosis. Two deaf brothers marry; one has a single son, who is deaf; the other has four unaffected chil- dren. Of these latter two marry consorts who are, so far as known, normal. From one pair three out of nine children are affected; from the other only one child is known and he is hard of hearing. Hammerschlag, 1906. c. Catarrhal affections. — That a weakness of the mucous membranes permitting catarrh is hereditary, we shall see in speaking of the weakness of mucous membranes in general, #rn mj THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 131 and it cannot be doubted that such a weakness plays a role in deafness. Thus Bell (1906) has shown that, in the census returns, over 55 per cent of the deaf children in the country come from parents who became deaf in adult life and he states that this "confirms the conclusion reached upon other grounds that heredity sometimes plays a part in the production of catarrh of the middle ear — the chief cause of deafness occurring in middle Ufe." Fig. 103.— Pedigree of rtrw o T^ otosclerosis. Affected per- 29. Skin Diseases ^ons (black symbols) for the most part, but by no The skin is an admirable organ for means always, have an af- the protection of the delicate in- ^^^^^^ p"^^"*" l^^*' ^^'^' ternal parts not only from desiccation but also from the entrance of the numerous parasites that thrive on manmial- in 66 I m E bjt^M^ iJStiffl 'Sbi Fig. 104 — Pedigree of otosclerosis. The condition of hearing in the first generation is unknown and some of the children in the fourth generation have not reached the age of incidence; thus, IV, 4-C. are 22 to 18 years old and IV, 7-9, are 20 to 14 years. ian blood and tissues. Nevertheless, its exposed position renders it liable to attack by the various genns that are 132 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS ubiquitous. Abrasions and the openings of the sebaceous glands and the hair folhcles offer vulnerable points. The main reliance of the organism must be its internal means of defense. The efficiency of specific means of resistance is undoubtedly an inherited quality. We find families charac- terized by low resistance to specific germs of particular dis- eases. Thus liability to boils and eczema appears as a family trait in the Dow-1 family. One of the parents is subject to boils and the other to eczema. Of five children three are subject to eczema and one to boils. It seems probable that we are here dealing with a lack of resistance to infection through the skin in both parents, leading to a non-resistance in all of the children. A few cases of inheritance of more specific types of skin diseases are cited below. a. Congenital Traumatic Pemphigus (epidermolysis bul- losa).— The children are born with a liability to form fluid filled vesicles after the smallest physical provocation. The excessive vulnerability shows itself in the first month of life and is said to diminish from 40 to 50 years of age and to cease altogether in old age. It is strongly hereditary, often through several generations (5 in Bonajuti's case); it shows also a prevalence in particular families and is rather more frequent in males than females. The sHghtest injury, blow, pressure, friction or scratching is followed by the formation of a bulla. The bullae are often full of blood and of large size, 5 centimeters or more across and their shape may be irregular instead of round or oval depending upon the nature of the injury. Fingers and nails are often de- formed or altogether destroyed. The pathology of the dis- ease is obscure; it seems to be influenced by arsenic (Rad- cliffe-Crocker, 1903, p. 293). The case described by Bonajuti is given in Fig. 105. Of an affected parent about half the offspring are affected. Two THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 133 normal parents usually produce only normal offspring. In case the single known parent is normal and has affected off- spring it is presumed that the unknown spouse was affected. On the whole, epidermolysis seems to be due to the presence of a distinct factor, absence of which results in normality. The eugenic teaching is then that two normals belonging to such a family as that of Fig. 105 may marry with impunity i A Mi Fig. 105. — Pedigree of a family showing epidermolysis bullosa, behaving like a dominant trait — appearing in each generation. Only in two instances, at the right of the chart, does a case arise from a parent not known to have the trait. Gossage, after Bonajuti. but that in the case of parents who have, or had in childhood, epidermolysis probably at least half of the children will be similarly affected. b. Psoriasis (itch). — The question of the inherit ability of this disease has been much discussed. Some declare it is due to infection, others deny it. Various experiments have been tried. Schamberg (1908) performed auto-inoculation in 23 cases and got a positive result in only 3. Inoculation into normal human subjects — usually the experunenter's own body — have produced the disease in only one case (that of Dr. Destot). On the other hand in about a third of the cases observed by various physicians psoriasis was recog- nized as a family disease. The most reasonable explana- tion is that the disease is due to a parasite to which most 134 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS persons are immune; and that lack of immunity is an in- heritable trait. Besides skin diseases due to infection there are other ab- normal conditions consisting of irregularities or exaggera- Hn 1 Atd A AiQ I other Females I I AIJ normal I Fig. 106. — Pedigree of ichthyosis. All affected persons are from non- affected females. Bramwell, 1903, p. 77. tions of the process of rendering the outer layer of the skin horny. The liability to these diseases is usually recognized to be hereditary. c. Ichthyosis or xerosis (xeroderma). — This is a dryness ^1 — I of the skin in which plates are formed ^ like the scales of a fish. The dis- ease is remarkable because, appar- heredity by sex and sometimes not, — in different families. At least, in BjO two of the pedigrees (Figs. 106, 108) I males only are affected and inherit- 6X J_^ X ance is through a normal female. • Q • But in other cases (Figs. 107, 109) ■ Ju""- ^^'^uZ^^-^^'rl ""^ the females seem to be affected ichthyosis, behaving like a positive trait. Bbamwell, equally with the males and the pe- ^^^^' culiar skin condition is transmitted either by normal or by affected females. Ichthyosis is es- pecially apt to be found in families in which consanguineous marriages occur and this fact, together with the pedigrees, THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 135 suggests that it is due to the absence of some factor that con- trols the process of cornification of the skin. On this hypoth- esis a normal person who belongs to an afifected family Fig. 108.— Pedigree of a family with ichthyosis. Note that only males are affected. Bond, 190.5. may marry into a normal family with impunity, but cousin marriages are to be avoided. d. Thickening of the outer layer of the skin is a disease that is closely related to the foregoing. In the generaUzed OM OrnnaooJ JiTO^ Fig. 109. — Pedigree of a family showing general ichthyosis, giving evidence that it is a positive trait. Gossage, 1907, p. 342. forms (called hyperkeratosis) infection has been alleged as a cause; but if infection plays a part it seems to be effective only where there is a susceptibility. Evidence for contagion is said to be given by the case where the only two affected children were those who, alone, were nursed by their mother, an affected woman. But, on the other hand, the fact that the mother had the disease proves her susceptibihty. 136 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Finally, the peculiar thickening of the palm of the hand and the plantar surface of the foot known as Tylosis seems to follow the same rule as keratosis of which it is only a special case. Both males and females are affected and two normal parents, even of an affected family, rarely transmit the defect (Figs. 110, 111). The records of 45 families with this abnormality have been studied by Gossage. In the 39 that can be used, it appears that males and females are equally affected (166 to 140) and transmit equally. As affected persons always mate with normals, affected offspring are always simplex and expectation is that half of their offspring shall be ab- normal. In 28 famihes 222 children are abnormal and 184 normal. Only one exception appears to the rule that two normal parents have only normal children. 30. Epidermal Organs Heredity in these organs may be considered under the four heads of glands, hair, nails and teeth. The inclusion of teeth is justified since their true epidermal origin is now recognized; they are equivalent to the scales of fishes, but, in the higher animals, including man, they are confined to the mouth and jaws. On account of the close interrelation- ship of these four types of organs a modification of one may mean a change in all, and so it is not possible in discussing one of them always to avoid a consideration of another. a. The Skin Glands are principally the sebaceous and sweat glands, associated functionally with the hair and morphologically with the milk glands. The latter are usually reduced to two in man but cases of supernumerary mam- mae are not exceedingly rare. This condition is doubtless hereditary for Leichtenstern (1878) refers to the case of a woman with three mammae on the chest who bore a daughter who in turn also had three mammae (though the additional THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 137 ■jO 5 t^i. Fig. 110. — Pedigree of a family with tylosis (black symbols). Note that all affected persons have at least one parent affected — showing that tylosis is due to a positive determiner. Unna, 1883. Uia^Si 4N oJ^ io Fig. 111. — Pedigree of a family with tylosis palmae plantaris (black sym- bols)— proof of its positive nature. 4iV, four normals. Gossage, after Riz- ZOLI, 1907. one was on the thigh), and Iwai (1904) cites many cases of a mother and five to one of several children who possessed supernumerary pectoral nipples. 138 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS b. Hair. — Peculiarities of hair, apart from pigmentation, are not infrequent as family traits. Thus a family with curled, woolly hair is described by Gossage, the curly condi- tion being clearly dominant over its absence. Hair may be entirely absent even from birth. Such a case is described by Molenes (1890). There was brought to him a girl of 4 years who was hairless from birth until 19 months old. She had a brother who was bald at six and the mother lost her hair at 19. Another case, described in the Medi-chirurgical Trans- actions, is that of a boy of three who was nearly bald. His sisters had normal hair but his mother had complete alopecia areata from the age of six. A third case is that described by White who knew a family that came from France to Canada. One grandfather was nearly hairless and the nails were faulty; the parents were normal; but in the next generation of 6 sons and 2 daughters one daughter was almost hairless and the nails abnormal in her and in two sons. This daughter married (presumably a normal man) and had a son who at 19 retains on his scalp the nearly invis- ible downy coat with which he was born. His only sister has a thick, downy scalp-covermg quite different from normal hair. One of the uncles of these children has a son of 9 and a daughter of 4; the latter was born entirely without hair or nails. The data are not very full but the fact that normals carry the trait indicates that it may be accompanied by a definite defect in the germ plasm. Baer describes a family of ten chil- dren of two normal parents of which one was born hairless and has con- tinued so while three were bom with heavy hair but lost it; in two cases at 14 days and in one at 9 months. The form of the hair may show family peculiarities. Thus, in some cases, it is thickened at intervals resembhng a string of beads — hence called ''monihthrix." A pedigree of a family of this sort has been recorded by Anderson (Fig. 112). Unaffected parents apparently yield only normals and abnormal parents are usually simplex, so that about half of the offspring have the new character. The facts of inheritance of curhness have been considered on page 35. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 139 Hair-coat CoZor.— Ordinarily the hair of the scalp is of uniform color but in man, no less than in horses, a piebald condition is possible. This shows itself in locks of white hair in the midst of a prevaihng brown or red. This spotted condition is due to a definite positive factor, even as in the coat of mice, and two parents who lack spotted hair-coat will have only uniform-coated children. This is illustrated FiQ. 112. — Inheritance of monilithrix — a positive character. Black symbols represent affected individuals. Anderson. in the pedigree (Fig. 113) from Gossage. The hair-coat also varies in thickness and that this quality runs in famiUes can hardly be doubted (Fig. 114). c. Nails. — Hereditary nail defects are almost always as- sociated with hair defects, as in the cases of hair peculiari- ties already described. One family pedigree must suffice for nail and hair defect (Fig. 115). d. Teeth. — As is well known each half of either jaw has typically 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 bicuspids and 3 molars. To this formula there are, however, exceptions and these exceptional conditions may run in families. Thus McQuillcn records a family in which father, son and grandson lacked 140 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS the lateral incisors of the upper jaw, a second son had them exceedingly dwarfed and some of his children had them so stunted that they were unsightly. The absence of the last no kp nr9 D D]6 iplipOjAoiioji 'ip 2S 4N 3N 3N 2N N ;5 N S N S N. Fig. 113. — Pedigree chart, showing inheritance of spottedness in human hair covering — "congenital lock of white hair." Affected persons in black symbols. S, spot in hair-coat, sex unknown. Gossage, after Rizzoli. molar is perhaps the commonest variation but no good evidence of its extended occurrence in families is at hand. ni666ti3 Fig. 114. — Pedigree of heavy hair-coat. I, 3, heavy growth of hair on head and face; I, 4, heavy growth of hair on head; II, 7, 8, heavy growth of hair on head and face; II, 9, 10, heavy growth of hair on head. F. R.; Tin. 1. Entire absence of teeth is occasionally found as a family trait — there are said to be several such families in America but they have not yet been studied in detail. Guilford THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 141 (1883) records the case of a woman who never had teeth nor hair. Her sister was normal but her son was edentulous, and hairless. The sister (by an undescribed consort) had 18 children who grew up. Of these, one is edentulous while some of the others have failed to erupt all of their teeth. I b* 4 8 Ml 131 U IN 4unK. 'WD Fig. 115. — Pedigree of a family with peculiarities of hair and naila. I, 2, wife of PiROUT, poorly nourished nails and hair; II, 1 wife of Quimbel, bom Rouen, 1775, poorly nourished nails and hair; III, 2, mar. Delaf, bald with bad nails; III, 4, bald, bad nails; III, 5, Dei-au, bald, bad nails; III, 7, bald, bad nails; III, 9, bald, bad nails; IV, 1, bad nails; IV, 3, bald and bad nails; IV, 4, chestnut hair, bad nails; IV, 5, bald and bad nails; IV, 7, stands for 5 boys who were bald and had bad nails; IV, 8, a girl who is bald and has bad nails; IV, 9, rachitic in childhood, bad hair and nails; IV, 11, bad naila and hair; IV, 15, bad nails and hair; V, 1, had bad nails and hair, he died in- sane but his brother was normal. Of the children of IV, 5, 6, three had bad nails and hair, four (V, 7) were bald as well and nine others were normal. Of the children of IV, 11, 12, two had bad nails and hair. Of the children of IV, 15, 16, two had bad nails and hair and there were three granddaughten? similarly affected. Nicolle et Halipke, 1895. The edentulous son married a normal (?) woman and had eight children. One, 14 years of age, who was examined, had many teeth undeveloped; another, at 16 years of age, had only 14 teeth when 28 were to be expected. Further data are necessary to determine whether or not imperfect development of the dental arcade is due to a genuine defect in the germ plasm. 142 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Abnormalities in excess number of teeth are also found. Tomes refers to the occurrence of ''well defined additional Ungual cusps in the upper molar" in both ''father and his Op Dt4 (!)Tci]D[4iD|4iD|(:! 2 3 2 5 i51^ o Fig. 116. — Pedigree of family with faulty enamel of the teeth — "brown teeth." Numbers below, or inside of, symbols indicate the number of individ- uals of the sex and condition of teeth. With one possible exception affected persons have at least one affected parent. Spokes, 1889. children." An American family with whom the writer has corresponded has a double set of permanent teeth as a family trait. ,fa^ Fia. 117. — Pedigree of hypoplasia of enamel in Thrower-Walsingham- Chessum family of Ware, England. I, 2, original parents of strain; II, 1, at the age of 84 two stunted teeth in the upper jaw; III, 6, two stunted upper teeth; III, 7, at 51 years has the fourth upper right and fifth lower teeth broken down; IV, 6, some teeth never erupted; some broken down; IV, 9, at 30 some teeth small, some never erupted. This dental peculiarity appears only in the offspring of an affected parent, consequently it is a positive trait. Turner, 1907. More complete are the studies made on famihes with faulty enamel of the teeth. In Fig. IIG is given the case of "brown teeth" due to faulty enamel. In Fig. 117 is given THE INHERITANCE OF FAiMILY TRAITS 14.S B Fig. 118. — A case of reappearance of peculiarities in the features of three generations; namely, upturned no.se and receding lower jaw. .1, the grand- father; B, his daughter; C, his graudduughler. V. II. J.\cksox, Urthodoutiu, 1904. 144 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Fig. 119. — Case of harelip at one year of age. R. W. Murray, "Harelip and Cleft Palate," 1902. a second case of insufficient enamel together with failure of some teeth to erupt. In these cases the abnormal con- dition seems to be due to some additional factor, inhibiting, as it were, the normal development of the enamel. There is a close relation between the form of the jaw and peculiarities of dentition. That the form of the jaw is in- heritable is nicely shown in figure 118. e. Harelip and Cleft Palate. — These are intimately asso- ciated deformities, due to a more or less complete failure of the foundations of the upper jaw, which are paired, to grow completely to the middle line of the roof of the mouth. If the failure to close is in front harelip results, if behind cleft palate or merely cleft uvula. Occasionally both cleft palate and harelip may be present (Fig. 119). A number of fairly extended pedigrees have been pub- THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 145 lished (Rischbieth, 1909) yet they are not as critical as one would like (Figs. 120, 121), particularly, the consorts are OrO &m s^ DiO 3 Fig. 120. — Pedigree of a family with harelip (right half of symbol dark) and cleft palate (left half dark). Frequently the affected persons descend from affected parents. Apert, 1907, after Schmitz. rarely given. One can say, however, that the defect seems not to be sex-limited. So often are some of the children I m bfr it! iHi¥lM F^SSMi Fig. 121. — Pedigree of harelip (sohd black symbol) and cleft palate (half black symbol). The type of defect is not constant. I, 2, simple fissure; II, 3, bilateral fissure; III, 1, palatine fissure; III, 3-7, lip fissures; IV', 4, harelip with cleft palate; IV, 6, 7, palate cleft without harelip. This particular pedigree is interesting because of an alternation of the affected sex in successive generations. Schmitz, 1904. of one affected parent defective that the first impression is that the trait is dominant. But, if so, two normals should 146 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS not have affected offspring — but this is just what is alleged commonly to happen. These cases, however, deserve care- ful study. Frequently when both parents of the defective child are normal one of them will belong to a fraternity with the defect; occasionally, however, one must go back to the second ancestral generation to find an affected rela- tive. No eugenic instruction is, as yet possible. Corre- spondence from affected persons, or their relatives, who will volunteer to cooperate in studying the method of inherit- ance of this trait is solicited. 31. Cancer and Tumor The question of ''inheritance of cancer" has been much discussed and nothing but difference of opinion has resulted. This is largely due to the bad formulation of the problem. In the first place, if, as seems probable, the stimulus to cancer growth is an inoculable something — germ or fer- ment— it does not follow that the consequence of stimulus is not determined by an inheritable factor. It is known that certain strains or families of mice are uninoculable while others will acquire cancer upon inoculation. The question is, are there human strains that are easily and others with difficulty inoculable? The whole question is complicated by the fact that cancer is a disease of middle or later Ufe. Thus in the census for 1900 we find that the heavy incidence of deaths from cancer occurs between 40 and 80 years (84.4%). The detailed distribution is shown in Table X. Here we see that the death rate of cancer (as compared with deaths from all causes) reaches its high- est point at between 50 and 60 years, but that absolutely more deaths occur from that disease between 60 and 70 years. On account of this heavy mortality late in life many who are inoculable never reveal the fact, owing to their death before the cancer age. If cancer is communicable, THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 147 Table X DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS FROM CANCEB IN AGE QROUPS At death period 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-80 Per cent of all deaths from cancer 17.1 24.4 25.8 17.1 Proportion of cancer deaths to all deaths at that age period 8.3 11.2 10.1 7.0 like typhoid fever, still not all who are non-resistant will die from cancer because some will not become inoculated. The answer to the question of the "heredity of cancer" is not to be sought in mass statistics — in the correlation of 3* 44 ii A trO ^^^u Fig. 122.— Pedigree of cancer. In the first generation cancer is admitted. In the second it is not known to have occurred, but the father died at 71 of a somewhat mysterious disease. In the third generation were two cases of cancer (one "bone cancer"). The fourth generation contains persons who are still young. deaths from cancer between parents and children, but only by a careful analysis and comparison of individual famihes. One then sees in many famihes no deaths from cancer among 10 to 20 persons dying at cancer age, while in other famihes there will be 2 or 3 or even 4 deaths from cancer among those dying at the cancer age (Fig. 122). Thus in a pedigree that hes before me, half of those who have died ■■to 148 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS at 35 years or over have died of cancer or tumor or have been operated on for cancer (4 cases in all) and two others have been operated on by a cancer surgeon, but details were not furnished. Two others in the family are suspected of having died of the disease. Now such families as these are by no means rare and this is the basis for the conclu- sion that there is a family UabiUty to cancer. Moreover, there is a specificity of the disease in each par- ticular family. In one family non-resistance shows itself in the females in cancer of the breast, in another, in cancer of the uterus, in another in cancer of the intes- I I "I I tine. Silcox (1892, Fig. 123) gives J XDnV w w w ^ fragment of a pedigree showing that a father, four daughters and a granddaughter all probably have sarcoma of the eyeball; and Broca Fig. 123.— Fragment of a records the case of a woman and pedigree Bhowing a specific in- three daughters who, at about the heritance of sarcoma of the eyeball. All persons indicated Same age, possessed librous forma- by black symbols are similarly ^^^^ ^^ ^he breast. Considering the few pedigrees of cancer families extant and the large number of organs subject to cancer these cases of cancer in the same organ strengthen mater- ially the view of specific inheritability. That certain "benign" tumors are hereditary is indicated by various records in the literature. Thus Atkinson cites the case of a man whose body was covered with countless tumors varying in size from that of a canary seed to that of a pullet's egg. His sister and their father were similarly af- fected. The disease is not a common one in this form and this fact gives its high incidence in this family the greater weight as evidence that internal conditions have at least molded the form taken by the disease. mi THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 149 32. Diseases of the Muscular System Since most muscular response is controlled by the nervous system it is frequently difficult to determine whether a peculiarity of muscular response is due chiefly to the one organ or the other. The classification of these diseases is therefore somewhat arbitrary. a. Thomsen's Disease is a rather rare one in most local- ities. It is characterized by lack of tone and prompt re- I I tor^Tit) tab j coiisins I 1 01 iN cou sins 71 8 I I nerve and lung trouble' w Fig. 124. — Pedigree of Thomsen's disease. Appears in cousin marriages even from unaffected parents; hence due to a defect. Bernhardt, 18S5. sponsiveness in the voluntary muscles. A striking pedigree has been recorded by Thomsen (Fig. 124). It shows a re- markable reappearance of the disease in the offspring of cousin marriages and this indicates that the disease is due to some sort of a defect whose nature has yet to be elucidated. The clear eugenic advice is outmarriage. b. Certain Muscular Atrophies appear to be secondary to diseases of the nervous system while others seem to originate in the muscles themselves, without corresponding defects in the nervous centers. In a family described by Herringhara (1885) sometimes all appendages, sometimes the arms only, 150 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS -£i - nD ^i ^ I -oT on > .2 T) -CI - c ''^ DO ^ ta o S"0 - ._ c3 to . O. fl CO CO « ^ ■ a 03 O ^ ^ 03 -d Q P Oj 00 bJD 0) GJ tn ^ o3 22 « c o a ,^ -o lO o -e la < M c3 ,^ fe a3 a> O.S^ 3.5 S bC CO tH -iJ o a — b^ 03 . , r QJ Bi _ .^^•'^ bO . , t^ hS O ~ 03 tg ^ ? .SC ?^ CD c-T -►^ o « OJ OQ d o 2 ,.2 a ■ Dii D]# [Dp N li an N N N N BOB Fig. 126. — Pedigree of a family of tremblers. Affected persons (black eymbols) are derived from at least 1 affected parent, and 2 normal parenta have only normal offspring. Trembling is thus due to the presence of a spe- cial character. From Deborb and Renault, 1891. c. A family of tremblers has been recorded by Debore and Renault. In this family all normals produce only normal offspring while two affected parents may have a normal child. The pedigree deserves no great stress since details are lacking (Fig. 126). d. Hernia. — Man's erect position is accompanied by physical dangers from which his quadruped ancestors were free, for in man the weight of the viscera has largely to be borne by the pelvis and lower abdominal wall. The erect position has subjected the muscles of the inguinal region to a peculiarly rigorous test. They often fail and an inguinal hernia is the result. Such hernias usually are consequent to 152 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS a strain but the strain merely reveals, and does not cause, the weakness. That such weakness or liability to hernia is inherited ad- mits of little doubt. Just how, there is hardly suJQScient data Fig. 127 Fig. 128 Fig. 127. — Pedigree of inguinal heniia. Probably only affected persona (black) are shown. All males have a right handed scrotal hernia and both affected females have a femoral hernia. Couch, 1895. Fig. 128. — Pedigree of inguinal hernia (black symbols). F. R.; Rei. 3. to determine with certainty. It is probable that a weakness from both sides of the house will yield only weak offspring. This is indicated in Figs. 127, 128; all males have a right handed scrotal hernia and both affected females have a femoral hernia. 33. Diseases of the Blood These are generally classified into two groups; the anemic and the hemorrhagic ; in both, the evidence of an inheritable tendency is clear. a. Of the Anemic Diseases, chlorosis is the commonest, is found almost exclusively in females, and occurs frequently enough in many or all of the females of one family to render it probable that eventually it will be found to accompany a distinct inheritable weakness.^ A careful study of pedigrees is highly desirable. * Potain (Article, Anemia, Diet, encycl. des sci. med.) says "The children of a chlorotic woman are often all chlorotic — and in certain caeca even the male children do not escape." THE INHERITANCE OE EAMILV TRAI'l'S 1.53 b. Progressive pernicious anemia. This is a relatively rare disease which has been little stutlied from the standpoint of heredity. A case described -_ _______,_^ by Bramwell (1876) is suggest- ^ VlJ^ ^ iJL ^^1 ive (Fig. 129). ■*■ LsjU • D ■ ■ c. Nosebleed (epistaxis) — This representative of t h e -n- hemorrhagic diseases of the blood may be a family disease, .iI^,^-^SZ:l:JZ!l characterized by its frequency I'he mother, I, 2, died of cardiac J ., 1 • 11 weakness and chronic diarrhea; it ia and severity and occasionally uncertain in how far a tendency to by its fatalneSS. In some of the anemia was responsible for the result. . . . . «■ i 1 ^' ■*' ^ie*^ of ^ heart trouble which Iraternities trom an aftected was not further dijignosed. The parent all, in others about other three members of the fraternity died of anemia. Both children, II, half, of the children are af- l, 2, were aflfectcd with progressive fected. An example is the ^""""='- R^^'^^^^- family described by Babington (1865). Unfortunately no facts are given about consorts (Fig. 130). In this case most of the persons were violently affected. The fact that no cases are recorded from normal persons in so far raises the sus- picion that the disease is due to the presence of a positive trait, which should tend to make persons having a violent form of the trait hesitate about having children. d. Telangiectasis. — Nosebleed is often associated with red spots in the skin from which bleeding may occur. This con- dition is called telangiectasis; its behavior is well illustrated in Figs. 131, 132. Like epistaxis it seems to be a dominant trait, so that normal children who outmarry will probably have no affected offspring. e. Hemophilia. — This remarkable condition is character- ized by a proneness to hemorrhage and by difficulty in blood-clotting, so that a hemorrhage once started is stopped with difficulty. Families with this peculiarity (fortunately not very frequent) are known as "bleeders." In such fan} 154 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Dj3 tofepist Dt(j □SooqJ^ Driiloidia d N 01 3 Fig. 130. — Pedigree of a family showing epistaxis or nosebleed. Affected persons indicated by half shaded symbols. All affected persons arise from an affected ancestor. N, normal. Consorts unknown. Babington, 1865. I t^OTM^ I TO. M liffl] A t early Fig. 131. — Pedigree of family showing multiple telangiectasis. Affected persons (solid black) from affected parent only. I, 6, had "spots" on face, subject to vomiting and to nosebleed, from which latter he died. II, 5, spots appeared at between 38 and 48 years, epistaxis increased and led to her death. Her daughter. III, 1, is gaining telangiectasis but the younger son at 20 years shows no sign of trouble; II, 6, has red spots that first appeared in her 27th year and are extending. ilies there are more than fifty times as many affected males as females. In general as age advances, the severity of the hemorrhages diminishes and finally they cease altogether. As in other diseases so in hemophilia special variants ap- pear in particular families. Thus among some of the de- THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 155 I Wfcl n t> t] t) Fig. 132. — Pedigree of multiple telangiectasis. I, 1, is an English woman who was subject to epistaxis (nosebleed) and had rod spots on her face; her daughter, II, 2, 60 years old, has a number of bright red angiomata distributed over face, ears, lips, tongue, mucous membrane of mouth, and imicr surface of all 4 eyelids. During last 6 years has had recurrent attacks of epistaxis. By her first husband she had a son and 8 grandchildren of whom 1 suffers from epistaxis. By her second husband she had 8 children of whom III, 3, has had epistaxis since 8 years and 2 small "spider naevi" on left cheek and has a child of 11 who suffers from epistaxis; III, 5, has nose- bleed and 3 small spots on cheek; his son is normal as yet; III, 11, has epis- taxis; III, 16, has slight attacks of epistaxis but no spots visible. Weber, 1907. scendants of the early settlers of Sullivan Co., Pennsylvania, occur ''nine-day bleeders." ''After the wound is received, instead of healing a sort of core, of very dark color, composed mostly of coagulated blood forms in the wound, which in about nine days opens, and the blood begins to flow as if from a freshly severed artery. It usually continues to bleed about two weeks, or until the patient is thoroughly ex- hausted, when the "core" falls out and the wound heals. Binding up the wound does no good. The only death known to have occurred through bleeding is supposed to have been caused by binding the wound hghtly to stay the flow of blood." That hemophiha has an hereditary basis is generally con- ceded and the conclusion would not be weakened were a specific hemophilia germ some day demonstrated. The par- ticular method of inheritance is well illustrated by Fig. 133 of the Sullivan County strain. The males alone are af- 156 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS m IV bo ICK) ■o CX) {S° ou BO C^|B-0"»"''3'r Mothers N. ■O «aN. BBv~\3ctilIdren »tj uUN. ,Boan» ,^^^(H03«hn*«nK IsdiiWrenRZchildrenN. BO oa I VschildrenHlcliildN. .ScMMrmNSOetiildraiK WdiildRnNUdiadnoN OQBO jchUdreoK OO BKDzchiMrtali \ rjHiSopw sons Uxicn, rttonli not eompklc ^ 4 sons N. l&daiMjhtcnM Fig. 133. — Pedigree of the Sullivan Co., Pa., bleeders. Roman numerals at top of columns indicate generations. Of the two symbols connected by a horizontal line that at the left is the direct descendant, that at the right the consort; the bracket includes their children. Only males are bleeders, and bleeding children are derived always from non-bleeding females of the family. Pardoe, 1904. fected. No male of the family, whether affected or not has affected offspring so long as he marries outside of the family. Hence, all "bleeding" children are derived from the females of the family. Fig. 134 gives the pedigree of the family Mampel from Kirchheim near Heidelberg (Lossen, 1905), and Fig. 135 is the pedigree of a family that settled in Carroll Co., Maryland, THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 157 and has since spread over the country. It is remarkable be- cause it contains records of female bleeders, whose occurrence has been doubted by Bulloch (1911). The eugenic teaching that holds for practically all families is clear. Sisters of bleeders should not have children. Males if not actual bleeders may, so far as this trait goes, marry and reproduce with impunity — their germ plasm is free of taint of hemophilia. HemopliiHa is a particularly difficult disease to control in descent because it is disseminated by normal females. On this account it is Uable to produce a community of bleeders as it formerly did at Tenna, Canton Graubunden, Switzerland. Even normal females from the old world famihes of bleeders may well be prevented from landing in America. f . Splenic Anemia with enlargement of the Spleen. — This con- dition, usually recognized as hereditary, not infrequently appears in the offspring of two unaffected parents. In such a family reported by Bovaird (1900) 2 children out of a fraternity of 10 were affected. In a family reported by Brill there were affected 3 out of 6 (Fig. 136). In both famihes to- gether there were, then, 5 out of 16. In another family, when one parent is affected, of 15 children of whom details are known, 5 were certainly affected, two doubtful and 8 were normal. Of the two matings involved one is consanguineous (Wilson, 1869, Fig. 137). Though the data are still meager the result favors the view that the liability to splenic anemia is due to the absence of some factor that usually gives strength. A person having or fearing such a defect should marry into a normal strain. It may be added that Gossage (1908, p. 321) suggests that splenic anemia is due to the presence of some dominant factor so the matter must be regarded as still unsettled. 158 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Fig. 134. — Pedigree of hemophilia in the Mampel family, originally of Kirchheim near Heidelberg, Germany. Black symbols indicate bleeders; it is seen that they are males only, but they, in turn, have no bleeding sons. 34. Disease of the Thyroid Gland This may lead to a variety of effects, cretinism, goitre, myxedema, exophthalmic goitre, etc. Many of these show evidence of an inheritance of the liability to thyroid de- generacy. a. Cretinism. — This is characterized by arrest of growth, by large pendulous abdomen, poor teeth, coarse, scanty scalp hair, mongolian face, feebly developed genitalia, and marked impairment of intelligence. The thyroid gland is often absent and a goitre frequently present. The distri- bution of the disease is interesting. It appears chiefly in mountainous countries where close intermarriage is more likely to occur than on the plains. Thus it abounds in Swit- zerland and is said to occur in some parts of Scotland. It is a cause of deportation when it occurs in immigrants to this country. That it is hereditary admits of no doubt. Aosta, at the southern base of Mount St. Bernard, was once a great breeding place of cretins, since their marriage there was per- mitted. For some years they have been segregated and kept from marrying and now, we are told, they are nearly all gone (Jordan, 1910). j| b. Goitre. — That goitre frequently occurs repeatedly in families is well known ; but in how far this is due to common sources of infection is still disputed. Buschan states that THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 159 I ■ Heavy ringed circles are normal females who transmit the trait. Lobsen, 1905. The details of Lossen's paper are translated in the "Treasury of Human Inheritance," Parts V and VI, pp. 267-271. family histories of goitrous patients usually show a neuro- pathic ancestry. A pedigree from Buschan is given in Fig. 138. c. Exophthalmic Goitre. — This peculiar condition is char- acterized by an enlargement of the thyroid gland, protrusion of the eyeballs, and extreme nervousness. It more commonly affects women than men. Although, in the country as a whole, it is not common yet it is more prevalent in some districts than in others, doubtless owing to the interrelation- ship of the members of the district with heavy incidence of the disease. The disease is common in females; yet it is not inherited strictly in sex-Hmited fashion. It is, however, clearly in- herited; as certainly as epilepsy, with which it is not infre- quently associated. Not many family pedigrees seem, how- ever, to have been studied (Fig. 139). 35. Diseases of the Vascular System This system consists, in the narrow sense, of the heart, arteries and veins. Less is known about heredity of defects and diseases of such an internal system because it is so in- accessible to observation and study in the living person. Nevertheless we shall see that "blood tells" in respect to the traits of this set of organs. 160 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS 1 fafP l1 aX 3 4' sit-, xl&«Li I m ii 9N10N 61 7 , tearly 12N 61w5?) Fig. 135, — Pedigree of a family of "bleeders" — the K. family, located in and about Carroll Co., Maryland. Their son, II, 2, was a bleeder but died without issue. The eldest son, III, 1, of the daughter was a bleeder from 18 up to 45 years, "often bled till he fainted." He had 2 imaffected brothers and 3 normal sisters but 1 sister, III, 10, was "a bleeder until 40." He had a son, IV, 1, who was a very bad bleeder from 18 until toward middle hfe and a daughter, IV, 2, who often "bled until she fainted" and eventually died of dysentery. All 19 children of the 2 normal brothers were normal and 9 children of the normal sister, III, 7. The affected sister, III, 10, had 3 sons and 2 daughters who were affected. IV, 5, is stated to be "a bleeder" and had by an unaffected husband 2 bleeding sons and 1 bleeding daughter besides 4 others who died of scarlatina. Her brother, IV, 8, had a daughter, V, 5, who was a bleeder until 15, and then died of a hemorrhage of the lunga consequent upon tuberculosis. There were other children all of whom died young of scarlatina. The normal brother, IV, 10, had 12 normal children. The next 2 had no offspring. The youngest son, IV, 14, began to bleed while an infant, grew worse until he was 25 and has since improved. He mar- ried a cousin who is also a bleeder and they have 6 children. Three of the daughters have not bled as yet. V, 9, has been a bleeder since he was 8 months old and bleeds until he faints; V, 10, has been a bleeder since she was 8 months old and V, 11, bleeds occasionally but not very severely. Original data, con- tributed by Dr. J. H. Stick. a. Heart — That congenital heart defects are hereditary has long been known and the striking evidence for it has been brought together by Vierordt (1901). His summary deserves translating entire: "Friedberg mentions 3 sons suffering from cyanosis (due to imperfect structure of heart) from one father, 2 from his first, 1 from his second mar- riage; Ukewise Foot records 3 cases in one family; Haillet re- ports on 4 children with open foetal canals (in the heart) THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 161 Fig. 136. — Pedigree of a family with splenic anemia. I, 1, died at 73 of gall stones; I, 2, died at 94 from a fall; I, 3, died at 72 of pneumonia; I, 4 died at 38 from childbirth; II, 1, died of pneumonia and II, 2, i3 in perfect health at 62 years. In the third generation all are well e.\cept that III, 3, died in infancy of diarrhea; III, 4, was well until an enlargement of the spleen occurred, which has continued; III, 6, 30 years old, suffers a continued enlarge- ment of the spleen; and III, 7, died at 9 years of an enlargement of the spleen. Brill, 1901. COUSUIS 6tib,6'ti N Fig. 137. — Pedigree of splenic anemia. A. P., I, 2, has a form of nervoua deafness but otherwise healthy until attacked by diabetis mellitus. His wife gained sallow complexion and enlarged spleen at 33 years. Of their children one, II, 2, had enlarged spleen, at 7; she married a cousin and had 2 boys with projecting spleen. A son, II, 4, is subject to epistaxis and fainting spelJ.s; since 35 years old his spleen has been enlarged; he has 2 affected girls; II, 5, became deaf at 4; she is becoming sallow, but the spleen is not palpable. II, 6, is sUghtly deaf. Wilson, 1869. from one marriage; Strehler of a rachitic woman who bore 5 cyanotic children, 3 boys and 2 girls; the father (who later died of phthisis) has by a second wife a normal daughter. In Kelly's case of transposition the mother had borne 11 162 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS children of whom one died at 5 months from congenital heart disease. In the case of Schmaltz, that of a seven year old boy, the father and father's mother had heart defect, ^r— 1 The patient of Potocki who, 29 years old, died of brain abscess and had a pulmo- I T I nary stenosis with closed septum and w w BtO ^^^^^^ 0^ th^ interauricular septum, de- scended from a mother with a congenital heart disease. Rezek observed 8 cases of heart disease in 4 generations of one fam- FiG. 138.— Pedigree ily, including 2 congenital defects; the of goitre. Affected per- ^lother probably having got her heart sons come from at least ^ ^ "^ o o one affected parent, disease from the grandmother (Fig. 140). Two sisters afflicted with ichthyosis con- genita, descended, according to Leuch's report, from a mother who suffered from a defect of the bicuspid valve; the oldest I ^B ii m ii 21 31 i Fig, 139. — Pedigree of a family showing heavy incidence of exophthaknic goitre. Ill, 1, 2, 3, also affected; sex unknown. child, the son, had also congenital heart disease. . . . Eger found in 12 cases of congenital heart disease, three times lues patris as well as consanguinity of the parents." To these cases it would be possible to add almost indefinitely. "Heart disease" is very common, but it does not fall upon individuals at random, but prevailingly upon strains with an inherent liability or weakness (Figs. 140-143). b. Arteriosclerosis. — While degeneration of the wall of the THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 1(53 arteries is ascribed to numerous inciting causes, there can be no doubt that the cerebral hemorrhages, even of old age, I Ch«taira mAIJ descendants' normaJ rja Both have heart disease t Congenital heart defect P^G 140. — Pedigree of heart disease. I, 2, probably had heart disease, II, 2, 3, and 5 had heart disease. The descendants of II, 1, 2, are normal for two generations. Those of II, 3, 4, are healthy but 1 of them has 2 chil- dren with heart disease. II, 5, has a daughter and a grandson who died of congenital heart defect. Rezek from Vierordt, 1901. are dependent in large part upon an inherited strength or resistance. Cases of arteriosclerosis have been reported in infants and here heredity must play an important role. hasM. +h.d+h.dthxl ^...living — ^ FiQ. 141.— Pedigree of "heart disease." 36. Diseases of the Respiratory vSystem The respiratory organs, including the passages to it that are lined by mucous membranes, are the weakest part of our body. This is probably because our remote ancestors, at the beginning of the vertebrate series, were aquatic animals and we land animals have not yet become fully adjusted to life in 164 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS the air. The dry, dusty and often germ laden air is a diffi- culty with which our mucous membranes can hardly grapple; little wonder that they, and the whole body, so often succumb. Of the diseases of the lungs the most fatal is tuberculosis. We know that it is induced by a germ and that if there is no germ there will be no tuberculosis of the Fig. 142.-Pe(ligree of heart ^^^gS. The first impulse of the trouble. The father's father, I, modem Sanitarian is to eliminate 1, died of anguina pectoris at 69 , , -r-» , , i • • years; and the mother's father, I, the germ. But thlS IS a SUpra- 3, died of ossification of the valves herculean task; for germs of tu- of the heart at 59. Father and . n • • mother are living and said to be berculosiS are found m all Clties well Of their children III 3, and in the country amongst most died of heart disease at 9 months ^ ■ and another, III, 2, had tempo- domesticated animals. The rary heart trouble. F. R.; All. 1. germs are ubiquitous; how then shall any escape? Why do only 10 per cent die from the attacks of this parasite? I b|% bjt> m gi Fig. 143. — Pedigree of family with heart disease and migraine, I, 2, died of heart disease at 72 years; II, 2, 4, 7, died of "heart disease;" II, 9, died of "heart failure" at 59 years, hardworking physician; III, 1, sufJers from mi- graine; her mother is a semi-invahd from migraine. F. R.; Bra. 1. The answer is given by autopsies and the experiences of many physicians. Autopsies show that nearly all mature per- sons have the germs of tuberculosis in their lungs, but, for most part encysted and, perhaps, even completely destroyed. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS Hi5 Those who die of tuberculosis are those whose bodies have not been able successfully to combat the germs— their bodies have lost in the battle. Family physicians know cases where under bad conditions, overwork, depression of mind and body their patient will begin to dechne and, then, under more favorable conditions begin to build up again. The bat- tle wages now in favor of the one side, now of the other. The result depends quite as much on internal resistance as virulence of the germ. That families vary in their internal resistance is well known. Dr. Coohdge of the Lakeville Sanitarium, Massa- chusetts, tells me that he classifies his patients on the basis of their resistance as measured by their response to good treat- ment in the first few days; and he states that the old New England families now show a relatively high resistance to tuberculosis as compared with recent immigrants. The Family Histories that have been placed in my hands show the same thing. Though one in ten die of tuberculosis it was not difficult to pick out ten families in each of wliich about ten persons had died of whom not one had died of tuberculosis. On the other hand there are famihes with an incidence of consumption of 75 or 80 per cent. That this is not merely communication of the disease in the families with high death rate follows, of course, when we grant that practi- cally all grown persons are infected anyway. It seems per- fectly plain that death from tuberculosis is the resultant of infection added to natural and acquired non-resistance. It is, then, highly undesirable that two persons with weak re- sistance should marry, lest their children all carry this weak- ness. Pneumonia. — Since the germ of pneumonia is a normal resi- dent of our throats, the disease is not due merely to infection ; but to a weakening of a natural or acquired resistance. Our Family Records show again and again the heavy incidence of lOG HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS pneumonia in certain families causing the death even of infants (Fig. 144). Likewise a general weakness of the mucous membranes, IDtO Dt« iin£. tin£ Fia. 144. — Pedigree of a family with tendency toward lung disease. I, 4, died of pneumonia at 82 years. II, 1, had an attack of pneumonia which ter- minated in tuberculosis from which he died at 43 years. His wife, II, 2, died at 62 years of tuberculosis. Of their 6 children 3 are still living; the others all died of pneumonia, 2 in early childhood. F. R.; Mor. 1. leading to catarrh, adenoids, tonsilitis, deafness, bronchitis, j etc., seems clearly to run in families. Such a case is illustrated in Fig. 145. bfc) bto pneul pleuro- pneumonia adenoids, adenolds-ttronchbronfirear, adenoids adenoWs pneu. tmiDle. tonsunu Fig. 145. — Showing "inheritance" of throat and ear weakness in a family. F. R.; New. 1. 37. DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY SYSTEM The diseases of the alimentary tract are so largely due to bad habits in eating, exercising and attending to the demands of nature that most physicians consider a possible hereditary basis relatively unimportant. It is, to be sure, recognized THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 107 that the "nervous temperament" may be largely responsi- ble for disordered digestion by disturbing the ordinary secre- tory functions. So, Ukewise, it is probable that there are family characteristics which favor peculiarities of the liver resulting in its abnormal functioning. Especially jaundice and gout may have hereditary basis. An example of family pedigrees with high incidence of dyspepsia and more specific alimentary troubles is given in Fig. 146. T dysentery tho 't75. cancer indiqesUpn O'lJ^er titiiiit 11 till digestion stomach LJ ^ ■ LJ LJ ^ Fig. 146 Fig. 147 Fig. 146. — Pedigree of digestive weakness. F. R.; She. 1. Fig. 147.— Pedigree of diabetes mellitus (black symbols). In this caae the parents of affected offspring are not themselves affected; the trait is due to the absence of something that is present in normal persons. Bramwell, 1908, p. 265. a. Diabetes Insipidus.^ — This term has been applied to the symptoms of passing large amounts of greatly diluted urine. The affected persons have to drink much water to meet the rapid drainage through the kidneys. Numerous families are known that show this peculiarity in several close blood relatives. The typical condition is that two unaffected parents, even of diabetic strains, will have only nonnal chil- dren; diabetic offspring have at least one diabetic parent. This would indicate that diabetes is due to a positive factor (Fig. 148). Nettleship (1910) points out that age of incidence tends to diminish in successive generations. 'The hereditary behavior of diabetes mellitua or "sugar in urine" has been less studied. (Fig. 147). 1G8 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS The eugenic teaching is that persons with diabetes insip- idus will probably have some diseased children, but un- affected persons, even of diabetic origin, will probably have only normal children. •P jko o^ if2 op »iO JiipiiDrJiojiiojtWiD^ ION 4N Oi «m®9 4N fiN 3K(|)M O ■•^N 5 Fig. 148. — Pedigree of a family with diabetes insipidus. Affected persons (black symbols) are derived only from affected parents — thus diabetes is a positive trait. Gossage, 1907. 38. Diseases of Excretion Since the urine is the main stream carrying waste products of metabolism from the body it gives the best evidence of disorders of metabolism, hence much attention has been di- rected toward its study. Some of its peculiarities are known to be family traits. a. Alkaptonuria. — This condition is marked by the con- stant excretion of homogentisic acid which darkens upon oxydation so that the urine darkens after passage; it is not injurious to the individual and has no special eugenic interest except as it illustrates the law of heredity. The transmission of this trait has been studied by Garrod (1902). The disease is a rare one and, apparently, occurs only in the offspring of two persons belonging to alkaptonuric strains. This condition is most easily met in cousin marriages and, as a matter of fact of the 17 alkaptonuric fraternities studied 8 were offspring of first cousins. When neither parent of an alkaptonuric fraternity is alkaptonuric about 1 in 4 of the children have the pecuHarity. It appears then that alkaptonuria is due to the absence of a condition found in other (normal or ordinary) THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS IG9 persons; and it is lost in the product of marriage of an alkapto- nuria and a normal person. b. Cystinuria and Cystin Infiltration are both family diseases though so rare that the method of inheritance has not been precisely determined. Fig. 149. — Pedigree of a family showing hematuria (red urine). AfTected persons (black symbols) are descended from an affected parent, evidence that hematuria is a positive trait. Guthrie. c. Hemattiria, or red urine, may also be a family char- acteristic as the pedigree chart worked out by Guthrie shows (Fig. 149). d. Urinary Calculi. — This is frequently hereditary. A ped- igree recorded by Cluble (1872) illustrates this fact, though it does not give sufficient data to determine the law of inheritance. He says: — ''During the last four or five years I have cut three of liis sons [i. e., of the Lowestoft fisherman] at the respective ages of 2, 3, and 8. Two of the stones were Hthic acid, one apparently lithate of ammonia. The father and mother of the lads always have lithic acid sediment, often gravel, deposited from urine. Their grandfather passed one stone, their grandmother seven. A great uncle was cut for stone. There are six uncles and four aunts who suffer from fits of gravel or from gravelly or sedimentary lithic acid deposits; and a cousin, an uncle's child, gets rid of urinary calcuh." e. Gout. — The hereditary tendency to gout is generally 170 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS recognized — a pedigree recorded by Garrod illustrates the fact. A man who has very severe gout is married to a woman who when 70 years old began to suffer from it. They had 7 children; all have suffered from gout, 5 have died from gout and its various complications; the other two are still hving. 39. Reproductive Organs a. Cryptorchism, or retention and atrophy of testicles. This condition, a semi-' 'hermaphroditic" one, is character- I I ized by the fact that the normal QyQ ^ descent of the testis into the scrotum fails to occur. A pedi- J I gree of a family exhibiting this LJtCJ H condition is given, in Fig. 150. 1 1 J I In the third generation one boy ^-*Nr— . ^ ^ ^ JLj out of four is normal. This trait ^^^—^ ■* ™ ™ '— ' is probably inherited just hke hypospadias. r^ b. Hypospadias. — Like the last Fig. 150.-Pedigree of cryp- ^^'^ ^^ evidence of an imperfect torchism, Afifected persons rep- development of the external sec- resented by black symbols. On j i, x j • account of the sterility of the males ^^dary sex characters and possi- all affected persons are derived bly indicates an imperfect stim- from sisters of affected persons. , , ,. , . ^m All affected persons are natural ^luS tO Sex dimorphism. The eunuchs. Bronardel, p. 169. defect is characterized by the more or less complete failure of the male genital papilla to close along the median raphe up to the apex of the glans. An affected man may have by a wife who belongs to a normal strain some or all of his sons affected. His normal daughters may have abnormal sons even when the father belongs to a normal strain. It seems that there is an inhibitor to com- plete sex-differentiation in the males. Usually .males who show no trace of the inhibitor when married into a normal THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 171 strain have normal sons. But occasionally apparently nor- mal fathers in whom the ''inhibitor" is inactive may have abnormal sons (Fig. 151.) The eugenical conclusion is that females belonging to hermaphroditic (hypospadic or cryp- torchitic) strains, if married, will probably have at least half of their sons defective, particularly if they have defective brothers; but normal males of such strains may marry fe- males from unaffected strains with impunity. I in F Fig. 151. — Pedigree of hypospadias (black symbols). Inheritance from affected males and unaffected females, III, 2. Linqard, 1884. c. Prolapsus of the Uterus and Sterility. — Corresponding in a way with incomplete development of the male reproduc- tive organs is the prolapsus of the uterus in the female. This is also definitely inherited but the trait is never transmitted by affected females since they are sterile (Fig. 152). 40. Skeleton and Appendages Since the size and form of the bodily frame are greatly influenced by the skeleton the heredity of these features is 172 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS O^nop All daugl)ttrs normal. TJumerous descendants 2dau.N.( 4 sons Idau.N d5on5 Fig. 152. — Pedigree of a family showing prolapsus of the uterus (females) and sterility. Inherited like the absence of a character, with probable consan- guinity in marriage. Bronardel, 1900. usually due to an inheritance in the processes that go to determine the form and size of the skeleton. a. Achondroplasy is characterized by relatively short limbs, a condition in man like that in the Ancon sheep, dachshund and some bull-dogs. The condition is rare and so we have few if any full pedigrees but enough is known to indicate that it is inherited, as in the case cited by Pouchet and Leriche (1903), Fig. 153, and it is probably due to an abnormal positive I ii Fig. 153.— Pedigree of achondroplasy (black f actoi. Sd lSiche ^Zr^"" ^' ScoUosis.— The dissymmetry of the trunk accompanied by a curved ' ' spine ' ' is a fairly common condition. That there is an hereditary tendency to it cannot be doubted in view of its frequent THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 173 occurrence two or more times in one family. Either father or mother of an affected child may be affected; or they may have symmetrical spines themselves but have an af- fected brother or sister. The offspring are born with an hereditary laxness and weakness of the constituent parts of the spinal column and its ligaments, so that the column easily falls into lateral curves under the influence of second- ary causes. c. Exostoses — Upon the long bones there occasionally develop osseous outgrowths known as exostoses. The method 6niLo qUd q6 BiO N 9 SCO. Ex,l4yr5. Fig. 154 some affected Ex.lZurj. Fig. 155 Fig. 154. — Pedigrees of exostoses on the long bones. Affected individuals represented by black symbols. Ex, exostoses, sex unknown; sco, scoliosis or spinal curvature. Teissier and Denecham, 1905. Fig. 155. — Part of a pedigree of exostoses on the long bones that have been traced through 6 generations. Ex, exostoses, sex unknown. Mery and Metayer, 1905. of inheritance of the tendency to produce such growths is indicated by pedigrees given in Figs. 154, 155. d. Absence of Clavicles. — The collar bones, or clavicles, are occasionally imperfectly developed and the tendency to this result shows itself in several members of one family. This is well illustrated by a case described by Carpenter (1899) Fig. 156. The high incidence of the abnormal condi- tion in this family suggests that the defect is due to a positive inhibitor. 174 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS e. Congenital dislocation at the thigh bone — pelvis joint. — This is a peculiarity that usually runs in families. It is doubtless due to a laxness in the ligaments by which attach- Fig. 156. — Pedigree of absence of clavicles. The father, 1, 1, has deformed clavicles. By a normal wife he has 7 children affected as follows: II, 1, has a slightly deformed clavicle; II, 2, has a deformed right clavicle; II, 3, has nor- mal clavicles but a prominent transverse process of the last cervical vertebra; II, 4, has clavicles nearly absent and also the clavicular portion of the great chest muscle; II, 5, has a peculiar kink in the clavicles; II, 6, is normal; 11, 7, has a deformed right clavicle. Carpenter, 1899. ment is made. Several pedigrees have been worked out by Nareth (1903) of which one is reproduced here (Fig. 157). No evidence appears as to the amount of consanguineous marriage except in one case. The pedigree looks like one distant (S^Sffl 8 N children 6^iiiumi Fig. 157. — Pedigree of a family showing congenital dislocation of the hip. Affected persons (black symbols) descend from unaffected, suggesting that the condition is due to a defect. Senator and Kaminer, 1904. of albinism and suggests that congenital dislocation is a defect. In that case the marriage of related persons, even though normal, is to be discouraged, but an affected person by marrying into new blood may expect normal offspring. THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 175 f. Polydactylism. — The peculiarity of supernumerary fin- gers and toes is one that is inherited in nearly typical fashion. I have worked extensively on polydactylism in fowls and there can be little doubt that the character behaves in the same way in man. The extra toe is due to an addi- I I I biT. _- 11 21 31 4l IV 3P 6N 3P 4N 12 3N 3N Fig. 158. — Pedigree of polydactylism. Affected persons reiircsentcd by black symbols. Ill, 3, has six toes on each foot; III, 8, has six toes on each foot; III, 10, extra fingers on each hand; III, 12, extra fingers on each hand; V, 1, five fingers and thumb on each hand; V, 2, supernumerary digits on both hands and feet; V, 5, extra toes, both feet; V, 7, harelip, cleft palate, web be- tween each big toe; V, 10, 5 fingers and thumb on each hand, 6 toes on each foot, web between all toes. Lucas, 1880. tional unit so that when one parent has the extra toe the children will also have it. However, it sometimes happens that the offspring fail to produce the extra toe; but such persons, becoming in turn parents, may produce the poly- dactyl condition again (Fig. 158). The method of inheritance of polydactyUsm is well repre- sented by Lucas' case, given in Fig. 158. Here only when one parent was polydactyl were there polydactyl offspring, excepting in the progeny of the oldest son of the third genera- tion. This son is said not to be polydactyl and is recorded as normal. If the record is correct his case is one of failure to dominate of the polydactyl determiner. The eugenical conclusion is: polydactyl persons will have at least half of their children polydactyl. Those quite free 176 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Fig. 159. — A case of polydactylism. The boy's father has 12 fingers and 12 toes, but the e.xtra fingers are boneless. Besides the boy figured, who is like his father, there is 1 son with extra toes, 1 with extra toes and an extra finger on the left hand only. One sister has extra toes only. The other 5 children were normal in respect to the number of toes and fingers they bear. Through the kindness of Professor C. A. Scott. from the trait, though of the polydactyl strain, will probably have only normal children. g. Syndactylism. — ^The union of the bones and tissues of two or more digits into one mass is found in many animals including man. I have studied it in hundreds of fowl. It is inherited there, as no doubt also in man, in such fashion as to permit the conclusion that syndactylism is due to a factor that extends the web paripassu with the development of the digits. On this hypothesis the normal hand or foot lacks the factor and two normal persons (even of a syndactyUc THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 177 strain) will not show the abnormality in their offspring. This expectation is indeed realized in most of the pedigrees pubHshed; as for instance in that of Parker and Robinson (1887, Clin. Soc. Trans., Vol. XX., p. 181), Fig. IGO. r QO Fig. 160. — A pedigree of syndactylism, or "split foot." All affected per- .sons are from an affected parent; hence the trait is a positive one. Little is known about the condition of the digits in the first generation. Parker and Robinson, 1887. The general conclusion is that, while a syndactyl individual will transmit his trait, normals from a syndactyl strain have Httle chance of doing so. h. Brachydactylism. — This is a condition of shortened digits due to the presence of only two segments to the digit — so that all fingers are like thumbs. The middle phalanx is usually a more or less rudimentary bone attached to the base of the distal phalanx. Inheritance follows the laws of syndactylism. Two normal parents produce only the normal condition; no generation is skipped. i. Other deformities of the hands. — From time to time other digital pecuharities have been recorded and these are usually strongly inherited. Thus Dobell has described a family in which the hands are double jointed, all joints thick, ring and little finger crooked from the last joint. The peculiarity is distinguishable at birth. The law of inheritance is the same as for syndactyhsm; viz., normal parents have no offspring with the defect; but one affected parent tends to transmit the defect to half (rarely all) of his offspring (Fig. IGl). The tendency of the great toe to grow under the others occurs in at least one family strain (Fig. 102) and 178 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS is apparently inherited like double jointedness. Another case of family deformity of the digits is given by Carson (Keating's Ency. Ill, 935). Here there is an absence of the qi iqioiJi 4ia IjO deformed lianda 'ikoU66iM^ N Fig. 161. — Pedigree of family with double jointed hands, all joints thick, ring and little fingers crooked from the distal joint. Affected persons marked by black symbols. Dobell. distal phalanx and part of the median phalanx from all fingers of both hands, the thumbs being normal. Here again the defect had not skipped a generation, i. e., was not transmitted by normals. It has been known in the family i ? DtO Fig. 162. — Pedigree of tendency of great toe to grow under others (black symbols represent affected persons). F. R.; Ov. for over a century. Foot (Difformites des Doigts, p. 80) tells of a famil}^ in which for three generations the peculiarity has appeared of possessing only the fifth finger. The second and third fingers are represented in these individuals by the THE INHERITANCE OF FAMILY TRAITS 170 metacarpal bone only and the other two fingers are entirely missing. This is, of com-se, a case of syndactylism, with inheritance of a specific type. In a case cited by Marshall (Trans. Soc. Stud. Disease in Children, III) in which for ■ Fig. 163. — Fragment of a pedigree of a family showing hereditary club- foot in 3 generations. So far as it goes this pedigree suggests that the condition is due to a positive character. Drew, 1905. five generations this peculiarity appeared, each finger stopped short at the proximal phalanx and the thumb was ill de- veloped. Drew has recorded a case of club-foot in three i[0 AiiiMMiiuuxiMiii Fig. 164. — Pedigree of a family of twins. Two twin brothers married. The first had 10 children, all born as twins; 4 pair were daughters and 1 pair were eons. Seven of the daughters are married and 4 have produced twins at the first birth, nothing is known of the others. One of the sons is married and has 3 single children. The second brother (first generation) had 8 children born as twins and 3 bom singly. Stocks, 1861. generations (Fig. 163). It is astonishing what a variety of inheritable variations, that are often minute, are shown by the hand and foot. The data are too limited to give assur- ance as to the law of inheritance in each case. 180 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS 41. Twins It is well known that twin production may be an hereditary quality. Thus the Dorset race of sheep is characterized by the tendency to bear twins. In man, too, strains are known where plural births are the rule. Remarkable cases are re- 66 Ap[!]p6ibo[^ >■;- ' Fig. 165. — Of 2 twin sons one has a pair of twin sons and 5 single born children; the other had 1 son. The former has, through his sons, 3 pair of grandchildren; the latter 1 pair. Wakley, 1895. corded by Stocks (1861, p. 78), see Fig. 164, and by Wakley (1895, p. 1289). See Fig. 165. In the foregoing cases inheritance of the twinning capacity is through the males only, and this is true in some strains of sheep. However, other human strains are known with the tendency to twin-production passing along the female line. CHAPTER IV THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INHERIT- ABLE TRAITS 1. The Dispersion of Traits Traits occur in individuals and the same traits in related individuals. Individuals occupy at any one moment a par- ticular place. Could we take a sort of bird's eye view of the continent and were each individual that bears a given trait conspicuously marked, we should have a perfect picture of the geographic distribution of the trait. Had we such a picture for each day of the hundred thousand odd days since America began to be settled and were they to pass in review as in a cinematograph, then we should see the reproduction and dissemination of the family trait in question. Such a view would show us the traits coming across the ocean from European centres, settling in a place or flitting from point to point, reproducing themselves at a place and continuing to increase there for generations while throwing off individuals to move far athwart the face of the country and to settle down as new proUferating centres. We should see two per- sons with the same defect coming together as a married couple and proliferating in a few years a number of new in- dividuals with the same negative characters. Or we should see an individual with the defect uniting with a person with- out it and ending there the trail of the defect. Or, on the other hand, a positive trait, like cataract, hemophilia, or Huntington's chorea, would move about, settle in a spot, 181 182 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS multiply itself into many individuals either all of one sex or of both sexes, as the ease may be; and these individuals, moving apart, would form new prohferating centres. In the multipUcation of negative and positive traits we would see this plain difference — that negative traits multiply most in long established and stable communities where much inbreeding occurs, while positive traits are increased by emigration, as a fire is spread by the wind that scatters fire- brands. If, on the other hand, the negative traits be scat- tered the chance of mating with the same defect is diminished and the trait is not reproduced. Conversely, a country characterized by much inbreeding will have a population that is affected prevailingly by negative traits with a slight tendency for positive traits to increase; while a country that is settled by a restless people will show a small percentage of negative traits and a high percentage of positive ones. That the picture of the dissemination of traits that I have drawn is not exaggerated but corresponds to the em- pirical facts is proved by the evidence of many studies. Thus Alexander Graham Bell (1889) finds that not only the deaf mutes of Martha's Vineyard but ''groups of deaf mutes who have never been near Martha's Vineyard, trace up to " the blood of James Skiff. A genealogist with un- usual inteUigence and breadth of interest has traced a "bleeding" tendency from a Hannant who came from Norfolk, England, and whose progeny settled in Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, and created there a colony of bleeders; and by emigration has started new colonies in Minnesota, South Dakota, and California. Students of Huntington's chorea find many of their widely scattered cases tracing back through Delaware County, New York, to the sources of its early population at East Hampton, Long Island, or to that sister settlement of the New Haven Colony, Fairfield County, Connecticut. Even students of DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 183 crime have traced the disturbing element of a large area to a single focal point; "the Jukes" were traced back to Max living in a lonely mountain valley and the "Ishmael- ites" of Indiana were traced back through Kentucky to Virginia and probably to the cutthroats and prostitutes which England spewed out upon, and against the pro- tests of, the Virginia colony in the latter half of the seven- teenth century (Butler, 1896). So too a family in New Jersey of over 600 persons, more than three-fourths of them defectives have been derived, by Goddard and his field- workers, from a single pair. These are examples, merely, of a universal fact, that the more strikingly inheritable traits may be followed back generation after generation to a few focal points. And the focal points of this country have been transported here from abroad. A settlement worker in New York City inquired into the meaning of a particularly unruly and criminalistic section of his territory and found that the offenders came from one village in Calabria — known as the "home of brigands." Of the weary but hopeful thousands of immigrants who weekly (almost daily) enter the port of New York how many are destined to bring in traits for good or evil, that are to proliferate and to affect the future of this country for better or worse! For we must not forget the good. The germ plasm of an Austrian who migrated to the United States three generations ago has produced a race of yacht builders who enable this country to maintain its supremacy in the sport of yachting. From the germ plasm (in part) of an extraordinarily talented but erotic woman who migrated to America in the early part of the seven- teenth century have arisen statesmen, college presidents, men of science, great philanthropists from New England to California in extraordinary numbers. From an Irisli pair who came to the wilderness of Virginia nearly two centuries 184 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS ago have descended vice presidents, cabinet officers, ad- mirals, generals, governors, senators and congressmen in great numbers. In these cases the good was not "interred [ with their bones." 2. Consanguinity in Marriage The customs of civilized nations oppose certain limits to marriage, almost universally bar the marriage of nearest kin, and have given to the word incest a connotation so loathsome and so emphatic that it is appreciated by prac- tically every normal civilized person. It will be interesting to consider for a moment how wide-spread is this taboo. First of all it must be said that the union of brother and sister or of parent and child as recognized spouses is not un- known. Various reputable observers report that among the Weddas of Ceylon, probably on account of the sparsity of the population and the isolation of families, the marriage of brother and younger sister is permitted by local custom (Virchow, 1881). In ancient times the marriage of parent and child was not opposed by custom in Persia (Heath, 1887, p. 65) and perhaps in other Eastern countries. Such customs are to-day, however, highly exceptional and against social ideals. But the hne between permissible and non-permissible unions is variously drawn. Thus we are told (Nelson, 1899) that the Eskimos of Behring Strait favor the union of first cousins or even closer relatives on the general ground that in time of stress and hunger the blood tie will be found stronger than the marriage tie to hold the family together. Among other natives of North America a paternal uncle and niece might marry but not a maternal aunt and nephew. However, the North American Indian, on the whole, has strong sentiments against close intermarriage. Also among Africans and the South Sea Islanders cousin marriages are, in general, taboo; and among DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 1 85 the Malays "consanguinity, even the remotest, constitutes an important obstacle to marriage." We read of the Is- landers making voyages to other islands and carrying off maidens for wives. In India and China marriage of persons within the patronymic is against social ideals.^ European ideals are largely a legacy of Roman law. Here the purely formal and legal relations constituted as much of an obstacle as blood relationship. A stepchild should not marry his mother nor a father-in-law his daughter-in-law. Only re- cently has a relic of these legal and non-biological interdic- tions been removed in England by the repeal of the law pro- hibiting a man from marrying his deceased wife's sister. Such wide-spread social barriers to close intermarriage, even among the children of nature — one might almost say especially among them — indicates if not an instinctive re- pugnance to, at least an apprehensiveness toward, such marriages. We have still to inquire if there is any biological basis for such apprehensiveness. The answer to this ques- tion has been furnished in many places in the earlier part of the book. Defects in the germ plasm tend to reveal them- selves in the offspring of cousin marriages but tend to dis- appear entirely in the children that are derived from out- matings. On the other hand, undesirable positive traits that are absent from both parents will not reappear in the offspring even though the parents be cousins. One can easily imagine a strain without any important defect, so that a consanguineous marriage would, for generations, be unin- jurious to the offspring; but such strains are doubtless rare. We are told that in the family of the Ptolemies and in the royal family of the Incas the marriage of brother and sister repeatedly occurred but, as a friend of mine says, "Where are the Ptolemies and Incas now?" The conclusion seema 1 The foregoing summary of marriage limitations is based chiefly upon the compiled data of Ploss-Bartels : Das Weib. 186 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Fig. 166. — Rows of maize, each from a single ear of corn. The central row (labeled) is from a 16 row-to-ear race self-fertilized for five years. Row to left of center, self-fertilization prevented for six successive years. Row to right, a first cross between long self-fertilized strains. clear that, while in certain strains consanguineous marriage may not lead to defective offspring, in most families it will, at least after a few generations. This is well illustrated in corn-breeding where self-fertilization leads to rapid loss of productivity and vegetative vigor (Figs. 166, 167). Let us now consider some of the statistical results gained from a study of consanguineous marriages in a large popula- tion. In 1858 Dr. Bemiss reported to the American Medical Association on a collection of 833 consanguineous marriages producing 3,942 children or an average of 4.6 children per marriage. Of these children 28.7 per cent are said to be de- fective, 3.6 per cent are deaf mutes, 2.1 per cent blind, 7 per cent idiots, 1 per cent insane, 1.5 per cent epileptic, 2.4 per cent deformed, 7.6 per cent "scrofulous" (i. e., probably DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 187 Fig. 167. — The piles of ears of corn on the right and left are from seed ears which had been self-fertihzed; the pile in the middle from a seed ear in which self-fertilization had been prevented. This figure and the preceding were contributed by Dr. G. H. Shull. tubercular) and 22 per cent are said to have "died young." In some data gathered by Dr. Howe (1853) 17 consanguin- eous marriages produced 50 per cent idiots; in the data of Dr. Mitchell (1866) 7.5 per cent were insane, and 1.4 per cent deaf mutes. Other observers record consanguineous mar- riages without deaf mutism, others without idiocy, others with less than 1 per cent of insanity. Voisin (1865) tells of the isolated community of Batz where 5 marriages of first cousins and 31 of second cousins has occurred without a case of mental disease, deaf mutism, albinism, retinitis pigmentosa or malformation appearing. These varied results are to be expected. Consanguineous marriage per se does not create traits; it permits the defects of the germ plasm, that may not appear in the parents, to reveal themselves in the offspring. 188 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS If there is no insanity or albinism in the stock consanguineous marriage -wdll not bring it out; and, strictly, it is not at all consanguinity that brings the trait out but the increasing liabiUty that consanguinity affords to the mating of two similarly defective germ cells. The variety of the product of consanguineous marriage is well brought out when we compare localities. Thus con- sanguinity on Martha's Vineyard results in 11 per cent deaf mutes and a number of hermaphrodites; in Point Judith in 13 per cent idiocy and 7 per cent insanity; in an island off the Maine coast the consequence is "intellectual dullness"; in Block Island loss of fecundity; in some of the ''Banks" off the coast of North Carolina, suspiciousness, and an inability to pass beyond the third or fourth grade of school; in a peninsula on the east coast of Chesapeake Bay the defect is dwarfness of stature: in George Island and Abaco (Bahama Islands) it is idiocy and blindness (G. A. Penrose, 1905). There is thus no one trait that results from the marriage of kin; the result is determined by the specific defect in the germ plasm of the common ancestor. The question is often asked, How common are consan- guineous marriages? What proportion of marriages are between kin? This question is so ill-defined that a reply is hardly possible. When we recall the enormous number of our ancestors resulting from the fact that the number (theoretically) doubles in each earlier generation, so that there are more than a million in the twentieth ascending generation, and more than a billion in the thirtieth, then we see that some degree of consanguinity in the parents is to be expected. There are hardly two persons of European origin who are more distantly related than thirtieth cousin — or who do not have a common ancestor of the time of King William I of England. Indeed, how improbable it is that there are many persons of ''pure" European stock DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 189 whose line of descent has not received contributions from Ethiopia within the last millenium — when we stop to con- sider the slaves, not only white and yellow but also brown and black, that were brought to Rome, became free there and contributed elements to the population of Italy and to all Europe. Returning from this digression, we may recognize that, however vague scientifically the term consanguineous may be, popularly, it means related as first or possibly as second cousin. This is, of course, from the standpoint of modern heredity, an absurd limitation of the term since fifth or tenth cousins may carry the same ancestral traits. Our question may then be transformed in this fashion: What proportion of the population marries within the grade of fifth (or tenth) cousin? The answer to this question for the United States as a whole would require a special census, and the proportion, expressed in a single figure would have little significance. Much more important is it to know for each of several small communities the grades of relationship of consorts; and the association of degree of consanguinity with physiographic and other barriers. 3. Barriers to Marriage Selection Barriers, indeed, to free and wide marriage selection favor consanguineous marriages, and for the same reason they favor the formation of races of men with peculiar traits, even as it has long been recognized that they facili- tate the formation of races of plants and animals, by per- mittmg newly-arisen traits to infect, as it were, the entire population and thus to form a new species. The barriers may be classified as physiographic and social. A. Physiographic Barriers Physiographic barriers are for man, a land animal, stretches of water, such as parts of the ocean, sounds and bays that 190 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS separate from the mainland, and even broad rivers; also mountain ridges or heights of land. All such barriers re- strain exogamy, or marriage outside the family, and favor consanguineous marriage or endogamy. a. Barrier of Water. — Of oceanic islands the Canaries, Azores, Bermuda, the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles are examples. In the case of the South Sea Islands the half aquatic nature of the inhabitants has reversed the usual order and made the sea a means of intercommunication. On our own coast we have striking examples of semi-oceanic islands with evidence of consanguineous marriage (Fig. 168). At Miscou Island on the Northeast coast of New Bruns- wick there is said to be much intermarriage. The popula- tion "is partly English and partly Arcadian French and each race has kept pretty much to itself so they are closely intermarried within the same race." The islands off the Maine coast show much consanguineous marriage. Thus in Small's (1898) History of Swan's Is- land it is stated that the amount of intermarriage of per- sons of the same name in Mount Desert Island, Gott's Island and Swan's and Deer Islands makes genealogy con- fusing. For example, take the Gott family as shown in Fig. 169; or a family from Swan's Island (Fig. 170). Even more marked examples are furnished by outer Long Island and the islands opposite Jonesport, Maine. One sees how little opportunity is afforded in such pedi- grees for the coming in of new blood. Little wonder that among these descendants of some ancestor who probably carried inferior mentality are some intellectually dull ones. At western Martha's Vineyard Dr. Alexander Graham Bell (1889, p. 53) has made a careful genealogical study of the inhabitants. "I found," he says "a great deal of inter- marrying and a great many consanguineous marriages." Concerning this locaUty Dr. Withington (1885, p. 26) says: DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 191 Fig. 168. — Coast of eastern North America, showing the broken coast line, with islands and peninsulas, each of which is, more or less, a center of consan- guineous marriages. Such centers can be picked out by looking at the map. 192 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS "The inhabitants are farmers and fishermen of average intelligence and good character, not addicted to drunken- ness. A lack of enterprise, associated doubtless with the Dp DiO c1m5050& [DiOp 6ph\ OiD couilns lion Grt/i ^-^ - ^-^ - .. God Golt Fig. 169. — Pedigree of a portion of the Gott family of the Maine Islands, illustrating frequency of couain marriages in an isolated community. nature of their occupations, seems to be the cause of their intermarrying." In this locality deaf mutism is the striking trait. In 1880 there was a proportion of 1 to 25 of the whole DiO So DrODjO 61 i h inS) Op ■^"c:::: '5S Fig. 170. — Pedigree of a family inhabiting Swan's Island, Maine, illustrat- ing frequency of consanguineous marriage in a restricted and isolated com- munity. The dotted Unes connect cousins who have married each other. population affected (Bell, 1889). Dr. Withiiigton and Dr. Bell report cases of hennaphroditism also from this same locality. DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 193 Block Island, comprising about 10 square miles, lies about 40 miles both from Newport, Rhode Island, and from Montauk Point. There are some fine old family names including Ball, Cobb, Dodge, Hall and Littlefield, which constitute a large part of the population of 1,500 souls. The limited area has, however, led those branches of the family who remain on the island to intennarry closely, as dOodo Tb^ .ckT^ Dodqe 6a6^ DO q6 Bodgt j DoUqc oSiODi [Hooii""6a 00 Dodqr Bodqe Dodqe "io ODTO on 00 /tail fiaU Dodqc DoageBSIl BaU Fig. 171. — Portion of pedigree of the Ball family of Block Island showing frequency of marriage with Dodge and with Ball; a consequence of limited marriage selection in a small island. illustrated in Fig. 171 based on Ball (1891). The result has not been good. There are families in which all the children are mentally deficient and many marriages that are childless. As we go south along the Atlantic coast, beaches or "banks" replace offshore islands. \Mien they are so far from the mainland, as at Pamhco Sound, as to make inter- communication difficult, consanguineous marriages occur in extraordinary frequency. A wide-spread trait that may be ascribed to such inbreeding is suspicion and mental dullness; and a relative high frequency of insanity. Even 194 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS some of the islands of Chesapeake Bay show numerous marriages of kin. Thus Arner (1908, p. 16) states that in Smith's Island, separated from the peninsula of Maryland by twelve miles of water "consanguineous marriages have been very frequent until now nearly all are more or less interrelated. Out of a hundred or more families of which I obtained some record, at least five marriages were be- tween cousins." Over 30 per cent of the inhabitants bear one surname (Evans) and they with Bradshaw, Marsh and Tyler comprise about 59 per cent of the population. The resident physician, here, had noted in 3 years in the com- munity of 700 persons no case of idiocy, insanity, epilepsy or deaf mutism. At the tropics, islands appear again. In some parts of the Bahamas there is a record of consanguin- eous marriages. C. A. Penrose (1905, pp. 409-414) has de- scribed the condition at George Island near Eleuthera Is- land and at Hopetown, Abaco Island. In George Island close intermarriage occurs, and there is a large proportion of eye diseases, including cataract, and dwarfs with low mental acumen. At Hopetown there are about 1,000 whites. In 1785 a woman, Wyanne Malone, came from Charlestown, South Carolina, with her four children to Hopetown. Three of them married and settled there, a granddaughter marry- ing a Russell. "From this stock most of the present inhabit- ants of Hopetown have descended and the names of Malone and Russell are constantly met with throughout the settle- ment." At Hopetown consanguineous marriage is accom- panied by deaf mutism, idiocy, insanity (melancholia) and abnormal appendages. The island of Bermuda shows the usual consequence of island hfe. A correspondent writes: "In some of the Par- ishes (Somerset and Paget chiefly) there has been much intermarriage, not only with cousins but with double first cousins in several cases. Intermarriage has chiefly caused DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 195 weakness of character leading to drink, not lack of brains or a certain amount of physical strength, but very inert and lazy disposition." The foregoing studies will suffice to demonstrate, first, the importance of the barrier of water in tending to increase consanguineous marriage and second, the consequences of such consanguineous marriages. In addition to islands, peninsulas also are more or less isolated and might be expected to yield the same results as islands. There is much evidence that this is so. Cape Cod is a good illustration of a peninsula. Thus Twining (1905, p. 12, note) after giving the pedigree of the descendants of Isabel Twining of Yarmouth who married Francis Baker says, "The frequency of intermarriage between Baker, Chase and Kelly in these records is distinctly observable; it is especially true of the first four generations, confined to the narrow limits of the Cape." Other data proving consanguinity in parentage of Cape families are not diffi- cult to find. Thus Rich (1883, p. 525) tells of William and Mary Dyer, first cousins and Quaker immigrants from England and married. William Dyer (their son?), bom 1653 came to Barnstable and married, in 1686, Mary Taj'lor. Their offspring all married and settled around him and soon became among the most influential people of the town — a position they maintain to this day. *'At a recent visit to the Congregational Sunday School, I noticed," says the au- thor, "all officers, many teachers, organist, ex-superintendent, and pastor's wife all Dyers. A lady at Truro united in her- self 4 quarters Dyer; father, mother and both grandmothers Dyers." Whether consanguineous marriages at Cape Cod have led to an unusual frequency of any "defects" I can- not say. Another peninsula of whose marriages there is a record is that of Point Judith. Withington (1885, pp. 14, 15) men- 19G HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS tions five marriages of first cousins and two of second cousins. In these marriages insanity (manic-depressive?) and apoplexy were common. Passing south the peninsulas projecting into Chesapeake Bay often offer extremely isolated situations. A physician of one of the extreme points of Dorchester County, seven- teen miles from the railroad, writes me that most of the marriages of that locality — "in fact I may say all, were between relatives and usually of the same name, and with the usual result, dwarfed stature or born crippled, blunted intellect or born idiots." This statement seems to me probably exaggerated — what is meant doubtless is that an exceptional proportion were thus affected. Finally at Carteret County, North Carolina, we have another example of peninsular conditions which have led to an extreme frequency of consanguineous marriages. Per- haps three-fourths of the inhabitants of the county bear one of four names, and mental deficiency is found in many of the children. There are other points on our coast which I have not had time to inquire into. It is safe to assume that, in the absence of peculiar, disturbing conditions, all small, inhabited is- lands off the coast and most of the more isolated peninsulas will show numerous consanguineous marriages and a large proportion of some one of a variety of defects. You can pick out such localities by looking on the map. b. Barrier of Topography. — A most important barrier is a height of land. How important it is is clear to anyone who has lived in a valley and noted the free- dom with which movements of the population take place along the valley as contrasted with movements up the hills to an elevation of even 200 to 500 feet. The valley forms a social center and acquaintances are made and marriages arranged there. Hemmed in by the barriers DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 197 of the hills and a human inertia that objects to raising the weight of the body, the valley becomes an endogamous center. Such a tendenvy is much exaggerated in the great valleys of the Appalachian chain. The cradle of the Jukes, however, was in a small valley hemmed in by steep hills only 300 feet high. The valleys of the Taconic Range, of the Catskills, of the Ramapo Mountains of New York are, or have been, regions of much inbreeding and not a little in- | cest, and the product has been much feeble-mindedness, crimi- nality and albinism (Fig. 172). As the mountains rise to the southwestward so do inbreed- ing, pauperism, and defect, reaching their fullest fruition in the mountain fastnesses of western Virginia and eastern Kentucky and Tennessee. But ,, , - ,, PC ■ J. ,1 . FiG- 172. — A portion of the U. the story of the effect of this s. Geological Survey topographic mountain range and its valleys °^^p ^^ the region on the border of the center of the home of the upon COnsangumeoUS matmgS, Jukes, showing long, well watered defect, and crime in America ^^"^^f ^ji^,5^^'^ti:^«'>; «^^^P f"f^«' scale 1: 62,500. Contour interval, has still to be written. 20 feet. In other countries, longer settled, the influence of moun- tain barriers is better appreciated. Very famous are the cretins and the imbeciles of the Alps. And from the Chin Hills of Burmah, the Rev. H. East writes about that place as follows (American Naturalist, 1909): "Rau Vau village has been isolated for about seven generations. It contains about sixty houses and possibly two hundred inhabitants. Of these, ten are idiots, many are dwarfs and some hydroce- phalic. A number of cases of syndactyUsm and brachy- dactylism occur." 198 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS B. Social Barriers The second set of barriers is social. These barriers are extremely numerous and complex. There is the barrier of I 'Op Fig. 173. — Inheritance of a neuropathic taint in a highly inbred family, 1, 1, 2, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. II, 2, 4, two daughters, Joanna who was insane and Mary; II, 1, 3, their respective consorts, PhiHp, a weak man and Emanuel also weak; III, 1, is Charles V a great ruler but eccentric, cruel, and subject to melanchoha; III, 2, is Isabel; III, 3, is John III of Portugal, a weak man; III, 4, Catherine; IV, 1, is Philip II, morose, sluggish, cruel; IV, 2, is Mary; V, 1, is Don Carlos, "one of the most despicable and unfortunate specimens of humanity in modem history." I (within the symbols) insane. Woods, 1906, pp. 145, 146. the clan and pride of blood, the barrier of language, the barrier of race, and the barrier of religious sect, a. The Barrier of the Clan with its pride of blood leads to self-satisfaction and not infrequently to a desire to concen- trate wealth and power. This is the barrier that has led the royal families of Europe to inbreed with such disastrous effect, as illustrated by the house of Spain (Woods, 1902, p, 3), Fig, 173. The barrier of the clan is causing the down- fall of more than one of America's grand families. The DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 199 words of Mr. Francis N. Balch are apt here: "I tell you signs are not wanting that if the fine old New England blood despises the ignorant foreigner and stands aloof from him, there will soon be another interesting example of a fine old stock — and our Planters' stock 2^5 a fine old stock, and a sturdy stock, — making a pathetic and unedifying end" (Balch, 1905, p. 22). b. The Barrier of the Social Status.— This is important where one social class forms a small portion of the commu- nity, represented by only a few families. I have in mind a group of persons in a small section of Massachusetts afTected by albinism. Probably on this account, together with a mental inferiority, they seem to have been socially ostra- cized by their neighbors and so were obliged to marry each other. In another instance two families standing above the others in the community in progressiveness and wealth have intermarried extensively; almost exclusively. The effect on consanguineous marriage of an isolated position is well shown by the community of Fort Mardick concerning which a valuable monograph has been written by L. and G. Lancry. They say: ''Four families constitute the origin (167C) of the population of Fort Mardick." "This small nucleus was implanted alongside of a population speaking another tongue, having other customs and other occupa- tions than its own, being even more or less hostile to it." To-day, of 300 families 38 bear the name of Everard, of which 9 are Everard-Everard, 36 Hars, 27 Zoonekindt, 24 Benard, and so with the other surnames. To avoid inevi- table confusion sobriquets are frequently applied, such as Gros-os, Gros-dos, Bosco, etc. In this community the striking character is sterility. Thus, consanguineous mar- riages are more than twice as apt to be sterile as non- consanguineous (7.5% : 16%); a single child is 2)^ times as common with consanguineous as non-consanguineous mar- 200 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS riages and the closer the relationship of the couple the greater the chance of sterile marriage. In this category may be placed the barrier of Hfe in an institution. A pubUc institution brings together men and women so intimately that marriage frequently occurs after leaving the institution. Thus two persons with the same trait become parents. This is not, strictly, consanguineous marriage but it has much of the essential element of such marriage — viz., the marriage of persons with the same de- fects. Certainly almshouses in which segregation of the sexes is imperfect jdeld numerous depauperate and imbecile offspring and there is reason for suspecting that sanatoria and hospitals for the "curable" insane do likewise. That institutions for the deaf mutes lead to intermarriage of per- sons of this class is notorious. Thus Bell (1884, p. 4) says: "I desire to direct attention to the fact that in this country deaf mutes marry deaf ynutes. An examination of the records of some of our institutions for the deaf and dumb reveals the fact that such marriages are not the exception but the rule," and later (p. 46) he cites as a cause for this preference "segregation for the purposes of education." c. The Barrier of Language is extremely important in pro- moting consanguineous marriages or the matings of persons with the same defect. Thus with regard to deaf mutes Bell (1884,p. 44) says: "The practice of the sign language hinders the acquisition of the EngHsh language ; it makes deaf mutes associate together in adult life, and avoid the society of hearing people; it thus causes the intermarriage of deaf mutes and the propagation of their physical defect." The importance of this barrier is seen among recent immigrants. These tend to herd together largely because of desire to be with people who speak the same language. Thus immigra- tion instead of directly tending to promote matings of dis- similar and unrelated blood, under modern conditions at DISTRLSUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS ^01 7 iEU Q- e. Qeorg<> Dohertr. 40, of 2521 AJb«marl« road, tna Martha Carberry, 36. of 2521 Albemarle Owen J. McGowan, -46, of 618 Flfty-flf th 8tre«t, tai Theresa A. Kane, 40^ of 61 Bainbrldgo *treet. Peter Hart, S7. of IT ColleM place, and Jo- sephine "Eobinson, 37, of 646 Fifty-sixth strwt. Hjman Bchler. 25, of 88 Ames street, aad Sadie Potakoff, 21, of 93 Ame« street. Otto W. Sartorlns, 25, of 184 Washln^n Park, and Adelaide Schlerenbeck, 25, of 6S Willow street. Cornelius Brassll, 86, of 642 Hicks strest. and Mary E. O'Hara, 28, of 475 Sixteenth street. Albert Fink, 26, of 1118 Oreeoe avenue, and May M. Gardner, 25, of 667 Putnam avenue. Isaac Cohen, 21, of 886 Williams avenue, and Ida Gershenoff, 19, of 847 Alabama aveuue. Michael Malo. 28. of 10S6 DeKalb avenue, and E^lth -Gralnke, 23, of 1086 DeKalb avenue. Ernest Hickman, 21, of 788' Madlion str««t, and Gela A. Wenzel, 20, of 788 Madison street. Benedict F. Gleason, 28. of Manhattan, and Mary Skelly, 38, of 233 Fifth aveuue. Francesca Parasandola, 32, of 111 Carroll street, and Concettlna Assanta, 22, of 111 Carroll street. Joseph PUler, Jr., 26, of 441 Seventy-thlrd street, and Nellie B. Smith. 22, of 441 Seventy ' third street. I Fig. 174. — Clipping from a Brooklyn (N. Y.) newspaper, spring of 1911, showing frequency of marriages between persons from the same address. In the case of recent immigrants this frequently impUes that the pair have come from the same home village and are, very likely, somewhat closely re- lated. first has an exactly opposite effect. The marriage Hcenses of a large city frequently show bride and groom from the same house — this means frequently, if not usually, that they speak the same dialect, come, very likely, from the same town in the old country, and are probably cousins of some degree (Fig. 174). Even in the well-established popu- lations a barrier of language may cause segregative mar- riage selection and, if the population is small, lead to con- sanguinity. Thus at Miscou Island part of the population speaks French and part English and this intensifies the liability to consanguineous marriage. 202 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS d. The Barrier of Race is of the very greatest, importance in promoting marriage of kin — especially if one race be in a marked minority as the negroes are in New Hampshire and the whites are in the Mississippi River bottom around Vicksburg or in parts of the West Indies. A\i a striking in- stance of consanguinity in a colored population in the north may be cited the " Jackson- White " clan of the Ramapo mountain region. e. Finally, the barrier of religious sect has been erected again and again to insure the intermarriage of the faithful only. This is illustrated by the teachings of the Society of Friends and smaller sects such as the Bunkers, Shakers and Amish. Of the Dunkers, Gillen (1906) states: ''In their early history marriage out of the church was punish- able by expulsion (Chronicon Ephraterise, pp. 96, 346f). It is still frowned upon, but the process of liberalization now in progress has modified the attitude of the Church. In some congregations families intermarry generation after generation. But the degree of kinship is not so close that any evil results appear in the offspring." Nevertheless one sees the danger that any small sect with such tenets runs. A critical study of the Amish of southeastern Pennsylvania with much marriage of kin shows a sufficient frequency of epilepsy and crippled children to serve as a warning that a defect is in the blood of some of the strain that in time will affect the entire sect who remain in that part of the country. It is difficult to see how any religious sect would have a tenet so opposed to the laws of Nature and God as practi- cally to compel consanguineous marriage. Many other sects are in a worse condition biologically than the Amish. Indeed, the smaller the sect the more apt are its adherents to be thrown closely together and so to become intimately acquainted with one another exclusively; and it is easy to see that in a few generations cousin mar- DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITABLE TRAITS 203 riage will be the rule in such sects. From this point of view the Special Report of the Census upon Religious Bodies (1906) becomes of great biological interest. In this report we read of the Duck River Baptists, one-third of whom (2,181) are in the Duck River Association; of the Gen- eral Six Principle Baptists with 90 per cent of its membership in Rhode Island; of the Amana Society, all (about 1,700) located in Iowa County, Iowa; of the Braederhocf Men- nonite Church of Bonhomme County, South Dakota, with 275 members, of the Reformed Presbyterian Church (cov- enanted) with 17 members, all at North Union, Pa.; and of the 725 Schwenkfelders of Eastern Pennsylvania. In some of these sects it is probable that the tenet of marriage inside the sect does not obtain, but without such a tenet the result tends to follow and we can but regard such small sects as eugenically unfortunate. CHAPTER V MIGRATIONS AND THEIR EUGENIC SIGNIFICANCE 1. Primitive Migrations The human species has come to occupy the entire habitable globe. This fact is mute testimony of man's migratory ca- pacity and tendencies. Just as the Norwegian lemming has been observed, in consequence of several years of favorable conditions for breeding in its mountain home, to spread over the surrounding territory in great bands seeking less crowded breeding-grounds; even as the army worm and the grass- hopper swarm from their native territory; so man, also, under the pressure of crowded conditions, poverty and oppression or lured by brighter prospects elsewhere, may move in hordes to other lands that seem to offer better opportunities. Thus Asia seems to have debouched her surplus population upon Europe in the shape of the Huns during the fourth and fifth centuries of our era and the Turks during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. So the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans successively swarmed upon England. So, among savages, the Masai of Africa moved upon the neighboring tribes and established themselves over much of southeastern Africa. So in the last three centuries the Americas and Australia have witnessed the greatest migrations that the world has ever seen, hundreds of thousands annually coming from over- crowded Europe and Asia to the "New World." 204 MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 205 2. Early Immigration to America For us in America the phenomena of migration should have a special interest. Excepting for the few scores of thousands of Indians, there was a continent devoid of a population — a clean slate upon which history was to be written and where the effect of "blood" in determining that history might be traced. Fortunately, almost from the be- ginning, records were made and many have been preserved, despite fire, energetic housecleaners and rats, so that many materials for such a study are still available. It would be a grand contribution to scientific, biological history to show how traits of the individual immigrants, no less than condi- tions, poHtical and other, determined the deeds of commu- nities. For a community is the sum of its constituent in- dividuals, and what each individual does depends on his innate sensitiveness and the vigor and kind of his reactions to the stimuli of conditions. With a given set of conditions the idiosyncrasies of response of the constituent individuals determine the details of history; and these idiosyncrasies depend quite as much on inheritable traits as on training and experience; for just what effect training and experience shall have on the individual depend upon the nature of his protoplasm. Into this grand but unworked historical field we cannot hope to enter here, but a hasty survey of the sub- ject will be attempted. It would be very difficult now to construct the wave of im- migration to the territory of the present United States from 1607 to 1776. The census of 1790 gave a population of nearly 4,000,000; and making every allowance for the high net fecundity of the early inmaigrants, it is clear that at least a hundred thousand persons must have come in ships from Europe to North America during those 170 years. A con- crete idea of the numbers may be gained by the statement (Fiske, 1905, pp. 77, 155, 197) that starting about 1615 \'ir- 206 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS ginia had acquired in 4 years a population of 4,000 souls; between 1630 and 1640, 20,000 persons came to New Eng- land ^ but during the following century immigration practi- cally ceased, having been discouraged; and from 1681 to 1684 Pennsylvania gained 8,000 inhabitants. The estimated arrivals from 1776 to 1820 number 250,000 and about 28,000,000 more to 1910. Since the first few scores of thousands of immigrants had the greatest influence on the ideals of the colonies they estab- lished and since their blood has had the longer time to show its effects, and since their traits have had the greatest chance to disseminate widely, they deserve special consideration. The great interest taken in these "forefathers" by their de- scendants is justified even from the biologic-historic point of view, for their families were large, the pedigrees of then* famihes were often carefully kept and are, for the most part, rehable, and we know much about the characteristics of many of the males who reached maturity. We observe, also, in the colonies the same tendency of persons similar in origin and tastes to segregate that is observed among modern immi- grants. On the James River the first settlers consisted chiefly of "discredited idlers and would-be adventurers," ^ niore than half of them "gentlemen" of good family but untrained in labor, trusting for a change of fortune in the new land. Later, men, women and children were sent by the London Company to colonize the new land and that company was not particular as to quality. Even felons, murderers and women of the ' "It is positively known that early in the spring of 1630, eleven vessels left England for New England with 1700 passengers, arriving at the port of Salem, Mass. in June of that year. Fifty of these families settled in Lynn. In the same year the Massachusetts Bay Co. sent over 16 ships — all arrived safe in New England at the port of Salem." Harriet R. Cooks, The Driver Family, N. Y. 1889, p. 26. ^ Wilson, History of the American People, I., p. 45. MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 207 streets were at times sent over from London to relieve the city of them; and the governor, who was a pure euthenist, and seemed to think the better environment would cure their evil ways, welcomed all. However, in the middle of the seventeenth century, protests went out from the colony against being made a penal settlement, and in 1670 the House of Burgesses passed an act prohibiting the importa- tion of convicts, but such importations did not wholly cease until declared illegal in Virginia in 1788. Perhaps 20,000 "convicts" altogether, by no means all immoral when judged by our present standards, were imported into the Virginia Colony (Butler, 1896). But a better blood soon crowded into Virginia to redeem the colony. Upon the execution of Charles I (1649) a host of royalist refugees sought an asylum here, and the immigration of this class continued even after the Restoration. By this means was enriched a germ plasm which easily developed such traits as good manners, high culture, and the abiUty to lead in all social affairs, — traits combined in remarkable degree in the ''first families of Virginia." From this complex and the similar complex of Maryland has come much of the bad blood that found the retreats of the mountain valleys toward Kentucky and Tennessee to its liking, and that spread later into Indiana and Illinois and gave rise, in all probabil- ity, to the Ishmaelites, a family of which hundreds have been supported in the almshouses and jails of Indiana. From this complex came also some of America's greatest statesmen and military leaders; the Randolphs, the Marshalls, the Madisons, the Curtises, the Lees, the Fitzhughs, the Wash- ingtons and many others born with the instinct to command. Such are the descendants of the high-spirited cavaliers. It might have been predicted that the future state would be the Mother of Presidents and that in a civil war the hardest fought battles should be fought on her soil. 208 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Further north, at Manhattan Island, a settlement was being made by another sort of people; a band of Dutch traders. The fur trade with the Indians waxed profitable. They maintained friendly relations with the Indians, as the main source of their wealth, and under their protection es- tabhshed trading posts up the North River even as far as the present site of Albany and along the valley of the Mo- hawk; while others went east as far as the Connecticut River. Little wonder that such blood, under the favorable environment of an admirable location, has created the com- mercial center of the western world. On the bleak coasts of New England were being founded settlements of idealists, men who were willing to undergo I exile for conscience' sake. They included many scholars like the pastor Robinson, Brewster who, while self-exiled at Leyden, instructed students at the University, John Win- throp ''of gentle breeding and education," John Davenport whom the Indians named ''So-big-study-man." ^ Little wonder that the germ plasm of these colonies of men of deep convictions and scholarship should show its traits in the great network of its descendants and establish New Eng- land's reputation for conscientiousness and love of learning and culture. As it was almost the first business of the founders of the colonies of Massachusetts Bay and New Haven to found a college, so their descendants — the families of Edwards, Whitney, D wight, Eliot, Lowell, Woolsey and the rest have not only led in literature, philosophy and science but have carried the lamps of learning across the continent, lighting educational beacons from Boston to San Francisco. Nor is it an accident that on the soil tilled by these dissenters from the Established Church of England should be spilled the fii-st blood of the iVmerican Revolution. Later, to the shores of the Delaware, Penn led his band of 1 Cotton Mather, Magnolia III, 56, I MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 20!) followers, consisting of men and women whose natures were attracted to his principles of thrift, absence of show, and non- resistance. The germ plasm of his followers soon peopled Penn's woods and it is not due solely to chance that Penn- sylvania has the largest number of homes owned and free from debt of any state and that the "powers that prey" prowl here so unmolested. Thus the characteristics of each conmionwealth were early determined by the traits of the persons who were at- tracted toward it. These traits still persist in their dwin- dling descendants who strive to secure the preservation in the state of the ideals inculcated by their forefathers. One common characteristic these early immigrants had, which led them to leave family and friends, to undergo the trials of the long sea voyage in small ships and to settle in a rigorous climate among unreliable savages, and that was a willingness to break with tradition, to exchange the old for the new and better. This trait, that amounts in extreme cases to a ''Wanderlust," is illustrated by the history of many a pioneer. For example, Simon Hoyt landed in Salem, Mass., in 1628, went in the first company of settlers to Charles- ton (1629); went to Dorchester (1630) with the first com- pany of settlers there; joined the church at Scituate (1635) and built a house there; then, probably in the spring of 1636, migrated to Windsor, Connecticut colony, which he helped found. In 1649 he was granted land at Fairfield and in 1657 he died at Stamford. Thus in the space of thii-ty years Simon Hoyt lived in seven villages in America and was a founder of at least three of them — a truly restless spirit like many another settler, and the parent of a restless progeny. Still another example is that of Hans Jorst Heydt of Strasburg. He fled to Holland when his native town was seized by Louis XIV, married there Anna Maria DuBois, a French Huguenot refugee from Wicres; came with her to 210 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS America and settled at New Paltz on the Hudson about 1710. Schismatic dissensions having broken out in the new colony, Heydt, with others, left and settled about 1717 in Philadelphia County not far from Germantown where he acquired several hundred acres of land, established a colony, built mills and entered upon various commercial enterprises. In 1731, having acquired a grant of 40,000 acres of land in the Shenandoah Valley, he migrated thither, became known as Baron Hite, and died there in 1760. One of his friends, Van Metre, who originally settled at New Paltz, had moved first to Somerset Co., New Jersey, then to Salem County in the same colony, later to Prince George's County, Maryland, and, finally, to Orange County, Virginia (Smyth, 1909). These are examples, merely, of the restlessness, — of the en- terprising restlessness — of the early settlers. This trait of restlessness and ambitious search for better conditions shows itself in the frequent migrations of the de- scendants of the early settlers. The abandoned farms of New England point to the trait in our blood that entices us to move on to reap a possible advantage elsewhere. "I don't know a farmer in Illinois," said a friend that has traveled over the state extensively, ''who wouldn't sell his farm to- morrow and go to a distant state if he could be sure of bet- tering himself financially by doing so." This restlessness affects whole states. Thus from 1900 to 1910 the population of Iowa decreased because so many thousands of her people moved to the newly opened lands of Canada, Washington and Oklahoma. There was an ambitious tendency in the germ plasm out of which the forefathers developed that lured them from Europe and it is in the same germ plasm yet and shows itself in these later generations. A shorter but not less pregnant migration is that to the metropolis from the surrounding rural districts. One after another, as they grow up, many or most of the young men MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 211 and many of the young women also leave the farm for the office, shop and factory. Now all of these migrations have a prof ound eugenic signifi- cance. The most active, ambitious and courageous blood migrates. It migrated to America and has made her what she has become; in America another selection took place in the western migrations and what this best blood — this creme de la creme — did in the west all the world knows. Great cities like Chicago, with its motto "I will," arose in a genera- tion or two to the front rank of world metropolises, and New England, the early home of the sewing machine and the cot- ton gin, has yielded the palm to the central west, the home of the harvesting machine and the aeroplane. And when the best and strongest migrated, the weaker minds were left behind to breed in the old homestead. A recent British Committee on Physical Deterioration^ contains the testimony of Dr. C. R. Browne about conditions in the west of Ireland. He says: "The sound and the healthy — the young men and young women — from the rural districts emi- grate to America in tremendous numbers, and it is only the more enterprising and the more active that go, as a rule." And Dr. Kelly, the Roman CathoHc Bishop of Ross testified : ''For a considerable number of years it has been only the strong and vigorous that go — the old people and the weak- lings remain behind in Ireland." And even in New England we see signs of decadence of the old stock and men speak of racial deterioration. But the race as a whole has not deteri- orated but only the New England representatives — the "left-behinds" of the grand old families, whose stronger members went west. Likewise in the rural and semi-rural population within a hundred miles of our great cities we find a disproportion of the indolent, the alcoholic, the feeble- ^ Inter-departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration, Vol. I, p. 37, 1904. \ 212 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS minded, the ne'er-do-weel. I know intimately several such localities and have seen in one family after another, how the ambitious youth leave the parental roof-tree to try their fortunes in the city while the weakest young men stay be- hind, supported by their parents, or earning only enough to buy the liquor their defective natures crave, and are finally often forced to marry a weak girl and father her imbecile off- spring. Such villages, depleted of the best, tend to become cradles of degeneracy and crime. Thus our great cities lure to themselves the best of the rural protoplasm, surround it with conditions that discourage reproduction, either by creating a disinclination to marriage or making it incon- venient and expensive to have children. So our great cities act anti-eugenically, sterilizing the best and leaving the worst to reproduce their like. 3. Recent Immigration to America f We have seen that the early immigrants to America were men of courage, independence, and love of liberty; and many of them were scholars or social leaders. Are these the charac- teristics of the immigrants at this later day?) Let us examine the matter of immigration to America during the past hun- i dred years. We shall find great differences from the immigra- tion of the 17th and 18th centuries. Thus where the annual immigration was formerly a few thousand it is now hundreds of thousands. The wave of immigration is shown in Plate II. From 1820 to 1824, inclusive, the annual immigration was less than 10,000 but it has never fallen below that limit- since. From 1825 to 1844 (with one exception) it has re- mained below 100,000, but in 1845 it passed that number and (excepting for 1862, in the depth of our Civil War) it has not since fallen below that limit. In 1905 it passed the 1,000,000 mark. The general population meanwhile rose from over 9,000,000 to 90,000,000, or only one-tenth as fast. MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 213 The wave of immigration shows great fluctuations in height. Referring to this the Commissioner General of Immigration (Keefe, 1910, p. 10) says: "This periodical rise and fall well represents the relative prosperity of the country, while the gradual increase from decade to decade may be taken as a fairly accurate index of the country's development and growth and its capacity to employ larger numbers of alien laborers." It may be added that, on account of the departure of aliens, the net increase is less than the totals shown on the chart. Thus there were over 200,000 emigrants in the year ending June 30, 1910, leaving a net increase of something over 800,000. (Even that is enormous, and no patriotic American can contemplate this vast annual addition to our kinds of germ plasm without inquiring as to the sort of potential traits they carry and the probable eugenic effect on our nation of this constant influx of new blood. ) a. The Irish. — The consequences of the immigration of the earlier half of the period of 91 years are already seen. In 1846 there was a severe famine in Ireland and during the next five years over a million souls, or one-eighth of her pop- ulation, emigrated thence to the United States, and Ireland has remained one of the most persistent sources of our foreign population. The traits that the great immigration from the south of Ireland brought were, on the one hand, alcoholism, considerable mental defectiveness and a tendency to tubercu- losis; on the other, sympathy, chastity and leadership of men. The Irish tend to aggregate in cities and soon con- trol their governments, frequently exercising favoritism and often graft. The young women were formeriy much em- ployed as household servants, but more recently have be- come shop gbls and factory hands. Many of the Irish, most strikingly those of the northern part of that island, were among the nation's most intrepid frontiersmen and 214 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS their descendants have served the nation in many impor- tant positions. b. The Germans. — The year 1845 marked the rapid rise of the Uberal spirit in Germany and a revolt against the at- tempt of the ruHng class to weaken representative govern- ment. Then followed a great increase in immigration to America, advancing to over 140,000 a year for the three years 1852-54. The German immigrants of this period were lovers of freedom, full of courage and daring, and furnished the Union Army during the Civil War with many of its best officers. More recently the Protestant Germans have come to us as unskilled laborers and, after working for a time as farm hands, save enough to buy a place of their own. Great numbers, however, settle in the cities, make useful clerks and often rise to positions of trust. Germans are, as a rule, thrifty, intelligent and honest. They have a love of art and music, including that of song birds, and they have formed one of the most desirable classes of our immigrants. c. The Scandinavian immigration first assumed consid- erable proportions in 1866 at the close of our Civil War, reached a maximum (105,000) in the prosperous year 1881, and has since declined somewhat, being now about 50,000 a year. Our Scandinavian population is found chiefly in the central west and northwest, above all in Minnesota, Wis- consin and Iowa. It tends to group itself into colonies; for example, 32 per cent of the entire population of Chisago Co., Minnesota, consisted, in 1900, of immigrants from Sweden; similarly, 26.5 per cent of the population of Traill Co. con- sists of persons who sailed to this country from Norway. In this tendency to form colonies the Scandinavian immigra- tion of a decade ago shows much resemblance to that of the early English of the 17th century. Such colonization is bound to stamp the impress of the "national traits" upon the community. These national traits include a love of inde- MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 215 pendence in thought and action, chastity, self-control of other sorts, and a love of agricultural pursuits. The latter is less marked in the Swedes than the Norwegians, for of the former only one-third, while of the later more than half, are engaged in farming. d. Austria-Hungary. — The immigration from Austria- Hungary was the next to assume large proportions. It first became considerable with 17,000 in 1880; rose to 77,000 in 1892, and to 338,000 in 1907. It now consists of diverse races; Germans, Slavonians, Croatians and Dal- matians, Bohemians, Magyars, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Rou- manians. The latter races are brunet in skin, hair and eye color and of average to short stature. The Bohemians that have migrated to the United States are engaged prevail- ingly in agriculture. Colonies are found in the prairie states of the upper Mississippi Valley, and in Nebraska and Texas. The Report of the Commissioner-General of Im- migration gives Illinois as the intended home of 2G per cent of the immigrant Bohemians and Moravians, New York of 19 per cent, Ohio of 9 per cent and Texas and Pennsyl- vania each of 7 per cent. In both rural and urban condi- tions they show prevailing traits of self-respect and per- tinacity. The Slovaks in America (to whom nearly 8,000 were added in 1910) are agricultural laborers, not farm owners, but they have founded a few colonies, like that at Slovaktown, near Stuttgard, Ark. Most of those in the East become miners, especially of bituminous coal, and have settled largely in Pennsylvania. e. Hebrews have formed a marked proportion of the population of North America from an early period; even in prerevolutionary times they penetrated to the frontier as peddlers. But the great immigration began with that from Germany and has continued from that country, from Austria-Hungary and Russia in ever increasing nmnbers. 216 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS For the most part they have settled in our large cities, and their frequency is roughly proportional to the size of the city, yet with a preponderance in the East. Though it is superficial to attempt to name the traits of even so rela- tively homogeneous a company as the Hebrews, yet a sort of average or prevailing condition may be recognized. As the Abstract of the Report of the Immigration Commis- sion on Recent Immigration in Agriculture says, p. 41, "The Hebrew on the land is peaceable and law abiding, but he does not tamely submit to what he believes to be oppression and he has a highly developed sense of personal rights, civil and economic." Probably with few changes this statement would stand for the Hebrews of the cities where the mass of recent Hebrew immigrants occupy a position intermediate between the slovenly Servians and Greeks and the tidy Swedes, Germans and Bohemians. In earning capacity both male and female Hebrew immi- grants rank high and the literacy is above the mean of all immigrants. Statistics indicate that the crimes of Hebrews are chiefly "gainful offenses," especially thieving and re- ceiving stolen goods, while they rarely commit offenses of personal violence. lOn the other hand, they show the greatest proportion of offenses against chastity and in con- nection with prostitution, the lowest of crimes. iThere is no question that, taken as a whole, the hordes of Jews that are now coming to us 'from Russia and the extreme south- east of Europe, with their intense individualism and ideals of gain at the cost of any interest, (represent the opposite extreme from the early English and the more recent Scandi- navian immigration with their ideals of community life in the open country, advancement by the sweat of the brow, and the uprearing of families in the fear of God and the love of country. ] f. The Italian immigration first passed the 10,000 mark MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 217 in 1881. That from Southern Italy has always been five or six times as great as from Northern Italy. Immigrants from the former country are darker and doubtless have derived part of their blood from Greece and Northern Africa. It is these South Italians that we generally have in mind when we speak of Italians. Eighty per cent of those who come are males and a quarter of them return each year to their homes. In America they become, prevailingly, general laborers, relatively few specifically farm laborers; yet they are going into agriculture to a considerable extent and buying land as they save the money. Of the agricul- tural Italians many are truck farmers near large cities, and a few isolated settlements have been made like that at Hammonton or at Vineland, New Jersey. Others are found in central New York State, and a few colonies have been estabhshed in the South where they compete with negro labor. Apparently North Italians are to a certain extent influenced in locating in this country by topography like that of their homes. ''While sentiment often has much to do with the choice of a location," says Cance (1911, p. 23) "it can not be said that the success of the settlement at Genoa, Wis., is due to the Alpine aspect of the topography rather than to the excellence of the soil and the favorable markets; nor that the fine North Italian settlers of Valdese, N. C, would not have made more progress every way had they settled nearer markets and on level land where there was more fertility and less Swiss scenery." The traits of the Southern Italians are thus expressed: "The Italian has not the self-reliance, initiative resourcefulness nor self- sufiicing individualism that necessarily marks the pioneer farmer." "On the whole the Italian farmer compares well with other foreign farmers in his neighborhood in in- dustry, thrift, careful attention to details, crop yields and surplus returns from his farm. His strength lies in his 218 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS patience, unflagging industry and capacity for hard, monot- onous labor." Aside from his tendency to crimes of per- sonal violence the average Italian has many excellent characteristics, not one of the least of which is his interest in his work, even as a day laborer. He assimilates fairly rapidly, especially in rural districts; not a few Irish girls marry Italian husbands when both are CathoUcs; and this assimilation will add many desirable elements to the .\mer- ican complex. g. The Poles are distributed under their political affilia- tions as German, Austrian, Russian and so on. The race constitutes one of the largest contributors to the American population. The cause of this emigration of a large pro- portion of the European Poles is doubtless the pohtical disabihties under which they have labored. Poles first began to form colonies in the United States in 1885 (in Texas), from 1895 they came in numbers to Wisconsin and Michigan, and later to Indiana and Illinois. More than any other recent immigrants, except the Itahans, they become general laborers, largely in rural districts, and as they save money they buy farms. The Poles are independent and self-reliant though clannish. They love the land and work hard to gain a piece of it. They are able to make pay the farms of New England which the sons of the early settlers have abandoned. We may welcome this freedom-loving people whose blood is bound largely to replace that of the old New England stock. h. The Portuguese are among our more recent immi- grants, since their numbers did not exceed 2,000 per year until 1889 and first reached 5,000 in 1902. They are classi- fied either as white (largely from the Azores) or dark, from the Cape Verde Islands. The former become farm laborers, general laborers, mill hands, and farmers, and are steady, reliable, and efficient. In Rhode Island they form a notable MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 2 1 9 colony of potato planters; in Massachusetts their head- quarters are at New Bedford and from this city they have spread through the "Old Colony" region and into Cape Cod. The Black Portuguese are the principal cranberry pickers employed on the Massachusetts bogs. "They are largely recruited from the ranks of dock laborers near New Bedford and neighboring cities. Five-sixths of them are men or boys, many of them single or without families in the United States." The cranberry pickers of Massachu- setts are illiterate and neither resourceful nor intelligent; but this has the less eugenic significance since few settle permanently in this country. ^Summarizing this review of recent conditions of immi gration it appears certain that, unless conditions change of themselves or are radically changed, the population of the United States will, on account of the great influx of blood from South-eastern Europe, rapidly become darker in pig- mentation, smaller in stature, more mercurial, more at- tached to music and art, more given to crimes of larceny, kidnapping, assault, murder, rape and sex-immorality and less given to burglary, drunkeniiess and vagrancy than i were the original English settlers.) Since of the insane in I hospitals there are relatively more foreign-born than native 1 it seems probable that, under present conditions, the ratio J of insanity in the population will rapidly increase. As to the question of increasing dependence and credulity amon^ recent immigrants it appears that "the immigrant to the United States in a large measure assists as well as advises his friends in the Old World to emigrate." Next to this "the propaganda conducted by steamship agents is undoubtedly the most important immediate cause of emi- gration from Europe to the United States," especially in Austria, Hungary, Greece and Russia. While America will be slow to relinquish her position as the home of the op- 220 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS pressed of all nations, she may well oppose any practice that tends to lure persons here by raising false hopes of an easy acquisition of riches. 4. Control op Immigration It has long been recognized in this country that it is a national duty to regulate immigration. Our present immi- J gration laws recognize this right and duty. Section 2 of \i/ the Immigration Act has the following eugenic provisions: "That the following classes of aliens shall be excluded from admis- sion into the United States: All idiots, imbeciles, feeble-minded persons, epileptics, insane persons, and persons who have been insane within five years previous; persons who have had two or more attacks of insanity at any time previously; paupers; persons likely to become a public charge; professional beggars; persons afflicted with tuberculosis or with a loath- some or dangerous contagious disease ; persons not comprehended within any of the foregoing excluded classes who are found to be and are certified by the examining surgeon as being mentally or physically defective, such mental or physical defect being of a nature which may affect the ability of such ahen to earn a living; persons who have been convicted of or admit having committed a felony or other crime or misdemeanor involving moral turpitude; polygamists, or persons who admit their belief in the practice of polygamy, anarchists, or persons who believe in or advocate the over- throw by force or violence of the Government of the United States, or of all government, or of all forms of law, or the assassination of public offi- cials; prostitutes, or women or girls coming into the United States for the purpose of prostitution or for any other immoral purpose; persons who procure or attempt to bring in prostitutes or women or girls for the pur- pose of prostitution or for any other inmaoral purpose." Now while few dispute the right and the duty of this country to control immigration there is a difference of opin- ion as to the degree and nature of that control. There are those who think that the present restrictions are sufficient and beyond them immigration should be encouraged; there are others who believe that immigration should be much further restricted by requiring educational, property and other qualifications. This difference of opinion is based MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 221 partly on differences of needs and ideals. Those who would keep the door open are largely employees of labor who need most of it to ''develop" or exploit the resources of the coun- try. Those who wish to restrict belong partly to the class of laborers and low-grade artisans who desire to keep wages high and partly to the old families who fear the consequences of this copious infusion of South-eastern European blood. This difference of opinion must, as is generally the case, be ascribed to ignorance. If we knew the probable consequences upon our national life we would probably be agreed what to do. To a biologist it seems that the economic aspects of the im- migration problem will take care of themselves, just because immigration is, from this side, self-regulatory. When wages fall immigration diminishes to a third or a quarter of the volume that it has in times of prosperity and high wages. (Moreover, it is (isn't it?) a rather selfish policy to keep out those who are qualified to become good citizens that we may fatten the faster on their destitution .\ But on its biologic side the problem is real and urgent. How can we keep out defective germ plasm while we admit that which is strong? The attempt to do this by examination of the immigrant is as unscientific as it is inadequate. A person who by all physical and mental examinations is normal may lack in half of hio germ cells the determiner for complete mental development. In some respects such a person is more un- desirable in the community than the idiot (who will prob- ably not reproduce) or the low-grade imbecile, who will be recognized as such and be selected against in marriage, or be sent by his neighbors to an institution where he may be kept from reproducing. Nor can the immigration 2robl£m be solved by excludin£_on_the ground of race orjiative_ country^ No one has suggested excluding the natives of Switzerland, yet a normal woman from the neighborhood of 222 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Tenna, Canton Graubunden, may become a focus of hemo- philia in this country. On the other hand, the exclusion of one Hungarian family of my acquaintance would have de- prived American Universities of three of their best scientific professors. I The fact is that no race per se, whether Slovak, Ruthenian, Turk or Chinese, is dangerous and none undesir- able; but only those individuals whose somatic traits or ger- minal determiners are, from the standpoint of our social life, bad. While all somatically defective may well be excluded at once, it is, within limits, hazardous to admit any person permanently to this country because he has no undesirable somatic trait — for no one transmits to his progeny his somatic traits but rather the determiners in his germ plasm. The proper way to classify immigrants for admission or rejection is on the basis of the probable performance of their germ plasm. I In other words, immigrants are desirable who are of 'goodblood"; undesirable who are of "bad blood." Since "blood" cannot be judged by inspection of the in- dividual what practicable method remains for separating the sheep from the goats? Experience indicates the one best way. Before any one person is admitted to citizenship let something be learned concerning his family history and his personal history on the other side of the ocean, f How can this be done? By means of field workers performing a serv- ice similar to that which they are doing in this country, visiting the relatives of the person in question and learning his personal and family history. y Is this feasible? Govern- ments might interpose an objection, but it seems probable that the matter could be put before them so that they would not. Experience indicates that few families approached in the proper spirit would decline to give information. It is then only a matter of money to pay for the required studies. How much money? It appears that about 200,000 declara- tions of intention to become naturalized are filed annually in MIGRATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE 223 the United States. It seems probable that field workers by properly sorting their families geographically could each report on the average on ten persons a week or, say, 500 a year. This average is the more reasonable since brothers sometimes make declaration simultaneously so that the his- tory of two persons can be got in one visit. x\t this rate 400 field workers would be required. At the low price of living abroad the cost of each field worker's salary and traveling expenses would not exceed $1,200, or S480,000 for all. With 10 district inspectors at $2,000, including traveling expenses, and a central office at $10,000, the total cost would be $510,000 a year, and this amount should furnish our govern- ment with a report on practically every applicant for natural- ization, which would serve as a proper basis for judging of his desirability. Compared with the annual expenditure of over $100,000,000 in this country to take care of our de- fectives this amount seems small and would be well invested, for, within a decade, the annual saving to our institutions would pay for the work. Moreover, an increase of 50 cents in the head-tax of immigrants would supply funds enough for the entire undertaking. With a control such as is outlined above we may, it seems to me, face the addition annually of 200,000 Europeans to our citizenship with equanimity. Despite the tendency of en- couraged immigration to bring in a less independent and self- reliant class, a significant selection is still exercised. This is clearly expressed in the Report on Emigration Conditions in Europe, published by the Immigration Commission, p. 11. The present-day emigration from Europe to tlie United States is for the most part drawn from country districts and smaller cities or villages and is composed largely of the peasantry and unskilled laboring classes. This is particularly true of the races or peoples from countries furnishing the newer immigration, with the conspicuous exception of Russian Hebrews, who are city dwellers by compulsion. Emigration being mainly a result of economic conditions, it is natural that the emigrating spirit should be 224 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS strongest among those most seriously afifected, but notwithstanding this the present movement is not recruited in the main from the lowest eco- nomic and social strata of the population. In European countries, as in the United States, the poorest and least desirable element in the popula- tion, from an economic as well as a social standpoint, is found in the larger cities, and as a rule such cities furnish comparatively few emigrants. Neither do the average or typical emigrants of to-day represent the low- est in the economic and social scale even among the classes from which they come, a circumstance attributable to both natural and artificial causes. In the first place, emigrating to a strange and distant country, al- though less of an imdertaking than formerly, is still a serious and relatively difficult matter, requu-ing a degree of courage and resourcefulness not possessed by weaklings of any class. This natural law in the main regu- lated the earlier European emigi'ation to the United States, and under its influence the present emigration represents the stronger and better ele- ment of the particular class from which it is drawn. A most potent adjunct to the natural law of selection, however, is the United States immigration act, the effect of which in preventing the emigration, or even attempted emigration, of at least phj'-sical and mental defectives is probably not generally realized. The provisions of the United States immigration law are well known among the emigrating classes of Europe, and the large number rejected at European ports, or refused ad- mission after reaching the United States, has a decided influence in re- tarding emigration, and naturally that influence is most potent among those who doubt their abiUty to meet the law's requirements. V If increasing attention is paid to the selective elimination at our ports of entry of the actually undesirable (those with a germ plasm that has imbecile, epileptic, insane, criminal- istic, alcoholic, and sexually immoral tendencies); if agents in Europe learn the family history of all applicants for natu- ralization; if the luring of the credulous and suggestible by steamship agents abroad and especially in the south-east of Europe be reduced to its lowest limits, then we may expect to see our population not harmed but improved by this mixture with a more mercurial people.) CHAPTER VI THE INFLUENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL ON THE RACE As one stands at Ellis Island and sees pass the stream of persons, sometimes 5,000 in a day, who go through that portal to enter the United States and, for the most part, to become incorporated into it, one is apt to lose sight of the potential importance to this nation of the individual, or, more strictly, the germ plasm that he or she carries. Yet the study of ex- tensive pedigrees warns us of the fact. Every one of those peasants, each item of that ''riff-raff " of Europe, as it is some- times carelessly called, will, if fecund, play a role for better or worse in the future history of this nation. Formerly, when we believed that factors blend, a characteristic in the germ plasm of a single individual among thousands seemed not worth considering: it would soon be lost in the melting pot. But now we know that unit characters do not blend; that after a score of generations the given characteristic may still appear unaffected by the repeated unions with foreign germ plasm. So the individual, as the bearer of a potentially immortal germ plasm with innumerable traits becomes of the greatest interest. A few examples will illustrate this law and its practical importance. 1. Elizabeth Tuttle From two English parents, sire at least remotely descended from royalty, was born in Massachusetts Elizabeth Tuttle. She developed into a woman of great beauty, of tall and com- 225 226 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS manding appearance, striking carriage, "of strong will, ex- treme intellectual vigor, of mental grasp akin to rapacity, attracting not by a few magnetic traits but repelling" when she evinced an extraordinary deficiency of moral sense. "On November 19, 1667, she married Richard Edwards of Hartford, Connecticut, a lawyer of high repute and great erudition. Like his wife he was very tall and as they both walked the Hartford streets their appearance invited the eyes and the admiration of all." In 1691, Mr. Edwards was divorced from his wife on the ground of her adultery and other immoralities. The evil trait was in the blood, for one of her sisters murdered her own son and a brother murdered his own sister. After his divorce Mr. Edwards remarried and had five sons and a daughter by Mary Talcott, a medio- cre woman, average in talent and character and ordinary in appearance. " None of Mary Talcott's progeny rose above mediocrity and their descendants gained no abiding reputa- tion." Of Elizabeth Tuttle and Richard Edwards the only son was Timothy Edwards, who graduated from Harvard Col- lege in 1691, gaining simultaneously the two degrees of bachelor of arts and master of arts — a very exceptional feat. He was pastor of the church in East Windsor, Connecticut, for fifty-nine years. Of eleven children the only son was Jonathan Edwards, one of the world's great intellects, pre- eminent as a divine and theologian, president of Princeton College. Of the descendants of Jonathan Edwards much has been written; a brief catalogue must suffice: Jonathan Ed- wards, Jr., president of Union College; Timothy Dwight, president of Yale; Sereno Edwards Dwight, president of Hamilton College; Theodore Dwight Woolsey, for twenty- five years president of Yale College ; Sarah, wife of Tapping Reeve, founder of Litchfield Law School, herself no mean lawyer; Daniel Tyler, a general of the Civil War and founder INFLUENCE OF THE INDIMDUAL 227 of the iron industries of north Alabama; Tijnothy Dwif^ht, the second, president of Yale University from 188G to 1898; Theodore William Dwight, founder and for thirty-three years warden of Columbia Law School; "Henrietta Frances, wife of EH Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin, who, burning the midnight oil by the side of her ingenious husband, helped him to his enduring fame; Merrill Edwards Gates, president of Amherst College; Catherine Maria Sedgwick of graceful pen; Charles Sedgwick Minot, authority on biology and em- bryology in the Harvard Medical School, and Winston Churchill, the author of Coniston." ^ These constitute a glorious galaxy of America's great educators, students and moral leaders of the Republic. Two other of the descendants of Elizabeth Tuttle through her son Timothy, have been purposely omitted from the fore- going catalogue since they belong in a class by themselves, because they inherited also the defects of Elizabeth's char- acter. These two were Pierrepont Edwards, who is said to have been a tall, brilliant, acute jurist, eccentric and licen- tious; and Aaron Burr, Vice-President of the United States, in whom flowered the good and the evil of Elizabeth Tuttle's blood. Here the lack of control of the sex-impulse in the germ plasm of this wonderful woman has reappeared with imagination and other talents in certain of her descendants. The remarkable qualities of Elizabeth Tuttle were in the germ plasm of her four daughters also: Abigail Stoughton, EHzabeth Deming, Ann Richardson and Mabel Bigelow. All of these have had distinguished descendants of whom only a few can be mentioned here. Robert Treat Paine, signer of the Declaration of Independence, descended from Abigail, the Fairbanks Brothers, manufacturers of scales and hardware at St. Johnsbury, Vt., and the Marchioness of > From a manuscript furnished by a reliable genealogist. The etatenicntJ have not all been checked. 228 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS Donegal were descended from Elizabeth Deming; from Mabel Bigelow came Morrison R. Waite, Chief Justice of the United States, and the law author, Melville M. Bigelow; from Ann Richardson proceeded Marvin Richardson Vin- cent, professor of Sacred Literature at Columbia University, and also the Marchioness of Apesteguia of Cuba.^ Thus social and legal capacity of the very highest order may be traced back in origin to the germ plasm from which (in part) Ehzabeth Tuttle was also derived, but of which, it must never be forgotten, she was not the author. Neverthe- less, had Elizabeth Tuttle not been this nation would not occupy the position in culture and learning that it now does. 2. The First Families of Virginia This remarkable galaxy arose by the intermarriage of representatives of various English aristocratic families. The story of these early matings is briefly as follows : Richard Lee, of a Shropshire family that held much land and many of whose members had been knighted, went, during the reign of Charles I, to the Colony of Virginia as Secretary and one of the King's Privy Council. ''He was a man of good stature, comely visage, enterprising genius, sound head, vigorous spirit and generous nature." He gained large grants of land in Virginia. His son Richard married, in 1674, Laetitia, daughter of Henry Corbin and Alice Elton- head. The Corbins were wealthy and extensive landowners in England for 14 generations, and the Eltonheads were also an aristocratic family and extensive landowners of Virginia, holding high oflfices in the colony. Richard and Laetitia had six sons and one daughter (Fig. 175). Their daughter Ann married Colonel William Fitzhugh, a descendant of the English barons of that name who took prominent parts in 'From the genealogist's manuscript, deposited at the Eugenics Record Office. INFLUENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL 229 political and military movements of the day and occupied seats in parliament generation after generation. Their eldest son, Henry Fitzhugh, married Lucy Carter. One of their granddaughters married a Randolph; one of their sons, William Fitzhugh, a near neighbor and trusted friend of Washington, married Anne Randolph. Their daughter Anne married Judge William Craik; their daughter Mary married George Washington Parke Custis and became the mother of Mary Anne Randolph Custis and the grandmother of Gen. Robert E. Lee's children; and their son William Henry Fitzhugh married Aimsi Goldsborough. Richard Lee, son of Richard and Laetitia (Corbin) Lee, married an English heiress, Martha Silk, and had several children of whom one married a Fairfax, another a Colonel Corbin and a third Major George Tuberville of an ancient English family, himself Justice, Sherifif and Clerk. Philip Lee, another son of Richard, married a daughter of Hon. Thomas Brooke and Barbara Addison and their chil- dren married well. Thomas, brother of Philip, was a member of the House of Burgesses, member, and later president of the Council and later Acting Governor of the Colony. He married Hannah, daughter of Colonel Philip Ludwell, a descendant of a brother of Lord Cattington, a prominent statesman and diplomat of the reign of Charles II. One of the sons of Thomas and Hannah was Richard Henry Lee, a representative to the Continental Congress, who prepared the resolutions for independence ; and another son was Fran- cis Lightfoot Lee, a member of Congress; still another, Thomas, was a judge of the General Court. Finally there was Henry Lee, son of Richard and Laetitia, who lived quietly at the ancestral Lee Hall. He married Mary, daughter of Colonel Richard Bland, descendant of Sir Thomas Bland, of ancient and honorable family, created baronet by Charles I. Mary Bland's grandfather, Theod- 230 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS I ir tH(mhc«l,Cort>in UtiitJal JRichard h """^6^ Z m& Ap off'^tj^*' oho 5p DOtDODOPDO Corbin Randolph iMeodtCialh. |Cuiti» OoM OS Fig. 175. — Portion of the Lee family rick Bland, was speaker of the House of Burgesses, a mem- ber of the Council, inferior to none in his time. Of the three sons of Henry Lee and Mary Bland, John was a clerk of courts and a member of the House of Burgesses; Richard, was in the house of Burgesses and the House of Delegates; Henry, in the House of Burgesses, Conventions, and the State Senate. Such is a sample, merely, of the intermarriages of the first families of Virginia and their product — statesmen and military men, the necessary consequence of the deter- miners in their germ plasm. 3. The Kentucky Aristocracy Nearly two centuries ago John Preston of Londonderry, Irish born though English bred, married the Irish girl Eliza- beth Patton, of Donegal, and to the wilderness of Virginia took his wife and built their home, Spring Hill. "Of this union there were five children, Letitia, who married Colonel Robert Breckinridge; Margaret, who married the Rev. John Brown; William, whose wife was Susannah Smith; Anne, who married Colonel John Smith; and Mary, who married Benjamin Howard." From them have come the most con- spicuous of those who bear the name of Preston, Brown, D INFLUENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL >31 5o 5o6aa~ oJSo ip n T»4or qo DDoaqo sip Blixnd I Tir> IC«/W tousiru cummt I? 60 yr' oaaaru TayUjt of Virginia, showing intermarriages. Smith, Carrington, Venable, Payne, Wickcliffe, Wooley, Breckinridge, Benton, Porter and many other names WTitten high in history. "They were generally persons of great talent and thor- oughly educated; of large brain and magnificent physique. The men were brave and gallant, the women accomplished and fascinating and incomparably beautiful. There was no aristocracy in America that did not eagerly open its veins for the infusion of this Irish blood; and the families of Washington and Randolph and Patrick Henry and Henry Clay and the Hamptons, Wickliffes, Marshalls, Peytons, Cabells, Crittendens, and Ingersolls felt proud of their alliances with this noble Irish family. "They were governors and senators and members of Con- gress, and presidents of colleges and eminent divines, and brave generals from Virginia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mis- souri, California, Ohio, New York, Indiana, and South Caro- lina. There were four governors of old Virginia. They were members of the cabinets of Jefferson and Taylor and Bu- chanan and Lincoln. They had major-generals and brigadier- generals by the dozen; members of the Senate and House of Representatives by the score; and gallant officers in the 232 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS army and navy by the hundred. They furnished three of the recent Democratic candidates for Vice-president of the United States. They furnished the Union Army General B. Gratz Brown, General Francis P. Blair, General Andrew J. Alexander, General Edwin C. Carrington, General Thomas C. Crittenden, Colonel Peter A. Porter, Colonel John M. Brown, and other gallant officers. To the southern army they gave Major-General John C. Breckinridge, Major- General William Preston, General Randall Lee Gibson, General John B. Floyd, General John B. Grayson, Colonel Robert J. Breckinridge, Colonel W. C. P. Breckinridge, Colonel William Watts, Colonel Gary Breckinridge, Colonel William Preston Johnson, aide to Jefferson Davis, with other colonels, majors, chaplains, surgeons, fifty of them at least the bravest of the brave, sixteen of them dying on the field of battle, and all of them, and more than I can enumer- ate, children of this one Irish emigrant from the county of Derry, whose relatives are still prominent in that part of Ireland, one of whom was recently mayor of Belfast." Overlooking the pardonable rhetoric and family pride in the last sentence, that neglects the hundreds of other an- cestors of these famous men, the quotation has a scientific value in comparison with the product of Elizabeth Tuttle. The New England family glows with scholars and inventors, the Virginia and Kentucky families with statesmen and military men. The result is not due to the differences in the characteristics of Elizabeth Tuttle and Richard Edwards, Richard and Laetitia Lee, John and Elizabeth Preston, respectively, but to the different traits of the New England settlers as a whole and Virginia cavalier-colonists as a body. The initial person becomes a great progenitor largely because of some fortunate circumstance of personal gift or excellent reputation that enables his offspring to marry into the ''best blood." INFLUENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL 233 4. The "Jukes" On the other hand, we have the striking cases of families of defectives and criminals that can be traced back to a sin- gle ancestor. The case of the "Jukes" is well known. We are first introduced to a man known in literature as Max, liv- ing as a backwoodsman in New York State and a descendant of the early Dutch settlers; a good-natured, lazy sot, with- out doubt of defective mentality. He has two sons who marry two of six sisters whose ancestry is uncertain but of such a nature as to lead to the suspicion that they are not full sisters. One of these sisters is known as "Ada Juke," -also as "Margaret, the mother of criminals." She was in- dolent and a harlot before marriage. Besides an illegitimate son she had four legitimate children. The first, a son, was indolent, licentious and syphilitic; he married a cousin and had eight children all syphilitic from birth. Of the 7 daugh- ters 5 were harlots and of the others one was an idiot and one of good reputation. Their descendants show a pre- ponderance of harlotry in the females and much consan- guineous marriage. The second son was a farm laborer, was industrious and saved enough to buy 14 acres of land. He married a cousin and the product was 3 stillborn children, a harlot, an insane daughter who committed suicide, an indus- trious son, who, however, was licentious, and a pauper son. The first daughter of "Ada" was an indolent harlot who later married a lazy mulatto and produced 9 children, harlots and paupers, who produced in turn a licentious progenj\ Ada had an illegitimate son who was an industrious and honest laborer and married a cousin. Two of the three sons were licentious and criminalistic in tendency and the third, while capable, drank and received out-door relief. All of the three daughters were harlots or prostitutes and two married criminals. The third generation shows the eruption of criminality. Excepting the children of the third son, 234 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS none of whom were criminalistic, we find among the males 12 criminals, 1 licentious, 5 paupers, 1 alcohohc and 1 un- known; none were normal citizens. Among the females 3 were harlots, 1 pauper, 1 a vagrant and 2 unknown; none were known to be reputable. Thus it appears that crimi- nality lies in the illegitimate line from Ada and not at all in the legitimate — doubtless because of a difference in germ plasm of the fathers. The progeny of the harlot Bell Juke is a dreary monotony of harlotry and licentiousness to the fifth generation. Two in the fourth generation there are and two in the fifth against whom there is nothing and their progeny mostly moved to another neighborhood and are lost sight of. Very likely they have married into stronger strains and are founders of reputable families. The progeny of Effie Juke and the son of Max (a thief) show to the fifth generation a different aspect. Some larceny and assault there is and not a little sexual immorality, but pauperism is the prevailing trait. Thus, in the same environment, the descendants of the illegitimate son of Ada are prevailingly criminal; the progeny of Bell are sexually immoral; and the offspring of EflSe are paupers. The difference in the germ plasm determines the difference in the prevailing trait. But however varied the forms of non-social behavior of the progeny of the mother of the Juke girls the result was calculated to cost the State of New York over a million and a quarter of dollars in 75 years — up to 1877, .and their protoplasm has been multiplied and dispersed during the subsequent 34 years and is still marching on. 5. The Ishmaelites Another example of a great family tracing back to a single man may be taken from "the Tribe of Ishmael" of Central INFLUENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL 235 Indiana, as worked out under the direction of the Rev. Oscar C. McCuUoch of the Charity Organization Society, Indian- apolis. The progenitor of this tribe, Ben Ishmael, was in Kentucky as far back as 1790, having come from Maryland through Kentucky. One of his sons, John, married a half- breed woman and came into Marion County, Indiana, about 1840. His three sons who figure in this history married three sisters from a pauper family named Smith. They had alto- gether 14 children that survived, 60 grandchildren and 30 great-grandchildren living in 1888. "Since 1840 this family has had a pauper record. They have been in the almshouse, the House of Refuge, the Woman's Reformatory, the peni- tentiaries and have received continuous aid from the town- ships. They are intermarried with the other members of this group, — and with over two hundred other families. In this family history are murderers, a large number of illegiti- macies and of prostitutes. They are generally diseased. The children die young. They live by petty stealing, begging and ash-gathering. In summer they "Gipsy" or travel in wagons, east or west. We hear of them in Illinois about Decatur and in Ohio about Columbus. In the fall they re- turn. They have been known to live in hollow trees on the river bottoms or in empty houses. Strangely enough, they are not intemperate to excess." "A second tj^^ical case is that of the Owens family, also from Kentucky. There were originally four children, of whom two have been traced, William and Brook. William had three children, who raised pauper famihes. One son of the third generation died in the penitentiary; his two sons in the fourth generation have been in the penitentiary; a daughter in the fourth generation was a prostitute with two illegitimate children. Another son in the third generation had a penitentiary record and died of delirium tremens." An illegitimate half-breed Canadian woman enters this 236 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS family. There have been several murders and a continuous pauper and criminal record. There is much prostitution, but Httle intemperance. *' Brook had a son John, who was a Presbyterian minister. He raised a family of 14 illegitimate children. Ten of these came to Indiana, and their pauper record begins about 1850. Of the ten, tliree raised illegitimate children in the fifth generation." The families with which the Ishmaelites intermarried (30 in number) came mostly from Kentucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina. ''Of the first generation — of 62 indi- viduals— we know certainly of only three. In the second generation we have the history of 94. In the third genera- tion, we have the history of 283. In the fourth generation (1840-1860) we have the history of 644. In the fifth genera- tion (1860-1880) we have the history of 57. Here is a total of 1,750 individuals. Before the fourth generation (from 1840-1860), we have but scant records. Our more complete data begin with the fourth generation, and the following are valuable. We know of 121 prostitutes. The criminal record is very large, — ^petty thieving, larcenies, chiefly. There has been a number of murders. The first murder committed in the city was in this family. A long and celebrated murder case known as the 'Clem' murder, costing the State im- mense sums of money, is located here, nearly every crime of any note belongs here." What a vivid picture has Mc- Culloch drawn of the influence on a community of its "bad blood," forming an intergenerating, self-perpetuating, anti- social class — anti-social because possessed of such traits as feeble-mindedness, wandering mania, eroticism, and "moral imbecihty." How slow the community is to protect itself by adopting some method of preventing their reproduction ! INFLUENCE OF THE INDIN IDLAL 237 6. The Banker Family The examples given above are extreme, to be sure; they were selected just because they are extreme. But it is just as true that every family whose early ancestors showed some striking trait reveals that trait now and again in the offspring. One can find evidence of this in almost any inteUigently compiled genealogical history. Take, for example, the Banker family. There were two Dutchmen who were early settlers in New York State: Gerrit, who settled about 1654 in Albany, and Laurens, who settled some years later in Tarrytown. They were, apparently, not related and their descendants have not intermarried. The two lines present some striking contrasts. ''Gerrit appears to have been well educated for that time and was a very successful merchant and Indian trader, accumulating a considerable property. His descendants were largely merchants, although many become farmers." In general they maintained a high degree of culture and social rank. Several of them attained to positions of promi- nence in the affairs of the Colony before and during the Revolution. For example, the first Treasurer of the State and the first Speaker of the Assembly were both from this family, while several held commissions in the Revolutionary Army. Since that period they have been less prominent in public affairs, although maintaining a position of high social standing and respectabihty." Laurens, on the other hand, had no education, could not write his name, at least when a young man, and was a laborer and farmer. His descendants ''may be said in some ways to have started at the bottom. The family prior to the Revolution was obscure, its members were chiefly laborers, farmers, and artisans with only limited opportunities for education and acquiring but little of this world's goods. In 238 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS the Revolution they actually furnished more soldiers than the Gerrit Banker family, but none of them held rank above a corporal. They were, in fact, as often described in legal documents, yeomen, and yeomen under a semi-feudal sys- tem. With the organization of the new nation a larger op- portunity opened. To-day many of this family have reached places of high social standing while a few have been brought into a considerable degree of public prominence." ^ In this instructive example we see the persistence of an initial difference with a final tendency to approach a common leveL Because in the absence of caste, and the desire to marry as well as possible, new and strong characters are introduced into the germ plasm. ' Compare Banker, 1909. CHAPTER VII THE STUDY OF AMERICAN FAMILIES Nowhere else is a genealogical interest keener than in America. The possibility of tracing one's pedigree back to the first ancestor of the name in the country has inspired thousands of genealogical researches, and the demand for assistance in working out pedigrees has created the pro- fessional genealogist. Still the amateur's work, like most labors of love, is usually to be preferred because of the per- sonal element involved. 1. The Study of Genealogy The study of genealogy, under the stimulus of our modern insight into heredity, is destined to become the most important handmaid of eugenics. The conscientious and scientific genealogist records a brief biography of each person of the pedigree and such a biography should be an analysis of the person's traits; an inventory of his physical and mental characteristics; his special tastes and gifts as shown by his occupation and especially his avocations. It would be well, so far as possible, to go further than that, if not for publication at least for record. ^ It will be desirable to get a statement of physical weaknesses, diseases to which there was liability and causes of death. There are none of these classes of data that are not included in some genealogies; it » The Eugenics Record Office has an isolated fire proof vault at Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y., in which it will receive and keep safe and confidential any rec- ords that genealogists will deposit there. All genealogical data is indexed on cards so as to be made accessible to properly qualified persons who wish to use it for justifiable purposes. 239 210 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS would be well if all were included in all genealogies. Another desideratum is abundant photographs of the persons whose biographies are given ; especially, strictly full-face and profile, to facilitate comparisons; and two or three photographs at successive ages would be still better than one. Attention should be paid to the form of the pedigree. The commonest form is that which begins with the first known male ancestor bearing the surname. His children are given, but in the later generations only the offspring of males are named. Few genealogies attempt either to trace the lines going through females or to give the ancestry of the consorts. A second form of pedigree begins with the author or some other one person and gives an account of all of his direct ancestors in ever expanding number toward the earlier generations. This method is scarcely more valuable than the other from a scientific point of view, based as it is upon the exploded idea that inheritance is from parents, grand- parents, etc. The ideal genealogy, it seems to me, starts with a (pref- erably large) fraternity. It describes fully each member of it. It then describes each member of the fraternity to which the father belongs and gives some account of their consorts (if married) and their children. It does the same for the maternal fraternity. Next, it considers the fraternity to which the father's father belongs, considers their consorts, their children and their grandchildren and it does the same for the fraternities to which the father's mother belongs. If possible, earlier generations are to be similarly treated. It were more significant thus to study in detail the behavior of all the available product of the germ plasms involved in the makeup of the first fraternity than to weld a chain or two of links through six or seven generations. A genealogy constructed on such a plan would give a clear picture of heredity, would be useful for the prediction of the charac- THE STUDY OF AMERICAN FAMILIES )in teristics of the generations yet unborn, and would, indeed, aid in bringing about better matings. It is to be hoped that the time will come when each person will regard it as a patriotic duty to cooperate in the compilation of such genealogical records even to the statement of facts which are, according to the (often false) conventions of tin; day, not considered ''creditable." 2. Family Traits The results of such genealogical studies will be striking. Each "family" will be seen to be stamped with a peculiar set of traits depending upon the nature of its germ plasm. One family will be characterized by political activity, an- other by scholarship, another by financial success, another by professional success, another by insanity in some members with or without brilliancy in others, another by imbecility and epilepsy, another by larceny and sexual immorality, another by suicide, another by mechanical ability, or vocal talent, or ability in literary expression. In some families the members are prevailingly slender, in others stout; in some tall, others short; some blue-eyed, others dark-eyed; some with flaxen hair, others with black hair; some have diseases of the ear, others of the eye, or throat or circulation. In some nearly all die of consumption; in others there is no weakness of the mucous membranes but a tendency to apoplexy; others die prevailingly of Bright's disease or valv- ular disease of the heart, or of pneumonia. In some families nearly all die at over 80, in others all die under 40 years of age. Stammering, hirsuteness, extra dentition, aquiline nose, lobeless-ears, crooked digits, extra digits, short digits, broad thumbs, ridged nails, — there is hardly an organ or the smallest part of an organ that has not its peculiar condition that stamps a family. Said a lady to me, "I was traveling in Egypt and met a 242 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS man who was introduced to me as Mr. Osborn. I said to him 'My mother was an Osborn. I wonder if we are related.' He replied, 'Let me see if you have the Osborn thumb,' " and she was able to show the family trade-mark. How often a peculiar laugh, a trick of speech or gesture will serve to identify the family of a stranger. Once in a city where my family was well known but where I was a stranger I needed to get a check cashed and went to an office where my father and brother had done business. On explaining my need to the head of the firm he supphed it without hesitation, saying: "Though I have never seen you before I would know anywhere that you were a Davenport." So wonderfully are details of facial muscles, form of skull bones and nose cartilage stamped in the family blood. Such features as these deserve full treatment in the philosophical family history. Many works on genealogy, as I have said, give a httle account of family traits. A few of those have been ex- cerpted from the pubhshed works and are reproduced here chiefly to illustrate the specificity of human families. Of course, except where there is much consanguineous marriage, not all traits will appear in all or even most individuals of the family, and new traits are being introduced by marriage. But certain characteristics because of their special nature or the frequency with which they occur in certain branches of the family will come to be known as ''family traits." Allerton (Allerton, 1888). The great majority of the family to-day, as always, are farmers; have never showed a tendency to city Hfe. Next to farming, machinist is the most favored occupation. Mostly large framed, few blondes, slender and lithe in youth; fleshy in old age. A quick-tempered race; decided, uncommunicative, reserved. Balch (MSS.). " Balch spelling " said to be a recognizable trait. THE STUDY OF AMERICAN FAiMILIKS ^iVl Bascom (Harris, 1870). Stout, compact form, head weU set back upon the shoulders, dark skin, dark gray eye, massive head and round, high, full forehead. Banning (Banning, 1908). Determination and will-power almost to point of stubbornness; faithful to friends and famiUes, fairness to enemies; clannishness, ability for hard, reliable work, firmness of mouth. Breed (Breed, 1892). As a rule, positive, determined, industrious and persevering in business and careful of their income. Brinckerhoff (Brinckerhoff, 1887). Blue eyes, Roman features, magnetic and generous; ofttimes impulsive, some- times absolutely wrong in actions and convictions but true and steadfast in the wrong. Usually can whistle a tune or sing a song without any apparent effort. Buck (Buck, 1893). Quickness and activity in move- ment; fast walkers. One could seize with his right hand the toe of his left boot and whilst so holding it and standing erect jump with his right foot backwards and forwards over his left leg. Fluency in conversation and aptness for ac- quiring languages. Cole (Cole, 1887). Asa Cole was a man of immense physical strength and endurance; he suffered a paralytic stroke. His son, John Cole, was a man of fine physique, and died from a stroke of apoplexy; a second cousin, Sahnon Cole, was almost a giant in strength. Colegrove (Colegrove, 1894). Strong individuality of character, often called peculiar or secretive, very self-reliant. Doolittle (Doolittle, 1901). Large, robust physique, florid complexion, high spirit, jovial disposition. Dwight (Dwight, 1874). Moderate sized families; lon- gevity not high, commonly well-to-do and inclined to hberal culture; much mihtary talent. Humphreys (Humphreys, 1883). Self-reliance, readiness 244 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS of acquisition ; professional men, few tradesmen and mechan- ics; artistic temperament, good talkers and eloquent speak- ers; benignity and quietness. Johnsons of Harpswell, Maine (Sinnett, 1907). Hospi- tality, story-telling. Kimball (Morrison, 1897). Powerful memory; few poli- ticians. Lemen (Lemen, 1898). Strongly accentuated mental and moral traits; a ''family habit" of sUght despondency; some gift for poetry. Lindsay (Lindsay, 1889). Cheerfulness, hospitality. Mell (Mell, 1897). Social, genial, fun-loving tempera- ments. Mickley (Mickley, 1893). No lawyers, but other profes- sions; nearly all in comfortable circumstances. Neighbor or Nachbar (Neighbor, 1906). Not restive; neighborly, temperate. Reed of Massachusetts (Reed, 1861). Few die of pul- monary complaints. Generally live to old age, 85 or 90 or even 100 years being nothing unusual. Capable of great endurance. Taller than average. One custom has pre- vailed among them to some extent; that of marrying rela- tives. ''Consequences have been injurious; many of the offspring of such marriages dying in infancy, early youth or middle age, few living to advanced years, to say nothing of cases where effect has been still more melancholy." Riggs (Wallace, 1901). A large proportion are governed by strong religious convictions and are active in religious thought and work. Many daughters of the family have married Presbyterian ministers and in due time became mothers of Presbyterian ministers themselves. Root (Root, 1870). Eight sons of Samuel were tall (with two exceptions), quick, subject to frequent attacks of head- ache; general family trait a prominent (frequently aquiline) THE STUDY OF AMERICAN FAMILIES 24.5 nose, light complexion, blue eyes, somewhat commanding presence and vivacity of manner. Sinclair (Morrison, 1896). Fond of athletic sports and feats of strength and skill, much mechanical knowledge, practical, loving activities and experiences of frontiersman better than books or studies of scholars and of professional life. Love of military life. Slay ton (Slayton, 1898). Musical, especially vocally. Large famihes, twenty pairs of twins and one set of triplets recorded. Tapley (Tapley, 1900). Quick and nervous movements, fondness for music, short stature, genial disposition. Men of affairs rather than of professions. Tiffany (Tiffany, 1903). Complexion dark, eye bright with expression changing rapidly with mood indicating health, sympathy, grief, determination or anger with quick- ness and unerring certainty; "a Tiffany mark." Twining (Twining, 1905). Broad-shouldered, dark hair, prominent nose, nervous temperament, temper usually quick, not revengeful. Heavy eyebrows, humorous vein and sense of ludicrous; lovers of music and horses. Varick (Wheeler, 1906). A colored family, very light in complexion, some members pass for white. Zahniser (Zahniser, 1906). Tall, many 6 feet or over, heavy black hair, rarely falling out, face broad, cheek-bones prominent, eyebrows protruding. Type becoming rarer in recent generations. The traits named in the foregoing hst have a very dis- similar value and significance as inheritable characters. But some, at least, have the same value as the famous "Haps- burg lip." Were our population so closely inbred as Euro- pean royalty it would show hundreds of characteristics with the same family value. But our families are constantly out- marrying and a definite trait becomes disseminated into 246 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS scores of family names so that its family signification be- comes lost. The facts that we have been considering above lead to a conclusion quite in line with modern experimental work in heredity and with the interpretation of varieties. The white race as seen in America to-day is made up of thou- sands, yes, hundreds of thousands of kinds of protoplasm which differ by the possession of at least one determiner for a peculiar, differentiating trait. The potential strains that are constituted by these different kinds are not, how- ever, real strains because they are constantly crossed into other strains. Only when there is a high degree of con- sanguineous marriage, as in small islands, or mountain val- leys, is this potentiahty reahzed. Otherwise the traits soon become dissociated from the family names of those who brought them to this country and they become dissemi- nated into many related families. But the potentiality for the production of a strain or race remains. Now the fact of the existence of such strains in this country has an important bearing upon studies made on man. For example, our text-books on anatomy give an account of structure that is based on the finding of numerous autopsies. The original author of such a work records for each organ and part the condition in which he has found it in the material that he has dissected. If he goes into enough detail he has to state in connection with each de- scription that it does not hold universally but that, on the contrary, in one cadaver or another this and that modi- fication has been found. The name of the family to which the cadaver belongs, its ancestral history, is usually not given (and indeed it frequently cannot be obtained), but it is important that it should be ascertained, if possible, for the same reason that it is important to know if the cadaver were of a Caucasian or a Chinaman. Indeed, as a text- THE STUDY OF AMERICAN FAMILIES 247 book of Human Anatomy must be rewritten for the Chi- nese, for the Ethiopians, and for the Eskijnos, so must it be rewritten for the Rumanian, for the North Italian, for the Norwegian and for the Spaniard. Nor will the same description of structure of the human body serve, in all details, for the Lees of Virginia, the Ishmaelites of Indiana and the Edwards family of New England. Siniihirly the text-books of pathology are not universally applicable. There are hundreds of diseases listed that you and I could no more have than we could have extra fingers or a retina without pigment. Even the symptoms of a disease will differ in different strains; for the symptoms of a disease like typhoid fever are not due only to the typhoid germ but to the reaction of the particular living body to those germs. In not a few cases the prognosis, or prospect of the course of the disease, should read : The prognosis can be got by asking the head of the family " What is the usual course of the disease in this family?" Indeed, the classification and diagnosis of a disease is often got better by a com- parison of the brother and sister of the patient than by reference to a book of symptoms. "I knew a family of four sisters," said Dr. E. E. Southard to me, "three of whom had manic-depressive insanity; the fourth had a mental disorder that had been classified quite otherwise by another physician. But a comparison of the sisters showed that the mental disorder was of the same type in all." Bleeders in different families differ in the ease with which hemorrhage is induced and the difficulty in stopping it; and in the SuUivan County bleeders the disorder runs a peculiar course so that they are called "nine-day bleed- ers." Of imbecility there are, as we have seen, all grades and all usually incurable; but the great "moron" or simple- ton family of New Jersey is peculiar in that mental develop- ment is not permanently arrested but only much retarded. 248 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS So albinism varies much in degree and certain families are recognized as containing partial albinos; others, neai'ly com- plete albinos; still others, complete albinos. Pathologies describe some diseases as common, others as rare; yet, within limits, this must depend on the geo- graphical location of the author. At the east end of Long Island Huntington's chorea is not a rare disease as it seems to be in Eastern Massachusetts. Deaf mutism was found in 4 per cent of the population of Chilmark, in 1880, and the practitioner of that place would gain an impression of its frequency which would differ from that of a hospital surgeon in New York City. Hospital surgeons in great cities believe they get a better average view because they get random samples out of a great mixture; but in just so^ far they lose sight of the essential feature of the specificity of the different strains of human germ plasm and too often gain the impression that the sporadic examples of a disease that come to their hands prove the purely accidental nature of its incidence. The metropolitan hospital with its random sampling is the last place to get a proper idea of the relation of disease to germ plasm. It is the venerable country doc- tor in a long settled and stable community who can tell tales of hereditary tendencies. It was stated above that cooperation in putting on record one's family history should be regarded as a patriotic duty. I might go further and say that, just as the traits of criminals and defectives go on pubhc or semi-public rec- ords, with even more reason a record should be kept of our best families and of their traits. Enlightened com- munities preserve records of births, marriages and deaths and of various business transactions, especially in land. It is not less important to keep a record of innate capacities and valuable traits. For it is not too much to say that the future of our nation depends on the perpetuation by repro- THE STUDY OF AMERICAN FAMILIES 249 duction of our best protoplasm in proper matings and we cannot have proper matings unless our best protoplasm is located and known. The day may come when in intelli- gent circles a woman will accept a man without knowing his biologico-genealogical history with as much hesitation as a stock-breeder will accept as a sire for his colts or calves an animal without a pedigree. Since restriction of the num- ber of children seems, for better or worse, to be the fashion with our older families, let every effort be put forth to secure that each child shall be of the best quality in respect to inborn capacities.^ 3. The Integrity of Family Traits We often hear persons who are impressed by the multi- pHcity of one's ancestors make light of family pride in some preeminent forbear. They ask of what significance can such an ancestor be whose blood is diluted to one part in a thousand? This way of looking at heredity is a relic of a former view that a trait when mated to its absence pro- duced a half trait in the progeny as skin color was consid- ered to do, and which gave rise to the conception of quad- roons, octaroons, etc., with successive lightening of the skin io %, % and so on. Now that we know that even skin color may segregate out in the ancestral full grades we are ready to accept as practically universal the rule that unit characters do not blend; that apparent blends in a trait are a consequence of its composition out of many units. Since this is so, a unit character (especially a negative char- acter) which a remote ancestor possessed may reappear, after many generations have passed, in its pristine purity. A germ plasm that produced a mathematical genius only 1 The need for a full Family Record is, we may hope, about to be 611ed by Dr. J. Madison Taylor of Philadelphia. Moanwhilo those who wish a wpy of the Family Records of the Eugenics Record Ofline may obtain it on applica- tion. 250 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS once, a century ago, may produce another not less note- worthy again. A feature of positive unit characters, which from their very nature tend to reappear in each generation is that of anticipation. This means that the trait appears at an earlier age in each generation. Nettleship (1910, pp. 23-25) has re- ferred to some striking cases of this. Thus he gives three pedigrees of hereditary glaucoma and diabetes illustrating this law. In one case the average known age in successive generations for the incidence of glaucoma is 66 and 48 years; in another family 71, 45, and 23 years; in still another, 47 and 20. In the case of diabetes deaths occurred, on the average, at 69, 35 and 26 years. Nettleship explains this result ''by assuming that certain defects, taints or vices of the system, say of the blood, are not only hereditary in the true or germinal sense, but able to produce toxic agents in the embryo which have an evil influence upon all its cells, and thus so lower their power of resistance that the innate hereditary factor has freer play and is likely to manifest itself earlier." The law of segregation of traits, the disproof of the blend- ing hjTDothesis, is of the utmost importance since it shows how a strain may get completely rid of an undesirable trait. If the undesirable character is a positive one, like polydac- tylism, it will disappear if the normal children alone have offspring. If it is a negative character its complete and certain elimination is not so easy to be assured of, but off- spring without the undesirable trait are easily secured if marriage be always with germ plasm that is without the defect. Thus a simpleton married into a mentally strong strain will probably have mentally well endowed offspring. Here is where the beneficence of heredity clearly appears. But do traits never arise de novo is often asked. If you deny it, how do you account for the presence of great men THE STUDY OF AMERICAN FAMILIES 251 from obscure origin? For example, Mohanmied, Napoleon, Lincoln. First of all, in seeking for an explanation of the origin of such "sports" of which history is full, we must inquire if the putative paternity is the real one. Not infre- quently a weak woman has had illegitimate children by the wayward scion of a great family. The oft repeated story that Abraham Lincoln was descended on his mother's side from Chief Justice John Marshall of Virginia, whether it has any basis or not, illustrates the possibility of the origin of great traits through two obscure parents. In the second place we have seen that many elements of genius are nega- tive characters and, as such, they may be transmitted with- out influencing the soma of the transmitter. Thus two parents without mathematical genius might bring together germ cells whose union would favor a mathe- matical prodigy; and the same is true of many other traits. Indeed, as many of our pedigrees show, genius frequently, if not usually, appears in families with mental defects, in- sanity, or at least neurotic tendencies. It is just these sturdy, stohd communities of which not a few are found in Eastern Pennsylvania that, I am informed, produce few insane per- sons as well as few geniuses. The connection between genius and mental defect or aberration has been often referred to, especially by Lombroso and his followers, and as often scoffed at. But, apart from the significant association of the two conditions in pedigrees, there is no a 'priori objection to the view that the flights of the imagination, one of the most con- stant features of genius, should be associated with, that flightiness that is a symptom of insanity, or that the absence of complete mental development should be associated with the absence of one or more of these inhibitors that marks the man or woman of great talent. CHAPTER VIII EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS 1. Heredity and Environment Admitting, as we must, the importance of hereditary tendencies in determining man's physical traits, his behavior and his diseases, we cannot overlook the question that must occur to all — What relation have the facts of heredity to those of environmental influence, to the known facts of in- fection and bad conditions of life? Indeed, were we to accept the teachings of some, environment alone is impor- tant, good training, exercise, food, and sunUght can put \r anybody in a "normal" condition. So long as we regard heredity and environment as opposed so long will we experience endless contradictions in interpret- ing any trait, behavior or disease. The truth seems to be that for human phenomena there is not only the external or en- vironmental cause but also an internal or personal cause. The result is, in most cases, the reaction of a specific sort of protoplasm to a specific stimulus. For example, the contro- versy as to the inheritableness versus the communicableness of 'Hhe itch" receives a simple solution if we recognize that there is an external agent, probably a parasite, that can, however, develop only in persons who are non-immune. Since such persons are rather uncommon and the absence of immunity is inheritable, the disease tends to run in f amiUes and can rarely be caught even through inoculation, by per- sons outside such families. Even in cases where the heredi- tary factor is universally admitted as in manic-depressive 252 EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS 253 insanity, the onset of the symptoms may be delayed by very favorable conditions of hfe. But though such symptoms may be diminished and the patient be discharged from the hospital as ''cured," yet the weakness in his germ plasm Is not removed and it will, unless he be fitly mated, show itself in his children when they, in turn, experience an unusual stress. Even the fugue tendency of the child of three years (page 89) might not have expressed itself so acutely had he lived in the country with freedom to wander widely at will instead of being restrained within the confines of city houses and narrow streets, In extreme cases, however, of which complete albinism is an example, the trait seems to be due to the entire absence in both of the united germ cells of any determiner for the character. Under these circumstan- ces not even the best of environmental conditions can bring about pigmentation. Albinism is a protoplasmic ' ' accident " as independent of environment as drowning by the over- turning of an ocean steamship is independent of heredity. With few exceptions, the principle that the biological and pathological history of a child is determined both by the nature of the environment and the nature of the protoplasm may be applied generally. It is an incomplete statement that the tubercle bacillus is the cause of tuberculosis or al- cohol the cause of delirium tremens or syphilis the cause of paresis. Experience proves it, for not all that harbor the tubercle bacillus show the dread symptoms of tuberculosis (else there were little hope of escape for any of us) ; nor do all drimkards have deUrium tremens, nor are all who are infected by syphiHs paretic, else our hospitals for the insane would be fuller than they are. Rather, each of these diseases is the specific reaction of the organism to the specific poison. In general, the causes of disease as given in the pathologies are not the real causes. They are due to inciting conditions act- ing on a susceptible protoplasm. The real cause of death of 254 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS any person is his inability to cope with the disease genn or other untoward conditions. How prone we are to neglect the personal side of the result! We explain that Mr. A. has gone insane from business losses or overwork. Yet hundreds suffer great losses and work hard and show no signs of nervous breakdown. It would be more accurate to say A. went insane because his nervous mechan- ism was not strong enough to stand the stresses to which it was put. As a matter of fact insanity rarely occurs except where the protoplasm is defective. Also epilepsy, which is so often ascribed to external conditions, is, like imbecility, determined chiefly by the conditions of the germ plasm; and the trivial circumstance that first reveals the defect is as little the true cause as the touching the electric button that opens an exposition is the motive power of its vast engines. "Father," says the young hopeful, "may I go skating?" "So far as I am concerned; but you had better ask your mother," replies the father. "No, indeed," puts in the mother, " for I read in the paper the other day of a boy who fell on the ice and had an epileptic fit." Thus does the un- trained mind confuse contributing and essential causes. ^o 2. Eugenics and Uplift The relation of eugenics to the vast efforts put forth to ameliorate the condition of our people, especially in crowded cities, should not be forgotten. Education is a fine thing and the hundreds of millions an- nually spent upon it in our country are an excellent invest- ment. But every teacher knows that the part he plays in education is after all a small one. In the same class will be two boys who have had the same school training. One catches ideas almost before they are expressed, makes knowl- edge his own as soon as it is acquired, and passes with swift- ness and thoroughness to the limit of the teacher's capacity to EUGENICS AND EUTIIENICS ^55 impart. Another comprehends slowly, advances only by constant drill and hammering, and seems as little plastic as a piece of wood. Another may be slow in most work but rapid in mathematics, and still another may be first in English composition and incapable of acquiring algebra. The expert teacher can do much with good material; but his work is closely limited by the protoplasmic makeup — the inherent traits — of his pupils. Religious teachers do a grand work and the value to the state of properly developed and controlled emotions is in- calculable. Yet how dependent, after all, arc religious or moral teachings upon the nature of those who receive them. I have heard ministers express regret that they preached only to those who least needed their ministrations, but they for- got that to others their ministrations would be of little avail. Religion would be a more effective thing if everybody had a healthy emotional nature: and it can do nothing at all with natm-es that have not the elements of love, loyalty and de- votion. Of the importance of fresh air, good food, and rest in curing tuberculosis I have no doubt, yet how often have I seen per- sons brought up in the best of hygienic conditions, with every need supplied, forced to live in a camp in the Adirondacks or in Southern Arizona and, despite the best of trained nursing, gradually fade away. That cleaner milk, more air and sun- light will still further reduce the death rate of infants in New York city cannot be denied; yet there are infants who do not succumb to infantile diarrhea even in the slums. The per- sonal side must not be overlooked in properly estimating the value of prophylaxis. 3. The Elimination of Undesirable Traits The practical question in eugenics is this: What can be doiie to reduce the frequency of the undesirable mental and ^56 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS bodily traits which are so large a burden to our population? This question has often been asked. It has been answered in diverse ways, and, indeed, there are several methods of stopping the reproduction of undesirable traits. There is, first, the method of surgical operation. This prevents reproduction by either destroying or locking up germ cells. (There are two principal methods of surgical interference. One is castration, which removes the repro- ^ductive gland and destroj^s sexual desire. The other is vasectomy which prevents the escape of the germ cells to the exterior but does not lessen desire.j Neither of these operations is necessarily painful or liable to cause death or much inconvenience to the males. Corresponding opera- tions can be performed on the female but they are more serious in this sex since they involve opening the abdominal cavity. Concerning the power of the state to operate on selected persons there can be little doubt, not only since the right to the greater deprivation — that of life — includes the right to the lesser deprivation — that of reproduction — but also since these operations are actually made to-day and that of sterilization is legalized, under certain precautions, in six states of the union. There is no question that if every feeble-minded, epileptic, insane, or criminalistic person now in the United States were operated on this year there would be an enormous reduction of the population of our institu- tions 25 or 30 years hence; but is it certain that such asex- ualization or sterilization is, on the whole, the best treat- ment? Is there any other method which will interfere less with natural conditions and bring about the same or per- haps better results? One js_struckj)y the contrast between the hasteshmvn in legislating on so serious a matter com- pared with the hesitation in .appropriating even a small sum oFmoney to study the subject. EUGENICS AND EUTIIENICS 257 First, it may be pointed out that such legislation as is enacted does not square with what we know about heredity. It is based on the old notions that parents transmit their traits to their children. Now we know that traits are trans- mitted by means of the germ cells and by them alone, and the resemblance of children to parents is due to the fact that both arise from the same material — the father is half- brother to his child. While a feeble-minded person lacks, ipso facto, the determiner for normal development in his germ cells, still we do not know that his children will be de- fective. Such evidence as we have goes rather to show that if, for example, a man whose germ cells have the determiner for normal mentality marry a feeble-minded woman all of the children will be mentally normal or practically so. I can well imagine the marrying of a well-to-do, mentally strong man and a high-grade feeble-minded woman with beauty and social graces which should not only be pro- ductive of perfect domestic happiness but also of a large family of normal happy children. Half of the germ cells of such children would, indeed, be defective, but as long as the children married into normal strains the offspring, through an indefinite number of generations, would continue to be normal. Yet in many states of the Union such a marriage cannot be legalized; and, in others, the potential mother might be sterilized. Secondly, the laws against the marriage of the feeble- minded are unscientific because they attempt no definition of the class. If feeble-mindedness were always as clearly distinct from normality as polydactylism then there would be no objection to the law on this score. But this is by no means the case. If we measure the mentality of 10,000 in- dividuals by a quantitative test, such as that of Binet and Simon, then we shall find that the retardation in mental development for 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, etc., shows no- 258 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS where a sharp change indicating where the normal ceases and the abnormal begins. Shall we sterilize or forbid mar- riage to all children whose mental development is retarded as much as one year? That would include 38 per cent of all children, and one of yours, 0 legislator! Shall the limit be two years of retardation? That would include 18 per cent of the children. Shall the limit be three years? That will still be over 8 per cent — full one-twelfth of the population to be sterile. Is it not reckless to pass such serious legis- lation in such loose terms? Third, have we good ground for denying marriage, gener- ally and under all circumstances, to persons who as school children were even four years behind their fellows? Is it certain that the progeny of such a person will be four years older than their classmates at school, or three years, or two years or even one year? Is it desirable to encourage non-legal and irregular unions to sustain a law passed without inquiry and based on no certain knowledge? Oh, fie, on legislators who spend thousands of dollars on drastic action and refuse a dollar for an inquiry as to the desirability of such action! Fourth, even if it were desirable to prevent procreation of feeble-minded males of a certain grade, is it certain that vasectomy is to be preferred to castration? It is urged as one of the advantages of vasectomy that it does not inter- fere with desire nor its gratification but only with paternity. But is it a good thing to relieve the sexual act of that respon- sibility that it ought to carry and of which it has hitherto not been entirely free? Is not many a man restrained from licentiousness by recognizing the responsibility of possible parentage? Is not the shame of illicit parentage the fortress of female chastity? Is there any danger that the persons operated upon shall become a peculiar menace to the com- munity through unrestrained dissemination of venereal disease? Will the frequency of the crime of rape be dimin- EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS !2.59 ished by vasectomy? To many it would seem that to secure to a rapist his eroticism and uninhibited lust while he is re- leased from anj^ responsibility for offspring is not the way to safeguard female honor. Castration for rapists would seem preferable to vasectomy. Perhaps Indiana's experi- ment will give an answer to these questions. Fifth. Is there any alternative besides sterilization or asexualization? There doubtless is, though it may at first be more expensive. This method is the segregation through- out the reproductive period of the feeble-minded below a certain grade. If, under the good environment of institu- tional life, they show that their retarded development is a result merely of bad conditions they may be released and permitted to marry. But such as show a protoplasmic de- fect should be kept in the institution, the sexes separated, until the reproductive period is passed. I If this segregation were carried out thoroughly there is rekson to anticipate such a reduction in defectiveness in 15 or 20 years as to relieve the state of the burden of further increasing its in- stitutions, and in 30 years most of its properties, especially acquired to acconomodate all the seriously defective, could be sold.^ We have the testimony of Dr. D. S. Jordan (1910) that the cretins who formerly abounded at Aosta in Northern Italy were segregated in 1890 and by 1910 only a single cretin of 60 years and 3 demi-cretins remained in the com- munity. "Soeur Lucie, at the head of the work of the Little Sisters of the Poor, summed up the position in these words 'II n'y en a plus'"— there are no more. 'Such then, would seem to be the proper program for the elimination of the unfit— segregation of the feeble-minded, epileptic, in- sane, hereditary criminals and prostitutes throughout the reproductive period and the education of the more normal people as to fit and unfit matings. \ 200 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS 4. The Salvation of the Race thkough Heredity Heredity is often regarded as a terrible fact; that we suffer limitations because of the composition of our germ plasm is a blow to pride and ambition. But, on the other hand, with Umitation in capacity goes Umitation in responsibility. Those who held the hazy doctrine of freedom of the mil must have postulated uniformity of capacity for discriminating between right and wrong and uniformity in responsiveness to similar stimuli. Of course such an assumption is false. How we respond to any stimulus depends on the nature of our protoplasm.V The nature of therespo^emay be modified by training, by the formation of habits; but the result of train- ing is, wiHun Umlts, determined by the impressibility of the protoplasm. So I do not condemn my neighbor however "regrettable or dangerous he may be.^ And while heredity limits capacity in one point it ex- tends it in others. If I have mental limitations, I have also gifts of natural health, of physical vigor, of persistence, and so on. Thus, as there is hardly a strain of human germ plasm that is without some defect or Umitation so there is hardly a strain without the determiner of some admirable characteristic. While education and moral and religious in- struction may do much to develop one's native traits, he- redity can introduce the desirable determiner that will make such training more useful or less necessary. Indeed, while by good conditions we help the individual to make the most of himself, by good breeding we establish a permanent strain that is strong in its very constitution. The experience of animal and plant breeders who have been able by appro- priate crosses to increase the vigor and productivity of their stock and crops should lead us to see that proper matings are the greatest means of permanently improving the human race — of saving it from imbecihty, poverty, disease and im- morality. EUGENICS AND EUTIIENICS 2(il 5. The Sociological Aspect of Eugenics Human society, as its exists in these United States in this twentieth century, is complex. How complex it is, is in- dicated in some degree by the vast number of laws that have been passed and represent the rules of that society. These rules apply generally to all people alike. They tacitly assume that all people are alike ; while admitting that there are some who are difTerent and who constitute special classes that must be specially provided for. These special classes are of eugenic interest. Although well defined at one extreme, at the other they merge with the great mass of the population. The individuals composing these special classes are not in all respects distinct, but rather they are more or less peculiar in one or more respects. In fact the special classes which are the concern of the boards and associations of charities and correction consist of individuals with one or more traits that are more or less disturbing to the social organization. These individuals, or rather their traits — cause a disturbance and an expense of time and money quite out of proportion to their numbers in the community — they seem to be the main hindrance to our social progress. Moreover, their numbers seem to be increasing, hence it is a pressing need of the day to find out what is the cause and cure of defect- iveness and delinquency. The diversity of answers to such inquiry shows the depth of our helplessness. ^IentaLMectivenessJs_^^ nutrition of the fetus, to asphyxiation of the child during the labor of birth, to adenoids, to infection with venereal disease^espite jthe facTThat (excepting mongolism)_ it usiiaTly occurs "onlyln f amiliesjvitji^ the Jefect oiTboth side's'onTieliousT."TIkewisrcTT^^ is ascribed to pov- erty, to bad example, to bad or inadequate education, despite the fact of incorrigibility. Even when there is some relation between the alleged cause and the result one feels that all 262 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS these explanations are based on the logical error: post hoc ergo propter hoc: and that the cart is often put before the mule. The very multiplicity of explanations shows their in- adequacy. There is a more fundamental explanation for these non-social traits than any of those that are usually ascribed. First of all we can see clearly that the traits that cause so much trouble are ''unfortunate" or "bad" only in relation to our society, i. e., relatively, not absolutely. Lack of speech, inability to care for the person or to respond in the conventional fashion to the calls of nature, failure to learn the art of dressing and undressing, inability to count, en- tire lack of ambition beyond getting a meal, abject slothful- ness, love of sitting by the hour picking at a piece of cloth — these are unfortunate traits for a twentieth-century citizen but they constitute a first-rate mental equipment for our re- mote ape-like ancestors, nor do we pity infants, who in- variably have them. So likewise with crimes: — the acts of taking and keeping loose articles, of tearing away obstruc- tions to get at something desired, of picking valuables out of holes and pockets, of assaulting a neighbor who has some- thing desirable or who has caused pain or who is in the way, of deserting family and other relatives, of promiscuous sexual relations — these are crimes for a twentieth-century citizen but they are the normal acts of our remote, ape-hke ancestors and (excepting the last) they are so coimnon with infants that we laugh when they do such things. In a word the traits of thjjFegblejninded and the criminalistic are nor- mal traits for infants and for an earlier stage in rnfl.n'i=! pvqIji- tion. There is an aphorism that biologists use which is apt here — ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. This means that the individual (ontos) in its development passes through stages like those the race (phylum) has traversed in its evolu- tion. The infant represents the ape-like stage. EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS 263 Just as certain adult persons show ancestral organs that most of us have lost — such as a heavy coat of hair, an elon- gated coccyx (tail), an unusually large appendix, a third set of teeth,— so sonie_aduIt^p£rSQns^ retain certain ancestral mental traits that thejrest of_us have got ri(fofr~And just as thelieavycoat of body hair can be traced back generation after generation until we cannot avoid the conclusion that these hairy people represent a human strain that has never gained the naked skin of most people, so imbecility and " criminaHstic " tendency can be traced back to the dark- ness of remote generations in a way that forces us to con- clude that these traits have come to us directly . from our anim^al ancestry and have never been got rid of. The question how these traits ever came to be so rare in mankind is one with the question of human evolution and on this subject there is no historical evidence. It is clear, how- ever, that after the new traits became established and con- stituted the basis for the new society, those persons who had the old traits stood a good chance of being killed off and many a defective line was ended by their death. We are horrified by the 223 capital offenses in England less than a century ago, but though capital punishment is a crude method of grappling with the difficulty it is infinitely superior to that of trainiixg the feeble-minded and criminalistic and then letting them loose upon society and permitting them to perpetuate in their offspring these animal traits. Our present practices are said to be dictated by emotion untempered by reason; if this is so, then emotion untempered by reason is social suicide. If we are to build up in America a society" worthy of the species man then we must take such steps as will prevent the increase or even the perpetuation of animal- \ istic strains. 264 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS 6. Freedom of the Will and Responsibility The consideration of the facts of heredity inevitably raises the ancient question of the freedom of the will, and throws a new light upon it. What is this free will? As I sit here in my study I will that to-morrow I shoot my dog. But when, to-morrow, I approach the dog to carry out my resolution his signs of fondness for me, the abandon with which he throws himself in the most helpless position at my feet, make the act impossible for me. I go to a neighbor and say, "My dog is decrepit and enjoys life no longer. I cannot kill him, will you do me the favor of shooting him?" He says, "I will" and does. We both had the will, why the difference in execu- tion? Was he more resolute, more indomitable than I? It does not follow; simply his reaction to the sight of the dog did not overcome his resolution; mine did. There are va- rious ways in which I might bring myself to do such an act. I might shut out the stimulus of the sight of the dog by cover- ing him, or I might train myself to view him with indifference by associating him with some wrong, or I might picture more vividly my duty so that it would be a stronger motive than my affection or sympathy. By these means I might strengthen my "will." But except in some such indirect way my conduct is unmodifiable. Given such and such con- ditions I am bound to react in such and such ways. A man of indomitable will is one who pictures so vividly the work he plans to do that other, minor, stimuh are relatively ineffective in opposition to the major stimulus. The man of weak will has usually a less vivid and powerful imagination and hence his actions are more determined by numerous incidental stimuli. "Free will" is predicated in matters of small consequence or concern to the person so that his ac- tion is determined by habit or sUght stimuli whose source is unperceived. Though a man pride himself on the freedom EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS 205 of his will his every action is determined by his proto- plasmic makeup, plus the modification it has received through experience, plus the relative vigor and quality of the stimulus he receives. Is a man on this view less of a responsible agent? It de- pends on what is meant by responsible. I am responsible in the sense of answerable to society if I kill a man. If I kill him without intention or knowledge — if, for instance, my foot sets a stone rolhng that starts an avalanche — then society decides that there is no evidence that my freedom imperils it and nothing is done. If I kill in self-defense society decides that my reaction is, on the whole, not prejudicial or disadvantageous to it and I am set free. If I kill on sudden anger society decides, whether rightly or wrongly, that my action does not prove that I may not, by training, gain in- hibitions such that I shall thereafter react more slowly, giv- ing time for other stimuli to play their part. But if I kill after prolonged premeditation, so that there is no question of merely temporary absence of inhibitions or of chance for numerous other stimuli to act, then society decides that my makeup is fundamentally bad and that the acquisition of a new method of reacting is not to be expected and so, prop- erly enough, cuts me off. My name may indeed become a by-word, since society, rather unreasonably, takes that method of designating the combinations of characteristics that are antisocial. But I am not responsible in the sense of "deserving" pain because of the inadequacy of the deter- miners in my protoplasm. I am what the determiners in my two fused germplasms have developed into under the culture which they have experienced during their develop- ment. I am not responsible for my early culture nor for the reactions determined by it; but that culture is partly de- termined by my makeup, as when I find pleasure in the society of bad companions, and partly is imposed by the 266 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS formal ''good influences" that society has organized. Now, what I do depends on what I am, on the one hand, and the nature of the stimuh I receive, on the other, and neither what I am nor the nature of the stimuh I receive can be an excuse for adding more than is necessary to society's welfare to the sum of the world's pain. But organized society, on the con- trary, has a responsibility towards its members in the sense of a duty to perform under penalty of dire consequences that will follow automatically. That responsibiUty involves, first, preventing the mating that brings together the antisocial traits of the criminal; second, after this damage is done, in securing the highest development of the good traits and the inhibition of the bad, surrounding the weak protoplasm with the best stimuli and protecting it from harmful stimuli. Here is where society must act to cut off the evil suggestions of immoral theaters, yellow journals and other bad literature. These stimulate those who react violently to this kind of suggestion. "The prisoner was a paranoiac and had a de- lusion of persecution; but had the play at the theater not been what it was he would not have murdered that night." CHAPTER IX THE ORGANIZATION OF APPLIED EUGENICS 1. State Eugenic Surveys The commonwealth is greater than any individual in it. Hence the rights of society over the life, the reproduction, the behavior and the traits of the individuals that compose it are, in all matters that concern the hfe and proper prog- ress of society, limitless, and society may take life, may sterilize, may segregate so as to prevent marriage, may re- strict liberty in a hundred ways. Society has not only the right, but upon it devolves the profound duty, to know the nature of the germ plasm upon which, in last analysis, the life and progress of the state de- pend. It has not only the right, but the duty, to make a thorough study of all of the families in the state and to know their good and bad traits. It may and should locate traits of especial value such as clear-headedness, grasp of details, insight into intricate matters, organizing ability, manual dexterity, inventiveness, mechanical abiUty and ar- tistic abihty. It may and should locate antisocial traits such as feeble-mindedness, epilepsy, delusions, melancholia, mental deterioration, craving for narcotics, lack of moral sense and self-control, tendency to wander, to steal, to assault and to commit wanton cruelties upon children and animals. It may and should locate strains with an inherent tendency to certain diseases such as tuberculosis, rickets, cancer, chronic rheumatism, gout, diabetes insipidus, goitre, leu- chemia, chlorosis, hemophilia, eye and ear defects and the scores of other diseases that have an hereditary factor. It 267 268 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS should know where the traits are, how they are being re- produced, and how to eliminate them. It should locate in each country the centers of feeble-mindedness and crime and know what each hovel is bringing forth. In fact it should let the bright lightof knowledge into all matters of the reproduction of human traits, as the most dangerous of its enemies or the most valuable of its natural resources. We take our census decennially or at more frequent in- tervals. We learn how many persons there are of military age, their race, birthplace and occupation, and we learn how many are bUnd and deaf, and it is well. But by a very little additional labor we could gain many not less signif- icant facts, such as how each of oiu* blind and deaf and feeble-minded came to be, so that the laws of their origin can be studied and the defective germ plasm located. It would seem worth while to use the census as a means of securing data on human blood lines and tracing the descent of defects. A state eugenic survey should be taken in at least the older states. The organization of the survey could be rel- atively simple; the 630,000 teachers of state and city schools might be used to secure the census of the 24,000,000 chil- dren of "school age" and their parents. Through a series of visits on Saturday afternoons or during vacations the parents could be interested to furnish the desired data. The teachers could be instructed how to fill out the schedules by superintendents or at teachers' institutes. They should, of course, receive special compensation, but it would be difficult to think of any other method of making a census so cheaply and effectively; the more so since the teacher through her pupil has ready access to most homes. The schedules of questions should be prepared so as to avoid giving any offense, to secure the required data as to phys- ical and mental family traits, and to get such names and ORGANIZATION OF APPLIED EUGENICS !^09 places of birth and residence as would serve to tie faniiliet; together. After study the data might be used to give partic- ular families advice as to how their children should marry to avoid the recurrence of undesirable traits in the chil- dren's children. Objection will probably be offered to any such survey on the ground that inheritable traits are private and per- sonal matters; but this is surely a narrow and false view. The collective traits of any person constitute a mosaic whose elements have been derived from thousands of germ plasms and parts of which may be passed on to thou- sands of the persons who will constitute the social fabric of a few generations hereafter. What justification have I, whose elements are derived from the society of the past and will pass into the society of the future, to maintain that the society of to-day has no right to question me — who am merely a sample of this universal germ plasm. No one who looks broadly at the relation his family bears to the commonwealth will hesitate to put on record an account of his family traits. The objection that such a survey is impracticable can be met by the assertion that in the State of New Jersey such a survey is already well advanced, largely through private initiative. The work has been done by means of field workers attached to various institutions for defectives. Massachusetts, also, has made a good beginning in this direction. The suggestion as to a state survey is merely an extension of such work as is being carried on in a more limited fashion to-day. 2. A Clearing House for Heredity Data While states should undertake eugenic sur^^ys, it is clear that, in a country like ours where extensive intermigralion takes place between States, "blood lines" are not hniited 270 HEREDITY IN RELATION TO EUGENICS by state boundaries. There is need, consequently, of a central clearing house for data concerning family traits in America. This will serve not only as a headquarters for investigation but also for education. It will be interesting to trace the history of institutions of this sort in America. One was planned in 1881 or 1882 by Mr. Loring Moody of Boston. In his booklet entitled "Heredity: its relations to human development. Corre- spondence between Elizabeth Thompson and Loring Moody," he tells how he had hoped for aid from a philanthropist. He adds "in the earnest hope and expectation that such persons will soon appear ready for their work, as a colaborer therein and as preliminary steps toward the formation of an Institute of Heredity which shall found a hbrary, establish lectureships with schools of instruction and take in hand the diffusion of knowledge on the subject of improving our race by the laws of physiology, I propose, with the aid of such as may volun- teer their patronage and support, to open a school and lec- ture room in Boston with the nucleus of a library for such conversations, consultations and illustrated lectures as may awaken interest and lead toward a realization of these great and beneficent ends." This plan failed because of the early death of its projector. About 1887 or 1888 Dr. Alexander Graham Bell founded at Washington, D. C, the Volta Fund which has grown to over $100,000. Out of this was established the Volta Bureau, which collects all valuable information that can be obtained with reference not only to deaf mutes as a class but to deaf mutes individually. In this bureau can be found the names of over twenty thousand deaf and the particulars respecting their history. They are so systematically arranged that without a moment's delay the facts with reference to any of them can be turned to. These valuable manuscripts ORGANIZATION OF APPLIED EUGENICS i>71 and indices are placed in a perfectly fire-proof section of the building of the Bureau. The hbrary is rich in New Eng- land town histories and genealogies, in addition to works on the deaf. About 1905 the late Sir Francis Galton contributed to the support of a Eugenics Laboratory at University Col- lege, London, under the direction of Professor Karl Pearson, and at his death in 1911 Galton made it his residuary legatee. This laboratory is pubhshing an important ' ' Treas- ury of Human Inheritance." In October, 1910, The Eugenics Record Office was started at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., in connection with the Eugenics Section of the American Breeders' Asso- ciation in a tract of 80 acres, with a good house to which has been added a fii'e-proof vault for the preservation of records. Mr. H. H. Laughlin is its superintendent. At this place the collecting and cataloguing of records goes on apace. It is hoped to establish here a very completely in- dexed collection of published genealogical and town his- tories for the United States as well as the manuscript reports of the field investigators. The main work of the office is investigation into the laws of inheritance of traits in human beings and their application to eugenics. Two series of pubUcations are contemplated, an octavo series of Bulletins and a quarto series of Memoirs. Several numbers of the Bulletin are issued or in press. The Eugenics Record Of- fice wishes to cooperate with Institutions and State Boards of Control in organizing the study of defectives and criminal- istic strains in each State. It will ofi'er suggestions as to the organization of local societies devoted to the study of Eugenics. It proffers its services free of charge to persons seeking advice as to the consequences of proposed marriage matings. In a word it is devoted to the advancement of the science and practice of Eugenics. BIBLIOGRAPHY The following method of citation is adopted. 1. Name of author, in capital letters. 2. Date of pubhcation, used, with the author's name, for reference (in the body of the work) to the publication. 3. Title of the publication. 4. If pubhshed in a periodical, name of periodical, in idilics, followed by volume number and page. If published as a separate l>ook, the place of pubhcation is given, and sometimes the name of the pubUslier. p. stands for page; pi for plate; v for volume. 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First Reunion and organization of the Balch Family Association by the descendants of John Balch one of the "Old Planters" of Naumkoag, now Salem, Beverly and North Beverly, Massachusetts, 52 pp. Ball, Nicholas, 1891. Edward Ball and some of his Descendants. Newport, R. I., Mercury Print, pp. 1-15. Banker, H. J., 1909. A partial history and genealogical record of the Bancker or Banker families of America and in particular the descendants of Laurens Mattipe Bancker. Rutland, Vt., The Tuttle Co., 458 pp. 273 274 BIBLIOGRAPHY Banning, Pierson W., 1908. The First Banning Genealogy. Chicago. Bare, Martin W., 1897. Some Studies in Heredity. Jour. Nerv. and Mental Diseases, N. Y., XXIV, 155-162. — , 1904. Mental Defectives: their History, Treatment and Training. Phila., P. Blakiston's Son, 368 pp. Bateson, W., 1906. Address on Mendclian Heredity and its Apphca- tion to Man. Brain, V. 29, p. 157. — , 1900. Progress of Genetics since the Rediscovery of Mendel's Pa- pers. Progr. 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Desert Is., 190 Swans Is., 190 Deer Is., 190 Long Is., 190 New Hampshire: Hillsboro Co., Miiford, 51 Vermont: Caledonia Co., St. Johnsbury, 57 Massachusetts, 208 Berkshire Co., 197 Bristol Co., New Bedford, 219 Barnstable Co., Cape Cod, 195, 219 Falmouth, 43 Dukes Co., Martha's Vineyard, 182, 188, 190, 192 Rhode Island, 218 Newport Co., Block Is., 188, 192 Washington Co., Point Judith, 195 Connecticut: Hartford Co., Windsor, 55 New Haven Co., New Haven, 102, 182 Wallingford, 57 Fairfield Co., 182 New York, 208 Catskill Mountains, 197 Ramapo Mountains, 197 Albany Co., Albany, 237 Delaware Co., 182 Westchester Co., Tarrytown, 237 Kings Co., 83 Suffolk Co., East Hampton, 182 New Jersey, Atlantic Co., Hammonton, 217 Cumberland Co., Vineland, 217 Pennsylvania, 208, 209, 251 Allegheny Co., Pittsburgh, 56 Dauphin Co., Harrisburg, 80 Sullivan Co., 155, 182 Maryland, 235 289 290 APPENDIX Carroll Co., 156, 160 Dorchester Co., 196 Somerset Co., Smith's Island, 194 Virginia, 183, 228 West Virginia, 87 North Carolina, Carteret Co., 196 Valdese, 217 Ohio, Franklin Co., Columbus, 235 Indiana, Marion Co., Indianapolis, 235 Kentucky, 230 Wisconsin, Genoa, 217 Minnesota, Chisago Co., 214 Arkansas, Slovaktown, 215 Canada, 138 New Brunswick, Miscou Island, 190, 201 Bering Straits, 184 Bermuda, 194 Bahama Islands: George Is., 194 Abaco Is., 194 Europe, 28, 29 England, 85, 150 Scotland, 29, 40 Spey Valley, 29 East Lanarkshire, 29 Ireland, 211, 213 Londonderry, 230 Donegal, 230 France: Batz, 187 Brittany, 40 Fort Mardick, 199 Portugal, 218, 219 Germany, Kirchheim, 156 Norway, 214 Scandinavia, 214 Switzerland, Alps, 197 Aosta, 158, 259 Graubunden, Jenna, 157, 222 Austro-Hungary, 215 Italy, 40, 216-218 Calabria, 183 Soudan, 34 Congo, 35 Burmah, Chin Hills, 197 Ceylon, 184 Austraha, 30 Philippine Islands, 33 INDEX NAMES PRINTED IN SMALL CAPS ARE CONSIDERED AS SUBJECTS, THOSE IN ITALICS AS AUTHORS, THE NUMBERS REFER TO VAOICS Abbott, 62 Achondroplasy, 172 Acquisitiveness, 244 Adenoids, 166 Albinism, 38, 115 Alcoholism, 9, 82, 84, 86, 87, 98 Alertness, 243 Alexander, 232 Alexander the Great, 63 Alimentary system, 166-168 Alkaptonuria, 168 Allerton, 242 Amish (sect), 202 Anderson, T. M., 138 Anemia, 152; progressive pernicious, 153 Anticipation in heredity, 250 Apoplexy, 97, 98, 196 • Appendages, abnormal, 174-179 Arner, G. B. L., 194 Arson, 86 Arteriosclerosis, 162 Arthritis, 104 Artistic talent, 51-54, 61, 244 Assault, 85, 87, 103 Astigmatism, 123 Ataxy, hereditary, 99, 100 Atkinson, J. E., 148 Atrophy of the optic nerve, 110 Attention, 87 Austrians as immigrants, 215 Babington, B. G., 153 Bach, 48 Baker, 195 Balch, 242 Ball, 193 Banker, 237 Banning, 243 Barr, M. W., 93, 96 Barriers to marriage splection: physi- ographic, IS'J; social, 198; lin- guistic, 200, 201; racial, 202; re- ligious, 202, 203 Bascom, 243 Beethoven, 48 Bell, A. G., 126, 130, 182, 192, 270 Bemiss, S. M., 186 Benard, 199 Benton, 231 Berze, J., 77 BiGELOw, 228 Binet test, 9, 65, 257 Blair, 232 Bland, 229 Bleeders, 153-160, 182 Blepharophimosis, 115 BUndness, 4, ISG, 188. See also Eye Blondness, 28, 29, 36 Blood, 152-158 Bohemians, 215 Boils, 132 Bonajuti, F., 132 Bordley, J., Jr., 118 Bovaird, D., 157 Brachycephaly, 243, 245 Brachydactyliam, 177, 197 Bradshaw, 194 Breckinridge, 230 Breed, 243 291 292 INDEX Brewster, 208 Brill, N. E., 157 Brinckerhoff, 243 Bronchitis, 166 Bronte, 54 Brooke, 229 Brown, 230 Browne, C. R., 211 Brunetnesa, 28, 36, 242, 243 Buck, 62, 243 Bullock, W., 157 Burglary, 90 Burns, 54 Burr, 227 Butl&r, J. D., 183 Calculating ability, 59 Calderon, 54 Cancer, 146-148 Cannon, G., 77 Carrington, 231 Carter, 229 Castration, 256 Cataract, 111, 115 Catarrh, 166 Catarrhal affection of the ear, 124, 130, 131 Cell division, 11, 12 Cerebral diplegia, 98, 99; hemorrhage, 97, 98, 243; palsy of infancy, 97, 99 Characters, unit, 6, 24, 25; complex, 24; multiple, 20, 21 Charlemagne, 63 Chase, 195 Cheadle, 104 Cheerfulness, 87, 244, 245 Chirography, 63 Chlorosis, 152 Chorea, 87, 101, 104, 105; Hunting- ton's, 101-103 Chromatin, 10-13 Chromosomes, 12-15 Churchill, 227 Clannishness, 243 Clavicles, absence, 173 Clay, 231 Clearing house for eugenics, 269-271 Cleft palate, 144-146 Club-foot, 179 Cluble, W. H., 169 Cobb, 193 Cole, 243 Colegrove, 243 Coloboma, 108, 115 Color blindness, 120, 121 Combativeness, 85, 86 Commanders, 63 Congenital traumatic pemphigus, 132 Consanguineous marriage, 67, 77, 99, 100, 116, 126, 129, 134, 149, 184r- 189, 202, 203, 245 Constancy, 243 Consumption, 163, 164, 244, 253 Contagion, 135, 147, 252 Convulsions, 72-77, 104 Coolidge, 165 CORBIN, 228 Cornea, degeneration of, 112 Craik, 229 Cretinism, 158 Criminality, 4, 9, 85-92, 104 Crittenden, 231 Croatians, 215 Cruelty, 85, 86 Cryptorchism, 170 Cunier, 118 Curly hair, 34-36 Curtis, 207 Curvature of the spine, 99, 172, 17J CusTis, 229 Cystinuria, 169 Dalmatians, 215 Darrvin, C, 63 Davenport, 208 Deaf mutes, 186, 187, 194 Deaf mutism, 124-129 Deafness, 4, 166. See Ear. Debore, M., 151 Decision, 242 Defectiveness, control of, 4, 255-259; pedigrees of, 67-76; its source, 261- 263 INDEX iH'j Defectives, number, 3; cost of main- taining, 4 Dentition, 139-144 Deterioration, 198, 211, 212 Determiners, 10, 16 Diabetes insipidus, 167; mcllitus, 167 Digits: broad-nailed, 242; twisted, 177, 178 Dispersion of traits, 181-184 Dodge, 193 Dominance, 18 DOOLITTLE, 243 Double-join tedness, 177 Dunker (sect), 202 Duplex characters, 16, 17 Dwarfness, 39, 43, 188, 196, 197. See Stature DwiGHT, 208, 226, 227, 243 Dyer, 195 Ear, 123-131 East, 197 Ectopia lentis, 112 Eczema, 132 Edison, 2 Education, 254 Edwards, 208, 226 ElCHOLT, 100 Elimination of the unfit, 255 Eliot, 208 Eltonhead, 228 Enamel, faulty, 142, 144 Encephalitis, 98 Energy: bodily, 63; physical, 243, 244 Epicanthus, 115 Epidermal organs, 136-146 Epidermolysis bullosa, 132 Epilepsy, 4, 72, 77, 86, 95, 96, 104, 186, 254 Epistaxis, 153 Eugenic surveys, 267 Eugenics, defined, 1, 4, 26 Eugenics Record Office, 239, 270 Euthenics, 252 EVERARD, 199 Excretory system, 168-170 Exostoses, 173 Eye, 107-123 Eyeball, 109, 110 Eyebrows, 245 Eye color, 18-20, 27-31; blue. 245 Eye, expression of, 245 Eyelids, 115, 116 Eye muHclcs, 115, 122 Face, 143 Facer, 150 Fairbanks, 57, 227 Fairfax, 229 Fay, E. A., 125-129 Fecundity, 243. See Sterility Feeble-mindedness, 4, 9, 65-72, 257- 259; claasificatjon of, 9, 257-259 Peer, E., 116 " FfeNfcLON, 54 Fertilization of the egg, 10-15 Firmness, 243 First families of Virginia, 228-230 Fistula aura congenita, 129 FiTZHUGH, 207, 228 Fleming, 100 Floyd, 232 Freud, S., 99 Friedrich's disease, 99 Friends (sect), 202 Gallon, F., 1, 30, 42, 59, 271 Garrod, A. E., 168 Gates, 227 Genealogy, 239-251 Generosity, 243, 244 Geniality, 244, 245 Genius, 60, 61, 71 Germans as immigrants, 214 Germ cell, 10 Germ plasm, 10 Gibson, 232 Glands, skin, 136 Glaucoma, 113-115 Goitre, 47, 158, 159, 162; exophthal- mic, 158, 159, 162 GoLDSBonoron, 229 Gonorrhea, 2 Gossage, A. M., 136, 139, 141, 157 294 INDEX GoTT, 192 Gout, 167, 169, 170 Grayson, 232 Gregariousness, 87, 244 GusTAVus Adolphus, 63 Hair, 138, 139; color, 32; form of, 20, 34; length, 25; red, 8, 33; thick- ness, 140 Hair-coat color, 139 Hairiness, 245 Hairlessness, 138 Hall, 193 Hammond, 43 Hampton, 231 Handwriting, 63 Hannant, 182 HareUp, 144-146 Harriman, 2 Ears, 199 Hatch, 43 Heart, 160-163 Hebrews as immigrants, 215, 216 Hematuria, 169 Hemeralopia, 118 Hemophilia, 153-155 Henry, 231 Heredity, 4, 5, 10, 16-23 Hermaphroditism, 170, 188, 192 Hernia, 151, 152 Herringham, 149 Hertel, E., 123 Herzer, 100 Heterozygous, 18 Heydt, 209 Holmes, 0. W., 47 Holmes, S. J., 30, 32 Hospitableness, 244 Hovel, 76, 77 Howe, L., 187 HoYT, 209 Humphreys, 243 Huntington, G., 102 Huntington's chorea, 101, 181, 182 Hurst, C, C, 30 HOTCHINSON, 61 Hydrocephaly, 197 Hyperkeratosis, 135 Hypospadias, 170 Hysteria, 87-89, 103, 104 Ichthyosis, 134, 135 Idiot, 66, 196, 197 Immigration to America, early, 205- 212; recent, 212-220; control of, 220-224 Incest, 69, 76 Independence, Industriousness, 243 Infant mortality, 3 Insanity, 4, 24, 73, 74, 77-80, 85, 95, 96, 104, 186-188, 194, 254, 257- 259; manic-depressive, 196, 247 Invention, 57, 62 IrascibiUty, 85-87, 242, 245 Iris, defects of, 108, 109 Irish, as immigrants, 213, 214 ISHMAEL, 183, 235 "IshmaeUtes," 183, 234-236 Islands, 194 Italians, as immigrants, 216-218 Itch, 133, 252 "Jackson-whites," 202 James, William, 2 Jaundice, 167 Jaw, 143, 144 Johnson, 232, 244 Jolly, F., 101 Jordan, D. S., 158 Joviality, 243-245 "JuKES," 80, 82, 197, 232-234 Justice, 243 Kelly, 195 Kentucky aristocracy, 230 Keratosis, 136 Kimball, 244 Kinky hair, 34 Lancry, L. and G., 199 Larceny, 85-87, 90, 103 Laughlin, H. H., 271 INDEX 295 Leber, T., 118 Lee, 207, 229, 232 Leman, F. B., 244 Lens, displaced, 112; opaque, 111 Lincoln, 251 Lindsay, M. T., 244 Linguistic ability, 243 Lisping, 105 Literary composition, 54, 55, 62 LlTTLEFIELD, 193 Loeh, J., Ill, 112 LoUing, 105-107 Lonibroso, 251 Longevity, 47, 243, 244 Loomis, H. M., 30, 32 Lossen, 158, 159 Love, of athletics, 245; of excitement, 86; of horses, 245; of rural life, 242 Lowell, 208 Lucas, R. C, 175 LtJDWELL, 229 Lydslon, G. F., 82 Macaulat, 54 Macintosh, 85 Madison, 207 Magyars, as immigrants, 215 Malone, 194 Mammary glands, 136, 137 Mampel, 156 Marriage, 7; selection, 7, 8, 201. See Consanguineous Marriage. Marsh, 194 Marshall, 207, 231, 251 Martel, Charles, 63 Martin, 55, 110 Mason, L. D., 83 Mathematical ability, 59. Maturation of the germ cells, 13 Mazzuoli, 51 McClung, 21 McQuillen, J. H., 139 Mechanical skill, 55-58 Mechanical tastes, 242, 244 Megalophthalmus, 115 Melancholia, 78, 244 Mell, 244 Memory, 59, 60, 244 Mendelism, 18 MeNDEL880UN, 48 M6ni6re'8 Disease, 101 Mental ability, 65 Mcrzbaclicr, L., 99 Mickley, 244 Microphthalmus, 109, 110 Migraine, 87, 97, 104, 244 Migrations, 204-224 MiNOT, 227 Mitchell, A.,IS7 Mohammed, 251 Molenes, P., 138 Mongolian imbeciles, 67, 71 Monilithrix, 138, 139 Moody, L., 270 Morgan, T. //., 21 Moti, F. W., 100 Moyer, 107 Mozart, 48 Mucous membranes, 163 Mulatto, 36 Murder, 85, 87, 90 Muscular atrophy, 149 Muscular system, 149-152 Musical ability, 48-51, 61, 62, 98 Myopia, 121-123 Myxederaia, 158 Nachbar, 244 Nails, 139-141 Napoleon, 251 Narcotism, 82, 83, 87 Nareth, 174 Negro, 36 Neighbok, 244 Nervous disease, 92-104 Nervous wcakneas, 24 Nelllcship, E., 112, 110. 118. 250 Neuropathic condition, 77-79, 93, 95 Neurotic condition. 96, 104 Night blindness. 1 18-120 Non-productive population, 3 Nose, 143; aquiline, 243, 244; promi- nent, 245 296 INDEX Nosebleed, 153 Nucleus of cell, 10-15 Nulliplex characters, 16, 17 Nystagmus, 115 Obesity, 242, 243; heredity, 47 Ophthalmoplegia, 115 Optic nerve atrophy, 110 Originality, 243 Otosclerosis, 124, 129, 131 Paine, 227 Painting, 51-54 Palate, cleft, 144 Paralysis of eye muscles, 115 Pardoe, 156 Parker, R. TF., 177 Patton, 230 Pauperism, 4, 80, 82, 85 Patne, 251 Pearson, K., 271 Peninsulas, 195 Penn, 208 Pepin Le Grob, 63 Pertinacity, 243 Peyton, 231 Philip of Macedon, 63 Pigmentary degeneration of retina, 116-118 Pigmentation and sunhght, 31 Placidity, 244 Pneumonia, 165, 166 Poetic talent, 51, 244 Poles, as immigrants, 218 Politzer, A., 124 Poltering, 105-107 Polydactylism, 175, 176 Polymastism, 136, 137 Pomeroy, 55 Poorhouse, 69-71 PORSON, 59 Porter, 231, 232 Potter, Paul, 51 Portuguese, as immigrants, 218, 219 Pouchet, M. A., 172 Precipitousness, 243 Preston, 230, 232 Progressive pernicious anemia, 153 Prolapsus of uterus, 171, 172 Psoriasis, 133, 252 Ptosis, 115 Punishment, 92, 265, 266 Quickness, 243, 245 Randolph, 207, 229, 231 Reher, W., 121 Recessive, 18 Records, 239, 249 Records of family traits, 26 Reed, J. W., 244 Religion, 255 Religiousness, 244 Religious sects, 202, 203 Renault, J., 151 Reproductive system, 170, 171 Resistance to disease, 48 Respiratory system, 163-166 Responsibihty, 85, 92, 265 Restlessness, 244 Reticence, 242 Retinitis pigmentosa, 115-118 Rheumatism, 104, 105 RiGGS, 244 Robinson, 208 Robinson, H. B., 177 roebling, 55 Root, 244 Rosanoff, A. J., 77 Roumanians, 215 Royal famiUes of Europe, 198 Russell, 194 Ruthenians, 215 RUYSDAEL, 51 Sarcoma of eyeball, 148 Scandinavians, as immigrants, 214 SciPio Africanus, 63 Schamberg, J, F., 133 Sclerosis, multiple, or disseminated, 99 Scoliosis, 99, 172 Sear, 150 Secretiveness, 243 INDEX 297 Sedgwick, 227 Segregation of defectives, 259; of de- terminers, 15; of traits, 19 Selection in marriage, 7, 8, 189-202 Sex, 21; -cliromosome, 21, 22; -im- morality, 9, 87, 88, 90, 103, 233- 236; -limited inheritance, 21, 22 Shaker (sect), 202 Shiftlessness, 80-84 Shall, G. H., 187 Sidney, Philip, 54 Silcox, A. G., 148 Silk, 229 Simon, C. E., 101 Simplex characters, 16, 17, 25 Sinclair, 245 Singing ability, 50 Skeleton, 171-174 Skiff, 182 Skin, 131-136; color, 36; glands, 136; thickening of, 135 Slavonians, 215 Slayton, 245 Slovaks, 215 Slyness, 85 Smith, 230 Society and eugenics, 261 Southard, E. E., 247 Speech, 105-107 Spelling ability, 242 Splenic-anemia, 157, 161; -enlarge- ment, 157 Squinting, 115, 116 Stammering, 105 Stature, 38, 188, 244, 245 Sterility, 171, 188, 199 Sterilization, 255 Stevens, N. M., 21 Story-telling, love of, 244 Stossel, 100 Strabismus, 115, 116, 122 Strength, physical, 65, 243, 244 Stubbornness, 243 Stuttering, 104, 106 St. Vitus's dance, 101, 102 Suicide, 56, 61, 98 Superstitiousness, 88 Susceptibility to dieeaae, 135, 147 Suspiciousness, 188 Syndactylism, 176, 197 Syphilis, 2 Taciturnity, 242 Talcott, 226 Talkativeness, 85-87, 243, 244 Tapley, 245 Taste for military life, 243, 245; for study, 243 Taylor, 54 Taylor, J. M., 249 Teeth, 139-144; absence of, 140, 141; excess number, 142 Telangiectasis, 153, 155 Temperament, 61-63 Thigh bone, congenital dielocatioi^ 174 Thompson, 270 Thomsen, A., 149 Thomsen's disease, 149 Thyroid gland, 158 Tiffany, 245 Titian, 51 Tonsilitis, 166 Traits, 10 Trembling, 151 Tuberculosis, 164, 165, 255 Tuberville, 229 Tumor, 148 TuTTLE, 225, 232 Twining, 195, 245 Twins, 179, 180, 245 Tyler, 194, 226 Tylosis, 136, 137 Untruthfulness, 8, 85-87, 90 Urinar\' calculi, 169 Uvula, cleft, 144 Van Metre, 210 Varick, 245 Vascular system, 15^163 Vecelli, 51 Venable, 231 Venereal disease, 2 298 INDEX Vierordt, K. H., 160 Wickcliffe, 231 Vincent, 228 Will, freedom of, 264-266 Vocal music, 243, 245 Wilson, E. B., 11, 14, 21, 23 Voisin, A., 187 Winthrop, 208 von Grafe, 113 Withington, C. F., 190, 192, 195 Wolff, 62 Waite, 228 Woodruff, C. E., 31 Wandering, 9, 85, 87, 89, 209, 210, Wooley, 231 253 Woolly hair, 34, 35 Washington, 207, 231 Woolsey, 208, 226 Watts, 232 Wavy hair, 34, 35 Xeroderma, 134 Webster, Noah, 51 Xerosis, 134 Weeks, D. F., 104 Weight of body, 43-46; in relation to Zahniser, 245 stature, 44 "Zero," 80 White, C. J., 138 ZooNEKiNDT, 199 Whitney, 208 Zygote, 17, 22 gits' N. C. SUAe t 1 f \SvL^/.7 N. MANCHESTER, ^■~-y INDIANA 46962